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JPRSi 42.55

'cSOs X077-S

SOCIALIST TMHSFOEHATIOK OF AGRICÜLTOHE IK THIS CBXBSSE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC (19*9-1957)

[föllö'sdjag Is the eosaplete tiraaslatioE of the testok

A» Mugrassia, ®M 0» Swifesrebal <*£ the Xssilt&t© of Sija@l«5|:/„ icadasay ©f Scieaees. USSSl| last®:» Liters.» ten* Fablisslii&g Iwxses Koseaw, 196©, psgas Xa-&07»3

iSOTEs Foots* ta» are ocuatataed at tfe® eaad @f each, chapter«.

TJSBL® OF OOKTBS.TS

Preface 1

Chapter Is The Mutual Aid T«aws 13

Ctapt«? XI s Basis LOT©! Agrieali&ral Pr©da3©r?s C©«jpoya.tiT0s 35

Chapter Ills .GX&ss Struggl« is. tfee VUlag© and Idqtdäa«« tiem ef K*&aks at» a Class 6h

a Btgla» (Saei&Lisi) OrsUt. %

of tfes Oö^peratlTes «cad the X«.ör©&8© is öi« iBsoEfes @.f Ths&r !fe»b®F®(, ffe© BOT«» «3jeps«3ftt ef AgrisuXta»« ia the Ctetmtrj 119

Chaptsr VI t Stat® Seeter 1» tb,® Agr-ietilta» ©f the ShlJi«s« Pasple5© EeptibXio 132

Ceaslusisw. 153

a W» M «*

PBEFKÄ

'( A» analys&s of the socialist tt&$i®m:&lim% ©f a Chinas® Til«*- ] jl&ge is of gr&ai [email protected] aad praotioal i&t$r®®ie ■■■Tö?* «^»rieaaee j ;gaia®d during th<* Chinese wraXiati« te osc© again »fooim the uniwrs&lj ^sigßiflcaßc«. ®£ -Uw Kai» eons®fa«»e«s ©f socialist teiBs£©»ati«M of | ' agriculture, &s stipulated la the t<e»i»ist eroperativ« plan» At the \ <sase tis«ts ths ©aperience «Is©'sabstaa.tiat«d atsew tte fast ttot ©OB« < Ierste »aalf©stations of tht general ©;©»se«p«ae©s are aforaj* different' i iaad are depsssKteat up«n the historical evelt&ti©» assd political «täte ©f j ;thö eoarrfcry* ' Therefores the sasesss of a socialist tmssfdm&tiaa -&f j :«. village« to a great «xteat«, depends on proper eswfciw lea&wship by | :;tke !&?3ö,srfc»IentB.isi Party» | i The fdllcreisg wsrk ea&eavare to £»ili«l3» tb® Soviet r$&d®r' ; ;with tli© process of aoelalisi transfonsj&ti©.» of agrimitur* in tbe : jChiasse People 's E^sablio» Particular »Mmlim is defotei. t© pro» j jducsr1«? e©op@wAivesf which, were ststg»s ia tht SMaes® Tillaf©sf pro« •! ;gmss frea farsiaag by iadividual f&.ra<ws,, based OB individual awaey« ;'ship of the »setts of pr&dactien, to tha' safti&lisit agrlcttltöxal e@X- ilectiires» with a COBBSO» ©u»©:rsb.±p of the tea sie stsans of p»>dwrtio*w

The Iatj?«dii,«ti(m» Chapters I and Ils and th« Gönclwsioa were wittsri fey Ö* D, Sitkharehuk; Chapters III sad Y by I» I* T.©rkmi0T? iChapter 1? by I. K* Kerkonov and A* S. KaJeruiBia» *pd Gh*pt*r VI by ;TS F, Eurbatov, The Bibliography was esHOlIed fey LA. Vblkov*

INTRODUCTION

The aiw of the People's Democratic Revolution in. China was the liberation of the country from the domination of foreign imperialism, liquidation of the sorai-ferdal social structure and the creation of an independent democratic state*

The struggle for agrarian reforms was one of the most important elements of this revolution.} the basic motivator of this struggle was the peasantry.

Only by determinedly developing the agrarian revolution, arou- sing the rc&sses of working peasantry for the struggle-against oppression by the landlord class, was the working class able to receive the support-of a great majority of the people* On the other hand, the peasantry WAS able to rout the landowners and appropriate their land only uiödw the leader-ship of the proletariat, whose inter©sits coincide with those of all the working humanity. The. Coircmmist Party of China was able to neutralize the notional bourgeoisie and even force it into agreement with the proletariat only by depending on and guiding itself by the powerful union of th© proletariat with the peasantry»

For that reason, the Chinese Coxuraanist Party's agrarian policy during the democratic revolution. vr«s directed at the establishment of a. firm, alliance with the broad masses of the; working peasantry, the achievement of a leading role in this alliance by the proletariat, and, hencej a. proletarian leadership of the People's Democratic Revolution as a whole» The Party's agrarian policy was aii-isd at the development and extension of the agrarian revolution* During various stages of the revolution this policy had to undergo certain variations,- which depended on the existing historical condition:*, but its goal was always tho liquidation of the rsamants of feudalism and the winning of the peasants over to the side of the proletariat.-. The agrarian policy of the Comramist Party gained the fine support of the people throughout the entire course of ths revolutionary wars»

Direction of the working class during the democratic revolution, the establishment of a. people's democratic dictatorship, the union of worksrs and 'peasants, and the fonutation of. the state and cooperative sectors of the national economy assured the development of socialism in China after the victorious revolution.

Establishment of tho Chinese People's Republic in October 19^9 basically completed tho democratic stag*? of the revolution and signified that the Chines« people have, under the direction of the CoMSU.n3.st

Party, transferred, to the socialist stage of the revolution, which frees the produktiv© forces from th@ webs of capitalism -as« the limitations ;

[email protected] to ssiall-scale production, destroys exploitation-» and opens ''.. .the «j for the "building of a socialist society« Afterijhe establish« .meat of the people's det&eeratic dictatorship» it became possible to 'ecdplete the liquidation of feudalism mi to bring to completion the |revolutionary» democratic.agrarian refortos.

By mid-1950» agrarian reforms had been eendu'cted. on territory ■ .hairing an agricultural population of over 160 Billion psrsoas.1

The mfom. was conducted oa the basis of the 19^7 la», which stipulated that all land fcelossgirig to the landowners, temples?» BIOöäS- teries» churches, schools, etc» (axoept forests and pasture lands), as well as all confiscated property belonging to the landoaxaers» was to be divided, among the peasants.

The law of 1<$? provided for the confiscation of surplus land, cattle, equipoant, grain, etc., from the kulaks, so" that the land •iallotesftt reKaining in -their possession did not exceed the sis© of peasant plots*

\Gn 28 Jans 1950» the Csatral People*?, Government of the ■KSR '(Kitayskaya Narodnaya. Respublika -» Chinese People*s Republic) passed a hm "Laud Reform Law" which proelalBftd the abolition of the landowners' right to possess laad. In acödrdanc« with this l&ir, the

■land, cattle, equips©»!:., and other possessions of the landowner was ■ confiscated and transferred to the landlsas and ssiall-holdgr peasantry :

•irs private ownership. . After the formation ©f the Chines© People's Sep^hlie, the

feilafca, convinced, of the powsr of the viet©ri©as people, began, refus- ing ftctiva support to the eouats:rr\wolutiosmry activities of the landowners. This explains the new'policy toward the kulaks» Which differs fro» the One that vas conducted on the'basis of the 1$H<? Agrarian. *eforn Lav. According to this latter law, lands which «ere cultivated by ths kulaks themselves or with the kelp of hired fan» hands, as w&ll as their other property, ?ema±a«d inviolable. The kulaks retaissed the ;

right to lease their land in asftll plots to the peasaats. 'the plots rented by the koleks, howevert could not be larger thaa twice the average amount of land available for each person of the total population of the particular'area, 'The remainder of the kulaks' land was requisitioned« *

Trie law asaared the inviolability ©f land and'other property belonging'to the middle•■peaans.t (including the wealthy peasant)»

2» contrast with the Soviet ttalon» therefor«,'the land was not betag 'nationalised. The principal portion of the cultivated -area beoaue the peasants8 property, Virgin' lands, large irrigation sjs« teas» rivers, forests, saterban areas,, etc*, were nationalised* In orer-all figures, faewrer» the total area nationalised «xmhed to approximately 93$ of the total land' area of the country. The eonowa-- .tratioa of sach large land masses in the hands of the government per- uitted the planning and the aoat eotpedient arraag«««Bt"cf industrial

3 •"

enterprises, nnd the building of nc«-r cities? s railways #nd highways» ;witb.otJ.t .tho expense of pyrohäsing land fron private loflduvmerst. Ixt addition, 'with th$ better lsnd--ettItiV3.ti.on techniques *iiid increased . ; [email protected] of agrIö'aXtar&, the gors^rsäest bscsisfö able to caltlyate :additional tens of adlXic-ns of heetarss of Iar>.dt which was impossible ; :;for the« individual faraers* While promoting the necessity for the IredistritnatioiR of land, the Chinas© CojsrauBist Party took into eonc-dd- .• ier&tton th© fact, that the prs.eti.ee of toying and soiling; land and the : ■■private ow&srship of land ha.ß existed in China for »any centuries, ' \ >n& Sittackmerii to a privat« plot of load had heccmv an intrinsic char*« -:

seteristie ajficag the v&&m& of paas&nts. During tha period of feudal ; :oppres-sien.-ancl a landless peasantry, the atc-st olWished desire of the : ipeasRsts was ths rsslisatiözs of the slogan "Land to the Tillei%"

Lands take« at*ray from the pe&sji&ts by the Xäodowers for debts or bought by ihm. at low prices during famine of natural disasters

'■■vt&s always regard©*! by the peasnats as illegally appropriated and. they aspired to repossess thesu

Many poasnat uprisings haw- eocurod throughout the history of China as a result of the straggle for land,, At a time when the iasasad- " ist® nafciowallaation of land could hare ««takened the alliance between ; the [email protected] and the proletariats. XXTS.BV conditions the» ix* existence. ; •in. China, the distribution of landmrners* plots among1 the peasnats .'{idio comprised B05S of ths emratry*s population) daring the coxira» of th« agrarian reformst helped to establish an ally tor the Coramnist

.■Party and .to assay© the success of the? revolution» Also, the iimssdlate abolition of private land holdings ecrald

have caused waiveriiig. i;a or the alienation of the «unstable part of the rational am! small-city bourgeoisie, '«fhieb also participated in th© ' straggle oa the side of the working class and the peasantry»

■' Tfro experience of ths Chines* People*s Republic and the JSaro- pear* People's Peaceraeies substantiates the fact that it Is possible to coiawö»ca the building of a basis for socialism without r*ati»fialia- . lr*g the arable land areas» lhisE. however * by no mesas elijralnates the Beeassity for the imisfatis&tiös of the land into comacm property, as wfi.thot.rt the el±äs5.iiatiö.a of private property it is impossible to eliis- ■; last© exploitative practices* In, Chtea,, Khere the cultivated land w&s ; mt »ationaliaed, the transformation et it into ooKwcm property is he- ring carried out in tfe coiirre of the gradual creation o.f agriculnsral ;ooopefatives»

By October .1952» agrarSaft raforsHS within the country ware .com- ; plet«d within a territory containing an &.pl.«ultu?al popmlaiicR of ever 4-2.0 million parsons*^-

Agrarian, rsfarfts wsnfta being conducted under conditions of an 'Amte class struggle« Landowners hid ari destrovad grain and cattle, ;sei fir© to baildiiags, organised armed bands vhieh raided peasant unions a»d local gov©raa.eKt organs &■:&& isardöred rur-al activists» In order to combat counterrevolutionary activity» the peasants united into 'sslf««d©fen8« d«tachaente» Mush help was given to tho peasants by

studefifcf vovkm" aui employes brigades, ishidh moved fs?om the eitles to the villages« ' ' . • ■

. .- The exffickci of agrarian reforms in China had -great political significance» Th©s& refonßs routed the feudal system of land ctaer- shipand created ä press! se for the -gradraal s^c±&l±^ tr&nBtprmîcm &t agriculture« As & resnilt of l&e-refer*,, 3'30 inillion toiling:'peasants received h7 million hectares of eoafiscffited l&ad and «ere freed, fro» the land tenancy system «sde? TsMcb land rental pajineats by the peasant's to'the landcdmst-'s amounted' to some 30 million -tons of grain psr year«- ' :,-;..-'■'

The revolutionary agratîsa. refoms liberated the productive forces of the Chinas® Tillage from all. m&nani-s of feudalism, and 6ü-»?G$ of the villages' population received direct gain from the re« distribution of land., including the poor peasants, fam laborers, and middle peasants, liiere was a 'basic »hange 1»' the class relationships within th© -villages:- -the landomier class.was destroyed, the economic pm&r and apolitical Influence■of the kulaks was seriously und©nglned, and the leading polities! posit ion was assumed by the Impoverished aid middle peasants*'' ■

1» this Hjanner* the i'evöltitionasy agraria». ref era's established a syatsa of petty'land mmerehip by the pe&sssis in. the Chinese village*

' 'Îndividual property bolohgi»g to peasants' who conduct their faraii!rjg;.lBd.epenider*tly»»-«is apparently the sosi no mal foxTiOf land ■ otmership for small~sca'.l«s prod-action*. **f said Marx.5 Ths agrarian reforms led to this ■very type of normsl conditions, The ccffibiastion of the peasant with limd and otter jaeaas of production created a certain" increase in tbe pterMcilwxty of labor* Agriculture 'in China «as- reconstructed«' Production, hcsrsver* remained petty, arid was the scattered output of Millions of isolated individual peasant hoixss« holds'which-ftcöötsnted for Bji of th«'gross nations! produat for 19^9« With- small«scale farming it is impossible to isai'iags land -r,J»'»iaapöwer 'properly, to imporve agricultural ieeiaäqu es,, to introduce the 'use of new-agricultural tools on a wide scale» or to fight-natural disasters» •Small-scale ©«mership, by its very nature*, prevents the development of the productive forces of labors cüsmon fcrsss of labor« eossaoa aacu*» isülatioB of capital, ' cattle- brsedi.ag on & large scale» era progressive application of scieace-./'•-' .

All this eleafly «bows the inability of agricultural production based, OB small land o^ffiarship' to sxpand regular!?* -and. also pre«» v©nts the majority- of" the peasn&tss from ever being'able to frue thea- selws fro® the yoke of poverty and exploitation« At the' ¥111 Con« gress of he KPIC (KomjKmIstieh.eskaya ■ partly».' Kit&ys. »- Communist Party

' oif'China)« ■MuSfcao-.ch'i aaidt t!B©oa»se of thefaet that tbere is little land is the villages, but sasajf peoples and becaiase'oa tte 'sTerage- for each peasant in the camtry there is only 3ss.ou (e&out l/> hectare) of arable land ..»'la m.mxy places in the south cmlj am maiot less —« the'poor snd lo'M'er-level ».Male peasantry still eoaiprise 6G~7Ö$ of the village population«'1*0 . .-■ .

'5 -

The s.g.r&riRvi reform thcrfo?^ having soU^d the land problem, ■did not fres the. productive fotsü^ iron limitations peculiar to smii« seal© faraing, did not completely elixtirate exploitation or the «sis-*

itence of poverty» This was jli& limitation as a föGäsure of the boar» ■ geoi K»4emoeratic re voIntion*'

Be sails© o? the fact that small, sc&ls production was Incapable ;of assuring the systematic and. rapid development ef agriculture* a disproportion ocrarad between 'agricultural sssd industrial, production letels in the country. A.gris;;lt«rft, whose development demanded on th© individual property of the peasants* lagged .farther and farther behind

:tb.6 rieveleptsient of socialist industry and the disproportion made it-' self felt in the differing rates of growth in industrial, and agricul« turel production, which invariably aotad as .a deterrent- on the satire national ttee-ü«ye This disproportion reflected the contradiction

:betv<«s eoiaaon» socialist ownership of property,, which heeario a fact in the cities and was a lead lug fcrai thsrs, and tha petty, Individual ownership of property by peasants is the villages. Rational develop» ffisnt could not be based on thsse two different fov&s — major socialist industry in the city and SE^II-scale, individual farming by the peasaats in. the villages*

Considerable growth in the productivity of labor and in crop yields, &s wsll s.s a sh&rp iDersas« in agricultural productivity, is

■possible only with large«scale farsdng» moderr* naachir;.© technology« and the use of the latest developments of agrotfi^xnolfgical scions?©*

Ccritft«rpoj"Äry society is aware of tec typen of largsj-soale agricultural farming: the capitalist farjn, wblch is located on private land and which uses £am laborers- -.- prol&tsri^s j and th© large-scale cooperative or state socialist Kethöd of farming, which is based on universal or grmip ownership of the a^am; of production» The large- scale plantation-type of farming bas&d on sis re or sexd.-slave labor, crested by the- imperialists in subjugated oeuntriesj is net con.sidared here*

Ons of the tendencies of budding smslX-seal© production is its prcpssxislty to give rise te csj.riis.lisi.« ^cönst-asrtly, daily, hourly, spontaneously, and on a mass scale***0 This is. due to the fact that assail«scale faming ig similar to eapii&lism by its economic nature,

■and the peasant hisEfc&lf is o,\ the OP« h&nd a «wksr and on the other ■& property owner,»

t!1;h6 peasant as a toiler törids toward eoKKunisa," said Lenin, "and tho peasant as a brsad s&losssan tends toward its bourgeois, towards free trade«.»"'

That is why scisll-scale farming leads to the development of .capitalistic relationships in the village> In thase situations group* of powerful kulaks ~~ exploiters ~» emerge fro-n the ranks of the small- scale producers and get rich, at tha expense of the majority of the peasants*

In ths northeastern part of the country and in certain parts •of the old liberated area?» of northern China,, for ejamplfe, kulak-owned

- 6 ~

farms had appeared over & period of two to three jreara «fter the national liberation* and the divisio» of the village into class« was in pro-

■10 ' i ■ <S<*5fSa

In pointing out sissllai? situations, Professor Chfpn Po-ta . stated that they were characteristic for .Irina as a Hhole^1

The paasnat, however, is not Just a property'owner, hut a toiler as well, as long as he makes his living hj neans of his owa labor and exploits no one. As a toiler the peasant is naturally interested la use liquidation cf espitalis», vhleh threatens him with ruin, and la the baildiag of socialism, sine® the socialist city can provide '.hira with Machines m& the necessary'goods on a basis of mmt&ä»lf &iü, teaches Lenin, As atoilsr he is a friend and an ally of the waiting class* That is nhy the peasantry is capable of accepting the loader-

:sh.ip of the working class and of following the course of socialism. . In.his work ?r^2^^M^S^S^i^Li&JSS3^£SL^ ¥AO

^se-twag wote'.th« following: "The i»pov*rsihed. peasantry and the lower levels . of the middle peasants, including ©Id and a©w menbers <jf use middle •peasant,class, all aspire to chose theaocialisfc way, as long as they «ontim£. to experience economic hardships (meafting tha impoverished

■ /peasantry) and even though the conditions ssay haw smewhat improved, ; perhaps, by comparison with theperiod before tfe» llberatiaj» of the 'country i their life Is not y#t secar« (meaning the poor ralddis peasant class K^2 • ■ ; ;' ■. The socialist transformation of anall-scal* fanalng my be Accomplished only as a result of collectivisation, which» in turn, may be attained only with the establishment of village cooperatives»

"Masses of peasants have bean engaged ir* individual farming for : : thousands of yearss trader which ©ach fswsliy, oveiy household, is a «ep-

' aräte farming \mit. Such dispersed, individual production is the economic tests of & feudal statej it condemns the peasants to eternal poverty« The only means of elisainaiiftg this condition is tivisation» &tk the onl|- ray towards eollectivis&tiJon is through eoop- . «ration, taught Leain"1-^ -~ ttoas Mao Tse-toong defiasd the significance of the Leninist cooperative plan far China .already J« 19*1-3.'

. In the' struggle for th« creation of agricnltorsi awper&tivtts, ; the Camasmist Party, as to the previous stage of th* revolution, drea- ded on the iadestructafel© alliase© ef the working el&ss with tks peas»,;

The revolution in China was noving £«ns the Tillage to the city; during both the second and third civil rwo&tla&axy wars, the COBWI- nii Party enjoyed ' tmesis« authority in the villages and did not share ; its influence with any ether "peasant" party» is a result of « series of ettrcMBstanees (which .yere partly due to the •onderdowloped capital- ; ist system) there was no. kulak-peasant party 1» China of the soeislist- iraToltttionary type that had existed 'in Rassi** In pointtag this out,. üao Ts»-tong, in his report t© the VII Congress of.the Chinose Comma- ■ sist Party ia:l$ty5, stated; "China does not have a; party «hlch repr«« sents' the' peasants* interests! «olasively. Kational boaafgeois parties

.- 7 - ' •

do not h&''/e a. rariicf; agra;:-!?;.^ pt-ngm-« That is ^hy cmly the CwisffiHti^t Party öf China, which has de sloped and is pitting into pr&otioe a ' ; radical agrarian pregrasi &j;d is trcly fighting for the totere fit of the. peasant class., and which has von o?sr to tie side the broad mas ass of ; the peasantry as its great ally, has beeosK» thß leader of the peasant ■ population and of ail the revöl«tiom:rp4emoer«tic forces«"^'

Before the* basic completion of the agrarian i^foras, the Com- \ nwnist Party conducted a policy of reliance or* the poverty-stricken groups öf tb.a villagef a fins alliance with the middle peasnats and ' : the elimination of the tali&k, &~; the principal a^arian ptoh.! era _at that time was thss struggle a^sinst landowner;? for their land 5**5 j

During 'the socialist stage of the revolution the p&ssstit prob-; lea becst&e the MS.tt«=r of WGper&tiT©^ Op until, the basic cösspls&tio» | of the cooperative program, the pes.sar.tx3r eontiraxed its""strudle against 'the kulaks and other capitalist e laments: is order to achieve a socialist dev'elopresnt in, the villages* This signifies a ehangs in the eeonoisic basis of the alliance of tha worlfiog class with the peasantry,,

in connection, with this, th© Sixth Plenary Sessions Seventh Convocation* of the Central Committee of the Cosra&rardst Party of China I noted th3.ts "The new relationships is the alliance of the workers ; with'the peasants g.wd the leading role ass'tauad bj' the working class in ■ this alliance istxst all be further strengthened on the'basis of coordi-f nation between -the socialist industry and the agricultural eocmera» tives.»^-

A significant new group of middle peasants Appeared ia 'the Chinese village* after the agrarian. r©fona (thesf? were formerly th© iBtpovarishsidi peasants vho» after having recieved so&o land during the ■ reforms,, acquired soms Foalth), Trie majority ef the new middle peasants, howevers as well as a part of the peasants who were formerly in feat category* still experiericed certain difficulties iß their economic position and ware close to Iftpoverishiaeatc Life for all these groups could improve only through the establishment of cooperatives. ftTh&f is why they are nmdastaking the e stahl hshereiit of ths coopera tives**3-' The degree of their activity in this matter, howeWr-, is different,.

At the s&aia tiaes ner kulaks bsg&n t-o apcasr in various arrsas site! a for® of social differentiation mihtn tha villages WAS taking - place,, Taking into ociisici ©ration the arr^ngsssent of the class forces Mithin the village, the Coismmist Party conducted s policy of relying OR the impoverished peasantry» a fins alliance- with the saddle pea- " ■ s&nts, sM a gradual Baits bias, of exploitative ectlvities of the kulaks, with sn &%n 0f eventually liquidating thf?.külsk establishments :

eojtiplotely* Tm socialist reorganisation of the Chinese Tillage means,

primarily, the salbsti-b.ition of old preduoer relationships' which are characteristic for small-sosl© production, by th© socialist producer reMionship by means of the gradual incorporation of the individual

Ö

peasant fansa inte cooperatives«- This is th© principal contsat of the - socialist upheaval in the villages* Another aspect of the socialist transformation of the- Chines© village is th® substitution of th© old techniquessnd routine methods'of land cultivation with new machine technology and scientific agrieiiliurai Kothods» This aonstitutes the technical upheaval-'lw the villages»

,- Pointing out the'indivisible tie between'the sociological. and technical upheavals9 Mao Tse-tung stressed the fact that -arider conditions prevalent in China.s ".»„it is at first necessary to create cooperatives in £.gric;uliure —•• only thsn„will it beet« possible to apply extensive technological measures»8^

••■•- The wj.d©«scale development of producer's cooperatives prepared ■& bread jaarkei for agricultural Machinery and tools,, beginning with ploughs, seeders, cultivators„ and simple litigation equipment &s veil as coisplex, modern agricultural equipment.

The increased agricultural output,, which, occured as a result of the establishment of cooperatives» was one of the most important eoa» ditions in the broader ißdiistrial development»

; The most important principle of the Party's policy for the establishment of cooperatives in the villages was voltintarlnsss.

In its resolution, for the development of producers5 coopers» ■: tires in agriculture, adopted on 16 Baeesiber 1953• th© Central COM- snlttee pf the Commiyaiist Party of China stressed the following.: "In bringing about the producers' cooperatives in ag-ficriitare it is always necessary to be guided la ©vary action by the principle of voluntari- ness,- The use öf administrativ© sasthods which expropriate th© pea» »ants* means of production are nothing less-than'criminal actions, undermining the alliance of the working class with the peasantry and the alliance of tits poor peasants with the middle peasants«"d9

;- ' Tne principle of volimtsiriaes's was derived from the proper Marxist fcemprehsnsion of the peasants* nature &s a small-scale pro- ■ d'acsr, who has learned not to trast the'eity, which has always exploited hiia, and eTolired Methods of convincing the peasant*

A coacröte, practical method is the best weans of persuasion* '-. V,'I, L*ähin said that the peasnat "«..is practical and realistic? we - Mist furnish concrete«Copies as oroof of the fact that * ooammiaa- ■ tion' is best of ail«,^0

Particular attention must be devoted in approaching the middle peasant who» by virtue of his position in the seal© of produc- tions is hesitant« .

■ . The VXII Congress of tha Ccmrnnlsi Party.of China reiterated» once again», on' this subject? "The Party not only prohibits corapeliing the asiddle peasant to join cooperatives» but directs that the poor peasants md lower-Xevel Kiddle-peasants be ths first "ones to be drawn-' into the cooperatives in the first stages of the movement, without inducing th© wealthier middle peasants into these cooperatives,.8^!

; The Chinese Cc:wurist Party conducted a-gradual-'inclusion of the broad Masses of the rural population into cooperatives. The Com-

KSiK.ist Part;?- fUly ^Tiliv^i those foms of or-ardiaiior; which v?/.rtx ':

■naturally adaptable to the pecpj:e and viere BO si comprehensible iclofl© to the peasant population. The party gradua'Üy enriched those ;foms with new contest* and promoted their domlcpuient and growth by üombintag their work irs this field -with eonrt^nt propagand**ooi:n.tin(?

.iöttt the a&ea-ntages of cooperatives aad of collective labor for ths> t>ea~ ;sants themselves and by continuing their struggle against erploitors. :

A mandatory condition for the proper dsvcüorient 0-f a m&sa iaove~ inteat «uscng the people is the principle of" active leadership,. Active :

leadership sseans the timelj perception of tender, cdos vithin the mass ■KoTOBftnt da-ring any given stag«, and the achiemaoni of a position of ;

leadership, [email protected] the »asses forward as wall as the ability to oor» ; relate dess&ads 'of the KSMB moveaents to the problems &t hand ooncarn- '■■ log the building of socialism to the countiy. "active leadership jne&ns that Party leadership »ist not lag behind^th.& deaoui* of the BASSOS and the requirements of national growth*1'^

■ Active leadership prescipposes pll-inelixsive. planning and the relnforcaaeat of existing cooperative organisations In the village,

:as well as the dovelopasat and support of initiative amang the »asses ;for the cre&tioa of new cooperatives„

The importance of astire lesdtereblp grew te ftccortfauc© with th® inclusion o.f broader Biases of peasants and particularly of the middle peasants« into tha cooperative RO^sent on' the one hand, and on :

increased-irssistance by the kalftks oa tho other. Tha psaaant popalä-* tiott was able to overcmw the kulaks* resistance and to reinforce the ■cooperatives only with the active leader slip o.f the Party and the fworkiag class. "

A concrete aetliod-of converting the swall-scale, Individual« :

fanalog ©conoagr to a socialist system, as worked out by the Cosawunist ! Party of China on the basis of th* Leninist cooperatl?» plan, with • consideration taken for the peculiar!tied of Chinese historical «TOIQ- ■ tioa, was the gyadaal cott&oliriAtloa of the fanrasrs. At first, taroor- fcrjr' nut««! al<l t&ass wre organised, shioh stl.r0s.dv contained a e»r- tain division of labor and specialties *»oag fchs peasants, and property was eoisxuniged to- a dogres» Tha gradual conversion to agricultural cooperatives was beiag effected, The peculiarity of th* mutual :

aid taasas »as that laud was consolidated eivtir3l?\ except for tho pre- .iservatiaa of sufficient land by the poasaat as his own property to provide hiasslf with sabsistauos., «ttd ih© preser.ce of a large aaour.t of common property within the group» the next stap was the conversion to ■ .■socialist cooperative,•?s based ost gro\r.o ownership of tha moans of oro- iduotton. J

"Facts point out that tha a-athod of consistent forward orog« .»ss, withwas ths'Party's method, was expedient, inasmuch as tha dertL- topmeat-of cooperativas gives th* peas . t,s a. series of advsatag»s aiid ' allows th« gradually to bocoma aowastosaed to a collsetivs form of production, qa.it© painlessly aad successfully to rsnouno© priv&to lftnd

- 10 -

awmrBhtp end other basics 'jsisans of production» and to oowert to col« 'lective property»15 observed Li« Shao~ohfi at the ¥111 Congress of the Coras.mist Party of China» "By these* »©aas he is able t® avoid or, to

■a, large.exfcmt* prevent'&w los® which eetild hav© ocoüm$ du© to the sudden change*0^ Ganer&iiaing on tfe® ©rperiri'eoe of socialist trans» :formation» the ¥111" All-Chiiia Congress of the Soösramist Party of iChitui (September 1956} observed that the program of socialist reconstruction of the village, developed 'bjrth® CoBsaanist Party of China ■m.8 slrmdr basically completed by the.-tia© ih© Congress »et» 1 Mo Tttöh-ta, Bewlopawni of Goofflörati^s Igîoalte© to Cfer teratwf

Peipteg, 1957, page 29 (It should fo<a noted that this work is published in Chiflose«, For & full description of this work sm the bibliography..)

■2 . AgmrjOT*© »rebbraaovaniya v narodao-desaokratiohssklkh steamakh . : • |« 11 (Agrarian „Raforas in the People's Democratic Countries of . . .Asia), Moscow, 1955» pag© 50. 3 K. Marat, J&ßlt&l (Capital), Vol III, Mosoowr, 19^9. paga 820.

'* QMngvc&I Yen-chid (Setmeade Researoh), B» 1» 1955* 5»g© *1« 5 K. Mars, Kapital, Vol III, pace 820,. 6 Liu Shao-eh'i, ^Political Report of the Central Committee of the

CoMsunist P&rty of China to 'Vm VIII All-China Congress of the Party" (contained la Materials: VTJEX fsskitajskogo .sVess&aJKovmfM^ istichsskor psrtii MtajaTM*t©rials on tbo Vin All-China. Congress

_ of the Goasasnist Party of China.j, .Mosoow» 195©} f p&g© 14« :' ? Lin Shao-oh'i, "On the Agrarian Reforms in China* (contained is

Agras*s\Tfe prsobraaovsaiva ▼ Kltaye [Agrarian Reforms in China], ' Moscow, 1955)» pag« 31-32» 8 •. V. X. LeniB,'0©tskajra bolssn' levif/mrv toawnia&e (The Children's

Disease of Leftist Teadtaelos an '(kmmnim), Collected Works» Vol 31* **th ©ditionj« pages 7-8*

° V* I, Lenin,, Pi^l.LXfÄt*JMEX#£ä^. (Greetings to the Kuaigar» ■ ian Workers) .ôlXested Works, Vol, 29, **th edition, pag® 359*

:10 (3hlng-cM. Ten-diia, No 1» 1955* paiw» *H. ' •^ Ch'-sn Po-t*. fifhe Socialist Reforms in ÄgrieultöTej® fey^M

(Friendship;, 3 March 1956» 12 Mao Ts©~töngf Vqorosavkoopeylrovaniya v selsskosi kboKyaystve

(Questions of Cooperativisstion in Agrimsltui?®), Moseows 1955« page 8.

■-* feo Tse-tuugÔrganisuftas^ {OrgaaiKel)» Collected Würkss Vol kt Moscow» 1953,page 2&r,

x Mao Tse-tung, P_to&];itsiomo^j£OTiteJ^st« (On Coalition Govern- ment), Collected Works, Vol *T, pag«s"535-53ö.

1L

*■•> At satfsral stages of the ctemocratie revolution', uncter special condition, th«?> psrty evan had to lead the peasantry asrainst tha kulaks (during the period of the agrarian reform of 19%~19V?). See M^JÄSlli^ on !■>>•© Liberation W«? of th* Chinese £SSâJPJks^L£äM. Harbin, l^S.^^rttT^äTiTsiMo-eh'i, tt0a the Agrarian Rofonaa in China.," pages 36^7,

:16

Central Committes of the- Central Garaaiit'te«; of the Comsiiraist Par- ty of China, Swojith Convocation, oa the Question of Coc-perativl- antion in Agricoltare), Hosoow, 1955, page k*

.^ Mao Tse»tung, fe§£MÔO£^ page 15. " "* *•«——-»■— —- ..—~-*~« «,«,,..„

IPs XJ Mao Tse-tung, lt:dds, pag« 20 15* Decree of 'the Central Coamittes of the Coffiamnist Party of China

OB the F/evelGp5HK>.t o.f Agricultural Producer's Cooperatives (con» tained in M^î^mJS^Mä^M^^^ vjawdnom Kitey« [Agrarian Reform In People's Chins..], MOSCOW 1955J,"psg«"3^8.*"**

20 V,_ I» Lenin, ¥111 Congress of tfa© Workers-Peasants Party (bolshev- iks) (report on work 1B the villas«*>t Collected %<rkss VGI 29, 4th Edition, page 16?.

:21 Li» Shao-cb'i, Political 'Report of fchü Central Conratttee of ths Corasuniat Party of China tc the VIII All-China Congress of the Party*" page 1.5.

2Z IDecreo of tfc© Central Coosittee of the Gaafflimlst Party of China on the Xte?eIop»3nt of Agricultural Prodyc-srs' Cooperatives, p&e-os 385-386. . '

23 Liu Shao-ßh'i, "Political Report of the Central Cerari/fctea of the CoBifflinlst Party of Chiua to the VIII All-China Congress of the Parly/' page 15*

12

CHAPTER. 1

THE MUTUAL kW TEAMS

Prior to th# victory of the people's revolution» agrucaltxire in China was very primitive and backward» The peasantry of the pre« . revolutionary, serai-feudäl villaga was composed about 5Ö~?°$ ®* 'impoverished peasnats who« by their economic- situation actually were'semi* proletarian.*■ .The basic tools of the Chines© peasants were ■ wooden p'otighs said hoes; 'the aotiv© power was supplied by oxen, waits and, la scattered areas of the north, by horses»

Old Ohiases statistics yield confused and »raddled data regarding the number of head of eattl© and agricultural implesseäts available in.«the country as a whole and in the various regions. Figures given by different statisticians and statistical experts vary greatly' on the sams subjects.2 Evm the opttsada f.igures» hoover," show a great lack i» draught animals m& those privative' tools which have baer». used for eentörios for the cultivation of the land of China.

During the thirties of the 20th Century, therefor©, there was on the average one horse for every 80 peasant households» one' aiule' (or donkey) for every 90 households, and on© head of homed cattle (oxen, buffaloes,cows) for .evsry three peasant households'

It is obvious then» that Chinos® peasants,, as a rule, -lacked draught, animals sxxd the b*,slc tools for the cultivation of land; there was only one head of beef cattle for every three or four households.- It ia quite correct to ass-am« that only three or four of the poorest peasant households ia combination possessed a sufficient raanber of draught aainals feed agricultural implements neeassary for subsist©«.©« productio», even in the old, unalterable' sad very modest amounts« Therefam,. ia many areas of the country the »ass producer, who was the impoverished and, on the whole, average peasant, tenant faxwar» or independent fanner was always compelled to depend on the aid of his neighbors and relatives.

The necessity for this type of cooperation was partdoalarly evident during hardship years. Cooperation atnong several peasant' households for the purpose of nmtuai assistance in labor,-cattle, tools, and occasionally, experience, was becoatng a regular practice arid a necessary condition for production.- Several neighboring house-holds would usually band together.their efforts, »sans of production, etc.

for tiia purpose of accomplishing nrgent or difficult work, The tradi- ' ;tion of ifro.to.ai aid wa.s particularly wall established in the provinces :

located at the lower and middl« parts of the Xangt-zs River, whoro over , .half of the Chines© agricultural population was located«,

Mutual aid in labor was principally practiced by the poorer peasants and the poor Middle peasants." The poorer peasants paid for the use of their neighbors' animals at.6 tools vilh their ova labor. :*he kv.la.ks, as a rale» did not participate in anj forsi of mutual aid;' i I they were able to hire help and. had a sufficient arrant of tha neees« : :sax*y tools on hand«

Thewfore, the mutual, assistance orgpitaatiais in the old semi-* :feudal China 'rare organisations of the poor,

4 Ibis was their primary. ■ .and most Important peculiarity,,

Mutual aid teams wer© mainly small, and consisted of two or ithree households, ooaasicnally of as many as five; very rarely were there eight or nine households in cooperation (fcr example in the eul» ;

■■tlvatlonfif mountainous areas or land around lakes in the T3> ihu water- ;

r system area). Baring th© course of a single ymx, peasants fraqtioitly !

■joined in various eosibiB&tlons for tte. execution of certain agricultural work9 which is explained by the various peasants accumulating special-

:

laod equipment which, in combination with the equipment belonging to "others, could serve to complete a variety of projects requiring use of : specialised equipment. Bteing tesipo.rary in nature* these organisations :

ifor »Ritual aid were distinguished by eactreae instability sad irregular ■ membership. The «mall siae .»id th© instability of the'organization iof these mutual, aid teams was, then, their other peculiarity,

Th© mutual std teams usually contained ywnd and healthr work- ;era, There vas a widely accept«** rule Rto place a soldier before a soldier» a general before a general»"' . This meant that persons of 1 iappwaciajately $qaal physical qualities and «xporlenea entered into I jthe teams. Thin method of selecting participants eliminate! &ny ration!« ial distribution of labor, fm strong; and healthy xm^&rs of the team i .frequently had to perform work that could easily have been■ done by old •people or women,and there was a great waste of labor« A similarity in :

the physical qualities of the tmm ra^bors &o.dv as a result, a. coasid- ■ erable waste of manpower, was the third, peculiarity of the mutual aid ' :organisations in old China.

Mutual &id, therefors, was an outers of the Chinese peasants' poverty and agricultural backwardness, At the sama time, the consolidation of separate households for sratual aid was the result 'of the ;Chinese peasants' tradition for collective and joint labor räicb was .».ore effective than individual work by the Imoovarlshed peasants.

There existed many "societies* for tmtoal labor aid," »brigades for land cultivation,* as wall as «cooperatives for joint utilisation of tools and draught animals,« ac far back as tho Second Civil Revolu- tionärs' War, at the revolutionary strongpoints in Fakten, Klangs«, and other provinces of southern and central China/) For the first ti» in many centuries they were being organized by the peasaats on

« 1'*

their o*Ä-n land. ' : . Th-@ aetivitias of thes« orgaaiaations, as mil as of the COB- -:

suaser cooperatives which were widespread at the tim®. waa eonctacfcad , in support of. agriettf/iairai production, under condition a ft fierce combat and enesgr blockade* ; ':. ■ "

'*W mutual- lad organisations received a .wide developiseat in the liberated aröas and at'irarious strpngpoiftts during tte coarse of

■the'Chin ese people's struggle against'the Japan«*»« Invaders (1957- ;

.19*6) *? -•■.... As is well known? th* CoMtmist Party of China»' vrith the beg- ■■

;iöniag of 'the aHti-Japänese war, shifted from a policy of oonffiscatiaf; ilaad -beloag'teg to landowners to a policy of lowering land rant by on© iqüarter in order to promote a 'consolidated frost for th« straggle .against the Japanese imperialists. It was-established, that-'the amount ■ :of rent paid by a peasant imist not axceod 3? »5$ of' the crop yield for :the year; interest rates «ere.also lowered* .The people's government' &nä mass organisations actively defended' the peasants' civil and ©QO&~ cfissic rights'* All this considerably improved the ©con.oaic position of the impoverished and.,, to a certain' degree, the ralddle peasant*

'there was a marked over-all increase in labor productivity by the peasants in th© liberated areas during 1942-19&3.'■'%©''growth of

• agricultural production was,' hoover,' d@terr@d by a lack of draught ianiiaesls, agricultural tools» and manpower* An 'increase iri productivity under these circumstances could be achieved otäy by the consolidation of labor efforts» "The central link is the development of production is the organisation of the labor force,'8 pointed oat the Central Cossittee of the Ooasunist Party of China in a 19>*3 ■directive on the ;lowering of rental' parents ' för Imäß

Mao Tse-t>ing addressed the population of'the liber&tad areas and. the strongpoiats ofaati-'-Jspajiöse resistance in the nm& of the Party* with a call to uQr%$ca±mls The Party called for eonsoldiatio» 'of. the inhabitants of all th® liberated areas for th© purpose of in« ■creased production«- The creation of saut'a.al. aid tesms.&R. agruetiltur® «as ersph&slsed. ■"•"••'

The picmars ssd the core of th® »situal-aid taovaseeat user« the ;GoisBSttnists BM TUl&m activists fross the ranks of th® iaspo^erlshed :«uad middle peasants»9

' 'Therefor®, the jaovemoat for the esta.bliab.meat of afatual aid ; teams "in the liberated areas was being- developed with the constant ; support «ad guiding leadership of the Party and the people's'govern» :»eiit»'

"These forms of collectiT© siutu&l assistance wer© ©rolved by Ä® masses themselves» In the past »3 havo utilised the «perianee ;of the »asses in organising collective fonss of aü&fcual »id in Chiang» Mi Province and now we have utilised .such '«aKperienee in the northern part of Shessi ". Province»B said K&o fss-tunjg it» X<&3«*0

■'The 3,9^3-19^.5 period was signified by "the sonversion from; the sysrfcea of establishing scattered teams for sautoa! labor aid to a

™ 15 -■

system for tft<r?ir mê^-aozösi e stabil. Gh~arrt.,^" 1 Otf&r 5öf pi' tha pfö&e&ivis fers organised irrte j&utxisl aid UsM38 I at the Sfeem-jfu &m.. Bsing-hsi&ng: provincial districts ia its north- ieastern part of Shm.s.1 Province during 19^3-19^'»-^

Mutual aid. In th$ liberated ar&as io&fc different forais» individual householders fraqust-ntly joins^ into cooperatives in order to Jengage In other than agricultural activities« At tho Special Bord« I Area» the transportation of salt by artels» which was one of the non- ; agricultural forms of mfcuaX sid, was widely p'âoticad« ;

' ' Org&fitaailon of the entire population in the struggle for ! higher production brought abovii a considerable growth in the prodnc- Itivity of labor. . '

fte peasants rtvapporiioned 600 thonsand son ( 1 ssou at that ,tlm© equalled l/l6 of a hectare) and t^stored and put in OVUM? $9 thou- ■ sand mm. of arable laad over'a period of two 'jears (19&3"19^+) through- ;.ocit the entire bord&r areas of Shensi, Ksnsu, aivd Sins?as. In the ;spriag of 19** alone, 420,000 BOU. of land i«*re ploughed.^

"In organisations such as th-«se,s observed Mao Ts&«tang on the growth of labor productivity within, ^hs jsuiual aid tfeaas t

tfihr©0 now do as mich as four did previously, BJW

'■••ha experience gain&d in developing the Ktttnsl sld teamSj, '; accumulated during the preceding years, was vMely utilistsjl by the

CoKSiwnist Party of China after tho victorious people*& resolution.

The Comiaanist Party and the People's Government of China devo- \ ted much attention to th© restoration of agriculturalproduction,, after : the routing of th© Kuomintang armies, daring tho jssrs of tho agrarian :■ reforms» The vide«-scale «sov®a.ent.for »uinal aid aiiö cooperation in labor became one of the most, important links in tho solution of this Important probles». ;

: Together with the land, the peasants received «any agricultural tools,, seed, fertiliser, etc», In the course of tha agrarian reforms, ; This, hosS'fövor, was insufficient for- instituting adoouato production in the villages» ;

Data regarding the asoimis of agricultural implements and draught animals available in certain areas of tho country during th© thirties of th* 20th Centn?»/ êro given earlier* Daring a 15~y«ar .; •period preceding the revolutionary victory conditions to this area not ' -.only failed to improve,, but deteriorated considerably. During the • .course of the war, agricultural productive forces, cattle, and tools ;vere arstsaaatically destroyed« B7.194o$ the total masher of oat tie :<tec;r>eaaed by 16$ is the country and the mueber of agricultural iraple« 'mmts decreased by 30$ as. eossparvscl with the prewar figures r,1^ The Kuo-*

■mintaiig forces destroyed entire irrigation systoms "for strategic rea~ ■ sons»" All this led to z catastrophic drop in agricultural production,- 3j 19ty? the gross grain harvest decreased by 25,4$t the cotton harvest

■-16-

by fy?,6$ by comparison with the prswar period,1" .. The agrarian :eaforffivdid not destroy all the «souses of poverty

among th« peasant:*» Ksrear^ several typical «caaples. in this regard; The •agrarian refers» in Hea.an Province was conducted b&fors it was in* traduced in any other prlvince of söath-centfral China, but even, here the-poorest-elements of the villages Mere still in a.position'of economic" hardship. 33a the Shan»heien District of this Province, J0% of the Door •fami-labor©i> families experienced production difficulties» ' and 5'| of these households were in dire need, The Wang-chea provincial district of Hsi-hui area yielded a bountiful harvest during the first year after the agrarian refoms., but after that there oeeured a serious shortage of draught animals'— a year following the reforms , there «are.'29 draught animals less than the miainsu» required for the area; on the average there w&s only one water ■wheel for'every ■ two . households j- k'3 households were not assured of an adequate food supply for the .ys&r.S-? ■ ;

Even greater hardship existed in the areas where the agrarian reform..was completed in 195?-»

It was" possible to KImount the existing difficulties, to protect-the peasants tvow. exploitation by the kulaks, and to assure the restoration of agricultural production only with an adequate orgaaia- ■ ation -of the peasant households for combined ■ labor»

;,The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, deaot- lag the "line of restoration and increasing of agricultural productivity, pointed out in 1951 that»/ "In all areas where agrarian reforms have-been cosipletsd the People's Government must organize the peaaants and all available manpower which-can be used in agriculture and make

the development of agricultural production '.and of the subsidiary industries'its mhin issue« In'addtiaj» it is necessary to draw the peasants into various types of actual aid organisations and producer's .cooperativest all of «hieh wast he gradually put into' effect in, accordance with the principle of voluntarinass and mutual advantage J3^

•In the reformed tillage developed the primarily temporary form "of mutual aid which had pWallsd -in the old liberated areas, "In the newly liberated areas this form also is appropriate for wide utilisation, because it'■ corresponds, to the traditional forsas of ■ peasant mutual aid,"--'?

The peasants joined into groups for the purpose of sharing one 'another's draught animalg, agricultural Iwplarasnts, md irrigation sjs« terns» and to take measures in the ewrit of drought, to exterminate pasts w.& to pool their labor. Various forms of mutual aid teams ex» isted for ''-such 'purposes as the joint purchase, of draught animals or of agricultural tools on credit granted by the government/'6 The peasants organised groups for other than ■■agricultural -work as well*

■ %.& provision of the peasants, with land, their ©mancipation frosi 'the' landlords"and 'exploitation through rental payments on th&ir land,' was a strong 'impetus for the creation of mutual aid teams. The' .Impoverished peasants sad farm laborers,having received their land,

17.

ioinad the traditional wsfeal aid groups. la Kur^-n Province in 1953» 1or examplet 30-}¥jf of the peasants pooled their labor in Kroups, a ; 'practice .that was- becoming progressively raore widespread«^I Accord- ; •ing to data of an investigation in Chi-abou «raft, Ch»aa«-sfi»a »Istriet»; ;in 1951, 298 households, comprising 53$ of the peasant households of ; jtha region, that is, kö% more than in 1<$8 before the land reforms» •Ijoined in mutual aid of the old type.22 j I With "the wide-scale' development of the aprtual. aid program,' l

Iprogressively j&ore teams, orgaKiaod by the local cells of the Com- ' JKuxdst Party of CMiia/ftaßftn appearing, Tho f'arty gradually erpandod. ' ;the framework öf the mutual aid moves«©»t, changing it from a partial and ; one-sided type of aid (such as groups for digging volis during droughts :or groups organised for the cora&on us© of a pl,ani> spraying roachine) : \ 'into a wany-sidod form of mutual aid in fiold projects, ',

Mutual aid teams- wore being'organized primarily for the pair- : ipose of accomplishing l&rge-soala work requiring iraich manpowers tha ; : smaller, less important projects were handled on an individual basis ;by the farmers«

All the meatbsrs of & teaz». received individual benefits from ; their participation in the. team*

Taking into consideration the« fact that traditional peasant ; ^mutual aid groups usually consisted of three or four households* the ; Ccasammist Party of China proposod. the estabilsimmA of sjaall toaais at : ithe beginning .of the movement."^ •

■ Hare, for example, is how a naitual aid team was organized ; at'the Shang-fan village in tho Xutsg-fu provincial district of JDsang- j ■si Province.24■ ;

The peasants of the "v~.llls.ge v*re compel led to join the rsutual ; aid teas iti 1951* this fcaam proved to be ineffective and. ooon disin- I jtegrated. The leadership of the lung-fu Proviaoisl District -seat ! :party cadres to Bhang-fan to organi-aa a more effective mutual aid team! 'end, by later using it. as an example, to promote the »ovoasnt on a 'broad scale throughout the entire district.

