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TRIBES AND CASTES OF BENGAL.

JBy JB:. H. RISLJBJY; INDIAN CIVIL SEEVICE, OFFICIEK D 'ACADEITIE F B A N C A I S E .

E T H N O G R A P H I C GLOSSARY V

j ,> | l * - ,L?-^'-Vol. II.

Ti? TToOev et9 avhpwv ; iroOt roi 7roXt9 JSe TOKf]e<; ;

ODYSSEY i, 170.

CALCUTTA:

Ji'lntci at the §mqixl §tcuWm ktss.

1891.

• -^ 1

? )i 7

TO THE MEMORY OF

pi'. James Siilisc,

SOSIE TIME ClVir, SUBGEON OF DACCA,

THIS VOLUME,

EMBODYING IN PABT THE KESOLTS OF HIS EESEABCHES DUEING THIETEEN '

Y E A R S ' BESIDENCE IN EASTERN BENGAL,

18 DEDICATED.

LAB. LAHEEI.

Ldb, a title of Baniy^s, of the Khandiwar sub-caste of Bais Baniyas and of the Oswal Baniyas in Behar.

Labar, a gain of the Sdndilya goira of the Uttar-Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Labnagar Kumet, a section of the Majraut sub-caste of God-las in Behai'.

Lachh, a section, of Ravitids in Chota Nagpur.

Ladila, a section of Babhans in Bebar.

Ladu, a sub-section of the Kautsasa section of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

Ldek, a section of Utkal or Orissa Brahmans.

Lagdingpd, a rui or sept of the Bedlshan-gye sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Lagmetai a mul or section of the Naomulid or Majraut sub-caste of &oflas in Behar.

Lagori, a sept of Hos in Sing-bhum.

L&ha, a title of the Desd sub-caste of . Gandhabaniks; of Mayards, Kaibarttas, and of Subamabaniks in Bengal.

Ldhagot, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Goria sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Lahakpd, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Lahania, a section of Goal^s in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Lahati, a section of Newars in Darjiliag.

Laher, a sub-sept of theHem-rom and Mdmdi septs of Santals.

Laherd, a synonym for Laheri.

L^heri, a group of the B&:en-dra GoalAs in Bengal.

Laheri, a gain of the Sdndilya gotra and a title of Baren(L:a Brahmans in Bengal.

|£aIlCft, Lahera, a Behar caste engaged in the manufacture and sale of lac bangles lah ha cliun). The group

s t S r o """ ""'""^^ is probably a functional one, consisting of members of several diSereut castes who hap­

pened to adopt that particular profession. In Behar it is divided into two sub-castes—Dakhinha and Tirhuti a—residing respectively north and south of the Ganges. There are two sections,—Kasi and Mahuria. Prohibited degrees are reckoned by the standard formula calculated to seven generations in the descending line.

Laheris admit both infant and adult-mai-riage, but regard the Mamago former practice as the more respectable. The

. c- 3mony is of the standard type, but no tilak is paid to the parents ot the bridegroom. Polygamy is resorted to only in the event of the first wife proving baiTen- Widows are allowed to marry again by the sagni form. I i such oases it is deemed right and proper for a woman to marry her late husband's younger brother if one has survived him, but she is under no positive obligation to do so. A faithless wife can be divorced by establisbing aer guilt before a panchayat. If, however, the offence

LAHEEI.

has heen committed with a memher of the oaste, it is usually condoned on payment of a fine in the form of a feast given to the heads of the caste. Adultery with an outsider involves instant expulsion from the community.

In deciding questions of inheritance and succession the caste profess to he guided by the Mitakshai-a, which

en ance. - ^-^^ personal law of most Hindus in Behar. Disputes, however, rarely go beyond the panchayat, a highly primitive tribunal, which cannot be credited with very precise tnowledge of the written law. To this cu'cumstance, no doubt, we owe the preservation among their scanty customs of the usage . known in the Panjab as chunddvand, by which the sons, however few, of one wife take a share equal to that of the sons, however many, of another. In applying this rule no distinction is drawn between the status of the wives, and the sons of a wife married by the sagai form get the same share as the sons of a woman who was married as a virgin by the regular ceremony.

Laheris consider themselves to be orthodox Hindus, and regard jj jj . Bhagavati as the deity whom they are more

^ ^°°' especially bound to worship. Tirhutia Brah-mans serve them as priests, and do not suffer in social esteem by so doing. Their functions, however, extend only to attendance at marriages and watching over the observances due to the greater gods of the Hindu Pantheon. The minor deities, Bandi and Goraiya, are worshipped by the heads of families themselves without the assistance of Brahmans. Goats, wheaten cakes, milk, and sweet­meats form the usual offerings, which are afterwards eaten by the members of the household.

In point of social standing the Laheris rank with Koiris and Eurmis, and Brahmans will take water from

paw^'*''*"' ""^ '"°"" ^^^^ ^a^fls. Besides their original occupation of making lac bracelets, many of them are

engaged in cultivation as occupancy raiyats. As a rule, however, they will not guide the plough with their own hands, and none of them are found in the lower grades of the agricultiu-al system.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of the Laheri caste in 1872 and 1881:—

DlSTBICI.

B a r d w n n B n n k u r a l i i rbhuin Widnapur Mughh 8J-Fiuganas

fthulna Murehertabaa

S"' ±^'*una "'"xa, l'"-""Pur ^ippHrah IJoakhnli Piihm fjja bhahabaa

1872.

333 28 93

203 246 282 3U

' " 274 98

e 2

33 i 0

18 1,424 2,051

243

1831.

158 8

119 15 24

' " 203 103 81 71

" 79 l.'3i 320

2 1,181

714 24-

DiSIEICT.

m ^ „ ^ f Mo/ufferpiir

Sarai i t'haiuparan J long l iy r Bhagalpur I ' l i rnMb Ha lda l i Sant.il Paiganas Cut tuck P u u liala^oro •Inbutaiy Stales HaziiUbiigli Loliui da*--' h i n g b h u m i l la i ibhum T u b u l a i y Sta tes

1872.

] 6,043

017 1,27! ],i)9r) 1,300

501 ItiS

11 4,056 1,87!) 1,018

914

1881.

f 2,212 I 2,b7,i

Hi 093

2,209 1,0 IS

703

S03 S

•" 89

• "sM l,43l>

9 99 6[i

T.i'WT

LAH-OGPA.

Lah-ogpi, dwelling below la or mountain-top or pass; a rui or sept of the Ruichhung sub-tiibe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Lahoni, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Lahtaur, a sept of Rajputs in Behar.

Lahulia, a sept of Rdjputs in Behar.

Laik, a title of Telis and Mayaras in Bengal.

Laiyali a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Lakdndri, a tliar or sepfc of Mangars in Darjiling.

Lakargarhi) a sub-caste of Sunris in Manbhum.

Ldkat, a sept of Rajputs in Behar.

Lakhansaria, a section of Madhesia Halwais in Behar.

Lakhauria, a division of Bphmans in Behar.

Lakhauriar, a section of Kayasths in Behar.

Lakhiputra, Doai,

a synonym for

LALBEGI.

Lakhnaua, a section of the Banodhid and Jaiswdr Kalvrars in Behar.

Lakhotia, a section of Mahes-ris in Behar.

Lakhsaria, a section of Bhats. Lakrihar, a section of Bans-

phor Doms in Western Behar.

Laksha, a gain of the Batsya gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Laksham Seria, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidahd Kalwars in Behar.

Lalishan or Saranhanda, a class of Sannydsis or Fakirs.

Lakshanpuria, a mul or sec­tion of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-casto of Q-oalas in Behar.

Laktomahang, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Lakwar, a section of the Maghaya sub-caste of Barhis in Behar.

Ldl, Lai a, a title of KAyasths, Khatris, of the Banodhia sub-caste of Kalwars and Sunris in Behar.

Laid, a synonym for KAyasth in Behar.

L^ibegi, a class of Mahomedan sweepers supposed to have come ±i-om_ Upper India, some with sepoy regiments, others as wa.naerers m search of work. Though styled Iklahomedans, they neimer practise circumcision nor abstain fi-om pork. The Lalbegi axe employed as sweepers in European households, and ai-e always addressea as jama'dar by the other servants.

xney eat tiie leavings of Europeans, and drink any sort of wine or spirits. Ihey will not, however, eat with the Raut, who in their tui-n pride themselves on abstaining from food thathas come from a European table. Nor will they touch a dead body.

The religious rites of the Lalbegi are partly Hindu, partly Muhammadan. As with Mussulmans generally, marriages aro arranged by an old woman who acts as match-maker. No haul or marriage settlement is drawn up, but an ikrdr or bond is esecuterl in which both promise to love one another, and the brideeronr^,' undertakes not to bring a second wife into his house. Previous + the wedding day the Khandurl ceremony is observed as WPII other Muhammadan customs, but the services of the Aeha'rii Brah ^^

an «2

LALBEGI. 4 LAMGORIA'.

are not required. Should the marriage be celebrated in the bride­groom's house, a fee of twenty annas is paid to the panchayat; if in the bride's, only five annas.

A few of the Lalbegi keep the fast of Eamazdn, although they dare not enter a public mosque.

Their funeral ceremonies are peculiar. The dead may not be buried in a Mussulman cemetery, but are consigned to the ground in some waste and jungly spot. The corpse is wrapped in five shrouds, a handkerchief is placed under each arm and in each hand, a kasdica or napkin is bound round the head, and a kliirqd or blouse is put on the body. After the grave has been filled in, a cloth cover phiil lai cliadar) is laid over it, while four pieces of " Agar " wood are inserted at the corners and set fire to. The rest of the funeral ceremonies are strictly Mahomodan. For four days after a death a fire is not allowed to be lighted in the dwelling-house of the deceased, the family in the meantime receiving food from their neighbours; but on the fifth- day a tray laden with betel-nuts and adorued with flowers is placed in front of the hut, and a feast ia given to the whole tribe.

The Lalbegis follow many Hindu customs, observing the Diwall and the Holi as the greatest festivals of the year. On these occasions a mud image of a mosque with five domes is made, supposed to be a model of one still existing at Ghazni, in Kdbul, which belonged to Lai Beg, the eponymous ancestor of the tribe. In front of the image a cook is sacrificed, and offerings of pilao, sherbet, and sweetmeats are made in his name. Lai Beg ia identified by Sir H . Elliot^ with L&l Gui-u, the same as the Kakshasa Aronikarat; but in Benares- he is confounded with Pir Zahr, perhaps the famous Chishtiya saint Sayyid Shah Zuhtjr. In the Panjdb, a<;ain, Mihtars adore Lai Pir, or Baba Faqir, as thed je r sdo Pir 'Ali llangrez, and the blacksmitlis Hazrat Bafid. I t seems not improbable, therefore, that the Lulbegi, like many ether tribes converted to Mahomedanism, have adopted a Alaho-medan saint as their common ancestor.

Lil-Ch^tai,asub-groupofHele Kaibarttas in Central Bengal.

Lal-Gamia, agroupof theMih-tar sub-caste of Telis in Behar.

L^i-Goal^. a hypergamous group of Go^Ms in Eastern Bengal.

Lalihar, a bird, a totemistie eept of Lobars in Chota Nagpur. ^ Lama, a i/iar or sept of

Gunmgs in Darjiling.

Lama Khor, a section of 5fur-mis in Darjiling.

Lamamaka, a sept of Hoa in Singbhum.

Lamba, a sectiou oi QoiWs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

. Lambacha, a sept of the Tung-jamya sub-tribe of Chakmds in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Lamgade, Lamgadeh, a sec­tion of Kdmis and a t/iar or sept of Alangars in Darjiling.

Lamgoria, a section of .B^-bhans in Behar.

Supplemental Glossa>;/, i, 82. bhernug, Mindu Tn(,es uf Benares, p. 397.

LAMI CHHAXYA. «

Lami Chhanya, a thar ov sept of CJunings and Mnngars in Dar-

Lamjali a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Lampochha, a sept of the liautar sub-tribe of Tbarus in Bebur.

Lamsani Tongi, a thar or sept of the Das-Guruug sub-tribe of Gumiigs in Darjiling. I t was separated fi-om its parent thar, the Lehbo Lamsani.

Lang, a kind of bird, a totem-istio sept of Muudas in Ohota Nagpur.

Lang Chenre, a section of the Mahili-Munda sub-caste of Mahilis in Ohota Nagpur.

Langjharajhari, a mul or sec­tion of Kesai'wani Banijas in Bebar.

Langsal or Lamsal, a ihnr of the Bachh gotra of Nepali Brabnians.

Laoti, be who was obeyed, a sept of tiie Panthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjibng.

L^phaunchhS, a thar or sept of Kbambus in Darjiling.

Ldpung, a small bird, a totem-istio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur,

Larapd, monkey-eater, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Larauni, a mnl or section of t^^^Wiamulia Madliesid sub-caste of llalwdis in Bebar.

Larhora or Purbal Mehter, a sub-caste of Donis in Bebar who reverence Supat Bliagat, a devotee •ffbom tiiey beHovo to be tlio purka or founder of their sub-caste. They make baskets and remove filth-

LATIHAE.

Lari, a sub-easte of Q-oilas in Chota Nagpur.

Larka . the fighters, a title of the Ho tribe in Singbhum.

Larkor, a title of Jaunpuri Chamdrs in Bebar wbose women act as mid-ndves.

Larma, a sept of Cbalnnas in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong

Larsunar, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Lartangar, a miil or section of the Kanaujid sub-caste of Sonars in Bebar.

Laruli, a gain of the Bbarad-waja gotra of Bareudra Brab-mans in Bengal.

Larwar, a dih or exogamous section of the Grharbait sub-caste of Amats in Behar.

Larv/aria, a section of Bab-bans in Bebar.

Laskar, a title of Pods in Bengal.

Lat, a sub-sept of the Kisku, Saren, and Tudu septs of Sautals, wbose ancestor baked meat in a leaf platter.

Lata-baidya, a synonym for Barui.

Lata Punra, a section of Pundaiik or Pundas, so called from their selling vegetables grown from lata or ei-eoper.

Later, a sub-tribe of Dbimals in the Darjiling Terai.

Lathaur, a sub-caste of Telis in BL-bar, a section of Bajwars and Rauti^s m Ohota Nagpur.

Latihar, a variant for L^heri or Churihdr, who manufacture lac bracelets or churk.

LAU. LEPCHA.

Legbahang, a sept of the Tambrkhola sub-tribe of Limbus in Daijiling.

Legma, the •worker in mud, a sept of the Chhothar aub-tribe of Iambus in Darjiling.

Leh Lama, a thar or sept of Gurtmgs in Darjiling the mem­bers of which are called in to officiate at the obsequies of the dead by throwing earth oQ the grave, and to read the funeral prayers.

Lekhogma, he of the swollen testes, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of l imbus in Darjiling.

Lenda, earthworm, a totemistie sept of Mundas in Ghota Nagpur.

Leng, a totemistie sept of the Bhumij tribe in Manbhum, the members of which will not touch or eat a mushroom.

Lenka, a title of Ohdsas in Orissa.

lit, Eong, Khamha, Mon, a Mongolian tribe of Sikkim, Western Bhutan, Eastern Nepal, and Darji-

ngui. ^ng. They are divided into two branches— Rong and Khamba. The former claim to be the original inhabit­ants of Sikkim, while the Khamba are believed to have immigrated some 250 years ago from the Kham province of China, whitlier a deputation of Lamas had been sent to choose a ruler for Sikkim. The Haja selected by them brought with him a number of his own tribe, who retained the name of their original home as associatine' them with the ruling family. The distinction, however, has not operated as a bar to intermarriage, and the two branches are HQ-W thorouglily amalgamated. Both, in fact, probably come of the same original stock, and represent two successive migrations of Mongols into Sikkim.

" I n person, says Dr. Campbell,^ " the Lepchas are short averagijg about five feet in heia-hf • «„„ f„J-

Pu,ei.uj^e. ^^ .^^^^^ ^ ^ 11 ^^ , f ^ , f ee t^eL? L h e s

IS a common stature among the men. The women are shorter in the ^Bual proportion. The men are bulky for their height but rather ?esiiy than sinewy. The muscular development of th'filr limbs is inferior _ to jha t of the Magars. Gurungs, M ^ J ^ I^Jfother

Lau, a sub-section of the Hdrita section of TJtkal Brah-mans in Orissa.

Laugi, a title of Nagarg in Behar.

Lauki, a title of Hindu Jo-Idhas in Behar.

Laungijarhua, a mxd or sec­tion of the Satmulia or Kishnaut sub-caste of G-oalas in Behai.

Laurla, a section of GoaMs in Behar.

Lautnii a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Lav/apur, a section of Maj-raut Goalas in Behar.

La^ja, a synonjia for Maulik.

Leba, a sept of Chakmas in the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Lechenche, the dissolute one, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

' 'TouTiial of Ethnological Society of Ionian, vol. I.JNo.

7 LEI'CHA.

Parbattiahs. They are very fair of skin, and boys and girfs in health have generally a ruddy tinge of complexion. This iS lost, however, in adolescence, although the fairness continues. The features are markedly Mongolian, but there is a fulness and roundness of feature accompanied by a cheerful expression and laughing^ eye which renders the face a most pleasing one. The total absence of beard and the fashion of parting the hair along the crown of the head adds to a somewhat womanly expression of countensmce in the men, and the loose bedgown sort of jacket, with wide sleeves, which they wear, contributes still more to render it rather diiScult for strangers to distinguish the sexes, especially in middle age. The men very often look like women, and the women sometimes like men. The hair is worn long by both sexes; the younger men allowing it to hang loose over the shoulders, the elders plaiting it into a tail, which sometimes reaches to the knees. The women of rank wear their hair in two, and sometimes in three tails, tying it with braids and silken cords and tassels. The Lepchas, both male and female, are dirty in person, rarely having recourse to ablution. In the cold and dry season this renders them tmpleasant inmates of a close dwelling, but in the rains, when they move jibout and are frequently wet, they are clean and sweet. The tempera­ment of the Lepcha is eminently cheerful, and his disposition really amiable. I n ordinary intercourse they are a very fascinating people, and possess an amount of intelligence and rational curiosity not to be met with among their Bhotia, Limbu, Murmi, or Grorung neighbours, and indeed rarely, if ever, to be seen among people so completely secluded from foreign intercourse as they always have been. The marked contrast in these respects between the Lepchas and the listless, uninquiring natives of the plains renders association with them a source of much pleasure to Europeans. They are wonderfully honest, theft being scarcely known among them; they rarely quarrel among themselves. I have never known them to draw their knives on one another, although they always wear them. For ordinary social purposes of talking, eating, and drinking, they have great unanimity, but for any more important purposes of resistance to oppression, the pursuit of industry or trade, theif con­fidence in one another is at a low pitch; they fly bad government rather than resist it, and used to prefer digging for yams iu the jungle and eating wretchedly innutritions vegetables to enduring ^iiy injustice or harsh treatment. They are singularly forgiving of injuries, when time is given chem, after hasty loss of temper. Although ihey were ready enough to lodge complaints before the Magistrate against one another in cases of assault and other offences, they rarely prosecuted to a decision, generally preferring to submit to arbitration or making mutual amends and concessions.

ilie internal structure of the tribe, so far as I have been able Internal Btructure *« ascertain it, is shown in Appendix I . The

subject is most obscure, and liepchas them­selves seem unable to throw much light upon it. Besides the main divisions 01 «ong and Khamba, ^xhich, as has been. &ta.te>i aUve have no special bearing on marriage, the Lepchas recognize tea

LEPCIIA. 0

groups, which they call tliars. These appear to have been at ono time exogamous, and the Adiupuso thar is said to be so still, iho rest, however, have lost their exogamous character, and t teir members may marry women of their own or of other groups. 1 wo thars, Barphungpuso and Adinpuso, rank higher tlian the other eight, and do not permit intermarriage with them.. The distinction is said to arise from the fact that the officials of the Sikkim State are invariably chosen from these two ihars, and they probably are the descendants of the Khamba clansmen who followed the chief from Tibet. Village headmen [mandals) are drawn from among the eight lower thars, and these groups represent the main body of cultivators in Sikkim. Members of these thars again may intermarry with Limbus, which is forbidden for Barphungpuso and A.dinpuso.

The primitive rule of exogamy having thus fallen into disuse, the Lepchas supply its place by a table of prohibited degrees which does not differ materially from that expressed by the common formula mamera, chachera, etc, akeady often referred to. Intermarri­age is ban-ed only for three generations in the descending line, except when a mdh or adoptive relationship has been entered into, in which case the prohibition is said to extend to nine generations. The ceremony observed in mith is of the same general character as among the ilurmis, but Lamas, not Brahmans, officiate as priests, and Tibetan scarves are exchanged as pledges of amity instead of the rupees used by the Murmis. The wives of the two friends take part in the ceremony, and are not troubled by the strict etiquette which among the Nepalese regulates the conduct of a wife towards her husband's dost.

Lepcha girls usually marry between the ages of sixteen and J. . eighteen. Men marry later owing to the

amago. difficulty of getting together the bride-price, which ranges from Es. 40 to Es. 100 according to the rank of the parties. The freest courtship is permitted, and sexual license before marriage is tolerated. If a girl becomes pregnant, the man is expected either to marry her or to pay some compensation to her parents for the reduction in value whioh she has undergone. Formal proposals of marriage are usually made to the bride's parents by pibus or go-betweens acting on behalf of tho lover. If the proposal is accepted, the pibm go to tho bride's house with Es. 5 as earnest-money, and ten seers of marua beer and a Tibetan scarf. Au auspicious day for the marriage is then fixed by the Lamas. The ceremony, performed first at the bride's and then at the bridegroom's house, is of a very simple character. Bride and bridegroom sit ^ae by side on a cai-pet, and the Lama ties a silk scarf round the brid °* ^^^"^ ^''^^ *^^° changes the scarves, so that the bride wears the eat to'^'^^'^ ™^ ' ' ^ '""'^^- ^ i °^ i^ sprinkled over their heads, they ceedin^3^^' ^^^ <^"°^ marua beer out of the same cup. 'f ho pro-t^e hifsb!^ ,' ' ' ^ * f s* - The married couple spend three days in bride's p^ente^'^'^^^' ^^^ ''^^^ usually go on a month's visit to the

When a m • allowed to maS^'^ * - *°° P°°^ ^° ^^^ ^^^ bride-price, he is often

fyj as it were, on credit. • Vint fho VirSrla /inoa not, leave were, on credit; but the bride does not leave

J'

9 LEPCIIA.

her father's house, and the husband goes to live with her and work for his father-in-law until the full amount has been made up.

Polyandry, though comparatively rare, is not entirelj' unknown among the Lepchas. As might he expected, the Tibetan form of the custom is followed, and the younger brothers share the favours of the eldest brother's wife. Polygamy is permitted, but is not practised on a large scale.

A widow may marry again, and is subject to no express restric­tions in her clioice of a second husband. I t is considered, however, proper for her to marry her late husband's younger brother, and if she marries an outsider, this brother-in-law usually keeps the children, and in any case may claim repayment of the bride-price. The full ceremony may be employed at the marriage of a widow, but the parties usually content themselves with the mere announcement by a Lama that they have become man and wife.

If a married couple cannot agree, arbitrators (pibiis) are-appointed to attempt to adjust their differences. If they fail after two or three attempts, a formal divorce is effected with the concurrence of the Lama who mairied the pair. The wife returns to her father's house, and her husband pays some compensation to her parents. When a woman is taken in adultery, a panchayat considers the case and determines the amount of fine (gi/sh) to be paid to her husband by the paramour. The amount of the fine is not fixed by custom, nor does it bear any stated proportion to the bride-price. Where adultery is proved, the husbaud has a right to divorce his wife without paying compensation to her parents, and to take away her ornaments. Physical chastisement is never inflicted, nor is the right of divorce invariably exercised. Divorced wives may marry again by the same ceremony as is in use at the marriage of a vu-gin.

I n matters of inheritance and succession the Lepchas follow a tribal custom of their O^STI, which is adminis-

Inhoritanco. ^ . ^ ^^ ^j^^ panchdyats of the tribe, and rarely comes before the regular courts. At a man's death his property is supposed to be divided equally among his sons, but the rule of equal division is hable in practice to be modified by other considerations. Thus the widow and daughters of the deceased usually live with the eldest son, and where this is the ease he gets an extra share of the property. In Sikkim, again, it is held that the rule of equal division only applies where the sons render equal service to the Raja of the country, so that if one son does service and the others do not, that one gets an extra share of the property. A. similar principle is recognized by the Lepchas of Darjiling, In dividing an inheritance account is taken by the panchayat of the extent to which tho different heirs have contributed to the improve-S +1,° V'^ property, and their shares are adjusted accordingly iirotuers have uo claim by right of descent, but shares may be awarded to them by the panchayat in proportion to the work thev have done dunng the lifetime of the deceased. WiUs are unknown • but a lather may make a verbal declaration m favour of a particular SOD, and the panchayat will give effect to this. declaration of hit wishes. It sous survive, the unmarried daughtera.are maintained

LEPCHA. - 10

by them, and neither they nor married daughters take any share in the property. If, however, there are no sons, a married daughter may succeed, provided that she and her husband have lived in her father's house. The v?hole system, however, is extremely fluid and indefinite, and the rules stated above are iu practice constantly modi­fied by the panchayat with the object of doing substantial justice to the various claimants.

Most Lepehas at the present day profess to be Buddhists, and follow in a more or less intelligent fashion

Eeligion. ^^g observances of the northern sect of that religion. I t is clear, however, that at no very distant time their sole belief was a form of Shamanistic Animism of the same general character as that described in the article on the Limbus. Conspi­cuous traces of this faith still survive among them, imperfectly hidden by the thin veil of BucSdhistio usage. I n the belief of the average Lepcha, mountain and forest, rock and stream represent ill-defined but formidable powers who threaten mankind with a variety of physical ills, and require to be constantly appeased through the agency of Bijuas or exorcists. Not all of these powers are evil, and some are even credited with taking a kindly interest in human affairs. But savage theology, expressing doubtless the experience of primitive man as to the distribution of good and evil in the world, teaches that the good gods abide in their own place and take no heed of mankind, while the malevolent deities are in a constant state of jealous and mischievous activity. The former therefore gradually drop out of notice and fade from the memories of men, while the latter, strong in the fears they inspire, may even outlive an entire change of religion on the part of their votaries. The snow-clad giant Kinchinjanga, chief among the elemental deities of the Lepehas, who vexes men with storm and hail and sends down avalanches and torrents to wreck their fields and sweep away their homes, has been translated to the milder system of Buddhism, where he figures as the tutor of Sakya Muni himself. Eshegenpu, Palden Lhamo, Lapen-Rimbuchi, Grenpu-Maling-Nagpu, and Wasungma are less easy to identify ; but the fact that they receive offerini' s of meat and marud beer in addition to the flowers, fruit, rice and incense sanctioned by Buddhist usage, lends some weight to the conjecture that they belong to an earlier and more barbarous system. Chirenzi or Lachen-Om-Chhup-Chhimu is said by the Lepehas to be the same as Mahadeva. His wife is XJmadeva. Both are believed 0 have been worshipped by the Lepehas before the introduction of

buddhism.

-n Tibetan Lamas serve the tribe as priests, and preside at all tnan^^* ceremonies. Lepehas themselves rarely become Lamas but able n°fl ^^em are exorcists (Bijuas or .Ojhas), and exercise consider-appeasin l t ^ ^^ *^^"' P°^^^ °^ averting the ill-will of the gods and

The d spirits of the dead. ^ead are usually buried, fully clothed and in a sitting

''Po^aiofthodead. position, facing towards the east. Before for two or ihr^^ j burial the corpse is kept sitting in the house

'"^^ % 8 with food before it. The grave is l ingi with

11 LEPCHA.

stones and a round cairn built on the top surmounted by a flag. Among the Eong Lepehas an Ojha is called in about a month after death to perform a simple propitiatory rite, at which a eow or a goat is kiUed and much mania beer is drunk. This is sometimes repeated on the iixst anniversary of the death. The object is to put the dead man's spirit to rest, and to prevent him from plaguing the living with bad dreams. At harvest time offerings of rice, mama beer, and various kinds of food are presented by the head of the house­hold for the benefit of ancestors in general.

The higher classes of Khamba Lepehas burn their dead, pound the fragments of the bones whixjh remain, and throw them into a river, not into a jliord or hill stream. The subsequent propitiatory ceremony is sometimes very elaborate, as in the ease of the obsequies of the sister of the Sikkim Ilaja, described by Mr. J . Ware Edgar, O.S.L, in the following passage':—

"Before the figure [meant to represent the dead person, in this case the Sikkim Rajah's sister, who was a nun] was a table on which were different kinds of food; on another table at the side were various things which had belonged to the woman when alive ; while on a third, 108 little brass lamps were arranged in rows. Long lines of monks in dark red robes and with very tall caps of bright crimson on their heads sat on carpets placed in the middle of the chapel and chanted litanies throughout each day of my stay at Toomlong.

" I t chanced that I saw the conclusion, and learned the meaning of this ceremony at Pemiongchi, where the lay-figure of the nun was taken some days after I left Toomlong. There for three days the figure was seated before the altar, and the monks chanted the litanies for the departure of the soul of the dead nun * * * . On the third day the relations, friends, and dependents of the deceased brought or sent gifts of food or clothing or money, which were all laid before the figure of the dead woman; while the head Lama, standing in front of his chair and turning towards the figure, stated the nature of each gift and the name of the donor. Towards even­ing the tea-cup of the nun was freshly filled with tea and her murwa jug with mm-wa, and all the Eaonks solemnly drank tea with her. Then many people who had known and loved the nun when alive went up, and, prostrating themselves before the figure, kissed the hem of the robe as a last farewell, while the monks chanted the litanies more zealously than ever, and the head Lama, who had left his chair and gone to one of the tables, went through sonae elaborate ceremonies the meaning of which I could not make out. At about nine o'clock the chanting ceased, and the Lama again stand­ing lu front of his chair made a long speech to the soul of the nun f y'^ioh lie told her that all that could be done to make her journey T n FrTfK ^° ' ' ^^ «^sy had been done, and that now she would have of the dead'^°^^ ^ ^ ^°^««i|ted to appear before the^king and judge

When the Lama had finished his address, some of the monks took

' -fiepori! of a Visit to Sil'kim, pp. 57-58.

LEPOlfA. 12

down the lay-figure and undressed i t ; while others formed a procession and conducted the soul of the nun into the darkness outside the monastery, with a discordant noise of conch-shells, thigh-hone trumpets, Tibetan flutes, gongs, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and other most disagreeable but nameless instruments."

" The Lepohas," says Dr. Campbell,' " have no caste distinctions. Those who live under the Nepal Government

^°°^ are obliged to conform to the Hindu laws of that State, which prohibit the killing of the cow. This they do, however, with a very bad grace, and rarely forego an opportunity of visiting Darjiling to indulge their beef-eating propensities. They are gross feeders, eating aU kinds of animal food, including the elephant, rhinoceros, and monkey, and all grains and vegetables known to us, with the addition of many roots and plants altogether excluded from our culinary Hst. Pork is their most favourite flesh ; next to that beef, goat, and mutton. The yak is considered the best beef, the next to that the flesh of the Sikkim cow, afine animal, and last the Bengali and common cow. All birds are included in their list of eatable game. Of the carrion of wild animals, that of the elephant is most prized. The favourite vegetable food is rice; next to it wheat, barley, maize, millet, murwa, and a fine species of yam called "bookh," which grows all over these mountains, at elevations of from 1,500 to 3,000 feet. During the rains, when grain is scarce, they contentedly put up with ferns, bamboo roots, several sorts of fungi, and innumerable succulent plants found wild on the mountains. A large-rooted arum is much used at this season, after being soaked in water for six days to remove its acrid juice ; still it often produces colic, and is poisonous. Pond of fermented and spirituous liquors, the Lepchas are nevertheless not given to drunkenness ; their common beverage is a kind of beer made from the fermented infusion of Indian com and murwa, which is weak, but agreeably acid and very refreshing. They drink this at all times when procurahle, and when making a journey it is carried in a large bamboo " chunga," and diligently applied to throughout the day. They have no distilled liquor of their own, but they greatly admire and prize all our strong

• waters—our port and sherry, cherry brandy, and maraschino. Tea is a favourite beverage, the black sort brought from China in large cakes being that preferred. It is prepared by boiling, after which the decoction is churned up in a " chunga," with butter and salt. Wilk is never taken with tea. Their cooking is careless, coarse, and ^ot cleanly. Rice is generally boUed when travelling in pieces of aW "" ^ bamboo; at home, in coarse iron pots. Vegetables are capB^ ^"'^^^ ^ °'^' ""^^^ *^s latter is procurable, and spiced with Salt Wl"^*^ ^^^^®^' °^ ^^^^°^ ^^^^^ ^ills possess very fine kinds till lateW K •*^°™°^°°^ ^^^^ condiment, the chief source of its supply

' tlie easier p''^^ ' ^^*' ^^®°°^ rock-salt is brought on men's backs : l>arjUing j a u m c a t i o n with the plains of Bengal by the new '^te, and sea-gau • * °^ ^^^ importation of this article at a cheaper - — , — — - ^ ^ l ^ a p i d l y taking the place of the other.

Journal „f^~"—~

Ethnological 's^cieti/ of London, vol. iT'^oTV'

13 LEPCHA.

" The Lepoha dress is simple and graceful. I t consists of a robe of striped red and white cotton cloth crossed

''®^* over the breast and shoulders, and descending to the calf of the legs, leaving the aims bare; a loose jacket of red cotton cloth is worn over the robe by those who can afford it, and both are bound round the waist by a red gridle; some strings of coloured beads round the neck, silver and coral earrings, a bamboo bow and quiver of iron-pointed arrows, and a long knife complete the dress of the men. The knife, called " ban " by the Lepohas. and "chipsa" by the Bhotias, is constantly worn by the males of all ages and ranks ; it hangs on the right side, suspended fi-om the left shoulder, and is used for all purposes. IVith the "ban " t h e Lepcha clears a space in the forest for his house and cultivation; it is the only tool used by him in building; with it lie skins the animals that fall a prey to his snares and arrows ; it is his sword in battle, his table knife, his hoe, spado, and nail-parer. "Without the " ban " he is helpless to move in the jungle; with it he is a man of all work : the expertness with which it is used by the boys of a few years old even is the astonishment of strangers.' The women are less neatly dressed than the' men : a piece of plain unbleached cotton cloth, or the cloth of the castor oil insect—the indi—rolled round to form a sort of petticoat, with a loose red gown of the same, and a profusion of mock coral and coloured bead necklaces, form their entire wardrobe. They are the domestic and farm drudges of the men, performing all out and in-door work along with their husbands, and much besides. I t is not unusual to meet a stout and active man, bow in hand, sauntering along the road followed by his wife and sisters heavily loaded with grain or merchandise. I t is the delight of a Lepcha to be idle;_ he abhors the labour of practising any craft, but he expects that while he is amused and unemployed the female part of the household shall bo busUy engaged in the field, or in looking after the pigs and poultry. In recent times they have taken to work in tea plantations and as chair-bearers: and the necessity for money, since we introduced it into their country, has made them more steady workers."

« "The Lepchas are poor agriculturists, their labours in this art being confined to the careless growing of rice

ocoupnuon. j ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^,^^ murwa 8essasum Orientalis), and a few vegetables, of which the brinjal, cucumber, and capsicum are the chief. Their habits are incurably erratic: they do not forni permanent villages, and rarely remain longer than three years in one place, at the expiration of which they move into a new pait nf the forest, soraetunes near, often distant, and there go through +^ labour of clearing a space for a house, building a new one A preparing the ground for a crop. The latter operations coris' ^^ cutting down the smaller trees, lopping off the branches of tV, i ' ones, which are burnt, and scratching the soil with tho « i, ^„^argQ

_ _ J ^ b a n , " after I Tlic " buu " is a straight sword with a wooden scabbard^ ^ ~

^ "s Journal of the Ethnological Svciety of London vnl T >r ^^ ^^^ •^°^-I-No. 2, p. 151.

LEPCHA. 14 LIMBU.

which, on the fallkg of a shower of ram, the seed is thrown into the CTOund. Then- houses are built entirely of bamboo, raised about five feet from the ground, and thatched with the same material, but

^ ^ " T h : 5 ; S ? a m b X d 3,952 in 1872 and 202 in 1881 in the district of Darjiling.

Lepuriet, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Let, a sub-caste of Bagdis found in Murshedahad and Bir-bhum.

Lethrani, the designation of the women of the Limbu caste in Darjiling.

Levatia, a section of Majraut Go41as in Behar.

Lhasung, a suh-sept of the Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south, the members of which officiate as priests of all the septs.

Lha-yo, a t/iar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Lhebo Latnsani, a thar or sept of the Das-Gui-ung sub-tribe of Grurungs. There is a tradition that in ancient times two Ghirungs —father and son—quan-elledand separated from each other. The father's party remained at Lehbo and the son's paity emigrated to

a distant place. The _ latter were called Lamsani Tangi tangi in Gurung means ' separated').

Lhopa, a native of Bhotan,

Zhopa Bhotia, a synonym for Dejong Lhori.

Lhoringten, the chief of Mo-rang, a sept of the Ohaibisa sub-tribe of Limbus. This thar was formerly under the Morang Raja.

Lhorong, a sub-tribe of Takhas in Darjiling.

Li bang, the archer, a sept of the Miakhola sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Lihimba, dove, a totemistio sept of Juangs in Orissa.

Li la, fish, a totemistio sept of Oraons in Ohota Nagpirr.

Li I la, wild cow, a totemistio sept of Mundasin ChotaNagpur.

Liluai, a sept of Birhors in Ohota Nagpur.

I^imbll, a large tribe, probably of Mongolian descent, ranking Traditions of origin. ^® * '^'^ ^^^ Khambu and above the Yakha

KirSnf rvx. "'°^°^? ^^^ t "® ^PP^ divisions of the to C J ^'°"P' .^^^ precedence given to the Khambus is supposed ^ 'wi -^vi "" ^''^'ing a larger proportion of Khas and Newar 'IV \^\^ the Limbus have interbred freely with the Lepchas fl' ^ ' the t f ^ ^ ^^'^°^' * ' ' ®' concerning which little is known". rpi' ' g they 1 ^ ^^^' ^^^^ ^ ' ' ^° generally recognized honorific title* rr?itt'ba 0^, , " to be addressed as dewan and callthemselvps Voir i t ' ^ i S S r ^ ^ ' -'f ^fr'\^ f^ ^-'iition that this was ten i T ? ^ V l l ' ^ T ^ ' " ' ' ^ ' ^ T - i! ''^^'^''f^ the Himalaya 'lividS'^^^^s (?; l^^ ^ T ? Lunbu, or Das Limbu, from the

» y by outsiders, iibetans have no special name

15 LIMBU.

for the Limhus; they call all the tribes of the Indian side of the Himalaya by the general name Monpa or dwellers in the ravines. The Lepchas and Bhotias or Tibetans settled in Bhotan, Sikkira, and Nepal speak of the Limbus as Tsong, because the five thums or sub-tribes included in the class known as Lhasa-gotra emigrated to Eastern Nepal fi'om the district of Tsang in Tibet.. Lepchas call them Chang, -which may be a corruption of Tsong. By other members of the Kiranti group they are addressed by the honorific title of Subah or Suffali, a chief.

The Limbus, according to Dr. Campbell, "form a large portion of the inhabitants in the mountainous country lying between the Dud-Kosi and the Kanki rivers in Nepal, and are found in smaller numbers eastwards to the Mechi river, which forms the boundary of Nepal and Sikkim. In still fewer numbers they exist within the Sikkim territory, as far east as the Tista river, beyond which they rarely settle. In Bhutan they are unknown except as strangers." Hodgson locates them between the Arun Kosi and the JVIechi, the Singilela ridge being their boundary on the east. The Limbus themselves claim to have held from time immemorial the Tamba Khola valley on the upper waters of the Tamba Kosi river; and the fact that one of their sub-tribes bears the name Tambakhola suggests that this valley may have been one of their early settlements. They have also a tradition that five ' out of then- thirteen sub-tribes came from Lh.isa, while five others came from Benares. The former group is called the Lhasa-gotra, and the latter the Kasi-gotra; but the term gotra has in this case no bearing on marriage. AH that can safely be said is that the Limbus are the oldest recorded population^ of the country between the Tamra Kosi and the Mechi, and their flat features, slightly oblique eyes, yellow complexion, and beardlessness may perhaps afford grounds for believing them to be the descendants of eai-ly Tibetan settlers in Nepal. They appear to have mixed little with the Hindus, but much with the Lepchas, who of late years have migrated in larce numbers from Sikkim to the west. Dr. Campbell compai-es the two tribes ia the following words:—" The Limbu is a very little taller in stature than the Lepclia, somewhat less fleshy, and more wiry in the limbs, as fau--in complexion, and as completely beardless. He is scarcely ever as ruddy as the Lepchas sometimes are; his eyes ai'e, if anything, smaller, and placed more to the front than the Lepeha's, and his nose, although somewhat smaller, is rather higher m the bridge than that of the Lepcha. He wears his liair lono-hut does not plait it into a tail; has no fancy for bead necklaces' weai'3 a kukri instead of the hdn,^ and wide trousers and a jacket ' chapkan in preference to the robe and long jacket of the Lepcha<; » ° '

At the time of the Gurkha conquest of Nepal the couutrv of the Arun Kosi was held by petty Limbu chiefs on QV,":-^ ^^^t • terms fi-om the Hindu Eajas of Bijapur and Makwanpur f ^ ^ ^^ courts representative Limbus discharged the duties oi P/' ^•'^ose nrime minister. Taking refuge in the hill foi-ts win, '"""^'•«.or. ^____ •_ _ _ _ _ J ^ ^ w h c ] a each v

' Tho long, straight knife used by the Leprf ^ T " ^ - ^ " ^

LIMBU. 16

chiefship was provided, the Limbus offered a gallant resistance to the invading Gnirkhas, and the latter underwent many repulses before their supremacy was fully established. Although used to bearing arms, and deeming themselves a military race, they do not rank among the regular fighting tribes of Nepal, and they are not admitted into the Gorkhdli regiments of the Nepalese army. Their principal occupa­tions at the present day are agriculture, grazing, and petty trade. They serve in the Baranti regiments raised about 30 years ago by Jang Bahadur, and some of them have enKsted in our own Grurkha battalions. Some authorities believe tliem, with the rest of the Kiranti, to be inferior in soldierly qualities to the Khas, Mangar, and Gumng tribes, from whom our best recruits are drawn, but tliis opinion seems to be giving away, among the present generation of Ghirkha officers, to a more favourable estimate of their military capacity, and their behaviour in the Sikkim compaign of 1888 is understood to have borne out the latter view.

The internal structure of the tribe is extremely complicated, and Internal structure. ?an ^cst be studied in the Appendix, where it

IS shown m a tabular form. The Limbus are divided into thirteen endogamous sub-tribes, each of which is again broken up into a number of exogamous septs. The names of the septs are extremely curious. Two or three at the most are totemistio a few are local or territorial, and one only is eponymous. By far the greater number of them refer to some personal adventure or peculiarity of the original founder of the sept, and they suggest the existence of a considerable body of rather grotesque folklore. The rule of exogamy goes by the male side, and is supplemented by forbidding intermarriage between persons descended in a direct line from the same parents as long as any relationship can be traced. Intermarriage between cousins is barred for three generations, or as some say, for seven. In practice, however, while the rule forbidding marriage within the thar is most strictly observed, there seems to be much uncertainty about prohibited degrees, and I believe near alliances with the mother's kindred are by no means uncommon. A further complication is introduced by the restrictions on inter­marriage arising from mith (Limbu saiha) fiiendship or on fictitious brotherhood among most of the hill races. Two men contract friendship by a special ritual at which a Brahman, or, when the parties are Buddhists, a Lama, officiates, and reads mantras or mystic formula;, while the two friends thrice exchange rupees, hand­kerchiefs, or scarves, and daub each other between the eyebrows •with the paste made of rice and curds which is used in the marriao-ceremony. The effect of the union is tiiat the friends are recko ,? ns brothers, and intermarriage between the two families is prohib"^^^ for several (some say eighteen) generations. Any breach of If rule 18 punished in British territory by exclusion from casfn T J^'ei'al, I am infomed, moro severe punishments, such a« ^ *i slavery, are inlUcted. ^^^^ °^'

Members of the Murrai, Lepcha, and Bhotia tv;i „ i.« admitted into the Limbu tribe after being approved t . C ' ^ - i b d councd, called by the Limbus t/uon-tku., md%S^^XSho^he

17 LIMBU.

local community. In some cases the new member is req[uired to file a written statement to the effect that he has entered the tribe and will abide by its rules. Khambus and Yakhas, being Ear^ntis them­selves, may be admitted into the tribe by the simpler and more direct process of adoption. In any case the children of a Limbu man hy a Bhotia, Lepcha, Gurimg, Sunawar, Mangar, or Murmi woman, or of a Limbu woman by a man of any of these groups, are admitted without question into the Limbu community.

The phlegmatic and utilitarian habit of mind which a German . ethnologist has noticed as charaoleristic of the

e igion. Mongolian races comes out conspicuously in the nonchalant attitude of the Limbus towards religion. "Whei-e their surroundings are Hindu, they describe themselves as Saivas, and profess to worship, though with sparing and infrequent observance, Mahddeva and his consort Gauri, the deities most favoured by the lax Hinduism of Nepal. In a Buddhist neighbourhood the yoke of conformity is still more easy to bear: the l imbu has only to mutter the pious formula, om mani padme oni, and to pay respect and moderate tribute to the Lamas, in order to be accepted as an average Buddhist. Beneath this veneer of conformity with whatever faith happens to have gained local acceptation, the vague shapes of th«ir original Pantheon have survived in the form of household or forest gods, much in the same way as Dionysus and other of the Greek gods may be traced in the names and attributes of the saints who preside over the vintage, the harvest and rural festivals of various kinds in remote parts of Greece at the present day. Under such disguises, which serve to mask departm-es from the popular creeds, the Limbua worship a host of spiritual beings whoso attributes are ill-defiaod, and whose very names are not easy to ascertain. Yuma, Kapobd, and Theba rank as household gods, and are propitiated once in five years, or whenever disease or loss of property threaten the family, by the slaughter, outside the house, of buffaloes, pigs or fowls. The votaries eat tlie sacrifice, and thus, as they express it, " dedicate the life-breath to the gods, the flesh to ourselves." No special days are set apart for the ceremony ; but it cannot be per­formed on Sunday, as that day is sacred to Himariya. Those who wholly neglect the duty are supposed to suffer in person or property, and the common hill disease of goitre is believed to be one of the • special modes by which the gods manifest their displeasure. Temples and idols are alike unknown, nor, so far as I can ascertain, does the imagination of the Limbus trouble itself to clothe its vague spintiml conceptions with any bodily form.

Himiriya, the god of the forest, is propitiated on Sundays by otterings of sheep, goats, fowls, pigeons and Indian-oorn. A stoue *^"fW^ ° ^y ^^ roadside is smeared with vermilion and boun^ ^ +,-n!i'?^' ^^^ tbis place of sacrifice is marked by consecrated rags tied to a bamboo pole. ,. • v » ! n;^'° T ^° t^ese more or less beneficent, or at least neutral divinities, the U^^^ ^^^ compassed about by a multitude of rx^' less evil spmts, who require pecuUar management m Warding ntf their capnces. l o appease and propitiate these is the special function

b

LIMBTT. 18

a l l t L r . f ' "*!' ° ! ^andermg mendicants peeuHar to Sikkim

s S I i n r ^ ^ l . • v ° ' ^ i ' ^ . r * ^ ' ^ ^ P'^^y""' andincantations, daAcing, singing, presenhmg for the sick and casting out devils. They wear L n v ' t ' l , ' ? ' ' i troad-brimmed hat, an'd are regarded wSh great S e f rt«+f\^'°P''' ' ' '*° 7^om_they have instiUed the convenient ni uol S i JI ° ' ? ' ' ' '''''^ blessings will surely be fulfilled, and that dissatisfiS ^""^ " ' ' " " ' ' ' "• ^^"^^ *° ^"^^^ ^i^ -l^"^

+1.« -r?'^'!^ * ® •^'^"''^ ''1''^' ^^ ''^°''<'^'* ^^'l devil-worshipper for aH n r i e S ' t h I T - '1°'% fi '^"""^i^ ' ^ *!f " Phedangma is the tribal E l i • ' * ° V ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^^"^'^ °* ^P^^t^' ^-^d officiates at sacrifices marriages, and funerals. He is also called in at births to S ' ^ S f ^ ' S " ' ^ / ^ '^' if'f' "^-^ - ^^^°^« the blessings of the gods. The office frequently descends from father to son, but any one may become a Phedangbo who has a turn for propit atin^- the fnto 'a c a L ' ' ' ' ° ' ' occupation shows no sigiis of hardening

I t will be apparent from the facts stated above that the leading Animism. ?/?f^^?^®,. °/ ^^^ Limbu religion is animism,

4! .™-u- T, ^ ,-, " ^ belief m the existence of souls or qniritq

to tave reached a very similar stage of development, t h i l b e l i e f h ^ given birth to a number of primitive misceUaneous d S t i e r w h o s e functions are very vaguely defined, and who do not o w T a l W n e to any contrahsed authority. This multipKcity of deities woSd of i telf seem to favom- the growth of Shamaism, a phenomenon which Sir John Lubbock regards as a widely distributed X s e of thought forming a necessary stage in the progress of ? e S o u s development. Others have gone so far as to use Shamanism as a sort of general name for all those animistic religions whioli r^ov! prominent use of the agency of the Shaman. W i t h o r d t ^ r f the convenience, or indeed the necessity, of i n l o t S g ^ & name 0 some kind I would urge that Shamanism fs a term" singularly lU-suited to serve as the desis-narinn r,f 7^. " ^

of .-eUgioBS. . F » i n f t o 8„t.pl.c« t i e v S Z l t i ^LZ"^ common to rehgions of all varieties of culture, and is bv „ ® ^ confined to the religions specially called Sham'anistic • n \1 ^^^ns the word, while calling attention to the superficial fails ianr, ^^°°Ji%, essential characteristics of the class of religions in questi ^ * ® "ideed, possibly be the case, as has been hinted above fh^i^ C ^^y' Piicated depaiimentalism of certain animistic relimo 1 ^°^' supreme power is cut up into fractions and distributed o ' ^'^^^^ * ®

19 LIMBU.

hang about our public ofEces, professes to help people out of this difficulty, and to show them not only to what god their petitions should be addressed, but in what form they should be couched, and by what ceremonies inti-oduced. But even on this showing the prac­tice is the consequence, not the cause, of certain primitive ideas; and it is these ideas, not any of their more or less variable consequences, which a definition should aim at expressing. Taken by itself, then, the word Shamanism seems to fall short of completeness as a description of the Limbu religion. For all rehgions of that type the term animism should be retained as denotiag the entourage of vague spiritual influences which is of their essence. In dealing with these surroundings different agencies are resorted to : sometimes the fetish predominates; sometimes the medicine man. According as one_ or the other of these predominates, the particular form of animism may conveniently be styled fetishistjo or Shamanistic. Following this principle, the Limbu religion may be defined as a rather elementary form of Shamanistic animism, in which the Bijua and Phedangma play the part of Shaman, the former operating on the demons, and the latter having for his department the gods. Finally, we may perhaps hazard the conjecture that the original religion of the Limbus is closely akin to the Ton or ancient religion of Tibet. I n both we find the forces of nature and the spirits of departed men exalted into objects of worship. I n both systems temples and images are unknown, while propitiatory offerings occupy a prominent place. To complete the parallel, neither recog­nize a definite priestly order, while both encourage resort to Shamans or medicine men to ward off the malign influences which surround the human race.

Both cremation and burial ai-e in vogue among the Limbus, T,. , f 4.V . , the latter being the more common, and probably Disposal of the dead. ., , , °,. mi • i„ „ j i „ ; „ ~

the older, practice. The corpse is placed lying on its back with the head to the east. The grave is lined with stones, and a cairn, consisting of four tiers for a man and three for a woman, erected on the top. The Phedangma attends at the funeral and delivers a brief address to the departed spirit on the general lot of mankind and the doom of birth and death, concluding with the command to go whither his fathers have gone and not to come back to trouble the living with dreams. Neither food nor clothes are placed in the grave, but sometimes a brass plate with a rupee in it is laid imder the head of the corpse. For nine days after the funeral the sons of the deceased live on plain rice without any salt ; and for a month or two the relatives wear flowers in their hair and. avoid merry-makings. The special and characteristic sign of mourning is a piece of white rag tied round the head. There is no peiioaical ceremony for the propitiation of ancestors. _ _

^ t a man's death his sons, natural or adopted, divide ma property; iniioritance. but an adopted son or a natui-al son by a wife

i,nU «f o 1 •, informally mamed kocjichi sadi) takes only one-halt ol a legitimate sou's share. The division of the property is usually made by the tribal council thum-il.um), who set apart au extra snare lor the eldest son. The youngest son is allowed to

62

LIMBU. 20 LINGKHI.M.

choose his share first, and the other shares are then allotted by the fhiim-tlmm. Failing sons, the sons-in-law actually living in or •willing to live in the family homestead are entitled to divide the property. Brothers are the next heirs, and married sisters, if they attend the funeral, usually get a small shai-e in the inheritance, although it is said that they have no positive right to claim this concession. An exceptionto these rules of devolution occurs in the case of daijo or property given to a sister or daughter or acquired from a maternal uncle or father-in-la-w. This is equally distributed among the sons of the -woman to whom or on whose behalf it Avas given, and in the event of her dying •without children it reverts to her o-wn family. This simple customary law is administered by the headmen of the tribe, and hardly any instances are knoAvn of Limbus having resorted to our courts for the settlement of disputes regarding property.

The Limbus stand whoUy outside of the Hindu caste system, „ . , , . and their social position can only be defined Social status. ., , » i ii ,i T T . , 'j.-iiucxj.

With reference to the other Himalayan races. They belong to the upper division of the Kiranti group, which inhabits the middle hills of the Himalayas, and rarely descends below an elevation of 2,000 feet. "Within this division the Limbu take rank below the Khambu and above the Ydkha, but this distinc­tion is probably unknown beyond the limits of the Ku-dnti group, and in the eyes_ of society at large the three tribes occupy practically an equal position. They consider themselves, and are regarded by others, as superior to the Danuar, Hayu, and Thami, -who make up the lower division of the Kiranti. Theu- relations to the people of Nepal are less easy to define. ' They are certainly deemed inferior to the Klas, and probably also to the Mangars aud Grunmo-s, both of whom are classed as military tribes. Newars hold a place second only to the Khas; Gurungs are inferior to the Newars. Mangar and Sunwar have their place next to the Gurungs; Limbus, Khambus, and Yakhas ai-e inferior to the Mangar and Sunwar.

In the matter of food, they have very few prejudices. They eat beef, pork, aud the flesh of all clean-feeding animals, and drink •wine. In fact, the only restrictions on their diet appear to be those imposed on certain ihnrs by the obligation not to eat the totem or beast-eponym of the group. They will eat with all the castes of the hills except the Kami, Damai, Sarki, and Gain.

The Census Report of 1881 returned 2,429 Limbus in the district of Darjiling. Linda, eel, a totemistic sept of

Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Lin-dseh-bo, a mi or sept of <be Bedtshan-gye sub-tribe of ^•^jong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Lingdam, a sept of tho Char-khola sub-tribe of Limbus, said to be admitted from the Lepchas.

Lingden, a sept of the Yan gorup sub-tribe of Limbus said to be admitted from the Lepchas.

Lingdenbeh, a sept of Lim­bus in Darjihng.

Lingkhim, a sept of the Tam-brkola sub-tribe of Limbus m l^orjiUng.

LINGLAMPIIEN. 21 LOHAR.

Lingldmphen, a sept of Lim-bus in Darjiling.

Ling-tamba, a rui or sept of Dejong Lhoris, whose ancestor had emigrated from Bhotan.

Liokich^, a t/iar or sept of Sunuwdrs in Darjiling.

Lipo, a tree, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Litiya, a bird, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

of Murmis in

Lodh, a title of Dakshin-Barhi and Bangaja Kayasths in Ben­gal.

Lod h i y^i a sub-caste of Binds in Behar.

Logdin, a mill or section of the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sonars in Behar.

Lo, a section Darjiling.

Loat/ai, a synonym for Kuri or Mayard in Tipperah.

Lodah, a sub-tribe of Bhumijs in Chota Nagpur.

Lodarwa, a mnl or section of the Kanaujia sub-casto of Sonars in Behar.

Logna Kotra, small deer, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Logo, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur believed to be totemistio.

Lohd, iron, a totemistio sept of Tantis, Oraons, and Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Lohdgun, a section of Kdmis ; a t/iar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

ICoIimt-^Uri, a small caste found along the banks of the Meghua, who represent themselves as the descendants of a Kaibartta hsherboy, bought during a season of famine by a Kuii, or parcher of grams, who took this means of securing a husband for his daughter, i h e caste has separated into two subdivisions, those following the' father's profession of fisherman having repudiated connectioa''with the maternal branch, who parch grain.

The Lohait-Kuri at present associates neither with the Kaibart-tas nor with the Kuri or Mayara. The majority are fishermen, who will not cast a ,net or fish from the shore, but angle with a rod' from boats drifting with the stream. The name Lohait-Kuri is said to come from their using largo rectangular iron hooks, with a shank nearly two inches long. Iron sinkers are preferred to leaden ones and the only bait used is a small fish. ' ft "^ I'atit Brahman ministers to them, and the srdddha is kept at Jal ^^P"^^ °^ " lunar month. Like other fishermen, they observe the cast for seven days. A heavy fee is paid for a wife, aa tho nrice ^ p,^™^'! one, and one hundred rupees is not an unusual bride-T r.y.l'J'v -^ widower may have to pay as much as two hundred T'K '

ni w n '\° ' ' ' '^y on a considerable trade with their own boats K ! wiU not accept service with any other caste. ' ' ^^^

• p°J , ! r 'wL?^"? '*° of Barhis Lobar caste. The latt^^ m Behar who work only in iron, probably of Dravidiand ^'"^ They are, however, distinct from, while the former a n t , l T ^ * ' and do not mtermarry ^ t h , the an occupational group^'"^ *^ t e

LOHAE. 22

Lobar, a synonym for Kamar in Behar; a mtil or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-

caste of GoaMs in Behar; a section of Kamia in Darjil-ing.

^Ohai*, the blacksmith caste of Behar, Ohota Nagpur, and Tradition of orifrin. Western Bengal. Th-e Lobars are a large and

heterogeneous aggregate, comprising members of several difierent tribes and castes, who in different parts of the country took up the profession of working in iron. Of the various Bub-castes shown in Appendix I , the Kanaujia claim to be the bighest in rank, and they alone have a well-marked set of exoo-amous Bections They regard Yiswamitra as their legendary ancestor, and worship him as the tutelary deity of their craft. The Kokas Lohara seem to be a branch of the Barhis, who have taken to workino- in iron and separated from the parent group for that reason. The

t ^ t h e T ^ r ' ' - ^ ' ^ ' , \ V ^ r " ' ^ S ^ ^ ° " ^ ^°^^^«°f Behar, or opposed J L l^rSh w^' ' . ^""^ Mathuriya, who profess to have come in W the North-West Provinces. Kamar-Kalla Lohdrs may nerham b^ a de^aded offshoot from the Sonar caste. The M a h T o r f S u I i l Bay they came from the North-Western Provinces and the fact t w t aU Hindus can take water from their h a n d s r e X r s i r i i e t that t W may have broken off from some c o m p a r a t i v e ^ ' r l s ^ S K ^ !

Internal structure. J-^ieir traditions, however, are not definite Tbfi Kam;^ T v.' ^?°'^S,'^ .*° ®^^^le t'lis conjecture to be verified N e p a r T n d a^e ' ' Yf ^^ Champaran hale immigra ted tom i,Nepai, and are regarded as ceremonialIv unclean Mnri r -f+v. have become MahoLdans. In the S a S S r g a n ^ s ^ s o r t o^ ethnic borderland between Bengal and Behar, w ? S three sub castes of Lohars . -Birbhumia, from the neighbouring d S c t of Birhhum; Govmdpuria, from the subdivision of S i n d p u r L Northern Manbhmn; and Shergarhia, from the ; X S thl t name m Bardwan. The names give no clue to the tribal a M i e s of hese three groups, but the fact that they have the totemSic se?tion Sa^machh8howsthemtobeof non-Aryan descent, probaUy BaurTs or Bagdis, who took to iron-working and caUed theiselves L o S r Of the four sub-castes mto which the Lohdrs of Bankura are d i S " two bear the names Gobr^ and Jhetia, which occur a l n g t h ' sub-castes of the Bauris. Two others—Angaria and pSnf-|-l a m unable to trace The Manbhum Lohdrs acknowledge three' i ' ^ castes,-Lohar-Manjhi,Danda-IVIanjhi, and Bagdi-Ldiar I which suggest a connexion with the Bagdi caste. Lastly ip TT^^ dagd we have the Sad-Lohars , claiming to be i m m S t ^ r r °^^ ' ' the Manjhal-Turiyas, who may well be a branch o T t ? e T n ? ^ ^ ' ' y i h e Munda-Lohars, who are certainly Mundas T ? ' " ' * ' / ynlev of the sub castes, coupled with the fact th7f • ^ ^ ^ '^ 2 ^ ^ ^ determine with approximate certainty the I t , f T t f w

levied f ro i* ' Z '™' ' ^ *^ ' ^ ° ^ ' ' '^'^^ '' ^^^e up of dSfts locally « o n i p a r S l v t ' ' ' T S^-'^'^.^T'^ , T ^ ^ ^ ' ^ f°r e m p W e i t in a ^ % menial occupation, but that all castes whoTfunct ions

23 LOHAE.

are concerned with the primary needs of social lifo are the result of a similar process.

Further indications of the different elements from which the caste has been formed may be traced in its

f"^®" Boeial customs. The Lohdrs of Cbota Nagpux and Western Bengal practise adult as well as iflfant-marriage, a price is paid for the bride, and the maiTiage ceremony is substantially identical with that in use among the Bagdis. Polygamy they allow without imposing any limit on the number of wives a man may have, and they recognize the extreme license of divorce characteristic of the aboriginal races. In Behar, on the other hand, infant-marriage is the rule and adult-marriage the rare excep­tion. The ceremonyis modelled on the orthodox type. A bridegroom-price is paid, and polygamy is lawful only on failure of issue by the first wife. As to divorce, some diversity of iiractice seems to prevail. Kanaujias profess to prohibit it altogether, while other sub-castes admit it only with the permission of the panchayat, and regard the remarriage of divorced wives with disfavour. Widow-marriage is recognized both in Behar and elsewhere; but this is by no means a distinctively Dravidian usage, but rather a survival of early Aryan custom, which has fallen into disuse among the higher castes under the influence of Brahmanieal prejudice.

Equally characteristic differences may be observed in the religi-. ous usages of the main branches of the caste,

e igion. Kanaujid Lobars and all the Behar sub-castes, except the Nepalese Kamias, pose as orthodox Hindus, employ Maithil Brahmans, and worship the standard gods. In Chota Nagpur and Western Bengal, though some profession of Hinduism is made, this is little more than a superficial veneer laid on at a very recent date, and the real worship of the caste is addressed to Manasd, Earn Thakur, Baranda Thakur, Phulai Gosdin, DaUi (jorai, Bhadu, and Mohan Griri. In the latter we may perhaps recognize the mountain god (Marang Buru) of the Mundas and Santals. To bim goats are sacrificed on Mondays or Tuesdays in the months of Magh, Ashar, and Agrahiiyan, the flesh being after­wards eaten by the worshippers. The Lohdrs of Bankura and the Santdl Parganas have taken to employing low Brahmans, but in Lohardagti the aboriginal priest_(;ja/m») and the local sorcerer mati, ojha, or sokhu) minister to _ their spiiitual wants. The Sad-Lohars alone show an advance in the direction of orthodoxy, in that they employ the village barber to act as priest in the marriage ceremony.

In Behar the caste work as blacksmiths and carpenters, while r,„ ,. many have taken to cultivation. Thev bnx, occupatxon. ^j^^j^ m^t^xA^X in the form of pigs or bar« ^

^y than

ii-on. Iron-smelting is confined to the Lobars of Chota Nao-n and is supposed to be a much less respectable form of iudustr-"^^'^' •working up iron wliich other people have smelted. I ^ ^i, Parganas Lobars often cultivate themselves, while the -worn household labour at the forge. None of the Western"' . . , Lobars combine carpentry with working m u'ou. " Jjengal

LOHAH. 24 LOK.MAHUNG.

In Behar Lobars rank with Koirls and Kurmis, and Brahmans take water from their hands. The status of the

socni status. ^ ^ ^ .^ Western Bengal is far lower, and they are associated in matters of food and drink with Bauris, Bagdis, and Mais.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Lobars in 1872 and 1881:—

DlSTSICT.

Bttrdwan Bankura Birblium Midnnpar Ilughli 2-i-Pttrganas N s d i y a Jcssoro Dinajpur B<i.J3bahyo BoKrft Pabna Dnrjiling .'. Kucli Bthar Fandpor Jfaiiuansinh ChittiujoDR P i t a *

1872.

2 5 a l l -'i • 5 5 .5^

> :.a

« o

si i a ic~

J 1. 7,80*

1881.

202 6,507 1,007

312 87 57

I 238 101 10 19 10

877

2 0

19 8,054

DISIEICT,

Gya Shahabad Tirhnt i MozufTerpur ...

Saran Champaran Monghyr Bhnnalpur Purnion Maldah Santal Parganla Cuttack ... Balnsore Tributary States Ua7.aribaKh Loliardaga , Singbhtiia Maiibhum Tributary States

1872.

17,218 27,959

B7.S41

S3,4t0 2ii,953

7,179 22,4ns 16,083

14.870 ^ O fl fl

• 3 - 0

•=1=3 ^.SSM J B

1881.

18,659 80,263

( S3,24S I 11,8.")!

42,0.>S 24,015

4,233 9,789 7,953

3il7 2,913

f 800 1 33

1,337 J 8,423 1 84,108 1 1.820 1 1,631 L 10,303

Lohar^, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Lohar-Agaric, a sub-tribe of Agarias in Chota Nagpur.

Loharatengi, a section of Ea3wirs in Webtem Bengal.

Loharbans, iron, a totemistio sept of Chiks; a section of Grhasis in Chota Nagpur.

Lohir-Kamir, a sub-caste of Kamars in Midnapur.

Loharkoriyd, a section of Bhats.

Lohar IVISnjhi, a sub-caste of Lohdrs in Manbhum.

Lohati4, a section of Sonars i i Behar.

• V^ ' * ^ ), a section of GodMs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Lohra Asur, a sub-tribe of Asuras in Chota Nagpur.

Lohrakhukhri, a kind of mid mushroom, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

LohriS, an iron-smelter.

LohsS, a sub-caste of Kamara in Manbhum.

Lohtami^, a sept of Mjputs in Behar.

LohutiS, a mul or section of the Ghosin sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Loityal, a thar or section of Nepdli Brahmans.

. Vf'^^•v^'''' ^ ^^^^^^^ of Kdmis in Dar]iling.

R^L°J^^'''^'tf f"** °r section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

p^^of/"ahung, a sept of the i heddb sub-tribe of Ldmbus in •IJarjiling.

LOKSOHM. 25

Loksohm, a sept of the Tongomp sub-tribe of Limbus, said to be admitted from the Lepchas.

Lolutra, a mul or section of the Chhamulia Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Lomas^, a Brahmanical sec­tion of Khatris in Bengal.

Longa, a bird with long tail, a totemistio sept of Mimdas in Chota Nagpur.

Lopdte, a ihar or sept of Gkinmgs in Darjiling.

Lopchan, a section of Mui-mis in Darjiling.

Lori, a dugu or section of the Kochh-Mdndai in Dacca.

Loskra, a sept of ChakmAs in the Hn i Tracts of Chittagong.

Lothang, a tliar or Gurungs in Darjiling.

Lowa, a sept of P ins in Chota Nagpur.

Loyd, a section of Mahesris in Behar.

Loyna, a sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Lu, a title of Tdntis in Bengal.

Ludhi, a sub-caste of Baniyas who deal in lod/i or catechu.

Ludhna, a sub-caste of Bhuiyas

in fcsingbhum.

Lugnidr, hare, a totemistio Bopt of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

LUTI.

Lug urn, a tree, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nag­pur.

Lugumah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Lugunki, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Luhd, a sept of the Pantbar sub-tribe of Limbus in DarjiUng.

Lukhasan, a section of GoaMs in Behar.

Luksom, a sept of I^epchas in Dai-jiling.

Lukum, a sept of E % u t s in Behar.

Lulang, a sept of the Tung-iainya sub-tribe of Chakmds in the 'Hill Tracts of CHttagong.

Lumphongma, those who =--o- I shared the land, a sept of the gg t of Pheddb sub-tribe of Limbus m

Darjiling.

Lumria, fox, a totemistio sept of Lobars in Chota Nagpur.

Lungyeli, a thar or sept of Mangara in Darjiling.

Lunid, a synonym for Nunid.

Luniwili a section of GodUs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Lupu, paddy husks, a totem­istio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Luti, small black fly, a totem­istio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

MACHHILILV. 26 MADHUNAPIT.

IVI

Machhilh^, a section of Sondrs in Behar.

Machhu^ a sub-caste of Bagdis and Kewats; a synonym for Qnnrlii, Kewat, and Tiyar; a title of Mais and of low class ifahomedans who sell fish retail. The latter do not catch fish themselves, but obtain tjieir supplies on a system of advances from the regular fisliing castes. I Hindus who follow the same j avocation are called Nitari, q.v.

Machi, a section of Sonars in Behar.

Machiwdr, fish, a totemistic sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Machli, fish, a totemistic sept of Mundas ; a section of Saraks in Chota Nagpur.

Madal; a synonym for Madhu-napit and Mayard.

Madafwar, a section of Turis in Chota Nagpur.

Maddn, a thnr or sept of Gurimgs in Darjiliag.

Madari, a sub-caste of Mdla, who are often employed as snake-charmers.

Maden, the son of his mother, a sept of the Chhothar and Phedab sub-tribes of Limbus in Darjiling. Tho name may possi­bly have reference to a system of female kinship which has now fallen into disuse.

Maderwar, a sept of Khar-^^" in oiiota Nagpur

MSdhab, a family of the Jvulm group of Jugis in Bengal.

lyiadhabacharjya, a sect" of Vaishnavs m Bengal.

Madha Gaura. a sub-caste of traura Brahmans in Behar.

Madhdi, a mel or hyporgamous sub-group of Earhi Brahma^s S Bengal.

Madhepuriet, a m / o r section 01 tho Naomulid or Mafraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Madhesia, a sub-caste of g^£ 'Halw. l i s , andKandusin

lyiadhugrami, a gain of the Batsya ,o^.« of TJttar-BdrenSa Brahmans in Bengal.

rp,5fr^-^"i^'"'' ,* ^^^-''aste of iantis m Bengal.

Madhukuliya, Madhukulva an exogamous section of Baidva.' of BaruisandNapit8iuBe?lV a section of SdnWi^ ]S^1>

Tehs, and S.ibaxnabanU •'' ^enga l jo fKaibarTas t i l f^^ S - . - 1 ; of SutradSi,^^^^] B a ^ i s i n W e s ^ r B r , - ^ Ehyans in Northern S °^''^' ^^

, Madhu-Madak , ^ '- • Madhundpits in P ^ " b-caste of

^ ; ^ l n n v a p i t , i . . . . . . a confectioner caste , r ^ -o«gi„. who regard themselves a? ^ ^^^&al Proper

«tory 18 told that fi, ^''y^'J^- I? explanation ' / f ' ^ c t from the tl at the rehgious reformer C h a S . ^ * ^ ^ ^ origin tho

^^^ta^ya being one day in

MADHUNAPIT. 27 MADHTJEISHI.

a hurry ordered two of his servants to shave him. They carried out the command, but pointed out to theii' master that expulsion from caste privileges was the penalty which their obedience had brought upon them. Chaitanya accordingly bade them become confectioners and make sweetmeats for him. Since that time their descendants have followed the same trade, and their purity, according to Hindu ideas, is such that even goddesses partake of the dainties they prepare. Another more romantic version is that a barber named Madhu, who was called in to shave the head of Chaitanya on the occasion of his becoming a Sannyasi, was so impressed with the importance of the function he had performed that he asked to be released from his hereditary profession ; for, he said, having touched the head of Chaitanya, how could he cut the toe-nails of ordinary men ? As Chaitanya flourished about the beginning of the sixteenth century, this legend would make the Madhunapit caste a comparatively recent offshoot from the Ndpit. Such an origin, however, is not in great favour among the members of the caste, who prefer to assume a special act of creation.

