www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112

Recent tectonics and slope failures in the Western Carpathians

L. Petroa,*, J. Vlckob, R. Ondrasikb, E. Polascinovaa

aGeological Survey of the Slovak Republic, Kosice, Jesenskeho 8, SK-040 01 Kosice, SlovakiabDepartment of Engineering Geology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia

Received 17 January 2003; accepted 8 March 2004

Available online 27 April 2004

Abstract

We describe several examples of recent tectonics and related slope failures from the Western Carpathians of Slovakia. The

monitoring data confirm the idea of non-uniform geodynamic behaviour of individual tectonic units as well as the idea that even

an extremely low rate of displacement both in landslides and along active faults may endanger human life and property. The

crack-gauge TM-71 is adopted as the monitoring device in our study, and we confirm its reliability for measuring in-plane

displacements in severe conditions with a resolution of 0.1 mm/year, simple manipulation, minimum maintenance requirements

and reasonable price.

D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Western Carpathians; Recent tectonics; Slope failures; Lateral spreading; Monitoring; Crack-gauge

1. Introduction

The Western Carpathians constitutes a part of the

European Alpine orogenic belt. The Mesozoic folding

and overthrusting have resulted in a very complicated

structure. Landslides are linked to the particular geo-

morphic and geologic units, primarily to intra-montane

basins and tectonic depressions (Fig. 1). According to

the most recent data (Liscak and Caudt, 1997), nearly

15000 landslides have been registered in the Slovak

part of the Western Carpathians and cover about 3.8%

of the total area of Slovakia. The largest number of

landslides has been found in the region of Flysch Zone

0013-7952/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.03.004

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +421-55-6250045; fax: +421-55-

6250044.

E-mail addresses: petro@gssr-ke.sk, petro@dodo.sk (L. Petro).

and along foothills consisting of Neogene volcanic

rocks (>10% of the area, Fig. 1).

As systematic study—an inventory of landslides in

Slovakia — started with the Handlova landslide

disaster in 1961. This study was carried out in three

stages, beginning in 1962 and ending in 1991. The

aim of this inventory was to complete landslides

records and to create a database serving as a practical

tool in the preparation of different derivative land use

maps applied to various urban purposes. A large

number of different types of landslides have been

studied in Slovakia (e.g., Nemcok, 1982; Mahr, 1977;

Malgot, 1977; Malgot and Baliak, 2000), mainly with

respect to their movement mechanism and typology.

Most studies, however, lack data indicating movement

magnitude. We thus focus our attention on this aspect.

Our data were obtained during medium-term moni-

toring of extremely slow forms of landslides (in terms

Fig. 1. Distribution of landslides in Slovakia expressed by percentage of delimited areas (after Nemcok, 1982) with location of selected

monitoring sites. 1—Kosicky Klecenov landslide, 2—Demanova cave of Liberty, 3—Branisko pilot tunnel, 4—Skalka Monastery.

L. Petro et al. / Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112104

of Cruden and Varnes, 1996) and from the sites

affected by recent tectonism. The sites selected are

of great public interest (cultural and natural heritage

sites, important infrastructure facilities) and are in-

cluded in the monitoring net created within a national

programme sponsored by the Slovak Ministry of the

Environment.

2. Basic features of neotectonic evolution of the

Western Carpathians

The fundamental features of the Western Carpathi-

ans are the results of the alpine mountain-forming

processes, which took place in the Cretaceous and

Tertiary, characterized by folding and overthrusting,

generally toward the northern border of the Carpathi-

ans. Two basic geotectonic units—the Externides and

Internides—can be distinguished. The Internides con-

sist of older Palaeozoic and Proterozoic predominantly

crystalline rocks and younger Palaeozoic as well as

Mesozoic sedimentary complexes, partly in over-

thrusted position. They create a wide belt of highlands

separated by intra-mountain basins filled mainly by

Paleogene flysch-like sediments or separated by Neo-

gene tectonic depressions filled by loose soils. Bade-

nian to Sarmatian neovolcanic sequences, frequently

deposited on ductile Tertiary clays, are found in the

inner part of the Carpathian arc. The Externides consist

predominantly of folded and overthrusted Cretaceous

and Paleogene Flysch strata (Flysch belt) and extreme-

ly folded Jurassic and Early Cretaceous limestones,

marlstones and shales (Klippen belt).

During the geotectonic evolution of theWest Carpa-

thians, several transpression and transtension phases

(Kovac et al., 1994) alternated. The last change in the

nature of tectonic movements took place in the late

Tertiary, with transtension as the prevailing regimewith

dominant vertical differential movements. The total

uplift of mountains ranged from 1600 to 2000 m.

