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Ore Geology Reviews

1: Subduction, slab detachment and mineralization: The Neogene

in the Apuseni Mountains and Carpathians

Franz Neubauer a,*, Andor Lips b, Kalin Kouzmanov c, Jaroslav Lexa d, Paul Ivazcanu c,e

a Department of Geography, Geology and Mineralogy, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunner Str. 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austriab Mineral Resources Division, BRGM, av. C. Guillemin, F-45060 Orleans cedex, France

c Isotope Geology and Mineral Resources, Department of Earth Sciences, ETH-Zentrum NO, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerlandd Slovak Geological Survey, Mlynska dolina 1, SKO-81704 Bratislava, Slovakia

e Romanian Geological Survey, Caransebes Street 1, RO-79 678 Bucharest 32, Romania

Received 19 November 2004; accepted 21 April 2005

Available online 13 October 2005

Abstract

The Inner Carpathians comprise several distinct Neogene late-stage orogenic Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag–Au ore districts. The mineral

deposits in these districts are closely related to volcanic and subvolcanic rocks, and represent mainly porphyry and epithermal

vein deposits, which formed within short periods of time in each district. Here, we discuss possible geodynamic and structural

controls that suggest why some of the Neogene volcanic districts within the Carpathians comprise abundant mineralization,

while others are barren. The Neogene period has been characterized by an overall geodynamic regime of subduction, where

primary roll-back of the subducted slab and secondary phenomena, like slab break-off and the development of slab windows,

could have contributed to the evolution, location and type of volcanic activity. Structural features developing in the overlying

lithosphere and visible in the Carpathian crust, such as transtensional wrench corridors, block rotation and relay structures due

to extrusion tectonics, have probably acted in focusing hydrothermal activity. As a result of particular events in the geodynamic

evolution and the development of specific structural features, mineralization formed during fluid channelling within transten-

sional wrench settings and during periods of extension related to block rotation.

In the Slovakian ore district of the Western Carpathians, Neogene volcanism and associated mineralization were localized by

sinistral, NE-trending wrench corridors, which formed part of the extruding Alcapa block. The Baia Mare ore district, in the

Eastern Carpathians, reflects a transtensional wrench setting on distributed oversteps close to the termination of the Dragos

Voda fault. There, mineralization was spatially controlled by the transtensional Dragos Voda master fault and associated cross-

fault systems. The Golden Quadrangle Cu–Au ore district of the Southern Apuseni Mountains reflects an unusual rotated

transtensional/extensional setting close to the termination of a graben system. There, fluid flow was probably localized by fault

propagation at the inner tip of the graben system.

The spatial and temporal evolution of the magmatism and its changing geochemical signature from (N)W to (S)E strongly

suggests a link with the contemporaneous northeastward roll-back of the subducted slab and a progressive southeastward

detachment during accelerating roll-back. This geodynamic evolution is further supported by the present-day overall and

0169-1368/$ - s

doi:10.1016/j.or

* Correspondi

E-mail addre

27 (2005) 13–44

ee front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

egeorev.2005.07.002

ng author.

ss: franz.neubauer@sbg.ac.at (F. Neubauer).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4414

detailed mantle lithospheric density images, the present-day heat flow patterns, the crustal architecture and its interpreted

evolution, and the spatial and temporal evolution of depocentres around the Carpathian arc. In contrast to all these features, the

mineral deposits in the West Carpathians, East Carpathians and Apuseni Mountains are too synchronous with respect to their

individual volcanic history and contrast too much with younger volcanics of similar style, but barren, in southeastern parts of

the Carpathians to simply link them directly to the slab evolution. In all three districts, the presence of magmatic fluids released

from shallow plutons and their mixing with meteoric water were critical for mineralization, requiring transtensional or

extensional local regimes at the time of mineralization, possibly following initial compressional regimes.

These three systems show that mineralization was probably controlled by the superposition of favourable mantle lithospheric

conditions and partly independent, evolving upper crustal deformation conditions.

In the 13 to 11 Ma period the dominant mineralization formed all across the Carpathians, and was superimposed on

structurally favourable crustal areas with, at that time, volcanic–hydrothermal activity. The period may reflect the moment when

the (upper part of the) crust failed under lithospheric extension imposed by the slab evolution. This crustal failure would have

fragmented the overriding plate, possibly breaking up the thermal lid, to provoke intensive fluid flow in specific areas, and

allowed subsequent accelerated tectonic development, block rotation and extrusion of a bfamily of sub-blocksQ that are

arbitrarily regarded as the Tisia–Dacia or Alcapa blocks, even though they have lost their internal entity.

D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Porphyry system; Epithermal system; Wrench corridor; Subduction; Slab break-off; Overstep; Relay structure; Hydrothermal system

1. Introduction

The formation of large-scale ore provinces is gov-

erned by many factors, amongst which the geody-

namic control exerts the primary pre-condition. This

is especially true for ore provinces in orogenic belts,

where many different types of mineralization of var-

ious ages are found. Mineralization within collisional

orogens involves a number of different processes.

These mainly include: (1) Andean-type mineralization

due to subduction of oceanic lithosphere pre-dating

collision (e.g., Sillitoe, 1997), further enhanced by

progressive changes in the angle of subduction (e.g.,

Mahlburg-Kay and Mpodozis, 2001), (2) mineraliza-

tion associated with collisional granites (e.g., Lang

and Baker, 2002; Groves et al., 2003 and references

therein), (3) mineralization resulting from hydrother-

mal activity associated with orogen-scale faulting due

to adjustment of the upper, brittle crust, sometimes

caused by a lithospheric response to gravitional

instability of the subducted slab after waning conver-

gence, such as slab roll-back and slab break-off (e.g.,

de Boorder et al., 1998; Blundell, 2002; Drew, 2003;

Lips, 2002). These processes are often associated with

calc-alkaline and subsequent alkaline magmatism,

including early stage porphyry and subsequent hydro-

thermal vein mineralization (e.g., de Boorder et al.,

1998; Lehmann et al., 2000; Blundell, 2002;

Richards, 2003). For all these different modes of

mineralization, key questions include: (1) the general

geodynamic context within which ore formation

occurs; (2) the exact structural setting, which allows

the formation of a plumbing system linking deep

structural levels with near-surface horizons where

appropriate precipitation conditions prevail; (3) the

origin of metals and hydrothermal fluids, including

the fluid composition; (4) the nature of the heat

source driving magmatic and hydrothermal processes,

and (5) the composition of magmatic melts (e.g.,

Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994; Heinrich et al.,

1999; Ulrich et al., 1999; Richards, 2003). Further-

more, the possible origin of hydrothermal fluids and

timing of mineralization might represent extremely

important controlling factors, as the channellizing

plumbing system should be available when metal-

rich fluids start to rise. The origin of the fluids may

lead to a distinction between highly mineralized and

small, relatively barren hydrothermal systems (Hein-

rich et al., 1999; Oyarzun et al., 2001).

Despite these general pre-conditions, and even

though the formation of hydrothermal and orogenic

ore deposits includes many processes, only a few

models exist which link these to specific large-scale

geodynamic process such as slab break-off (e.g., de

Boorder et al., 1998) or to a change of the subduction

angle (e.g., Mahlburg-Kay and Mpodozis, 2001;

Oyarzun et al., 2001). For example, many hydrother-

mal lodes and porphyry copper deposits are related to

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 15

subduction of oceanic crust (Sillitoe, 1997), or further

spatially controlled by the presence of slab windows

within subducting slabs, as in the western USA (e.g.,

Brusson

Peripheral foreland basin(late Eocene - Neogene

Pannonian andTransylvanian basin (mainly Neogene)

Neogene volcanics

Penninic units (Oligocenemetamorphic core complexes

Other Alpine-Carpathian units

Milano

Vienna

Zürich

Salzburg

thrust fault

normal fault

strike-slip fa

MineralizationTertiary metam

Volcanic hoste

TWSb

Au

Au

Au-AgPL

PL

Along-strike migration

ALCAPAALCAP

PaST d.

Eastern Alps

ViennaBratislava

Budapes

ZagrebLubljana

Central Slovakia d.

Styrian d.

Danube

S L O V E N I A

C R O A T I A

A U S T R I A

C Z E C H R E P U B L I C

S L O V A

B O S N I A S

H U N G A R Y

Alpine mountain frontAlpine mountain front

E a s t e r n A l p s

AdriaticSea

W e s t e r n C a r p

Fig. 1. a—Tectonic overview map of the Pannonian–Carpathian orogenic sy

to Neogene structures (modified after Neubauer, 2002). b—Mineralized d

Haeussler et al., 1995) and the Andes (Dill, 1998).

Recent observations show that many ore deposits in

orogens formed rather by punctuated events and not

SAM d.

Bucuresti

ClujBudapest

ult

related toorphic core complexes

d Neogene mineralization

DV

Au-Ag-PbCS d.

BG

Bere-govoT

Recsk

BMd.Au-Ag-Sb

Pb-Zn/Au

Au, Cu

Cu-Au

PL Periadriatic faultDV Dragos Voda faultTW Tauern windowCS d. Central Slovakian districtST Styrian districtBM d. Baia Mare districtSAM d. South Apuseni Mts. districtBG Bekes grabenT Telkibanya

Along-strikem

igrationof volcanism

of foreland flexure

TISIA

A

nnonian basinTransylvanian

basin

a

Southern Carpathians

Western Carpathians

EasternCarpathians

t

BelgradeBucharest

Baia Mare d.

Calimani-Harghita d.

South Apuseni Mts. d.

Beregovo

Telkibanya

Danube

K I A U K R A I N A

E R B I A

R O M A N I A

b

A p u s e n iM t s .

Ea

s t e r nC

ar p

at h

i an

s

S o u t h e r n C a r p a t h i a n s

a t h i a n sCarpathian mountain front

stem displaying Neogene mineralization, magmatism and Oligocene

istricts (d) located within national boundaries.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4416

by continuous processes (Mahlburg-Kay and Mpodo-

zis, 2001; Oyarzun et al., 2001; Hall, 2002; Neubauer,

2002). The generation of distinct, adakitic melts

clearly seems to play a role in the formation of giant

deposits in a subduction zone environment (Oyarzun

et al., 2001) and recent interpretations argue for their

origin along margins of slab windows (Thorkelson

and Breitsprecher, 2005). Several models have been

proposed that relate ore deposits to collisional and

post-collisional processes within convergent continen-

tal plates (e.g., Spencer and Welty, 1986; Beaudoin et

al., 1991), including some that are possibly triggered

by slab break-off (de Boorder et al., 1998). The role of

deposit- and district-scale structures in the formation

of hydrothermal ore deposits has not been investigated

in great detail, although they act as a prime, control-

ling factor (e.g., Sibson, 2001, 2003; Drew, 2003;

Tosdal and Richards, 2001; Richards, 2003).