The 6ub-castes and sections of the Madhundpit are shown in Appendix I . Neither series throws any light

ainage. upon the origin of, the caste. A man may not maiTy a woman belonging to his ovra section, nor one who stands towards him in the religious relation of sapinda or snmanoclaka. Madhundpits marry theii" daughters as infants, forbid widows to remarry, and do not recognize divorce. Although not mentioned by name in the various couplets defining the Nava-Sakha, the Madhu­napit are generally admitted to belong to that group, and Brahmans will take water ffom their hands. Considering that the Napit and Madak are unquestionably members of the Nava-Sdkha group, and the Madhundpit certainly derive their origin from one or other of these castes, their title to he Nava-Si'ikha seems to be beyond dispute. Most of them are Vaishnavas by creed.

The Madhunapit, says Dr. Wise, is the most respected confectioner in Eastern Bengal, for the caste Mayara or

Occupation. jj-^^j^j. -g ^^^^-^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ Halwai is usually a GhulAm K^iyasth, a Khontta Brahman, or a Kandu. They assume great aii-s, neither intermarrying with other castes— not even with barbers—nor shaving themselves. In former days they would not fry sweetmeats in ghi or butter, but now they are less fastidious. The common sweetmeats prepared by the Madhu­napit are jalebi, amriti, hliaja, ehhcna perd, laddu, gajd, and sar-bhajd The delicacies offered to idols are perd, harfi, ildc'hi ddiid, batdsd, and sandes.

The Madhunapit do not cultivate the soil, but are found omploved as writers, goldsmiths, grocers, cloth merchants, and policemen.

MadhurS, asub-castoof Bdh-lians ill Behar.

Madhuras, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur who cannot eat honey.

Madhurasiark, apu lYiadnurasiark, a n)i>. rv„

Madhurishi, „ Mayards in Bengal. ^^ °^ «*

MADHUST. 28

Madhust, a section of Mag-haiyd Kumhdrs in Behar.

Madhwdl, a sept of Edjputs in Behar.

IVIadhyabhdg, a samaj or local group of the Sandilya goira of the Paschdtya Baidik Brah­mans in Bengal.

Madhya-bhdg or Madhyam-kul, a suh-caste of Hdris iu Bengal.

Madhyagrami, & gain of the Xisyapa gotm of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

IVIadhyakul, a group of the Aswini Tintis in Bengal.

Madhyal^, a hypergamous group of Jugis in Bengal.

Madhyalya, a hypergamous group of the Bangaja Kayasths.

Madhyam Kurmi, a sub-caste of Kurmis in Manbhum.

Madhya-sreni, a sub-cnste of Brahmans and Kayasths in West­ern Bengal.

Madhyasreni Kdyastha, a sub-caste of K4yasthas in Midna-pur.

Midowan, a mul or section of the Ghosin sub-caste of Go&lds in Behar.

Madrishii honey-bee, a totem-islio section of Sunris in the

MAGH.

Santdl Pargands and Man­bhum.

Madrisi or Madhukulya, a section of Goalds in Bengal.

MSdura, Madar, a contraction of Mahadanda, a sub-caste of Kewats in Behar who sell sal leaves and wood.

Mag, a synonym for Magh.

Magadha, a territorial divi­sion of Brahmans in Behar.

Magadha Godri , a sub-caste of Go< las in Orissa.

Magahgoriah, a variant for Maghaya Godla or Maghaya Goni-h.

Magahiy^, a sub-caste of Doms in North Behar, who are cultivators and thieves, in Gya basket-makers, and in Bengal musicians and basket-makers; a sub-caste of Dhdnuks, Dosddhs, Hajjams in Behar, and of Kamiira in Manbhum; of Kandus, Tim-bulis, Kahdrs, and Chamars in Beliar; and of Mils in the Santal Parganas.

Magai or Magadhi, a sub-caste of Goalas in Bengal.

gar Magar, a synonym for Man-

Maggah, H section of iv Tirhutiya sub-caste of X)L ^^^ Behar. •^°0''' ' " -'Oius in

, ^ a g i t , Mag, the popular designation of a »» . . Chinese tribes, who describe •), ? of Indo-

„ ^ °"^"- various titles of Marama ' r l '^.''^^«« by the M J I "^^eh, R^jbansi Magh, Marm4 or El'^^^h^Ma&^. Magh Tho^g^f^^J^^ j y f „ i ^ ^ . n r , '^yam-ma, Ro^ng

denvation of the name Magh there has been T ^ T ^ *^^ ^^" "^^^ the question cannot be considered as b a S ^^^ discussion, and

'"^^ing been finally settled.

29 JIAGH,

Wilson,' followed by Ritter,^ Fr. Muller,' and Colonel Yule,* defines it as " a name commonly applied to the natives of Arakan, parti­cularly those bordering on Bengal or residing near the sea,—the people of Chittagong." Sir Arthur Phayre, quoted by Colonel Yule, derives the name from " Maga, the name of the ruling race for many centuries in Magadha (modern Behar). The t ings of Arakan were no doubt originally of this race; for though this is not distinctly expressed in the histories of Arakan, there are several legends of kings from Benares reigning in that country, and one, regarding a Brahman, who marries a native princess and whoso descendants reign for a long period." Dalton* appears to take mucli tlie same view regarding the Aiakanese as an outlying branch of the Burmese, and adding that the name Magh is exclusively a foreign epithet, xmkiiown to the Arakanese themselves. Mantegazza^ follows Dal ton on. the whole, but seems to look upon the term Magh as rather a tribal name than the general designation of the people who inhabit a particular tract of country.

In its actual use at the present day the term Magh includes , , , three endogamous groups: ' the Thongtha,

Internal structure. Thongcha, or Jumia M a g h ; ' t h e M a r m a . Myamma, RoSng or Rakhaing Magh ;* and the Maramagri , otherwise known as Rajbansi, Barua, or Bhuiya Magh. The first and second have been described by Lewin under the name Khyoungtha or ' children of the river,' a designation based upon locality and not corresponding to any real tribal distinction. Both the Jumia and the Roang Maghs probably belong to the same original stock, but the former have so long been settled in the Chit-tagong country that they regard themselves as the aborigines of the Hill Tracts, while the latter belong to a more recent stream of immigrants from Arakan." The physical characteristics of both tribes are unmistakeably Mongolian. Their stature is low, the face broad and flat, cheekbones high and wide, nose flat and bridgeless,

' Glossary, s.v. Magh. ' Erd-Kunde, v. 324. ' AUgemeine Ethnographie, 40.3. * Anglo-Indian Glossary, s.v. Mugg. ' Ethnology of Bengal, 112. • Sltidii still Etnologia deWIndia, p. 331. ' mil Tracts of Chittagong, p. 36. ' Some remarks on the dcfi-cts of Captain Lewin's clas.sification of the

hill tribes into Khyoungtha and Toungtha will be found in the article on Chakma above. To those objectign-s it should bo added that the classes Khv. oungtha and Toungtha do not appear to be mutually exclusive. Capium Lewin himself states (p. 37) that " Khyoungtha means those who inhabit th banks of mountain streams and support themselves by hill cultivation^ and it this definition be accepted, it is difficult to see how the line between A two classes should be drawn, ^ '•"e

the A . of Hakhaing of Hakuaing or naKiianR. uolonei xuie \Jingio-inaian Ulo^sury nvf A ° ^ ^ thinks that we may have got Arakan through the Malav hnf .A'^^"u) nnnncxion of tho Arabs with Chittagong seems to justify the ,.n^- ^^^ early the word may be simply Al-IUkhang. '"^^ ''O'llecture that

MAGH. 30

of their o r i g i I t \ ^ ^'**'^ Po^^es^ed c S i ^ ^ °* ^ " " ^ ^ ^o^ 'e^ ?™.simUar to h o t f !^* ^^ tJ^« fact tha^. fif ? ^"'i t^^s theory Ifjl^eations of their M o n l r ^ ' Thongtha ^ d *^^^^"°^^°^°"« «eptl

does T^rd'^A. supplemented b y ^ a V K ^ " -^-7 not 21^'^'' '^-^^'i-fo'riula a W ? ' Materially S m ft^! °^ P^ohibitSi Z *" """^^^ "^ H o w e v e / t W ^ °**"' referred tef ' ' ^ ^ ^ d a t b v ff'"' ' ' ""^^^^

Marriage. aduUs, and thpr^^ ^ '' ®itber as inf„ .

matnmonial courtsIiiB Tl • °® °^ ^^^ npcessnr °^-^'^ expressly distinctive and u n c S o n ^ ^ ' o n ' ^ ^ e '^^^^Z^ZTr'' °^ p ' -able age, that is, abnnf iV / ,^-^ou"/? man «77'-^P^^^i^ew n,« <<;«

and raised to the forehead ' 0'"/'^'^:°"' ^ith both u° "ff «P the - • s S i f " ^ P ' ^ ' S r^yon b t d t o " /^^«- ' a bo'.r, '^ Joined t i S f . ' ' - ' 7 ° ' f ' ^« then goes n n f V ° ° ' ^ i t ? ' T , ^ « ^ come - - - ~ ! l ^ ! J ! ^ : i _ ^ « ' ^ ° 4 p o r t s " ' o ; \ V ' ' t i « u s e . ^ O r ^ ^ - ' ' ^ ^ 1 j T ^ — - — _ _ _ J _ _ _ ^ o i t h e house fij, , ^^atrng "Ration 'o? ".fParont obliqu.fy of (ho J w T ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ ^ ^ a i ?' If the ^ ' ' ' f » ' ' A''„rrJid«> a> d does « o t S f d / " . P ' « ' ' d u e T ^

'* "J Chittagong, p. 49. * '*^«. See Topinard,

31 MAGH.

answer is, ' They are firm,' it is favourable, and matters may then be more fully entered into. The affair is taken into consideration, and he returns to his own village to report good progress to the bride­groom's parents, and to request them to fix a day for taking the omens. On the appointed day the parents meet, the young people being supposed to know nothing of all this. A fowl is killed by the fathers, its tongne taken out, and, according to certain marks thereon, the matter is pronounced good or bad. The bridegroom's parents sleep for the night at the house of the intended bride, and all parties look anxiously for dreams by which to foretell the happiness or the reverse of the vmion. On going away, should everything be propi­tious, their intended daughter kneels at their feet for a blessing, and they present her with a new petticoat and a silver ring. Learned persons are then called in, who, by consulting the stars and casting the nativity of the parties, determine a favourable day and hour when the ceremony shall bo undertaken. Meantime the parents on both sides prepare pigs and spirits, rice and spices^ unlimited, for the marriage feast. They also send round to all their kith and kin a fowl and a letter giving notice of the intended marriage; in some places a pice or copper coin is substituted for the fowl. On the auspicious day, and at the hour appointed, the bridegroom and all his relatives set out for the bride's house, di-essed in tho gayest colours, both men and women, with drums beating before them. On arriving at the entrance of the %'illage the female relatives of the bride bar the approach with a bamboo. Across this barrier the bridegroom has to drink a loving cup of fraternity, generally spirits. Khould the females on the bride's side muster slrong, the road will probably be barred five or six times before the entry into the viUnge is fairly made. The bridegroom, however, does not drink all that is given him, i3ut after taking the liquor in his mouth he is allowed to eject it again upon the groimd.

" In tho village, on some open turfy spot, a number of bamboo booths have been erected, adorned with flowers and green boughs, and filled with materials for feasting. Hero also sit an opposition party of drummers, and mighty is the row as the bridegroom's party defiles on to this spot. A separate and specially beautified booth has been erected for the young lo\er and his parents, and here they sit in state and receive visits from all the village. The bride in like manner, Burrounded by her near relatives, sits in her father's house. The boys of tho village, irrepressible as is the wont of that species, make raids upon both parties, for the purpose of chafling and getting alternate feasts of comestibles. They also organize an amateur baud of musio and serenade the bride towards evening with fiddles and flutes. Of course, all the girls of tho vUlage are congregated at the bride's father's house, and, as license and riot are the order of the day ti, fun here grows fast and furious. Towards nightfall the bridea-'mfT* ascends to his bride's house amid a tempest of cheei-s and a hailsf of drums. After this outburst a temporary lull ensues, to perri +^^ tbe ceremony being performed. The bride is brought forth f °^ inner chamber in the arms of the women. On the floor of tl. i ^ ^^ are placed water in jai-s, rice, and mango leaves. Hoi^d th* ^

MAGH. 32

contractfng partiesl!^fh«! 'f '^? '""^ ""^^ ''"'^^^^ ^?a '° ^^^^^ t t e two yee,' or pr iLtr^ow 0 0 ^ 3 1 " ^ T ^ ^ ' ^ '^'^e 'poong-language that i ; ; 7 u X w „ S ^ ^ I ^?.^'°^tes some prayers in a then tSdng o o o S ril t if " ' i^ i ^^ ^"^ '"" 'P^o^^bly PaH), and recrosses hi's a m s J ^ l j / « « ^ r ^ ^ f ^ ^^ T ' ^ hand, he crosses and andbr ideg roo iTa f t f r twfb r fT ' ' \*f '" ' ' t ' "^o^tl^fuls to the bride finger of The bridegroom's I f ^ L ' 7 - V ^ ' ^ ^ ^^^ °^°°ks the little bride's left. The i r e Z n v ?.+^ " 1""*° ^^^ 1^*"^ finger of the

toge her they make the oircS; oHhp i f . ^ ^ f " - ^ ' ^ ^^^^i' ^""^ relatives of both families/ T W t W r , ^^l^tin? lowly the elder of her husband, and their c l S a , « f -^ 'T ' " :^^" '^" ' ^^ *° *''« ^ " guests then come fo rward^mdnLr . f ? i ? -*T^^" ' - - ^he wedding bis or her means, some pre^nts of I f ? ' ' ' * ' '> '''°^' ^°'^^<^^S to After this a saturnaUa ensues of / • ' "/.household furniture, love-making. The bride and bridefrooi."^' ^'^^^' ^S^'^S, and mgbt. I should add that t L W v ° ^ T "'"P""^"'^ ^° i<= ^P ^'^ nmrriage until he and his w?f« ?d^^ ?^^° " " ^ °° t consummate his eaten^together seven times a day!'' '^""^ ^^^'^ ^"^^ ^"v seven days

character as that described^above t L T ' l - ? ^ ^^' «ame g e n e S " ^ J ' ^ i ^ ^ W ^ ^ ^ ^ f t l ^ ^ little finirs of S T K P ° ' " ° ^ b«i°g S and the bride's right, while th!Zf,t tl^^^^ thus joined. This is followed by 2 1 ^ ^ ^ . ' " ' ' * ' ' " °^^^the hands on the bride's forehead-a form S '"^^"^""g Vermilion borrowed from the Hindus. The MlrmA r f / ^ ? " ' *.-„ ^^^^ been that of the Thongchas, and does not f n c b l \'f'^^^re like course of the wedding the bride and h-ff^ ^^"durddn. U the and rice from the same°dish, and what t h e v t ^ " " ' " , '"1 .'°°^° ^^^^ earthen vessel for seven day^. during w i t h ? W f . ^ ' P * ^"-^ ^°^-«''«d may not leave the villa-e or cross f , w ! *^^ ' " ^ ^ e d couple the vessel is opened, a n d l f m a g l o t s a r f o S w * ? ' - . ^'^ ^^e e ig£h an excellent omen, sho^ng th!t t ' ^ ^ V r r g l ' ^ i S l e ' ^ : ? ^^.'f^^

Polygamy 18 recognized: a man mav h n ? ' ' ^ ^ ^ one. he can afford to maintain. T h e ^ s t wife i f "^ ""-^^y ^i^es as the highest in rank, and t a k e s ^ e ^ d ; t ' o f T l f : : ! . " ''^''^'^ -.v-ho are expected to treat her wit£ special c o n s i d ^ a r o r ' ' ' ' ' ""'''''

In aU the sub-tribes widows are allowed tn ,1 !ije fettered hy no restrictions in their choice of . " ^ "&'^i°. "n^ gl special ritual is ordained for this mnZ. ^^^°^^ busband. hi ^"'.^i^s simply go and live together as m n ^ '^ '^^^ as a rule of^l"^ "«J. with the sanction of the tribaTnTn T.f * if«- Divorce ^reoi^ '^^^ 0^ inability to Hve C n i v f ^ V t , on the ground

the paaehdj,,t is deemed i n s i i e u t thTs . ^^'.^l^en tbe authoritv ' "" 8 writing of divorcement"

33 MAGH.

is laid before theMagistrate of the district. Among the Thongchaa the parties giveone another flowers, and after bathing go off i n different directions, exchanging all kinds of abusive epithets. Divorced wives may marry again by the ritual in use for the remarriage of widows.

All Maghs are Buddhists of the Southern school, and regard the northern Buddhists of Tibet as wholly

Eohgion. unorthodox. The wilder sections of the Thong-chas, however, retain some vestiges of an earlier animistic faith, wliich bids them sacrifice cattle, goats, and swine, and make ofPerings of rice, fruits, and flowers to the spirits of hill and river. Among the Maramagris, on the other hand, the tendency is to follow after modern Ilinduism, particularly in its Tantrio developments, and to add the gross worship oi Siva and Durga to the simple oloaervances prescribed by their own communion. I t thus comes to pass that while the Buddhist Phungi/is or Rdolis are the recognized priests of all the tribes, considerable respect is shown to Brahmans, who are frequently employed to determine auspicious days for particular actions, and to assist in the worship of the Hindu gods. Among the Thongohas old women often devote themselves to the service of religion, and although not charged with special ceremonial functions, are regarded as in some sense priestesses, and are called by the distinctive name krdaina.

The funeral ceremonies of the Maghs are thus described by Lewin:—" When a person has died, his rela-

Disposalof the dead. ^.^^^ assemble. Some one of them sits down and commences to beat the funeral roll on the drum; the women weep and cry, and the men busy themselves, some in performing the last offices to the corpse, of washing, dressing, etc., while others go oif to the woods and bring wood for the funeral pile, and bamboos •with which to construct the bier. About 24 hours generally elapse from the time of deatli to that of cremation. lu bearing the corpse from the house to the bm-uing ground, if the deceased were a man of wealth or influence, the body may be borne on a wheeled car ; all women also have this privilege; the plebs, however, are simply earned to the funeral pile on the shoulders of their relatives. The procession is after this fashion:—First come the priests, if there are any in the vicinity to attend; they march gravely at the head of the party, bearing on their shoulders their curved palm-leaf fans, clad in their ordinary sallroD-coloured robes, and attended by their disciples. Next come relatives of the deceased, two and two, bearing food, clothes, etc., which have been offered as alms to the priests on liehalf of the departed. Next is borne the bier, carried ou hamboos by six men, and accompanied by as many drums as can bo Brocured. Behind the colfin come the male relatives; and lastly the procession is closed by the women of the villugo, clad in v. •' best. The funeral pile is composed of four layers of wood f " a woman, three for a man. The body is placed on the pile • ^u , ^f in<r priest takes an end of the dead man's turban, and, \iQ\A- . rp^leats some passages of the law, four of the deceased's maU ^ ? ^ ' stTuding meanwhile at the four corners of the pile a S p S w

MA.GH. 34

a fe-w drops of water thereon. The nearest hlood relative, male or female, of the dead man then fires the pile. When the fire is extinguished the ashes are scrupulously collected together and huried over the spot; a small conical mound of earth is heaped up, and a very long hamhoo pole, with an equally lengthy flag, is erected over the grave. On returning from the place aU. parties bathe themselves. If it is the master of the house who has died, the ladder leading up to the house is thrown down, and they must effect an entrance by cutting a hole in the back wall and BO creeping up. The relatives eat and drink, and each contributes according to his means to defray the expenses incurred. After seven days the priests reassemble at the house to read prayers for the dead."

I n the case of priests and persons of high social position the corpse is dried or embalmed and kept for a year in a special coffin, while arrangements are being made for an elaborate funeral, which usually takes place on the 1st of Baisakh. A temporary pagoda is built of bamboo decorated with coloured paper and Hags, and is set up in some open place faced by a row of bamboo cannon mounted on wheels, crammed to the muzzle with tightly-rammed powder and fitted with a long fuse. These cannon are presented by persons desirous of doing honovur to the deceased, and it is deemed an act of groat merit to send a cannon to the funeral of a Phungyi. On the arrival of the coffin a mimic conflict—a' tug of war'—takes place over it, the women pulling it one way and the men the other. According to another account the contest is not between the men and the women, but between the unmarried and married persons of either 6ex. The cotfin is then placed in the pagoda, and the bamboo cannon are discharged in order of the precedence of those who presented them. Last of all the pagoda and coffin are burned, and a long bamboo, carrying a triangular flag forty-five feet long, is set up on tlie place. A funeral offering (Iwngmii) of various kinds of food is placed on the ground on the eighth day, and this ceremony is repeated every year.

The social status of the Maghs does not admit of vciy precise definition, as the entire coramuuiiy is outside

Social status. ^^ ^^^ regular caste system, and orthodox Hindus will take neither food nor water from their hands. In the matter of diet they are highly promiscuous, eating beef, pork, fowls, fish of all kinds, snakes, field-rats, lizards, and certain kinds of worms. Both sexes indulge freely in spirituous liquors. For all this they are not wholly freo from prejudice as to th6 casto of the persons with whom they will take food; and no Maghs, except those wlio are fisliermen themselves, will eat, drmk, or smoke in the same hookah with members of the fishing castes, such as Kaibarttas and Mdlos, or with the Jugi caste of weavers. Tantis and Napits, on the other hand, are considered ceremonially pm-g, and Maghs vsiU take water from their hands.

•'•^e Thongcha sub-tribe live almost entirely by the peculiar Occupation ^etliod of cultivatiou known in Cbittagong,

' ""• Assam, and Northeru Bengal by the name

35 MAGH.

jhutn; in Burmah and Arakan as tungrjd; and in Chota Nagpur and the Central Provinces called duhd or pardo. Captain Lewin describes the system as follows:—

" I n the month of April a convenient piece of forest land is ,,. ,. fixed upon, generally on a hillside, the

Jhum cultivation. lu^^riant under-gi-owth of shrubs and creepers has to be cleared away, and the smaller trees felled: the trees of larger growth are usually denuded of their lower branches, and left standing. If possible, however, the jhumia fixes upon a slope thickly covered with a bamboo jungle of the species called _' dolloo.' This compai-ed with a dense tree jungle is easy to cut, and its ashes, after burning, are of greater fertilising power. Although the clearing of a patch of dense jungle is no doubt very severe labour, yet the surroundings of the labourer render his work pleasurable in comparison with the toilsome and dirty task of the cultivators of the plains. « « • * • *

By his comparatively pleasurable toil the hill-man can gain two rupees for one which the wretched ryot of the plains can painfully eai-n, and it is not to be wondered at that the hill people have a passion for their mode of life, and regard with absolute contempt any proposal to settle down to the tame and monotonous cultivation of the dwellers in the low-lands.

" The ihum land once cleared, the fallen jungle is left to dry in the sun, and in the month of May it is fired: this completes the clearing. The firing of the jhums is sometimes a source of danger, as at that season of the year the whole of the surroimding jungle is as dry as tinder and easily catches fire. In this way sometimes whole villages are destroyed, and people have lost their lives. I have myself seen a whole mountain-side on fire for four days and four nights, having been ignited by jhum-firing. I t was a magni­ficent sight, but such a fire must cause incalculable injury to the forest: 3'oung trees especially would be utterly destroyed. Gener­ally, however, by choosing a ceilm day, and keeping down the fire at the edges of the jhum, by beating with boughs, the hiU people manage to keep the firing within certain prescribed limits. A general conflagration, such as I have mentioned, is of quite excep­tional occurrence. If the felled jungle has been thoroughly dried, and no rain has fallen siuce the jhum was cut, this firing will reduce all, save the larger forest trees, to ashes, and bum the soil to the depth of an inch or two. The charred trees and logs pre­viously cut down remain lying about the ground: these liave to "be dragged off the jhum and piled up all round, and with the addition of some brushwood form a species of fence to keep out wild animals.

"Work is now at a standstill, till the gathering of fV, lieavy clouds and the grumbling of thunder denote the apBm ^ of the rains. These signs at once bring a village into i + ^ of activity; men and women, boys and girls, each b b d r n ^ left hip a sninU basket filled with the mixed seeds of oott melons, pumpkins, yams, and a little Indian corn; each ' t ^ ^ '

c2

MAGH. 36

a ' dao '1 in hand, and in a short time every hillside will echo to the 'hoiya,' or hillcall (a cry like the Swiss Jodel), as party answers party from the paths winding up each hillside to their respective patches of cultivation. Arrived at the jhum, the family mi l form a line, and steadily work their way across the field. A dig with the blunt square end of the dao makes a narrow hole about three inches deep: into this is put a small handful of the mixed seeds, and the sowing is completed. If shortly afterwards the rain falls, they are fortunate and have judged the time well; or (unpai-alleled luck) if they get wet through mth the rain as they are sowmg, great will be the jollification on the return home, this being an omen that a bumper season may bo expected.

" The village now is abandoned by every one, and the men set to work to build a house, each in his own jhum, for the crop must be carefully watched to preserve it from the wild pig and deer, which would othei-wise play havoc among the young shoots of the rice. The jhams of the whole village are generally situated in propin­quity : a solitary jhum is very rare. During the rains mutual help and assistance in weeding the crop is given; each one takes his turn to help in his neighbour's jhum; no hoeing is done ; the crop has merely to be kept clear from weeds by hand labour, and an ample return is obtainod. If Ihe rain be excessive, however, the cotton crop is liable to be spoilt, as the younp: plants die from too much water.

" The first thing to ripen is Indian cor a ; this is about the end of July. Next come the melons, of which there arc two or three sorts gx-own iu the jhums : afterwards vegetables of all sorts become fit for gathering; and finally, in September, the rice and other grain ripens. At this time the moukeys and jungle fowl are the chief enemies of the crop. In the month of October the cotton crop is gathered labt of all, and this concludes the harvest. The rice having been cut is beaten from the ear in the jhum : it is afterwards rolled up in rough, straw-covered bales and carried to the granary in the villao-e

« * * * * ° •

' " The ' da6' is the hill knife, used uuivpr=ally throughout the country. I t is a blade about 18 inches long, narrow at the haft, and square and broad at the tip; pointless, and sharpened on one side only. The blade is sot in » handle of wood ; a bamboo root is considered the best. The fighting ' da6' is diil'crontly shaped. This is a long pointless sword, sot in a • ^oode or obonv handle ; it is -lery heavy, and a blow of almost incredible power can be irivp by one of these weapons. With both the fighting and the ordinnry dafi can make but two cuts; one from the right shoulder downwards to tliol°ff one from the left foot upwards to the right. The reason of this is that in i pening the blade one side only gues the edge, skntmg to the other ! . . • T l face of the blade. Any attempt to cut in a way contrary to tliosp tn, „, ^ ' ^ ^ causes the cla6 to turn m the hand on (he striker, and T have s e e n ^ ^ m X l Mounds inflicted in this manner The weapon is identical with t ie " m r a S latf L-'* -f *1 n ]l»"lrtTTc '1 tin nrrlliini'V lu l l *1..A 4. ™ II : ^ ^^^ l )ar . iu&

^aist-band on and Worn at the is literally the bread-wiuncr.. With this he cuts h i ; j l m n T a m U - S ins • — ' ' ;Y'.l ° 't Its aid the most ordinary operations of hill l,fo ecu l Mt bo performed. lt's^vlth the dao tliat ho tashions the «omen's weaviugTir.*^''i,'^ (he dao he fines off his boat: ^Mth i t e <lao he notches a stair n h.' rtcep hillside eading to his ihum ; and to the dao he frequently o« el Vis hfe fo defending

himself from iLe attacks of wild ammals." ^ °^''^ '"» ^^°' ^

MAGH. MAGIIXIA.

Besides grain and cotton, the hill tribes grow tobacco. This is planted principally in small valleys on the banks of the hiU streams." In order to scare birds, deer, and wild _ pigs from the growing crop, a cleft bamboo is planted in the middle and connected by a long cane with the hut built for watching the crop in such a manner that by pulling the cane the two halves of the bamboo can be clashed together and a harsh rattling noise produced.

The Marmfis and Maramagris have for the most part adopted a settled mode of life and taken to plough cultivation. They also catch and sell fish, hew wood, dug-out canoes, and weave baskets and mats. The Rajbansi Maghs are accomplished cooks, and are largely employed by Europeans in that capacity. As a rule they take a keen interest in theii- profession, and it may be that their skill is in some measure due to their fi-eedom from the social and religious prejudices which debar other classes of native cooks from tasting the dishes which they prepare.

a sub-caste of Bhars in Man-bhum, coflqirising the five sections of Mayur, Bel, Basrisi, Kilsyab, and Brahmarslii, of which the fii-st four are totemistic and the last appeal's to have beeu bor­rowed from the Brahmans; a sub-caste of Doms in Behai- who play the f//;o/and ^«>7; a sub-caste of Halwdis or confectioners in Behar, who have to some extent aban­doned theu- distinctive occupation and find emijloyment as servants and petty shopkeepers dealing in miscellaneous articles. JNIany of them fiy rice, chum, etc., and are called bliiija bhum; a sub-caste of Koiris in Behar, which, though endogamous as regards the rest of the caste, intermarries with the Chimie or Chu-mait sub-caste; a sub-caste of Kumhtirs in Boliar and Western Bengal, which used formerly.to be endogamous, but now intermaiTies\vith the Thliutia sub-caste; a sub-caste of Thatherd or brass-chaser in Behar.

Magh^ Chewdr, a vuil or section of the Satmuliii or Kish-naut sub-caste of Goiilas in Behar.

Maghad Khandi, a sub-caste of Telis in Bengal.

Maghaia, a sept of Lohdrs in Chota Nagpui'.

Maghaiya, a sub-caste of Kumh^rs and Telis in Behar and Ohota Nagpur.

Maghaya, a native of Mag-ha (Magadha) or South Behar; a designation of numerous sub-castes, such as Barai, Beldar, barber, Dhanulc, Dhobi, Gangota, GoiiM, Kandu, Nunia, Sunn, and Teli castes in Behar; a sub-caste of Barhis in Behar who work in both wood and iron and do the rougher woodwork required for houses, as distin­guished from the Kanaujias, who are joinci-s and cabinet-makers. Representatives of this sub-casto are found l3oth in the town of Bhiigalpur and in the north of tlie district, but interninmage ]r)etweentho two groups is believed IQ bo rai'e. The headman of tlie former is styled SuUni, wliile the beadraau of the latter beai-s the usual title of Muxjlmi;

Majihai/d Brahman, a synonym for Babhan. • ' ^

Maghi, a sept of Cbi'l-c, • Chota Nagpur. ^ ' ^ S IQ

Maghnia, a sept of T M - • Chota Nagpur. ^ ^°^^rs in

MAGI. 38 MAHAHA.

Magi, a sub-casto of Kumh^rs in Dacca and Tiintis in Bengal; a sub-caste of Bditis in FaridpTir.

Magrathi, a tliar or sept of Mangars iu Darjiling.

Maguri, a title of Bangaja Kayasths in Bengal.

Mahabara, atoteraistio sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur who never kill or ebase the wild boar.

Mahabhat, a section of the Kamar sub-caste of Dos&dbs in Bebar.

Mahabrahman, Mahapi t ra or Kantaha, a division of Brab-nians in Bebar wbo officiate as priests on cremation.

Mahadanda, a sub-caste of Kewats in Bebar.

Mahadanta, a title of Brab-mans.

Mahajan, money-lender, a title of the Ariar sub-caste of Bais Baniyas.

Mdhakaria, a section of Godlas in tbe North-Western Provinces aud Bebar.

Mahai^, a section of GodMs in the North-Western Provinces and Bebar.

Mahald^r, a title of men who measure grain for Mahajans, also called Kayals ; a title of Jaunpuri Chamars aud Muchis in Bebar •^bose women act as midwives; a title of certain Musalmans, also called Pajra, who sell fish and ' e boatmen.

Mahali Mabili: a synonym for CliotaNa^i^.^?^ of Lohdrs in

Mahali-Munda, a sub-tribe of Mimdas in Ghota Nagpur; a sept of Lobars in Chota Nagpur.

Mahalia-navis, an honorary title of Kayasths in Bengal.

Mahamanda, a section of tbe Mabmuddbaz sub-caste of Naplts in Central Bengal.

Mahanadi, a river, a sept of Bediyas and Cbiks in Chota Nagpur.

Mahanadid, a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Mahani ik or Sreshta-Klian-ddit, a sub-caste of Khandaits in Balasore and Cuttaok.

Wlahanandia, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Mahdni, a title of Tambubs, Telis, and other trading castes.

Mahant, S.; the head of a reli­gious establishment of tbe men­dicant orders of the Hindiis.

Mahanta, a priest of tbe Jugi caste in Tipperah; a spiritual guide in the Vaisbnava sect; a title of Kurmis in Western Bengal.

Mahant i, Mdhinti, a titular section of Utkal or Orissa Brah-mans; a title of Cbdsas and Karans in Orissa.

Mahap^tra, a bypergamous group of the Bangaja sub-caste of Kayasths in Bengal; a title of Brabma,n8 and Karans in Orissa; a title of Khandaits in Chota Nagpur.

Mahar, a section of Go^^s in Bebar.

Mahara, a title of the Dhusia sub-caste of Chamars; a tit * ° Kabars in Bebar ^^° J^^l palanquins and work as ^°

ATAHAEAI. 39 MAHDAUEIAE.

Maharai, a title of Kurmis in Behar.

Maharaj, a title affected by certain mendicants and Brah-mans; a title of respect applied to Bohar Brahmans who are emplojed as cooks.

Mahardna, a title of Ndgars in Beliax'.

MahSr^no, a mtil or section of tlie Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of GoaMs in Behar.

Maharashtra, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Mahirdshtriya, a territorial division of the Pancha Drdvira Brahmans who live in the south of the Vindjd range, a country of the Marathi language.

Mahdrath or Mahiraihi, great charioteer, a title of Khandaits in Orissa.

Mah^raus, a sept of _ the Sm-yabansi sub-tribe of Eijputs in Behar.

IVlaharn^, a section of Kewats in Behar.

Mahaset, a group of Ma-ghaiya Telis andSuurisin Bohar.

Mahasib, literally 'anaccount­ant, ' a section of the Maghayii suh-easte of Telis; a title of Sum-is in Behar.

Mahasthdn, Mastan or H^lid, a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

IVlahat, a sub-caste of Goalas in Chota Nagpur; a title of iip-country Brahmans and of some trading castes; a title of the Kocbli trib^ ^" Northern Bengal

Mdhdti, a title of Khatris in Bengal.

Mahatha, a section of Moghaiya Kumhdrs in Behar.

Mahathwar, a section of the Chamar and Bhuiya castes.

Mahatma, a mul or section of the Ghosin suh-caste of Groalas ; a section of the Chaubhan sub-caste of Nunias and a section of the Banodhia and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

Mah^tman, a section of the Maghayii sub-caste of Kumhars in Bohar.

Mahato, a title of Goalas, Kurmis, Koiris, Kahars, Kum-hars, Eajwars, Dhanuks, Mun-das. Chiks or Pans and Pasis ; a sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Mahatoar, a sept of Pans and Agarias in Chota Nagpur.

section of Mahaulia, a Kaseras in Behar.

Mahaut, a sept of Tharus in Behar.

Mahbari^, a hul or section of BCibhans in Behar.

Mahbho, a sept of the Yan-gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling; branch of the same sept may not intermarry.

Mahbu, the physician, literally a shaker—one who, boing ridden by gho&ts or devils, shakes him­self free : hence a physician • n sept of the Oharkola sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling. ^

Mahdaur i i r , a mr rY, of Sakadwipi B r a U ' ^ r ^ ^ ^ - ^ Behar •ttiaus m

iUHEJfDEA EHTANI. 40

IVIahendra Kfiydni, a group of the B^rendra Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

IVIahepurS, a mill or section of the Chhamuha Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Maher, a section of Kumh^rs in Singbhum.

Mahesbar^it, a section of the Kamar sub-caste of Dosadhs in Behar.

^tahCSrt, a trading caste of Northern India and Marwar, closely allied to the Agarwals and Oswals with whom they eat and drink. like the Agarwils, they have a sub-caste called Dasa,

MAHILI.

said to be illegitimate and per­haps coming of slave mothers, ihe Mahesri are almost invari­ably Hindus, while the Agarwal f^d Oswal castes contain a large proportion of Jains. They ? r A r ° ^ T ° " ^ subdivisions m Appendix I Like the Agar-rule of exogamy. A man may

Sion"^^ I-'' ^""l i« «^^ section, (6) his mother's, (c) his

latJier s maternal grandmother's

Maheswar, a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans, and of MaghaiyaKumhdrs in Behar

cPahili, Mahali, a Dravid"

cultivators and labourers • Ts 1-1^*° '" Sulunkhi-Mahll! ' K^^^''-

comparison of the tZtS^iZ^^^ft^oonUeltrl^ZV^A I with those of theSant1rseert?w^^Ma^^^^

Bansphor, Sulunkhi, and Tanti Mah^ ^'""P comprising the Santals, separated at a comparative^ I ' ''."^1''^^ ^ branch of the tribe. The exact causes of ifa^'^^^-^ recent date from "the Z.l *.

to the formation of tLP^ '^ '^ '^ '^^^^^^givn^t^^^^^^ parted from the Munda t r i b f T^- -^^^ ™ i - M u n d a ^ ^ S ^ B etions shown in the IppeidL th? ' ! "^^^ ''^'^^^ ZBST^ ?« their totem, and c o n S if w l ""^^ '""^•'^'^'^ regai-d f, ^^' iS^d^that appetite o^^'Z'Z I f f l f ^ ' n ^ ^ ! 'J S a k - r t f ' / r ^ ^ ' t " ^ i« eaten i t f t i o n , but X t ?^« P K ^ ? . ? . *^^°° ^^^^'^ by thro^in^ ^ ' consequences ^ • "bhum - ^ 'ii are a Hinduised sub 5 . ^^^y ^^^ bead. « ting b?ef ""^^ <^^P'°y Brahmans as prt.f ' ' °f South-East

P" ^ s and abstain from

41 MAHILT.

A man may not marry a woman of his own section or of the section to which his mother belonged before her marriage. Beyond these limits marriage is regulated with reference to the standard formula for prohibited degrees.

MaMlis marry their daughters both as infants and as adults, but the former practice is deemed the more

Marriage. respectable, and there can, I think, be Httle doubt that in this, as in other castes on the borders^ of Hinduism, the tendency at the present day is towards the entire abolition of adult-marriage. The customary brido-price paid for a Mahili girl is supposed to be Es. 5, but the amount is liable to vary according to the means of the bridegroom's parents. On the weddiug morning, before the usual procession starts to escort the bridegroom to the bride's house, he is formally married to a mango tree, while the bride goes through the same ceremony with a mahua. At the entrance to the bride's house the bridegroom, riding on the shoulders of some male relation and bearing on his head a vessel of water, is received by the bride's brother, equipped in similar fashion, and the two cavaliers sprinkle one another with water. The bride and bridegroom are then seated side by side on a plank under a canopy of sdl leaves erected in the courtyard of the house, and the bride­groom touches the bride's forehead five times with vermOion, and presents her with an iron armlet. This is the binding portion of the ritual.

So far as positive rules are concerned, the Mahilis appear to impose no limit on the number of wives a man may have. I t is unusual to find a man with more than two; and practically, I understand, polygamy is rarely resorted to unless the first wife should happen to be baiTen. Widows may remarry, and are under no restrictions in their choice of a second husband, though it is deemed right and proper for a widow to maiTy her deceased husband's younger brother if such a relative exists. Divorce is permitted on the ground of adultery or inability to agree. "When a husband divorces his wife he gives her a rupee and takes away the iron armlet [lohdr khdru) which was given her at her wedding. H e must also entertain his caste brethren at a feast by way of obtaining their sanction to the proceedings. Divorced wives may marry again.

Like the Bauris and BAgdis, the Mahilis admit into their caste men of any caste ranking higher than their own. The conditions of membership are simple. The person seeking admission into the Mahili community has merely to pay a small sum to the headman (pargandit) of the caste and to give a feast to the Mahilis of the neighbouxhood. This feast he must attend himself, and signify his entrance into the brotherhood by tasting a portion of the food left by each of the guests on the leaf which on these occasin serves as a plate. ^ ^

In matters of inheritance and succession the Mahilis nmf I:J,e>-itance. f f ^ ^^^i^v^x law applies to the i i ^ r ' ^%

the locality- the Dayabhaga in M a n U ^ the Mitaksliara in Lohardaga. Statements of this kind v J ^ ^^^ import little more than a vague assumption of coiif • ^^^^r,

MAHILI. 42

what is supposed to he the custom of all respectahle men; and there is no reason to heheve that the headman pargandii) and caste-council panchdyat), -who settle the civil disputes of the caste, have any knowledge of, or pay the smallest regard to, the rules of the regular Hindu law. The questions which come "before this primitive tribunal are usually very simple. Its decisions are accepted without question, and I know of no instance where an attempt has been made to correct them by appealing to the regular courts. I t does not follow, however, that Mahilis and castes of similar standing have escaped the influence of the Codes and have preserved a distinct customary law of their ovra. On the contrary, the written law certainly filters down to these lower grades of society, not through the regular channels of text-books and coui-ts, but in virtue of their tendency to imitate the usages of the groups immediately above themselves. If men of these lower castes are asked what law they follow, a common answer is that they have the same law as their landlords; and the landlords, to whatever caste they may belong, almost invariably ^et their law from the text-books and the courts. To this influence it is probably due that the practice of giving an extra share (Jeth-angs) to the eldest son in dividing an inheritance is gradually dying_ out among the Mahilis, and the tendency is towards an equal division of property.

The religion of the Mahilis is at present a mixture of half-EoU •on forgotten animism and Hinduism imperfectly

° ^°°' understood. They affect indeed to worship all the Hindu gods, hut they have not yet risen to the distinction of employing Brahmans, and their working deities seem to he Bar-pahari and Manasa. The former is merely another name for the woU-known mountain god of the Mundas and Santals, while the latter is the snake goddess, probably also of non-Aryan origin, whose cult has been described in the article on the Bagdis. To these are ofiered goats, fowls, rice, and glii, the offerings being afterwards eaten by the worshippers themselves.

The Mahilis of Northern Manbhiun bury their dead face down-^. • , . , , , wards; hut this practice is not universal, for Disposal of tho dead. ^^^ p .^^^^ ^ ^ . ^ t ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ ^^ ^^^

Santal Parganas hum their dead and bury the ashes near at hand. On the eleventh day after death offerings of milk, ghi, and rice are made at the place of burial. Similar offerings are presented ia the months of KArtik and Chait for the propitiation of departed ancestors in general. The anniversary of the death of an individual ancestor is not observed.

Mahilis rank socially with Bauris and Dosadhs. They eat hoef pork, and fowls, and are very partial to sfrntic^

^^^m status and occu. ^ ^ , ^ i ^d- -ats which are reckoned a S a l dehcacy by> the Oraons, they will r>«f t h

T W will eat cooked food with the Kurmi, the Bhumii and the Deswali Santals. They beUeve their original oeoupation to be basket-making and bamboo work generally. Many of them are mw e y g e d in agricultuie as Goa-occupancy raiyatg aiid lanclless

MAHILI. 43 MAHTO.

The foUowing statement shows the number and distribution of

Mahilis in 1872 and 1881:—

Bardwan BanVara Birbhum Midnupar Nadiya Kluilna Uiniijpnr Bajshahye Pabiia Monfthyr BliBRalpur

3,497 IS

3 28 (10

376 CIS

57 77 85

SGS 31 10

SOi 1116

Maldnh Siintiil PargaMs Cuttack Balasore ... Tnbulary States Haziiribagh ... Lohardaci ... SmKbhuin ... JIanbhura ...

I Tributary States

1,3C5 9,021

1,979 8,089 1.801 7,885

111

21S i.csa

53 7

BM 2,2S6 7,510 1,196 4,772

13

Mahili-Mund4, a sub-caste of Mahilis in Western Bengal.

Mahintd, a gain of the Bdtsya gotm of lUrhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Mahisirupj&n, a imdov section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Godlas in'Behar.

M^hkur, Mdkur, a sub-caste of GodUs iu Chota Nagpur.

Mahlaingtsa, a sppt of Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Mahli, a sept of Birhors in Chota Nagpur.

Mahmudabdz, a sub-caste of Napits in Eastern Bengal.

Mahmudpuria, a sub-caste of KamMs in Western Bengal.

Mahra, a mul or section of the Biahut Bub-caste of Kalwars in Behar.

Mahra, a title of Chamars and men employed to herd cattle.

Mahraghasi, a sub-caste of G-hasis in Chota Nagpur who eerve as bearers.

Mahrajia. a section of Bhdts.

Mahrana, a pa7igaf or section of Bansphor Doms, and ot Dosadhs in Behar.

Mahrano, a title of Hindu Joldhfis in Behar.

Wlahrasidi a pur or section of Scikadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Mahrat, a mnl or section of the Ayodliia sub-caste of H a j -jams in Behar.

Mahraul, a mvl or section of the Goria sub-caste of Goalds in Behar.

Mahraur, a sept of the Chand-rabansi Eajputs in Behar. They cannot intermarry with persona of the Besain and Ghaubh&n septs, being supposed to have had their common origin in the same saint.

Mahta, a section of GoalAs in the North-Wostern Provinces and Behar.

Mahtha, a section of the Amashta sub-caste of K^yastha in Behar.

Mih to , (i) a village headman • (ii) a title apphed in Behar to Kurmis who by age or W ^ „ -sonal influence have &Hc,L V leading position in t h e b S ^ In some parts of the c o ^ ; e £

MAHTO. 44 MAINPURl.

title is used as almost synony­mous •with Kurmi; and a Kurmi, •when asked to what caste ho belongs,-will reply " i l u h t o ; " (iii) a title of the following castes :— Dhanuks, Dosddhs, Goria Groalds, Koiris, Sunris; the Bhojjiuri^ and AyodliiS sub-castes of Nunlas in Behar; also Thdrus; the Bediyas, Mahilis, Ndgeswars, and Kharwars in Chota Nagpur ; Cheros and the Malwe Kajputs in Chota Nagpur; Tantis, Kewate, Binds and Dhobis in Behax.

Mahtoar , a totemistic sept of Chika in Chota Nagpur,

Mahtwar.'a'section of GrodlAs in Behar.

Mahua, a tree, a totemistic s'ept of Pclns, Boms, Bedyas, and Chamars in Chota Nagpur.

Mahuar, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Mahuari , a section of BAbhans and of the Biyahut and Khari-ddh4 Kalwirs in Behar.

Mahukal, abird, a totemistic sept of Mundas, Bedivas, and Kharwars; a section of Mahilis iii Chota Nagpur.

•Mahuli, a section o i t h e S i t -muli.'i Maghayd sub-caste of Kiiu-dus in Behar.

Mahur or MalniUyd, a sub-casto of Lohiirs in Behax.

Wl^huri, a sub-caste of Baniy^is in Behar, who occupy nearly as high a rank as the Agarwdls in social estimation. Like the Sikhs, the Mihuxis strictly prohibit the use of tobacco, and a man detected smoking would be expelled from the community. Another peculiar usage is that marriages are always celebrated at the bridegroom's house, and not at the bride's. Trade and money-lending are the proper occupations of the Maburi. Some of them have acquired substantial tenures and sot up as landholders and zamindars.

Mahuria, a section of Laheris in Behar,

Mahwa, a section of the Tirhu-tia sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Maiduchhd, a thar or sept of Khambus in Barjihng.

Maikam, a thar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

IVIai ketari begunS bSgh, "harrow, sugarcane, egg-plant, garden " a formula or shibboleth distinguisliing a section of the Maghaya 8ub-caste of Koins in Behax.

Maikhola, a sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling-

l^ail. a mul or section of the ChliamuHii Madhesia sub-caste o± Uilwiiis in Behar.

IVIailldhurlak^ a nixd oi section of the Naomiilia or Majraut Sub-caste of Godlas in Behar.

Mai I war, a section of Cheros, Khariiis, Kharwars, and Lobars in Chota Nagpur.

Mail war, a mid or section of the Naoraulid or Majraut sub-caste of Grodlds in Behar.

. '^^.'"^'^^i^d.. '^ totemistic sept of Go41as,PaiJiaiya9, Mundas, and Bediyas m Chota Nagpur.

Mainkiswar o ,• - f t l inirn,^ ' 1 ' ^ section oi

iS B^har , '''^-''''' «*• ^'^'"^^

Mainpuri, a class of Baniyds m Behar.

ILUE. 45 MAL.

Mair, a sub-caste of Sondrs in Behax- who do not permit the reman-iage of their widows.

Mairia, a section of Babhans in Bohar.

Maisasari, a sub-caste of Kur-niis in Orissa.

Mdital, a title of Kdnsdris or braziers in Western Bengal.

Maitbukru, a place where he bui'ies his bones, being bis an­cestral birthplace, a section of Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

Maithil or Tirhutia, a terri­torial division of the Panoha Graura Brahmans in Behar, de-riviug its name from MithUa or Tirhut.

Mditi, Mail, a title of Utkal Bralimaus and of Kaibarttas in Oribsa and Bengal.

Maitra, a gain of the Kasyapa gotra of Bareudra Brahmaus in Bengal.

Majar or Minjur, peacock, a totomistic sept of Mundas' and Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Majh^liar, a mul or section of the SAtmidii'i or Kishnaut sub-caste of Groaliis in Behar.

Majhal-Turiya, a sub-caste of Eajwars in Lohardaga.

Majhasthan. a sub-caste of Kumhars in Pabna.

M^jhaura, a section of the Biyuhut and Kharidahd Kalwars in Behar.

Majhiaur, a sept of the Eautar sub tribe of Thdrus in Behar.

Majhiya, a soction of Eajwars in Western Bengal.

Majhrot, a title of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Majhwat, a sub-caste of Goalas in Chota Nagpur.

M^ji, a title of Kandhs in Orissa.

Majilpur, asamajov local group of the Dakshinatya Baidik Brah­mans in the 24-Parganas.

Majlishi, a sub-caste of Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

Majlisi (Maudgalya), a section of Kaibarttas in Murshedabad.

Majraut or Naomulia, a sub-caste of Groahis in Behar.

Majumdar, an honorary title of Brahmaus, Kayasths, Baruis, Jugis, and Sunris in Bengal; a hypergamous group of Kaibart­tas in Bakai'gauj.

Majurrishi, a section of Mayai'ds in Bengal,

Makada, a section of Godhis in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Makhaiv/^r, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Makhpaw^r, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Maki, Muki, a synonym for Ghasi.

Makunda, a sub-group of the Haliyd or Hele Kaibarttas in Central Bengal.

Makundpuri, a section of Sondrs in Behar,

^^V'il, a Dravidian cultivating caste of Western and Central ,„ ,-.• c • Bengal, many of whom are omrjloxrQj .r.™ui.on« of on,i„. ./ „,, .,v^ ,, or 4 l a g e watchmen and h Jve I ' ^

an evil reputation for tlieir thievmg propensities. Beyond the stitements ciurent among the Mais of Eastern Bengal t\^ ,^^,S^® were wrestlers (J/«//«, Mala) at the court of the Dacca N n , ? l ^^^^ gained their name from this proiossiou, the caste appear f f ^^^'^

M.tL. 46

traditions, and their origin has formed the subject of much discussion, the general drift of which is stated by Mr. Beverley^ as follows:—

" In his late work on the Ancient Geography of India, General Cunningham quotes a passage from Pliny, in which the MalU are mentioned as this:—' Gentes: Calingce proximi mari, et supra Mandei Main, quorum mons Mallus finisque ejus traclus est Ganges.' In another passage we have, 'Ab iis Palibothris) in interiore situ Moncdes et Suari, quorum moiu Mallus'; and putting the two passages together. General Cunningham 'thinks it highly probable that both names may be intended for the celebrated Mount Mandar, to the south of Bhagalpur, which is fabled to have been used by the gods and demons at the churning of the ocean.' The Mandei General Cunningham iden­tifies'with the inhabitants of the Mahanadi river, which is the Manada of Ptolemy.' ' The Mal/i or Ma/ei would therefore be the same people as Ptolemy's Mandalte, who occupied the right bank of the Ganges to the south of Palibothra,' the Mandala: or Manda/i having been already identified with the Moncdes and the modern Munda Kols. 'Or,' adds General Cunningham,'they may be the people of the Rajmahal hills who are called Maler, which would appear to be derived from the Canarese Male and l i e Tamil Malei, a ' hill.' I t would therefore be equivalent to the Hindu pahan' or pdrbatiyd, a ' hillman." Putting this last suggestion aside for the present, it seems to me that there is some little confusion in the attempt to identify both the Monedea and the Malli with the Mundas. If the Mandei and the Malli are distinct nations—and it will be observed that both are mentioned in the same passage—the former rather than the latter would seem to correspond with the Monedes or Mundas. The Malli would then coiTCspond rather to the Suari, quorum mons Mallus—the hills bounded by the Ganges at Kajmahal. They may therefore be the same as the Mais. In other words, the Mais—the words Maler and Malhar seem to be merely a plural fozm—may possibly bo a branch of the groat Sauriyan family to which the Rajmahal PahariAs, the Oruons, and the Sabars all belong, and which Colonel Dalton would describe as Dravidian. Fifteen hundred or two thousand years ago this people may have occupied the whole of Western Bengal. Pressed by other tribes, they have long since been driven into comers, but not without, as it wore, leaving traces

'of their individuality behind. In Mal-bhumi (Manbhum) instead of ' the Country of the Wrestlers,' as Dr. Hunter puts it, we seem to have the land of ' Mons Mallus' and the Mais. The Maldah district may also possibly owe its name to their having been settled there AJB to the name, indeed it is quite possible that it means nothint^ more than bigUanders; the word Mallus being simply the Indi ° vernacular for the Latin mons. If a native were asked the nimo "^ a hill in the present day, he would reply, as Pliny's informant nrnKnl.l v ^«Pli«d years ago, that it wns a ' hill; ' and if asked the ' I r o f the people . 1 , livfd'there, ho would probably say they were T m m e n ' ar.. / ^^^eMal s appear to have been dnven eastwards and to have Bpread^vorthe while of Bengal, where they have become m e ^ e d

^ Report of the Census of Bengal, 1872, by H. Beyerl ey, p, 184.

47 MKL.

in the mass of low-caste Hindus. This will account to some extent lor what Colonel Dalton calls the Dravidian element in the com­position of the Bengali race. Under the Hindu system the Mais, like other ahoriginal tribes who came within the pale of Hinduisin^ influences, appear to have formed one of the forty-five tribes of Chandals, the lowest or sweeper class among Hindus. Chandals are found in every district of Bengal, their aggregate number in tlie present day being over a million and a half. In Mymensingh, where wo find 20,000 Mais, we have 123.000 Chandals. In the south-eastern districts they seem to have lost their name in the generic term of Chandals, but in the eastern districts they still retain it. In Birbhum and Baukura, in each of which districts there are about 9,000 Mais, there are not as many hundred Chandals. I n Murshedabad there are 29,000 Mais against 22,000 who described tliemselves as Chandals. Most officers say the Mais are identically the same as the Ghaudals. Some say they are wrestlers, others attribute to them the same occupation as that of the Madaris or Sampheriyas, viz., that of snake-charmers. Others, ao-ain, say tliey are Musalmans, and identify them with Bediyas or Babajiyas; but in this oxi^lanation there seems to be some confusion, the two last tribes not being generally considered identical. The Babajiyas, though an itinerant tribe like the Bedivas, are employed, like tho stationary Pasaris, in selling di-ugs. The returns, however, show that some of the Mais arc Musalmans."

The most primitive specimens of the caste are met wiih in , , , Bankura, where they have distinctly totemistic

Intenial structure. , . •, 3- • T j • L ii s -[i sections, and are divided into the lollowmg

sub-castes:—Dhaiia, Gobra or Gura, Khera, Rajbansi, and San^gantha. In ilidnapur and Manbhum we find Dhunakata, Rdjbansl, Sapurya or Bedya M^l, and Tunga; in Birbhum Khaturta, Mallik, and Rdjbansi ; in the Santal Parganas Deswar, Magahiya, Rajbansi or Raja Mai, Rarhi Mai, and S indura ; while in Murshedabad the sub-castes are the same as in Bankuar, except that Dhaiia is not known. The origin of these groups is extremely obscure, and I doubt whetiier any amount of inquiry would throw much light on the subject. Rajbansi, for example, is the name adopted by a very large proportion of the Koohh tribe; but there is no reason to suppose that the Mais are Koohh, and they might easily have acqiured the name Rajbansi in the same manner as the Kochh ha^'o done by identifying themselves with tlie lineage of a local Raja, who may or may not have belonged to tho same race. The simplest solution of the difficulty appears to be -to assume that Mai is notliing more than a variant of MaL<, 'mf,n,' the name by which the UiU Pahdrias describe themselves. I t is possible, again, that the Rajbansi Mais may be the same a^ Ri ja ]\[iils whom Buchanan noticed aniono-the Mai J ahurias at the beginning of tho cenliuy. The monkey! catching tfobras bear the same name as one f *he^ ^^b-eabtes of Bdgdis; and Khera is „ot far removed from Khaira, whom soma recravi a a hranch of tho Doms. The Sanagantha take their name from making ianas, the uprights through which weavers pass their

M.KL. 48

thread. The Dhundkati M^ls collect resin dhma) by tapping iul trees; the Tunga sub-caste are cultivators; while tbe Sapurid or Bedya Mais live by charming snakes, catching monkeys, hunting or conjuring, and roam about the country carrying -with them small tents of coarse gunny-cloth. Although they catch snakes, Sapurja Mais hold the animal in the highest reverence, and will not kill it,. or even pronounce its name, for which they use the synonym lata, ' a creeper.' ' . , , , ,

The names of tbe last-mentioned group raise the probably insoluble question of the connexion of the

Kinship witii tho Bediyfe. ^^-^^ - ^ ^^^ Bediyas. Dr. Wise treats both Mai and Samperia or S4puria as subdivisions of the Bediya tribe; but it is equally possible that the Mai may be the parent group, and that the Bediyas may have separated from it by reason of their adhering to a wandering mode of life when the rest of the tribe had taken to comparatively settled pursuits. There certainly seem to be reasons for suspecting some tolerably close affinity between the two groups. The Mdls of Dacca, for instance, are called Ponkwah, from their dexterity in extracting worms from the teeth, a characteristic accomplishment of the Bediyas. They repudiate the suggestion of kinship with the latter tribe, but it is said that many can recollect the time when relationEhip was readily admitted. At present, however, in spite of some survival of roving habits, peculiar physiognomy, and distinctive figm-es, Mdls are with difficulty recognized. Many of them are small bankers mahdjans), never dealing in pedlar's wares, but advancing small sums, rarely exceeding eight rupees, on good security. The rate of interest charged is usually about fifty per cent, per annum ; but this demand, however exorbitant, is less than that exacted by many money-lenders in the towns. The Dacca Mais never keep snakes, and know nothing about the treatment of their bites. The women, however, pretend to a secret knowledge of simples and of wild plants. They are also employed for cupping, for relieving obscure abdominal pains by friction, and for treating uterine diseases, but never for tattooing. The Mais of Eastern Bengal do not intermarry with Bediyas, and even within the limits of their own group a sharp distinction used to be observed between settled Mais aud gipsy Mais; so that if one of the former sought to mariy^girl of the latter class, he was required to leave his home, give up his cultivation, and adopt a wandering life. This custom has gradually given way to a keener sense of the advantages of settled life, but its general disuse is said to be still resented by the elders of the caste.

Plausible as tbe conjecture may be which would trace some ^ond of kinship between the Bediyas and the Mais, the evidence H^'^g on the point is not precise enough to enable us to identify East ^^^^^ Mais of Miduapur with the Samperiya Bediyas of to bo"^i • ' g l- Snaue-eharming is an occupation likely enough

,no rea ^ * * b j any caste of gipsy-like propensities, and there is indenenrii ^^^^ ^°th Mdls and Bediyas should not have taken to it BedijB ^^y- i'^irt^er particulars will be found in the article

49 MAL.

The Mais of Western and Central Bengal seem on the whole to he the most typical representatives of tha

xogamy. original Mai tribe. Among them the primitive rule of exogamy is in full force, and a man may not marry a woman who belongs to the same totem group as himself. Prohibited degrees are reckoned by the standard formula calculated in the descending line to, five generations on the father's and three on the mother's side. Outsiders belonging to higher castes may be admitted into the Mai community by giving a feast to the Mais of the neighbour­hood and drinking water in which the headman of the village mdnjhi) has dipped his toes. No instance of any one undergoing this disagree­able ordeal has been quoted to me, and such cases must be very rare.

Grirls may be married either as infants or after they have jj . attained puberty, the tendency being towards

^^^^' the adoption of the former custom. The cere­mony takes place just before daybreak in a sort of arbour made of ma hud and sidhd branches in the courtyard of the bride's house. After the bride has been carried seven times round the bridegroom the couple are made to sit side by side facing the east, and a vessel of water which has been blessed by a Brahman is poured over their heads after the manner of the Mundas and Oraons.^ Garlands of flowers ai'e then exchanged, the clothes of the pair are knotted together, and if adult they retire into a separate room in order to consummate their union. On their reappearance they are greeted by the company as husband and wife. Polygamy is permitted, but most Mais are too poor to maintain more than one wife. A widow may marry again,^ but no special ritual is in use, except among the Eaja Mais of Birbhum, who exchange necklaces of beads or seeds of the tulsi Oct/num sanctum); and such marriages, which are called sanga, are effected by paying a small fee to the headman (khdniid or mdnjhi) and to the father of the widow. Divorce may be effected, with the sanction of the panchayat, on the ground of adultery by the wife, and divorced women may marry again in the same manner as widows.

*Mals profess to have completely adopted Hinduism, and no vestiges of any more primitive religion can

EcUgion. ^ ^ ^ l g traced among them. They seem to belong to whatever Hindu sect is popular in the locality where they

are settled; and in diilerei© districts they describe them­selves as Vaishnavas, Saivas, or Saktas, as the case may be. The snake goddess Manasa is believed to be their special patroness, TU l^ "*^°''shipped by them in much the same fashion as by the Bagdis. Sacrifices of rice, sweetmeats, and dried rice are also offered by tbe heads of families to the tutelary goddess of each village, who bears the name of the vHlage itself with the termination ,ini

\ ^ ^ ^ ? V ° ^ e accounts JalmS, tlxe g o d d e ^ T ^ f ^ ^ . ^ f ^^^^ worshipped wuh g,fts of flowers at a neighhouriDg tank, and ^ater drawn from tins Unk must bo used in tho marriage in addition to water blessed by a Bralimaii. »

' ?'^^^ ^^ZIA^TT"^ ^^J"' ^«t tie Eajbansi M&ls of Midnapur have recently abandoned widow-marriage.

_ d

MAL. 50

added; eo that the goddess of the village Pdthara would be called Pdtbardsini. In most districts they have not yet attained to the dignity of employing Brahmans, but elders of the caste or headmen of°villages serve them as priests k/idmid). In the Santal Pargands, however, the Brahmans of the Let sub-caste of Bagdis officiate also for the Eaja Mais. The dead are burned, usually at the side of

a stream, into which the ashes are thrown. A Disposal of tho dead, meagre imitation of the orthodox srdddh

ceremony is pei-f ormed on the eleventh day after death in ordinary cases, and on the third day for those who have died a violent death. On the night of tho Kali'Pujd in Kdrtik (October-November) dried jute stems are lighted in honour of departed ancestors, and some even say that this is done to show their spuits the road to heaven. Libations of water are oifered on the last day of Ohait. Female children are buried mouth downwards, and the bodies of very poor persons are often buried with the bead to the north in the hed of a ri v&r.

Agricultui'e is supposed to be the original profession of tho caste, and most Mdls, except those of distinctly gipsy

»ta^ur '*^°° •""* ""'^' J'l' bits, are now engaged in cultivation as occu­pancy or non-occupancy raiyats and landless

day-labourers. None appear to have risen to the higher rank of zamindar or tenure-holder, except in Bankura, whore one savdar ghatwal, one sadial, 56 idbiddrs, and 35 chdJcardn c/iatikiddrs aro Mdls. In Manbhum, on the other hand, which some believe to be the original home of the caste, no Mdls are found in possession of tliese ancient tenures, though some are employed as ordinary village c/iaukiddrs. The women of the caste and some of the men often make a livelihood byfisliing—a fact which accounts for their bearing the title of Machhua. Tlieir social status is very low, and is clearly defined by the fact tliat Bagdis and Koras will not take water fi-om their hands, while they will take water and sweetmeats not only from those castes, but also from Bauris. Mdls pride themselves on abstaining fi-om beef and pork, but eat fowls, all kindo of fish, field-rats, and the flesh of the gosdinp Lacerta godiea). The lldja Mdls, however, do not touch fowls.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Mdls in 1872 and 188] :—

DiSTEICT.

Bard wan Jtankura Kirbluim Widnapar Uimhli Howrah 2:»-l;argan4a ..

?E. :::

1872 18S1.

S.OJS S, 130 P.'IHJ 5,72;

l,Ou^

fl.W 4,lu7

S,577 2!i,:;si

1,1 itj 1,0.11

3 Mi 818

1,082 2

7.n 12,318 21,5-!0 •1,012

607 f 10

3ja 4,(iM

70 2,3'(S s.'ir.s 1,«2.1

207 3H TW

1,310

D:sTutcx.

•lulpiKori Dacca I'.indpur Uikarganj .^laimansmh Tippeiah Chittagong Noakhali Stiali.ibad Ilhagalpur Aluldnh Siiiital ParRnn'is ... Tribulary Slates, Onssa" Loliardagil siiiKl'hura [ M'inbhum Tributary States ... '.

1872

16 4,06 i

957 2,915

20,106 3,970

1 3

807 71

2,062 8,8i0 1,0S2

ItS'J l. 'tS? •,0.i1 1,042

1881.

7,HS5 2,273

877 lt,78'3 •4,755

U 21

7,ni6 ii"7 8S5 489

' .SI 1,CV5

MAL. 51 MALE.

Mdl, a sub-caste of Bhuiyas in Singbhum; a title of Kaibart-tas ; a section of the Maghaya sub-caste of Koiris and a section of Turis; a sub-sept of the Saren sept of Santals.

Mai or Mar, a sub-caste of Mauliks in Chota Nagpur.

Mcild, a title of Kapalis and Kawalis iu Eastern Bengal.

Malabhumia, a sub-caste Muchis in Bengal.

of

Maladharkhani, a mel or hypergamous sub-group of Earhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Mahh; a synonym for Kathak in Singbhum.

Malar, a sept of Mimdas and Ghasis iu Chota Nagpur.

Malauriar, a;j!(r or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Maldhia, a section of the Sat-muliu Maghayd sub-caste of Xiindus in Behar.

(itlalc, Md/, Samaria Male, Savar Paharia, Saiirid, Sdmil Pahdn'd, Asal Fahdria, Satigi, a Dravidian tribe of the

ngin. Eajmahiil hills, closely akin to the Oraons, and probably an isolated branch of the large and widely diffused Savar tribe. Tho actual name of the tribe appears to be W^l, which is combined with the pronouns en, em, and e in order to form the present of the verb substantive. Thus Malen is the first person singular, I am a Mai; Male, the third person singular; Malem, the first person plural; and Mcller (used in the spelling Malair by Lieu­tenant Shaw as the name of the tiibe), the third person plural. The selection of i lale as tiie tribal name for the purpose of this work is therefore both arbitrary aud incorrect, and can only be justified by the necessity of having some distinctive designation to mark off these Mais from the Mdl Bahariils of the southern hills and from the Mai caste of Bengal. In respect of physical characteristics the Male represent the extreme type of the Dravidian race as we find ft in Bengal. The nasal index measured on 100 men of the tribe j-ields au average of 94 5, which closely approaches the proportions ascer­tained for the Negro. The average stature is low, the complexion dark, and the figure short and sturdy.

Owing to the rocky and forest-bound character of their country, and their incessant internal struggles, the Mal^s

tritS:'^ history of tbo ^^ ^^^ Rajmahal hills maintaii>ed a virtual independence during the period of Musalman

ascendancy in Bengal. I t appears that, although they never com-Pietoly recognized tlie imperial authority, they had a rude indigenous system of govemmont, whicli was worked in moderate accord with tuezawtnddrs of tho low country bordering on tho iiills. The liQls xuciuaed ui each fappd or subordinate fiscal division ^^ere subject to

from tho zamuuhh-s allotments of land iu tho i^hnns on Jdgn- or serMce tomires, m consideration of wliich they made themselves responsible tor the prevention and detection of crime anion.r tho hill people. Besidea this, the passes leading fi-om the h iu" ^^

d2

MULt. 52

the plain country were guarded by outposts of Males, whose duty it was to stop any bodies of men from making raids upon the plains, and to give warning of an impending inroad. For further security, the zaminddrs themselves maintained at the foot of the hills a chain of chauMs or police outposts, which were independent of the Mdle guardians of the passes within the Mils. . Once every year, at the Dasahara festival, the divisional headman sarddv) of each tappa came down to the plains with his subordinate manjMs, and there partook of a feast and received a turban at the zamindar's expense, at the same time formally renewing his engagements to keep the peace within his juiisdiction. For a long time this system kept crime within bounds, and promoted good feeling between the Mal^s and the people of the low country; but about the middle of last century a show of independence on the part of the hill people was treacherously resented by the zammddrs, who tooii the oppor­tunity of the annual public feast to murder several of the village headmen. On this the Males within the hills gave up the guardian­ship of the passes, and commenced a series of depredations, which were held in some check up to 1770 by the line of zamindari police posts without the bills. In that year, however, the famine which desolated the neighbouring districts pressed with peculiar severity upon the alluvial strip of country lying between the Rajmahal hills and the Ganges; the police outposts were abandoned, and the plams thus lay at the mercy of the Mal^s, who, owing to their aboriginal practice of living npon jungle foods, had escaped the extremity of distress. I t was therefore in the years following the famine of 1770 that the raids of the hillmen upon the low country became most frequent and most systematic. Plunder no doubt was their main object, and the desire to revenge the treacherous murder of their headmen; but many of their inroads were in the first instance instigated by the landholders, wlxo were in the habit of offering the Males a free passage through their own lands on condition that they ravaged those of the neighbouring zaminddrs. At any rate, the terror they occasioned was so widespread that the alluvial country was deserted by its cultivators; no-boat dare moor after dusk on the southern bank of the Ganges; and even the Government mail-runners, who in those dajs passed along the skirts of the hills bv way of Eajmahal and the Telia Garhi Pass, were frequently robbed and murdered at the foot of the hills. Up to 1778 the British GoTernment, like the Muhammadans before them, made varimia attempts to suppress the Males by military force In 1770 corps of light infantry, armed expressly for jungle flghtine wa^ raised and placed under command oE Captain Brooke Bi f th Males never gave the troops a chance in the open countrv while ui the tangled undergrowth of the hills firearms had T o rlflrided advantage over the strong bamboo bows and heavv nni.^^li alrnws °j the hillmen. Besides this, the absence of r Z r t h r d i f f i c u U y

^ C l e l ^ ^ ^ i l ' - ^ f ^^^f-P^^a^ent subjection of the Mal^s then^ i r ^ ' * ' ^ ^ ^ , * ' ' T ^ ' - ^^ 1778 Captain Brown,

'''^«liaandmg tbe corps of ligl^t infantry submitted to

53 llALt

Q-overnment a scheme for the pacification of the hillmen, the essential elements of which were the following:—Firs(, the sarrfdrs or divi­sional headmen of the Mdles were to he restored to their original position as chiefs of the tribe, receiving formal sanads of appoint­ment from Grovernment, and in their turn entering into engagements, renewable annually, to perform certain specified duties. Similar engagements were to be taken from the inanjhis or village head­men, binding them to obey the sarddn in all matters laid down in the sanuds. Second, those mrddrs whose tappas bordered upon the public road were to receive a fixed pecuniary allowance, nominally for the purpose of maintaining police to protect the mail-runners, but in fact as a bribe to deter them from committing robberies them­selves. Third, all transactions with the hill people were to be carried on through their sarddrs and manjhis, but intercourse with the inhabitants of the plains was to be encouraged by establishing markets on the outskirts of the hills. Fourth, the old ckauki bandi or chain of police outposts, which had been abandoned in 1770, was to be completely re-establisbed and maintained by Government until the service lands attached to them had been brought under cultivation. But the control of these outposts was to be taken from the saminddrs and made over to thdndddrs or police officers appointed by Government, who were again to be subordinate to sazdicals or divisional superintendents. This police force was further to be strengthened by conferring grants of lands below the hills on invalid sepoys, on the condition that they settled on their allotments and gave assistance in the event of a Male inroad. The total annual expense of the scheme was estimated at £100. Eaiiy in 1778 Captain Brown's scheme was approved by Grovernment; and both the chain of police posts below the hills and the system of allowances to the sarddrs on the public road were partially estab­lished before the end of the year. But in 1779 the hill country of li^jmahal was transferred from Captain Bi-own's jurisdiction, and it thus fell to Mr. Augustus Cleveland, who had been appointed Collector of Bh%alpur, to carry put the foregoing scheme. I n the following year (1780) Mr. Cleveland reported that forty-seven hill chiefs had of their own will submitted to Grovernment authority. With the view of retaining these men as loyal subjects he subse­quently proposed that a corps of hill archers, four hundred strong, should be enrolled from among the Miles and officered by eight sarddrs or divisional headmen, under the command of the Collector of Bhdgalpur. The officers were to be paid Rs. 5, and the common soldiers RB. 3, per mensem. Every village headman, he suggested, should be called upon to furnish recruits to the corps, and should receive for this service an allowance of Rs. 2 a month. The yearly expense of this arrangement, including the cost of the purple jacket and turbans which were to form the uniform of the corps estimated by Mr. Cleveland at £3,2U0. Warren Hastings, ^ h ' ^^^ then Governor-General, at first objected to the enrolment V^^^ nnrns of archers on the ground of this heavy expense, and snr, ?• ^^^ r S e m e ^vhich Mr. c |veland had proposed in th^ ^ a S ^ ^ ^ ^ granting pensions of Es. 10 a month to all <iivisioual ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^

UKLt. 54

(sarddrs) and of Rs. 5 a month to. their ndibs or deputies; mdnjliis or village headmen were to receive no allowance at all. But towards the end of 1780 the enrolment of a corps of archers was sanctioned, mainly in consequence of the Oommander-in-Ohief having expressed his approval of the scheme when passing through Ehagalpur on his way to the Upper Provinces. At the same time the fiscal divisions of Ambar and Sultanabad were transferred to Mr. Cleveland's jurisdiction, it having been found that the chiefs of the southern portion of the Eajmahal hills would not give in their allegiance as long as they were exposed to continual inroads from the inhabitants of those parpands. Shortly afterwards, at the special request of the sarddrs aud.'mdnj'h'/s of Belpattii, that fiscal division was also placed under Mr. Cleveland, pensions being granted to the chiefs and recruits furnished for the hill archers.