Simultaneously, the southernpart ofDanubianLowland

subsided as much as 5000 m since the Upper Badenian

(Kopecky, 1972). The rate of vertical displacement

within different geotectonic units varied temporally

and spatially. As far as the geological and geomorphic

data are concerned, the River Danube terraces reach the

height of 130 m (above that of the recent flood plain) as

compared to their equivalents deposited in the central

part of Danubian Lowland (Gabcikovo depression),

which can be found at the depth of 500 m (Maglay et

al., 1999; Scharek et al., 1998). Thus, the final differ-

ential subsidence in Danubian Lowland within last 1.6

Ma has been estimated as much as 600 m. Interestingly,

according to the results of geophysical and geological

survey within the last 0.7 Ma, no activity along young

faults has been confirmed in this area (Maglay, 1999).

Late tectonics is fundamental for creation of certain

type of topography with slopes susceptible to land-

Fig. 2. An example of complex spreading in the massif with neotectonic pattern (Mala Fatra Mountains). 1—Middle Triassic limestones, 2—

Upper Triassic claystones with sandstone and dolomite interbeds, 3—Jurassic limestones, 4—Jurassic claystones with limestone and sandstone

intercalations, 5—Middle and Upper Triassic marly limerstones and marlstones, 6—Middle Triassic limestones and dolomites (after Ondrasik,

1997).

L. Petro et al. / Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112 105

slides (Zischinski, 1966, 1969; Varnes, 1978; Bisci et

al., 1996). Typical zones with differential tectonic

movements influencing the stability of slopes can be

observed in several highlands (Fig. 2).

3. Monitoring results from selected sites

Different techniques can be applied for the moni-

toring of extremely slow movements (displacements).

At present, the most frequent of these are GPS sur-

veying, precise levelling using electro-optical range-

finder and/or similar high precision levelling

techniques, terrestrial photogrammetry, terrestrial

interferrometry, etc. Micro-displacements can be mea-

sured by extensometers of various types, e.g., based

upon the linear variable displacement transducer

(LVDT) system or by three-dimensional crack-gauges.

The LVDT has the potential to measure the displace-

ment along one axis or can be configured to measure

the displacement along all three Cartesian axes. The

selection of an appropriate measuring device for

detecting of the micro-displacement depends not only

on the required accuracy but also upon the possibility

to install the device at the observation site (e.g.,

orientation and spacing of the discontinuity, accessi-

bility to the site as well as the resistance to outdoor

conditions).

For monitoring of extremely slow forms, e.g., lateral

spreads (mm/year) and/or tectonic movements, we ap-

plied the monitoring device TM-71 constructed by

Kostak (1969). This device is capable of detecting

movements and micro-displacements in three dimen-

sions. It works on the principle of optical interference—

moire pattern—which records displacement as a fringe

pattern on superposed optical grids that are mechanical-

ly connected to opposite crack faces. Data are obtained

in three Cartesian coordinates (x—across joint/crack

enabling to measure compression or extension of a

joint/crack width, y—horizontal (shear) displacement

along crack and z—vertical (shear) displacement) cal-

culated from recorded interference patterns. This mea-

suring device has been successfully employed in several

countries like Bulgaria (Kostak and Avramova-

Tacheva, 1988; Avramova-Tacheva and Kostak,

1995), Canada (Kostak and Cruden, 1990), Peru (Kos-

tak et al., 2002), Czech Republic (e.g., Zvelebil and

Stemberk, 2000) and Slovakia (Vlcko et al., 1998; Petro

et al., 1999;Vlcko, 2001, 2002;Vlcko andPetro, 2002).

Application of the TM-71 as a monitoring device in

Slovakia started almost three decades ago inMala Fatra

Mountains (Kostak, 1993), followed by Spis Castle, a

World Cultural Heritage historic site and at Orava

Castle. Later on, it was employed at several sites of

great historic and natural value (e.g., Strecno and

Lietava Castles, Skalka Monastery, Kostolany Church,

Demanova Cave of Liberty), as well as at three sites

from the Eastern volcanic region (e.g., Kosicky Klece-

nov, Velka Izra and Sokol) and two important construc-

tion sites (Ipel and Branisko exploration galleries).

Fig. 3. Kosicky Klecenov landslide. (A) The TM-71 three-dimensional crack-gauge; (B) geological cross-section of the Strechov ch stratovolcano with lateral spreading position

and location of crack-gauges KK-1 and KK-2. 1—diorite porphyrite intrusion, 2—alternation of lava flows and pyroclastics ( vided), 3—andesite lava flow, 4—pyroclastics

(undivided), 5—redeposited andesite pyroclastics, 6—Neogene clays, 7—redeposited andesite tuffs, 8—debris with fine soil ma 9—active fault, 10—location of crack-gauges

KK-1 and KK-2. (C) Displacement records of block movements monitoring by crack-gauge KK-1 during the period 1990–200

L.Petro

etal./Engineerin

gGeology74(2004)103–112

106

y vr

undi

trix,

3.