Mineralization is widespread in the Alpine–Bal-

kan–Carpathian–Dinaride (ABCD) orogen and occurs

dominantly near the areas of late-orogenic extension,

like the Inner Carpathians surrounding the Pannonian

Basin, and the Rhodope Zone and West Anatolian

Volcanic Province bordering the Aegean Sea. The

Neogene mineralization of the Inner Carpathians is

a particularly interesting young belt (Fig. 1a,b), as

late-stage orogenic mineralization is abundant (e.g.,

Evans, 1975; Petrascheck, 1986; Mitchell, 1996;

Borcoz et al., 1998) and varies in style along strike

volcanismE–Wextension

sinistrwrenc

countblock

orogen-parallel

KISCELIAN

EGERIAN

EGGENBURGIAN

OTTNANGIANKARPATIAN

BADENTIAN

SAMARTIAN

PONTIAN

DACIAN

PANNONIAN

16.4

11.0

20

10

25

15

5

30

23.0

OLI

GO

CE

NE

PL

Ma

EP

OC

H

5.3

EA

RLY

MIO

CE

NE

MID

MIO

CE

NE

LAT

EM

IOC

EN

E

WesterCarpathia

South-easternAlps

WCENTRALPARATETHYS

STAGES

Fig. 2. Paratethys time-scale (after Rogl, 1996; Sacchi and Horvath, 20

Pannonian region, including mineralization in the major ore districts. PL—

(e.g., Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002; Neubauer, 2002

and references therein). A deep-seated heat source,

visible in mantle tomography, has been postulated

recently as the cause of the magmatism and asso-

ciated mineralization (de Boorder et al., 1998). Here,

we discuss a number of Neogene mineralized districts

in the Inner Carpathians and their geodynamic con-

text and structural setting, and compare these with

coeval, barren volcanic systems at the southeastern

edge of the Alps. Data from the ABCD orogen may

help to constrain models for late-stage orogenic

mineralization, particularly in their geodynamic and

structural control.

The ABCD orogen has a geological history char-

acterized by complex interactions between various

microplates squeezed in between the African and

Eurasian continents, a situation which is basically

similar to the present-day interactions between Aus-

tralia and SE Asia in the region of the Indonesian

island arc system (Hall, 1996; Blundell, 2002, Kazmer

et al., 2003). For the ABCD orogen as a whole, a

number of attempts have already been made to relate

large-scale tectonic processes with mineralization.

These include, among others, the work of Petrascheck

(1986), Serafimovsky et al. (1995), Mitchell (1996),

Jankovic (1997), de Boorder et al. (1998), Vlad and

Borcoz (1998), Lexa (1999a), Lips (2002), Neubauer

(2002) and Drew (2003). However, the rapid devel-

opment of tectonic models for the Neogene evolution

alhing

er-clockwiserotation

wrenchingand transformmotion

60° clockwiseblock rotation

graben formation

onset of foreland flexuremajor mineralization event

range of calc-alkaline volcanism

migration of foreland flexure

nns

EasternCarpathians

ApuseniMountains

E

02) and major steps in the tectonic evolution of the Carpathian–

Pliocene.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 17

(e.g., Fodor et al., 1999; Wortel and Spakman, 2000;

Horvath et al., in press) and the availability of exten-

sive modern data sets on mineralization make the

region a natural laboratory for testing models of

late-stage, orogenic mineralization.

The time-scale for the evolution of Paratethys (Fig.

2) follows calibrations proposed by Rogl (1996) and

Sacchi and Horvath (2002), as the Carpathians were

part of the late Eocene to Pliocene Paratethys.

Because of faunistic endemism, the Paratethys time-

scale is different from that of the Mediterranean area,

and precise correlation is needed to relate tectonic and

mineralizing processes.

In what follows we use the term strike-slip fault to

characterize the master fault itself, and the term

wrench corridor to typify a wide zone along both

sides of a master strike-slip fault, which is affected

by all kinds of secondary structures within deformable

cover rock successions (e.g., Mandl, 1988).

2. Overview of major ore districts

The Inner Carpathian arc comprises a number of

late-stage orogenic ore districts, which formed during

Neogene collisional processes. These major districts

(Lexa, 1999a; Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002; Cassard

et al., 2004) include:

(1) The South Apuseni Mountains ore district

(bGolden QuadrangleQ or bGolden Quad-

rilateralQ) exposed in southern sectors of the

Apuseni Mountains is related to the emplace-

ment of Neogene volcanic rocks mainly

between 14.9 and 9 Ma (Pecskay et al.,

1995b; Rozu et al., 1997, 2001a,c, 2004). The

ore deposits are of low-sulphidation and subor-

dinate high-sulphidation epithermal type and of

related porphyry Cu-type (Alderton et al., 1998;

Alderton and Fallick, 2000; Milu et al., 2003;

Ciobanu et al., 2004). Ore mineralogical, iso-

topic and fluid inclusion data constrain their

formation as epithermal mineralization. Major

ore deposits occur along an ESE-trending, dex-

tral, strike-slip fault, which is considered to

represent a secondary fault zone that formed

within the eastward moving Tisia–Dacia block

during the Neogene (Linzer et al., 1997). Drew

and Berger (2001) and Drew (2003) showed

that magmatism and mineralization are related

to a major dextral transfer zone between sub-

basins within the Neogene Pannonian–Transyl-

vanian basin system. The ores are unusually rich

in gold (and tellurium), and have been mined

since pre-Roman times.

(2) In the Eastern Carpathians, the Baia Mare ore

district is related to Neogene volcanics and

regional faults. The Baia Mare ore district is

associated with the Dragos Voda fault, which

represents the northern, sinistral, confining

strike-slip fault relating to a wrench corridor

of the eastward extruding Tisia–Dacia and

Alcapa blocks (Csontos, 1995). Bailly et al.

(1998) and Grancea et al. (2002) infer a pluton

at depth along the fault. The principal ore types

are epithermal Pb–Zn(–Cu–Au–Ag) vein depos-

its. K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar dating of igneous and

alteration minerals provide a Neogene age for

the magmatism (14 to 9 Ma) and a younger age

(11.5 to 8 Ma) for hydrothermal activity, with

dominant ore emplacement at around 11 to 8 Ma

(Lang et al., 1994; Pecskay et al., 1995a,b;

Kovacs et al., 2001).

(3) In the Western Carpathians, several types of

Neogene ore deposits are widespread and

occur intimately associated with subduction-

related volcanism, particularly in the Central

Slovakian volcanic field and at Telkibanya

(Dill, 1998; Gatter et al., 1999; Lexa, 1999a;

Lexa et al., 1999a; Molnar et al., 1999; Kodera

et al., 2004, 2005). Initial andesitic volcanism is

related to subduction of an ocean (outer flysch

basin) during the early Miocene, and final calc-

alkaline volcanism is associated with back-arc

extension and possibly with slab detachment

during accelerated roll-back. Nemcok et al.

(2000) and Kodera et al. (2005) reported a

regional control on ore veins. Major ore veins

formed parallel to and contemporaneous with

the movement direction during northeastward

extrusion of the Alcapa block and to the

WNW–ESE extension. Ore deposits are variable

and include porphyry copper along with high-

sulphidation epithermal gold, intrusion-related

base metal and gold mineralization, as well as

epithermal base metal and Au–Ag(–Sb) veins

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4418

(e.g., Gatter et al., 1999; Lexa, 1999a,b; Kodera

et al., 2004, 2005).

(4) Further mineral deposits are well known in the

region, specifically in the northern sectors of the

Eastern Carpathians and easternmost Western

Carpathians; for example, the Tokaj Mountains

with the exhausted Telkibanya Au–Ag epither-

mal vein deposit (Molnar et al., 1999; Fig. 1). In

the Eastern Carpathians, however, mineraliza-

tion is limited to just a few major ore deposits,

e.g., the Au(–Pb–Zn–Ag) and Pb–Zn(–Ag–Au)

deposits of the Beregovo district (Vityk et al.,

1994). Furthermore, it has to be noted that some

large volcanic areas are nearly barren, as for

example the Calimani–Gurghiu–Harghita Mts.

volcanic district to the SE of the Baia Mare

district in the Eastern Carpathians and the Mio-

cene Styrian district (Fig. 1). In the Styrian

district (Ebner and Sachsenhofer, 1995), exten-

sive hydrothermal activity was associated with

emplacement of volcanic rocks, forming vast

areas of epithermal type alunite–illite–christoba-

lite alteration (Weber et al., 1997). No explana-

tion has been proposed as to why these areas are

barren. In this paper, we offer a possible reason

for the missing mineralization.

In the eastern sectors of the Eastern Alps, Neogene

hydrothermal activity resulted in the formation of

mesothermal Au–Ag(–Pb–Zn) and stibnite vein

deposits (Fig. 1), both associated with low-angle nor-

mal and strike-slip fault systems around metamorphic

core complexes (Weber et al., 1997; Neubauer, 2002).

These deposits formed contemporaneously with vol-

canic-hosted ore deposits in the Inner Carpathians.

However, the origin of these mineral deposits is not

discussed further here.

3. Geodynamic setting

3.1. Overview

All these Neogene ore districts are part of the Inner

Carpathians of the Alpine–Carpathian orocline, which

was formed during Tertiary subduction/collision pro-

cesses (e.g., Csontos, 1995). The Inner Carpathians

and Eastern Alps expose highly deformed, pre-Alpine

basement rocks and late Carboniferous to Palaeogene

cover in the Western, Eastern, and Southern Car-

pathians and in the Apuseni Mountains, which are

overlain by the Neogene infill of the Pannonian and

Transylvanian basins (Horvath, 1993; Horvath et al.,

in press; Figs. 1 and 2). The External Carpathians

comprise the infill of a Cretaceous to Palaeogene

accretionary system and a Miocene–Pliocene

molasse-type foreland basin (Kazmer et al., 2003;

Ma_enco et al., 2003). The Carpathian arc is inter-

preted to represent a pre-Tertiary feature within the

southern continental European lithosphere, which was

filled by oceanic lithosphere (Csontos, 1995; Fodor et

al., 1999; Csontos and Voros, 2004; Fig. 3a). This

oceanic basin is considered to represent a lateral

extension of the Penninic oceanic domain (e.g., Cson-

tos and Voros, 2004 and references therein). The

Moesian platform is a stable promontory of the Eur-

opean continental plate, which has been marginally

overridden by the South Carpathian/Balkan orogen

and which has been approximately in its present

position since Palaeogene times (Fig. 3a). To the

south, remnants of the Neotethys Ocean were sub-

ducting beneath the southern sectors of the Dinarides–

Hellenides–Balkan microplate, which also includes

the Tisia–Dacia block (Fig. 3a).

During the Palaeogene, the Neotethys oceanic

lithosphere continued to subduct northwards under-

neath the aforementioned continental microplate (e.g.,

Barr et al., 1999; Neugebauer et al., 2001). The Pen-

ninic Ocean had been consumed by slab roll-back

during the latest Cretaceous to Palaeogene to form a

remnant land-locked oceanic basin in the Carpathian

arc (e.g., Wortel and Spakman, 2000). The previous

southern European continental margin had been sub-

ducted beneath the Alps and was subsequently

exhumed as Penninic continental units (Fig. 3a).