Not long after the enrolment of the hill archers an outbreak that occurred in the hills was quelled by them so effectively that a proposal by Mr. Cleveland that the corps should be drilled and armed li ie regular sepoys was readily sanctioned, and Lieutenant Shaw was appointed adjutant; the name of the corps being at the same time ' changed to " The Bhagalpur HiO. Rangers," by which name they were knpwn untU disbanded on the reorganization of the Native army after the Mutiny in 1857.

From ihe first enrolment of the hill archers petty ofEences com­mitted by the members of the corps were punished by a rude court-maitial of the officers. In 17^2, however, one of the archers murdered a MAl woman, and in order to punish this, the first serious crime that had occurred, Mr. Cleveland proposed the forma­tion of a distinct tribunal, the jurisdiction of which should be limited to members of the coi-ps. This, which was at first styled court-martial, and afterwards hill assembly, was to consist of three or more officers of the corps, the power of appointing and dissolving the coui't resting with Mr. Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland was also to approve of all sentences passed by the court, except when capital punishment was awarded. In that case an assembly of five or more hill chiefs [sarddrs) was to be convened, and a final decision to be passed in accordance with the opinion of the maj ority. Mr. Cleveland further proposed that offences committed by the inhabitants of the hills generally, with the exception of those who were enrolled in the corps of archers, should be withdra-wn from the jurisdiction of the ordinary com'ts and placed under a tribunal of chiefs (sai-ddrs) presided over by himself. The entire scheme, both as regards the coiu-t-maxtial for the archers and the assembly of sarddrs for the hilhnen generally, was approved by Q-overnment in April 1782. Shoitly afterwards Mr. Cleveland reported that he had arranged i«i assemblies to be held twice a year, and gave the following acconutof the proceedings of the fii'st t r ia l :—"I have settled with the chiefs that they are regularly to assemble here twice a year for lie purpose of trying aU prisoners who may be brought before them;

and 1,8 particular ca&es occui- which may require immediate inq^^^y' Ji^ey ha^e agreed to attend whenever I find it necessary to sun"?o^ ttem. One\,sembly has been abeady beld, at S S 1 P " ^ " ^ " ^

55 MALfi.

chief (sarddr), 74 mdnjhis, and 120 common hill people were tried for plundering tbe pargana of Kharakpur of near- niae himdred head of cattle. The trial lasted three days, and was conducted with as much ceremony and formality as the nature and disposition of the people would admit of. I have the pleasure to observe, however, that the chiefs appeared to conduct themselves throughout the trial with the greatest attention and impartiality, and the result of their proceediugs, which I have confirmed, is as follows:—One principal chief, Bidji of Titorid, and one common hill man, Chandra of Pupat, to be hanged immediately; and the sentence was accordingly carried into execu­tion this morning, in the presence of the corps of Inll archers and all the principal Mil chiefs and mdnjhis. One manjM, Jarud of Tatakpara, to be hanged twenty days hence, unless the whole cattle plundered are delivered up in that time, in which case he is to be pardoned. Seven mdnjhis to be confined for their lives, unless the whole of the cattle plundered are delivered up in twenty days, in which case they are to be pardoned. Sisty-five mdnjhis and 120 common hill people acquitted."

The rules of Mr. Cleveland's Hill Assembly were subsequently incorporated in Eegulation I of 1796, which "provided that the Magistrate should conunit all important cases to be tried before an assembly of hill chiefs. He was to attend the trial as superintending officer, and confirm or modify the sentence, if not exceeding fourteen years' imprisonment. Higher sentenecs were referred to the Nizamat Adalat, as the Supreme Criminal Court was then called. This unusual procedure was followed till 1827, when the law was repealed by Regulation I of that yeai'; the mountaineers were then declared amenable to the ordinary courts, but some of the hill mdnjhis were to sit with the Magistrate as assessors when he tried oases in which the hill men were concerned; and the mdnjhis were also autho­rized to adjudicate summarily in disputes about land, succession, and claims to money when the value of the claim did not exceed one hundred rupees." I t appears that the Hill Assembly, when no longer kept together by the personal influence of Mr. Cleveland, became almost unmanageable. Considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the chiefs to meet at aU; and when present they would not attend to the proceedings of the court, while their sentences were hasty and capricious in the extreme. It was found, too, that even when the assembhes could be induced to do their work, the power they had been entrusted with was too uncontrolled, and that the total per­sonal exemption of the Ma.l& from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts was a measure of doubtful policy, the more so as it seems to have been held that under Regulation I of 1796 the Magistrate had no power to try and punish Miles for petty offences on his own motion. Regulation I of 1827 has now been repealed by Act X X l l f of 1871. . ^ " ^

In 1783, the year before his death, Mr. Cleveland proposed fh the M^les should be given extensive grants of waste laud i t f foot of the hills on the foUowing terms:—(1) Every sardar t T" have arent-freeiafiji,-or service tenure, m perpetuity,of fromTno ^ 300 UgUs of land. (2) Any Male of lower rank thau a ^^^^

MKLt. 56

might be allowed any quantity of land rent-free for ten years, it being liable to subsequent assessment at equitable rates. (3) In order to secure that the foregoing provisions should really come into oper­ation, Mr Cleveland suggested that all sarddrs and mdnjMs holdin-pensions from Government should forfeit their pensions unless they Be t ed m the plains witHn twelve months. I t was hoped that by thus_ forcing the hiU men to settle in the plains they would become civilized by intercourse with the lowlanders; while as they learned more productive methods of agriculture it would be poss ble to make them contribute to the cost of administration. But the schemrwas never earned out, and the immigration of Santils from the w ^ s t h S BOW almost completely cut off the Males from close intlrcourS S ? « tf r - - y^ '^^yf^e. ^t'^ay be doubted whether they would

Tradifa-onB. jell-known monograph on the tribe' publish-

who were deputed by the i l ^ ' t o I f ^ i '\\°^^ "^ ' ' ^ ' ° ^''^^^'^ made, and it was armneed t h a t l l l^^ *^' ^'''^^- ^ ^^^^^ ^^^ as he liked and go K L k J ^ ^ ^ One took one thinf and one anofheT n t l ? ^""^'^^'^^ to dwell in. caste of their deslndants From V e t r o S '^T\'^^\^''^^^^ t^« sprang the Hindus; another who took iTji T in *°?^' P^'^'^ ^''^ pork, became the father of the M S m e d a n , • ^ . ' '^."* ""^^'^'l and from him are the Earatis nnn?lf. • ' /t.''°*''°^ «^°se pork, 'Kawdir ' (Kadar), and S " m ' O n l y the l ^ . ^ ' T ' ^ ^ ^ '^ '^^ Bick, got all sorts of food in an old di h H « S^?-^"'^' ^ ^ ° ^^ an outcast, and from him the M a l H r e d e l . ? ]'^*^ m. ^^° '^i'ls as clearly only an echo of the simikr story to d f ^ V u ^\'^ "^^^^ i« Hos. Both versions agree in their general tenor ^ ? ' ^^^'^^^ ^^d details ; both must have arisen after the tr ibeTn i?"^ ' V ^ ' ^ ^ °f t^^eir in contact with Hindus, and both, it may be a S ' f l ° ^.°-.'°'^" ^^^ to^p^vide a place for the English in th^r L t t t ' o m ^ ^ m ^ S ^

AU my correspondents agree in assuring me that tb« Xi-, . Internal structure. ^ ^ ^ ^0 endogamous Or e x o ^ r a ^ o n r ^^^^^

sions, and that ll,o;,.\^ exogamous subdivi-solely by the standard formula for r e c k o S ; " ' ' ' n . r ^^^ulated which is c h a i n e d in the introduction If tfi/™'"'^'*^^ ^'S^ees upon which I am not yet fully convinced tl^«fo^''•°"^^^' ^ Poi^t The Males have been less exposed t T S i n d a infl ' ' ' remarkable, kinsmen, the Oraons, yet the latter retain a lon^ r !°°^^ ^^^ t^^i"" totems, while the former have no exoeamnna „ °* exogamous this respect are more modem than most H i n l , ^ ."^^ "t aU, and in I ' w ? to me to call for further inquiry S '^^^^' The question ^"ether the M^l^ ever observed the ohar«nfl ^^°^^d wish to know «* exogamy ; and if so, how it came to fall ; T**,'° Dravidian system • _____/ ^ ' ^ disuse.

' Asialic Besearches, vol. IV

57 MALl^.

Free courtship is allowed, and girls are married, when of full age, to men of their own choice. Sexual inter-

amago. course before marriage is not recognized in theory, but if an unmarried girl becomes pregnant a sacrifice is offered to atone for the indiscretion, and arrangements are made to get lier man-ied without delay.

Marriage brokers (sithn) are employed to conduct the prelim­inary negotiations, and to settle the difficult question of the bride-price. When this has been satisfactorily arranged, an auspicious day is fixed, when the bridegroom goes with his friends to the bride's house, taking with him a goat to furnish fortb the wedding feast, and the bride-price, a portion of which is sometimes paid before­hand througli the silhii. The parties are made to sit opposite each other, the bridegroom facing east and the bride west, while her girl i'riends comb and oil her hair. Then the father takes the bride by the hand and gives her to the bridegroom, pointing out tbat she is not halt, maimed or blind, and enjoining him to treat her kindly. This done, the sii/iit takes the bridegroom's right hand, dips the little finger in sindur, and makes five dots with it on the girl's fore­head, afterwards using her finger to perform the same office for the bridegroom. Guns are fired to mark the completion of this essential rite, and the married couple then eat together out of the same dish in symbol of their union. The proceedings are concluded by a feast.

Divorce is permitted with the sanction of the leading men of V. the village. If the husband demands a divorce '™'°°' on the ground that his wife is barren, that

she has committed adultery, or that she is incurably lazy, ho is entitled to claim a refund of the bride-price which he paid for her in the first inbtanoe. He forfeits this right if the reasons which be gives are deemed to be frivolous and insufB.cient. If the wife claims a divorce on whatever grounds, her family must refund the bride-price. The ritual observed consists in tearing a sal leaf or breaking a small branch or a piece of string in token of separation, and pouring a vessel of water over the woman's head. Divorced women may marry again.

The religion of the Mdles is animism of the type common among Reiiirion Dravidian tribes. At the head of their system

stands the Sun called Dharmer Gosain, and represented by a roughly-hewn post set up in front of each house. He is worshipped with offerings of fowls, goats, sindur, and oil at the commencemeut of the harvest season, and at other times when any misfortune befalls the family. When people are gathered together for this purpose, the village headman, who acts as priest goes round the congregation with an egg in his hand, and recites tl ' names of certain spirits. He then throws away the egg, apparR fi 68 a propitiatory offering, and enjoins the spirits to bold aln I " abstain from troubling the sacrifice. Among the minn ^'^^ mentioned by Lieutenant Shaw, Raksi now appears as tb + ^^^^ deity of strong drink, who is worshipped by the headrrla n ® ^ village before beginning to distil liquor from the fresh Z ? "^ ^^«

o "MiftMa crop

UKLt. 58

According to Lieutenant Shaw, Eaksi is sought out when a man-eating tiger infests a village or a bad epidemic breaks out, and is worshipped in the form of a black stone set up under a tree and hedged round with Euphorlia plants. Chal or Chalnad is a god presiding over a group of ten villages, and represented by a black stone set up under a mulimum tree. Goats and pigs are the animals usually offered to him, and the sacrifice of a cow, said by Lieutenant Shaw to be performed every three years, seems to have fallen into disuse. Pau-Gosain, the god of highways, live'< under a bel, kurarc, or mitlnnuin tree. l i e is invoked by persons going on a journey. "When Lieutenant Shaw wrote the offering was a cock. Now' it is a -fthite goat, and the sacrifice is said to be a very expensive one, by reason of the large amount of rice-beer—ten or twelve maunds— that must be •offered to the god and drunk by his assembled votaries. The tutelary deity of the village, spoken of by Lieutenant Shaw under the name of Dwara Gosain, is now called Bira-Dw^ri, because lie is supposed to live in a temple with twelve doors. The whole village worship him in the month of Magh. Colonel Dalton suggests that this god may perhaps be the same as the Oraon Dara. Kul Gosain, ' the Geres of the mountaineers,' and Autga, the god of hunting, appoir not to be known at the present day. Gumo Gosain, or the god of • the pillar, is represented in every household by the wooden post f/unw) which supports the main rafters of the roof. On this the blood of a slain goat is sprinkled to propitiate the spirits of ancestors. The fact that this god is common to the Mal6s and Mai Paharias (see page 70 below), and is worshipped by both in the same way, seems to tell strongly in favour of the common origin of the two tribes. As in Lieutenant Shaw's time, Ghamda Gosain still ranks high among the tiibe, and demands otlerings on a larger scale than any other god. A sacrifice consisting of twelve pigs and twelve goats, with rico, oil and sindur ia proportion, must put a severe strain on the resources of a Male villager. In order to commemorate the event, three bamboos decorated with streamers of bark painted black and red at the ends, the natural colour being left in the centre, are sot •up to represent Chamda Gosain in front of the house of ^Q person who organizes the sacrifice. One bamboo has ninety stream­ers, another sixty, and the third twenty, and the poles are also decorated with peacock's feathers. The night is spent in dancinp' and in the morning sacrifices are offered in the house and in f] fields for a blessing on the family and on the crops. The bambo ^ aro then taken inside and suspended from the roof of the hou^ T show that the owner has performed the full sacrifice.

The question whether the Mdles have any functionaries who can properly be called pnests is in some respects au ohso Acoo.diug to Buchanan, they formerly had priests caUed N ^ f l ^ n r ]f^y^, a designation common enough in Western B e S but ^^''^^ it is said, have now disappeared, and their f u S o n s havo devolvea upon the Demanos, who were originallv °,iv Aiv ners selected i . / the i r supposed mtimaoy with the S f i? ? capacity for gomgi^t, trancVs. and so forth, these po^wer 'being S '^ome mysterious way bound up mth their long hSb^^?hich may on no

59 M.VL6.

account be cut. More recent observers, however, assure me that the Demano merely directs religious and ceremonial observances, but does not himself officiate as priest. The duties of priest aro discharged by the village headman or the chief member of the household, or-by any influential person chosen for the occasion, and the Demano is merely a spiritual director endowed with certain supernatural powers, such as that of discerning the causes of all diseases, so that when a man falls iU he can say which of the gods has afflicted him and what sort of sacrifice should be offered to bring about his recovery. On the occasions when Ohamda Gosain and G-umu Gosain are worshipped, the Demano is decorated. ^yith a necklace of cowrie bhells. No Demano may eat turmeric. Besides the Demano there is another rlass of divines called Cherin, whose duty is to select persons to officiate as priests. This ho does by balancing a bow on his two hands and watching its oscillations', while he calls out one by one the names of the persons present, the idea being that the god thus signifies from whose hands ho wishes to receive the offering. The flesh of the animals offered in sacrifice is eaten by the male worshippers : women may not partake of it.

As a rule the Mile bury their dead, the corpse being laid on Dis =ai of the dead ^ layer of bJwlak leaves mth the head pointing

towards the north. The bodies of those who died of snake-bite or have come to a violent end are exposed in the jungle. According to Colonel Dalton, the bodies of Demanos are dealt with in this fashion, on the ground that if they are buried in the village, their ghosts walk and cause annoyance to the living. On the fifth day after death a feast is given, to which all members of the family are invited. Six months or a year later a special cere­mony is held for the purpose of appeasing the spirit of the dead man. The chief part is played by the Demano, who represents the deceased, and is dressed so as to personate him as closely as jjossible. In this character he demands clothes, oruameuts, food and wliatever the dead man was fond of in this life, the belief being that if they are given to the Demano, the spirit will in some unexplained fashion have the use of them in the world of the dead. When the Demdno has got all that he asked for, he goes into a fit and remains insensible for someminutes, during which time he is sup­posed to be in communication with the spirit of the deceased. On his revival the company partake of a feast.

The jjroperty left by the dead man cannot be divided until this second feast has taken place. According to Colonel Dalton, the eldest son takes half, and the remainder is equally divided among the agnates. Some say, however, that division among the sons takes place on a sort of diminishing scale according to order of birth, the eldest getting the largest share, the second less, and so on.

The Male villages are usually built on the summits of Iho n r , of hiUs occupied by the tribe. Their h o „ = / ^ ®

Modo of uvmg. eonstructed of wattled bamboo, the i n ? f ' ^ ^ nf which are filled with grass, no mud being used. T^]^Q„ ' ^I'sticea hvbm-aingtte underwood and sowing seed in the ashea^ ^ ^ ' ^^ usually kuowu as Jhmi or pardo, but by them culled kale ^^^^^^

MALli. 60 MALT.

or'jungle-hurning.' Although addicted to this destructive method of agriculture, the Male are great lovers of trees, which they plant freely on their village sites. In matters of diet they acknowledge none of the restrictions recognized by Hindus. They eat beef, pork, domestic fowls, all kinds of fish, and the leavings of people of other castes, and indulge freely in strong drink.

Male Kumchhd, a thar or sept of Xhamhus in Darjiling.

Malha, a title of Kaiharttas in Orissa.

Malhan, a section of the Baranwar sub-caste of Baniyas in Behar.

Malhati^, a vml or section of Kesaxwani Baniyas in Behar.

(iJlHli) Muhikdr, a caste employed in making garlands and providing flowers for the service of Hindu

Tradition of ongm. temples. In Bengal the caste is included among the Nava-Sakha, and its members profess to trace their descent from the garland maker attached to the household of Eaja Kansa of MathurA, who, when met by Krishna, was asked for a chaplet of flowers and at once gave it. On being told to fasten it with a string, he, for want of any other, took off his sacred thread and tied it, ou which Krishna most ungenerously rebuked him for his simplicity in parting with his paitd, and announced that for the future his caste would be ranked among the Sudras. Like others of the liigher castes, the MaMkars claim to have originally come from Mathuri'i in the reign of Jahangir. They are few in number, but in every Hindu village there is at least one representative, who provides daily offerings of flowers for the temples and marriage tiaras for the village maidens.

They are divided into two main groups—the Phulkata-Mali, who make ornaments, toys, etc., from the pith

Internal structure. ^j ^j^^ ^^j^^ ^^^ ^j^^ Dokane-MaU, who keep shops. The former group is again broken up into Rdrhi, Bdrendra, and Athgharia, the last of whom are supposed to be desueuded from eight families outcasted for some cause now forgotten. Their sections, which are shown in Appendix I, belong to the ordinary Brahmanical series, and are supplemented by the regular rul(« regarding prohibited degrees. lu Dacca, according to Dr. Wise th caste has only one gofm, Alamyan, and two dais, or unions, betwee^ which there is no real difference. If, liowever, a member of ' union marries into a family belonging to the other, the niarr'^^^ feast will be more expensive than if ho took a bride from his ^^ ^^^^ he must invite the members of both dais to the eeremonv ^'°i'ff bridal dresses must be made of red silk brought from Afn^u "i i^ -as cotton cloth is prohibited. The bride is always e a l i i B r ""^if/ "?• palanquin, while the bridegroom rides ou a pony c^v\ "'Q^!'I n

Sl35

61 MALI.

The Malakara are all Vaishnavas by creed, and it is said that none of them worship Siva. A GosAin is their

Religion. guiu, while their Brahman is common to them and to the Nava-Sakha.

" A Mali will not cultivate with his own hands, and never works as a kitchen-gaxdener, the gardeners of Bengal

Occupation. ^ ^ j ^ ^ generally Chandals and TJriyas. Many Malis, however, hold laud°as occupancy raiyats, which they cultivate by means of hired labourers. In Dacca members of the caste keep shops for piece-goods, practise medicine, act as vaccinators, and take service in temples. Their principal occupations, however, are making wreaths, fabricating artilical chaplets and toys from the pith of the sola Hedymrum hgenarhim). The garlands placed every morning before idols are collected and arranged by Malikars, who nevertheless refuse to paint figures, this being the professiouof the Ganak and Eangrez. All the tinsel decorations put on the images and their caniages are designed by Malakars. At marriages their services are indispensable, for they prepare the crowns [Mukuta) worn by the bridal pair. Morover, no bride would consider the attire complete unless her bail- was adorned with a Khopajiira, or ornament for the hair-knot, made with leaves of the jack-tree mixed with wliite Bela blossoms, while at one side of it they place a rose or some other briglit flower. Por the bouquet delivered on the bridal morning the Malakar expects to be paid a rupee.

" The profession of a Malakar requires a considerable knowledge of flowers, for some are forbidden to be used in religious services and others can only be exhibited before the shrines of the deities to whom they belong. Thus the 'Dhatiira' is sacred to Siva; the 'ApariljitA' C/itoria ternatea) to Kali; the 'Bakas' Jusiicia aunufoaa) to Saraswati; and the ' Asokta' Joiie^iafif.oea) to Sashthi. The ' J ava ' Hibiscus rosa Sinensis) or China rose is of most unlucky omen, and can only be presented to Killi, but not to other idols, nor employed at weddings.

" Strong scented blossoms are selected for religious offerings, and these in Bengal are the ' Champa' ^ Michelia Champaca), 'Chamoli ' Ja.sminiim grandiflonm), ' J u l ' Jasminum auricu­la/urn), 'Be l a ' Jasiuinum Zamhac), ' Gandhraj ' Gardenia Jlorida), and the ' llarsingar' Nydanthes arbor tristis).

" Chaplets offered to idols must be tied with the dried fibres of the plantain stem, not with string, and if picked and arranged by one not a Malakar they are unclean. From sixteen to twenty-four annas a month oi-e received by the garland-maker for providing a daily supply of flowers to a temple; but, as with everything else the price of bouquets has' greatly risen, and a rupee only procures about half the quantity it formerly did.

"One of the chief occupations of this caste is inoculating f small-pox and treating individuals attacked by any eruptive ^ v '^^ iliudus believe that SitaU, tho goddess of small-pox, is one of casters who are designated Motiya, Matariya, Pakauriya, Mnc-^^^^ fr ,rai-iva, Khudwa, and I'ansa. The fii-st four are v«!^ ^'''^^^' sX2. ^« ^-''''''-''''' '^ ^ "'•' - . anrss %

MALI. g2

k ' : S h n s ' t f e ? n o l - ^ ? ' ' ^ "V f' 'Jf'- ^^^ "^^^ - - - l e s ; and moreo/tliese Jddpr i " ' " ?^''I ^^^^^'"^ < «P« i^^ff^s of one or festival r r e l f a n T t L ' M . ' r i ? ' ^''^ ?^ ^^''''' ^^^''^ ^^^h) a popularly caUed 'ATainl'.J^^f ' ' . fP '™*'^ '^ ' ^ - t il - " ^ iorformed and t h S l^lnrf""' *V fr ;* ^ ^^^^^ t' ^ ««^"«« i Offerings f clotted ^.H!-.no f"" ^uhammadans repair with propiti ating tK idTd" ; ' i r e r ' ^^ ' "' p °* ° ^ ^^'^°p° « the m S T t e S V 5 : t S ^ ^ - -a Malakar is summoned. His firstloJ^^Vn fn , ^ f "''•'.^'f^^f^ T ' ^ 0 moat, fish, and all food req^ rfan- o j o s n i S ^.' "^troduc .on He then ties a lock of hair a COW^HP i ,!li ^ ^ ^ ° ' i*' preparation, an article of gold on theTi ' l if wwJ / S ' ^ P ' ' ' ° °^ turmeric, and is then l a i d C T h e - l l ; '^ ' t P^^"^" ^ h " - ^ person

iiiv ojjjjicmiLeu ana ueurium ensup nr if o „^,^.^l • , •, sleeps Hltle, the Mili uerforim t h . i r - . f?''"" " ^ """"I' "•"'

ei,,;i' t spTr t^ s i,°s£' tv^" o« a l « i riec, a cooouuut, su^ar, p a n l n L " a °.ll ' °"!^ ' " " ' ^ ' ' a few „ » leares. Having m „ m b W « v e r f ' ' T ' " T " ' " " ' '

IS lliou anomted with oil, and cooling fruits - L n AV. n ^° '^^ (dewU) have peeled oif, another ceremo.riS ^all^I < r ^ ? ' ''''^' gone thi-ough. All the offerings on t Z w < ' ' «odam,' 13 cloth and fastened round tl.e . S t of t t v^Z T I ? "^^^^ ' ^ ' are the perquisite o the Mill, who also receh es a t " °^'^^"S«

" I h e s e minute, and to our ideas ahsnrrl ^ practised b j the Hindus and Muhammadans S X ^ J ' T / ^ T " ^ Farazi, whenever small-pox or other eruptive fovAr°.: ^^'§^oted families. Government vaccinators earn a consiflornW '^^^ their hy executing the Sitala worship, and when a f.l,;n • ^ " 3'-early ^ portion of the seiTice is performed." ^ ^^ vaccinated

Thei la l is of 13ehar hold a respoctahio position . . , , , of that province. Thev . i^'^^^g the castes ^oc.,3t„iu3. j^ , i , i ,^ ,^^^ Jvahars 3 T \ ^^^^ i^nmhivs,

B!;;, ^ ° " I their hands. The main differen'f.« I, r'^^'^mans will take an off ^"li« is that they practice widow T o • '"^ '"^ *'^°"^ "' ^ '"^

^^trenieview of the necessity of gettinn-fi •"'^''*°^' ''^"^ 'to " ^ take o caeu' daughters married as

MALI. 63 MALLAH.

infants. With this exception, the account given above of the Bengal Malis applies for the most part to the Behar members of the caste.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of IKilis in 1872 and 1881:—

D i S I B I C T .

n i r d w a n . . . . . . J S i m k u m I t i r b h u m 3Mi( l iu i i iur l l i i K h l i l l o w n i h - l - P u r g a n . ' i s I S n d i v i K h u l u a .1 <i»bOI"H J l u i s h e d a b i u l . , D i i m i i m r H t i j s h . i h j o I t a i i g p u r H o / f r a J ' j i b d a . . . . . D a t j i h n f ? . l i i I l>tgori . . . . K u c h - B e h a r . . . I h j t u i • i n d p u r l i a k n r g n n ] . S i a i i i m t i s m h , . l i j i l ) t . r . i h

1S72 .

3,-!7«) S I 5 Mi l

0,16li

!!,l]6a a . i s f i 2.US0

i.sn 2,1 S3

\'i •2.1 l,S 1,075 2,1 8il

I I J

cuu » 7',7 1 317 2 21>V

1 1 , 8 to b,lH

I S S l .

2 , 171 1 ,631 2 *> >5

7liiti r 2 , i«! ) I l,10.'t

2 ,3»0 C S l " ) 2,17<i 1,123

3 , 0 1 1 3 , 1 3 !

8;io 1,450

61)1 1,731

2 J 0 Dfill

2 , 1 5 0 2 708 2 , i l O 1,40) 2 3 - 9 2 ,180

D I S I E I C T .

C h i t t a f o n g . . . X o i k h a l i P a t n a G A a . . b b a h a b i i d T i . - i , n t p I o ? u f f e r p « r

S n r a n C h a n i p a r a n M o n g l i > t B h a g a l n u r . . . P i l r n i a h ^ t a l d a l i S a n U l I ' s r g a n i s C u i t a c k P u n - B i l a s o r o T n b u t iry S t a t e s . . . U ^ z a ^ l b • l g h . . L o b a r d a g ^ t b l n g b h n i i i . . M n n b l m i n I r i b u t a r y S l a t e s

1872

65B So9

4,'.!)3 S,577 3 ,432

16.222

4 ( » 1 4,U74

r.,s(,o 2 , W 7

.')b7 l , 2 b 2 3 31G

l l , t i b 8 1,305

10,Mib J , ' . „ 0 D,205

3 1 4,111-.

224

1 8 S 1 .

106 37

r . , c i i 7 , h 7 l 6 ,100

(• 11.."its t 1 0 , 0 0 4

G,»00 7,.3()7 ri,'.4'> 4 , 4 . 3

2 5 SS3

3 ,728 1,103

11 ,1«8 1,0!»0 0 .777 2 , 7 0 5 2 , - 5 0 2 309 3 , 0 0 1

452

Mali, a synonj^m for Bhuin-mali; a sept of the Malwe Eaj-puts in Chota Nagpur.

Malik, a title of Rajputs, Telis and Donis in Behar.

Malik, a title of Kaudhs in Oiissa.

Malikaulia, a section of Bab-haiis in Behar.

Malitwar, a section of Bab-bans in Behar.

Maljada, a bastard or son of a ballot.

Mdikarnauti, a iiiiil or section of the Satmulis. or Kishnaut sub-caste of Godlas in Behiu-.

Malkas, a section of Oswals. Malkhdjaiiia, from malkhajanu,

a jiayor of land ve\ ouuo, a zemin-dai-.

Malkia, a mul or section of the Sdtmulia or Kishnaut sub-caste ol Grodlis in Behar.

Malla, -wicstler, a title of Khaudaits in Oiissa and of the Aguii or Ugiakshatri caste in "W estern Bengal.

Mallabhumia, a sub-caste of Bauiis in Western Bengal.

MallSh, Ar., a sailor, a boatman, a generic term current ia 13ehar and Bengal as the popular designation of -saiious boatinw 'ind fi^lii'ig Ciistes. Mr. f^heiriug notices this geneial use of tlio x.'nid but adds that thcio is a special tiibo of Mallahs di\idfirl ; T he oUo^ung sub-castes:-(l) Mallah, (2) Muria or M u r i l r ; !o*

Pandubi, (4) Bathawa or Badhariya, (5) Chain], Cha in or o'u^ -

MALLAH. 64 MALO.

He also mentions the tradition that all these " are descended from a common father, by name Nilchad, but that ttie Kewats alone were bom in lawful wedlock." Nikhdd is merely a variant for Nishad or Nishada, a Dravidian tribe mentioned in the Rig-Veda, from which several of the fishing castes may possibly derive their origin. I t is clear, however, that while the ten groups enumerated by Mr. Sherring may at one time have belonged to a single tribe, that tribe must have broken up some time before the Arabic word Mallah can have been current in India long enough to stand any chance of being adopted as a tribal name. If, then, Mr. Sherring's statemeut is correct, a point on which there is room for some difference of opinion, it merely shows that a certain number of distinct fishing castes believe themselves once to have formed part of a larger group, to which they give the modem name Mallah, a foreign word denoting an occu­pation, not a caste, and thro^ving no light on the affinities of the people who use it.

The castes to which the term Mallih is ordinarily applied in Bengal are the following:—Gourhi, Chain, Bind, Kewat, Tiyar, Muridri, Surahiya, Malo, and Jaliya Kaibartta.

Mallametid, Mdtia, or Matidl, a Bub-caste of Bagdis in Bengal, by profession fishermen and earth-workers.

Mallik, a sub-caste of Mais in Birbhum; an honorary title of Brahmans, Doms, Eayasths, Kai-barttas, and Subarhabaniks in Bengal; a section of the Biyahut and Kharidaha Kalwars and of Malis and Sonars in Behar.

Malo, a sub-section of the Kautsasa section of Utkal Brah­mans.

Malo, a title of the class of Rajputs to which the Raja of Bishonpur claims to belong. I t is a plausible conjecture that this name, unheard of among ad­mitted Rajputs, may have arisen from the connexion of the Raja •\vith tho Mill tribe, who are numerous in Bankura.

(iVlalo, Malo-Patni, a Dravidian boating and fishing caste supposed by Buchanan to have come from

n orna s rue ure. 'Westem India. This opinion, however ig unsupported by any evidence beyond a resemblance of names, which may be either wholly accidental or may have arisen from the tribal name Malo being confounded with the Arabic word Mallah' ' a boatman.' Dr. Wise considers the three fisher castes—fh' Kaibai-tta, Malo, and Tiyar—to be "undoubtedly representativp, f the pre-historic dwellers in tho Gangetio delta. As a rule th short and squat, of a dark-brown colour, often vermne,,nnrT?! ^\'^ Although Hindus by creed they are fond of showy \ J Z f earrings, and of long hair, which is either allowed to ham/!! ' • glossy curls on their shoulders or fastened in a knot at fj,„ i? i T..,^'^ Ilea,! .Pu„ „i„-.Vors and moustachfis n.ro tl,;,. „..., ""' ^^^ back of tho often thick and prominent, the nose short with thn ^!^^- ..'l^lie whiskers and^nioustaches are tUa aud scrubby, tho lips

nostrils expanded. 1 and melancholy

^"^^^'^TnlT^'TTZm Tn^thl 'wC 1 I ' " ««°tio"8 of the Malos, «a lu Appendix I , seem on the whole to boar out the view that

' " ^ P^siognomy indicates good temper, sensuaHtv ' 1 ^ T ' l l t ^ - ^ t h e r t h a n W L n c e and shrewdness." T l . « 3 ' " " ' ^ . ' ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ' ^ S f ] ^ The

65 MILO.

they are the remnant of a distinct aboriginal tribe, and not merely an occupational group. These seotious are peculiar to the Malos, and do not appear to have been borrowed from any other caste. I am unable to analyse them completely, but I venture the conjecture that some of them are toteraistic, the totems being the rivers, which the Walos regularly worship. There are no sub-castes. The Eaj-bansi, which some authorities are disposed to regard as a sub-caste of the Malp, are clearly Kochh, Ti-ho have taien to fishing, while the Kdtaror Bepari Malo, who deal iu, but do not catch, fish, and derive their name irom their practice of cutting up their wares and selling them by weight, are Muhammadaus in no way connected with the Male caste.

The rule of exogamy is in full force among the Malo. A man may not marry a woman of his own section or

Marriage. ^^ ^ ^ section to which his mother belongs. For the rest, marriage is regulated by counting degrees down to seven generations in the descending line. Femules are married as infants. A price is paid for the bride, which oi late years has risen to the large sum of Rs. 100. The ceremony is of the orthodox type, the giving of the bride and the bridegroom's formal acceptance of the gift being the essential and binding portion of the rite.- Polygamy is permitted in theory, and a man may marry two sisters, provided that he takes the eldest first. In practice, however, I understand it is unusual to maiTy a second wife imlcbs the first proves barren. Widows may not marry again, nor is divorce permitted. A woman taken iu adultery is abandoned by her husband and turned out of the caste.

Malos as a rule belong to the Vaishnava sect. Their purohit is a Patit Brahman, and their guru a G-osain.

0 igion. Special reverence is paid by them to the great rivers on which they Kve, and these, together with their boats and nets, have their regular seasons of worship. Khala-Kvmiari is worshipped in Sravan (July-August), offerings are made to Buxa-Buri in fulfilment of vows, and lights are latmched on the water in honour of Khwaja Khizr.

The dead are usually burned on the bank of a river, and the Disposal of tho dead ^^"^^^ ^^^^ . * ° ^® ^^*®^- ^>'^ddh is performed

on the thirty-first day after death, then once amonth for a year, and again on the first anniversary of tho death, usually, however, the monthly smddhs are lumped together towards • hp fi r " ^ ' ° ^®"^- ^^ ^^^ ^"^^ °^ persons who die a violent death, the thirt ' fir*^^' '^ performed on the fourth day, and a final srdddh on

Although the "social rank of the Males is low, and Brahmans Social status. wUl not take water from their hands, the INapit

n..n,1 +firni« „-,^ ^"^^ ^lioba usually work for them, ihey are If ^ I t e s T i i r ^ ^ ''^^ '^'^y^^ ^^^ ^' •1 ' rtta, and members of the three caste w 11 oven smoke together. The Malo, however, says Dr. AVise 8 the lowest in rank, whUe the Kaibartta and Tiyar still dispute about tneir relative positions. The Kaibartta, again, is more thoroughly Hiuduised than either of the other two. A ridiculous

'<M

MALO. 66 MIL PAHAEIA.

distinction is always cited in proof of the inferior rank of the Malo. The Kaibartta and Tiyar in netting always pass the netting needle from above downwards, working from left to r ight ; while the Malo passes it from below upwat-ds, forming his meshes from right to left. I t is remarkable that the same difference is adduced by the Behar fisherman as a proof of the degraded rank of the Banpar." The only titles met with among Malos are Manjhi, Patra, and Bepdri, while among other fisher castes no honorary distinctions exist. Under the °Muhamadan Government they served as boatmen, chaprasis, mace-bearers (asabarddr); and stafi-bearers (sonte-bardar) in processions. They were also employed in conveying treasure from Dacca to Murshedabad, while a tradition still survives that early in this century two of their nuinber became great favourites with Nawab Nasrat Jang, who presented them with golden spinning wheels for their wives' use. The Males therefore extol the golden age that has passed, and inveigh against the equality and degen eracy of the presen t.

Malos generally use a shorter Jalka boat than the Tiyars, but when they fish with the long XJthar net they

ccupation. fasten two boats stem to stem. Like the Eaibartta, the Malo is often a cultivator, and ia Bhowal he has been obliged by changes in the course and depth of the rivers to relinquish bis caste trade. Males manufacture twine, but not rope, and traffic in grain, while those who have saved a little money keep grocer's shops or become fishmongers. M^lo women sell fish in the baziirs, but in some places this practice is considered derogatory to their gentiKty and is prohibited.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Malos in 1872 and 1881:—

DISTMCT.

Bardwau B.inkura Birbhum Mitlnapur HnghU Howrnh .., 2-l-Parganil9 ...

Khulna Jessore Ilmsliedabad... Umajpur ... Jinjsbuhye ... Kangpw Bogi-fl Pabna Darjilin? Jalpigori Kuch jBeliar ... Dacca F&ridpiir

1872 18S1.

9,,'i.').3 C,»33

CStt 39,801

1,820

2,353 IS.Sl l

12,600 7,.'MSB 1,2113 1,7CS 1,892 3,G»7

16,4!I0 20

251

"6,437 0,033

22,07!) 3,158

40,238 2,097

857 1,643

10,072 3,390

10,765 7,598 1,222 1,481, 1,148 1,120 0,5'W 1.17.7

3 133

DiSTMCT.

Bakarg.™] Maimaasinh Tippprah CliitlaKong Noakhah , Patna Gya Sliahabad ...

Saran Cbaroparan Slongliyr Bbagiirpur '. Pnraiah MaWah ; Santal Parganaa ... HnzaribagU Lohaulaga ', Singbhiim ', Jlaubhum ...

1872.

1,751 13,099 2,600

52S 1)0

l!',fio9 11,.')18 15,207

] 159,730

21,8(9 45,fi!!l 13,090 11.751 21,010 l,0;c 1.885 1,466 7,250

1,671

1831.

989 11,454

1,720 31

19,09!) U,90f>

, 14,9W ( 89,273 I 115,217

22,.',99 £5,233 21,850 18,801 27,670

4,281 2,889 3,475

10,924 44.-!

1,918

tiou

Mdlo-Pdtni, a sjnon^Tn for Malo.

P ^ \ ' Z)' ^.'"'^^^^^'gana,,, 4 o untilreoently T>, . ., '^-f ^ ^ ^ f ^g and Mm or karao cultiva-J-heir tribal affinities are extremely obscure and have formed

C7 M.Oi PAHAEIA.

the subject of some discussion. Buchanan* gives the following account of them:—" The northern tribe^ consider their southern neighbours as brethren, and call them Maler,-' the name which they give themselves; but the southern tribe, shocked at the impurity of the others, deny this consanguinity, and most usually call the northern tribe Chet, while they assume to themselvesthe denomination of Mai or Mar, which, however, is probably a word of the same derivation with Maler. The Mdl, however, divide themselves into three tribes— Kumdrpali, Dangrpali, and Marpali; and they often call the northern mountaineers Sumarpali, thus, as it were, acknowledging a common origin, which I have little doubt is the fact. The manners and language of the three southern Pali ai'e the same, and they speak a very impure dialect of the Bengalese. The three Pali were originally local distinctions, but now all live intermixed, have exactly the same customs and language, and intermarry but there are five real hereditary distinctions, which descend in the male line. The highest rank consists of the Kajas or chiefs and their

• descendants, all of whom are called Singhas or lions. Nest to these are certain families that were at one time rich, and are called Grrihi. They assisted their poorer brethren with loans, and seem to have been a kind of bankers, like the Vaisyas of the Hindus. They never seem to have held any office in the State. The third in rank were the Manj his or chiefs of villages, and none but persons of this rank were ever permitted to hold this office. The persons of the Ahriti or f o u j ^ class were by birth hunters, and at first in all probability were the lower and labouring class, like the Sudras of the Hindus; for what is now considered as the lowest and fifth class is composed of the Naiyas, who are allowed to have originally been the priests, but have been totally discarded from that office." Against Dr. Buchanan's description of the Mai Pahariis as a Hinduised branch of the Malor, we have to set Colonel Dalton's opiniops"* that the former tribe " appear to be altogether unconnected with the Edjmahill hillmen," and Jlr. Ball's statement,* based upon personal observation, that the Mai Paharias " are altogether distinct in appearance, customs, and language from the Asal Paharias, •who occupy the Edjmahdl hills proper." I t should be observed, however, that even in Dr. Buchanan's time (1807-1814) a wide breach had been established between the two groups, and the southern Paharias at least stTcnuously disowned all kinship with the noi-thern. Sixty years later the breach must have been greatly mdened by the Mai Paharias continually adopting Ilindti customs, while the Males seem to have stubbornly resisted all impulses in that direction, and this movement may possibly account for the impression formed by Ij;r. Ball. On the question of language the evidence seems to be

1 Eastern India, ii, 12G, I ^ Miliar is tlie plural of lUu ' The Males of Kajmalml. | ' lilhnology of Bengal, p. 274

^ Jungle Life in India, p. 229.

MAL PAHAEIA'- 68

found in it analogues sufacient to justify its association with the Dra^'idian dialects, but it is equaUy unlike Kol."' A comparison of the list with Mr. Droese's Malto Vocabulary shows, however, that some slight correspondence may be traced between the lauguage of the Male and the mongrel dialect spoken by the Mai Pahdrids. Thus, c/iaptci, 'the foot'; Malto, sole of the foot: eJcore, ' to go _; Malto, eke: tindiana, ' to eat,' seems to be a causal formed m Hindi fashion from the Malto Uncle, ' to feed:' maler, ' a man,' is the nominative plural of male: bdiker, ' a woman,' and hatlcer, ' a daughter,' are curiously like the Malto batg, ' virginal,' and Idtgni, ' a maiden': chiclm is the Malto word for fire: dmma is not far removed from anni, the Malto for water: chiore,'to give,' appears to be from the same root as chii/e: malaga, 'no,' merely adds a syllable to the Malto mala : and kiiJcrd, ' a cock,' may perhaps be connected with the Malto liikre, 'to cry out.' These slight resem­blances of course fall far short of establishing the identity of the two tribes, but they tend on the whole to show that Buchanan's opinion is not so clearly untenable as has been sometimes supposed to be the case. Mr. Droese, with whom I discussed the subject some years ago, considered the two tribes to be of common origiu. This view is borne out by the fact that they understand one another's language readily, though they assert that the dialects are different; as well as by the identity of their ancestral worship, a point in which aU races display a remarkably conservative spirit. As for the anta­gonism which at present prevails between the north and south Paharias, it is only another instance of what has been commonly observed in Chota Nagpui-, that two sections of the same tribe which m any way happen to become separated are often far more

St^tribes.' """ '""^^"' ^ ' * ^^'^ ^^^ ^ ^ °"& ^ ^ y The M41 Paharias are divided into two sub-tribes-Mai Paharid

Internal structure. F'oper and Kumar or Komar-Bhag. The Eumarnali i« n.o ^ latter group, which corresponds with Buchanan's b Appendix I ¥ C ^'^'^^^'\^ '\ ^^' ^ «- The septs are giveu ' ^ h e t K r ; d i L c t i o ^ I ' ' ^ r ' ^\^' i^^'^tical with Buchanan's f a S t t h ' e y t o : t ? a m o u f a t e ' ' ' ? ' V % ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ° ° - ^ " ^ ^ f.' any attention at t ^ W wW^'^^^" '^*/^ ^^°g^^y'^^t'^^''*'^ apmrently titular, and tSow no l i l" . ' ' ' ° ^ ' - i ^^^"' "'^^^^ T t i e . T L M a l P ^ h ^ r i a f Z o S s e r v f a t Z e ^ ^ ^ . ^ ' ^ t T / * ' ^ ' which differs little from that d e W t t? l «H ^ * ? ? ^ ' ' t referred, to in ti.e article on B a f f ^ ^ a t y \ : i \ t t S 2 o n s T o j S mentioning, except a vague legend that their first m w i!m-a from a c o l The same stoi/is told o f ^ ' a t t f t l l T a c K family m Maubhum, whose estate borders on HIP .r. T ^hpre ^1. i k Pabiriis are now f„„ni It i, p „ s « ' V S ' J j T e i 'iyliete Mi may m early times have estenderl f, .fi f' l^l\aBU ' 'l that the head of that house may have been t t ^ f f - ' ^^U^^^^^ ^;;;^l--^peaks as ha.ing formerly appointed\'om amSg t h l M^l

' ^^'"'^"^"Sy of Bengal, ^,2U.

69 JIAL PAHAEIA.

Paharids a dewan, a faujdar to command in predatory expeditions, aud the manjhis or headmen of villages. This, however, is the purest conjecture. The tendency to borrow a_ myth eiu-rent in a landholding family may be frequently observed in Chota Nagpur.

Marriage is either infant or adult. Girls are i-arely married before the age of ten or eleven, and usually

Marriage. ^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^^ ^^^ f ^y ^^^^ p_ j ^ ^^^

latter ease sexual intercourse before marriage is tacitly recognized, it being understood that if an unmarried girl becomes pregnant her lover will come forward and mai-ry her. A professional match­maker (sit/iti) is usually employed by the bride groom's people to search for a suitable %vife. When his selection has been made, a visit of inspection is paid by the parents; and if the proposed bride is approved of, the price to be paid for her is settled by personal discussion. Custom ordains that the amount shall be an odd number of rupees, not less than five, nor more than tweuty-five. I t must be paid either in a lump sum or by instalments before the marriage can be celebrated. On the occasion of the final payment the bridegi-oom's parents send by the silhu some bdjrd beer and a sari for the bride, which is made over to her maternal iincle to be kept till the day of the wedding. Particular inquiries were made regarding the reason for thus selecting the maternal uncle as a sort of trustee for the bride's pomJhun, but no definite result was arrived at; and this usage, undoubtedly one of great antiquity, seems only to be explicable as a survival of female kinship, a system of which no other traces are met with in the tribe. Shortly after the bride-price has been paid, the sithu is again sent to the bride's house, this time bearing an arrow wonnd round with yellow thread tied in as many knots as there axe days to the date proposed for the wedding. The bride's people make their preparations accordingly, undoing a knot as each day passes. On the day before the bridegroom arrives and is lodged near the bride's house. Early next morning a big feast is given, after which the bridegroom takes his seat facing the east in a sort of arbour of sal branches built for the purpose. Here he _ is joined by the bride, dressed, like him, i6 a new cotton wrapper dyed yellow with turmeric, who sits besides him while the maidens of his_ company comb out her hair. . A sal leaf cup is offered to the bridegroom, containing red lead, which he daubs on tho bride's forehead and the parting of her hair. The girls who combed the bride s hair take her hand, dip a finger into the red lead, and make seven spots on the bridegroom's forehead. This final and binding rite IS received with a shout of applause, which is the signal for tlie Dom musicians m attendance to beat the drums for a dance. Towards evening the wedded pair go off to the bridegroom's house, where the whole party spend the night in dancing and di-inking. Poly, gamy is permitted, and, in theory at least, there are no restrictions on the number of wives a man may have. Praotically, however, the poverty of the tribe and their hand-to-mouth fashion of Hvinrr set strict limits to the exercise of this right, and few Paharias indulge themselves with the luxury of a second wife, except when the first happens to be barren. A man may many two sisters, but

M.a PAHAEIX. 70

he must follow the order of age, and if already married to a younger sister, may not take an elder sister to wife.

A. widow may marry again. She is expected to marry her late husband's younger brother if there is one; hut if he does not wish to marry her, any member of the caste not barred by the prohibited degrees may have her on paying a bride-price of Rs. _~' to her late husband's relatives. No ceremony is required, nor is sindiir used. The husband merely gives the woman a new cloth and takes her to his house. A wife may ho divorced with the sanction 6f the caste council or panehayat for adultery or persistent and inciu'able ill-temper. As a rule arrangements of this sort are effected by mutual consent, the parties tearing a sal leaf in two before the panehayat as a symbol of separation. The seducer of a married woman is required to repay to her husband the sum which she cost him as a virgin. Divorced wives may marry again in the same manner as widows, and for the same bride-price, which is paid to tlioir own, not to their late husband's relations.

At the head of the Paharia religion stands the sun, to whom . reverential obeisance is made morning and

" ^°'^' evening. On occasional Sundays a special worship is performed by the head of the family, who must prepare himself for the rite by eating no salt on the previous Priday and fasting all Saturday, with the exception of a light meal of molasses and milk, taken at sunset after bathing. Before sunrise on Sunday morning a new eaithen vessel, a new basket, some rice, oil, areca nuts, and vermilion, and a brass Ma of water with a mango branch stuck in it, are laid out on a clean space of ground in front of the house. The worshipper shows these offerings to the rising sun and prays, addressing the luminary as ' Gosain,' that he and his family may be saved froni any spocitio danger or trouble that is supposed to threaten them. The rice is then given to a goat, which is decapi­tated while eating by a single blow from behind. The body of the animal is then cooked and served up at a feast, of which tho neigh­bours partake; tho head alone, which is deemed ^^rasdd, or sacred, being carefully reserved for the members of tho family. Next in honour to the sun are Dharti Mai, mother earth; her servant, or as some say sister, GaramI •, and Singhbahini, who bears rule over tigers, snakes, scorpions, und all manner of noxious beasts. To the earth goats, pigs, fowls, etc., are offered in Ashar and Magh, and buffaloes or goats are sacrificed about the time of the Hindu Durga r u i a to the goddess Singhbahini, who is represented for sacrificial purposes by a lump of clay daubed with vermilion and oil and set up in front of the worshipper's house. Tho village Manjhi officiates as priest. The Miigh worship of Dharti Mdi is clearly the festival described by Colonel Dalton under tho name Bhinndeb, the earth god

"Tlie Mais plant m their dancing place two branches of the '"I tree, and for threo days they dance round these branches, after which they are removed and thrown into a river, which reminds one of

Ethnology of Bengal, p. 274.

71 MAL P^m.tEIA

the Karma festivals as solemnised by the Oraons and Kols in Chota Nagpiu-, On this occasion the men and women dance vis-d-vis to each other, the musicians keeping between. The men dance holding each otlier above theii- elbows, the left hand of one holding the right elbow of the other, wliose right hand again holds the left elbow of the arm that has seized him. The fore-arms touching are held stiffly out aud swayed up and down. They_ move sideways, advance, and retire, sometimes bending low, sometimes erect. The women hold each other by the pahns, interlacing the fingers, left palm upon right palm, and left and right fore-arms touching. They move like the men."

Two curious points may be added. The man at whose mstance or for whose benefit the ceremony is performed must sleep the night before on a bed of straw; and the daueing party, who are greatly excited with drink, shout continually hici; bur (pudendum muUebre), a mode of invocation behevod to be especially acceptable to the goddess. In this somewhat iudelieato cry we may perhaps see a barbarous and undraped reforouce to the vis genctrix naturce so prominent in many early forms of belief-

Besides these greater elemental deities, the Miil Paharias recog­nize and propitiate a number of vaguelj'-defined animistic powers, chief among whom is Chordanu, a malevolent spirit, needing to be appeased at certain intervals with sacrifices and the first fruits of whatever crop is on the ground. To the same class belongs Maha-dana, for whom eggs are the appropriate ofi'ering. Among the standard Hindu deities Kali and Lakhi Mai (Lakshmi) are honoured with sparing and infrequent worship, tho offeriugs in this case beiag the perquisite of the vUlage headmen.

Ancestor worship is in full force, and the sacra privata of a Mai Pahdria household correspond precisely with those observed by the Mall! tribe. Tho Lares are known to both by tbo familiar term Gumo Gosain or Dcota, the gods of tho wooden pillar Qumo),^ wliich supports the main rafters of the house. Around this centre are grouped a number of balls of hai-Jened clay, representing the ancestors of the family, to whom the first fruits of the earth are offered, aud the blood of goats or fowls poured forth at the foot of the pillar that the souls may not hunger in the world of the dead. As every household is guarded by its ancestral gods, so every village has a tutelary deity of its ov/n^-Larem agn cu&fodein, who lives in a sal tree within the village. This tree is daubed with red load and worshipped on certain occasions, and may on no aoooimt be cut down. The tribe have no priests, and the head of the household or viUago, as the case may bo, performs all rehgious and ceremonial observances. Brahmans, however, are to some extent held in honour, and presents are given to them on festal occasions.

The dead are usually bui-ncd, and a piece of bone is saved from nisDosal of the dead. ^"^^ Aames to be thrown into a river or a deep ^''P° tank tlio waters of which do not run di-y. rjj^^

relatives are deemed impure, and may not eat salt tor five days. At

Tlio word is Jlalto.

th. J, . ^^ MALFX. ine end of that f I V t ' ^ ? ' * ' ' ^ ' n l S ^ '^T^' «°^ partake of a feast provided amor,; 11^ ^^^'' f i e s e L r r ^ expenses are a first charge on the ^T!ant '°°^' daughte 3 lltf- ^""^ *^« balance is equally divided position ^-1'^°^^ to g^ve a^^^*f?^ ° ° stare. Very poor persons,

the dol J^° « time it was fh« , • ^ ' ^ ' ' ^ ^Iio attend the funeral, proper \ 1 ^''^^' ^^^dmT^'''^^ ''^'''^ to bury the dead on W b f l V ^ " ^ ° ^ « o f t h e w e a l h L P^\f«™ed by the Mil Pah^ri^s Sitatfon nft^^^' t° adopt T T"^^'"' '^ *^« ^^^^^ ^^^^ "•'"

Th« / -t'"' Hindu neShb. " ' ^ ' ' ^ ^o™ of t ^ s ceremony m ^^« tribe believe y / l , J T "

Occupation. original oo'Jnn^!; "'^ ^"^ting to be their modes of r ,M of the tXP''f?,*?°'' and a large proportion described bv"^''''?"^- Thefr S f '*^" adhere to these p r H ^ ^ ' nor hoed 7^"° '^anan : - - ' ' on?b lTn°* / ' ' * ' ' ' cultivation'^is thus «°^ the .p i?^ ?^^ °"t the tre;« '?\*' '« ^«'-' ^ neither ploughed «eed of tb??- > the first v ' "" ^ ^ them, and the women «tick poinffi'''"'^' of inillS J i f ^ ? ' y ^'^atter over the surface ^^?Si^J^'^ ^'^^^LnttV^'-'' ^°d ^-nffni, and with « second y e i ? r ' ' r " > « ^ n d a t , ? ' ^ f^all holes, in which they the landTwoif^, P W only maL, ' f^^'^ ^"''^ o^ A./«/. In *« °f jungle K f °^t. and, t he Sirf^-^^""''^-" ^ 7 the third year required to kL^^?Pr^tions. luJ""^? ^"«t seek a fresh Vf'^ although theL P.'' ^^^^"^ ^ a f e 3 ' ^''^^t of hill land is therefore "orthe^ n S b r ^ ' ' « '^ a g r S t f °'°?- B'lohanan observed that tteir clothinS°'"«' ^^'^ ^SBI,T ""? ^^^ater than that of thetf provided 3 "^^^^ ' anty, andTb? "^""'^ "^°^« notched and dirty «°anty f o o d l i ^"^'^^nts. In ^^^"^ ^omen less cleanly and worse Siktim LeniPP^I,^"th jupgie ;f^ reasons they supplement thejr y«arsman??'^ ' ' / tey have f ' i n .^'^^^ ^ - ^ of which, like the ^here t E fc aten to p louSl1f - ' ' "P^° '^ l knowledge. Of I f ' ' ^ e u t settled ' ^ J ^ d «s oecuml ^* 'T ' " °^ ' t the foot of the hil^' ^^«te system ? r * - StaudhTaT.T "^T^' ^^ the rents fixed in the °^dina^y s S s , ^f^ tardTyVe , ^ 7 do ^°^y outside the regular ^^et is certafnil °' ' t phrafe P " '^^^^^ any social status in the deemed la^l f""''"-^' for Porf T \^^ ^'''^'' P"'^t of view their '^^kes. li2ari/°°^5 but t h f f ' / ° f ' ' , "°d all Jdnds of fish are ^ n d u to r e S ' . ' ^ d fieldi '* ?l *^^"- abstaining from beef, ' ^ ' ^ e e n e r s t W ^ t ^ ' a ^ s a * L r ^ ' ^ P^oba% lead the average

^^^ tile Oraons. "* ^^ade purer than the MaUs and their

fc^« of V ! ' ' ' ! proper, o „,.!. . . . , , r Malu5, ;!r«^„rf; a sub-caste of

Bauns m Western Bengal whose ongmal residence is said to have ChU ^ ^ ^ > i ^ ; a section of a ^ l % ° r / ^ u s in Ohota Nagpur; a sub.tnbe of Kandhs in Orissa.

miua or Manud, a sub-caste oi Jiarangds in Western Bengal-

* ^ ' ^ u L / ' i l ' ' \ P / ° P « r , a sub-

MALWAE. 73 MAIMER.

Malwar, a class of braziers who make khdru and other brass ornaments for the hand.

Malwe or Mdr-Rdjput, a Bub-tribe of Rajputs lu Chota Nagpur.

Man, a title of Bangaja Edyasths in Bengal.

Mana, a title of Dakshin-Rdihi and Bangaja Kdyasths.

Mananmanaras , a mulov sec­tion of the Chhamnlia Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Manar, a title of Cheros in Chota Nagpur.

Manari^, a section of Bdb-hans in Behar.

WlanchhihS, Manchil , a kul or section of Babhans in Behar.

Manddi, a synonym for Kochh.

Mandal, (i) a headman of a vUlage ; (ii) a title of Kaibarttas, Chandals, Grodlas, Sunris, Sad-gops, Talis, Tantis, and Bauris; of Napits, Kurmis, Kapalis, Pods, Santals, and Subarnabaniks; (iii) a sub-caste of Dhanuks in Pur-niah. Some Brahmans in Bankura boar the title; of Edjputs in Behar; a title of Khambus in DarjUing.

Mandap, a section of Kum-hdrs in Bingbhum.

Mandar, probably a variant of Mandal, a title of cultivating Ph touks ; a panqat or section of Dosadhs and Kadai-s; a title of the Chdb and Kurin sub-castes of Gonrhis; a title of the Maghay^ sub-caste of Koiris and Telis • a section of the Chaubhdn sub.c^st€ of Nuniyas and of Sunris and Khatwes m Behar; a section

of the Kanaujia snb-caste of Goaliis and a title of Kishnaut Goalas in Behar; a title of Gangotds and Kewats and of Kharwiirs in Lohaidaga.

Mandarana, a sub-caste of Sutradhais m Western Bengal.

Mandarane, a sub-caste of Sunns in "Western Beugul.

Mandari , a title of Hindu Joliihas in Behar.

Mandarona, a group of the Aswini Tdntis and of Dwddas Telis in Bengal; a sub-caste of Doms in Bengal.

Mdndhaya, a section of God-Ids in the North-Western Prov­inces and Behar.

Mdndiar, a sept of Rajputs in Behar.

Mandilwar, a section of the Amashta sub-caste of Edyasths in Behar.

Manding, man, medicine, a practiser of medicine, a sub-sept of the Nah-pd sept of Sherpa Bhotias.

Mandra, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Mandri , a section of the Kddar caste in Behar,

Mandriar, a section of Maliilis in Chota Nagpur.

Mandus, a title of Ganjwar Sunris in Behar.

Manem-ma, a sept of the Phdgu sub-tribe of Yakhas in Darjiling.

Maner, a section of tho Q'^ muH4 Maghaya sub « ! ^•''^' Kandus in Behar. '^'^^ «f

ilANEEAE. 74 MAJS^GAE.

tVIanerar, a section of Awa-dhia Hajjdms iu Behar.

Wlaneria, a section of the Biyahut and Khaiidaha Kalwars in Behar.

Mangaf, a section of the Biyd-

Mangal, a section of tho Agar-•wdla cable in Behar.

Mangar, crocodile, a totem-istic section of Kurmis in

, ,. , Chota Nagpur and Orissa; a hut and Khariddha Kalwars"' in I section of Binjhias in Ohota Behar. ' Nagpur.

(iHangiXt, Magar, Tlmmi, one of the fighting tribes of Nepal, belonging, •with the Gurun^ Khas and Sanu-

origin and internal ^.^r, to the Mukhya ijroup, and highly esteemed for their military qualities. The Mangars

believe their original hahitat to have been the valley of Dhoreh on the banks of the Karnali-Bheri river iu Western Nepal : thence they spread to Likhukhola, and thus gradually made their way into -Eastern Nepal. The internal structure of the tribe, so far as I have been able to ascertain it, is shown in tabular form m Appendix I . The subject, however, is an extremely obscure one, and I am not yet in a position to throw much lip:ht upon it. There arc four sub-tribes—Atharah Panth, Burathoki, Gharti, and Sakhali . The Ghavti are probably descended from emancipated slaves (see article Ghart i) ; the origin of ihe rest is uncertain. The exogamoua septs are very numerous, and the list giveu in Appendix I contains many names of the territorial type common in India along with others which seem to be nicknames of the founders of septs, such as are found among the Tibetans and Limbus. Judged by their physical churacteristies, the Mangars must be classed as Mono-oloid their naso-malar index being slightly lower than that of the Tibetans' while their complexion, eyelids, stature and the general cut of their features stamp them as a cross in which the Monfoliau element on the whole predominates. The septs are oxogamous the rule being that a man may not marry a woman of his own sept' There seem to be no rules excluding more tlian one sept in marriawe" Prohibited degrees are reckoned by the standard formula for three generations in the descending line.

Girls are married after they attain maturity, and sexual license Mai-riago. f ° ;'? "i^i^'iage is tolemted on the under­

standing that if a giri becomes preenant the father of her child, shall at once be called upon to m C t J her. The marriage ceremony is of the Hindu type, sinduy^l:, or the smearing of vermihon on the bride's forehead beino- T/l binding portion. Brahmans usually officiate, but this is not e RAnfinl Aman may maiTy two or tliroe wives, the only limit in praotico be n^ his ability to maintain thorn. A widow may not niarrv afTain bf the standard ritual biiah) appointed for the wedding of a snTnstei-t.;t a ^au may take her to 1-e with him, and she X u A t e d as M^ tbev r A ' ' '^^'^"'^ ^y ^ • ' 'rffY^'^ "re considered legitimate; t i l Z ^' ^"^"g^^^ ^'t" ot belong! to a special "category iii e the olfsprmg of Brahman widows m Nepal), and they share

7y MANGAE,

in their father's property on equal terms with the children of a wife married in the regular fonn. Moreover, if any one runs away with a widow, he has to pay damages to tlie man she is living with just as if she were bis regular wife. In Nepal husbands are entitled to wreak summarj vengeance on the seducers of their M-ives. An adulterer taken in the act is killed offhand, and the faithless wife has her nose cut off. In such cases the question of divorce clearly does not arise. But in British territory, and I believe frequently in Nopal itself, disagreements of this sort are settled without resort to bloodshed. The wife goes ofE with her paramour, and the husband claims from the latter as damages the amount of the bride-price which he paid for the woman in the first instance. The panchayat enforces his claim, and justice is hold to have been satisfied.

The religion of the Mangars may best be described as lax Hinduism tempered by survivals of an earlier

Eohgion. animistic cult. Satya Narain is one of their favourite deities. Sansari and Aitabareli are also worshipped with offerings of goats, fowls and pigeons. Upadhya Brahmins assist at the cult of Satya Narain and of the recognized Hindu gods; but Sansari and Aitabareh are worshipped by the heads of households Avithout the assistance of priests. Brahmans are not held to bo degraded by serviug as priests in Mangar families.

The funeral ceremonies of the Mangars, which are the same as those of the Gurung and Sunuwars, are curious

Disposal of the dead. (md interesting. Immediately after death the corppo is tied with three pieces of rope to a stout pole and carried to tlie grave. There it is stripped, dressed in new clothes, and laid on its back in the grave with the head pointing to the north. The forehead is smeared with sandal wood paste. One of the maternal relatives of the deceased, usually the maternal uncle, is then chosen to act as Ipriest for the occasion, and to conduct the ritual appointed for the propitiation of the dead. First of all he puts in the mouth of the corpse some silver coins and some coral, which is greatly prized by the Himalayan races. Then he lights a wick soaked in clarified butter, touches the lips with fire, scatters some parched rice about the mouth, and lastly covers the face with a| cloth called pujmri.^ Two bits of wood, about three feet long, are set up on either side of the grave. In the one are cut nine steps or notches forming a ladder for the spirit of the dead to ascend to heaven ; on the other every one present at the funeral cuts a notch to show that he has been ther^ As the maternal uncle steps out of the grave, he bids a solemn farewell to the dead and calls upon him to ascend to heaven by the ladder that stands ready for him. When the earth has been filled in, the stick notched liV the funeral party is taken away to a distance aud broken iu two "feces, lest by its means the dead man should do the Burvivora P'^ischief. 'i;he pole -« .^ to carry the coi^se is also broken up. ^ J J n, . ,pades and ropes are left m tbe grave. * When the mourners return hoine, one of their party gQp, , ,

, S a barricade of thorn bushes across the road 1- '"^^ and makes ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ deceased. ()u7i,'^l^^v«-y between the gi- v'u tiio top of

MANGAE. 76 MANIMANAEAS.

the thorns he puts a big stone on which, he takes his stand, holding a pot of burning incense in his left hand and some woollen thread in his right One by one the mourners step on the stone and pass through the smoke of the incense to the other side of the thorny barrier. As they pass, each takes a piece of thread from the man who holds the incense and ties it round his neck The object of this curious ceremony is to prevent the spirit of the dead from coming home with the mourners and establishing itself in its old haunts. ConceiYed of as a miniature man, it is believed to be unable to make its way on foot through the thorns, while the smell of the incense, to which all spirits are highly sensitive, prevents it from surmounting this obstacle on the shoulders of one of the mourners.

Agriculture, trade and soldiering are the chief occupations of the Mangars, but no means of earning a

stotS"^^*""" "'" ^°^ livelihood comes amiss to them, provided that it does not involve doing things which are

recognized as the proper business of the lower castes. They abstain from beef, but eat pork and domestic fowls, and indulge freely in strong drink. Before marriage a Mangar will eat any sort of food withaGurungorKhas, but after he has been mairied, he can only take chupatties from these castes, and may not take rice or dal. Mangars smoke in the same hookah with Giirungs, Khas and Brahmans.

tVlangaraj, a title of Khand^its in Orissa.

IVI^n-Gauranga, a sub-caste of Sutradhars in Murshedabad.

Mang-beh-pa, a mi or sept of Dejong Lhori Bhotias, the mem­bers of which are of a low mixed origin.

Manglagpa, a sept of the P^n-thar sub-tribe of Limbus in Dar-jiling, whose ancestor was ridden by a god and danced.

Mangmu, a sept of the Tan-gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in JJarjiling-

Mangoyak, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Mangrati, a section of Kamis in Darjiling.

'^angrauni, a section of Bab-hans in Behar.

Mangthong, a sept of the Ihdgu Bub-tribe of Yakhas in DarjUiDg.

Mang-tshang-wa, a mi or sept of the Buiclihung sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Mangyong, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Manliuna, shopkeepers who deal in miscellaneous goods, chiefly fancy articles.

Mani, a sub-caste of Sunris in Maldah.

Manihari, a functional group of Jugis in IJeugal.

Manikchakdudhpura, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goulds in Behar.

Manikmahanta, Minikmania, a title of Kurmis.

Maniksharia, a Babhans in Behar.

section of

•^animanSras, a section of Jiladliesid llahvais iu Behar.

MANJAR. n MK&.

of Manjar, cat, a totomistic sec- ] in Eastern Bengal; a section of

Eadars; a title of Malos in Eastern Bengal; of Parhaiyas and Khandaits in Chota Nagpur ; a section of Doms and Dosddhs in Behar; a title of Cheros and Mahilis; a title and a sept of Mai Paharias; a title of Tdntis m Behar.

tion of Eauti^s and a sept Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Manjari, a section of Kdmars in Singbhum and the Santdl Pargunas.

Manjhal-Turiya a ^uh-caste of Lohurs in Chota Nagpur.

Manjhan, the title of the headman of the Tier and Dom castes in Behar who has xmder liim a messenger hearing the title of Chhnriddr. The Maghaya liai-his and the Ai'aij'.l Telis of North Bhagalinu" also have headmen bearing this title. In the case of (he latter the jm-is-diction of each vunijlian is said to extend to 22 villages.

