1 Introduction: Fiction for the working lad - Springer LINK

Notes

1 Introduction: Fiction for the working lad

1. George Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell: Vol. I: An Age Like This(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), 505–31, quotation from 530.

2. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, 516.3. Ibid.4. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’ originally appeared in Cyril Connolly’s literary maga-

zine Horizon, no.3 (March 1940), 346–55. One month later a reply appeared frompopular story paper author Frank Richards (the pen name of Charles Hamilton).The controversy about Orwell’s article still raged on forty years later in issues ofStory Paper Collector’s Digest, a monthly magazine for collectors and enthusiasts;see letters from Ernest Holman, Simon Garrett and Brian Sayer in nos. 477–9(1986). Richards’ ‘Reply to George Orwell’, is included in Orwell and Angus, eds,Collected Essays, 531–40.

5. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, 529.6. This is a burgeoning field, but see Peter Stearns, Be a Man! Males in Modern Society

(New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979; revised 1990); J. A. Mangan and JamesWalvin, eds, Manliness and Morality (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1987); Michael Roper and John Tosh, eds, Manful Assertions: Masculinities inEngland since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991); Graham Dawson, Soldier Heroes:British Adventure, Empire and the Imaginings of Masculinity (London: Routledge,1994); Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male: Men’s Bodies, Britain and the GreatWar (London: Reaktion, 1996); Angus Maclaren, The Trials of Masculinity: Polic-ing Sexual Boundaries, 1870–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997);and John Tosh, A Man’s Place: Masculinity and the Middle-Class Home in VictorianEngland (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). For a fuller discussion of theliterature on the history of masculinity see Kelly Boyd, ‘ “Wait Till I’m a Man!”:Manliness in the English Boys’ Story Paper, 1855–1940’ (PhD thesis, Rutgers Uni-versity, 1991), chap.1.

7. See, for example, James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of VictorianManhood (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); David Alderson, Mansex Fine: Religion, Manliness and Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century British Culture(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); Diana Barsham, Arthur ConanDoyle and the Meanings of Masculinity (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000); and AndrewBradstock, Sean Gill, Anne Hogan and Sue Morgan, eds, Masculinity and Spiritu-ality in Victorian Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave [Macmillan] 2000).

8. James Greenwood, ‘The Penny Awfuls’, St Paul’s Magazine 12 (1873), 161–8;Alexander Strahan, ‘Bad Literature for the Young’, Contemporary Review 26(1875), 981–91; Francis Hitchman, ‘The Penny Press’, MacMillan’s Magazine 43(1881), 385–98; Edward Salmon, ‘What Boys Read’, Fortnightly Review n.s.39(1886), 248–59; Bennett G. Johns, ‘Literature of the Streets’, Edinburgh Review165 (1887), 40–65; and Edward Lyttleton, ‘Penny Fiction’, Quarterly Review 171(1890), 150–71.

181

9. John R. Gillis, ‘The Evolution of Juvenile Delinquency in England, 1890–1914’,Past and Present no.67 (May 1975), 96–126.

10. Hamilton’s work will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Biographicalinformation is from W. O. G. Lofts and Derek Adley, The Men Behind Boys’ Fiction(London: Howard Baker, 1970), 168–71; Charles Hamilton, The Autobiography ofFrank Richards (London: Charles Skilton, 1952); and Mary Cadogan, FrankRichards: The Chap Behind the Chums (London: Viking, 1988).

11. Richards, ‘Reply to George Orwell’, 538; the emphasis is Richards’.12. Ibid., 53513. This paragraph is largely derived from John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and

Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1976), see esp. chs 1 and 2.

14. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, Romance, 38.15. Janice Radway, Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy and Popular Literature

(London: Verso, 1987 [1984]); Tania Modleski, Loving with a Vengeance (London:Methuen, 1984); and jay Dixon, The Romance Fiction of Mills and Boon,1909–1990s (London: UCL Press, 1999).

16. Michael Denning, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture inAmerica (London: Verso, 1987).

17. Thomas Frost, Forty Years’ Recollections: Literary and Political (London: SampsonLow, 1880), 90.

18. See Jane P. Tompkins, ed., Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Susan Suleimanand Inge Crosman, eds, The Reader in the Text: Essays on Audience Interpretation(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981); and Stanley Fish, Is There a Textin this Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1980), for extensive discussions of the theory. For agood treatment of reader-response criticism in the context of modern literarycriticism, see Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell,1983), 74–88. A precise definition of different types of readers is found in RobertCrosman, ‘Four Types of Reader’, Reader: A Newsletter of Reader-Oriented Criticismand Teaching no.5 (October 1978), 3–9. For an early exploration of the uses ofreader/response criticism, see Susan Suleiman, ‘What is Reader-Oriented Criti-cism?’ Reader: A Newsletter no.4 (1978), 3–6.

19. Janice A. Radway, ‘Women Read the Romance: The Interaction of Text andContext’, Feminist Studies 9 (1983), 53–78; Radway, Reading the Romance; andLeslie W. Rabine, ‘Romance in the Age of Electronics: Harlequin Enterprises’,Feminist Studies 9 (1985), 39–60.

20. The use of the soubriquet was not uncommon in working-class culture; see Edward Royle, Chartism (London: Longman, 1986), 46, for the use of names like ‘Queen Victoria’ and the ‘Duke of Wellington’ on Chartist petitions;and Rohan McWilliam, ‘Radicalism and Popular Culture: The Tichborne Case and the Politics of Fair Play, 1867–1886’ in Alastair Reid and EugenioBiagini, eds, Currents of Radicalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1991), 55–6.

21. Richards, ‘Reply to George Orwell’, 537.22. Peter Biskind, Seeing is Believing: How America Learned to Stop Living and Love the

Cinema (New York: Pantheon, 1983).23. Denning, Mechanic Accents, 4.24. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century

(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160.

182 Notes to Chapter 1

25. Jack Cox, Take a Cold Tub, Sir! The Story of the Boy’s Own Paper (Guildford, Surrey:Lutterworth Press, 1982), 70–2.

26. On his death Brett left a personal estate valued at £76,538; ‘Wills and Bequests:Brett’, Illustrated London News (8 February 1896), 186. For the general (un)prof-itability of Victorian boys’ magazines, see John Springhall, ‘ “DisseminatingUnpure Literature”: The “Penny Dreadful” Publishing Business since 1860’, Economic History Review 47 (1994), 567–84.

27. Stuart Hall, ‘Notes on Deconstructing ‘the Popular’,’ in Raphael Samuel, ed.,People’s History and Socialist Theory (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981),227–39.

28. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, SextonBlake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al (London: Penguin, 1976 [1948]).

29. Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies 17 (1973), 89–99;Patrick Dunae, ‘Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, The PrivateLibrary 9 (1976), 123–58; ‘Boys’ Literature and the Idea of Race, 1870–1900’,Wascana Review (1977), 84–107; ‘Making Good: the Canadian West in Boys’ Lit-erature’, Prairie Forum 4 (1979), 165–81; ‘Penny Dreadfuls: Late Nineteenth-Century Boys’ Literature and Crime’, Victorian Studies 22 (1979), 133–50; ‘Boys’Literature’, Victorian Studies 24 (1980), 105–21; and ‘A New Grub Street for Boys’, in Jeffrey Richards, ed., Imperialism and Juvenile Literature (Manchester:Manchester University Press, 1989), 12–33; John O. Springhall, ‘Healthy Papersfor Manly Boys: Imperialism and Race in Harmsworth’s Halfpenny Boys’ Papersof the 1880s and 1890s’, in Richards, Juvenile Literature and Imperialism, 107–25;‘“A Life Story for the People”? Edwin J. Brett and the London Low-Life PennyDreadfuls of the 1860s’, Victorian Studies 33 (1990), 223–46; and Youth, PopularCulture and Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta-Rap, 1830–1996 (Basingstoke:Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1999).

30. Kathryn Castle, Britannia’s Children: Reading Colonialism Through Children’s Booksand Magazines (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996); Robert H. MacDonald, ‘Reproducing the Middle-Class Boys: From Purity to Patriotism inthe Boys’ Magazines, 1892–1914’, Journal of Contemporary History 24 (1989), 519–39; and The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism,1880–1918 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994); Claudia Nelson,Boys Will Be Girls: the Feminine Ethic and British Children’s Fiction, 1857–1917(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991); ‘Mixed Messages: Authoringand Authority in British Boys’ Magazines’, The Lion and the Unicorn 21 (1997),1–19; and ‘David and Jonathan – and Saul – Revisted: Homodomestic Patternsin British Boys’ Magazine Fiction, 1880–1915’, Children’s Literature AssociationQuarterly 15 (1990), 17–21.

31. This genre is too large to enumerate here, but for a good roundup see Robert J. Kirkpatrick with Michael Rupert Taylor, Victorian School Stories in Books andPeriodicals (Oxford: privately published, 2001) and Robert J. Kirkpatrick, TheEncyclopaedia of Boys’ School Stories (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001). Jeffrey Richards,Happiest Days: The Public School in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester Uni-versity Press, 1988) and Mary Cadogan, You’re a Brick Angela: a New Look at Girls’Fiction from 1839 to 1975 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1975).

2 Boys’ lives: Boys’ education, work and leisure, 1855–1940

1. In 1837 boys aged 10–14 comprised 5.37 per cent of the population; by 1891this figure had risen to 5.5 per cent, declining slowly to 4.05 per cent by 1931.

Notes to Chapters 1–2 183

Calculated from B. R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1988), 15.

2. John R. Gillis, Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations,1770–Present (New York: Academic Press, 1974), ch.4. Frank Musgrove, Youth andthe Social Order (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964), ch.2, argues thechange happened much earlier, around 1765, but the discussions he describeswere mostly theoretical, or concerned chiefly with the upper classes. A wide-spread change had to wait until the mid-nineteenth century. See also the discussion of the idea of adolescence in John O. Springhall, Coming of Age: Adolescence in Britain, 1860–1960 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1986), ch.1;Jeffrey Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society (London: Longman, 1981), 48–52.

3. Springhall, Coming of Age, 38; Mitchell, British Historical Statistics, 15.4. D. L. Lemahieu, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communications and the Cultivated

Mind in Britain Between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 8.5. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale Univer-

sity Press, 1992), ch.4.6. John Chandos, Boys Together: English Public Schools, 1800–1864 (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1984); John R. de S. Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Develop-ment of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977); Barbara English,‘The Education of the Landed Elite in England, c.1815–c.1870’, Journal of Edu-cational Administration and History 23 (1991), 15–32; Christine Heward, Making a Man of Him: Parents and their Sons’ Education at an English Public School,1929–1950 (London: Routledge, 1988).

7. Colin Shrosbree, Public Schools and Private Education: The Clarendon Commission,1861–64, and the Public Schools Acts (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1988).

8. J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emer-gence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000[1981]).

9. Stefan Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain,1850–1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 91–118.

10. Donald Leinster-Mackay, The Rise of the English Prep School (London: Falmer,1984); R. D. Pearce, ‘The Prep School and Imperialism: The Example of Orwell’sSt Cyprian’, Journal of Educational Administration and History 23 (1991), 42–53.

11. Heward, Making a Man of Him.12. Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: The Public School in English Fiction (Manchester:

Manchester University Press, 1988).13. Evelyn Waugh illustrates the influence of attendance at a public school

vividly with the character of Captain Grimes in Decline and Fall (1928). W. D.Rubinstein’s investigation of elites and education focused on origins of the elite,but his argument does not contradict the heavy attendance of members of theelite at public schools, even if these were not of the first rank or the boys did notemerge from the social elite: ‘Education and the Social Origins of British Elites,1880–1970’, in his Elites and the Wealthy in Modern British History (Brighton: Harvester, 1987), 172–221. For the influence of non-Oxbridge university atten-dance, see Carol Dyhouse, ‘Family Patterns of Social Mobility through HigherEducation in England in the 1930s’, Journal of Social History 34 (2001), 817–42.

14. Edward Heath remembers this fear when he went up to Oxford in 1935, butcredits the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Balliol with circumventing it. Never-theless, he recounts how the senior scholar of his year found it overwhelming:


The Course of My Life: An Autobiography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1998),23–5. The problem of how to treat men temporarily elevated during the GreatWar was a social problem in the 1920s. See Martin Petter, ‘ “Temporary Gentle-men” in the Aftermath of the Great War: Rank, Status and the Ex-OfficerProblem’, Historical Journal 37 (1994), 127–52.

15. Philippe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood (London: Cape, 1962); Steve Humphries,Joanna Mack and Robert Perks, A Century of Childhood (London: Sidgwick andJackson, 1988); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain,1860–1918 (London: Routledge, 1991); Hugh Cunningham, The Children of thePoor: Representations of Children since the Seventeenth Century (Oxford: Blackwell,1991); Hugh Cunningham, Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Harry Hendrick, Children, Childhood andEnglish Society, 1880–1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), arejust a few of the books which have dealt with this topic.

16. James Walvin, A Child’s World: A Social History of English Childhood, 1800–1914(Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1982), 61–72; Springhall, Coming of Age, 65–89; IvyPinchbeck and Margaret Hewitt, Children in English Society. Volume II: From theEighteenth Century to the Children Act 1948 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1973), 387–413, focus on the earlier period; Geoffrey Best, Mid-Victorian Britain,1851–1878 (London: Panther, 1973 [1971]), 129–36; Elizabeth Roberts, ‘TheFamily’, in John Benson, ed., The Working Class in England, 1875–1914 (London:Croom Helm, 1985), 1–35; F. M. L. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society: ASocial History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (London: Fontana, 1988), 131;Michael J. Childs, Labour’s Apprentices: Working-Class Lads in Late Victorian andEdwardian England (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992), 78–9;Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870–1914(London: Rivers Oram, 1996), 170–1.

17. Thompson, Rise, 135–44; Roberts, ‘The Family’, 21–5; Phillip McCann, PopularEducation and Socialization in the Nineteenth Century (London: Methuen, 1977);Brian Simon, Studies in the History of Education: Education and the Labour Move-ment, 1870–1920 (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1965); P. W. Musgrave, Societyand Education in England since 1800 (London: Methuen, 1969); John Sequin Hurt,Elementary Schooling and the Working Class, 1860–1914 (London: Routledge andKegan Paul, 1979), ch.7; James Murphy, The Education Act 1870 (Newton Abbot:David and Charles, 1973); Childs, Labour’s Apprentices, ch.2; Davin, Growing UpPoor, ch.7.

18. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (4 vols; New York: Dover,1968), 3: 370. Edward Jacobs, ‘Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture,‘Industrial Literacy’, and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England’,Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995), 321–47, explores this in depth.

19. Robert K. Webb, ‘Working Class Readers in Early Victorian England’, English His-torical Review 65 (1950), 333–51; David Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture:England, 1750–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 226.

20. W. B. Stephens, Education, Literacy and Society, 1830–70: The Geography of Diver-sity in Provincial England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987),18–19.

21. Thomas Laqueur, Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working-ClassCulture, 1780–1850 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976).

22. John R. Gillis, A World of Their Own Making: A History of Myth and Ritual in FamilyLife (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 109–29 and Leonore Davidoff,

Notes to Chapter 2 185

Megan Doolittle, Janet Fink, and Katherine Holden, The Family Story: Blood, Contract and Intimacy, 1830–1960 (London: Longman, 1999), 116–23 and215–20.

23. Constance Rollett and Julia Parker, ‘Population and Family’, in A. H. Halsey, ed.,Trends in British Society since 1900, London: Macmillan, 1972, 20–63. It is by nomeans clear why or by what method families came to be smaller, but by theinter-war years even working-class families had reduced themselves in size. Forvarious suggestions as to the reasons see J. A. Banks, Prosperity and Parenthood(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954); J. A. and Olive Banks, Feminism andFamily Planning (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1964); Angus Maclaren,Birth Control in Nineteenth-Century England (London: Croom Helm, 1978); JosephAmbrose Banks, Victorian Values: Secularism and the Size of Families (London:Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981); and Diana Gittins, Fair Sex: Family Size andStructure, 1900–1939 (London: Hutchinson, 1982).

24. Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870–1918 (New York:Oxford University Press, 1993), 148–58.

25. Flora Thompson, Lark Rise to Candleford (London: Oxford University Press,1945), 149.

26. Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud: Sutton, 1997), 2; Davin, GrowingUp Poor, ch.4.

27. Mayhew, London Labour and London Poor 4: 231–2, discusses the phenomenonof child stripping, where old ladies lure children away with sweets, divest themof their clothes on a pretext and disappear. See Richard Altick, ‘Victorian Readersand the Sense of the Present’, Midway 10 (1970), 118.

28. Ross, Love and Toil, 158–62; Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1994), 264–90.

29. David Vincent, Bread, Knowledge and Freedom: A Study of Nineteenth-CenturyWorking Class Autobiography (London: Europa, 1981), 94–105.

30. Davin, Growing Up Poor, 137.31. Jonathan Rose, The Intellectual Life of the Working Class (London: Yale University

Press, 2001), 146–86.32. Ross, Love and Toil, 162; Hopkins, Childhood Transformed, 219–63.33. T. E. Harvey, A London Boy’s Saturday (Birmingham: St George’s Press, 1906),

estimates that over four-fifths of boys had at least part-time Saturday jobs byage 10.

34. Davin, Growing Up Poor, 179–80.35. Kelly Boyd, ‘ “Wait Till I’m a Man”: Manliness in the English Boys’ Story Paper,

1855–1940’ (PhD thesis, Rutgers University, 1991), ch.3; Claudia Nelson, ‘MixedMessages: Authoring and Authority in British Boys’ Magazines’, The Lion and theUnicorn 21 (1997), 1–19.

36. Geoffrey Crossick, ‘The Emergence of the Lower Middle Class in Britain: A Dis-cussion’, in Geoffrey Crossick, ed., The Lower Middle Class in Britain, 1870–1914(London: Croom Helm, 1977), 11–60; Hugh McLeod, ‘White Collar Values andthe Role of Religion’, in Crossick, ed., Lower Middle Class in Britain, 71–2; PatThane, ‘Social History, 1860–1914’, in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey,eds, The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 1981), 2:224–6.

37. Gregory Anderson, Victorian Clerks (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1976), 1–8. For a discussion of clerks which extends beyond the Victorian era,


see David Lockwood, The Blackcoated Worker: A Study in Class Consciousness(London: Unwin, 1958), 41–68.

38. Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 2, 52.39. Ibid., 52–6; he further argues that by the later decades of the century clerking

had lost most opportunities for upward mobility, 20–7.40. Ibid., 9–11, gives stark detail of the accommodation provided for most

clerks.41. Childs, Labour’s Apprentices, ch.4; David Fowler, The First Teenagers: The Lifestyle

of Young Wage-Earners in Interwar Britain (London: Woburn, 1994), 25–7.42. Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class, and the Male Youth Problem (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1990), treats this in depth.43. William McGillicuddy Eagar and H. A. Secretan, Unemployment Among Boys

(London: J. M. Dent, 1925), 76, analysed the problem in depth. They saw thetendency of starting work early in dead-end jobs as particularly pernicious andclaimed that besides making boys slack and untidy, it could transform some ofthem into ‘Bolsheviks’. See also E. Llewelyn Lewis, The Children of the Unskilled:An Economic and Social Study (London: P. S. King, 1924); and Ethelwyn Rolfe, TheSoul of a Slum Child (London: Ernest Benn, 1929).