These are exposed within the Tauern window (Fig.

1a) and were overridden by the Austroalpine nappe

complex during the Eocene (Liu et al., 2001 and

references therein). Oblique plate collision and asso-

ciated stacking of lower plate continental units were

followed by partitioning of convergence into north-

ward thrusting along the northern leading edge of the

orogen and emplacement of the entire Alpine nappe

edifice onto European foreland units, and orogen-

parallel strike-slip motions along wrench corridors

due to a generally NNE–SSW shortening (e.g.,

Recsk

motiondirection

trench retreat

fore-arc flysch basin

trenchretre

at

ST

CS

CS B

SAM

trench

T

DV

TS

BM

BM

B-Z

B-Z

C-J

a

c

b

Calc-alkalinemagmatic centre

Sarmatian

Early Miocene

Late Eocene- early Oligocene

Land-locked

oceanic/flysch basin

ALCAPA

Adriaticmicroplate

Adriaticmicroplate

Adriaticmicroplate

Bosnia-

Chalkidiki belt

Moesianplatform

Moesian platform

Moesian platform

ALCAPA

Dacia

combinedTisa-Dacia

Dinarides

Tisia

Tisia

Europeanforeland

Europeanforeland

PF

PF

Trajectory of maximumhorizontal principal stress

CS BM SAM T B

Central Slovakia district Baia Mare district South Apuseni Mts. district Telkibanya Beregovo

DV Dragos Voda fault B-Z Bekes-Zarand graben C-J Cerna-Jiu fault PF Periadriatic fault TS Transylvanian fault

Fig. 3. Time-resolved model for Neogene evolution reflecting cur-

rent understanding of orogenesis in the Carpathians (from Fodor et

al., 1999, modified and updated). a—Late Eocene to early Oligo-

cene; b—Early Miocene (~20 Ma); c—Late middle Miocene (~12

Ma). Tectonic blocks are the same as shown in Fig. 1a.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 19

Ratschbacher et al., 1991; Sperner et al., 2002). The

latter stage was also governed by indentation of the

rigid Southalpine block, which formed the northern

extent of the Adriatic microplate (TRANSALP Work-

ing Group, 2002). Furthermore, emplacement of post-

collisional late Oligocene to early Miocene intermedi-

ate and mafic, calc-alkaline plutons and dykes along

southern sectors of the Eastern Alps has been inter-

preted to have been the result of slab break-off of

subducted continental lithosphere following conti-

nent–continent collision (von Blanckenburg and

Davies, 1995; von Blanckenburg et al., 1998; Pamic

et al., 2002). Except for Recsk (Fig. 1) in the eastern-

most extension of Periadriatic plutons (Fig. 3a) and of

the Bosnia–Chalkidiki (or Serbomacedonian) belt,

these magmatic rocks are largely barren of minerali-

zation. Recsk represents a porphyry Cu prospect in

Hungary (Fig. 1). The other Periadriatic plutons are

eroded to deep structural levels, so that high-level

plutonic apices, which in a generalized model host

mineralization, are missing.

The pre-Tertiary rocks of the Internal Carpathians

are part of several fault-bounded tectonic units.

Amongst these, the Alcapa block, with surface expo-

sure in the Western and Eastern Carpathians N of the

Dragos Voda fault and the Tisia–Dacia block, com-

prise the two most important units (Fig. 1). The Tisia

block is exposed mainly in the Apuseni Mountains

and the Dacia block in the Southern and Eastern

Carpathians S of the Dragos Voda fault. The South

Transylvanian fault is considered to separate the Tisia

and Dacia blocks, although the principal fault system

active during Oligocene to Miocene invasion of the

Tisia–Dacia blocks was located within the southern

Carpathians (Ratschbacher et al., 1993).

During late Oligocene and late Miocene to Plio-

cene, the Adriatic microplate rotated 308 in an antic-

lockwise manner (Neugebauer et al., 2001; Marton et

al., 2003) and collided with the intra-Alpine micro-

continent collage in the NW, whilst subduction con-

tinued in the SE (Fig. 3b). The indentation of the

Adriatic microplate resulted in oroclinal bending of

the Western Alps. The combined Periadriatic/Bos-

nia–Chalkidiki (Serbomacedonian) magmatic belt

mimics the arcuate belt and comprises earlier, late

Eocene to Oligocene granitoids and volcanics that

are mostly exposed in the Alps and central Hungary,

and mostly late Oligocene to Miocene andesitic vol-

canic rocks in the Dinarides and Hellenides (Figs. 1

and 3a; von Blanckenburg and Davies, 1995; Pamic

et al., 2002).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4420

The Carpathian arc is interpreted as having been

filled by Oligocene to Neogene invasion of the

Alcapa and Tisia–Dacia blocks into that realm.

The Tisia–Dacia block moved around the Moesian

promontory (e.g., Ratschbacher et al., 1993) and

rotated up to ca. 908 in a clockwise manner as

palaeomagnetic data indicate (Patrazcu et al., 1994;

Panaiotu, 1998). The Alcapa block escaped from the

Eastern Alps and rotated ca. 608 in an anticlockwise

mode (e.g., Marton, 1997). Invasion was mainly

driven by northeastward slab roll-back and slab

retreat of the oceanic lithosphere attached to the

European continental plate. In this model, the Moe-

sian promontory is fixed and the Alcapa block was

also driven by the northward advancing Apulian

block, which led the Alcapa block to escape from

the Alpine collision zone. This resulted in late

Eocene collision in the Western Alps and subsequent

Oligocene to late Miocene migration of molasse

depocentres along the Alpine–Carpathian arc (Meu-

lenkamp et al., 1996). In the late Miocene, final

100

120

140

220200

180140 160

100

80

100

80

60

180

120

120

160140

13° 20°

CS d.

SAST d.

BM d. Baia Mare districtCS d. Central Slovakian districtSAM d. South Apuseni Mts. districtST d. Styrian district

Fig. 4. Map of the base of the lithosphere (in km) of the whole Pannonian

al., 2002; Horvath et al., 2005). Thick full and broken lines represent are

Schmid et al., 2003; Horvath et al., 2005). Question mark represents que

represent areas of uplift.

collision occurred in the bend zone between the

Southern and Eastern Carpathians (Ma_enco et al.,

2003; Bertotti et al., 2003; Tarapoanca et al., 2004).

Note the delay between flexure of the foreland litho-

sphere as a monitor of collision and calc-alkaline

magmatism, which is younger than the flexure of the

continental foreland (Fig. 2). Both migrated from W

to SE around the Carpathian arc, but onset of colli-

sion clearly pre-dates formation of a linear, orogen-

parallel calc-alkaline volcanic belt by ca. 2 to 8

million years (Fig. 2).

A combination of slab roll-back of the remnant

intra-Carpathian ocean and eastward extrusion of the

Alps led to the closure of a remnant oceanic basin in

the Carpathian arc (e.g., Burchfiel, 1980; Ratschba-

cher et al., 1991, 1993; Csontos et al., 1992; Royden,

1993; Csontos, 1995; Linzer, 1996; Linzer et al.,

1997; Nemcok et al., 1998; Fig. 3b,c). Collision

with the European foreland migrated from the Alps

eastwards around the Carpathian arc (e.g., Linzer,

1996). The extruding blocks were affected by variable

60

200140

160

180

240

200220

160

10080

120

160

45°

28°

IM

TR

140140

0 100 200

51°

48°

Moesian platform

?

?

TR Trotus faultIM Intra-Moesian fault

BM d.

M d.

–Carpathian realm (compiled from Nemcok et al., 1998; Konecny et

as where slab break-off occurred (after Wortel and Spakman, 2000;

stionable slab break-off beneath South Apuseni Mountains. Crosses

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 21

palaeostress fields within which the maximum princi-

pal stress was mostly subhorizontal and largely sub-

parallel to the eastward and northeastward movement

direction of the extruding blocks (e.g., Peresson and

Decker, 1997; Nemcok et al., 1998; Fodor et al.,

1999). Note that the Alcapa block rotated ca. 50 to

808 anticlockwise and the Tisia–Dacia block ca. 908clockwise (e.g., Patrazcu et al., 1994; Marton, 1997;

Panaiotu, 1998; Marton et al., 2003; Rozu et al., 1997,

2004).

Starting in the middle to late Miocene (~18 to 10

Ma), back-arc extension affected the whole Pannonian

Basin region (Nemcok et al., 1998; Fig. 3b,c). In the

Pannonian Basin, back-arc extension is associated

with Pliocene to Quaternary alkaline magmatism

and uplift of the asthenosphere to levels as shallow

as 50 km (Horvath, 1993; Horvath et al., in press and

references therein).

Fig. 5. Tomographic cross-section through the Eastern Alps, Apuseni Mo

cool bodies interpreted to represent subducted lithosphere, red colour repr

arrows) beneath the South Apuseni Mountains: these are interpreted to repr

lithosphere at the bend zone between the Eastern and Southern Carpathia

3.2. Mantle structure

Initial subduction and subsequent slab break-off

and slab delamination have all been considered as

the main mechanisms for triggering Neogene magma-

tism in the Western and Eastern Carpathians as well as

in the Apuseni Mountains (Wortel and Spakman,

2000; Seghedi et al., 2004). Corresponding structures

have been imaged by mantle tomographic methods

(e.g., Fan et al., 1998; de Boorder et al., 1998; Cloe-

tingh et al., 2003), summarized by Wortel and Spak-

man (2000) and Horvath et al. (in press). A simplified

map of the base of the lithosphere is shown in Fig. 4

(after Konecny et al., 2002; Horvath et al., in press).

These investigations revealed a wide, high-velocity

body beneath the Pannonian Basin at a depth of 410

to 660 km, just above the upper to lower mantle

transition (Fig. 5). This body has been interpreted to

untains and Eastern Carpathians. Blue colour denotes high-velocity,

esents low-velocity, hot bodies. Note the low-velocity channels (red

esent slab windows. Note also the still-attached subducted European

ns. Figure courtesy Rinus Wortel and Wim Spakman, Utrecht.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4422

represent subducted lithosphere that accumulated

through subduction and roll-back of the remnant Car-

pathian Ocean. Along the margins, a low-velocity

break in the lithosphere has been detected, stretching

from the Western Carpathians to close to the bend

zone (Bijward and Spakman, 2000). There, a heavy

body is still attached to the European lithosphere (e.g.,

Cloetingh et al., 2003), which seems to continue

beneath the Southern Carpathians (Fan et al., 1998).

A similar, local break in the lithosphere has also been

detected beneath the Apuseni Mountains (Figs. 4 and

5; de Boorder et al., 1998; Cloetingh et al., 2003),

giving rise to the speculation that Neogene magma-

tism there was triggered by slab break-off.

Low-velocity bodies have been detected to depths

of 70 km at the front of the Eastern Carpathians (Fan

et al., 1998). These are interpreted to represent sub-

ducted marine sedimentary rocks and could represent

a source of fluids rising together with magmas. No

slab break has been detected beneath early Miocene

volcanic rocks exposed in the eastern part of the

Eastern Alps (Fig. 5), although a small N-dipping

slab window has been postulated recently in the area

beneath the easternmost Eastern Alps (E of the Tauern

window; Lippitsch et al., 2003; Schmid et al., 2003).