M^njhi, (i) the steereman of a boat, a ferryman : hence, a boat­man generally, (ii) A village headman among tlie Santiils, and a title by which Santals frequently describe themselves in answer to iuquii-ies as to then-caste, (iii) A title used by the Kaibai'tta, Kahur, Kumliar, Teor, Patni, Kochh, Bagdi, Mala, Jelia, Goala, the Mais ot the Hajmalial liills, the Khetauris in the Santal Purgauis; a section of Sunris in Behar; a title and a sept of Bauris and Kharwars; Asuras, and Korwas Nagpur; a sept of in Chota Nagpur; a Binjhid, Rautia, Oraon, Turi; a title of Kapalis and Kawdlis

^ilC, Malted Itajpuf, a small cultivating caste of Chota Najrpur, who say that they came from Malwa and were formerly K.shatijyas, bul dropped the eacred thread and took to the plough. Colonel Dalton thought them ' more Aryan than anything else, with ji dash of aboriginal blood.' But if this view be coirect, it 'seems difficult to account for their abandoning the charaeteristio BaiDut seijt iiaiUKS and adopting the totems peculiar to Bravidian tnV,P=i 'TlieV lia ^ Brahmang for priests, worship the host of Hindu e- d nnrl like tlio Ka"J' 's . especially adore those among their anoosf,. ' S i iecamo Sdtis, though in th'eir present degraded state t t v ' ? , ^ ! ! !

a title of in Cliota Nagesars title of

Manjhia, a sub-tribe of Khar­wars in Southern Lohardaga.

Manjhi-Khil, a sub-sept of the Hansda, Mamdi, and Tudu septs of Santals.

Manki, Manki Sahih, an honoiific title bestowed in Ban-kui-a on the eldest son of a weU-to-do eidtivator of the Bhuniij tribe. In Chota Nagpur Proper the term denotes the headman of a group or circle of villages. I t is also the designation of a sept and a sub-tribe of Mundas. See Mura.

Mann^, a title of Kaibarltas, Mayaras, and Napits in Bengal.

Manoharshahi, a group of the Fatehsing Telis in Murshedabad ; a sub-caste of Kotals in Weetern Bengal.

Manraya, a kiil or section of Babhans in Behai'.

Mantiani, a title of the Barui caste in Bengal.

Mantrawar, a section of Kur-mis in Chota Nagpui- and Orissa.

who became i *-liey allow

MAR. 78 MAEICHIGRAM,

of widow-marriage, and a man always takes to wife, by the custom called sagai, his elder brother's widow.'

Wlarare-Jagaul, a »??«/ of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brah-mans in Behar.

Mar, rice broth, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Marai, a wild animal, a totemistic sept of P^ns and Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Maraia, a section of the Kiidar caste in Behar.

Maraiya, a title of Barhis in Behar.

JVIaralbai, a sept of Rajputs in Behar.

Maramagri, Rajhansi, Barua or Bhuiyd Magh, a sub-tribe of ;Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Marandi, a sept of Sant^ls.

Marar , a Utlo of Kumhdis and Tantis in Behar -, a title of Surahiyas, Tiyars, Kewats, and of Gareris; a section of the Bansphor sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Marar, a title of Anidts in Behar, indicating some degree of social importance and deemed superior to cither Eaut or Kha-Avas; a title of yunris, Jolhas; a title of the headmen of the iJom caste in Behar who have imder them servants called Cliliaridars to execute or commuuicato their orders; a title of the Dhusia sub-caste of Chamars; a title of the llajraut sub-ca&te of Goalas; a section of the Jathot division of the Plrbatti-Kiuin sub-caste of Gonrhis; a title applied in Behar to Xurmis who by age or pei-sonal influence have attained a loading position in their villages; a title of Beldars and Nunias.

Marare-Sihaul, a mul of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brah-mans in Behar.

Marare-Ukki, a mnl of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brah-mans in Behar.

Marare-Barhampur, a mul of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Marare-Adauri, a nml of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brah­mans m Behar.

Marare-Misraul i, a mnl of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

IVIarare-Rajaur^, a mul of the Kdsyap section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

Marare-Jagatpur, a nnd of the Kasyap section of Maithil Bralimans in Behar.

Mardaha, apangat or section of Dosadhs in Behar.

Mardania, barbers, a sept of tho liautar sub-tribe of Thtirus in Behar.

Marh, a in Bengal.

title of Kaibarttas

Marhwdr, a sept of Rdjputs in Behar.

Maria, a sept of Chik Chota Nagpur.

Mariali in Bengal,

s m

Mariar, Behar.

a sub-caste of Tantis

^ sept of Rajputs in

Marich-bhuswal, a section of bonars m Behar.

Warichigrdm, a sa»W or local group of the Sdbarna goU-a of

MABICHIGEAM. 79 MAELI.

Paschdtya Baidik Brahmans in Bengal.

Marichw^r, a sub-tribe of Tharus in Behar.

Marik, a title of Tantis and a section of the Bansphor sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Marik, a title of Bitruis in Bengal; a section of the Kadar casto in Behar which intermar­ries with the Bank, Kdpari, Manihi, Mandar, and Naiyd sec­

tions, but not with the rest; a title of Hindu Jolhas, Doms, Dosddhs, GrouMs, Koiris,K;umhiirs, and other castes in Behai-.

Marj-bhuswal, Sonars in Behar.

a section of

Markam, a sept of G-ofiMs in Chota Nagpur.

Markanda, Markandark, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brah­mans in Behar.

^^MrhaililE, a small cultivating caste found in Bhagalpur and Qj.. .^ the Santal Parganas. They hare neither sub-

castes nor sections, and I can jBnd no evidence tending to affiHate them with any existing caste or tribe. Their own tradition is that tbey are descended from Miirkandeya Muni a sage who was outcasted for eating the leavings of certain Brahmans who had invited him to a feast.

The Markande practise infant-marriage and allow polygamy Marriaco Without Setting any definite limit on" the

^ • number of wives a man may have. AVidows may marry again, and enjoy full freedom of choice in selecting' a second husband. Divorce is not recognized. A faithless wife' is simply turned out of the caste.

I n matters of religious and ceremonial observances the Mar-' konde exhibit little divergence from the stand-

Kciigion. j^j.^ ^£ orthodox Hinduism. In the worship of the greater gods they employ Brahman purohifs, who are not held to be degraded by serving the caste in this capacity. The minor god Karmani is worshipped by the members of the household without the assistance of priests.

In point of social standing Markandes rank with Groalas, Kurmis, and Koiris. Brahmans will take water and

Socautatus. certain kinds of sweetmeats from their hands. Their solo occupation is agriculture. The bulk of the caste are occupancy raiyats, but some have risen to the position of tenure-holders.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of the Markande caste in 1872 and 1881:—

District, Shalmbad Darbhauga iMonglijr Bhagalpur J'uniiah Santal Parganas

1872.

6

i'.no 3,587 6,661 3,041

IVlarkandeya, agotra or section of the Baidya caste in Bengal.

18S1.

"' "ri 1,983 3,384, 3,598 4,390

Marli, Santals.

a sept of 2 OS and

MAEMA. 80 MAEYA.

MarmS, Myammd or Rodng Magh, a sub-tribe of Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Marmu, a sept of Mundas ia Chota Nagpur.

MSmdi, grass, a totemistio sept of iSantdls.

Marotsa, a sept of Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Marre, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Wlarri, a section of Mahilis in Manbhum, the members of -which do not allow their daughters to enter theii' houses after maniage.

Marrik, a section of Raj wars in "Western Bengal.

Marsy^ngdi, a thnr or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

IVlarturia, a section of Lohdrs in Behar.

MaruS, a mul or section of the Chhamulia Madhesiil sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

and &hadi = cultivator), a con­temptuous epithet applied to Hindustanis and especially to up-country boatmen who ply on the Bengal rivers on account of their stupidity in comparison with Bengalis.

Marudha, a mul or section of the Tinmulia Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Maruipora, a sub-caste of Brahmans in Bengal, who have degraded themselves by officiating as priests at the funerals of Sudras.

Marv/ahe, a section of the Bahannajati sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

Mdrwdri, literally a native of Malwa or Marwar. Most of the Marwiris found in Bengal are bankers and traders, usually Jains. The name gives no defin­ite indication of caste, but it will be found as a rule that a Mdrwari belongs to the Agarwal, Oswal, Maheswari, or Srimal castes. In fact all traders from Rajputaua and the neighbouring districts are commonly called Uarwaris.

MarUci, Marudbddi manid = Indian corn [Eleu-ine corovann)

iUaVU^, a small iron-working caste, possibly of Dravidian ^ descent, found in the SantAl Parganas. The

Mamagu. information at my disposal does not warrant any conjecture regarding their origin. So far as 1 can ascertain, they have neither sub-castes nor sections, and their marriages are regulated by a very rough enumeration of prohibited degrees, wbich admits of intermarriage between persons descended from the same parents after the expiry of three generations on the father's sido and one on the mother's. Daughters are married either as infants or as adults, and polygamy is allowed mthout any theoretical limitation on tlie number ot wives a man may take. Widows may marry again, but are under no restriction m their choice of a second husbaud. Divorce is permitted for adultery or for inability to agree, and divorced women may marry again.

^aryas profess to be Hindus, but they do not employ Brahmans Retocn *"' religious and ceremonial purposes, and the

^ ^ - - functions of the priest are discharged by selected members of the caste, i h e dead are burned and tlie ashes

M.\RYA. 81 M.-V:TI.V.

buried, but no regular srdddh is performed, and the only funeral observance consists of a feast given to the caste brethren by a man's beii" ton days after his death.

The caste ranks with Lobars, Chamdrs, and the lowest grades of Uravidian Hindus. They eat fowls and

Social status. indulge freely in spirituous and fermented liquors. Iron-working is believed to be their original occupation, and most of them are blacksmiths at the preseut day. Some, however, have taken to cultivation, and a few are said to have risen to the comparatively high position of teuure-holders. _

The Census Keport of 1881 returned 857 Maryas m the Santal

Pargauds.

Masalchi, a title of Bagdis, probably arising from tlieir employment as palanquin-bearers, one of the duties of a bearer being to carry a torch. It is also possible that the term may denote an oflice held by the Ba?di caste under one of the Rajas of Western Bengal.

title of Tills in

Mastan, Mahasthan orHali^, a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans.

Masya, a functional group of Jugis in Bengal.

Matasyasi, a ffditi of the San-dilya (jotra of Barendi-a Brah­mans in Bengal.

Masanta, Bengal.

Masare keraut, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidahd Kalwars in Behar.

Masaur, a section of the Sat-mulia Maghaya sub-caste ol Kdndus in Bohar.

Masaw^ar, a sub-caste of Kum-hars in Chota Nagpui- and Behar.

MSschatak, a //«'« . of ^be Saudilya gotra of Kai'lii Brah­mans in Bengal.

Maski, a iliar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiliug.

Masle, a sub-caste of Telis in Bengal.

Masnath, a sub-caste of Telis in Ueliar.

Masrakhiy^, a section of the Bausphor sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

a vegetable, u of Mundas in

of the

a in

Matha Sag, totemistic sept Cbota Nagpm-.

Mathgrami, a gain Kiisyapa (/otra of Barendra Brah­mans iu iieugal.

Fvfathia, brass bracelet totemistic sept of Muudas Ohota Nagpur.

Mathrwar, a section of Kur-mis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa. •

Mathur, a divL^on of Brah­mans and a sub-caste of Kuyastlis

in Behar. Mathurabasi, a section of

Goilas in Behar.

^^athura or Mathur | .a3, . a sub-caste of Goald. m c r

, -A ,sub-oaste of Telis,

Barhis and Boiwi Ghota iNagP'"'- o -R, ,.

gub-caste 01 Bagdi Mati^' a "j^;^ are oultivat"ori

aud eait /

MATIAL. 82 MAULIK.

Bengal; a section of Sudras in Eastern Bengal; of the Paschim Kuliya Sadgops; an eponymous section of Kdmars, Malis, Madhun^pits, and Napits in Bengal; a section of B/irendxa Sunns in Eastern Bengal.

Maudgalya or Madhukulya, a section of Pods in Central

fish, a Mundas

totemistio in Chota

MStial, a sub-caste of Kewats in Orissa.

Matial, a sub-caste of Bdgdis in Bengal who sell fish and vege­tables.

Matial, Mefel, Metid, "terrce filius," a title of Kaibarttas in Orissa and also of Bdgdis, Bauris, Koras, and other earth-working castes in Bengal. As a rule the term is used only by outsiders.

Matibans-T^nti, a sub-caste of Tantis in Orissa.

Mat'<um, a title of theBhumij tribe in Manbhum.

Matsendra, king of fish, a section of Jugis.

Wlattaria, a sub-caste of Hal-wais in Bebar.

Matti, a title of Goalas in Behar.

Matwara, a section of Eaj -wars in Western Bengal.

Maudgalya, a gotra or section of Brahraans, Baidyas, Kayasths, SubarnabanikB and Telis in

(fnaulilv, Layd, Nuyci, a Dravidian caste of Manbhum and Western Bengal, who claim affinity witb the Mai Paharias of Ptdjmabal, and who may possibly be an offshoot from that tiibo, to wliom, as being the earliest settlers in the country, the duty of propitiating the forest gods may easily have come to be assigned.

The Maulik of Northern Manbhum and the Santal Pargands are divided into six sub-castes—Chandana Wa^;

bansi , and Deobansi . The last two groups call themselves Hindus and allege that their ancestors wore at one time in possession of the Pdndra estate m Manbhum The sections of all the sub-castes S o totemistio. A man may not marry a woman belonging to S own section, nor one who falls within the usual formula for reSoning prohibited degrees. ^ _

idult-marri.ge ™ » n ; ^ J - ^ u e ™ ft „ ^ t , „3 it

Marriage. ^fe vcars the ..vnl 1 ' ^ »^d Oraons. Of

.""Wing, „ i, „,ai,„ily beheved, aa .dvaSf^ ieW^e ' reSf l i t ; ;

Bengal.

Maugh, sppt of Nagpur.

Maugha, a group of the Baren-dra Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

Mauharia, a sub-caste of Rastogis in Behar.

Maulavi, a title of Bauris in Western Bengal.

Maulik, a synonym for Dhimdl.

Maulik, ahypergamous group of Kdyasths, of the Daksbinatya-Baidik Brahraans, Baidyas, Sad­gops, Chasadbohas, and Subarna-baniks in Bengal. The name appears to be connected with mill, root, stock, or origin.

83 MATJLIK.

tends to become constantly more popular. The earlier custom, however, still survives, and sexual indiscretions before marriage are Baid to be not imcommon, and as a rule are leniently dealt with. After the bride has been selected and a small bride-price paid, the bridegroom is married to a mango-tree and the bridd to a mahua. This is followed by the ordinary ceremony performed under an open canopy made of sal leaves. The two Hinduised sub-castes employ -a Brahman to recite mantras on this occasion; for the others a man of their own caste serves as priest. The binding portion is the marking of the bride's forehead with vermilion, which is done by the bride­groom with i\\Qjdnti or cutter used for slicing areca nut.

Polygamy is not formally recognized, but a man is allowed to take a second wife if his first wife is baiTen. A widow may marry again by the sangd form, and is subject to no restrictions in her choice of a second husband. Great license of divorce is allowed, the tearing of a sill leaf in symbol of separation being the only form required to complete the act. Divorced wives may marry again.

Although, as has been stated above, the Deohansi and Rajbansi jj jj . sub-castes call in Brahmans of low rank, known

locally as Panres, to assist in their marriage ceremony, even they have not yet taken to worshipping Hindu deities or employing Brahmans as their family priests, and the caste as awhole still adheres to the rude animism cliaraoteristio of the abori­ginal races of 'Westem Bengal. Their offices as priests of the various spiritual powers who haunt the forests, rocks, and fields and bring disease upon man and beast are in great request. A Bhumij or a Kxu-mi who wishes to propitiate these dimly-conceived but potent influences will send for a Maulik to offer the necessary sacrifices in preference to a Ldya or priest of his own caste—a fact which speaks strongly for the antiquity of the settlement of the former in the country. Besides serving as priests, they also collect lac, catechu, and other jungle produce, and work as cultivators and day-labourers. Their social rank, according to orthodox ideas, is exceedingly low and no Hindu will take water from their hands. Mauliks them­selves will eat boiled rice with Bhuiyas, and sweetmeats, etc., with Santals and Mundas. The mote advanced Deohansi and Eajbansi sub-castes abstain from beef, and believe themselves to be thereby raised in ceremonial piuity and social estimation above their fellows. I t is curious to observe that wliile the non-Hinduised Mauliks will eat no one's leavings, the more orthodox sub-ca>tes have no prejudices on this point so far as the members of the higher Hindu castes are concerned, and will eat the leavings of Brahmans, Rajputs, and Kayasths.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of JIauliks in 1872 and 1881 :—

DisTBICT.

jronghyr

Santal Pargnnis Ha7anbiiKli

187;;.

" 0,179

1831. DiSIKICI.

18

LohirdiigA — Sinebhum Jlanblium TnbiUaO States

187:.

B71 r.78 6b7

1881.

f2

MAULO. 84 MAYAEA

Wlaulo, a title of Muchis in •Western Bengal.

Wlaulw^r, a sept of the Suxaj-bansi division of Eiijputs in Behar.

Maunachh, a sept of Edjputs in Behar.

Maunas, a section of Brah-mans; a sept of Edjputs in Behar.

Maura, a miil or section of the Kanaujia sub-caste of Hajjiims in Behar.

lyiaureswari, a sub-caste of Telis in Bengal.

Maurhia, a section of the Banodhia and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

Mauriydr, a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Mautkaha, a gotra or section of NepdlL Brahmans.

Mawdli, a title of Chandals in Eastern Bengal.

Mawar, peacock, a totemistic sept of Ghiks in Chota Nagpui-.

Mawar, a title of Babhans in Behar.

Maydhdng, a thnr or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

.iittailltra:, Modak Mah-a, Kuri, the confectioner caste of Bengal Orifrin and internal ^^op?r, a heterogoneous functional group, to

Etructuro. be distingmslied from the Madhunapit, on *-n -m- T 1 •. T Yuom popular usage sometimes confers the titles Modak and Kuri Some, indeed, regard (bo Madbundpit as merely a sub-caste of Mayard, but it will be seen from the article on Madhundpit that there are grounds for believing that group to be a distinct homogeneous caste owing its origin to a schism amon? the Napits. In Central Bengal the Mayara caste is divided into four sub-castes—Rarh-asram, Mayur-asram, Aja-asram and Dharm-asram or Dharm-sut. In Dacca, where there are comparatively few Mayaras and the occupation of sweetmeat-makino-is almost wholly in the hands of the Madlmnapit, the former SVM has only two sub-castes—Ekpatia and Dopatia. The distincf between these is curious: the former in their marriao-e cerpm °^ simply carry the bride seven times round the bridegroom w) T°,V"^ latter carry both round in concentric cii-cles, the brideorooTi^ / i i *"^ the inner and smaller circle of the two. '^ ^o^owmg

The sections of the,Mayara caste which are o" Appondix show a singular mixture of elements 'derivr^^? '^ ^^9 Bralimamcal goims and survivals from the earlier tntBr.1; T- °°l the which we find among "

i survivals from the earUer totemi.f; ""^ *^« . ,_„„ the non-Aryan castes. It is ,-^ "^ sections to determine what tribes may have contributed to t P°^ iWe now caste as we now find it, but the fact tliat distinct t ^ ^ ^ ® Mayatd may he discerned will perlinps ho held to justify l\^^^^ °^ totemism the group is not wliolly of Aryan extrnctiou A ^°'^iecture that • ithin the sectioa is stnctly prohibited, hut ; * ^^^^^ marriao-e country the law of exogamy is di.reaa„i„7 ^^^le parts of th ^•''g 'lated solely by calculation of probihif i ,^"^ msj-riaee i t''^ ^ot yet developed a fuU-hlown « ! ? ''^ ' gr,

go IS Mayarks - • • " uui yet deveiopea a luu-wown evst '"Agrees. Mayarks

^'6 appear to bo on the rorid toward, AT^ of hypergamy, but '1 ° ^ear the titles Ash. Barat, D > ' ^ ^ «°' f"r the familie

^^s- and Nandi are callej

85 MAYAEA'.

Kulins At present, however, the distinction is meaningless so far as maiTiat'e is concerned. Men belonging to Maulik families may marry Kulin women, and the only privilege attached to Kulinisra is the right to receive presents of cloth, etc., at marriages and other domestic festivals. • r . i . .1

Mayaras profess to marry their daughters as miants, but they . ai-e not so particular in this matter as the

Marriago. higher castes, and instances of gii-ls maiTying after puberty, though rare, are said to occur occasionally without entailing any serious loss of reputation for the family concerned. The marriage ceremony is performed in accordance with_ orthodox usage; sampraddn, or the giving and receiving of the bnde, being the e.«sential portion of the rite. A price, varying according to the social status of the parties, is paid for the bride. Polygamy is permitted, no limit being placed, in theory at least, on the number of wives a man may have. Widows may not marry again, and divorce is not recognized. A woman taken in adultery is turned out of the caste.

The caste profess to be orthodox Hindus, belonging for the most part to the A''aishnava sect. They regard

Rohgion. Ganes as their special deity, and make images in his honour. The special season for his worship is towards the end of the cold weather, before the sugarcane crop has been cut, and freshly-prepared molasses cannot be used in the manufacture jof sweetmeats until the god has been duly propitiated. Brahraans officiate as their priests, and are not looked down upon by other members of the sacred order. In Manbliuni, Mohan Giri, Sahib Mii , Sabhthi, and Bhadu are among their minor gods, whom the members of each household worship with sacrifices of goats and ofCerinos of rice, fruit, and sweetmeats. In this domestic worship Brahm'ans take no part. The dead are burned and the ashes thrown into the Ganges or any liver that may be conveniently situated for the pui'poses. Srdddli is performed on the thu-ty-fiist day after death.

Mayaras believe the making of sweetmeats to be their original occupation, but many of them at the piesent

Oocupat.on. ^^^ ^^^^ eniexfi^ Government service or taken to trade, while a few are engaged in agriculture as tenure-holders and occupancy raiyats. They WJU, however, on no account cultivate sugarcane themselves or take any part in the preparation of molasses. In a country wheie sweetmeats form a staple article of diet, and are often the only food that an orthodox Hindu can partake of on a journey, when he has no time to go tiirough the elaborate process of preparing his own food, it is essential that there should be no doubt about the social status and ceremonial purity i ^he caste which supphes the community w t h sweetmeats. Mav -therefore rank among the Navasakha, and Brahmans W l f f water from their kands Theb own niles regarding diet are t l of most resi>ectable Hindus. Ihey will eat cooked food 0 1 Brahmnns, and will take water or bweetmeats from nvetuh ^ ^^^^ NavasAkha group. ^I's of the

MAYABA 86 MECH.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of MayarAs in 1872 and 1881, the figures for Halwais being included in the former year for the districts of Bengal Proper:—

DisTEICT. 1872 1881. DiSTBICI. 1872. ISSl .

Bard wan BanKura Birbhum Midnapur I lughl i How rah S4- l ' a rgan^ ^acilva L i iu lna Jc'isore M u r s h c d a t a d Duia]piir B»]!)hah>o RaiiKpur Bofcra Pabi ia

17,040 1719

lU,li6f. 0,010

j 8,278 0 601 » . « 7

1,942 SOOi

046 918

D.798 200

12,240 7 1)79 S,lli5 7,1 Oh

f « 1S2 I 2 7.<>

2,100 17.1 7o

737 S.ili 6,»59

491 8i8

18,1 BO 1,080 1,891

Pariilinfy JalpijiOn K u t h B t h a r n 1CC1 T a n d p u r Bakiirgnii] Mann lusiuli T ipp . roll ClininftonB . , ^ o . L h a U V i l d i h S a n t i l P n r p a n i s Loli i irda^a Siiigbhiim "Maiibhxim Tr ibu ta ry Sta tes . J

no 27 U

2,112 8 J 7

i,r.o 6 017 5,9111

2Sl Oil 279

Tlio fiKure'sl liueinoludi'd' m the tablcl on l l a lwds

05 1,104

•i3G 1,207

t-Sl -70

4,780 lifiS 23.3 4'8

1,-10 8,045

2tt 672

11,303 71

Mayur, a totemistic section of the Bhar caste in Manbhirm, the members of which -will not touch or kill the peacock.

Mayur-asram, a sub-caste of Mayaras m Cential Bengal.

Mazumdar, a title of Napits I in Bengal.

(Iftcch, Mechi, a Mongoloid tribe found in the Goalpdrd district Ongtn. ?,* " ?!f" , ''°<1 ™ t i« Uimalayan Terai from

the Bhutan Duars westward to the Konki In Northern Bengal they have given their name to the

Mechi river, and in GoalparA to the largo tract of country called Mechpdrii, the proprietor of which, however, calls himsolf n p.<,-i,_-.!^ and repudiates all connexion with the Mech tribe.

nver.

them with the DhimAl, and remarks that in point of afr'cuUu 1 skill they are about on a level with the Garos. Fr. Muller' cl them among the Lohitio races, and says they are of the same stn^T as the K^chdri or Bodo. A good observer' vrrites thus f n Mech:—"They are probably the original inhabitants of the V jiling Terai, and are a distinctly Mongolian race, with f„,- T ^ " and large bones and limbs. 'nT^-:--^i------ ' ^"^1 tair slnn„ teristics are Tbey are disappearing.

fair skins mes and limbs. Their physical appearance anrl nl, ^°^ quite distinct fiom the Thaiu ot the Westp n?""^"-

;appearmg, absolutely djing out, faster than ar,? ^''''^^• which I have known or read. The reason is, no doubf +i ^^^^ of distinctive cultivation is by jhmi, which is barred bv f' *^^ir forest conservancy, and the spread of settled nlm, V, ^^^^^Qieut from the South." In another place Mr. Oldham ^"^'i^ation Dhimal and Eajbausi as " dark-sHnned Dravidiaus ^^^^^^ of tho on the contrast between them and the fair-corn f ^^y^ stress The compiler of the Assam Census Report on T^^^^^^d Mech includes the Mech and the Kochh under the Lr.!- T ^ ' w band" ^^ppoais^tojregardbot^ Bodo, and

5 l>alton Lthnology of Bengal, p "" ^" , • '•diMjirfe, IV, 109.

same race.

, f^hemeine Ethwqraphe, p 400. ^'' W. B. Oldham, late Deputy Comm

'^^'O'lerofDari.l.ng.

87 JIECH.

A singular reference to both Mech and Dhimil is met with in the Limbu legend that when the three brothers, their ancestors, were first dropped by the gods from Heaven they fell in Benareg, whence they wandered northward, seeking the place appointed for them to dwell in. So they came to the Kliachar, oT'mule-coitnfry, as the Nepalese call the tract at the foot of the hills between the Brahmaputra and Kosi rivers. There the youngest brother deter­mined to settle, and became the father of the Kochh, Dhimal, and Mech; while the two others went further into the hills, and their descendants are the Limbus and Khambus of Nepal. A third story makes Assam the proper home of the Mech, and seeks to conuect them with the Graros. Others, again, say that the Mech and Dhimal are descended from Nepalese who, being driven out of Nepal for breaches of caste rules, settled in Khachar and married women of the locality. Without attaching any historical value to these traditions, , we may perhaps infer from them that considerable intermixture of blood has taken place between the inhabitants of the hills and the plains, and that tj'pes originally distinct may in tliis way have been greatly modified and to some extent amalgamated. The process of fusion has, however, not yet gone so far as to render it impossible to discern in the Mech traces of a primary Mongolian stock, while the Dhimal tribe appears to be connected by features and com­plexion with the black races, who may be conveniently designated aboriginal.

The Mech of the Darjiling and Jalpigori district are divided into two sub-tribes'—Agnia-Mech and Ja t i -

rna s rue ure. [viech, which are practically endogamous, seeing that a member of the former group cannot marry into the latter without thereby forfeiting his position in his own group. The Agnid sub-tribe have twelve oxogamous sopts, which are shown in Appendix I, while the Jati-Mooh regulate marriage by the standard formula calculated to three generations in the descending line. The same rule is observed on the mother's side by the Agnia-Mech, who, however, extend the prohibition in the male line to seven generations.

The Agnia-Mech admit only Ec^jbansis into their own group; while the Jati-Mech receive also Dhimals, Dhekras, and Agnia-Mech, In all cases the new meniber has to give a feast as a sort of entrance-fee and by way of proclaiming his membership. Such admissions are usually brought about by men of the higher groups taking mistresses from the women of the lower, and thus forfeiting their place in their own society.

Among the Agni4-Mech the iisual age for marriage is twelve years for females and sixteen for males, tliouo-h

Marnago. j ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ elsewhere, the influence of llindiii°m shows itself in the desire on the paii of well-to-do people to get thf>i V „hters married at a still earlier age. For the most part, KOWPX the (earlier usagejfjree^com-tship stiU holds its ground, and the

T ^ , .Hier cast, I imderstaud, that four sub-lribc3^we~W^^r~'~;

Mech^Assam Me a's the Kachdri. ^-^^l^ra-Meck are

MECH. 88

consent of tlie parents is sought only after the young people have arranged matters between themselves. Even then, if ohjections are raised, the girl often solves the difficulty by going off with her lover and thus compelHng her parents to take steps to get her mamed. The same system prevails among the Jati-Mech, hut with them the age for maniao-e ranges from sixteen to twenty for hoth males and females, and it is not uncommon to find a woman married to a man younger than herself. The hride-price, called mothom theJca by Agnia andc/iumiid or hodhdhy the Jati-Mech, is supposed to be fixed with reference to the beauty and accomplishments, and may rise iu the Agnia sub-tribe as high as Us. 120 or even more. Among the Jati-Mech it is supposed to be fixed at Rs. 63, but this amount may be, and usually is, reduced by haggling.

In both sub-tribes the mariiugo ceremony is exceedingly simple. Among tlio Agnia-Mech the essential and binding portion of the rite is the formal washing of the bride's feet in the presence of the friends and relatives of both parties with water poured from abamboo water-vessel (c/iungd). This being done, she enters a room where the bridegroom is awaiting lier, and consummation is supposed to take place at once. "When she comes out a cock and a hen are sacrificed ,and two betel leaves and areca nuts offered to Siva, the latter articles being afterwards eaten by the wedded pair. Eeasting then^ com­mences by the bnde serving first the bridegroom, and after him the other guests, with meat and boiled rice. The Jfiti-Mech do not wasli the bride's feet, but make the pair exchange betel leaves and areca nuts. I'his is held to he the essential rite, and is followed by the sacrifice of a cock and hen to Siva.^

A vidow may marry again, but if she has children it is deemed more respectable for her to Hve as a widow with her late husband's relatives, to whom ia any ease her children belong. If, however she determines to contract a second marriage, she may not marry any relative, whether elder or younger, of her deceased husband but must retm-n to her parents' house and get married fi-om there by au informal ceremony called nika, in which the bridegroom makes with his little finger a single bpot of vermilion on the bride's forehead Fowls are tacrificed us in the regular iorm, hut the bride's feet are not washed, nor does she exchange betel leaves and areca nuts with the bridegroom. The brido-price for a woman marrying a second time is reduced to one-half of the original amount, and it '-he mnrHe a third time to one-fourth. In the presumably rare case of a womnn marrying for the fourth time, no hride-pnce at all ig T niri A remarried widow is deemed to he socially the interior of a

,. ' Some of my correspondcuts distinguisli three modeToTf^ 7 '• '^"s.-d) the ordinary marriage, in which the parents' couheJTL"^ marriage : o /i rt goe. to her husband ; (2) tlie duLud mamage TXj^^^T'^^ ^f''"t pa d 't^'^'l off, and may be reclaimed by her parentsif \.^ ^*'^.' ^"^'^ ''^"^ r K t f' ^1"- g/'^r sundi mnrrmge, when a girl takeTa £^<;b"de-P"«« '" "",' sLr'Z ^ ''«>• o™ ^"""^d, and sits as'a supXnt h / . ^ ° ' ' ° . 'PTthe ^ofi sw'rt''''"' ^ stands in the comer of the chief S ? *^' 1^"^^°' n £ •''h^•nl^«W«s a matter of form, the man i s T " ' - . " .such ca.cs, a^t« ** We?Jr[»nHy. Clearly, however, these are i o t t "" ultimately to v eW

*'f f'-' tosing marriage. ^° U"'' ^°' ™ "'• ^'^"^^^

S9 ' MECH.

married as a virgin, and is not entitled to serve boiled rice to tlie guests assembled on any public or cpremonial occasion. Divorce may be effected, with the sanction of the panchAyat, at the wish of (lie parties or on the ground of the wife's adultery. In tlie latter case the seducer is liable to repay the bride-price to the injured husband, and cannot marry the woman until he lias done so. Divorced wives can only be remarried by the curtailed ceremony^ iu use at the remarriage of a widow, and they hold the same social status as the latter. Their children also belong to the father. I t would seem at fii-st sight that the unrestricted courtship pei-mitted by the Meeh can hardly promote a high standard of female chastity, and in fact sexual intercourse before marriage, though not expressly recognized, is virtually tolerated, it being understood that if a girl becomes pregnant her lover will at once come forward and marry her. ilegarding married women, however, a different order of ideas prevails, and as soon as a girl lias finally pitched upon a husband, she is required to be strictly faithful to him. A curious usage, to which parallels may be found in European folklore, deserves notice in this connexion. In the courtyard of every Mech house a sij plant Eiqjiiorhia Indica) is carefully tended as the abode of the god Siva and as the emblem of conjugal fidelity. Should the leaves of the plant wither, this is supposed to show that something is wrong with one of the women of the household. Rico is deposited under tho tree, and on the next day a panchayat is called, before which all tlio women are summoned and a handful of rice is given to each to chew. She who fails to masticate her portion is held guilty of unchastity, and if married is at once turned out of the house. If it is an unmaiTied girl who breaks down in the chewing ordeal, she is called upon to disclose the name of her paramour, so that arrangements may be made to get her married at once.

The religion of the Mecli, like that of the Dhimal, is stiU in an early .stage of transition from animism to

Religion. Hinduism. They describe themselves as Il in-duB of the Saiva sect, and worship Siva under the name of Batho, and his consort KaU as Bali Khungri. To the former the Agnia-iTech sacrifice buffaloes, goats, and pigeons; while his wife has to put up with the less respectable offerings of pigs, fowls, and goats, which the Jati-Mech offer indifferently to either. The Juti-Mech also reverence as a household goddess ghir-dcri), a nameless personage, supposed to be the mother of Siva, who is represented by a lump^of Bun-di-ied clay set in the corner of tho chief room. Pigs, fowls, plantains and parched rice are offered to her on any day in the week except Sunday, Tuesday, or Wednesday. Among their other doitie.s jTiny be mentioned Tsimising, Tista Burhi (Buchanan's 'old lady of theTista'), iMahesh Thakur, Sonnisi and Mahakal. They have no Brahii"iii^''I'^'i priests [dhami or (y'Aa) chosen from among the tribe t serve them for religious and ceremonial purposes.

Those who can afford a funeral pyre prefer to burn the d while tho poorer members of the trib v ^ '

Disposal of the Uoari. pigging the corpsB face upwards with tb v^' pointing towards (he south. 1 u the latter case a small fue is kiucj'"^

MECH. 90

upon the grave, in which food and drink are burned for the benefit of the deceased. The Agnid-Mech perform a meagre propitiatory rite on the eighth day, and the Jati-Mech on the fourth day, after death. With both the important part of the proceedings is the feast which is given to the friends and relatives of the deceased. Some repeat the ceremony every year after the manner of the Hindus, but this is unusual.

Judged by the Hindu standard, the social status of the Mech is extremely low. Both Rdjbansis and Dhimals

Social status. - ^ ^ ^^^^ ^p^^ ^j^^j^. ^^ ^ ^ y themselves, while claiming higher rank than Garos, Lepchas, and Tibetans, admit the social superiority of the Rajbansis. Dhimdls they appear to look upon as standing on much the same level as themselves, though the former profess to be stricter in matters of food and drink, and strenuously disclaim kinship and social intercom-se with the Mech. They eat pork, fowls, all kinds of fish, lizards, and the imp/iu silk­worm, but abstain from beef, the flesh of the long-tailed sheep, snakes, field-rats, and the leavings of other people. Buffalo flesh now ranks as beef, at any rate with the Agnia-Meoh; but this seems to be a comparatively modern reform, for sonae Mech are said to eat buffalo flesh, and those who do not seem to pride themselves on their asceticism. Spirituous liquors are indulged in without stint.

A. curious story is told in the Terai to account for the fact that the Nepalese wiU take water from the hands of the Mech. I t is said that some twenty years ago Jang Bahadur, then Prime Minister of Nepal, while shootiag in the Terai, fell in love with a Mech girl, the daughter of TJjir Singh Jamadar, of Dhulabdri, and took her with him to Nepal as his mistress. As the price of her person, and in accordance with the wishes of the tribe, he issued an edict that in future no subject of Nepal should refuse to take water from a Mech or, as my informant adds, from a Dhimal also. I am unable to say what amount of truth there may be in this tale, but if such an edict were ever actually published, it can hardly have done more than recognize and coniirm a practice already existing. Even Jang Baha­dur's despotic power must have yielded to popular prejudice if the Nepalese had really deemed the Mech unclean. The fact, however seems to be that there is a considerable strain of Nepalese blood' among tho Mech, and other facts may be mentioned which i>o f confirm this view. Like the Nepalese, for example, the M y, have much greater liberty in matters of food before marriage ff'' after, so that an unmarried man may take rice from people wh not deemed pure enough to give food to a married man. Both ^° "' ^ theTihar festival; both call the bride-price sodhd QI thekA 'vl^^^^ coincidences may of course be due merely to that tran f, - ^ ^ custom which is everywhere observable ; but taking all .u • ° ° °^ stances into consideration, I think it more likely th f ff ^ircuni-arisen from intermixture of the two races. •' ^^^ they have

husbandry by tbe jMm method is regarded hTr +i o their original occupation hnf^f i . Occupation. ,,„,„ taken to RPffU,! ' f^ of late „ _ .

.3 raiyc spiag

Husbandry by the// '« '« method is regarded 1, .i , , ^ ^ the i ror ig ina loccupat ionC*Y.*^^^^<^^a3

. ' " " ^ ' ' « - have taken to settled ciilti! r ' ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ "^^^Y jots in the Terai. The rearing of the impht/vZ ^^ ,^^iyats of

J""< silkworm, which snin.

MECH. 91

MENDEU.

893 40

issi. 31

6,835 1,06S 8,760

224

A nln+li-? worn bv tbe Mecb, was at the silk used in the f j ue r^d cMhs .^o^^ ^y^^^^^ ^ . ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ one time a regular industry, ouu generation. _ i.„^oTif shows the number and distribution ot ^ The foUowmg statement sliows lu the Mech tribe in 1872 and 1 8 8 1 . - ^ ,

DISIBICT.

Bogra Eangpur ••• ' ' ' Darjilinfl Jalpigori Kuck Behar

Mechari, a sept of Tdntis in Chota Nagpui-.

JUechi, a synonym for Mech. Mecho, a hypergamous group

of Kaibarttas in Jessore. Medari, a sr«/» °^T, *^°

Sdbarna flotra of Barendra Biaii-mans in Bengal.

Meehalbariarpur, a mul ox section of the Naomuha or Ma]-raut sub-caste of GouUsmBehai.

Mehra, a s4pt of Eajputs in Behar.

Mehran, a section of Sunris in Behar.

Mehr^na, a title of the Tir-hutia sub-caste of Kumhars m Behai".

Mehri, a sept of Eijputs in Behar.

Wlehtar, Mihtar, a sub-caste of I Haris who remoTe night-soil.

I Mehtar, a section of Maghaya Meghi, af/wr or septof Gur-|-g-^^j^,^^j^. ^ title of Nunias.

ungs in Darjiling

JVlehalo, a title of Doms in Behar.

Wleh&us, a section of the Sdt-mulii Maghayd sub-caste of lidn

• dus in Behar.

Li,, a tiUe 01 xNuiiias, of the Dhusia and Dohar sub-castes of Chamurs; a section of the Kulsunri sub-caste ot Sunris and of the Dharkdr sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Mehtaria, a section of Mag-haya Dhobis in Behar; also a

I title of Chamars.

Mekchan, a section of Mur-1- ^t +lia mis in Darjiling.

T . > ' ^ ' ' ? : i c U " o r K h a ris i^ Wlekhun. a dugu or .section of Barajati sub caste 0 1 ^^ Kochli-Mandai m Dacca ^•^"S^vl- I rpi ^ ^^^^ ij^dicates the original

Wlehera, a section of the i ^^^.^^^ ^^ l e group, probably ChBiUti sub-caste of Khatris " i U MU or village in Assam, and at Beiigal- Ibe present day has no bearing

Wlehrri^npur, a mul or section Upon mamage. f T e Naomuhd or Majraut sub- Memophagpa, a sept of the

oi T o f GodWs in Behar. Chaibisa sub-tribo of Limhus m

'""'^ , ,• , , 1 Darjiliug. . ur.c a ?««'or section ot the •' . „ „„^i „f i^-.

" f hub-caste ol Kdudus in WIendru, a sept of lUjputs

Bohar.

m

MENG. 92 MISE.

WJeng, a (har or sept of Han­gars ill Darjiling.

Mengi, a fJiar or sept of Gurungs in Darjiling.

IVlenwar, a section of Blidts in Beliar.

Menyangbo, tlie tinsuccessful one, a sept of tlie Yangonip sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Meongba, a snb-sept of tbe Tbekim sept of Limbus in Dar­jiling.

Wlephagpa, tbe butcber, liter­ally pig-roaster, a sept of tbe Pantbar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Mert, a sept of Bbuiyas in Chota Nagpur.

tViesha, sbeep, a title of T&ntis in Bengal.

Mesh-rasi, a spction of Males in Kasteru Bengal.

Mete, a title of Kaibaittas in

Mlnag-p^, a mi or sept of Sberpa Bbotias of Nepal.

Mind, a sept of Mundas in Chota NagpuT.

Minj, a snate, tbe totem of a section of Oraon-Dbangars set­tled for several generations in Bebar.

Minji, eel, a totemistlc sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpnr.

Mir or Mair, a sub-casto of Soniirs in Bebar.

a section of Ostvals in

Bengal.

Methi, Bebar.

Metliiid, a sTxonym for Dban-gar in Cbota jSagimr.

Mewakhola or Terothar , a sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling,

Mihtar, a sub-caste of Telis in Behar.

Millak, in Behar.

a section of Mahesris

. Wliliong, a sept of the Tung-J iiya sub-tribe of Chakmas in ^^^ Uill Tracts of Chittagong,

« « « C o / 1 [ ^f"' ?-, t'^^emistio Haiibbua ^^™^^r caste m liongal. ' °' ^®°tioa of Jugis in

Mirchaia, a section of tbo Baranwar sub-caste of Baniyas in Bebar.

Mirchwan, a section of Sondrs in Bebar.

Mird4ha, a section of tbe Kiidar caste in Bebar wlueb interman'ies -witb tbe Darbe, Manjhi, Kampti, and Bdro sec­tions, but not yfiih. tbe rest; a section and a title of Itagbaya Doras; a title of men of the Turi and Dosadb castes wbo fol­low tlie profession of bawkers or faloonprs ; a title of Binjbiis and Kbandaits in Cbota Nagpur.

Miriasin, a class of Mabora-edan musicians in Bebar who also deal in and apply leecbes.

Mirich bhusait, a mul or section of tbe Ayodhiabasi sub-casto of Sondrs in Bebar.

Minliikdr, a cKief buntsman; a low class of Mahomedans who live by snaring birds.

Mising, a sept of Tipperabs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Misir, a section of tbe Sri-bastab sub-caste of Kayastbs in Behar.

Misr or Misra, a title of Gaura, Mailhil, Kanaujid, and Sdraswat

MISE. 93 MOIEA.

Brabmans and of Bdbhans in Bebar.

IVlisra, a title of tbe Daksbi-ndtya Baidik Brabmans in Bengal; a thar of tbe Atri (joira of Nepali Brabmans ; a section of Gaura Brabmans in Bebar; a section of Utkal or Oi-issa Brabmans.

Mhtri, a synonym for Barai, Karanga, and Dbobi in Bebar.

Mistri, a carpenter or mason, Occ. A title of Bai'bis, Kanaujid Lobdrs, and of Kamais in Bebur; a title of Sutradbars, Chasadbo-bas, Dbobas, and Pods iu Bengal.

Mi than, a section of Agar-•wdls in Bebar.

Mithoria, a section of Maj-raut Goalas in Bebar.

Mitra, a title of Kayastbs and Bilruis in Bengal.

Mitraseni Behara, a sub-caste of Bbuinmalis in Bengal.

Mittal, a ffofra or section of Agarwals in Bebar.

Mcali, a gain of tbe Kiisyapa potra of Barendra Brabmans in Bengal.

Mobrishya, a section of Sankbjiris in Bengal.

Mcchhare, a sept of the Agnia sub-tribe of Mecbos in tbe Uarjiling Terai.

IVlochi, a title of Jaunpuri Cbamiirs wbo make shoes ; also a title of Bbusia Cbamars in 15ebar.

IVIochian, a mtil or section of the Kanaiijia sub-caste of Sonars in Bobar.

Modal<, a synonym for Mayard.

Moddsi, a group of the Raj-bansi sub-caste of Koohbs in Northern Bengal.

Modgalya, a section of Gan-dhabaniks in Bengal.

Modhagrami, a gain of tbe Kasyapa ffoti-a of Biirendra Brabmans in Bengal.

Modi, a title of Baniyiis, Halwdis, Kalwars, Koras, and Sunris in Bebar.

Mogaikach^, a »;K/or section of tbe Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Bebar.

Mogha, a title of men who dress as females and earn their living by dancing and singing.

Mogilalia, a section of the Dbusia sub-caste of Ghamdrs.

Mohali, a sub-caste of Doms in Bebar. Tbe similarity of name suggests a connection with the mat and basket-making caste of ilabili in "Western Bengal.

Mohani, a title of Gonrhis in Bebar.

Mohar, a vutl or section of tbe Chbamulia Madbesia sub-caste of Ilalwiiis in Bebar.

Mohara, a thar or sept of Damis in Darjiling whose chief profession is sewing.

Mohbaita, a section of the Pacbainya sub-caste of Doms in Bebar.

Mohdiar, a section of Ghasis in Ghota Nagpur.

Moira, a synonym for Mayard.

MOKTAN. 94 MIIUN&.

Moktan, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

Mola, a sub-caste of Bduris in Western Bengal.

Mold, a section of Doms in Western Bengal.

Molan, a section of Go^Ms in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Moldhia, a section of Godlas in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Moldiar, a section of Bdhhans in Behar.

Molima, Molima-Sege, a sept of Ohakmas in the Hill Tracts of Ghittagong.

Molo, a sub-caste of Koras in Western Bengal.

IVlomin, 'faithful'; a synonym for Musalman; a designation of Mahomedan Jolahas wl ich dis­tinguishes them from the Hindu Jolahas.

Mon, a synonym for Lepoha.

Mongari a section of GoaMsin Behar.

Mongbai, a sept of Tipperahs in the Hill Tracts of Ghittagong.

Monghyn a dih or local sec­tion of the Maghaya §ub-caste of Telis in Behar. The system of exogamy among this sub-caste of Telis seems, however, either to be dying out or to be of recent i n t r o S o n , for some of the Maghayds say they have no Ms hut^ merely prohibit mamage within nme pirhis or degrees of relationship.

. .Mongi^, a sept of the Tung-If^y?-. sub-tribe of Ohakmas m the HUl Tracts of Ghittagong.

Mongri, thorny fish, a totem-istic sept of Pans in Ohota Nagpur.

Mongtupo, a sept of the Tangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Monmatar, Motia, Motari (from met, ^. , ' a burthen') a porter, a caiTier of burthens, and generally a day-labourer employed other­wise than in agriculture.

Mor, peacock, a totemistic section of Khandaits in Orissa and Ohota Nagpur,

Mormu, deer, a totemistic sept of Lobars in Ohota Nagpur.

Morpachi, a sept of GoaMs in in Ohota Nagpur.

Moti, a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Motioman, a sept of Kaurs in Ohota Nagpur.

Motlia, a section of GoaMs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Motriha, a section of the Bano-dhia and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

Mo-u, a sept of the Tung-jainya sub-tribe of Ohakmas in the Hill Tracts of Ghittagong.

Mowar, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Mowl, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Mradha, a title of Haris in Bengal.

Mridha, the head of tb^ menial servants in a zamind^r s establishment.

^ning, a synonym ^°^ Tipper ah.

95 IIUCHI.

(^txichi, Eislii,^ the leather-dressing and cobbler caste of Bengal, by origin doubtless a branch of the Chamars, though its members now repudiate that name and claim to be a distinct caste of somewhat higher sofcial position. Mr. Nesfield observes that " the industry of tanning is preparatory to, and lower than that of, cobblery: and hence * * * * the caste of Chamar ranks decidedly below that of Muchi. The ordinary Hindu does not consider the touch of a Muchi so impure as that of a Chamar, and there is a Hindu proverb to the effect that ' dried or prepared hide is the same thing as cloth,' whereas the touch of the raw hide before it has been tanned by the Chamar is considered a pollution. The Muchi does not eat carrion like the Chamar, nor does he eat swine's flesh; nor does his wife ever practise the much-loathed art of midwifery. He makes the shoes, leather aprons, leather buckets, harness, portmanteau:x, etc., used by the people of India. As a rule he is much better ofi than the Chamar, .and this circumstance has helped amongst others to raise him in the social scale." I t may be gathered from this description that in the North-West Provinces the Muchi never dresses freshly-skinned hides, but confines himself to working up leather already tanned by the Chamar. This distinc­tion does not appear to be so sharply drawn in Bengal, where Muchis tan hides like the Chamars, but wHl only cure those of the ' cow, goat, buffalo, and deer.

The origin of the Muchi caste is given in the following legend, ^ ,... . . . related to Dr. "Wise by one of their Brahmans, Traditions of ongin. i n . j L ^ i ^ , ,• ti •

and aiterwards reported to me substantially in the same form from an independent source:—One of the Praja-pati, or miad-born sons of Brahma, was in the habit of proA-iding the flesh-of cows and clarified butter as a bui-nt offering (Ahuti) to the gods. I t was then the custom to eat a portion of the sacrifice, restore the victim to life, and drive it into the forest. On one occasion the Praja-pati failed to resuscitate the sacrificial animal, owing to his wife, who was pregnant at the time, having clandestiaely made away with a portion. Alarmed at this he summoned all the other Praja-patis, and tbey sought by divination to discover the cause of the failure. At last they ascertained what had occuiTed, and as a punishment the wife was cursed and expelled from theii- society. The child which she bore was the first Muchi,.or tanner, and from that time forth mankind being deprived of the power of reanimating cattle slaugh-tered for food, the pious abandoned the practice of kilHng kine altogether. Another story is that Muchiram, the ancestor "of the caste, was born from the sweat of Brahmd while dancing. H e chanced to offend the irritable sage Durvdsa, who sent a pretty

1 Buchanan met witli a tribe of fishermen in Puraniya called Rishi considered them to bo an aboriginal tribe of Mitliila. Eishi, liowevp • ^upn used as a pseudonym to hide the real paternity of a castp • +i ' ^ K h a r often calls himself " Eishi-balaka," or son of a KishV , ^ ' U -ncali Chamar tries to pass incoginto as a llishi. In the case of tl'» A?, ^'^^ ^ s TTossiblo that Eishi may be Eiklii or Eikh-Mun, the bJar ^ '^^^W nririnal totems of the Bhuiya or Musahar tribe, and the same m«' "i!'®, °f the ?or he Cliandal. This explanation, however, is mainly conjectiSi^ °^^ Sood

MUCHI. 96

Brahman widow to allure him into a breach of chastity. Muohirdm accosted the widow as mother, and refused to have anything to do with her; but Durvasa used the miraculous powers he had acquired by penance to render the widow pregnant, so that the innocent Muchiram was made an outcaste on suspicion. From the widow's twin sons Bara Ram and (jhhota Earn descended the Bara-bhagiya and Chhota-bhagiya sub-castes, which are the two main divisions of Mucins at the present day. The Chhota-Bhagiya deal in hides, act as musicians, and do various kinds of leather work; while the Bara-bhagiya profess to be only cultivators. The latter are again divided into Uttar-Rarhi and Dakin-Rarhhi, who do not intermarry or eat together. The other sub-castes, Cn^sa-Kurur or Chasa-Kolai, are agriculturists; the Bstua make cane baskets and also cultivate; the Jugi-Muchi or Kora weave coarse cloth of cotton, often mixed with silk ; the T ikaka r Konai, who make the fikd or charcoal balls used for lighting pipes; and the Baital, Kurur, Mala bhumia, Sabarkara , and Sanki, are shoemakers, cobblers, and currier.s. Muchis have only two sections, Kiisyapa and Sandilya, which have been borrowed from the Brahmanical system, and has no bearing upon the prevention of intermarriage between near relatives.

They follow the ordinary rules as to prohibited •amagc. decrees, and permit the marriage of two sisters

to the same man, provided that the younger is not married first. Both infant and adult-marriage are recognized for girls, but the former practice is deemed the more respectable, and is resorted to in the large majority of cases. In the Dacca district a father generally receives fi'om fifty to sixty rupees for his daughter, from which it may be inferred that the custom of polygamy has tended on the whole towards the preponderance of males in the caste. In other districts, however, the bride-price is not so high, and in Pabna it is said to vary from Es. 5 to Es. 25-4, according to the means of the bridegroom. The maniage ceremony is a simplified form of that in use among the higher Hindu castes; snubtrddn, or acoordinrr to some the burning of hlt'ii or parched paddy before the bride and bridegroom, being the binding portion. Thi; bride is dressed in red garments. In former years, says Dr. Wise, the marriage ceremonies of the Rishi werel scenes of debauchery nnd intemperance, but of lute intoxicating liquors have been prohibited until all the regular fornas have been observed. Even Hindus, who rarely have an^^tbinc favourable to.say of the llishi, confess that now-a-days, ow'iujj to some unknown cause, both the Chumars and Eishis have become more temperate and more attentive to their religious duties than formerly. Polygamy is peimitted with no restriction on tho number of wives, except the mau's ability to maintain them and thoir children. Divorce is permitted on tho giound of adultery Usually the panohAyat of the caste are called together bv their

prol^'-*^ ( i ^ " ' • « ' " t ' ^ " ' ' " " r ? ^ \ t ' ^^''' sanction to the the S " , " ^ : ^''^ '^ ^'^" '' T J tv ." ' ^f' '°'^"^'^« of the husband, of t w \ * ' ? "^ "gl <^ *« ''PP'"^ *° " " ' Pauebayat. With the permission form w V '^^^"'^'^ ^'^^' "^""^ "^"""^ "°^ '° V the .ama or >u/:a

• ^Vidows also may marry a second time by this ritual, the

97 ilTJCHI.

binding portion of which consists of exchanging garlamls made of the flowers of the tulsi Oct/mum sanctum). ^ Here also the sanction of the pancbayat is required, and a feast is given to the members. A small sum, varying from Re. 1 to Es. 5, is paid as pan. Indica­tions are not wanting tliat the opinion of the caste tends to condemn widow-marriage, and that the custom may be expected to die out within a generation or two unless some special influence is brought to beai- in its favour. Already some Muchis hold that only virgin widows can properly marry again, and that the remarriage of a full-grown woman who has already lived with her husband is little better than concubinage. The children of_ samja marriages are deemed to be in some sense degraded, and, if males, have to pay a heavy fine before they can obtain wives. Like Bauris and Bagdis, the Mucliis admit into their community members of any caste higlier than their own. The new member is required to give a feast to the ca-to panchayat, and to eat with them in token of fellow­ship. Instances of men of other castes thus becoming Muchis are Tiire, and occur only when a man has been turned out of his own caste for having intercourse witli a Muolii woman and taking food from her hands.

Tlie majority of the caste are bolievetl to belong to the Saiva sect, but a large propoi-tion of the Betua sub-caste are Vaishnavas. They imitate the Sudras

in most of their religious ceremonies, while others peculiar to themselves resemble those of tlie Chamar.';. Though reg.orded as utterly vile, tliey are permitted to make offerings at the shrines of Kali, which a Jugi is not allowed to do. They keep many Hindu festivals, the chief being that in honour of Viswakarma on the last day of Bliddra. When small-pox prevails they offer a pig to iSitala, fii'bt of all smearing tlie animal's snout with red lead and repeating certain incantations, after which it is set free, and any one can seize it. Like the CliamAr, Dhoba, Dosadh, and other low castes, the Muchis worship Jalka Dnvi whenever cholera or other epidemic disease breaks out The Muchi women, however, only collect con­tributions in their oyvn quaiter, and wear the wreatn of plantain, 'date-pahn, or Una Andropogon mnricatu^) for two and a half days instead of for six, as is the custom of the Chamars, Maohiram Das, the reputed ancestor of the ca^to, and Rui Las, are also popular objects of worship.

A Brahman was bestowed on the Bara-bhagiyd Muchis by Priests 'Qa.Wil Sen, and the story goes that in the

palace of that monarch a certain Brahman, having made himself especially troublesome by insisting upon being appointed as priest to one of the newly-formed castes, had it intimated to him by tlie Haja that he would belong to the caste wliich should fir^t appear to him in the morning. Tliere was also a Muchi celebrated jilayor on the naqciruh, or kettledrum, whose duty it L^ to sound the rcrpilk. I t was easily arranged that the i^rnl, should fir^t oast liis eyes on him when he awoke, and his desopn ^'^^'^ have ever since ministered to this despised race. They rank ^^^^ the lowest of the Barna-Brahman.s, and neither raombei^s ^T'\^

^t thi3 e

MUCHI. 98

sacred order

• o"^' ' ^j^V^^^ G s ' ' ' T f t i \ \ l ^'^^-'•-'^- «ast^s will take Z^'aA^'', ^"^« the^ dea^ Chhota-bh^giy^ have priests of their thTre T ^'^^^- In thTcnl f^°^ P " ' ^ « ^ *'-«^^ /' on the thirtieth e J C e d " •'• ' '' t ' t r ; . t S , f « b - .'iied a violent death

Tie Ch, "ff^'sc/iitta, or expiatory ceremony, is

eta ^ '^^'''on^A''z r.°« -' '- *« « - t' m5f- . ^ "^y ^°<i celebrate the srddd/i on the -^^e social position of UnoV • Social status perhaos ;i7l!L^^', ^ .^^^ ^o^n intimated above,

may T^r.., 1 , t u t this i« r, . ^ ' ? ^ ^ ^ * tan that of Ohamdrs, P r e c e d S f ^y ^' P^^^^d in o J ^ « 'yi"g much, and both castes

the l a s te r ^ l ^ ^ l l defile hSasJif ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " - None of the regular washermen f ^ ' ' ' ^ ^ ^ ' ^ p S to ^, ' " ' ? ? " & f°^ ^ Muchi, and thus ^'^<^vTCt7 """^^^S L OVL^?:'''^' '^''^ ^ t h barbers and « large o^f* "? *° t ese p r ^ f e S ^ ' " ' - , Illegitimate children are

^ « in ifeenT °° J^^o^venience i f f T / ''''.^ ^^erever the community «ub-^te £ ? ? ^^'^ tlieir staJdinl ' *- -"^^^^ ^""les regarding diet « <i Rard . ' f • ^ t' ^ ChamS " '°"^*y- The Chhota-bhdgiy''' C t^ 'B^S l a t - n ^ d « S y Th' n ^ ^ ^ Partial to chickens.

^^li which thev if^'^x"^^^ than the IT^' ^ " ^« ' ^^0^ ^O^^"' ""* Printers, a S , 7 > . Like the C h a i ' ^ ' ^ . T t ^ ^ «« to the kinds of » e of gania . rw?" ' ' ' for their i^du^ ^ ^ l ^uchis are great spint'

^ l^nchi, but S f § ^ - .No other i > ' ' ' ? . ^^ ^ ^ ^ore dangerous «niokefrorn?he'elZ\'^^ ' l o ^Sf^'^ ^^t food prepared by

lluchis work ? ! ?°'^"^- ^ ° ^ J ir bands and wiU worjx as tanners, shoe m i

Occupation. basket-makers ' n r ' ^^^dlers, musicians, and tben soaked for fiffp„ ' ^^^ follows r - T i T ' ' ' ^ode of preparing skms It i« then d e p i S y ° / r ^ * y days i^ T'^J'^'^^ i^ rubbed, .and steeped for sil S ?* ts bair and of ^ '^^^g solution of lun°; ^TatcontainingTsoJ-"^^ " t that remains, and (Cenoos i?o^i,f4 J° " ^ " 1 ^ ^ ^nd p o S " , . ^ ^ ^ " j ' it is put i» bide being a f t e r ' t i S ' ^ ^ ^ d ^'^^darl^?? ' ^d babul (ic^c/a), gara«

The town MucSis buv f • ? ^^garded I T ' ' ' " ' ' ^ '""'°'-) barks, the parts 01 the eountrv^i ^ ' ^des from +i -^ ProperW cured C h h o t a - b h d g i y T l K S ti^.? aboSi^^-TV^thVreTdfnt in those Pii g (he carcasses of the'V ^'^'^ they prid^^.t ^^^^go M"«bis of the f. their neighbourhood i n ^ ^ ' ^ ^^ ttl ^l"" themselves on not skiu-JlBeases attack the herds t h e ? ? , ° f ^amsse? ' <^ ^own the rivers ^^'bute the spread of the ^v ' 'd so m u l f / ' ^ d when epidemic mV''«^ that they puncture ^ ' i ' " ' *° tbeV« ?." ^ ^ t the vinagers vuLT^^ated with vius W ft ^"^^thy coT\.-!*J« doubtless often i S a > trade. S p e o l 7 " " " ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^''^^ ^ ' ' ^ ^c:. t - p-fits nnE \ rT.? lTe]i'' ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ i ^ ' C - the .a/ iungles g ; ^ ^ ^ J ^ e s t ^ i ^ t j ^ S * o E

°y cattle with arsenic rolled ,?^'^f pastuSng grounds, "P m a bundle of ma/ma

I l l MUEML

very obscure subject which I have been unable to work out thorough­ly. When a man desires to adopt another man as his brother, he Bends a message intimating his feelings, and if the reply is favourable presents are exchanged. A day is then fixed for the performance of the regular ceremony, at which a Brahman officiates as priest. The two friends stand facing one another, each with a rupee at his feet. The rupees are solemnly interchanged, and the pair bedaub one another between the eyebrows with the mixture of rice and curds used in the marriage ceremony. A fee of Re. 1 is paid to the Brahman, and the proceedings end with a feast.

The fictitious relationship thus established is regarded as Marria o equivalent to actual kinship. The adopted

arnago. brothers may not address or speak of one another by name, nor may they talk to each other's wives, even though these may have taken part in the ceremony. Their descend­ants, again, are supposed not to intermarry till seven generations have passed. Some, indeed, say that this prohibition extends to the entire thar, and enumerate several thars which may not intermarry by reason of their founders having contracted mith. Others, again, say that miih can only be entered into by members of the same thar, whose descendants in the first generation would in any case be forbidden to intermarry. Great importance is attached to the observance of the rules connected with mith. In British territory a man who infiinges them by marrying a woman within the for­bidden degrees is punished by exclusion from the caste, and no Murmi will eat, drink, or smoke with him. In Nepal the penalties are said to be far more severe: the offender is denounced as har-phura, and is liable to be sold as a slave, or, according to some accounts, to be punished capitally. Murmis may contract mith with Bhotias, Lepchas, Limbus, Khambus, Yakhas, Mangars, Gurungs, and Sunwars; and members of the last six castes may even be admitted into the Murmi community.

With the Murmis, as with most of the Himalayan castes, adult-maniage prevails, and sexual intercourse before marriage is tolerated, it being understood that if a girl becomes pregnant she will disclose (he name of her lover, and he will come forward to marry her. A bride-price not) of Rs. 50 to Es. 60 in ornaments and cash is paid to the bride's parents. The mai-riage takes place at night in the house of the bride. A Lama officiates as priest and besmears the foreheads of the couple with a mixture of cm-ds and rice. The bridegroom then puts vermilion on the bride's forehead and the parting of her hair and changes places with her, after which the Lama brings their heads together so that their foreheads touch (lagan). This is deemed the binding portion of the ceremony. Polygamy is permitted, but is not much resorted to in practice, and it is unusual to find a Murmi with more than one wife. Widows are not allowed to marry again by the regidar ritual; but thev may t e kept as mistresses, and the children of women so kent ,aid to be considered not inferior to those born in regular ^ e d l o T Divorce is permitted on the ground of adultery or uasuitabUit

inJEMi. 112

of temper. Divorced wives may not marry again, but become concubines on the same terms as widows.

In tlie matter of inheritance the Murmis follow a fnb-il custom of their own. Sons inherit in equal shares; failing sons, the father succeeds; then the daughters take equal shares. Eailing daughters, the widow inherits, and in any case she must be maintained by the persons who succeed to the property.

The reHgion of the caste is not easy to define. We may discern m it a substratum of primitive animism overlaid

Religion. ^y elements borrowed from Hinduism, and, IcbS freely, from Buddhism. Everything tends towards gradu<il adop­tion of the Nepal ese form of Hinduisra, and Buddhist usages are believed to be on the decline, though the Luma still serves as priest at a Murmi wedding, and flags stamped with the sacred om may be seen fling in Muimi villages. Notwithstanding this general tendency towards the triumph of Hinduism, some of the popular deities of the caste seem to belcmg to an earlier type. The stone fetish called Thangbaljho is honoured by winding cloth round it and sprinkling rice on its top ; and every September goats and fowls are sacrificed and their blood poured forth on the stone. Similar offerings are made to Purbuja devata, a forest god who lives in a tree and visits with fever and rheumatism those who neglect his worship. Bhim Singh, one of the Pandava brothers, is worshipped at the Durga Puja with sacrifices of buffaloes, goats, fowls, and ducks Sherkijho is a fetish of ill-defined attributes; while Gyong and Changreshi appear to be deified Lamas. Behind these again are the village and household gods, a shifting and shadov.'y multitude, which no n^ancan number or describe, clamoirrlng, like the ghosts who crowded rouud Odysseus, for their share of sacrifice and libation.

Brahmans have not yet been called in to organize this chaotic Pantheon. Their functions are confined to presiding over the ceremony of with, and occasionally assisting at the worship of some of the standard Hindu gods. The daily rehgion of the caste is looked after by Lamas or by any Mm-mi who has a turn lor cere­monial mmi sir ation.

ihe nch burn their dead and preserve a piece of bone to be Disposal of the dead, 'ispos^ted in a private gumpa. The ordimr;.

•fi n 1 / f I f ' t° ^-^T. the body being laid in Z grave with he head to the north and fire applied t o V e j^outh A small enclosure roofed m with a big stone is built m i S the grave, a cairn is piled on the stone, and a flag is olantprlf ., v For seven days alter death the relatives of the & ' ^ ' ' " ^ ' ^ ^y-formal mourning and do not eat salt with their f n f ?. I T eighth day a propitiatory ofl-ering of meat, rice ^^T' , I • and sweetmeats )s presented at the grave and ' ''fgs, plautams, liy the chief mourner. For the next six monTht i f f f -f S " " ings are made in the house to a piece of cloth to ' ? A f o u d ot the deceased: at the end of that time a 1 ^ -""^ ^^^ in and the fiual ceremony is performed. ^ ' ^ ^^"^^ ^ called xn and

MTJEMI. 113 MUSAHAR.

, The bulk of the Murmi caste are cultivators, and regard agricul­ture as their original and fitting occupation,

coupa on an s atus. -^g^j ^f them serve in the police, and Lama Murmis are enlisted as recruits by the 1st Gurkhas. I n Nepal they are not reckoned among the regular fighting castes, but they are admitted into the Kirdnti regiments raised by Jang Bahadur some thirty years ago. A considerable number are employed as labourers on the tea gardens near Darjiling. In the matter of diet they have few scruples: they eat beef, pork, fowls, and frogs, and indulge freely in spirituous liquors. Notwithstanding this, their social status in the Himalaynn region is respectable, and Nepalese Brahmans and Ohattris will take water and sweetmeats from their hands. They themselves eat with Limbus, Khambus, Lepchas, and Bhotias.

In 1872 the Murmis numbered 6,557 in Darjiling and 23 in Jalpigori, while in 1881 they numbered 5,324 only in Darjiling.

Murmu, nUgao, a totemistie section ot Kurmis in Cho|;a Nag-pur and Orissa; a sept of Hos and Santals.

Murmudr, a totemistie section of Mahilis in Manbhum, the members of \yhich wiU not touch, kill, or eat the murmu or nilgdi.

Murmurwar, a sept of E i a r -wars in Chota Nagpur.

Muro, a sub-sept of the Mur­mu sept of Santals.

Muromah, a sept of Muudas in Chota Nugpur,

Murtel, a i/iar of the Gargya goira of Nepali Brahmans.

of the Sat-sub-caste of

Murti, a section muHa Maghaya Kandus in Behar.

Murum, stag, a totemistie sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Murwi, a section of the Tirhutiya sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Mus, rat, a totemistie sept of Godlas, Chamars, and Kharwars in Chota Nagpur; a section of Kurmis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa; a totemistie sept of Chiks and Doms.

Musa or Musu, mouse, a to­temistie sept of Mundas and Paus in Chota Nagpur.

c^ lusahar , Bhuiyi, Sadd BanraJ, Banmanmh, a Dravidian cultivating and servile caste of Behar, who appear to be an offshoot from the Bhuiyil tribe of Chota Nagpur. The grounds for this opinion are stated at length in the article Bhuiya and need not be repeated here. The question of the origin ot the caste has been examined by Mr. J. 0. Nesfield in an elaborate monograph on Jhe Musheras of Central and Upper India, published in the Calcutta Jieviexo for January 1888.

Mr. Nesfield's inquiries into the traditions of the Musah (as I prefer to spell the name) tend to c,^^ ^^^

Origin according to ^^^^^ ^ i t j , ^he Cherus and Savars wh< ! ^ ^ ^ ° ^ Mr. Nesfield. prominent part in the legendary ^ 8 1 ^ 1 ^ , ^ ^ Ganees valley- From this it would follow, if the standard L -^^^ £ C accepted, that the Musahars belong to the Kolarian i,?fi<^--

tfoup of h

MUSABAE. 114

trihes, "while my hypothesis wonld class them among the Dravidians. The distinction, however, between Kolaiian and Dravidian appears to me, and, I believe, also to Mr. Nesfield, to rest solely upon peouHarities of language, which in this case at any rate do not correspond to real differences of race. If the test of language is rejected, and we loot only to physical characteristics, the so-called Dravidians and Kolarians can only he regarded as local varieties of one and the same stock. This being so, there is really no material difference between Mr. Nesfi eld's view and my own. H e connects the Musahars of the North-Western Provinces with the Dravidian Savars and Cherus; I trace the Musahars of Behar to the equally Dravidian BhuiySs of Southern Cbota Nagpur. Both hypotheses may conceivably be correct. We both agree in thinking the Musa­hars a fragment of some Dravidian tribe recently and imperfectly absorbed into the Hiadu caste system; and if this main point be conceded, it is not very important to determine from which of the known Dravidian tribes the fragment was broken off.

The meaning and deiivation of the name Musahar have often been discussed, and Mr. Nesfield has the following remarks on the subject:—

" The name given to the tribe in this essay has been spelt throughout as MusMra, which is a slight departure from the spelling or spellings hitherto adopted in English books. The name has been supposed to he made up of two Hindi words signifying ' rat-taker.' Hence in Buchanan's Eastern India they are described as a people ' who have derived their name from eating rats.' But rat-catching or rat-eating is by no means the peculiar, or even a prominent, characteristic of the tribe; and the name in Upper India at least is pronounced by the natives of the country as Mushera, and not as Miisahar (rat-taker) or Musarhii (rat-killer). In an old folk-tale which has recently come to my knowledge, the name is made to siguify Hesh-seeker or hunter, being derived from masu,' flesh,' and hem, ' seeker,' and a legend is told as to the event which led to the tribe being driven to maintain itself by hunting wild animals. This is a more comprehensive title than rat-catcher besides resting on better aiithority. Probably, however, both deriva­tions _ are fanciful,—Hindi versions of a name which is not o£ Hindi origin. I t is certam that the more isolated members of the tribe, who still speak alangua<?e of their own unconnected with Hindi call themselves by a name which sounds like Mushera • and it is not likely that men who have presorved their original speech con' tinuously for so ma,ny centuries would have designated themsplvM by a name borrowed from a foreign language. cxuseivoa

" There are one or two other names by which the tribe is known besides Mushera. In all the districts of Oudh in wliioh the tribe is found, they are commonly, and in some nliPo, «vl ,,«IVR1V W n by the title of Banmanush or man ofThe forelt ^ ^^^^..^(.nush is of purely l lmdi o.igin; a n d l o u g h ntended Z. 1 ^^™ of reproach applied by Hmdus to a people from

t y M u & \ T ^ ' T " ' " T r i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ has b J r aocep ted i>y muBii^ras themselves, many of whom scarcely know themselves

115 MUSAHAE.

by any other title, and all of whom are entirely ignorant of its origin and meaning. Other names, less commonly known or used, are Deosiyd, derived from their great ancestor Deosi; Banraj, or king of the forest, a less contemptuous, or perhaps an ironical, form of the name Banmanush; and Alaskhan, or eater of flesh, another form of the name Masehra or Mushera. Sometimes, if a Mushera is asked to which of the great Indian castes he belongs, he will tell you that he is an Ahir, or rather a subdivision of Ahir, the caste of cowherd; and he appears to be rather anxious to have his title to this honour recognized. But in point of fact he has no claim to any such Hneage. Musheras are the hereditary enemies of Ahirs, as all their legends testify, and many are the petty raids that they have made against them for the possession of cattle and forest."