Another method of combating the problem can be seen in the growth of theVocational Guidance movement. See B. Muscio, Vocational Guidance: A Review ofthe Literature (London: Medical Research Council, Report of the IndustrialFatigue Research Board, Pamphlet No.12, 1921) and Three Studies in VocationalSelection (London: Medical Research Council, Report of the Industrial FatigueResearch Board, Pamphlet No.16, 1921); Cyril Burt, Study in Vocational Guidance(London: Medical Research Council, Report of the Industrial Fatigue ResearchBoard, Pamphlet No.33, 1926); S. Nugent, Vocations for School Leavers (London:Sidgwick and Jackson, 1926); F. M. Earle, Methods of Choosing a Career: A Descrip-tion of an Experiment in Vocational Guidance Conducted on Twelve Hundred LondonElementary School Children (London: George G. Harrap, 1931); Angus Macrae, TheCase for Vocational Guidance (London: Pitman, 1934); and M. D. N. Dickson,Child Guidance (London: Sands, 1938).

44. Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 76, 80–2, 97–104.45. John Springhall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883–1940

(London: Croom Helm, 1977).46. Edward F. Herdman and Barry Ono both created their own circulating libraries,

renting out copies to their friends. Erdman was 12 in 1873 when he created hislibrary, while Ono was operating at the turn of the century. See Edward F.Herdman, ‘An Early Penny Dreadful Circulating Library’, Vanity Fair no.19 (February 1926), 81; Interview by Collector’s Miscellany, ‘Barry Ono of “PennyDreadful” Fame’, Collector’s Miscellany 3rd series no.8 (February-March-April1934), 29; and Jim Wolveridge, ‘Ain’t It Grand!’ (or ‘This Was Stepney’), (London:Journeyman, 1981), 29–34.

47. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160–1. The demise of print culture iseloquently discussed in Rose, Intellectual Life.

48. John R. Gillis, Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations,1770–present (London: Academic Press, 1974); Stephen Humphries, Hooligans orRebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford:Basil Blackwell, 1981), and Springhall, Coming of Age are recent book-lengthworks which contain extended treatments of the inter-war years.


49. These acts included the Education Act of 1902 (Balfour Act), Elementary Codeof 1904, Regulations for Secondary Schools (1904), the Acland Report (1911),the Lewis Report (1917), the Education Act of 1918 (Fisher Act), the HadowReports of 1926 and 1931, and the Spens Report (1938). Gillian Sutherland, ‘Education’, in Thompson, ed., Cambridge Social History, 3:119–70; W. A. G.Armytage, Four Hundred Years of English Education (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 1970); S. J. Curtis, History of Education in Great Britain (London:University Tutorial Press, 1967). For a more focused exploration of policies inthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries see Brian Simon, Studies in the Historyof Education, 1780–1880 (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1960); and BrianSimon, Studies in the History of Education: Education and the Labour Movement. Onrural education, see Pamela Horn, Education in Rural England, 1800–1914 (NewYork: St Martin’s Press, 1978).

50. W. R. Garside, ‘Juvenile Unemployment and Public Policy between the Wars’,Economic History Review 30 (1977), 322–39.

51. Frederick E. Johnson, The Right Start: A Book for British Parents (London: Methuen,1923).

52. John R. Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1985), 289; Musgrove, Youth and Social Order,180–5.

53. Andrew Davies, Leisure, Gender and Poverty: Working-Class Culture in Salford andManchester, 1900–1939 (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992).

54. Fowler, First Teenagers.55. J. H. Engledow and William Farr, The Reading and Other Interests of School Chil-

dren in Saint Pancras (London: Passmore Edwards Research Series, No. 2, 1933),12.

56. A. J. Jenkinson, What Do Boys and Girls Read? (London: Methuen, 1940), ch.4.

3 Publishers and strategies: From family firms to mass marketing

1. Patricia Anderson, The Printed Image and the Transformation of Popular Culture,1790–1860 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 1.

2. Alan J. Lee, The Origins of the Popular Press in England, 1855–1914 (London:Croom Helm, 1976). Lee discusses the decline of the liberal press in England ingreat detail. The third chapter deals with the transformation of conditions, bothlegal and technological, which made the cheap press a reality. See also RaymondWilliams, ‘The Press and Popular Culture: An Historical Perspective’; IvanAsquith, ‘The Structure, Ownership and Control of the Press, 1780–1855’; AlanLee, ‘The Structure, Ownership and Control of the Press, 1855–1914’; VirginiaBerridge, ‘Popular Sunday Papers and Mid-Victorian Society’, in George Boyce,James Curran and Pamela Wingate, eds, Newspaper History from the SeventeenthCentury to the Present Day (London: Constable, 1978), 41–50, 98–116, 117–29and 247–64; Patricia Hollis, The Pauper Press: a Study in Working-Class Radicalismof the 1830s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970); Lucy Brown, Victorian Newsand Newspapers (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); and Colin Clair, A History ofPrinting in England (London: Cassell, 1969), ch.9.

3. For a detailed discussion of this, see Kirsten Drotner, English Children and TheirMagazines, 1751–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 17–27, 49–60.

188 Notes to Chapters 2–3

See also, Gillian Avery, Childhood’s Pattern: a Study of the Heroes and Heroines ofChildren’s Fiction, 1770–1950 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1975), 13–24,52–70; Alec Ellis, A History of Children’s Reading and Literature (Oxford: PergamonPress, 1963); Jacqueline S. Bratton, The Impact of Victorian Children’s Fiction(London: Croom Helm, 1981), 31–62, and Mary V. Jackson, Engines of Instruc-tion, Mischief and Magic: Children’s Literature in England from its Beginning to 1839(London: Scolar), 1989.

4. The full title was The Lilliputian Magazine: or the Young Gentleman and Lady’sGolden Library, being An Attempt to Mend the World, to render the Society of ManMore Amiable, and to establish the Plainness, Simplicity, Virtue and Wisdom of theGolden Age, so much Celebrated by the Poets and Historians.

5. Drotner, English Children, 50.6. Ibid., 60; Judith Rowbotham, Good Girls Make Good Wives: Guidance for Girls in

Victorian Fiction (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 53–98.7. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton

Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1975[1948]), 19–37.

8. Louis James, Fiction for the Working Man, 1830–1850: A Study of the Literature Produced for the Working Classes in Early Victorian Urban England (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1960), 51–134, discusses this genre in great detail.

9. William Arthur Johnson Archbold, ‘Edward Lloyd’, Dictionary of National Biog-raphy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), 21:1298; James, Fiction, 32–3;Victor E. Neuburg, Popular Literature: A History and Guide (Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1977), 170–4; A Glimpse into Paper Making and Journalism (London:Edward Lloyd, Limited, c.1895) describes the paper-making side of the business;John Medcraft, A Bibliography of the Penny Bloods of Edward Lloyd (Dundee: privately printed, 1945), lists over two hundred titles.

10. James Ramsay MacDonald, ‘G. W. M. Reynolds’, Dictionary of National Biography16, 929–31; Neuburg, Popular Literature, 156–62; James, Fiction, 40–2; GertrudeHimmelfarb, The Idea of Poverty: England in the Industrial Age (London: Faber andFaber, 1984), 435–52; Rohan McWilliam, ‘The Mysteries of G. W. M. Reynolds:Radicalism and Melodrama in Victorian Britain’, in Malcolm Chase and IanDyck, eds, Living and Learning: Essays in Honour of J. F. C. Harrison (Aldershot:Scolar, 1996), 182–98; and Ian Haywood, ‘George W. M. Reynolds and the Radicalization of Victorian Serial Fiction’, Media History 4 (1998), 121–40.

11. James, Fiction, 167–70.12. For a very full coverage of the wider debate over the penny dreadful, see

John Springhall, ‘ “Pernicious Reading”? “The Penny Dreadful” as Scapegoat forLate-Victorian Juvenile Crime’, Victorian Periodicals Review 27 (1994), 326–49;Springhall, Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panics, 38–97; and Patrick Dunae,‘Penny Dreadfuls: Late Nineteenth-Century Boys’ Literature and Crime’, Victorian Studies 22 (1979), 133–50.

13. Further Elementary Education Acts were passed in 1873, 1876, 1880, 1891, 1893,1897, 1899, 1901 and 1902. They slowly extended educational opportunity torural and pauper children, granted powers to enforce attendance and tried, notcompletely successfully, to standardize the age of school-leaving.

14. H. Montgomery Hyde, Mr. and Mrs. Beeton (London: G. G. Harrap, 1951), 50–4;Sarah Freeman, Isabella and Sam: The Story of Mrs Beeton (New York: Coward,McCann and Geoghegan, 1977), 85–90.

15. Boy’s Own Magazine 9 (February 1867), 115.


16. Hyde, Mr. and Mrs. Beeton, 50.17. Boy’s Own Magazine 1 (1855), preface, italics in the original.18. The Boy’s Own Magazine continued to be published for many years, first under

Beeton’s imprint and by Ward, Lock after his financial ruin through a stockmarket crash in 1866. He continued as editor through most of this period,although his efforts at editorial independence finally resulted in Ward, Locksuing him to restrict his use of the Beeton name, except under their imprint.See Thomas W. Beach, ‘Ward vs. Beeton’, Law Reports Equity Cases 19 (1874–75),207–22. Beeton died in 1877, a broken man, but the Boy’s Own Magazineoutlasted him for many years as a Ward, Lock publication.

19. Beeton had sold the rights to use his name as an imprint on books. For yearsfollowing he witnessed several different Beeton’s products being published andsold over which he had no control.

20. Patrick Dunae, ‘The Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, PrivateLibrary 9 (1976), 123–58.

21. Joseph A. McAleer, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain, 1914–1950 (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1992), 215–19.

22. Ralph Rollington [John W. Allingham], A Brief History of Boys’ Journals(Leicester: H. Simpson, 1913), 100. This is an invaluable memoir of the Victorianwriters penned by a member of the inner circle at the turn of the century andnot published until much later. It is stronger on anecdote than on fact butinstructive as to the circle of men who dominated the emerging industry.Rollington’s death was noted in Vanity Fair: An Amateur Magazine 2/17 (Decem-ber 1925), 58, as having taken place in London on 24 August 1924, at the ageof 81. They note: ‘His end was peaceful and typical of the old bohemian spirit,as he asked for, and smoked a cigar just before passing away’.

23. Rollington, Brief History, 5.24. Ibid. Both Louis James and John Springhall’s estimates predict a very small profit

margin for the average periodical. A story-paper had to be immensely popularto allow a 12 per cent return; most survived on tiny margins. See James, Fiction,30–1; John Springhall, ‘ “A Life Story for the People”?: Edwin J. Brett and theLondon “Low-Life” Penny Dreadfuls of the 1860s’, Victorian Studies 33 (1990),232–3.

25. Springhall, ‘A Life Story’, 76.26. Boys’ Champion Paper 1/11 (5 December 1885), 176.27. W. O. G. Lofts and Derek Adley, The Men Behind Boys’ Fiction (London: Howard

Baker, 1970), 71–2. Most biographical information about publishers, editors andauthors is taken from this extensive dictionary.

28. Brett’s early career is outlined in Springhall, ‘ “A Life Story” ’, 223–46.29. John Springhall, Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta

Rap, 1830–1996 (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1998),54–7.

30. These figures are highly suspect according to Joseph A. McAleer’s research whichsuggests that paid circulation was much lower: Popular Reading and Publishing,215–19.

31. Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Chil-dren from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum,1983): Brett figures, 15; Boy’s Own Magazine figures, 45; Union Jack figures, 45;Boy’s Own Paper figures, 46.

32. S. H. Steinberg, Five Hundred Years of Printing (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977[1955]), 275–391.


33. Geoffrey Dawson, ‘Alfred Charles William Harmsworth, Viscount Northcliffe’,Dictionary of National Biography 1922–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937), 397–403; Tom Clarke, Northcliffe in History: An Intimate Study ofPress Power (London: Hutchinson, 1950); Paul Ferris, The House of Northcliffe: theHarmsworths of Fleet Street (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971).

34. By the beginning of 1893 Answers had reached a weekly circulation of 389,000,but by 1909 it had begun to slip in terms of circulation. See British Library,Department of Manuscripts, Additional Manuscripts, Northcliffe Papers [here-after BL Add. MSS] 62381, p.4, Northcliffe Diary 7 January 1893; BL Add MSS62183, pp.47–64, March 1909, Northcliffe Papers, ‘Reports from News Agents’.There was little agreement on the reasons for decline or its solution.

35. BL Add MSS 62481, Diary for 1893; circulation figures from 11 November and30 December.

36. BL Add. MSS 62383, Diary for 1895; circulation figures from 30/31 January.37. Harmsworth’s interest waxed and waned. He could impose his criticisms with

little notice, which sometimes proved a strain on the organization. See BL Add.MSS 62182B, to trace the deteriorating relationship between Harmsworth andmanaging director and editor, Hamilton Edwards between 1910 and Edwards’departure in 1912.

38. BL Add. MSS 62182A, p.128, Hamilton Edwards to Lord Northcliffe, 16 Novem-ber 1910.

39. BL Add. MSS 62182A, p.76, Hamilton Edwards to W. H. Back, 2 March 1909.Some editors were less lucky. Arthur Mee, head of the educational departmentin the early part of the century, requested a share in the profits on the Children’sEncyclopedia, a part publication which he described as ‘the chief work of my life’.(BL Add. MSS 62183, pp.100–1, Arthur H. Mee to Lord Northcliffe, 26 May 1908). Whether his wish was granted is not known, but two years later Mee wasstill complaining of financial pressures. (BL Add. MSS 62183, pp.129–32, ArthurH. Mee to Lord Northcliffe, 30 October 1910). Northcliffe responded by gentlysuggesting that Mee should learn to accept his position in life and be glad hehad the great opportunity to influence thousands as editor of various works. (BLAdd. MSS 62183, pp.133–4, Lord Northcliffe to Arthur H. Mee, 1 November1910).

40. In fact, the Marvel was originally entitled Halfpenny Marvel, the title only chang-ing when the price was increased a decade later. It was a frequent tactic of theAmalgamated Press to use the price in the title of a new offering.

41. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160–1; and Ben Winskill, ‘The PennyDreadful Offices’, Vanity Fair: An Amateur Illustrated Magazine no.17 (Christmas1925), 47. Many autobiographers recall their consumption of boys’ story papers,some with more affection than others; few explore their own interaction withthese texts. See Noel Coward, Autobiography (London: Methuen, 1986), 12–13;Sir Compton Mackenzie, My Life and Time. Octave One, 1883–1891 (London:Chatto and Windus, 1963), 240; Edward Ezard, Battersea Boy (London: WilliamKimber, 1979), 98.

42. ‘The Editor Speaks’, Halfpenny Marvel no.1 (30 September 1893), 16.43. This debate was typical of several moral panics of the Victorian era that

displaced worries about the state of society onto other targets and the rise of a fear of juvenile delinquency identified by John Gillis, ‘The Evolution of Juvenile Delinquency in England, 1890–1914’, Past and Present no.67 (May1975), 96–126. See also Jennifer Davis, ‘The London Garotting Panic of 1862:


A Moral Panic and the Question of the Criminal Class in mid-Victorian England’,in V. A. C. Gatrell, Bruce Lenman and Geoffrey Parker, eds, Crime and the Law:the Social History of Crime in Western Europe (London: Europa, 1980), 190–213;Judith R. Walkowitz, ‘Jack the Ripper and the Myth of Male Violence’, FeministStudies 8 (1982), 542–74; Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of SexualDanger in Late Victorian London (London: Virago, 1992), ch.7; and R. Sindall, ‘The London Garotting Panics of 1856 and 1862’, Social History 12 (1987), 351–9.

44. Union Jack Library of High-Class Fiction, no.1 (5 May 1894), 16.45. George Rosie, ‘The Warlocks of British Publishing’, in Paul Harris, ed., The D. C.

Thomson Bumper Fun Book (Edinburgh: Paul Harris, 1977), 11.46. Claudia Nelson suggests that these locutions are ‘maternalist’ and illustrate a

new relationship between editors and readers, see ‘Mixed Messages: Authoringand Authority in British Boys’ Magazines’, Lion and the Unicorn 21 (1997), 1–19.

47. P. J. Hangar, ‘Thomson Papers Were for Boys’, Story Paper Collector’s Digest 16,(April 1962), 6–7. Both Modern Boy and Boys’ Cinema were Amalgamated Presspublications.

48. Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls, 58 for the Amalgamated Press data; 65, forthe Thomson figures.

49. Hangar, ‘Thomson Papers Were for Boys’, 7.50. Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–1.51. Thomas Burke, The Wind and the Rain: A Book of Confessions (Maidstone:

Londinium Press, 1979), 23; John Edwin, I’m Going – What Then? (London: NewHorizon, 1978), 8–9; Jack Overhill, ‘Sixty Years Ago’, Story Paper Collector’s Digest31 (April 1977), 31–2; Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–1; C. H. Rolph [Cecil RolphHewitt], London Particulars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 59–61;George Richmond Samways, The Road to Greyfriars (London: Howard Baker,1984), 33.

52. Derek Adley and Bill Lofts, ‘Dixon Hawke – and the Thomson Papers’, Story PaperCollector’s Digest 15 (September 1961), 5.

53. Paul West, I, Said the Sparrow (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 80. See also JimWolveridge, ‘Ain’t It Grand!’ (Or ‘This Was Stepney’) (London: Journeyman, 1981),29; Vernon Scannell, Tiger and the Rose: an Autobiography (London: Robson,1983), 71.

54. Additional biographical information from John Burnett, David Vincent andDavid Mayall, eds, The Autobiography of the Working Class (Brighton: Harvester,1987), 2, no.814.

55. West, I, Said the Sparrow, 79.56. J. H. Engledow and William Farr, The Reading and Other Interests of School Chil-

dren in Saint Pancras (London: Passmore Edwards Research Series, no. 2, 1933);A. J. Jenkinson, What do Boys and Girls Read? (London: Methuen, 1940).

4 Victorian manliness, upper-class heroes and the ideal ofcharacter, 1855–1900

1. R. A. H. Goodyear, ‘My Open-Air Reading Room’, Vanity Fair 3/25 (September1926), 11. Goodyear was born in Yorkshire, attended grammar school, andbecame an office boy in a solicitor’s office with a view to a career in the law, butbegan writing and by 1895 had published in the Boys’ Friend; he abandoned the


law for a successful literary career. Brian Doyle, entry on ‘R. A. H. Goodyear’,Robert J. Kirkpatrick, ed., The Encyclopaedia of Boys’ School Stories (Aldershot:Ashgate, 2001), 136–7.