The Party cadres assigned to tho village first of all appoin« ;

;ted a loader for the proposed teasu But povarty». stricken Liao Ohl-yuftg, jwho was picked for that positions exhibited as, attitude of great dis- • :trust» giving last year's failure of the tesa s.s an excuse. There 'were four laesbers in Liao Chi-yung's faidly, only two of whoa w-sre cap- iablo. of working» -To make «suds meet, Liao fihi-yung workod at a nearby : ; sugar refinery during the winter of 1951 * The f&sily, however, still < ■ lacked four dan of grain in ordor to subsist until the noxi harvest ; \ (one. dan at that time equalled approximately 60 kilograms) # Raprosen»! | tatives of the provincial party eon^iites told Liao Chi»yusvj about the; iiatttal aid teas led by Mao Rsaio-iiuai, whose Koc.iho.rs the previous ■ lyoar» by utilizing the advantages of eolleetivs labor, vsra able to : relieve eight aetdbers from field, work and send them to a factory to loam additional income. Those eight peasants received I'+O chictg of irioo (1 c&ing at that time equalled approxltäjaiely 600 grass). Subse- !

- 1«

■quentlgr. the party workers analysed the reasons for the disintegration of the mutual aid team at the Shang-fan village and .indicated that the team, disintegrated due to iwpropar labor aceotaiing (within the

: team, ' ... finally, during the. general preparatory meeting, ;)representa«

;tiyes of the provincial party committee familiarized' the peasants In .. great detail with the system of labor accounting by the'team, In Ida© 'Hsiao-huei's tsars, the amount of labor: required, for the various oper- ' afions was computed ahead of time,, and. 'every member's labor potential' !

; was calculated 1» terns of a certain nosabep of labor units. Liao Chi-'- yung was again chosen to be- the leader.of the newly created «utual aid ;team in the Shang-fan village»

The tea», was joined by four households having a total "of 23 persons, the total area of the members1 combined land was ?8 raou (or -which 60 mou were irrigated), the team had five draught animals. From February to May ijicludive (according to th© Chines© agricultural cal- .; endar) the team had in 'all 1600 man-days. Approximately 620 man-days ware required for the cultivation of ail the land (8 man-days were .required for each sou of lend), and it'was estimated that 100 nan-days. would be1 required for the preparation of fertiliser. Considerations were &lsox-;mads for various töesbers of the team to engage in extra out» side work, by turns, in order to provide themselves with'"sufficient 'provisions to last unt'il the new harvest.

It was decided to base all labor calculations on the system. used by Liao Hsiao-huei*s. teau. In addition, the computation of labor: units was based on the difficulty of the assignment and speed of exscu* ticn« One man-day was assigned to work rated at 10 labor units; for :

the good execution of th© project a higher category was assigned to the assignment, for poor execution it was lowered.

Mutual aid within the group was to be governed by the follow» ing principles:

1) Subordination to those appointed as leaders m& the completion of all assignment,?,

2) Subordination to the decision of the majority. 3) Recognition of the need to work according to" plan. b) Unselfishness and personal honesty« 5) Unbiased accumulation of labor units and an honest deter-

mination of .work norms» 6) Meetings every evening for susaming up and evaluating work

accomplished during ths day* * 7) Inadmissability of hidden criticism; aH dissatisfactions

to be brought out openly daring group meetings. The productive plan adopted, by the team at the «aeting con-

tained the following points: 1) To save six dan of seed by reducing wedding and religious

expenses. 2) To extend irrigation ditches and to irrigate fields in a

more thorough manner during the dry seasons»

19 «

'. 3/ "o plough ths fields in an eKempj.fi.i-7 fashion and to oxter- I ainate field pasts. ■; I - 4) To allow MO man-days for »embers 0? the teasi to engage : ! in outside work for additional income« so as to assure the group with '; ' sufficient provisions to last until the new harvest«, 1 5) &> prepare 500 clan of straw and 40 dan of grass to be used; \ m fertilizer, and to mix in 50 ching of liiae into overy raou of sugar ; i cane, \ 6) To sow jointly the early crops; X nov: of peanuts, 1 mou : : ■ of pepper, 800 low of tobacco (one ton is equal to l/lö of a dar,),26 : to cultivate 2 »on of 'virgin land, to raise two pigs, 20 ducks, and . I 30 chickens in conmon (point six of the production plan points mit the; I inception of aouanon property and labor in. the group). t i 1 ?) To establish a svstsa of aiding the poorer morabors of ths i „ r. ' !

A study of ths activities of Liao Chi-yvurig * s team gives a gen« oral idea of the struoiure and work of ths mutual aid toasts to genorali,

Tito concept of msxttial aid, evow in its osrly, temporary forms,, .was responsible for a certain increase in agricultural production, : Even staple cooperation in labor led to an increase in its prod ctlv : ity» -About 20~3C$ less labor was expended, in werk dor,© by the teams . I than in the same work done by individuals.2°

Comradely competition ■which ocourod during joint work also \ helped to raise the productivity of labor and to increase crop yields,:

In Ssoatowan Province, for example, He Liang»p'u's i&itual ■ «aid team (Ki«*v»ysng district of tho T'ang-fan are?.) 1/3 less nan-days 'were required, in. 1953 for roaping, transporting the sheafs, and thrash» . ing tho susffior harvest than was xxi&d by the tesm. manbers in Individual» ; independent work (four- men and ten woman) bofore their consolidation* ! ; Kao'Fu.~hs lag's muted aid testa (Psi-bat ares» lif»*sh&ü district) ; harvested 103 dan of rice in four days,. -saving kO B^n-daya.™

An insre&se in the productivity of labor permitted the improve» merit of land cultivation methods, and provided &n incroasod supply of fertiliser. Therefore, 25 households, participating in six trcutual

■aid. tea-fls, introduced 1*500 ehing of fertilizer into every &&r- of field, when the individual housob.ol.da were able to intrody.ee only 200

' ehing of fertilizer into every dan of field, 'jKi

k total of 3.5,199 households cosbiood into ^,?62 mutual aid 'teams in nine areas of the Kwsidbou district. Kwsdehow Pravtne® and harvested 1/35^,^12 t'iao of grain crops in 1952» which was 162,129 t'iao or 13.6$ sore than in 1951. 1'aese areas also contained li-,55?- ■ '•

:individual households which gathered a harvest of 118^97? t'iao in 1952 — only 3*005 t'iao or 2,59$ mm then in 1951 »^ '

!?h© harvest yielded froK 1ha fields cultivated, by members of the mutual aid tears therefore exceeded the yield of fields that wore ■ ' cultivated by individual farmers by 11;«.

Particularly iasportsnt was ths role of tho mutual aid groups,, :

even temporary ones, in the struggle against natural disaster,«J.

- 20 -

"In Renp»«iÄ in tlie northern wart of Ante»! ... and m*ngs& Provinces, jn orivtocial districts and in areasWfcich are located along th» Hua1 Ho it'utaal aid teams were organised in order to combine the solution of'problems inherent in the development of agricultural production and the regulation of the Httai-he River," noted the Müiis» try of Agriculture of the MKß2 In 19$2 alone» 2,300,000 peasants p&rtlctoated In harnessing theHuai-he.3J It is evident that such a mass diversion of manpower for the construction of irrigation systems was made possible only as a result of the development of the mutual aid movement, _ , ,, .

In the taisporaty mutual aid teams the peasants poolad their labor and neans of production for a specified period of time only, for the execution of certain individual projects? the land they cultivated and their tools remained their private property, and each z&m meaoer

■conducted his owx household separately. . Temporary mutual aid teams have undoubtedly helped the devel-

opment of agricultural production. As a result of some coordination of labor» the individual poor and middle peasants were able to solve their production problems, to reise their crop yields and, to & certain degree, escape the throat of Intimidation hj the kulaks after the agrarian reforms. , ,

' Joiut labor, even within the framework of the temporary mutual aid team, has proven its advantages, i'h© temporary mutual aid team was the first step toward the establishment of producer's cooperatives in the Chinese village»

After surmounting production difficulties, however, this form of cooperation exhausted its advantages. In the old liberated areas of the northeastern and northern parts of China, the agrarian reform oeoured during 19'-i-6-19-?49 and the People's Government had been in existence thereofor 10-12'years- In this area the peasantry was Bloving up into the middLe-oeasant category before it was In the other areas of the liberated countrysida« is indicated by surveys conducted by thft provincial party oomaittee, 82.5# of the peasants in six villages of the V&h-hsiarig provincial district of Kiangsi . Province, or Bbp of the total population of that area, wore awsabers of the middle peasant class; thev owned 89$ of the land, approximately all of the draught animals, and 82*. # of all the sheep.>+ In i'3 of the villages sarroyed In Cheh&r Province, 1,319 (over ?8;l) out of 1,688 households were in the middle peasant class,3J Of these, 600 became «embers of the middle peasant class after the agrarian reforms in their area«-?0 Over 90$ of the households in the villages surveyed in Hopeh Province in ■ 1950 wars middle peasant households, which controlled over yO£ of the draught animals and agricultural tools in the area and accounted for _ 90;l of the over-all' agricultural product ion. 37

\\m telak cliques, which appeared as a resitlt of the new class differentiations vithin the villages, served as an example of enrichment at the expense of others. The kulsks struggled against the ffiutual aid teams. They organised their own groups for "autual

- £1

assistance" which used farra laborers. Infiltrating the peasants* »ltu&l aid teams., the kulaks attempted to attribute an exploitative ' "< characteristic to those icutoal aid teams«,

With an. increase in the number of middle peasants in the village,'there was s. noticeable decrease in interest in. the uBitwal aid team movement, which was caused by the fact that agriculture was re- stored,'difficulties caused by a lack in the basic means of production were essentially overcome, and the middle peasant was now naturally , interested primarily in bis ov*n household«, ' :

Jen-rain Jih-pao reoorted that approximately 1,000 mutual aid teams ware surveyed in the Wuh-->hsing provincial district of Province» It vas observed that almost all these groups had s decreased level of' productive activity and many collapsed completely, "Produc- tion if3 improving with ©very year, but the ratter of * organization* deteriorates with every year," explained the peasants „3*-'

In describing the process of development of the mutual aid team movement in Hopeh Province, the newspaper Howsh.Jilv^iao pointed out that after the peasants acquired a bsicslly adequate nttasber of draught animals arid agricultural iwpleffients, in 19^9» 'mW Mutual aid teams decreased their activities and some of there disintegrated»39

It «as therefore necessary to convince the peasants that the Mutual aid teams» even after the elimination of primary production problems with their help, would continue to promote production &n& contribute to the creation of a higher standard cf living and that it was more advantageous to werk together rather than separately«

to • important landmark of the rratual aid team movement's productive activities vras a resolution of th-3 Central Committee of the Com- munist Party of China regarding isatual labor aid and producer's coop- ■ eratives,^

%e Central Committee'of the • Consminist Party of China coordin- ^ : ated the experience gained during this movement and outlined a course :

for its further develops en t. %e. Central Committee'also noted that unbridled development of the ssateal assistance progrsir, could lead to a "growth of capitalistic tendencies in agricultural producer's coop-

. erativea, to an increase of production difficulties among the needy peasants» and to »ore peasants selling their land," particularly "in areas where agricultural production has achieved a ooM)&r&iively high •level of development az& #tere. the taiddle peasants constitute a majority of the peasant population «^ The 'Central Cosuoittee pointed out the need for a wore active■leadership in the mass Koveaenta»

Demands to renew mutual assistance promotional programs could be heard from the peasants thetasslves. In the Itsa-cfcuR-t'iai village • of the former SiBsgkiasig Province> for example, a group of peasants who bad already acquired some suaterlal security were interested in expanding their fields by cultivating adjacent virgin land» Individ- ually, however, they were unable to accomplish this task and to acquire the nee.essa.ry additional agricultural equipment that would be necessary,

. end they therefore decided to purchase the equipment jointly * The

22

organisation for the acquisition of new agricultural lanpieasmts to expand agricultural areas is apparently something other than the earliest temporary team, which was established as a, measure of protection against possible attempts at intimidation by 'the kulaks. Ths new mutual aid organisation tshich could successfully solve the problems at hand were the permanent mutual aid terras.

r%© peraanent mutual aid teams evolved, as a rule» fro» the temporary aratual aid teams, but occasional^ individual peasants'* ; prompted by examples of the successful work accomplished by the watual aid teasis» organised spontaneous3.y into uiatual aid teams of a penman«; ent nature.

Permanent mutual aid teams were generally larger that the tern-»; porary variety, sad. they -united 10-1.2 or siore peasant households« A reasonably complex system of organization sprang up in the permanent : teams,, «hieh controlled an extensive pool of labor» This provided opportunities for the division of labor according to the Abilities of the Various m-sdbers of the team.

Members of the permanent tea&s perform different... .types-■ of work, and some' of them frequently work on other than agricultural projects on a temporary basis»

The peasants work together throughout the year in the perman- :

■ent mutual aid teams. They till one another's fields» weed oultiva- > ted areas and'harvest, as wall as-engage in trade activities» together.

The various production processes which require the participa- ;

tion of a great number of 'different physical abilities and experience; needs aclearly dsfined organization and a particularly precis© method' for computing labor requirements and expenditures by all members of the team. That, is «by ths systems for stich computations are developed far better ia the permanent teams than in the temporary mutual aid teaxas.

lii the temporary mutual aid teams,.where everyone'was engaged ; in basically the sasis work (today Chang 3m helped Li Ssu cultivate his,.field, and tomorrow Li Ssu together with Chang Ssa ploughed-the third member*s field), labor expenditures and requirements were oom-^; puted very simply: one day's work by Chang Sm on Li Salt's field * ■ equalled one day's work by.Li Ssu OB, Chang San's field, This was referred, to as' "an exchange of workdays" or an "exchange of labor," 8a day for a day," ,fa day equals a .day" ■:

Occasionally,, seasonal mutual aid. tstaass divided their workdays into several parts of unequal value for a. more detailed eosiputation of time used, such as the morning hours before the noon meal and the : afternoon hours.

These primitiv© -methods of labor accounting did not suit the :

easting conditions within the permanent Mutual aid teams, «here

23

considerably Kiors people were involved, Permanent tosrcs occasionally ■ utilised a systfö:? -where each nsnber of the group was placed into a certain labor category,, i.e..,. his work potential was estimated in terms of s. permanent end unalterable number of labor units, depending \ on his physical strength, experience, artd the type of work h@ could ■ perform.

In one of the Mutual aid teams of the Kir*g~i« provincial dis- ; trict of Faklen Province, "those, «ho could plough, harrow seedlings» and furrow a fieldare rated at 10 labor units; those who know ; only how to furrow, plant seedlings, and carry fertilizer in baskets : — 9 tmits; those who can merely furrow and nick rice ~» 8 units; and for those who merely car. furrow ~- 7 units „'*2

This method of computation was in widespread use in the old liberated areas» Kewbers of Liu Tu-hua's siutual aid team in the Cfe'a»g«4>'ing provincial district, of Eopeh Province who possessed the :

most skill receded 13 chlng of rice per day; the partially skilled workers received 5 ching of rice per day* Once established., the labor categories for each member of ths team rero.ain.ed unchanged throughout the work season ,-^'3 Such a■ method of computation was . adopted in the seasonal mutual aid tsass and„partially» in the per« raanent tea®s« ***

'hi 1952, the Fokiw Party Camaittee said that "This method is at the present time used partially by the permanent mutual aid teams and by some temporary mutual aid tetms, It may bo? recoiffirsondod for irf.despread use by the temporary mutual aid teams»»." **-'

This system of accounting for labor was conducive to a further strengthening of the temporary mutual aid teams and to their conversion into permanent teams; another systemt however, was better suited to the needs of the permanent Mutual aid teams: the computation of work units based on the evaluation of work accomplished. In this case,, the work of every aember was appraised in terms of a certain number of labor units depending ou the type of physical work involved and the worker's experience, For poor work the possible number of units was lessened and for esosrsplary work» they were increased» Chan- ges in the appraisals could bo made only after joint discussion»

The use of this method of computing labor factors allowed enough flexibility for the proper division of labor and the classifi- cation of the various worker's specialtiest which is a decisive, factor for a steady increase in the production output»

The technical complexity .involved in the use of this method for computing labor factors demanded, a very clear-cut organisation of the group, as well as a higher level of conscientiousness« Due to the profound influence of old established family traditions (parfcie- ularly In the central and southern parts of the country), all examlri- • ations and. occasionallyt the consequent roevaluations of work, were considered by the peasants involved as expressions of distrust and :

suspicion, BAt ths present time, aa a result of the economically underdeveloped state of ths village, it is not yet easy to pur into

2k -

effect a proner systesn of agricultural econmies» Very- frequently nserabers of a* team* er*coun'ter" considerable difficulties in sumtountixig close friendships and family ties..»In confuting labor factors and in conducting general labor accounting, the peasants are frequently reluctant to eosepara owe another1 s' work» even though, basically, they are often dissatisfied with the accounting results,«^ The necessary level of conscientiousness could only be gradually achieved, after a long period of participation in collective labor and extensive educa- tional conditioning.

This method of co.rriput.ing labor factors was utilized by comparatively stable, permanent" pxtual aid teams in the old as well as in the newly liberated areas»^

Permanent mutual aid teams, which were belog established in order to raise the agrotaehnical levels and farming techniques, assured the continuing growth of agricultural production. .

'^he temporary mutual aid team led by Chang Fu.-4.lng ( Chl*«-k©a«. Im provincial^district* former Smg-klang Province) consisted of six households which consolidated in 19^8 for the purpose of using their draught anisnals in comiaon. I» 1950. the tea» .began to extend its-mutual aid activities over the three agricultural seasons (spring, summer .and autumn), and by 1951 it expanded to 12 households and began to combine its labor in field work and. in cooperative trade activities,

v^he following' data indicates the rate of Increase in bean harvests from fields belonging to cambers of the 'team during'various stages of its growth and development:

u*. i^*J*dL **JL<4*2* i.*&w^w

Average yield per BJOU*' in ching 1?0 2.60 5»o

Percent compared, with 19H-9 __ 100 153 32*

Table I

The increased crop yields from the fields belonging to Members of Chang Fa-llng*s team exceeded the production level achieved by the individual famers. The average yield of bean's per raou for this village was 319 ching, the yield per mou fror,;, the fields belonging to members of the team was 568 ching (?8,l more); the best possible harvest for an individual household was 350 ching per mou» whereas 648.^

■■ ching per mou was normal for members of the team (85$ mo re), 5-0 'This large difference was explained by the fact that the team

members seeded their fields five days before the local individual farmers, with high grade seed (most of which was loaned by the provincial 'district's agricultural department), on well cultivated fields, .Good care for the fields was assured throughout the summer by a number' of special women*s brigades, which weeded the fields, etc*, twice as .' frequently as the fields belonging to individual farmers were weeded»51

The newspaper jM§*bföBß^y&2äät 21 December 1953« published . an extensive collection*of correspondence from the provincial district

-■»5

of üa»~h@ fc Kiaagsu . Province, which corqvtrcd tfc« agricultural 'results achieved, by tvo saitual aid teass over a period o.f .eer-s with the results attained by two ws&lthys individual farmers« Farmer Teh Tsuan»sheng had 2,3 mou of land, a windraill and a full assortment of agricultural iurpleaents * Ha had alvrayrs 'been considered one o.f th© most experienced and best fanners by all the villagers» His social position was that of a. wealthy middle peasant» ' How much higher the crop yield 'was from the fields belonging to members of the mutual aid team than fro?', the fields of Ysh Tsuan- ;

sheng way be ' seen, from the following table;

to Team Members and an Individual. Fanner*

(Ghing per Mou) «~«»»~~«~«. -a™™-»™»«.«»™. urxnB nx'niäo&tjmi n*in.m 'joviB&!0*&\ezciXLnitmfmto*a.mi&*K<i**^''*";' J .^..^ _,»».», «,««.»«-.«.„ «*~-v«-.«»*—»

Crop Team Ma? Aver»

t „JTnd Ivicjteal .jferasr Avar-

,„..«™-»»- K JÄ2L-2ffi«- 2^2_«ü£_ 1952 „,,ÄIiL~™

Cotton 60 85 120 83 65 80 65

Rice ■320 *?50- WK> 403 350 >4C0 380 377

■Wheat 120 200

Table £ , ±£° 150 200 150

* SMä^§M,.iMx£ä£,* 23- December 1953

Middle peasant Hsu Chia-ts fuan loft the Mutual aid team after becoming dissatisfied with the net-ly introduced method, of early planting of cotton» The differing results yielded by the fields belonging to team members and to individual faster Hsu Chis-ts'yan isay bs seen Six the following figures (in ehing »sr KSXAI of l&nd)?->i"

Tea?;. Merfoers Individual Farmer

Cotton {abort-staple) ■ 100 70

Cotton (lesag-staple) 130 110

Rio© MtO 390

Table 3

The production indices of the perraariont ESitual aid teams were ' considerably high« than those of the temporary t©aras. This is vrhat . convinced the peasants of the advantages of the permanent typa of

. tesK over thetemporary 'variety«

■ The advantages of joint labor and the. consolidation of agricultural. IwpiantÄnts for the execution of field work assured the development of the watual aid möveaent In the villages on a broad scale,

According to data published by the Ministry of Afrlcmltar© o.f the Chinese People's Republic, it appears that in 19.fl, 55? of all peasant households in the northern part of China participated In mutual aid teams; 70$ of all the households in northeaster© China were pombers of sen» type of mutual assistance 'organisation. In eastern 'China, there were 700,000 Mutual aid teams in existence, and 167*000 in northwestern China« In 11 provincial districts of Hcnan Province there ware 11^,000 teams, «Md^consolidated kö~?M of the peasant population of these districts»53

■ There was an estimated total of ^.3 million mutual aid teams : in China by 1951, containing ?M of the total peasant population of . the country.5* By the end of 1952» the country had 8»3 adllion mutual •aid teams. These consolidated 65$ of the peasant households of tha old liberated areas'and 25$ of the households in the newly liberated ;

areas, \ On the vhole, ^2$ of all Chinese households participated in :

the aarfeial aid team movement by 1952»5j *&f> W. 1953»--10. and 58$ by 195^-5/ The capable leadership and guidance of the-village 'Comimmlsta,;

the growth in production of the permanent mutual aid teams, and an' increase to the farmers* individual incomes led not only to increase

' the number' of peasant'households participating in the «atual aid tefims, . but to a narked increase-in the numbs? of permanent "Mutual aid teams.; Even though as late as 1951 the temporary mutual aid teas was the principal form of labor organization to China, the Kiddie of 1952 was the turning point, as evidenced by the fact that on the one hand the nx>m~, ber of pem&hent 'mutual aid teams increased at a greater rate than ...... the isHporary teams, and on the other,'"that the number of agricultural producer's cooperatives could be counted' in the thousands instead of dozens and hundreds äs before* , "■■ ■

In pointing out this change, the Ministry of Agriculture noted in 1952 that."...There-has definitely been" an improvement;in the organization of the mutual aid teams as well« The past year has taught our leading workers' of all categories such, and they spent their spar© time between the spring and suasasr sowing in readjusting the lasitüäl e ; aid tosaas, in the-solution of problems.pertaining to rentiers of leadership within these teams, problems of a balanced labor exchange,-fee" ;'■ matter of rauteal advantages for the cooperating households and produc«. 'tion planning having a direct bearing.on the further strengthening of the teams,

MAs a result of this the roatnal aid teams in'many areas not ■ only did not disintegrate during the summer field operations» but a .

: certain increase in their average siae was noted«. If, in 1951» only lGjo of all mutual aid ■teams.were organised on a permanent basis,'then by

■the current year [1952] their number has increased, to ^f>» The in- • crease in the number'of permanent teams and the decrease in the t&m-

«* 27

perary teams is the basic chrtracteri&tic of fea rtv.tusl aid movement ■ for this year,"5'8 ' . •

The more complex and- perfect the organisation of the mutual .] aid team becomes, the better are their chances of raising the pro-due-1 . tivity of labor. Sin?© in even the simplest» temporary variety of < these teams (for instance, the detachments forced during■natural dis-; asters — pla«4&u&<-tai ) labor efforts are consolidated only under ' jerbreme conditions and on a temporary basis, and in the seasonal mi- ; tual aid teams the peasants work "together only frote tbse to time and' ■■ only on largo projects, the permanent teas should then certainly ; achieve a far wore complete, consolidation of labor. The ■peasnats worip jointly throughout the" year and not only at the- basic field projects, ■ but also at certain allied trades. Within the temporary mutual aid teams the division of labor is merely outlined, but in'the permanent--i typ© team this matte!* receives a considerably »ore detailed and thor-; ough treatment.

There is an appearance of coiwoon ownership of property in the peraaent-type rautual aid teamss»

Common property originates within a. team from irregular, com- :. »on contributions, or with the overhaul of equipment belonging to various households at common expense, which equipment then remains avails- able for eoimnon use; or the use of small portions of the caramon earn- ; ings from outside trade activities for helping the needy members of the team (with slight interest charged orv often,, with no interest at all),''or use of the outside earnings for the acquisition of addi- : tional equipment». Finally, occasionally a sisall herd of animals is acquired in comruon» or new agricultural Implements (usually with the • help of a consumer supply and credit cooperative, or with, funds borrowed from the government), or virgin lands are cultivated jointly 'and then become coirenon property (as in the case of Chiang Tsai- j ch'iu*s tea« in Kwsjagsi Provirice).59'. there is a higher degree of social consciousness among the team mewbers as a result of their joint labor, ;

All this, then, is the process of development of the social- ; ist elements within the mutual aid teaws» At the same tiiae the need ; for a. change froiri the Mutual aid progr&ra to the agricultural produc- . er's cooperatives was evident,, »s individual farming on dispersed shreds of land becomes an obstacle in the way to increasing crop yields and peasants' incomes.

"the joint utilization of improved and new agricultural tools, j the division of labor and further specialisation» and in certain caseä, collective reconstruction of the irrigation systems and the cultivation, of wastelands, all brought about the necessity for a method of • coiribined use of the available lands,11 pointed out the resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in 19,51 *^0

In the mutual labor aid teams, individual farms were- managed with the help of cowman labor. This brought about a conflict between joint labor of the team and private ownership of the means of produc-;

- 28 -

__ _ ■:, of the land- by the team iserfibers, In the tern» porarv Hutual aid teams,' where the consolidation of labcr is still incomplete, "Bus conflict is not -axprossed in sufficiently strong terns. Withiß thW persianent-typ© tsam the' consolidation of labor is relativ» ely complete» and the contradiction between the oofflrnort natoe of the l&bor and the privat© ownership of the mesiiö of production begins to act as a'deterrent for the fuirfche:? development of production and slows down the creation of ooim);on property*'

Th© most- eharaet©ristie manifestations of this conflict are the constant disagreements among raanhcsrs of the teas as to the periods

■allotecl for cultivation of their mn plots* Saving' Halted facilities the group is often unable to service all plots of tho individual members at the best possible agrotechnical r.?.o:aerit«

This situation is' most aptly illustrated by 'Hi© circwastance3 which occüred in the team led by Hsin Tse-hsui, of the Hs©ia • village, which ie located in the et-sthsm district,, Emm Proviso**

■ - This team was organised ia 1950« 3$r 1931 it contained--13 households. ■ ftEvsn bj 1951» hcwdver, there appeared difficulties com- men tö 'the KEtfeialt aid team* The draught animal oimers, without any consideration'for the other members of the team, used their animals to plough their own land first» As.the time for furrowing and'plough» ing approached, each measher'insisted that his plot of land should receivi first prefami«©» During the harvest ripening season (during .suisaer and a?rtem)s every household endeavored to delay'the'harvesting on its owi plot in..order tc 1st the crops ripen.' fully, -But after the crops reaehechBisximum ripeaess, everjr member wasted to' harvest his owri field first» being afraid of Kinds a»d. rains «X53«

The'type of organisation that is able to/sdl-m these conflicts of interest-between cdtraaon labor and the individual aaiiageisent of the [individual'] households is the agricultural ^producer's cooperative, wiich is organised on -land that regains the private property of the participating farmers»" Exactly bsoaase the'agricultural producer's cooperative without basically affecting ths concept öf private owner-,

-.ship of land by the peasants' theaseives, allowed a conversion to tho collective system of farming* .its significant role in. th© gradual conversion to producer13~cooperatives in its village was determined ttfhere appears a possibility of 'eliminating certain discrepancies with the institution of the agricultural prolacer8» cooperatives, which «re difficult t© elimln&te Irs the mutual ai«t teams, .in .particular the conflict 'between e@lleetiva lab®r and the ■'iMivii.-u.al c©ntr©l ©f farad&g, thereby creating ifi©¥e» ffient ,f®r a wide seal*''establishment #f Bratu&l aii teaiss mi agricultural pr#ittcerg* cooperatives^. wMch*have already &eM.eved a certain «tegree @f immlm^mtit^0^

Thö.-imituel a.M teams,which were ' d®v©l#p«si uad«r the direct ion of the CmmmiiBt Party ©f China,' -out ©f .the- ©Id, traditional f@rm ©f mutual aid asiehg this peas-. silts« were ©rganiKations of ihdivieiual households

or»

for joint, labor and joi/:.t ui?e of agricultural implements , for certain important» agricultural projects*

The consolidation of the labor forces and agricultural implements within the mutual aid. teams led to a certain increase in the productivity of labor. This permitted the team members to surmount the difficulties associated with a lack of the necessary equipment in the individual households, and also to achieve an in~ crease in the agricultural production {particularly within the permanent mutual aid teasss«)

In other words, participation in a mutual aid team permitted a fuller utilisation of the Halted opportunities for the growth of labor productivity which exists in the individual households of the Chinese peasants0

The consolidation of the peasants into teams would protect them from exploitation by the kulaks, and to a certain degree, prevent any great social differentiations "from arising in the villages»

Joint labor demonstrated the advantages of collective labor« Collective property was gradually beginning to appear in the ieaass.

All the above.character!sitics of the mutual aid teams acted ©a an introduction to the eventual consolidation of the peasants into producers* cooperatives and also allowed the Communist Party and the People's Govern- ment to utilize them as the first step towards that goal.

1, 1st or lya. ehonw^cdie^^^ Tfhe"History of Economic .Development in China, 1840- 104-0), Moscow, 195S, ■ page 245.

2. Figures contained in the book by Ku Mo, ^onoraicjjrob- lems of_thRjChiporte Jillage, Shanghai» 1933, published. ih~Chinese, These figures indicate that; there were approximately two million head in Shantung Province., ihe table contained in Wan,i Yu~iinTs book cites a figure of 4.7 million head; sec Wang Xu«lin, StatlsU^aJ/^Kcpnom-• i£-iüi£I£Z> Peiping, 1.935, published, in Chinese.

3, Ku Mo, ibid., pa,g,e 99.

4,' "Gh'iung pans ch'iung" -- «The poor help the poor" — was the peasants' apt definition of mutual aid»

5. Ping tui ping, chiang tui chiang; (see: Jga^LnjIih- pao, 9 October 1950»

6« Jlsin-hua^Ji^h^pao, 1955, No 52, page 161.

-30«

7„ The liberated areas existed throughout the countryf .from north China' to the island of Hainan, By 1945 the total liberated area equalled approximately- 950?000 square kilometres» The'population.of the'liberated areas, during the course of the Anti-Japanese 'War, was from BO to 90-95 million persons (1944 — Ö6 million

' persons). Conditions "'la the Liberated Areas:i During, the Any.â^j«^se"*^r7"* '&JSg&i^ SiSSsse^Hiki^Z» PeipTng7~19£3H[in cTiineseTT "~"

Ö» .Mao Tse-tung, "Develop the movement for'lower'rental payments, for the development of production arid the support of authorities, and a feeling of concern for the population." Selected Works, Moscow, 1953, Vol 4* P «iil-O ft !'....''

9« See Cj)ildltiogj»; jii the Liberated^ 'Areas during jthe ~-zz* pp 107-108» ' "" "~ """" —— " ~ —" -- *~ * ;

10. Mao, Tse-tujig,nOreanisuytes!'l iKbrannyye Proizvedeniya, Vol'"4j P 2oS, ■■■■■■

11* See Öil^#JrJ[§^^ 9 March 1952*

12«, Conditions „in the^Liberated Areas duringr..^§L£ZT"J p 10?» ' ~ . *'""* ---.-— - - - -

X^s ft X ÖXCL«

14« Mao Tse-tungj, tfStudy Agricultural Labor*, Izbrajmjrxg.' Froi^vedgniyäjj, Vol. 4, p 436* - ■ —

15. Mil^äSDLMMX .{People's China) s Peiping, 1952, No 191 ■ p 2a*

2.6» Chuns-kuo Sums-pao, Peiping, 1954* No'19, P 32* ■i

17. SJÄBSrSM-^tetEao, 1952» No 23» p 450»

Iß, See "Decree, by the Central'Committee'of the KPK on Mutual Aid Teams and Agricultural Producers* Cooperat« ives", ^rarnvê^rôbrag4ovanjrya v aarodnora Kitaye, P 343, ' " ~r ' — — — ~_

19. ibid« j p 344*

20» 5^^M."i2i^JBSIS:iBS£» 1952, If6 &t p 15»

■31--.

■21. The Movement/or JfaâJLA&Ü^ ;

i . ^âêT^^^r^V?^/punished in Chinese. . :22., Ch,ar3Ä-ehianguJibr£ao, 29 April 1952.

\23. See "Decree by the Central Committee of the KPK M, ; I Affrarnyye preobraaovaniye^^Karjgd.noffijy.taj^, op, cit#, I p 344»

■24. See «The Report of tha Provincial Coramittee cf the Pro- ; vlncial District of Yung-fu", ChJ&r^chi&n^Jih^s&o, .

26 April 1952.

25. It is obvious that no one would have dared assume this obligation, which is contrary to the old accepted cus- toms, without the collective. ,

26. The authors have in mind ths area from which 800 tou of tobacco can be harvested«

'2?. The work of assisting the poverty stricken consisted, 1 for example, in the cultivation of land for families

who lost/ their men in the revolutionary war or as sol- diers in Korea., collection of relief funds, etc.

' 20. Chung-ku© Jih-pao, 1953, Ho 24, p 20.

29* ibid. "

•30. ibid.

31. MlarlSîlk^XläS t Chfung«ch*ing, 20 March 1953. ;

32. Chunfi-:kuoi Jih-pao, 1952, No 8, p 15* ■

33» Cy£g=cywQ&ojfc:Päfi* i-953, Wo 6, p 15. !

34* iSIfcÄLjükißäS.» helping, 9 October 1950.

35« ChâjLJihâo, 3 August 1950.

36,. ibid.

37. ChunÄ-kuoJjung-Mo» Vol 2, folio 4, 25 January 1951.

30« ilSl^dJQuJiÊä0.» 9 October 1950.

39« "A Survey of Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives in

-32«

the Ta~Kti.ftE Provincial District», from Materlal_oiw^~ ricnltural "Producers ?_ Oog^rîj^ßmJm:±r}£^thîJô^tr

ESctioOiiSfi025ä=i2]52» Peiping, 1957, Vol 1, pub- iisheXTn Chinese«,

40. "Decree by the Central Committee of the KPK —«'% MF9£M2$ Jirgobrazovaniya^j^:-, op, cit., pp 342-360. This resolution" was"being put into effect beginning with the last part of 1951* and was officially publish-

• ed on 16 February 1953» -

41. ibid», pp 350-351.

42. Handbook, for^he_Jgi^cultural MrAusi^d^^lgades, Pel.« ping, 1952, pp~31-32, "published in Chinese-,

43. -Handbook onJJrqbJeins_ofjûal Aid^äj^d^Coojägr^tl^n^n thVlSIliiÄj Paoting, 1952, published in Chinese.

44. -Hsl£rfeMJiil=Päa» Ch'ung-chUng, 20 December 1952»

45 • Hsmdôpj^jToi^ °P« cit* fir^teT""

46* ibid«,, p 30*

47.' See Hsin~h.ua JI.h~.pao, 2.0 December 1952; NäS&rüäß-Jäii- 3^,~9"September 1953; H§ndjbôJk^ MSLJI^L..» PP 23-25«,

40* £Ê§^l^jc^JJiJHÄJpX9^ Shen-yang, 1952, pp 65- 6^7" publTshed. in Chinese.

49. In the Northeast one raou equals 0*1 hectare»

50„ ^^S^JMlP^^MMÎ^-^Ji^Mäj °P* cit »i P 66.

51. ibid., pp 67-70.

52* See Chieh-fane; Jlh-oao, 21 December 1953.

53» SeLectedMlrtl^.^ Peiping, 1953, published*in Chinese. . .

54« ii§3jizhuaj[u^bjâ£, 1954, No 2, p 161.

55. Liu Shao-ch1!, op. cit.f "Political Report of the Cent- ral CoKiniittee — -"., p.14. .". ■

■ »33- - ■

56. Hsin^hua.Yueh^jjao, 1954, No 2, p .101.

57» Liu Shao-ch*i, op* cit., "Political Report of the Cent- ra]. Committee ", p 14«

5&* Jen-min Jlh-pap,; 31 August 1952.

59* Hari4M°l:^2£j^ op#

cTItt, p 10,

60« Ajgrarnvye_.preobragpyaniya v narodnpra Kit axe i op. cit., p 345»

61. See Ch'ang-chianK Jih-pao, 17 April 195?-«

p J55.

-34-

CHAPTER II

BASIG LEVELJ^RICULTURAL PRODUClli* S" CÖQPlHlf1¥&S"

l£t^MM^^^^Mi§^,SMJ2§^M£Mä

.,,. Agricultural producer's cooperatives first appeared its the liberated areas* In 1951 there were 300,^ toward the end of 1952 — 3,663, and 1A 1953 — 14*900, uniting 2?5i000 peasant households,*

Tiie mass 'development' of labor exchange, and supply.- and marketing cooperatives, as well as fiaimclai and organisational measures take»/by the peopled govern« mentj, prepared, the basis fpr transition from Mutual Aid Teams to a higher form of peasant organization — the basic level agricultural producer's cooperative. At the same titoe, the beginning of a fast systematic

■economic structure in 1953 exacted a significant increase in agricultural marketability* Under these conditions the Central Committee öf the Communist Party ' of China issued the "Decree on- Agricultural Producer*s Cooperatives" on 16 December .1953» in which the meaning of rural production was emphasised, and In which the methods and forms of managing the cooperative snoveraent were set forth*

In organising the mass increase in .cooperatives, the party assigned new Qomtsimist manpower to rural areas for purposes of propaganda and explaining the general * line of the Communist Party of China» Widespread political work was'conducted among local leading workersj .and the staffs for'cooperatives were trained« .:

0a'the eve of the spring field work ia 1954 there were 100,000 agricultural producer*s cooperatives in.the' country» After the |uasner harvest of 1954 their iiumfoer had grown to 220,000-* and, according to the data for February 1955s there wers'about 600JG0Ö cooperatives ia the country« The agricultural producer10 cooperatives- «sited 15 millioa farmsf or 13$ of the country*s peasant farmsteads« F'urthtraors.». .in the fortter...liberated... areas...;

-35- •

\ of northeast and northern China; more than- 30$ of the peas«! \ aat households were included in thesu^ IB the ' '| ; smrner of 1955 there were already 650sOOO cooperatives, j \ in which were located 15$ of the peasant farms** j | These were basic level cooperatives, which ware j ! usually formed as a result of the incorporation of the ! I land holdings of peasants, members of on® or several ! 1 mutual aid teams,' However, such cases (before the mass ;. ! | increase in producer cooperatives in the fall of 1955) ' i i wer© ■rare* A« the newspaper,; JenHEin <&)^j&o9 announced, j | from 80-90$ of all cooperatives" Were foraad'mi the basis _ ; j of the mutual aid team.*3 ' | The land which the peasants turned over to the co- ! \ operative upon ■joining was considered to be their land I j share* In order to determine the siae of the land share, 1 \ aa ©valuation, of the plots depending on their quality ! and location was made beforehand« Äs a basis the conven- I • tion&l or tax mou was adopted«' I According tö the cod« of regulations of the agric- i cultural producer's cooperative®, each member of the co« j operative had the right to retain a plot of land for the

] purpose of raising fruit and vegetables for the us© of ! his' own family« However, the si&e of the plot could \ not exceed five per cent of the average amount of land ■ acquired by each resident of the village»0 ;

The methods of incorporation, of livestock and heavy 'j jagricultural'equipment into the cooperatives were extremely ; varied» but they all had as their-basis the same two ! ; principles: the incorporation of the »eons of production ; ! into full ownership or lease to the cooperative» 1 In the beginning stagest the system of leasing pro- . : vailed«.' fitere were two types of leases* In the first ; • instance the leased livestock remained in th® owner*s | keeping« On the decision of the Sixth Plenum of the Cen- ; tral Committee of the Coajmunifet Party of Chi&& it was ■; recommended that livestock be leased or rented for the first couple of years (while still economically weak) of the cooperative*3 existence. The keeping of the live- \ stock, according to this decision, was to be left In the hands öf the owners,* "This method,* as was noted in the ;

■ regulations, »was usually adopted for the beginning per» : iod of the organisation of the cooperativet*I0 since It ; ; solved the problem of security of cooperative economy by. ■; ! means of production, and at the same time fit the economic1

: means of the newly organised cooperative« This explains ! : its wi.despread use*

In the second instance rented work animals were kept; : by the cooperative* j

Heavy agricultural equipment and ises&s of trans« port&tioa (ploughss 'P«Kapss carts*' boats) were also leased by the cooperative« ..'■:• .■■•..

Sonatinas the coat of the Means of production $#aa added .to the value of the iaöci share of their owners' and • ■ increased its value'* For examples in the Tanaing District of Bopeh ProYinc«, whea well& which were ..on the land or irrigation equipment were incorporated into the cooperative,; the'plot, of land was considered irrigable' an'd^ «on* • sequentlyj increased the ralue of the land"share. 6n the other hand, if ■irrigation equipment and cos struct! ons' were given separately, a separate lease payment was made-

■in the j&etbod used by the cooperative, and'the land was considered arid«-". It is-understandable that-in the latter case the value of the land share was less* .

The strengthened cooperative' gradually accomplished the. buying back of livestock, fron the burners* The' period of realising the livestock was set at fares years,- with-' a maximum of five . y^ars.*?- fhe buying back-of. heavy ■ , farming equipment was carried out on the same' basis*^3 *.•■•

.Tools and equipment for subsidiary production, which by its nature was ..convenieBt to -conduct collectiv- ely'iß- the cooperative»14 had to ba given'over by the peasants to the cooperative or put up .for least. or re- purchase by the cooperative» The Gomunist Party ccmsid« ' ©red the-middle peasant tohaT© more equipment'for prbduc«- tioa th&n the poor peasant, and therefore;*" tc> be relustaat to enter into a cooperative with.poor peasants» In order to make it. easier for. the middle peasant to enter a eo-.-.'. operative, it was --decidsd to take? peasants into' a cooper-» ■ fitive" or» equal terns* - With this -in view it was established that each peasant farmstead must Contribute to the -collective fund a. share the sis© of which was usually- deter- mined, by the number of abl.«-bodi®d workers* The share ■ ■'-.- could be given in- the? foria of as* assessment on laacij, agricultural implements {for which an evaluation was made}, and also in cash® The Middle peasants usually had more means of production than th©y gaire to the' cooperative as their share* This surplus was bought up by the' coopera» .- tife according t© the average market price and the money for these purchases was talces from the SHE which the poorer peasants hail tö contribute as their share* Inso- far as the poorer peasants seldom had raöK&y, the statt . ■ made loans'to-them at reduced rates«

nl£ the poorer peasants do not h&v® the means of ' ' paying the aecessarj share far entry into a cooperative, ■ they may obtain & loan from tW stat©»rt it was decreed in the decision of the' Sixth Fleayii pi*, the Central ■

- -3?~

Committee ©£ the Goa^unlst Party of Chi5>su1-> _! In 19565, 4-0 salllion poor households, or mor& than I

i 30$ of all farmstead^reeeived these- loans, for & total ; 'of 600 million yiaa»«AO If the poor peasant could not ; pay his share in füll even after receiving the lo&ns the ; cooperative had the:right to defer payment of his debt ; ; or to decrease it» ■' j !; The .Communist Party fought against infringing on ■ the later©ats- of the middle peasantsf i»e*, against ; devaluation-'of livestock being bought up,*/ agricultural • \ implements, and fruit crops, and against excessive ex« '. tention of periods of payment for them, etc* ''

Thus, the party endeavored not to violate the in- • . teresta of the middle peasants and to strengthen the <

! 'bond between the-poor and the middle peasant80 The ; i Central Committee of the Communist Party of China also , condemned the occasional collectivisation of Individual : fruit trees and of eertain domestic animals which, in : accordance with the regulations of the cooperative. ; should have bean left in the peasants' possession»«*

The state treated differently the kulaks and foraer :

; landowners v?hoee asans of production were not bought up, i , ; On taking these indiv.idwa.ls into the cooperative» the

■■ means of production which they retained after payment of their share went Into supplementing the Indivisible fund : and the general welfare fund« ;

Such an approach to the kulaks* oroperty, as Liao ß : Lu-ye>iif Minister of Agriculture of the" Chines® People * 8 ""• :

: Republic« remarked, ia explained by the fact that "the ! ; Chinese kulak class is semi-fudal in character and in ; the past was very closely related to the landowners,8*^ ; The share of each 'cooperative mesaber was registered in ;

: his name' and was returned in the event he left the cooperative . I

Small agricultural implements (sickles., hoes, shovels, etc») remained* as before, ia the hands of the cooperative members and were not collectivized«

In. addition to the shares, the cooperative members could sake deposits in cash or raw materials which would ■; be returned in the agreed period of time. For cash-deposits the producer*a cooperatives paid the same rate of ;

■ interest as borrowers paid on loans frost the cooperative« ■ Such type of individual investments were beneficial both ] for the cooperative, since they strengthened the material«- technical basis of the economy, as well as for individual ■ ; members*

The cooperatives were governed by a board, which ■ was chosen, in general assembly*- The hoard, usually ..con« _ ;

. »3Ö-.

sisteö ©f a chairiüäas deputy chaimaa, asd repräsentatives far tha various--areas af work* X» th© larger cooperatives th#r«. wer©- b&okk®<apsr® on the board who were alsa*respoa«. si bit for keeping labor feccrds." The board was elected -siismlly &ad. was accosmt&ble' -to the general assembly,» The maaagemsat of cooperatives wa& based ©h the prlaoip« ■. les of democratic; c@atraliaKs# la sssalier oooperati¥®s the chainaaii and memb^ri ©I* the' board .usually participated directly la the■work of tfea cooperativ®, but la paymsafc for their work'the tiim sp@nt is &6MM.strative duties was tak#s lato aeoomit*-' la the larger cooperatives "the ©fa&lrsu&a had EO other duties and he'wa» paid for his work according to■th® set workday aoysu According to the r@g- ul&tloas, til® usual salary of a cooperative chainaaa should be mmmhs.t: higher th&n that of the »embers öf

Distribution .of. Profits . i,

Profits'received by the e@op®rati¥sl after the de* .auction of taxes and other p&ysa@i3tt& to the goTOrasiest* warn divided lato, three parts* Ons part was used for -th© coRtiiiued operation of. ths farm, another f#r the pe.ym©st of-shares, and the third for labor* Tino else of deposits made ■ yearly to the- general fund from th® first -part" of the profits usually fXuet-aatsd betw&s» on© and fiw par east of'the grojia profits, but was -occasionally iarg®r*21

■'.. Acaor'dtag t© the regulations (artixlf. 64}, depos«* its to the ga?inrs,.l fasd isa the initial stag© of the co« • op@r&ilY@*s activity »ist not exceed fiv€i-p@r c©otyfe»t later, with growth is productiont Zlmy »iM b«s increased to tea per■ sent of the' coop®.rati*v®*s gross profits*32-

is was established'i«'the decree adopted, in 1953 by the Central Goi»»itte@ of th® Chiaes© So«iiai®t 'Party on the devjslojwaeat of agricultural producer's- eoopt-rati« , vest, -cooperative members had the night to withdraw a»'.' approprlat'e $&rt. of - tha ■general fuad .00 leaving the coop®r&tiw»-A3 With the"dewlopisemt of the producer's' cooperative and the strengthening of cooperatives, r@s©l«» utions w«'r@ nadt. os naaj of' ti|® ItadiEg farass to »k@ the geaeral fund indivisible«^

TIM indivisible fund coaslsted ©f two parts* Its basic part «- the collective aecttismilatiois fw*d -» -was' na4@ up of froa five to tea par ©sat of ths annual deduc»- tio'fts from th® gross, profits &»d wa® reserved for. the needs, of the growing collective ■ farm* The remaining'

part «•«-■ the welf&re ixmd -»• wasi made up or iroa one *>o three per-cent of the annual deductions, sad was reserved . for the aid of naody cooperative members?«, The n«&n» for : cultural and eduo.at5.onal needs also cane from this £\m&*

This situation was streag&heaed later ia the decision of the Sixth .Plaaua of the Central Conauittee of the Communist Party of China, on the question of cooperatives in- agriculture, adopted 11 October 1955» aüd included in the regulations of agricultural producer cooperatives«

The cooperative »sabers' profits were divided according to labor and land share*

Two methods of payment of land shares were used* In one* the profit to b« paid off was.determined according to land axid laborj in the uecond, the fixed aatount of profit was determined by land share.

la'the beginning, the most widespread method was that of proportional päytueat» which was more suitable to the level of awareness of the peasant» who had recently entered the cooperative*. Article 20 of the regulations fitstes that in the .beginning period of a cooperative* s existence, especially in those places where crops are- unstable, the aethod of proportional distribution or eoae other transitional method «ay be used teapor&rily«*-?