I am myself inclined to believe that the popular etymology "rat-catcher" or rat-eater is the true one, and that the word is an opprobrious epithet bestowed by the Hindus on the Caste with reference to their fondness for eating field-rats. From Vedie times down to the present day we find the promiscuous habits of the non-Aryans in respect of food exciting the special aversion of the Aryan colonists and forming the basis of depreciatory names which tend to sup­plant the original tribal designation. I t can hardly be expected that the givers of contemptuous names should be guided by a nice sense of scientific precision, and would stop to consider whether the practice of eating rats was really the peculiar or prominent characteristic of a particular tribe. The nickname would be bestowed at random, and it is conceivable that even iu the same part of the country it might be conferred uj)on several different tribes.

The internal struotm-e of the caste is shown in Appendix I. So far as I can ascertain, the onlv sub-castes are

InternalBtructure. Ti^hutia and Maghaiya, and it is doubtful whether the distinction between these amounts to true endogamy or represents anything more than the fact that marriage between families living on opposite sides of the Ganges is comparatively uncommon. The divisions iiikhmun and Balakmun appear now to be pui-ely titular groups, which bear no definite relation to maniage. I t is a plausible conjecture that they were at one time exogamous sections, which broke up into smaller groups and thus lost their exogamous character. On the north of the Ganges the system of exogamy followed by the Tirhutia, Musahars is very elaborate, and a man may not marry a woman belonging to his own section, or the sections of which his mother and his paternal and maternal grand­mothers were members. If, again, the excluded ascendants of a particular couple happened to be of the same section, the marriae;e is forbidieiij although the boy and girl themselves belong to different sections. Among the more primitive Musahars further south tho fii-mnlpr rule prevails that a man may not marry a woman of his r™

£ This is the case also among the Bhuiyas; and t h e , ; ' ' ' ' ^ to be grounds for inspecting that the minute regulations y,Zh't^ TirhutidMusahars affect to observe have been lono^^'ilf..^^^-from sfme of their Hmdu neighbours. ^J them

h 2

MUSAHAE. 116

On the north of the Ganges, Tirhutia Musahars are said to practke infant-marriage; while in Shahabad

Mamage. J.^j^ ^ ^ usually not married until they have passed the age of puberty, and sexual intercourse before marriage is said to be tolerated. A bride-price of Es. 2 is paid for a virgm, but the tender is reduced to half if there are reasons to doubt her integrity. The marriage ceremony is based on the Hindu model, and does not difier materiaUy from that in vogue among other low castes in Behar. The well-known formula—

Gangd ka pani samundar ki sank Bar Kanya jag jag anand (May Ganges water and sea-shell betide Enduring bliss to bridegroom and to bride)

is recited by one of the elders present, and water and rice are sprinkled on the bridegroom's head. The bride is then lifted by her mother, and the bridegroom marks her forehead five times with vermilion. Consummation follows at once, and the maiiied couple usually leave for the bridegroom's house next day.

Polygamy is said to be unknown. The remarriage of widows ' by the saijai form is permitted, and is not fettered by the common condition requiiiug the widow to marry her late husband's younger brother. Divorce is allowed, ^vith the sanction of the caste pan-chdyat, for infidelity on the part of the wife. The husband breaks in two a piece of dried grass (khdr) in the presence of the panchayat, and formally renounces his wife by saying that in future he will look upon her as his mother. Divorced women may marry again by the ritual appoiuted in the case of widows.

The rehgion of the Musahars illustrates with remarkable Eoli "on clearness the gradual transformation of the

*'^ ' fetichistio animism characteristic of the more primitive Bravidian tribes into the debased Hiuduism practised in tho lower ranks of the caste system. Among the standard gods of the Hindu Pautheon, Kdli alone is admitted to the honour of regular worship. To her the men of the caste sacrifice a castrated coat and the women ofier five wheaten cakes with prayers that her favour may be ^hown o them m the pains of childbirth. In parts of Gva a:id Eazanhagh an eariier stage of her worship may be obserc.d Her shx-me stands at the outsknts of the village, L d she L regardei as a sort of local goddess, to be appeased on oceasinn K F ! f),« Thakurani Mai of the Hill Bhuiyas, bV the sacrifice oTaho^ l U s curious to observe that the defiuite acceptance of Iv-'.li - ^ " u t the Hindu system seems rather to Imve detracted f r l f l ^ " " ' " " " f in which she was held before she assumed this 0 1 ' ? - f "'it^.l poalion. Her transformation into a Hindu 3 « " ' '^^ Tn have rendered her less niHlignant. Her w.a>hm ^ifn '? ' ' T % blv m t forwojd as the leading feature of the M t t t f g l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ looked upon more as a tribute to social resBectSiSy than aa a

T a L ; t ' ^ ' ^ ' " " ' " f \ 7 ^ ' P '-^«"^l S L I K I U , or Debi Mai, as she is commonly called, may be appeased by an occasional

117 MUSAHAR.

sacrifice, but the Birs require to be kept constantly in good humour, or they may do serious mischief. The six Birs or heroes known as Tulsi Bir, Eikmun, Earn Bir, Bhawar Bir, Asan Bir, and Oharakh Bir are believed to be the spirits of departed Musahars who exercise a highly malignant activity from the world of the dead. Eikmun is often spoken of as the purka or ancestor of the caste, and when a separate sacrifice is offered to him the worshipper recites the names of his own immediate forefathers. On ordinary occasions the Birs are satisfied with offerings of sweetmeats prepared in ghi, but once in every two or three years they demand a collective sacrifice of a more costly and eluborate character. A pig is provided, and coimtry liquor, with a mixture of rice, molasses, and milk is offered at each ot a number of balls of clay which ai-e supposed to represent the Birs.' Then a number of Bhakats or devotees are chosen, one for each Bii', with the advice and assistance of a Brahman, who curiously enough is supposed to know the mind of each Bir as to the fitness of his minister. The shaft of a plough and a stout stake being fixed in the ground, crossed swords are attached to them, and the Bhakats liaving worked themselves up into a sort of hypnotic condition, go through a variety of acrobatic exercises on the upturned sword-blades. If they pass through this uninjured, it is imderstood that the Birs accept the sacrifice. The pig is then speared to death with a sharp bamboo stake, and its blood collected in a pot and mixed with country liquor. Some of this compoimd is poured forth on the ground and on the balls of clay, while the rest is drunk by the Bhakats. The ceremony concludes with a feast in which the worshippers partake oi the offerings.

The Musahars have not yet attained to the dignity of keeping Brnhmans of their own, though they call iu

Priesthood. Brahmaiis as experts to fix auspicious days for marrioges and important religious ceremonies, to assist in naming children, and even to interpret the will of characteristic Musahar deities like the Birs In the matter of funeral ceremonies the tendency is to imitate Hindu usage. A meagre version of the standard srdiidh is performed about ten days after death, and once a year, usually in the month of October, regular oblations are made for the benefit of deceased ancestors. I t deserves notice that with Musahars, as ^vith Doms, the sister's son of the deceased officiates as priest at the srddM.

The social status of the caste is pretty closely defined by the

Social status ^^'^^ ^^"'^ ^^^^ "^^^ ^^* ' "^^ ^^'^ °^ ^°0<i ^ i t h • all Hmdu castes except Chamars, Dosadhs,

Dhobi, Dom, and Mihtar, but Doms alone will take food from them In matters of diet they have few scruples, eating pork, fowls, frogs' tortoises, alligators, jackals, cats, wild and tame snakes, snails, and various sorts of lizards, particularly the gosamp or iguana, '•\vbil field-rats are esteemed a special delicacy. Beef and ' the flesh f

I gonie spoak o£ the balls as the " houses" of the Uira, but tVi t. l,» n modern refinement on the primitive idea, which reooam,„„ ^^^, Seems tion between the god himself and the fetish which representsti^ "" ^^^tinc!

MUbAHAR. 118

horses and donkeys they liold to be forbidden. In the North-West Provinces, according to Mr, Nesfield, the Dolkirha or palanquin-bearing Musahars eat horse flesh and keep fowls, while the P a h i n and Dehati sub-tribes abstain from both, and regard the horse as a tabooed animal, w hom it is sin for a ilusahar to touch. The Paharis, however, eat beef when they can get it, and are only doteired from extensive cattle-hfling by their fear of the pugnacious grazier castes. Musahars are skilled, too, above other men in the knowledge of forest products, and use for food a number of roots, leaves, and fruits of which the'ordinary Hindu knows nothing. They will not, however, cut or injure the ha)har tree, which is also held sacred by the Chamars. , , .

In Behar the bulk of the caste are field-labourers and palanqmn-bearers, and only a few have attained to tbo

Occupation. dignity of cultivating on their own account, or have become possessed of occupancy rights, Tiu'ther west the bill Musahars, described by Mr. Nesfield, " do not even know the use of the plough." but bum patches of forest and raise email crops in the ashes. Wherever the caste is found they strive to eke out the scanty yield of their agricultural laboui-s by a variety of semi-savago pursuits, their heritage from more primitive modes of life. The rearing of tatar silkworms, collecting stiok-lao, resin and gum, making catechu, supplying Baidyas and Pansaiis with indigenous di'ugs, stitching leat plates and cutting wood for sale—all these may bo reckoned among the characteristic occupations of the Musahar. "Wo may add the watching of fields and crops by night, which Mr. Nesfield shrewdly connects with the notion that the Banmanush, or "man of the foiest" (a common designation of Musahars), is best able to propitiate the primeval deities whose ancient domain has been invaded by the plough. A.n interesting parallel may be found in Colonel Dalton's statement that in Keonjhar, Bonai, and other Tributai-y States to tho south the Bhuiyas, whom I hold to be the parent tribe from which the Musahars have sprung, " retain in their own bands the priestly duties of certain old shrines to the exclusion of Brahmans." The whole subject of the occupations

t . X S S i S a b t m T n t r p ^ ''"^ ^ ^ " " ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' - ^ -

MusaT^s 'SS^feifdt^^^^^ ^'^ ' ""^^ ' '"^^ ^-^"^-t ion of

Surdven S4-P»rganSs -Mntfchtdabad l)mnjj)ur

Brgro narjilinc ' •ndpur Mainmiinnli

3I»lii«h '' fatim

Gva bhahabad Tirhut Jf'"''ff<'rpur Snrnn '•"'"^^m<^ fhamparan

I'liniial,

jlnwiribagf, " ^

CO 805 10.117

81,008

2C,S11 i i^r.s ' .

69,»»7 20,01+ 10.359

fit

l ( i217 1\J\ t

6(1,'--iS

SS.O"! S

7»,r.H'* 31,! i5 1*,M8

8,763

IvroSALMANIi'i.

Musalmania or Tio'k-Naua, a sub-caste of Ilajjams in Behar who are Mahomedans.

Musamifi, a section of Kamrir-kalla Sonars in Behar.

Musawir, a painter.

Mushahar, a subdivision of Bhuiyas—low Bhuiyas as distin­guished from the higher Ghatwal Bhuiyas. The former take ser-%ice, while the latter do not.

Mush rif, an honorary title of Kayasths in Bengal.

Musipur, a group of Maghaiy^ Telis in Bengal.

Mustaufi, an honorary title of Kayasths in Bengal.

119 MTTTEIAE.

Musuhang, the lowland chief, a sept of the Phedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Mutabar, a title of Kapalis, signifying a headman of the panchdyat of the caste.

Mutai, a tliar or sept of Damis in Darjiling whose chief profes­sion is sewing.

Muth&, a section of Kordnch KAndus; a title of headman among the Kandh tribe in Orissa.

Muthbdri, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Mutri, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Wlutriar, a sept of Lohdrs in Chota Nagpur.

A'ABIB:. 120

•NAGAE.

I^^bik. a title of Kaibarttas.

title of Bangaja

N

^^^d. a ••^aj-asths.

Nadhia, a section of Go^Ms in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Nadi Samp, river snake, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpui-.

Ndg, "snake," a totemistio section of the Kumhar, Koiri, and Eajwar castes in Chota Nagpur, the members of which will not touch or kill a snake; a title of Kayasths; of the Aut sub-caste of Gandhahaniks; a totemistio section of Nunias; a family title of Kashta Baidyas; a section of Binjhiis, Barais, Baruis, Eautias; a totemistic sept of Ahirs, Bairagis, Bedias, Birhors, Chamdrs, Bhuiy^s, Kbar-wdrs, and Nigesars in Chota Nagpur; a section of Go^Ms and

S a n t a ] s ; ^ a t l t l e ^ ' f ^ t r h " ? ' ° ' section of ifals in ^„ i ' "• septofBhumii TVr -Banku.a; a L o h a r s , P a X ; •S' '^' ' ^"^"t^Is-

of Ma^aS^taj:^:"^^ otitis ' - a k e d ; ^ W - 3 t i o n f ^ , /

gious mendicant^ rvf °* ^^U-

cultivation, elll 7 ^^'"^ ^ ^^Bte, and a r e r e J J T l ' ^ ^ ^ ^ "•

<^^m, a small cultivatin

the ^«s^.^« ,,,,, a?V'^^^J^Oee,^rn^" '*^ '^ ' -or igin^^ are system and inoper^tL f'°'^-^^«i0 b o ^ ^ T P'-ofesses to i ) °'^°^«. They are di'vided S ' fi * ^ P»'Posro7'^ f^'" the Brab «"& to

e Derations m the descending )•' ""'»><^>-d, Z ^«^ niarriage ^oth mfant and adult-marmV ' ^'^loulated to

^'^ ^ ^ - ^ - ^ low-e s t e ' T , ? e ' r T V e \ : < o f Th'e fi^SI ste type, «>,r/,,^„.„ J^.^arnage ceremony is of "S its essential portion.

NAGAU. 121 iNAGER.

Widows may marry again by the sagai form, and ore subject to no restrictions in their choice of a husband. Divorce is not permitted.

In their religious and ceremonial observances NAgars do not appear to depart materinlly from the standard

^ ^°°- ordinances of popular Hinduism. They employ Brahmans as their priests, who are received on terms of equality by other members of the sacred order.

Their social status is low, and they rank just above the Dosadhs, -nith whom they will smoke, using the same

boc.£d status. hookah. Neither Brahmans nor members of the castes from whom Brahmans can tnke water will accept water from the hands of a Ndgar. Some few have risen to the position of tenure-holders, but the large majority of the caste are occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats and landless day-labourers.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Nagars in 1872 and 1881:—

DiBTBICT.

Murshedabad Dinijjpur Jnlplgori Sbab'ibitd Uarbbanga Champiirun

1872.

2 GOG

1,25J

1 8 8 1 .

2 , 461 i

B4

""•473 171

- D j s T n i O T .

1 Monchyr BhAualpur Piiriiiah Maldnh eant&l Pargan&s

' 1872.

7.'-76 3,998 2,86S

211

I 1881 .

9,784 2,2S4 1.0,10

12,S1» 217

Nagar, a hypergamous group of Maitbil Brahmaus ; in Behar a synonjTn for Nat, q.v.

Nayarchi, a s jnonjm for Ddmi in Darjiling.

Nagare-Chhut^r, a sub-caste of Sutradhars in the Santdl Par-ganas.

Nagari^, a section of the Banodhia and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

N^gasd, an eponymous section of _ Karans and Khanddits in Orissa.

Nag^san, a inul or section of the ISaomulid or Goria sub-caste of Godlas in Behar.

Nagasya, a section of Telis in Chota Nagpur.

fNJagbans, cobra, a totemistic sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

N^gbansi, (i) in Behar a sec­tion of Bdhhans and also of

Dosddhs and Nagars; a sept of Eajputs; a title of TambuJis; (ii) in Chota Nagpur a sub-tribe of pseudo-Rajputs, probably of Dra-vidian descent, to which the Maharaja of Chota Nagpur belongs; a title of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Nfigbansi Munda, a sub-tribe of Muudas in Chota Nagpur.

N^gbasriar, a section of Kur-mis in Chota Nagour and Orissa.

Nag-Chhang Shakzang, a syn­onym for Sherpa Bhotia of Nepal.

N^gduar, a water insect, totemistic sept of Mundas Chota Nagpur.

Da^S'^^^P^^^'^W . -A'aj/er, a maker of stn^, »

rings, an occupation fnli ^^ ^^^ Maliomedans. *«1 W e d by

a in

in

NAGESAE. 122 NXIAR.

/ lagcsav, Nagasia, Khm, a small Dravidian tribe of Chota Nagpur, described by Colonel Dalton as of dark complexion, short Btatui-e, and very ugly features. They have two sub-tribes, one ot which uses vermilion sindtir) in their marriage ceremony, while the other substitutes oil. The names Sendara and Telia have reference to this practice. Their sections bear totemistio names which occur among tlie Mundas and among many other Dravidian tribes. According to Colonel Dalton adult-marriage is in yosuo, but matches are arranged by the parents. The standard bride-price is two baskets of rice and one rupee in cash.

In Sarguja the Nagesar worship the sun with offerings of white • cocks, and sacrifice goats to Shikaria deota, but their chief god is said to be the tiger. In Jashpur they swear by the tiger, but do not worship him, and their chief god is Moihidhunia, to whom fowls are offered every year at.d a buffalo once in three years. Thoy also recognize Darha, the village god of the Mundas, and keep the Sarhed festival like them.

Nahadia, a section of Go^Ms in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Nah-dik, a sub-sept of the Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris or ]3hotias of the south.

Nah-pai a riii or sept of Shei"pa Bhotias of Nepal.

Naheri, a title of Hajjdms in Behar.

Nahlibo, ho who chased his wife, a sept of the Miakhola sub-tribe of Limbua in Davjiliug. The story is that the wife of the founder of the tliur ran away from him, but ho caught her and brought her back and afterwards had a large family by te r .

Nageswar, a mul or section of the Cliliamulid Madhesia sub-caste of Ualwiiis in Behar.

Nagh, a mul or section of the Ghosin. sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Nagneswar, a mul or section of the Chhamuli& Madhesia sub-caste of Ualwais in Behar.

Nagpuria, a sept of Birhors in Chota Nagpur.

Nagra, a mid or section of the Sutmuli^ or Eashnaut sub-caste of Goul'ds in Behar.

Nagraj, a mul or section of the (jorid feub-caste of Goalas in Bobar.

Nagrishi, snake, a totemistio section of_ the Parip^l sub-caste of Sunris in Manbhum; a section of Mayariis and Subamabaniks in Bengal.

Nagrua, a kind of mud, a totemibtio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur,

, Naguria, a sept of Hos and Sautals. . Naha, Naha, a title of Baruis m •Western Bengal; a title of ilangaja Kayasth? in Bengal.

Nahmah-p4, a rui or sept of the Ruioldnig sub-tribe of Deione Lhons or Bhotias of the south.

NA! a. syiionym for Napit in B e u g a l a n d f o r l I a J 3 ^ ^ i ^ S , r .

iV«/a, the village priest in t ^ ; ; ™ ^ a l o r g L X n of a

rfaiar, a section of the Bahan-"fJ^ti sub-casto of Khatris m iiengal.

NAIGEAMI. 123 NAMBON.

Naigrami, a f/ain of the Sa-barna (jotra of 13dreudi-a Brah-mans in Bengal.

Naik Sans. Nayaka), leader, a title of Acharji or astrological Brahmans in Orissa; of Khan-daits in Chota Nagpur and Orissa; of the Dhusia sub-caste of Chamars in Behar; of Kai-barttas in Bengal; of (Jhasi'is and Kewats in Orissa ; of Mai Paha-rias, Rajputs, and TeHs in Behar; of Kharias, Binjhias, Ghasis, Chiks, Paturias, and Tehs

Ohota Nagpur ; also a section of Suuris in Behar.

N^iki-Khil, a sub-sept of the Ilansda, liemrom, Marndi, and Tudu septs of Santals.

Naimba, a coolie class in Nepal. Naini, a woman who performs

the duties of a Naia or village priest.

Naitam, a sept of Oonds iu Ohota Nagpur.

Naithung, a sept of Tipperahs iu the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong,

in <\MVi a smaU Dravidian caste found only in Bhagalpur. ^ U i r a , a ^™''" . to t e totomistic, and tms fact,

^ I ' T S their b e ^ r K h e t & u j a h a , leads me to regardthem r i c t T e i r m o d byTho fortuitous Aggregation of a number of as a °'' '='l- .°f™ ,"•,.• fl, of tho aboriginal forest deities, into an endog-fmo^i^gro";? i S f a r ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ of this process having taken place n n d r 4 y similar conditions, see the article on ^ m u l l t . A sub-unaer M-Ij^ » ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ perhaps owing

t " t i s ° t h S th^Ndyas wa-e not separately enumerated in the Census

of 1881. Naiy^, a sub-caste of Kadars;

a section of the Kadar caste m Behar wHoh intemarries w t u aU the other sections except tne Marik, Hazari, Naiya, Kampti, and BSre.

Nakat, a section of Oswils. Nakhuda, a commnndor of a

vessol, a title of Gourhis m Behar.

_ Naknesa, a section of Madhe-sia llalwais iu Behar.

Nakutwar, a ninl of the Kau-sika section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Nalakhia, a section of the Biyaluit and Kharidahd Kalwars in "Behar.

Naisi) a gain or sub-section Saptasati Brahmaus in

Nalu, a title of Baugaja Kdyasths iu Bengal.

Nama, a synonym for Chand.'il. Namadhani , a title of Chan-

dais in Eastern Bengal who live on agriculture.

Namah, short for Nama Sud-ra, a title of Chandals iu Bengal.

Namahata, a title of Brah­mans and Kayasths iu Bengal.

Namang-po, a mi or sejDt of Dejong Lhoris, the members of which are of a low mixed origin.

Nama Siidra, a synonym for Chaiidal.

Ndmdtd, a synonym for Lobars in Manbhum who serve as servants to local zamindars.

Nambochha, a i/iar or sept f Khambus in Daijilinw,

of Bengal. ^ I n ' / J v;' ." ""ft c

M„l Tivar, a sub-caste of J nn-po sept of Deiono T.b ^ • TI<.,I< 'I1 I Bhotiaa of thn «,.„u. "^ ^'^

Tiyars m Bengal.

Nambon, a sub-sept o* t^. ra-po sept of Dejop'- T i • ^

Bhotias of the south.

6

oris or

XiMDUNG. 12i KAPIT.

Namdung, a that- or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Namjali, a thar or eept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Nam-tsang-koba, a riu'or eept of the Bedtshan-gye sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Ndmzingmung, a sept of Lep-chas in Darjilirlg.

N^.naksii, a gain or sub­section of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

NdnaJcshdhi, a worshipper of Gruru Nanak,' a synonjTn for Sikh.

Nanda, a group of the Srotriya Euh-caste of Utkal Brahmans.

Nandan, a title of Bangaja Kd3 asths.

Nandanabasi, a gain of the Sdndilya goty-a of Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Nandark, a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Nandbansi, a sub-caste of Goalas in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Nandi, a gain of the Sahama goira of Rarhi Brahmans in Bengal; a family title of Kashta Bnidyas, Baruis, Kaj asths, Mayaras, Napits, Sankharis, Subarnabaniks, Tantis, and Tills in Bengal.

N^ndi, a section of the Bahan-najati sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

Nandigr^mi, a gain of the Bharadwaja goira ot Bdrendi-a Brahmans in Bengal.

Nandkiridr, a section of Kdyasths in Behar.

Nangesicari, a class of mendi­cants who go about naked.

Nangtoyar, a section of Kur-mis in Chota Nag pur and Orissa who give childien their first rice naked.

Nanid, a section of GodMs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Naniar, a section of Kharids in Chota Nagpur.

Nanjora, a section of Bdbhans in Behar.

Nank^r, a section of the Dhengar sub-caste of Gareris in Behar.

Naomulid or Majraut, a sub-casto of Godlds in Behar.

Naorakhid, a section of Bhojpm-ia Halwdis in Behar.

Naphak, a diigu or section of the Kochh-Mandai in Dacca. The name indicates the original habitat of the group, probably a liill or village in Assam, and now-a-days has no bearing upon marriage.

j ^ a p i t , the barber caste of Bengal, descended, accordino- to one opinion, from a Kshatriya father and Sudra mother, and according to Paiasara from a Kuv — •'•'^~~ Some, again, ascribe the

Origin.

father and a Pattikdr mother en caste to an act of special creation on the part of Siva, undertaken to provide for the cutting of his wife's nails. Several differeut versions of this myth are current, all of which are too childish to be worth quoting here. The caste is clearly a functional group, formed in all probability from the members of respectable castes who iu difl'erent parts of the country adopted the profession of barbers

Ndpits are divided into the following sixteen suh-cas tes : -

'•>ten.utn...„e. ^ I i^Sakshln^ifu^-""^' BSrendra Uttar-j . u . •'^'^"'' L'akS'iin.pa^j^. p ,i rarhi, Mah-

muddbdz, Saptagrdm, Sdtghand, Khotta. Theio are two sub-castes

125

Sustworthy tradit.on ^ f ; j / 2 ; , ; 3 \ ; p e a r to ^indicate that they of these groups, but then: « JW ^^^ refer to the early are based upon temtoiaal distoction , The TJttar-rdrhi settlements of certaxu ^^^^^^^^^^"J j Dakshin and Pasehim-rdrbx. claim to he of higher y f J ^ ^ , X l L h tale that one of their ancestors and support their cla.m by J« ^^f^^^^^, .have the Kaja of Nad.ya was so skilful an operator that he ^ e a ^^ ^

without waking W I ^ i ^ - K P ' ^ i o , that neither he nor brs a laree grant of land, ^ ^ h tne mjuu j ^^ of low destSdfnts should touch ^h^J-^^^^^^^ ' ^ T K I U S and Mauliks caste. The t ^ ^ t t h e ^ i i v s t n s S e not strictly hypergamo^, and among them; ^ ' ^ V r n l ^ v a Kulin woman, an arrangement wboUy a Maulik man may ^ ^ ^ " 2 „ , t r which regularly practise Kuhnisru. impossible among the . ^ ' ^ S - J u fprof ession of the caste, but make S r p u r i d N d p i t s d o - £ ^ : i ' ^ ^ r £ n d s of clerical work. Many their living by t^'^de-'^'^^f ,"1 i,, and mu/>arrirs in the managernent of them are ^^^P^^yd 3"', J o^s, which are shown in Appendix I, of landed property^ The sectio.^,^^ ^.^^^ ^^^ Brahmans; and the

l.ave for the most P- ^ be^^^.^ei „„,ong MahmudabAz Ndpits throvv exceptions to this r ub ob^«^ the caste as a whole. The theory is no light upon the ongm ^ ^.^^^^ ^^ j^j^ ^^^ ^^i,,,. but this that a man may ^o^^tQ-^be very strictly observed, and marriage prohibition appears no counting prohibited degrees. L regulated for t^ ; «^f J ^ P L t l between the ages of from six to teii

Gills are married as m ^ ofegsional matchmaker ghaiah) 1 1 ' ino- to the Napit caste, or one of the

Mama^. ^ f ° X t l i S l y finds lui a sui'table match and friends of the ^ " ^ S . T y negotiations. A formal visit is then carries on the preliminary . ^^^ ^^^ ^^p^^^ ^^ ^^ paid by the bridegroom ^ V J^^^ ti^n of bride-pnce pan) tride and settling the 1 P^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^ ^ ^ (, , ^^-^^ the amount of whicnis^b^P|^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Q . The guardians of the it may rise as higU • ^^^ bridegroom. On these occasions small bride also visU ana inbp^^^^ ^ ^ ^ fresh fish, milk, etc., are exchanged, presents of b e t e l - i e a ^ e . . ^ ^ ^^^^ agreed to, the guardians of the The amount ot P"'\^. bfessing (dsirbad) on the bride and present bridegroom bestow " 'e» j , ^ jj-^^. ,g ^^ the same for the her with some "I't'o'e "J.^^ ^ ^ 1 ,^^^ ^^^e of the wedding bridegroom and give him ^^^ ^^ i ^ . ^.^

is then fixed, '^"'^.^^'^>'^\ridegroom himself, and the bride througli

" ^ " ^ d i t r S rm '^«'^''«'^-^' - « ^ ^ " ^ - ^^^ P'opitiatiou of t £ her gu'^rdiam^peitorm^^^^ on the next day by ad/ubds, when the

^''•'f .room, copiously anointed with turmeric and mustard oil, wear-^''•'*^'!rclotbes, and having his i^ight wrist bound round with cotton i"g f'\:U grass, sits on a wooden seat, while a basket coutaimne and blaoc ^ . —— g

" - '•" .verities reeard the Madhnnapit as a sub-castj of barV.»,.„ n-i, • ' So««;,fe; "e^ts Jely on an obscure tradition, and I have p t f e r r e ^

NAPIT. 126

five saucers (pmdip) for burning oil, five lumps of colom-ed earth, a looking-glass, a small wooden box (Icotua), some vermilion, turmeric, paddy, and grass is cai-ried seven times round him by a married^ woman whose husband is alive. The basket, witla the things in it, is carefully kept that it may bo taken next day to the bride's house.

On the wedding day the bridegroom is seven times rubbed with mustard oil and turmeric; and after bathing is dressed in a red silk wrapper. Towards evening he is taken in a palanquin with much discordant music to the bride's house, where the women of the family receive him and carry the basket already referred to round him seven times, touching him with it on the forehead at each turn, and crying tilu via for good luck.

The bride and bridegroom, botl) diessed in rod silk, are then conducted to the chhaya-mandap or ceremonial canopy, which is set up m the courtyard. A sketch plan of this, sliowmg approximately the relative positions of the chief parties to the ceremony, is given

a

a d c

h /

b

" "Vessels of water covered with maugo bougli . 6 Tall shoots of bamboo draun togellicr ut the lop .Q n. *

the centraUater vessel. ^' ° 15 to meet over "-e Line, of cotton thread joining the bamboos at about Rve feet from

*a "Pu X •^'^^ ground. , d Th ^ ' ° *^ms fixed in the ground. e Tl,! ?".' egroom, facing east. i^Th^fet^'^^^'^-. facing north.

' ^'^''^^'^beMadngthebridcand prououucng thcGaur-vacUana dbcourae.

127 NA'PIT.

The loading persons being placed as shown above, the priest dictates certain mantras or sacred texts, whioh a-re repeated by the bridegroom the bride, and her father m turn, while the bnde places her hands, palm downward, on the pahns of the bridegroom, where a silver coin or some small fruit has been previously placed. This ioining of the hands completes the ceremony, and it remains only for the barber to repeat to the wedded pair Gaur-vao^a»a, an admonitory discom-se about the marriage of Siva and Parvati, having for its moral the duty of subm.ttmg to one another and of bearing with each other's infirmities of temper. The bride and bridegroom are then taken to the bdsarghar,^ a room in the house where they spend the night in the company of a number of young marnod ^omen, friends of the hmily, ^'ho enjoy the privilege of tormen i n -the bride-room vdlh all manner of small witticisms and practical iokes Early next morning the bride is taken m procession to the bridegroom's house, where she stays for a week and consummation usually takes place. At the end of that time she returns to her father's house and stays there untd finally fetched by the bridegroom a year or so afterwards.

Polvgamy is permitted, and there seems to be no theoretical limit to the number of ^ ives a man may have. In practice, hoAvover, most people content themselves with one Divorce is allowed on the irround of uiicliastity with the sanction of the panchayat, a powerful and woll-orsanized body, who summon both husband andwife before them and inquire into the facts. If the panchayat decline to grant a divorce their orders are enforced and the husband compelled to take his wife back by the penalty of excommunication.

Most Ndpits are Vaishuavas, and comparatively few Saktas or Saivas are found among the caste. They

Eciigion. employ Brahmans as priests, who are received on enual terms by other members of the sacred order. The dead are burned, and srckklh performed in the orfhodox fashion on the thirty-first day after death. . • i • i a,, • , - , • ,

The social standing of the caste is high. Ihoy are included iu the standard couplet of Parc^isara defining

Social btatus. ^]^Q Nabasakh group, and Brahmans will take water from their hands. Their own rules regarding diet are the same as are followed by most respectable Umdus. Vaishnava Napits do not eut fiesh, but as a rule allow themselves fish, except the ndueii, (i/idnid pdnqurd, hdyhdr, and gajar. Some, however, afl'ect special purity by abstaining from all kinds of animal food Saktas, on the other hand, may take mutton and the flesh of goats which Ijave been sacrificed, liululgouce in spirituous or fermented liquors is supposed to bo prohibited, but iu practice this question seems to depend more upon individual tastes than upon any general rule.

In Bengal, as elsewhere in India, the barber is an indispensaljlo member of the \illage community, and tl

Occupation. ^^^^^ ^f^g^ descends from father to son, carr

with it ill so"^^ ^^^^^ ' ^"^"^ oUotment of service land, hold reut5iM°

r^ /Uscrintion of a typical scene in tlie BasarsharTspT^!^

i..;jmaS^^^^^^^ - - p p . 05 Hot-

N.AIPIT. 128

or at a low quit-rent. In large towns they work independently, and there is no regulation against their following their occupation wherever they like. As a rule, the working classes only shave every eight days, but the higher ranks do so every four, sometimes every second day. For shaving every four days, eight annas a month is usually charged, and for a single shave one paisd, which also includes the charge for ear-cleaning, nailparing, shampooing, and cracking each joint of the body. In the houses of the rich the barbership is often a hereditary post, as is that of the purohit, dhoba, and ddi, while he, like them, has i'vee access to all parts of the house during the day. The barber pares the nails of Hindu females as well as males, and his presence is required at all domestic occurrences. Tho day a child is born he pares the mother's nulls, and returns on tho ninth and thirtieth days to repeat the operation. At the houses of Muhamadans he is only present on the sixth day, the chhatln. For these services he is given pulse, rice, oil, salt, turmeric, and two paisd, the rich generally adding a piece of cloth and a rupee. At marriages, as has been mentioned above, his presence is essential, and for some castes he performs the functions of a priest. His wife, unlike the Hajjamin ot'.Behar and Upper India, has usually no occupation in Bengal, but the women of the Saptagrami sub-caste are employed as female barbers.

I n addition to all these vocations, the barber, like his European namesake of the seventeenth century, practises surgery, opening boils and abscesses, inoculating for small-pox, and prescribing in all forms of venereal disease. Often be is also an exerciser of devils, and is called in to cure convulsions in newly-born children by jharna-phunknd, or muttering spells and making passes with a nim branch. When a member of the Napit caste wishes to study medicine, ho is associated with a Kabifc^ij, who is then called Adhyapaka, or tutor. The pupil is not bound as an apprentice, but he must obey his master as implicitly as the disciple his guru. He compounds salves and simples, and daily receives instruction from his teacher. The Napita who practise inoculation for small-pox are generally most reckless, spreading the disease without the slightest consideration for the unprotected. They possess a text-book, Vasanta-tika, but few study it. . , .», J

Ndpits have the reputation of being thrifty and very acute, and many plying their trade in one of the large towns hold land in the country, which is sublet to others. Those who practise medicine often amass considerable wealth and attain great mEuence m rural society. Others, again, make a living by trade ; some few have found their way in Government service and the legal profession; while many devote themselves to agriculture as enure-holders or occu­pancy raiyats, rising in rare cases to the posi on of zammdars. A NapiUowevLr, will on no account lU the so 1 with Im own hands «r «arn his Uviilg by fishi.>g, ^ f ^'^^ ^l\^^^ ^^f Hajjam of Behar, ?«>ept domestic service in the houses of low-^caste men. In Eastern bengal he pc^es as a clean Sudra, condescending to shave Europeans "'Jd Muhamadans but refusing to have anything to do with the '^nnnddl, Bhuinmili and castes of similar standing. He will shave

NAPIT. 129 iS'AE.

a Sunri, but will not pare his nails, and will not attend at the wedding of any but the clean Sudras.

Although the Bengal N^pits, unlike the barber-surgeon of the Middle Ages in Europe, does liis woik more or less in the open air and has no shop where idlers lounge and the plethoric are bled be enjoys much the same reputation for loquacity and spreadino- scan­dal. Constant observation of his neighbours gives him remarkable insight into the character of all ranks in Hiudu society. His expe­rience takes a wider range th.in that of the average villager, and renders him by compaiison a man of the woild, full of anecdote and repaitee, and often gifted with a talent for debate which enables him to take a pi eminent pait in the afTaiis of the community. The seciets of many households are known to him, and, if rumour is to be believed, he plays the go-between in many an intrigue. N.ipits aie veiy clannish, and an insult received by one is resented b' the whole body; while melancholy indeed is the fate of a Hindu who offends his bai'ber. The ^hole dal or union of the village will refuse to sha^e him, and at last, di-iven to desperation, he is glad, by the payment of 041 exorbitant fee, to be restoied to their good graces.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Napits in 1872 and 1881:—

DiSTEICT. 1S72. ISSl DiSIEICT. 1S72 ISSl .

K a r d w n n B a n k u r a Bi iMi i im J l i d n a p i i r H u g h l i H o w r a h 24-Farp ina9 N a d i j a K h u l n a Jej^sore M i u s h e d a b a d Dii ia jpur R « ] s h a b \ e R a n g p u r BoKi-a I 'a t ina . . .

2nn92 7 42S 7 710

42 249

1 22,287 3(, (SGO 21,f!57

'29,CbO 16,1157 11,631

7 949 11,726 3 854

10,b23

17'<97 12,222 8 191

4-1 98 I n,US7 11,151 21,81 i l'> H9 1(), '*» 25 00-2 11 159 12.2U« 8 W,

12'140 1.917

11,08(1

Darj i l ing Jfilpigori Kufl i Keliar Dacca 1 ui idpur Bakargan] * Aramiansiuh T ipporah Chi t tagong NoaVhali Uill Trac t s P u r n n h •MaWnh Suntdl Pargaii&s SiiiRbhum Manbhnm

435 2 605

18 208 12 083 40,044 19,'•75 21,64' 16li!>7 10,52S

4

' 0,357

1,87? 1J,504

Sill 48*4 J.OIS

21-715 1S8'17 ••,! ISO . J ' 7 0i 2^ .0 . . 15,400 12,071

104 11

7,804 14,b7 4

1,123 15,1 I

^dpit, a synonym for Bhandari.

(|l.ir, mt, Nartah, Ndfal,, a dancing and musician caste of Eastern Bengal whom Dr. Wise identifies with the Brahmanioal Kathak of Hindustan mainly on the strength of a tradition that they first came to Dacca in the days of the Nawabs. Another theory of theh- oiigin makes them out to be the same as the Nuri who manulactuie lao bracelets Waid mentions that in his day none of the caste were to be found in Bengal, and that the Biahnaans trace thoir descent from a Malakaraud a female b&di.i. i h e modern Natas, not satisfied with this pedigree, claim to be the oI!spriu„ of Bhaiadw.iju Muni and a dancing girl and nsscit that tlie Ganak Brahmans are sprung from a son of the sime holy man, so ttie >,..ig of Bikrampiir affect to tiace their origin to a dancei baiusKed from India's htaven and condemned to follow his protession on eariji I n

NAR. . 130 NAEAIWE-TEGHEA.

Hmdustan the Kathaks still wear the Brahmanieal cord and confer the Asir-bad, or benediction, on Sudras; but in Bengal the Nars no

nwfZl . ' ? ' , ^ ' ' ^ ' ' '"S^^^^ '' ^^^^^«' ^ei°g few in number, 'were Alflinll!fi AT ^"? ^'°"? "'^' '^ °"s< es, and became degraded. SudraTri-f ^ > ^ f t e requires to support a Brahman of its own, the UZt^ ' ° ? ?^^^ T'^ ^'' '^- '^^^' Nars have one gotra, the latt/r Hfl^^'k *^'"- P'^*^'°^y'^ics are Nandi and Bhakta, by whicb v S PvL " ' ' •'' 1°°^^*™^^ known, but whenever an indi-0 her s S l ?y, T ' ° ' ^1 i ' J'^'^^fi^'i ^3^ the title Ustad. Like a e eeneil lv v ' ? • ' ' ' ' ^ ' ' ' ' *^^ '' ^ ^ ' °^ t ^ t^ r t ie th day. S c i S t o f w T V ^ T 1" ° ' ' ' ' ^ ' " ° ^ ^^^^ ^ P^tit Brahman to E W S I L nT - o l ' ^ ^' '^ '°f *" P ' y '"^ the houses of the Chanddls. r eq iTe? W 1 ' 2 T / ° ' ' 'f''' ^^^ "^ tl^^ir services -are no longer N r o c m n l s a n ' ?• ^' ' '^°™ ^^^°^^ Muhamadans. The Hindu B ^ f u Z X t th7fo . '°"' ' 'P°°'^^°g t° that of the Muhamadan a E a m a ^ a n 1 i ^ ^ ^ Tf ^°"&^t after, as no Hindu will have

m e n ron^ r f " M" ^\' ^ ° " ' " ^ ^^ '"^ Possibly avoid it. dnncin. but o / v « % '• ' ^Xs. then called Bhagtiyas, are taught Samiarda a l T f f ^ T ^ T '"'''^^''"'i t h .y become musicians, or m a Z s ' l ? t t X e ' n n ° ' ' ? " ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ( ^ ^ ^ ' " ^ ° ^ ^ usually Muha-i-hop-keeners T^ t Z'^'' ^^^ ™"^i°' tbey become cultivators or a l t h L S t e J s a m Z ' ; f \ ' ° ? ^^^^^^ g' ^^ «^^ - danced in public, common, but at nre.Pnf T ^ . ^, '''' ' ^^^ °ther Tagrant tribes were among profegsTofrNi '* , '^ ' ' r . ' ' ' ^<l Hindu prostitutes are found t h e l a f t V i r t y Z t ? o ? H ^ M ' - ^^'''^^' b^^^ « tendency within one t e a c b i n / b o v s f n r i n ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ t e to separate into two classes— the Muhamadan B i i T u '^^IPl^jing to them, the other attending «kilf.il musicians and thLT^' ""^^^^ ^''^ ^^^ ^^ttef paid and more dancing girl often P . ^ ^ ^ d (Sampardai) accompanying a popular fomer cfis der t h e H ' ' '^'^- "" twenty rupees a night, while the i^ight's amusement T^^ wellpaid if they get five rupees for one ^'ars are the sf-n, /^®,™usical instruments generally used by the ^^ drum, and t h f \ ? ' ' - ? ' " ' ^ '^"^ ^^^^ varietie! of fiddles,-the Tabla ^"A great venpr^r'^•'"^ ''^ cymbals. Nars treat their instruments laake obeisance bpfr!'°'+u ' ' "^^"^S' on first rising in the morning, to Saraswati a N -n " ^^° the Sri Panchami in Magh, sacred goddess is finished ' 7 ^ ^ ",°^ P^^^ "• °ote until the worship of the rlay, sing, or danop • ^ ^^'^'^^^ women, the Nar women will not people tl]ey still do ^^ P'^'^lic, although at marriages of their own

'•^ 18 nevprfT,oi'„.„ ^ ""J- ™s accusation is d - -^... .^^^j ^,«,« have of late years

this accusation is denied by the caste. " love with

becoming

it is neverthplp« + ., this accusation is denied by the cas ^ dancing j y i r l t - ,^^''t when a Samparda faUs in love with' " Muhamadan.' ? ^'^^^^^ of marrying her is by becomi

Behar. Nara-Sundar , a title of N6-pits in Bengal.

Naraune-Teghra . a .«^^onlie iarasara section ox Brahmans in Behar.

NAEAUNE-SAKTAEAPUR. 131 NAUEIYA.

Naraune-Saktarapur, a mul of the Parasar section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Narauni, (i) a mul or section of the Tinniulia, lladliesirt, and BhojpTirid sub-castes of Ilahvuis in Behar; (ii) a sept of Chandra-bansi Rdjputs.

Narba, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

Nardauchhd, a fhar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Narhan, a dih or oxogam-ous section of the Gharbait sub-caste of Amats in Behai".

Narhatiar, a section of Kdy-asths in Behar.

Ndri, a low class of people who make lac bracelets. Occ.

Narikata, cutters of the navel-string, a sub-caste of Haris. The men cultivate and the women act as nurses [dlidi).

Ndri-tepd, pulse-feeler, a title of Baidyas xised by outsiders.

NariyS, a mel or hypergamous Bub-group of Earhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Narjenare, a sept of the Agnid Bub-tribe of Meches in the Dar­jiling Terai.

Nartoroa, a sub-caste of Kor-•wds in Ohota Nagpur.

Narware-Rdmpur, a mul of the Kdsyapa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Naskar, a title of Brahmans, Kayasths, and Kaibarttas " Bengal. m

Naskarpura, a section Pdtnis in Bengal.

of

Natabaidya, a synonym for Nat.

Natanya, a section of Kumhars in Singblium.

Nath, (i) a lord; master; a title, perhaps ii'onical of, and a syno-njTn for, the Jugi caste in Bengal, (ii) A title of Dakshin-Earhi and Bangaja Kayasths and Subarnabaniks in Bengal. Intermarriage is proliibited within the title, (iii) A section of the Orissa Brahmans. (iv) A title of Binjhias.

Nathan, a sub-caste of Bdruis in Bengal.

Nathji , a title of Jugis in Bengal.

Nathur, a title of Edjputs in Singbhum.

Nau, Nana, a synonym for Napit in Bengal and for Hajjdm in Behar.

Naua, a sub-tribe of Tharus in Nepal.

Nauakuri, a section ofKurmis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

Nauhatta, a sub-caste of Beldars in Behar.

I lau lmt t i in , a Nepal caste who work as carpenters.

Nau-lakh Ekatnbu, a synonym for Khambu.

Nauli-Karan, a sub-caste of Karans in Orissa.

Nauniy^r, a synonym or variant" ior Eauniar, whicli is a sub-caste of Baniyas ^ Behar.

• Nauriya, a section of thn Bansphor sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

i 2

NAUTANA. 132 NIDEi^LI.

Nautana, a sub-caate of Kum-hdrs ID Jessoie.

Nauthni, a sept of Cbandra-bansi Eajputs in Bebar.

Navadwip, a samaj or local group of the Bharadwija gotra of PascMtya Baidik Brabmans in Nadiya.

Nawalpuria. a sept of the Bautar sub-tribe of Thdrus in Bebar.

Naya, priests (-worshippers of the titular deity) of Santdls, Bbuiyas, Mauliks, Eajwars, etc.

Ndyd, a synonym for Maulik.

Ndydri, a gain of the Sibama gotra of Rarhi Brabmans in Bengal.

Nech&hli, a thar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Nedhuri, a gain of the S^bama gotra of Bdrendra Brabmans in Bengal.

Nekdri, Nikdri, a synonym for Machhua, q.v.

Neki, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

Nekutw^r-Barahi, a mul of the Kausik section of Maitbil Brabmans in Bebar.

Newibang, the swollen one, a sept of the Cbarkhola sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Nembongi a sub-sept of the Pbejom sept of Limbus in Dar­jiling.

Nenijor, a section of the Satmulia Maghay^ sub-caste of Kaudus in Bebar.

Neogi an honorary title of Brabmans, Kayastbs, Sadgops, « ' m Bengal

Neopani, Nivip^nya, a thar of the Kaundin gotra of Nepdli Brabmans.

Nepali, a sub-caste of Brab­mans in Nepal.

Nepdiiyi, a tJiar of the Dharta-Kausik gotra of Nepali Brabmans.

NeprS, a section of the S4t-mulid MagbayA sub-caste of Kandus in Bebar.

Nermah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Nesur, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

Netrid, a section of Kdmdrs in Singbbum and the Santdl Pargands.

Neul, weasel, a totemistio section of Jagannathi Kumbdrs in Orissa.

Neuradarvesh, Ndradarvesh, Neurdjdti, Ndrajati, a title of a sect of Yaishnavas who shave their heads.

Newra, mongoose, a totemis-tic hept of Chiks in Chota Na^-pur. *"

.^Ni^i._a section of Kaiba^,^^

^ ..»^". "^!' ^.jub-easte of Kurmis in Chota YZ:'^'^^ of marry their dauffhterf^"' 7^'^° and permit sexual i; ^ ^^'^t mam'age. ^^^ ^''ense befo

:s ire

^Nichondia, n , Baniyas in liej sub-caste of

etc \lotrn of i'^^'^'« of tbeBAtsya I Bengal ^^ ' ' ^ Brabmans in

NIGAM. 133 NmXBTL.

N igam, a eub-caste of Kiyasths in Behar.

Nigdni^i a section of GodMs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Nigham, a tniil or section of the Kanaujid sub-caste of Sondrs in Behar.

Nij, a Bub-sept of all the septs of Santdla.

Nikari, a gain of the Sdbarna gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in i3engal.

NikSri) Nih'ri, Hindu fish­mongers, who do not catch fish themselves, but obtain their supplies on a system of advances from the regular fishing castes. Mahomedans who follow the same avocation are called Meohud, q.v-

Nikhar, a sub-caste of Grareris in Behar.

Nikharbans, a sept of Chiks in Chota Nugpur.

Nikhati, a gdinoi the Bharad-waja gotva of Bareudra Brah­

mans m Bengal.

Nikitia-Kandh, a sub-tribe of Kandhs in Orissa.

Niktaw^r, Nikutwdr, a sec­tion of Biibhans in Behar.

Nikthd, a section of the Bano-dhid and Jaiswdr Kalwars in Behar.

Nikum, a section of Godlds in the North-Western Provinces and Bebar.

NikUtnbH, a sept of the Suraj-bansi division of lidjputs in Behar.

Nilu^, a 8ub-oaflte of Jugis in Northern Bengal whose special business it is to dye in blue.

NimachandpurS, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Go^las in Behar.

Nimai, a family of the Kulin group of Jugis in Bengal.

Nimak, salt, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Nimimbaunchhi, a th/ir or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Nimandih, a section of K^y-asths in Behar.

Nimavat, a sect of Yaishna-vas.

Nlmri, a sept of Rdjputs in Behar.

Nimuani, a sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Nimundih, a sept of the Sur-yabansi Hiijputs in Behar.

Ninauchhi, a thar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Ninglehku, one who cuts poisonous plants, a sept of the Phedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Ninhi^m, a »j«/or section of the Chhamulia Madhesia sub-caete of I l a l w ^ in Behar.

Niparia, a mul or section of the KanaujiS sub-caste of Haj-jams in Behar.

Nir, a sub-caste o£ Tiatis in Bengal. "^

Nirdbil, a i^a^orhyper^am , ous sub-group of *if/ o^oi.

Brahmans in Bengal ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' a

NIEBAN. 134 NUNHAE.

Nirb&n, a section of GodUs in the North-Westem Provinces and Bekar.

Nirbhaya, a title of Sunria in Bengal.

Nirola, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Nis4n, a sept of the Ohan-drahansi division of Eajputs iu Betar.

Nisank, a group of the Srotriya Buh-caste of tJtkal Brahmans.

Nishi, a synonym for Muohi.

Niskalanka, a section of Telis in BeBgal.

Nohar, a variant of Lohar.

Noinjorai a section of Sondra in Behar.

Nois, a sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpux.

Nolka, a section of Oswdls in Behar.

Nomahang, a thar or sept of Khamhus in Darjiling.

Nonaitwar, a mul of the Sandil section of Maithil Brah­mans, and a, kul or section of Babhans in Behar.

Nonujan, a synonym for Nunia.

Nonoar, a section of Groraits in Chota Nagpur.

Niti Sina, a sub-caste of \ Dhohis in Central Bengal.

Niy^rishii a section of Telis.

^ tBa t igS , Neydri, Niyarhja, Niydrdhod, a low caste who sift and wash the ashes and refuse of goldsmiths' shops

Non-pi , a intt or sept of I Sherpa Bhotias oi Nepal.

Nowattia, a sept of Tipperahs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong,

Nrisingha, a section of Gan-dhabaniks in Bengal.

in

refuse ot goldsmiths shops Nunaon, a section of the Biyd for the scraps of precious metal i^^i ^nd Kharidaha Kalwars i, •which, may he recovered by this Behar process. 1

. , , , . , , 0,-, . ., Nun-Bind, a sub-caste of Nobiiare, a sept of the Agni4 Binds in Eastern Bengal.

6UD-tribe ot Meches m the Dar- \ Nuneswar, a section of the

Biyahut and Kharidaha Kal-wars m Behar.

jUing Terai.

Nobonapuria, aseotion of the Kamar sub-caste of Dosadhs in Behar.

Nodi , a sub-caste of Bagdis found in the 24-Parganas and Hughli, said to have come from Bankura.

Nogo, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling,

Nunetv/ar, a muloi the Sandil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Nimgolid, a synonym for Nunia.

Nunhar, a section of the Biya-

B^CT ^^'^<^^^^ Kalwars in

135 NUNM.

5^Utli^, Noniyai), a Dravidian caste of Behar and Upper India engaged in cultivation, saltpetre-making,

"^^ and various kinds of earthwork. The caste seem to have no traditions except of a silly story that the Awadhia are descended from an ascetic named Bidm* Bhakat, who broke his fast on salt earth, and being thereby disqualified for the higlier life of meditation, was condemned by Earn Ghandi-a to betake himself to the manufacture of saltpetre. This throws small light on the origin of the Nunias. I t seems, however, to be generally believed that they are closely connected with the Binds and the Beldars, and I venture the conjecture that the Binds may be the modern representatives of an aboriginal tribe from which the Nunias have branched off as saltpetre-makers and the Beldars as earth-workers. All three groups are now endogamous. The hunting and fishing proclivities of the Binds seem to suggest that they are the oldest of the three, while the totemistio sections of the Nunias stamp them as Dravidian. The Beldars are probably a more recent offshoot, but the fact that the name Beldar (mattock-bearer) is assumed by members of any caste when employed on earthwork renders it difficult to determine their precise af&nities. The Nunias of Behar

, , , are divided into seven sub-castes:—Av/a-internaistructure. ^ j ^ , ^ ^^ Ayodhiab^si, Bhojpuria, Kharaotit,

Maghaya, Orh, Pacha inyaor Chauhan, and Semarwar . Their sections, which are given in Appendix I, appear to be for the most part totemistio. A man may not marry a woman belonging to his own section, but no other sections are barred to him; and the rule of simple exogamy is supplemented by the standard formula mamerd, chachera, etc., already quoted. I t deserves notice that intermarriage in the chachera line is forbidden as long as any relationship can be traced, while in the other three lines the prohibition only extends to three or, as some say, to five generations. All Nunias who can afford to do so marry their daughters as infants, adult-marriages being considered unfashionable, it not dis-leputablo. Polygamy is permitted, but it is unusual to find a man with more than two wives; and I gather, although there is no distinct rule on the subject, that practice is held to be justified only by the necessity of procuring offspring. Widows are allowed to mai-ry again by the sagai form, and are subject to no restrictions in their choice of a second husband except those .arising from consanguinity. I t is considered, however, right for a widow to marry her deceased husband's younger brother. Divorce is effected on grounds of adultery or incompatibOity of temper by the order of the caste council (panchayat). A divorced woman may marry again Ijy the sagai form unless she has gone wrong with a man of another caste—ail offence which entails summary expulsion.

Tirhutia Brahmans serve the_ Nunias as priests, and officiat at their marriages. The marriage cerpn^r,T,, -

Marrmge. ^^ ^^^ 3^^^^^^.^ typ^_ ^^^ biide-^room ^ - ' '

itilak) is fi^®"^ ^y ° ®' °° ^* ^ ®"° varying from Ee . 1 to ;^g^°c

KUNI.i. 136

and a pair of dhotis. After the man-iage the bride does not go with' the hardt to her husband's house, but stays with her parents imtil she attains puberty, when her husband goes to fetch her %vith a few of his friends and brings her home in procession dira gaicmt). Consummation is not effected until after this ceremony. Awadhiya Nunias have a curious custom called usiiidui shudi, which requires that the bride and bridegroom shall be held off the ground during the marriage ceremony.

In matters of religion the Nunias follow the ordinary forms of Hinduism cuiTcnt in Behar. Most of them

gion- j .g Sattas, and there are said to be compara­tively few Yaishnavas in the caste. Bhagavatiji is their favourite goddess. Bandi, Groraiya, and Sitala ai-e worshipped on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays. There are no deities specially wor­shipped by women and children, but women take part in the worship of Sitala. Sannyasi fakirs are the gurus of tho caste. The dead are burned, and srdddh performed on the thirteenth day after death. The ashes are thrown into any river that may be handy. The bodies of children dying under five years of age are buried— a point wherein Nunias depart from the usual cust'om, which is to bury after eighteen months.

The caste beHeve the extraction of salt and saltpetre from saline ^ Occupation. ^'^'^^J° ^® their Original occupation, and it is ,, V -u 1 P ™ l e , as has been suggested above, that they may have broken off from the Bmds by reason of their adoptins this profession. At the present day we find them also employed in road-making, tank-digging, well-sinking, building and thatchiue houses, and all kinds of agricultural field labour. Many of them also hold lands of their own, and a few have gained a more secure position as occupancy raiyats. Nunias who have no land often wander about dming the dry season in search of work, and build small grass huts for temporary shelter. None of them are artisans

•1-^??^''^' '^<^°°r^iig to I>i'- Wise, Nunias readily obtain service with trodlas or other clean Sudras, but refuse to work as labourers or domestic servants with low-caste families. The social standing verv T . f . 5 f ^T^^'^-J^'y ^^ different parts, and does not admit of veiy precise dofimtion. l a Patna, Mozufforpur, and parts o£

Social status. Monghyr they rank with Kurmis, Eoiris and certain kinds of s w e ^ S s f " ''it ? ^ f " ^ ^ f^^^'i^^ ^""^'^ T> • T, r>i „ sweetmeats from their hands. In Bhao-alniir Pui-mah, Champarun, Shahabad, and Gya they are placed on th« same level as Tautis and none of tho higher castes wU t S p t f from them. In addition to the various kinds of foodlh f n. i I ' l for Hindus of the middle class, Nunias eat fiddrat'^r^ i J drink fermented and spirituous liquors I t ;« \- ^n ^^^^' '^'''^ Nuuias' point of view in such matters that t , 5 « •"?^•°*1 *M Bhakats, who practise small forms of a sce t iSVt ^ V^'H'^. ^'"1° °* certain kinds, of food and diink; and I am S ^ r f f T ' " " ^ ^'i""" Bhakats are found among them. "^ '"^^"^^ed that very few

NUNIA. 137 NTJEI.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Nunids in 1872 and 1881.—

DISTRICT,

Hnnlwftn JlnnVum Hirblunn ... Alidn ipur Hiiithli *24-ParKanfi3 r^ndiva Jlurshcdabad Dinnipur Rijfiliahyo

KoRra l*n\) na Darjilinij Julpigori Kuch Bphar Mmmanbinb Aloldali

1873.

, ••

, , ,

,. , „

,. »..

1881.

82 1

25 4,C07

39 451 25 80

1,336 23

1,165 28? 28

802 275 702

2,2IS &U

1

DlSTBICT.

Patnii Gya . . . . Suahabnd Ti,i,„t fMozulIerpnr ...

Snran . Champaran WonsbTT Bl)4salpur . • Pumiah Sant&l Parganis Cuttack Pnn Bulnsore Tnbnt i ry States . . Hazanba^h Lohardaga Singbhnm Manbhum

1872.

10,310 14,910 13,183

j 09,242

B5,8M 35,102 9,218 3,436

971 847

• )

( . c ; 2?S

2,635 4

22S

1881.

18,249 le . iws 18 606

f 41,hl6

(>9,36S 4G,3''4 •.•iog 7,377 1,084 1,682

c nm

l"\ 2,318 4,116

33 BS3

• Tho Ogarcs are included with "other labounng castes."

Nunidr, a subdivision of Baniyas who deal in saltpetre.

Nuniy&r, a section of K4y-asths in Behar.

Nunkharid, a section of the Biydliut and Khariddhd Kalwars in Behar.

Nuri, a title of Jolahas in Behar who make lac bracelets, dye for the lips, etc ; the same as Ohurihar and Laheri. A Bengal caste of jewellers and lac-workers said to have been brought from Orissa by one of the Eajas of Krishnagar.

OAEI. 138

ORAOJf.

o Ojhaiyd, a sept of the Eautdr

sub-tribe of Tbarus in Behar.

Ok in war, a kiil or section of iibhans in Ho'io'"

"aste of Kajastbs in Behar.

««L5 Slr-oS k - -above t h t f o u n r - ' ' ' ' ' '^^^"er

Om, a title of Dakshin-E.'irhi Kdyasths in Bengal.

'On-chhombo, the horse-seller, a sept of the Tambrakhola sub-tribe of Limbna '•" 'T'-° ^ ^ - ' a b a . fo. , , , . t r i b 7 o f " L i L ^ s T ? [ ^ ^ ° ^ ^ '

sept of Juanga in OrLa "'^^^^ On dd ^'^ "

, Oh-A'r, a sept of the Ch„ . f t ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ i s ' ^LT !"^^ °* I'^^si Eajputs in Behar^^^"^'^^- ' ^ ''^^'^^'^^ frorBhot^' ° '

Chota N , g p ^ . the Hill Tra'S o f ^ S f ^ ' ^ ^-

s e . 2 r 5 ' , V - ' ^ o f t h e 7 r . „ „ . . ^ . . . ^^^'^^'^ff-- S : r ^ f ' " i ' ; ; j ^ o f t h e K , 3 y a p ^ Behar. ^ ^rahmans in

Ojha.agroupofthe A'?- n eub-caste of Gaura B L . '"^^"^a tf^ of Babhans . " ^ . ^ ^ ^ ^ a

ti e Pargah caste • U B S ' ^ - «f

in

BeTar'^' ^ ^ - « ° - of Babha,3

°^'otNaVr Of p,, . ^

^ a i t h i l B r a h ^ a n s i n V h a ^ U g r , ^,

®r=f. ' " ' '« of Ciif.^^"&^s in the

*° *^ ^f«e's of ,, , «s ^™vidian S '''''«8ed on ? ^"'^'^ating tribe °f the Kajmahal i i l£ ' '^, '^PposedM'T^^I^" ^™"°d«

• -^^eir trn^-^- ' o «l°sely akin ^^aditious say that their

of

139 OEAON. •*•

original home was in the west of India, whence they came to the Kainiur hills and the plateau of Rohtds in Shahabad. Driven from Eohtas by the Muhamadans, the tribe split into two divisions. One of these, under the Chief, followed the course of the Ganges, and finally settled in the Eajmahal hills; while the other, led by his younger brother, went up the Son into Palamau, and turning eastward along the Koel took possession of the north-western portion of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Some say that they expelled the Mundas from this portion of the country, and forced them / to retire to their present settlements in the south of L o h a r d a g a ; \ / but this statement is not borne out by local tradition, nor can it be reconciled with the fact that the few Mundas found in the Oraon pargands on the plateau are acknowledged and looked up to as the descendants of the foimders of the villages in which they live.

The colour of most Oraons is the darkest brown, approaching to black; the hair being jet black, coai'se, and

Physicalcbaractorishcs. ^^^^^^ inclined to be frizzy. Projectiug jaws and teeth, thick lips, low • narrow foreheads, broad flat noses, are the features which strike a carefal observer as characteristic of the tribe. The eyes are often bright and full, and no obliquity is observable in the opening of the eyelids. No signs of Mongolian affinities can be detected in the relative positions of the nasal and malar bones, and the average naso-malar index for a hundred Oraons measured on tlie system recommended by Mr. Oldfield Thomas omes to 113-6.

" The di'ess of the men," says Colonel Dalton, " consists of a ^ , lone: narrow strip of cloth carefully adjusted as Dress and ornaments. - u i L \. L • i. J l i

a middle garment, but m such a manner as to leave the wearer most perfect freedom of limb, and allow the full play of the muscles of the thigh and hip to be seen. They wear nothing in the form of a coat; the decorated neck and chest are undraped, displaying how the latter tapers to the waist, which the young dandies compress within the smallest compass. In addition to the cloth, there is always roimd the waist a girdle of cords made of tasar silk or of cane. This is now a superfluity, but it is no doubt the remnant of a more primitive costume, perhaps the support of the antique fig leaves. After the age of ornamentation is passed, nothing can be more untidy or unprepossessing than the appearance of the Oraon. The ornaments are nearly all discarded, hair utterly neglect­ed, and for raiment any rags are used. This applies both to males and females of middle age. The ordinary dress of the women depends Bomewhat on the degree of civilization, and on the part of the country in which you make your observations. In the villages about Lohardaga a cloth from the waist to a little below the knee is the common working dress; but where there is more association -mXh. other races the persons of young females are decently clad in the coarse cotton 1 X ni the country, white with red border. Made-up garments o

' ^ ^ worn e W b j « - converts to Christianity. Th'e L o oth T " / innf f is gracefully adjusted so as to form a shawl and a n . . . ? ^ The Odona do not, as a rule, bring the upper end nf I-L' garment over the head, and so give it the functions also of a v e ^ t

OEAON. 140

it is worn by the Bengali women ; they simply throw the end of the dress over the left shoulder, and it falls with its fringe and ornamented border prettily over the back of the figure. Vast quantities of red \ / beads and a large heavy brass ornament, shaped like a torque, are worn round the neck. On the left hand are rings of copper, as many as can be indued on each finger up to the first joint; on the right hand a smaller quantity. Rings on the second toe only, of brass or bell-metal, and anklets and bracelets of the same material are also worn. The hair is, as a inile, coarse and rather inclined to be frizzy, but by dint of lubrication they can make it tolerably smooth and amenable'; and false hair or some other substance is used to give size to the mass (the chignon) into which it is gathered, not immediately behind but more or less on one side, so that it lies on the neck just behind' and touching the right ear; and flowers are arranged in a receptacle made for them between the roU of hair and the head. The ears are, as usual with such people, terribly mutilated for decorative purposes • spikes and rings are inserted into holes made in the upper cartilao-e, and the lobe is widely distended. "Whan in full dancing costume,' they add to their head-dress plumes of heron feathers, and a gay bordered scarf is tightly bound round the upper part of the body."

• In matters of domestic economy the Ordons are a slovenly race. Bachelor's dormitory. ^^^ .^^^5 badly-built mud huts afford no

, „ o «™i< i' t accommodation for the unmarried members of the family. In the older Ordon villages this difficulty 18 provided for by a house called the dhumkiiria, in which all tho bachelors must sleep under penalty of a fine. Where the irirla sleep IS, says Colonel Dalton, " somewhat of a mystery." In some villages a separate building, under the charge of an elderly woman is maintained for their use ; and more commonly they are distributed among the widows of the village. " But however billeted, it is well known that they often find their way to the bachelors' hall and in some villages actually sleep there."

This curious institution is not peculiar to the Oraons. We meet with it among the Judngs, the Hill Bhuiyds of Keonjhur and Bonai, and the Jhumid Maghs of the Chittagong Hill Tracts The Oraon system, though already looked upon as an ancient custom" and apparently tending to disuse in newly-formed villages is still very elaborate. " The Dhumkuria fraternity are under' ih severest penalties bound _ down to secrecy in regard to all th t takes place in their dormitory; and even girls are punished if th dare to tell tales. They are not allowed to join in the d till the offence is condoned. They have a regular system of f a S in this curious institution. The smaU boys serve those nf w^m-growth, shampoo their limbs, and comb their hair etn nnri t W we sometimes subjected to severe discipline to make'n,^»\f ih^m '' I t i sd l f f icul tnot toseem this a survival of more p S t W e m S e s "« hie, possibly even of the initiatoiy cere inoniesrwhLh many ^nbes of savages attach so much importance.

I'he internal structure of the Oraon tribe is shown in a tabular

i^Wirtructuro ^ ^ ' ^ L v f l ^ ' ' ' * ^ ' ^ I- The exogamous septs are extremely numerous, and all that can bo

141 ' OEAON.

identified are totemistic, the totem being taboo to the members of the sept. The rule of exogamy in force is the simple one that a man may not maxry a woman of his own sept. _ The sept name descends in the male line, and there is no objection to a man marrying a woman belonging to the same sept as his mother. I n addition to this some system of prohibited degrees seems to exist among them, though no one can state it clearly, nor is it expressed in a definite formula. Still every Oraon will admit that he cannot marry his maternal aunt or his first cousin on the mother's side, though ho will probably not be able to say how far these prohibitions go in the descending line. So also no one can marry his younger brother's widow or the elder sister of his deceased wife, though marriage with an elder brother's widow or a deceased wife's younger sister is deemed permissible.

Seventeen years ago, when Colonel Dalton published his account of the Orions, infant-marriage is said to have

arringo. been entirely unknown among the tribe. A few of the wealthier men, who affect to imitate Hindu customs, have now taken to this practice, and marry their daughters before they hava attained puberty. Among the mass of the peopJo, however, girls marry after they are grown up, and the freest courtship prevails at dances, festivals, and social gatherings of various kinds. Young men woo their sweethearts with ofierings of flowers for the hair and presents of grilled field-mice, " which the Or^ons declare to be the most deHcate of food." Sexual intercourse before marriage is tacitly recognized, and is so generally practised that in the opinon of the best observers on Orion girl is a virgin at the time of her marriage. To call this state of things immoral is to apply a modern conception to primitive habits of life. "VRithin-the— tribe indeed the idea of sexual morality seems hardly to exist, and the unmarried Orions are not far removed from the condition of modi­fied promiscuity which prevails among many of the Australian tribes. Provided that the exogamons circle defined by the totem is respected, an unmarried woman may bestow her favours on whom she will. If, however, she becomes pregnant, arrangements are made to get her married without delay, and she is then expected to lead a virtuous life. Prostitution is unknown. Intrigues beyond the limits of the tribe are uncommon, and are punished by summary expulsion. \

polonel Dalton gives the following account of the Orion marriage system:—

" When a young man makes up his mind to marry, his parents QX guardians go through a form of selection for him; but it is always a girl that he has already selected for himself, and between whom and hini there is a perfect understanding. The parents, however have to arrange all preUminaries, including the price of the damsel'

Ihioh is Bometiiues as low as Rs. 4 (8«.) I n the visits that are intfi,.' , „a,1 bv the negotiators, omens are carefully observed bv a^"

changea vy ^^^ Mundas, nud there are, consequently «L- i ® ^'"^°'^?I-?to overcome; but when all is settled, the br id! '^''^ ' p i S r U b a large party of his friends, male and f e ^ ^ ^ -

OEiON. 142

bride's house. Most of the males have warlike weapons, real or sham, and as they approach the village of the bride's family the young men from thence emerge, also armed, as if to repel the invasion, and a mimic fight ensues, which, like a dissolving view, blends pleasantly into a dance. In' this the bride and bridegroom 3oin, each riding on the hips of one of their friends. A bower is constructed in front of the residence of the bride's father, into which the bride and bridegroom are carried by women, and made to stand on a curry-stone, under which is placed a sheaf of com, resting on a plough yoke. Here the mystery of the sindiirddn is performed; but the operation is carefully screened from view, first hy cloths thrown over the young couple, secondly by a circle of their male friends, some of whom hold up a screen cloth, while others keep guard -ftdth weapons upraised and look very fierce, as if they had been told off to cut down intruders, and were quite prepared to do so. In Oraon marriages the bridegroom stands on the curry-stone behind the bride, but in order that this may not be deemed a concession to the female, his toes are so placed as to tread on her heels. The old women under the cloth are very particular about this, as if they were specially interested in providing that the heel of the woman should he properly bruised. Thus poised the man stretches over the girl's head and daubs her forehead and crown with, the red powder sinditr ; and if the girl is allowed to return the compliment (it is a controverted point whether she should do so or not), she performs the ceremony without turning her head, reaching back over her own shoulder and just touching his brow. When this*^ is accomplished, a gun is fired; and then, by some arrangement vessels fvdl of water, placed over the bower, are capsized, and the young couple and those who stand near them receive a drenching shower-bath. They now retire into an apartment prepared for them, ostensibly to change their clothes, but they do not emerge for soma time, and when they appear they are saluted as man and wife. Dancing is kept up during their retirement, one of the performers executing a pas seul with a basket on her head, which is said to contain the trousseau. The Or.dons have no prescribed weddins garments. They do not follow the Hindu custom of usine safiron coloured robes on such occasions. The bride is attired in ordfnn^ habihments, and no special pains are taken to make her lov«li77^ the occasion. The bridegroom is better dressed than UR^Ir ^^ wears a long coat and a turban. Nor have the Oraons Z - 1

days or seasons for marriages. The ceremony mav Ul-l , ^ ?pecial month of the year, but, with all natives, the hot I ^ " " ^ V" ^"^ generally selected if possible. There is then not Z'J^ T""^^ T

143 OEAON.

performed: it is deemed sufficient for the female relatives of the bridegroom to smear vermilion on the bride's forehead and the parting of her hair. Sometimes even this meagre form is omitted, and a valid marriage is constituted by the mere fact of the parties living together. Notwithstauding this laxity of formal observance, the children of a widow are recognized as holding equal rank with those of a woman manied by the fuU. ritual used in a first marriage. Divorce is readily effected at the will of either husband or wife. The consent of the panehayat is not required, nor is the intention to separate attested by any particular form. A husband turns away his wife, or a wife rims off from her husband, and the fact in either case is accepted as constituting a valid divorce. If a woman has children, her husband may be compelled to contribute to Tlieir maintenance if he divorces the mother on any other ground than adultery. Similarly, when a wife deserts her husband, not on account of ill-treatment, but merely because she takes a fancy to another man, her parents may be called upon to repay the bride-price which they received at her marriage. Divorced wives may marry again on the same terms and by the same form as widows.