2. Norman Vance, ‘The Ideal of Manliness’, in Brian Simon and Ian Bradley, eds,The Victorian Public School (London: Gill and Macmillan, 1975), 115–28. In his The Sinews of the Spirit: the Ideal of Christian Manliness in Victorian Literature(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 8–28, Vance reduces the typesto three: physical, chivalric and moral.

3. David Newsome, Godliness and Good Learning: Four Studies on a Victorian Ideal(London: John Murray, 1961). From a slightly different viewpoint, ClaudiaNelson, Boys Will Be Girls: the Feminine Ethic and British Children’s Fiction,1857–1915 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991), argues that theoriginal ethic was one of ‘humanliness’ which really valorized feminine qualities. Blake Richard Westerlund, ‘The Construction of British Masculinity in Adventure Fiction’ (PhD dissertation, University of Tulsa, 1998), sees TomBrown’s Schooldays as the model for a range of adventure fiction from the pensof Henty and other hard cover authors. Tom Brown’s Schooldays has been repeat-edly analysed, but see especially: Isabel Quigley, The Heirs of Tom Brown (London:Oxford University Press,1982), 42–68; Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: the PublicSchools in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 23–69;and Donald E. Hall, ‘Muscular Anxiety: Degradation and Appropriation in TomBrown’s Schooldays’, Victorian Literature and Culture 21 (1993), 327–43.

4. J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emer-gence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000[1981]); and Bruce Haley, The Healthy Body and Victorian Culture (Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 141–60.

5. Stefan Collini, ‘ “Manly Fellows”: Fawcett, Stephen and the Liberal Temper’, inLawrence Goldman, ed., The Blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and Victorian Liberal-ism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 41–59; and Public Moralists:Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930 (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1991), 91–118.

6. The same phenomenon occurred in Victorian melodrama, both on stage and infiction: Michael Booth, English Melodrama (London: Jenkins, 1965).

7. Harold Perkin, The Origins of Modern English Society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969); Simon Gunn, The Public Culture of the Victorian MiddleClass (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000). The role of gender in the formation of the middle class has been considered in Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchinson, 1987). See also Catherine Hall, White,Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (Cambridge: Polity,1992).

8. Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 16–22.

9. Gregory Anderson, Victorian Clerks (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1976), 20–7; see also, David Lockwood, The Blackcoated Worker: A Study in ClassConsciousness (London: Unwin, 1958), 41–68.

10. Keith McClelland, ‘Some Thoughts on Masculinity and the “RepresentativeArtisan” in Britain, 1850–1880’, Gender and History 1 (1989), 164–77; KeithMcClelland, ‘Rational and Respectable Men: Gender, the Working Class, and Citizenship in Britain, 1850–1867’, in Laura Frader and Sonya O. Rose, eds,


Gender and Class in Modern Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996),280–93; Catherine Hall, Keith McClelland and Jane Rendall, Defining the Victo-rian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867 (Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press, 2000), 98–101.

11. John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art andPopular Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), discusses the func-tion of moral fantasies in chaps 1 and 2.

12. Boys of England 11/267 (16 December 1871).13. James Greenwood, ‘Penny Awfuls’, Saint Pauls Magazine 12 (1873), 165–6.14. Newsome, Godliness and Good Learning, 201; J. A. Mangan, ‘ “Muscular, Mili-

taristic and Manly”: The British Middle-Class Hero as Moral Messenger’, fromRichard Holt, J. A. Mangan and Pierre Lanfranchi, eds, European Heroes: Myth,Identity, Sport (London: Frank Cass, 1996), 33.

15. Claudia Nelson, Boys Will Be Girls argues that hardcover fiction stressed not amasculine ideal for boys, but a feminine, or more clearly, a ‘human’ ideal.

16. Figures tabulated from Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics:English Periodicals for Children from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983): Brett figures, 15; Boy’s Own Magazine figures,45; Union Jack figures, 45; Boy’s Own Paper figures, 46. Joseph McAleer, PopularReading and Publishing in Britain, 1914–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992),214–20, suggests the Boy’s Own Paper figures were somewhat illusory, or that, atleast, sales had diminished signally by the 1890s. His research reveals the B.O.P.had to be subsidized by the Religious Tract Society after its first decade.

17. See my discussion of this in Chapter 3.18. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton

Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975 [1948]),19–37; Louis James, Fiction for the Working Man, 1830–1850: A Study of the Liter-ature Produced for the Working Classes in Early Victorian Urban England (London:Oxford University Press, 1963), 190–3; Peter Haining, The Penny Dreadful(London: Victor Gollancz, 1975); Peter Haining, The Legend and Bizarre Crimesof Spring-Heeled Jack (London: Muller, 1977); and Peter Haining, The Mystery andHorrible Murders of Sweeny Todd, The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (London: Muller,1977).

19. David Reed, The Popular Magazine in Britain and America (London: British Library,1997), 14–16.

20. Examples are used throughout the book, but see also the index to volume oneof John Burnett, David Vincent and David Mayall, eds, The Autobiography of theWorking Class (3 vols: Brighton: Harvester, 1984–89): entries under leisure onpenny dreadfuls and cheap literature, boy’s magazines, children’s stories, andreading and books.

21. Pat Thane, ‘Social History, 1860–1914’, in Roderick Floud and DonaldMcCloskey, eds, The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (2 vols: Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1981), 2:210–12.

22. See my discussion of this in Chapter 2.23. David Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (New Haven: Yale

University Press, 1990), 35–87, 236–96, offers an exhaustive autopsy of the topic.See also Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, The Army in Victorian Society (London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul, 1977), 59–102.

24. J. R. S de Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Development of the Victorian PublicSchool (London: Millington, 1977). See my discussion of this in Chapter 2.


25. Even the Religious Tract Society’s Boy’s Own Paper illustrated these characteris-tics, which is why the editor and the publishing committee were generally atodds: Patrick Dunae, ‘The Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, PrivateLibrary 9 (1976), 123–58.

26. Vane St John, ‘ ”Wait Till I’m a Man!” or, The Play Ground and the Battle Field’,Boys of England Vols 2–3/nos.43–58 (1867).

27. Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 20–7.28. Wainright is perhaps named after the famous art critic and poisoner, Thomas

Griffiths Wainewright (1794–1852), subject of Andrew Motion’s Wainewright thePoisoner (London: Faber and Faber, 2000); see also Richard D. Altick, VictorianStudies in Scarlet (New York: Norton, 1970), 120–1.

29. Other historical tales from Boys of England, which treat similar themes to thosediscussed below include: ‘Roland the Young Roundhead; or, The Secret of theMoated Grange. A Historical Tale’, nos.572–86 (1877); ‘Brothers in Arms; or, The War Cry of Old’, nos.641–59 (1879); ‘The Secret of the Water Witch; or, TheCastaway Cavaliers. A Romance of the Days of Good Queen Bess’, nos.771–91(1881–82); ‘The Great Bell of Bow; or, ‘Prentices and Clubs’, nos.880–99(1883–84); and ‘Mat o’ the Forge; or, The Mystery of the King’s Armourer’,nos.1385–1402 (1893).

30. See Alun Howkins and C. Ian Dyck, ‘ ”The Time’s Alteration”: Popular Ballads,Rural Radicalism and William Cobbett’, History Workshop Journal no.23 (1987),20–38, esp.25–6.

31. ‘The Vengeance of Paul Fleming; or, The Rover’s Son’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.6 (c.1883).

32. D. G. Paz, Popular Anti-Catholicism in mid-Victorian England (Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press, 1992).

33. ‘The Vengeance of Paul Fleming’, 18.34. Ibid., 5. Introduced to Don Lopez’s son, he is repelled as if ‘he had suddenly

grasped a snake unawares’.35. ‘The Master of the Sword; or, The Brother Apprentices’, Boys of the Empire

nos.1–21 (1888). In 1933, R. A. H. Goodyear remembered this tale as one of atype of yarn which ‘threw a glamour over my young life which glows in myveins yet’: ‘Stories I Liked Most – and Least’, Collector’s Miscellany 3rd series, no.3(March–April 1933), 45.

36. ‘Master of the Sword’, 316.37. Some examples of other tales with similar settings which explored the same

themes as those discussed in the Jack Harkaway tales below include: ‘Ralph theLight Dragoon; or, The Green Banner of Islam’, Boys of England nos.406–33(1874); ‘Dick Gordon, The True British Sailor Boy; or, the Cruise of the WaterSprite’, Boys of England nos.472–83 (1875–1876); ‘Jack of the Naval Brigade; or,The Zulu’s Daughter’, Boys of England nos.653–64 (1879); ‘Jubilee Jack; or, TheFlag that Braves the Battle and the Reward’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.38(c.1881); ‘The Golden Pagoda; or, A Midshipman’s Adventures in the ChineseWar’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.73 (c.1882).

38. Most of the Harkaway tales were initially serialized in Boys of Englandbefore being issued in hardcover. They include: ‘Jack Harkaway’s Schooldays’,nos.249–69 (1871); ‘Jack Harkaway, After Schooldays; His Adventures Afloat and Ashore’, nos.270–305 (1872); ‘Jack Harkaway at Oxford’, nos. 306–42 (1873); ‘Jack Harkaway Among Brigands’, nos.343–82 (1873); ‘Jack Harkaway and His Son’s Adventures Around the World’, nos.382–476


(1874–1875), plus several more. Many were reprinted in other Brett journals inlater years.

39. See, for example, Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies17 (1973), 89–99; and Patrick A. Dunae, ‘British Juvenile Literature in an Age ofEmpire: 1880–1914’, (PhD dissertation, Victoria University of Manchester, 1975).

40. ‘Jack Harkaway, After Schooldays; His Adventures Afloat and Ashore’, Boys ofEngland nos.270–305 (1872).

41. Kevin Carpenter, Desert Islands and Pirate Islands: The Island Theme in Nineteenth-Century English Juvenile Fiction: A Survey and Bibliography (Frankfurt am Main:Verlag Peter Lang, 1984), traces the progress of the ‘Robinsonnade’. See alsoJoseph Bristow, Empire Boys: Adventures in a Man’s World (London: Harper CollinsAcademic, 1991), 93–126. Ballantyne’s adventure novels were amongst the mostpopular for the juvenile market in the Victorian period and many were basedon his own travels. He had been sent to Canada in his teens to work for theHudson Bay Company and his tales of clashing cultures often resulted from hispersonal observation, first in Canada and later in other parts of the world.However, The Coral Island reflected none of his travels and is a work of pureimagination.

42. Carpenter, Desert Islands, 69.43. Bracebridge Hemyng, ‘Jack Harkaway the Third; or, The Champion of the

School’, Jack Harkaway’s Journal for Boys 1 (1893).44. P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion,

1688–1914 (London: Longman, 1993), 22–37.45. ‘Peter Pills and His Friend Potions’, Boys of the Empire nos.61–74 (1889).46. ‘Peter Pills’, 147. The scene also merits two illustrations, 145, 148; a later con-

frontation is illustrated as well, 193. M.R.C.P indicates membership in the RoyalCollege of Physicians, while M.R.C.S. refers to the Royal College of Surgeons;both were elite institutions to which one was appointed on examination.

47. The professional status of medical men was still being established in the latenineteenth century. See W. J. Reader, The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nine-teenth Century England (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966); Noel Parry andJose Parry, The Rise of the Medical Profession: A Study in Collective Social Mobility(London: Croom Helm, 1976); M. Jeanne Peterson, The Medical Profession in mid-Victorian London (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); F. F. Cartwright,A Social History of Medicine (London: Longman, 1977); S. E. D. Shortt, ‘Physi-cians, Science and Status: Issues in the Professionalization of Anglo-AmericanMedicine in the Nineteenth Century’, Medical History 27 (1983), 51–68; Stella V.F. Butler, ‘A Transformation in Training: the Formation of University MedicalFaculties in Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool, 1870–1884’, Medical History 30(1986), 115–32; Virginia Berridge, ‘Health and Medicine’, in F. M. L. Thompson,ed., The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1850 (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1990), 3:179–82.

48. Of course, this is not necessarily the case. The pharmaceutical industry in Britainremained unregulated well into the twentieth century. See J. K. Crellin, ‘TheGrowth of Professionalism in Nineteenth Century British Pharmacy’, MedicalHistory 11 (1967), 215–27; Hilary Marland, ‘The Medical Activities of mid-Nineteenth Century Chemists and Druggists, with Special Reference to Wake-field and Huddersfield’, Medical History 31 (1987), 415–39; Jonathan Liebenau,‘Ethical Business: The Formation of the Pharmaceutical Industry in Britain,Germany, and the United States before 1914’, Business History 30 (1988), 116–29.


49. ‘Canadian Jack; or, the Mystery of the Old Log Hut: A Colonial Story’, Boys ofthe Empire nos.18–44 (1888/89).

50. Other stories which treated similar themes included: ‘The Rival Chiefs; or, FromSchoolground to the Warpath’, Boys of England nos.399–412 (1874); ‘The Brandof Death’, Boys of England nos.665–8 (1879); ‘English Will Amongst the Boers;or, Rivals in Love and War’, Boys of England nos.983–1005 (1885–1886); and ‘TheCowboy King; or, The Indian’s Terror’, Boys of England nos.1323–1341 (1892).

51. ‘Canadian Jack’, 274.52. Ibid.53. Ibid.54. Ibid.55. The cult of hunting was particularly strong at this time. See John M.

Mackenzie, The Empire of Nature: Hunting, Conservation and British Imperialism(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989).

56. Mackenzie, Empire of Nature, 275.57. This episode is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.58. Dollman does have one redeeming characteristic: his lack of racial prejudice.

This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.59. ‘Canadian Jack’, 286.60. See my discussion of this in Chapter 7.61. Rohan Allan McWilliam, ‘The Tichborne Claimant and the People: Investiga-

tions into Popular Culture, 1867–1886’ (PhD diss., University of Sussex, 1990),2, 263, 266–7, 279.

62. See Boys of the Empire, 2 (1889), 94, 126, 240. This was a common practice; othersignatures in Boys of the Empire included: Rory Delany, 2 (1889), 94, 126, 240;Master of the Sword, 2 (1889), 158; Godwin the Saxon, 3 (1889), 48, 160, 240;Mat the Mystery, 3 (1889), 96, 160, 176, 240; and Peter Pills, 3 (1889), 176, 224.

63. Alex J. Tuss, S. M., The Inward Revolution: Troubled Young Men in Victorian Fiction,1850–1880 (New York: Peter Lang, 1992), 2–3.

64. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School.

5 The democratization of manliness at the turn of the century, 1890–1920

1. Thomas Burke, The Wind and the Rain: A Book of Confessions (London: Butterworth, 1924), 59. This is Burke’s comment on being sent to the orphan-age, which he was told would be like going to a ‘posh’ boarding school.

2. V. S. Pritchett, A Cab at the Door: An Autobiography (London: Chatto and Windus,1968), 109. Pritchett’s background was lower middle class. When his father dis-covered his cache of the Gem and the Magnet, they were tossed into the fireplaceand burned (112–13).

3. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 160–1.

4. E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, SextonBlake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton, et al (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975 [1948]),127–80; Richard Alewyn, ‘The Origin of the Detective Novel’, in Glenn W. Mostand William W. Stowe, eds, The Poetics of Murder (New York: Harcourt, 1983),62–78; Robin Winks, ed., Detective Fiction (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press,1988); Joseph A. Kestner, The Edwardian Detective, 1901–1915 (Aldershot:


Ashgate, 2000). Except for Turner, there has been no significant discussion ofthe detective in mass juvenile fiction.

5. G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Daniel J. Kevles, Inthe Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1985); Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfarein England, 1900–1939 (London: Croom Helm, 1980); Anna Davin, ‘Imperialismand Motherhood’, History Workshop Journal 5 (1978), 9–66; Richard A. Soloway,Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); GeorgeRobb, ‘Race Motherhood: Moral Eugenics versus Progressive Eugenics, 1880–1920’, in Claudia Nelson and Anne Sumner Holmes, eds, Maternal Instincts:Visions of Motherhood and Sexuality in Britain, 1875–1925 (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1997), 58–74; John Springhall,Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883–1940 (London: CroomHelm, 1977); and Michael Rosenthal, The Character Factory: Baden Powell and theOrigins of the Boy Scout Movement (London: Collins, 1986).

6. George Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England (London: Macgibbonand Kee, 1967 [1936]) remains the classic statement on this period.

7. John Gillis, ‘The Evolution of Delinquency in England, 1890–1914’, Past andPresent 67 (May 1975), 96–126; Stephen Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford: BasilBlackwell, 1981); Victor Bailey, Delinquency and Citizenship: Reclaiming the YoungOffender, 1914–1948 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Harry Hendrick, Images ofYouth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990);Michael J. Childs, Labour’s Apprentices: Working-Class Lads in Late Victorian andEdwardian England (Montreal: McGill, 1992); Thomas E. Jordan, The DegeneracyCrisis and Victorian Youth (Buffalo: State University of Buffalo Press, 1993);Matthew Hilton, ‘ “Tabs”, “Fags”, and the “Boy Labour Problem” in Late Victorian and Edwardian Britain’, Journal of Social History 28 (1994–95), 587–608; Andrew Davies, ‘Youth Gangs, Masculinity and Violence in Late VictorianManchester and Salford’, Journal of Social History 32 (1998), 349–79.

8. Colin Fry, ‘Picture of Perfection’, New Society 18 (12 August 1971), 294–5; PhilipWarner, ed., The Best of Chums (London: Cassell, 1978); Robert H. MacDonald,‘Reproducing the Middle Class Boy: From Purity to Patriotism in Boys’ Magazines, 1892–1914’, Journal of Contemporary History 24 (1989), 519–39.

9. Paul West, I, Said the Sparrow (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 80; Burke, The Windand the Rain, 59.

10. Mark Linley was the first of several scholarship boys at Greyfriars. See, ‘A Ladfrom Lancashire’, Magnet no.45 (1908). Other publications also treated thistopic: Walter Edwards, ‘The Scholarship Boy’, Boy’s Journal no.33 (1914); ‘A Lancashire Lad’, Boy’s Friend Library no.69 (1908). Some critics have suggestedthat it was rare for real public schoolboys to read these stories, as they wouldhave easily recognized the unreality of the settings; see Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: The Public School in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 276–7; Arthur Marshall, Girls Will Be Girls (London:Hamish Hamilton, 1974), 116.

11. Childs, ‘Boy Labour’, 798–802; Keith McClelland, ‘Some Thoughts on Masculinity and the “Representative Artisan” in Britain, 1850–1880’, Gender andHistory 1 (1989), 164–77.


12. Besides the occasional mention in many autobiographies, nostalgia is the maintheme of the many ‘Old Boys Book Clubs’ scattered around Britain and of theStory Papers Collectors Digest, a monthly publication still prospering in its sixthdecade of publication. School stories have received several monographic treat-ments: John Reed, Old School Ties: The Public Schools in British Literature(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1964); Isabel Quigley, The Heirs of TomBrown: The English School Story (London: Chatto and Windus, 1982); PeterWilliam Musgrave, From Brown to Bunter: The Life and Death of the School Story(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985); Richards, Happiest Days.