This slab window probably stretches to the Dinarides,

where the window has already been detected (e.g., de

Boorder et al., 1998). Lower Miocene volcanic rocks

seemingly show no connection with that slab window

(Fig. 5). In summary, these observations give rise to

the notion that the prime controlling factor of Neo-

gene to Quaternary calc-alkaline magmatism and

associated late Miocene mineralization is a mantle

heat source due to slab break-off, although a temporal

overlap with the waning stages of subduction cannot

be excluded (see Mason et al., 1996, 1998; Seghedi et

al., 2004 for discussion).

3.3. Neogene crustal structure

Here we only report first-order crustal structures in

the larger surroundings of the mineralized districts

under discussion (Figs. 1a, 3 and 6). Internal sectors

of the Western Carpathians are largely hidden by volu-

minous Neogene volcanic edifices (Konecny et al.,

2002), so the detailed structural setting is difficult to

reveal. However, the whole internal Western Car-

pathians represent a sinistral wrench corridor, which

is segmented by extensional and pull-apart sedimen-

tary basins. The subducted European crust is well

known beneath the internal Western Carpathians

(Tomek, 1993; Tomek and Hall, 1993). Collision

with the European lithosphere was soft, as subordinate

thick-skinned tectonics and other geophysical proper-

ties indicate.

The interior of the Carpathian arc is covered by the

Neogene Pannonian Basin (Fig. 6). The Pannonian

Basin formed by early to middle Miocene syn-rift

extension triggered by eastward extrusion. This

stage was followed by late Miocene to Pliocene

post-rift subsidence. Marginal sectors of the Panno-

nian Basin comprise a number of synrift basins that

formed due to late, early to middle Miocene rifting,

largely contemporaneous with widespread calc-alka-

line volcanism (Horvath, 1993; Fodor et al., 1999 and

references). Some of these basins are associated with

partly buried metamorphic core complexes (Csontos

and Nagymaroshi, 1998). The rifting by half-graben-

type extension accommodated high heat flow. The

structural trend of these rifts varies from N–S in the

west to NW–SE in the eastern Pannonian Basin,

mainly due to later rotation. Many of these structures

are cut by the NE-trending Mid-Hungarian fault zone

as well as by its eastward extension in the Dragos

Voda fault. This fault system represents the major

confining structure between the eastward-moving

Alcapa and Tisia–Dacia blocks (Fig. 1).

The Tisia and Dacia blocks are actually divided by

highly curved, dextral faults, which formed during

late Oligocene to Miocene motion of these blocks

around the Moesian promontory (Fig. 1). The Jiu–

Cerna fault formed within the interior of the Southern

Carpathians. Together with other curved faults, the

South Transylvanian fault is probably a second,

curved fault system. Its E-trending sector is well

known between the Apuseni Mountains and Southern

Carpathians (Figs. 3b and 6).

3.4. Neogene magmatism

The Carpathian arc comprises many volcanic

rocks, which are either areally widespread or linearly

distributed. Pecskay et al. (1995a, b), Nemcok et al.

(1998), Seghedi et al. (1998, 2001, 2004) and

Konecny et al. (2002) consider four types of volcanic

rocks (Figs. 1a and 6): (1) initial, early Miocene acidic

PF

0 1 32 4 5 6 7 8 km 0 100 200 300 km

Flysch units

Pienninic units

Vardar ophiolite

Neogene ore district Fold in foreland unit

Pre-Tertiary basement

Neogene to Quaternary volcanic rocks

Molasse zone

Normal fault

Thrust fault

Strike-slip faultPannonian basin: depth to pre-Neogene basement:

18°E14°E 22°E 26°E

South Carpathians

ApuseniMountains

Dinarides

Eastern Alps

East Carpathians

Calimani-Harghitavolcanic district

West Carpathians

East Europeanplatform

Moesianplatform

Bohemianmassif 49°N

47°N

45°N

ALCAPA block

Tisia block

Dacia block

CS d.

TelkibanyaBeregovo

BM d.

ST d.Apuseni d.

C-J

STS

MH

DV

B-Z

Fig. 6. Distribution of various types of Neogene sedimentary volcanic rocks and structures in the Carpathians, easternmost Alps and Pannonian

basin (modified after Horvath et al., 2005). BM, ST—Baia Mare, CS—Central Slovakia (Banska Stiavnica volcano, Fig. 9), SAM—South

Apuseni Mountains, ST—Styrian, d.—district. B–Z—Bekes–Zarand graben, DV—Drago Voda fault, C–J—Cerna–Jiu fault, MH—Mid-

Hungarian fault, PF—Periadriatic fault, STS—South Transylvanian fault. Figure courtesy Frank Horvath, Budapest.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 23

rocks, which are spatially widespread in the Western

Carpathians and Pannonian Basin; (2) spatially wide-

spread calc-alkaline volcanics in the interior of the

Pannonian Basin (Fig. 6); (3) a linear calc-alkaline

province, which extends parallel to the outer margins

of the Carpathians and which linearly decreases in age

from early Miocene in the easternmost Eastern Alps

and Western Carpathians to Quaternary in the bend

zone between the Eastern and Southern Carpathians,

and (4) middle to late Miocene and Quaternary alka-

line volcanic rocks widely distributed over the whole

Pannonian Basin. The first group is considered to

result from extension; the second and third groups

from subduction and/or slab break-off, although

details are highly controversial, and the fourth group

from lithospheric attenuation and asthenospheric

uprise due to back-arc basin formation.

As already mentioned, Miocene volcanism is wide-

spread, and only Miocene calc-alkaline volcanism

types 2 and 3 are related to mineralization, so these

are the focus of the further discussion. Many studies

have been carried out and a huge amount of data is

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4424

now available, due to prolonged work by Mason et al.

(1996, 1998), Seghedi et al. (1998, 2001, 2004, 2005),

Konecny et al. (2002) and Rozu et al. (2001a,c, 2004).

With regard to calc-alkaline magmatism, most recent

interpretations suggest the following:

(1) Calc-alkaline melts have been produced by a

fluid-contaminated, heterogeneous asthenosphe-

ric mantle source, as a result of decompression

and thermal anomalies due to asthenospheric

upwelling (e.g., Seghedi et al., 2004).

(2) Petrogenetic processes conducive to fluid-rich

magmas and porphyry-type deposits resulted

from fluids derived from partial melting of the

mantle caused by decompression during litho-

spheric attenuation. Subducted marine sedi-

ments, as suggested by mantle tomographic

studies (Fan et al., 1998), may have released

high-salinity fluids, which could be incorpo-

rated into uprising magmas.

(3) The control on location is both in lithospheric

breaks and upper crustal structures. In the Apu-

seni Mountains, volcanic rocks are related to the

NW-trending graben. In the Eastern Car-

pathians, the volcanic rocks follow the transition

between the Pannnonian basin and the inner

margins of basement exposed in the Western

Carpathians.

(4) Neogene calc-alkaline magmatism and asso-

ciated mineralization are linked with slab tear

(Linzer, 1996; Wortel and Spakman, 2000) but

appear to be characteristic of normal subduction

tectonics.

(5) An adakitic tendency has been observed in

magmas of the southern Apuseni Mountains

(Rozu, 2001; Rozu et al., 2004).

It is possible that the initiation of subduction of

continental lithosphere was the underlying cause of

both the calc-alkaline magmatism and associated

mineralization and the initiation of slab tear. A num-

ber of geodynamic mechanisms might have been

responsible for producing the magmatism, such as

slab roll-back due to bnormalQ subduction, slab tear

and slab delamination (see Seghedi et al., 2004 for

discussion). However, we note that slab tear occurred

in all three mineralized areas, but not necessarily at

the time of mineralization. Also, slab tearing pro-

gressed further to the SE where barren or bscarcelymineralizedQ volcanic districts occur (Borcoz and

Vlad, 1994).

The spatial and temporal evolution of the magma-

tism and its changing geochemical signature from

W(NW) to E(SE) strongly suggests a link with the

contemporaneous northeastward roll-back of the sub-

ducted slab and a progressive southeastward detach-

ment during accelerating roll-back. This interpretation

of the geodynamic evolution is further supported by

the present-day overall and detailed mantle litho-

spheric density images, the present-day heat flow

patterns, the crustal architecture and its evolution,

and the spatial and temporal evolution of depocentres

around the Carpathian arc.

Starting in the late–early to middle Miocene

(~18 to 10 Ma), back-arc extension affected the

whole Pannonian Basin region (Horvath, 1993;

Nemcok et al., 1998; Fig. 3c). However, the

mineral deposits in the Western Carpathians, East-

ern Carpathians and Apuseni Mountains are too

synchronous relative to their individual volcanic

history (Fig. 2) and contrast too much with younger

volcanics of similar style, but barren, in southeast-

ern parts of the Carpathians to simply link them

directly to the slab evolution. Within the Pannonian

Basin, the latest stage of back-arc extension is

associated with Pliocene to Quaternary alkaline

magmatism and uplift of the asthenosphere to levels

as shallow as 50 km (Horvath et al., in press and

references therein).

4. Characteristics of Neogene ore districts

Basic features (e.g., type and age range of magma-

tism, type of mineralization and its isotopic character-

ization) of ore districts under consideration are

compiled in Figs. 2 and 3, Table 1, Box 1-1 (Kouz-

manov et al., 2005a), Box 1-2 (Kouzmanov et al.,

2005b) and Box 1-3 (Lexa, 2005) and are discussed in

the following sections.