In speaking, of the distribution of profits according to land, and labor one should keep in mind the important fact that, as a rule, only profits »ado from cultiva- : ting the land were distributed in- this manner» Profits received from extraneous, enterprises» in the main! were paid out entirely according to labor (after deduction of interest or other foras of dividends from owsaerB of means used for the development of extraneous enterprises ia the initial stagei of the .cooperative's existence)» Therefore, the part of the profits divided according to labor was in fact higher than was established by proportion» For example, is the cooperative of the village of Ch* vusm-Ti the relefcioa of profit» according to labor and ■ land wa»..jsix to four; in 1951, 62„5& of the profits was paid according to labor, and 29*5^ According to lanft (eight p®r cent was deposited in the general fuadj.^o

In those cooperatives already on a more stable basis» the method of a flat fee V^& for **»d wae "J08* : often adopted« The decisioa of the Sixth Planum of the ■ Communist Party of China, the Ssvecth Convocation, stated .that this method helps more to promote the r&ieiug of _ ^ - enthusiasm for labor asong the raemb«ra of the cooperative*' As early as .1955 the method of flat fee paid for the laud share was in'use by the »ajority o£ agricultural coopera« ■

. The älse of .the'flat fae decreased' in the event of short crops or .natural disasters (even to the point of no payment at all for the land)«*9 Thus, this method .guaranteed ttiäiaum payadtifc for labor*, If the crop bar- vest&d by the cooperative exceeded th®'@xpieted amouat^. the "excess" was divided-according .to l&oft ahd labor in a set proportion &n&, &&"'& rule, the balance was in the favor of labor (the so-sailed premium syst«a of payment of labor)»

For example*-in »©Teral cooperatives of the Ta-oizig District of Hopeh Provine« the set crop squalled 300 chin per now* The first 50 chin above the j00 wer© divided ia the proportion of eight to' two* Anythingabove 400 chin was'divided entirely according to labor «>0 ■.

With'the strengthening of cooperative -economy the amou&t of collect!v« production which want for the pay» messt of land decreased in size," and the aatount divided for the payment of labor increased« The steady increase of the -aaount of profits which were divided according to labor was a law of development of agricultural- producer cooperatives since,, ia this way, the steady increase :©f 'socialist elements in the cooperatives was guaranteed* 'This.-.prepared for the transition to the socialist'form ■

Iß 1953-1955, the most typical distribution propor» .tiea for basic Iff el' agricultural producer's 'cooperative» was six to four ia favor of labor and, less usual» five tö five*

la comparison with autual aid teastfi-, ths larger farss» such 'as the basic level agricultural cooperative»,- • required .«ore complex as wall as precise forms of labor • organisation,* '

EftBlsatioa and Accouptiaa £fMME „ , r.„ _ .. _, )j* it _^_

Tbor» were several methods of organisation and '.aecdu&fci&g of labor In the agricultural producer*« coöp- . er&tivesu .

for Gertttin Jobs« This for» of organisation was adopted fey the■peasant« naturally ana easily sine« the ittrg* < smtnal aid'teams frequently broke up into production brigades* Tine temporary production brigade is character» ■ istic of the first period of & cooperative's developaftnt when it included just a £cw farms and when -it was necess* 'ary to saaage with a comparatively small amber of .workers«

—4'x—

There-w&s just ft'uch as organisation? Tor- ®xsmrxL® , in the : cooperative in the village of HsAn-Chuang »ear Paipias» ■ I tihich consisted of 23 -farm«* All the peae&nts there : joined together In two brigades « one engaging iß : I agriculture» and the other in subsidiary industry* During* j periods of heavy work in the fields both brigades worked 1 there, but special plots of ground were not assigned to i them« ■• Two-week plans were initiated in the cooperative« •, : '{ The members responsible for production divided the, work i sooag the brigades in accordance with these plans«32 ; The temporary brigades, formed for the completion of ;

i separate 'tasks were a transitional for» of the better, ; seasonal brigade. .i '< %» OrsaniaatioQ of the Seasonal Production Brig» : • &$&&> lEl ^he given -inat&ac« the personnel of the brigade ' I And its leader did not change during the course of the ;

■ eeason* The brigades were usually chosen with a view to : the physical c&pabilltlss and experience of the workers» , This form of 'organisation increased the responsibility of • • the brigade «enbers.wno' already constituted a relatively ; stable cooperative» This fern of organissatioa also fev» , ©red the introduction of work planning. ; In 1953» producer brigades were organised *«cordlag:

. to this principle ia one of the foremost producer cooper- ; I stives, headed by the Hare of Labor Li Shun~T«.t

nTh& \ systssi of rsi&foreiag certain land sections for the »easo»: i with individual brigades was introduced in the cooperative» ' Depending on the peculiarities of the soil and location of the plot, the expenditure of labor for working the \ plot was determined, keeping- in sind its average crop yield .over a period of several years. At this point the !"

: production tasks wer® also assigned,^33 Erom 19^-54 the seasonal brigade was the predominant fbro of producer'organ.- iaations.3* 3». ltj.e.^erföaj;i5m/^_Prc^duction Brigade. A determined amount of the ^omx^ti^^'Wel^'' and^"&.& many' .work animals'and implements a&' possible were assigned to the permanent production brigade which was forced for the period of one year« This form of organisation allowed for the de- -tailed planning of the brigade's work, for the whole year, '. 'from planting preparation to harvesting {and even made it .• : possible to gather notes for the foilovdng year), and created conditions for better division of labor within the brigade« The permanent production brigades, es a rules were found on the larger, more stable cooperatives* These brigades also existed in 1954-1955 in the suburban cooperatives, 'comparatively large for that time, in the Tillages of Ghang- Kuo-Cbuang and Huang-Tfu-Kang nsar Pelping» In the Chang- Kuo-Chuang cooperative'

42

C3ÖS fftrasteads.And 651 worker») there were.seven brigades, euch, of-'which was' assigned 600-1300 sou of-land* -In the HUÄhg-T'u-Kang 'cooperative (455 farmsteadss 229 members) ; there tfe're-'five-'-'produetioa brigades and'one track garden det&ebj&eftt •-'''■ The/largest brigade (55 i&en) was assigned 133 'oou of arable and-261 mou öf arld/laad» The smallest- briga.de"■C;2'4"Ma) was assigned 111 attd "'213 motr respectively« Iji additioh,''the-producer .''brigades had'use of the work • aalffl&lflf' ttttd "farm tool© belonj$ajg to 'the cooperative*'3 5

The »ö*ealled system of "declarations for work1* :

■ (Lao»!Tun'-Tä*ii«*Pa©«>'Chih}, first adopted ia the;, advanced cooperative 'tt&n&ged by lim' Su»eMng Clea-chi district of Kill» Province') was a goiaewhat original, form of work organisation for cooperative produce work brigade organ* i»atioa»3'6 ^h© essence of this system lay in the follow* ; lags all the -cooperative laradä were assigned to the , producer brigades* Each brigade, proceeding from the . ;. general ^producer plait* calculated iß detail how may isork : days igould be &eeded for the spriag ploughing, the sisuMer : piaatiiagss aid the autusuar harvest» Tha brigade also deter* aimed labor.'needs for-the Piloted period of tin® into, which the season is divided (ia the.Kim Su-ehiag cooperative

• these periods Mere 20 days in leagthK . The cooperative ■; members then announced how many days- they would be able :

to work in the cooperative eco&oaay during the course of the coniag period» After'examining and coafirising these . claims, the"brigade.worked out..a plan, which set down the \ tistej aaoöJitj and quality of. the work* • i

If, according-to-the plan, there.was- an excess of workers on the-'"brigade, .-.the cooperative *s board •»• under the. centrailssatioa system -« sent, them to help ■'; brig&dgjs which had fallen below their production assign« meate»37 -A einilar...»$$&«&.» was .used ia 1953 by three large cooperatives'ia the Ting-hsien District of Hopeh

. Froyince, including' the famous cooperatives, Keng Chiang- ■ Sö*3ö ...

The advantage "of this for® of .organisation lay in *; the fact that it permitted.reducing to a nisimiM all possible unproductive uses of labors gave reiga to the initiative of the rank and file cooperative »embers, and ' raised their work responsibility, aiakiag them accustomed

■fco'the' everyday rusaiihg of the cooperative« The production brigade was the basic for© of

organisation* the cooperative's main production detachment. The brigade made possible direct production plan* ning and arrangement■of manpower« It'effected the' acceun»;. ting, of labor, and, .most importaats was ia charge of the basic fam...iaplemea.fcs and land "assigned to it — be it

»43"*

for a short or lang period, of tisse« . . • In order to put the socialist 'principle of equal :

»aymeafc far equal labor.inw pr&'efcice in the cooperatives ; ("He who work» «sor« and works better receives more; ha who works less and works worse receives less ♦<» »The labor ;

of «en and of woman müßt fee paid.equally, taking into account the quantity arid quality of work performed'* }39 it was necessary to calculate accurately the labor performed by tho workers. Ä transitional for», used by the mutual aid teams, was the accounting of later by work unite on the basis of previous evaluation of the sis® of the work fore«« and depending on quantity and quality of th© work performed* "Before the determination of work : norms and payment according to various types.of work, the cooperative may temporarily employ the method of "setting fiat work units and values according to the actual aoount produced,1* 1*6*, for each member a fixed number of work units depending* pa his' capabilities and qualifications is established»'**

la cooperative» having complex production'organisations, comparatively large* unified fame were rxm and a rather large amount of manpower was used,. Therefore, the labor-accounting method,'which originated with the - mutual aid teams under the conditions of collective labor and individual management of farms, was possible , only to a very limited degree and for a short period of time on' the cooperatives.

Th© main'deficiency in this method consisted in' the fact that it allowed equal conpens&tion for varying expenditures of labor» equal payment for unequal work and, consequently, was unable to act ass a stimulua for raising the labor activities of the ä*sees* This was discovered to be especially true In th© cooperatives, Thus, if one group of cooperative »embers was engaged for a whole day in heavy labor and another in light labor* it was necessary to award all the «sobers of both groups, pro« vided they were up to full working power, with 10 labor units (in the mutual aid taaas where everyone worked together this was usually no problem)* Evaluations nada within the individual production brigades possibly sight not correspond even if the brigades. vrer© performing the same kind of work* For ex&asple, in a cooperative of the Hsl-feou volost in Shanel Province in 1953 ten unite each were given to four groups for weeding.!»5 *aon of wheat and to one group for-weeding one rsou*'^ It ia very difficult to evaluate oaapower correctly »ad to calculate labor units when tnere are no established norms of work, «*a.nd the brigade sieabers do Mit want to disrupt the

44"

friendly relationship with • their neighbors« "JI-2 , The bssic deficiencies In..the accounting of labor

according to physical strength';a.nd' experience ' of workers lead finally "to wage leveling, whicli goas' against the socialist principle of equal pay for equal work*

The situatlott'which 'developed in 1953**1954 in two suburban cooperatives (in-<5faang-KuO«Chuahg and «Tuang» T^-Kang) near Peipiug is characteristic«■ Each production brigade broke up daily into several groups 'Which did different work*' *lo sna of the brigade membersj except for the few with whom a giv<an worker worked'today knew how any of the other .members worked* .-. •

- The lack of definite criteria for.calculating•labor units'created an atmosphere.öf .mutual suspicion« -This did not at all facilitate strengthening of the cooperatives« •.. . -Appraisal meetings were most disorderly» In the.spring . of 1954 in Chang-»Kuo~Chuang it was decided to gi¥e not more than ssven units, for a working day«, Soon, the maxi» 'mum-reached 7*5«' Thou. all. workers, with the exception of women a»4 childrenj, began to receive-. 7,5 -urtits.per ;■-.-■ day,'and finally even many childres' ^foughtn for a'full nora*43 -As .a'result of this wage leveling, labor effis«* ieacy.^and productivity.was lowered* Mo ssafcter how hard yo.tt work you will still reeoifs ?*S units'^' said., the ... ■ cooperative «ssiberE iri.CfcaRg«Kup»Ghuarig* "Truckers, .for examples j, wher* preparing manure wou.I4 load, the trucks only half full* When sifting crushed stons (on® of.ths sidt :

industries, of thee/a cooperatives I two cooperative as®.®» foersi would produce half as much per day than two independent peasants«^ A similar situation deirei©ped iß the; cooperative in the' village of Hsi&«!tuo»Chuang«

"The problem of iiapro^ißg labor accounting methods has become th® deeisiv« link oa which depends the streng-

' thening and developra$&t of the cooperative^5; -..Chad lang and lim Hung«Ts*ai. stated -in their report on the study of ■. labor ■organisation and cooperatives near Pokiag*^"J

The piecework system of labor accounting'-better suited the'socialistic principles .of compensation*- In changing over to the piecework system' the quantitative &n& quailtiative -production norm was set slightly higher '■ . - • than, the average output of the average worfc<§r*4o For' example, before the introduction' of the piecework systtia of laMr account lug five work units were paid for cutting 400 chia of straw per day In' the cooperative In "the fill«*' age of Gfeang«luO"-"Cli.u&:ßg^- After the introduction'of :' .-,; piecework the ssom fer cutting straw was set at.500 -chi»»»' Depeudiag on the season» weather ce».ditioa.gt, and joths'r faetsra fch® norm, for :a- oertaia typo B£ work,-'.could . change * •

The woraus vför& categorized according to the technical com» , ipleadty and labor capacity of the operation»**0 For exam- ; pie, in the village of Chang-Kuö^Chua.ag all the yearly tasks were divided into eight categories» In calculation ;;of yield for the fulfillment of the norm, the difference toetwean each category equaled approximately 0.5 work sunitß,.**. ■ This served as a stimulus for the raising of ; labor productivity»' > \ ' By their nature "some"sgricu.ltural tasks &imari&} as Is known, the work of several" rae** In a single work process«. ;In such cases the most expedient for« of labor accounting proved to be group piecework. For example, in the cooper« Ätive of the village of Hsiao-Sun (District of Chiang» che&g> Shansi Province) the men worked together in groups of five in planting hemp. The collective"norm constituted ; 15 work units per mou<,>° The distribution of work units . between the member's of the group depended on the complexity and weight of the. individual tasks which they performed,

;or on the basis of e&icuation of physical strength and ; •work experience according to the unit calculation system. ;'

"Th-a piecework system of labor accounting raised 'the'cooperative members* activity sharplye For example, ;&fter introducing the piecework systesa in the cooperatives :

of the villages of Chfu&u«-Ti and Shi-Kou (Shansi Province), the workers -occupied in transporting sianure began to earn ;as isamy as 24 work units par day, i*e«} 2-2,<5 times ssor® than previously,51 The usual nor© for pulling millet sprouts was previously five to six work units* After changing to the piecework system women engaged in this i task, began to earn'11-12 ■imita*^^

The'piecework system of labor accounting load to ■B. fuller realisation of the principle of equal pay for .equal work of men and women*53 Ä8 a result' women in the cooperatives began to play a peri&azmnt part in agricultural' tasks* For example, after changing to the piecework system» a large majority'of the worsen In Hüang«THi-Kang cooperative wer© working*54

Labor standardisation was a nocess&ry condition for ' the realisation of tho piecework system of accounting* Determination of labor volume needed for the execution of all tasks in the- cooperative (calculation of general work requirements) permitted tbo rational use of the coopera- tive1 8 man power.

As a result of introducing the piecework system of ' labor accounting it waa possible to pay the agricultural producer cooperative »embers on a workaday basis. 1 'In conclusion, we must examine the system of wassi- :giira©Rt and responsibility for a set cycle of work,* which

ia wldespraacl ia ;&h© cooperatives and closely eoaneeted with the piecework system»^ ' Group piecework by its nature presupposed tiie- joist fulfillment of ea#h work cycle' oy a given'group ..of. worker's« •' This group could'fee selected specially.for a given occasion or be more stable fa producer' detacfuaent or'brigade), working over ä comparatively ; long period of time on an assigned plot of land {for•exam- ;

pie, the weeding'of millet for the suussnar, etc»)« Some«' .times a whole, work cycle in' a'i'givan field would be assigned ■to a,.production brigade* It would usually b® assigned to a pernssment brigade in a. largo cooperative.. Labor account* ing necessary for the fulfillment of task® of'a certain , quality during a set period of time, and norm of yield was done beforehandj since it was related.to'the' piecework :syst@m of accounting. Thus, an assignment'was evaluated. ■on the basis of four indexes (quantity and quality of work,' amount of time taken for completion, of the 'task,' a.s.d the norm of .labor expenditures). It received the ".title of ■■ /"system of .assignments &nd responsibility for & set work

■cycle according t© .four .(or three in c&sia the volume of ■work was\not specifically set) Indiens1* «».' es3ii«ti.B.g pa.®«* kxmg ssu-tiag pae*kung fta-tse ehlh«R Some SOT!et authors call tliis the contract system*

It was pointed out in the regulations for agricul* tural producer's■cooperatives? nl& order to join the pi.ee©* work'System of labor»"with the system of individual resspon- i Bibiiity in labor organisations the agricultural producer's; cooperatives must put the contract system into practice«.tt5*

The organisation of labor used in the agricultural. producer's cooperative in the Tillage of Ch*uan«Ti is an example of combining the assignment system with the group piecework system» For each season the cooperative board ; divided among the producer brigades all the work the volume' of which was determined by the'location' of the brigades* plot of land,'difficulties of tillage, or crop bciing sovm, ■ etc. In caso the brigade *?hich was in charge of a given plot spent more labor on it tbaa had been foreseen by the ♦; norm no compensation was received for the overexpsnditure, ' and if less labor was spent ©a the task the brigade received credit only for' the .set norm of expenditures* Thus, ths principle of sssterial interest was» put into practice. ^ Within the brigade the distribution of the work of each person in terms ef work unit®, depending on quantity and quality of work performed, and the' physical strength and experience of the peasants* Mutual interest ia ©ne*s neighbor4 s good work strengthened, the sense .of responsibility for work of each brigade member.57

The further development of this' system was the

^assignment of an ar&a of work to a brigade- with the. stipu- Ration that a. certain result be achieved;« This system ; was called "work assignment with production guarantees4w !' iXH© differonc© lay in the fact that in addition to the . I ICour Indices there was the stipulation of results 'which the. brigade must guarantee«, The introduction of this sharply iraised the interest-of cooperative members in the crops pf their assigned plot ©f land*. This can be seer», by the •example of one of th$ detachments of the cooperative in :

the village of Gh*uan«>Ti*. k blight occured on this detachment * s land» As a result a very small crop was harves-: t©d» This* however , was not at all reflected in the profits of the detachment Haerabsrßj sines they had culti» ! •yated their land in accordance with the as signierst« Fur-- ; therraoro, they were not concerned with fighting the blight . because no labor expenditures had been provided for this«. 58 the situation changed with the introduction of the volume ' of production index» If the planned results were not attained (and if this occurred. not because of natural Idlsasters), the brigade members bora the material loss« At the same time, a production portion which exceeded the 'set volume was divided between the brigade and the cooper- 'stive in the ratio of six-to four» Thus, direct interest

'■In the battle for craps by both individual workers and the "cooperative as a whole was created.

The complex production organisational structure, the precise system-of calculation and payment of labor? which distinguished the growth of large-scale cooperative "farming did not develop all at once, but. gradually, step by step, according to the growth of the cooperative, 'complexity of intercooperativo relations, and the intensification of labor distribution»

The small, newly formed cooperatives were not :broken up into producer brigades» They were run directly by the administration, and labor- accounting was done .according to physical strength and experience, an in the mutual aid teams. They were* strictly speaking, a :kind of ^collective mutual aid team15, in the hi ghost : form#59 The experience of three cooperatives» as was Indicated in the report of Chao Kang mid Liu Hung-ts'ai, •showed that "in cooperatives where thare ar* up to 30 farmsteads it is host for the administration to exercise !direct control over production, and the producer brigade 'system of organisation with preaanantly assigned plots of land is not a necessity»»*n&J Therefore,.in the period 1952*1954 when cooperatives consisting of 20-30 fara- 'steads were being formed, the most widespread form was the temporary and seasonal brigade, the former in the

newly organised cooperatives and the latter In the older, stronger cooperatives*

■•" However, with the -growth of the cooperative and .expansion of its economy» the lack of precise production organisation slackened the pace of economic progress ana impeded the strengthening of the cooperative» In the larger cooperatives there developed the permanent pro- ■ ducer brigades, which in turn split up. into'detachments* .

The more progressive forms of labor calculation and compensation developed just as gradually« For example, in 1953 in the cooperative village of Huang-T!'u-Kang the individual piecework system was introduced for 30. kinds of basic agricultural tasks* By autumn of 1954 ,- the piecework system .was being used for 63 types of work«ox

The 'collective piecework system Fas also used along with • the system of. labor unit calculation according to physical strength and experience» In general all three basic types of labor accouating were used jointly in the cooperatives» For example, the group piecework system and system, of calculation'of units according to strength and experience were used for basic field work* The individual piecework system'was used for secondary crafts and for odd jobs (usually on the basis of experience of peasant day- laborers*'"piecework," etc«)0"*

Increase o|JBrodjjct^ SJ5raI^ix>llSir cöoperativ«"s."

„ In the basic level agricultural producer*e cooperatives :cr'op yield and peasants* profits increased sign.» ■ 5» ü*i. C'$! Ykt* J v '

At*the end of 1953 there were 2,242 cooperatives in Shaasii Province (fo«r times more than., in 1952} uniting 52,622 farms (96,000 peasants)93 Tims, on the average, each cooperative consisted of front 23-24 farsis and con» :

.'talned 43-44 workers* - The total area planted in grain equaled 052,000 mö«, or an average of 360 mou per cooperative* In 1953 the grain crops exceeded those of 1952 by 27.6J6» and the cotton crop was 20$ larger* At the same time, the-grain crop per «nit of land exceeded by 2156 the level attained by the permanent mutual-aid teams •in the same location,' and exceeded by 36% the level attained by individual fares» In .1953 the average crop per-unit-of land in the-cooperatives was 36.6% higher . than' the average according to province, and the better cooperative members exceeded by many percent the average and bettor individual farmers and mutual aid team members. Thus, in 1953 the crop in the cooperative managed .by ,

Feng Hai«K?s in the Ku-Kuan District for the whole area :of 345 mou exceeded by almost 200$ the crop harvested In I95O by the mutual aid team on the basis of which the cooperative was formed« In Ch'sng Keag-Keng-Tu's cooperative in the Ho»Ch.in District the average grain crop :i» 1953 (the cooperative had been in operation one year) ;for an area of 35 mou exceeded the 1952 crop by 109$, and exceeded by 155$ the average crop in that area.

For 1953 the profits of 50,10*1 farms {making up :95% of all the farms of Shansi Province) which had joined cooperatives either exceeded or were on a level with the profits of 1952,°4

As for the five percent (a total of 2,64! farms) whose 1953 receipts were lower than the previous year, the profits of these farms as a rule were still higher than those of the local mutual aid teams and individual peasants. Also, the lowering of profits usually stemmed from the ffCt that the basic workers received salaries .elsewhere**" One must consider the fact that participation in a cooperative made it comparatively easy for these people to leave the village"without damage to their .farm. It is clear then, that if one adds the salary made on the side to the agricultural profits, the total salary, -as a rule, was not lower than in the previous .year»

In 1954 $0$ of the agricultural producer's cooperatives of China strove to raise the gross crop yield of agricultural products by 10-30$ (there were 650,000 cooperatives in the country at this time)."6 Several hundred cooperatives which had been in existence from - three to four years raised their production by 60-lOOjfc»0'

What was the cause, then, of such increase in .production and peasants* profits in the basic level agricultural producer cooperatives in comparison with the mutual aid teams and individual farming?

The unified use of land made- possible the proper crop-rotation, the planning of crops, and harvest» In order to satisfy the needs of his family, the independent peasant usually planted several crops at once on his small plot of land» He was forced to ignore the peculiarities of the soil and to spend much labor unproductively» In the village of Tsao~Yang«-?8*un (District of Wu-hsiang, Shanssi Province) cooperative member Wang Mang-hal raised four crops on his six mou plot of land in 1950 before joining the cooperative. In 1951 the cooperative planted Wang Mang-hai*s land with hemp, a crop better suited for :this particular soil« The size of the crop, thanks to this, was five tou.60

-50-

.;-., ': The eooperatite in the Tillage of ChJimxi^fi ■ ;. (Shansi Provide©} waited into .four plots 1#"-MOU of-land . ' which had. formerly b#ea. divided .between'11 individual' '; owners '(0*5 *a©u was gained from'houndry strlps'H -Fifteen :working days less wtre:needed'for the tilling of these I four fields than were Required for working the old 11 ... iplots of land,- and the" crop yield increased by 195■chia*v9

... ■ la 'ooraparativel'y large ^.cooperatives it was possible ■ ;to carry.on work for the improvement of the;soil,'to'■ ■ ;construct-the necessary 'buildings ^ and to.adopt better '•.•

■;agricultural methods. ■•'■■.- '. . ,3- In 1951 the cooperative Its the villag© of Wang- ■'"

.; Chia-Ghwang (Shansi Province.) improved. a 24 HIOU area" •. of soil fit took more than 20 raan-days for each mou)'. ;This type of work.'was impossible'both .-for'the independent' ■-peasant and the average Mutual aid teams. - This sm&\ .:..-,- ) cooperative had an' experimental-plot in which ten va.r±®«* 1 tie's öf mi list were planted for, testing «70 -

■ :\0f ther 2t2L2 cooperatives'of Shansi' Province ; studied \iß 1953$ 90% had experimental plots* In the .producer'cooperatives of^ the province' raore • .thair^G^ öf ' -the workable land was ploughed;! and ».or® than 90ft was :thickly sown,-while in'the usual manual aid teams;the i method of thick sowing was used on less than'half .the ■■land, and on independent, farms' on tea per cerrt of the :laad* \ Moreovsr, the. cooperatires, as a rule» .used 20» .

■\30% snore fertiliser■ per unit of land than the mut'ual . . ;a.id. teams.« •■ L , '..;.'.'

Gentrslisiecl use of the labor foree with, the appli«'. cation of progressive farms <cf calculating'l&boiv allowed

■"a detailed, .specialisation'-and division ■ of "labor» .' [ Is/a result of .the'rational erga.nl ssati'oji of labor

■and the growth" of its productivity, each worker in the ; cooperative' in this''village of Waag' - Ghiä*Chüahg received ■ ■■; :10 more of arable■land, while formerly the human'limit' - ;h.ad been eight saou» In. 1951 the productivity of the :cooperativess land was-$0$ higher tMn that of the till- ' ■age (1.3'tou'tö 1 ton). 72 ~ ,;'■-,

,IR Shansi Proving© in 195ßrt labor '.'productivity grew '■'about 10$ in comparison to 2952*^-'.. .•:.,-'■'■

. The greatest- advantage iß large' f&nas was the ■possibility of using n&M agriculturalequipment on a ; ; large scale, and sore effectivsly«, The' iMtp&ftdent .farmer

■; cannot use the new equipment alone •".-■■It'is difficult to' use oa the small plets of the ■independents and in general J.s impossible for them to use* Aecordisg" to data .cited-

" st of new agric«' »operatives .of. .,the..,K«tk»..._,....

•51*™

;'Ch*uan Detract in ths Korth-E^Qt worked,, on &.n sTer^ge» 33 8ha«g-y5 (on© ©hang In th<r North-East^* cine hectare?}, and iß the mutual aid to&:nss #»0 shang, f °

; In 1952 in the North-East, as'a result of introducing new agricultural equipment, a significant increase •iin production occurred in 46^ of the regions. In 40$ ;there occurred a slight increa&e, and only in■six per •cent of.the'regions did there occur & decrease in crop ;;yidld because of lack of knowledge in using new equipment»' f A particularly large increase in crop sise due :to the introduction of n<aw equipment vas observed in the :northern regions, where cooperativee at that time were ;on a more solid basis than iin the south,'«'

The unification of independent farms In'agrlcul* :tural producer's cooperatives mads possible the setting ' aside of a certain number of workers for collective subsidiary industry* The small agricultural organisation, such as the independent farissteada was forced to expend much, energy uy3.produ0tive.ly on a large number of

I uncomplicated tasks -and operations. In the cooperatives the private interests of the individual, members ;were joined with the common interests» A cooperative ^member's profit depended on ths total harvest and not on the harvest of his own particular plot, as v»ae ths case with th©-mutual aid teams. If previously, in the mutual aid team,» he was preoccupied with his own participation in working his fields out of fear that, without him, his neighbors might work in his fields haphazardly, the situation in the cooperative was different. This situation created very favorable grounds for the development .of collective subsidiary industry •■

In the cooperative of the viilaga of V/ang-'chia» chuang ten men ou£ of 27 systematically eng&ged in subsidiary industry.''? In 1951? in the District of Ch'ang- chih, in the ton cooperativeh studied., there was a surplus of 6,465 man-days (one man-day being equal to the amount

■of work performed by an adult »sale in the course of one day)» Of these excess man-days 2,52$ «ere used for iiaprov« oraent of land appendages (irrigation, fertilizing of coil, leveling of uneven parts, estc«.]., and'3*242 were* used for subsidiary industry", which brought in. a 41s$06 yuan profit ,8U Subsidiary industry brought considerable profits to ths agricultural producer cooperatives. In 1953» in the cooperatives of Shansi Province, profits from outside occupations &nd subsidiary Industry amounted to 1,080,000 yuan, ito, about eight percent of the total profits» In some cooperatives profits 'from outside occupations were even higher» * _ .

CO

Thus» the basic level agricultural producer's cooperatives had the.basic advantages inherent 'to collective« farming, which conditioned the considerable increase in labor productivity.and agricultural production.

Along with this, however, this type of cooperative had limited means for the development of production forces» It did not completely solve the contradiction'between tbe collective character of production and the private form of appropriation» The basic level agricultural producer's .cooperative was founded on" a. contradictory-socio- economic'basis: on the one hand there existed la if common property in the form of land plots, which were their land shares, and in the.case of others private property was preserved in the form of production, media« '

, The presence" vof privately .owned production media .. along with collective property in. the cooperatives, and the necessity from this of apportioning-a. certain aiaount of the cooperative's 'profits for distribution according to private'propertyj retarded "the development-of produc» :. tion-forces* . ■■■■■: i irl.n connection with the fact- that in the basic level -cooperatives," Mao Tse-tung wrote on this subject,■ «there - is still preserved a semiprlvate-proparty character of appropriation. This form of ownership, at- a.certain stpge, begins to iraoede the development of production forces*"^

The basic level agricultural producer's cooperative, as a rule, was a. small producing organization, encompass-. . ing 20-30 farmsteads'. Mao Tse-tuhg wrote that it is easier to form these cooperatives than the' larger .ones.» Their managers and rär£k«aiid-file members, quickly gained experience' in operating collective farms, But suck small cooperativesj ia .which there were few people, little land, and*very limited amounts of money, could not farm on ft large scale and were not la a position to use machinery. Mao Tse-tung concluded that "Small cooperatives cannot last long and must'gradually unite*"0"- .,-■'■...

The basic level agricultural cooperative originated ■and developed under the conditions of the country's ex- . tremely weak industrial basis, and its means of production consisted mainly of plain hand tools* "Mechanical power" was that of livestock and partly -.hursan. Privately owned production media and the cooperatives3 weak technical production basis were closely related«

'.However,"even in the very .contradictory organ!sa-.' tion of.the basic.level agricultural producer's cooperatives, the foundations were laid for transition to a. higher, socialist form of producer.cooperative, the agricultural artel» ■

c 3r

The-transition to a socialistic form of farming was directly related: to the increase of the influence- of socialist, elements in the agricultural producer's Cooperative in the course of expanded production. The cooperative member could not make use of his land or plow, etc., at his own discretion,*-^ His property rights served only as ja basis for receiving a set sum of profits from the cooperative as compensation for land, etc» ' 'Just as the privat« ownership of property in the eooperativs was not a 'basis for private engagement in Agriculture, SO the relatively large increase in profits of some cooperative members in comparison with others did not lead to differentiation, On the contrary, each increase in cooperative members' profits due to development of collective farming contributed to its organisational and agricultural strengthening and served SO E stimulus for attracting new members into the cooperative*

The cooperative's indivisible fund grew in the process of accomplishing expended production." If the indivisible fund increased only in an absolute way during the first years of the cooperative's operation, then after the cooperative had become sufficiently strong the size of interest bearing deposits to the indivisible fund were re«examin«*d *

. ... Cooperative members' socialistic awareness grew in proportion to tho development of cooperative farming and Increase in labor profits« This created a basis for the collectivisation of work animals and other tools, After two to three years of'the cooperative's existence these tools were redeemed from their owners «.^*

. ■' A decrease in parents for land, gradually occurred in the course of expanded production. Under the system of fixed rates of payment for lend shares the amount of profit which the cooperative members received for their land share decreased with the increase in crops« This situation created favorable conditions for re-examination of the proportions of profit distribution in favor of increasing payments for labor and the abolition of private ownership of land.

In speaking of abolition of private ownership' of land in the agricultural producer cooperatives it is necessary to keep in mind the .following situations

Difference in sis® of cooperative members* land shares was not too important, since as a result of the agrarian reform the amount of land owned by separate farms, upon calculation, was almost equal for each individual,» It'is not a problem of kulaks or well-to-do peasants, who, at t^e Jbieie of the basic level cooperatives.1' formation,

..-54- -

usually either did not participate'.'at all':(the .kulaks) ior participated to a very' sasil degree (the/welleto«d# .

Each cooperative■ meissber, on the ötie. hand ? partic~ - ■.ipated by his labor ia -the overall productivity (of the

.■.cooperative,' %Mch went to the ''payment of his land share». ;0n the other hand,'-as an mmet of landiS he' received from jthe cooperatives produce a certain part :as "''compensation ' ■

■fei* the land share which förmirly beicmged to hin* '; la other words," each eooperativfe iser&orj' to a .-certain degree, paid himself, ■■äs a-.laadownery. i»e« part 'of his .'Compensation' for land, was a converted form/ of. ;payment for',labor of persons who'-received this■■-.compensa- "tiOB.* Sine® difference in ■ sis© of land shares 'generally

;was not'great-, only" an insignificant 'part .of the cooper«» ativs members,- .who -owner comparatively large .shares,". "received profits fro® the labor of others less .well-off "in land.« .

\Let us..examine a ''characteristic .example frosi mat« ■• -'■'erials qf the 'Investigation in the village-of T.fi6iit-Chi&« '"'Fu (Höpeli Province)«. Cut -of '41"cooperative 'farmsteads '25 (61%) gave 'frora 0»1 "to 15$ of their labor in, --'-payment ; for'other *lands* 13 farmstead® .{'31'«■"$$} livsd'.'aatirely

■:by their own labor.or used the fruits' of the'labor of ". :others from 0,1'tö'15$, three 'farmsteads (7*2^) lived : mainly on tteir OM land sharea,^ "■ .EVSB with äs high"a level of..compensation for land as 50^ of .the profit .{after- deduction of -sums going for ;th© reimbursement for production'Media, used ? deposits to ■ :the indivisable -fwnd and:payments for'credit)» actually ; "'ionly 30$ was. paid for land f 'since the agricultural, tax .entered into the payment of land-shares *£<?., This ase&fts ■■■ that for'thö part, of -the l&sd share for which the'cooperative meabers with large landholders rseeivfed cöÄpensa«» tioas they received '■& 'maximum of -3Qp csf -the profits which this land produced in the average' 'year*

If one' takes into account the* profits from o©Xl©c*v :tiv@ subsidiary industry»"-' the labor' profits of the coop* ..erativ«.'members in the village of' T*ieti«Ghia-Fu '-(Hopek ' ."Proviriefe) la 1954 constituted i'0-90% of the profits* Labor' profits of 63f» in the .cooperative in th© village 'of 'Lung»Ch,uan«Hsi wa.äe up 5 5-*75$ .of their profits * ■ Only

■:on':-individual ■ farsis did profits from the 'l&nd sxeeed . ■-those'of labor; iacluciect in this iramber'were the-farms ofä Invalids and those not capable .of '.doing heavy work, etc***« :;Äls© in the -village of ■ Tt±©n-Ghi&«Fu, 90^ ":Of the cooper«» '■ ■ :.ative'■ members'*' farms* (in- the village of Lu3ttg»ChruiaR«*Hsi 6,3^} profits receiVeä from cooperative farming equaled :

■ .:-55--'

Ö5-U5# of,.,ths labor upended by t'nev in cooperative 89 ■ industry* — t . .

; In the process of expanded production on the basic 'level agricultural 'producer* s cooperatives there occurred ■an increases in the labor profits both In absolute and 'relative terras* . ;: As for the aged and cooperative members not capable ■:of heavy.labor, their interests, in accordance with the ; i gradual decrease in profits received i'roia land» were mad« all the OTore £;ecura through th« general welfare fund,

; ' .Theoe conditions greatly facilitated the abolition ;of private ownership of land in the agricultural producer' s cooperatives.

AB an example let us examine the transformation . of the basic leva! agricultural producer cooperative into

■a socialist cooperative« ■ • In February 1952 an agricultural producer's coop-

erative headed bv Han En was formed i.c the village of Pa»San~T'un (DSstrict of Chia Ou-he, Kirin Province).^

:The peasants who joined it were ell poor. After three •years the standard of living of the 85 cooperative members reached '&he level of the averse and well-to-do /peasants* The cooperative*a indivisible fund contained 4,000 yuan. The value of collective property increased by fcmr'timeö the cooperative members' contributions to the artel« , „

Compensation for l?.nd .decreased irons i.,2 tan per mou of the best land to ei#Kt tou, i.e* by one third. The sisio of payments for the use of horses and carts

; decreased bv 5&-7J6. I« 1?S4 expenditures for payment ; of land share $ constituted a %pzs.l of 4*6% of the coop- : er&tive*e total expenditure ?;*Vx

All these pheuoroona iMde .possible the transiormiag of basic level cooperatives intc socialist producer's

. cooperatives three years after their formation*

»v afc H-: t$: *Y* •*"

In. the:basic level producer«» cooperatives» '»racra« faers* private ownership of land and of some vital procud-

. tion media are preserved to a considerable,■or even to a very considerable degree» and production media belonging

• to"cooperative mssahers are not subjected to immediate collectivisation«"^ However, some of the means of production arc held as collective property, and privately owned land and other means of production are used fcy the

-56-

cooperative jointly. The right of land ownership in the cooperative was separated from the right of land"dispos- ition» Private property no longer served as a distinction

■in. the .village-. The cooperative members received a set . payment, a fixed amount of the collective produce for land and other production media... The hulk'of the year's produce was divided up according to labor« This was a characteristic feature of the basic level, agricultural producer's cooperative was a transitional form between light, independent•agriculture and the socialist form of agriculture» '

!• S^MzSbkJ^BzSbî 1955, No 1, p 50.

"Bulletin of the State Statistical Administration- of - the Central People's Government on the Results of the Development of the National Economy'and the-Fulfillment of -the State Plan for 1953"; "Bulletin of the SSA on . the Restoration and Development of national conoray for }952<% Na£2äSyxJy£ax» 1954, Mo 22, Supplement, pp* 7, 15,

7 ■ &< {ft

1 »

3* I§!^Bi!L.iihrEaOs 10 March 1955

4. ibid.

5« -Pravda, 26 October 1955»

6 • iSikîS-JUJidBäSt, 7 - Ma y 19 5 5 *

A conventional mou is a plot of ground, the crop of which is equal to the average yield from ons mou in ah average year in a given locality; a tax mou is a plot of ground which was compared.to a mou of land during the agricultural tax calculation. 2see Hsiao nung-lin, Ai^cjiltrâlJûtjjial Aidjteams and Gooperat- ä^&^JLthe.OPR, feiping, 195^;iTnlThinese57"»A"Strifey 01 Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives in the Ta-min» Provincial District", op, cit., Material -on Agricu.lt-0

-8« îiiatiô^^^ Cooperatives in- j&feeJ&iSgseJêosl^^ , Peiping, 19557TT4."-■ -

9o Esghe^gJShjstog^^ —. op« cit,

»57»

i0* SM^îS.^.^Ci»^L^JtÎ^l.jVo(^Jc<är;^, QpO'Qcratiyjs.,--, op. cit«, p 20, " *""' '*"" «■——-— *

11. "A Survey of Agricultural Producers1 Cooperatives ", 3-n EBi^Li^Î^JSi^syQitdirä^^K9i^c&r^' Cooperatives ^^^^ÛM^tllaÎ^^l-P^^zzî opT"cit"^, p 927

~2» BSSüiÄ^QPß of-iîcultural, Px^ducers.^;^, 00. cit., p 21. ; "~~"

13. ibid.,' pp 21-22«

14» ibid.», p 23.

-5. IillMllL4l£.it?J^9£P„^:~j op» cit., p 19. l6* £W££=J^lJ[gSz£MH» X95Ö, Ho 1, p 32«

I?. TsK KPK pointed out that mistakes of this type caused in some places "evidences of negligence towards domestic animals on the part of members of the cooperative", Resheniye Shestogo —_-,. op, cit,, p 16.

10. "The directives of the TsK KPK and the State Council on strengthening production leadership and organization-

al construction of agricultural producers' cooperative^', Druzhba,, 20 December" I956»

3-9• 'ä§^l"läJkZ.J'^^J^^M§liPiJ-^y.sekij^yskogo_sobraniâ nay» :

£^Äka^telI^.§ljäZ iKaterial on" the""Third""Session of the All-China Congress of People's Representatives), Moscow, 195.6» p 55.

20• li^£&Mt4..^§„j^^ JZZZ, op. cit., ". p 3o. " " ~~"~ """" ~ "~ .

21. See Hsiao Hung-iin, op. cit.,, p 117.

22• £&ELil&y£SjLJ^ op. cit., p 42. '*"""**■"*"•"""*" ——-- -

23« See Jen-iiün Jih»pap, 26 March 1953.

24, For example, here is the way in which the members of a cooperative of the village Ch'uan-ti (P'ing-shun Dis- ] trict of Shansi Province] changed their opinion on the indivisibility of the general fund: "In the initial period after formation of the cooperative they (the

ßierobers of the cooperative) were in favor of taking their share .of'the" general fund on leaving the cooper« atlve, and now 99$ a^e against this. In the course of; discussion those who were for the divisibility of the general fund put forth only one argument* .They said that just as the general fund and conaioh property had been created by the'labor of all the members of the cooperatives so does each member possess a certain share» and. on leaving the cooperative he has the right to claim, his share of the general fund, If this was not- so, then the right of private property would be vio- lated. But the"majority of' members considered that 1) since the general fund &n6 common property are created by the collective labor of the cooperative, they do not belong to any one individual,■ .must be common property and must not".be divided; ' 2) during his time in the cooperative, each member takes advantage of the fruits of

, his life improves» and his land also im»- They considered' that a member, when, leaving a-

cooperative members is not the only source of accurau lation of the general fund, but also the aid of the government economic sector and supply .and marketing cooperatives; therefore, separate individuals cannot withdraw their' shares from the general fund; 4) the dispersal of the general fund and common property in- evitably underlines the basis of expanded product production,

the possibility of conducting vi ially' behe decreases the possibility of conducting various soc-

ficiai tindertakings} and is reflected, unfav«

pp 15-1&1 "*"" ~ '■.*"*

26*' Fan Chiang-chiang, ■ op* clt«, pp: 4-9-50»

27 • UMähM^^^^M:9S&~..z^,Zi °P* cit.j p 13.

20* See SMil&£iy^Il;S;i£lll;B> 1955* No 2, p 94*

29« Hsiao Hung-lin, op. clt«, pp 112-113«

30* "A Survey of Agricultural Producers1 -Cooperatives —.-*»,,

op» cit», in fet«îal «n..,Agrijüu^ oper atlye s; Pur£ng ,t h&, ?% gQ.fi-v-.feruo.t.1 on _« ^-1 p 92*

31. See nPe.cree by the Central Committee of the K?K -«—",

32, See Chung»kuo Nung~pao. 1954, No 13, P 9*

33. "Complex Agricultural Producers1 Cooperative, Headed by Li Shun»taff, in M>;rar nyye„,prepbr aj oy ajoly a..»-^^, op. eit», p 29I*

34* Hsiao Hung-lin, op, cit., p 120,

35* See ^BIiSri:vy£..i5}i*3£rPil{2J■ 1954/ No 13, pp 9-10.

36» Hsiao Hung-linj op« cit*, p .121.

37, .Description of the ^declaration system" borrowed from Hsiao Hung-lin, op., cit,, p 121,

13$« See Chunfi^k'uo Nun^pao, 19.53? No 4, P 24«

39. "Decree of the TsK KPK on the Development of Agricul- tural Producers* Cooperatives", op» cit.., p 375»

40. ftsgjâtions °£ ^^^culturoj^ôducers'^^«--», op* cit., p~35f" • ~" ~~ '"" * """

41» See ^nn£^.k^_Ktog^>aos 1954» ho 21, p 13»

42. ibid,

43. Chun^-kuo Nung-pao, 1954, 80 13, p 11.

44» ibid.

45» This report was recommended by the Ministry of Agricul- ture of the KHR as a handbook for leaders of work bri-;

gades« The ministry emphasized that the matter of aid to agricultural producers' cooperatives in the organization of labor and calculation of work has, at the present stage, become one of the deciding links in strengthening'the development of agricultural cooperatives. (Chuns'-küo liun.ß~pao, 1954s Ko 13, p 11.

46, See Re&ujLaj^^ op. cit* p 347 " " '"" '""

-60-

47* ■Chung-kuo Nune«r5ao, 1954« Ho 13, p 12«,

40, 'Chung-kuo Nung»pao, 1954$ No 2« p 13«

^9« Chî^Jmo^jÄ^âOj 1954, $o 13, P 12»

50» ^hung-kuo,. i%mg;-°pao» 1954» No 21, p 14*'

51« ibid»

52» £kyS£rfei|o_|hffigâOj 1954» No 13, PP 10» 12*

53. "Many men are very dissatisfied with this. They still think that women are credited with more units than they deserve« To prove this, Chang Yui-ling competed .with-. some women in tying bunches of radishes»- He tied 600

-bunches, but some of the women tied 800 of them.« At 'this. Chang gave up his argument.»" {Ghung-kuo Hune-pao, 1954, No 13, p 12U

54* Chune-kuo NuiiE-pao, 1954» No 13, P 12»

55* "Se"e Sotsialisticheskiy jpodMyem v kitayskoy dereyne (Socialist 'Rise in the Chinese Village), Moscow/ 195&«

5-6» Regulations J^Â^ricultural^ Producers^_j^—» op* cit., ■ rpP 3F-37T""

57. ^hjin^kuo^Hun^^P^ 1953, No 3, P 26.

53« ibid»

59» Hsjiöhj^hsii Peiping, -1952, No 4, p 3ö*

60* £hjün£ûp_ûn^^gao, 1954$ No 13, p 10.-

61, ibid», p 11,

62, Hsiao Hung-lin, op* cit., p 125; Ch'en Ch'ih, ^LASSL' SyM^lii^ Shenyang, *1954j P "2§7Hflin Chine sei r

63, 'Ag&a^nYJ£§LJ2i!^^ Kitajre, op * cit *,. p 319T

■64« ibid.» pp 321-322,

65. ibid., pp 322-323«'

-61-

66. Mao Tse~tung, op* eil. 5. Vop^£^M9J^Ö^2XMfiX!L--"::» P 23« •

6?« See Eä^Ml..Äi£llZ> 1955» No 8, p 1/,:»

.60* Hsnxe.h.-hsi » 1952? No 4» P 32.

;69* ibid«,

70. ibid«

71, Agrarnjxe ^^tP^!^vJ^l^^^lJP&r0^rif:i^M&BXî °P* ci*«» *p J25: '

72» H^jish^hsi., 1952, No 45 P 32.

73* M^2^^^^ °P* CitM ■■■ p 324.