13. The growth of the public school is suggested by the fact that the ClarendonCommission (1861–64) had recognized only nine public schools, but by 1902,102 schools belonged to the Headmaster’s Conference (the body which definedmost public schools) and another sixty were on the border of public schoolstatus; see J. R. S. de Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Development of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977), 239, 273.

14. Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–1.15. ‘Harkaway the Third; or, The Champion of the School’, Jack Harkaway’s Journal

for Boys 1 (1893). Hemyng also set some of his novels in schools, for example,Eton School Days, or Recollections of an Old Etonian (London: Ward, Lock and Tyler,1864) and Butler Burke at Eton (London: John Maxwell, 1865).

16. There is a booming Frank Richards industry. Besides the successful reprints ofseries of Greyfriars stories from the Howard Baker Press, there are many volumeswhich discuss the minutiae of the stories. They include: J. S. Butcher, Greyfriar’sSchool: A Prospectus (London: Cassell, 1965); The Magnet Companion (London:Howard Baker, 1971); George Beal, ed. and W. O. G. Lofts, comp., The MagnetCompanion ’77 (London: Howard Baker, 1976); Eric Fayne and Roger Jenkins,eds, The Charles Hamilton Companion: Volume One. A History of the Gem andMagnet (Maidstone: Museum Press, ca.1972); John Wernham and Mary Cadogan,eds, The Charles Hamilton Companion: Volume Two. The Greyfriars Characters(Maidstone: Museum Press, c.1976); John Wernham, ed., The Charles HamiltonCompanion: Volume Three. A New Anthology from the Works of Charles Hamilton(Maidstone: Museum Press, 1976); W. O. G. Lofts and Derek Adley, The World ofFrank Richards (London: Howard Baker, 1975); Mary Cadogan, Frank Richards:The Chap Behind the Chums (London: Viking, 1988).

17. Anne Wilson, ‘Little Lord Fauntleroy: The Darling of Mothers and the Abomination of a Generation’, American Literary History 8 (1996), 232–58.Frances Hodgson Burnett’s Little Lord Fauntleroy was first published in the US in1886, but quickly became an international bestseller.

18. J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000[1981]): see especially Mangan’s introduction to the new edition where he cas-tigates writers who have failed to understand his analysis. The tension betweengames and freedom is best expressed in Rudyard Kipling, Stalky & Co. (1899), an early subversive critique of the cult of athleticism. George Orwell, ‘Boys’Weeklies’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, The Collected Essays, Journalismand Letters of George Orwell: Vol. I: An Age Like This (Harmondsworth: Penguin,1970 [1968]), considered Stalky & Co. to be the inspiration for most twentieth-century school stories, 510, but Frank Richards denied this in his riposte, ‘FrankRichards replies to George Orwell’, in Orwell and Angus, eds, Collected Essays,532–3.


19. J. A. Mangan and Colm Hickey, ‘English Elementary Education Revisited andRevised: Drill and Athleticism in Tandem’, European Sports History Review 1(1999), 63–91.

20. Martin Clifford [Charles Hamilton], ‘Tom Merry’s Schooldays’, Gem no.3 (30March 1907), 15.

21. Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown’s Schooldays, ch.3.22. In 1908 Charles Hamilton was called before Amalgamated Press editor Percy

Griffith and sub-editor Herbert Hinton. They posed a simple question: Could hewrite a new paper, the Magnet? Without thinking he answered ‘yes’ and soonwas authoring two full papers each week as well as writing stories for other publications: Charles Hamilton, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London:Charles Skilton, 1952), 33.

23. The Remove class was part of the lower fifth form, which meant most of itsmembers would be around 15 years old.

24. Bunter was not the central character of these early stories, but a constant sourceof comic relief. He was a benign but greedy schoolboy obsessed by his next mealand forced by a lack of funds to ingratiate himself with others to procure hiswishes. Bunter as a character entered English popular culture and it is still notuncommon to hear someone referred to as a ‘real Billy Bunter’. His popularitywas assured when he became the centre of a series of post-war novels and television series.

25. Harry Wharton, Bob Cherry, Frank Nugent, Hurree Jamset Ram Singh andJohnny Bull.

26. Frank Richards, ‘The Taming of Harry’, Magnet no.2 (22 February 1908), 1.27. For a more detailed examination of the depiction of the influence of women on

boys’ lives see Chapter 8.28. Richards, ‘Taming of Harry’, 3.29. Ibid., 14.30. Interestingly, Charles Hamilton later revealed that Frank Nugent was based

on himself. See Frank Richards [Charles Hamilton], ‘On Being a Boys’ Writer’,Saturday Book 5 (1945), 75–85.

31. Peter Vansittart, Paths from a White Horse: A Writer’s Memoir (London: Quartet,1985), 14.

32. Jack Overhill, ‘Sixty Years Ago’, Story Paper’s Collector’s Digest 31/364 (April 1977),31–2.

33. See Frank Richards, ‘The Mystery of Greyfriars’, Magnet no.3 (29 February 1908).The basic plot revolves around Hazeldene’s efforts to win the prize himself bypsyching out his only opposition, Wharton.

34. Frank Richards, ‘Chums of the Remove’, Magnet no.4 (7 March 1908), 7.35. Harry Wharton had a tendency to slip back into his old habits, which would

then spark a new series of tales about his redemption. See the ‘Harry Wharton,Rebel’, series, Magnet nos.879–88 (1925); the ‘Harry Wharton down on his luck’series, Magnet nos.1255–60 (1932); the ‘Harry Wharton versus Mr. Quelch’ series,Magnet nos.1285–96 (1932); and ‘The Shadow of the Sack’, Magnet no.1683(1940). Other characters also dealt with similar problems, notably ‘the Bounder’Vernon Smith, in ‘A Schoolboy’s Crossroads’, Magnet no.180 (1911); ‘Vernon-Smith’s feud against the Famous Five’, Magnet nos.247–55 (1912); the breaking-bounds stories, Magnet nos.297–300 (1913); ‘Saving the Bounder’, Magnet no.511(1917); and many others.

36. Frank Richards, ‘A Lad from Lancashire’, Magnet no.45 (22 December 1908).


37. Christine Heward, Making a Man of Him: Parents and Their Sons’ Education at anEnglish Public School, 1929–50 (London: Routledge, 1988), 160–2.

38. T. W. Bamford, ‘Public School Data: A Compilation of Data on Public and RelatedSchools (Boys) mainly from 1866’, University of Hull Institute of Education Aids toResearch 2 (July 1974), 42–6, discusses fee structures in some depth and illus-trates how little is known. See also his The Rise of the Public Schools: A Study ofBoys’ Public Boarding Schools in England and Wales from 1837 to the Present Day(London: Nelson, 1967), 302–7. Brian Simon notes that the Schools InquiryCommission (1869) had called for the eradication of free places in order to separate the classes, although this was not effectively carried out and Honeyreminds us that public schools scholarship examinations were generally basedon skill at Latin and Greek, which effectively excluded the working class: BrianSimon, ‘Systematization and Segmentation in Education: The Case of England’,in Detlef K. Müller, Fritz Ringer and Brian Simon, eds, The Rise of the ModernEducational System: Structural Change and Social Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 99, and John Honey, ‘The Sinews of Society:The Public Schools as a “System”’, in Muller, Ringer and Simon, eds, The Rise ofthe Modern Educational System, 157.

39. Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, 505–31.40. Eric Fayne, ‘Let’s Be Controversial’, Collector’s Digest no.158 (February 1960),

56–7.41. The Magnet sold in excess of 200,000 copies each week from around 1925 to

1935, but had fallen to a weekly circulation of 40,000 by 1940; see Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Children fromVictorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983): 58.

42. John Reed, Victorian Conventions (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1975), 268–88and E. S. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys, 19–20. The struggle to find one’s true familyand secure one’s inheritance was one of the most enduring plots of the nine-teenth century.

43. John G. Cawelti, Apostles of the Self-Made Man (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1965), argues that Alger heroes are aided as much by meeting the rightpatron as by hard work and that their success is generally modest, 110–11.Michael Denning, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture inAmerica (London: Verso, 1987), 167–84.

44. Earlier novels in which the hero had been cast among thieves lacked thiselement of proving his manliness, see, for example, Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist(1837).

45. Geoffrey Murray, ‘Mighty London! Modern Story of a Great City’, Boy’s Journalnos.1–16 (1913). The gothic reading of the city evokes G. W. M. Reynolds’ classicthe Mysteries of London (two series; 4 vols each; 1846–55).

46. The name and the instrument both suggest the popularity of the SherlockHolmes stories in these years.

47. Murray, ‘Mighty London!’ 23–4.48. Ibid., 24.49. Walter Hope, ‘Who Was to Blame?’ Boy’s Journal no.5 (1913), 133–6. Walter Hope

was a pen-name of the journal’s editor, Horace Phillips.50. The temperance movement in Britain has been examined in depth for the

mid-Victorian period, but less work has been done on the later years. See BrianHarrison, Drink and the Victorians: The Temperance Question in England, 1815–1872 (London: Faber and Faber, 1971).


51. Hope, ‘Who Was to Blame?’ 135.52. Ibid.53. Boy’s Journal nos.5–9 (1913).54. One engine driver was convicted of manslaughter, then later pardoned, when

his train ran into a standing train at 3 A.M. at Aisgill, Westmorland on 2 September 1913. The classic treatment of railway accidents is L. T. C. Rolt, Redfor Danger: the Classic History of British Railway Disasters (London: Sutton, 1998[1955]), see especially his chapters: ‘Signalmen’s Errors, 1890–1937’ and ‘Drivers’Errors, 1890–1940’, 194–255.

55. ‘Only a Collier Lad’, Stories of Pluck no.460 (1903).56. The evidence for this is strongest in textile regions of Lancashire. See Patrick

Joyce, Work, Society and Politics: The Culture of the Factory in later Victorian England(London: Methuen, 1980), 134–57.

57. The role of diction in indicating character was also clear in ‘Mighty London!’where Allan Sherlock speaks grammatical English while his foster father, SloggerSam, uses a thick patois.

58. C. Bridges, ‘With Pick and Lamp: The Perils of the Pit Boy’, Union Jack Library ofHigh-Class Fiction n.s.1 (1903).

59. Tales which dealt with factory work, mining and office work were increasinglyfrequent. For example, see John C. Twist, ‘Dauntless Cobby, The Collier Lad’,True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.21 (1898); BracebridgeHemyng, ‘The Driver of the Royal Mail; or, The Mystery of the Cryptograph’,True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.24 (1898); ‘Chris Waterman[Thames River police]’, Union Jack no.464 (1902); ‘The Fire Fighters’, Union Jackno.452 (1902); Hamilton Edwards, ‘Only a Pit Boy’, Boy’s Friend Library no.13(1907); Allen Blair, ‘Robbed of His Character: A Story of Business Life’, Boy’sJournal no.14 (1913); Horace Phillips, ‘It’s Hard to Get On’, Boy’s Journal no.17(1914); John Tregellis, ‘Black Strike; or, The War of the Workers’, Boys’ Friendnos.665–85 (1914); and Andrew Gray, ‘Disaster Pit’, Boys’ Friend nos.656–67(1915). In all these tales the heroes worked in order to do their proper job.Although there is little support for organized labour, most tales see unions asproviding a necessary role. This is a great contrast to G. A. Henty, ‘Facing Death:A Tale of the Coal Mines’, Union Jack nos.16–20 (15 April–13 May 1880), whichblasted the idea of working-class solidarity and portrayed all of the working classas drunken or lazy.

60. All these tales are found in Stories of Pluck and the Union Jack Library of High-Class Fiction in 1903.

61. Jack, Sam and Pete were an Englishman, an American and a black man (originsobscure), who roved the world having adventures. They will be discussed indetail in Chapter 7.

62. Boxing stories appeared at one time or another in most story papers. For example, see L. M. Furniss, ‘Tom Cribb, Boxer’, Pluck n.s. nos.283–91 (1910); Walter Edwards, ‘The Side-Stepper’, Boy’s Journal no.48 (1914); CaptainMalcolm Arnold, ‘For Cup and Belt’, Boy’s Friend nos.656–65 (1914); Henry T.Johnson, ‘The Boxing Barrister’, Boys’ Realm nos.612–23 (1914); ‘The Pit Champion’, Boys’ Realm no.635 (1914); Captain Malcolm Arnold, ‘The AirmanBoxer’, Boys’ Realm nos.640–66 (1914); Mark Darran, ‘The Champion from Mill-Land. A Tensely Written Romance of the Ring and the Worker’s Home’,Boy’s Friend nos.695–705 (1914); and Geoffrey Holt, ‘Turned Down’, Boy’s Journalno.70 (1915).


63. Tom Sayers (1826–65) was probably the most celebrated middleweight of the Victorian era. He retired undefeated in 1860, although his final appearance in thering, against American John C. Heenan, ended in a draw after 37 rounds foughtin two hours and six minutes. Many said Heenan fought unfairly, but Sayers lastedthe fight. His admirers collected £3000 for him and his family on his promise toretire. His burial three years later at Highgate Cemetery was akin to a state occa-sion. William Bradfoot, ‘Tom Sayers’, Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1922), 17:881–2; Dennis Brailsford, Bareknuckle: A SocialHistory of Prizefighting (Cambridge: Lutterworth, 1988), 128–37.

64. They included Kennington, Islington, West Ham, Hammersmith, Woolwich,Wandsworth, Battersea, Lewisham, New Cross and Hackney.

65. Arthur S. Hardy, ‘Handsome Jack, or Afraid for His Face’, Marvel n.s.505 (5 October 1913).

66. Stanley Albert Shipley, ‘The Boxer as Hero: A Study of Social Class, Community,and the Professionalization of the Sport in London, 1890–1905’ (PhD diss., University of London, 1986), 1–10.

67. Although this was slow to come. See Andrew Davies on the pub as a masculinespace: Leisure, Gender and Poverty: Working-Class Culture in Salford and Manchester, 1900–1939 (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992) and ClareLanghamer, Women’s Leisure in England, 1920–60 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 70–3.

68. Shipley, ‘The Boxer as Hero’, 88.69. Ibid., 56.70. Ibid., 77–90.71. Ibid., 287–326.72. Arthur S. Harding, ‘Tom Sayers on Tour’, Marvel n.s.277 (15 May 1909), 1.73. For example, ‘Paul Conway: Detective’, True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class

Fiction no.26 (1898); ‘A Traitor’s Trail [Dixon Brett]’, True Blue. A Weekly Libraryof High Class Fiction no.30 (1910); ‘Archie Farlow and Neil Brand’, Pluck n.s.nos.270–2 (1910); and the P. C. Spearing series, Pluck n.s. nos.323–576(1910–1915).

74. ‘Sexton Blake, Detective’, ([12 May] 1894). See Turner, Boys Will Be Boys, ch.8,for an extended treatment of Blake.

75. ‘The Mystery of the Diamond Belt’, Boys’ Journal 3/57–70 ( 17 October 1914–16January 1915). The film was produced by Charles Raymond for I. B. Gilbert andreleased in August 1914; at 3,500 feet in length it was a substantial film: RachaelLow, The History of British Film: 1906–1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin,1973 [1948]), 198, 288. Subsequently Sexton Blake has been adapted for screenand later television repeatedly.

76. ‘Sexton Blake, Scoutmaster’, Union Jack (20 November 1909).77. ‘Private Tinker, A.S.C.: A Magnificent Tale of Tinker at the Front’, Union Jack

Library of High-Class Fiction n.s.589 (23 January 1915).78. For a look at how this idea was inculcated in the upper classes, see Peter Parker,

The Old Lie: the Great War and the Public School Ethos (London: Constable, 1987).79. ‘The Boy Scout of Scarlett’s; or, Bayonets for the Boers’, True Blue War Library

no.1 (5 February 1900), 4.80. The Boer War was also depicted in Captain Hatterly, ‘The Two War Recruits’,

True Blue. A Weekly Library of High Class Fiction no.28 (1898); J. Holloway, ‘ForQueen and Country; or, The Mystery of the Veldt’, True Blue. A Weekly Libraryof High Class Fiction no.39 (1898).


81. Turner, Boys Will Be Boys, 191–202; Samuel Hynes, The Edwardian Turn of Mind(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), 34–53, discusses hardcover invasion fiction. See also Christopher Andrew, Secret Service: The Making of theBritish Intelligence Community (London: Heinemann, 1985), 34–53. Of course themodern genre can be traced to [G. T. Chesney], ‘The Battle of Dorking, or Reminiscences of a Volunteer’, Blackwood’s Magazine 109 (May 1871), 539–572.

82. Boys’ Realm no.605 (3 January 1914), 496.83. Boys’ Realm no.662 (6 February 1915), 593.84. Other letters from the trenches in the Boys’ Realm in 1915 can be found in

no.667 (13 March 1915), 672; no.697 (9 October 1915), 325; and no.707 (18December 1915), 496. The Union Jack also published a series of signed lettersfrom the trenches between July 17 and December 4, 1915. After this the lettersstop. Most boost the Union Jack and ask for them to be forwarded to the trenches,one challenges the veracity of the letters (24 July), one is from a prisoner of war(30 October) and the last is a plea for anyone to come forward if they have seenthe correspondent’s brother-in-law, who has been reported missing in action (12December). Another affecting letter enclosed a photograph of a group of friendswho had enlisted together; ‘X’ marks indicated that several lay dead already:Boy’s Journal no.66 (19 December 1914), 355.

85. Dudley Vaughn and Henry T. Johnson, ‘When War Came’, Boys’ Realm nos.639–58 (1914–1915); Sidney Drew, ‘The Air Raiders’, Boys’ Realmnos.691–704 (1915); A. S. Hardy, ‘The Fighting Footballers’, Boys’ Realmnos.696–711 (1915–1916); Captain Malcolm Arnold, ‘The Pride of Kitchener’sArmy’, Boys’ Realm nos.697–710 (1915–16).

86. T. C. Wignall, ‘The Fighting Strain’, Boys’ Realm no.694 (18 September 1915),274.

87. Boys’ Realm no.702 (13 November 1915).88. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1975), 26–28, discusses the ritual of kicking a football behind enemy lines.89. Jack Lewis, ‘For Britain’s Glory’, Boys’ Journal 3/62 (21 November 1914), 257.90. See Magnet Companion, 116.91. Football came under a great deal of criticism at the beginning of the war for

not stopping competition, and for employing so many able-bodied men. TheFootball League and Football Association (professional soccer’s governingbodies) resisted pressures to abandon play, offering themselves as recruitersinstead; their success was debateable. Middle-class critics were especially criticalof what was essentially a working-class sport. By mid-1915 the leagues agreedto limit matches to regional contests and to use only amateurs to play for theduration of the war; several teams suspended play completely. See Colin Veitch,‘“Play up! Play up! and Win the War!”: Football, the Nation and the First WorldWar’, Journal of Contemporary History 10 (1985), 363–78. For an account of themachinations of one club to survive while carrying on wartime play, see A. J.Arnold, ‘ “Not Playing the Game”? Leeds City in the Great War’, InternationalJournal of the History of Sport 7 (1990), 111–19.