"The religion of the Oraons," says Colonel Dalton, " i s of P . . ^ a composite order. They have, no doubt,

e igion. retained some portion of the belief that they brought with them to Chota Nagpur; but, coalescing with the Mundas and joining in their festivals and acts of public worship, they have to a certain extout adopted their ideas on religion and blended them with their own. There is, however, a material distinction between the religious systems of the two people. The !Mundas liave no symbols and make no representations of their gods; the Oraons, and all the cognates whom I have met with, have always some visible object of worship, though it may be but a stone or a wooden post, or a lump of earth. Like the Mundas, they acknowledge a Supreme God, adored as Dharmi orDharmesh, the Holy One, who is manifest in the sun ; and they regard Dharmesh as a perfectly pure, beneficent being, who "created us, and would in his goodness and mercy preserve us, but that his benevolent designs are thwarted by malignant spirits whom mortals must propitiate, as Dharmesh cannot or does not interfere if the spirit of evil once fastens upon us. I t is therefore of no use to pray to Dharmesh or to offer sacrifices to him; so though acknowledged, recognized, and reverenced, he is neglected, whilst the malignant spirits are adored.

" I do not think that the Oraons have an idea that their sins are visited on them, either in this world or in a world to come. I t ig not because they are wicked that their children or their cattle die

their crops fail, or they suffer in body; it is only because some r^nant demon has a spite agamst them, or is desirous of harmir,

^' '^'^ Their ideas of sin are limited. Thou shalt not Z^^^ tbem. J- gi it not steal, thou shalt not bear false vvitnesa n c. • ^ adultery, ttio . ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Decalogue as they Jo,>lf'""-."^ thyneigbDOYjg doubtful if they see any moral guilt 1 ? ^ ^1^^-scribe to. - • " "J-urcler,

OEAON. 144

though hundreds of them have suffered the extreme penalty of the i ^ L f ^ "'"^^ ^^%^^ ^eady to take life on very slight prove. cation and m the gratification of their revenge an innocent child

t h B M i '^ ° , ™ ^ ! l ^ S ^ ^ * ' H ° ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ' - There is one c^non of Ihou Shalt not suffer a witch to hve." I have dwelt on this sub-Id ri'v f e ' ^ l r «f t . " " " " ' " - - ^' ''^' *« themselves the i f of

w o S S I T ^" ^"'^ '^''''^'- ^' * i^' ^ s^«Pe'=ted old S T r j J o t ^ H T T ^ " ' ^ ^ °°.^' ''"^'"'^^y ^ '^^ be the daughter W n n of t t v T ^ ' ' oecasionaUy condemned, weU drubbed^ and

S t i h e t I w p r l f ' yf '^' ^V ^°* l^^y« ^"^•^ive the treat­ment she is subjected to If we analyse the views of most of the Ordon converts to Chr stianitv we shall T +1,1 ,1. I \ i f T the influPTiPfi nf fT, ,-,. _'*"' ' '^'^^^ s^iaii, i think, be able to discern motives that flit t r j ^ T ^°'^'^'' ^ ° ^ superstitions in the

for them tofoSi t b J t 7 ' S ^ ^ t i a n s ; and it is, therefore, good of C W i a n s ^ r e Leaf «7; -fi^^t^ T *" g <= ^^^^^3 the salVftion those who are W i ? e d do . n f ° ' w ^T ^"<1^' ^^-r-they see that pitiate the evil S t s T W ^ * ' ° * f^"^ ^^^^' li^^-^tock to pro-wajds, when they understaM^^Sff ^ J. motion; and long after-washing away of sin by the blood S ou'-^^-^^'^°^°ie^t, the mystical their simple minds most dwell T b « ™ ! ' i ' *^« d°otrine on which Orionsa trace of the high moral ! ! i ' ' ° i w ^ ' ^ ^"^o^g^t the pagan

BajmahalHllsaresaidtohavraool.f ? *T '* ^'^ <^^^'^^^ oi the no behef whatever in a future state ffiv / T''^'"^ that they have tated a profound s y s t e ^ S t J^^^^'V^" * « I^^j'^ahdlis is attri-that doctrine no f ^ r t S °tL^'\"°^Psy<'li08>8. The Oraons carry kdled by tigers becms t i l r i , * ! T^^°'^ ^^^t men who aie annitulation. As the s n l a i T ' V . , / ? ' ' other people death means F 2 -"^'"^ "^ the d^mSls 1 5 ^ ' ' ^ ^ ^ ° ^ ' ceremonies is the "^tentxonsofDharmeS t h J ^ ^ ' ' ^ ' ^ thwarting the benevolent orn\^-\^^"^ «° far we S ' ^ ' ' ' ° ^ ° t ^ ° ° of ^ « ™ o of thanks-a m a i ' t f ° '^^ ' ^^^^ thSrT T . " ^ the religion of the Mundas as t i o n ^ ; 1 T^"^^' an a u S " . ^ ^ f ° suffering or misfortune befall nnwlw ^"^'^°°ordingt?TL Z'^^''^' ^^ *« the cause of his afflio-^rZi J ,^6no«nce a morfni ^ ^ ° ® ^iven. The ojhd has it in his S^^f.tl^^^^^i^jSl'^L^^^^^ The method roc,,u- .1 ""^^'idesoribpr],- Vi. i»*rncuiar aevu. xne method result IS the same. IflTi ^^ the account of the Mundas, and the jas caused his familiar / „ ° ^ - b e i ° g is denounced, it is said that he person denounced is sei7P^ ^T.^^^^ ^""^ '^^^'^t the sufferer; and the ^^e expulsion of the e^'l o^^ v*""'*'"'"®' ' or beaten, to force him to effect f^aecused. The o?I? ^ f *" • ^^* ^^^ family or village bhui may coZir'^'ificed, and frp'nn .T inspiration, of course, decides what is t h ? > 8 Hm. lV.i!'i'' '^^^y ^nins, if he does not cure, the patient of rn, f°n beUef t r c^^ P''°''^^^ of propitiation, the fetish nature of t h e S ^^1 on i r«5°T? - ' ^ > sorcerer produces a small image '^' i timB, they t?^''^^''. ^ | « ^ gi-ains of rice. If fowls are to be

^ ate placed m front of this imat-e; and if they peck

145 OEAON.

at th.e rice, it indicates that the particular devil is satisfied with the intention of his votaries, and the sacrifice proceeds. The flesh of the animals killed is appropriated by the sorcerer, so it is his interest to have a hecatomb if possible. In regard to the names and attri­butes of the devils, the Oraons •wbo live m t b Mundas sacrifice to Marang Burii and all the Munda Bongas. The Oraons on the western portion of the plateau, where there are few Mundas, ignore the Bongas and pay their devotion to Darha, the SarnaBurhi (Lady of the Grove), and the village bhiits, who have various names. Ghanda or Chandi is the god or goddess of the chase, and is always invoked preparatory to starting on great hunting expeditions. Any bit of rock, or stone, or excrescence on a rock, serves to represent this deity. The hill near Lodhma, known to the Mundas as Marang Biiru, is held in great reverence by the Oraons. To the spirit of the hill, whom they call Bai-anda, they give buUooks and buffaloes, espe­cially propitiating him as the bhiit, who, when malignantly inclined, frustrates Q-od's designs of sending rain in due season to fertilise the earth. In some parts of the country Darha is almost the only spirit they propitiate. If fowls are offered to him, they must be of divers colours, but once in three years he should have a sheep from his votaries; and once in the same period a buffalo, of which the ojha or pahn gets a quarter. The Oraon must always have something material to worship, renewed every three years. Besides this superstitious dread of the spirits above named, the Oraon's imagin­ation tremblingly wanders in a world of ghosts. Every rock, road, river, and grove is haunted. I He believes that women who die in childbirth become ghosts, called chorail; and sucb ghosts are fre­quently met bovering about the tombstones, always clad in robes of white, their faces fair and lovely, but with backs black as charcoal, and inverted feet, that is, they walk with their heels in front. They lay hold of passers-by and wrestle with them, and tickle them; and he is lucky, indeed, who, thus caught, escapes without permanent injuries." Women who die within fifteen days of their confinement are believed to be likely to become ckoraik; but this danger may be averted by offering sacrifices for the repose of their spirits.

The Oraons do not employ Brahmans, and their religious and ceremonial observances are supervised by priests of their own tribe known as Naiyas.

" The Ordons and Mundas keep the same festivals; but, acoord-Festivaia '^^^ *° ^'^' ^'^*'^®^' ^^^ Kami is, with the

former, the most important. I t is celebrated at the season for planting out the rice grown in seed-beds, and is observed by Hindus as well as by Kols and other tribes. Ou the first day of the feast the villagers must not break their fast till certain ceremonies have been performed. In the evening a nartv of young people of both sexes proceed to the forest, and cnt

voun2 karma tree Nauclea parvifo/ia), or the branch of ou Lnrin/wbioh they return in triumph,—dancing, and singing . h u T ! drums.-and plant it in the middle of the akhru^\^^^ theTerformanoe oi a saoxifice to XV. Kaxma Deota by tlie pah^X

k

OEION, 146

villagers feast, and the night is passed in dancing and revelry. Next morning all n a y be seen at an early hour in holiday array; the elders in groups, under the fine old tamarind trees that surround the akhrii, and tbe youth of both sexes, arm-linked in a huge cii'cle, dancing round the liarma tree, v?hich, festooned with garlands, decorated -with strips of coloured cloth, sham bracelets and necklets of plaited straw, and •with the bright faces aud merry laughter of the young people encircling it, reminds one of the gift-bearing tree so often introduced at our own Christmas festival, and suggests the probability of some remote connection between the two. Pre­paratory to the festival, the daughters of the headmen of the village cultivate blades of barley iu a peculiar manner. The seed is sown in moist, sandy soil, mixed with a quantity of turmeric, and the blades sprout and unfold of a pale^yellow or primrose colour. On the karma day, these blades are taken up by the roots, as if for transplanting, and carried in baskets by the fair cultivators to the akhra. They approach the karma tree, and, prostrating themselves reverentially, place before it some of the plants. They then go round the company, and, like bridesmaids distributing wedding favours, present to each person a few of the yellow barley blades, and all soon appear, wearing, generally in their hair, this distinctive decoration of the festival. Then all join merrily in the karma dances, and malignant indeed must be the hhut who is not propitiated by so attractive a gathering. The morning revel closes with the removal of the karma. I t is taken away by the merry throng and thrown into a stream or tank; but after another feast dancing and drinking are resumed. On the following morning the effects of the two nights' dissipation are often, 1 fear very P/lpahlo." Colonel Dalton notices that the karma festival is celebrated by Hindus as well as by tbe aboriginal tribes and quotes a passage from tbe Bhavisbya Purana, the obiect" of which appears to be to explain how a festival of an aboriginal neonle

argmnent against its Hindu origin ^ ^ ^ '"^ ^' ' " ' " '^"^y ^ ^^

that X \ mL'frtzroftrs '""T*? "^^'.'''''' --^ this season the man-iage of D h a t i t b r i ' ^ The.r idea is that at cannot be done till the . / / trees ^ i J e ^ r ; ? ' ' ' ''^f^'tl'^' ^""^ this I t takes place, then, to^va i r the e ^ ^ f ° , T ' ' ' J ' ' ^\' ceremony. April ; but any day U i l s t the ^l t r l t e ^ t o l ^''T''^ °^ On the day fixed the vniagers accomj y ^ ^ h S ' S T . ^ i l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ! -Uu tne aay nxeu me villagers accompany theii- ,M, t . ^ the sacred grove, a remnant of the old J l d ! • ^^^ ''"'""• Oraons locate a popular deity, called the Sarn- IV ,'•''^ ""^'^^ * * the grove, corresponding \nth. the Jabir -r. „ , '< '" ^ ° ° ^ " ^ , Munlas. To this dryai, who is suppo^d to T*^ ^'"'"^^ f ' t on the rain (a superstition not unlikely to hav^ t'''P'''^ 'f'^'T imnorfanon r.f tvpps . s nloud-cnnm.ni..x , ® ^ten founded on ti jt^portance of t.-ees as cloud-eon.peller«) T ! been founded on tne 1>« party at the grove, offers file f o i / ' ^ V " ^ ' " ' " ' " S - ds cooked ^vith rice, and a small quantity of he ^ T " ' ' veu to i'^^h P - o n present. They then collect 'a t ^ ^ ' ^ t i ' l S V - ^ ^ - ^

147 OllAON.

return laden with them to the village. Next day the pdhn, with some of the males of the village, pays a visit to every house, carrying the flowers in a wide, open basket. The females of each house take out water to wash his feet as he approaches, and, kneeling before him, make a most respectful obeisance. He then dances with them, and places over the door of the house, and in the hair of the women, some of the sal flowers. The moment that this is accomplished, they throw the contents of their water-vessels over his venerable person, heartily dousing the man whom a moment before they were treating 'with such profound respect. But to prevent his catching cold they ply him with as much of the home-brew as he can drink, consequently his reverence is generally gloriously drunk before he completes his round. The feasting and beer-drinkiug now become general; and after the meal the youth of both sexes, decked with sal flowers (they make an exceedingly becom­ing head-dress), flock to the dkhra, and dance all night and best part of next day."

" Where a death occurs in an Oraon family, it is made known ^. , , . , J , by the lamentations of the women, who loosen Disposal of tho dead. ii • i • / j j . x- c • r -L- i

their hair (a demonstration or grief whioh appears to prevail in all countries) and cry vigorously. They lay out the body on the common cot, called charpdi; and, after washing it carefully, convey it to the appointed burning-place, covered with a new cloth, and escorted by all the villagers, male aud female, who are able to attend. In some families the funeral procession proceeds with music, but others ditlike this custom, and nothing is heard but the cries of the women. | When they have arrived at the place where the funeral pile has been prepared, the body is again washed, and the nearest relations of the deceased make ofi'erings of rice, and put rice into the mouth of the corpse, while others put pice or other coin. The body is then placed on the pile and anointed ; further offerings of rice are made, and tlio pile is ignited by a father or mother, a wife or husband. When the body has been consumed, notico is given in the village, and there is another collection of friends and relatives to collect the charred bones which remain. These are placed in a new earthen vessel, and ceremoniously taken to the village; and as the procession returns, parched rice is dropped on the road to mark the route selected. The cinerarv urn is suhpended to a post erected in front of the residence of tlie deceased ; the guests are feasted, and the party then breaks up. In the month of December or January next ensuing, the friends and relations are all a,^a.m collected io witness the disposal of the bones in (he place that, from the first establishment of the community, has been appropriated to the pm-pose. This is a point on which the Oraons are exceedingly tenacious; and even when one of them dies far h'ovix his homo, his relations will, if possible, sooner or later recover the fragments of liis bonos, and bear them back to tl ' village, to be deposited \\ith the ashes of his ancestors. The bu \ ground is always near a river, stream, or tank. As the p r o o e s S nroceeds with music to this place, offerings of nee are contin,, n K w n over the cinerary mm till it is deposited in the grave pr^p.'^Jj

k2

OEAON. 148

for it, and a large flat stone placed ahove. Then all must hathe, and after paying the musicians the party returns to the village. The money that was placed in the mouth of the corpse and afterwards saved from the ashes is the fee of the musicians. The person who carried the hones to the grave has to undergo purification hy incense and the sprinkling of water. I t is to he observed that this ceremony occurs in each village but once in the year ; and on the appointed day the ashes of all who have died during the year are simultaneously relegated to their final resting place. No marriage can take place in a village whilst the bones of the dpad are retained there. The most ardent lovers must patiently await the day of haiViari or sepulture. The marriage season commeaces shortly afterwards."

I n the eyes of the average Hindu the Oraons have no social status at all, and are deemed to be entirely

"" • outside the regular caste system. In the important matter of diet the main body of the tribe have as yet made no concessions to Hindu prejudice. Beef, pork, fowls, all kinds of fish, aUigators, lizards, field-rats, the larvse of bees and wasps, and even the flesh of animals which have died a natural death, are reckoned lawful food. Orloas, in fact, will eat almost anything, and are looked down npon as promiscuous feeders by _ the Bagdis, Bauris, and other dwellers upon the outskirts of Hinduism. A common charge is that they eat snakes and jackals, but this is only partially true, for the flesh of these animals is used solely for certain obscure medicinal purposes, and is not recognized as a regular article of diet. I t is a singular fact that the Oraoas hold I he ass to be sacred, and will not kill it or ent its flosh, thus assigning to the animal much the same position and dignity as the Hindus give to the cow. No reason can be given by the members of the tribe for delighting to honour an auimal which is in no way

' characteristic of heir present habitat; nor do I find any evidence to bupport the obvious conjecture that the ass may have been a tribal totem. The question of such totems and its bearing upon the problem of the origin of exogamy has been discussed at leno-fb in the Introduction to the first volume. °

The Oraons claim to have introduced plough cultivation infa Occupation. Oh^ , Nagpm-, and thus to have displaced

the barbarous duhd method of tillacre ^ J ? , as earned on by burning the jungle and sowing a crop of n l ' ^ or Indian-corn m the ashes. They were certain!v? ^^^^^ earliest settlers on the plateau of Chota Nagpur and m. '^°?° , < « even now hold blndnhdri tenures in right of beinff thn « "^^^, *^®°^ of the soil. These rights, however, are now fast m^sin . . "^""^ hands, and the modern competition for laud tend<! rnfu °^ ^^^ ' them to the position of tenants-at-will or lnn.ii "" *° '^^^"^^ labourers. "Their lot," says Colonel Dalton '^f^ , agricultural Not one of their own people now occupies a'n,^ \- ^ ^^^^ °",®," give him the power to protect, or the influenee L i . ^^ri " ? ' the state of degradation into which a maioritv .f fi 'f*'.' ^. ^"^ Men. They submit to be told that thef w l ° ^ ^^'' . *7^ ^ " T ^ K

. a labouring class. They have had this s o ^ C d r e S S - - !

149 OE.WN.

that they believe and admit i t ; and I have known instances of their abstaining: fi'om olaimina:, as authorised by law, commutation for the forced labour exacted by their landlords, because they considered that they were born to it. '\ Tkei© are indeed some amongst them, stern yeomen, who cling with tenacity to the freeholds they have inherited, and will spend all they possess in defending them; but the bulk of the people seldom rise, in their own country, above the position of cottiers and labourers. There the value of labour has not risen in proportion to the advance that has taken place in otlier parts of India ; and Oraons ai-e easily induced to migi-ate for a time to other climes, even to regions beyond the great ' black water,' where their work is better remunerated. But those who return with wealth thus accumulated regard it not. They spend iu a month what would have made them comfortable for life, and relapse into their lot of labour and penury, as if they had never had experience of independence and plenty. I believe they relish work, if the task­master be not over-exacting. Ordons sentenced to imprisonment without labour, as sometimes happens, for offences against the excise laws, insist on joining the labouring gangs, and wherever employed, if kindly treated, they labour as if they felt an interest iu the work. In cold weather or hot, rain or sua, they go cheerfully about i t ; and after some nine or ten hours of toil, they return blithely home, in flower-decked groups, holding each other by the hand or round the waist, and singing.'.

" The constitution of the Oraon village is the same as that of the Munddrl. In each the hereditary muncla or headman and the hereditary jjd/tii or priest have their lands on privileged terms, as the descendants of the founders of the village. The hereditary \ estates of the two families are called khitnts, and there is sometimes I a third kJiunt, called the mahato; on all of these a very low rent is fixed, but there are conditions of service attached. These may now be commuted to cash payments at the instance of either party. There is also, under charge of the pdhiiy the land dedicated to the ser­vice of the village gods. The priestly ofEce does not always descend from father to son. The latter may be ignorant and disqualified, or he may be a Christian; therefore, when vacated, it is filled by divination.^ The magic siip, or winnowing-sieve, properly spelled like a divining-rod, conducts the person holding it to the door of the man most fitted to hold the oflice. A priest there must be ; an Ordon community cannot get on without one. The fate of the village is in his hands; in their own phraseology, it is said that ' he makes its aflairs.' He is also master of the revels which are for the most part connected with religious rites. The doctrine of the Oraons is that man best pleases the gods when he makes merry himself; so that acts of worship and propitiatory sacrifices are always associated with feasting, drinking, dancing, and love-makin? The initnda or viahato is the functionary to whom the pronrifit of the village looks for its secular administration. In ^ont ^ - ^ tinction to the pAhn who makes hamtd) the affairs, the ,l^t adraiiiisteTS (c/i«MW) them; and he may be removed ii he 111 !' give satisfaction." ^^^^ to

OEAO-Y. 150

OSWAL, The f 11 • u s WAX.,

" " « n , i „ ; 8 ? J 3 ' f e ' « - ™ "•» "u.ber and «r ib„«„n of

DiBIElCT.

Bardiran Ijjnkura ftrbhom

g'lghlj

Jodiya f^nulna Jossore Murshedabad" JJinajpor najsliahyo '" guugpur ";

Pabna A'arjiling

Jtiehijohar "• Dacca •;andpar •Uaimansinh

: t 3^62

265

2 6.131 2,7:<5 0,611)

167 200

1,6«8 453

GO

Orea basket-maker, a ssnf r.f

t h a t O d o r O d b t r : ; e U r ' " ^ vagrant caste of eartb ! ! ? t ^ ° ^

Western H i n d u s t r ' ^ ' if

J>oakhali

Gya Shahabad ' 'arbhanga Saran <^hamparaa '" MonshjT ... Bhagalnnr PQPniah M^ldah

Balasore

i-ohurdiiirtl Singbhum "• Manblmm " •Cributary States

1872. 1831.

1,775 151,810

1,937 19

63,313

Orhchds4 or Mundi-cMsd, a sub-caste of Cbdsas in Orissa.

Orh-Pdn or Uriya-Pdn, a sub-caste of Pdns in Orissa.

Oria, a sub-oaste of Sonars in Bebar.

, Or-MShali, a sub-caste of I Mihilis wbo are basket-makers, the same as Doms.

Osai, a section of tbe Biydbut and Kbaridabd Kalwars in Bebar.

Osiar, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brabmans in Bebar.

Osta, Ostad, a title of Hajjdms iu Bebar.

Osti, a that' or section of Nepali Brabmans.

Bijpui .Ci?l«n,l T„T",™'1 from oZ „ T '•"" tteir name is ' ' ^^S tbem£r \*^« '«amoae . \ ?^ ' ^agar , a town in

^em.elves, uj,^ ^ ^ o a g the mercantile clans of y otiier trading castes, claim

OSWAL. 151 OTONIA.

to be pure Vaisyas. However this may be, no one can fail to observe in them a refined type of features and a comparatively fair complexion—characteristics which can only be accounted for by supposing them to be of tolerably pure Aryan descent. A few of the sections of the caste are shown in Appendix I. They differ entirely from those of the Agarwals. The Osw^ls observe a complex rule of exogamy.' A man may not marry into a) his own section, (6) his mother's, (c) his maternal grandmother's, d) his paternal grand­mother's, (e) his paternal great-grandmotber's. This, though reaching much further than the common rule which bars only a man's own section, does not enable the caste to dispense entirely with the usual system of counting prohibited degrees. There is only one sub-caste, the Dasa, which is debarred from intermarriage with Oswals proper. According to Mr. Ibbetson' the word "means 'hybrid,' and is used for members of other castes who have departed from the custom of the caste or whose descent is not p"ure."

OswAls marry their daughters as infants, proliibit widow-. marriage, and do not recognize divorce. Like

' '^ ' '^ ' the Agarwals, they also forbid polygamy. Many of the caste are Swetambari Jains, but in spite of this difference of religion they intermarry freely with Hindu Oswals, most of whom belong to the Vaishnava sect, and thus do not offend Jain prejudice by partaking of animal food. Graur Brahmans serve the Oswals as priests, and do not forfeit their high position by doing so. The social rank of OswiUs is about the same as that of Agarwals, and Brahmans will take water and certain kinds of sweet­meats from their hands.

The OswMa were not returned separately in the Census Report of 1872. The following statement, however, will show the distribution of the caste in 1881:—

DiBTEICT.

Ilflrdwan Ranirpur Pahna Bogra DarjiUnK .„ Jalpigon ' KucU liehar

1881.

3 106

3 i

101 3

20

1 DiBTBICT.

I ^raimansinli l^atna Shtthabod JIongh.iT

1 Sant41 FarganAa LohardagA

1

18SI.

41 2S

3 7

Otonid, a section of the Biy^hut and Kharidahd Kalwars in Behar.

Panjdb Census Beport, para. 533.

PAB. 152 PACHTAETA.

Pab, a synonym for Pan.

Pfibai ke kisan, a section of the Biy^hut and EJiariddhd Xalwars in Behar.

Paban, a family name of the Grihasth group of Jugis in Bengal.

Pach&in, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Pachdinya, a suh-oaste of Doms in Behar.

Pachainya or Chatihdn, a sub-caste of Nunias in Behar,

Pachhidn, a suh-oaste of Cha-mars in Behar.

Pac/ihimd Brahman, a synonym for Bdbhan.

Pachhweir, a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pachia , a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Pachima or XQ?!aj(;Vd, a sub-caste of Kumhars in Manbhmn.

Pachi Pargana, a OTfJ or sec­tion of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Gro&las in Behar.

Pachak, a maker of digestive , p^ch Kasyapa, a section of pills and preserves; also a title son&rs in Behai-, apparently applied to a Brahman cook. 1 arlnr fprl f^Tn tl... n^oif : - i

Pdch&l, a title of Kaibarttas.

Pach^s-gharia, a group of the Bar-gohri sub-caste of Khan-d4its in Ghota Nagpur.

Pachaut^, a section of Mad-hesia Halvrais ia Behar.

Pachbhajuii, a section of B&bhans in Behar.

Pacheria, a section of Goulds in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Pachgauti, a section of Rdjputs in Behar.

Pachgotya, a section of Bdb-hans in Behar.

Pachhainya, a sub-caste of Agarwdls,

Pachhainya Madesia, a sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Paoh^ani^, a sept of EAjputs in liehar.

adopted from the Brahmanical system.

Pachlor, a viul or section of the Kanaujid sub-caste of Sondrs in Behar.

Pachmait , a section of Mag-haya Kumhars in Behar.

Pachnaria, a section of the Biydhut and Kharidaha Kal-•wars in Behar.

ot the rmmuha and Chlinn,,,!-' Madhesid and B h o i p u r i d T ^ " castes of Halwais in g e k r

^Pachpakar.asect ionof Sondrs

Q^°^ ^^ -tlazaribagh and

Pachti ^us m Behar.

iuBeh ' ^ ^® * °* Edjputs

PADAHAEI. 153 PAITI.

Padahdri , a group of the| Panda suh-caste of Utkal Brah­man s.

Paderachhi , a thai- or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Padhdn, corruption of Pra-dhan, a title of ChAsAs in Orissa.

Padh&nid, a section of GoAUa in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Padmar&j, PadardJ, lotus-king; a title of Pods and Jaliyas in bengal.

Padma-r^si , a section of Mdlos in Eastern Bengal.

Padowar , a sept of P^ns in Chota Nagpur.

Pagmal, a family name of the Kulin group of Jugis in Bengal.

Pagulwar-Barhiam, a mid of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Pagulwar-Taralohi, a mtil of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Pagulwir-Dhen, a mul of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

Pahar i , a sub-caste of G^hasis in Chota Nagpur; a section ot Saraogis in Behar.

Pahdria-Agarid, a sub-tribe of Agarias in Chota Nagpur,

pah&ria-Asur, a sub-tribe of Asuras in Chota Nagpur.

paharia-Binjhia, a sub-tribe BiuihiAs in Chota Nagpur,

t called from living in the

bills. / V t -v Paharia-Korwa, a sub-tribe

o f K s in Cbota Nagpur.

Pahasrai t , a section of the Pachainya sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Pahlampuri , a section of Kanaujid LoMrs in Behar.

Pa i , a title of Bangaja Kay-asths.

Paiharware, a section of Madhesid llalwdis in Behar.

Pdik, a foot soldier, a title of Goal.as, Khandaits, Chasddhobas, Pods, and Dhobis. In Midnapur and Cuttack the Pdiks hold small landed tenures and serve as rural police and village watchmen. Ahir Paiks prepare churd.

Paikdr, a dealer, a wholesale purchaser, a broker. In the silk industry of Bengal the term is applied to the agents who buy silk cocoons from the cultivators and deliver them to the factory.

Paikar^, a sub-tribe of Kaurs in Chota Nagpur.

Pailahd, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidaha Kalwars in Behar.

Paila-Sudha, a sub-caste of Sudhds in Orissa.

Pai I war, a sub-caste of Dosadhs; a sept of Rajputs iu Behar.

Paindi , a thar or sept of Gnrungs in Darjiling.

Painju, a thar or sept of the Das-Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-rutigs, so named alter a place in the frontiers of Nepal and Tibet near the head waters of the Kdligangd.

Paital, a title -of Tdntis or weavers, who manufacture silk rtl/\+l-4 n-n/^ o ld * - . T v i o f a cloth and also mats.

Pa i th in , a section of A-^ dhid Hajjams in Behar. ^

P a i t i . a t i t l e of Tambulia Behar. m

P.VKAE. 15i PALIWAE-HAEIPUR.

Pakar, a fruit, a totemistic sept of Eonrs in Cliota Nag-pur.

_ Pakarye-Maheshi,- a mul of the Kasjap section of Maithil 13rahmans in Behar.

Pakari, a gain of the Sabarna gotra of Barendra Brahmans iu Bengal.

Pakbasanta, bird, a totem­istic section of Bagdis in Bengal.

PdHidli, Dhoba.

a synonym for

Pakharpailo, a sub-section of the Bharadwaja section of Utkal iirahmans.

. Pf l^hich^ta, a section of Telis m Onota Aagpur.

• ^ f ""^T-"' " ^^otion of Murmis in Uarjilino-.

^ P^kuri. a title of Godlas in

nnd^'t.' ' *'*!^ °* Dakshin-RArhi ^'^Sgopr^^^ Kayasths, Tolis, 'i'^nti?s , ^ ^ ^ 8 1 8 , Tambulis, dhars in 1^'^'^''^^^^'^^' and Sutra­'s usuali, °Sal. Intermarriage title. ypJ^ohibited within the

or sept of

Paladhii a gain of the Kasyapa gotra of Kdrhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Palainggritsa, a sept of Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Palaingtsa, a sept of Maghs in the Hill Trarts of Chittagong.

Palak P^nre, a mvl or sec­tion of the Biahut sub-caste of Kalwars in Behar.

Palami, a i/mr o Guruugs in Darjiling.

Palankhai , a title of Bagdis in VV estern Bengal.

Palasa , a sept of Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Paldsram, a group of the Sundi sub-caste of Sunris in Bengal.

Palaur. a section of Mahesris in Behar.

Palii a mul or section of the Sutmulia or Kishnaut sub-oasto of Godlas, and a section of the Satmulia Mao;haya sub-caste of KanduB in Behar.

Pal it, a title of Kdyasths in Bengal.

Paliwdr-Mangrauni, a mul of the Batsya section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Paliwdr-Mahesi, a nml of the Batsa section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

Paiiwar-Dibrd, a mul of the Batsa_ section of Maithil ' Brah­mans in Behar,

PaliwSr-Sakuri, a mul of tho Batsa section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

the Bdtsa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

PALIWAIl-SAMAUL. 155 PAN.

Paliwar-Samaul, a mul of the Biitsa section of Maithil Brah-maus in Behar.

Paliwdr-Kachhr^, a mul of the B^tsa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Paliw^r-Phuldciha, a mul of the Batsa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Paliw^r-Mahendra, a mul of the BAtsa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Paliw^r-Jarhatyd, a viul of tho Batsa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

P<lli.nt, Poliya, Pola, a Dra-vidian cultivating caste of North-em Bengal, originally Kochh.

Pal iy^r-Pargha, a sub-caste of Parghds.

Paiki, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Pallab or Ballabh, a sub-caste of Goalas in Bengal,

Pallal, a group of Bdrendra GoaMs in Bengal.

Palli , a sub-tribe of Savars in Orissa.

Palmoha, a sub-caste of Koiris in Behar.

Palsaii a gain of the Kasyapa gotra of Earhi Brahmans in BengaL

Palu, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

^JallDSr, an up-country caste, by profession dealers in g/ii, boat­men, cultivators, makers of brick-dust ; some are also engaged as moharirs in the firms of trades­men, Suryabansi is their title.

Pamar , a sept of the Surya­bansi division of Eajputs in Behar.

Pamia , a tree, atotemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

|3^lt, Tanwa, Panr, Pah, Pdnikn, Chile, CJdk-BardU; BarM; Ganda, Mahato, Sdicasi, Tanti, a low wenving,

°"^"' basket-making, and servile caste scattered under various names throughout the north of Orissa and the southern and western parts of Chota Nagpur. " In feature," snys Colonel Dalton, " these people are Aryan or Hindu rather " than Kolnrian or Dravidian. Their habits are all much alike, " repudiating the Hindu restrictions upon food, but worshipping " Hindu gods and goddesses, and having no peculiar customs which "stamp them as of the other races.'" In Singbbum they are said by the same authority to be " domesticated as essential consti­tuents of every Ho village community," and " now almost undis-tingui&hable from the Hos.^" In another place they are described as " in all probability remnants of the Aryan colonies that the Hos subjugated.'"

I'rom these somewhat contradictory utterances it is not qiiite easy to gather what was Colonel Dalton's final opinion asto theorit»in of the Tans. _ In one place he credits them with features of \ t Aryan or Hindu tyjie, in another he speaks of them as aim

(jistinguishable from the Hos—the most markedly Negiito I'l

' Dalton, Ethnoloay of Bmigal, p. 325. ' Unlton, op.cit., 196,325. 3 Dalton, op.oU., p. 185.

PAN. 156

representatives of the Dravidian race. The distinction between Kolarian and Dravidian mentioned by him is of course purely linguistic, as has been explained in the introduction to these volumes.

The suggestion that the Pans may be the remnants of Aryan colonies subjugated by the Hos takes us back into prehistoric times, and raises the probably insoluble question : Were there ever Aryan colonies in the region where we find the Pans; and if so, is there any­thing to show that the Hos subjugated them? To the best of my knowledge the only evidence for the existence of such colonies consists of certain scanty architectural remains buried here and there in the jungles of Chota Nagpur, and of the shadowy tradition that the Singbbum copper mines were worked by the Jains. This seems a slender foundation for the conjecture that the P4ns of the piesent day are the descendants of prehistoric Aryan colonists who were subdued by the Dravidian races of Chota Nagpur and settled down as helots in communities of alien blood, retaining their religion, but parting with that purism in matters of food which has always d^tinguished the Aryan in comparison with the Dasyu.

Foitunately there is no necessity to enter upon this speculative Traditi '•°® °^ inquiry. Not only do their own tradi­

tions claiming descent from the snake throw doubt on the Aryan pedigree which has been made out for them, but the most cursory examination of the exogamous divisions of the Pans affords convincing evidence of their Dravidian origiQ. The caste has a very numerous set of totems, comprising the tiger,' the buffalo, the monkey, the tortoise, the cobra, the mon­goose, the owl, the king-crow, the peacock, the centipede, various kinds of deer, the wild fig, the wild plum, and a host of others which I am unable to identify. They have in fact substantially the same set of totems as the other Dravidian tribes of that part of the country, and make use of these totems for regulating marriage in precisely the same way. The totem follows the line of male descent. A man may not marry a woman who has the same totem as himself but the totems of the bride's ancestors are not taken into account as is the case in the more advanced forma of exogamy. In addition to the prohibition of marrying among totem kin, we find a beginning r f the supplementary system of reckoning prohibited degrees Th formula, however, is curiously incomplete. Instead of mentin • both sets of uncles and aunts and barring seven eeneratinr.= - usual, the Pans mention only the paternal uncle and m^Z' ^^ ^^ one generation. They are therefore only a stage removed f. " S ^ primitive state of things when matri^monial r e l a t i o n s ^ r t n i X / b v

yet come to be reoogni-iBu. Like most castes which are spread over a 1 Aa of

country, the Pdns appear under several different aames'The orTgln of

' I t is a singular fact ,j5>at the * ? g e r ^ h ^ ^ 7 l i n ~ 7 ~ Z 7 T ^ ^ g^ot pB. One of these is caUed S«^Aat. a ^ord wSch ™ l f have denoted tiger m the original language of the ^ as (coapa^gX w . l & ) ; while the other, Bighail, is obviously of Hindi origin. ^'^^ ^*""'^' ^

157 PIN.

which it is now difficult to trace. Thus in Manbhum they call them­selves Baraik, ' the great ones/ a title used by the Jadubansi Rajputs, the Binjhias, Rautias, and Khandaits ; in Western Lohardaga and Sarguja we meet them under the name of Chik or Chik Baraik; in tSingbhum they are Sawasi or Tanti, and in the Western Tribu­tary States they are called Ganda, a name which suggests the possibility of descent from the Gonds, a tribe which in farmer times appears to have extended further to the east, and to have occupied a more dominant position than is the case at the present day.

In Orissa five sub-castes are known:—(1) Oph-Pan or Uriya-Pan, a semi-Hinduised group supposed to have

Internal structure. ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ j-,^^^^^^ betweeu a Pan Woman aud a member of one of the lower Uriya castes, but now claim­ing a higher social status thau the Faus of the original stock; (2) Buna-Pan, including those Pans who weave cloth only; (•i) Betra-Pan or Raj-Pan, basket-makers and workers in cane, also employed as musicians, syces, and chaukidiirs. (4) Pan-Baistab, com­posed of Pans who have become Vaishnavas and who officiate as priests for their own caste. As a general rule it may belaid down that religious differences within the pale of Hinduism do not lead to the formation of eudogamous groups. Among Agarwals and Oswals Jains and Hindus intermarry, i t is only in Orissa that the Vaishnava members of several castes seem to cut themselves off from their own caste and from the general body of Yaishuavas, and form a new sub-caste under a double name denoting the origin of the groups. (5) Patradia, consisting of those Pans who live in the villages of the Kandh tribe, work as weavers and perform for the Kandhs a variety of servile functions. The group seems also to include the descendants of Pans, who sold themselves as slaves, or were sold as Merias or victims to the Kandhs. The precise history of the Patradia sub-caste is of course obscure, but I see no reason to doubt the possibility of au eudogamous group being formed in the manner alleged. There is no question whatever as to the Pans occupying a separate quarter,— a kind of Ghetto,—in the Kandh villages, where they weave the cloth, that the tribe requires, and also work as farm-labourers, cultivating land belonging to the Kandhs, and making over to their landlords half the produce as rent. These Pans naturally come to be looked down upon by other Pans who serve Hindus or live in villages of their own and then come to be ranked as a separate sub-caste as regards the slave class alleged to be included in the group. We know that an extensive traffic in children destined for human sacrifice used to go on in the Kandh country, and that the Pans were the agents who " sometimes purchased, but more frequently kidnapped, the children, whom they sold to the Kaudhs, and were so debased that they occasionally sold their own otl'spring, though they knew of course the fate that awaited them." Moreover, apart from the demand for sacrificial purposes, the practice of selling men as agricultural labourers was untd a few years ago by no means uncommon in the wilder parts of the Ohota Nagpur Uivision, wher« labour ia scarce and cash payments are almost unknown. Numbers of formal bonds liave come before me whereby

PAN. 1* ^

men sold not only themselves, but their children for a lump sum to enable them to marly, and on several occasions attempts bave been, made to enforce such contracts in the courts, and to prevent tbe Kamid, as a slave of this class is called, from emigrating to the tea districts of Assam, or from otherwise evading the obligations he had taken upon himself. There is nothing therefore antecedently improbable in the existence of a slave sub-caste among the Pans.

Pan girls are usually married after they are fully grown up, and the Hindu practice of infant-raarriage is

Marriage. confined to a few well-to-do members of the Orh-Pdn sub-caste, wbo have borrowed it from their orthodox neighbours as a token of social respectability. The standard bride-price is said to be Rs. 2 in cash, a maund and a half of husked rice, a goat and two sdri's—one for the bride aud one for her mother-in-law. In Orissa the simple marriage ceremony in vogue is performed by a member of the Pan-Yaishuava sub-caste, who, as has been mentioned above, serve the Pans as priests, and are often spoken of inaccurately as their "Brahmans." In Chota Nagpur, where the organization of the caste is less elaborate than in Orissa, men of the Nageswar caste not unfrequently serve the Pans as priests; or again any member of the caste with a turn for cero-

. monial functions may officiate, and the post is usually filled by a Bbakat or devotee. The most essential portions ot the ritual are believed to be sindurddn, the smearing of vermilion on the bride's

- forehead, and the parting of her hair and tying together the hands of the bride and bridegroom.

The widows may marry a second time, and it is deemed the proper thing for her to marry her deceased husband's younger brother. She may in no ease marry the elder brother. Divorce is peimivted, for almost any reason, with the sanction of the caste panehayat. In Orissa the headman of the caste, styled Dalai or ' Behera, presides on such occasions, and a chhdda-pafra or bill of divorcement is drawn up. The husband is also required to provide her with food aud clothing for six months. Divorced wives are allowed to marry again.

The professed religion of the Pdns is a sort of bnstard Hindu-Religion, i ™' ^arying with the locaUty in which

. , , .-L • .-^ happen to be settled. In Orissn. n-nA Smgbhum they mclme to Vaishnavism, and tell a dUy sto^-v about their descent from Duti, the handmaiden of lUdhl Tl 7 in Lohardaga the worship of Mahadeva and Devi \Ai •'

• popular. This veneer of Hinduism, however, has onW ' ' ° T • LL laid on, and_ we may discern miderneath it l ^ ^ i f ' ' " " ^ f

the primitive animism common to all the Dravidiaa ^ ^ , 1 A^ t • .. Btu-rounded by unseen powers-to call them spirits is t f ' i fi too • closely-which need constant service and p r i n S i l 1 " l a

• negligent votary with various kinds of diseases^ S ? ? ; . ^' '^ T ' l v toUshuflling off tl>isnneomfoitable c r e e d a n d d e s e i u S l L r ^ l S S

• Fods, ^hile as yet thoy have not taken vigorouTy to"^l d S « i --'^ . they ore described by one observer ns having S v little religion of

auy kmd. Among the minor gods m vogue^ amoui tUem mention

PAN. 159 PAKCHAUBHE-KHAJULI.

may be made of Paurl Pahaii or Bar-Pah£r, a di\'inity of unques­tionably Dravidian origin, who inhabits the highest hiU. in the neighbourhood and demands the sacrifice of a he-goat in the month of Phalgun, and occasional offpiings of ghi all the year round. The suake is also worshipped as the ancestor of the caste. An attempt was made recently by the Pans of Moharbhanj to induce Brahmaus to officiate for them as priests at marriages and funeral ceremonies, but no Brahmans could be persuaded to undertake these offices.

The southern Piins usually bury their dead in Orissa with 1 f ti 1 ri ^ ® head pointing to the east, while in Sing-

isposa o le ea . ^himi it is turned towards the north. In Lohardaga both cremation and burial are in vogue. Eape seed and water are offered to the deceased and to his ancestors on the eleventh day after death.

The social status of the caste according to Hindu ideas is exceedingJy low. They eat boef, pork, and fowls, drink wine, and regard themselves as better than the Harl in virtue of their abstain­

ing from horse flesh. In Lohardaga they eat kac/ii, drink and Bmoko with Mtmdas and Oraons. Their original occupation is admitted to be weaving, but many of them have now taken to culti­vation. The Bunii Pans of Oribsa are noted thieves.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Pins in 1872 and 1881 :—

Sooiil status and oocU' pation.

DiSTBICT.

BiiWuira llidriaptir 24'l'ar(raii&3 Khiiliia llnnitpur

Muimatisinh .

1872.

9,709 11

52 41 01

18S1.

30

t* S7 li

41

D i s i n i c T .

CliidaKong . , Ti|i|)urah Outtact I'un PaIa*ore Ti i i iu tan s tates ... L^ hirdacA Muiibhnin l i ibutar s ta tes

1873.

2

6t,Te5 B.Ui

S6,3iu 112,t."* 12,3S7

30,163

1881.

5 7'*,'M!7 l,I.'»

4<i.l'ti loa.snr

SIT 61ti 719

Pan, a sect of Dasndmi Sannyasis; a title of Telis and Aguris in "Western Bengal.

Panarha , a title of Chamars in Behar.

Panchabati , a f,dui of the Sibarna c^tra of Barendi-a Brah­mans in Bengal.

Pancha Dravira, ^^^ ^^ j^^ tvfo mam divisions of Bmhmans dwellmg m the south of the peninsula.

Pancha Gauriya, one of the two main divisions of Brahmaus

dwelling in the valleys of the Ganges and Jumna.

Panchakoti , a sub-caste of Brahmans, Baidyas, and Bauris iu Western Bengal.

Panchapandava, " the fire Piindus," a title of Kshatriyas.

Panchaparibar, a man with five families, a j)anyai or sect of Bairagis in J3engal.

Panch^sia, a sub-caste of Suniis in Tipperah.

Panchaubhe-Khajuli, a ,„,^^ of the Sabarna section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

PAN CH AUBHE-JH AUA. 160 PANDIT.

Panchaubhe-Jhau6, amid of the Sabama section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Birpur, aM!«/of the Sabama section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Barhmaul, a mul of the Sabama sectioa of Maithil Brahmaas in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Bhithi, a mul of the Sdbarna section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Dadri, a nwl of the Sabama section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Panchaubhe-Kariaun, a )ntl of the Sabama section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Panchbatiar, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Panchbhaia, a functional sec­tion of Bahhans and Turis in Behar.

Panchbiha, a section of Tantis and Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Panchhai, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Panchhia, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Panchjati, a suh-casteof Kha-<ris in Bengal.

Panch..anthi, a ;j!o-or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Panchkuti, a i/mr or sept of Damis in Darjiling whose chief profession is sewiug.

.^-^"chnama mandar , a title ' i Nagars in Behar.

Panchsamdj, a group of the Barendra Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

P inchsa ta Bahdttarghar, a sub-caste of Kaibarttas in Central Bengal.

Panchsau-gharia, a group of the Bar-gohri sub-caste of Khaudaits ia Grdngpur.

Panchuria, an. endognmous division of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal They are held in the same estimation among Bdren-dros as Piralis among Harhis.

Panddi a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa, who serve in temples resorted to by pilgrims. The term is especially applied to temple priests in Orissa.

Pandar , a tree, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Pande, a title of Babhans; a section of the Sribastab sub-caste of Kayasths in Behar; also a designation of clerks of the Kayasth caste in Chota Nagpur.

Pande or Panre , a title of Gavu-a, Kanauji£t, and Saraswat Brahmans in Behar.

Pandiam, a section of Telis in Chota Nagpur.

Pandiar , a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pandit , (i) a learned man: hence, ironically, a title of Bagdis, Doms, Jugis, and other low castes, who do not employ Brahmans. (ii) A section of the Banpar sub-caste of Gonrhis in Behar. (iii) A title of Kumhars. (iv) A title of Saraswat Brahman a in Behar; a i/iar or section of Nepali Brahmans. (v) A title ot priests of Barnasankar castes m Tipperah.

PANDITEATNI. 161 PANSHA,

Pandi t ra tn i , including Kes-abi, Gurbhabani, Maladbdri, and Brahmachari, a mel or byper-gamous sub-group of K^rhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Pandki , a section of Gbdsis in Chota Nagpur.

P ind ra , a section of Saraogis in Bebar.

Pandrasau-gharid, a group of the Bar-gobri sub-caste of Kbandaits in Gangpiu- and Bonai.

Pandubi, a sub-caste of Mal-Mbs in Behar.

Panduchone, a sept of Mun-das in Chota Nagpur.

Panduki or Pandki, dove, a totemistio sept of Mundas aud Telis in Chota Nagpur.

Paner, Paneri, PmiMri, a seller of pan or botel leaf, a title of Barais and Tambulis in Behar.

Paneru, a ihar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Pang-Karmo, pang, 'pasture,' and karmo, 'white'—a dweller iu high pastures, a sub-sept of the Nah-pd sept of Sherpa Bhotias.

Pani , a section of Utkal or Orissa Brahmans.

Pan I a, a dealer in pin or betel-leaf, a title of Barais aud Tambulis m Behar.

Pdniha chaur, a section of the Biyahut and Kharid£ha Kalwars in iiehar.

Panika, a synonym for Pan.

Paniyar, a section of the Maghaya sub-caste of Kumhars in Behar.

Pdnja, heap of bricks, a title of Barendra Brahmans and Xai-barttas in Bengal.

Panjiar, Panji^rS, a caste official who keeps up genealogies and registers of marriages in Be­har; a section of Maghaya Kum-hars and a pangat or section of Dosadhs ; a title of Nagars ; a section of the Banapilr sub-caste of Koiiis and Sunris ; a title of Goalas and Telis in Behar; a title of Kharwdrs iu Lohardagd.

Panjibaddh, a hypergamoua group of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Pankharaya, a Beotion of the Biyahut and Kbai-iddhi Kal­wars in Behar

Pankhi , a bird, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Pdnkunda, a samaj or local group of the Sdndilya gotm of Paschatya Baidik Brahmans in Bengal.

Panpatra , a group of the Daspard sub-caste of Kumhars in Pabna.

Panr, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Panr, a synonym for P&n.

Panre , a section of Kanauji4 Lobars and of the Banpdr sub-caste of Gonrhis in Behar.

Panre ke panre, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidahi Kal­wars in Behar.

Panru, snake, a totemistio sept ot Lohai-3 m Chota Nagpur.

Pansain, a section of the Amashta Kayasths m Behar.

Pansha, a sub-caste of Tam-bulls in Bebai- who deal in betel-leaves.

/

PANSILI. 162 PAEBATE.

PansH'i, a sub-caste of Lobars' in Obota Nagpur.

Pan-Tanti, a class of Tantis or •weavers in Cbota Nagpux -wbo allow widows to marry, eat fowls, drink wine, etc., wbile tbe otber class, Aswini Tantis, do no sucb things.

Panthar , a sub-tribe of Lim-bus in Darjiling.

Panthi, a tliar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling. See Panti .

Panthpakar, a section of the Biyahut and KharidabaKalwars; a mill or section of tbe Tinmulia Madbesia sub-caste of Halwais and of tbe Ayodbiabasi sub-caste of Sonars in Bebar.

Pant i , Panthi, a title of Telis and Tambulis in Bengal -wbo sell pan (piper betel).

Panv/a, a synonym for Pdn.

Panwar, a sept of the Suxaj-bansi division of Eajputs in Bebar.

Papriwal; a section of Saraogis in Bebar.

Papson, the adopted one, a sept of tbe Chaibisa sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiiing.

ParabwSr, a dih or exogam-ous section of tbe Gbarbait sub-caste of Amats in Bebar.

Parajuli , a ff/ar of the Kaun-din gotra of Nepali Brabmans.

Parak, a dugn or section of tbe Kochb-Mandai in Dacca. Tbe name

indicates the original habitat of the group, probably a hill or village in Assam, and now-a-days lias no bearing upon marriage.

Pa ramananda Misra, a mel or hypergamous sub-group of Earhi Brabmans in Bengal.

Paramanlk , a title of Tantis, Telis, Napits, Bagdis, Doms, Bauris, and of Goalas in Bengal; of Kurmis in Behar ; a section of Patnis and of tbe Cbapota sub-caste of Hindu Jolahas in Behar; a hypergamous division of Telis and Tiyars in Bengal.

Pa ramanna , a title of Kai-barttas in Bengal.

Parasara , a gotra or section of Brabmans ; of Tantis in Bengal ; an eponymous sept of Bajputs in Behar; a section of Babhans in Bebar, borrowed from tbe Brab-manical system and superadded to the original esogamous groups kiik) characteristic of the caste; a gotra or section of Jolabas in Bebax. This designation lias been borrowed from the Brabmans in comparatively recent times, and, being used indiscriminately by all Jolabas, does not operate as a bar to intermarriage. I n fact, tbe Bebax Jolabas have no working exogamous sections, and reckon prohibited degrees by thefonnula mainera, chachera, etc., explained in the article on Bais. A section of Karans in Oiissa; of Xayastbs Madbunapits, Tambulis, Sdnkha-ris, and Subai-nabaniks in Beuo-al • an eponymous section of Bhuin-malis ill Eastern Bengal

Pardsar Dds a synonym for, andsub.casteof,Kaibartta3. T.,^.\ 'f, '^ar, a thar of the B - hth gotra of Nepali Brah-

. Parbate, a section of Ktois m Darjiliug,

PAEBATEH. 163 PAEGHA.

Parba teh , a thar or sept of IXangars in Darjiling.

Parbat t i -Kurin , a sub-caste of Goni'his in Behai, AvHch, tbougb endogamous as regards the other sub-castes of Groni-his, allows of intermai'riage Avitli tbe Kol sub-caste.

Parbatya, a thar or section of Nepdli Brahmans.

Pdrbbat , a sect of Dasnami Sannyasis.

Parbe , a pangat or section of Dosadhs in Behar.

Pardhan (Pradhan), a title of Khandait Faiks, Kharias, and

Kharwars in Ohota Nagpur; a section of Sunris in Behar.

Pardh'el Kokaw, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Parel, a title of Kaibarttas in Bengal.

Parel, Pondyal, a thar of the Atrai golia of Nepali Brah­mans.

Parewa, pigeon, a totemiBtic sept of Bedias in Ohota Ndgpur.

Pargacha, a thnr or sept of Sunuwdrs in Darjiling.

ParganibhusSri , a dih or local section of the Maghayd sub-caste of Koiris in Behar.

Bargh^, Parighd, a small cultiyating and l ^ W n g caste ^ ^ ' -nrobablv of Dravidian descent found m

0 " S - M o n g b i , Bhagalpur, and tbe Santal Pargands.

The origin of the Parghl | « W r e f a . ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ no light upon their triba a f ^ i t ^ ^ ^ - . J ^ ' . / S e d from the sweat miraculous type says that the first f ' ^ ^ f / X i o r Another describes of one of the Hindu gods in order to be a warrior. ^ north-west them as PaHyd or < lugitive' Bdjputs who fled f^om tbe - o ^ « ^ - ? J before the avenging Parasu Ram, and on ™«JI'^-; mj,„ PaHvas Brahmanioal threads andthrew^ieminto^^^^^ of Dindipur, themselves originally Jlocnn, nave «- >= > and BO S v e ' other Drnvidian castes whom fortune bas place<iJi a position to pass themselves ofl as lldjputs. There would mdeed be nothing prmd facie improbable in the hypothesis tbat the largha may be nothing more than an outlying branch of the Paliya;_ but arguments based on similarity of names are apt to prove fallacious, and 1 know of no definite evidence either for or against such a con-iectm-e. Mr. C. F . Magrath, in his memorandum on the castes ot Behar included in the Eeport of the Census of Bengal for 187-., was disposed to infer from their location that they must be a Hmauisea offshoot of the Bhuiyas; but this suggestion again seems to oe unsupported by any tangible evidence. , „.i.„-

The Parghas of Blag^pur are M e d into two -b-c^astea^-internal structure. Supa Pargha and Pa iyar-»^a - ^ ^ ^ ^

several sections,-which aiesnowu i r The section-names are of no special interest ^ ° / * ^^ther^^^f terms, such as Marar, Eaut, and the Uke, used by ma. 7 J ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ t e s as titles. I am informed, however, on good auth°nty ^^^^ among the Pargha these groups are exogamous. Prohibited degrees aro reckoned by the usual formula calc^ated to seven generations in the descending Hn - , o

PAEGHA. 164 PAHHA-TIii.

Girls of the Pargha caste may be married either as infants or as adults, but the former practice is deemed

Marriage. ^^^ ^^^^ respectable, and no father who could afford to get his daughter married as a child would allow her to reach the age of puberty unmarried. The standard low-caste ntual is followed, in which the smearing of vermilion on the bride's forehead is heUeved to constitute the valid and binding portion. Polygamy is permitted in the sense that a man may take a second wife if the first is barren. Widows may marry again, and are hound by no restrictions, except those arising from the prohibited degrees, m their choice of a tecond husband. Divorce is not formally recognized; and -when a woman goes wrong, she is simply cast off by her husband. She is not, however, turned out of the caste, and she may marry again.

The religion of the Parghas offers no points of special interest, and appears to differ little from that of other

Religion. Hindus of about the same social standing. Maitlul Brahmans serve them as priests, but their rank is lov? among those of the sacred order. The funeral ceremonies of the caste are tor the most part framed on the orthodox model, and are performed on the thirteenth, day after death; but in the case of persons who die by a violent death, some Parghas construct a small round heap of dried mud, which is called after the dead and worshipped with offerings of goats and sweetmeats, as o. minor god.

The bulk of the caste are occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats „ ,. , . , ^i^^ landless day-labourers; some are tenure-Occupation and social T u „ j •' , ,. „ „ I'yiiu.j.c

status. noiders, and a few exceptionally fortunate individuals have risen to the status of zemin­

dars holding petty estates. In point of social standing Parghas rank a little lower than Dhdnuks. They observe the standard scruples regarding food, and profess to abstain from spuituous liquors.

The following statement shows the number and distribution nf the Pargh-i caste during 1872 and 1881: ^

„, ^''^''''^- ia72. 1881. Uiamparau .,, .

Sant41Pargan&3.. - - ^H^ 6.145 ... ... ],8b0 2 161

PjirhniBa, Parhid, a small I the population.' The'v wn i.--n Dravidian tribe of Palamau, des- Dharti Mai, the fin,.+^ worsmp cribed briefly by Colonel Dalton and Gohet '^^ goddess, and at greater length by Mr. L. R. Forbes in t i s report on the ^"ar•h^pe, a section of B^b-settlement of Palamau. Their | ^^ns m Behar.

• sections are totemistic. Colonel DaUon speaks of tlaem_ as ' the mere remnant of a tribe who, according to their own traditions in this district and the traditions of other races (Lohardaga), once formed an important section of

wie Worth-Western Provinces and Behar.

^ Parhatid, a sub-section of the Bharadwaja section of Utiial Brahmans.

P^tEIAL. 165 PARWAEIA-.

Paridl, a. gain of the Sabarna ffotra of Earhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Parian, a section of Sonars in Behar.

Pariar , a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Parich, a,miiloi the Kasyapa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Pdrichsarddr, a head of the pdrichs or exogamous sections into which some castes are divided.

Par id^ , a title of Chdsds in Orissa.

ParigM, a synonym for Par-gha.

Parihdl, again of the Sandilya gotra and a met or hypergamous sub-group of R4rhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Par ihar , a section of KumMrs in Lohardagd.

Pari h^r, a sept of the Chandra-bansi and Suryabansi sub-tribes of Eajputs; a section of the Banpar sub-caste of Gonrhis and of Sunris in Behar.

Par iharbar i , a section of the Biyahut and Khariddh^ Kal-w^rs in Behar.

Parihasta, a title of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Parijai Kavala, a thar or section of Nepdli Brahmans.

Paripal, a sub-caste of Sunris in the Santal Parganas and Manbhum.

Parira, a sub-tribe of Savars in Orissa.

Parja, a title of Agarics, Asu-ras Biiijliias.Oraons, andKharias in bhota Nagpur.

Parkhar i , a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Parkhia, a virtuoso, an exam­iner of jewels.

Parnigraiii , a group of the Srotriya sub-caste of Utkal Brah­mans.

Parni , a title of several fishermen castes—Chandal, Malo, Kochh, etc., who act as ferrymen.

Parrari t , a section of Maghaiya Kumhdrs in Behar.

Parsaid , a tnul or section of the Ayodhiabdsi sub-caste of Sonars in Behar.

Parsar ia , a kui or section of Babhans in Behar,

Parsaut ia , a section of the Sdtmulid Maghaya sub-caste of Kandus in Behar.

Parsela, a mul or section of the G-hcsin sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Parsi , Parsu, a bush, atotem-istie sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Parubo, a mi or sept of Dejong Lhoris whose ancestor had emigrated from Bhotan.

Parue-Mahendra, a mul of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Parui, a sub-caste of Chandals in Eastern Bengal; a title of Kaibarttas iu Bengal.

Parura, a section of Awadhia Hajjams in Behar.

Parus, a section of the Mao-haya sub caste of Barhi« *" Behar. ^^^ ^n

Parwar ia , a section of +v Dhapra sub-caste of "n ^"-^ Behar. ^o^as ii^

PAllYA. 166 PA'Sl.

Paryd, Parhja, " a low Brah­man who takes from Hindus alms, such as oil, old black blankets, etc.; all black things on every Saturday, which is account­ed a black day." Fallon, s.v.

PSsban, "watchman," a title of Dosadlis in Behar, where members of that caste are largely employed as chaukiddrs or village watchmen.

Pcischatya Baidik, a sub-caste . of Baidik Brahmans in Bengal.

Paschima, a sub-caste of Kamdrs in Eastern Bengal.

Paschim-Kabat, west gate, a title of Khandaits in Orissa.

Paschim-Kuliyd, a sub-caste of Sadgops in Bengal.

Paschim-rarhi , a sub-caste of Ndpits in Bengal.

Paserea, a class of people who hawk about goods for sale ; pedlars.

|3sst, a Dravidia,n caste of Behar, whose origmal occupation Origin. ^ believed to have been the tapping of the

pahnyra, date, and other palm trees for their ^^^". iV® °^?® ^^^^ ^^ usually derived fi-om pdsa, a noose or cord which Mr. Nesfield interprets as disclosing that they have onlv ^ n l i T ^Tl^!^ ^'""^ the hunting state. I t seems, however, mo/e probable that the name refers, not to the snaring of wild aiimals but to the slmg or noose used by Basis in climbing palm trees '

rasis are divided into four sub-castes-Baydha, Gaiduha Internal stnictaro. Kamani, andTirsulia. There are alsoMahoni'

Turk The Bj^^^^^::^is^ti^^.^:^ to coUect the water-chestnut or singhara Trajn i Z L s T l i f v h Tl now they tap date trees like the other sub-castes ^ S is onlv o section, Kasyapa, which has been borrowed from th« P r o ^ ^ "" system in comparatively recent times, a id h i " o b e S S ^ o n ' ^ f regulation of mai-riages. Prohibited degrees are red Z / i ? ^^ standard formula ma»,evd, chacherd, e t c . , i a L X t e d t° ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ aliens in the descending Hue. Pasi^ marrTl^^tLXZl S^'l'

Marriage. "^ ^s adults according to tiilw l ''''^

able. Themai . iageetro?yrr th 'e t^^^^^^^^^^ is preceded b y / « , « „ ^ h e n a Brahman s S s u n i l I T ' ! ^^'«- I t of rice representmg the bride andbridegroo:^ a n d s J f l n ' ' ' ° S'''^' over them as soon as the grains float into conW^^lvP^'^^'^^^'i^^ This favourable omen having been observedTd o f -A^ '^'^ «ther. as bnde-pnce, a date for the marriage is fixed MM ??^°§^ ^^ paid of the ceremony is the smearing of vermiHon nr, \r^^^'ng portion with the bridegroom s left hand. Opinions diff ^^^ ' forehead of the caste in the matter of polygamy. So ^'' "^ ^ ' ° practice have as many wives as he can afford to inaint ^"^ ^^^ *^^* * ^^^ ^""^ only take a second wife with the consent of 1 ^ ' "^hers that he can Pwpose of obtaining offspring. A widow ^ ^^^^' ™'^ *°^ ^^^ ^oyai form, but is expected to marry her ri ^^^ marry again by the brother if there is one. Failing him ,r^^^'''^ed husband's younger TOthm the prohibited degrees. DivorJ • ^^^ "^^"J ^^7 o^° ^"*

*"iee IS effected, by the consent

1G7 .PASI.

of the panchayat, when a woman is convicted of adultery with another memher of the caste. Women divorced on these grounds may marry again on paying a fine, which usually taiies the fornti of a feast to the caste iianchayat. Adultery with an outsider admits of no such atonement, and a woman detected in this offence is turned out of the caste, aud usually becomes a regular prostitute.

In matters of inheritance the caste professes to be guided by the principles of the Mitakshari law, which are

ocession. enforced iu cases of di&pute by the caste-council (panchayat). Daughters, however, and daughters' sons, do not inherit so long as any dcadi relative survives.

Most Pasis belong to the Sakta sect of Hindus, and regard Uhagavati as the goddess whom they are chiefly

oigion. bound to worship. In their religious and ceremonial observances the Kamani sub-caste alone employ Tirhutia Brahmans, who are said to incuz' no social degradation by serving them. The other sub-castes call in degraded (puiif) Brahmans for niamgos only. Such Brahmans rank very low in social reputation, and their employment by the Pasis seems to be a reform introduced at a very recent date, for in all funeral ceremonies and at sacrifices offered to the greater gods whenever the services of a Brahman are not available the worshipper's sister's FOU bhdnjd) performs che functions of the priest. Among the Pasis of Monghyr this ancient custom, which admits of being plausibly interpreted as a survival of female kinship, still prevails in such force that the caste has not yet been convinced of the necessity of engaging Brahmans at all. Thr^ guru of the Pasis is usually a Nanak-Shahi ascetic.

The minor gods of the Pasis are very numerous. J?>andi, Goraiyd, Sokha, SambhtmAth, Mahamaya, ]lam Thakn:f, Mian Kahutra, Naika Gosain, Masan, Ostad, and Kartar are fi\? JXITIPS mentioned in different parts of Behar. Goats, pigeons, cakes, milk, etc., are offered to them si.K times in the year, the offerings being afterwards eaten by the worshippers. In the month of Jeth the sickle Imnmh) used for cutting the palm tree is set up and solemnly worshipped with offerings of flowers and grain.

PAsis rank socially below Tatwas, and on much the same level as Binds and Chains, except that, unUke

pafu.l' °"''""""'°°""' tl^s^S' ^ W nowhere attain'to such consider­ation that Brahmans wiU take water from

their hands. Most of them eat fowls and field-rats, and indulge freely in spirituous and fermented liquors. Many of them have taken to cultivation instead of, or in addition to, their traditional avocation, and hold land as occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats. Others are employed as day-labourers, porters, coolies, or servants to low-caste shop-keepers. In Bengal there is comparatively little demand for theii- services as palm-tappers, for the owners of toddv and date palms either extract the juice themselves or employ Bhni mdlis to do so, and shops for the sale of spirituous liquors are usii^l?"

wned by Sunris or outcaste budras. According to Ur "W, . \y extractlou of ilie juice of the tal, or palmyra palm, as ^e l l n'Vl ! of the kIm<-> «^ ^-"^^ P ' ^ ' ^ ^ "^"""^ important operatiou i^

PASI. 168 PATAU MAHILT.

Eastern Bengal, although it has not given rise to the formation of a special caste. The tal trees are tapped from March to May; the date palms in the cold season. The juice of the former, or toddy (tan), is used in the manufacture of bread, and as an intoxicating liquor by adding sugar and grains of rice. Hindustani drunkards often add dhaturd to increase its intoxicating properties. In Dacca a tdl grove is usuaUy rented, and on an average twelve annas a tree are obtained. The quantity of juice extracted vanes from an average of five to ten pounds. "When fresh this sells lor two annas a seer, but if a day old for only one anna. Date palm tari is rarely drunk, being popularly believed to cause rheumatism, but is extensively used in preparing sugar. A date palm is generally leased for seven annas a year.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Pasis in 1872 and 1881;—

DiSTEICT. 1872. l&Sl. DiSTEICT. 1872. ISSl.

B a r d v a n Bankura Birbhum Midnapur Hughli How rah 2-V'Pargaciis >.adiya Khulna ... Murshedaliad Dinnipur ^ajshtthye . . K' ingpar , Uok.-a Vabna narj i l ing . Jalpigori Ivuoh Be))S»r Dacca i aridptir Kakargan] .„ MaimaoBinh

318 4 8

(MS

813 1.2.6]

SB'S 90

1 1D4

12

251 G

45 213

7E 44U bt8

1 1 !

GS 47

924 1 2 I

13 6f

3 43 9

Tipperah Fati ia

bhulmhad MoinfTtrpur , DarbUunga .. hiiran . , Clininparan

llbunnlpur Vuiniah Mttldub hani&l ParganAa Cuttack P u n Biilnsore ' lubutn iy Sta les i la /a i ib i ig l i Lobiirdagli ., SiiiKblium Mnnbluim Tributary States

21 33,2'I9 34.060

] 19,330

4,767 1,658

12,»U2 ti,.58

620 3 U

1,710 1,002 1,240 1,260

20tt 2,404 1,101

27 OT 41

37,135 39,'i09 n , 9 7 i U , 7 U 12,810

0,6I>2 2,S35

13,90S o,(\ao 2,0'M)

eb7 2,205

031 3,074

b» lt j4

3,882 2,4U0

JO 57

172

Pasupatiyd, a worshipper of Siva under the name of Pasupati, ' Lord of Animals.'

Pataiwar, a dih or exogamous section of the Gharbait sub-caste of Amats in Bebar.

Patalang, a sept of Iambus in Darjiling.

Fatalkat, a class of stone­cutters in Grya whose ancestors are said to have been brought from Jaipur to build theVishnu-yad temple. They make stone ''^ps, idols, and toys.

Patar Sans. Patra), a title of Eaibarttas and various other

castes; a section of the Pargha caste in Behar.

Patar, a section of Bhojpuria HalwAis in Behar.

Patd-Ratnauli. a sub-groun of Maghaiya Telis in Bebar.

P&tari, a gi^n ^j, •, tion of Saptasati R^nl, ^^^^^? Bengal. ^rahmans in

in ^n!fir' "" section of Mahilia in Ohota Nagpur.

PatarMahili, a sub-caste of

PATA SAYA. 169 PATIKiiE.

Rata Say^, a sept of Hos in Singbhum.

Pa ta t r i , a Sanskrit word for 'bird, ' a title of the low class mountebanks called ^(zrio/as, who imitate the tunes of bu'ds and make their livelihood thereby.

P^tbandh, a sub-tribe of Kharwdrs in Paldmau.

Pate , a group of the Srotrya Bub-caste of Utkol Brahmans.

Pa ths , goat, a title of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Pathaiar , a pw or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Pdthak, a title of Kanaujia and Sdraswat Brahmans in Behar; of Ddkshindtya Baidik Brahmans in Bengal; a section of TJtkal or Orissa Brahmans; a title of Babhans in Behar.

Pa thar , a headman among tank-diggers in Tipperah; a hypergamous group of Kaibarttas in Bakarganj.