4.1. South Apuseni Mountains district: epithermal

vein Au and porphyry Cu deposits

The South Apuseni Mountains (SAM) Neogene

calc-alkaline belt is famous for associated world-

Table 1

Representative data for various Neogene mineral deposits of the Inner Carpathians

District Styrian district

(Eastern Alps)

Central Slovakia

volcanic district

Baia Mare district

(Eastern Carpathians)

South Apuseni Mts. district

(bGolden QuadrilateralQ)

Deposit types Barren Porphyry/skarn,

LS epithermal gold

Base–metal-rich LS

epithermal veins

Epithermal low- to

intermediate-sulphidation

veins, cavity fillings

(1) epithermal Au–Ag veins

and breccia-hosted low- and

subordinate high-sulphidation

ores

(2) porphyry Cu–Au with

stockwork, dissemination

Main metals – Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag Pb, Zn, Cu, Au,

AgFSb

Cu–Au–Ag–Pb–Te

Principal ore minerals – Chalcopyrite, galena,

sphalerite, gold

Galena, sphalerite,

chalcopyrite,

gold, sulphosalts,

tungstates

(1) chalcopyrite, bornite

(2) gold, electrum, sphalerite,

galena, tellurides, high

variability of sulphosalts

Mineralization-related

structures

– N to NNE-trending

veins and normal

faults (releasing

overstep in a

wrench system)

E-trending transtensional

fault,

NE-trending veins

(1) E-trending

Cu–(Au)-bearing veins

(2) NW-trending veins

(3) WNW-trending veins

Type of volcanism Trachyandesite,

latite, shoshonite

Andesite Andesite Andesite, dacite, adakitic-like

rocks (b12 Ma)

Plutonism No plutonic rock

known

Granodiorite, diorite Subvolcanic dacite, adakite

Age range of hosting

magmatism

18 to 14 Ma 17 to 11.5 Ma 13.4 to 7 Ma 14.7 to 7.4 Ma

Age range of

mineralization

(alteration)

b18 Ma 12 to 10.7 Ma 1.5 to 10 Ma 14 to 11.5 Ma

12.5 to 12.2 Ma for

NNE-trending veins

9.4 to 7.4 Ma

208Pb/204Pb – 38.922 to 39.011 38.841 to 38.9931 38.476 to 38.747207Pb/204Pb – 15.659 to 15.682 15.652 to 15.703 15.628 to 15.659206Pb/204Pb – 18.810 to 18.839 18.752 to 18.876 18.497 to 18.740

Lead isotopic data are from Lexa et al. (1999a, b) and Marcoux et al. (2002). See text for sources of other data.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 25

class epithermal vein, breccia-hosted gold and asso-

ciated porphyry copper deposits (e.g., Rozia Montana;

Barza, Rosia Poieni) within the historic bGoldenQuadrangleQ (or bGolden QuadrilateralQ) mining

region (Ghi_ulescu and Socolescu, 1941; Ianovici et

al., 1969, 1976; Fig. 7; Box 1-1, Kouzmanov et al.,

2005a). The high density of epithermal vein deposits,

spatially and genetically related to porphyry Cu–Au-

bearing deposits, gives rise to Au-rich and Cu-, Pb-,

and Zn-bearing, complex magmatic–metallogenic

structures (e.g., Alderton and Fallick, 2000; Udubaza

et al., 2001; Ciobanu et al., 2004). Some of the ores

are unusually rich in tellurium (e.g., Sacarımb; Cio-

banu et al., 2004; Cook and Ciobanu, 2004b and

references cited therein). Ca. 2000 t of gold have

been produced since pre-Roman times (see discussion

in Cook and Ciobanu, 2004b). Recently, the largest

gold resource containing ca. 500 t Au has been iden-

tified at Rozia Montana (Leary et al., 2004).

All ore deposits of the South Apuseni Mts. district

are associated with volcanic and subvolcanic rocks

and cluster within three essentially NW–SE align-

ments (Fig. 7; Box 1-1, Kouzmanov et al., 2005a):

Zarand–Brad–Sacarımb, Zlatna–Stanija and Rozia

Montana–Bucium. In addition, the Deva and Baia

de Ariez deposits appear as isolated volcanic centres

located away from the main alignments.

All these deposits can be characterized by three

major types of mineralization (e.g., Rozu et al.,

2001a,c; Ciobanu et al., 2004):

(1) Epithermal gold veins (e.g., Ruda-Barza, Bra-

dizor and Musariu) dominate and are developed

mainly as steeply dipping veins crosscutting

Dextral strike-slippost-datingmineralization

Neogene normal fault

Neogene strike-slip fault

2 km

Extens

ion di

recti

on

Contraction direction

b

Brad

Rosia Montana

Baita

Muncelui

South Transsylvanian fault

Sacarimb

Deva

Metamorphic rocks

Mesozoic ophiolites

Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

Miocene sedimentary rocks

Miocene magmatic rocks

Quaternary sedimentary rocks

Faults and thrusts

Upper Cretaceous -Paleogene magmatic rocks

Mures Fault

Epithermal Au deposits

Porphyry Cu (-Au) deposits

N

S

EW

0 2 4 km

Deva

Brad

Abrud

Zlatna

50°N 30°E

BALKAN BlackSea

MOESIA

SREDNO GORIE

PANNONI ANBASIN

TRANSYLVANIA

N

BASIN

CARPATHIA

NS

M

ts.

APU

SENI Rosia Montana

Rosia Poieni

Bradisor

Stanjica

Deva

Sacarîmb

Bucium

ZarandMts.

South Transsylvanian fault

Baita

Brad

a

Musariu

Valea Morii¸

¸

¸

¸

¸ˇ

ˇ

Fig. 7. a—Detailed map of Neogene structures and magmatic rocks in the South Apuseni Mountains (after Rozu et al., 2001b). b—Main

structural elements and hydrothermal vein systems of the South Apuseni Mountains (adapted from Ianovici and Borcoz, 1982).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4426

basement rocks, andesitic lavas, subvolcanic

intrusions and Cretaceous or Tertiary sediments.

Epithermal mineralization post-dates the por-

phyry-type ore formation and is commonly

associated with propylitic, quartz–adularia–illite

to argillic alteration (Milu et al., 2003, 2004).

Minerals in epithermal veins occur in open-

space filling and crustiform textures. Gold, elec-

trumF sphalerite, galena, and many species of

tellurides (e.g., at the classical, but exhausted

deposit Sacarımb) are common in these epither-

mal vein deposits (Cook et al., 2004).

(2) Porphyry copper mineralization (Deva, Rozia

Poieni, Valeia Morii, Musariu) is contempora-

neous with associated older events of Miocene

magmatism. Porphyry mineralization is hosted

mainly by subvolcanic andesitic bodies and

forms stockworks, disseminations and impreg-

nations, sometimes occuring as breccia infill

(Boztinescu, 1984, Berbeleac et al., 1995). Tele-

scoping of porphyry and epithermal mineraliza-

tion is common. Potassic, phyllic to argillic

alteration is common in the porphyry copper

deposits. The main ore minerals are chalcopyrite

and bornite.

(3) Breccia-hosted epithermal deposits are common

at Rozia Montana, set to become Europe’s lar-

gest gold mine (Leary et al., 2004). Further

sizable resources of breccia-hosted gold ore

are also present at Bucium Rodu-Frasin, and

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 27

the recently closed Baia de Ariez mine with

predominant breccia pipe ores.

The unusual position of SAM volcanism within

the Carpathian belt, away from the main Eastern

Carpathian arc, and the obvious concentration within

a restricted quadrangle (1000 km2) has been noticed

and has given rise to various geotectonic models,

which include subduction-related processes (e.g.,

Radulescu and Sandulescu, 1973; Boccaletti et al.,

1973), slab break-off and roll-back, and post-colli-

sion extension-related magmatism (Rozu et al., 1997,

2000, 2001a,b, 2004; Balintoni and Vlad, 1998;

Seghedi et al., 1998).

The volcanic rocks occur within a NW-trending

tectonic graben, which is filled with Miocene, mainly

Sarmatian, sedimentary rocks (Fig. 7). The under-

lying Fa_a Baii Formation constitutes a more areally

extensive clastic–volcanic formation, spreading

beyond the Neogene graben, which includes con-

glomerate, rhylolitic, rhyodacitic and andesitic tuffs

and is considered of Palaeogene age (see Ciobanu et

al., 2004 for discussion). Neogene volcanism follow-

ing deposition of Globigerina-bearing marls post-

dates the onset of graben formation. This graben

extends well into the Pannonian Basin, where it

forms part of the Bekes–Zarand graben (Fig. 6),

one of the deepest graben systems within the whole

Pannonian Basin (Csontos and Nagymaroshi, 1998).

The graben extensionally widens towards the NW by

the opening of confining NW-trending normal fault

systems to the NW. Structures at 10 km-scale suggest

subsequent late Neogene dextral displacement along

NW-trending faults (e.g., Drew, 2003). Some E-

trending strike-slip faults are subordinate. The graben

terminates at the Transylvanian fault in the S (Fig. 7).

The two fault systems (E–W and NW–SE) are

interpreted as an unusual horse-tail, pull-apart struc-

ture, which probably formed during rotation around a

centre located in the SE.

Extensive palaeomagnetic evidence (Patrazcu et

al., 1994; Rozu et al., 1997, 2004; Panaiotu, 1998)

shows rotation of individual crustal blocks. For exam-

ple, the Apuseni Mountains block rotated clockwise

by 608 between 15 and 12 Ma and demonstrates the

complex history of crustal deformation. The peak of

deformation was almost synchronous with magma-

tism, but slightly pre-dated it. As the main deforma-

tion is genetically related to involvement of

continental lithosphere in subduction and subsequent

collision (slab break-off, slab tear) the associated

magmatism must have formed in a collisional envir-

onment by a mechanism such as partial melting of a

water-rich, sublithospheric source (Seghedi et al.,

2004; Rozu et al., 2004). This is possible if subduc-

tion-derived fluids were available as trap reservoirs at

the base of the lithosphere and/or upper mantle and

were activated by asthenospheric thermal influx and

decompression.

The emplacement of magmatic structures and ore

deposit genesis were controlled by strike-slip step-

over extension-transfer zones and pull-apart struc-

tures, as shown by the well-expressed ring-like geo-

metry of intrusions and the central position of

productive porphyries within narrow, fault-controlled

sedimentary basins (Fig. 7; Box 1-1, Kouzmanov et

al., 2005a).

Correlation of emplacement ages with palaeomag-

netic data demonstrates that SAM underwent exten-

sive clockwise rotation from 15 to 12 Ma (Rozu et al.,

1997, 2001a; Panaiotu, 1998). The main SAM Neo-

gene magmatic activity, representing up to 90% of the

total volume (andesites/microdiorites) and, with few

exceptions, all the productive ore structures, were

emplaced simultaneously with the main paroxysmal

upper crust brittle transtensional deformation between

14 and 12 Ma (Rozu et al., 1997).

Steep epithermal vein networks, shallow, small-

sized porphyry copper and gold structures, dissemi-

nated breccias and arrays occur within different exten-

sion and/or pull-apart basins and form complex,

tectonically controlled, base-metal and gold vein and

cogenetic porphyry systems. For further information,

see Box 1-1 (Kouzmanov et al., 2005a).

A more complex regional pattern has resulted from

spatial superposition of a pre-ore magmatic sequence

(quartz–biotite–amphibole andesites and dacites) and

a post-ore magmatic sequence (andesites to basaltic

andesites). The pre-ore and pre-deformation sequence

underwent a similar rotation to the main sequence

rocks and no distinct metallogenic activity can be

traced, except for the superposition of vein systems

relative to the main magmatic ore-forming sequence.

The post-deformation magmatic sequence, with no

palaeomagnetic evidence of rotation between 12 and

7 Ma (Rozu et al., 1997) is, with few exceptions, post-

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4428

dating the main metallogenic activity and shows an

obvious barren character.

At the scale of magmatic structures, emplacement

of porphyry copper structures and epithermal vein

formations was accommodated by extensional strain

components and mineralized fault structures. The geo-

metry of mineralized veins is fairly well in accord

with shear-related tectonics such as steep veins paral-

lel to extensional directions, tensional shear vein

meshes (Drew and Berger, 2001; Drew, 2003), some-

times with typical flower structure, or a configuration

of Riedel-oriented complex vein systems (Fig. 7, the

Musariu Barza vein system) related to the South

Transylvanian fault.