92. See Elaine Showalter, ‘Rivers and Sassoon: The Inscription of Male Gender Anxieties’, in Margaret Randolph Higonnet et al., eds, Behind the Lines: Genderand the Two World Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 61–9; andElaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture,1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987 [1985]), 167–94. Showalter argues that muchof the shellshock of the Great War was sparked by men who could not recon-


cile a certain vision of courageous masculinity with the realities of trenchwarfare. Most of her work deals with the ‘breakdown’ of Siegfried Sassoon, butshe also explores the class-linked methods for ‘curing’ these men – the talkingcure for the upper classes and electrical shocks for the lower. For another per-spective on the psychological effects of the war, see Eric J. Leed, No Man’s Land:Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

93. Johns himself had escaped a rather mundane life during the war. Born in 1893,his father was a tailor, and after attending a local grammar school, he enteredindentures to become a surveyor. At 18, he had joined the local yeomanry, andwhen the war started he went into the army, serving at Gallipolli before trans-ferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917, where he was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. He served as an instructor and in August 1918 while on amission he was shot down and spent the remainder of the war as a prisoner ofwar. He remained in the Royal Flying Corps until 1927, when he began illus-trating books, and in 1932 while editor of the new magazine Popular Flyingcreated ‘Biggles’. The tales were immediately popular and many were publishedin Modern Boy before transfer to hard cover: Peter Beresford Ellis and PiersWilliams, By Jove, Biggles! The Life of Captain W. E. Johns (London: W. H. Allan,1981) and Peter Berresford Ellis and Jennifer Schofield, Biggles! The Life Story ofCapt. W. E. Johns (Godmanstone, Dorset: Veloce, 1993).

94. See for example, ‘Biggles’ Xmas Box’, Modern Boy no.358 (15 December 1934).

6 Balance, self-control and obedience in the inter-war years

1. Vernon Scannell, The Tiger and the Rose: an Autobiography (London: Robson,1983), 71. Born into a working-class family the poet attended elementary school;after war service he attended Leeds University. Scannell later listed ‘loathingTories’ amongst his recreations in Who’s Who.

2. Derek Davies, ‘Untitled’ in Ronald Goldman, ed., Breakthrough: AutobiographicalAccounts of the Education of Some Socially Disadvantaged Children (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), 30–1. Son of a skilled worker in the BlackCountry, he received a scholarship, attended Oxford and later became a teacherand headmaster.

3. The Education Act 1918, (the Fisher Act), confirmed the age for school leavingat 14 throughout the country, eliminating the anomaly that had continued insome areas where at age 12 a child could work and study at a ‘continuation’school. It was hoped that the age would soon be raised to 15, and successiveeducational reports applied themselves to the task of separating primary fromsecondary education.

4. According to Kevin Carpenter, comp., Penny Dreadfuls and Comics: English Periodicals for Children from Victorian Times to the Present (London: Victoria andAlbert Museum, 1983), 58; although readership remained high during the 1920s,by 1939 circulation had fallen from a peak of 200,000 per week to 40,000 perweek for the Magnet and 16,000 per week for the Gem. See also, George Orwell,‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds, The Collected Essays ofGeorge Orwell. Volume One: An Age Like This (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970),507.

5. Red Circle stories dominated the pages of the Hotspur from 1933 to well intothe 1950s. Tales appeared weekly with many themes regularly replayed.


6. These were Home House (for British boys), Colonial or ‘Conk’ House (for Empireboys), and Transatlantic or ‘Yank’ House (for American and Canadian boys).

7. Paul West, I, Said the Sparrow (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 79–80; Scannell, Tigerand the Rose, 71; Wolveridge, ‘Ain’t It Grand’: (or, ‘This was Stepney’) (London:Journeyman, 1981), 30–1.

8. Chaim Bermant, Coming Home (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1976), 79.9. ‘The Terror of Yank House’ Hotspur no.7 (14 October 1933), 185–6.

10. Septimus Green was a continuing character during the inter-war years, begin-ning as a teacher and later becoming a school inspector. Between 1933 and 1938he featured as hero of seven different series of ‘Big Stiff’ stories.

11. Dave Marson, Children’s Strikes of 1911 (Oxford: History Workshop, 1973) andStephen Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), ch.4, both dealextensively with the hundreds of school strikes during the period. A constantrequest was the abandonment of the cane although this was seldom the issuewhich sparked dissent. One ‘Big Stiff’ story showed boys striking against othermasters’ use of the cane, Hotspur no.65 (24 November 1934), 199–202.

12. ‘Thick-Ear Donovan’ appeared in Wizard nos.475–98 (1932); nos.524–51(1932–33); nos.592–604 (1933); and nos.629–45 (1934). ‘Mississippi Mike’ wasfeatured in Hotspur nos.136–47 (1936). Some series were comic while othersoffered adventure backgrounds. All stressed the teachers as exemplars. See from1933’s Hotspur: ‘The World’s Toughest School’, nos.82–93; ‘Cobb’s College forCops’, nos.84–91; ‘The Headmaster’s a Spoofer’, nos.89–106; ‘Masters of theHooded Class’, nos.97–106; ‘The School with Two Heads, a Swiper, a Swotter’,nos.100–106; ‘The School Bell Must Not Ring’, nos.107–23; and from otherpapers: ‘Burley Brook’, Wizard nos.539–56 (1932); ‘The School Where No BoyForgets’, Wizard nos.950–61 (1941); ‘Mary’s Lambs at School’, Rover nos.908–14(1939); ‘The School for T’s and B’s [Troublesome and Backwards]’, Rover no.83(1923).

13. ‘The Big Stiff’, Hotspur no.6 (7 October 1933), 161–4.14. During one series of stories, the Big Stiff’s peers actually managed to get him

committed to a lunatic asylum, certain he must be mad to employ the methodshe likes; he founded a successful school within the grounds of the asylum and carried on. See ‘Whoopee! – It’s the Big Stiff’, Hotspur nos.182–92 (20 February–19 June 1937).

15. G. A. N. Lowndes, The Silent Social Revolution: an Account of the Expansion of PublicEducation in England and Wales, 1896–1965 (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1969), 129–39; R. J. W. Selleck, English Primary Education and the Progressives,1914–1939 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), 40–4.

16. ‘The Big Stiff’, Hotspur no.21 (20 January 1934), 66–9.17. Ibid. no.61 (27 October 1934), 108–11.18. Ibid., 108.19. Tarzan of the Apes was first published in 1913; over the next thirty years, a score

of novels detailing the jungle man’s adventures appeared. As early as 1918Tarzan had been taken up by the cinema. His appeal remains almost undimmedtoday, but recent inquiries have focused on the racist nature of these texts: JohnNewsinger, ‘Lord Greystoke and Darkest Africa: the Politics of the Tarzan Stories’,Race & Class 28 (1986), 59–71.

20. The boy lost in infancy was a popular theme. See also, ‘The Kid from the Jungle’,Wizard nos.1–16 (1922); ‘The Kid from the Yukon’, Wizard nos.66–74 (1923–24);


‘Bayrak’, Wizard nos.321–35 (1929); ‘Cave-Man Joe’, Wizard nos.512–23 (1932);‘Jan of the Jungle’, Modern Boy nos.228–42 (1932).

21. Jeff Berglund, ‘Write, Right, White, Rite: Literacy, Imperialism, Race, and Cannibalism in Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan of the Apes’, Studies in AmericanFiction 27 (1999), 53–76.

22. Tex Rivers, ‘The Schoolboy Cannibal Earl’, Boys’ Friend Library n.s. no.546 (1 October 1936), 18.

23. Rivers, ‘Schoolboy Cannibal Earl’, 19.24. ‘The Worst Boy at Borsted’, Pilot nos.2–23 (1935–36). Borstals are penal refor-

matories for youths aged 16 to 21. Established in 1900, they at first put a heavyemphasis on discipline to reform inmates, but by the 1930s placed a higherpremium on education. For a short history of the movement, see Roger Hood,Borstal Re-Assessed (London: Heinemann, 1965), 1–62. See also, Martin J. Wiener,Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830–1914(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 131–40, 285–93, and 358–64.

25. Note the following ways of describing Jim: ‘tough, untamed and defiant’(p.59),‘perpetually sullen’(p.124), and ‘a born leader’ – someone who could ‘put it overthe warders and the governor’ (p.184). Only the last sings his praises, but thiscelebrates his subversive qualities, as an underground leader. The establishmentview is best summed up by the appeal board, who term him ‘a sturdy, self-opinionated, unruly youngster obviously in need of discipline’(p.472).

26. ‘Worst Boy at Borsted’, 472.27. Ibid., 97.28. Ibid., 103.29. Ibid., 185.30. Ibid., 493.31. Ibid., 516.32. Ibid., 572.33. Ibid., 604.34. ‘You and the Editor’, Adventure no.1 (21 September 1921), 3. The famous explorer

is unnamed.35. See J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The

Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (London: Frank Cass, 2000[1981]); Joe Maguire, ‘Images of Manliness and Competing Ways of Living inLate Victorian and Edwardian England’, British Journal of Sports History 3 (1986),265–87; and Jeffry Hill, ‘ “First-Class” Cricket and the Leagues: Some Notes onthe Development of English Cricket, 1900–1940’, International Journal of theHistory of Sport 4 (1987), 68–71.

36. Geoffrey Gordon, ‘The Factory Batsman’, Boys’ Realm no.629–40 (1915). OtherEdwardian tales that used sport included: ‘The Fighting Footballer; or, The Sporting Chance’, Boy’s Journal nos.2–16 (1913); Henry St Johns, ‘The SpeedKing’, Boys’ Friend nos.676–80 (1915); Sidney Drew, ‘Pride of the Footplate; or,The Railway Athlete’, Boys’ Realm nos.608–20 (1914); A. S. Hardy, ‘The Caddiesof St Cuthberts’, Boys’ Realm nos.623–42 (1914).

37. This tale vindicates the criticism of Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Declineof the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1981), in its derision of business and its validation of a noncompetitive, aristo-cratic set of values.

38. The Adventure (1922). Some other examples include: ‘A Battling Five Footer’,Rover nos.244–52 (1928); Alfred Edgar, ‘The Schoolboy Speedmen!’ Modern Boy


nos.63–72 (1929); ‘Johnny on the Jump’, Rover nos.359–73 (1929); and WalterHammond, ‘The Captain of Claverhouse’, Modern Boy nos.124–47 (1930).

39. John Lowerson, ‘Golf’, in Tony Mason, ed., Sport in History: a Social History(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 187–214; Roland Quinault,‘Golf and Edwardian Politics’, in Negley Harte and Roland Quinault, eds, Land and Society in Britain, 1700–1914: Essays in Honour of F. M. L. Thompson(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 191–210.

40. His dedication to the game is especially admirable in a period when turning pro-fessional was never done by a gentleman as it could only be seen as a declinein status. See Jack William, ‘Cricket’, in Mason, ed., Sport in History, 116–45.

41. Margaret Morris, The General Strike (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), 11, 77;Symons, General Strike, 16–17.

42. See Arthur Marwick, The Deluge: British Society and the First World War (London:Bodley Head, 1965); Jane Lewis, Women in England 1870–1950: Sexual Divisionand Social Change (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1984); Jane Lewis, ed., Labour and Love:Women’s Experience of Home and Family, 1850–1940 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell,1986); Diana Gittins, Fair Sex: Family Size and Structure, 1900–1939 (London:Hutchinson, 1982).

43. For examples, see Alison Oram, ‘“Embittered, Sexless or Homosexual”: Attackson Spinster Teachers, 1918–39’, in Arina Angerman, Geerte Binnema, Anne-mieke Keunen, Vefie Poels and Jacqueline Zirksee, eds, Current Issues in Women’sHistory (London: Routledge, 1989), 183–202; Sonya O. Rose, ‘Gender Antago-nism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists inNineteenth-Century Britain’, Social History 13 (1988), 191–208; and Keith Grint,‘Women and Equality: The Acquisition of Equal Pay in the Post Office,1870–1961’, Sociology 22 (1988), 87–108.

44. This is cogently argued in Richard Wall and Jay Winter, eds, The Upheaval ofWar: Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 1–6.

7 ‘Manhood achieved’: Imperialism, racism and manliness

1. Louis Heren, Growing Up Poor in London (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973), 57.2. J. P. Quaine, ‘The Australian Bushranger in the Old Boys’ Books’, Vanity Fair 3/27

(November 1926), 32–4.3. Robert Huttenback, ‘G. A. Henty and the Imperial Stereotype’, Huntington Library

Quarterly 19 (1965), 63–75.4. The best treatment of this is in H. John Field, Toward a Programme of Imperial

Life: The British Empire at the Turn of the Century (Oxford: Clio, 1982), 39–40.Field investigates the concept of ‘character’ as it related to the idea of empire asa means of regeneration – the answer many social Darwinians found to thedegeneration of the fin de siècle. See also Jeffrey Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society(London: Longmans, 1981), 38–40; Leonore Davidoff, ‘Class and Gender inWomen’s History’, Feminist Studies 5 (1979), 87–141.

5. Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies 17 (1973), 89–99,esp. 90.

6. Patrick A. Dunae, ‘Boys’ Literature’, Victorian Studies 24 (1980), 105–21, esp. 108.7. John Springhall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883–1940

(London: Croom Helm, 1977).


8. John Martin notes that these periodicals were very popular in Australia, wherethey served to maintain the incorporation of Australia within the British Empire;as he notes, the young readers there were both Australian and British: ‘TurningBoys into Men: Australian “Boys’ Own” Annuals, 1900–1950’, in C. E. Gittings,ed., Imperialism and Gender: Constructions of Masculinity (New Lambton, NSW:Dangaroo, 1996), 200–13. See also, Richard Phillips, Mapping Men and Empire: AGeography of Adventure (London: Routledge, 1997).

9. John Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British PublicOpinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), suggeststhat the genre continued mostly unchanged from the earlier period. In thispresent study, Chapter 7 concentrates on juvenile literature and imperialism,but makes only general comments on the period after the first world war.

10. Patrick A. Dunae, ‘The Boy’s Own Paper: Origins and Editorial Policies’, PrivateLibrary 9 (1975), 123–58.

11. Bernard Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism, 1850–1970(London: Longman, 1975), 8–12, synthesizes the debate on this topic. Forfurther discussion, see Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Clas-sical Political Economy, the Empire of Free Trade, and Imperialism, 1750–1850(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).

12. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victori-ans: The Official Mind of Imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961). They firstargued their theory in ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, Economic History Review6 (1953), 1–15. See also P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, ‘Gentlemanly Capitalismand British Expansion Overseas I: The Colonial System, 1688–1850’, EconomicHistory Review 39 (1986), 501–25; ‘Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expan-sion Overseas II: New Imperialism, 1850–1945’, Economic History Review 40(1987), 1–26; and British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914(London: Longman, 1993).

13. Besides the original publication in the Boys of England, all of the stories wererepeatedly reprinted both in weekly parts and book form up until the end ofthe century.

14. James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, 93–5; Dunae, ‘Boys’ Literature’, 107.15. Bracebridge Hemyng, ‘Jack Harkaway’s After Schooldays’, the Boys of England

no.277 (2 March 1872), 226.16. This was the height of the republican movement in Britain, although its force

was soon dissipated; see N. J. Gossman, ‘Republicanism in Nineteenth CenturyEngland’, International Review of Social History 7 (1962), 47–60; Edward Royle,Radicals, Secularists and Republicans: Popular Freethought in Britain, 1866–1915(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980), 198–206; Fergus A. D’Arcy,‘Charles Bradlaugh and the English Republican Movement, 1868–1878’, Histor-ical Journal 25 (1982), 367–83; Antony Taylor, ‘Down with the Crown’: British Anti-Monarchism and Debates about Royalty since 1790 (London: Reaktion, 1999); andDavid Nash and Antony Taylor, eds, Republicanism in Victorian Society (London:Sutton, 2000). One of the events which helped to dim republican fervour wasthe near-death of the Prince of Wales in 1872, soon after his father’s demise; seeWilliam M. Kuhn, ‘Ceremony and Politics: The British Monarchy, 1871–1872’,Journal of British Studies 26 (1987), 133–62.

17. Another example of this type of story was ‘Canadian Jack’, which was discussedat length in Chapter 4. Canadian Jack is held up as an example of all that ismanly. He is strong, skilled, dependable and morally upright, as is his cousin


Will, who transfers easily to the Canadian wilderness. Will benefits from hisexposure to frontier life, but his parents exhibited few fears that he will neverbecome manly. The only Englishman who is presented as unmanly is Sir Regi-nald Dollman, an aristocrat who has been made soft by his easy life. The onlymasculine trait he has is his skill with a gun (a characteristic that is tradition-ally linked to aristocrats). ‘Canadian Jack’ is typical of imperial adventure fictionin its unthinking English arrogance and its stolid snobbishness towards foreigners. Other tales which explore this theme include: ‘British Dick and Sam the Yank; or, England and America Against the World’, Boys of Englandnos.1692–1702 (1899); ‘English Jack Amongst the Afghans; or, The British Flag– Touch It Who Dare!’ Boys of England nos.626–53 (1879); ‘Wait Till I’m a Man!’Boys of England nos.43–58 (1867). An interesting adjunct is the biographicalseries ‘Heroes of the Backwoods’, Boy’s Own Paper 7 (1884/85), which celebratedseveral hard men of the new world, including Americans Daniel Boone, J. C.Fremont and Kit Carson. Another series in the same volume celebrated Englishimperialists of an earlier era, including Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher andSebastian Cabot.

18. See, for example, Ogilvie Mitchell, ‘For the Cause of Cuba’, True Blue no.3 (1898);‘Secret Foe’, Union Jack no.470 (1902); or ‘Under the Yellow Flag; or, The Cor-sairs of China’, Pluck no.451 (1903).

19. Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’, History Workshop Journal no.5(1978), 9–66. For an extended discussion of the idea of decline, see G. R. Searle,The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought,1899–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971) and the first chapter of J. M. Winter,The Great War and the British People (London: Macmillan, 1986). See also, G. R.Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain, 1900–1914 (Leyden: Noordhoff Interna-tional, 1976); and Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Usesof Human Heredity (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985).

20. Although recent debates have minimized the reality of an economic down-turn in the last decades of the nineteenth century, contemporary opinion stillevinced some disquiet, especially over the rapidly growing economies of theUnited States and Germany. See S. B. Saul, The Myth of the Great Depression,1873–1896 (London: Macmillan, 1969), for a synthesis of the debates.

21. Porter, Lion’s Share, 199.22. The most extensive treatment of this is Marilyn Lake, ‘The Politics of Respectabil-

ity: Identifying the Masculinist Context’, Historical Studies 22 (1986), 116–31.Lake’s thesis is that the bushman achieved cultural hegemony in the period1880–1920 due to the efforts of Bohemian male writers. They celebrated thesingle wandering worker as the archetypal male and especially praised his abilityto avoid domestication at the hands of women. This stereotype reached beyondAustralia’s shores and celebrated bushmen as excellent tutors of manliness. Seealso Judith Allen, ‘ “Mundane” Men: Historians, Masculinity and Masculinism’,Historical Studies 22 (1987), 617–28, and Richard Waterhouse, ‘AustralianLegends: Representations of the Bush’, Australian Historical Studies no.115(October 2000), 201–21. These tales were echoed in juvenile fiction publishedfor sale in Australia: H. M. Saxby, A History of Australian Children’s Literature,1841–1941 (Sydney: Wentworth, 1969), 31–45.