Fig. 5. Charming room of the Demanova cave of Liberty—a TM-71

crack-gauge location.

L. Petro et al. / Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112 107

3.1. Kosicky Klecenov Landslide

The site is located in the central part of the neo-

volcanic region of Slanske vrchy Mountains at the

western margin of the Strechovy vrch stratovolvano

near Kosicky Klecenov village (Fig. 1). The largest

landslide in the area of Slanske vrchy Mountains (11.2

km2) represents a typical complex spreading created

by two different litho-structural units (Fig. 3). The

central part of the stratovolcano is built by volcanic

sequences (extrusions, intrusions, dykes, lava flows,

pyroclastic deposits, etc.), proximal part by blocky

lava flows, debris flows, lahar deposits, medial and

distal parts by redeposited airfall deposits covered

very often by Neogene and Quaternary soils. The

lava flow deposits overlay the plastic clays and/or

hydrothermally altered volcaniclastic rocks. The low-

er part of slope represents a large slide. Tectonic

contacts between volcanic complexes and sedimenta-

Fig. 4. A stalagnate damaged by freshly opened cracks inside the

Charming room of the Demanova cave of Liberty (The National

Nature Monument, Low Tatra Mountains).

ry layers as well as vertical tension cracks are mor-

phologically distinctive (Fig. 3).

A couple of TM-71 crack-gauges (KK-1 and KK-

2) were installed at this site in 1990 and 1995. Both

devices are situated inside wide N–S-oriented tension

cracks in the marginal part of the lava flow. Monitor-

ing results confirmed the displacement of the rock

blocks. More than 4 mm total vertical uplift of the

marginal block has been recorded since 1990 by the

KK-1 crack-gauge (Fig. 3). According to obtained

data and relating to the geological structure, the results

indicate a bulging as a main cause of the vertical uplift

of marginal blocks developed in front of a several

hundred meters long lateral spread (Fig. 3). The

explanation is inferred from the observation that no

widening of the cracks along the x axis was estimated,

and very small rotations of blocks along the z axis

were confirmed. From the regional point of view, the

landslide activity is closely connected with the neo-

tectonic uplift of the Slanske vrchy Mountains along

N–S-oriented normal faults (Janocko, 1989; Kaliciak

et al., 1991).

3.2. Demanova Cave of Liberty

The underground karst system of Demanova River

valley consists of 28 caves with a total length of 8400

m (1800 m accessible for public). The National

Fig. 6. Geological cross-section along the Branisko pilot tunnel with the TM-71 crack-gauge location.

L.Petro

etal./Engineerin

gGeology74(2004)103–112

108

Fig. 7. The TM-71 monitoring site inside the Branisko pilot tunnel.

Fig. 8. Displacement records of block movements monitoring by

TM-71 crack-gauge inside the Branisko pilot tunnel.

L. Petro et al. / Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112 109

Nature Monument Demanova Cave of Liberty, the

largest one among the cave system was discovered in

1921. The cave is located in the northern part of the

Low Tatra Mountains National Park (Fig. 1). The

mountains are the second most uplifted structural unit

of West Carpathians (Maglay et al., 1999). The cave

was formed in the Middle Triassic limestones (Krizna

nappe). The underground cavities are concentrated

along the NNW–SSE-oriented faults crossing the

cave. The faults are quasi-parallel with an active fault

in the Demanova valley (Hok et al., 2000) and are

supposed to be the relevant cause of freshly opened

cracks that bring the damage to stalagnates (Fig. 4) in

one of the most beautiful parts of the cave in so-called

Charming room. For this reason, the site was selected

for monitoring and TM-71 crack-gauge inside the

cave was installed at the end of August 2001 (Fig. 5).

An interpretation of actual measurements with

respect of stabile climatic conditions inside the cave

(temperature range from 6.1 to 7.0 jC, and relative

humidity from 94% to 99%) revealed a very small

displacements along the z axis (vertical displacement

0.15 mm per 2 years) and the y axis (horizontal

displacement 0.08 mm along the crack). From the

short monitoring period, the estimated kinematics

correspondents with the orientation of crack’s origin

inside damaged stalagnates. Despite the fact that a

substantionally and widely acceptable interpretation

of the results needs longer monitoring, the data that

we gained confirmed the activity of a fault running

through Demanova valley.