The ore-bearing extensional veins largely trend

ca. E–W (mainly early stage quartz veins in por-

phyry Cu systems) and NW–SE, often crosscut by a

third set of WNW–ESE veins, and bear a dextral

shear character (Fig. 7; after Ianovici and Borcoz,

1982). At Sacarımb, the dominant set trends NNE, a

subsidiary set trends NNW. Except for Sacarımb, the

superposition of these three types of structures can

be interpreted as representative of horse-tail struc-

tures, which are well known from analogue experi-

ments above so-called basement faults (Mandl,

1988). Basement faults evolve when distributed

strain is induced at shallow structural levels by a

deep-seated, narrow strike-slip fault. In comparison

with these experiments, the gold-bearing vein system

of the southern Apuseni Mountains can be explained

by releasing oversteps within an eastward moving

block. This explanation partly contrasts with the

recent explanation given by Drew (2003). At the

present state of research, it is unclear whether or

not the vein system rotated. At some localities,

e.g., at Sacarımb, two sets of veins are present,

trending NNE–SSW and NNW–SSE. The superposi-

tion of the three (two at Sacarımb), vein systems

could be interpreted by clockwise rotation of the

now NNE-trending system within a constant external

stress field.

Examples of superimposed epithermal vein sys-

tems on porphyry copper structures are extensive

within the SAM district (e.g., Valea Morii, Musariu,

Rozia Poeni, Bolcana, etc.) and a continuity of hydro-

thermal activity within tensional vein meshes from

porphyry to epithermal can be traced (Milu et al.,

2003, 2004).

Porphyry-style networks show distinct patterns

from curved trace microfractures (A-type) within a

bductileQ environment, together with potassic altera-

tion in the initial stage of porphyry formation, suc-

ceeded by straight-trace fractures (B-type) in the main

porphyry stage, as a steep stockwork, around a barren

core or as stress-oriented, fracture-controlled, limited

stockworks (e.g., Bolcana, Musariu).

Superposition of epithermal vein meshes on por-

phyry intrusive structures is characteristic and con-

trolled by the regional strain. Recirculation on dense

B-type stockworks is often within the epithermal

stage, together with intense sericite or clay mineral

alteration. The gold-rich character of porphyry copper

structures is correlated with high-grade gold within

epithermal vein meshes and/or tectonically controlled,

recirculated, high density B-type porphyry stock-

works. Complex brecciation producing porphyry or

epithermal breccias focused the fluid flow within the

porphyry, allowing boiling and gold and base metal

deposition. Cook and Ciobanu (2004a) suggested that

sulphidation, induced by rapid opening of kin veins

prior to maturity of the porphyry system, might have

been an important factor in destabilizing metal com-

plexes in the fluid during their ascent. Au scavenging

by Bi–Te melt precipitates would be activated, given

that the temperatures exceed 400 8C. This might have

resulted in apparently missing porphyry roots of

epithermal vein systems like Sacarımb.

4.2. Baia Mare district of the Eastern Carpathians

The Baia Mare ore district of the Eastern Car-

pathians is controlled by the intersection of the E-

trending Dragos Voda fault system and the NNW-

trending late Miocene volcanic belt (Figs. 1, 6 and

8); Box 1-2, Kouzmanov et al., 2005b). Nearly all ore

deposits are of vein type and comprise Pb–Zn(–Cu–

Au–Ag) (Borcoz et al., 1974, 1975, 1976; Borcoz and

Gheorghita, 1976; Lang, 1979; Borcoz and Vlad,

1994; Kovacs, 2001; Kovacs et al., 2001; Marias et

al., 2001; Marcoux et al., 2002; Grancea et al., 2002,

2003). The Baia Sprie deposit is located within an E-

trending graben up to 800 m wide (Figs. 1 and 8a;

Box 1-2, Kouzmanov et al., 2005b) that is filled with

Upper Badenian to Pannonian sedimentary rocks

(Ciulavu, 1998; Bailly et al., 2002). This structure

signifies the transtensional nature of the otherwise

Sofiavein

Baia Mare

Baia Mare

Ilba

Nistru

Nistru

SasarHerja

Herja

Baia Sprie

Baia Sprie

Suior

Suior

Cavnic

Cavnic

N

Quaternary

Neogene igneous rocks

Neogene sedimentary rocks

Palaeogene flysch

Limit of pluton at depth

a

bExtensiondirection

Shorteningdirection

Fig. 8. a—Structural map of central sectors of the Baia Mare district, including distribution of mineralization (modified after Ianovici and

Borcoz, 1982; Bailly et al., 2002). b—Interpretation of vein systems of the Baia Mare district (from Ianovici and Borcoz, 1982) based on

basement faulting experiments.

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 29

almost pure strike-slip Dragos Voda fault. Other ore-

bodies are along faults well known to the N of the

Dragos Voda master fault. These faults mostly trend

NNW–SSE, but some further faults are WNW-trend-

ing (Ianovici and Borcoz, 1982).

The Baia Mare district is associated with middle to

late Miocene to Pliocene calc-alkaline volcanics and

plutonic rocks. Volcanism ranges from 13.4 to 6.9 Ma

and is contemporaneous with deposition of Upper

Badenian to Pannonian sedimentary rocks. The Baia

Mare district comprises, from NW to SE, the follow-

ing major deposits and camps: Gutai Mountains with

Ilba and Nistru, Baia Mare, Baia Sprie and Cavnic.

Previous studies established the presence of a narrow,

major E-trending pluton along the Dragos Voda fault,

at a depth of 1 to 4 km beneath the surface (Borcoz

and Vlad, 1994; Bailly et al., 1998, 2002). Conse-

quently, the overall structural control is the transten-

sional nature of the Dragos Voda transform fault,

which allowed the emplacement of a major linear

pluton at depth.

Mineralization is in vein systems that are several

hundred m to 5 km long, 0.3 to 10 m wide and can be

followed to depths of 300 to 1,000 m. Veins strike E–

W in Baia Sprie, NNE–SSW in Cavnic, N–S to NNE–

SSW in Baia Mare, and NE–SW-trending at Nistru

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4430

(Fig. 8b). Both vertical and horizontal zoning is com-

mon in these veins (Box 1-2, Kouzmanov et al.,

2005b). Vertical zoning includes, from margin to cen-

tre, Au–Ag, Pb–Zn and Cu, horizontal zoning Pb+Zn,

CuFPb+Zn, Cu+Au. Details of mineralogy are

described by, amongst others, Cook (1997), Cook

and Damian (1997), Kovacs et al. (2001) and Marias

et al. (2001). Hydrothermal systems were controlled

by tectonic and magmatic events, injection of mag-

matic fluids and their mixing with meteoric water, and

boiling processes. Complex mineral/metal systems

include earlier Fe–Sn–W–Bi systems, which evolved

into late-stage Au–Ag–As–Sb systems. Lead isotopic

data show some crustal contamination of the magma-

derived metals from the local basement (Marcoux et

al., 2002).

Based on earlier investigations (Borcoz et al.,

1974, 1975, 1976; Borcoz and Gheorghita, 1976;

Lang, 1979; Borcoz and Vlad, 1994), Bailly et al.

(1998, 2002) and Grancea et al. (2002) proposed a

five-stage evolution of mineralization: (1) an initial Fe

precipitation stage; (2) Cu–(Bi)–W stage; (3) Pb–Zn

stage; (4) Sb stage, and (5) Au–Ag stage. Alteration

assemblages include quartz–illite/sericite–adularia for

Au–Ag systems and quartz–calcite–rhodochrosite–

rhodonite for Pb–Zn mineralization. Two periods of

hydrothermal activity were dated: 11.5 to 10.0 Ma

and 9.4 to 7.4 Ma, the latter for a base–metal and

epithermal vein system, e.g., of Baia Sprie and Cav-

nic (Lang et al., 1994). Sericite of the first alteration

type was dated at 7.8 to 8.0 Ma (Fig. 2).

Compared with analogue experiments summarized

by Mandl (1988, 2000), this configuration is well

established in wrench corridor regions between master

faults arranged en echelon or extensional oversteps,

again in basement fault systems. The hydrothermal

veins give the general NE–SW to NNE–SSW orienta-

tion of the maximum principal stress axis of the

external stress field. These veins can become curved

in a sigmoidal manner during wrench movements

(e.g., to the N of Baia Mare).

4.3. Western Carpathians

Inner sectors of the Western Carpathians expose

middle Miocene calc-alkaline, mainly andesitic, stra-

tovolcanoes, which host a number of ore deposits

(Figs. 1 and 9; Box 1-3, Lexa, 2005). These strato-

volcanoes mainly include the Central Slovakia vol-

canic field with the prominent Stiavnica and

Kremnica, Javorie and Pol’ana stratovolvanoes (Fig.

8; Lexa et al., 1999a,b), and the Tokaj Mts. (Fig. 1;

Molnar et al., 1999). Among these, we summarize

data from the Central Slovakia volcanic field, based

on the work of Lexa (1999b) and Lexa et al. (1999a).

Mineral deposits of the Central Slovakia Neogene

volcanic field are hosted by the central zones of large

andesite stratovolcanoes (Fig. 9) involving volcano-

tectonic depressions, resurgent horsts, extensive sub-

volcanic intrusive complexes and complexes of

differentiated rocks. Thirteen types of mineralization

have been recognized, but only three of them have

formed major ore deposits (Box 1-3, Lexa, 2005): (1)

resurgent horst and rhyolite related low sulphidation

Au–Ag deposits: Kremnica, Pukanec, Nova Baoa,

Banska Bela; 2) caldera related low sulphidation Au

deposit: Hodrusa-Rozalia; 3) intermediate sulphida-

tion Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag–Au deposits: Banska Stiavnica,

Hodrusa.

The Kremnica deposit is situated on marginal

faults at the eastern side of the Kremnica resurgent

horst (Fig. 9) in the central part of the N–S-trending

Kremnica volcanotectonic graben. Epithermal veins

are hosted by propylitized andesites in the central

zone of a large andesite stratovolcano (around 16.2

to 15.0 Ma). Epithermal veins were much younger,

contemporaneous with the uplift of the horst and the

late stage rhyolite volcanic activity. Radiometric dat-

ing of sericite and adularia has given the age as 11.1

to 10.1 Ma (Kraus et al., 1998). The 6-km-long N–S

trending system of epithermal veins is dominated by

a listric fault dipping 608 at the surface to 508 at a

depth of 1300 m (Fig. 10). Whilst the vein is rela-

tively narrow at depth, it gradually opens towards

the surface up to the maximum of 80 m, and

branches into a funnel-shaped system of veins and

veinlets, including complementary antithetic veins.