23. ‘A Word at the Start’, Boy’s Journal no.1 (20 September 1913), 3.24. Gordon Wallace, ‘Cameron’s Last Chance’, Boy’s Journal nos.1–8 (1913). This

serial lasted for eight episodes, entitled ‘Water Rights’, ‘Bush Peril’, ‘Stuck Up!’,


‘The Bush-Mates’ Gratitude’, ‘The Bush-Mates’ Peril’, ‘The Stolen Mob’, ‘GoldDust and Grit’, and ‘Manhood Achieved’.

25. Wallace, ‘Cameron’s Last Chance’, 29.26. Ibid.27. Ibid.28. Ibid., 30.29. Ibid., 55.30. Ibid., 241.31. Other tales with a similar theme include: ‘Bail Up, a Story of the Australian

Bush’, Pluck no.472 (1903); John C. Twist, ‘The Digger’s Terror: an Exciting Storyof Life Among the Gold Mines’, True Blue no.2 (1898); Howard C. Boyes, ‘In theLast Hour: the Story of a Britisher in the Land of the Kangaroo’, Boy’s Journalno.9 (1913).

32. Coral Lansbury, Arcady in Australia (Melbourne: University of Melbourne Press,1970).

33. Charities such as Dr Barnardo’s and the Salvation Army helped many childrento emigrate and periodicals like Boys of the Empire sponsored contests to bestowsuch a privilege. The results were often problematic. William J. Fishman, EastEnd 1888 (London: Duckworth, 1988), 56–7, 94–6, and 235–43; see also Alex G.Scholes, Education for Empire Settlement: A Study of Juvenile Migration (London:Longmans, Green, 1932); Gillian Wagner, Children of the Empire (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1982); Philip Bean and Joy White, Lost Children of theEmpire (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).

34. The most satisfying of these were: E. M. Forster, A Passage to India (1924); andGeorge Orwell, Burmese Days (1934). But Orwell’s relationship to the empire wasparticularly problematic, see Daphne Patai, The Orwell Mystique: A Study in MaleIdeology (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984), 1–52.

35. See Porter, Lion’s Share, 266–7, and for a more comprehensive treatment of theway this was accomplished P. N. S. Mansergh, The Commonwealth Experience(London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1969), 212–46.

36. Porter, Lion’s Share, 279; Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire; and Stephen Con-stantine, ‘ “Bringing the Empire Alive”: the Empire Marketing Board and Impe-rial Propaganda, 1926–33’, in John M. Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and PopularCulture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986), 192–231. Empire Daywas first proposed by Lord Meath in 1896, and unofficially observed from 1903;it was officially adopted in Britain in 1916: John M. Mackenzie, ‘ “In Touch withthe Infinite”: the BBC and the Empire, 1923–53’, in Mackenzie, ed., Imperialismand Popular Culture, 168.

37. One exception is Spike May’s recollection of the hardship his rural family suffered when his father attempted to emigrate to Canada. He eventuallyreturned as part of a Canadian regiment to fight in the Great War. Spike May,Reuben’s Corner: An English Country Boyhood (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode,1969).

38. Neither volume of John Burnett, David Vincent and David Mayall, eds, The Auto-biography of the Working Class (3 vols. Brighton: Harvester, 1984–9) contains anyof these references, nor does William Matthew’s older, British Autobiographies: AnAnnotated Bibliography of British Autobiographies Published or Written Before 1951(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955).

39. Louis Heren, Growing Up Poor in London (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973),57–8.


40. Modern Boy no.1 (11 February 1928), 11. Earlier tales had sometimes used impe-rial events as a backdrop, but not as a means of boosting the empire. See theSexton Blake story: ‘The Problem of the Pageant’, Union Jack n.s.no.397 (1911).

41. ‘The Right Sort; or, The Boy Emigrants: Thrilling Yarn of Life and Adventure inCanada’, Nugget Library n.s.44 (ca. 1922).

42. Ibid., 1.43. Ibid., 54.44. This led to the odd decision to create ‘bantam’ battalions, made up of under-

sized men; soon these groups had disappeared, casualties of the high mortalityrate of the western front. See J. M. Winter, The Great War and the British People,32, for more on this phenomenon.

45. ‘The Right Sort’, 53.46. Ibid., 60.47. This theme is also explored in ‘A Dust-Up in Saskatchewan’, Rover no.133 (1924);

‘A Mutt on the Mississippi’, Rover no.301 (1928); ‘The Klondyke Kid’, Roverno.342 (1928); John Hunter, ‘The Boy Sheriff’, Modern Boy nos.163–70 (1931);George E. Rochester, ‘The Air Ranger’, Modern Boy nos.170–7 (1931); and JohnAllan, ‘The Flying Tramps’, Modern Boy nos.220–33 (1932).

48. Although this tale takes place in the Antarctic, it can be set in the context of tales of exploration of the polar regions which had developed in the past few decades. See Francis Spufford, I May Be Some Time: Ice and the English Imagination (London: Faber, 1996); and Robert K. David, The Arctic in the British Imagination, 1818–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000).

49. ‘Toll of the Silent Wastes’, Modern Boy no.12 (28 April 1928), 28.50. Ibid., 8.51. Anti-Americanism was a popular theme. See also, ‘The Country That Lost Its

Memory’, Wizard nos.614–25 (1934); ‘The Land of Crazy Men and Crazy Rivers’,Wizard no.777 (1937); and ‘Roll of the Voodoo Drums’, Wizard nos.794–807(1938). Joseph Kestner detects a similar strain decades earlier in SherlockHolmes; see his Sherlock’s Men: Masculinity, Conan Doyle and Cultural History(London: Ashgate, 1997), 8–10.

52. ‘Toll of the Silent Wastes’, 8.53. Maintaining peace on the edges of empire was a vibrant theme during the

interwar years. See ‘Galloping Dick o’ the Mounties’, Rover no.53 (1923); ‘Dirkof the African Police’, Rover nos.119–131 (1923); ‘Ned the Game Ranger’, Rover nos.160–170 (1924); Percy F. Westerman, ‘Ringed by Fire!’ Modern Boynos.376–83 (1935); ‘Tiny the Terrible, King of the Crocodile Country’, Roverno.583 (1934); ‘The Wolf of Kabul’, Wizard (eight series between 1930 and 1940);and many more.

54. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd, eds, Englishness: Politics and Culture, 1880–1920(London: Croom Helm, 1986); David Feldman, Englishmen and Jews: Social Rela-tions and Political Culture, 1840–1914 (London: Yale University Press, 1994); J. A.Mangan, ed., The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the BritishColonial Experience (London: Routledge, 1993); Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Mas-culinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late NineteenthCentury (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Wendy Webster, Imag-ining Home: Gender, ‘Race’, and National Identity, 1945–64 (London: UCL Press,1998); Raphael Samuel, Island Stories: Unravelling Britain. Theatres of MemoryVolume II (London: Verso, 1998).


55. See Christine Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1971) for a broad discussion of this trend.

56. Earlier ideas of racism are best described as ‘plantocracy racism’. This was anargument most fully illustrated in Edward Long’s History of Jamaica (1774). Itstressed polygenetic inferiority, lack of moral capacity, the curse of Ham, and,most crucially, the constructive power of work. See George Metcalf’s introduc-tion to Long, (London: Class Library of West Indian Studies, no.12, Frank Cass,1970), 1:ix. Peter Fryer, Staying Power: the History of Black People in Britain(London: Pluto, 1984) is an excellent exploration and synthesis of race inBritain. The discussion below of the development of racism derives chiefly fromChapter 7 in this book.

57. Stephanie Barczewski demonstrates how Anglo-Saxonism dominated the re-casting of ideas about Robin Hood and King Arthur in the nineteenth centuryin Myths and National Identity in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press, 2000), ch.4, while Gail Bederman demonstrates its application inan American context in Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Genderand Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1995), 178–84.

58. The Irish in particular suffered from this. See L. Perry Curtis, Apes and Angels: The Irish in Victorian Caricature (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1971); and D. G. Paz, ‘Anti-Catholicism, Anti-Irish Stereotyping and Anti-CelticRacism in mid-Victorian Working-Class Periodicals’, Albion 18 (1986), 601–16.

59. Brian Street, ‘Reading the Novels of Empire: Race and Ideology in the Classic“Tale of Adventure” ’, in David Dabydeen, ed., The Black Presence in Literature(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 95–110; Patrick Brantlinger,‘Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent’,Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), 166–203; Abdul R. JanMohamed, ‘The Economy ofManichean Allegory: The Function of Racial Difference in Colonialist Literature’,Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), 59–97.

60. Patrick A. Dunae, ‘Boys’ Literature and the Idea of Race: 1870–1900’, WascanaReview (1977), 84–107.

61. Ibid., 85.62. This has been elegantly dissected in Edward W. Said’s Orientalism (New York:

Vintage, 1978), 1–28. Said concentrates on the cultural construction of theOrient (chiefly the Near East) and reveals a systematic denial of the realities ofthe Orient in order to sustain western hegemony. What he suggests can beapplied to other peoples and cultures dominated by the west in the period.Recent replies include Robert H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths andMetaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880–1918 (Manchester: Manchester Univer-sity Press, 1994) and John M. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory, and theArts (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995).

63. Kathryn Castle, Britannia’s Children: Reading Colonialism through Children’s Booksand Magazines (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996). See also FrancesM. Mannsaker, ‘The Dog that Didn’t Bark: the Subject Races in Imperial Fictionat the Turn of the Century’, in Dabydeen, The Black Presence in Literature, 112–33,for an examination of the hierarchy of the races in boys’ novels.

64. Robert A. Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrantsin the British Self-Governing Colonies, 1830–1910 (London: Cornell, 1976), introduction.


65. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 199–226, notes that in the thirty yearsfollowing the mutiny over fifty novels took the mutiny as a theme, as well asnumerous plays, poems, histories and personal accounts. All concentrated onthe massacre at Cawnpore and none mentioned the British atrocities which pre-ceded it. Brantlinger sees the event as a touchstone for popular attitudes to race.

66. Bernard Semmel, Jamaican Blood and Victorian Conscience: The Governor Eyre Con-troversy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1963).

67. Catherine Hall, ‘Competing Masculinities: Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill andthe Case of Governor Eyre,’ in her White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations inFeminism and History (Cambridge: Polity, 1992), 255–95.

68. Nonfiction was little better. See ‘Among the Blacks’, Boy’s Own Paper no.300 (11October 1884), 30; ‘Among the Masai’, Boy’s Own Paper no.340 (18 July 1885),667–70; and ‘Stanley on the Congo’, Boy’s Own Paper nos.339–40 (1885).

69. Robert A. Huttenback, The British Imperial Experience (New York: Harper and Row,1966), 57, makes this point about the Maori of New Zealand; Christine Bolt,‘Race and the Victorians’, in C. C. Eldridge, ed., British Imperialism in the Nine-teenth Century (London: Macmillan, 1984), 126–47, esp. 136; Stephen Cohen,The Indian Army: Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation (Los Angeles: University of California Los Angeles Press, 1971), 48–9.

70. ‘Half-Caste Bob; or, The Hero of Our Indian Contingent’, Boy’s Weekly ReaderNovelette no.103 (ca.1883), 19–20. For an extended treatment see my ‘“Half-Caste Bob” or Race and Caste in the Late Victorian Boys’ Story Paper’, in DavidFinkelstein and Douglas M. Peers, eds., Negotiating India in the Nineteenth-CenturyMedia (Basingstoke: Palgrave [Macmillan], 2000), 63–83.

71. Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1990), 90–2.

72. Most tales which dealt with other races had imperial settings. Africa was littleexplored, but the Mediterranean, Turkey and Asia were fertile ground for fiction.See ‘Left-Handed Jack on the Plains of India’, Boys of England nos.1272–91(1891); ‘The Persian Soldier; or, The Days with Nadir Shah’, Boys of Englandnos.1385–1404 (1894).

73. Canada was vigorous in its struggle to limit the extent of non-white immigra-tion. Although it was most concerned with Japanese and Chinese settlers, itslaws were constructed on racial lines. Even naturalization did not grant immi-grants of color the right to vote. See Huttenback, Racism and Empire, 317–26.

74. Publishers often employed correspondence columns to endorse their own opin-ions, so the failure to criticize may indeed indicate a readership easily prey toracial considerations.

75. ‘Young Jack Harkaway and His Boy, Tinker: Their Adventures Afloat and Ashore’,Boys of England nos.477–521 (1875–76). ‘Wait Till I’m a Man’, Boys of Englandno.47 (1867), 321–2, also explored the interconnections between justice andrace.

76. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw their Empire (London:Allen Lane, 2001).

77. Charles Hamilton, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London: Charles Skilton,1952), 38.

78. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 169.79. Frank Richards, ‘Reply to George Orwell’, in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds,

Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume One: An Age LikeThis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), 538.


80. Hurree Jamset Ram Singh was introduced in ‘Aliens at Greyfriars’, Magnet no.6(1908). The theme was replayed in ‘The New Boy at Greyfriars’, Magnet no.36(1908), which introduced Chinese schoolboy Wun Lung; ‘Wun Lung Minor’,Magnet no.117 (1910); ‘Bunter’s Black Chum’, Magnet no.312 (1914); ‘LookingAfter Inky’, Magnet no.516 (1917).

81. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 95.82. Ibid., 98–9.83. Ben Shephard, ‘Showbiz Imperialism: The Case of Peter Lobengula’, in

Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture, 94–112. See also, JacquelineJenkinson, ‘The Glasgow Race Disturbances of 1919’, in Kenneth Lunn, ed., Raceand Labour in Twentieth-Century Britain (London: Frank Cass, 1985), 60.

84. Attitudes were somewhat different towards women of colour. See HarrietVincent’s section in Paul Thompson, ed. The Edwardians: the Remaking of BritishSociety (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975), 121–30.

85. Combining friends of different backgrounds had long been popular. See ‘Tom,Pat and Sandy in Afghanistan; or, English, Irish and Scotch’, Boys of Englandnos.747–9 (1881); ‘British Jack and Yankee Doodle; or, School Life in the FarWest’, Boys of England nos.706–19 (1880/81); and ‘The Cruise of the Cygnet; or, The Adventures of Jack, Phil and Con in Many Lands’, Boys of Englandnos.1501–1558 (1896).

86. This potent stereotype was best dissected in J. C. Furnas, Goodbye to Uncle Tom(New York: William Sloane Associates, 1956), esp.363–4, 386–7.

87. Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks: An Interpretive Historyof Blacks in American Films (New York: Continuum, 1989 [1973]), 3–18.

88. On the minstrel show in Britain: W. MacQueen-Pope, The Melodies Linger On:the Story of Music Hall (London: W. H. Allen, 1950), 323–5, 337–8, 411–4;Raymond Mander and Joe Mitchison, British Music Hall: A Story in Pictures(London: Studio Vista, 1965), 104; Oxford Companion to the Theatre, 4th edition,s.v. ‘minstrel show’ and ‘Thomas Dartmouth Rice’; Michael Pickering, ‘MockBlacks and Racial Mockery: The Nigger Minstrel and British Imperialism’, in J. S. Bratton et al, eds, Acts of Supremacy: The British Empire and the Stage,1790–1930 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991), 179–236; andSimon Featherstone, ‘The Blackface Atlantic: Interpreting British Minstrelsy’,Journal of Victorian Culture 3 (1998), 234–51.

89. Stanley J. Lemons, ‘Black Stereotypes as Reflected in Popular Culture,1880–1920’, American Quarterly 29 (1977), 102–16; Alan Havig, ‘Richard F. Outcault’s “Poor Lil’ Mose”: Variations on the Black Stereotype in AmericanComic Art’, Journal of American Culture 11 (1988), 33–42; Joseph Boskin, Sambo:the Rise and Demise of an American Jester (New York: Oxford University Press,1986); Robert C. Toll, Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth Century America(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974).

90. Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks, 8.91. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 102.92. S. Clarke Hook, ‘The Gorilla’s Captive’, Marvel n.s., no.222 (25 April 1908), 8–9.93. Lemons, ‘Black Stereotypes’, 110. For a persuasive argument linking manliness

and racism see, Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 45–76.94. ‘“Just My Foolin” By the Old Boy’, Modern Boy 13 (28 July 1934), 9.95. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western

Popular Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).96. See also ‘Niggers’, [a joke page] Rover no.5 (1922), 118; ‘500 Jokes and Best

Riddles’, a joke book presented with Rover no.84 (1923); ‘Joke Book including


Some Nigger Yarns and Mexican Jokes’, presented with Rover no.86 (1923); andin the ever-present joke pages of the inter-war years.

97. John Darwin, ‘Imperialism in Decline? Tendencies in British Imperial PolicyBetween the Wars’, Historical Journal 23 (1980), 657–79.

98. Laura Tabili, We ask for British Justice: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Impe-rial Britain (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 41–57; Jenkinson, ‘GlasgowRace Disturbances’, 43–67; Neil Evans, ‘Regulating the Reserve Army: Arabs,Blacks and the Local State in Cardiff, 1919–1945’, in Lunn, ed., Race and Labour,68–115; Kenneth Lunn, ‘Race Relations or Industrial Relations?: Race and Labourin Britain, 1880–1950’, in Lunn, ed., Race and Labour, 1–29.

99. Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire, 83–6; Constantine, ‘Bringing the EmpireAlive’, 192–231.

100. ‘Bomba the Fierce’ first appeared in Wizard no.330 (1929) for a series of 13 tales;there were two more series and several independent tales in the next decade.Other examples of helpful black sidekicks were: Golly the Zulu in ‘SniperDalton’, Rover no.339 (1928); Bumps the Zulu in ‘The Witch Doctor from Woolwich’, Rover no.322 (1928); and ‘Potlicker – Ship’s Mascot’, Rover no.233(1926).

101. Edgar Wallace created colonial administrator ‘Sanders of the River’ in 1909. Orig-inally short stories, they were collected in a series of books after publication inmagazines. See, MacDonald, Language of Empire, 222–8.

102. The ‘Wolf of Kabul’ tales appeared in the Wizard regularly in the 1930s. Othernational groups varied in their treatment. See for example, ‘Jim, Snig and Joe’,Rover no.8 (1922), which celebrates the exploits of British youths Jim and Snigin China where they help their Japanese pal Joe (San Jokai) in his bid to escapeimprisonment. Joe is a ‘Jap secret agent’ whose motives remain unexamined.Their adventures continued in several more stories.

103. Captain Justice appeared in over twenty series of tales in Modern Boy from 1930to 1939. The 11 tales under discussion here were the eighth series.

104. Murray Roberts, ‘Justice & Co. – Castaways!’ Modern Boy no.335 (7 July 1934),7. Primo Carnera (1907–1967) was heavyweight boxing champion of the worldfrom 1933 to 1934.