3.3. Branisko tunnel

A highway tunnel and parallel running pilot tunnel

with the total length of 4800 m, are located in the

central part of Branisko Mountains (Fig. 1), a moun-

tain range with a complicated geological structure. The

Branisko Mountains, one of the most uplifted struc-

tural units of the Western Carpathians, is from both

sides separated by normal faults (Maglay et al., 1999).

In the central part of the mountain range, the lithology

is formed by various crystalline rocks (gneisses, gran-

ites, amphibolites, aplites, schists) that are overlaid by

Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic complexes (Fig. 6). A

comprehensive geological investigation for the tunnel

construction revealed a fault contact between migma-

tites and Paleogene sandstones and conglomerates

near the eastern tunnel mouth (Figs. 6 and 7). The

normal fault according to latest Quaternary research

supposed to be active (Maglay et al., 1999). For that

reason, we installed in December 2000 the TM-71

crack-gauge inside the pilot tunnel at the site indicat-

ing 0.6-m-thick tectonic contact (Fig. 7).

The interpretation of preliminary results indicates

mostly a small vertical displacement (z axis) in Fig. 8.

The displacement may reflect the deformations of

rock massif due to highway tunnel construction (end

of 2002) in the excavation damage zone (EDZ).

Explanation of several fresh cracks in the concrete

Fig. 10. Rate of displacement records at the Skalka Monastery.

L. Petro et al. / Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112110

tunnel tube as well as confirmation the tectonic

activity of the fault probably requires greater number

of readings, over a longer monitoring period.

3.4. Skalka Monastery

The Skalka Monastery is a well-known place of

religious interest in Slovakia. The site is located near

the city of Trencın in the Biele Karpaty Mountains

(Fig. 1) at a height of 250 m above sea level. Some of

the six different buildings on the site had deteriorated

to a ruinous state because of prolonged neglect

extending over a period of at least 140 years. The

region belongs to the contact zone of the Central West

Carpathians and the Pieniny Klippen belt. A compli-

cated geological– tectonic structure with a highly

dissected relief developed because of intensive neo-

tectonic movements associated with an uplift of the

Biele Karpaty Mountains as well as with a differen-

tiated subsidence of the River Vah valley.

The Monastery is situated on a steep ranging cliff

composed of Cretaceous marly limestones with chert

(Fig. 9). The discontinuities (fault lines, cracks and

Fig. 9. Skalka Monastery cross-section with location TM-71 crack-

gauge (after Vlcko et al., 1996).

joints) are in general widely spaced, persistent, open,

karstified and unfilled, with a rough surface.

A cave developed along the prevailing fault lines,

reaching 35 m in length and 4 m in width. In certain

places, the cave had been excavated, which provides

the only way of access to the Baroque chapel. Major

gravitational–tectonic lines of N–S to NNE–SSW

direction cut the bedrock beneath the northern part of

the chapel and caused open cracks in the monastery

walls and the deformation of a Gothic entrance to the

cave. No distinct displacement was recorded since

1995, the time when TM-71 device was installed. The

displacements along the y axis indicate constant

tendency to horizontal slip. The total recorded dis-

placement up to year 2003 is 0.28 mm (Fig. 10).

4. Conclusions

A systematic monitoring of landslides and small

displacements along active tectonic faults has been

carried out in the Western Carpathians (Slovakia)

within several national projects (e.g., ‘‘Partial moni-

toring system of geological factors of the environment

in Slovakia’’, sub-Project ‘‘Monitoring of landslides

and other slope deformations’’), and since 2000

(COSTAction 625 ‘‘3-D monitoring of active tectonic

structures’’).

Monitoring of extremely slow movements both in

landslides and along active faults confirmed the dan-

ger to human life and property and proved the

legitimacy of the research that we carried out.

L. Petro et al. / Engineering Geology 74 (2004) 103–112 111

The crack-gauge TM-71 we adopted confirmed the

reliability of the device for measuring in-plane dis-

placements in severe outdoor conditions with a reso-

lution of 0.1 mm/year, temperature corrections, simple

manipulation, minimum maintenance requirements

and reasonable price.

The monitoring data (rate of displacement) can be:

(i) implemented as the input data in numerical

modelling enabling to predict the landslide failure

mechanism and to create the time scale for

potential ongoing failure, and

(ii) applied in stability calculations as a reliable tool to

design geotechnical stabilization measures and

thus significantly contribute to the hazard/risk

assessment.

Acknowledgements

This summary paper was prepared as part of the

framework of ’’Partial monitoring system of geo-

logical factors of the environment in Slovakia’’

project, VEGA grant project No. 1/9159/02 as well

as No. 1/9160/02. The authors are thankful to the

Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic,

Geological Survey of Slovak Republic as well as

grant agency VEGA for their kind support. The

authors are also thankful to Mr. Kostak for the

valuable help in interpretations of some monitoring

data.

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