74. Into this went the following; four single-plowshare . i plows, a harrow, a seeder, two rollers (for sealing the moisture into the soil), and a harvester,

75'» One shang in the Northeast equals one hectare»

76. See Ch^m^kîJlnn^îQy 1953, 'Ho 23, p 33 •

77. ibid*

7$* ibid.

79« Hsugh^hsi, 1952, No 4, P 32.

'80, ibid., p 32* Hare and elsewhere sums of money are given as calculated on the exchange value of 1955*

Öl. ^tsiaHstlcheskix^ßod'ijreiRjf kitzy&kv&jtergvxte, °P« c±t*t p 4?x)7 "

82. ibid«, p 453*

83. According to the regulations of agricultural producers' cooperatives, an ownar could not sell his cattle to a second party without the consent, of the cooperative . (Article 26', -point 1). See Regulations of Agricultural ?X'2^£§ll§JLjir.'l> op. cit., p 20*

'84. See Hej3hej}lje_Sh^ßtc^äp_~—,, op« cit., pp 15» 17•

»62-

8p» xbxd.«j p 8« ;

;ö6* 9M;o^skLX®n^sM-Us ^-955* No k, P 96. *

07. £Mn|^chi^Yen^c^ 1955, No 2, p 95. ( ',

'ÖÖ. ibid», p 96«

,$9» ibid, j p 97»

i908 .Li Shun-ta, The J^ricultu^^ He aded. by JLi.llM^ilZISll^S2iES§SllJ£SSES£äfeiSS§-jiSä l^^aT7ST"Teams7^Shiii"ihai„ 1952 lin ChineieJT

■'.91* China-chi Yen-chiu, 1955* Ho 1, p 15«

92» M§MBl2^Jältäl2£SL,^«^» op» cit.» p 12»

10,160

""ö3*T

CHAPTER III

GLASS STRUGGLE IN THE J/iLLAGE AND }M^MS^i?"WiJ&ii AßT .ClAS^

The socialist reorganisation of agriculture in China was developing in the form of a severe class struggle,

Tha poor peasants (beftgyak) and the lower middle- class peasanta, which constitute 60-70$ of the egricul- tural population, were the leading power that supported the movement for a. socialist reorganisation of the village;

The Communist Party, relying on the poor peasant,' endeavored to strengthen the union with the wealthy serednyaks and, uniting thus more than 90$ of the peasarts in one wide front of struggle for socialism, tried to bring into existence successful co-et>©ration in the .field ;

of agriculture. The wealthy serednyaks in China formed a mere 20-

30$ of the agricultural population* Having at their disposal a comparatively large quantity of landf manpower and inventory, they were receiving relatively high returns and income, and some of the??, exploited hired labor to a. small degree,. Tha wealthy ssreaxiyokz hesitated bat/ween the two roads of development of the village? that of socialism and that of capitalism«

Until the mass riss of the cooperative movement in the second half of the y^r 3.955» certain agricultural workers, seeing that sorae wealthy sersdnyaks had more means of production and better agro-t.ashnical experience, tried to get them into the cooperatives by all meana, sometimes even violating the principle of voluntary agreement»

However, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China condenmod these acts and emphasized that ?i!,s!\ of,a11* the^cooperatives should invite the bedayaks •* .... .,«... . ^

Under the conditions of a revolutionary movement

-64-

in-the Chinese village and under the influence of the growth, of the agricultural production and income* of peasants in the"cooperatives, the upper sections of 'the serednvaks began to turn to the socialist side*

* In. the'second half, of 1955 and in 1956, wealthy serednyakß finally stopped hesitating and, next to bedny- aks and 'lower groups of .-serednyaks, started actively to join the cooperatives»

The'socialist reconstruction of agriculture inevit- ably requires a liquidation.of kulak holdings» but in various countries the means of liquidation may vary in .. conformity with the respective historical; conditions and the relations of class forces»

•In the Chines© People's Republic, the ComiBMnist Party has used peaceful methods in. .accomplishing the. socialist revolution both in the city and in- the ■■country. One.of these peaceful methods of liquidating the kulak holdings was that.admitting kulaks into-the agricultural cooperatives with .the final goal, that of their re-education through labor* ■

- "in old Shins.? under the conditions of the semi- colonial - and semi-feudal systems, 'Capitalism did not develop in 'Industry or agriculture* The kulaks formed only . about 5% of the agricultural population and they, possessed 10-2-0$ of the total arable land,1 As a result of the. insufficient development in industry and transportation» predominance of primitive agriculture in the village, constant-wars among militarists» and absence of a common market, the -income"from .coairaer.eial agriculture was-less secure -than the natural land rent» For that reason' many of the'kulaks did not operate their farms in a capitalist manner but gave their land on lease and, receiving income in-the form of rent, occupied them.se.ives with usury and business transaction* Oa the eve of the

:agrarian reform, the' results of investigation in villages of Hunan Province showed that. 40$ of the entire kulak. land was leased out, and in Honan Province -- 33%*

The Kulaks used almost.no agricultural machinery. for land cultivation, and practised'agriculture, by backward methods-, using manual labor and farm animals. Con- .sequently, the kulak farms in China cannot be-considered ■

' completely capitalist; they had, to a-considerable extant, a semi-feudal character.

As a' result of the agrarian reform,'the kulaks were weakened economically when they lost a part of the land, which they had been leasing* The peasants were freed fro« debt obligations toward the landlords and kulaks«,- Moreover;,' the kulaks -found themselves iir

' -65- ■

political isolation. "The agrarian transformation did not only destroys in the sphere of economic relation®, the landlord, class and weaken the position of the kulaks» • but it also completely destroyed the landlords and politically isolated., the kulaks» Vast masses of the thinking peasantry looked upon the exploitation by the landlords and kulaks as a shameful thing*n^ At the moment of the basic completion öf the agrarian reform in China, . the kulak farms formed 3*&% of th© co\«jßtryfs total agricultural units, and they represented 6,4^ of China's arable land»4

In the first period after the agrarian reform, there was noted a tendency toward a certain revival of kulak farms. Kulaks were buying land from needy peasants, granting high-interest loans, etc«

The initial movement for agricultural cooperation was bound to provoke an aggravation of the class struggle in. th© country« The cooperative movement appeared to be at the same time a.process of a gradual restriction and liquidation of the kulaks as a class»

The kulaks and the former landlords reacted with an embittered resistance against the socialist reconstruction of th© village» They committed acts of sabotage and arson, murdered activists,, .spread false rumors, eta«, In. the village Siafa of the Yunnan Province, shortly after a cooperative »as established» enemies set fire to.it, _ destroying all homes and buildings of the local population»5

In X-t*ungiJyessd of Kirin Province, kulaks poisoned the cattle belonging to the cooperative»^

Wherever kulaks penetrated the mutual aid teams and the cooperatives, they took the leading positions into their hands and exploited other members of the organisation» We night mention as an example the false mutual aid team of 11 Tu-kuei* This kulak suddenly became a partisan of the new movement in the country and organized ; a "mutual aid*' team which was joined by 12 farms* Li Iu«kuei had 12 Worses and several hundreds mou of land, and among the members of the group there were eight who had no horses at all» Th© following order was established in this groups from the beginning, the peasants were ■ cultivating the land, of Li Yu«kuel, and only later, when the times for sowing or harvesting were almost past, were they permitted to attend to their own land.7 The result of sia&l&r acts of kulaks was discrediting to the very idea of cooperation»

The kulaks also triad to propagate the slogan of "equality** when organizing mutual aid teams and «©operatives which consisted in joining the wealthy to the wealthy

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and. %faM poor to tit© poor* They furmM %utu&I &Mn teams ; into-whish th&f aoetpt.@d oaly kal&k .f&nas» I» Urn .yiilage^ is X&<*h»l©ii Iljtut ©f.tto Province of" Ghekia&g». .fir® kulak I farms 'formed a -mutual aid tea.® which did not 'admit' asy -i ■ btcMyaks or s&rediiyaksu" 1B tk report of ■ Mao'Ts®**fcusag ■ .;. at [email protected]© of --Secretarl«» of th© Previ&eialj,. City»' I ami .Rayon Coamitteeä of'-.the C.PC, on July .31.»' 1955» it •: ,i was stated that in mm® village? of th© ■Heilua^ciaag Pr©*»,: i ¥ißü# exist, the ■ following iMbÄithj .c©Editionss n$hM ' \ strong s#@k the strong and shun, th« poor peas&ntsÄ

t and - Rkulakg and .wealth,? .farmer» are taking advantages and _. ■;. establishing baalcT lg¥@i brigades, or' in ©thar words, ■

W&®n ba®ie-»i«vel cooperatives fec*gan t©-%@ formed, \.| kulaks tried to infiltrate- &nd oeeupy the key* • positions . A 'in order fee mKlsrsia© th© cooperatives frefii" ifithisi. .Where they wtre successful, they intentionally isiereasM J the profit sharess for wfc'ich the acreage was a basis8 . <; txploit^c! btctsjak®,, stood ist.th® way of iacreaslag fe.b© - .j i»divisible funds, hired laborers who »rked. for- them. .. . :, \ ia .the cooperatives» «ste» I», other eases® the cooperatives'; disintegrated an result of the tusderslßtßg activities \ \ of th© kulaks and other rm,®ti©aary e.i«esitg»':.-'." : ■;

In th© volost of Eyaiseliaa in Sfe@»&8i@B Uyesd in '. .; Höpeh Province, the ifi®,sag«®Tj.t of • cooperatives was in th»' ;: hands,, of kulak eiesse&ta* " Out of 2? pr@sid@atss -fie^- president®* aid chief eattia-breedsrs of the coo'p«rativas'>j only oae was a /•feedßy&k» Tlissa ''leader®1* wer® iacreasizig ■■;• th© i&öosis paid &©c©r<iiBg to th® ■acreage and tke "aumfe©r „^ of fan« aisisjalsj fiadlag; exorbitant rates öffi.sfeares,'-et««î

. In. some cooperativess th© -principle öf eonesfttratiiig OB th® poor psaaaiiis was. ignored * Is such ©©operative.® -;•'.-" they thought", that si use th@ bedsysks wer© not powerful,.. | it was a batter policy to attract wealthy farmers tö th© j .cooperative* la 1955* is the tillage of Peishanga© of ! the Shantung Proi&n©®.» 90 bedsyaks applied oh several occs.sio»s for acted sales to th® eoop©ra,ti¥© but ©-wry bi» thej- w@r© refused *«. la the Had«lwi %'®i«i of th© HeiXui&g» kiaag Provide© a 'majority of ssreds-yaks and beiayaks were ? ©ft@s put into such a. position'that th©y were «aside to- l

joiE the cooperatives» Th® kulak® whs [email protected] th© cooperatives began to 4©nl in -aûry* In oae of the:vill«» j aget of the llyeidg out, of 134 h©ttB@hoids 53 rtcaived iotjssi &fc 50^ p»a«s a,s.d ia c«rtsiia eag©®'».;®Yâ at 100^ p*®,®*-%

\ xfee 4uss'tioa of the leadiiig poi-itie»© is th® coop- -i ©ratines' was of great importaiaee;" actually» It. usdsriaj ; the ' exist®».c© of this forat of org&aias&ticm» A'■coo'p»rative' ia .which ieadftrship i«®.® ia hands of ths kulaks eoiiM i

>7»

be.tsoiM» a &ount«r«reva.Iu?,:I on&ry factor», T&« people*» gosreny&ent directed the» «struggle of

the peasaait» against the' destructive activities of the former landowners and kulak« who stood up against cooperation, ' Until the beginning of the usass development of the cooperative moveiaent, fonaer landowners and kulaks were denied admission to the isutual aid tearas and cooperatives* It was forbidden to admit to the s&utusl aid teams the» 'persons who leased large quantities of land,*3 to', cade la&d to th« group without active participation in the 'production process^ and to-hire fana labor.

The Party policy in the village, after the agrarian reform, concentrated on the restriction and gradual liquid» atlon of' production, rAarketing, speculative, and usurious activities of the kulak class. Buying and selling of land, hiring or labor, trade $ and granting of loans ware permitted only to a certain extent. The development of kulak fa»s-was subject to control by the people's» government, which -defined the conditions for hiring of-labor, rant, buylr«g'and' selling of land, maximum' interest charge» on loans» 6to» The taxing policy also represented,a means .of curbing kulak power* Kulaks contributed in the £&xr& .of taxes, up to 30$ of their total production — approximately twice as.much as the sersdny&ka«-*^

Government financial aid to the peasants had a great significance in the establishment of the cooperative system and the restriction of kulaks, as well as in the development of credit and market cooperation in th© vill- ago* * .'

The growth of th« national income enabled the govern*- '■went' to grant credit to cooperatives and individual bedn- yaks for payment of shares when they joined cooperatives« :

The volume of the agricultural credit was increasing as follows:***

(in saiil'ion yuan,)

xean ^J^L^^^B^^^Jä^^^^M^k 232L—JL25& ■ 3ö262 693 «2 1127.1 1134« 1434. 3200,

An extraordinarily great nus&ber of loan» was given to poor peasants for payment of shares in th® period of th» expansion of the cooperative movement» Thus, in 1956 loans amounting to 600 nilllon yuan were granted to 40 million b$dnyak fsams» 'i.e. more than 30# of all farms in China•x'

The government fought against the kulaks* usurious

«DP"

aatitritias also through bank loans to- peasants aM-a general d©v@lopi»@nt of credit cooperatives,

'* . The ©stabilshment of & broad credit -cooperative network ©ad® it' possible to coace&tr&te the .free and dispersed funds aM utilisso them-for th© expansion, of agricultural production and thg liberation of peasants from the 'usurers'.oppression*^^

Sines tha -peasants could get & loan ia the credit cooperative- at a. low interest charge # they c@as©d to apply to tha kwl&fc »usurers,' &ad the- latter were gradually forcsd, to discontinue their usurious activity and bring their capital to the credit cooperative» in th@ for® of share©«.,

For instances &m investigation of 57 villages of ■ ■ ShBMst and Kirlss Provinc«® iß 1955 showed that 20? uawr« ••. ®rs of these tillages deposited 30s000 yuan ia the -credit cooperatives«.!* ."

The result of aa investigation of -159 'Villages is »evan provinces proved that in 1953 .(before-the organ!aa« tioa ©f" a credit eoopsrativ© in these villagas) tha ■" usurers' were patronised fey 2570 farms, whereas in 1954 9fi (after foundation of credit cooperatives) -* by $0 farms«*0

• ---Credit «©operatives whieh enjoyed a groat popular» ity among the. peasant s'j. who called tfaaa "our little banks" j granted in 195o loan© is -the total amount of 1,500 million yma« Peasants* 'savings ia interest charges for'the period.' of ©sly six ©oaths of the year I95o (compared to ■ what was.usually ch&rgsd by th©..-usurers) amounted to 300 jäBilliö.a yuan» This money could buy "two ad.lli.on tons of gralau

; The miasber of tha credit cooperative» was groid.Bg fast« By the end of 1956» they existed in 97%:of--the total■-volosts in the armtry and'they comprised'77* 2$ of all peasant households«21 ■ ■ ' -'

Ail important role iß th© d®v©Xop»i»t of the cooperative JU0¥em3£&t &&d the restriction of kulaks was played toy supply«a«Ld»s©rvlces cooperatives*^2 Through the supply«a5ad«S8rvlcea cooperatives, tha gonrancuaoat trad» organisations supplied tins peasants with merchaadis® at reduced prices and bought agricultural' products and raw - - materials« .Th@ purchases and retail trad® volume'.of the' marketing cooperatives was coatinually i»«sr@asing |^}e23

10rs0 ' 1<H1 1QK,.?

Vfeltwe of purchases 100 ' 341 775 1125 1612 Volume of retail trad.® --- . 100 295 . 30$ $91-

lift addition, the rsuasfow of eupply^&ad^sorvic©« .'cooperative® was growiag, and fcetw-aeh' 1949 ß'ad 1956 thai? . meubdrehip incrsaaed from 10*6 niillcm to 162 Million, i.«*, almost 16 tim®«*2* .Orgaaizi&g th© contract systas». In ©oapllAace with tha gpvernis^nt prica policy,, the ■.. supply ~and«-servi cos cooperatives movmmni helped the gov- = #ram$nt to obtain the ttecess&ry quantity of raw material» j for industry and food for th« population»

Beginning i» November 1953-, the goveraaewt gradually ifötrodueed the system of planned purchases and dis« ; tribution of grain, cotton and certain other foaaic agricultural products,

Tha peasants pledged to sell to tfes> goveraaeat 'organisations surplus®® of grain, oil-bearing crops and cotton at prices fixed by the go veraas«» t«:

The introduction of the pl&naod purchases system led to a rapid growth ia th« voluee of agricultural products purchases. This laeasur© dealt a critical blow to th« kulak®, as th© possibilities of their «ttriehauwat through asarket speculation wars sharply curbad.

the govsrruaent, by controlling the &ph®r& of cir- culation , protected the working«peasants fro» exploitation:

and rulsu However, tha aental weapon in th« struggle agaiaat the progress of capitail eis in th« country wore producer*a cooperatives» this is confirmed by the dimin- ishing quantities of land that wars sold, which was du® ; to the development of production cooperatives« In 11 uyeaid® of th© Heoah Province s farmors sold 7199 hectare» ia 1951» 5714 ha" in 1952,, 4903 ha in 1953, 2265 ha in i 1954 and.51* ha in 1955.**

Th® rapid de¥©lopjß«nt of socialist reforms contrl- ■ but«d to the isolation and gradual liquidation of tho reaanant of the capitalist class in tfee vill&g»* In the end a situation .arose when, to. us© tfto words of th© kulak». th©sas€*lve®t

wyou wastod to hire a jsaa asd there *r&g no on&[ to be hired; you^&Rted to offer a' loan aad there was no one to take i't.*^

AM early as in 1954» I»lu .Shao-chi mentioned in th« report »On the ßraft of the Constitution of the G*P*H.«W

"that the kulak far»a do not da-velop in an ascending-but a descending liaQ««»«ee&ch kulak as a», average has only twic® as auch l&öd as the awrag« paasaat.« Th© majority of old kulak farma hire vary littl® labor if any at all, the usurers* activity has abatedt and their influxes ili- the sph»ra of ooBU&dro« is considerably limited•"*' Th« kulak farms constituted ia 1954 2.1$ of all far&a ia the country.A». The enormous d©v©lopi8.s.at of th« producer*s coop®ra—

-70-

ti¥'S miremmit,, gpmmk- of th® siippi|?âsd«s@r?ici@s and cm*»-; dlt .cooperatives, atid.ths central!»eel purchasing aad .. 1 selling ■ system whieh wa.s put iei<» practise.- t wtr5 e@rl@usljf undtnduisg the positions of eapitali®& in the village•- ■ This resulted ia &n increasing .resistitac® of the kalaka ! 'and a part of the.wealthy ser#dsyaks 'to t&es© measures* ■ : $öm@ of the Xo^&l leading workers t fM,ght@»©d by the : • :Aggravation of th© class struggle and hesitatioa of the r! wealthy serednyaks, began tö'"assert that th« ©rgaaiêd, I cooperatives could not fo@ eoasolidated,-that th© pace of : cooperatives d.@¥@i©p»8at wae too r&pi$» .Maiataißiag that; it was ßöcessary to' slow dows. the pao®. of the dwelöpmsiit '■ of cooperatives', -tteöy followed the rlgfatîag „©pportmaist:

eoursä, that of a» absolute redue-tios öf the "farmers* ; eooperstifes* * •

Bi'iiSg. in th€s province of Chekia».g, out of 53aCX> cooperatives, IJLGOQj 'tot&lliag 4^0,000* faras, di'&lat® grat©4 at ones«^9. ' ■ ,

.Th« right wing deviation, was subjected to sever« criticism in the resolutions of the Sixth Plsxmsi of th© CO of the Q?0 which convened in October 1955*30

The plemsis pointed out that the'right-wing''devia- '. tion expressed the -demaads of th® bourgeoisie and impulsiv« capitalist @i®»stä is. the couutry* The workers who"

-.supported this right-wing deviation,* decided.-the plenum, ; had BttTrendör-sd to th®' ©ieiaeatal capitallet forces in ; th® countrys teecaise estranged from the masses j, forgot ; about th© firs resolution to briii'g onto the road t© socialism th© foedayak» and a, large part of the a$w and old serednyaks whose sß&terial prosperity could be straa» ■- gthsaad.paly through cooperatives« The plemaa brought- .'- out tbjrta.sk of increasing the active leadership-in the rto¥@«at for producer*® cooperatives &nü wsrked out organ* inational principles väiich beearae ;f©imd.at-iöns of tfea node! regulation's of th«? agricultural-producer*® cooperative«

The c-rltieis® is the Sixth' Plefttm ©f the right-wiiig; .deviation, the policy of further development of th® ©o* operative m&rmmn&t &sd the consolidation of th® leader« - ship'ia this moves»©at incited a rapid rist -of cooperatives in all the-villages'in .the eouhtrj*. ;

Experience Ms clearly proved the- eorrectnsss of . ; th© cos.ciuaioB.s of th® Sixth Plmim ©f the CO- of th© CPG i that the majority of peasants- waafc to take the socialist ; road, »i the task ofth© Party is to eacour&ge tfels ;'

-initiative« .Iß all provinces of tfa© country, peasants? | especially feediiysks aad looser sections .of s©.r©dnyaks, stood decisively on tlie read of dooperatloa»

Iß th© emasr of 1955.S producer*-» cooperatives ■

..-71-..

-included 16.9 million farM»,-'-*- but at the and of 1955 they -enbracad 75 Million (ainost 63$) faras in China.32 By the end of 1955, China already had 1,900,000 cooperatives, i.«e« almost three time» as many as before the fall harvest• They cultivated siore than 1 billion nou, or approximately 6i$ of the total arable land of tha country«.*-*

In January, 1956, the producer's cooperatives included 00$ of all farsasj ona month later «in. February - 67$j and in March about 90$ of all farms«

Under such conditions, a clear differentiation could b© observed anong the kulaks» Only a few pursued their hostile or wait-and-see policy when the great »ajcrity of former landowners and kulaks were forced to accept the socialist reconstruction of the village and began to apply for admission into cooperatives,'

Taking into consideration all these circumstances, the Central Co»ittee of the GPC presented in January 1956, in the•"Draft of the Fundamental Features of the Plan for a Development of Agriculture Between 1956 and 196?", concrete methods for the liquidation of kulaks by other than forcible means» In the plan it was pointed out that it is possible to adraifc Into cooperatives'kulaks and former landowner« divided into three categories. Those who renounced exploitation and observed all laws of the national government were permitted to become members of cooperatives and could change their social status and call themselves peasants» Other» who advocated the passive or ' neutral policy were admitted as candidates for naembership in cooperatives* Finally, the negatives ones received the opportunity to rehabilitate themselves through labor, under the supervision of the Members of the cooperative* In regard to all these persons, the principle of ."equal reward for equal'work" was adopted«. Nevertheless* none of theaa would be pemitted to assume a. position of authority for ä definite period» All means of production belonging to the kulaks hecaate collective property without any remuneration.

Permitting kulaks to join the cooperatives, the Party embarked practically on the policy of complete liquidation of kulaks as a class»

During 1956 almost all kulaks and former landlords were permitted to" join cooperatives or work in them under . eitiaen supervision.» According to statistical data, in the early liberated areas $0$ of the kulaks and former landlords were admitted to membership of cooperatives, 40# as candidates, and 20$ worked under the people's supervision»-^

-72-

Th* peaceful liquidation of kulak f&rais does not signify that thsy were developing into socialism« Ms solution presented itself as a result of & severe class struggle in the -village, a struggle with the attempts of the kulak to hamper arid "wreck the cooperative movement. Combining the flexible policy of labor-educating the wavering and loyal kulaks"and the policy of strict punish« meat and compulsion of hostile elements Rot responsive to persuasion, the Party achieved'a great success in the liquidation of the last expediting class in the -village.

The rapid pace of socialist reforms in the village ©cabled acceleration of the socialist reconstruction of capitalist industry and cojsamerce* as well as that of cottage industry«

1» uferpdngy Kitay, 1957, No 2, p 10«

2. 'Mo-Yueh-ta, DeyelojAt^ AgEiSü^^JäES-SIiiyälJS^Sfl» Piping,, 1957, P 145 (in "^hineselT

3. Liu Shao-ch*if "Political Report of the Central Commit- tee —-n, op. cit., .in MBX^,^j_JUlJiseMlM§M^ s^ye zda --.-. PP 13-14»

'4* Mil^YJZlUI^^ (World ' Socialist" System of Ecöno!isyT7""ivIosc"öw-j T95Sj, p 1?6.

5. Delyusin, L*} VeJj^jjr§_^ (Great Changes in the Chinese vlXlagelT^oscow, 1957, P 139. '

6. ibid.

7* 2l32ää.f 11 September 1953«

$• Kuang^min^.^Jih-pap ^ Peipiftg, 4 January 1955«

9« See Mao .Tse-tung, op* cit«, Voprosy, kooperirpvaniya --, pp 29-30*

'10* ^m^^32.1mE^m2., 1955, No 3, P 12..

^" SrüShha.» 26 November 1955«

12. JLhjin^^mo^ 1954, -Ko 24, p 13 •■

13* The amount of owned arid rented land of those entering

'"• -73-

mutual aid teams could not exceed twice that which its owners could till without outside halt), ';

14* This was not valid for those incapable of working, wid- ows, and the families of workers and public servants.

15. Li Ch»eng~jui, »The Agricultural Tax in New China", tfe^£OÜLll&ä£s 1953, No 22, p 13),

:16. Together with unpaid balances of loans granted in previous years. Ragyitiye ekonomiki gtran 'narodnqy, derpo- ^n^lL.AMk (Development of the Economies of The Asian People's Democracies), Moscow, 1957, p 174.

*7* £earMlLiiil^32äe.> 27 December 1957.

lö» i^5=Säi£LjJ3iJr.S§fi> 12 September 1955«

19. ibid0

20. ibid*

21 • lkroclSZL_Ki^v, 1957, Ko 2, p 15.

•22. In Old China the peasants usually sold their produce to middlemen, who stood betvreen them and the consumer, and who.paid for this produce only 25-3035 of Its market value.

23. Zharain, V. A«, Sotajialjnq-skoncîcheskiy,e__preobrazova- V^äJL^SllMSBj^S^äM^^^ rSoclal-EconoraTc Trans- formations in Agriculture in the CPR), Moscow, 195$p 19Q

24* Kok'arev, N. Ac, £totj&a]J.sticJtesko^^ f^^p^Jchj^^ya^^ Resgublike ■. (The Socialist Transformation of Agriculture"in the Chinese People's Republic) >• Moscow, 195Ö, p 65»

25. i^fXiaJxJî^^^^^ sobraniya SäS^dnxlshjêd^tsjêlejr, op. cit., p 4§"* * " """"•

■26» £rü.SßMj 5 March 1957.

27. Liu Shao-ch% 0 proyekte Konstitutsii KItayskoy Nar- ^£20^SEHfe3iM. £°n the Planned Constitution of t he Chinese People's Republic), Moscow, 1954, p 26,

20. Mo Yueh-ta, op. cit«, p 147,

«•74-

29« See Mao Tse-t\mgs op* eit** Yo£r21E-JS2£l^tlä£SI^il§^^is:

;30» S^^®MX^§iLtJJd;2ia2^r™lj op. .cit«. ' ■ '

131.' See Mao Tse-tung, op, cit». Voorosy kooperirovaniya -><-.- p '6. ..■■'.

132, "Bulletin of the State Statistical Administration -~*-nV: op* cit« j {fer-qdnvf JKitay> 1956, No 14, -Supplement,-

133» ibid« _..., :

.34* Mo Yueh-ta, op» cit.-, p 149*

-75*

CHAPTER I?

AaffiCmjgJRAL PRODUCER^. CQÖPÖUTJVE3 1 OTA HicaiTTsocrj^is^oliWr .*i* H>-ruAt<«

Bas^charjMteriay^

■, The first agricultural production cooperative* of the socialist type appeared in China in the period of the restoration of the public economy. They were not numerous, wer© o-f'an experimental character, and acre often than not were set up on state (including unused) lands. The

• government supplied these establishments, comprising up to 500 households, with draught cattle and agricultural ImpI&iB&ntsi*

The first .large-scale higher order cooperative "Hai&huo" was created in 1951 in the former province of Sungchiang at a distance of 20 km fro» the city of Chla- muasu.i By the end of the following year. 1952, there were already ten such cooperatives* in China, aainly in the north-east* The whole country closely followed the development of their public economies and rendered them support*

Cooperatives of the higher order also sprang up in the first part of the firut five-year.-plan, ?his usually occurred la the case when ©ach of the peasant« transferred to the cooperative roughly equal amounts of ,. lands and other msans of production as, for example, was seen in the village of Sanmoku in the Huan-;&o Uyessd of the province of Shanei*3

A radical turning-point in the aovenent toward the socialist reconstruction of the villages led in the second half of 1955 to a rapid growth ia the number of higher order cooperatives* Beginning in 195o they became the basic fein» of the production, grouping of peasants in the country, ■

All basic means of production in cooperative» of the higher order, as in the kolkhosses of the Soviet Unionff

-?6~

constituted collective property«4 Th,® presene© of public property among the aie&B'S

of pr©4uctioa signified the liquidation of coadltiohs' £®r the origin of «xpleii&tio».'■ All membsrs of the c@op« er&fciv© filled/in production, 'positions'of equal standing! the relations among thek wer®' fouhded on principles of mutual aid and collaboration« .

Th® distribution of incomes in'the higher order cooperative was carried out an a labor basis, i.e.» in accordance with socialist prised pits* The cooperatives kept before thesssiws the goal «•» to provid® a prosperous aad cultured life for all their sssrahers or* the basis of iKpro¥®m©ät in production*

In. the KIE private property of the' eooperati?® mem«; bers existed in the form of small agricultural lmpl®mtktnt ■ domestic cattle and. fowl and so an» There was apportioned to the members of th© cooperative parsoB&l plots of land» whose area. mu&% not ©xe®@ds for on© Msnaber*» family» tea p©re@nt of the Mad'area which v/as the average of the holdings' of aaeh''member of the give» village«?

'/At the sause 'time thers existed, definite differences between-the' socialist eooptr<a.ti¥©s of China, 'aad the kolk» kosse® of the 'Soviet üßi©ris rcilatiag to th®'specific feat«»

■ures of the foiitiäiag of the agrariaa amd socialist trass»-' formation in the CMses© village aad t© co&erete historical eonditiohis in the development of agriculture in China•

'In th© IfSSE laad ia tha.property of -the state ©ßd is giv^n to the kolkhoss«® for perpetual•«@a* In Chiaa

■after the victory of the rafoiiitioK tha landlords*'land was .divided anosg th© peasantry and given to th« as property« .Therefore,-ther© was aiao set 'aside in tht higher order cooperative temporarily recosip®»8ation for th« laadof persons who had lost the capacity for wsrk aad who had ia th®' past existed by a©ar*,$ of iae@©n from lands given in lease* Person® who worked and'resided ia the town ware periodically paid off in dsteriaiiifd reameratiott by th® cooperative for their laact holding®*®

■Upoiti the alien&tloa of the csoopsrative's land und«r state construction the state usually paid compensation ia the aiaoisat of two to four yearly harvests from this land (d&p&ßäing on the fertility of the land and the living standard'of the psasants}*? '

On® of the characteristic features of the aovement towards eoop®ration ia the Sfeines© uillag© was th© fact that it significantly left behind the process of forming • & aaterial-teohiiical basis £QT sod all am- ia th® agriculture of th© country• Th« productive basis of th« eoopera* tire was"quit© work; all &grlcultural work was carried

»JO •

basically vrith the aid of draught snisula e.ad with labor« Iowa haad labor*

The level of the development of the productive • force» in th« higher order cooperative lagged behind adfe&neod socialist production relations* and the '«weist* tag material»technical basis did sot correspond to the demands ©f the aoc-isiist method of production» In the bagLttning of 195$ there was cultivated only 2*7 percent of the land wrk©d.., with the aid of machines.

However, these cooperatives were able to show their obvious superiority over the small peasant holdi&gfi» This. is accounted for by the fact that the cooperation of the peasantry labor, th© unifying of lar»d into one holding, and the addition of simple implements of production gave rise to a new and higher productive fore«.

. .Other features of the cooperative» in China also existed, related to the specific character of their formation and the socialization of the lasjans of production« In the latter there can he considered the» establishment of a firm «hare of the expenses of each individual peas« > ant household entering into the cooperative and also the purchase by th© cooperative of draught cattle and tha large-scale agricultural tools of their msaibergs«,

la China the peasants entering into a higher order cooperative did not x&ake payments into an indivisible fund (excluding th® kulaks and the- former landlords)«, The fozaiation and the replenishment of the Indivisible fund was carried out mtlnly as the result of the cooperative's purchs.se of roeans of production, which remained with the peasants after entering a sk&rcs of the expenses, : as a result of tha deduction frost tha gross income in the form of money and in kind, and also by »«ans of the replenishment of* the public property which was -constructed. by the collective labor of the cooperative »ember».

lit the Chinese cooperatives, as a rule, a f\md alao /was fonaad for the betterment of the/public wlfa.ro, ■ _ 'v which was intended: l)for the delivery of gra»tE~in- aid to the aged emd non-working members of the cooperative, allowances in the case of illness or mutilation, and also allowances for pregnancies and births; 2) for the upkeep of schools,, kindergartens and nurseries; 3) for the finencing of la&es-cultural work«

Thus» the common funds of the higher order cooperatives in China: were comprised of•gteere payments (bj tex and by inventory, and so on), exi indivisible fund aid. a fund for the betterment of public welfare.

If during the first period after the formation of the cooperative there was» as a rule, for the moat

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part'a share'f$ur?.&y then subsequently its-size did not '" ©bang© (If mm does not consider its replenishment upon the introd'aetlon of new. members', into the cooperative),

■but 'the indivisible fund grew frosi year to year. ;

. fhe basic principles of the mftn&geifctent of the affairs of- the cooperative wer© t|iase: the el-eotioh of all €trtto.o:2?ities, "the 3rf.gh.t- of the' cooperstive; members to- '• ol^ot «ajä be -elected to these authoritative bodies. ^ the

■Ä©föoant&'bllit;y- öf.'. tiife chairman and the board to i.the ge»»' ..©rail .a®et!isig ...of the cooperative ■ members 5. or to themeet-

■ iag:; of ^^^r-^sp^ese-ntatives« fho higher-orgazi of the cooperative was the gen-

eral meeting of the cooperative' members or the meeting of their.'representativesj which met not less-then twice' a yo&r sue! .fpj.fili.ecl the following functions!

-].') it'confirmed the'regulations of the cooperative and made corrections in thea:

•'■',. 2) it ©looted the chairman of the cooperative, the vice-«ch&irmajiv the members of the ^mmä^^-.' - end also the chairman' and the members of the- revisioh coaifiissiort^

'''-,.-,•. 5') it evaluated the i©ffctog,,esttie., :sgri:oÄtÄ?#l • tool«. is#-th© 'timber .pilots transferred.-to |mM.icp?cip^!# and it-set'the siae'Vf payments into the skaiO- fund; ■-.

' ■ 4) it .€mm$.im& <anä '.confirmed'' the. ptoducttOB-' pl.a©-.:-.: / ;^C--''£^V je^fc^^ foo'sa?«!;

SO it eoBfiraied the amount of -the ■ remuneration and allowances' to persons' occupied with -the work of the management bf.tha cooperative affair©?

~. ; 6) it studied and adopted tb® pl&& ,for tli#v4$,£rfe$Pirs'- ibfrtio» of '-siamai. isaoomes s- and" ih-'kiM &&& moBetairy■* ■ .. v, &dv&ace;s&i

7^ it &x&m5„ne& and approved the account of the" work, ©f the board and that of the reviaion commission; "

$) it carried out the admission of new ajeisbars'to the cooperative;'

. 9)'it'decided questions of the large-scale bonuses to cooperative si#aib®ra and the imposition of serious , penalties.cm'otbara, and also questions of the deprivation of the title of member of the cooperative and the*restoration ©f this title5 •

10) it-adopted decisions ©a other iiaportant ques» ■■ ticms of the activity of the cooperative•?

In the larga-sö&le cooperative® (upwards of 100

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households) funoUons of the general easing were realised »y the meaning of represents« vss elected fov the coopsra-

: ttvs tteetbsrs» "■ "• The nunbsr of the representatives, as a rule, was

not very large ~~ from 20 to 40 persona. In order for the '.assembly of th© representatives to have a truly repress»« tative character,'they were elected in dufinite proportions .frost various categories of kooperativ« members: fro» the adult population, the youth, the aged, the woaien* the

;Pf5J*r_.P°asaatl*#- **** »oderatsly successful and the prospsrous ; middle peasants." It there were in the cooperative representatives of national Minorities or Chinese ewigrants ;returned to the boKsland,Athdn from these thers were also elected representatives«*"

■ .. To the system of the meeting of the representatives :there was supplemented the periodic .rathering of old peas- .-ants who had rich experience in agricultural production. All this afiorded the broad masses to devslop initiative»

•' \For the guidance of all affairs end the econoaic :activity of the cooperative the general Besting elected a board 'the chairman of the board, hi« deputy, and alao a revision sommission.

;^ Usually 9»19 persona belonged to the hoard (depend« ■ing en the sis® of the cooperative}* The board was divided into ®ix to seven divisions {divisions of grain cropa„ vegetables, saiaal prcduca, general welfare» supplementary ;business, the preservation of general order'and BO on). each of which were under the direction of the members of the board, and each of Which consisted of »even to eight

■of the .moat active peasants» who ware recoauaended by the .general organisation. Th© divisions occupied with, ques» ■tions of production set themselves the objective of the

: study and the inculcation of advanced scientific «xnar* ienee &m the iaptoveiBettt of agricultural product© on this ^bi.gjia» The task of the division on general welfare was ;to provide aid to families who wars exnerisnciag hardships and also the organization of Brass-cultural work in < the village« .In sow.® cooperatives there were foraed divisions in charge of planning questions (which constituted production, financial, «nd other plans, and the vsr- . iflcation of their fulfillment), &nd aim divisions for the betterment of agrotechnics* The divisions for the maintenance of general order were occupied with Questions, in particular, of the re-education of the kulaks and the former landlord» who ware working in the cooperative«

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wa;«'j besides t&e 9-19 persons of the board, there were .drawn into'the supervising establish« aieat 40-«$0 of ttee most experienced and 'active ''peasants, .who took part'in the' various positions« Kits-accounted for the fullest carrying out of a policy of democratic management, and cultivated in the peasants, not long free from a yoke of feudalism, a [email protected] of being the authentic masters of the cooperative. ■ ~ '

The revision'commission was composed of five to eleven persons« As-a rule, representatives from all the production, brigades'-participated also in the revision -commission. The revision commission periodically gave an account before the general meeting' of the cooperative members. .'.'■".'.,

". ■ . The election of the chairman'of the cooperative, ■ of the- board members, the chairman and members of the revision, commission was set for once a year*

The.Communist Party and the -People's Government .of-China repeatedly in their resolution?» emphasised the necessity to enlist the initiative of the cooperative- -.members,'to'attract them to the management of the affairs-of the artel,'and'to widen a-cooperative deaiocra-.

After the radical change which took, place in the village when there was a replacement of the 100- million superfluous small peasant holdings with about 750 thousand large-scale cooperatives». the main portion, of the Party;5 s 'work in the 'village was the strengt nening of the cooperative "economy4.the consolidation and'development of democratic'.centralism in the cooperative.

Certain rural.cadre■workers did not resiiae that under the new conditions' there was required a yet greater" -developtaent of "democracy., & still wider-and more con~ sistent realisation of & policy of support by 'the masses in order to "draw froar the masses' and bear to the masses ..." - Thus, in individual cooperatives-there was observed the .emergence of 'ari administration and bureaucracy which inadequately took into consideration t&e opinions of the lower levels % frequently tlxe cadr-e workers drew apart from the -masses, and "somstiises"-evidenced such misuse of means that'the members'of the'artel did not know of the IneoHies sod ...the expend.! tuxes .$f. the coot? er stipes*

• Opposing these errors wen tiis instructions of the Tsk EPK. which all party -qomsittsas wsre directed to pub« "

■ lish regarding thr4© measures la the fielä of tJi® desaoö« . ratlc Biäßageaaent of affairs ia th©''cooperatives.'■"•

■■■• All fiRaacial affaira of'the- artel farm raust 'be-. Goad«0t@d oa lin$& of wl.de publicity* -.'Hi® board is ob-

.0.1-

lig&ted to regularly coäa^nis£t<& to the, seniors of th® ' cooperative a balancing of the income ae.l expenoitufa* If during the tims of the discussion a. majority of the cooperative »©sabers declared against sora& ©x.pans«, it ]• flsuat -be stricken off. Th«ra was »t&t©« ia the inetx'uc- tions that a broad diseuasicm by the »assas of the financial affairs of the cooperative would preclude mi»— msm&g&m&fit and would dissipate the resfsini.ng doubts of" the cooperative members*

la the second place.,, lu is nfccösa&ry to consult with tb.<& «Ass'^fi ia the resolution of all question» in the cooperative or in the production brigaste» Th« creation of &. l&rge-sceLö soci&list fars enabled th« continuous improvement in &grat»chplcs, a change in the system of land cultivation, the employment of new varieties of se'ed, and the utilisation of ?ttw agricultural ii&plea»xits# How- ever, th® Tsk KPK emphAsiftfed that- before the iwnüe&ticm of th@ae innovations, it is necessary to discuss thsaa .jointly with the masses, and to take inus consideration local föoilj, seasonal and other feat tires» The Tafe K.PK

-'recommended that each cooperative organise «,r. agrot©oh»iica.l impro¥©»©nt .commission to which jaust" belong oldwpeasants

;possessing valuable production experience*" F^rthanKors, i». each production brigade it followed that on« consultant should fee selected fro® a sws&ber of the ssost ©3cp®rienc*d «aejsfoers in order- to utilise to the fullest extern; the profitable experience of the masses»

In th« third place, th® Yak i£M ©uggosted that th» leading workers of th« cooperÄtiv« occupy "thcmselir«» with product!v© work, giving to it a coRßid«rabl® part of their tia©* Tfas personal participation of th& leader» in field work allowed these" to maintain closer contact "with ■ the m&ßQ&i to gain a. deeper miderstanding of concrete questions of product!©.&, and to bettor and &QF% function- ally direct the f&.rsa Furtharuo:re> the participation of th® loading cadre 1» production facilitated the" «surtAil*» aie'nt'. of adiaiaistr&tiir« ©xpen&efi*

After the publication or theaa rasolutions there was ■. unfolded in »any regions work toward the publishing of information oath® financial st.&tua of the eooper&tiivoa» ThuSj, in the province of Maps! the local party &^d govern-»' mental org&ns during the first half of 195? »-sat to tls eoop©rati?®s upwards of 6000 parsons, *iho wer« veraod in financial and accounting •Merk in ordert to provld» aid to tha coopsrativ©3 in verifying bookkeeping accounts, the inventories of property,' &nd to present the data obtained, before the j»r$ifo©rg of th© cooperatives« By th® aaiddle of 1957 £8$ of the cooperatives 1» the provinces

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■had already published cooperative* accoimts and inforsmtion on the artel property«-.12.

Planning, the Productive Work öf■th© Cooperatives

■ The gradual amalgamation of small peasant farms was at first lato mutual aid teams»-and then in cooperatives* It signified mors and mors favorable conditions'' for th©.advaace of agriculture ia the söitritr$- on the rails öf go¥©ramsatäl piaimiag» If ia the reformed villages it was difficult for the'göTsrameat tö direct the product!oft of the ^coordinated small pt&sast farsra? th«ia the socialist cooperatives» fouaded oil collective

■property, established themselves as"'the simpler basis for planning»

The methods of government plaimi&g in agriculture differ. fros the methods in the planning of industrial production, sine© la the cooperatives the basic'means of production and the resultant product® *?®r© 'the property of the cooperatives and sot of the gs&veraiaaat«

la order to' mtiiissfg store fully tlia production reserves arid to 'unleash a Arm initiativ® ia the broad masse® there was established, for th© cdop@r,&tiv©$ independence'in production, and ■ «umageiaest of the fax« lapoa reserving* th« gxiiciiag rsl® to goversseat plans« ..-

. The Central Qoiiaitte© of the EPIC emphasised that ia the spring and sumarmr of 1956 errors wsre evidsnead ia the 'planning of agriculture; plaining indieas were r@diie@d without as accow&t ©f concrete activity* .Thus, for example,'there wer® composed? on occasioSg eeaioa .'sch®dul$® of fi@M work which called for sowiag asd har* vesting in similar» pre«establish@d period* ia all■cooperatives, ev®a those-operating uad@r dissimilar eoaditiem. Of auch leaders the peasants remarkeds. ' £siroB ■purposes,: rooks for bral»®-'1-^

In ssrtaii, r©.gl.eas Msxtalistlc and ©varestimatad ■ plans wer® used» as a [email protected].'of which they lost th&ir guiding capacity-* Sometimes th© highar organs» not having consulted beforehand with the cooperatives* eons» firmed superfluous [email protected]* which .did not correspond t© the ».*j@ds aad possibilities of the coopsrstives*. plsns" of distrihutits,g-.-l®,ad area among various crops* -Similar planning' method® stifled & fim' initiative in' the:«6sasses

- lb.e. T«k KM and the State Coiinoil-of-the KIE ©sphasisedj in striving to ©Terc-oia® thesis'inadequaciest ''the xssatssit|- to establish greater product!©» and eeoao» mie iridep®»d©»e© ia the coop©rstiv-#s in th® planning of

.«03**

guld&r.c* for üliftifi oft the part, of the govorra^nt» .Arising, from fchsse tasks in areas corresponding

to concrete conditions, various methods were employed in the planning of agricultural production, which basically amounted to "the Toll.ov.dtig;

1* The governmental organs determined only the volume-of the agricultural taxes and imposts* The cooperatives, ±u accordance with their needs and the possibilities, .independently worked out their own production plan under the condition that they make payments of agricultural taxes and fulfill the tasks in the central'purchases and. the observance of the. contractual obligations.

2* The central organs reduced the planned assignments in tho production of basic kinds of agricultural .produce, * Subsequently the uyezd organs as occasioned. by local conditions gave to each cooperative instructions relating to the sise of the prediction of basic kinds of agricultural produce, but all ths other indices were worked out by the cooperatives theffiselvos*

■■■■-. 3,- The ■governmental organs established the extent of the sowing areas for basic agricultural crops* The remaining portion of the area was «rniployfed by the cooper*- ative independently«

In the planning of subsidiary industry in the agricultural cooperatives an important role was played by supply»market cooperation♦ Supply-market and production cooperatives concluded sautual contracts for the purchase of produce from the subsidiary industry and for the supply to*the village of industrial goods; the uyezd union of'supply-market cooperatives occasioned hy the needs of the government plan and by market inquiries worked out plans for the development of the rural secondary businesses for-each volost*^

Thus, in i'ung-nan Uyazd in the province of Sssoch- wam up till the end of 1955 the subsidiary industries had bs«& neglected and the cooperatives did not know what goods would be needed by the government and the markets and whether the produce obtained would be marketable» In several cooperatives the secondary businesses were regard- ed as being'/such bother but slight in income returns* The union of supply-asarkat cooperatives of the T'ung-nan U/ezd was provided backing for the development of the subsidiary industries; & broad distribution was effected for a system of atufcual contrasts« From Scomber 1955 to March 195o the union of the supoly-jaarlcet cooperatives in the uyoed concluded mutual contracts with .more than 1700 agricultural cooperatives» Tho peasants renarkftd. that:. "After fdgn- lag the contracts, it bee«»© clear what products could be

P <

: stärkste and %#>!<?& goods It; was a@eessary to pK»dueö,s

; With./the d©¥@X#j»si of th© subsidiary industries there ■ w.m fersmght abo-wt as iaereas© la the incomes of tfa© p«aa» i&sts» Thas» a study e.f the voiost-oi" Tafu indicated that- \&£%&r4*bi& introduction is aetu&l&ty' of the planning of •; secoaä&ry business©«? in 1956 tk® irasosie from thös® rose :. by '2$ ptrC'Hat in cosaparisoa -With 1955 Mä stood'at 30 ■ : percent of all Urn iheom® of th§ peasant'$*>*•&

With the establishment la'the cooperatives of a :. d«f ialt© feeor*OMie'' imtepö&dejas©,.'ij&portane® was gained by ' the •pro.diaebioi» .plasr*iag within tha cooperative«,

•Th© cöop®ratlv®8,-as a rule»-had a «asprehsssiir© --. ■ - loiig-tefi» pla&'for periods öf £r©a three to tts year® whleh 'were worked out in accordance wl to th® program of

-. agricultural developnent la thti'KNE for a tweiw»year .ptriod asd in accordaiiü© with concrete conditions« Fur«»

".therm&v®, each cooperative forasd its own yearly produc». :

'tieft* plait g whieh was disewssad lit detail aad eoRfirmed im the general seeti&g of the ■ cooperative members,« This'

'■ plaa %ias-usually inclusive of-the'basic indices of the daveiGptertt of the cooperative's' product! ©a. -■

. In the production plan the .cooperative brought also the 'plaa for labor- orgahi«&tioa aad the expeadityr© of workdays, dateniinirsg the riimbtr of workdays necessary for the production'Of all work during the csurss of one"7

year aM 'the mmbsir of workdays which tha laembers of 'the cooperative w@re able to turn out» -'Smell planning

. enabled the working fore© to b® equitably distributed and brought about corresponding corrections In th© pro«» ductioa plans*

Thus» irs t,hm larg©«-S€tiie cooperative -^Aikuo*9 iß thfe proviso© of Sh&ntuag there were about four thousand abl«-bodied workers« During bfe© course of a year they were able to turn out aaor« than. 500 thousand workdays»

-.-In the field of agricultural production, in irrigation and other capital ©or*atmctlGstss «tc», 410 thousand -

• workdays were required*.' fhiiSj there' remained about 100 thousand workdays* la ordsr to utilise tfe© existing work-force surplus, the cooperative: decided to develop subsidiary industries: in des©rt@d mountainous regions ' wer©, established 40 thousand fruit tressrj sill»» crsam« - eri^Sj aa oven for baking pottery and various shedn

;' need In swiaa-produetion and po\ü.try-farming were built«' As ä reiPiltj, from hag~ralsiag" along '»or© than 70 thousand •ym.n of net profit were realised«*^

-The plan for the development of subsidiary industries determined which kinds of subsidiary industries in which it was possible to engage,-the oLsa of the'necessary

•8

working force, th^ purchase prices for the produce, the size of the net profit-, etc,/

The platt for capital invasta»ents er/visagad the ' replenishment of the draught animals and agricultural implements,'the'construction of production buildings, irrigation systems, the transformation of arid piöis into irrigated, and the establishment of forest plantations, etc«

Simultaneously with the making of a yearly production plan the management of the cooperative worked out a yearly incomes-outgo account and presented it for tha examination and confirmation of the g^aeral möeting of the cooperative members» In caaes of nssgd th« producer.1 a . cooperative was able to request froia the credit cooperative or the bank a'granting of loans« Tim Tsk KPK repeatedly femphasized the important value of principles of economy and thrift and the. need to calculate carefully all expense» and the effectiveness of each capital invast* ßient in order to manage the farta more rationally.