Pather, Pattar, Patra, a titlo of Bhuiyas in "Western Bengal.

Patheri , a title borne by per­sons employed in stringing beads and trinkets with silk.

Pathu, a title of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

Pathuri , a title of Kaibarttas.

Pathuri , dealers in articles of stone.

Pathuria, a mul or section ' of the Ayodhiabasi sub-caste of Sonars in Behar. A prostitute.

Pat i , a section Orissa Brahmans.

of Utkal or

Patia Doai.

Das, a synonym for Pathal , a section of Kharias in Chota Nagpur.

WXXXI a mat-making caste of Eastern Bengal who deny that they ever cultivate the soil with their own hands. Somo say that they are a branch of the K^yasths but no tangible evidence m support of this view seems to be available Jlie mats made by them ooLse, dark-coloured, and thick, are caUed Motapati, to distinguish them from the finer kinds made at Silhet, known as Sitalp^ti The only plant cultivated for mat-making is the Mathara (Maranta dichotoma), which grows luxuriantly in low, marshy country. I t flowers in June and July, and is cut, while stiU green, about the middle of September, the stems bemg divided into slips and hung from the rafters, and when reqmred for use steeped in water-.

Among the Silhet Patials women make the mats ; consequently the money value of a girl who is a skilful workman is considerable, and a father receives from three to five hundred rupees when his daughter marries. In Dacca, on the other hand, men are the sole workers. Although chiefly found in Dacca, the Patials are scattered throughout Eastern Bengal, wherever the nature of the soil admits of the cultivation of the Maranta. The caste is eclusively Yaish-

ava. 'i'lis headman has the title Pradhan, or Mu'tabar.

Patikar, Patud, Sdlubi, an endogamous class of low Mahom-

j who paint pictures lUus-

hawk them from door to door with songs. Although Pat ikars are supposed to be Mahomedaus they, like the Nasyas of Uaugpur

PATIKJVR. 170 PATOl.

are very lax in their religious practices. They worship the rose asa^fV, and have a great respect for the black kite, which they beheve to be a bird of good omen.

Paiitn-Kshatri, a synonym for Kochh.

Pa t iydr , a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Patkumia, a sub-tribe of Bhumij in Manbhum.

Pa tmurmurara , a sept of Jvharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Patndik, a title of Kaibarttas in Bengal.

^i\\\\, Pdftmi, Pdfaitni, Bom-Putm, a low boating, fishing, basket-making, trading, and cultivating caste of Eastern Bengal, whose dark complexion, short and muscular frame, snub nose, and expanded nostrils stamp them as of Dravidian descent. They are, says Dr. AYise, very reserved and uncommunicative, but there can be littlo doubt they were originally Doms. In Eangpur, and throughout the valley of the Brahmaputra, they are still designated Dom-Patni, and in Bengal this is applied to them as a term of abuse. Their other titles are Giingaputra, Gbat-manjhi, or simply Mcinjhi.

Accoiding to some authorities they are descended from a Rajaka, „ . . or washerman, and a woman of the Yaisya ^^^^' caste. Patnis, however, claim to be the off­

spring of Madhava, who ferried Rama across a river on his way from •Ayodhya to Mithila, and relate how Madhava, having witnessed the resuscitation of Ahalya, was afraid to transport the god to the other bank until he had extracted the promise that lUraa would sit on the guuwale with his feet in the water. The simplicity of this ferryman was remarkable. When Rama landed, Madhava com­plained that the colo'ar of the boat had been changed to a hideous yellow, and that he was ruined. The reply was that the ferry­boat had been converted into pure gold, and as a punishment for tlie Patni's stupidity Rdma announced that his descendants would always be ferrymen, and that he himself would after death become the ferryman of the Yaitarani, or Hindu Styx.

Another fiction in the history of the Pdtnis pertains to the reisrn of Balldl Sen. The monarch became enamoured of a ferryman's daughter named Padma-vati, and married her. At the feast Pa'A-M parsa, when the bride cooks and the bridegroom for the first time f fi-om her hands, the Patnis, with inborn obtuseness, and to t l ^ I giief of the queen, presented themselves at the end of the T f \ Eor this misconduct they were degraded and enrolled L<T^\\t mcha or low castes. ^ 'i^iong tiie

The Patnis are divided mto five sub-castes—J6+ D^* • i,^ are agriculturists and small tr„ i ' n

Internal structure. keeping shop as inudh Or Z '^^ ' ' ' ""^"f^^

Balami or Gh^twdl. l o K J as b o l C / ° T V i ° ' f ^ " ' " o f ierr 'T; Dom-Patni . Machhwa. or Nagarcht wl.o M^ t l l V l and get casual employment as musicinns at w;dJ l ! ' J S t vals of various kinds: Bansphor and Dagara. X ffi S t me ^eves and baskets of cane, and tie the fra^^ew "l / • ' ^ / T h o i S s The kst two, fz-om the nature of their ^Z^; "^ '"''"'''^ ^^Xl, > " purtmta, are more oi less

. 1 7 1 PATNI.

nomadic, making only temporary settlements in neat round huts-of sirki, which they build on the outskirts of villages near rivers. All the sub-castes are endogamous. The Dom-Patuis are said to admit outsiders into their sub-enste on conditiou of undergoing a degrading ceremony, one feature of which is that the proselyte must drink water in which the others have washed their feet.

The exogamous sections of the Tatnis shown in Appendix I appear to be for the most pait of the tenitorial type, and do throw no light upon the tribal affinities of the caste. I t deserves notice that one of the sections bears the name Tentulia, which also denotes one of the Bagdi sub-castes. The prohibited degrees are much the same as with other low-caste Hindus.

Patnis marry their daughters as infants by the standard ceremony. A bride-price (pan) is paid b' the

Marriage. parents of the bridegroom to those of the bride. Polygamy is recognized in theoiy, but rarely resorted to in practice. Widows are not allowed to marry a>.'ain, and divorce is not permitted. Traces of widow-marriage still survive among the Patnis of Noakliali, but even there the custom is looked upon as disreijutablej and seems likely soon to die out.

In religious and ceremonial observances Patnis conform on the whole to the practice of orthodox low-caste

Religion. Hindus. They employ Patita or Varna Brah-mans, who generally assume pompous titles, such as Chakravartti and the hke, by way of covering the degradation incurred by serving the Patni as priests. The Gosains, on the other hand, who act as the gurus of the caste, are received on equal terms by other Bralimans. Mot.t Patnis belong to the iSaiva sect, whose tenets involve little interference with their flesh-eatiug and spii-it-drinking propensities. Only a few Vaishnavas are to be found among them, except in Noakhali. where Vaishnavism is the prevalent faith, and the Patnis give to it a nominal adherence, which does not, however, prevent them from indulging their tastes in mattei-s of food and drink.

The dead are burned, and srdddh is performed Disposal of tho dead. ^^ ^j^^ thirty-first day after death. Like most

Hindu boatmen, they invoke tlie Panch Pir on embarking or when overtaken by a storm. The chief rehgious festival is the Ganga Puja, and Patnis never enter upon the work of a ferry without first sacrificing a white kid to the river goddess. They also propitiate Pavan, the Hindu ruler of the winds, with offerings of salt, sugar, milk, and gdtijd.

In point of social status Putnis rank with Jeliyds, Malos, and c_. , , , the fishing Kaibarttas. Brahmans will not boc.al8tatua ^^^^ ^.^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^gj^ ]^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^_^^^

barbers and washermen of their own caste, as the regular Napit and Dhob^ will not work for them. They consider, however, tha t they have raised themselves in the social scale by prohibiting the remarriage of widows, and in various small matters they ap^ .v rireiudices of the higher castes. For example, they will caulk a bnnt L t deem it derogatory to paint it, and though they indulge f rp S ' in intoxicating drinks, they will never own to doing so. *= '"^^^7

PATNI. 172 PATUNI.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of the Pdtnis in 1872 and 1881:—

DiSTEICT.

Eardwan Bankura Birbhum Midnapur Hughli Bowrah 24-Pargan58 Nadi>a Khulna Jessore Murshedabad Dmajpur Hajshahye Bangpur

1872.

125

101 195

] 393 1.374 3,561

"i',S69 2,629 1,906 2,052 2,178

1831.

14 61 33

842 <• 174 I 115

692 3,696 3,670

2!2 2,U6G 1,296 1,167 1,770

DiSTEICT.

Bo2ra Cabiia Jalpigon Kuch Behar Dacca Faridpur Bakarganj Maimansinh Tipperah Chittagong Xoakhuli Purniah Jlaldah . ... Z Santil Parganlis ... Maiibhum ',

1872.

1.407 3,651

65

4,695 1,309 4,518

21,726 6,f(l6

150 2,419

"i,l26

1881.

1,1.3 1 4,782

60 93

4,117 • 3,363

3.836 26.962 6,814

61 2.104

Q

1,066 8

17

Patni, a section of Saraogis in Behar.

Patodi, a section of Saraogis in Behar.

Patoli, a title of Jaliyas, fishermen,

Patorii a section of Majraut Godlas in Behar.

Pdthpariya, synonym iotpdthak, a Brahman who reads epic poems, Puranas, etc., in public.

Patra, Pathara, a title of Tdntis, cocoon-weavers.

Patra, Pdtor, a synonym for Mahapatra, q.v.; a title of Kai-barttas, Pods, and Tantis in Bengal; a title of Malos in East-em Bengal; a sept of Mai P a h ^ a a ; a title of Mahilis, Khandaits, and Telis in Chota Nagpur.

Patradas, a title of theEirrar or Kural sub-caste of Muchis, who work as cobblers and beat drums •t festivals.

. Pstradia, a sub-caste of Pans 11 OrisBa."

hl^lllf'y' ( t ¥ bean), a totem-' «< tiou of Bagdis; a section I in Nort&n S g a ?

of Mdls in Midnapur and Man-bhum.

Pattadir, an honorary title of Kayasths in Bengal.

Pdittar, a sub-caste of Tantis in Bengal; a class of fishermen in Eastern Bengal who enclose portions of newly-formed char lands at high tide by small weirs made of reed gi-ass (sirki), and catch the fish when the water recedes. They do not use nets. Pattars also sell fish purchased fi'om JeHyas and other fishing castes.

PattEir, aclass of Mahomedans who striag silver and gold orna­ments.

Pdtua, a group of the Karal^ sub caste of Kaibarttas in Noa-khali.

IMxm, Patii,Potd,Pot(;Potud, Patuddr, a class of people, both Hiadu and Mahomedan, whose profession is painting Hindu deities.

Patuli, a title of Kaibarttas.

Pdhini, a synonym f'''" ^° Northern Bengal.

PATUEA-CHHUT/tB. 173 PHAGUAHI.

Patura-Chhutar , a sub-caste of Sutradhars in the Santal Par-ganas.

Paturia, a Mabomedan dan­cing girl.

Paturia , a sub-caste of Bauris in Western Bengal.

^atlDa, PatJiera, Patheri, a maker of fancy silk strings and fringes. Patwas also prepare and hawk about tasar silk. They are divided into three endog-amous groups—Gauria, Rewar, and Tanti .

Patwdr, a generic term in Central Bengal for persons employed in zaminddri business, possibly a survival from times when there were patioaris in Bengal.

Patwari , a sept of Tbdrus in Behar.

Patwe, a pangat^ or section of Dosadhs in Bebai-.

Patyakar , a synonym for Patial, mat-makers and labourers.

Paulastya, a section of Brah-mans.

Paundrakal i , a gain of the Batsya gotra of Bdrendra Brab-mana in Bengal.

Pauiiia, certain castes in Bebar entitled to receive gifts from the village community, viz. Naua, Dhobi, Lobar, Kumhar, Cburibar, Teli, Chamar, Mali, Barhi, Laberi, Grhasi, and Koiri.

Pauria, a sub-caste of Koiris in Chota Nagpur.

Pauria or Pauii^, a sept of Santals.

Pauriar, a section of Awa-dhiaHaj jamsm Behar.

Pawaiyar , a^jwr or section of Sdkadwipi Brabmans in Behar.

Pawaria, Pauria, a class of Mabomedan women who dance and sing in male costume at the births of children in the bouses of well-to-do people.

Pecha, a bird, a totemistic sept of Bediyas in Ohota Nag­pur.

Pechgotra, a section of the Ayodbia sub-caste of Nunids in Behax.

Pekhd, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Pengi, a tkar or sept of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Penkal-Machh, a section of Mdls in Midnapur and Man-bbum.

Peo , a bird, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Peroan, pigeon, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nag­pur.

Peshakar, Peshdkdrin, a pros­titute.

Petehimba, a sub-sept of the Thekim sept of Limbus in Dar-jiling-

Pethokote, a sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Petungbah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phadam, a sept of the Agnid sub-tribe of Meobes in the Dar­jiling Terai.

Phagu, a sub-tribe of Takhas in Darjiling.

Phaguahi, a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur. ^^

PHAKSA. 174 PHULEHLI.

Phaksa, a sept of Ohakmas in the Hill Tracts of Cliittagong.

Phalechhuah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phansia, a section of Gliosis in Chota Nagpur.

Pharia, a synonym for Kunjra :—Tegetable-sellers.

Pharkiet , a section of tbe MagbayS, sub-caste of Kumbars in Bebar.

Pharphar, a gain or sub-sec­tion of Saptasati Brabmans in Bengal.

Pharsadhenti, a sept of Kaurs in Ohota Nagpur.

Phawahong, tbe name of a village, a sept of tbe Yangorap sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phedab or Bhuiphuta, a sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phe-dang-sirri, a sept of Chakmas in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

This ihor were formerly blacksmiths of the tribe.

tbe

Phensa-pa, a rui or sept of Dejong Lboris "who are descen-dents of emigrants from Bhotan and Nepal.

Pheodan, tbe water-carrier, a sept of the Panthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Pherka, a title of Bagdis in Western Bengal.

Phet ia , in Behar.

a sept of Eajputs

Pheyak, a in Darjiling.

sept of Limbus

Phedungsa, a sept of Chak­mas in the Hill Tracts of Chitta­gong.

Phehim, tbe singer, a sept of tbe Pbediib sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phejom, tbe /^M/cri-bearer, in­cluding (a) Nemboag, (i) Sardak-peapi, a sept of the Panthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phekuram, a special ancestral deity of the Bahiot sub-caste of Amats in Behar.

Phema, a sept of Chakmas in the HiU Tracts of Chittagong.

. Phendud, the hammerer of "on a sept of the Tambrkbola sub-tnbe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phir t i . a group of the KaraMi sub-caste of Kaibarttas in Noa-kbali.

Phlum^chh^., a thar or sept of Kbambus in Darjiling.

Pho-omphu, the hangman, a sept of the Phedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Photadar , a title of the Ariar sub-caste of Bais Baniyas and a panqat or section of Dosadhs in Behar.

Pho t ro , a sept of the Char-khola sub-tribe of Limbus " Darjiling. in

Phrangroa t sa , a Magbs in the HiU Chittagong.

sept Tracts

of of

l^onn-nl. fl " ^ r i s m iijastern

P^U'ehli, a thar or -l^hambus in Darjiling.

sept of

PHULGOT. 175 PIPPALAI.

Phulgot, a totemistic section of Nunias in Behar.

Phulhari , a title of Haris in Eastern Bengal -who are not sweepers, but are engaged as chauiidars and gardeners.

Phuli, a mid or section of the CUiamulia Madbesia sub-caste of Halwdis in Bebax.

Phuli a, a we^ or bypergamous sub-group of Earhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Phulkata-Mali, a sub-caste of Mdlis in Bengal.

Phulmali, a synonym for Mali.

Phulnapit, a sub-caste of Napits in Western Bengal wbo have given up tbeir profession of shaving and taken to cultivation,

Phulwar, a sept of Groalas in Chota Nagpur.

Phungthag, be who stole to order; a sept of the Pbedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phungun, a sept of Chiks in Cbota IMagpur.

Phunknali, a sub-section of the Bbaradwdja section of Utkal Brahmans.

Phunval, a thar or section of Nepdli Brahmans.

^huotoal i , a mendicant caste of the Darjiling Terai regarding •which little is known.

Phurlveli, a thar or sept of libanil^us iu Darjiling

phurti , a sept of Mundas in Cbota Nagpur.

phuti, rainbow, a totemistic ept ot Mundas in Cbota Nagpvir.

ov,,itka, vegetable, a totemistic ,ept of Loiars in Chota Nagpur.

Phyagpa , tbe knife-grinder, a sept of tbe Pdnthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Phyuyali, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Pichagma, the son of tbe monkey, a sept of tbe Cbaibisa sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling. This ihar is said to bave formerly woisbipped the monkey.

Pikord, a bird, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Cbota Nagpur.

Pil, a title of Daksbin Earhi and Bangaja Kayasths.

Pi la, a totemistic sept of the Bbumij tribe in Chota Nagpur.

P i Ich v/ar, a section of Babbana in Bebar.

Pilich, a section of tbe Sat-mulid Magbayd sub-caste of Kandus in Bebar.

Piiiksav/ar, a section of Bab-bans in Behar.

Pilkhait , a section of Bab-bans in Behar.

Pilua, a section of MabUis iu Cbota Nagpur.

Pindv/al, a section of Koranob Halwais in Bebar.

Pingua, a sept of Hos in Singbhum.

Pi par, a fruit, a sept of Telis in Cbota Nagpur.

Piparid, a mul or section of tbe Xanaujia sub-caste of Sonars in Bebar.

Bam Pipi , a title of Kaj asths

P ippa ld i .as rcmof tbeBdtsya gotra of Iwrbi Brahmans \^ i3engal.

gaja

lans in

PIPP.VLI. 176 POD.

Pippali, a gain of the Bharad-wAja gotm of Barendra Brah-mans in Bengal.

Pipret, a mul or section of the NaomuKa or Majraut sub-caste of Godlas ia Behar.

Pipriati, a section of Barhis in Behar.

Pirabhanga, a sept of Ohak-mas in the Hill Tracts of Chitta-gong.

Pirdii, an endogamous division of the Rdrhi Brahmans in Bengal. The popular story of the origin of this group is that their ancestor was degraded for having accidentally smelled food which had been prepared in the house of a Mahomedan. They are held in the same estimation among Edrhis as Pdnchuri^s among Barendras.

Piruwal, a sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

pishle, a sub-caste of Telis in Bengal.

Pitamundi, a gain of the Kdsyapa notm of iidrhi Brah­mans in Bengal.

Pithakoteh, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Pithari, a gain or sub-section of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

Pith oar, a section of Gordits in Chota Nagpur.

Pitraiha, a mul or section of the Banodhia sub-caste of Kal-wars in Behar.

Pitule-Kamar, a sub-caste of Kamars in Midnapur.

Plembochhd, a thar or sept 1 of Khambus in Darjiling.

Poa, a sept of Chakmas in the I Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

/

|3ob, Padmaraj, Chasi, a fishing, cultivating, landholdmg, and o . . trading caste of Lower Bengal, found in large

^^°" numbers iu the 24-Pargauds. Their origin is uncertain. Babu Bankim Chandra Chatterji, quoted at page 188 of the Census lieport of 1872, notices their " marked approach to the Turaniau and aboriginal type" of features, and seeks to identify them with the Pundra mentioned in the Mahdbharata as one of the five chief races of Eastern India between Magadha and the sea. The educated members of the caste claim for it a mixed descent from a KAyasth father and a N^pit mother. Others tell a highly indeli­cate story regarding the miraculous birth of the first Pod from Bevati, the wife of Balardm.

The Pods are divided into four sub-castes—B4gande Bangid Internal structure. ^^""^f^ °^ ^^Vf ^^^ ^'^\^' T h e first twO interna. ^^^ found oluefly m the 24-Parian' nd

Jessore, the third in Murshedabad and Maldah, and the fourth" in Midnapur and Balasore. All these groups are endoeamono ]<:]ach is subdivided into gotras or sections borrowed from the Brabmanical system. The prohibited degrees are the same as a r o ' g X WgW

177 POD

towards sexual indiscretions, BO that the illegitimate children of widows and of divorced women are received into the commimity. Their marriage is of the orthodox tj^pe, the ceremony of Kusandtka alone being omitted. Sampradan, or the offering of the bride to the bridegroom and his acceptance of the gift, forms the binding portion of the ritual .

In addition to the well-known sects of Saiva, Sdkta, and Vaishnava, we find among the Pods a large

Religion. number of Sauras and Gdnapatyas, sects very sparingly represented among the higher classes of Hindus in Bengal. The caste employ as their priests Earhi Brahmans, who are held to be so far degraded by serving them that high class Brahmans will not take food or water from their hands. The gurus of the Pods are Edrlii Gosains, but these, I understand, have in no way forfeited their position among Brahmans, though iu some cases they eat and drink in Pods' houses. An instance of this was brought to my notice recently as evidence of the growth of the spirit of religious toleration among the educated Hindus of Calcutta and its suburbs.

The social status of Pods is decidedly low. They will eat sweetmeats, drink and smoke with the fishing

ocia sta U3. sub-castes of BAgdis ; and these are ordinarily deemed to be nearly their equals in rank. Brahmans and members of the Nava SAkha group will not take water from them; and the Sutradhar and Kapali, while they will eat sweetmeats, drink and smoke in company with a Pod, will not use the same pipe or drink from the same lofd. In matters of diet their practice is orthodox on all points except the indulgence in strong driuk. They will eat the leavings of Brahmans. Vaishnava Pods abstain from all kinds of flesh. The great majority of the caste are engaged in

agriculture, as tenure-holders, and occupancy Occupation. ^^ non-occupancy raiyats. A few have risen

to bo zaminddrs, and some at the other end of the scale work as nomadic cultivators on freshly-cleared land in the Simdarbans, changing their location every two or three years according to the fortune of their crops. Many Pods have taken to trade, and gold­smiths, blacksmiths, tinsmiths, carpenters, thatchers, etc., are found among them.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Pods in Bengal in 1872 and 1881:—

DiBTEICr.

Bardw" Banfeuia Birblnitn Jlidoap"' -Hughii - •• Hovproli »4.p,.rg8na8 Nndiya " Khulna Jes'.oro •• .. Murshedabad

1872.

2:n »

B8

1 16.727

*.250

21,5(18 SO

18S1.

42 198

30 10,83"

f 1.9iS I 14,138

217.236

68.780 7.0tJ 8,1J7

DlSIBICT.

Dmaipur Uajsnahye Rflngpur tiocr» Pabna Daccn Fnndpur Baknrgaii) ••• • Miiimansmn . ••• Tipiwrah Muldnh

1872.

i* 12 1 4

""lOl 7S

314 63 55 66

1881.

71 41 B7 BO

S

8,210

WJ

PODD.VK. 178 PEAMANIK.

Poddar, a title of the Aiiar sub-caste of Bais Baniyas and of Sonars in Behar; of Sunris and of Subamabaniks in Bengal who are money-lenders and dealers in gold and silver ornaments.

Podoro, a sept of Hos in Singbhum.

Pod ret, a section of Maghaya Kumhars in Behar.

Pohobait, a section of the Paqhainy^ sub-easte of Doms in Behar.

Poia, a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Poiti, a sept of Gonds in Ohota Nagpur.

Pokharmii, a section of Lo­bars in Behar.

Pokhrel, a section of Kdmis in Darjiling.

Poma, a sept of Chakmds in the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Pomo, the large family, a sept of the Ahtharai sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Pondha, the wanderer, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Pongwar, a thar or sept of I Mangars in Darjiling.

Pongyangu, he who carries his goods on his back, a sept of the Fhedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Ponkrisht (jungle cock), a toteraistio section of Bagdis in Western Bengal

Pon-po, a mi or sept of the Sedtsban-gye sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoria or Hhotias of the south. This Bept is composed of the five oUowin-gjjij.g tg -.—Chhungp^,

Lhasung, Nah-dik, Nambon, and Yo-chang.

Ponthak, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Porari, a ndin of the Kasyapa gotra of Rarhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Pori4l, a title of Telis.

Porri, a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

Portel, a section of Kamis in Darjiling.

Port!, crocodile, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Pot^, a section of Kamdrs in Singbhum and the SantM Par-ganas.

Potaddr, Poddar (properly Fotadar, from Persian fotdh, a bag OT pniso), a cash-keeper, a money­changer ; an officer in Govern­ment treasuries who examines and weighs coins.

Prachanda, furious, a title of Baiendra Brahmans in Bengal,

Prach'r, a section of Patnis in Eastern Bengal.

Pradhan,_ (i) a title of Kai-barttas, SukUs, Sunris, and others in Bengal; a title of Kotals and Binjhias; of Khandaits in Chota Nagpur; Patnis Chamars, and Sant^ls; (u) a village headman in

^^Beh™' ^?\'''^'^""^«^Sunris Svision'^f Tiyars^ %ergamouB

Pydpati, Kumhdr.

Pram^nik,

a synonym for

r>o ;"/"""^> a group of the f'asp^ra sub-caste of Kumhdrs la i'ahna. See Par^m^nik.

PEAMODNI. 179 PFK.

Pramodni , a mel or lijper-gamous sub-group of Earbi Brab-mans in Bengal.

PrSsi, a seotion of the Biya-hut and Kharidaba Kalwars in Bebar.

Prasidha, an eponymous sept of EAjputs in Bebar.

Prat ihar , including Bangram and Gogram, a hypergamous group of tbe Pascbim Kuliya Sadgops in "Western Bengal.

Pratilomaj, see Anulomaj.

Prayagwal , a priestly class of Brahmaus in Prayag or Allaha­bad.

Prohd-kerauta, Sonars in Bebar.

a section of

Pu§r, Bebar.

a sept of Eajputs in

Pubid, Ja id , a sub-casto of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

Puhdnid, a section of Gojilas in tbe North-Western Provinces and Bebar.

Puhar , Oris.'ia.

a title of Chasas in

Puhod, a sub-caste of Go^l^s in Bebar.

of Bangaja

Puil^i a title of B^gdis in Western Bengal.

Puin, a title Kayastbs.

Pujaha, a title of the Naiy4 casto lu Behai-, wMch appears to have rolorouce to their original functions as priests of the abor­iginal or forest deities.

Puihor, priests, a sept of Uk\ 1,.'../.o ,*n the bantal Partramla Pabariaa lu argauus.

Puktebu, a sopt of the Yan-gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Pulami, a thai- or sept of Mangars in Daijiling.

Pulauns, a sub-caste of Nd-gars in Bebar.

Puma, a sept of the Tung-jainya sub-tribe of Chakmas in the Hill Tracts of Cbittagong.

Pun, a thar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Pundar ika , the white lotus NelumhiuDi sppciosiun), a title of Pods, Kaibarttas, and occa­sionally of Jaliyas.

Pundarikaksha, Piindari, FiDim, lotus-eyed; a name of Vishnu ; a title of Pods who rear cocoons and cultivate chillies, ginger, etc.

Pundark, a. pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Bebar.

Pundul, a sept of Eajputs in Bebar.

Pung, a f/iar or sept of iTan-gars in Darjiling.

Pungi, a tliar or sept of the Das-Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-rungs in Darjiling, so called after tbe name of a place in Nepal.

Pungsika, a ffain of the Sabar-na gotra of E^rhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Punrakh i i , a. pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Bebar.

Punrapaita, a title of Punras who rear sUk-worros only.

Punriar, a section of Kurmig in Chota Nngpur and Orissa.

Pur, a section of Goalas iu Behar.

m 2

PURA. 180 PlfSEA.

Pura, a title of Maitbil Brah-mans in Behar.

Purd, a hypergamous group of Karans in Orissa.

Purabi, an endogamous divi­sion of Nepali Brabmans.

Purlin, a section of Ayradbii Hajjdms in Bebar.

Pura I id, a section of Kamdrs in Singbhum and tbe Santdl Pargands.

Puran, a section of Bbats who read out verses in sabhds or caste assemblies; a sept of Tipperabs in tbe Hill Tracts of Obittagong; a synonym for Bbuiya in Mobar-bbanj.

sub-caste of Purandari, a T4ntis in Bengal.

Purandw^r, a sub-caste of Hdris in Bengal,

Purisaini, a thar or section of NepaU Brabmans.

Purbba, a gain of tbe Bdtsya gotra of Rarhi Brabmans in Bengal.

Purbba Banga, a samaj or endogamous group of tbe Pascha-tya Baidik Brabmans in Eastern Bengal.

Purbbakul, a sub-caste of Tantis in Bengal.

Purbba Kuliyd, a sub-caste of Sadgops in Bengal.

Purbbasthdii, a samaj or en­dogamous group of the Pasohatya Baidik Brabmans in Nuddia.

Purbe, a section of Sunris and of the Gbapot^ sub-caste of BUndu Jolibas in Bebar.

. ^"rbia, a sub-caste of Sunris Ml Bebar.

Purbiya, Purbiyd, a sub-caste of Agarwals, a sub-tribe of Tbdrus in Nepal.

Purbiya Khatri, tbe distinct­ive designation of tbe Bengal branch of tbe Khatri caste.

Purbiyi Madesiei, a sub-caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Puri, a sect of Dasnami Sanny^sis.

Purthi, a sept of HOB in Sing-bhum.

Purti, a section of Kharids; a sept of Lohdrs and Pins in Cbota N agpur.

Purubansi, a sept of Kajputs in Bebar.

Purukhinu Nardin, a section of the 'Karakr sub-caste of Dosadbs in Bebar.

Pus&, a section of the Pachai-ny4 sub-caste of Doms in Bebar.

Pusadih, a section of tbe Tirhutiya sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Pusfiita, a section of the Dhapra sub-caste of Doms in Bebar.

Pus^l, a thar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Puseta, a section of the Pa-obainyd sub-caste of Doms Bebar. in

f / " S ^ ' ' ' ^"'^'^^'' ^9dinoi the Kisya^B. gotra of Edrbi iJranmans m Bengal.

Pushdna, a gain of the Sandi-lya voira of Barendra Brabmans in

Pusra, fniit of kusum tree, a TOtemistic sept of Oraons in ^iota Nagpur.

PUSWAY. 181 PYO-CHHElVfBO.

Pus way, a section of Binjhids in Ohota Nagpur.

Putam, dove, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Puti, a gain of the Bharad-wkja. gotra of Bdrendra Brah­man s in Bengal.

Puti tunda, a gain of the Bdt-sya gotra of Edrhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Putr i , a tree, a totemistic sept of Oraons in Ohota Nagpur.

Pu-tsho-bo, a rui or sept of the Bedtshau-gye sub-trilio of iJejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south, whose ancestor was a mixed progeny of Lepcha mother and Tibetan father.

Pu-tsibo, a rui or sept of Dejong Lohris, the members of which are the descendants of emigrants from Bhotan and Nepal.

Putuli, a synonym for Gandha-banik.

Puyi-rdsi, a section of M^loa in Eastern Bengal.

Pyakarel or Pokharydl, a tlwr of the Gargya gotra of Nepali Brahmans.

Pyo-chhembo, a rui or sept of Dejong Lohris, the members of which are the descendants of emigrants from Bhotan and Nepal.

I! ABAC. 182 EAI.

R

Rabad, a section of Go&Us in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Rabchhali,,a ihar or eept of Khambus in Darjiling,

Jlnbi-Dds, a synonym for Chamdr.

Rachhuini, a sept of Rdjputs in Behar.

Radhalii a worshipper of Eadlia, the favourite mistress of Krishna; a title of Yaishnavas.

Radhar, a sept of Khanvars in Chota Nagpur.

Rafugar, a professional shawl-mender ; generally a Mahomedan.

Raghab, a section of the Mah-mudfihaz sub-caste of Ntipits in Eastern Bengal.

Raghab Ghoshdii, a me/ or hyporgamous sub-group of iiarhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Raghopurdih, a mnl or sec­tion of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Raghu, a family of the Kulin group of Jugis in Bengal.

Raghubansi , a sub-tribe and a sept of Eiijputs in Behar; a bastard caste in Chota Nagpur, like Bautia, who act as servants and are said to have originat­ed since the time of Maharaja Ilaghunath Shahi.

Raghunathia, a sub-caste of "Ulkal Brahmans in Orissa.

'^agnunathpurdidr, a f»i(l or section of the NaomuHa or ^faj-mi t sub-caste of Goalas m iiehar.

Raha, a title of Dakshin-Earhi and Bangaja Kdyasths.

Rahapal , a section of Kamis ; a thar or sept of Hangars in Darjiling.

Rahdauriar , a jnir or section of SAkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Rahpacha, a thar or sept of Sunuwars in Darjiling.

Rahtaur , a sept of the Suraj-bansi division of Eajputs in Behar.

Rdhu, a title of Dosadhs in Behar who worship the demon Rahu.

j Rdhul, a thar or sept of the ' Das-Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-rungs in Darjiling. The name is said to have arisen in conse­quence of Rahul, the ancestor of the thar, showing courage worthy of the demon Edhu in certain tribal feuds.

Rahut , a title of Dakshin-E i rh i and Bangaja Kuyasths.

Rai, a gain of the Bharad-v/Aja, gotra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal; a title of Brahmans ; a section of the Sribastab sub-caete of Kayasths in Behar • an honorary title of Kayasths'and Subarnabamks in Bengal; a title of Rdjputs, Bdbhans, Dhdnuks,

i^aiiis, and Sunr^ in Bengal;

gamous divosiou of th^ Maghaya

n ^ ' . t / ^ Barhis; a title of J^hasadhobas, Kapalis, Kords; a "We and a sept of Tharus; an 'wnorific title common among ^'luy other castes.

EALBHiriYA GHATWAL. 183 PAJHANS.

RaibhuiyaGhatwal , a well-to-do class of Bhuiyas, Rai being tlieir title; some also call them­selves Singh.

Raikwar, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Ra ini", a kul ov section of Bab-hans in Behar.

Raipur, a section of Pdtnis in Bengal.

Raj , a title of Mayar^s in Bengal.

IluJ, lidpnistri, liajmajur, a masou or bricklayer, an occupation mostly followed by Kaibarttas, Clidsadhobas, Bigdis, Chand4Is, and Mahomedans

Raja, a bird, a totemistic sept of Muudas in Chota Nagpur.

Raja, a family title of Kashta Baidyas and of Dakshin-Rarhi and Bangaja Kayasths.

Raja, a section of the Maga-hiya sub-caste ol Doms in Behar.

Raja bin, a thar or sept of Khambus iu Darjiling.

Rajaiswar, a section of the Kamar sub-caste of Dosddhs in Behar.

Rajnk, a synonym for Dhob& in Bengal.

Rajandipur, a section of the Ariar sub-caste of Bais Baniyds in Behar.

Rajapaker, a mnl or section of the btVtmulid orlvisiinaut sub-caste o± IroalAs and of the Kan-aujia sub-caste of Sonars in Behar.

R^japakur,^ a section Majraiit (koalas in Behar.

Rajapati-Sobhni, a mnl .,, section of the Naomuiia ^^ j^j ._ rant sub caste oi OoAUs in Bohar.

of

or

Rajata-kausik, a section of theUttar-Birendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Rajbandh, a section of Ghasis in Chota Nagpur.

f la jbangs i , a Dravidian caste of Northern Bengal, originally Koehh, but now claiming to be an outlying branch of Ksliatriyas.

Rajbansi, a synon5'm for Kochh, Eajwar, and for Tiyai- ; a sub-caste of Tiors in Behar who are said to wear h.QJaneo or sacred thread; a sub-caste of MauKks; a title of Bagdis in Western Bengal,

Rajbansi or Raja-Mdl, a sub-caste of Mais in Western I3engal.

Rajbansia, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

an up-country caste engaged in Bengal as gardeners and cowherds. They claim to be a distinct caste from the Bhars, with whom they do not eat or intermarry. In the North-Western Provinces they are engaged purely in agriculttiral pursuits, and rank socially with the Kurmis and Koiris.

Rajbhat, a sub-caste of Bhats, who are the hereditaiy bards and genealogists of the higher classes, and are said to wear the sacred thread.

Rajdom, a sub-caste of Doms who aiJeot Brabmanical customs.

Rajgiri, Rajgrihi, a section of the Satmulia Maghuya sub-caste of Kandus and of <iie Kanaujia sub-casto of Sonars iu Behar

Rai Gond, a sub-tribe of Gonds in Chota Nagpur who affect Hindu customs.

R^jhans, wild goose, a totem­istic Bept of Goalas in Chota Nagpur.

K A J H A S I A . 1 8 4 ^''^^^•

R^jhasia. swan, a totemistio 1 R^Jkurm,, a section of Mag-sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur. hay^dDhobismBehax.

Rajmahal i i , a sub-caste of Rajib, a section of the Man- -j^^^jj^^j.^ j ^ ^ j)acca.

mudabaz sub-caste of Ndpits in ^ ^ ^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^^^ Eastern Bengal. .^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Orissa.

see Kustna, 1 RajpuTi a scnioj or local gronp D ' -u ^ * -RAiniit^ in of the D4kshin%a Baidik Brah-Rajkuar, a sept of EAjputs m ^^^^ ^ ^^^ 24-Pargands.

Befaar. r, . ,• j? n i . ' • Rajput, a section oi b-nasis;

Rdjkum&t, a sept of Rajputs I a sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-in Behar. I pur.

^ ; l i p u t , Kshairiya, ChJiatri, Chhettri, the fighting and land-holding caste of Northern India, •who claim

"^^' to be the modem representatives of the Ksha-triyas of classical tradition, and who are in many cases entitled to appeal to their markedly Aryan cast of feature in support of their claim. Besides these Aryan Edjputs, the large group designated indifferently by the namelldjput or Chhatri includes many families of doubtful or non-Aryan descent, whose pretensions to membership of the twice-born warrior caste rest solely upon the oircumstancos that they have, or are supposed to have, some sort of proprietary dorainioQ over land. I t would be out of place to attempt to give her.e an exhaustive account of the Eajput community as it exists in Raj-putana and North-Western India. The peculiar characteristics of the pure-blooded Rajput have been described by several competent obser­vers. Among the most conspicuous are a pride of blood, which delights in endless genealogies and ranks every one according to descent; a strong passion for field sports, combined with an equally pronounced distasto for peaceful and prosaic means of earning a livelihood; and an exaggerated idea of the saving virtues of cere-menial purity and precision in the matter of food and drink.

The same characteristics are doubtless to some extent trace­able among the Hajputs of the Lower Provinces; but the pressure of different conditions of life has tended to obliterate many dis­tinctions, and the eastern Rajput is far less peculiar than the Western. I t is commonly said that the Rajput can only he studied in his original surroundings, and that an account of the tribe as it exists in Bengal must necessarily be valueless nnd misleading. There is much truth in this view : at the same tiinA it may be observed that outlymg branches of a tribe whiob Unvn wandered far away from the original habitat often preserve survivals of usages which have died out among the original s U o ? C e T e n ?verlaid and obscured so as to be no longer traceable A S [there is reason to believe as several good observed think thtre is'

'^-^ the Rajput tribe itself has been recruited now t d a ^ l S by "^^eguW methods from men of ahen lineage mZ f h L ^not be a better chance of observing the working of th i f 7 • ? l?Lnt d^Btncts than in R^jputdnd itself, w h e f e t u X S : C S e

185 EAJPUT.

strict theory of descent are speedily condoned and hidden by the operation ot fiction ?

In Chota Nagpur, for example, the methods by which many of the chief landholding families have transformed themselves into Rajputs may be traced beyond question at the present day. The Maharajas of Chutia Nagpur Proper, that is of the elevated table land forming the southern portion of the Lohardaga district, call themselves Ndgbansi, and claim descent from a mysterious child found in the jungle, concerning whose origin a singular story is told. The myth of the birth of the founder of the Ohutia Nagpur house_ from a Brahman mother and a snake father, with the picturesque incidents •which Colonel Dalton relates, seems to be nothing more than an ingenious invention contrived to mask the.fact that a family of Munda chieftains had assumed the rank of Rajput To this day ladies of Nagbansi families will not employ a Munda to carry their palkis, because they say he is their elder brother-in-law (b/iaistir), and they veil their faces before him as they would before an elder brother-in-law. The Paehete family caU themselves Gobansi Edjputs and tell a strange story, analogous to the Nagbansi myth, of the birth of their progenitor from a cow in the jungle near Paehete. The zamiudars" of Barabhum, Patkum, Nawagarh and Katiar in Manbhum all claim to be Rajputs, and boldly affiliate themselves to the Raksel and Chandel clans. Some minor landholders of the Bhumij tribe who hold ghatwali tenures in Barabhum have followed the example of the zamindar of that estate, and call themselves Rajputs, though in some cases it can be shown by documentary evidence that their ancestors in the last generation called themselves Bhumij.

The traditions of the tribe go back to the dateless antiquity in which so many royal pedigrees seek

Traditions. rgfuge. Accordnig to the usually accepted version there are two branches of Rajputs—the Surajbansi or Solar Race and the Chandrabansi or Lunar Race. To these must be added the four Agnikulas or Fire Tribes. Surajbansi Rajputs claim descent from Tkshwaku, son of the Manu Vaivaswat, who was the son of Vivaswat, the Sun. Ikshwaku, it is said, was born from the nostril of the Alanu as he happened to sneeze. The elder branch of the Solar race sprang from Ikshwaku's eldest son Vikukshi, and reigned in Ayodhyd at the beginning of the second or Treta Tuga. Another son named Nimi founded the dynasty of Mithild. The Lunar race affect to be descended from the moon, to whom they trace through Ay us, Pururavas and Budha or Mercury, the son of Soma by Kohini or by Tdrd, wife of Brihaspati. The Agnikulas or Fire 'lYibes are supposed to have been brought mto existence by a special act of creation of oompara-tively recent mythological date. Aft«r the Kshatriya had been slain by Parasu Kama, gods and men, and more particularly the Brahman, began to feel the consequences of the loss of their natural protectors. Ihe earth was overrun by gia„ts and demons (Baifi/as and the sacred books were held in contempt, and there was none to whom the devout could call for help in their troubles. Viswdmitra, once a Kshatriya, who had raised himself to be a Brahman by the miglit of

EXJPUT. 186

penance determined to revive the race that had been exterminated, and moved the gods to assemble for tbis purpose on Mount Abu in Eajputana. Four images of Dhuha grass were thrown into the fire fountain, and called into Ufe by appropriate incantations. Irom these sprung the four fire-tribes, Pramar, Sulanki, Panbar and Ohauhan.

Turning from mythology to fact, the first point to be noticed about the Edjput tribe is that, in theory at any rate, it has no endogamous subdivisions. All EAjputs are supposed to be oi one blopd, and no distinctions are formaUy recognized among them as forming a conclusive bar to intermarriage. The groupings Surajbansi, Sombansi and Agnikula refer only to traditions of ongin, and there is nothing to prevent a man belonging to one of these divisions from marrjdng a woman who belongs to another subdivision. It is no doubt the case that some exogamous divisions are of higher rank than others, and that to give a daughter in marriage into one of these groups degrades her family in respect of future marriages for a period of seven years. But with a few doubtful exceptions in outlying districts the principle of hypergamy has not been pushed to the point of forming strictly endogamous groups.

The original septs of the Bidjput tribe appear to be for , , , . . the most part of the territorial type, that Inlornal structuro. . , ' ., . i -, ] ,-,

18 to say, their names seem to denote the tract of country in which the sept or its founder had their earliest babitat. Sesodia and Bhadauria may bo taken aa examples of this typo. Other names again, such as Jadubansl, clearly refer to descent from particular families or stocks. In addition to their original septs, long lists of whiebi are given in Appendix I, the Rajputs of Behar also recognize the Brahmanical gotras, and the tendency is for the latter series to supplant and take the place of the latter. Usually where the original sept names are still held to govern intermarriage, the rule is that a man may not marry a woman who belongs to the same sept as his father or his motber, and the prohibition is often extended to tlie septs, o£ the paternal and maternal grandmothers. Notwithstanding this rule a case has been brought to my notice in which the son of a Salanki llajput of Behar married a woman of the Chandel sent althoughbis father had married into the same sept. At the timo of the betrothal a question was raised as to the correctness of tbo procedure, and the Brahmans held that, as the sou's hetrntl. T though of the same tribal sept as his mother, belonged to a rliff f Brahmanical gotra, the rule of exogamy would not be infr" Tv° the marriage. The standard formula for reckonino- DrohiK, 1^1^ ^ is also recognized by the Behar Rajputs, who in theoVv ! 'f'"'' ' it binding down to seven generations on the father'/ *'°° i Q ''' the mother's side. A man may marry two sisterJ'v.T'l ""'l take them iu the order of age, and he cannot marrv k i ' " " f if He is already married to the younger. ^'^' '^ ^^^ t We- ^i^toi

Iutheory,a.hasb.^n^al^^^^^^

acommon^eostor. Marriage within thT:;f>^^^^^^^^^^^^

187 EAJPUr

to its member, and in theory a Rajput belonging to any given sept has the whole community to choose from in seeking a bride for his son or a bridegroom for his daughter. In fact, however, the Geld of selection is greatly restricted by the operation of the laws of isogamy and hypergamy, the nature of which has been exijlamed in the Introductory Essay. In a society so organized as to give the fullest play to the idea of purity of descent and the tradition of ceremonial orthodoxy, it must needs be that offences should come, and should be deemed to afiect not only the offender himself and his family in the narrower sense, but the entire sept to which he belongs, which is conceived as an enlarged family. Ihus in course of time is developed an infinite series of social_ distinctions givino- rise to complicated and burdensome obligations m respect ot marriage. In the case of the Rdjputs these distinctions have not led to the formation of endogamous groups, as commonly happens among other castes, nor have they hardened into fi.xed hypergamous group­ings, such as are exemplified by the Kulinism of Bengal. But running through the entire series of septs we find the usages of isogamy and hypergamy which have exercised and continue to exercise a profound influence on Rdjput society. Isogamy or the law of equal marriage is defined by Mr. Ibbetson^ as the rule which arranges the septs of a given locality in a scale of social standing, and forbids a father to give his daughter to a man of any sept which stands lower than his own. Hypergamy or the law of superior marriage is the rule which compels him to wed his daughter with a member of a sept which shall be actually superior in rauk to his own. In both cases a man usually does not scruple to take his wife, or at any rate his second wife, from a sept of inferior standing. I t will be readily seen how the working of these rules must have given rise to all sorts of reciprocal obligations as between septs, and must have restricted the number of available husbands in any particular locaUty. The men of a higher sept can take their vnves from a lower sept, while a corresponding privilege is denied to the women of the higher sept. Heuce results a surplus of women m the higher septs and competition for husbands sets in, leading to the payment of a high price for bridegrooms, and enormously increases the expense of getting a daughter married. Under these circum­stances poor families °are under a strong temptation to get rid of their female infants by poison or intentional neglect in order to be saved the expense of finding them suitable husbands or the disgrace of being compelled to marry them to men of lower degree.

There is no reason to believe that iufautioido has ever been lufanticide. Poetised by the Rajputs oi ^ ^ t t o V ^

scale on which it has been known to occui • , ^ oua io Kill uii-iuu. J.U A«."" •"-- 1 1 i 1 *. Ji in North-Westorn India. The sentiment which would tend to the commission of the crime is probably not so strongly developed among the Eastern Rajputs, who are, as has been ....heated above, probably of much more mixed descent than the Rajputs of Rajpnt'i' na.

1 Hoport ou the Census of tlic I'ai'jab, p. 35G.

R.^JPTJT. 188

The demand being for husbands, not for wives, it follows that the negotiations leading to marriage are opened

Marriage. ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ guardian of the girl, who sends his family priest and family barber to the boy's house to make inquiries and to answer any questions that may be asked. Some­times a professional match-maker, agud or ghatak, is employed. _ I n any case these preliminary negotiations are known as aguai or bartuhari. If these results are satisfactory, and the girl's family find that their offers are likely to be accepted, the same emissaries pay a second visit to the boy's house, accompanied by the girl's father, and bringing with them her horoscope, which is compared by the Brahmans of the two families with the horoscope of the boy in order to ascertain whether the match is likely to be auspicious. When this point has been satisfactorily settled, the question of the bridegroom-price (/(7«/.- and dahej) to be paid by the girl's family is discussed, and a certain proportion of it,' usually half, is paid on the spot by way of clinching the bargain. This is called 6rt/- chhenka or phakldn, a-ndhy receiving it the boy's people are deemed to bind themselves to marry him to no other woman. Sometimes the father of tbe boy also pays a small sum sagun) as earnest money to the family of the girl. This practice, however, is said to be unusual, and is only resorted to wheu it is thought that the girl's family may be disposed to evade fulfilment of their obligations. The first instalment of the tilak or bridegroom-price is paid by one of the girl's relations to the boy himself in the presence of the family Brahman. At the same time a coooanut ia presented to him and a mark (tilak) is made with curds on his forehead. Both the gift and the mark are supposed to bring good luck. The balance of tbe bridegroom-price is paid in two equal instalments later on—one before and one after the marriage. On the occasion of paying

• the first instalment of tilak, presents are made to the Brahmans and barbera who have taken part in the proceedings, and a date is fixed for the celebration of the marriage, an interval of fifteen days being usually allowed.

A few days before the wedding dhanhatti takes place, a barber is sent from the girl's house to the boy's with a present of nnhusked rice. The boy's guardian takes this, mixes with it some rice of his own, and has the mixture parched. Two days before the wedding thn women of the family scatter this parched rice about in the cm, f yard, smgmg songs which are supposed to bring good luck On T I next day, that is the day before the wedding, the rite r"f Iv,;. - • is performed in the liouses of the bride and bridegroom ? ^ t T The parents and nearest relations of the latter put on vTll ^ ' ' y ^ u ^ * and in the presence of the family priests w o r s L S n " l ! . T i . " ? ^ f ' who presides over success m life. The bridegroom ? « ! u ^ ^ ^^ ^J witli oil, tm-meric and r;/»-, offerings are made to t h ! ?^^.,«'^^^^f'* and the hair of tbe bridegroom's mother or his neL l f * ^^ Fr\ is anointed with oi l The same ceremony is ^ ^ 1 ' " ' ' ' ' ' / " ^ * . ^ ^^ouse of the bride, the only difference b e i n g ' ^ ^ J ^ ^ ^ ° ^ : ^ ^ j t themselvea in red for the occasion. Uu the lav nf ,i "• ^"""'-^ W before the wedding procession is arranged t l ^ ^ marriage, but »'fl»!7»a is often, though not necessarily J 7 ^^^^mouy "^ '"'^""f

' ° -y* performed. Tlie parents

189 EAJPUT.

of the betrothed couple distribute cakes to the neighbours, demand­ing in return small presents of money (belonki).

The marriage procession is formed at the house of the bride­groom, and makes a somewhat noisy progress to the house of the bride. There the entire party is entertained. The bride and bridegroom are seated under a marwa or wedding canopy, and after the recital of appropriate mantrai or texts, the family priest of the bride's household fills the bridegroom's right hand with sindur, and makes a mark with it on the bride's forehead, the women of the family meanwhile singing songs to celebrate the event. Among the Kdjputs of Tirhut this is deemed the binding portion of the ritual, and the practice of walking round the sacred fire, usually considered essential in the marriage of the higher castes, is said to be unknown. The married couple then leave the wiarwfl and go to the kohbar or house, where the family deity has been placed for the occasion. They worship and make offerings to him, and this concludes the marriage. The bridegroom then returns to the janwdsd or lodgings reserved for his party, while the bride remains in her own house. Early next morning they are brought out and each is made to chew betel with which has been mixed a tiny drop of blood drawn from the other's little finger. This usage in which we may trace an interesting survival of primitive ideas is called sineh j'orua, the joining of love. When it is over the bride is taken to her husband's house where she remains. On the fourth day after her arrival she and her husband stand together on a yoke such as is used for oxen, and a washerwoman pours water over them. This symbolical washing is supposed to be the first occasion on which the couple see each other by daylight after marriage. Among the Eijputs of North-Western India, and in some parts of Behar, the bride and bridegroom do not live together until after a second ceremony (called gaund, or with reference to the bride's 'going ' to her husband's house) has been performed, which may take place one, three, five or even seven years after the marriage, and is fixed with reference to the physical development of the bride. In Tirhut, however, the custom of premature consum­mation, mentioned by Buchanan as prevalent among the Rajputs of Behar, seems to have been introduced, and it is said to be unusual for a bride to be kept at home until she attains puberty. Another custom conneoted with marriage, which students of comparative ethnography will also recognize as a survival of more primitive ideas, may be referred to here. In Eajput families of Tirhut it is considered contrary to etiquette for a young married couple to see each other by day so long as the husband's parents are alive, and in particular they must avoid being eeen together by the husband's parents, and must not speak to one another in their presence. I t is of course extremely dilhcult to ascertain how fax- a rule of tnis sort ia actually observed, but I am assured that young married couples are very careful to avoid infringing it, although as they grow old.er their solicitude on this point is apt to wear off.

The remarriage of widows is strictly forbidden among the Rdjputs of Behar. Divorce is also prohibited, and when a woman

KAJPUT. 190

either beoon es I pTosS^l^ ^"l^'?'^"^ ^^^^^^^ from the caste and -ore or less dubfor i t a U t V ' " ? u c ^ ^ ^ a marned couple finrthSlves unlSe ? o 1 ' ^'""-'^'l' "'^«^« ogether, a separation is aiTived at b v m u ? S ? ' ° ^'^''"lony

•l ajputs are orthodox Ilindus nr^rl „,„ T,- t. -r .

Honour is done to i^^s^tllra\Z\t''^^^^^^^^ ancestor. Among minor gods Banr^^ TZ^ - *^^"" eponyraous jnost m favour. Ancesto,? 'e i M ^ " ^ , ^'i^^°?i^ ^PPoarC bo flowors and rice. Mondays a n r w l F 7'^''^^ °^^""ffs of miUc the most propitious days for this r'^"^^'i^y« are believed tTbe Asm married women offer rake, n T ^ - ? \ ° ^ *^° I5th day of nio her-in-law, grandmother-in Jaw a l "'^ ^? '^' ' "" ^ of Their rhis custom, known as the J?f;iT> • ,^''^* grandmother-in-1 w

tontts '-tL^ W' ^ tTht ''-'' ^^^ ^-th^giKS^^^ssi'^' il af j- . - : S : i / f ' ^ n e a K ' ^ T*-'?^^ ^ h u s b L T M, " ^ ^ ^ °^?^t to feel for her

the benefit 0? t h e i r l f i r e t ' l S t V ^ . K ^ ^ ^ M a t ' l P S S S ?^

^ or rehgious and ceremonial purposes BAi . '.Vposalofthedoad. ^f^^, ^bo are received nn "" P^ ^ ^rah-

dead are burned and t t t h e X r o : ^ - ° f .t'^^ " c r T r j ™ l ^ n utaries. 5, .^ . / . is performed o ^ ^ ^ ^ - & - or ones of

rrtb irtattr/-' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ i^ H-" -whi l e theBrah i s ' e e i t rman?? ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ tTe'd ^'"^^^ bars of the family p a S k r o ^ X t ^ ^ ' ; '^' P'-sts and t f c ^ ^ ' ^ ' that the expenditure on t h i / . ! •' ' ^ said to be n f ? ° ' ^ -incurred on^he onV^alt^jrfi'^T'''''^^^^^ mt-tarpan, a daily offering of water t *''" "'• •/ " the / , ^ "'''^ Bona of tbe deceased, and paction, „? P'i ^^ ted reguIaX v''^'T °^ tice, however, is observed Itytfl ? '^' ^ l S \ \ ? ''^^ the Jnow their religious obligations in^.W-'^^^^ated " R / i r , ^ T " fifteen days of Asin the pitTjL ''' ^^^ter o ' ^ ^ ^ Jf ^ , ;«rved with offerings of water to n '^^^^tors 'Vl * •'^ f''?^

L? ,';.' dies sonless, leaving a wife a n j ' / ' ^ /' ' ^ased anc^ r'^'^' Tf J ^ p e r f o r m e d by one of t l ^ ^ t ^ ^ ' t h e ' S ^ a l S t,i^

'sremonies boiuff 1 n —'—-- - °

i. ago 402.

191 EAJPUT.

omitted. Failing these the nearest agnate (jotia will take upon himseK these pious duties. In the event of a man dying away from his people and being burned or b'oried without the proper rites, his body is burned in efEgy by his relatives, and the other ceremonies are performed in the usual fashion. When a man has died a sudden or violent death, it is thought right for his son to make a pilgrimage to Grya and perform the sraddh ceremony there in order to secure the repose of his soul.

The high-flown titles—Bhupdl, Bhupati, Bhusur, Bahuja—in use among Kajputs, and the name Cbhatri

st.-Sus" "' ™ ^^ '""''' itself indicate the exalted pretensions of the tribe and their traditions concerning their

original occupation. Many Eajputs still cling to the belief that Government and the trade of arms are their proper business in life; and these notions lead them to regard education, and more especially-the higher education, in much the same light as a medieval warrior looked upon the clerkly studies of his time. For this reason the Eijputs as a body have rather dropped behind in the modem struggle for existence, where book learning coimts for more than strength of arm, and the more intelligent members of the tribe are quite conscious that their position is by no means what it was in the classical ages of Hindu tradition. Their relations to the land still help them to maintain a show of respectabihty and importance. Many of them are zamindars, and those who hold cultivating tenures claim in virtue of their caste a remission of rent of their homestead lands. Thejeth-raiijat or headman of a Behar village is frequently a Edjput. He collects the rents and receives in return a yearly allowance, known as pagri, from the zamindar. Eiljputs are never artisans, and it is unusual to find them engaging in any kind of trade. In theory their social status is second only to that of the Brahman, but in Bengal Proper, where great Edjput houses do not exist, popular usage woidd, I think, place them below the Baidya and the Kdyasth. Even in Behar the Babhans claim precedence over them on the ground that they will not touch the handle pan'/iafk or lagnci) of the .plough, and that they use the full npanayan ritual when investing their children with they^weo or sacred thread, whereas the Eajputs plough and milk cows with their own hands, and shuffle on the ya«eo in a rough-and-ready fashion when a boy gets married.

In respect of diet the Edjputs conform generally to the practice of high-caste Hindus. Tho flesh of the goat, the deer and the hare, the pigeon, quail and ortolan may alone be eaten, and these animals, if not killed in hunting, must be slauglitered in a particular way (jl'iMia) by cutting the head off at a single stroke. Fish is lawful food. Win e IS supposed to be ibrbidden. As regards the taking of food from members of other castes, the following rules are in force .—

A Eajput cannot take kachchiioo^, i.e., rice or ddl or anything that IS cooked with water from anyone but a Brahman. Pakki food, such as pai-ched grain, sweetmeats and the like, he may take from a man of any caste liigher than his own or from a Dhanuk Kurmi, Kahcdr, Loliar, Barhi, Kumhar, GodlA, Mallali, H a i i d ^ ' M^li, Son^r, Laheri, or Gareri, provided that no salt or tiirmerio has

SAJPUT. 192

been used in the f ^AJWAE. Water is so\Qnc,IT ?^^' '^^^^^ coudlmentq »in ^-u -,,

Musa^aran^C^Pf - 7 caste e.cept t h U L ' ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ . ^ ^ ' b a ^ o

Eajputsin S ° ^ / ^ t e m e n t shows the nnn,K . ^JP^^Mn^^8^2^and^l881._ '^^ " ' ^ber and distribution of

Bard wan Banknra

JJidnapar flughU Howrah " ' f»-Pargan4s '" nadiya Jessore " ' Khulna ' " Murshedabad"" J'maipur gajshahyo .'.'.' •Baujcpur Boera Pabna

Jalpigori Kuch Beha r" ;Uacca

^ Paridpur ' " Bakur^anj "• Alaimai.sinb ". l/hittttgoog

12.359 9,180 7,02s

17,003

1,R85 001 962

2,470 3S9

8, ?.88-, 1.233 2.325

372

0,332 1,269 3.11)7 6.3(!2

6)3 408

2,107 i.aio

M ' ' W r a h [ iChmagongHmTnieb

JionKhyr I "naealpar " f urniah Maldah

Pari Balasore Tributary Statiss

f'»l?bhuin Slanbhum ' • l^nbutar, s ta te ,

158 1.162

„ 7 64,333

114.102 207,195 167,591 9»,053

2(3,972 80.764 66,067 60,491 48.465 5,!04

2S,12t 111,782 3,898 2.770

,3,651 37.40* 47.4n 1.949

15.943 6.258

^ •' ••' ^ •L'ravidian culhVoK L _ _ _ _ Origin. Bengal n r i nu . ^ ^'iste of Rfli,. ^.^

^oionel tionaHy,

S t l j - ^ i ^ i ^ r / ' ° % m BThar" 5 ' ^ •*' r« '-" "« ^ i t K f

which I b e S T o be'^? 1^^^ . - e ski i^y f; ,^°/ ' ^ - - ^ ^ e o ^ l r admit that they are l ^ ' ^ P ^ ^ n origin Th ^°'? ' ' Ued S " " and Kols Thfi"V o i^^^ved from ff • " ^^ I^ajw^ „ ^^ailo, will no t i e i r S o ^ S ' "P°^ a s ^ t ^ r ^ ^ ^ ^ ' - n o f ' ^ | > ? I Buchanan ' «S ' . . ! ? i^*^«"^ hands." ^V^'^^y^^hyrn'Mrram

tzut>^h;;;7errs;;r5^:, fei::isr ^ ^aZlz a^*be o t j ' / ^^ '^ l^ ly closely related -f^U.y^ f' ?atement that ^y^ ^ n o f ^''^^' it should be o b t ' ^ ^ot o ^ r ^"^'^bars and

^°t eat with Bhuiyds. 1 ^ 7 ^ ' . ^ that , u ' °^^ t^e ^^^^e. ' ^ ^ J ^ ^ s of Art SfJ'^^^« « '

"I Alanbhura have

193 EAJWAE.

a tradition that they came from Nagpur. They say that the king of that country had two daughters, the elder of -whom was lawfully married to the elder of two brothers, while the younger daughter ran away with the younger brother. On the death of the king the brothers fought among themselves for the kingdom,_but after a time it was settled that the one who came first to the capital on a certain morning should be king On his way to the city the younger brother saw a golden crab and dismounted to get it, tying his horse to a tree. As he was reaching for the crab, a kite screamed over his head. H e mistook the kite's scream for the neighing of his horse, assumed that it had broken loose and went off to look for it. This took him so long that he never got to Nagpur at all, but gave up his claims to the crown aud went home. The Eajwar caste are his descendants. The legend may well liave been suggested by the name Rajwar or the title Edjbansi. The internal structure of the caste is shown in

Appendix I. Some of the sections are totemistio Internal structure. _^ ^^^^ ^j^j^l^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ Certainly indi-

cating Dravidian descent. The sub-castes are the following— Angrok or Angwir , Chapwar, Sikharia, Sukulkara, Bar-Gohri, IVIajhal-Turiya, and Berra-Rajw^r. The last three are found only ill Lohardagd. The thu'd occui's among several castes of Western Bengal, and refers to the tract of country between the Damodar and Baiiikar rivers, east of the Parasuath range of hills. The Domsof Behar have a section called Angwar. All the sections are exogamous, but in Behar the Marrik, Majhiyd, and Matwara profess not to intermarry with members of the Bhogta group. For the rest they foUow the standai'd formula for calculating prohibited degrees.

Eajw^rs marry their daughters either as infants or as adults. In the latter case sexual intercourse before

Marriage. marriage is condoned, as with the llundas and Oraons, provided that the lover marries the girl. An intrigue with a man of another caste would of course be puuislied by summary excommunication. The marriage closely resembles that in use anion- the Kurmis, sindiirddn being the bindiug portion. Polygamy is ijcrmitted. A mau may have as many wives as he can afford to iiiuiufain. A widow may marry a second time by the sangd form. She is not bound to marry her late husband's younger brother. Soiue llajwdrs of Gya and Shahabad assured me that only childless widows might mai'ry again, aud that the privilege was under no circumstances extended to a widow with ohildi-en. This looks like a first step towards the introduction of further restrictions, but I doubt whetiier my iuformauts were correct in their statement; or, if they were, whether the modified usnge extended beyond a smaU number of famiUes. Divorce is allo^ved for adultery or incompatibility of temper, and divorced wives may marry again. . a -tr • i

The members of the caste profess to be Hindus of the Vaishnava Religion T"^' and employ degraded Brahmans (Jyosi QJ R l'S"'"- Maithil) for religious and ceremonial observ­

ances. In Behar they also worship Goraiya, -D^hwar, Jagdamba and the other standard minor gods. They burn their dead aud perform a rather meagre srdddh ceremony on the eleventh day. ^

n

103, ra^noniCg -a om • ' ^^^ <s: u9ro yCqp9Avouojnoi:^^i^°^°,^ uxy 0

^ '' -GSSUO

ut sSn,nr JO . 3 - o | T ^ ^ ° ^

^ -mox 3 n r n t ^ a ^ ^ ^

-mtis^tja JO °I ^^ ^ ^ „^ . i . t i a a t i x s m o l

^itnTJUB^ JO noBO^^"° ' ^ " ^ ^ ^ ,

jo^d99iou«y/^ '^qMon^"^y

••8S9X,I0 °T «^^^P

'Vl/UlSMtUVS -10 BM .

. n n ? 3 JO «oi?o99 t> 'u^pnu^^H

aoI: o 9 « • JO aoI: OBs " • . QTiioA

^ em ^ ° ^ ^ TOdraT;rr^"^^<'^''!LV « *

•nSnup JX Tl: OATS %on u ^Q^ AV .099J9H^ojo^i9cim9nient at

0^ mnHqu.K J° , ,^^°^d J a

'•^y9a-e,s.anjmoja JO o,94.,n9^« '^q^^a-^-^^^a ^

'" •""'TorsSSS.A JO ^'^

-qva J°

-qsTB_A. 'JO

••oaaiMo^iT?^ e6T

•J^qeq; m satiq

•scAnn

•BTJA'BU

«A 10 1099 Ti •Brnu« iu?a

^ « 5 " W ^ n R JO ^-^^ s^-^^Vrq%:?^4^'-;,r7n^erpVw%jo S o a oqi l^oS B ^oj e3p;9ini i q

Sej^o^^Wa^«I^3JO

EAJWiCE. 194 EAil.

piece of hone is saved from the fire in order that it may he thrown into the Ganges or the Damodar. The reverence thus shown for the latter river deserves notice, as it is always associated with the funeral rites of the ahoriginal races.

The social rank of the Eajwars is low, and Brahmans viU not ordinarily take water from their hands. Those

Social status. Brahmans, however, who serve them as priests, and the Yaishnava ascetics, who act as their spiritual guides, will eat sweetmeats and similar pakkl food in their houses. In virtue of their ahstinence from heef and pork they believe themselves to he raised ahove the Bauris and Doms; while the fact that they eat fowls and the leavings of the higher castes, and indulge freely in strong drink, cuts them off from the respectahle classes from whose hands Brahmans will take water. The Kurmis are the lowest caste from whom they will take cooked food. Agriculture is their sole occupation. Some of them are occupancy raiyats, hut a large pro­portion have not risen ahove the condition of landless day-labourers.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Eajwars in 1872 and 1881:—

DiaTEIOT. 1872. 1S81. DISTEICT. 1872. 1881.

Bardwan Bunkum Birbham Midnapur Hughli Uowrih E-t-Pureanis ... Nadiyo Jlursliedabad... K.ijshahye Bojra Pabna Daigiling Firidpur Cbittagong

230 Pnlna 61 Gya

136 I Shuhabna .. 10,205 1 MozuOerpar

2 131 460 113 163 211 41 4

20 61 13

Saran ... Champaran ... Monahyr Bha«rilpur ... Pumiah Mnlduh Sant&l HarRania Hnzaribngii ... Lobardagi ... Singbhuiu ... .Munbhum ... Tributary States

3,'244 SO.lSl

4,431 72

117 87

114 289 218

6,0S0 1,S06 3,569

33 10,001 11,610

Rajwar, a sept of llajputs in Behar.

Rakhal, a War or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Rakhali, a section of Khiim-bus in Darjiling.

Rakhi, a sub-caste of Kalw^rs in Behar.

Raksa, a section of the Kan-aujia sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Raksdin, a sept of _ the ?^yahansi sub-tribe of Rajputs m liehar. ^Raksel, a sept of Bajputs m

3,9TO 43,773

631 so l

sa

3St U2 23

6,172 0,281 6,657

101 15,511 14,475

Rakshit, Rahhit, a title of Baidyag, of Dakshin-Rarhi and Bangaja Kayasths; Baruis,

and Sutradhars m Bengal.

f h ! ' r l l i ' ^ ' r / ' " i^ « section of the Chhamuha Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar. iuBeW^'-^^^^^i^^o^KdjputB

sS'in^'l i ^*« PPl^ ^ r^^-T\ • ^^^^ until by ago or Feadt '^ "^fi ^^^e they attain a w W !i,P°'^t">'i in the village, >,X^ they are caUed Mardr or f.; 'fton;(ii)atitle of Dosddhs; "V a section of the Mahmud-

afaz sub-caste of Napits.

R4NGPIAE. 196 RASTOGI.

Rangpiar, a section of the Biydhut and Kharid^ha Kal-wars in Behar.

Bangrez, Rangrdj, a dyer, an occupation usually followed by Mahomedans.

Rangroz, a functional group of Jugis.

Rani Poka, a red worm, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Ranka, a section of Oswals in Behar.

Rankankar, a sept of Kaurs in Chota Nagpur.

Ranki or Kalal, a sub-caste (Mahomedan) of Kalwars in Behar.

Rankwar, a sept of Eajputs iu Behar.

Ransadiy&i a section of Bdb-hans in Behar.

Ranubad, a section of Kum-hars in Singbhum.

Ranyacelunya, a sept of Chakmas in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Ranyin, a sept of Chakmaa in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

R^orh, a section of Maghaya Kximhars in Behar.

Raori, a Behar.

title of Kdndus in

Raot, a totemisticseptof Doms and Ghamars in Chota Nagpur.

Raotia, crab, a totemistic sept of Fans in Chota Nagpur.

Rapungchh^, a thar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Rarh-asram, a sub-caste of ^ayaras in Central Bengal.

R^rher Rdrhi, a sub-caste of Sunris in Eastern Bengal.

Rirhi, a sub-caste of Brahmans in the Lower Provinces of Bengal who derive their name from the Barb, or the high-lying alluvial tract on the west bank of the river Bhagirathi. They claim descent from five Kanaujia Brahmans brought by Adisur to perform certain ceremonies which the local Brahmans, who are now known as Saptasatis, were incompetent to undertake; a sub-caste of Kewats in Orissa; of Kumhdrs, Tantis, Telis; of Baidyas, Baruis, Kayasths, Goalas, Kaibaxttas, Jugis, Subarnabaniks, and Sunris in Bengal; of Kdmdrs in Murshedabad, and in Pabna also called D4s-Samaj; a group of Phulkata MdUs.

Rarhi-Mal, a sub-caste of Mdls in the Santal Pargands.

Rarhiya-Samaj, a sub-caste of Dhobas in Hughli.

Rdria, a section of GoaMs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Rasaili, a section of Kamis* a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Rasakmare, a mttl or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Godliis in Behar.

R^samba, mushrooms that grow on ant-hills, a totemistic sept of Judngs m Orissa.

Rasaunmare. a w»/or section of the Naomuha or Majraut sub-casteofGoalusinBehaj:.

R4s-rishl. a section ji 1 .V^^i. a section of Gan dhahamks in Bengal

f^ast, a title of Godlds in Behar.

clotj^^f '°^ ' ' ^ ,*'"^^''^ T*. ' ""^ ^.•^^''' usually engaged in selling nat L " money-lendmg, but sometimes also dealing in grain and «^onol K ^ ^ ^ ^ f • They practise two peculiar forms of .petty

"«MeudiQg by hahi, that la by entry in books of account without

EASTOGI. 197 EAUNIA.

the security of a separate bond. These are known as augdJd OTttgdhi and rozdhi. Mr. Hoey gives' the following account of them :—

" Augdhi is lending of money to be repaid with interest at 20 per cent, in monthly instalments. Thus, if a Rastogi lends on the 1st January ten rupees, he receives one rupee on the first of each month for twelve months, and thereby realises twelve rupees, of which two rupees are interest. A Eastogi's augdin bahi is a curiosity. I t is ruled like a chess-board, but has twelve columns. As each month's instalment is realised, it is entered in a square until the twelve squares are filled. He generally keeps also a separate halii, in which the principal is noted when lent. I t may, however, be noted in the margin of his check-pattern account. Rozdhi is money lent to be realised in daily instalments with interest at 25 per cent. Thus, if a rupee be lent, one-half anna tdkd roz) will be realised daily. The account of this money is kept in a similar way, but the accoimt-book will be ruled in lines of 40 squares. A Rastogi keeps his accounts hy locality, that is, he has several k/iets, as he calls them: one, say, is Saadatganj, another Ilasanganj, a third Deori Agha Mir, and so on. Debtors are called asdmis, and the amount to be collected is called lagdn. A separate set of account-books is kept for each /c/ief, and a servant (generally a Brahman on Rs. 3 per mensem) is employed to collect each kliet."