105. For a discussion of this phenomenon in early writings about Africa, see MaryLouise Pratt, ‘Scratches on the Face of the Country; or, What Mr Barrow Saw inthe Land of the Bushman’, Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), 119–43.

106. Castle, Britannia’s Children, 104.107. Murray Roberts, ‘Castaways Afloat!’ Modern Boy no.338 (28 July 1934), 21.108. Murray Roberts, ‘Cannibal Camp!’ Modern Boy no.339 (4 August 1934), 7.109. Murray Roberts, ‘The Painted Ogre!’ Modern Boy no.341 (18 August 1934), 19.110. Hoxie Neale Fairchild, The Noble Savage: A Study in Romantic Naturalism (New

York: Columbia University Press, 1928).111. Murray Roberts, ‘The Painted Ogre!’ Modern Boy no.341 (18 August 1934), 24.112. Murray Roberts, ‘The Road to Freedom!’ Modern Boy no.345 (15 September 1934),

4.113. Other examples of this include ‘The Black Revolt’, Rover nos.625–41 (1934); ‘Roll

of the Voodoo Drums’, Wizard nos.794–803 (1938).114. Fryer, Staying Power, 298–316; see also Tabili, We Ask for British Justice, 81–112;

Lunn, ‘Race Relations’; Jenkinson, ‘Glasgow Race Disturbances’; and Evans, ‘Regulating the Reserve Army’.

115. Fryer, Staying Power, 316–21.


116. Ron Ramdin, The Making of the Black Working Class in Britain (London: Wildwood, 1987), 59–186.

117. ‘George Washington Jones’, Wizard nos.321–69 (1929), no.377 (1930), nos.407–12 (1930).

118. Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks, 38–44, 72–5.119. See also ‘Ginger Sambo’, Rover no.340 (1928); ‘Black Sheep of the Lambs’, Rover

no.249 (1927); ‘Snooty Sootter the Janitor’, Rover nos.546–87 (1932); ‘Bingo’,Wizard no.590 (1933); ‘Dat No-Good Nigger, Frisco Sam’, Wizard nos.877–86(1939).

120. Matthew, British Autobiographies; and Burnett, et al., eds, Autobiography of theWorking Class.

121. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum: Salford Life in the First Quarter of the Century(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [1971]), 170–1.

122. Ibid., 27.

8 Comrades, chums and competitors: Images of women in theboys’ story paper

1. It is difficult to know how to approach this literature as the idea of separatespheres originated before the Victorians; for an interesting consideration of theproblems of this terminology in an American context, see Linda K. Kerber, ‘Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: the Rhetoric of Women’sHistory’, Journal of American History 75 (1988), 9–39. As an historiographicaldevice separate spheres are generally assumed without being investigated andmost early studies in women’s history were content to concentrate on thewomen’s sphere to the exclusion of the men’s. Patricia Branca’s Silent Sisterhood:Middle-Class Women in the Victorian Home (London: Croom Helm, 1975), aninvestigation of middle-class women’s actual duties, is an early response to this.More recently there has been an effort to disentangle the threads of these twospheres as can be seen from Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall’s Family For-tunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchin-son, 1987); see also Amanda Vickery, ‘Golden Age to Separate Spheres? A Reviewof the Categories and Chronology of English Women’s History’, Historical Journal36 (1993), 383–414.

2. Martha Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women,1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

3. Alison Oram, ‘“Embittered, Sexless, or Homosexual”: Attacks on Spinster Teachers, 1918–39’, in Arina Angerman, Geerte Binnema, Annemieke Keunen,Vefie Poels and Jacqueline Zirksee, eds, Current Issues in Women’s History(London: Routledge, 1989), 183–202.

4. Kirsten Drotner, English Children and Their Magazines, 1751–1945 (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1988), 47, makes this point about the use of magazinesfor boys and girls to learn about many aspects of life.

5. ‘Canadian Jack; or, the Mystery of the Old Log Hut. A Colonial Story’, Boys ofthe Empire nos.18–44 (1888/89), 290.

6. Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama, andthe Mode of Excess (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Rohan McWilliam,‘Melodrama and the Historians’, Radical History Review 78 (2000), 57–84; ElaineHadley, Melodramatic Tactics: Theatricalized Dissent in the English Marketplace,


1880–1885 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995); Michael Hays and Anastasia Nikolopoulou, ‘Introduction’, to Michael Hays and AnastasiaNikolopoulou, eds, Melodrama: The Cultural Emergence of a Genre (Basingstoke:Macmillan Press [now Palgrave Macmillan], 1996), vii–xv.

7. For a discussion of fears of dissection in the first half of the nineteenth century,see Ruth Richardson, Death, Dissection and the Destitute (London: Routledge andKegan Paul, 1988). For another fictional example of a corpse coming to life see‘Peter Pills and His Friend Potions, or, The Adventures of Two Medical Students’,Boys of the Empire and Young Men of Great Britain nos.61–74 (1 April 1889–1 July 1889).

8. ‘Canadian Jack’, 170.9. Ibid. 185.

10. Patricia Barnett notes a similar pattern in the Jack Harkaway tales of BracebridgeHemyng, although she sees this as symptomatic of his ‘modern’ outlook,‘English Boys Weeklies’ (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1974), 87.

11. For discussions of the tendency of psychiatry to label women as mad whorefused to conform to the sexual system, see Elaine Showalter, The FemaleMalady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987[1985]); Judith Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger inLate-Victorian London (London: Virago, 1992), 171–89; Alex Owen, The DarkenedRoom: Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England (London: Virago,1989), 139–67; and Rohan McWilliam, ‘The Tichborne Claimant and the People:Investigations into Popular Culture, 1867–1886’, (PhD diss, University of Sussex,1990), 242. The fear of incarceration inspired Charles Reade’s novel, Hard Cash(1863).

12. Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.29 (1880).13. ‘New woman’ was the contemporary term for independently minded

women who boasted their equality with men and sought to prove it in behaviour and social concerns. See Lloyd Fernando, New Women in the Late Victorian Novel (London: Penn State University Press, 1977); Gail Cunningham,The New Woman and the Victorian Novel (London: Methuen, 1978); Lucy Bland, ‘The Married Woman, the ‘New Woman’, and the Feminist: Sexual Politics of the 1890s’, in Jane Rendall, ed., Equal or Different: Women’s Politics, 1800–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), 141–64; and Sally Mitchell,The New Girl: Girls’ Culture in England, 1880–1915 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).

14. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978).15. ‘Philip and the Pasha’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.29 (1880), 22.16. Adeline Hartcup, Love and Marriage in the Great Country Houses (London:

Sidgwick and Jackson, 1984), 73–96, argues that ‘dynastic engineering’ oftendemanded weddings not based on affection.

17. ‘Philip and the Pasha’, 24.18. Ibid. Compare the fate of the heroine of The Lustful Turk (1828), who is kid-

napped and presented to the Dey of Algiers. Emily is successfully deflowered andcapitulates to life in the harem. Her spirit is broken by her seducer so that shesubmits completely to him, mainly through the agency of ‘natural’ impulsesonce she has had sex with him. Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: A Study ofSexuality and Pornography in mid-Nineteenth Century England (London: Weiden-feld and Nicolson, 1966 [1964]), argues that this reflects a view of nature as


uncontrollable once disturbed, 205–10. He further discusses how these tales arevery clearly about the domination of women by men, especially by the agencyof sexual control, 211–12.

19. See my discussion of Dollman’s masculinity in Chapter 4 and his attitudetowards race in Chapter 7.

20. Some other tales which rehearse these themes include: ‘The Vengeance of PaulFleming; or, The Rover’s Son’, Boys of England Pocket Novelette no.6 (c.1880);‘Fatima, the Pearl of the East; and, the Two Midshipmen’, Boys of England PocketNovelette no.17 (c.1880); ‘Doomed to Death’, Boy’s Weekly Reader Novelette no.20(c.1880); ‘The Pasha’s Daughter; or, Mat Merryweather’s Love Adventure’, Boysof England Pocket Novelette no.22 (c.1881); ‘Three Loves’, Boys of England PocketNovelette no.103 (c.1882).

21. On suffrage, see George Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England(London: Macgibbon and Kee, 1966 [1936]), 133–205, 349–73; Ray Strachey, TheCause: A Short History of the Women’s Movement in Great Britain (London: Virago,1978 [1928]); Roger Fulford, Votes for Women: The Story of a Struggle (London:Faber and Faber, 1958); Jill Liddington and Jill Norris, One Hand Tied Behind Us: The Rise of Women’s Suffrage in Britain (London: Virago, 1978); and Brian Harrison, Separate Spheres: The Opposition to Women’s Suffrage in Britain (London:Croom Helm, 1978). On women’s work during the Great War, see ArthurMarwick, Women at War, 1914–1918 (London: Croom Helm, 1977); GailBraybon, Women Workers in the First World War (London: Croom Helm, 1981);and Deborah Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls: Women Workers in World War I(London: I. B. Tauris, 1998).

22. Yvonne was introduced in ‘Beyond the Reach of Law, or A Woman’s Revenge’,Union Jack no.485 (1913). She also appeared in her own series of stories in theBoy’s Journal nos.59–61 (1915).

23. Mary Cadogan, Frank Richards: The Chap Behind the Chums (London: Viking,1988), 94.

24. Frank Richards, The Autobiography of Frank Richards (London: Charles Skilton,1952), 77–80.

25. Richards created the girls’ school, but when it moved to its own publication,the Amalgamated Press assigned another writer to provide the ongoing stories.Girls’ school fiction was very popular and has been discussed by Mary Cadoganand Patricia Craig in You’re a Brick, Angela!: A New Look at Girl’s Fiction from1839–1975 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1975) as well as in Drotner, English Chil-dren, 202–16. Richards girls’ school stories are briefly discussed in Beverly LyonClark, Regendering the School Story: Sassy Sissies and Tattling Tomboys (New York:Garland, 1996), 248–50.

26. Frank Richards, ‘The School Dance’, Magnet no.59 (1909).27. Frank Richards, ‘The Invasion of Greyfriars’, ‘The Bully of Greyfriars’, ‘The Cliff

House Party’, Magnet nos.68–70 (1909).28. Frank Richards, ‘The Remove Master’s Substitute’, Magnet no.28 (28 August

1908), 2.29. Ibid.30. Ibid., 7.31. Ibid., 11.32. Ibid., 13.33. Ibid., 7.


34. This was a rare foray for Frank Richards into current political events, which hegenerally tried to avoid.

35. Frank Richards, ‘Harry Wharton’s Campaign’, Magnet no.58 (23 January 1909),2.

36. Ibid.37. Ibid., 10.38. Harrison, Separate Spheres, 137–42. This is also richly documented in Lisa Tickner,

The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign, 1907–14 (London:Chatto and Windus, 1987), 151–226.

39. Frank Richards, ‘Wild Women at Greyfriars’, Magnet no.341 (22 August 1914),12. For an alternative reading of these stories see Cadogan, Frank Richards,94–114.

40. S. Clarke Hook, ‘Votes for Women’, Marvel n.s.no.518 (27 December 1913), 1–12.41. Arthur Hardy, ‘The Fighting Parson and the Suffragettes’, Marvel n.s.no.546

(1913). See also, Claude Heathcote, ‘The Boy Tramp; or, The Suffragette and theStatue’, Boy’s Friend no.669 (1915).

42. ‘Hardy, ‘Fighting Parson’, 25–iii.43. Ibid., iii.44. Harrison, Separate Spheres, 174–99.45. Wizard no.11 (2 November 1922), 289.46. Of course, it is also just a joke, but misogyny is often disguised in humour.47. Michael Stuart, ‘Frantic Footer’, Modern Boy no.346 (22 September 1934), 3–6,

8.48. ‘Bully for Bingo!’ Rover no.204 (1926), 93–6.49. ‘Mary’s Lambs at School’, Rover nos.908–13 (9 September-14 October 1939).50. Ibid., 18.51. Dina Copelman, London’s Women Teachers: Gender, Class and Feminism,

1870–1930 (London: Routledge, 1996), 102–7.52. This anxiety is most clearly argued in Oram, ‘“Embittered, Sexless, or Homo-

sexual”, 183–202; and Copelman, London’s Women Teachers, 232–6.53. Women’s changing status has been under increasing examination of late. See

Jane Lewis, ‘In Search of a Real Equality: Women Between the Wars’, in Frank Gloversmith, ed., Class, Culture and Social Control (Brighton: Harvester,1980), 208–39; Brian Harrison, Prudent Revolutionaries: Portraits of British Feminists Between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Harold L. Smith,ed., British Feminism in the Twentieth Century (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1990),esp. articles by Smith, Kent, Gorham, Land, Thane and Pugh; Susan KingsleyKent, Making Peace: the Reconstruction of Gender in Interwar Britain (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1993); and Caitriona Beaumont, ‘The Women’sMovement, Politics and Citizenship, 1918–1950s’, in Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, ed., Women in Twentieth-Century Britain (London: Longman, 2001),262–77.

54. Branca, Silent Sisterhood, 74–94; Carol Dyhouse, ‘Mothers and Daughters in theMiddle-Class Home, c.1870–1914’, in Jane Lewis, ed., Labour and Love: Women’sExperience of Home and Family, 1850–1940 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 27–48.

55. Theresa McBride, ‘ “As the Twig is Bent”: The Victorian Nanny’, in Anthony S.Wohl, ed., The Victorian Family: Structures and Stresses (London: Croom Helm,1979), 44–58.

56. This came to a head in the debate over efficiency. See G. R. Searle, The Quest forNational Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914


(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and Motherhood’,History Workshop Journal no.5 (1978), 9–66; H. John Field, Toward a Programmeof Imperial Life: The British Empire at the Turn of the Century (Oxford: Clio, 1982).For a contemporary example, see Arnold White, Efficiency and Empire (London:Methuen, 1901).

57. Alexander Paterson, Across the Bridges: Or Life by the South London Riverside(London: Edward Arnold, 1911), 21–34; Charles E. B. Russell, Young Gaol Birds(London: Macmillan, 1910). See also Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood inOutcast London, 1870–1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

58. Alice M. Hutchinson, The Child and His Problems (London: Williams and Norgate,1925); Charlotte Haldane, Motherhood and its Enemies (London: Chatto andWindus, 1927); Mrs H. A. L. Fisher, Mothers and Families (London: Ernest Benn, 1932); Dr H. S. Bryan, The Troublesome Boy (London: C. Arthur Pearson,1936), 20–8, 144; A. F. Alington, Parenthood as a Career (London: Mother’s Union, 1937); Mrs Cecil Chesterton, What Price Youth (London: Nicholson andWatson, 1939), 9–33; Gwen Saint Aubyn, ed., The Family Book: A ComprehensiveGuide to Family Life from before Marriage to the Adolescence of Children – Primarilyfor Parents (London: Arthur Barker, 1935); E. D. Laborde, Your Life’s Work(London: Thornton Butterworth, 1939); and Herbert M. Thompson, Can WeStem the Growth of Wrong-Doing Amongst the Young? (London: Western Mail andEcho, 1937), 8, all fix responsibility on the mother. Kenneth M. and E. M.Walker, On Being a Father (London: Jonathan Cape, 1928) and the anonymousLetters of a Father (London: Andrew Melrose, 1923) are rare examples which dealwith male parenting.

59. Diana Gittins, Fair Sex: Family Size and Structure, 1900–1939 (London: Hutchin-son, 1982); A. H. Halsey, ed., British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Chang-ing Social Structure of Britain (London: Macmillan, 1988 [1972]), 40–1; WallySeccombe, Weathering the Storm: Working-Class Families from the Industrial Revo-lution to the Fertility Decline (London: Verso, 1993); Simon Szreter, Fertility, Class,and Gender in Britain, 1860–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1996); Leonore Davidoff, Megan Doolittle, Janet Fink, and Katherine Holden,The Family Story: Blood, Contact and Intimacy (London: Longman, 1999).

60. Elizabeth Sloan Chesser, Youth (London: Methuen, 1928), v.61. Recent feminist scholarship has explored this. From a psychological viewpoint,

Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Rocking of the Cradle and the Ruling of the World: TheMermaid and the Minotaur (London: Women’s Press, 1987 [1976]), argues thatmale children develop a desire to control women because their mothers seemto be contradictory creatures who fail to satisfy their every wish immediatelyand completely. Because of the difficulties of psychological separation, she sug-gests that boys develop a fear and contempt for their mothers, and by exten-sion, women in general, while women develop a need to be controlled, whichis usually obliged by men. In a historical framework, Denise Riley, ‘The FreeMothers: Pronatalism and Working Mothers in Industry at the End of the LastWar in Britain’, History Workshop no.11 (1981), 59–119, illuminates the pro-natalist assumption of policy-makers during the aftermath of the second worldwar, and emphasizes the tendency of society to categorize women almost solelyin terms of their maternal function; Elaine Showalter’s, The Female Malady,195–219, exposes how women who tried to shape their lives around issues largerthan a biological imperative were often categorized as schizophrenic during themid-twentieth century.


62. Cyril Burt, The Young Delinquent (London: University of London Press, 1925); A. S. Neill, The Problem Child (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1929); Ethel Mannin,Common Sense and the Child: A Plea for Freedom (London: Jarrolds, 1931) andCommon Sense and the Adolescent (London: Jarrolds, 1937); August Aichhorn,Wayward Youth, with an introduction by Sigmund Freud (London: Putnam,1936); John Rickman, ed., On the Bringing Up of Children (London: Kegan Paul,Trench, Trubner, 1936); Emanuel Miller, ed., The Growing Child and Its Problems(London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1937) and The Generations (London:Faber and Faber, 1938); M. D. N. Dickson, Child Guidance (London: Sands, 1938).

63. At the turn of the century the growth of juvenile delinquency had shifted froma focus on the working class to one on the middle class, and organizations likethe Boy’s Brigade and Boy Scouts had risen to deal with them. See my discus-sion in Chapter 5.

64. Winter, Great War and the British People, 65–83, 273–305.65. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1975), ch.3.66. Jenny Gould, ‘Women’s Military Services in First World War Britain’, in

Margaret Randolph Higonnet, Sonya Michel, Jane Jenson and Margaret CollinsWeitz, eds, Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1987), 114–25; and Krisztina Robert, ‘Gender, Class and Patri-otism: Women’s Paramilitary Units in First World War Britain’, InternationalHistory Review 19 (1997), 52–65.

67. Fussell, Great War, 105–13.68. Marwick, Women at War states the case best; but for the revisionist line see

Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls, 5; the essays by Higonnet and Higonnet, Gould,Gilbert, and Riley, in Higonnet et al., Behind the Lines; and by Winter, Wall andThom, in Richard Wall and Jay Winter, eds, The Upheaval of War: Family, Workand Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1988). Susan Kingsley Kent, ‘Gender Reconstruction after the First World War,in Smith, ed., British Feminism, 66–83, brings many of these strands together.

9 Conclusions: On heroes and hero worship

1. ‘“Wait Till I’m a Man”’ or, The Play Ground and the Battle Field’, Boys of Englandnos.43–58 (1867).