Yearly production tasks for the brigades wore specially formed in which was indicated the ©opposition of the brigades» their allocations of plots of land, of working cattle and implements and the planned productivity, and was calculated the number of workdays nece&sary for the fulfillment of the plan.»

Labor Organization and Wages"

The transition to the higher order cooperatives was facilitated by the improvement of the organization of labor in agriculture, and the formation of a yet; broader opportunity for the comprehensive division of labor.

The basic form of labor organisation in the higher order cooperative was the permanent production brigada« Such brigades were formed in various fields of cooperative production — in field work, i« animal produce* in gardening, in fishing, etc In the brigade Kere gathered members of the cooperative who had earlier specialized in this field and possessed specific experience. In such a way the labor of each cooperative aemfeer was utilised to the fullsat in accordance with his qualifications, experience and physical fitness» The cooperative organised the labor of less abis-bodied members, who found employment in the subsidiary industries,etc» Certain cooperatives formed youth field brigades, which attained

considerable success in the dsTOlopaeat of production.^ _ ■ If there wsra qualified-artisans la the .cooperative»

specialising in the production of specific products, they were gathered into haadicraft tir&d* brigades.' -The nes)« bers of such brigades- often organised tbair ora work independently, kept aa account'of profits arid losses, and were able to work on their-OMU- 'She cooperatives in tines of - heed coonlssioned th@s© brigades to repairs &M . different kiads of work,: gr&x&ing then compensatory remiffierat.ioa.e^y *

■ 2$os«tla&s for aosi© reason the- haadi craft'trade' brigades (or sections) wsra not organised«- la this case the cooperatives dispatched qualified'rasters to 'the subsidiary industries to work independently-and. provide'' then aid in obtaining raw materials and in 'marketing their .products* .Th» masters assi'gaed a. fixed percent of their incone into the indivisible fund of the cooper«

■ativei. ''■■'■."■■ The size of the brigade depended on which fields

they were occupied■ in and what nsaas of production they -«».'ployed.. -The pexnanent field-brigades were' coapoeed ■ of 20-40 households»-20 in the -nverage'' cooperative there were eight.to'twelve of auch brigades, to which there was allocated each in turn (usually for several years) & definite plot'of land, draught anisals and agricultural tools®*! This eaabled them to- gals stability In the cooperative work* Furthermore,-the allocatioa to th© fisld brigades of land»' e&ttl«, and iotpleiaehts provided . the opportunity to- th@ brigades subsequently to' e&rry out their owa plot® the process of 'complete" crop rotation*1

In the cooperative ia China the realization 'of the so-called »system of allocating responsibility - for . specific cycled of Work"—the contract systea acquired a wry great significance. The contract systoa, which has played an important role in fortifying -personal and :

material isi«s©stiT8®? has b«ea continually 'developed and • improved. Tho first poriod of the cooperatives-Activity wh«sn 'they were still acquiring eeonosdc experience, saw tho iapleaent&tion usually of "the contract syste» ander one iadex," The' production brigade Cor section} had to guarantee* to carry out all necessary-production work to the plot of land assighed to it for a ßsod$r&t©ly long - period of time {season or &-yoar)„ Subsequently the cooperatives passed into fcfe® ^contract syst-sm under two '. indices»«* lit this instanc« the voluae of agricultural'' production was also planned, which tho b'rl'gada toad to ohtaist working OB the plot of l&ad assigned, - Ho^oirer, is .practice it was indicated,that this-system did not alw&ji

guarantee* the observance of the principles ei' economy and thrift and the decrease of the cost of tne produce» The majority of the higher order cooperatives adopted the wconti*act system.under three indices*" The peasant» called Itt "three guarantees," since the production brigade was obligated to the carrying out of all agricultural work in a-period that was in accordance with agroteehnleal requirements and to obtain the planned volume of produce at a determdned cost (the «expenditure of labor was not included in this coat» but only the cost of seed, fertiliser, the repair of agricultural tools, weed killers and insecticides, fodder, etc.)

In 195? ia the uyezd of Ch-ien-hsiea in the province of Uopeh 2981 cooperatives (about 50$) uped the contract system under three indices; 1937 cooperatives (33%) « under two {from the first two) indices: 1074 cooperatives (17$) — under on© (the first) index.22

Individual cooperatives especially concerned with growing commercial crops (cotton» heap,, tea, .etc.)•introduced a "contract system under four indices." The production brigade under four indices was obliged to guarantee also to obtain produce of a determined quality«

The contract system was closely combined with the bonus system of wages» Usually the production brigade which overfulfilled the harvesting plan was credited with a supplementary amount of workdays. J If as a result of poor and neglected work the brigade did not reach in its harvesting'a level of 90$ of that planned, a corresponding number of workdays was deducted from the earning of the brigade members» ^

The "indices for the guaranteed, volume of production by the brigade were usually established below the average normal level in order to ovsrfulfill the plan and to obtain bonuses.25 This raised the labor level of the brigade members. As a rule, the majority of the production brigades fulfilled and overfulfilled their tasks. Thus, in the special region of Ch»ien-hsi*en Uyssd in Hopel Province in 1957, out of 30 thousand production brigades 16 thous- and overfulfilled the plan in harvesting, eight thousand fulfilled it, and only six thousand did not.*w

The preniun wages method mobilised the brigade members in the struggle for higher harvests on the plots of land assignsd and raised the material incentive and the work level of the peasantry.

Thus» the production work in the higher order cooperatives was organised usually under a system of responsibility« „ . , .

If in the first period of the activity of the basic

-Ö3- ' '

lefai cooperatives this &jst%m was iiArozbmeä for iMitid« ml kiiiiSs of work for definite periods'of tlBi®^ is.tlie . : Mglssr orcter soo|>©ratiires9 as a rait** a sysfces of eollec» ; . tive &&d individual responsibility 'for a'll.th® proc@aa#s ?1 of agricultural 'produötiom in %'m course of one year was *'; realised* .■ ';: , In fch® higher levsl.; cooperatives a |»ma.!»@Et ch®ok ' ;■:

oa the qßüiitj of work was misfr&ined, lith th.is tad * ' in »iind. specik.1 control gre*aja-w&r® farmed la which, . besides fch® msrtmrs of tfeu fes*lgMci ^ Itsdtrs of the coop» ere.ti'f© and of'the brigade fetloageü t and elderly pa&ssiits ■ who poss@£issd' great ©[email protected]©« la c&a® the quality of the mmb&rn'oi the production brigade or «©ctioti was 'recognised as Inferior$..tim. eöopsr&fciv© was able to demand that fell© work fee rectos.® ..or ,!?># counted. &s fewer workdays •thaxi that s®% for tlie particular kind of work* • If the production '©rigad© ift %h<&- uourst of working 0¥@reaiie [email protected]:

■ difficulties aid att&in@4 oonsifteriaal# su; ..fcsss* the coop*» . arati¥fi paid it for .more-workday* ;

■ 7km fi'flii bs"igadt@ usually worked'in ®©efci©&®« A. : definite 'plot .©I*.land'was s,ss|,|;.a®d. to a ««lotiosi.eoasistieg ■ of sews to eight household®e^^ . ' •

.If all the brigades wer© rwarclM for ovsrfmlfiiliag the plaEj fch® gpi^ially .distinguished seetioa or workers r©'ceiir@d mor&j if tlitx"® wer©'demotions fr©ia the brigade' workdays for poor Morkf t&s» tfi€ poorest work of tte© see«» tioa or iiKtl/ficlial S6isb@r§0of the cooperativt had more

■workdays takes from theiU' . At- 'ih$ fosad of tfe© sfjations wars section laadsrs

who assisted the brigade/ieMar. is pl&imi&g work. and sap« ,@r.¥isdag production.*" After falfiiliitist of th& taeks th» g^otiosi leader verified the quality of work and r#- eerded the saetiöa iss@rab@r© im? tli-s corresponding aiMsber of workdays thej bad 'established la aecoräaao© täLth the working uormg3 or.pa,ss«d out work rtctlpts»

.. "Ssa©tisi0s, ia fchci eooparatxvfesi iadividyal, fcouseholds were COMIX ssicm#d fce raise, specifie egil cultural -crops (for instane«, the' raisiag of swreet potatoes aad fruit tre@® in osrfesia eDoptratlfss ia tha uy©ssd of Qhfien«hgi*©R iß tue province of Kopei*^ . ■. . . .

la tim ilr&t period of the mass formation of the feigner X@wl cooperatives& at.'the end of 1955 &&&* -tn

aiid decreased th©ir pipaeitj to ©perstt* la 1956 is indi¥i4ia,i cp'op©rativ®a ©ocurrsd ia»

stances'■wh@re> as a result of e-xtrssi'iy eaatraliis@d ,%yf v&lu&fol® plots of issMi remained ■ianpl©ugh®d

«5 y*

of «hieb no-one kiiev; gathered grain on the thrashing floors grew mouldy and decayed, but no-one was worried about it.-**

The Centra], Committee of the K?K. directed that the baeie principle of the "organization of production in the cooperatives must be the combination of centralised leadership with firm initiativ« of the nasses, with the establishment «£ definite rights for the production brigades.

The production brigades in the cooperatives had not only duties but concrete rights* Ass a result, the cooper» ative determined only the kinds of crops to be raised by the brigades and doteratinad the ai.se of the sowing area' and the volume of the harvest, but the brigade itself. determined which of the plot© of land assigned to it were to be used in growing this or that crop*

Each brigade which fulfilled the production tasks set .by the cooperative had the right to develop virgin and fallow land* Ninety percent öf the income from these lands went to the members of the brigade, and 10$ was apportioned to the general funds,

• under the condition of fulfilling the production task.each brigade could engage in subsidiary industries. The' inooae from theea industries was divided up in the following aaaner; 30$ went to the brigade iß the form of compensations and 70ji went to the cooperative for dis» :

tribution among ail members according to workdays. . The production brigades were allowed» within defIn-'

ite limits, to correct the work norms and to carry out certain changes in the various agrotechnical i&easures {while observing a single production plan},3«

In the higher level cooperative» was realised, based OB the■collective ownership of the members of the cooperative of the aea&s of production, the socialist principle of work* The implementation'of this principle allowed the personal interest of each asei&ber to foe eosa- biued with the general, el ace the amount of material benefits which accrued to each worker was in direct proportion to hie &e$r®& of participation in the general*production and to the amount and qualitv of the work done by hua*

However, the setting of work norms and the evaluation of work in terms of workdays were not easy ta&ksu In the first period after the isaaa formation of the higher level cooperatives there was still an insufficient amount of experience in the field of labor organisation and the elaboration of working norms and their evaluation in workdays*JJ Work norms in agriculturef contrary to those la industry* depended to a considerable degree on

local conditions* The provincial and iiyesd organs established approximate-' aorias tö aid the cooperatiTOS;; but; obviously imlformity was impossible« . In determining the wo-rk Äorss lor each kind of work la the cooperative'there ■ was Considered the principle that they mist; be accessible for'each person-of an a¥erag© wcwrkiftg capacity In active .work- during the eou,rs<3 .of a whole day., . Increasing of norms lead.to the IoweÄag of the work" activity of peasants, decreasing to the depreciation arid waste of work, days«

In. fulfilling the naaia work under, different conditions it was possible to seal various production norms 1 In, plowing or harrowJLn.gj the draught cattle could fee strong or weak5 the loaisy or sandy plot could h& located, "near or far fron the village #. stc« In rice harvestings it-, was. taken Into .account whether the ears lay down or not,' the"-quantity., the' distance of - the plot from the Tillage,, etc* ..la field irrigations the slsse of the lot, kiisds of cropsf seaSOB of the ytar^etc^ were taken into consideration j as well as the water level«

I». the Hsia»-jaag village cooperative in 01mCh?a«-tis.ien Countj In'Kwa&gtung Province which g;csw s«i¥aa different -.. crops (riofej sweet potatoes, .soybeans, m$ßr cane,.'hemp, beans,,'and wheat).-.115 kinds of. work had to "be performed j, and''consequently, 4Ö7 work riorms were adopted*. Out of tbessj 115 »ones fell OR the fundamental .jobs (i»e« one norm - to' one job)«, The cooperative- first of all worked ' out these 115 ßoras practically,' end the reaalning norms, which at on@' tise mMösred on,® tfeousaad . (iücludiag related jobs) * were' ?ala;t;i,¥ely easily computed *m the basis: of the' fundamental norms «.-^l

Because of lack of'sxperianc©'In. •ladivl.d.ua.l cooper« ■ ativ^s'j, setting of norms wassometimes complicated, so ■ that the iiuuster of a&nsis seeded for cultivation'alone reached a total, of 1ÖÖ, asa twn'iiorg,. ; ; '

. Ths work nöms were established in. «soiipli&iies with - concrete production 'coMifcions by the Hanagement-of the'■ cooperative and. later wer© criticised in detail '{aad after.asieaclaentii). approved by tiie general assembly .of the ©sabers of tfct© cooperative» .-''..'■ Establishing'production'noms for individual kinds öf workj, the: cooperative usually took Into consideration the ■ 'previous product!OR experieace# the .'completed agro« technical improvements, actual■ productloa in the leading local cooperatives and' similar .factors,,

In cases where production noras in agriculture dir» eotly depeMed en natural .Condi ilosaa, the coopsratiYeo changed the existing ao:ims wliea tine conditions changed» .Production brigades w&ra aatltlfd to correct norms wltiiia

certain liedtaj the total rns&har of workdays falling on the brigade, working on a shift system would, however, remain basically uachaftged»

' «^ork no ras necessarily provided for a definite . quality of work performance* Quality control »fas entrust- ed to special commissions, and sometimes a mutual control method for teams or brigades was also adopted» , :

'■ Work norms wer© usually established as constant ',£ov the tin» of the full »owing cycle, The cooperative also fixed the uuiabftr of workdays for fulfillment of the 'work; nonas» <

Eaabling to realiao »ost cooplotely the socialist principle "Fro» each according to his «billties - to each according to his work*, increasing the material interest of the members of the cooperative i» the growth of production, the Piece wage on the basis of workday? .helped to bring into harmony the personal Interests of individual taerabsra of the cooperative_with the public

. interest« Another advantage of the piece *?age was the fact

that the planning of production was facilitated, for under this system it Iz easy to calculate the number of worker» necessary for performing certain work« For that 'reason an absolute majority of cooperatives of the higher type in the country organised the work of their aembers

■on the basis of the piece wage work* In spring of 1956 about 90$ of the cooperatives

■in the Shonai Province introduced the work nora» and the piece wage aystetu As & result, work discipline improved» peasant labor increased, and the productivity of werte, compared with the preceding yeer, grew by 20 - h$fy,*'

In the higher level cooperatives as well as in the basic level cooperatives existed two kinds of piecework; group and individual. Principally, they did net differ 'from'the systems accepted in the basic level cooperatives, .but they were worked out »ore precisely and were adopted 'on. a larger scale, ,

The introduction, of the individual piece-work naa aa especially greet effect, one production brigade in the cooperative nHung«hsing* in Kue-aing County in the province of Kwaatung shifted to individual piece-work in planting of -rice Bprout».' as & result of which the norm, per person reached «72 »ou daily« Another production brigade used the''old methods* In this brigade e^ch worker planted sprouts on an area of mere J*5 KOIU^° ■

All typea of work were classified into categories according to their complexity, difficulty and inquired qualification of worker«» The first category contained

the aiost difficult kinds of work? having •& dsei&iv© sign« lfican.ce for production;, which had to b@ pgrfoxsed by the average 'jabber of aii artel. (®>g. planting of ric© .sprouts s iaiateaaric© of: a . certain water level on th# irrigated, fields.-etö»}. Seconders t*> jobs of the lower .category could he performed mm by people- with a, law . :. work capability (hulling of soybeans, sorting of seeds, ,•

■(collection of fertilisers ? etc«) ■' ■'. Tht number''of'categories depsudsd on the si a© of the cooperative* availability of experience 1». the organ« izatipri of ■worfej, ©tc* If there were too few categoriess .

■this led to wage-leveling* la individual cooperative^,' ■, of Kwantung Provincet the difference between sose- cate- gories amounted to only »05 work unit, und betk@©ii the

■higher and the loafer categories'it was only 50%* ■ The other - opposite.« deviation, ■ was that-of top'many categories and-an .'excessive difference in .remuneration. ■,. As a result of this, members of■cooperatives^oft&n did not want« to fill jobs of the lower category„37

Ail work in cooperatives were primarily 'broksn , down into the following groups; ■(!) field work; (2)auxiliary projects; (-3)■ capital'construction; (4) other work< Each of the above groups was divided-into categories* ' ...

. For'instance, the group "field work91 could include the ..following categoriesj. depending on the local conditions: lst categoryJth.fi isost complex and difficult jobs') ~ ■ plowing j sprout plan ting by hand, digging of'irrigation ditches and similar; 2nö category-.<*'harrowing, -threshing, cultivating;. 3r^ category - w<a©di&g, transportation, of fertilisers, ©tcu; 4"^" category - sorting 'and selection of seedsj collect!on of fertilisers etc«

Cooperatives also .fixed the number of workdays' .' presupposed' for 'fulfillment of the daily norm of work relating to a specific category«. :The average uftit (the amount-of work which could be produced-by one person wi than average work productivity in one day of active work) . was ■■usually'one workday* For instance, In 'cooperatives' of the Wang-hsdsn Coimty oi the Ho pea Province j, in-which all jobs in field-crop agriculture were divided into five categories,'the ..following restaesration inHworkdays for ■'■' a .daily ■production norm was ©stabil.shed;3©

Category of work' 1st 2rid 3rd 4th 5th

Number of workdays •' for a daily -norm of : production 1.3 1.05 -: *9 *$ '. .7. '

Consequently, the difference between the 1st and

the 2n& category, ^as „Zt* workdayy between 3**^ i*th and 5th „. „i workday &

Numerous cooperatives in the People's Republic of China gradually began to practise tha advancement of their marchers* For example» a majority of cooperative» of the Shansi Province, beginning with the year 1$>57. proceeded to pay advances to the mmbsrsi of the artel,39

About 90$ of the rural population in old China was illiterate« ' A low peasant cultural level undoubtedly had a serious obstructive effect on the correct Organisa- tion' of accounting« Owing to the fact that it was diff- : icult to find a person acquainted with accounting in some districts, former landowners, kulaks, and other alle» elements ware penetrating the cooperative® and taking positions of book-keepers and accountants«

During the period of upsurge in the development ofthe cooperative »Qvaiaent, the personnel question appeared-, «specially critical; owing to the lack of book- keeper® and accountant® the eatabliefejaent of new eoopera« : tives was hampered» For instance, in the village Wu-feng of the Bn~shlh County in the Hupen Province' it.we5 anti- cipated that four cooperatives would be founded? but sine« .only one accounting clerk was available, only one cooperative was formed»4Q

Coordination of the financial «-accounting work a'ssna»- ed a particularly great significance in the period of the ' 'large-scale formation of big cooperatives«. Where the standard of book-keeping was poor and. the -laeaibers of. the cooperative doubted the reliability of the .records of workdays, the %sork activity of peasants would taper off. For that reason, the People*a Government of the CPH faced a serious task in assisting-the producer*a cooperatives to prepare a large nuanber of book-keepers and to coordin- ate the financial»a'ceouating work in the cooperatives» In China» several resolutions concerning this question were published* As far back as 1954., the Ministry of Agriculture of GPR published a resolution regarding the » establishment of courses for book-keepers for agricultural producer*e cooperatives on a nation-wide basis» In the beginning of 1955 vas approved a joint resolution of the ■ Ministry of Agriculture and the Central Coamittee of the ; Nationals-democratic Youth Union concerning the preparation and training of book-keeper« end technical workers' for agricultural producer's cooperatives. 4A

A great aiaaber of book-keeper» were trained to render significant help to cooperatives in consolidating the financial work» A major part of the students in ■;:',. these course® wars young peopler graduates of secondary

•94-

aacl ©leme&tary schools * who had been working in agri culture-.■ According to incomplete records,, by January 1955». in the provinces of Sfc&sisis Sb&atnagj. Honan, Liaoningj Saechwan, arid otiiarsj over"2?0jÖ0Ö acco^ntants for cooperatives had deem or wer© beißg 'tr&ifeöd*^-

The publishing of simple and itßdsrstaadabl® text- books on book-keeping and on prepärätiöa of instructors capable of supervising th® book-keeping work in the field also received great consideration*

Due to the ©xtrera.® industrial backwardness of" Old. China * Kstdiaai'a&tioB of agriculture in Chir&a requires a considerable period of tigae* Undtr these- circumstances, all measures aiming at the growth of agricultural production rest mainly on the live wrk resources,, For that reason the problem of utilisation of manpower in coopera--- ti'fes became particularly. sigrd,fic;aat*

According to certaia calculation's, 143 'million able-bodied men and 119 million able-bodied women iitio .li¥@ In agrimiltu'ral areas of the ecmatry ar© able to produce -25«! billioa workdays per year {mm » 19*2 billion; woiftsn:: 5*9 .billion')^ These vast resources of manpower, undoubtedly, are' the country*g wealth« In oldr send- feudal.-. China,--however, these iinseßst labor resources were not used* The tillages had a 'critical agricultural over- population» Under eosdifcieas of severe 'exploitation of peasants and their lack of land and -other means of production $ arid underdeveloped city industry the agricultural population could not find adequate application8 and as a result was,used uaeöoaoaieally.aiid di «proportionally,' In m&nj areas of the lellpi and Hu&i-ho Elvers WMU worked only 100 days a ymirj^

Before the cooperative period thsrs was also a surplus of manpowerj for individual peasantss because of lack of means of production aad money» could not us® their work economically, could aot put ist© practise some detailed agro-technical ■ improvements in order to increase the'crop*capacity, and tha industry of the coimtry was sot iss a position to offer jobs for the®* In the province» of Hunan and Ssec-hw&R. 1.0 «•» 20$ of tfee siaa.pow@r iß the rural areas laad iß remote districts @v&n 60^) was wsuperflu- ous*.45

Particularly poor was tke utilisation of women*s work* In certain areas of the country women did not work in agriculture at all» In'villages of Morth«ri?./&feina» wosi-sK worked i» the field only 30 days a year,4"

An important result of the socialist 'reconstruction of the village was th& nationwide introduction of women into cooperative'production» . In the spring of 1957»

•"95"*

over ,110 million women wero working in cooperatives »A^ •• X« thos« areas in which th& production was well organised» more than $0% of the woavaa v*ar# actively parti cd pa ting ■ 1« productive work*4c Many woman took* up leading posit- <. ions. The Coamunist Party of China promoted the following appeal:: nln every cübp©rativ@ a woman should become Präs- ident or vie®«*presidents 49

Women, because a great power in the village * Nsver~ ■ th«less»' the Chinese pr&&& observed som.& deficiencies in th© use'of woman labor« Sometimes women were assigned to rather heavy jobs* Wot in all cooperatives were conditions formed for participation of wo&itm in auxiliary projects-''(cooperative and domojitic), and-some managers tried to lower payments to women »^

The Central Committee of the Cosisaunist Party of China emphasised the necessity of observing labor protection in cooperatives, the insdBds&ibility of the unground- ed lengthening of a working day» and the issuing of work instructions without taking into'"consideration the physical potential of members of the cooperative, ete. special attention was given to labor protection of women members of cooperatives« Th® Ministry of Health of CPE published on April 2S '1957, the

MEtfict on the protection of faaial© labor in the country, intensification of the promulgation of knowledge concerning'health of women, establishment and'operation of nurseries, and health-protecting works?"

An important part in the large scale introduction of women into the agricultural production was played by they realization of the principle "To each according to his work**, attention of the party organisations with res- pect to the questions of utilisation-of women* s vrorkj and . th® forming of kindergartens and nurseries in the rural area a during the period of ini-ensiv® fi&id work«

'To liquidate the surplus of aianpoitfer in the Chinese village was impossible right away. According to Chinese statistics, between 1955 «ad 195o there was still a surplus of manpower in agriculture* particularly in those cooperatives in which auxiliary'projacta were developing slowly. In six cooperatives in the counties of T*un«haien, Hfäien-ho, Shun-1 of th© Hopeh rovi&c® th«r© was 26?» excess manpower«5% Aftsr the production plans in IB cooperatives of the Shansi Pro vines were worked out, it became oviUent that J>0% of the manpower regained without use,53 The Manpower surplus in the 497 investigated cooperatives in th# Wu~hfsi County „in Kiangsu Province amounted to 17$ of the total mBsber«^

The existence of a surplus of rural manpower in 1955 was confirmed even by examination of 26,000 eoopera«

~96~

tivea, which. showed that eaeli abl^-bodied peasant averaged only 96 workdays par year«55 if TO taks one workdaj

' (trudodeis*) for on© day of work, w© find that ©ore than half of the tiaia ¥fis ussd uot for productive work in

, cosamunaX ©conoiay.«'0 This was partially connected with the underestimation of subsidiary industries observed ia :1955. - h

It;is necessary to emphasis© the fact that a surplus of manpower existed. chl@fiy'in' tlie periods of non~lnt«Rsiv6 field woik, whereas during the busy'tias a lack of'Manpower was felt« In the eooperativ© 'wI«wg-»h©agn of Pa«hsien County ia Kop«h■Province, the daily average was-190 people but in the spring 366 workers were reqid.red, in %lm susaffler' »«»'276 workers, in the fall »« 10S« and ia the winter — 102.?/

Cooperatives had to solve the.problems of utilising: i the manpower surplus during the seasons when no field work was dona« Having this objective in mind, cooperatives •developed subsidiary' industries.» built irrigation systems for fighting drought and floods, and sxtaMed the acreage .of repeated soMtrtg* All this consumed a. great qmntitf "of labor* .1 great sigtd.ficane© ia th& problem öf utilizing surplus rsaapower in. the rural areas waw given to : the resolutions of tb« CoEgaatmist party of China about the :siatioa»wid@ deyalopatat of local industries * In some ' provine&s certain «sail a.ad seasonal plants and also aisles •signed agreements with agricultural producer1s cooperatives, accoriirag to which the cooperatives would send their p@opi| during the slack periods for an, agreed«upon ■remuneration*^ At other tines cooperatives foxmod production brigades for-'

: th® cultivation of virgin, land aivi rsrsots- areas' which suf- . f @r&d froas lack of manpower.

Centralized distribution of manpower ,in larger diversified cooperatives.allow&d a. tore &«bst&r*tial use of labor in the construction of irrigation systems3 subsidiary industries, animal husbandry, gardening, b©s-k©©ping» handicrafts» and in a mor© careful cultivation ssd. fertil«* iz&tio» of soil, etc» All this" brought a fuller' ■utilisation of manpower j. a solution of'the probiert of agrarian ©vörpopiilatioaj and ltd to a growth of agricultural pro» auction ia cooperatives snd to an increase of tMlr member«* income * '

Thus, the «sals ways of utilising the surplus is&n» powar wer© the following!. dsTOiop»iit of capital constru-■■ ction» isproYor&eat of agro-technical »ethods, and also diversified character of economyt aad growth of auxiliary projects» Cooperatives set as a task th© elimination of floods, and brought which had boten always the scourge of

-97-

Chinese agriculture«59 As a result of cooperation there arose conditions

allowing a complex© utilisation of manpower in the rural areas. As an illustration we may present data concerning the number of days put in. by aion and women of the Ho- . Chi en County of Ho pen province over a period of one yean&<

Men: Women: Individual farms 110-120 30 Basic level cooperatives 17Q-1Ö0 70-SO Higher level cooperatives 2?0 230

Owing to the introduction of a larger amount of manpower into production in higher level cooperatives» the yield of crops grew considerably.

A maximum introduction of work resources into production was the mas t important means toward a rapid development of agriculture in China.

The gross national product, having left the sphere of production, i& subject to distribution and re-distribution, the forms and proportions of which are detorroined by the conditions of production. A part of the national product goes for replacement of losses of the past work, a part for consumption, and -a part for accumulation« The size and proportions of these parts are determined primarily by the level of development of the production and production forces»

To secure a continuity of production, the cooperatives hadj first of all, to compensate the cost of the exhausted means of production (seeds, forage, agricultural fertilizers, chemical weed-killers, depreciation of agricultural itR'pleiaenta» machinery, buildings, and work animals}«

The"largest proportion in these expenditures was taken by the seed fund and fertilizers, for under the conditions of intensive agriculture in China, the maintenance of soil fertility is an exceptionally serious task»

The cost of means of production which were consumed by the cooperative daring the year, and which are subject to replacementj may be considered a part of the so-called production, expenses of the cooperative, i.e. the annual production consumption, usually not taking into account the depreciation of Agricultural implements (basically rather primitive and Inexpensive)» buildings and work cattle*

-98-

Tim budget t did sot h&vQ a special depreciation, provision, and t,fe@i?-e expenditures wer© covered, as a rule, by '■ deductions from ilm indivisible fund,

Tha volum« of production «peMiturss determines the sham»'of gross output going for accumulation arid personal coiisumptioa, other conditions' feidag equal» . The lower the production expenditures,' the larger- part of the crop can be distributed according to the number of work- • days and utilized for accumulation.

According to the results of investigation in 26,935 cooperatives iß-1-955» tfa® production expenditures- repnas- •nted as an average 25*3$ of the gross output. -In 202 of--. these cooperatives they equaled 30.1$ of the gross output, tins' result of which was that only 53»2Co£ the gross output was distributed among the members*01

In 1956 the majority of cooperatives'la China reduced- the production expenditures to a certain degree* This means that th® share of the materialised past work was lessened, and th® newly produced .value, which after ' deduction'of the. portion going for accumulation and public consumption, was - distributed according to the number of- workdays. For instance, in 1Ö0 cooperatives in P*'ing- shiia County ia Sfaansi Proviace'j, the* production expenditures in .1956 represented as an average 14«5% of the gross 'output, "which allowed distribution'of 72« 50^ of tha gross '' .output- according to the workdays*62

Th© reduction of production expenditures had a great significance.in the struggle against isolated exaii» ■

■plea- of thriftless eaxiagemeiit,,'Inevitable iß th» first stag® of ths developments when the newly established'cooperatives, consisting of■ individual farmers did not have any experience in «sanagiag collectives farms. At th© sam@ tisie$ it is proper to poiat out- that the reduction of th@ share of th® production expenditures may serve as a» indicator, of «coaosic js&nag€®ent to a certain dogre® arad only as long as the production is developing basically

' on the old technical basis« With complication of the technical methods aad laech&niastioa of the production processes tha share of th© ißat«rialiäs©d past work in th® total gross output is growing* .

It is necessary to distinguish th® gross production of tli« cooperative fro® the total.gross income, which is' racei¥'-ed after the deduction of the business expenses, i.e. losses of past work» Th© gross income (valueP. newly 'produced by the work of the members of cooperatives during the y©ar) is distributed according to work among the ©embers of tha cooperative» and al#o used for common needs and accululation with the purpose of extension of produc»

tion« , From the income of cooperatives the part reserve«*

for agricultural tax was first deducted, "In accordance with the decree of the State Coimcli.

regarding' tho imposing of an agricultural tax beginning with 1953» the rates ware fixed, and as a basis served the area under seed and the average production over a period of a number of years» The tax was imposed on each iarm in compliance with the volume of income from agriculture. In order to curb the development of kulak faros, the systems of a 'progressive tax was preserved, Tne rax for the poor farmers represented approximately 10$ of their income, the tob medium-sia« farmers up to 1$# of their income, and that of kulaks up to 2536« The tax was imposed on income produced in agriculture: and animal husbandry; subsidiary industries of the peasants* families were not subject to this tax. In areas where technical crops were grown, there was an-additional tax because these plants yielded a higher income* % , .

■ After the fundamental completion oi the cooperative transformations in 1956, many areas began to impose the tax on cooperative« as unite of economy. The rates^wer« thö same for cooperatives, and individual fanners, _ The agricultural tax*was paid chiefly in kind (in 1956, 8o> of tax was paid by.grain, 1$ by cotton and oil-producing plants, li by cash0'')» which enabled, the government to concentrate in its hands a quantity of »arket grain essen- tial for supplying cities and stabilising market prices.

From 19x5 till 1957 the receipts from the agricultural tax remained on the level of the year 1952» and they did not exceed (when converted to the price of grain) 38 billion chin. Since the tax volume was fainy staole, each year it represented a different share of the production. In 1955/ the agricultural tax equaled 11.54ft of the, annual production, in 19.5& - 10,?2£, and in 195r - Hoi«. *

Owing to the fact that the agricultural tax was imposed according to the avera.ee productivity of the land of'the cooperatives, the additional income of the cooperatives which received a higher production was not practically affected by the tax. This served as a stimulus for achieving an increased productivity, using all means.

In cooperatives which had high productivity indexes, the ratio of the tax. to the gross output was considerably lower than in backward establishments. In 121 cooperatives in the Chia-hsLng region of Chekiang, the tax in 195o reoresented as an average 12.7'Ä of production,, and in cooperatives of Hai-ning, Yu-hang, and Wu~k'ang Counties only 7-9$.°->

-100«

The agricultural tax is on«-of the most Important . 'sourcss of the govsmsasnt's ineotts«' In 19!5ö» receipts fron the agricultural tax constituted 1.0*1^ of the income part of'the government budget», and in 1957 ~ 9»j5$» ■

In Jim® 1951 the system ..of' levying the agricultural' tax was altered» The tax was imposed according to the in- ; com® of cooperatives fro» ths agrl6ttltup&l production and amounted, on the average,- to approximately 15*5$ of -: : the annual 'production.' An' additional tax of 10-50% could ; bs imposed on individual £a»#rs*TO ..This tax was to he paid also by those members of cooperatives..who ted their own lots of land» I neons 'front the production of grain and technical. plants, gardening, etc* was taxable«

fas social structure of the CPE determines the sub- : stance of its govsramsnt tax policy* A part of the income; of the cooperatiT^j in the for» of the agricultural tax, represented labor for the benefit of society« :'&j paying ; ths tax, the cooperatives wert, participating in the Indus»; trial&sation of the country, strengthening its defense, raising, the wslfars and. cultural level of the whole nation;« From 'ths. stock established with receipt® t-rom t&e agricul» tural'" taxj insurance fuacls dssigssd for the assistance .to the inhabitants, of the areas which had been afflicted by natural calamities wer© formed* . ■

A. considerable part of the income tthich the go Tern«; sent'received in the for» of taxes was spent by fiscal authorities'a& an aid to. the peasants« For 7'yftars,''froR .; 1950 til 1956, the gpvsriu&ent assigned 3070 million.-yuan ;

' for construction of irrigation systems and distributed 1310 million yuan la financial aid to the population. suffering a«-a result of natural eatastrophies,. and 1280 Billion yuan'for improving agricultural methods', psxv forming agro-technical anelioratioas and fighting against : agricultural pests and plant diseases*.. :Tb.® total of 5ö60 million yuan constituted over 3G'$ of the aggregate» 1Ä.6 billion yuan, which wsrS'rscslTsd by the g&vsriussnt in payment of agricultural and additional taxes* In ,: addition, the government graatsd. pssssnts over Ö billios ; yuan in low-intsr'est loans» '

Thus, the tax policy of ths gmernmmt$ practised ' in the interest of a Mobilisation of funds for ths Indus-

. trial!satioa of ths country, supports at the same time ths dsvelopnsnt of agricultural production and.the Improve«

< esst -of ths peasants''' lifs» The accunulation fund existed in the. form of pay» ■■

ments into ths indivisible fund and was meant for increase ■ of 'funds' going for ths nmds of production, i*@* for si- : ■ tension of sssd and forage stock and replenishnsnt of the :

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basic funds of the cooperatives* In addition to this* cooperatives were building accyasuJlatioas, concentrating the offerings cf their tn0.8sb.fers who.were coming with voluntary deposits - cash (bearing interest) arid in kind (as a rule, without interest)/ The terras of these loans to the cooperatives were specified on the basis of a mutual agreement «^ \\

In cooperatives an insurance fund was also sometimes formed« However, in the initial period of the cooperative movement, the government assumed the function of insurer, granting cash and grain loans to the areas afflicted by disasters. The plan of agricultural development for 1956« 196? put before cooperatives the task of building during these twelve years reserves of grain sufficient for a period of 3-6 months to one and a half years (taking into account home reserves of the members of the cooperative©]. Special attention to the establishment of such reserves was given in areas with unstable crops and poor transport« ation network« . .

The accumulation fund served also for replenishing the depreciation fund, but the major portion was used for acquisition of draught cattle, agricultural implements and other means of production, as well as for capital. construction (especially irrigation) and soil improvement*

'In the beginning, payments into this fund (including payment of loans for capital construction) as a rule did not exceed B% of the annual income of the cooperative. In cooperatives- which specialised in growing technical plants and receiving a. higher income than the grain-growing cooperatives, deductions into the accumulation fund increased to 12$«&9 t

The size of the accumulation fund is basically [email protected] by the level of the development of production but of no small importance is the attitude of peasants to the property of the cooperative,, the level of their socialist consciousness»

In 1956, the first year after the mass collect!vi- zation was completed, the principle ftto keep less and distribute more", was observed in compliance with tao resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the distribution of the summer crops of 1956, In order to achieve an increase in income of TO of the members of the cooperatives, 60-70;* of the cooperative »« gross income was distributed among peasants according to their worts» . ■'

During this period it was Important for the cooperatives to consolidate organisationally and economically and convince the peasant» through their own experience that

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the- cooperative ' system is nor© advantageous tharr Individ* lual fan&iag. The fixed proportion für accumulation pur- ■ ■poses- *sac|i"~it possibles for the iricdae of a substantial • . spgrceBtsege of the po<rc.'peasants to be increased and the i liacose of a majority of middle- peasants ,,whc3> joi.ti.e4 cooper»; ■ jatives with & great deal of .hesitation^- to be maintained« I '.• In the cooperatd.¥a nMi,R^okmn of the Chou«-ch©& dis» ■/'; itriet of Hai-hing "County* is [email protected] Province, it was o'rig- iinally decided to reserve &,$$$'"of the total gross income \ior accumulation« Howevert this would mean, that the in« icom© of 13 families wouM dimioisb, and for that' reason. ■■only "4*5$-of the gross income was used for acctuaulation.. :1s a result of this decision the- in.coIM of these 13 families did not decrease* .but oa the contrary grew larger, »u

: . in 19.56 a majority; of Chinese cooperatives put iato the indivisible fusel and.1 the .public welfare fug$, on .the' «verage, approximately 5^ of the gross income./* This proportion of accuJM&Ution basically corresponded to-the iachieved' level of" economic dereltfpn&iit of the cooperatives which had had good crops in .1956 did not leave a necessary ;part of production for the public heeds* IMswaa reflect l-ed-in their w».£k/?2

ftext year, in 1957? a&Hy cooperative* evaluated the ■deficiencies' which .originstod ia the distribution of 'Ifeeoae tb© preceding jem\, and increased.'tte stars for

■«ecusialatiori«, For instas.eef .peasants of the cooperative >Ta-chung« of th» Khuaßiseytünt3y&o district öf Hopeh 'Province distributed for'workdays in 1956 top auch, which caused a deficit of 3210"JU&M for production expanses. The cooperative had .to apply for a loan to the government bank -and the or0ci.it cooperative,- by 'emm.a of production da th© siärketirig cooperative on or©dit, and talc© aß advance os the basis of'"contracts. Because of a lack of fertiliser« and seeds, .'the productivity dropped tö 100 ehin-p»r »CJIJU After surveying the'«istakes of .1956,.■ the members of the ■ cooperative decided to increase t,lm mwafeer of work ania&als, agricultural implements, quantity of fertilizers a ad pro» ceed to capital, construction. To realize this program they needed 33! 170 yuan.- aone 3190 yuan »ore than, ia the pre- deeding year« ■ The gross production öf agrf.01u.tvre and' auxiliary projects in 195? amounted to 110,000 yuan which wer© used"in the following way: businessexpenditures

J st«

74,183 yuan (67.5$ of the.gross production of the cooperative) were distributed according to work which secured as _

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.■Incrgiffiöe in income of 89^ of the .members of the cooperative»'3

Enormously important for a correct distribution of the income of cooperatives was the decision of the Central GGiraaittee of the CoBiznunist Party of China concerning the democratization of the cooperative $an&gc«ient and' the campaign for a socialist education.of the agricultural pop« ulation« Peasants began to feel in charge of the cooperatives and found out that their welfare depends on themselves. The fact» of everyday life convinced them of the necessity to expand the public accumulations fund*

The Ptsnaanent Coaadttee of the All-China Assembly of National Representatives decided on January 68 195$, that the share for the accumulation fund «ay exceed &% of the net income of the cooperatives (or 12$ of the income of the cooperatives growing technical plants). In bad harvest years the share could, be reduced and in the years of a good harvest it oould be increased« <**•

The increase of accumulations serves as a factor .in the rapid growth of production« However, it is evident that in the socialist system of economy the growth of accumulations cannot be practised at the expense of the reduction of consumption.«. On the basis of an expansion of production and in relation to the pace of its development, it was necessary to increase both accumulations and the peasant standard of living. In 1956 60$ of the cooperatives in China increased their income. In 1957» the harvest was only average but incoso also increased;, in approximately 3Q$ of the cooperatives the income of the members of the artel reached or exceeded the level of income of the rich middle peasants* Understanding the inter-relation between the growth of accumulations* expansion of production and the "'{subsequent growth of iacosae» peasant® in many cooperatives enlarged -the share of the accumulations» An examination of 2559 cooperatives in Ronan showed that in 94? cooperatives, the proportions for accumulation exceeded & and 12$. In the T'ung-hsien, County of Kopeb Province in all cooperatives they were over Ö>$ and in some over 15%«'?

The expansion of public accumulations, ensuring the realisation of an enlarged reproduction, strengthens the system of collective property and socialist production relations in the village.

The part of the gross production uhlch remains after replacing'of the üsed-up raearss of production, payment of the agricultural tax and payments into the indivisible fund, Is assigned for consumption« This part of the gross production after deductions of administrative

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and business expenses and. withholding of the part destined for the public welfare fund was distributed, according to workdays,

■ In compliance with the regulations of the higher- level agricultural producer's cooperativest the administrative ana business expenses of the cooperatives (excluding recompense for the. administrative work.) «rust not exceed .5$. of the total'annual gross product!ons and the'

■number of workdays worked by the administrative and business employees must not total more than Zp of workdays put in by all. the metabors of the cooperative.?0 In cooperativ.es, 50 - 70% of the gross production was usually distributed according to workdays, and the total cost of administration represented !„$$> of the total gross .production of the cooperative«, ,

In 195oA^the cost of management in many cooperatives was too higtu'/Y if the cost of management grew disprop- ortipnally^ the share of income' going for the individual consumption of the members of the ■ cooperative dropped considerably. It happened most frequently when the rank and file members of ihe cooperative did not know the. actual situation and could not exercise their right to participate in the management of tha cooperative«

Of decisive importance to the reduction of the coat of management were the resolutions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on a democratic administration of cooperatives and .on a compulsory, participation of management in. production (in 1957)•

The fund for raising the level of_the public welfare, in accordance with the regulations, was meant for a. development in cooperatives of cultural gervieas and improvement of the welfare of the members of cooperative» It. was not-permitted to use this fund for other- purposes« The share- going to the 'welfare fuad should not exceed 2$ of the annual income of the cooperative*

This fund served to assist those members of the cooperative.who were no longer.able to work and who did not have anyone to support them* Cooperatives assumed the duty of supplying them väth food}, clothing, fuel, took care of the education, of. their children and provided for a funeral when. they.died (the so-called '"five provisions™)*

Iß accordance with the enactments of the government , cooperatives paid fro® the fund for raising the level of the public welfare various allowances to the «sabers of families of heroes killed in action--and war ~ disabled persons unable to work., in order to ensure that their standard of living would not be lower than that of the.

«-10'>-

rank and file Berbers of the coops ratios» ' '■ ?Äy».6ist6 ia&o this fund in 1956 and 1957 actually

totalled. i~2'! of the income of cooperatives and were very small. ''Owing to the limited eise of the fund, the cooper-« atives could not build clubs, hospitals, etc« But with ■ .'■ the growth of production, the fund for raising the level of.-the. public wslfara was increasing both absolutely and .! relatively and was better utilised for the purposes of education*,, health services and culture.

Public funds were also often uead for organising school» (froxa various courses with a variety of programs and a duration through secondary school}»

A eharacteristic example is the- evening technical school attached to the cooperative. «Hain-huo" of the Hsi Chang-ch'i district- of the Che-liu county of the . province "of Shasiai. It "was established in 1953« !*hc occupation was basically placed into a period of time when no work in the Held was done, and the program was closely . connected with the tasks of the'production. Peasants not only learned how to read and write, but also learned the methods of fighting agricultural poats? operating new machines, etc The compensation of instructor» was practised so that the'pupils contributed a small part of

■their workdays (approximately two workdays a year}t and the cooperative paid the balance {from 5 to 12 workdays a month). Other expenses of the schools for each group of students did not exceed 3 yuan & month* They were covered one half by thVpublic welfare fund and one half by the fees of the pupils,?&

The public welfare fund served as a material basis for the satisfaction of growing spiritual needs of the numbers of cooperatives and the raising of tho level of their welfare«

The part of the gross income which was distributed among the «©ffiber» of cooperatives represented that part of the work which they expended for themselves, it was distributed according to the principle fS?o each according to his work", that iffi> in, compliance with the quantity and quality of work,.

The sis® of tho personal consumption fund and, coaaoquontly, th© income of the members of cooperatives are determined by the development of the collective farm, whose rate of growth in turn depends OR accumulation. Thus» an expansion of accuewlation is in harmony with the fundamental Interests of the peasant class» being a con» dition of growth of production and a guarantee of a further increase in income* Consequently, here, the collective and individual interests coincide« On the other hand,

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however, tha larger the proportion of business expenses,■ taxes,- accumulation». -smaller is tfe® Individual consumption

■fwjid and" therefore,--'also'th© lacom« of thf peasants, Fron an. analysis of the distribution process it is evident- that the-individual cozssiMption. fuhd pt^äenta itself as the .last of a long series of deductions, after each of which the share which could go for consumption becomes less and lees* In the'meantime,, from the viewpoint of the.

■producer, the purpose of production is chiefly the personal consumption,, "and the fand of personal consumption should be larger, if possible. In'this lies the material, ground for the Rort-'äntägüfiistie- contradictions between the public and individual.interests, between the igavemment, the .cooperatives and the members of the cooperatives. '

These contradictions were solved» first of all, through a develop&enWof production which is the mtin:■ condition of growth'of■the individual consumption fund and . secondly» toy" maintaining specific correlations which correspond to the actual situation, between accumulations'(of the government'and the cooperatives) and consumption, between the agricultural tax and the personal consumption fund*1 Mao. Tae-tuag pointed out: BIt is necessary to keep

■a- correct balance between, the taxes collected by the go¥~ .,- ernment,. the accumulations of the cooperatives and the . 'individual income' of 'peasantss and constantly to see that .the contradictions' existing in this area'are regulated.**/9^

... As shown, by the Central Gomitte'e of the .Communist Party of China &»d the State Council» the share of indlv« : idual consumption'corresponding to the level of production achieved''in 1956-1957 represented approximately 00 -.'70#.. of,the income'of the cooperatives, A real guarantee of the growth of the personal consumption fund is the growth of production« ■-. If a cooperative could not increase pro«*.-' ductiori, it did not increase the incosae of the peasants, even after distributing 60 - ?()$£ of its income. When sometimes individual cooperatives tried to increase the

'income without'accumulation'and through reduction the shar© of the production expenses^ this "undermined the . foundations of the. 'reproduction and destroyed the collective enterprise«"."''