Tops of the veins are exposed about 200 m below

the former surface. The gangue of the veins is

represented by banded and cavernous quartz with a

variable proportion of carbonate. Darker quartz/chal-

cedony bands with fine dispersed pyrite and/or mar-

casite are also enriched in gold and silver. The rare

presence of hydrothermal breccias implies that pre-

ciptation of sulphides and gold was probably related

to boiling. This is supported by the occurrence of

Fig. 9. Geological map of the Central Slovakian volcanic field including the Banska Stiavnica stratovolcano (modified after Konecny et al.,

1995; Lexa et al., 1999a).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 31

bladed carbonate crystals as well as by the occurrence

of adularia in veins and surrounding rocks. Micro-

scopic gold is present as electrum in pyrite and

quartz. Silver sulphosalts and base–metal sulphides

are present in minor amounts only. Their content

increases with depth. The epithermal system is

accompanied by extensive hydrothermal alterations

(Kraus et al., 1994). Strong silicification, adulariza-

tion and/or sericitiation close to the veins passes

outwards into a zone with mixed-layer I/S and CH/

S argillic minerals and finally into a zone with mon-

tmorilonite. Structural aspects, mineral associations,

zoning and alteration at the Kremnica ore deposit

define the deposit as a typical low-sulphidation

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4432

epithermal system. Despite the fact that the system is

located in the central zone of the older andesite

stratovolcano with intrusion-related alteration and

minor mineralization, its evolution was related rather

to the much younger resurgent horst uplift and related

late-stage rhyolite magmatism.

The Banska Stiavnica–Hodrusa ore district is loca-

lized in the central zone of a large and complex

andesite stratovolcano (Fig. 9) involving seven types

of mineralization, but only Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag–Au

epithermal veins were the subject of extensive exploi-

tation, which dates back to the 12th Century and

continued until 1947 (Kodera et al., 2004, 2005 and

references therein). The system of Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag–Au

epithermal veins extends across an area of 100 km2

(Box 1-3, Lexa, 2005) and involves 120 veins and

vein branches with lengths up to 8 km and thickness

up to 10 m in ore shoots (Lexa et al., 1999a,b; Kodera

Schrämen veinSturtz

Ludovikashaft

lowermost mininglevel

bore/hole

K-1depth

m50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500510

E

Fig. 10. Cross-section across Kremnica deposit (

et al., 2004, 2005). Three types of epithermal veins

occur in a zonal arrangement: (a) base–metal

veinsFAg, Au with transition to CuFBi mineraliza-

tion at depth in the east/central part of the system, (b)

Ag–Au veins with minor base–metal mineralization,

mostly at the western part of the system, and (c) Au–

Ag veins located around the outskirts of the system.

Epithermal veins localized on faults of the post-cal-

dera resurgent horst (Fig. 9) are hosted by massive

andesites, andesite porphyry, quartz–diorite porphyry,

granodiorite, diorite, and, in the western part, by base-

ment rocks. Host rocks are generally affected by

propylitic alteration. Veins are accompanied by

zones of silicification, adularization and sericitization,

especially those poor in sulphide and base metals.

Most of the veins have banded textures and hydro-

thermal brecciation is frequent. Fluid inclusion studies

point to a system that was frequently boiling (Kova-

m a.s.l.700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

– 100

– 200

epithermal vein

collapsed vein blocks

diorite porphyry

rhyolite

W

argillised andesite

andesite breccia

propylitised andesite

contact hornfels

altered conglomerate

dark shale and limestone

shale

pale gray limestone

thermal spring

borehole KS-1ˇ

modified from Lexa and Bartalsky, 1999).

A. Granodiorite bell-jar pluton emplacement

differentiatedmagma chamber

granodioriteintrusion

HS system

Pb-Zn

B. Early caldera stage

differentiatedmagma chamber

dacite to rhyolitemagma

meteoricwaterrecharge

magmaticfluid flow

hydrothermalfluid flow

D. Post caldera stage

C. Late caldera stage

differentiatedmagma chamber

rhyolite magma

resurgenthorst

Au-AgPb-Zn-Cu

quartz-dioriteporphyrycaldera fill

felsic ande-sites

differentiatedmagma chamber

Au

Fig. 11. Evolutionary model of the Banska Stiavnica stratovolcano including various types of mineralization (after Lexa, 1999a; Lexa et al.,

1999a; Kodera et al., 2005).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 33

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4434

lenker et al., 1991). Isotopic compositions of oxygen

and hydrogen in hydrothermal fluids indicate mixing

of magmatic and meteoric components (with a gen-

erally increasing proportion of meteoric component

towards younger periods of mineralization). Veins are

accompanied by zones of silicification, adularization

and sericitization, indicating a low- to intermediate-

sulphidation environment (Fig. 11).

The Hodrusa–Rozalia deposit represents another

type of epithermal gold mineralization. It occurs in

the form of subhorizontal veins and veinlets in

extensively altered pre-caldera stage andesites, not

far from the roof of a granodiorite pluton (Fig. 9).

The mineralization is dismembered by a younger

set of quartz–diorite porphyry sills and segmented

by faults of the post-caldera resurgent horst.

Banded veins and veinlets of quartz, rhodonite,

rhodochrosite and adularia with minor pyrite, spha-

lerite, chalcopyrite and Au of moderate fineness are

0.1 to 2 m thick. Fluid inclusion studies (Kodera et

al., 2005) proved that fluids of low salinity and

moderate temperatures were boiling at pressures

between 45 and 114 bars. Oxygen and hydrogen

isotope data point to homogeneous mixed magmatic

and meteoric fluids.

The resurgent horst in the central zone of the

Stiavnica stratovolcano also hosts other mineralization

types (Lexa et al., 1999a; Lexa, 2001). Kodera and

Lexa (2003) have summarized the following metallo-

genetic model (Fig. 11):

! There is no mineralization related to the pre-cal-

dera andesite stage (16.0 to 15.5 Ma).

! The diorite intrusion of the subvolcanic intrusion

stage, phase 1 is a parental body to the barren high

sulphidation (HS) system at Sobov.

! The granodiorite bell-jar pluton of the subvolcanic

intrusion stage, phase 2 is a parental body to the

magnetite skarn mineralization at contacts with

Mesozoic carbonate rocks and stockwork dissemi-

nated base–metal mineralization in apical parts of

the pluton accompanied by HS alterations in over-

lying andesites.

! The granodiorite to quatz–diorite porphyry stocks

of the subvolcanic intrusion stage, phase 3, host

porphyry/skarn type CuFMo, Au mineralization.

! Volcanic rocks of the caldera stage (14.5 to 14.0

Ma) filling the caldera host several hot spring type

mineral deposits representing outflows of epither-

mal systems, including the low sulphidation (LS)

epithermal system of the Hodrusa–Rozalia Au

deposit.

! Marginal faults of the resurgent horst host an

extensive and long lasting (12.5 to 10.5 Ma) sys-

tem of intermediate sulphidation (IS) to LS epither-

mal base–metal and precious-metal veins (Banska

Stiavnica and Hodrusa deposits).

Pre-caldera mineralization types are related clo-

sely in space and time to the emplacement of

individual subvolcanic intrusions, which in turn

are related to evolution of magmas in a high

level magma chamber following maturity of the

pre-caldera stage stratovolcano. Owing to the

emplacement of magma into the low-pressure envir-

onment, mineralization shows an evolution in two

stages: the first, including HS systems, is related to

fluid exsolution and partition of magmatic fluid into

brine and vapour phases during the final stage of

crystallization; the second, ore-bearing stage is

related to fluids of mixed meteoric and magmatic

origin (exsolution at supercritical regime at depth).

A change of morphology due to long-lasting denu-

dation and caldera collapse resulted in a completely

new fluid flow pattern in the stratovolcano. The

infiltration zone of meteoric water moved to the

caldera margins and slopes of the stratovolcano,

allowing an outflow of hydrothermal fluids from

the heated central part of the caldera. A differen-

tiated magma in the shallow magma chamber itself

was the source of heat and magmatic fluids. Due to

the governing stress field at the time of the initial

caldera collapse, related epithermal mineralization is

hosted by subhorizontal E–W extensional structures.

The evolution of the LS epithermal systems was

suddenly interrupted by a further subsidence of the

caldera and by the emplacement of quartz–diorite

porphyry sills and dykes at subvolcanic level. Post-

caldera epithermal mineralization is related to the

contemporaneous resurgent horst uplift and rhyolite

magmatism. The uplift was most likely caused by

accumulation of low-density rhyolite magma and by

transformation of crustal rocks above the shallow

magma chamber into anatectic magmas. Heat and

fluids of the evolving magma, and opening of

extension faults of the resurgent horst, renewed

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 35

conditions for a large-scale circulation of fluids in

the caldera. The system of epithermal veins and

their zoning reflect a complex interaction of the

structural evolution of the resurgent horst with the

evolving (cooling) hydrothermal system. The evolu-

tion of the magma in the high-level chamber

towards a rhyolitic composition by extensive ana-

texis created a spatial relationship between the early

intrusion-related mineralization and the much

younger, extensive low sulphidation epithermal

mineralization.

Hydrothermal ore veins consistently trend NNE–

SSW all over the Banska Stiavnica stratovolcano

(Figs. 9 and 10; Lexa et al., 1999a; Nemcok et al.,

2000). This can be interpreted to represent WNW–

ESE extension linked with widespread normal faults.

The magmatism and associated vein-type hydrother-

mal mineralization of the Tokaj Mountains are basi-

cally similar. Volcanism occurred within a NNE-

trending graben structure. Veins trend ca. N–S (Fig.

12) and hydrothermal minerals are dated at 12.2 to

12.5 Ma and cut subvolcanic dacite domes (Molnar et

1 km

N

Telkibanya

Miocene lava flows and subvolcanic rocks

Hydrothermal veins

Miocene pyroclastic and sedimentary rocks

Fig. 12. Vein systems of the Telkibanya stratovolcano (after Molnar

et al., 1999).

al., 1999). This is consistent with E–W extension in

the Pannonian Basin.

4.4. The barren Styrian volcanic field

The Styrian volcanic field of mainly Karpatian–

Badenian age (17 to 13 Ma) is located on the South

Burgenland high in the southeasternmost Eastern Alps

(Ebner and Sachsenhofer, 1991, 1995; Fig. 1). Rocks

comprise mainly high-K trachyandesites, which are

exposed in a major stratovolcano (Gleichenberg), and

in the subsurface (Lannach). The latter is penetrated

by numerous boreholes for hydrocarbon exploration.

These rocks are highly altered to an illite–alunite–

christobalite assemblage (Weber et al., 1997), and

exploration for Au was unsuccessful (Walter Pro-

chaska, pers. comm.). Illite is mined for industrial

purposes, so exposure for study of possible structures

is good. In the Neogene Styrian volcanic field, there is

a lack of any kind of fault and hydrothermal vein

systems that are contemporaneous with or post-date

emplacement of volcanic rocks. There are nearly no

subvolcanic, shallow level plutons, except for a single

trachytic dome. Consequently, shallow-level plutonic

systems that could have released hydrothermal fluids

were not in existence.