2. See the discussion of the Victorian world view in Leonore Davidoff, ‘Class andGender in Victorian England,’ Feminist Studies 5 (1979), 87–141. Davidoff discusses how a fear of disorder was projected onto male sexuality, especially asmanifested by the working classes and native blacks.

3. Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Macmillan, 1963),85–120; Henry Pelling, A Short History of the Labour Party (London: Macmillan,1961), 1–34.

4. George Orwell, ‘Boys’ Weeklies’, in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters ofGeorge Orwell. Volume I: An Age Like This (1920–1940) edited by Sonia Orwell andIan Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1968]), 505–31.

5. Of course their vision of the status quo did not preclude some reordering of tra-ditional hierarchies. Neither hailed from the traditional ruling class, they weresuccessful entrepreneurs. Lord Northcliffe in particular should be viewed as anexample of an arriviste who helped to infiltrate the old aristocracy. See David


Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 200, 327–8.

6. John Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British PublicOpinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), ch.1; JohnMackenzie, Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester: Manchester UniversityPress, 1986), ch.1; Ross McKibbin, The Ideologies of Class: Social Relations inBritain, 1880–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 259–93; David Cannadine,Class in Britain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ch.3.


Bibliography

Arrangement of material:

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adventure tales, 1, 5, 6, 21, 29, 31,34, 37, 45, 47, 49–51, 71, 73,102, 115, 124, 126, 137, 155,168, 173, 179

see also ‘domestic’ adventure taleadvertising, 28African tales, 109–12, 149–52Aldine Press, 31, 94Alger, Horatio, 83Allingham, H.J., see Ralph

RollingtonAmalgamated Press, 4, 8–9, 36,

38–41, 82, 97, 102, 128, 159

see also HarmsworthAmerican influences, 1, 6, 104–5,

135, 137, 142–3anti-racist tales, 136–9

see also racismapprenticeship, 13, 17, 22aristocratic effeminacy, 64–7,

140–1, 155, 158Arnold, Thomas, 14, 46athleticism, 15–16, 68, 74, 76–7,

116, 128aunts, 79, 153

see also familyAustralian settings, 128, 129–31,

159

Back, W.H., 36Ballantyne, R.M., 59, 137Beeton, Isabella, Mrs, 28Beeton, Samuel O., 8, 28–9, 31,

33–4, 50Big Stiff, 4, 9, 105–8, 117–18, 167,

170Biggles, 72, 98Billy Bunter, 1, 5, 37, 77, 79, 80,

142Biskind, Peter, 7blood see penny dreadful

Boer War, 71–2, 94–5, 97, 125, 128

‘Bomba the Fierce’, 148Bonnie Boys of Britain, 32Borstal stories, 112–14, 117–18Boxing stories, 79, 87–8, 91,

96, 104, 112, 114, 116, 168

‘Boy Scout of Scarlett’s, or Bayonetsfor the Boers’, 94–5

Boy Scouts, 1, 22, 72, 93–4, 124,128, 179

Boy’s Champion Paper, 32Boy’s Friend, 36

circulation, 36Boy’s Graphic, 32–3Boy’s Own Magazine, 8, 28–30, 34

circulation, 29Boy’s Own Paper, 2, 4, 8, 31, 34, 38,

40, 45, 49, 71circulation, 31, 34

Boys and Girls, 32Boys of England, 2, 8, 33–4, 48, 51,

123–4circulation, 34

Boys of the Empire, 7, 57, 61Boys of the Isles, 32Boys’ Brigade, 22Boys’ Cinema, 39Boys’ Comic Journal, 45Boys’ Companion, 33boys’ lives

education, 2, 4, 13–20, 22–3, 25,27–8, 50–2, 68–9, 73, 76, 82,99, 105–6, 111, 114–15, 118,137–8, 154, 172, 175

elite, 14–17inter-war, 23–4leisure, 22–3non-elite, 17–18public school, 20work, 20–2

Index

NB Fictional characters are indexed with their forenames first (e.g. Sherlock Holmes)

269

270 Index

boys’ story papersdefined, 1–3, 8popularity of, 4–5types of, 2–3see also conservatism of story

papersBoys’ World, 32

circulation, 32Brett, Edwin John, 2, 7–10, 31,

33–4, 36, 38, 40, 49, 50–1, 71,124, 126, 141, 159

British Boy’s Paper, 32British Empire see imperialismBrooks, Edwy Searles, 75brothers, 15, 19, 46, 48, 57, 62, 86,

102–3, 127, 133, 140, 156, 160,162

see also familyBrown, Charles Perry, 31‘Buffalo Bill among the Sioux’, 45Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show,

142‘Bully for Bingo’, 168Burke, Thomas, 70Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 109

Cadogan, Mary, 10, 181‘Cameron’s Last Chance’, 129–31‘Canadian Jack, or, The Mystery of

the Old Log Hut: A ColonialStory’, 7, 63–8, 125, 133–4,140–1, 155–6

Canadian tales, 63–7, 133–6, 140–1,155–6

Cannadine, David, 50, 141‘Cannibal Camp’, 149–51‘Cannibal Earl’ see ‘Schoolboy

Cannibal Earl’Cannibals, 109, 113, 118Captain, 2, 14, 36, 73Captain Justice, 149–51Carlyle, Thomas, 139castaway stories, 60, 127–8, 149–51‘Castaways!’, 149–51Castle, Kathryn, 10, 138‘Catapult Cowboy’, 39Catholicism, 54–7Cawelti, John, 5, 6Champion, 32, 39, 41, 60, 100character, 6, 15, 46, 49

Child’s Companion; or SundayScholar’s Reward (1824–1932),26

Children’s Friend (1824–1930), 26‘Chin-Wag with the Chief’, 39Chums, 2, 14, 36, 73, 153, 181Clarendon Report (1864), 14–15, 76Clarke, Samuel Dacre, 31–2class

and masculinity, 3, 52, 62, 73–4,98–9, 118–19, 175, 178–9, 180

elite, 14–17, 46–7, 49, 50–1, 62,68, 70–3, 76, 100, 103, 141,176–7

lower middle, 3, 9, 13–14, 17–24,47, 72, 74, 103

middle, 3, 25, 36, 46–8, 50, 68,72–4, 86, 103, 128, 167, 172,176–8

relations, 6, 10, 86–7, 166, 176status, 60, 68, 74, 176, 178–9working, 3, 7, 9, 13, 17–24, 36,

40, 49, 62, 69, 71, 73–4, 81,83, 86–8, 91, 95, 103,118–19, 125, 172, 177–8

see also under manlinessclerks, 18, 21, 47, 177Cold War, 7Colley, Linda, 14Collini, Stefan, 46Comrades, 32Conan Doyle, Arthur, Sir, 71, 181conservatism of story papers, 1,

4–5, 7, 81, 180Coral Island, 59correspondence, 7, 21, 33cricket, 77, 81, 91, 100, 115,

116–17, 148, 161, 163Cromer, Lord [Evelyn Baring], 138cross-dressing, 167–8Curzon, George Nathaniel,

Marquess Curzon of Kedleston,138

Davies, Derek, 100Defoe, Daniel, 59degeneracy, fears of, 126Denning, Michael, 6–7detective stories, 5, 37, 71–2, 92–4,

146

Index 271

Dickens, Charles, 27, 83dime novel, 6Dixie Dale, 104–5Dollman, Sir Reginald. see Reginald

Dollman‘domestic’ adventure tales, 71, 82,

92, 115, 132Drotner, Kirsten, 26Dunae, Patrick, 10, 124, 138

Edwards, Hamilton, 36effeminacy, 9, 67–8, 77, 108, 112,

136, 140, 163see also aristocratic effeminacy

Emmett brothers, 33Empire Day, 123, 132–3, 148Eric, or Little by Little, 46Eyre, Governor, controversy, 139

‘Factory Batsman’, 115–16family, 9–10, 14–22, 24, 31, 36,

38, 48, 51, 54–5, 63, 65, 71,83–4, 88, 92, 95, 100, 103, 109, 115–16, 119, 127, 133,154, 160, 172–3, 177, 179

see also aunts; brothers; fathers;mothers; sisters; uncles

Farrar, F.W., 46fathers, 15, 19, 22, 32, 40, 52, 54,

55, 61–3, 65, 83–6, 91, 94, 106,109, 115–18, 129–30, 133,140–1, 155–6, 162, 167, 169,176–7

see also familyFawcett, Millicent Garrett, 163Fawkes, Guy, 48First World War, 15–16, 23, 71–2,

82, 88, 94–5, 97–100, 105, 119,126, 128, 131, 135, 159, 166,172–3, 178, 181

football, 40, 77, 81, 91, 96–8, 108,166–7, 173

‘For Britain’s Glory’, 96–7formula literature, 5–6Forster Act (1870), 17, 28Fowler, David, 23Fox, Charles, 31, 37‘Frantic Footer’, 167Fussell, Paul, 173

Gem, 1, 4, 37, 75–7, 82, 100, 142,160

gender see masculinity; womengender anxiety, 166–71George Washington Jones, 151–2Girl’s Own Paper, 31Golding, William, 60‘Gorilla’s Captive’, 144–6Greenwood, James, 29, 48, 181Greyfriars, 7, 10, 70, 73, 75, 77, 79,

80–2, 102–3, 105, 139, 142,146, 160–1, 168, 170–1

Guy Rayner, 32

Haggard, H. Rider, 45, 137‘Half-Caste Bob, or, The Hero of

Our Indian Contingent’,139–40

Hamilton, Charles. see FrankRichards

Hangar, P.J., 39Harmsworth, Alfred, later Lord

Northcliffe, 2, 9, 35–8, 71–6,95, 128–9, 159

Harry St George, 94–5Harry Wharton, 37, 40, 75, 77,

79–81, 87, 161–2‘Harry Wharton’s Campaign’, 162Hemyng, Bracebridge, 47, 58, 60,

75, 123, 126Henty, G.A., 34, 38, 45, 47, 51,

124, 137–8Heren, Louis, 123, 132heroes

adult, 92–4, 106–12, 116–19aristocratic, 9, 50, 54, 70, 72–3,

91, 100, 118, 176, 178black, 143–6class disputed, 82–6, 94–7, 102–14elite, 61, 76–82, 109–11imperial, 63–67, 126–36Indian, 139–40, 142–3military, 97–8racist, 141, 149–52schoolboy, 76–82, 102–6, 115–17skilled working-class, 70–1, 177upper middle-class, 60–3

heroinesimperial, 155–8schoolmistress, 160–3, 168–71

272 Index

Hickey, Colm, 77highwaymen, 27, 37, 50historical tales, 54–8Hood, Tom, 29Hook, S. Clarke, 87, 144Horizon, 1, 181horror comics, 10Hotspur, 38, 41, 100, 102–3Hughes, Thomas, 46, 49, 74, 77Hurree Jamset Ram Singh, 139,

142, 146Hutchinson, Edward, 31Huttenback, Robert, 124, 138

Illustrated London Newspaper, 27imperialism, 7, 9–10, 26, 38, 119,

124–7, 132, 136–8, 180Edwardian, 128–31inter-war, 125–6, 131–6Victorian, 125–8

Indian tales, 139–40, 148

Jack Harkaway, 4, 10, 34, 50,58–61, 68, 71, 74–5, 91, 105,125–8, 141

‘Jack Harkaway, After Schooldays;His Adventures Afloat andAshore’, 59–60, 126–8

Jack Harkaway’s Journal for Boys, 126Jack, Sam and Pete, 87, 98, 139,

143–6, 151, 163, 165–6James, Louis, 10, 124Johns, W.E., 72, 98

Kingston, W.H.G., 4, 34, 38, 45Kipling, Rudyard, 16knitting, 169, 171

Labour voting, 7, 180Lemahieu, D.L., 13Lilliputian Magazine, 26literacy, 3, 18, 25, 48Little Lord Fauntleroy, 76Lloyd, Edward, 6, 26–7Lloyd’s Newspaper, 27Lord of the Flies, 60

MacDonald, Robert H., 10Magnet, 1, 2, 4, 7, 37, 39–40, 73,

75, 77, 82, 100, 142, 160, 163

circulation, 39‘Making of Harry Wharton’, 77–81Mangan, J.A., 76–7, 81, 181manliness

defined, 45–8, 49–50, 59, 68,84–6, 101–2, 119, 136, 150,152, 175–80

democratization of, 70–99, 101

relationship to class, 62, 73–4,98–9

see also masculinityMark Linley, 81–2Marvel, 36–8, 72, 87–8, 143, 159

circulation, 36‘Mary’s Lambs at School’, 168–71masculinity

concept discussed, 3–4marriage and, 58mature men and, 54, 65–7see also manliness

mass culture, 6, 124‘Master of the Sword, or The

Brother Apprentices’, 57–8, 63

Mayhew, Henry, 18medical tales, 60–3‘Mighty London! Modern Story of a

Great City’, 83military tales, 51–4Mill, John Stuart, 139Milner, Alfred, Viscount Milner,

138Modern Boy, 39, 132, 149moral fantasy see formula literatureMore, Hannah, 26mothers and motherhood, 15, 19,

52, 60, 63, 67, 76–7, 83–5, 109,111, 132, 140, 142, 152, 154,159–60, 167, 172

see also family‘Mr. Asaph Spades’, 146–7muscular Christianity, 46, 110

Nelson, Claudia, 10Nelson Lee, 92Newsagents Publishing Company,

33Newsome, David, 46Northcliffe, Lord see Harmsworth,

Alfred

Index 273

Oliver Twist, 83‘Only a Colliery Lad’, 86–8‘Oriana, or the Castle of Gold’, 45orientalist tales, 156–8orphans, 76, 95, 133Orwell, George, 1, 2, 4–5, 10, 82,

102, 142, 180–1Our Boys’ Paper, 32

circulation, 32

patrimony, stolen, 51–2, 63, 86–7,112–14

‘penny dreadfuls’, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,26–7, 31, 33–4, 36–8, 48, 50,159

bad influence of, 4Penny Popular, 80Pete, 139, 143–7, 151, 163–6‘Peter Pills and his friend Potions,

or, The Adventures of TwoMedical Students’, 60–3

‘Peter Sticks It’, 116–18‘Philip and the Pasha, or, A Rescue

from the Harem’, 156–8Phillips, Horace, 129Pilot, 109prep schools, 15Pritchett, V.S., 70‘Private Tinker, A.S.C.: A

Magnificent Story of Tinker atthe Front’, 94

professionalization, 60–3public schools, 2–4, 9, 14–17, 47, 50,

59, 68, 70–1, 73, 82, 100, 102–3,109, 115, 132, 160, 172, 177

publishers and publishingcreation of a youth market, 28early childrens’ periodicals, 25–6Edwardian, 34–8general policies, 8giveaways, 40inter-war, 38–44payments to authors and editors,

36‘penny dreadfuls’, 26–7roots, 25Victorian, 28–34see also Aldine Press;

Amalgamated Press; Brett;Clarke; Harmsworth;Rollington; Thomson

Quaine, J.P., 123

racism, 123anti-American, 135–6, 142anti-Black, 139–52anti-Celtic, 123–4anti-French Canadian, 64anti-Native American, 64anti-Spanish, 54–7Edwardian, 141–6general discussion, 136–9inter-war, 146–52Victorian, 139–41

Rands, W.B., 29reader response criticism, 7, 13readership defined, 13Red Circle Schools, 102–5Reed, Talbot Baines, 47Reginald Dollman, Sir, 64–7, 140–1,

155, 158Reginald Fairleigh, 52Reid, Mayne (1818–83), 29Religious Tract Society, 4, 26, 31,

34, 49–50, 125‘Remove Master’s Substitute’,

161–2Rex Ellis, 135–6Reynolds, G.W.M., 8, 26–7, 33Reynolds’s Miscellany, 8Richards, Frank, 4–5, 7, 10, 16,

36–7, 39, 70–1, 75, 77, 79,102–3, 105, 142, 160, 167, 181

Orwell, response to, 5‘Right Sort’, 133–5Roberts, Robert, 7, 37, 40, 70, 75,

152Robinson Crusoe, 59Rollington, Ralph (H.J. Allingham),

31–3Rose, Jonathan, 20Rover, 2, 4, 38, 40–1, 59, 100, 103,

168

Sayers, Tom (1826–65), 88Scannell, Vernon, 100scholarship boys, 17, 73, 81–2school stories, 60, 74–82, 102–14,

160–3, 168–71‘Schoolboy Alderman’, 39‘Schoolboy Cannibal Earl’, 4,

109–12, 118

274 Index

schoolmasters, 4, 59, 105popular, 101, 104–8unpopular, 59, 105

science fiction, 1, 5, 39, 171Scott, Walter, Sir, 54Septimus Green see Big StiffSexton Blake, 10, 72, 92–5, 98, 159Sherlock Holmes, 71, 92–3sisters, 16, 19, 31, 57, 61–3, 80, 86,

153, 160–1see also family

Skipper, 38, 100Smiles, Samuel, 68sporting stories, 115–18, 167St Jim’s, 75, 82, 142St John, Vane, 51Stalky & Co, 16Startler, 39street life, 19, 21–2, 37, 73, 84,

91–2, 131suffragette stories, 153, 161–6Sunday School, 4, 26Surprise, 39swapping papers, 39

Tarzan, 109teachers see schoolmasters

see also under heroinesThomson, D.C., 2, 8, 38–41, 71, 82,

102, 106, 168, 180Tinker, 92–5‘Toll of the Silent Wastes’, 135–6Tom Brown’s Schooldays, 4, 14, 46,

49, 51, 68, 71–2, 74, 77, 106,124

Tom Merry, 37, 75–7, 79, 81–2‘Tom Merry’s Schooldays’, 77Tom Sayers, 87–91, 98, 166Turner, E.S., 9–10

uncles, 57–8, 62–3, 65, 110Union Jack (1880–93), 4, 34, 36, 93

circulation, 34

Union Jack Library of High-ClassFiction (1893–1922), 36, 38, 92

Vance, Norman, 46Vanguard, 38‘Vengeance of Paul Fleming, or, The

Rover’s Son’, 54–7villainesses, 159–60viralization, 128, 174‘Votes for Women’, 163–6

Wainwright, 52‘Wait Till I’m a Man!, or, The

Playground and the Battlefield’,51–4, 176

war stories, 37, 51–4, 94–8Waugh, Alec, 16Whittaker, Frederick, 83‘Who was to Blame?’, 85–6‘Wild Women at Greyfriars’, 162–3Wilde, Oscar, 128Winskill, Ben, 37‘With Pick and Lamp: The Perils of

a Pit Boy’, 87Wizard, 4, 38–41, 100, 148, 151

circulation, 39Wodehouse, P.G., 2, 96Wolf of Kabul, 148women

Edwardian, 76, 86, 159–66evolution of depiction, 171–4general discussion, 153–5inter-war, 166–71Victorian, 55–7, 155–8

working-class tales, 85–91‘Worst Boy at Borsted’, 112–14, 117

Young Briton’s Journal, 32Young Men of Great Britain, 34–5

circulation, 34Youth’s Magazine; or Evangelical

Miscellany, 26

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