■Of serious importance ia the conditions of China " was ths question of the correlation 'between the araoimt ■ of pay for one workday and the income of each peasant or household» In certain cases,, the gross income of a coop-

.'erative and, consequently, of a household, could grow but the workday rate would remain the s&m® or oven drop, , It was usually the case when a cooperative was making" capital investments'in the land (collection and removal-.

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of fertilizer,'buildlag of irrigation systems) vhieh 'anortlaos slowly,, „Here are, for instance, .tne «*fcJ of an examination in 1956, of 118 cooperatives« <u the Chia-halng region of Chekiang Province :ÖU . i

:Average number of work« days per worker rt 7 P Less than 100- 121- 151- Over

100 120 150 200 200 «w*»^#u<f*Tî**-**«*a»^-*^ trmmmf*vm^mtnm»»MHBfm «fawww

number of coop- ' , .., eratives 12 20 41 *o *■>

Daily wage In yuan \M 1.27 1*29 1«12 1.60

Average income. of one household ■ Â ,. ,// M in yuan 276.71 313,53 343.3« 341.3* 366.0?

'From the above table it is evident that if there is a direct relation between the number pf■ workdays produced during a year and the income of a Household, such

;a relation does not exist between the workday pay ana the income of a household. , ^^_,

A certain reduction of the workday pay would appear, at first sight, as a falling off of the productivity of

: collective work in the cooperatives, it is, However, : necessary to bear in manpower. To «ploy it. even though

= in the initial period with a lower product!vitJ °{ ™* than the average achieved at that tin», a»ant to expand production power. Through a »ore economic application of »iSSer it was posaifele to achieve a oonaiaeraol« SLSh^f pwduStioh. It follow, from this that ôper- atives had to try to utilise the labor reserves to a larger extent, even if it, led to a certain lowering of the W°^daLPpractice there were cases in the cooperative movement in China where in some artels there was a «- denev to raise only the workday pay, and the P«"^« : were* prevented from putting is more workdays. The admin- oration scorned the «chase after th\«%k™2£^*9 «waiting system« was established. In such cooperatives the labor of women and youth was not usea at ail*

The Central Comlttee of tne Communist Party of China and the State Council I,ePsated^mS?i?rLaHnre necessity to use manpower in a more complete »*™™j^ , especially in capital construction. W*^^ *?£52™- m realized not only in the form of irrigation, improve«

-10&-

merits«, and construction of production fe.ctlIt.ieSy etc«, but also in tha form of.work expenses leading to land improvements As early .as 1956 peasants taking part in a nation-wide movement/ for collection of fertiliser achieved a Very important labor investment in the* land« ■In 160 cooperatives in. P*ing;«ghun County of the Shansi Pro« ..- .viace, 13»#$ of the workdays were spent on capital construction« In the Hsing-t*ai region of the Hopeh Province, a<s an average s approximately 20% of the total of workdays in. the first six months of 1956 were used in capital con«« struction* In 195? and especially in 1956 during.-the. ■ movement for collection of fertiliser and for irrigation, enormous capital'investment in capital construction was made.

However,..labor consumption in capital construction is usually justified only after a number of years. The workdays spent in capital construction were considered . in some cooperatives a public obligation and were not- paid* This' gave rise to -a 'righteous dissatisfaction among the peasants* "In the majority of casos^ these workdays were' paid in the respective year only partially and the remaining'part had to be taken into consideration by distribution during'the following years« In. 473 cooperatives of the Ghia-hsing region in Chekiang Provincet 366,000 -: workdays'were spent in capital -. construction» Out of them, ■ 186,000 was p;3.icL In. any.case, whether all the workdays spent in capital construction were paid, .in the* respective year or not,, a credit of enorteous sise by the cooperatives took, place for the work of the peasants*. In: this may be seen the .fundamental.-'difference, between the socialist and bourgeois principle of material''iri-esnfcive* The bulk of the peasants were- convinced that the result of their work would roach them eventually» because they wer© the coasters . of the cooperative».

Socialisation of the basic means of.production did not destroy certain distinctions-in the situation and ;

■ level of income ■ of individual categories of peasants* One' of the basic distinctions consisted, in the fact that the households of -poor-peasants, as a -rule, had an average of . :. fewer working people* Hare are,, for instance, the data on €he isanpower situation in the farms of peasants of the-. first- cooperative of the Yu-ch*eng District, Hai-yang Countys 'Chekiang Pro-vines*"^ ■

In additi§s to this, mny poor ptasaats could not ¥101% in cooperatives'permanently» They could not wait

'.■till the distribution of the harvest, as they did not'have 'any reserves and did not have'the time and. means to work in the subsidiary industries and -cottage industry*.1. Their.

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4*7 16*6 237.8

4,7 20 «9 371.8

7.0 23.9 517.8

/hj&i>jsr of dumber of Number of ' people in work units workdays per household per house- household

hold®'*

Poor peasants 3.3 7*9 166*2

New lower middle- 4.3 15*3 280.4 peasants

Old lower middle« peasants

New higher middle- peasants

Old'higher middle- peasants

Average 4.7 16«0 318 «6

Income-from cottage Industry was also considerably lower than that of other peasants.*3 All this compelled the poor peasants to look for additional income, to take var~ ions odd jobs. As a result of this, they were joining cooperatives less than other peasants*

To the existing contradictions aasong the needy poor peasants, according to the resolutions of the Central Coffiraitt.ee of the Communist Party of China srtd the State Council, it was necessary to help by meanß of loans; the cooperatives proceeded to advance ras;ab&rs o£ the artel and'part of the poor peasants assistance under the "Five Provisions*" • All these measures were applied in order to keep ooasants ift collective work and to achieve the realisation of ür& principle "From each according to his abil- i ti f*s * **

Income of part of the rich middle peasants somewhat dropped when"they joined cooperatives. They had _ more land for farming (and at the same time, more iertiiej and more means of production than fell on each.household in the cooperative. According to the result» of an examination of" 2?0 cooperatives in 20 districts of tho Chia- hsing county in Chekiarxg Province, in 237 farms of former rich middle peasants, the proportion was 2.95 mow of land per person, but'in cooperatives it was only 2.46 mou or 20$ less. Besides, the rich middle peasants usually had more teulbarry, bamboo, fruit groves and inventory

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fish ponds^ etc. The value of the agricultural [email protected] on the farsas of the 'rich saddle peasant;s. per aiou of land Equalled, .according to'the results'of the examination of seven districts In five counties'of Cfaekiaag Province,

'10'«- 14 yuan, whereas in'cooperatives it was only 6-9 yuan«

The newly organised ■cooperatives in which the main body of members consisted of poor peasants and lower groups of medium-size-peasants did not yet succeed la forming the 'necessary basieal production fundf and they did not have ;-enough draft cattle arid agricultural isaplarsents«^'

According to the results of the research carried out in various areas of Chinas the harvest from a unit of land was 20$ higherrvdth the rich middle peasants than in the cooperatives,,8**

Since a majority of cooperatives did not reach the ■'level of production and. the income-of the rich .middle peas» •ants, the income of the latter% was naturally bound to go down after they joined the cooperatives« Tills was the reason for their hesitation and sometimes hostile attitude toward the cooperatives«

In order to attain a union witfe the isiddie peasants', the CoBuannist Party practised the policy of "Mutual advantage »"■ Tim socialised means of production which formerly belonged to the middle peasantss which exceeded the inee- essary limit of share for admission into the cooperativet ware purchased by the cooperatives on the basis of market

■'prices, and a part of the orchards! fish ponds, etc» remained in their use; the Income from this property went

■completely or partly to them as well« in certain cases they were compensated for the expenses involved ia improv« ing the soil, in'irrigation, @tc These ■ concessions to the middle'peasants affected, to a'certain degree the interests of otnar- members of the cooperative and a positive agreement of the interests of the poor peasants and the

■middle peasants was required {sratual advantage)« - The only way-to remove all"these contradictions

:definitely was to expand the production* With a growth of labor productivity^ peasant income increaset and the rise of their welfare^.the heritage of disparate standards of living 'was -being ©ra'ssd»

As has beer* eerstioBed before, m'emtaers* of cooperatives houses remained ander- private', ownsrship# as well as under private ownership, all household goods% small domestic animals and fowl* ' In addition to this, a household, was entitled to the crop harvested from the private plot.

Cooperatives helped the!t 'members to raise live- -stock and fowl, and. to occupy themselves with handicrafts,

-ill-

the collection of moäicin;il herbs. hum,vvr; etc» The inconie from domestic occupations cor/tr Hurting to the total income of the members of cooperatives was different from case to case« In 600 household« of five cooperative© _ in Hopeh and Shantung Provinces, 6G-8?;£ of the total income originated from "the regular workday wages* The sources of'tho remaining income were the individual plot, animal husbandry/ projects of cottage industry, etc. According to data in the county of Chia-hsiag, of Chekiang Province, the annual income of one household from cottage industry amounted, in 19$o to 50 yuan or to 15# of the average annual income (350 yuan)*

"Cottage industry made it possible to utilise manpower and other means of production to a better extent» which, from the social point of view means an increase of means of production.,

However, the nature of peasant labor in cottage industry differed from that of the cooperative» In the first case he acted as a private person, a small manufact- urer and worked for his individual profit wriereas in the second case he was a socialist worker. The compensation that the peasants were receiving from their workdays from the cooperative where they were spending the main part of their working time had to represent an adequat- ely fundamental part* of tsoir income, and the necessary minimum of standard of living bad to be respected. Other- wise the cooperative ceased to be voluntary and advantageous institutions for the peasants.

Sometimes peasant cottage industry became their chief occupation. In 1957 in 150 farms of the cooperative "Yeh-chlang" in the Ta-pa County of Sseehwan Province, the incoEo'from cottage industry exceeded the income from cooperative labor. The same phenomenon was noted in. 33 farms of the rtHai-hutt cooperative in the Hsien-t'an County of Hunan Province«*10 It is quite understandable that in such eases cottage and sub id diary industry was very close to speculation» The interest of peasants in the' collective form of labor was foiling off»

The contradiction between the collective and individual forma of labor was partially solved by curbing^ cottage industry,. However, the rmin form of solution of this contradiction remains'tho'growth of collective farming and a steady increase of income of peasants achieved by this method»

1* Ö^EtlM&..Ji^§^ 1955, Mo' 7, p 12.

2. Osno vjr^^

... 1 '! ?_

tLliäXij^^ (Basic Figures- In the-. . •■•■ Development, of "the Economy "of the Chinese People's Re«

'•public)? 195$, No 3S P 53.*.

3. . 'Chung-kuo KiHie-pao. 1954. ®o 21, p 6,

i4i'-The regulations of the agricultural producers1'-cooper- '■ : ' ■ atives (higher level) of the Chinese'People!s Republic-.

characterized the upper-level cooperative as a social- : ist collective economic organization of the laboring

: . peasantry., 'created wider the leadership and with the help of the Communist Party and the people's government

i on the basis of voluntar ness and mutual aid«, .'(ReEUl- ■ I-tipns._of_^^ri.Ciü^«ra^ SiJ^SJlJ^lI^ Kejßublic', Feipirtg, ■

' r95*6'7 P'3."""" —r~

5. 'Originally, Article 16 of the Regulations for Higher- level Cooperatives provided--ti-hat the private plot should not exceed 5% of the average land holding,-''based on the population of a given village. However, in prao

. tiee it became apparent that the limited size of the private'plots was holding down the development of subsidiary industries, such as hog raising« .Therefore, on 25 June 1957,"the Permansmt Committee of the-All»

• China Assembly of People$s Representatives revised.-the regulations, 'doubling the private plot' per head' in the village * (i^j2^4.4j!^

1957» P 2634» If one considers "that there "is an aver* : age of 0.22 ha of arable land per inhabitant of rural areas in China, the private plots would average 0.02 ha person.

■6, under the conditions that the owner of the land would be in difficult material circumstances and no member of

• his family remaining in the village worked,-

7»- In payment of compensation for confiscated land, it was taken into consideration whether the land had orchards, fish ponds, bamboo groves,- tea plantings, mulberry trees for the cultivation of silk-worms, tung plantings,

■^.reservoirs with lotus} reeds', or cane, '/See Resolution ■ "of the State Council of the ÖPR-w0n the Methods of

■ Land Use understate Exploitation" (Je^mih_Jib>gao. 7 •January .1950)^7"

Ö« ijeitM^L.iiil.wB§ii& '7 January 1958»

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' 9. 'Hej^U^mL^^ ti^J^sh9S^-l'S2l3'i^TL±£lä^.M:&i °P« c5-t«, P 3-*-»

■ 10. The number of brigade leaders elected as representat- • iVe"S; could not exceed 1/4 of-the total number of representatives.

11» JteÄLJiferJBäa» 15 March 1957.

•12, Druzhba, 3 October 1957,»

13« Druzhba,-5 --January 1957.

Ill, By May 1957 the number of basic crops had been decreased from 25 to 9 (grain, cotton, beans, pork, oil plants and some technical crops).

3 5.' The marketing-supply and producers1 cooperatives drew no three tvpes'of contract: 1) an anticipatory contract for the purchase of produce; 2) a contract for the sup-

'- ply of industrial p;oods; 3) a mutual contract for the supply of industrial goods and the purchase of subsid-

■ ' 'iary industrv production. Until 1955, the marketing- supply cooperatives bought agricultural products (including grain end cotton) from cooperatives at the direction of the state. After large cooperatives with s well-developed, Comdex economies had been created as a result of a'great surge in the cooperative movement in the country,'the stato directed the marketing-supply cooperatives to purchase finished and semi-finished products of subsidiary industry, and the obligation to

" ' purchase agricultural products was transfercd to organs of state trade»

16. 21s§sXtJtlqn_qn^ Peipinß, 1956 (in Chinese).

' 17. gruahba, 4 January 195?.

If*/ According to statistics*, there were more than 150,000 such brigades at the beginning of 195t>, including more than 4 million persons. Ihe productivity of the youth brigade fields in the district of Chen-chieh was llh

' higher, and that in the district of Chiang-ting even • kkf higher, than the average productivity in the dis-

trict. (jen-min Jlh-pao, 12 March 1957).

19. Jenj^n-J£h=j»ao, 15 September 195?.

-114-

2Ö<? fiSiSjäJää» ?-Ö March 1957, In mountainous regions the sialToTthe 'brigades was smaller. Shortly after the

- creation of large higher-level cooperative^ ■ production brigades sometimes included more than 100 households, or 300-400 persons» It.was extremely difficult to head such brigades» The TsK KPK'indicated that the size of brigades should not be large*

■ 21", The. SettiJH^f^ ä2S^MuhB^S^$;Mäl^£9:îÎ^Sü9IiSTMtiilMä.$ Fei ping j l95^"Tin Chinese}•

22» ChunK-kuo Kun»~pao, 1957, No 23» p 11*

23* In some cooperatives 70-00$ of the above-plan crop ', • yield was divided among the brigade members, and 20»

30$ was given to the cooperative. In cooperatives near Peiping, 00$ went to the brigade and 20$ to the cooperative» In the provinces of Heilungkiang" and Kiangsu, this proportion was 70 and. 30$ respectively. (STJäghba, "' 18 May 1957)« In the cooperatives of Ch*ia$-heiangf , .■ District in the province of Kopeh, £0«"90$'of the extra '

:. production went to the brigade and 10-20$ to the coop- ' ;' erativers social'fund (Chjin^^j^JtogÊ^Lj), ' 1957.»' No'23,;

p....ll). However,' in most cooperaTiyis* 'above-plan production, after coming to the brigade members, was reckoned into work-day units.

!2-4. Sometimes (for example,, -in the special region of Ch'ian- hsiang District in. the province of Hopeh) the brigade

;'. members, In case they .were responsible for the non- ■ fulfillment of their'production task /were obliged to ;

compensate for 40-50$ of the losses out of their own pockets "(Chungrkuo Kung-pao, 1957* &o 23. p 11K

■:25« SkMS£zfeB2J^S£±S^2.* 1957? No 23, p 11.

26« ibid«

■2?0 Drujhba, 20 March 1957»

■ 2S. 'ChuMvkuo 'Nung-pao, 1957» Ko 13» P 14*"

^9* £bHk3ri2^v.!!BMrii§2.j 195?» ■ No 23, pp 10-,11« The TsK K.'PE"*recoE)}iiended the practice of transmission of work to the link and to the individual members of the . ■ cooperative, according, to the concrete local conditions'' ^SM!lrilM.^äirXS®Jl^lL!iÄj 1957, No 19, p 136}« ■..

-115- ■

30« ätliä]i£ä> -^ *->¥ 1957*

31« ibid. :

32. Chung-kuo Kung-pao. 1957» &io 12, p 11,

33« Because of the difficulties of effecting the piecework system on the basis of work norms, upper-level cooperatives sometimes partially or fully returned to the system of anticipatory evaluation of the labor force with a subsequent calculation of labor which was actually expended.

34» The .Setting.of the..EarningsMand Labor,,,--,;-. op. cit., P 'h. ~ '""" •'

35o .Druzhbe., 28 December 1956«

3 6 * 51hg, ße11ingj of_ the„.Earn 1 ngK_, and,.J..aborr »~~., op. cit*, ■ p"~4. ' """ •• —- ■

37» ibid,, p 22.

30'. Ghun^-;k}ipxiiMung--pap ? 1956. No 6, p 40*

39. Ksin»huar Pan-yueh-k/ant 195Ö? No 4, P 71.

40. Jen^.niAn Jlh~paoy 19 February 1955*

41. - Chung;~k>A0 HuU£~pao, 1955, Ko 2, p 19*

42. NjôdiiyxK„itax,, 1955, No 7, P 37.

43» Under the condition that one ôrk-aay unit equals one actual working day» Chia-ou-hsueh Yul, Yen-chlu, 1957} No 2, p 12,

44. Huang Kan-senj Wang Ch'ing-shu, The, Objeetiye_,Reasons A^L&kfr.,ffise ôf _.,the Chineseu Agrlcultural Gooperataye KoX§iSi§2Öi.j Shanghai, 19 5 & Tin Chinese J.

45« ibid., p 2.

46. Hsueh Ku~ch * I a o, Gen era.ll Infprmationm_on the,,.Economyiof tbe_^hiaij5 3ê_VJJla'â, Shanghai^î'ung-cli'vlng, 1947, P 95 "Tin Chinese!.

47. Druzhba. 9 March 1957.

-116«.

^'* i§lld3Js,IIîlk::£.ä,S.3 2-6 —arch 195?«

49* SllliMMj 9 March 195?»

50♦ ^Xrîl..iü]3^£M.s 26 March 1957»

51« CoI3jij^j^ ' 5§2BÜli£j Peiping, 1.957» PP -333-335»

52« 9hi3^}k^§^:^„.J^..XM^^Ê,^ 3.957> No 2,- p 12*

53 • ibid»

Ü? „/ # -i» Ö ■■*- 0. *

56. ibid*

57« ' Chao Ching, PjLS«J2iJLJiJ^^ feiSi^S:^^ p 3§' (in Chi- nese )«

.58* Je,BrM;B„jliiiri2ll2.> 13 April 1.958«

59« Under conditions in China} land irrigation allows a . 50-200% productivity increase« as well as two or three harvest a year in the Southern, and Central, regions»

60* l^£2§MI..Mlii§Zf 1956, Mo 22, pi?»

61* li§Mlri^ÄiMi::Mi§,? 1957> So ?} p 3«

62* ibid», p 4,

63* D£Mhbäs 4 August'1957.

^4* lil*EMlk§s> 4 August 1957? 15 September 1957; ÖDîJÜlMb 195$} N° 1Q> Supplements p. ,3,3; Spj^tsko^îta^ved-- SBiSI (Soviet Sinology) 5 Moscöw7'"T958's Ho"i, p""l2lT

65» ääMt:£Mz§Ikz§M.i 1957, So ?, p 3.

66. £®II^ä-yLî]lr.Eä5.8 5 June 195Ö«,

67- 5l:R2|xba, 15 September 1957»

9o&]^rîvezr_^_t^y§^']i} op. cit., pp 13-14»

69» ibid., p 43*

70. HsijgKchian-.she, 1957, Ko 7, P 3«

71. ibid.

72. DrüShfeS., 18 May 1957.

73« ffiL^;:gkl^L^ WT* No 3.1, p 22.

74« Hsir^hua Pan-yueh-k,Tan, 195Ö,. No 3, P 79.

75. ibid.

76« MS^MiSSSJSLMä&^zMZ^JZ^^* °Pa cit., pp 21, 23-24.

77* Cliij^^cMJ^nrchiu, 1958, Ko 1, P 26.

78. H«^-hujâ^Y\Ji,e|^klan, 1958, Ko 4, PP 137-138.

79. NarpdnyyiiKitayj, 1957, No 13, Supplement, p 14«

00. HsijQ-.chlan-she, 1957, No 7, p 5*

81. ibid.

82. The labor of each was evaluated in work units; 10 work units comprise one conditional labor potential.

83. JL§lbffi^-î3£MO, 20 November 1956.

Ö4. Oh\m^:^xcLKjm.grjô, 1950» Ko 3» PP 35-36.

$5* ^®Sk^^LjÜk?JPÄOj 11 October 1957*

86» Jen-inin Jlh-pao, 13 February 1953.

-118-

CHAPTER ¥

The VIII Congress of the Communist Party of China took place in September of 195&* ■■In the'political report of the Central Ooiaraittee of the Chinese Communist Party to the Congress, Liu Shao~ch*i remarked that the difficult and complex problem of conversion'of the private ownership of the means'of production into, socialist -common property has already been"basically accomplished, the question^of "who mil overcome whom*11 has been irrevocably solved in favor of socialism«-*"

«This, however j-does not mean," underlined Li-u Shao-chH» "that the problems of the party in the area . of socialist reorganization of the village have- been solved completely* It would be necessary» first of all, to consolidate the cooperatives of the higher type, the predominating majority of which were organized, in an unusually short period of time {autumn and winter of 1955 and 1956), to achieve an. increase in agricultural pro«-

■auction and in the peasants* incomes* : The work of ■ consolidating the cooperatives was a-

complex and difficult laatter. "Msisibers of tae coopera-» .. tives did not yet havs trie experience for organising the. large scale multi-sectional agricultural economy» or the'experience in directing the productive activities ' of dozens ana hundreds -of households, the common 'funds of the cooperatives were not. large, their material«

"•119""

technical basis was very Insignificant» The conduct of reorganization in the village

meant an upheaval in the consciousness of hundreds of millions of Chinese peasants, who have just recently been individual farmers» The party conducted extensive ideological work in the village an'4 developed a sense of ownership towards the cooperatives among the peasants, in order that they would conduct their work in a thrifty and economical manner and would understand that they aro indispensable for their personal welfare»

.Therefor®, after the creation of cooperative» of the higher type the center of activity for the party -- in the village became their organizational — economic consolidation. The principal link in this work should have been the assurance of an uninterrupted growth in agricultural production and incomes of the cooperative .members, as was pointed out by the VIII Congress of the- Communist Party of China,

The Communist Party and the People's Government ' increased their material and financial support of the cooperatives in 1956. In the first half of 1956, during the spring sowing, agricultural credit extended by the state banks increased by 1800-million yuan, or 4.5 times more than for the corresponding period during the proceeding year,2 At the same time, in order to aid in the solution of problems confronting the cooperatives during spring sowing, the state paid out, $00 million yuan, which constituted 10$ to 20$ of the cost of the

. contracted volusio of production*.-' There has "also been an increase in the surely oi" the means

" of production to the coopers lives. During the first half of lpü?6 - the marketing and su.oply cooperatives directed Ii0# wore machines and tools and 6$% more chemical fertilizer to the villages than for the corresponding period in I9>3*

The headlong deve-lopTrent of the r^ovvmmt for the socialist reconstruction, of the village led to circumstances under which the

• old 'type of agricultural producers' cooperatives (of the lower type) became outdated« In accordance Kith the new conditions it was necessary to generalise the experience gained in the building of cooperatives of the higher type* with consideration of all the problems that arose in conjunction with that*

On 30 Jime 1995 the third, session of the All China People's Representative Conference adopted "Guiding Regulations on the Higher Tvpe of the Agricultural Producers' Cooperative of the Chinese Peo~

.'pie's Republic"— a document which defined the basic principles of . organization and activity of the socialist cooperative. The adoo~

tion of this requation had an Important meaning for the consolidation of the cooperatives of the bisher tvpe9 ...... ' ,„..

-120-

The party and Government published several resolutions regarding improvements in the work of the cooper- aiirss. 5

■'.■■ These documents outlined measures for the adjustment of the multlsectional agricultural economy, the creation of a democratic system^of air&etiag tne cooperative affairsj. organisation of labor,,, distribution of income and other, measures.

The peasant in joining the higher type cooperative expected to increase his .income. An increase in his personal income strengthened his faith, in the artel type of economy, stimulates his labor' activity and, conseauently* was instrumental in bringing about an increase in the productivity of labor and an increase an the cooperatives*, productive output,, üut of the need to prove to the peasants the beneficial aspects of tne socialist collective farms in practice, during the very first year' of their creation, the party presented the following problem to the cooperatives of the bxgner type: oh the basis of the already increasing production in I.956, to achieve an increase-in the ipeoiaes of not ■ lesH thsn90& of tne cooperative members»0 This problem, however, was not fully resolved clue to the fact that in 1956 the country was subjected to natural disasters, of an intensity unequalled in many years,,'

On the whole'in 1956 in. those areas whicfi were lightly affected or not affected at all by the natural

■.disasters, 75$ of the cooperatives members increased their incomes, and the incomes of 10 to 15 per cent of tha cooperative members remained unchanged,,6 Tne incomes of a predominating; majority of the poverty-stricken jand- poorer middle-peasants increased9 .and the incomes 01 • v^aKhier middle peasants and a .small number of house«» with many handicapped members somewhat decreased or remained'at their former level, in the very iirst year after corahletion of the cooperative program the peasants, standard of living Improved considerably: -,. 20;a> to ^ 10fa of the 'peasants had some surplus of food remaining, 60fr of the peasants had, sufl'icieri incomes to cover their expenses and only 10| zo 15> of the peasants were ift heed of government aixUf

Growth in the productivity of labor and of the peasants' incomes in tue cooperatives of the higher type is'substantiated by data, cited below, obtained Lrom a survey of 26,935 cooperatives locajgd in 15 provinces and autonomous areas of the country. ■

-121.

Cooperatives Cooperatives of the of the lower type higher type

Number of workdays worked, on. the average during a year by each member of the cooperative 95 »Q 120*0

The amount of agricultural output on the average for each member of the cooperative (in chi») 803*0 966.0

Total value of the average output of each member of the cooperative (in yuan) "' 187,0 3ßQ.O

Pay per workday {in yuan) 0,9 1.56

The income of each 10333-- ber of the cooperative (in yuan) 06*0 202„1

The income of each household (in yuarv) 274»0 413*0

The amount of marketable grain per household (in chin] 1179.0 1955.0

As evident froro the cited table the result of an increase in the productivity of labor in the surveyed cooperatives of the higher type was that the income of every household was 51$ higher than, that in the cooperatives of the lower type, while the average number of workdays worked by each raember of the higher type of cooperative was 34.7$ more than those worked by members of the lower type cooperative,

incomes from both agricultural activities and subsidiary production increased, in the cooperatives of the higher type as a result of a sore rational utilisation of "labor. 1^

«•1 £<■**

ff*.

■■■'\-- ■ _, ■Cooperative Cooperative ■ of the of the

■ ' -;' * lower type ■ higher type

Incomes from subsidiary ■ . ' . production of each mesn- fcer of the cooperative ' , ■'' ■ I* K* - ^ "" "% **"* i"' *7

The average-ineoffis frojs subsidiary production '■'•''"'".'^'fii'-ll in the gross incests of

, thej cooperative {in %).«, ,.B,......«..»»•• V'« 7 11.2

■•The" rate of capital investment, increased considerably in the cooperatives of the higher type*

'According to the data frojft the flrss surrey-, the higher hype cöoj}eyaii¥eg litres ted 28«%% of their gross Ineoirnö into agrlenltixral . pro&ietion, and U0.1$ into subsidiary production/ &na the-cooperatives of the'lower type 21.9^ and 30*3* respectively«1;-y

Contributions into'the cossnon ftiöd aiHstmied to 8*?$ of tho an- -rm---l income at the cooperatives of the higher tjpep and 1»6$ into the comnon'welfare funds the cooperatives of the lower tyoe contributed 5»£;*> and 1.1$ respectively»-1"'*

Increase in the rate of capital investment- &m deposits into the: cesm-ön -faids not only failed to lead to a decrease in real income of the cooperative »embers* bntj on the contrary? were aeccripahied by their increase* :H:^-,::'. '■• . ,

Äaally, the aävaniÄges of th e" ieoojeratiTes of the higher type were #¥l4Bät i?i the incrissai'"cf cowßodity-prodtiötioa» - While JE IS?55

■thfi ctr*tt*Hiy rrodartioft constituted Wutl in the empezt&M^tes cf^pi® higher typ©|'-: M th®'.cooperatives of the-lower type it was 31*6$*~*-k

. ---The orgsaiäatiori of .cooperatives in agrtcoltxira led to enor« maus changes in the lives- of the -five million meabsr Chinese peasant population, to the liquidation of the system of exploitation "in the

yrt|lf|^ an..tHÜ.aterniütGd and :;_ ...^sjiM gyc«tb in agricultural ■production, ' '*■ . ;""."■'■■:■■-■ In the old China the peasantry was cruelly exploited by laM» owiers, kulaks, shop owners and foreign iürp'erialists»-' The peasants liir-ed under conditions of horrible poverty, ■ manys it wotUd "sesat, of the"iaost comnoa consumer goodss such as sugar* tea, kerosene, soap, \ rubber footwear etc«,-were unobtainable for them andrere objects .of

'.luxury to thesw The position of the peasants has Changed basically ±n the new '

•China«, = 1'he .sxinrey data cited heloW and obtaincd-hy the institute"of

sag :■■■

194910 1956 3.956 in $ to 1949

396.3 592.5 149.5

2.9 4.3 14Ö.3

7.0 7.1 XwJL* l\

9*3. 12.7 139.6

0.4 2.1 525.0

Economics of the- Ohin@ae Academy of Sci.«tcaa shows the extent; to which the use of consumer goods by a peasant has grown over a period of 7 years (1949 - I9i^i*x,?

Grain (chin)

Oil. (chin)

Pork (chin)

Salt (chin)

Sugar (chin)

Cigarettes „,...-. -r, -, (sticks) 94.0 19^0 404. J

Cotton fabric (ch'ih)1'

Coal (chin)

Kerosene (chin)

From 1950 to 1956 the purchasing power of the Chin- ese peasants incr&ae&d by 157^-J-S During these 7 years the production of grain in the country increased, by /5 million tons and over half of this amount was consumed by the peasants themselves»

The disparity in prices between industrial and. agricultural rood's decreased. In 1950 this disparity in prices decreased by 17.2$ by comparison with 1950, which r^ant an addition of 2 billion yuan1-1' to tue xncomes oi tne peasants« , _ __. _„

Inroreveraent in the living standards oi the peasants is also substantiated by the change in the social com« position of the village as a result, of the cooperatives. 3y mid 1956 the poor peasants con stunted only lb/° o* the peasantry as compared with 60 - 70ft during the agrarian reforms (the life of"these poor peasants was auch better in the cooperatives than it was previously), 8?£ oi tfte peasants were middle peasants (of whoa 25> to .i0> were wealthy middle peasantsJ.fcU r

As an example, illustrating the growth ol product-

-124-

10,0 18 o 183.0

34 «ß 113.0 325.6

0,2 1.5> 750 »0

ivity and inrt>:rov«saen& in the living conditions for tb« peasant the leading village of Pi»:u Su-cheng- near the town o'f'T'ai-yuan may be cited« ■' ■ :

. Before- the unification of the peasants, • %he peasants of this village harvested only 350 chin of rice-per mou , of paddy« After creation of the cooperative of the higher, type In 1956 the yield of rice increased to 1032 chia • i per öiou (in 1955 the coo'perattv« of the lower type harvest* ed 7Ö5 chin per raou). The principal reason for such success was the drawing into production of the large ■ labor resources of the village. In-1956 each able-bodied ; »ember of the cooperative worked OB the average of 250 workdays, 13*6$ more than in the cooperative of the lower , typ®»'; , ' 4 ■

-tihereaa the labor of women was very sparsely used , prior to the establishment of .the-cooperatives, ia 1955 30-woiaon worked in the field and by 1956 — 89 women, ;

and the number of workdays worked by them during-the year ■ increased from 1500 to 6319» t... . . ..:-:i

' As-a result of "the growth' ±R production 'the incomes öf. the ■'cooperative members mm constantly increasing. During,1££6 the income of-every household member reached B$0 yuan (??0 yuan from «gricoltore-'and 80 yuai from'subsidiary promotion) and was 7$% to 30$ M.gher thar during.the preceedirw; year* *

■ '") "The socialist transformation of agriculture Is an indispen- ■ sable condition for the .development of the cultural revolution in the Chinese village»

Extensive success has been attained in the liquidation of illiteracy, ly «d<T.19?6 over 32 siillior per seas beeaa» literate md over 90 million persons ire« studying»?**

Since 1058 China tegaia the ESSS-' stage of teHding socialism, in . the country'— a'stape of technical and cultural resolution.

. Tbe'idctory of the cooperative system led to a basic change • in the aswset of W Chinese village, the »mber. of-schools, libr« 'aries,' clubs* nursery schools aid nurseries, -comjounal cafeterias ■■.. etc.,"increased« A nations,! movement for the building of elementary

■.and seeoEöary schools with the-peasants* funds"-was' developing in the * villages. Fran February until May of 1?5& rare than 68 thonssM secondary school» were established In this manner,.-which were attended by 3 million students*"^*

. The movement for sanitation end hygiene asatmed very extensive jarooortions in China. It was being ffi&inly conducted on the basis of a strahle against "the four evils3 - rats, sparrows, pies and jBoaorcitoes. This Bovemönt included liöö million persons, -}* Tte constant increase in the material ard cultural standard-of laying of the people OS. a basis of the developing productive forces is the most important goal, of the socialistic resolution«

•12 K

The victory of the cooperative system in the village opened a Way for constant development of the agricultural industry in China..

. The best harvest prior to the liberation of tue country was gathered in 193& and consisted p£ 277.3 billion chin"of grain (13Ö.6 million tonaj^ Thereafter, during the many years of military action the level of a erri cultural production steadily declined. In 1949. only 2,16«2 bi Jjion chin of grain were harvested (1Q8.1 million tons)4° , ,,ft.A

During the three year reconstruction period 1x95-0 - 1952} the production of grain increased by 45# and of cotton by almost three tiroes. ' As early as 1952 the grain harvest exceeded the maximum pre-war harvests by

The subsequent rate of increase in the production of the basic agricultural crops remained very high which is substantiated by the following figures tin thousands of tons) c/'^

In 19^9 there were 200 kilograms of grain for every member of the population in China... and approximately 300 kilograms in 1956«

Asa result of the cooperatives the land cultivation methods changed and new agro-technical measures are being applied, soil imorovement. is being conducted, new irrigation systems are'bsing constructed, there is a wider use of fertiliser and soil potential.

The growth of agricultural production in China occurs basically on account of the increased yield per unit of area«. ,

The increased yields in the basic agricultural crops in China are shown by the following figures* (In kilograms per he etare}29: 30

2109 2249 2«>,U olo A«7 for? Rice J.89

Wheat

Average grain crop Yield

642 636 74* 731 713 «66 «59

1029 1155 1220 1322 131S 1314 1417

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The average yield in grain crops reached 15.4 chin per hectare by the end of the first five year plan, and was 12$ higher than in 1952, and 3036 higher than in 1949.

»127-

a, better -utilization of the labor resources in the country, conditions for widespread capital construction in agriculture were created*

By mid 195$ the area of irrigated land in the country was brought; to 64.6* million hectares, which com- prises over one half of all arable land in the country and. is equal to .1/3 of all the irrigated land in the world*-3*

An increase in the irrigated,areas permitted a rise in the sowing frequency index«,•**• The sowing frequency index for 1956 equalled 142$ and increased by 5.1$ by comparison with 1955*33 This means that the cultivated land area, consisting of approximately 112 million hectares .actually increased by 42$, i*e* up to 159 million, hectares »34 'i'he movement for two harvests per- year is becoming con.stan.tly more popular irs the country»

"The rapid development of agriculture creates favorable circumstances for'the industrialization of the country and for the increase in the material welfare of the population as well, it allows the successful fulfillment of the basic tasks confronting the Chinese People's Republic on its way to building socialism«

1. See Materialy YIII_Vsekitaysko£-:o s"v,eada —-, cp. cit*, p 23. " ~"~~"' "" ~~"" ' "

2. Mo Yueh-'ta, De v el epnent of the Agr i cuilt ur al r Copper at lye

3* ibid.

4* Mo Yueh-ta. op» cit,, p I42»

5» In April' of 1956 the combined directive of the Central Committee of the Corimuni ©t Party of Chd.ua and the State Council was published "On the Industrious and Thrifty Conduct of Cooperative Agriculture", Jen-rain J'ihj-pao, 12 April 1956, ' ~" ' ~ ~~' In September of I056 the directives of the T&i KPK and of the State Council were made public "On the Strengthening of Leadership of the Productive Activi- ties and Organizational Development of the Agricultural Producers' Cooperative«", Jen-min jjih-^pao, 3 September I956. ■ * ' '"' In November of 1956 the directives of the TsK KPK and

■ of the State Council were adopted "On Some Concrete Questions of Distribution of the Fall Harvest in the

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Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives'', (Ö£!i,gJ3£iä.» %® December 1956)* In September of .1-957 the TsK KPK .published three ini» .; port-ant directives; "On the Regulation'.of the Agricul- tural 'Producers1 Cooperatives"",' VOn the Adjustment of the Work in Directing Production in the Cooperatives", and. «On the Unfaltering Realization within the Cooper-

■ atives of the Policy of Mutual Advantage".

6* Materi^^ op. -cit., p 114. '

7. ' See "The Directives of the TsK KPK and of the State .■-•' Council, on some Concrete .Questions »».-•", op, cit»,, Drwjhba, 20 December 1956» ' " ■■''.

8. Chout Eh-lai, "Report at the IV-Session of the'All-China Assembly-of People's Representatives",'Pravda} 20 July .1, > j i .

9«. iDiG. it .

fO* ££<?b]^^^ op» cit<i} pp 2öä™-289«

11, Mo Yueh-ta, op» cit*,' p 123.» . ' '

.12* ibid*

14»- ibid, j p. 1 4 "

■'3-5* ligJ12äliSLlft§lj 3.957s No 9> P 14*

16, The-figures for 1949 include the consumption by.land- own ers"and kulaks; tberefore, the data s'howing the use

■ of consumer goods by. the peasant Is in; reality some- "'■..' what lower than'shown, in the tab lei'

"■"In accordance with t he sane' survey-raaterial, ■■thöiüse^.'. of consumer goods' by .the landowners 'and-kulaks in 1936 was .5„5 tiroes that of the peasant,. converted into cash»

17.'one ch'ih equals 0*33 metres» . .. . /

!$• ^ll::SiiJL.iiii:±,ä2,j 5 May 1957* . ■' .

1.9» Ö£MilM* 24 March 1956. :

20* ien~ml]ijmi,»C)ao,> 5 May 195?» .,

»"liC"?'"*"

23-• Hßiadm^,l^rläSiL::)LLSiL 1957, Ko 9» p 91* ' '•

22. :Dniäibat 1953, No 3$, P 30,

23.- fii^zhbft, 1950, No 36, p 3«. •'

25. CJilns^c^Jstwj^xiii, 1957, No 6, p 13.

26. ibid.

27. Naj£dn£jLM£ä2:> 1954, No 22, Supplement, p 15.

aö.-Osnoynv.xe^qkazateli^-^.-j op. ciU, p 45; Chingrchi lerT-.chiu,"* 1957, N<TV p 13; teri-m^$£G£=t$2&t Peiping, 195^7 p"525; Pravda, 27 Augutst 1959; Jen-mln..jlp-PAQ. 1 /January 1959"*"""

29. Narodi^xJCitax, 1958, Ko Ö, p 9<

30. As a result of floods during £53 and 1954, the average crop yield dropped somewhat*

31. fravdta» 13 September 1956.

32» The eovd.ng frequency index is the. relationship of acreage under"crop "to arable land expressed in percentage. In'China this index increases from .Worth to South, ' In the area of spring wheat in Northeastern and North-

■ western China", it" is 100$ (i.e. only one harvest is gathered); in the area of winter, wheat at the middle reaches of the Hwan^-po River it is 120$; at the lower part of the Hwang-pö it ia 140$; in the' rice and wheat

• The" basic aspects of the plan for the development of agriculture in the Chinese People's Republic for I956- I957 outlines a significant increase in the- sowing frequency index within the next 12 years. It must be

*".,up to 160$ in the area between the Hwang-po and Yangtze Rivers and 200 to 230$ further south.

33» The Great... De cadLo, Peiping, 1959, P 113 (published in Chine seT«

»ISO-

34« 0§8<wij^§^SMMMi^^ SS^^käL.lijäLS^VlY^.^i^MiJii.* °P* ci'^«j ?P 43-44*

«131-

CHAPT2H VI

STATJS SECTOR IS THE AGRICULTURE QT'iiU CHI Maß !£ PlTuPLE'-S Hi^PÜBLTÖ WmlMMtrW

State Farms

After the victory of the People's Revolution the state, created enterprises in the agriculture of China which were cozsmem socialist property; agricultural and cattle-bretadihg state farms (jgoskhes^) , raaebine-tractor stations (MTS), agrotechnicai 'statio~n's, experiffiental seed and quality testing areas,, breeding stations, various agricultural crop plantations4'nurseries> forest preserves, fisheries and others.

The first form- of state enterprises were the state farms, which were appearing in liberated areas even before the establishment of the Chinese People's Republic*

By the tire,® the Chinese People's Republic was formed the cosntry already had several;, large and a significant number of smaller state farms»

During the agrarian reform the provincial and higher agencies of the People's Government were able to "apportion part of the land, for nationalisation, and utilisation by experimental agricultural stations or for addition to state model-demonstration farms in one or more rural districts", during the distribution of the cultivated land in. accordance with local conditions*"1

The Agrarian Reform Law stipulated that vacant lands, large forest areas, irrigation systems, large uncultivated mountain slopes, and those lands belonging to landowners or public organizations, as well as sandy and inarch lands were subject to nationalisation,2 Landowners* Tafias, nurseries, large bamboo plantations, orchards, tea and tung tree plantations, mulberry tree plantations, grazing lande etc* were nationalised,-* The state fanes, plantations, experimental and seeding areas as well as other agricultura3. enterprises which are comaaon socialist property were established there» By the end. of 1950

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there-we.re 1./Z15 ©tat«, agricultural fangs in China with a/.combined area of 1^5 thousand hectares including '36- l&rg« iseciiafiiuad -state farads with a combined cultivated area .of 09*3 thousand hectares «A

■"-The majority-"of- these state farms wer© organized ■ on unoccupied lands or on those that were either difficult or'inconvenient to cultivate as well as on.virgin lands« Out of the 10 thousand hectares, of land ..cultivated by ; .... the state farms in 1950 in. the areas south of the Great Wallj approximately-9 thousand hectares were newly plowed virgin.lands*-' Subsequently, the large state farms'we?« established ^exclusively on virgin landse This naturalist. required large capital* outlays for irrigation, and »elior* ati*?e- measures associated with the construction of-.irrigation systems,'and daring the first years unfavorably reflected on the development of the'state farms,- ■ .'.

. . Despite that, the collective' forma of labor and ' , the proper conduct of agriculture vividly demonstrated to the peasants the advantages of th^. leading state farms over the individual famiss* The arsa''cultivated by state • farms and the number of draft animals 'increased .■ .- and agricultural techniques improved with every year, which "is substantiated by the following dstat. "* ■■■■■■ -\ '■ /■ k decrease in the mv&h&r of state farms in 193$.-' is explained by the fact that a part of the sisa aller state farms in rural di stricts ware reorganised Into experiment, tal farmsa This process continued through 1956«.

The Ministry of State Fanas aad-KeclaisatlÖh'of'■', feste Lands was formed in May of 1956 in order to assure successful reclamation's of all virgin land» th© construe- :

. tion of new state farms and for; the strengthening''of "leadership of the larger m8chaB.is.0d state farms, its . ■ jurisdiction sxtendirsg over all mechanised agricultural1

and animal«huaban<lry state fans'» yrider central authority, farms» established by the sub-tmita of the People*s Liber» afcion limy of China'in the south of ..China aus well'as" some

■ semi«mechanised'state'farms* During 1956 the Ministry organised 11,5 new large state farm's»"- ■ ".-■■

By 195?!, therefore,' there were.454 state farms under the jurisdiction, of'the Ministry (including 166 mechanised state farms), out of which 331 were agricultural farms and 123 wer© cattle-dreading farms, fßs

. cultivated -land area of these state farms VB.B 90S thous- and hectares, 356,7 thousand hectares were cultivated in 1956.'

The following table Indicates th© gross harvest of the basic -agrieuitural crops',-'the ;'land area undsr crop as well as the increase la the gross harvest'by'

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-,-.i,.'l, TO^ 1956 19^0 i9r2: y>'pi ■'--'' •1->-;:)--

■liraiber of state'faims.«1,215 2,3.?6 - 2,3?6 2,1.1!? ?,?U? 2,219 ' including riec^niced ^ .. ^ ?9 ??, 1Q6 l66 <

C-ült'iTated areas in thous- q „ ,?c) c ~0, 6 ^7 tj ends of hectares.......... •^.O lW>.9#fr.o o^/k., JJ^.O ^/..>_

including cultivation. '^ • 'by ■ffiechsriiEer'. state „ , , - ,., _., ,,,,_ - Mo„ +w-„' ..... P9.V 135.8 lijl,3 l£;S5 &tf.3 J-tliB.o

t ' '■---..

,. VTfember of workers an-) ,->-,. •■ii r -w r^ entftoyeea. in thcwando.... 13.0 97*0 111.0 137.0 13^.0 ^06.0

mechanised state fsr-s.. 11.2 2f,.9 2&.8 56,6 $?.2 10,.l

*. .:Miisber of draft a»3js^ls " . ,,« 8r . xn thousands of head....... 19 H^ W ?2 ^ <m-

iicl-adin<r those .in m«c« . ,. ^ „*",. • „ „ on r ;. rhanlaed state farms..... it.l ß«3 f.* J-3#J -U.I *-•->

• jjumber of 'tractors in the mechanised state farces ^ . . (ntrtat«b.p.) «^ 1,532 1,*?? V3> ?,B* M*

feaber of combines ix the . ^ ^ mechanised state farms..». 15b 275 -'-'. „.„;!:.. „„^L,

comparison with' the preceding year at state farms of. the Ministry during l9;5o* ,/•,».'

In 1956 there ware 114 thousand horsey loi thou- sa.nd head, of cattle, 1340 thousand sheep and goats, and 325 thousand pigs pn. the state farms«.0

Area Under Crop and the Gross harvest of the Basic Agricultural Crops for 1956**

«Mh wnta.KV'HIWX'U'y!