4.5. The bscarcely mineralized Q Calimani–Gurghiu–

Harghita volcanic district

SE from the Baia Mare district of the Eastern

Carpathians lies the large volcanic district of the

Calimani, Gurghiu and Harghita Mountains. The vol-

canic rocks are characterized by dominantly calc-

alkaline andesites and additional basalts, basaltic

andesites (especially in the Calimani Mountains)

and dacites to shoshonites (in the South Harghita

Mountains), and have ages ranging progressively,

from NNW to SSE, from 9 Ma to nearly the Present

(Pecskay et al., 1995a,b; Mason et al., 1998; Seghedi

et al., 2004, 2005). Although a geodynamic setting

comparable to the main mineralized districts occurred

here over the last 10 Ma, with subduction, roll-back

and subsequent slab tear (Wortel and Spakman,

2000), this very large volcanic district hosts very

little significant base metal and Hg mineralization

including aborted porphyry systems (Borcoz and

Vlad, 1994).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4436

5. Discussion

The data from Neogene ore districts of the Inner

Carpathians show a number of similar features and

remarkable facts:

(1) A slab window within the subducted lithosphere

has been imaged by seismic tomography

beneath all three ore districts under considera-

tion, although these are present-day structures

and may not necessarily reflect the structure of

the middle to late Miocene.

(2) All the major Neogene mineralization is inti-

mately associated with explosive calc-alkaline

magmatism, including explosive volcanism and

shallow-level plutonism. Mineralization in each

district was short-lived as was the underlying

volcanism. Hydrothermal activity was asso-

ciated with magma-derived fluids that were

variably mixed with meteoric water due to the

near-surface sites of ore precipitation.

(3) Both volcanism and mineralization are unevenly

distributed. Major volcanism across a wide area

is mainly located in tectonic graben structures,

indicating their intimate relationship with exten-

sion. These graben structures have a distinct

trend and were formed or activated during rota-

tion and final emplacement of crustal blocks.

Transtensional deformation during rotation may

have facilitated the upward flow of magma and

release of hydrothermal fluids.

(4) There is an overall geodynamic control on the

siting of the three ore districts that contrasts

remarkably with those regions where calc-alka-

line volcanism is related to pervasive alteration

but no mineralization, particularly as some areas

remained barren even though hydrothermal sys-

tems had been established. Mineralization is

predominantly in the southern Apuseni Moun-

tains, in the Baia Mare region and the Western

Carpathians.

(5) In the Western Carpathians the main mineraliza-

tion occurred at the end of the dominant period

of volcanism, while in the Eastern Carpathains

the main mineralization is temporally con-

strained in the middle of the period of volcan-

ism, and in the Apuseni Mountains the

mineralization occurred in the early phases of

volcanism. Although the main phase of volcan-

ism is diachronous from W to E and lasted

longer before and/or after the mineralization,

ore mineralization was limited to a relatively

narrow time span between ca. 13 and 10 Ma

in all three districts (Fig. 2). This suggests a

prime control by some factor other than mag-

matism alone. This could have been a distinct

structural event of extension or transtension,

combined with large-scale block rotation.

(6) Hydrothermal lodes display a pronounced and

distinct trend in each deposit, different from the

overall extensional structures. The preferred

vein orientation mitigates against opening

mechanisms by pure fluid overpressure in all

three districts, but relates these veins to regional

tectonic stress orientations. The obliquity

between large-scale graben orientations and

hydrothermal vein orientations suggests trans-

tensional motion during hydrothermal activity.

(7) The particular geodynamic setting also resulted in

particular structures that were part of the plumb-

ing systems. Rotation andwrenching implies sub-

vertical orientation of the intermediate principal

stress axis (r2) and, therefore, formation of sub-

vertical to steep open extensional gashes and

subordinate normal faults, which would have

allowed preferred subvertical fluid flow.

From the data presented above, a relationship

between large-scale geodynamic processes, surface

structures and mineralization is clear. The Cenozoic

geodynamic evolution of the Carpathian arc and of the

Pannonian Basin within that arc is constrained by

strong evidence of lithospheric subduction roll-back,

followed by slab tear and detachment along the mar-

gins of the orogen during Neogene times. Tectonic

events along the Carpathian arc itself were dominated

by invasion of the Intracarpathian Alcapa and Tisia–

Dacia blocks and subsequent bsoftQ collision with the

European and Moesian plates.

Palaeomagnetic evidence shows rotation of indivi-

dual crustal blocks: e.g., the Apuseni Mountains block

rotated clockwise by 608 between 14 and 12 Ma

whilst the Alcapa block rotated 308 anticlockwise

during the same period, coinciding with the dominant

mineralization. It is possible that the initiation of

subduction of continental lithosphere was the under-

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 37

lying cause of both the magmatism and mineralization

and the initiation of slab tear. Neogene calc-alkaline

magmatism and associated mineralization are linked

with slab tear but appear to be characteristic of normal

subduction tectonics.

The data demonstrate that in all three regions, an

additional heat source must have existed, possibly due

to slab break-off that probably contributed much to

weakening of overlying continental crust. However,

the specific control was due to other factors within the

crust, such as the complicated vein systems, which

were responsible for upward fluid transfer. Vertical

fluid transfer is particularly effective in transtensional

strike-slip tectonic settings because subvertical exten-

sional gashes open. In all three cases, a wide distribu-

tion of mineralized fault structures can be observed,

which operated as fluid channels. We suggest a rela-

tively narrow fault zone at depth and a wide zone of

wrenching, which affected the regions of our ore

districts. Comparison with analogue modelling results

simulating wrench corridors (e.g., Mandl, 1988, 2000)

can be used to explain the structural assemblage found

in all three ore districts. The ore districts were con-

trolled by upper crustal extensional structures, and the

relationship of major ore districts as well as volcanism

with graben structures is well established. Hydrother-

mal vein systems are partly oblique to the boundaries

of graben structures, so that transtensional motion can

be implied. The overall geometry fits well with

wrench corridors, following analogue models of base-

ment faults (Mandl, 1988). This implies subhorizontal

orientations of maximum and minimum principal nor-

mal stresses r1 and r3 and vertical orientations of

extensional veins. This may be an important pre-con-

dition as this allows opening of vertical tensional

fissures conducive to pronounced and effective verti-

cal fluid transfer.

Lead isotopic data show a mantle origin of metals

in mineralization associated with calc-alkaline mag-

mas within all three districts (Table 1), with some

added, variable contamination from the lower crust.

This variable lower crustal contamination is particu-

larly important in the Baia Mare and Central Slovakia

districts and fits well with variable crustal contamina-

tion of hosting magmatic rocks (e.g., Mason et al.,

1996; Seghedi et al., 2004).

The data compiled from different regions of the

Inner Carpathians provide some additional constraints

on generalized models of the geodynamic control of

late-stage orogenic systems. Note that the causes of

volcanic-hosted mineralization are not the same over

the entire Inner Carpathians, but vary from district to

district. Generalized model diagrams are compiled in

Fig. 13. Tomographic and structural data show that

slab roll-back and subsequent tearing during rotation

may have played the prime role in the Apuseni Moun-

tains (Fig. 13). Late-stage adakitic melts derived from

a subducted lithosphere were an additional control.

Magma and fluid channelling by intersection of a

transtensional transform fault and a volcanic chain

was the localizing factor in the Baia Mare district

(Fig. 13). There, the origin of fluids in subducted

mantle lithosphere was a possible source. Wrench

corridor type magma and fluid channelling played

an important role in the Western Carpathians. There,

calc-alkaline magmatism and hydrothermal activity

resulted from extension caused by slab retreat during

subduction and initial soft collision of the invading

Alcapa block with the European foreland (Fig. 13).

In all three well mineralized districts (South Apu-

seni Mts., Baia Mare and Central Slovakia districts),

the presence of magmatic fluids released from shallow

plutons and its mixing with meteoric water were

critical for mineralization, requiring transtensional or

extensional local regimes at the time of mineraliza-

tion, possibly following initial compressional regimes.

These three systems show that mineralization was

probably controlled by the superposition of favourable

mantle lithospheric conditions and partly independent,

evolving upper crustal deformation conditions.

In the 13 to 11 Ma period the dominant mineraliza-

tion formed all across the Carpathians, and was super-

imposed on those structurally favourable crustal areas

where there was volcanic–hydrothermal activity at that

time. The period may reflect the moment when the

(upper part of the) crust failed under lithospheric exten-

sion imposed by the slab evolution. This crustal failure

would have fragmented the overriding plate, may have

broken up the thermal lid to provoke intensive fluid

flow in selected areas, and allowed subsequent accel-

erated tectonic development and block rotation and

extrusion of a bfamily of sub-blocksQ. These are arbi-

trarily regarded as the Tisia-Dacia or Alcapa blocks,

even though they have lost their internal entity.

Finally, the differences between the three miner-

alized Inner Carpathian districts and the barren Styrian

Baia Mare type: transtensional transform motion

West Carpathian type: releasing overstepin wrench corridor

releasingoverstep of

strike-slip fault

Apuseni type: magma and fluid channellingby rotation-induced extension

(step2)step 2 veins

rotatedstep 1 veins

(step 2)shallow levelplutonic centre

plutonic centre

normal fault

volcanic centre

hydrothermal vein

hydrothermal vein

graben structure

shallow levelplutonic centre

fault propagation direction

at graben tip

hydrothermal veins

rotation of hosting block (= extension direction)

normal fault

normal faultopeningof a graben

clastic volcanic graben infill

maximum principalnormal stress

Maximum principalnormal stress

Fig. 13. Generalized models shown in plan view of the geodynamic control of late-stage orogenic systems, based on observations in the Inner

Carpathians. a—Magma and fluid channelling by intersection of a transform fault and volcanic chain (type Baia Mare). b—Wrench corridor

type of magma and fluid channelling (type West Carpathian). c—Slab window and extension (type Apuseni).

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–4438

volcanic system are: (1) there is a lack of any kind of

fault and hydrothermal vein systems in the Styrian

volcanic system that are contemporaneous with or

post-date emplacement of volcanic rocks, and (2)

there are nearly no subvolcanic, shallow level plutons,

except for a single trachytic dome. Consequently,

shallow-level magma systems that could have

released hydrothermal fluids were not in existence.

Widespread alteration of the illite–alunite–christoba-

lite type was probably derived mainly from meteoric

water. In conclusion, the missing shallow-level plu-

tons as well as the missing pathways could represent

an explanation of why the Styrian volcanic field is

barren. Similar reasoning could be applied to the

scarcely mineralized Calimani–Harghita volcanic dis-

trict of the Eastern Carpathians.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge many discussions within the

GEODE-ABCD Working Group. We gratefully

F. Neubauer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 27 (2005) 13–44 39

acknowledge the help given by Rinus Wortel and

Wim Spakman, and by Frank Horvath who provided

basic versions of Figs. 5 and 6. We greatly appreciate

the valuable and thoughtful reviews by David Alder-

ton and Lawrence Drew, and remarks, careful correc-

tions and editing work by Derek Blundell. We

particularly want to thank Nigel Cook who shared

with us his intimate knowledge of the Inner Car-

pathian ore deposits and who made many helpful

remarks to improve the final version of this paper.

FN acknowledges support by grant P15.646 of the

Austrian Science Fund.

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