Gross harvest Crop Aor&afie tmd'sr In thousands In $ to

crop Gh£c,£äE^~---—-££Jä2&!L iocs

Grain 333*3 ?o0 200 Soybeans 72sO 63.5 Jg Cotton 34«0 14.5 ^u

*ßo*sJ ^a«y^jyaJtos=JEää» 1957 NO. 8, page 2

■134-

yp r.,, ■»' - -#- «.-^•c^- rY*v.ritset/<nii in 1956 by'the

«4PiBtw»s «tstß'fam» was 250 million yuan arid ,3.<>/ ,. M^hJr th!n ia 19S5 * while the grain commodity production «f7Ä6 MtfiJ. a. profit *ftî^^ agricultural, production •«;;*•? ^lOOtnoujand ^. The total profit of the state. Tanas ^^lucung j£ia?h . Sinkiang and in South China) comprised ow 43,800 thouw . a?d yUiy the end of 195? the number of state Jams

' „^n + wL '"«Msdiction of Tfee Ministry lor State if arms S SastS S Reoiâtio« increased to 710 and the n«. tor of workers and salaried employees at he "I**10" • S 500 thousand pertoüs. tte e^/^r^ thjstate

. of these -tat. f*«J^^^ 3#5 , ?»™!^î:L!to^^«^ «öl consisted of 10 thousana iäi*a * , * > rzi «.»„„^r r]f50i consisted oi iu tnousi thousand t^J^lî ?/rS ?^ The stSte farms produced machines (rated at 15 h*p«h _ «i. ^« 4....Af eA«h»a«

by the state farms. The state farmj POBWjwd 1W thous- and torsos. 200 thousand head of cattle, 1520 jgoua-nd and nor SOS* <sw feiwuo<»»w **«,*«,■ »- --• <■■ nnrf~ i, Seep and goate and «0 thousand pig. in Wj

During the First Fxv© leal Plan thv. a^jo farms

^Slar 1400 agricultural and oattle-brj^J^-tats farms, which cultivated approximately Ö30 thoua«£d nee i ,'J^Wff'w i*nd or three times more than in xyjf9 tares of virgin x*na, oz «'"*^ ■* w-iM^ttrv for the were, under the jurisdiction '^^î^f ?f {95I; The grain qtntss. Farms and Waste Land Reclamation in **.>o« * ••»

SafSiew/i^cIISe-Sr^d^g. 120 thousand *» «JJ» • - ■'•• „\,4(.t< «•■\I<R«■/••» <*#»irt 270» bv GOtapsi*i<»o*i «A|

'" .*-/.».*« raxsea Shioha|rpr^

strive for an increase in prod^10?*,^* S°w^££ .ivl work for increaaing the crop yield and ^J™& the cost of production as well. Due ^J^1^0

of modern agricultural ^^^Ê^/of food and technical

■. -135-

a result the vhfp^t yield for 1952 iß the mechanised state farms waB XJk-*l$ »y cor.-;-parisen with the average national yields 155$. for cofcton, 157$ for soybeans and 155*7$ for sesarosuAS

The average grain crop yield for all the state farms was 16 chin per hectare, many state farms attained and surpassed the indices stipulated for their areas by '»The Basic Conditions of the Plan for the 'Development of Agriculture of the Chinese People's Republic for 1956— 196?", and some farms averaged a grain crop yield of 75 chin par hectare. The average yield of cotton fibre at 91 state cotton farms was 4,0 chin per hectare,, öf^farus attained or surpassed the level planned for 19ö7*

At the small un-mechanised state farms xmder local jurisdiction the crop yield as a rule also significantly exceeded the yield of neighboring peasant fields*

The State farms became centers of leading agricultural production, the nasses were being educated and shown, the way towards productive cooperativiaation on a basis of concrete examples. The state farms concurrently developed a widespread program of experimental work in the testing of various kinds of agricultural crops and the selection of those best suited to the local conditions. The state farms relayed to the peasants their experience in: the cultivation of the different crops, methods of land cultivation, the application of various organic and mineral fertilizers, the use of new or perfected tools

■ and implements» Thousands of peasants bought quality seed from the stats farms as well as brae-ding cattle, agricultural machinery and ne>: tools»

According to incomplete data the peasants were "receiving approximately 5Ö thousand tons of various high yield crop seeds from the state fäflas during the 1951 «- 1953 period«17 The araount of quality seed distributed by the state farms increased with each year» In 1955» for instance, 19 mechanised state farms sold 25 thousand tons of quality wheat seed.-1« At the beg.inrd.ug of 195o the main directorate of state farms with the Ministry of Agriculture of the Chinese People's Republic issued a directive stipulating that during 1956 all the state farms

•"raust provide themselves with a basic supply of quality seed, and "supply them to the agricultural producers* cooperatives in*large amounts, which is an important political and agricultural task of the state faros."!;' The state farms under central jurisdiction sold over 450 thou.sa.Kd tons of quality seed to peasants and cooperatives during the First Five Xeal Plan«

In order to improve the productivity of cattle and

»136»

to- Improve Its quality certain state farms established breeding'stationsj ■ which bad purebred bulls«ÄÜ In add» iti'On to that, in areas where animal husbandry is well developed state breeding stations have beer?, established. State animal, husbandry farras raised a large nysmber of purebred cattle (a significant number of which was sold

■'to"the agricultural proi'lucers' cooperatives), end conducted research on the various problems of cattle breeding During the First Five Year Plan'' state farms which were under central jurisdiction sold 30 .thousand head, of purebred cattle to the cooperatives. ■

From the vary first' years of their existence the state farms foacams initiators in the application, of the leading achievements in agricultural industry of the Soviet Union and countries of the Peoplees Democracies «■■ The state farms assimilate and' widely disseminate such agrotechnioal■ aieasures as dsep plowing, etc« Much attention is being devoted to the study of effectiveness of ■ 'the various agricultural techniques with relation to the different agricultural crops under various soil and cli- matic conditions.» On &.basis of broad experimental work the state fare's develop and relay to the peasants scien- tifically based agricultural technique's» which assure high yield stable harvests»

The state farms-'have also' become schools of advanced agricultural techniques and animal husbandry for the* preparation of agrotechaieal cadres and agricultural specialists»

Directly after the agrarian reform the state farms began to create a wide hat of agrotechnioal groups, which trained the peasants in. the advanced methods of land cultivation and plant care«, Hence» 144 state farms under local jurisdiction'of the Hupei Province, directed 3 thousand agrotechnioal groups by the beginning of 1951, which consolidated over 18 thousand persons. ■■ In one year this province had 11«5 thousand groups,- which ware instructing approximately 70 thousand peasants» In 1951 60 state' farms of the' Sharisl Province'established 6,300*groups for.the -study of advanced agrotechnology» they included over.36 thousand persons»

The extensive significance'of state farms in the . development of agricultural production defined their im»

' portant role"in the socialist transformation of the Chin- ese village. The state farms stimulated -the development-' of collective forma of labor throughout and actively assisted the peasant masses to work for collectivization.

In order for the state farms to attain a reorgan- izational rols they'had to increase'their own production

systematically, to attain high yield narvast«, to lower the cost of production and to unalterably increase agricultural profits* State farms showed the' peasants that the advantages of the socialist system of agriculture is contained first of all in the fact that it makes it possible to achieve .a constant grovrth in production and an increase, in incomes. At the same time the state farms cooperated with the peasants of the neighboring villages in the organization of mutual aid teams and of the agricultural producers' cooperatives* and assisted the», in solving the difficulties which are inevitable during the first stages of development of collective production* Hence, with the direct assistance and. support of the Hua-ch*uan State Farm, established on the North-Eastern unreclaimed landst eight basic-level cooperatives were organized and the first cooperative of ths higher type in China, the Ksing-huo Cooperative, was organized*21

The Chiu»san State Farm (Heilungklang Province) aided the peasants in org^ising the Hsin Sher.g-h.uo Cooperative of the higher type»**2

Many state farms systematically assisted the mutual' aid groups and agricultural, cooperatives which was instrumental in the further consolidation of the peasants* ©con» omu# The mechanised Fang Gh'iu-hu State Farm in Anhwei Province planted wheat for the mutual aid group in 19.53* However, the tractors and agricultural machinery could not operate on the separat© small land plots»' In order to be able to use the" machinery on a regular basis the peasants decided to combine their land to reorganise their group into a agricultural producers* cooperative »^ :

With"an increase in the number of producer's cooperatives the state fa ras increased their aid in production to the cooperatives. In 1955» ^or «xataple, 5 large mechanised state farms in the Hellungkiang Province cultivated, over 1,5 thousand hectares of land for the neighboring cooperatives»^

After beginning the wi.de scfcls movement for coop» erativination of agriculture, tens of thousands of the newly created cooperatives wer® in dire need of concrete- aid»' Together with other government enterpri ses and organ- issations the state farms fully cooperated with the establishment and consolidation of the new cooperatives« Many state farms sent their representatives to the cooperatives in order to achieve closer ties with the cooperatives and to extend the necessary aid for them to surmount their difficulties.

The state farms frequently conducted agotechnical direction of the newly created cooperatives* The Lien-hu

-13 &»

State Farm in the Ssu-t'ii district of the Klaiigsii ''Pro-viace, for ihstahcsV provided several cooperatives ytth' choice ■ seed of '.the Most effective variety of rice for that.1 ■■parti« .. cular'region as well as of other gg^-icultural crops and ■ TL aided in conducting a more, thorough'cultivation of the lahd with observance of scientific agrötechnolögy«, '-Many cööp*» : er&tives. in. the area, as5 a'' result;, 'reaped' an abundant".'. hardest' in 1955, and the 'yield of the' newly Introduced". ■'■.' ] variety of .rice wao 17$ higher than the usual local Variety« Due 'to* aid'by the state farm as; early as 19.56 40^ of .all the fields.in thi,§ area were seeded with choice, seeds of high y'iedd'.rice.''? ■■•.■;■ . ■

CoBsiderabl® assistance was 'extended :by the state' farms to the cooperatives' in the acquisition arid use1 "of . the. new types of agricultural tools and. machinery.* Spec- . ialists who'have worked-at the* state farms instruct th©" peasants in the use of the new machines and tools and their maintenance» • ..,'.'; '.,.■'' "''■■•'■'■

..'..' State -farm accountants visited the cooperatives regularly and'assisted, the 'peasants In preparing '.production .

' plansp labor estimates, and the distribution of income •- ; They instructed cooperative bookkeepers in the correct ,accounting.procedures, compilation of the "balance .sheet execution of doeur&ents and other aatt©rs« . '■■■■:

.•■Some stat©. farms p. having experienced a, lack of .- .manpower in the period of hard, work "during harvest time 5 " have -'concluded -agreements with the local mutual aid groups and agricultural producers* .cooperdtives obligated theit«* . selves to extend labor aid to the state farias (the 'peadasts* labor was well'remunerated by the state farms}■'; and'the.. state farms assisted the obligation of ..assisting tha .mutual aid teams and cooperatives'In increasing their production . . levels and to achieve high crop yields* ... ;.

'By working'in the state farras .'the peasants had .: an opportunity, to familiarisss thsitselves with the latest agrotechaical measures and to introduce; them tö their own fields* .

AR important .measure for 'stimulating the development of production at the cooperatives was labor..compat'ition

■between the state■ farms and the'neighboring cooperatives', . The competition'.agreements included yields of food and

■ technical cross, -number of head of cattle arid othdr -In- diens* The labor competition agreement between the state* farm of the PU-Hslen Provincial 'District (Saechwan-Provi- nce-) and 3'0 agricultural producer*s cooperatives stipulated 26.75 chin of wheat per hectare and 17*75 chin of colza per hectare, to raise five pigs for every hectare of cultivated land and to fully assure a winter »upply

-139-

'. of. feed for the draft; animala«.^ j' , The conclusion of this agreement caused an increase ■; ; in the labor activity by the peasant raaof.es. fl'he peasants' : of the. Hung-kuang agricultural producer's cooperatives ! throughout the rural district of Hs-hsing decided to ; | obtain more wheat than the amount proposed 'by the state ; farm and to reap 30 chin per hectare. For this purpose "; ! they seeded an. additional*area with winter wheat and in- , : > creased the amount of fertiliser. ' ;

State f&rais are not only the centers of leading \ i agricultural production but cultural canters as well. !

'I Workers and specialist» at the state fanas teach reading \ :■ and writing to the peasants, explain the course and pol- i i icies of the Communist Party and The People's Government, ! ; and familiarize the peasants with current events both in !. China and abroad.

■ In this'manner the state farms extended assistance ■ < to the peasants, stimulated the transition of the peasants. i to cotlectivination and were instrumental in increasing : production by the agricultural producer's cooperatives.

Machine Tractor Stations

x.-The machine tractor stations, created by the govern» ment, were also collective socialist property.

After the victorious revolution in China there was \ no tractor industry, and the mechanisation of agriculture : was being accomplished through the importation of agricultural machinery from the Soviet Union, the German Dora- ocratic Republic, .Chechoslovakia, and Hungary as well as ; 'some capitalist countries,. It was stipulated that the i basic technical reconstruction of agriculture will be conducted after completion of the socialist transformations of the village and the creation of a powerful basis i for home indautrv» It was at first planned that by the end of the Second Five Tear Plan the total land area cul*^ tivated by machines would be 10$ of the total cultivated land of the country„2?

The reorganisation of £ widespread-network of mach-, ine tractor stations was then planned far the Third Five Year; Plan', when it was proposed to establish approximately 5 thousand machine tractor station««28 But for the- realisa- tion of this program it was necessary to accumulate some production experience and to show clearly the advantages of the mechanized cultivation of land to the peasant masses. The- first 11 machine tractor station» were created fair that purpose irr 1953« ^

During subsequent year® ths number of söschine tr&c» tor stationsrincre&sed> and the nuasber of tractors &t each' station increased as well, and the land area .cultivated by them increased'significantly, as indicated by the follow« ing'figures:™

1953 1954' . 1955 1956 195? ' .

The number of MTS 11 ■' 69 139 326 . 390

The number of .:■,■'■. tractors (rated • at 15 h.pj 113 77Ö 2,37? 9*062-12,176

The cultivated area in thousands - .'.■■: of hectares 6 44' 209 ' 1»355 ■ lf,e00 . .

'■ Machinery'from the machine'tractor station^ cul- 'tivated 1*6% of" all the cultivated land in China. Pj- ..

By the termination of the First Five Year Plan machine tractor stations were e stabil shed throughout the territory of China with 'the exclusion, of Tibet,'**' ,.

■■ The principal 'machine tractor stations are situa- ted'in the basic grain and cotton'producing areas* By the beginning of 1957 2/3 of the machine tractor stations were located in eight provinces (Hupeh, Hunan,. Shantung, Shensi,'-Shan§i, Anhwei s Liaoning and heilung/kiarig

•- Pr"öVincfös)«■■d ■ . . Particular, attestion«as being'devoted to mechaniza-

tion of the production processes on'the cotton fields'.'. There wars 133 stations in the cotton; producing;a'reas of China iß 1956, which had 2*4 thousand'-tractors ;i rated at ;■■ 1$ tup*}'at* their disposal. Mechanised cultivation in those'areas wag.being conducted over-an area of -600 thou-, sand [email protected]® s.«"^' V< The raaiß directorate of mechanisation'of agricult»» fkl production' nrocessea 'with the Ministry of Agriculture

■la the Chinese People's Republic conducted a'.survey of the "work being-conducted by. the machine tractor stations in the eight provinces .enumerated" .above.' The survey -estab«

. 11shed that the crop yield from the fields servöd by the machine tractor stations is significantly higher than those cultivated by draft animals. The wheat crop yield,, for instances was on the average higher by 2*3 to 4«5 chin per hectarej 3 to 4 .chin per hectare more of corn and soybeans» as well as 75 to 100 kilograms more, cotton fibre

►lk.1«

.per ■hectare.-'-' Surveys conducted during 1957 indicated that the

mechanized cultivation of land increases the y|eld of grain crops- by over '20$, cotton by 18# to 25^,-'0

An important; advantage of raechanized cultivation of land consists of the fact that it permits the cooperatives to resolve the difficulties associated with a lack of manpower during the harvesting, creates favorable conditions for the 'conduct af a multi3.&teral agricultural economy and the development of subsidiary production, which sub- stantially increased the cooperatives* income« For instancy due to the eysteoatic aid given by the Ch'ang-chih machine tractor station it became possible for the cooperatives to delegate 450 able-bodied workers for various subsidiary industries. As a result of this the cooperative's income .; increased from 26 thousand yuan (12.8$ cf the total income) in 1953 -froia subsidary industry activity to 269 thousand yuan (47$ of the total Income) in 1957«-'''

In striving to utilize machinery in the cultivation of their fields the peasants created agricultural producer's cooperatives and reorganised cooperatives of the lower type into the higher type»

:,The Ching-lung Machine Tractor Station in Heilung» fciang Province, created in the autumn of 1954» cultivated lands belonging to 21 cooperatives in 195.5 and by 19 5o serviced 66 cooperatives, which by that time contained. over &0% of all the peasants hoaseholäs,^8 Ten smaller seatl-socialiat cooperatives at- the village of Chisig-lung, desiring to better"utilise the advantages of mechanised land cultivation, adopted a resolution by 1956 to join and establish a cooperative of the higher type»-**

The machine tractor stations had the important role of dissemination and implementation of progressive scientific agrotechnology and agrotechnoiogicai knowledge. In . working on the fields of the cooperatives that they serviced the machine tractor stations applied the latest achievements of modern agronomy and bore the responsibility for implementation. Particular attention was being devoted to the most expedient utilisation of progressive agrotechnological measure©. -

The machine tractor stations were likewise engaged in the training of agronomical cadres» The Fu-yang machine tractor station for instance, in .coordination with-the agrotechnical station, organised agrotechnical study groups. and aided in the training of 450 specialists in the area of agrotechnology at the cooperatives it serviced*^

'la addition all tractor machine stations conducted the training of mechanics (tractor drivers, combine opera-

■ —142—

tors, icaintenace'technicians ©tc«.)* t-' During 1955 - 1-95.7 m&ny ma chins, tractor stations ^ 'achieved, considerable success .in organising production. \ .■among -coliectivia^d peasants. ■ They- aided the cooperatives ■ ;t-o partition their- arrabl© lands« correctly »'-..to compile .' 'ammal. and -monthly production plans, rationally, to' consol- - 'idate and allocate -subsidiary production activities., ■ to ' : utilize'''■'jaiaöhinery, - draft anikal.s' and agricultural tools; ;, ihetter» --.The workers of the Fed ping Machine Tractor' Stat--' '■' 'ion■'■carefully studied the concrete production ■conditions 'in the cooperatives ■ it - pmrvlced and aided them in compiling ■their production'.plans.^ ■ The Shen-yahg Ka'chin'e Tractor :

'•Station,- having established close'ties with the looal ' ■:cooperatives?' ,extendad concrete assistance to th«ai in the :Oompitation of their annual production plans,"labor'die«" .-.tribution plans and financial, plans* ^

The machine tractor stations played ant important irole-in .the reclamation of virgisa and .fallow'lands* In -.the north-east the .ma shine tractor'stations and the ssec« chard &ad state farms: plowed hundreds of thousands of hec« -.;

■tares of fertile ft elds,' which were traasf erred to 'the ' ..' local cooperatives-and the local .migrants« ■

By I.956 ten new machine tractor stations were' established in the Kaa«n.aa' &»d fa-ytr'Protiscial "Districts of Hßilungkiang 'J-.'Province for the cultivation'of 'virglh'soil. and fallow land,'--and as additional ten-tractor brigades . were established in the Ku"-eh*©ng and Shuaag«ch¥.eng Provia«» ' c'ial Districts, which' al. ready -contained tea ma.ch.ine 'tractor stations* Altogether there were 440 tractors of -various trade names (cnrer 1300 tractors rated st 15 h*p*:) -allocated for- the cultivation of virgin,iand,-which plowed-2,30 thousand hectares of Tirgf,». soil/0 Large land areas wer©; assimilated with-aid'of the machine tractor- stations in the Inmr Mongolian Autoncoiouä area, in Kansti"Province''- and other'locations«

v The machine tractor stations also .enc&imteröd' cön- «iderable difficulty created principally by inadequate - production experience and a low technical 'level- of the majority ■ of. the mechanics* As a result many .violations" of; operation and maintenance rules wer© allowed -i» th@ titil- j

isation of the machines,'-which lad to frequent accidents' and .equipment idleness.^ Losses» which Were"consequently borne by the nachine tractor stations ware extensive• Out .of 89 tractors seat by'the Pel log Machine Tractor Station -during September'knd November 195& to the cooperatives'for ■ autumn -plowing, 12 machines were incapacitated, $s a result ; 'of rädch -over ten thousand, manhours were lost«**h " : ^ ■:■•'

- -The lack of production 'experience explained a series

"14-3™ -

of deficiencies iß the organisation, of iäbcr and, applioa- Itton of technology, Thus, unproductive expenditure of^fuel at 2? machine tractor stations in Hupeh Province comprised

■30jp of the.total expenditures and up to 50$ for individual- ■stations*.-*6 The tractor brigades-of seme machine tractor stations did not have a clearly defined service area or a system of personal responsibility for machines, and tne •finished work, was returned very slowly at many stations, >.

Agreements concluded between the machine tractor stations and the cooperatives, in certain instances., stipulated projects which could not be accomplished by the machine tractor stations under the existing conditions; •.„ on the other hand work was frequently being planned that was unnecessary for the developmdnt of agricultural production »hi .

Specific difficulties in work of the machine tractor stations arose in conjunction with utilization of foreign techniques. A particular featura of Chinese agriculture is the careful cultivation of soil* Jrregardless ox the primitive traditions1 agricultural implements and a low level of labor productivity with their use, the peasants achieve remarkable results in the cultivation of the land. The centuries of experience of generations of peasants accumulated in agriculture, allows the Chinese peasantry to obtain comparatively high crop yields even with tae simplest implements. This of course requires the expenditure of an immense amount' of human labor.

The application of machines sharply increases the productivity of labor. Foreign tractors and other agric- u'ltura3 machinery, however, are unsuitable in many cases, to the existing conditions of agricultural production in China/ Local production of tractors began in 19*)8. During 195Ö Chinese engineers, workers and scientists designed on a basis of experience, 240 varieties of tractors which complied with the peculiarities of agricultural production processes in the various areas. The mechanization experience accumulated by the machine tractor stations ana mechanised state farms serves as a good basis for the establishment of an original agricultural technique, indispensable for a full and all encompassing mechanisation ot agriculture in China,

With the developing agricultural production .tne demands of the village for machine technology have increased sharply and the amount of work performed by the machine tractor stations was increasing constantly« Wnereaa at

.. the beginning the stations performed only two or three types of work (plowing, harrowing .and occasionally seeding), after a few years of existence they perioraea iu to LA

-144«

types of work Including cultivation»- harvesting ?' thrashing,,- transportation .of freight and .so forth «A0. . '

1'he' ihoreasä in. the amount of work and a. better ' ;• technical ability of the - isschahics had an important sign*» ; ifieänce 'in' the profit making capabilities of th©' machine j tractor stations*' Whereas at th& beginning" of iheir'.exis-i.- tence the stations were losing money 4^ by th© end of -.."'.;.. the First Five Year Plan many of than balanced, their ia- . j comes-' vd th their expenses'äßdj.'gained some pro fit. 50 The ' I machine 'tractor stations'in the Sbansi Province, for-in-. [ stance, received a -397& yuan profit in 1956, those in \ Shensi 33 »7^3 yti&ft," and in Honan' 143*103 yuan»51 ;

■ 'Over half' the 'machine' tractor stations, h©we¥er5 remained .non-profit by the beginning of, the' Secoad Fivs - Year Plan*5« -: This'is -explained'by a auaabesr of ■ factors',

'one."of which was that th© officially established 'reseun-, ' ©ration for the performance of mechanised mirk was most •/.- insignificant r^nd' iß many cases did not cover the cost ■-. ; '

\ of operation »^ , ''-■"■ ' ': 'The Kai-p'ing Machine' Tractor Station in .Liapning \ Province^ cultivated 10„3 hectares of cotton field at the •'■'- i • Chia««Tssarig Cooperative* .'Du@ to a higher crop yield the ' i I .cooperative*s- gross Income increased by. 2.,694 yuan'» .. ; I The :machine -tractor station^ portion out of that amount ;

; was a-'-suEi not too nuch over 320 yuan (or 13$)« and o?©r I ; 2,300-yuan was th© "cooperative-*s set profit*?^';. ' : } The He-'-he Machine Tractor Station in Shantung Pro« i Evince servicing, in.'1952 the Pa-i Cooperative fields trec- " eive'd for all its work» .including thm shing, only the overflow grain ¥&X»e which was [email protected]. by' the cooper* ative" as f result of th® .intcha.uisa.tion of the production ■ processes««**" ...

Th© low pay for the execution of tractor work was ' primarily explained' by th© need to sharply increase the j' welfare-of-the-broad'peasant masses« .- " !

A second reason, for the insolvency of a majority - f of th@ machine tractor stations was due to excessively f; high unproductive waste, - Many of the machine tractor *;■' stations had a large personnel surplus« . Is 1957 thsre / \ were» on'the average, 4*7 -persohs for each machine at 56 ...■'■. all the machine tractor stations,,, and. at some individual ' \ stations 8 to 10 persons»5/The administrative-executive : cadres comprised about 20$*'*5 As a result of this the

>ry The outright- sal© of tractors to the cooperatives ■

by the goverrtaent began in 195?»60 ■ It'became' possible for

-»145*

•the peasant« to utili ?s tractors t*rA sne ^hiuery to the ful» ; .lest extent for the ail encompassing development .of agr.ic- ; :ultur©f c&ttle-bresding, and its- other branches as well as \ ilocal industry«.' At the same 'bisse the group ownership of the cooperatives ..is another stop' clo&er to conmon property«,

^Agrotechnlcal Stations •>...'"

After the victorious people's revolution and intro- ; iduction.'of th« agrarian reform a great significance for ; ithe restoration and development of agriculture in China was iacquired by the matter of dissemination of progressive iscientific agrotechnology among the gröat nasses of peas- ; ants« On© of the peculiarities of China is the fact that ;

;the area of cultivated 'land iß the country is most in- :significant by comparison with the si 20 of the population. I ■Hence» the only method of raising agricultural production ■in China is to increase the crop yield per unit of area* la order to achieve a »harp increase- in this, however, it is necessary to apply progressive scientific land cultivation and plant growing methods, the introduction of Imore effective agricultural tools and implements, choice iseed, chemical fertiliser and so on, :

The Chinese peasants have centuries of experience !ln the growing of crops and cu3.t-i.vation of land, ^'This ;experience represents a precious heritage of the Chinese 'people. In old China, however, all the achievements of :the*peasant .masses could not have the desired effect as 'no-one was engaged in the consolidation and'dissemination : 'of such experience« ■

■Mass impoverishment of the peasants under the . Kuomintang clique led to a situation where even the old itechniqu.es of crop raising and land cultivating could ■not he utilised to their full potential, as the peasantry ; was unable to acquire the required amount of fertilizer, to sort the seed etc» The yield of some of the raost important crops decreased sharply«

It is natural that in the new China auch issues as ithe iaprovesjent of agrotechnology, the dissemination of !beneficial experience, .the study and application of leading achievements and the implementation of agrotechnologi« cal knowledge acquired primary significance.

The first agrotech.noiog2.cai stations were established in the Northeast in 1950 for the solution of these prob-

Agrotech.nological stations from the very beginning :

began to play an important role in the development of producer's cooperatives in the village, Agrctechnological .

'■stations, in assisting jKutuiai aid teams mid cooperatives 'to'raise'thoir crop yields and to increase lncoimP were clearly s'howliig to the peasant .isassee 'the advantages ■ ' and benefits of collective;, labor' and 'proved through exaia-

_.„.. - - -. iogi, , ..... _ ^ fsras based on.collective labors

..'■..■'Concurrently 'with the deyölö'pjaerit of the cooperative. mmrnmntr$ whiuh encompassed all the new provincial districts and provlncssj ths number of agrötechiiological sta» - tions and workers were 'constantly incraasingj which-'is

.evident from the following figures; ■&*-.' - - ■

*' 1953 1954 1955 1956 ' .

Number of stations 3632 4-549 7997 14,230

■Number of over' workers 23,000 .35,740 ,51>401 76,300

At the same time their functions and spheres.of -.activity'also changed. At first' the agrctechnological stations were being established in provincial district's and ä 'single- station, serviced tha entire 'district*' .Sine« jaid .1955»-which was the beginning*'of the 'rapid!y develop-' ,-ing movement for' collect!Yi&&tioa/:'the a grot e clinical

■stations'were being established'in every, rural area*' The decision, of tM Sixth ■(Expanded) Plenum' of

the Central 'Committee of ths' Coissmimiat Party, sermtth ■''■'■ .-.con.TOcatioBf OB, the subject of oolleotAwL^Ahn of agriculture stipulated that "agricultural organs must'create agrotecbaological stationaia a pla'nnsd order, transform» " miag them into centers"of technical' aid to the agricultural producer ss cooperatives'orr bahalf of the". government (for instance in th® use of new types of agricultural. toolss in the implementation of high quality seedf in ''

__tlie' perfection of soil cultivation" siethodsr in the; n^ruggle "against, agricultural plan diseases and pests ete«}*^' By the end of the First Five fear Plan the' ayibsr of ßgro« technoligical' stations decreased, söm.^hat by comparison' 'with 195».-...{th©r® vsr© 13/669 stations in 195?) äue to' the face that a part' of ■ theos .were 'reorganized into special 'stations, ' A grotecimo logical stations ■[email protected]. their'' activities, depending upon the prevailing local'conditions .and the agricultural' specialization of the gives area

.(rice, cotton, tea growing or ot£.r*ve)* 'i'u«y closely coordinated ail of their work with the work of tas .local _ state farms, experimental agricultural et&tions, model . farms and other state agricultural enterprises* In addition to that, the stations extended agricui.tiir.al aid to the anal Jar state farms which did noz have a resident agronomist »°3 «».•'-

The peasants, becooing more'convinced of the use- fulness of. advice jziven by workers of the Ägrotechaolo- glcal stations, hesdad their opinions and recommendations« In addition to that» due to the successful development ana consolidation of the national economy the government was able to provide agriculture with a significantly larger amount of choice seed, new types of agricultural tools, fertiliser etc« Hence, in 1956, th-s» agrotechnologicaj. ■ stations were assigned the task of extending aid to the cooperatives in the expedient application of various

■agrotechuological measures on & single .plot of land, which assured a sharp increase* in the crop yiela,

Agratechnological stations were to aid the coop» eratdyes"in the compilation of production plann, the consolidation of labor brigades and teams, the outlining of agrotechnologicai measures, etc.

In an analysis of work accomplished by the agro- techaologieal stations by the Ministry of Agriculture of the People5« Kecublic of China, which was conducted m 1955, 'it, was determined that the highest rate of production was achieved by those cooperatives which were under the-direct leadership of the agrotechnological stations or were 'closely associated with th&is. In Kupeh Province 62> etatioos directed 5,056 basic level agricultural producer1 a cooperatives which had about 24o thousand hectares-of cultivated land. The crop yield was on,the average 30J& higher than of the other cooperative«**"^

" In th* Hslng-t&i .district of Hupeh Province, 49 aprotechnologic&l statlo&a directed a total of 5»7 cooperatives, which increased their production levels hy an average of 20$, while the productivity of the otoer cooperatives of that district vas considerably lower»«?

At the same tims the stations wer® successfully conducting a training program for tha peasant technical cadres and disseminated agrtyfceehai«al iri.fonaa.tioK araong^ the masses. According to incomplete data, lor tne iirst- , half of 1956 the agroteohnolo§lcal stations trained over' . 6,4 million agrctechnologicai specialists in various.. fields for the agricultural producer's cooperative?« During the stu&e year ov«r 500 thousand agricultural eng- ineering workers were tr&ine.d in Sasecftwan Province anä

»14-Ö-

40 general advance agrotschnicaX measure? w«£f? implement- ed into agricultural*practices of that area*0'

Due to the very extensive-work 'by the party and tfe© People's Government in the perfection'of agricultural ®ng™

''in'eeriüÄg the crops are increasing :annually on a\national

~ ' " The establishment of state- agricultural enterprises

establishment "and' coiiRolidatibri of ths" collective forms of labor« >.

4«

1. See "Land Reform Law of 28 June 1950".(in Zakonodat- el 'nvê Aktx.Ki^XsH2yJ^^S20sS323i^fei ZJiegis-

. .■Tative~Acts of" the Chinese People»s Republic/, Moscow, , '' 1952), P 133*

a..

2-. ibid,, pp .134* 135»

3'. ibid., p 134* . ■"'■-.'

"Raavitiye narodnögo khosvaystva KNR" (Development of the National Economy of t he CPR) in ■ StaUjiW-chîyoê Pokaaateli (Statistical Figures)3 Moscow, 1956, p 30.

5* SMMSIlJiifciXj 1-952, No 17,'P 2.3»

6. Ojgjovnx^ op. eft*, pp 43-49*

7» Chj^d£il2j£ySä=Eä£> 19523 Ho I?, p 23.

8, ibid* .

-149-

r9. Chl-h8leh-bua Nußg-veü',"l9£7, Ko 1» page 1.

10* Ghunfi-kuo KB8«»!nÄö. 1?"??* Ho 8, rage 2.

3'2- 33*2***» 195?» S?o 10, mg« 35.

•13. Kung-jen Jih-pao^ 1 February 1958.

lit* £fe!2S£r!2SSLj^SîSi» 19F>9» Ko ^8» P^g® 1»

15. Hsln-hua Yfteh-pao, 19*2, >fo 10. page 182.

16» Hala-lraa Faii-yueb-k'aB, 1<?£6. No 5* page 133.

1?. .ChlobGieh^httft Ww&ytih,. 195$» EG 1* page 3» 18 • CMâieh-hua Kang-yg5(u 19$6a Kc 3» Psge 3.

1?. Ibid,

SO» .'ME^MXtk^ raping» 1$53„ page k6<

21, Lu Jen, «History of t'aa First Sfete -Farcin thfi New Chi»as

Hankow, 19$?,, pages £ and 3* . 22• iLäLl£il^^^ op. c 1ft... p f>0*

?3. l^M'trM.,* 195U, Ko 3» page 1?.,

25, Cbl-hsieh-hua Itoß-yelu 1^6, No 1,'psge 20,

26. Ibldj page 12*

29. HBÄeh-hst, 195U> No 3^ pag« 16.

3°« ilîtkM.» 1S?-^, No 3* pages 16 snd 18*. SjsSgdÖSJfeSßaÄä» 19^7»

-150.

i

^31«. Cha^-ktte WiZm~*pmv 195-3s Mo 3$> page o»

32, *T>rua&&*9 195&» »ö 7» pege 25-

3U. -DmaWbft, 22 Jamaury 1957.

.35. ChatwHbMO Htuaff-pao» 19^7* Ho 1U> page 8*

36, ChuHsr-kiao Kene-pso, 1958» So 13, pßge'H. .

37* "Questions of êcbsMssMoa ©£ Cbä&ese A-gri«mlt«r*% Pao .ting, .■. 1958, pag© 89,

3ß.'-«riL-hsieh-hna Sctßg-yeh, 1956, *fo 2» page'23.

'39. '-ibid. ' . . . . ;

111. CtioBfi-mso Mang-jjao» 1955, So 8* T*S<* 3?-

: h6. <Chn&g-ku0' Äag^paoj 1957» 3to lb» page H,

U7. Chung-loio KwK-pe«, 1955» Mo &» PÄSe 35»

Iß. See Chi-hsich.-h«aJ«E&2iä3L, 1956, Ko 5, pagas 2? - &ßj Gböw-fc«© itong-pao« 1956, No'5* P3«e 32* ^r^rtörninr7*^tTf rft plfflrt.»* 1 hßct*re of land was os

to 1956 it *Ä* t> 19.11 jtfcn <.*<%» *tU» of MeetanlMtion of ' Chinese' IgricoltwroBiv psige 82V

50«. The depreciation of equipment 99d «aöhine^y was notîncLtried 4« *he ft^*««*«. s^ 'Ghi«»?4ra<3 ■taM>&©* 195&» ô 3* page 11. ■

51. ■ ChtßSff-kuo feig-psto, 195?» !fe ^ fÄSe "i0*

, ' ■■ ■ »-151rat . -

■/;■

■/}

^" 9^}^H3BJ^Blf '*$$*!> '&o 3* page 11-

S3. Ta K>^ng Pao, k April 195?.

£5» Cteig-~k.no Mtmg-pa.0» 19i?8, Ko 3* page XU

* 56. Ibid.

£?• ^SSll2£«ll™Sl2££j 19??» so 1U„ page 11.

*• .2™5ldSH2j!SSiE^ ^53, No 3? page H»

^* S!12^^HJ:H^£ä0

* 19^7, i,äo Hi* page 11. It irost be considered that a certain »Surplus of cadres «.fc-the stations.it».sMe&esmxy: && a certain mtmbtr of station workers wer© under training, otherwise it wouLd h««ne been difficult to expand old stations and to create new ones. (Cito^c-k'üo Ntiag-pao» 1?58, Ko 3» page 11.)

60» Chansj-kuo Hune-pao, 19£S« nage 13. '

^•* ffi»teh«hsl, 195^? N0 3, page 27j ^Bä£i£H£^H£Sll!ä2.> 1$#6» Ho 5, page 26j Jen^d.nni Jih-p&Oj, 31 'Dee«nber 195>3j ' fikyff rftH

6£. «Sesoliitior:. of the Sixth (expanded) Fleanm of the Central CoiH&lttee of the Camrmnist Party of China» seventh convocation, on the Question of Cooperation in Agriculture1', Moscow, 1°5'5, page ?ii.

^3« Qtang>.lcao Hang«pao9 195'?, So 21, pages 29-30»

&*■• £1^2&^SJ!lS&iES£» 1^56, No 2, pago 26.

65. Ibid«,

^* .^ffi"ffft.P., Jih-papi 31 December 19J>6.

u ? 6.

i* 3 2

.-152-

/..

CONCLUSION

äS a result of the development, of the cooperative, movement during autumn of 1955 through the spring of 1956, the tempo'of-socialist transformations within the village - as well as within the 'city accelerated, , During the autumn of 1956 the VIII Congress of ths ■ Cömfcunist Party of China contended that these 'transforaaatioas had-been basically completed'throughout the country. -The victory of the . , - socialist -revolution in the sphere of-ownership of the means.of production led to a profound stratification of ■ the national bourgeois class* The role of the left Mfig;

increased significantly but was still not very numerous, A major portion of the national bourgeois class that.occu-

:.pied ■intermediate positions was 'uncertain« •■'. A Small right wins bourgeois ©le®snt mal,ntaimed positions 'antagonistic to socialism and was awaiting a suitable moment, for an attack on the Conuaunist Party-and the People's_ Government♦

In accordance with a decision'of■ the Central:-Corn.- mit tee of the Communist Party of China, starting with mid- Apx*il.l957-a-mo'vftBient for the regulation of the-.types . ■ of work was'being conducted in the country, which-.began as a party measure and became a national struggle«..This ;. movement aimed at increasing Communist consciousness and . bringing together tbo broad masses, the isolation'of- right» 1st ^'nehail -anti«-socialist .elements» •■■■'... '■;•':'"■

■ Eight!st bourgeois- elaments attempted tö exploit, this moveaieat for a, broad political aad ideological, advance on: the gains of the -socialist 'revolution. The. attack of - the rightist elements was priisarily -directed against the ■-.' dictatorship of 'the proletariat and the .directing role", of the Communist Party of China. The' rightist eieaBiits attempted to completely strike out the great successes

■ attained'by the. Chinese -people In their" struggle for ■■• '■■■socialism and attempted to cast ..douofc upon .the ■ correctness of 'the policies of the Coiwnunisst Party* The goal-of the bourgeois elements was to compel the Peopled Government to wer from the course of socialist development to. cap--■.- : italisKit Attacking policies of .the, socialist transforma« '

■'"tions, the rightists" asserted that the collect!vf-iä&tion '

■153-

under conditions in China would increase hidden 'unemploy- ment in-,the village and. because of that would be a barrier to the'mechanization of agriculture and an increase in the ■ peasants * standard of living« ',

Meanwhile, a manpower surplus» not only failed to materialise at the agricultural producers' cooperatives of.the.higher type, particularly in the large ones (those ; with over 1000 households), but, on the contrary, the ' matter of including a ma^iiaum number of human resources with production arose, as agricultural production in China i« principally based on nr*&nua.l labor,

. '."'.' .The problems associated. with utilization of the rich manpower-resources together with the perfection of produe» tion relationships and a transfer to the agricultural cooperatives of the higher type were not a major issue»

;Productive forces received considerable development at ' . cooperatives of the higher type having socialist characteristics* This explains the growth in production under difficult conditions' during 19.56 and" 1957» The agricultural cooperatives of the higher type were basically s*nali (typi- cally containing 150 -'2C0 householdst 250 - 3.50 workers and having 150 - 200 hectares of useful, productive land). With almost a total absence of mechanisation, this was an economically Impotent agricultural organisation, with limited financial resources» While it was possible^to assure a gradual increase in crop yields on. the basis, it was beyond the capacity of the small agricultural cooperatives to develop the complex multilateral economy» This in turn meant that the very extensive productive potentials of the village were not exploited-, ■ These cooperatives were unable to resolve the thousand year old problem of irrigation, to sharply increase the pre para-- tioh of organic fertiliser, conduct extensive reforestation and plant with verdure» If this task were transposed to the government it would have taken many additional years due to a lack of funds and the urgency of other even more grandiose tasks pertaining to national industrialization, end the rate of industrialisation would have been considerably slower„

In other words the possibilities for the application of labor have increased considerably at the smaller agricultural producers* cooperatives * but not to a dagr®® sufficient to solve the problerc of basic reformation of agriculture with the existing level of organization and tech» nolo^y« -. ■

The smaller cooperatives performed a significant role in the socialist transformation of agriculture and an increase in production» First of all they were a

-15V-

socialist form of economy in the village« Secondly they were several times larger than the cooperative of the lower type and had at their disposal a correspondingly larser manpower pool and financial facilities, finally, ■ became*a-good school for the training of cadres and leaders of a large socialist, fans, ' " ■ ,

.0»'the other hand,' tfis dimensions <u the agricultural producers* cooperatives, the degree of labor concentration in them, financial means and the sphere of their agricultural activities were inadequate'for the most expedient utilization of all the available manpower and its most efficient expenditure in the interests of wide scale cap-, ital construction in agriculture and an accelerated development of agricultural production*'.

The demands of future agricultural development firmly nudged' the peasants toward a consolidation of their •producers*' cooperati vas. The extensive i rrigation pro j e et s which were completed in 1955 and 195b were possible due to wide scale -cooperation .among many „cooperatives. '

At the same time the merging of various forms of cooperatives was taking place; The marketing-supply - cooperatives and th© credit cooperatives merged with the producers1 cooperatives, as a result of which the operation of the farms, became considerably easier» _

'•The rightists however were striving to aru.iicii.aliy restrain the perfection of producers* relations within the village* The merger of the cooperatives In a number of cases was being suppressed, and the already existing comparatively small number of larger cooperatives were beine-■administratively disseminated into sssaller units» . In the Honan Province, for instance, after establishment of socialist cooperatives in 1956, there were &>.211 cooperatives of the higher type with an average oi 3>8 households In each, including ÖOÖ cooperatives with a thousand or more households, The rightist opportunist», having gained a foothold in the provincial commutes oi the party,

'disseminated the agricultural producers» cooperatives, increased their number to 5k thousand with ISO houseaolas ■, in "each one. There were only 495 large cooperatives leit. '

»...During the second half of 1956 and the spring of 19*57 in an atmosphere of the struggle against so called «dashing ahead1 part of the people began to have doubts resardine the course of construction «faster, more, better and raore^eeonoraically», in the course of cooperation with

' construction, doubts in 40 basic conditions ior tae development of agriculture. This damaged the activity of the nasses, which had a negative result on achievements during the 1957 triumphs in the area of agricultural production, ■ -

-15 5*-

The increase in industrial prod-action was 6.9$ in 195? by comparison with 10.8$ in 1956.-* • The increase in agricultural production was, on the average^ 4»5$ i during the Fir Et five Year Plan 4.9$ in 1956, a<r.d 3.5$ in 1957 (with a planned 4*6$).^ During the period of socialist development in the village in 1955 — 1956 the irrigated areas of the country-'-were expanded by 130 million nou (6,7.million hectares), over 50 billion tan of natural fertiliser were" gathered (2,5 billion tons). Despite the serious natural disasters, the crop yield in 1956 was 15 billion chin (715 million tons} higher than In 1955- However in the winter of 1956 and the spring of 195? the irrigated area increased by only 36 million raou (2«4 million hectares}., and only 40 billion tan of i fertilizer were gathered (2 billion tons), and the area under grain crops deoreasctd by 55 millicn mou (3*7 million hectares) «.^

\Taking into consideration the serious danger of action's and assertions on the part of the rightists to socialist construction, the Communist Party of China took determined counter-measures and in the course of j a national campaign disclosed the ideological positions j •and true aims of the rightists.

After the uncovering and rout of the rightists. i the necessary conditions for an increase in labor activity; and a; rapid development of ail the branches of national economy in accordance with the course of the Communist Party of China was assured: "with the provision of prim« ; arily developing heavy industry, to simultaneously develop industry and"agriculture» to simultaneously develop heavy and light industries; under provisions of a centralized direction, all encompassing planning, division of labor ; and cooperativis&tior. to develop local industry and industry under central jurisdiction and to simultaneously : create large enterprises as well as those of average siae and small enterprises, as well as to simultaneously develop production by means of progressive and simple measures»wo.

This course fully considers the backwardness of the ; material-technical basis of national agriculture in China and points out the best means for a rapid utilisation

: of the rich manpower resources and the immeasurable nat- : ural resourcers of the country« :. Beginning with the autumn of 1957 there was a ! notable new development of activity among the working masses. The dimensions of the irrigation projects increased sharply, 100 million people participated in them :

: daily, principally peasants.? During the period from Oct- ober of 1957 until April of 1?5S the irrigated area was ;

.-I56»

Increased by 3öO millioa m.ou (25*3 million hectares), irrigation was .improved-in an area, of lUu mlilioa mou ' (9*3 million hectares) B.'.and land improvement work was conducted over an area' of ,200 aiiliioti möu (.13*3 million hectares) of lowlands and swamp areas* 'In addition-to that, 100 million mou (6**7. hectares) of barren lands ../. were improved» reforestation was conducted, over an area' "'. of 290 .million, mou (19*3 million hectares),'and an'ti- erosioa measures were undertaken over an area of 160 thousand square kilometers«0 In a six month period an amount of work was accomplished that was equivalent to / ;. everything that was achieved over thousands.of years of

■Chinese history,* During the same period 310 billion tan of organic fertiliser was prepared» 3 times as much as in 1956«lO *'

All this predisposed conditions for the development, of a multilateral highly productive agricultural economy in the villages throughout the country*

Considerable advantages of the new large scale organization for increasing the■productivity of labor : arid production ■ created definite promises for a'closer 'Consolidation and even the merger- of the agricultural producers* cooperatives.

The functions of'local-authorities.in essence-co- ' iricided-with the corresponding functions of direction of the larger cooperatives*, inasmuch as the'latter frequently

■encompassed'entire'provincial areas and even several areas. ■ -'Approximately .from the end-of .June 195$, the mer- ■

ging of local state organs with the'cooperatives'.admin-- ist-rative apparatus began, is a. result, .combined administrative-economic cells wera formed which became known as people ?s cosusunes*

". The -soTeremt for the creation of the people's ■' communes- developed vary rapidly and during' August -through September 1958 it was basically completed throughout the , country. By the end of September 195Ö there'were 26,425 people's communes in the villa.go» of China, which replaced over 700-thousand agricultural producers'« cooperatives* . There were 121,940 thousand families in the communes,- -

■■or'98*2$ of all the agricultural households in China* On the average there are 4,600 households in a

commune which is from 20 - 21 thousand persons. In large suburban areas the average number of households in a , . commune may be as high as 10 thousand or .more,'in.the Kwangtiiitg Province there are over 9,000 households, and in the communes of the Hupeb, L'iäöning, Shantung, fciang- su, 'Anhwel, Chekiang, .Hohan^-'Hopsh, Hunan,'..as well as in ■ the Kuans Hsi-chuang Autonomous Mot riet the communes

•157*

contained 5 to t thousand hous©holds* In ihn comparatively sparsely populated, mountain areas of Kuei~ehou and Ssechwan and the' autonomous areas of Inner Mongolia and Sinkiaag there is an average of 2.000 households in each commune»

The Sixth -Plenum of the Central Go©r,ritte® of the Communist Party of Ghlna at its eighth convocation 'in November and. December of 195Ö discussed the early experience gained in the creation of peopled 'communes. The Plenum adopted a resolution to conduct work- on the regulation of the people's communes,, directed at the elimination of errors which'occurred during the organization'of the' coiHiTjünes*^

'"' The Plenum condemned as incorrect the attempts of some local workers? to force the conversion from collective property to communal property, to exchange the socialist, principle of to each according to his work, for the .eorauhist principle of to each according to his needs.

.In the autumn of 1953 &n& the spring of 1959 the adjustment of the newly created people *.s communes was . being conducted in the country, in the coarse of which method.s of direction and economic accounting as well as distribution of necessities according to the amount of labor performed was introduced, and larger rewards for more work were put into effect»

It was established that there are three categories of ownership of the means of production of the people's coamunas during the present stage* Property of the producers* brigade (the fomer cooperative) is considered aa basic property*

Tho" commune is a socialist producers» .organization* whose basic goal is a maximum increase in agricultural production. .

The internal structure of a commune is approximately as follows: The entire territory of the commune is distributed among large producers1 brigades whica are assigned the land. Such brigade» are an economic accounting unit and exercise general independence in the solution of production problems on their own territory and. bear full responsibility for agricultural work. The large brigades are broken down into sevaral smaller producers' brigades« _

The joint product is distributed among members 01 the conunune after deductions for the appropriate agricultural tax, for production expenses and payments into the reserve fund and the welfare fund. The ©tats agricultural taxes are paid by the large producers' brigades which generally correspond to the old cooperatives, Distnbu- . tion is also accomplished within the larger.-brigades as

■ -158«. • •

■accounting units of tha eomaiujae* The amount of workers* ! inecMes Is determined by the- income of ths brigade in ■ j which th§y- work«■' ■ . | *''.■■■-■'•: - Ail those enterprises engaged in-the further man- ufacture of agricultural -output'of local and subsidiary' j industries j, -vjhieh demand' considerable capital outlays, ', much-man power 5 have a considerable turnover ."-are property ' öf the .communes in their entirety and are directly gover« ■ ned by the ■ appropriate 'departments of the commune« Small«-: er enterprises andworkshops belong to the -larger or- 'smaller producers? brigades» The eoaimime may 'receive i a portion of th© ineose of the prodiAoers* brigade as

■communal savings« A^corresponding'division in the sphere of admin-

istrative control of the various trades as well as of the ; financial and labor resources is being conducted*"

The 'aarketing-supply ami credit'cooperatives' ■formerly existing in the-villages are-reorganised into

■marketing« supply "and credit departments»'" 'They represent ; 'the-lower cells of the governments trade and hanking systems" to whois they are subordinate and accountable.

The ideological-political leadership of the lives and .production in- the people *& comiauaes is provided by the party organization and the committee of th© Communist ' Party of" China* '■■■'■

•■'■'•■*■'.As pointed out by the- TUX Plenum, of the Central ; .Committee of the Communist Party of China, at its "Bight h : convocation, the commune is a large scale organization and

,is'" engaged in a -broad sphere ■ of activity*. It is is a pos< itioa to plan production and distribution on the communal scale more' effectively mA thoroughly than, was possible v. Mth the agricultural producers' cooperativesf ■■ it stay mob ilise and rationally apply Bias power in thevyillage and conduct construction programs which were beyond the capabilities of agricultural^producers* cooperatives. The commune ©Hows an acceleration in the tempo of agricul-

■tural development,-.-•■■..■" estry, cattle breeding, Subsidiary : production, etc. -It is instrumental in the,mechanization ■ of agriculture» asi „.siialttrahie increase in the ".'peasants* : income s^ and it is conducive to the establishment-of ccssa«

■ ,-unal oafeterias, nurseries' and other collective welfare ■■ institutions»-M ■

is is generally know the Chinese people achieved outstanding success in. all areas of economic and cultural ; deYelopjKeht In 1958«' . :

■The gross'harvest of grain crops reached 2.50 bill«: ion tons'and was 35$ higher than in 1957? the gross yield

....of .cotton was 2,1 sililiori tons' and was 28$ higher than

.«»159'" ' .

in 1957* Additional yields of other agricultural crops by comparison with .1957 were as xollcwf-: Soybeans -4$, pbanuts-9^»' dried fcobacco«4.##> jute and kenaf-3^» *"n the aufcurm and spring of 1950s, reforestation was conducted over «JO.-area of. 250 million mou .{in art area 4 tiroes as extensiv© as .1957). Gross agricultural production was 67.1 billion yuan during 195Ö or Z% higher than 1957.

1, Wu Chih-phi, ÖJLJL^^ikSJL'L-P-SSSSiSäSj Cheng-chou, 195$» 23 pages» " " '""" ."""""""

2, "Elucidation of the Basic Conditions in the Develop- ---. ment of Agriculture in the People's Republic of China

■• for 1956-196?" (Pravda, 1 June 195Ö)*

3« The, Great,pecade,., op» cit«> p 96*

4* ' Srushbaf 19 5&, No 10, Supplement, p 23«

.5». ürilää» i June 195$.

6» Liu Shao~ch*i, "The Victory of Max'xrlsnv-Lenin ism in 'China" (Pri>jbjb3 my j^^ 1959, No 10» p 2Q,

7* llMErShllf 1959, No 5» p 5.

$* Prayda, 1 June 195$.

9. The amount of irrigated land prior to the liberation of China was 23o~930,000 mou. In. October 1957 it was 512,140,000 mou (214$), and in April 1953 —

' ' 065,400,000 mou (362$). MM^IM,lilk^l^h^hl^D^ 195S, No 11, p 96,

10• Prayda, 1 June 195&.

11, By the autumn of 1959* aft--;r tho adjustment of people's communes, their number decreased to 24 thousand,

*2. ■Prjabjjem^^ 1959,, No 3, pp 73™#4»

13. See Pr'avda,.28 August 1959.

-160-

MBtimikmi

Scmrees of Marxist «—■ Lessintat Principles

j .'•' ' Marx, K., KjygS^jJfrlt^J^^ (Capital

i . '«, Marx* K»4. Krätika Gots'fcr/p Prîa'sorrr (Critique of ths Goths | Frogyasi}«, losesw^' xy?2« f A

I Ingels* F», Aaf4«%ariagj OfefeX frsiiy^ Saifesi-aliî (Anil-

; lagelgj F., Hfb© Peasant far is Germt^ I* Mars: §&<& F« i a^s^'3iä®£i2l^!£i* fo1 ?» Pasaa 221-230,

T ' Lesta* V. I.» «'The Deinalotseat of Carcitallsai in Kassi%81

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Lenittj, ¥. 1.$ "The Pi'-oletariat and ths Pea»antxy,B

Lenin, F,t 1., "The State and «evolution" Collected Works,, Vol 25, pages 353-li68i . ■. ' '"" —"

";: -Itmäxif V. I,, sBep«rt on Soil, 6 NoYessber,K CollecfesdJôrks, Vci 26, pages 225«825>. ■

'# All resfereaees to $V I* '-Loin's' Works apply to 'the -fotscih

r26"h

Insnin, V. I.» "Bfictirrent Tasks of the Srrdet Authority," Collected Works, Vol 27» page» 207-21*6.

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Lenin, V. I., "Speech at tb? First All-Russian CoiJgress of Land Department», CoBwittees of the Poor and Comma»©», 11 December 1918,» Collected'Works, Vol 28, pages 31U-325.

Lenin, V. I,, "A Report on Work in the Village 23 March, at the VIII Congress, of the SCP(b) 16 - 23 March 1919," CoOlectad Wortes, Vol 29, rages 175-191»

Lenin, V«, I., "Economy and Politics During the Stage of Dictatorship of the Proletariat«*' Collected Works» Vol 30, pages 87-97.

Lenin, V«, I., "Speech at the First Congress of Agricultural Commas and Agricultural Artels h -December 1919»" j^Ler'%!l vJ5ä5£j Vol 30, pages 173-182.

Lenin, f, I,, «Original Draft of Sows Theses on the Agri- cultural Question," Collected Wqyks, Vol 31, pages 129«lUl.

Lenin, V. I., "On the Food T4a,w-'C^lectgdJKba*s, Vol 32» pages 308-3it3. ' """

Lenin» V* I.> »Ga tbs- Ife; Economic Policy,« Collected Work», Vol 33» pages 59-8U,

Lenin, V, I., »On Cooperation/' «^nected Woifee, Vol 33» pages bJ>7-l*35.

^on'lnd the SOTTes~üÖYersmfint."

Ktkoyaa, A. I., Rech1 n&JS. S»eade.KP53 (Speech at the Twentieth Congress of thö~CPSüT, Mosöow, 19§ST

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•162-

Stalin, I. V*. fmxfüsy Leniataawa (Problsss of Lenins.««)» ' llth «A., 1953.

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■ Stalin,, 1, ?•» '»On ■Prospect*'of iRew>ltttS.-on in China» Speech t the Ohisese E.G.C.I, (kseadaffloR 30 &wsster 1926/ MltSlSä at

,, Vol-8, pages 351-31k

Stalin, I. V., Bi?robl«mö o* the Chiaeae *«voluttau Theses for Propagandist* Apprcraed'fey the Central Committee of the CP8D(b),* Collected Woarfc», Vcl 9? p&g©s 221-230,

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Khrushchev, N. 3., ^^j££^i^lÄ^^^^^IS^

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?S pages» ■ S'tte'stmJ^wTiönet'öf 'the I2SSÜ* 6 Kcwebsr 19$7)* Kose«, 19s? 3

lESSßSrSf^»tügSF. for 1959 - &6£, A Keport at the Extraordinary Twenif^FSrst Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet union, . 27 Janoary 1959)» Moecöv, 1959, 13*3.pag«e» ■ _ • :

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•163-

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; 10 October 195k. """"*"" *""" ~ " "~" " >

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: Agrarian *ef OOTW In ?&<,$J^t^g'^^r&^7^^^r'~~ ; Ili9«

Teng Ts5*-a«'hael, "The Great Victory of the Cooperstivisation ; Movement in China"(contained in Mfttsriel^.'S.'retsyy Sessii Vsskitag- akogo Sobrardja Kkrodnx^'h !VedstivT£I*!ey MBLWEC^l^lEsHMtif" Session. 9f"13he kHI^Jx^^^PT'^^^say ^mc-o"«» 1956},» ■ pages 301-119.

Teng T3*ti«hi!&i, KP1EJE for Karnecaing the Huang-he Pis-er

and the Utilisation of its ^ater h&nc-xctc^&f- (contained in Materialy Vtoroy Sessii Vsekitayskoisro Scbyaaiya Naratakh Vr?A~ sH51J'f3XeZ /Material on the Seoona session öTtihe ATT--ChTnö FeopIPsTonp-es^9 Moscow» 1956} jMgss 183-220..

• ?eng fa'tt'-haffi, "Speech at the VIII All-Chins Congress of the Cosrrouniat Party of China'' {contained in Materialy VIII Vse-

the Eighth All-GhicsalTongregs cf the CoaaraTrdst Party of &\vka&7

«164-

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'ferlv (vi t-ba 0-wtr*<l OcsmtLtte« j of the Ccsäaanlst f&rfcj of" China to tfee Eight! $ A.IUOhlfla Confess of \ Urn Party« (coiifc*lß®4 in VtgrâSesslya ^Si^^Bl^^-^Bä* j

' "" All-

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Mao Tae-ttsne, The Current' Moroni and oitr ffaska. Report at the Session of tb» Central Ccwndttee of the ^«aro^^bj^rj^ o£

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Mao Tse-tticg, S fotjrosu o Frazil*com Sasrssherdi Pyotivo«

,„..., „ , , v _ .* wrm« Sf£^£SlSS!l52iSB2ä ^ 0ri *"s &*estion of the Proper Hesolutioß of CojÄi'adiöti'Sii hnöng the People« .Speech Delivered at-ths Eleven« the Bxpanded Conference of the Chinese People's Gov&rranfönt Council).,

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Chpxi l&i-lai, öCto the Work of'the Oover»K©nt of the Chines© People's k-epublic9

B (contained in ^stî^lg;J?££¥P§.J^Milil .JlF*'*' Kitapskö£0 SobraMja Kai"od^^l^^'-edjta^?Tte^^7SÄterta'i"oB The Krst FessTwilSr ifiTTdPM»^^ Hosecw." 19E&, pages 107-167. . " '

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'Yremj(!foat iSroortfinfc Bocvwsnts on tha etaaese Peoples w&r of Liberation xn iwjcenx. luu^ Harbin, 191$,

Partli KlUyaH^Socond Session of tho Eight JOl-Cbina Congress of tETSSSnaife Party of China, Peiping, 5-23 May 1958), Moscow, 1958. ' t

"DirectiTes of the Centrel Canadttee of the Communist Party of China on the Intensification of the Leadership of Productive Activities and Organisational Structure of the AgricuLtwal Produ- cers « '"Cooperatives of 12 September 1956." DnraKbft (Friendship), 25 NoT«s99bsr 1956*

RabocldEh ^ttj;"Tl>ociaBeait» on Coherences _ of the Cewwnist and WorFS"lW°tyl%ir$ömt8.tlvö8)3, Moscow, 195?«

»The Land Inform Law of the Chinese People's' Republic, 28 July 1950" (contained in '^^^Mll^^^^E^M^^.!^^1^ Respubliki /Legislative Acts of toe Chinese People's Republic/ Moscow, i^>2), pages 12?~13ö*

Konastituteiya i OeooTOgyg. 2rfcpBodatel^2zeAfc^^

i PlanmorWTfha"Soraunist-Krfcy of the Soviet Union in Resoln- Uonfi^TConferences and Flentw» of the Central Coasmittee), 7th ed., Part I, 1953, Part II, 195U.

-16Ö--

TKfentj-HMt ^t^^î£^y^^^ms^°^&^$mimiß% Party of the Soviet "union), Moscow, 3.959»

?Sty™of Chiaa), MOSCOW, 1956« : .

Üateslalv-Pförvov Ssssli fseJcüaTskoffo Sobrantra Narodßykh ?i^S^^MM (Ma*örLsd OH tb© First Session of th» All-China

Materialy ?ie'roy S©ssii fsekitayskogo ScâM^j^feM^kh lêd^fegrltga;^; (Material oa the Second Session of' the All-Colna People's Cmkress), Moscow,, 1956,■'. .■

Materially frei'ey Se8$5Jfeema2£k^ Rredsl^ttS^"fMSteHS"'ön'"&5.s flBxd Session of the All-China Peop- le's Congress)"- Moscows 1956«

"Material on the Fifth SossiöR of the All-China People's Congress of the First'Convocation » of the Chlsosa People's Esprab» lie," Brfczhba {Friendship}, 195S, No M», Supplaneeb.

'Q Merakb BÎ'r^rbeFO KäSVIüYä Seliskogo ^feosyaystfa SS3B, Po-stanoTlsFiTf KLeatfisa TsK KPSS, fein-rawfe ? SentyabxTaiÄî g* goJQofclada-t.- Ihroshchfifra N.S. (Oft Meastxres for -she J<wther ^^^SiA'oFT^liSöStSre of the USSR. \ Resolution of the

■■■TOemaii'of ■ the- Gestural Committee of the Coasranist Party of the Soviet UaioB adopted OB7 September 1953-la Accordance ¥lih. a Report by Cowrade £ S. Khrushchev), Moscow 1?5U.

■;: ( £HTôSiSon7'"oFth© XÔaw"oTcSin^Tî^!i7"35P^

' OmvTORvre RiloahcöslTB Elana Rasvitiya Sei * skogo Khoay^stja KIR m 1956-1967_ Godjr (Basic ■ Conditions of tue Aan for the üe- veTöpSFoFliriSySture of the Chiusse People's '%p»M±e for 1956-1967), Moscow, 1956«

■■'"Basic Conditions Tor the JWeXoprneBt of Agriculture of the Chinese People's Republic for 1£56-1967*'(A Revletwd Draft)",

JBta^föSuCîön^sîp)* 1957, Ko ?» Supplement«

™"tiT«rof the Higher Typs in the Chines© People's ß©publi«^?eipi»g» *■»*•-. "■ ■ ' ■ ■ J ... ■■■■" ■"■ ■

1?5&.

.69»

" ' Prim0 ustav BüI» proisvocL, kooDerat-, Kit« Narodn, Res. ' ( ^^JärFSt|tS^'Tf'¥be"IBTcIUTIIMITf53ÄerlTTBo*raTive

;"in*the CRIneäe Peopled Republic), wiping, 1956.

■ ' ' Resoljutoiya XX S'eada KF33 ^âtc^âgjMjô^l^JsK^KraS (HesoittHôrthrKS^^rCOTgress "of the Ccanmnist Party of _ the Soviet Union According to the Report of the Central Committee of the Comrcmifit Party cf the Soviet Union)* hoscow, 1956.

^SST^mK^^^nVSÎS&i of thrSlxth, expanded, Plenum of iETCentf^ôrrdlltfh of the Cowmmiat Party of China, Seventh Convocation, on the ProVten of CooperetivlMtion of Agriculture), Koscow, 195?»

; «CopwanlqüÄ of the State Statistical Bare«* with the Central People's Government en the F^smlts of the Development of the »ational Economy and Fulfillment of the Stete Pia« for 195'3,B

'gfay^gyy.Kitjg.y (Peoples China)., 1951;, Wo 22, Supplement«

1 .. "Cotw'tmiqtiß of the State Statistical iwea« of the People's Republic of China on tha Fulfillment of the State Flea for the Development of Hational EeoDony for lrÄ?" Rä£2&SSLÜiSZ (P«>ple's

China), 1955, No 20, Supplement.

"Corrarruüiqye of the State Statistical Rutreav. of the people's ''fiejroblie of China on the Results of the Fulfillment of the State Han for the Development of Kflfcioaal Economy Tor 1955*" }$££&£& Kitgjr (People's China,),, 1956f -Wo lit, Supplement.

"Cksrainmiqee of the State Statistical Bares« of the Chinese People's hepttblie on the Insults of trie frlfillwent_of the State Flan for the Development of National Ecorsragy for 1956/ Naro&ffig Kitey (People»e China), 1957, No 17, Supplement.

«Statutes of the Central. Cormd ttess of the Oorrjiranist Party of China mvi the Government Council on Certain Concrete PxolüemB of Distribution of the Autumn Harvest at the Agricultural Pro- ducer® « Cooperatives," &r«%hha, (Friendship), 20 December 1956»

.170-*-

hl la the Chinese Language

atlveôsa^â, Shanghais 19^5•'• ,>.

Present Snaps, cosspct—™ -„ -~ 1 -- - the'c'aisSist Party o£ China of' Simth-Cehtral China, Hankow, l$$h«

22*2. ^ss^tJb?s|5^î£gMJh£2l££SlJ^^ÄHZ..^:» j Feipi»gs TffJ» **'"*" !

Material^ %. Jmvsjs. of the_%£n«fl£j>£^ ' Ora£_a ferpd"o* Two %©yg7"co^3.1ed"ly the Planning Bepartaenfc j of t!iriSxdSSc5^fTO?S3Ittipe. of the Chinese People»s Bepoblic, j Sb&ngtiaij 19I&2« j

toJtoeJLgrarfj«ftJ^^ PsiplBgj Tientsin« 191$.

vincial.OoaM.ttee of the Party, Wa-hafi,-195?,»

the Teh«

■ J^âted &re^ series of j •Mt«i«l « ttefestllS' (Mnes^fflstbiy, ?eipings 1953. ;

{B. a,)7l^ "" -■—*-■"--—- ~~~ ™" -;

■ :' ■ The Policy ^&Jâcj^csj>fJ^ ; Area£s Hsien-kangj 19ii7»» I

^!LF^*2££ 2£,£SSE^£liS£i£S!IS^ â-lS.«*1* 19147« i

tt» Sooth-Easterti uniyerslty, Hanktng, 1923«

171-

Besults.of toe Afêyltüi^SCT^^ ■ i of the Cni^âi^Vgy^ce/"ooTrrr;ileä by" the Agricultural Faculty. .:

Results'of the Agricultural öitt^^njt^Shanghal.Area of the 13^^sT1Fc^.^«7"cc^?i1e^^ tr,s 1gÄc-üitvj.:äl acuity of the South-Eastern University, Naniang, 19<Ju.

1950._■""

Collection of the Most Iwportaff^Do^^

Collection of Doetmenti_o^tteJggQdJÂgr> Peiping, 195?.

Collection of laws and Decisions_on. the Flngjwlal^BBogOiSiS. Police STtH^^?' 1- ,^*S^^-S2!2H?SÖ:> *^°1""3* Peiping»

Collect/ion of Legislative Acts of theJ5hi»seJ?eo£l£8

cf A£ric-qltarö in thj{"^^seJ^j3si5LS£E2î£> Volft 1"'2-'t PelPinS» 1??7. ~" " ' ~"

Collection of Material 01^ the AM.ocatljBnjrfJUu^jtorj^

"Jetton ftsreaa of the Hin3.8ta7*of"Xgricalture, Peiping, 1958.

Peiping,, 195?.

Collection of' Yariene Documents SJK5 D«f^l2S54l^JäS2i

(fc^tt^rar^^ îcin!:âôoperativi8atIon? Feiping, l9i>b»

•CcBBainlque of the St*t*N StatiatAeal Bweau on the W'Jts of the FuKillaeni of thn First five Year Plan for the National economic Bibles**»* (1953-1957)>B £«Jl^5JÊä£» 1L Ap*"*1 1959*

Socialist tfcsurge in the Chinese Cosmtrysidte, compiled by the Office öTTKTC^nlTarteöa^^ üonreunist Party, Vols 1«3, Peiping, 1956.

""1V2""

la.? Of the "Eastern 'Qorämx of the Central CoH&lttee of ite .Cowafflonl«t Party of China* Shanghai? 1952* ,

• ■ instructions on the'Condnc* of CtacrmiVaxk la the miage Ftotping, 1953 ' ■ , '

Instructions of' the Central Caradttee of th» Caw-twist Farter er CMm oa Wi® Wgaassstl «isl %>rt»wa©st cultural Producers' Cooperatives <» Peiplag, 1957*

aogrspM .and Other Works

a) In the Rtsssiau Language

. ÄTörin. V., 'Kiter T Period. [email protected]. k Soisializwa (China Daring the Period o? franeitlon to So&aHs&j, itosaow» !>;&/»

.StranaklTTsfd. ■Up'ari&OifoJMrla Sie Peopife's «smoeratiic Countries ot Asia), MoeeoWj 1957« : '

* CSsnsMc, Q. A., BcenössM» KKR (EewKfflör of the Chinas« People's Republic), Moaccw., 195S8»

Dvimeniye aa' soa&anive Rarodiivkh korsmun ¥ Kit ay« . { KoTaaent for the Creatim öf. P®©]&1© »8 _ CoBssntnes In ChlBÄj,

(a Colleexaoa of Articles}Ä reipiagj, 1958 '

(Great Chasges ia the Chinese fiiiage)* Moscow* 195f.

Y Sei •£p! &®~f t.S"*G^Jmse^eop!l«ss feeptiblie)* Moscow* 1?S8

Simla.« V. A*« Sel^sksye Rio^ystro Kltam (The 'Agriculture of Chins), Moses»* '1955« .-

-173»

Ocherk, (Teaura» and 'Hmre Relationships In China, to Bsssy), floscow, 3.9U7•

Kokarev, N* A«, Sg^g^3;Istlche3kove PraofcrazoTaniyeSel'skp-

of Agriculture in the Chinese People's gepublie),'Moscow, 1958. Lo Yu&n-tseng, £ kQRoralchjt..jprepbraz»^ v Kit« Karod*

■Resmxblike ' J Economic B-efarms iß the Chinese People's —jwwmW limn i vw. «■■? ■o.—ir. * UMIM —*«r' ... • — -• —- " -

Republik (I'*)j. l^S^

Liu Shih-ch'i, Geografiya Sel'skogo Khoayayatva Kiiaya (Agricultural Geography of China), Moscow, 19b1*

Kasleiaadkov, V«., Sotsiîsticbeskiye lêpbrazpva^ya v fötayakcy Narodnoy Rea^vblik© (Socialist Reforms in the Chinese

Masleruaikev* V. A.« Bconomicheskiy Stroy Kitayskoy Harodnoy Respabliki (The Economic Structure of the Chinese People's Kem&'Hc), Moscow, 1958«

Kiu Ctiuwg-huäng, U2^^JLA^M3^ä^l^ßB^S& { To"OFert«ke mä SOTB&SS Kn8l.<mc$s Rstpiug,

1958.

Proble^y %g^ ^ff; Bkononiiki Kitayskoyt & ar odnoy r ^gjgablljd (.Problems inlibe"Kcoaoir&c Dswiopiasnt of the. Chinese People'« Bepublic), a collection of articles published in Chinese fievs- papers and «lagasinssj Moscow, 195*8,

{ Agäcic«lture of the Se» ChinaX Pcipicg, 1953.

Sotsialistichsjskiy Pod*em v Kitayskoy Deravne. Sboraik labrjajmykh^^ TFsoclalist Upsurge in the Chine re Village. A Collection of Selected Articles. Prepared by the Office of the Central Cowmittee of tho CoirsRmist Party of China), Moscow, 1952

Ch'ea Po»ta, ^^^^S^^BlSl^^SLJIîîSL (&n °töli»e of Land Tetttfre in China), Koscow, 1952«.

Ekonomichaski;^ ilPyogo,. Kitay,^, ?a tr^ g°<3.a . ( Economic Successes of the "NeiriCMiia Bering Three lears;

W-ffi2), Peiplng, 1953«

-174-

fe) In fchs Chinese Language i i

■ ' To ActivslT Mitist 'the Work'of tbfe jyaH.tenlt«^Äl Eooper&fcives of the Si#erüyje, Bslan,- . ?195ö.,

Metirely im a Flamed Mssifeer -to %ercis® leadership ©f ■ the Hemsaaafc tm> C©spe»t.ifit-at4oB of IgricÄtur®^ ^neetioa of

«Infertile MoaBtsdRS.fi».d êstrectiv© fetors TraBsfomed. : I ■into Fertile L&Ma a»d 'BlTers." M&fceri&l on the Jiiaossinß. ProTlnfeis ;

'IHrt~'ti» M-l~0hina Aexleulttirsl^mfMitxoa ei'l»o, Shoqrang, | II rtT iMtfiiniy'tiniwflJiJJu.iui'iiîifftii'C«'«^ »-^^.^-.f^.^.^-„^^^«HI^«^»..»»..»«-*».»»^^-»-»,^ ™ »■ ,

to«

. The'' Big' U«D in tins Area of Irrigatloa Constxvetlan, Pelpißg, 1958.\ •

feig Ida et «1. KxperieRoe isa the Organisation ©f the Work of tte ApricnltimiTTSvBaacHTH^ ®£^^SLJ^^SBS» «*iPir€? i^6v

'.HUBS Chi-fti,- Tk® Hsle&-f«ng Gecfssrative of the Teh»hsi©a Boral %strtofc of tfaTBEgrEgSOrOTlBc» ^"^^Tg3lil§f?

Wsng Cheng-chin;?« Rr© bless is the Growth of th% ffgod .■'' Basis of China» Feiping» 19l?8«

1 Great tictoxy on the AgricslttBral Frcat-, Shanghai, 1900»

'Wbieis,of''.Gg9perititisatio», of ,4f^.î^?®l;i^^ctiCT

ßProbleKS of Coowratitdaatif»a of &grlmltv$c®sn Apelleetim

ofJkrtlc£Ui0, F#ipia.g. 1$56,

cot©*© of the Chines© People's Republic,. • Pso-fdng, 1958

Problems of OymaizatioH &sa Accenting of Labor inj&£ Agjdcroltbr&X Producers? Cooperatives,. Sh«a-yasg, 1.953. MWIWIH.WUUII i—iiiam nm i m mni'iin nm in »mi -ny-nni i rntirnr-rrrf -'- -"-—-~~--—•"—

Problems of Protection, Distribution sad Trad® in tibe People's 0<«3«öaes, reaping, iy^ö

--»175«

IlîlSSäJP^J^ PftioiBg, 1955.. .

£E£ii^!^ helping, 19is9.

Forrarfy Ander tte fester; of Pgppj-g,?^ &?ffpyftgg, Peiping, 19158.

The All-China Agricultural Position for 1957, Vols 1-2,

"Multilateral Development of the Technical Revolution in Agriculture," Material on the All-China Agricultural Exposition,

**^ ■ ' !<■—■M.H*J WllMlir ■ I I>IIIHI IMllll |JI* III 111 Uli II IT ■«■■»■inn—!■■■! »mil ■ ■■——*H If mi ■»■■ ■ ■ Hl' HM|)H»llHI»l -in 1 ■■■■ 1IT-I wiTmr -\"

Peiping, 1958.

Exposition of ^jJffiSJLffl'* -^?j^^7,!?.Cl.,^...?^£^^ ^^^v^^m^^^^zj^t^ ia thTltonanj^TJiice, Cheng-chcu» 1958*

Kito Ytl-en., How I ^Became Chalrmari_of a Agriciiltural Producers'

tu Ko» geoROFd.c Problems of the Chinese Village, Shanghai, 1933.

2ä3^^S£-2l»^^SJ: op^^'^yil%£^^ Peiping, 1958. ,

Jen Ghieh-ying, Ajggojmting; _Mgthods_at th e Afyricult^ralr Pro- ^H£££Lf»-?£?iî£SM^.i!« Peipiäg, 19 yh*

Selected Article?? on th^KcaRoir^ôf ,ühtna for 1950 , compiled by pttblf^'ng-BcfTEorS^T^öiST^Tâ fiaterfiT onl^FeTHness economy, Vols 1-7, Peiping, 1951*

SelectedÂrt-iclfe£ on J^hen[EconoT?gr of Cjhlna,jfor_ 1?J?1, compiled by publishing-îto'rlaJr^woBittee cn KateriaTon "the Chinese ficonowy, Vols 1-3» Peiping, 1953»

SslectgdÂrticles on the tEconercj of .^hinafor 1952, compiled by publishing-Editorial Corrittee on I&terisl on the Chinese ©conowy» Vols 1-2j, Peiping, 195U«

SelectedA?tlcles _onJth<? ônotnyof %iiia for 19$3» ccmpiled by the Publishing--3^ torial Committee on Material on the Chinas© ^conomy, Vols 1-3, Peiping, 1955«

legation — .aj&t&lly., Importoft Artery ofAgriculture, compiled by the"Wnlstry of irrigation of the CMoeieTeopTe^s Republic, Vols 1-3, Peiping, 1958.

-176-

19S8«

Hew to develop tte Technical *Wü1üÜ<$ü ±a Apietütti*©*

Hoir the Agrictilteral $mämäTB% Ceoperatiire %ö«?its Women

Bow to Collect & X*®sw Amount of Fertiliser and-Issereas©

How to Consolidate th© People''© Corssâes.-Shanghai, 195>o<

How to Sestror tte-Five Principal Getto» Fest®t Chinas» '

K'tsng-Ch'iRs-chi, The Airriailtiral Prodtacerg* Coop«ra1lTO4' Led by lia l-M.«?fes Sfen*yang, i5>S"<-3«

1956« ' *~~ • """* "" " — — —— ,

lectures-on tie Agriciiiteral Frodiacer-s* J&tis&l Aid saad ' Cowerativlsatiess,* Sfouusg«©fa©« «■ l^Süi*

■Lectures on. ih® Supply asd .Marketing Cooperatives is 'tis©

Id Jm^liu, öer@lopsrs©».t of the Sapply .and ârketii^g Cooper'atlvtsation, Sternal« 1951»

Li Jeo-lin» Baife of êrolOTflnsrst of tee AajietatoraljOSSB-

Lo Kua»-yfeu Peng I-lo, &&sL-& Informs,tieft, oa tte Cooptr« stive SsoRcfflrfi, Kuans-chou» 195?«

J»»XP>P»0«»«»MI5»»t«C«lfBpfti

L©' t.ms-mot- is Analvssls of the Character of -Property at th© AgricaJLfcBral People's Kiomnmm o.t Otasa, reipiBgs i.9bfc*

*MsK»UIMlS?Ä^.«fi»**i«iel^*ii|^^>»wtf^

■ to Cbl»1imff, Cm B€«=r*.ilsrltl,e0 of' ths FyowrMLon #etwee» Xad?as try mad AffirlctdLtmr®« £hangh«d« 195?«

I&v.. P'«l«»cM!is On State *Wsms %r£»g the Period of Trans™

•177-

ition, Peiping» 19 >6

Litt Shtt-te, The Ying-yang CooperatlTe in tte Hsiao-ling Village, Feipingf i^SK.

Mt Jen, Tbfi History of ^J^T^G^^^BJSSSJSÎ

Material on the Building of Socialist gconomy i» China, Ch'ttftg-ch^n*, 19&7.

Methods of Costing the Cost of^d^tic^^J^cnU^^ Crops at the A^lctüt/qraTTTO^c^^^j^raê£t PeipjJig» l?so,

Methods of Jthe -C«wtoactnalJSra^^

Mo Ytteh-ta., DeveloraeBfc of the Cooperätivi ration £C-ÄSir mature in our Cwurhy^ mp;ng,_iy!>7.

Let-us Mobilise the Broad Masses ofPeasante and the Village

i» Agricftü-twe^Peiplng, 195U»

the Agricultural Heebaniaation. BepariMt of the Administrative Ccandttee of the North-East, Shenyang, 1951»

Toj^ltu^ttjeÂgri^ Shenyang,

Our Path. Discussions of the Feasanteof ajftreftrftoe Stat«te"^"ThT*n5owaTêT^r"tF^êr_^;e» Teiping, I<o6.

Certaift.Froblems ef^^JL^fil^^^ CCTBwqaea, ShSTghaTTl^P"..

Certain Economic Problem?? in jthe_i^^to§_oX^4i^»^ China,' Peiping, 1959 •

A jgggJjgggayaMOe of the. ghteesejajlafte After theJgnd Befor»«""Peiping, 1951.

The Hew Period of the Technical Revolution, Feiping, 19158.

-178«

~^1

Si.il Xä-ta, -feg Sh53»-w«n> P«o F«a, ^t^^j^H^|^J^!w£ ;

KLtt Ctmng-hoonai Eath of Culnese *ndw tâl^tl^suTh» .; Sinai twieot» êv*aöwwri<FoP Juäturtay am AÄrlcflltujr«-wantto •l^dSaaiAêTCToê^^â^^j^dwrto. Peipdng, 19i>B. j

I ■,- S

On the Calling Tea^^^^ßî^^±mUMM^^l' \ iiiin..m tin »i im I-.II' [■■nliMiiai.ifmliiiiilill rrl—rn——..—n—- —JMW—IMII» . :

(to the ?söple'.s Gowtmm&t Peipiag/ 35*5>8«

'■On the Teetedcal Kev«a«tloa,P8lping, 19£fi.

Ott the Finances and i^Ä^2|L^J&-^rö^ ^JÄlt

BsiBghsiaftg',"-195o. ■

^ A Sttrwr of the Xmigekialcow Village of the Htchlh. ■ Rural . M^rf^ .cots-piled by the gWJp- «a-survey* of villages .of l&ng-eRf helping, 195?. i-

A Stirrey of AericwOLtural Cooperatives in the T«feg Raral Distrlet: Footing, 195»2.

Experience of the Big Leap In A«rl<^ta£SL£E2S2£ÄSS» Hanking» 1S£8, ■

oaltisral *roöSEti©as Ftetoing, ' 19S&.

Experlettß© i» the Orgard.aftta.on of the People's Cowsnaie in the Qiijoir-GHehgehtfi» Cljengcho«, 19£8. ' ■

£»eri#nce in the Grtfaniaatiott of a System for ths rvmo<VMi*>-M*w< ftf fenatässfe-ä AeRr!«ijel^lJltv iß tbs Aerlcttltural fthoducers* Cooperatives * Paoting, ISoa.

&i,«ri ettaf!t on th» Ach5 ewtnent of Bieh liöi ferfy %.c©* Coaplled on the basis' of material on the ..^position of fceoncwie

: Construction in tbe.Huaas*- Province, Cteagsha, 1953.

aroerieno« in Achieving HiRh Held Wheat Harvests ft©» terse AwiToFIKTHw^^ '

Eätpariefice in the Transformation of '^»ôoQnUêil^

•179-

f"

EifperientH?. ia tie* ^^|i£ .f^^lH2;lÄl^lAilii£ Hortto£*êrI^^ b?'' the Ministry of Agri« cuItercT'of^the PeoSP's Go'êrawent of the North-E&stern China, Shea-yang,, 19.52 •

■■' Experience In the Creation of a People's Gojiimvjae in_th£ Honan Area^Fuchoo 195-* ■

' The Orgssü Kation* ^>e'11^5^jf_i^-lHPerierACe °'^ tlgi Cre-^ CoeperaHvFs, "Piping» iSÊT

The |jbegt_ Pav-i.llon at_ tteJ-903 A|xicylto&l Eyposittco at the HonaKn?j"o^nce^~^h^choüJ"T9'P^

iings

'.9^.

Firsthand ôeriejifceôE^tteJ^^ Cooperatives: j, Peiping, 19f6.

Lee.d5.tts; Experience in the Sphere, of ÄjzricGIt-oral Production

Conversion Fro» the Co^P^^^ySS^SL.*!1? L5?2£„?Z2®~i.S Cooge? aH^^rtfie"Hijfer^^gr 'JSü5gchoni,"1955.

The Contractual System With & <5nar-anteed^ Incligion of the fll&ri^'^rel^ ers HôeperaHygs, Shanghai,

SS. ?i!£!Ll!£ä^^ Peiping,

Product!' 1955:

195U.

Path o£ £^f&njL_J^

"Let the Land ^generate,w A Coll ection of Articles cm l&roerience in De«p Plo-sirig« Pat'faction Tn^^mstrtictlon of XgrJeuTEK^^ of Agrfcßltvore of tte Siiaisiri^pi^FêptsMie, Peiping. 1958«

li?^^£IL^L?"^£^^^^^~Ä22> in Agricaltwra, Feipiiig, 1?£8.

-ISO-

W3JU _ ___.„. r..

The'fcirth of the First • CöWRTOU» In Shanûd, Stanglai» 19£8. W|BW»W"v-^H#IIMr«tfw*«llllIt*a>BW1»«l«lM*^^

Collection of M&tertal on 'the JPeojajiaJJoBajBnaa, Vola 1-2, Pedping,

GolXectdoa of Articles o» fcte Cooperatlviaotlon oäf Chisese Aj^«sltttras TöijKlng, l^f>f»

Collection of Article» o« the Socialist TrturafOTRÄ&oaof «*■-*** ÎHUCH*

, Collection of Articles on the *aqperienee of <^^* Kigfr |la^M*«ai*^.•«! xw«tww.in;ii >»«iu**«,«iw,t«v*«»M»l«*ni» «

i!JEl£2i!K^ *^8

and. #TOW*>J <tfJMKtt»t«*aO,lt»tgMgWH' Ml M-tBMW«»»aJy,

'She, SrotfMt of Basle and Premimi 'Waßös st tbe'FeoÄle*« Conatsßss« relp-iftg» 195« »

The leap of fetes Xasetei» COHRI-öKIS» Cne'ngtu, .1950 Stk

Refereace '*at«rial oh the Direction of Agyic^twîJäS"

Befex-e&ee %le:rlal cm the Aîtfiitnral ^^lee^JfeteaÎ Aid BiijM^j^ToIeT-T, helping, i^&Js.

Beferenee Material on Agjrieulfcwfil ürödttcere' Coogeratiw«, VdB 14» Piping* 195&» -I95U» -19l>5.

1Ö1-

"'7

Sii Kai, How to Adjust Woa-kjsf "^,£ffir^?^sapi:- Ksrket, piy^cted; by,,- tba" Sia te t Shanghai,, 195?«

the '*'rarieitioK:äl Period {OorriK;t&d"lditi en j Peiping;, 1959«

Hsfieh Chan -ch'i,'Wang Ytt~tfang, The Ch'iling People's Cownam, Peiping, I9J>8.

Hstteh fe-eh'iao,, How to Organige a,. Cooperative, Harbin, 191$«

Hafieh Ktt-ch'iao, feaeral JEpXprrtajaon on'the Sconcmy; off, $$ S3äffiS£.J2i3iS£2.» Shanghai - Chôg-cKTlng, 19ii7*

Hsiao Hing et si., Basi_e Condltdens of_ jthe Cocperatiyiffitlpn Theory, Peiping,"l957.

Hsiao. Hung-lin, A|ric'xl.t'.iral: Prejfcc^s^JftBMÂ^L*!?}!*

Tf*rag Ta-lln, |&s5£J>£AJlHM^^ Peiping, 195^»

T'ien Lin, The Formation ^^^,,%'H^l^ät®J^Kl» Feiping, 195»'2. • ~~~ ~~

«fe, Tan-ko, Problems of jfcite A^ricTütiix-al Tax 1E China^ Shanghai, 19S'2« *"~ '"'"""" ' "* ~"~~~

äE&lJ^^^LSS^kl'MYSl^^'Si.* compiled by thiTînistryôjTSpd-» " culture, Peiping* I95f-*

To Direct the Cooperatives on a Basis of Thrift and =22S2!SZ!» P&otxng, J.9.W.

••«/««»■«•w

Establishment, of the Morns of Production and ^b^Jêsfimar» a^.ojxml^rjctütvy'^l:?c^cers'j^yâ'tivea, Peipi ng ? "195??«*"

¥a Hai-je, l23^S-5^L2S22!l3-äiiISä> Piping, 19£li«

Wji Chiang, S^sti^H£2J*!L*i:iiönce of the Warkffiv,C1f,£!3

A Textbook OR the Conduct of Financial"Woric in the Agri»

-1Ö2«

W« ChLh-p% <te ibs Peqtls'a C«S31£* CheRgchou, 19 $8.

Fang Ch'anp. The &8lstion Between Ägrt ealtuTfcX '«»& Sates« trial %$'e!©s«snt, .Peipiogj 1$>56». l f

Pan Hanf. C&wfch of the BaishaB' IgricultOTal Prodncers*- 'Cooperative, Peiplng, 15b ('»

Fang' C**anff-ehlanp, Tfa©'Igl'ict&toal Producers *J3£53«rattw ±a the C&'twrti Village, Pßipiag,?jl952. • ■•

"Wasnqe in the People'« CoB«iinfts^££2a£S^££^LMS3^ ■ Vol 1, Peipirtg, "3£58»

,-. ' ""Fonts' cf-Lend'Tenure and Rewards for I»and in ■the Agri» ' cultiss*al ^xodnoers* Cooperatives of 'the .Sead-Äociftliat .Typ«," A Collection' of X&gctu£*£B& compiled by the Covodttee on the ftSEf&tfEEoa SOSMftfflcic Material.» Peipisg;, 1958 •

Feng Ta-lin, Gb,Je» Wei-aan, Problems of EqwaT. f flogest of Indntftrr and Aaricwltare cf Chira, Hsxaa, iy!?&„ ' - .

Itootg tfei-vtn, The Five Year Plan ferjite j^lgES«i*jof Agricultttf® of China, Peip&ng, ISbS*

ttwurge Iß 'the Cooperativlaation of AgriOTJtgxgJtf^Chaaa, Shanghai*

Durina; the ssiid Villa

Cb.*ang Ch*in$r,"&cpeii«i«t irx the ^«^<»ia2li^l£E-2Lî i tltta-al ProdttceTsûocipera'&iêj!» IxeRtsiin» i.y>o» . *;

Ch*i«a Chia-sM, Hang Te-chaig, Ws .Ffen-nong, 222225*5. Position of the Ki'angsi ■ ^Vovinss«,, Shanghai, 19.36,

Cb.*i Agricaltrapj

in the Agricultural '»fersl^^ | Peipiag* 1956, \

Chan? SMLh-cii'lu.' The lp\ic^l tarsi Producers' Cooperative !

Ch&o Btaaiog, ThejfeLh^^ .1 Steal District, CtesieSoST^^™™"^ !

•163-

Chao Chinas Characteristics o? Ls-nc* ^^g^_I{ari«g__t^§ transitional êTi.oiln'Wiji^TTÂng^~'iW^'

Ch&o 'Tse-yenj, Ön_a jâsis of Tc^p&atôtts Develo^grtt of Cocoerativia&tion ^'Iêiop'^brêcHJS jEetolution in Agri-

JEnaer* Kuangahcmj l?j>4«

Wh&tJ-fast be Known AkPl![L>J^.-?.gil^kJ^^gS^ Kuangchcm,

Ch'u Ch'ing, Chu Chang-chlang, wang Chih-raing, Rîai£2|ti£B of the Agricultural j^cet jn_Qgr_0ögnta2> Peipiag, 1'9F7T^" .

Ch'tsK. Chiastg, Ch/i« Lang, In tha Ag^.CTxlttpral. Pioj^cgrg.' ratine j^ Hsi&tanf Kuangchou, I5F5T

Oh' en G>a 'i.. lectt;!^ on ^^^^^^„^^^^l^^yatiyes Shew-yan., l!?£u.

Ch'en Chfi, QnJêôjje^tijlgatipnr of A^rie^tara, Peiping, 195*.

Sha Steg, How ^^^^Âj^HLJ^-^rJig^J:^ kgorânl2^tl?-5)rt. of the Village, Peimng, "19Û."

Shlh Cb*xi, Qrea^SSl^^ Peiping, 1953.

Shts Tse, BHLi^£!^:JäH^^..£feH:ä.ä' Shanghai, 1953.

Ian» Yins-chioh, Kcoort en the Sirnrey cf Five Agricultural

Yang Ch.iar/'-pOj Economic Cons traction in ogr Country; for Eight Years, Peiping, 1^5^»

-1Ö4-

Bs?8!*?8^

e) In West Eto*ep«sa» Language«

■■•''.■*-Adlar» -Solomon. The Chines® ôonomr, Lönäß% 195?»

• Bttzvi«r* Gh.,"The Goll*cti*is»tion of Agricultural USSR*. Ghisa», People's ^flmoeragy,-Paris, 1Ä>8..

Chao Ktto-obitm. The agrarian Policies -of Chii»8«Cegwgtdflt

• DtBoont, Ren*» ' M2M^J^^±^£iBL^SBB^M^^ ?STis>- 195?. ,

•Gaagoai, B.K., }£S^^SSB^JSSL^S£if Dftlhi* ^3.

Prt.it.- 1). K., Land Refo» in China. ' Bow $00 Söllion Chinese Farmers, ®aa'Filth k^Sôrl^Fôpe^^&ß^li^f^^T^F"^ Owa kM, few fork* 195?*

a) IB th® Russian langu-sge

Kitay@}fl„ _., FCT©T5^n1TirriS"'ühim.se Peoples *esrabl±e), Moscow, 19$3.

öFtleTSinese Te&pUrF%îM.o «Statistical Indices'1)» Moscow» 1956.

*A Sarvsj of 195ü'0* Moscow« I95&

HL22§LS>) (EeoaorrdTbeveTo|»nt of the Peopl®'a""Desnocratic Countries in Asia *& Survey of 1956*)* MOBcow, 1958»

■-'LB^**

L?

b) In the Chinese Language

"The Great Decade,*'Material on the &cftlevmnt& of Ifae Bconoreic_^^lttirgl Cons%aggw]5r]F"Ohine6fe Peopie^slfepttblic, compiled by the S-tate^taUstlcal Bureau of the Chinese Peopled Pepublic, Peiping, 19!??. .

People's Beferenc« Book, Peiping, 1955-1958.

A Collection of StatietlcalJâterlal on- Agricultural Pro»

ccsnpiled by the"?laraiing Ttepartwent of the Ministry of *gn5>Tture, Peiping, 1958.

Stgtigticaljfetei^ and the Distribution of Income In ...foe A^j^lt^^Prodjg era'

Statistical âterial„on the Acricultxirg o_f the Most Important Countries of the World. Peiping,, 1958. IMllHhiâiJlll IIMIIIIII ■! fcllfci.iM!!! JlHIM—l 11111111 M Ml 1M»^ ^ll ■! I fH

Statistical Tables on the Agric'jltog^Jhe.Sh«Ml Prpgingg., (B. M.)7T53irr"'

Periodicals

"Bolshevik" KowaaBdjSt (Coiwaanist), Moscow, 19U9-1959.

^«i^^Z^Sjf^^^^LJ^Mi^Sfi (Piping University JourcalTT" Peiping, 19f^™5-9?"••

Veprosy Istorii (Historical Questions), Moscow, 19lt9<-1959.

Yoprosy FiXoso£ii(Philosophical Questions), Moscow, 19||9-

Voprosy Ekoncfflki (Economic Questions), Moscow, 15>lt9~l?59. m »i—aiWvnw»» i/A-JJIIV*WH*W*W*^> «tun«"'«»

Ifeuahha (Friendship), Peiping, 1957-1959.

SSESäSäSL^MäZ (People's China), Peiping, 1950-195?.

Rune-ts'-tßi Ktung-tao ûng-hrfta (Loose Letters of Fanning

1959,

-136«

Work in Villages), Fetpißg* 1956-1958.

Plannovoy«-Käossyäystvo (Flanked Econoagr), KOSCOK, 1955-1959.

Hsin-htta Pan--y«eh-fc*sn (New China Send.«Monthly), Peiplng, 1956-19^.

Bsin-hoa î%3K£» (Bew China Monthly)* Peiping, 19)$-1956.

Heiß-chiea-she (K«ar Construction}, Peipdng, 19lt9-1959v W wiiiifmi' wntur-rmfn ■*-¥"■*■ i"»ta!«Alji*«e*ei*

' ' -'-'SoretskOTe' I'oitoKwderaye .(Soviet Orientolo§:f)» Ho enow, 1956»19?"

Sevotskove Kitaevedexriye (Soviet Sinology),. Mose«.» 1958*

Hafleh-hai (Learninc), Petping, 191*9-1959.

THma-chi Kung-tso (Statistical Work), Pelping, 1956-1958.

'■ "'"•■■ -SSHfiÄl ^The Red Flas)> Peipi»g» 1953-1959.

'^^-^-Ä^ÖS» (Economic Research), Peiplng* 1955-1959«

C^hsirf^ôajfa^g^ (Mechanised Agriculture),. Peiplng» • 1956-1959. ~*

2£ldSLJ2ä*Ifc£!?i (Planning ôriany)* helping» 1956-1958.

®Zk$£&J^l2££z£& (banning and Statistics), Peiplng,

^^0^^SJLSLÄSSMH, (Stal(%" and teaching), Peiplng,

1956-1959".

eChong-Jrao Jomg-pao (China's Agricultural Report), Peiplng, 1952-1959.

Chunp-iaio Ktsnpr-k% en {Chiness Agricultural Keclamation), Feiping, 19$&3.9#i*

b) Newspapers

Kuang-fliing Jih-tiao (Bright Daily), Felting, 1950-1959*

Ktt%-3en Jih-pao (''fevers* Daily;., Peiplng, 1950-1959.

Ta KtoxR ?ao (Impartial Daily)» Peiplng, 1950-1959»

♦1Ö7-

_-J

2ES2£!ä (friendship)» Piping, 1952-195?.

Jen^gAn Jlh-ffao (People's Daily), Feiping, 195Ö-19S?.

f&? a ^astin^ Feace and People's ^eKoexacfS Bucharest. 2?U9-l?5ftT^

'Chiek-fang Jih-pao(Lib«ration Daily), Shanghais 1950-1959-

££gvti&» Möseow» 191:9-1959.

X0#1G? W#l68

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20000621 0« - Defense Technical Information Center

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