Mr. Sherring mentions three sub-castes—Amethi, Indrapati, and Mauharia, which do not intermarry, lidstogis marry their daughters as infants, forbid widows to remarry, and do not recognize divorce. In matters of diet they affect to be extremely punctilious, and thus married women of the caste will not eat food that has been prepared, or even touched by their husbands.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of R^stogis in 1881. They were not returned sepai-ately in 1872 :—

DlSTKICT.

Piitna Gya Sbaliiibad Mo?ufferpur Darbhanga ... '", ', baran ... ... .*. .*.

1881.

258 S

I8(! 10 .%

1,470

r t s x n i c r . 1881.

Chainparan Monifhyr Purnmh ' flazanbach liohardagft ... . | '

— 1

24 296

17 lfl4

a

Rat, a section of Awadhid Hajjims in Behar.

Rathia, a sub-tribe of Kaurs in Cbota Nagpur.

Rathitara, a section of the Pdscbatya Baidik Brahmans in Ben7al;aKshatrapeta<7«iraor section of Brahmans.

Ratndbali, a gdin of theBhar-adwdja gotra of B^rendra Brah­mans in Bengal.

Ratwarid, a section of Lohdrs m Behar.

RaunS, a synonym for Rawam* q.r. ' '

Rdunii , a section of the g.-< mulia Maghaya sub-caste nf "R- - " dus in Behar. "<^i l lan.

Trade and Manufactures of Northern India, p. 144

RAUNIAB. 198

erier) moves in a circle nf .i •^'J'"^ ^^'^°li means iff n " ^

raises in, oVl2f s ^ ' ' ' " ' ' ' " «"• i » t « v S r f l,,'" • * ' ' ° '

I .UM . , „ « „ . Wssl Province,, . . n b e r r i l t " " ? - * » North.

itauniars profess to marrv fl,o: ^ , ^

M.r.a«e. I am i n f o i S ^ t t S ' S " . L % i f ^^^^' ' ^

before a p a n o h S ^ g l ' 1 7 '^^ '^°^ *" ^"°& «^3es of u'not f.'" offence has been i m m S S ' : ' ^ ° l ' ' ' f ^i^°^«e7 andYf^'^f^ is allowed to marry a g a i ^ ^ t , ^ " ^ " ' " ° ' '^^ «-te t ^ . l t

In their aehgious and ceremonial observanr. .u EoL^on. orthodox Hindus and e m S ^^^ ^"^^^iars are

tl>em. Eaunidrs are n o ? o ^ n ^ t o ^ Jo' ^° ^ ' f f l t d ' b T ' " ' ° ^ ^ ^ ^ b u t in some parts of i : ^ J ^ , adhesioa t : ^ ^ ^ ^

S c , ' - *"^ Europeans speak of the BTnf/'°^'^°ee to r^", ' '°^*'='"i °f as a

*e an,oIe on Baniya. " te subjec"'L discussJ^ at "'°'^°'

RATJNIAE. 199 EAUTIA.

Mahddeva as their tutelary deity. Like the Agarwals, they pay special reverence to Lakhsmi, and celebrate the Diwali festival witb great pomp. Tbey also worship Bandi, Goraiya, Sokha, and Mahabirji as household or village gods.

Trading in grain, cloth, etc., and lending money, are their special functions, but of late years some of them have

Occupation. ^ ^ j . ^ ^ ^^ agriculture, and a few have nsen, probably as a consequence of money-lending trausactions, to be zemindars. In Champaran Eauniyars are found as occupancy raiyats, but such cases are rare.

liamcm, a synonym for Teli.

Raut, a sub-tribe of Kharwars iu Southern LohardagA.

Raut, Raliitt, a title of Amats, Chamars, Dhanuks, Dosadhs, Groni-his, Groalas, Kadars, Kum-hars, Nagars, Pargahs, Eaj-puts, and Sunris in Behar; in Bengal of the Bhat Brahmans. As a title of Malis in Behar, it seems to be in process of development into a sub-caste, for the Raut Malis intermarry among themselves; a title of Beldais, Nunids, Barais, Kahars,

Binds, and of Dhobis in Behar; a section and a title of Kurmis in Behar; a sept of Tharus ; a title of Grareris ; a title of Chdsas and Khanddits in Ohota Nagpur and Orissa; a section of Dharkar Doms in Behar; a title of Bhuiyas; a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Rautar, a section of Sonars in Behar.

Rautar, a sub-tribe of Tharus in Behar.

Rauti, a section of Mahesris in Behar.

flitUtia, a landholding and cultivating caste of Chota Nagpur, probably Dravidian m its original affinities,

^^"' but since reiiued in features and complexion by a large infusion of Ar3au blood. The name Eautia suggests some connexion with Eajpiits, and Mr. Beames has noticed that the cognate term Eaut is used in some districts to denote an inferior Eajpiit, " the cori-uption of the name betokening the corruption of the ca«te."i Their traditions say that they formerly dwelled in Sinhal-dwip (Ceylon), whence they migrated to Barhar, in Mirzapur. Iu the time of the Emperor Jahangir some Eautias were serving as sentinels in the fort at Qwalior when Maharaja Dmjan Sahof Chutia Nagpur was imprisoned there for failure to pay his tribute to iJehli.''^ During his confinement the Eautias treated the Eaja kindly, and he repaid their good offices on his release by giving them lauds in pargana Panari of Lohardaga. Further grants of villages, groups of villages, and entire parganas were alterwards made to them in jdgir, and many of these are in existence at the present day. The titles of Baraik, Q-aunjhu, and Kotwar Woxo at the same time conferred upon them.

I Stivplemental Glossary, vol i, p. 21. " Qoa p itiacts f'om Tuzuk-t-Jahdiigiri and MS. historv of ni . . . ' • T A S. B. for 1S7I, and Statistical Account of £enor,7 V' ^^la Nagpur in J- ^- " - "^ffat, vol. j^.^^^

p. 447 et seq.

EAUTIA. 200

The Eautids are divided into two en^ Internal structure. Bargohri and C h h o S f f °"« ^ub-castes-

selves tell an absurd ^ T ' ° ' ' ' ' ^^scure The V.Pf'S^^ of

were outcutea tor some mtl, if # ° ' ? ' ™re 'W fi,S . . l . ' '"""»» to oonmit, or to hTt ' 7 '^•T"'' ° ' M'te rules , , „ „ f " ™ ••"•1 outlandish p°rl, of i l ' " ' ' r * " " f i t t i n g i " ^ , 7 ' ' «'« apl

was a Ghdsi. ^ ' ' " ^'^JP^t will not mazT a £ l 3^"« ^ B e S ^.,, :Both sub-castes have a W . r . . ' ' ^ ° t £ wJl be found in the L V / ' ' ^ * °^ sections fe„',./, „ totexnistic, eponjLus a t S S o - " l^''^ ^ ^ W t » f ) ' ^^ich favour of the view tha t S f ?• °"''^ ^^°i««' tells on fi '"Stains rule that the totem fs tab Otoe 's '? '" P^°Pleof mi^^ ^t ^^^^^ S animal-totems, which mnth' ^'^^^' seems onfyl^'^^^nt- The a EautiAof theTword^^n °^'"'*^' ' ^t °ot killJd /PP^^ to t L weapons, nor is a man of^L^™"P« « "°* f o r S e n V ^ ^ ^ ^ >• o grass from which his s L ? L - ^^^' ^™^P forbidden f ? ' ^ thosl atta P ; , - < ' ' - - name go°ea b V r ^ / ° ^5 ^ « ^^Se/'^ *«Uoh th,' attached to ,t ailects onlf a ' Z-^^" "" ^ «.i e, and the . , him from marrvino. « i; ™°'? ^ own section anrl ri P oHihif.v n^other ThisTim^i S ^ ' f " ^^^ *° *S " a m ' e ^ S r P « nt by a table of prohibited ,1 ^^"S^'^Y is therefore ? '°^ as b l euumeratin, the i d t S l fees wb'^ up, J C o u r ^ - ' j a and not as is more usual, by ZhiKf- °^ .^ ^^^ niay n.."^' V large classes of relations or S ^ ^ " . ^"^^''^'axriagLu^,* "^arry^ degrees of particular relations *''" descendants ^ i t l f " °"^aia'

Girls are mairied either as infants or . , u ' ' " ^ ' ^ Marriage. t h e a g e s of e i g h t anW • , ^^^' USUallv h^l-

is „^ before mania^ei! ^'S^^^een s!v , , • "^'^^ hat °°^ the aborigines of c S V "' °P«^vr. . "^'^'''^^se

allowed without any

201 EAFTIA'.

restriction heing laid on the numher of wives or any antecedent condition being insisted on, such as that the first wife must he barren or be iuflicted with an incurable disease in order to entitle her husband to take another wife. In actual life, however, it is unusual to find a man with more than three or foiu- wives One simple reason for this is that few men can afford to keep many wives or have house-room to accommodate them, as by universal custom each wife must have a separate room.

A widow is allowed to marry again by the sagai form, and it is considered right for her to marry her late husband's younger brother. Under no circumstances can she marry the elder brother. If she marries an outsider, her late husband's brother, father, or uncle have the right to the custody of all her children, both male and female. I n any case she acquires no rights in her late husband's property, the whole of which passes to his eldest son, subject to certain obligations to provide, by way of main­tenance, for younger brothers. If a widow marries her late husband's younger brother, her children by him are not deemed the children of her first husband, nor have they any rights in respect of his property.

The ritual used at the marriage of a widow is very simple. Five married women whose husbands are living take a sari, a pair of lac bracelets, and a little vermilion sinchtr) to the bridegroom and get him to touch each article. They then return to the bride, attire her in the sari and bracelets, and daub the vermilion on her forehead. As in the case of a regular marriage, the proceedings conclude with a feast to the friends and relatives of the newly-married couple.

A woman may be divorced for adultery or for eating with a member of another caste. For lighter offences than these, separation is the only punishment awarded; and in that case the husband is boxmd to maintain his wife. A divorced woman may not marry again. If she lives with a man, she ranks as a concubine and her children are illegitimate.

The ceremony performed at the marriage of a virgin bride contains several features of a primitive and non-Arjan character. In the first instance, both parties go through the form of marriage to a mango tree ambd biha). The essential and binding portions of the ritual are the knotting too-ether of the clothes of the bride and bridegroom and sinchirddn which is effected by smearing on the bride's forehead a drop of blood drawn from the little finger of the bridegroom, and vice fersd. Sakadwipi Brahmans officiate, and offerings are made to Glauri and Granesa.

Marriages are arranged by the parents or guardians of th parties, who have no freedom of choice in the matter. Professional marriage-trokers are unknown, i he first offer is made by the fatl of the bridegroom, and a bride-price (c/a - takd), varying accord?.^'' fn the means of the bridegroom's pai-ents, is paid to the T)aror.i ^ 1 wide by whom it is retained. No portion of the lf,.-j ^ ^ of leLmes t M ^ ' ' ^ ^ ^ property of the bride. '''' ^^^<le-price

Suoc(

^'^^"ts the «

".'® consent of fl? f, amono- tho 1 ^*^^' and sn "^^ofW g-pf„

?e° One of ft ^ i ^ " Com.!:>° to their faf],. " ' ^^^e, afd h^^'^'^'^

the wives bore 1 ' ^''s ihlj^ '^^ ««'7«z f. ^^'^«& a « S ^"'^^s

J ^ u t e d b e S f y P a s s e V 7 : i n ° f heS?"^^« ^ S f?''^ of ;r'fe, bei„g Jf^^, ,ti« sons, n ^'« brother "'^,^'"^1 P r o i l f ^^^ «>«

"^ . «"^to,^a S ^ h t l ^"^ «°t t f f teld t U r ? h : ° ^'s deatb^^^^--^^^'nfenance T, .*^« son of + ^ ^ ° succeer ^ OQ of fi ^"a

° a i M e n i m c . gr .„ g i s t ' s i T - ' ^ - I a w t f ' " ' ' ' ! / • « ,

203 RAUTIA.

Adoption is unknown—a circumstance from which we may either infer that the Rautias are free from the curse of childlessness, so common in the higher ranks of Hindus, or that one of the inducements to adopt sons has been removed by the rule regarding land referred to in the next paragraph.

I n the event of a Rautia dying without male heirs, his immov­able property i everts to his supeiior landlord or the legal represen­tative of the person by whom the land was originally granted. In such cases the laudloid is expected to malie some small provision for the maintenance of tlie females of the family His movable property goes to the peison who performs his funeral rites.

An elder brother can transfer to a jounger brother all his rights in the family propeity, but the effect of such a tiansfer is limited to his own lifetime, and does not curtail the rights of his Eon, who will succeed, in prefeieuce to the uncle on attaining his majority.

The religion of the Eautias may best be described as a mixture Eehfiion °^ * ® primitive animism chai-acteiistic of the

abongmal races and the debased form of Hinduism which has been disseminated in Chota Nagpur by a class of Brahmans maikedly inferior in point of learning and ceremonial pmity to those who stand foith as the representatives of the caste in the great centres of Hindu civilization. Among the Bar-gohri Eautias many have of late years become Kabirpanthis; the rest, with most of the Chhot-gohn and the Berris of both sub-castes, are Ramayat Vaishnavas. A few only have adopted the tenets of tho Saiva sects. Rama, Ganesa, Mahadeva, and Gauri are the favourite deities, whose worship is conducted by Sakadwipi Brahmans more or less in the orthodox fashion. Behind the fairly definite persoualities of these greater gods there loom m the background, through a fog of ignorance and superstition, the dim shnpes of Bar-pahar (the Marang Buru or mountain of the Mundas); Bura-buri, the supposed ancestors of mankind ; the seven sisteis who scatter cholera, small­pox, and cattle plague abioad; Goraia, the village god—a sort of rural Terminus ; and the myriad demons with which the imagination of the Kolhs peoples the trees, rocks, streams, and fields of its Burioundmgs.

To Bar-pah .'ir are offered he-buffaloes, rams, he-goats fowls milk, flowers, and sweetmeats; the animals m each case being given some rice to chew and decked with gailands of flowers before beine sacrificed. When offered m pursuance of a special vow, the animal la called c/iardol, and is slam in the early morning in the sarnd sacred grove outside the village; rice, ghi, molasses, vermilion flower<f and bel leaves being presented at the same time No female m t e piesent at the ceremony The carouse of the victim is distrib f ^ among the worshippei-s, but no part of it maybe taken into the v, 11 and it is cooked and eaten on the spot, even the remnantc v P®' buned in the sarnd at tho end of the feast. The head is . "^S the man who made the vow and the members of his fam l ^ ^^ ^7 n+hers share in it, owing to the behef that whoever navu!^* ^^^^ no E would thereby render himself hable to perforiaYs, -f °^ ^^^

BAUTI. A.

vviien a hnS i •

' " tte Lower B ' ' " « * W T ^'"•ttjal;, • .

' Mour,n„ J:™" Ae d».,v.j "," .« be l i . , . J r . "her, .• l i^nman.

205 EAUTIA.

the morning, after wntohing the twigs all night, the women offer mdnr or rice gruel to then- deceased ancestors.

(3) Dasahard—corresponding to the Devi-puja and Vijayd dnsmi of the Hindus.—On the lUth of the light half ot Asin (early in October).

(4) Debathan—a fast, followed hy eating various kinds of boiled fruit and roots—observed only by bachelors and spinsters on the eleventh of the light half of Kartik (middle of November).

(5) Ganesh Chauth.—On the 4th of the dark half of Magh (middle of January). An image of Ganesa is made out of cow-dung and is worshipped with ladcii(6 or cakes of til, legends being recited at the same time,

(6) Phagua—corresponding to the Holi of the Hindus.—On l the loth of the light half of Phdguu (middle of March), when [ ancestors are propitiated.

(7) Karma .~On the 11th of the light.half of Bhadon (begin­ning of September). This festival is similar to the Jitia, except that a branch of a karam tree Nauclea cordifoUd) is planted in tlie court­yard and the fasting is not continuous as in the Jitiya Parah.

The foregoing festivals are observed by all Rautids. The more Hinduised members of the caste add to them the Rath-jatra, the Janmashtami, the Ramnabami, and the Ind Parab.

The dead are usually disposed of by burning, except in the r,. , - . , , , ease of Kabirpanthi Rautias, who are buried Disposal of the dead. , •.• - S , j r • \. ix. j.1 T

stanamg upright and iacmg to tne north, i n the former case the corpse, covered with a new cloth, is taken to the place of cremation (masdn) and there shaved, bathed, and clothed in a new waistcloth and sheet. If the body be that of a woman whose husband is ahve, it is bathed, anointed with oil, and dressed in a new sari. l a the case of a widow the oiling is omitted. The corpse is then placed ou the funeral pile with the head to the north, and the chief mourner, lighting a torch made of five dry twigs of a beltree ' tied to the end of a bit of wood and soaked in g/ti, walks round the pile seven times, applies the toi-ch to the mouth of the deceased, and then sets fire to the pile. Before doing so however, he takes a ' portion of the sheet in which the corpse is dressed and wraps up in it a knife or a piece of iron. This piece of cloth must be kept for ten daj-s. After the body has been consumed, the ashes are collected in a new earthen vessel c/hdnti). ^ On returning home the mourners wash then- feet with water previously placed lor them outside the house. Inside the courtyard a shallow brass dish [thd/i] is laid ready with leaves of the tii/si Oci/muui sanctum) and karcli Moinordica charantiu), one pice, and a vessel of water. Some person, not a member of the family, pours a little water into the hand of each nioui-ner, who drinks it off. For ten days after the cremation th ashes of the deceased aanth) are hung up in the vessel in which th ^ were placed. During this time the chief mourner must make d ' " libations to the ashes, and must keep on his person the piece of -u ^ onrl the ii-OQ akeady referred to. He may not change his .i ! , ^^ sleep on abed, or eat salt and he can only take one meal ^ > ' w S lie must cook himself. At the end of this time the a 1? ^^^^

BATTTIA-. 206

either buried at tho

<^^othes %h7l-%'^^^^'^' of on and oil cake Ir,!^ '^T' '^°°'°* (pinda) mnS . ^ mourner also offers to T K ' / ' * P'^ ' °° «'ean e J e S . J \ ? ^ "'=^' "lili. linseed b J l ^ T ^ ' ^ ^ t^° cakes

wio S ^ ^anaujia, or, failing bim of „ ^ i^T ' .^ ' ^ ^^* i *b« theV f r "°^^telligble nonsense^sS,« / . S^kadwipi Brahman t S r ? ^ % " " , ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ h m a n is fed a T i ^ ^ ^' ^^dic texts, and twelfth day Sakad^^ipi B r a b m a n s l n r / - ^''''^^ Presents. On the entertamed and one linda STZeTtn ^T^^^'''^^ ' '-^^i are TLT"^ H ^^^ ^°™Pa»y ofancestois n^^'1 *^° '^^^^^^d may relatives are fed and final purificaHnn • V. "^ ^^« tbirteentb day of be death is oelehrated'X:t(l^^''''^^^^^^^^ fvo I f ? °° "^" ' ^^^ ^^° take p?ace iu t t l f " ' '^ f - ^ ^ ^ « t^« i mnn?>, l!V°'°^^"'^^^^''« the J l 5 ? . S i J ; - ^ ' ' ' ? / ^ ^ ' and in order to months before a year has elapsed torn f t *•' "^^'i' Performed some to ancestors in general (^«r£) £ " rnlf * ' . ? ' °^ ^^'^tb. Offerings

f.flf 'Tv.' °° *^« ^5tb of tbe dark b a S V ^ ' ° " ^ ^ . *^^ ^&«°°7 of and by the people themselves at the N 1 ' Tru'"" . ?< of September), festivals. Childless relatives lepers S t l ' ^^ f ^ ' / i t i a , and Pbagud and women who die in chUd-HrtT'J^T ^ i ' "^''^ '^ ^ ^iol'^nt death " " ^ ^ T h e ^ E r u r T - I ^ i - t ? u s a ; f e ° , « ^ - ' ' « ' and are'not

I he Eautias do not perform any of the ^pr • Ce. .o.e. other castes d/ring*pt j r c r ^ l T o h i ? ' ^ ? " ?

r> • ,. assistance is rendered T.!, k ^^t ohild-birth Dagrm, who cuts the umbilical cord T i l ^ ^^? Kusrain or bir.i, and c/cam are performed on the si ihfw'?;^^"" ' ' . ' ° ' ''^««^«; days after birth. If the S i\ W J ' " " ^ t ', and twenty-first % . « ) . a fouitb ceiemony, cali:^^ LV^S'^'^V'^^ ^^"^^ seventh day, at which Brabmans t r ' f e d and S u t i ' 'r'^^'y'

E t i ^ Srfch^faX™/-^* '^^^/^^^i' rn 1 ui Hi I T , TT n IS, the longer is his term of ^ to Tolerably well-to-do Rautias remain impure till the f '"Parity.

Wben a cbild is six months old, its first meal of • memorated—the ceremony of vntnyhuti, followed hv ^ °® ^ ''om-tonsure. The effect of this latter rite is to remov 'T'*^"" or father the last traces of tiie pollution of child-birth n,?ri ."^ the £.^at flesh and to worsbip the family gods /T^•' ^ ' ' aiify ages"!.^* a boy's ears by the village b ^ e f is d o f C ' ^ ' ' ' ^^^ iT^l^^ and fourteen, and is deemed to admit „ t '" ' ' ^^ eohifs l ' ' '"en of the caste. Kabirpnnthi membL n/^.'^'^J"^^

'^^•°^to assume the sacred t h r e a d ^ S r n , \ ^\'\^^-"i Uanco] when initiated

207 EAUTIA'.

into the tenets of the sect. The tliread so worn is a Chhatri janeo, which diSers from a Brahman's in the form of the knot with which it is tied.

The Eautias, though less plagued by the terrors of the unseen world than aie the Mundas and Oraons, have

Superstitions. certain superstitions which are worth recording. Spirits. Women who die in child-birth, persons killed

by a tiger, and all ojhas or exorcists, are liable after death to reappear as hhuts, or malevolent ghosts, and give trouble to the living. I n such cases an exorcist ojhd or mati) is called iu to identify the spirit at work, and to appease it by gifts of money, goats, fowls, or pigs. Usually the spirit is got rid of in a few_ months, but some are specially persistent and require annual worship to raduce them to remain quiet. Spirits of this type, who were great exorcists or otherwise men of note during their life-time, often extend their influence over several families, and eventually attain the rank of a tribal god.

Babu Rakhal Das Haldar, Manager of the Chutia JNagpur estate, gives the following instance of exorcism from his personal experience. I n December 1884, when the Manager was ia camp at the foot of the Baragain hills in Lohardaga, a Kurmi woman of Kukui was killed by a tiger, and the tiger-demon in her form was supposed to be haunting the village. An ojhd who was sent for to lay the ghost, took a young man to represent^ the tiger-demon and after certain incantations put him into a kind of mes­meric condition, iu which he romped about on all fours, atad generally demeaned himself like a tiger. ' A rope was then tied round his loins and he was dragged to a cross-road, where the volent fit passed off and he became insensible. In this condition he remained until the ojha recited certain viantras and threw rice on him, when he regained his senses, and the demon was pronounced to have quitted the village. • , •, -i .-, • • • ,

Eautias believe military service to nave been tlieir original occuiiation, but this is little more than a

Occupation. distant memory of times long pas-t, and at the present day most members of tho caste in Lohardaga are settled agriculturists. The chief men of tho caste hold taluks, jdgirs, baraik grants, and similar tenures paying quit-rents direct to the Maharaja of Chutia Nagpur, while the rank and file are raiyata paying light lents and possessing occupancy rights. A few only are found in the comparatively reduced position of tenants of rajahs lands at full rents. In many of the teniu'es and occupancy holdings Idnmlkdti rights, entitlmg the tenant to hold at a low quit-rent, are claimed • •vv bile others are korhar, paying only one-half of the standard rates

Socially the caste ranks fairly high, and Brahmans will tal-R . , _ water and sweetmeats from their hands T!

Social statu.. ^^^^ j ^ ^ ^ ^ , ^ ^ ^ ^ , j ^ _ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^ j _ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ | . J i a r -drink with any tu t members of their own sub-caste; bu<. ?C^'

' ' ^ l take sweetmeats from Brahmans, Eajputs, and Rr , ^ Shot-gohris ox& equally particular about cooked food, but ^ ' ' t a k "

BAUTIA. 208

water and sweetmeat, f

bi^op-^ntauvo assem. (^"r^^Mor^gToups ^X^^^^^^tive assembly :"ll«ges, which decides onpS- '" ^^^ *" fifteen

y^'^ is presided o v S K ' ' " ^ ^ " ^^^^s o n e ^ m ^ ' ? ' °* ^^^^^ »«age. « WeditaSy. WheTtL ^ T "^'^"-^ oXd^^^V ^^'^ »'""h

chosen for this p i l o s e bv ,1 ° ^ ^ or by ani^L'^^.^;'"^ are carried are enforced by fin^bvil.*-^^ "''"'^^'- Tho- '„S' '^ '^ ^^animously - n d b y deprivig" h i ' ^ ^ . t " ' ? to eat and dri^l ^ , 1 tJ « « - « i oi the caste. Certain a , services of t L l i ^^^^ the offender accidentally t i i i : ^^5^^ ;e t s entailing c e r e t n S ^^ and ^-^i^emau

Soreory. (^ '''<) Or witch7,/ ' - " ^'^'ascertain w W .

of a hooded a„ake, the | / , » i S | ° , 7 * ' « » the t j e ; " ? " « . the r,ce m the mnncmng ff„ L I ' ^ ^ P «ntl proceeds , " ° l ' ' ' " " "

upon heu- vichms through objects b J P'?P^°' that f' ' ^ great associated with them, such "as bits of cnfl ^^^'^g to or • .•' ' ^ act care is taken to preserve or destroy such . . w " T " ^ ^ : but ^^''^^'^tely

Dreams ai-e believed to be caused L " * ^ ^ " - 'P^cial of the dreamer, who appear to him J sW " ' " " ^ deceased r i and want of clothes, etc. Such ^ m S ? ^ ° ^ oomplain ^/t^'^tives & ^ ^ ' i by sending for a B r a h m a n ^ r ^ ^ ' ^ ^ «pm ts a^e I '^^^f ^ ^ * have been demanded in the dream ^^^"^ff Wm t t e th"'^^ t h a t t " ! ! " ^ other curious superstitions' i„ ^ " t^nngg

" e person who h««

209 EAUTIA:

overlooked any one. Its effects may be averted by mixing red mustard seeds and salt, waving the mixture round the head and then throwing it into the fire. To ward off the evil eye from the crops, a blackened earthen pot with rude devices scrawled on it in white paint is stuck up in the fields.

Oaths and ordeals are sometimes resorted to for the settlement of personal disputes and the decision of questions affectmg caste. Ganges water, rice that has been offered to Jagannath a mixture of rice and cow-dung or copper and tulsi leaves, are held in the hand and a solemn statement is made touching the matter m dispute. I t is believed that some sort of misfortune wiU befall the person who under these circumstances speaks falsely, but the consequences ot lying do not seem to be clearly defined. In former days a more severe test was in vogue: a ring was thrown into a deep pan ot boilmg ghi, and the person whose conduct was in question was requirea to take it out with his fingers. ,

Boys whose elder brothers have died in infancy are given opprobrious names, such as Akhaj, Bechan, Bechu (he who is lor Fale), Khudi, Chuni, Gandaur, Kinu, Lobar, Ghamdr, Dom or Doman, Mochi, Ghasi, Mahili (names of low castes). Girls axe called by the feminine forms of these names—Akhji, Chamin, etc. Eautias do not follow the custom, common among the higher castes, of giving two names—one for ceremonial purposes and the other for common use. - ,. , , , ir c

Lucky days for ploughing are the 12th of the light halt ot Katik and the 5th of the light half of Aghan for low rice limds (hn), and the 1st of the dark half of Chait for high lands, ihe 3id of the light half of Baisakh is good for sowmg; but it there is early rain, a Brahman may be got to fix a lucky day before this date. For transplanting the rice seedlings a lucky day may be arranged by a B.ahmaa at any time between the -f^d of the dark half of Asar and the 11th of the hght half of Bhado. I t is specially unlucky to plough during the Mrigdah or I^irbisra period, called Ambubachi in Bengal, when the sun is for three days m the Mrigasira constellation; during the Karam festival (10th—12th of light half of Bhado) ; and on the day of the Sarhul. Ram during the Mrigdah brings bad luck; but rainy weather, while the sun is in the liohuu or Swati constellation, betokens good fortune. When rice is transplanted, the village pahdn performs the bangari puja to the god of the village. When a well is sunk a Brahman is consulted as to the site and the proper time for commencing work, and a pratishllid or dedicatory sacrifice is performed before the water is used.

The following statement shows the number and distributiou of Bautias in 1872 and 1881 :—

DISTHICI. 1S81. DlSTBICT. 1872. 1881.

SantAl Piip>n'"» llazanbnsfli LohardaK*

4 16,3S7

12

18,533

Singbhum Muiibhum Tributarj Stutei

8.242 I

1 64

8,261

EAUTIA. 210. EITI.

Rautia, a sub-caste of Koiris and a title of Cheros in Chota Nagpur.

Raut Mehter, a sweeper sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Raw^ni, a sub-caste of Kan-dus in Behai.

Rawani or Ramdni, Eaoni, Rohani, a sub-caste of Kahars in Sehar,

Rawanpur, a section of Kahars in Behar.

Raworh, a section of Maghaiya Kumh^rs in Behar.

Rfiya, a title of Brahmans, Kayasths, and several other castes in Bengal and Behar; of Khairas in Chota Nagpur.

Rayi. a gain of the Bharad-vik\a, yotra and a mel or hyper-gamous sub-group of Rarhi Brah­mans in Bengal.

Regdiaunchhd, a tlmr or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Regmi, a thar of the Kausika gotra of Nepali Brahmans.

Rekhaur, a sept of Rdjputs in Behar.

Reldti-Madak, a sub-caste of Madhunapits in Bengal.

Renta, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Meson, a synouym for Teli. Retha, fruit, a totemiatio sept

of Lohirs in Chota Nagpur.

Rijal, a thar of the DhAnjaya gotra of Nepali Brahmans; a section of Kdmis; a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Rikhab, a section of Brah­mans.

Rikhi, a section of Eajwara and Rautias in Chota Nagpur.

Rikhiasan, a sub-caste of Bhuiyas in Hazarihagh; a sept of Kharwars in Chota Nagpur; a section of Kadars and Musahars in Behar; a totemistio sept of Ohiks in Chota Nagpur who may not eat beef or pork.

Rikhiasan or Pdtrise, a sec­tion of Mauliks in Western Ben­gal.

Rikmun, a section of Musa­hars in Behar.

Rim^l, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Rimching, a thar or sept of Khombus in Darjiling.

Rimrimid, a section of Kurmis in Chota Nagpxir and Orissa.

Rishi, a title of the pati t or dcgi-aded priests, who mioister to tlie spiritual wants of the lower castes; a section of the Bhar caste in Manbhum. The term appears to have been borrowed from the Brahmanical system in compara­tively recent times, as the caste

Ri^ng, a sept of Tipperahs in lias also a set of the totemistio the Hill Tracts of CMttagong.

Rich)' , a dtigu or section of the Kochh-Mandai in Dacca. The name indicates the original habitat of the group, probably a hill or village in Assam, and uow-a-days has no bearing upon marriage.

Rigretsa, a sept of Maghs in the iiiU •j.-.aojjj ^j CbiHagoiig.

sections characteristic of the Kolarian race.

^'\^h\,It,^Mjnara, a svTionym for, aud a title of, Muchia in Beugul.

,,*^'Syal, a thar or ^epahBrahmnns.

geotion of

K^yasilhs title of Bangaja

ROCHINGACHHA. 211 EUTA,

Rochingachhd, a (har ov sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Rohilai a paffti or hyper-gamous sub-group of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal,

Rohini, a title of Kahdrs in Behar.

Rohita, a section of Brahmans and Kdyasths in Bengal.

Roh-Lutur, ear-pierced, a sub-sept of the Hansda, Hemrom, Kibku, and Tudu septs of Santdls.

Roht, pdnjaiin tree, a sub-sept of the Marndi sept of JSautals.

Roi, a title of Bangaja Kayasths.

Rojd, a title of Kaibarttas in Bengal.

Rondiar, a section of Mabilis in Chota Nagpur.

Rong, a sttb-tribe of Lepchas in Darjiling.

Rorah, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Rori, a fruit, a totemistic sept of Oraons in Ghota Nagpur.

RosrSit, a section of the Dhapra sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Rote, a sept of the Asuras in Chota Nagpur.

Rudra, a title of Baidyas and of Dakshm-Earhi and Bangaja Kayasths in Bengal.

Rudrabagchhi, a gam of the Sandilya qotra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Rudrabanik, a title of Baniyas

in Bengal-

Rudraham, a synonym for

Kuinb^r.

Rudrapal, a synonym for Kum-har in Bengal.

Rugri, a kind of mushroom, a toteniistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

RuhIdas, a title laid claim to by all Chamars, as denoting their descent from a Bhagat ancestor of that name; also a title of Dosadhs in Behar.

Rui, a title of Khanddits in Orissa.

Ruichhung, a sub-tribe of Dejong Lhori or Bhotia of the south.

Ruidas, a title of Muohis in Bengal.

Rujal, a section of Kamis in Darjiling.

Rujichi, a thar or sept of Sunuwars m Darjiling.

Rukai, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Rukhar, a groupof the Aoghar sect of Saiva ascetics founded in Guzerat by a Dasnami mendi­cant named Brahmagiri See Aoghar.

Rukhi, squirrel, a sept of Muudas in Chota Nagpur.

Rukhiar, a section of the Ania^hta sub-caste of Kayasths in Behar.

Rumba, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

Runda, fox, leopard (wild cat?), atotemis-ticseptotMundas Oraons and Lohdrs in Chota Nagpur.

Rupakheti, a thar oi KRotJ of NepdU Brahmans. '^ '^^

Rut^, a tree, a toteniiet;^ c . of Muudas in Chota N a ^ p ^ ° ^^P*

0 2

SABAIAEE. 212 SADGOP.

SaMi^re, a sept of the Agani sub-tribe of Meohes in the l3ar-jiling Terai.

Sahar, a synonym for Savar. Sabarkara, a sub-caste of

Muohis in Bengal. S&barna, a gotra or section

of Baidyas, Brohmans, Gran-dhabaniksjKciyasths, Tantis, and Sabambaniks in Bengal; a Brahmanical section of Babhans in Behar.

Sdbarnia, a sept of the Ohan-drabansi division of Kdjputs in Behar.

Sabarnika, a section of Utkal Brahmans.

Sabhaiyar, a jnir or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sabha-Sundar, atitleof Dho-b^s in Bengal.

Origin and etructure.

Sabkota, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Saboktsa, a sept of Maghs in the HiU Tracts of Chittagong.

Sabor, a sub-caste of Godlds in Chota Nagpur.

Sabri , a section of Kanaujid Lohdrs in Behar.

Sabu, a section of Mahesris in Behar.

Sada, a section of Sunris in Behar.

Sada, a sub-sept of all the septs of SantAls.

Sadabart i , a section of the Banodhiaand JaiswdrKalwdrsin Behar.

SadS Goala, a hypergamous group of Goalds in Eastern Bengal.

Sadasankar, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

nbgoir, Satgop, CMsd, a cultivating caste of Bengal Proper

internal T ^ l ' ' T ^ P P ° ^ f , *° ^^''^ fpaxated themselves from the Goalds by abandoning pastoral pursuits and taking exclusively to agricultura

They are divided into two sub-castes—the Paschim Kuliva -alT" live to the west of the Bhdgirathi, and the Purbba Kuliya wlVl settlements are on the east of that river. The separation LuvT the two 18 said to have taken place in the time of Ball«l Q! Avhen the ancestors of the Paschim Kuliya group refused In „ L the institution of Kulinism, which was introduced a m o U 'P* a later date and m a somewhat diflFerent form T^ T^*""!, Kuliyds, a much smaller body, adopted the new rule^ !,r^A ^™^ that account from the mam body of the caste. Orio-iri ii P , ' °^ castes were strictly endogamous, but of late years f h ? , *^ ^^^• relaxed and marriages have taken place betwpPTi , ® '^^^ ^^^^ two groups. The Purbba Kuliyas, however r! ^^.^^^^rs of the , i : • ° •'. ., . -..1 „ , „ ; _ i _ .. "^'^h reC0£>'ni'?Q o •f„^^.^ division of their own sub-caste into the two ^'',°§^°^^ ^ further of Ghosh and Sarbesia. The hypergamowa j-^^."°f='' ™ou8 groups castes and the sections of the Paschim KnK 7^^°°^ °* ^°*^ ^^^-Appendix. One of the hypergareoue gronr,o / ^ ,^^° ^^*^^^ ^ ^^^

6 "Ps, the Konr Gop, seems

213 SADGOP.

to have developed in comparatively modern times among the Sadgops of Murshedabad, and deserves special notice for the light it throws upon the mode in which hypergamous groups are formed. The Konr Gop are in no sense of purer lineage than their brethren. They are merely Sadgops who have grown rich and have risen above the necessity of cultivating with their own hands. They affect some sort of ill-defined social pre-eminence, and while taking their wives from among ordinary Satgops will not give their daughters in marriage outside their own circle. The Purbba Kuliyd have no sections, aud regulate their marriage by the standard rules defining prohibited degrees.

Infant-marriage is in full force among the Sadgops, and it would be deemed an indelible disgrace for a girl to

Marnage. ^^ unprovided with a husband before she reaches the age of puberty. Men, on the other hand, marry com­paratively later in life, and the operation of the law of hypergamy, popularly known as Kulinism, sometimes puts men of the lower groups to considerable difficulty in finding wives. The marriage ceremony is of the orthodox type, the binding portion being sdfpak, the carrying of the bride seven times round the bridegroom. Although this is technically the essential rite, the marriage is held to be complete at an earlier stage, as soon as the dsirbdd, or blessing on the married pair, has been pronounced. Polygamy is recognized so far that if a man's first wife is barren or proves faithless he may take a second; but such cases are said to be rare, and for all practical purposes the caste may be regarded as monogamous. Widows are not allowed to marry a second time. Divorce is not formally recognized; but if a woman commits adultery or otherwise disgraces herself, her husband may get rid of her by undergoing the ceremony of prayaschitta or expiation for impurity and by performing her srdddh as if she were actually dead. Women so divorced may not marry again.

The religious and ceremonial observances of the caste exhibit no departure from the average Hinduism of

Eeiigion. 2JQ middle classes ia Bengal. Almost all Sadgops are Vaishnavas, Hari and Satya Ndrdyan being their favourite deities. Lakshmi is also regarded with special reverence as watching over their welfare, while Sashti and Mangalohandi are worshipped by the women of the caste. The Brahmans who serve them as priests are received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. The dead are burned, and the srdddh ceremony is performed according to the orthodox system.

Agriculture is their characteristic pvu-suit, and they are qom-. monly spoken of and addressed as Chasa ' T^

Occupation and socmi Central Bengal large numbers of them a 7 stftt' '- engaged in rearing silk-worms and selline rn™ fiilk The bulk of the caste are occupancy or non-occupancy laiv + L n l e hold tenures, and a few, particularly in Midnapur, hav<. • Tl\minA^^ oiJ^.=^^j high position. Their ^social ; j ; ^ ^ ? ^ V i ;«n t lv defined by statmg that they belong to the N i ' ^

Bufaoientiy Brahmans %iU take water ^ d c o r t a i ^ i ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ group, a^^ '-iiaan kmds of

SADGOP. 214 S^iDEA.

sweetmeats from their hands. Their rules as to diet are the same as are ohserved by all orthodox Hindus in Bengal Proper. One curious custom may be noticed here. Sadgops will not eat pumpkin (/dw) and ddl in the month of Ashar, and by way of accounting for this prohibition tell the absurd story that they are descended from one Kalu Ghosh, who, being appointed by one of the gods to look after his cattle, killed and ate the sacred animals. Oddly enough instead of being punished for his sacrilege, the story goes on to say that his descendants, who thenceforth applied themselves to cultivation, were permitted to rank above the children of the other brother, Murari Ghosh, who faithfully discharged his trust. Value-less as the legend is, it deserves notice as a specimen of the folk-lore current among the people regarding the origin of particular castes.

The following statement shows the number and distribution nf Sadgops in 1872 and 1881 :—

DiSTBIOT. 1872.

Bardwan Bunkura Birbhutn Midnapur Hughli How rah 24-Pnrgailfi3 ... Nadiya Khulna dessore Murshfdabad Dmajpur Eajshahye ... Rangpur Boura Pabna Jalpigon ., Kuch Behar . Uacca

18S1. DiSTBIOT.

185,801 17,971

109,41(. 167,998

fa.-nti

88,058 17,5l]0

IfiV) 2(1,321

2 ,316 38 !> 136 e68 4»9 2?6

'],085

112,128 45,201 82,764

128,2fiO f 01,025 I 12,i93

20,67" 16,177

6,021 9,316

38,008 3,82,5

7.')2 603 042 882 600 1H3

2,381

Pandpur Bakar^an] Maimansinli Tippemh Chitt igong NoakhaU Patna Moiighvr Bhngalpur ... Purniah Maldah SantAl Pargan^ Outtaok Pan Balasore Tributary States Lobardag& ... Sinebhum llanbbum ...

1872.

693 180 681 158 85 25

" • 3 7

11,671 1,185 1,109

218 9

2,097 61 69

1,413 6,415

1881.

240 680 456 167

""21

"la l,32i 1,648 2,581

338 , 18 7,694

125 , 9 1,239 2.955

S^dhak, a mul or section of the Ghosin sub-caste of Go^las in Behar.

S i d h u , a title of the Desd Bub-caste of Gandhabaniks and of Tdntis in Bengal.

Sddhubagchhi, a gam of the Sdndilya gotra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sadhupaliya, a sub-caste of Kochhs m DInajpur.

Sadhya, |a hypergamous group of the Bdrendra Kayasths.

Sadhya-Maulikor Bahdtture, a hypergamous (?roup ""'f t^e lJakshiu-R4rhi KAyasths m Bengal.

Sadhya-Srotriva «v ous group of Ra'rM te&^«i-m Bengal -"^'^hmans

Sad-K^mar, a v K a m d r s w h o a r e c u l t i , t ; ^ t e o f

oad-Lohar, a o v Lohdrs or Hindu b C ' ' ' ? * ^ of Lohardaga. "^^^ksmiths in

Sad-Munda, „ . r, Mundas affecting to )"i*, ^« of Hindu religion. ^ ™llow the - Sadom.horse af.+ • of Mundas m Chota N^''*^° '^P*

i-i'sfi^-*-!:-...

SAFI. 215 SAHMBAHANG.

" Sdfi, cleaner, a synonym for Dhobi in Behar, only used by persons who are not members of the caste. ^ S^g, vegetable, a totemistic sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Sag^hut, a sub-caste of Sunris in Behar who permit widows to marry again by the sagdi form, often opposed to Bidhut, who do not tolerate such a practice. They are ordinarily grain-dealers and shopkeepers.

S igdin , a gdin or sub-section of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

Sagarbansi , a synonym for Sagarpesha.

Sdgarpeshd, in Orissa a desig­nation of the illegitimate ofEspiing of a Brahman woman by a Kdyasth man.

Sagela Bagela, a mulox section of Kesarwani Banias in Behar.

Saghar, "vegetable-eater," a title of the Bahiot sub-caste of Amats and of Dhanuks in Behar who are employed as personal servants to the higher castes.

Sagi, a section of Lohdrs in Behar.

Saha, 8dhu, a title of the Des4 sub-caste of Gandhabaniks in Bengal; a title of Ndpits, Sondrs, Telis, and Sunris. The latter invariably style themselves Sahaa or Sauloks. Tradition says that they were created from the sweat of the trunk [sunda) of the elephant-mouthed Ganesa to guard the celestial nectar for his mother Durga; and hence they were called Bundis (corrupted into Sunris). BaUal assigned to them such a low rank on account of their tribal arrogance.

Sahadar , a section of the Biyahut and Kharidahd Kalw^rs in Behar.

Sah i l , a section of the Biya­hut and Kharidaha Kalwars in Behar.

Sahani, a title of Mallahs in Behar.

Sahar , a section of Bhats.

Sdhari, a gain of the Bitsya gotra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sdharik, a gain of the Bha-radwaja gotra of Rdrhi Brah­mans in Bengal.

Sagin, the name of female attendants in shops for the sale of opium and its compounds, said to be kept for the purpose of attracting customers, and believed not to be above reproach in matters of morals.

S^gma, a totemistic sept of the Bhumij tribe in Manbhum.

Sagunid, a sub-caste of the JJraunchdwipi Brahmans in Behar.

gagun-ure, a title of the Kochh caste in Northern Bengal.

S^h, a section of Saraogis in

Behar.

SaharwSr, a section of Kamar-kaUa Sonars in Behar.

Sahasnangia, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Sahbari a section of Go^lis in Behar.

Sahdaulid. a kul or section of Bdbhans iu Behar.

Sahjawdii a section of Godlas in the North-Western Provinces and liehai-.

Sahrribahang, a sept of the Tambrkhola sub-tribe of Limbus in Uarjiling.

SAHNI. 216

SAKATI.

K ' S S r S h a r ^ ' ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ of

2 Sahni. a title of Gonrhis in

B f a S ; r * ^ * \ ° ^ * ^ « ^ ^ ^ a n d ^andiwdr sub-castes of Bais Bamyas; of Hal^ais, KahTr^

SSSthe ^ - ' thf^i'"'^^'"!.'^ "'"^ or section of

. Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Godlas in B e h i

t h f ^ l S r ^ ' ^ ' r ' " " " ' ^ or section of c a s t e ^ f T ' ^ ^ .or Majraut sub-caste of (joalas in Behar

Sahu, a title of Khatris • nf Bamyas, Ealwars, and ' f e d u ^ Behar; a title of Kewats in

Chota Nagpur. "^^ ^° Suwa, a wor^r •

Saival ^ P P ^ ^ of Siva.

N 'P' U Bi-ahVans'.' ° ' ^ ' ^ on of

" " . » closely ^ e l a S T ^ J j S j ' e d

Sai Sonarwar o J^WwarsinChotalsr ' 'P* of

of

S.,?^'l"u^''*L ^ '°°tion of tho

f.Sat " ""' °* ^ -ti;; Sahun, a mul or section of the

B e W '"^"^'^'^ °f K a l w ^ ' ^ °

wa.iuri, a mm or section of tU gihamulia Madhesia sub-casteof ilalw&is m Behar.

Sahuri , a w(// or section of thn I Sal<-=i —^° "^ -tieha ihamulia Madhesi4 . , . . „ 5 . * ^ ! I jje^^^^j^'ya. a title of DhobI

Sdi, a title of Brahmans.

Said^bAd, a section of p^tuj. in Bengal.

Saiga I, a section of the Panchjati sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

Sailum, porcupine, a totemistio f Mundas in Chota N/ionm.

"1 Behar.

'Sin

S^'^dilsection'of M^v^^ of the "^ans m Behar. ^^^thilB^^Jo

Sakarpuriet „

- t e o f a o ^ l ^ ^ o r ^ ^ r a ^ e ^ -

Sakarwar e ! f c W ° ' t b : ' f r - o t i o n o f caste of Halw,ii„ •"'^ojpurid sub-, ^ a n d r a b a n s S ' . a s e p t o f ? h e

bai lum, porcupine, a totemistio casfT f V of the TtV • ^^°tion o eept of Mundas in Ohota N«gpm, n ^ ^ of Ualw,ii„ '^ojpurid sub

Sain, a ffdin or sub-section of ^° Behar. 'tivisiou of Rdinn+t ^aptaFati Brahmans in Beugal; RAI^^V a title of Dakshin-Earhi and wdia T / ' ' ^ ^ " ' « of a . - n i . •oangaia E"Avn=f ho " waja ffofra of T,, the Bharad.

Ja Kiyasths. ( mans in BenglL^^^^^^dra B r ^

SAZERBASA. 217 SALHAEIA.

Sakerbas^ , a mul or section of tbe Kamfirkalla sub-caste of Sonirs in Behar.

Sakha , a title of Brahmans in Western Bengal.

Sakhal i , a sub-tribe of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Sakhwai t , a kul or section of Babhans in Behar.

Sakin, a section of the Pur-biya Madesia sub-caste of Hal-wdis in Behar.

Sakmait , a section of Bab­hans in Behar.

S&kori) a mul or section of the Chliamulia Madliesifi sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Sakrai t , a section of Bins-phor Doms in Western Behar.

Sakraiw^r-Harari , a mul of fliR Kdsyapa section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Sakraiw^r-Tatail, a mul of the Kdsyap section of Maitliil Brahmans in Behar.

Sakraiwar-Chhdmu, a mul of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Sakraul, a >«i(/or section of the Naomulia or Qoria sub-caste of Godlas iu Behar.

Sakr i , a mul or section of the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sonars and of Q-hasis in Behar.

Sakrol, a mul or section of tbe Chbamulid Madhesid sub-caste of galwais in Behar.

Saksena, a siib-caste of Kayastbs in Behar.

SdMa, a worshipper of the female principle m nature, of the female forms of the Hindu deities, and especiaUy of Devi, the sakti

or female energy of Siva. Saktas are divided into two classes: DakshindcMris, or Dakshinamar-gis, " followers of tbe right-hand path," and Vamacharis or Vdma-mdrgis," followers of the left-hand path." The former base their religion on the Pui'dnas and do not practise mystical or secret rites; tbe latter derive their ritual from the magical treatises kno^\^l as Tantras, and are addict­ed to practices of a grossly licen­tious character. The Tantras are said to be founded on the Kaula Upanishad, and the left-handed Saktas ai-e therefore called Kauli-kas.

Sakti , a title of Dakshin-Edrhi Kdyastbs in Bengal

Saktr i , a gofra or section of Brahmans and Baidyas in Bengal.

Sakuntald, a sub-caste of Brahmans in Behar.

S4l, fish, a totemistio seoUou of Khaudiiits; a eopt of Mundas and Oraons; a title of Dukshiu-Rdrhi Kdyasths.

Sal or Saula, a section of Kords, signifying a fish.

Sdld/c/id, a synonym for Sherpa Bbotia of Nepal.

Salak-khd, a merchant carry­ing on trade, a sub-sept of the Nah-pd sept of Sherpa Bhotias.

Salangia, a section of Godlds in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Salankayana, an exogamous section of Baidyas in Bengal.

S^lbanwar, sal jungle, a totemistic section of Kurmis in Ohota Nagpur and Orissa.

Salharia, a *«/ or section of Babhans in Behar. ^^

8ALKAE. 218 SAMP.

Samal or Samar, deer, a totemistio sept of Mundas.

Sdmanta, a chief, a group of the Srotriya sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans; a title of Aguris, Brahmans, Khandaits, Eajputs, Sadgops, Telis, and some othez-castes.

Samantasdr, a samaj or local group' of the Saunaka gotra of Paschatja Baidik Brahmans in

ctSaVS' °' '° - -fT^fll'*'^'"','.^'""^ or section of tJie JNfaomuli or Mairaut sub-caste of Goalds in Behi:.

Salmachh. fish, a totemistio *S?;, ^^'^^ '^ *^ issa; a section

ot Mdls m Midnapur and Man-Dlium.

Salodia, a section of GoAla<51 WC^T;'

sub-caste of Kayasths ' ^ '

lahlrBX/" - ^^^^ °f ^-I-

««-«-«. a syBonyni for ITdle

of t " £ S - - ^ - s e c t i o n caste of G o d l l r l ' i e t " ' ' ' ^ ^ -^ Samat, pestlo n L .

^b ) , a section of Bdgdia Z Bengal and of Chasds in Or ssa a totemistio sept of thp -^l •'•

of which ^ not touch or eat the sdl fish; a section of T r.\.T • the Santal Pargands "^^'' "^

. . Salu, a root in pond, a totem S ^ ? of Mu-da. ' i . S a

SalubJ, a synonym for Pdti-

r . ? \ " ^ ' -n^y^"^' a title of I qamHIi Dakshi^Earhi and Bangaja j i . S S ' ^ ' ^ - ^ i o n of Khari

Ch!£Nkg'pr^°° °* ° ^« -,, S,^,"i?ddar, a title of Chdsd dhobds m Bengal and a hyper" gamous group of Kaibartti in xiakarganj.

SdmagSu, a singer of the Sdma Veda, a title of Brahmans.

Samaiar, a eeotion of •"iayasths in Behar.

i„?f!^a'. a title of Khandaits

as

i n I t a a N a V u r ! * " ' Mundas

tolSaN:^V*°'Asarifa

o r S S ? S ^ « « » - o f Uaal

S^mil Thakup KanauiiaLoliarsi„'\.'f°*^OQ of

Samjhar „ '^^• CI^ota4^p;^^«eptofCbit3. , " Sam|

Q. In ^ "*s,- a R„„,. "'°"u sept

loehar. ' " ftovinces and

SAMPERIYl. 219 SAND'ILYA.

Samperiya, Samp-wala , ai sub-caste of Bediyas who catch! and chann snakes.

Samswar , a sub-caste of Kurmis in Behar.

Samudra , a gain of the SAbarna gotra of Barendra Brah-mans in Bengal.

Samudwar , a sept of Khar-wars in Chota Nagpur.

Samundar-Khora. a section of Sondra in Behar.

Samwah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

San, heron, a totemistio sppt of Lohdrs in Chota Nagpur.

S in , a title of Ohdsddhobds in Bengal.

Sana, a title of Dakshin-Rdrhi Kdyasths in Bengal.

Sanddhya, a sub-caste of Graura Brahmans.

QknkgknXhk, a sub-caste of Mdls in Bankura.

Sanahid, a title of Hindu Joldhas in Behar.

Sinchi , a sub-caste of Doms in Bengal.

Sanda, a pangat or section of Dosadhs in Behar.

Sandal ia, a section of Bdb-bans in Behar.

S indh , bullock, a totomistic sept of Lohars; a section of Goraits; a totemistio sept of Ohaniars and Doms in Chota Nagpur.

Sandhawar, a section of the Amashta sub-oaste of Kayasths in Behar.

Sandhoa, a synonym for Niyd-

riya, q.v.

Sandi , plough, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sandiguria, black monkey, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

• Sandil, full moon, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

sandi l , a gotra or section of Babbans in Behar, borrowed from the Brahmanical system and superadded to the origmal exogamous groups kith) charac­teristic of the caste; a section ot the Kumhdr caste in Western Bengal, apparently hoiTOwed from the Bralunanical system and added to the totemistio sections characteristic of the caste; a sec­tion of Utkal Brahmans; a section of Chains.

' S indi i or Sanrishi, a bull, a totemistio section of the Pari-pdl sub-casto of Sunris in Man-bhum, the members of which do not castrate their own cattle, but purchase bullocks and sell their own bulls.

Sandilai , a sept of Pators in Chota Nagpur.

Sandi Iya, a gotra or section of the Aguri, Baidya, Brahman, Kdmdr, and Subamabanik castes in Bengal; a section of the Sarak caste in Manbhum; of Kumhars, Tdntis, Tebs and Kayasths in Bengal; an eponymous sept of E,djputs and Savars; a section of Godlds, Kaibarttas, Madhund-pits, Mdlis, Mayards, Muchis, Napits, and Sunris in Bengal; an eponymous section of Barhis, Baruis, Bautids, Ohdsddhobaa, Gandhabaniks; a sept of Bbu-mijs; a section of Sdnkhdris, Bhdts; of Suklis m Midnapur' of the Paschmi KuHya Sadgona' of Sutradhars and T a m b u f i / - ^ Bengal.

SANKH. 221 .SAISTKHAEI.

Sankhabanik, a synonym for Sdnkhdri in Bengal.

Sankhakdr, a synonym for Sdnkhari in Bengal.

Sankhalai , a sub-oaste of Kdmars in the Santal Pargands.

Sankh , conch shell, a sub-sept of the Saren sept of Santals.

Sankha , a Beotion of Xaraus in Orissa.

Sankha-A'sram, a sub-caste of Grandhabaniks in Bengal.

§ ink lmi ' i , Sankhakar. Sankhabanik, the shell-cutting caste of ^ , Bengal, some of whom have taken of late years Tradition of origin. ^^ ^^orking in gold and sHvcr. Tradition

ascribes the origin of the caste, as of tiie goldsmiths, jewellers and Kansai-is, to one Dhanapati Saudagar of Karnata, from whose third son, Srikanta, the Sdnkhdri believe themselves to be descended. They claim to be Vaisyas, and say that up to the time of Adisur they wore the Brahmanical thread, but were degraded by him at the same time as the Subarnabaniks, because the latter liad cut to pieces a golden cow which the king had given to certain Brahmans at the celebration of a special sacrifice. Sankharis have the Brahmanical gotras and observe the same table of prohibited degrees as the higher castes. In Dacca they are divided into two sub-castes—Bara-

, ^ , Bhdgiya or Bikrampur Sankhari and Intornal stmoturo. />uu x r>i- ' • o _ ' r>* i • y .

Chhota-Bhagiya or Sunargaon Sankhari . The latter are a comparatively small group, who work at polishing shells, which they purchase ready cut—a departure from traditional usage, which may account for their separation from the main body of the caste. In other districts, owing possibly to the smalhiess of the caste, no similar divisions seem to have been formed.

The Sdnkhari, says Dr. Wise, have the character of being very , , ,. penurious and unusuaUy industrious, young and

Character and bab.ts. 1 j ^ .yorking to a late houT at night. Boys are taught the trade at a very early age, otherwise their limbs would not brook the awkward posture and confined space in which work is carried on. When sawing, the shell is held by the toes, the semi-circular saw, kept perpendicular, being moved sideways. The caste are notoriously filthy in their domestic arrangements. A narrow passage, hardly two feet wide, leads through the house to an open com-tyard, where the sewage of the household collects and is never removed. Epidemic diseases are very prevalent among them, and owing doubtless to their imhealthy mode of life the men as a rule are pale and flabby and very subject to elephantiasis, hernia, and hydrocele.

Dr. Wise describes the women as " remarkable for their beauty confinement within dark rooms giving them a light wheaten complexion. They are, however, squat, becoming corpulent in adult life and their features, though stiU handsome, inanimate. They are very shy, but the iact that in former days their good looks exposed them to the insults and outrages of licentious Muhammadan official ;<, a suificient excuse for their timidity. Even now-a-days t l f iecollection of past iudignities rouses the Sinkhiri to fary, a Jd th« Neatest abuse that can be cast at k m is to call him a sou of A b d S

SANDIPUETI. 220

Sandipurti, cock, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nag-pur.

. _ Sandi Sarin, fowl, a totem­istic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sandwipa, a sub-caste of Kumhars in Noakhali,

Sanga, a title of Bangaja Kayasths,

Sangd, or Sangoar, sweet ' potato, a totemistic sept of

Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sanga, a section of the MahUi-Munda sub-caste of MabUis in Chota Nagpur.

Sangalwar, a sept of Lohdrs in Chota Nagpur.

Sangba, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

Sdngbah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiliug.

Sang-behbo, a mi or sept of Behar. ' " "^ Dejong Lhoris, the members of Qa„;„i,„4 which are the descendants of K a l w L iJi^^i^'?-emigrants from Bhotan and Ne­pal.

SANKATWAR.

the legend is the same as that of the Khema thar.

Sangmi, a sept of Lepohas in Darjiling.

Sangp^ng, a thar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Sangskar, a perfonner of cere­monies, a title of Bralimans.

Sangtards, stone-cutters of vari­ous castes.

Sangtarash, a sub-caste of Gonrhis in Behar. They say they are not Gom-his, and dis­tinguish themselves as Gonrh. They work in stone.

Sangwe, a title of Ar^iya Telis in Beliar.

Sanha, a section of the Biya-hut and Kharidaha Kalwdrs in Behar.

Sanhakia, a section of Bhdts. Sanicher^, a sub-caste of the

Kraxmchdwipi Brahmans iu Behar.

SangChi r i a , a kind of bird, a totemistic sept of Muudas in Chota Nagpm:.

Sangda, a sub-sept of the Murmu sept of Santdls.

Sangdan, a section of Mur­mis in Darjiling.

Sangi, a synonym for Male,

Sangir , a sept of the Surj-a-bansi sub-tribe of Eajputs in Behar.

Sangiri Thakur, a section of Kanaujid Lobars in Behar.

Sangma, a buffalo, apparently

Kalwdrs'in^iB'eVaT ° ' '''^'^^ of

'bufSSr ^*^^ --anf B ^ S i 3 . ^ ^^^^-^ Sanny, ,3

Sanhavjdti, a generic term fn he castes supposed to h a v ^ b p r

formed by man-iajjes n. -ir •'' connexions between T^ \ ' ^ " * the four primary caste?. ' ^ ' ' ' " ^

Sankarpur. « « , oftheNaomTxiiaori ' r? ' '^^««^ caste of Goalds in B ^ - ' ' ' " * ^' '^'

Sankarshan „ "^' P^sch^tya i2-A '?,°*'°° «f the Bengal; ^"'^^ J^rahmans

oangnria, a buffalo, apparently Sank^,.. -

«ub t'T^^^. f P* °^ the Chhothar in Behar ^ ^ ' " ' ^ '^P* of m\^nh

^^fialo is taboo to this thar- n„f ^^'^^t ' "^ iii'Sar: " **° '' ^^^-

SANKHAEI. 222

Razzaq or of Eaja Earn Das. The former was a zamindar of Dacca ; the latter the second son of Raja Eaj Ballahh. Diwin of Bengal. I t is stated that they frequently hroke into houses and carried ofi the Sankhari girls, heing shielded hy their rank and influence from any punishment."

Sdnkharis marry their daughters as infants by the ceremony in use among the highest castes. I t is the

Marriago. fashion for the bridegroom to ride in the marriage procession, while the bride, dressed in red, is carried in a palanquin. Polygamy is permitted subject to the same restrictions as are in force among the Brahmans and Kayasths. Widows are not allowed to marry again, nor is divorce recognized.

Nearly all Sankharis belong to the Vaishnava sect, and _ ^ . comparatively few Sdktas are found among

"" them. Their principal festival is held on the last day of Bhadra (August-September), when they give up work for five days and worship Agastya Eiehi. who. according to them, rid the world of a formidable demon called Sankha Asura by cutting him up with the semi-circular saw used by shell-cutters. Others say that they revere Agastya, because he was the giiric or spiritual guid.e of their ancestor Dhanapati Saudagar. Eice, sweetmeats, and fruit are ofiered to him, and are afterwards partaken of by the Brahmans, who serve the caste as priests. These Brahmans act also as priests for the Kayasths, and are received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. They also observe the Jhulanjaird and Jamndshfami festivals in honour of Krishna, kept by all Bengali Vaishnavas. Sankharis burn their dead, mourn for thirty days, and perform srdddh in the orthodox fashion.

In point of social standing the Sdnkharis rank with the Social status. Navasakha, and Brahmans will take water and

. certain kinds of sweetmeats from their hands, iheir o \Ti rules regarding diet are the same as those of the highest ranks of Hindus. Many of them indeed are vegetarians, and abstain even from fish. Takea as a whole, the caste have been singularly constant to their hereditary occupation—a fact whicl is due partly to the smallness of their number, and partly to the steady demand for tlie articles which they produce. In Benpal Proper every married woman of the respectable castes -svears shell-bracelets, which are as much a badge of wedded life as the streak of red lead down the 1 «i 1 ^^^! ^ ^ - ^^ ^^^^ years, however, a certain proportion of

the bdnkliaris have become traders, wi iters, timber and cloth merchants, and claim on that account to be superior in social rank to those who manufacture shell bracelets.

Dr. Wise collected from various sources the following interesting Occupation paiticulnrs regal ding the traditional occupation

of the Saukhans:— ,, ^ t e shells used for manufacturing bracelets are imported from ne buif of Manaar. Natives dibtinguish many vai-ieties, differing TtoVm u ''''^ ''^^' ^^* * ® ordinary conch shell is the Mazza or ^-^Ct W ^J""; T^^^^^'^mt''^.^^'^ fbellshas flourished from the

*» biEtoncal times. The "chank" is mentioned by Abil Zaid

SANTAL. 235

headman,

SArANKOTYA.

also holding some mdn

Jag ManjM Jag Paramanik

2. Paramaiu'k.—Ass^istant lund.

rExecutive officers, respectively, of the j minijlii and the paramrtniJc who, as the

< Saiitdls describe it, " sit and give I orders," which • the Jag Maiijhi and t Jag Paramanik carry out.

Naiki.—Village priest of the aboriginal deities. Kudam Naiki.—Assistant priest, whose peculiar function it

is to propitiate the spirits blmts) of the hills and jun­gles by scratching his arms till they bleed, mixing the blood with rice, and placing it in spots frequeuted by the bhiits.

7. (rorafV.—Village messenger, who holds wu« laud and acts as peon to the headman. The gorait is also to some extent a servant of the zammd&r. His chief duty within the village is to bring to the maiijhi and Para­manik any ryot they want.

The communal circles of the Santals seem to correspond closely to the mutas of the Kimdlis and the parhas of the Mundas and Oraons. I t is a plausible conjecture that among all these tribes this organization was once connected with marriage, as it is among the Kandhs at the present day.

Santari, a section of the Maga-hiyd sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Santaru, as'imdjor looal groiip of the SAbarna gotra of PAschatya Baidik Brahmans in Bengal.

Santra, Sditt, a title of Kai-barttns, Telis, and Bagdis iu Bengal.

Santu Kusdet, a section of the Gliosin sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Sanuani, a sept of Dhenudrs in Chota Nagpur who cannot wear gold.

Santiar, a section of Godlds in Behar.

Qanukra, a section of Ghasis in Chota Nagpr.

qanwani, a sept of Kaurs and Eautids in Cliota Nagpur.

Sanwar, a goldsmith; a section of the Kdmi caste in Dar-jiling.

Sanwasi, a section of Ghdsis in Chota Nagpur

Sanwat, a title of Cheros in Palamau.

Saoasi, a synonym for Pan and Tanti.

Saola, a sept of the Bhumij tribe in Manbhum.

Saonra, a title of GoaMs in Bohar; a sub-caste of Goalas in Chota Nagpur.

Sa-^-nsia, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Sdonidr, a synonym for Sautal.

Sapankotya, a thar of n. anni^ gotra of Nep41i Brb Kanni^

mans.

SAPDOHA. 236 SAUXK.

Sapdoha, a sectioa of Bab-hans in Behar.

Saphark, a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Bebar.

Sapkota, a section of Kamis in Darjiling.

Saptagrami, a subcuste of Napits and Telis in Bengal.

Saptagrami or Kusnrlai, a Eub-caste of Tambulis in Bengal.

Saptagrami or Nadiya, a siib-eai-te of Subarnabaniks in Bengal.

Saptasati or Satsati, a sub-caste of Brahmans in Bengal who numbered seven hundred when Adisiir brought the five Brah­mans from Kanauj in order to pertoim certain jnjna, owing to their want of ceremonial purity. They have since become mixed with the later emigrant Brahmans,

and consequently very few families of them are now recognized by the name of Saptasati.

Sapui, a title of Pods in Bengal.

Sapurya or Beditja-mi, a sub-caste of Mais in Midnapur and Manbhum.

8ar, a synonym for Savars.

S^r, a sub-caste of Raj us in Midnapur.

Saraf, a title of the Ariir sub-caste of Bais Baniyas.

Sarai , a jungle fruit, a totem-istic sept of Korwas and of i lun-das in Chota Nagpur.

Sarai hat, a section of the Siit-mulia Maghaya sub-caste of Kiindus in Behar.

Saraiyar , a section of Kay-astbs in Behar.

§ar;^lv, Sidical; a small caste of Chota Nagpur, who seem to Oriein. ^° "; Hi^duised remnant of the early'JaiQ

people, to whom local legends ascribe the ruined temples, the defaced images, and even the abandoned conne mines of that part of Bengal. The temples and images indeed are proved by their well-marked and clinracteristic symbolism to be tl handiwork of Jain artists, while there is nothing ^r/wa /ggj-g im„ i able in the supposition that the mines al-o may be due t fl energy of this compiiratively civili-ed race, whose well-\' ^ i stone pillars and lintels far surpass anything that the" "" ^ inhabitantH of the province can execute. Neither hisf P" ^ ®" ' tradition throws any clear light upon the causes which ^ ' these peaceful settlers to desert the picturesque vallevo ^^T^^ find vestiges of their fnith; but if we may suppose th '"•' " " them to have been gradunlly driven out by the ineursin J^ijority of Aryan races, nothing would be more likely than fl f ? l ® non-who remiiined behind, surrounded as they were h v, remnant alien blood and religion, should have hardened i^f "^'"^'ii'ians of as the Raralcs iorm at the present day. "^'0 a caste such

The Baraks have no sub-castes. 'J^^^ eponymous type, and t,- f °^^ ^™ °^ '' ®

Internal structure and their coniparativelv rofi 1 fact, coupled with '"""'^''- light complexion, fee!^,°^ °a«t of features and to be deemed of Aryan descenf. fij^ '^'O confirm their claims same as iu the ease of higii-caste R i i j " ^™^'i degrees are the

fundus. They "marry their

present nor

compelled •e we

SAEAK. 237 SARANGIHAK.

daughters as infants, forhid widows to remarry, and do not recognize divoj'ce. Polygamy is permitted in so far that a man may take a second wife if he has no hope of ohtaining male issue hy his fii'st •wife. The mnrriajre ceremony is of the standard type.

The Saraks of Manhhum, while retaining the tradition that their ancestors were Jains, appear themselves to have

Religion. completely adopted Hinduism. They worship the ordinary Hindu gods with the assistnnce of Brahmans; nor have tliey retained, as might perhaps have been expected, any of the characteristic (irt/iaiikaras or glorified saints of the Jains under the disguise of minor or liousehold gods. ]n Lohardaga, on the other hand, Parswanath, the twenty-thii'd tirthankara, who is believed to have attained niivana on Parasnath Hill in Hazaribagb, is still recognized by the Saiaks as their chief deity, thotigh they also worship Shyam Chand, Eadiia Mohan, and Jagannath. Brahmans officiate as their priests, and in no way forfeit their social reputation by doing so. In all Jain temples, indeed, the ministrant priests are Brahmans.

Saraks are skilful agriculturists, and are credited with having introduced sugarcane cultivation on the plateau

^ oooupation and social ^f Chota Nagpux. LIo>t of them are occupancy raiyats, and in pargana Sonpur of Lohardaga

a few villages are bold by i^araks in permanency and at a fixed rent by the tenure known locally as biitt-b/ianr/dr. In point of social standing they rank high, and Brahmans vnLl take water and pakki articles of food trom their hands. iSaraks themselves retain all the prejudices of the Jains in regaid to eating the flesh of any kind of animal. Life may on no account be taken. Tlieir diet therefore consists entirely of vegetables; and it is said that if in jireparing their food any mention of the word 'cut t ing ' is made, the omen i.s deemed so disastrous that everything must be thrown iiway. Subject to these conditions, Sardks will eat the leaviiips of Brahmans, and •will tiike watoi- or sweetmeats from Rajputs, Baidyas, and Kiiyasths.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Saraks in ]h72 and 1«81 :—

DiSTEICT. 1873.

B i r d w i i n liiinkiira KuTigpur I 'a tna — G.ta - • (,linhBbail Moaillei-piir

D r s i E i c r .

38 601

1 31. ' 1J«

6 8

^ tongl ivr J>"n(ai I'lirganils l l t t zunbaf l i ... Loh! i r i t a« i . „ J l a n b h u r a T n b u t i u y S t a t e t

8.^7

SaraliS-j '•• sub-caste of Kum-hiirs and Bhuinmalis found in Noakhali.

Qaramba. a tigress, a totem-isticseptofJuangBinOrissa.

18--1.

=7 4-IS 103

I."^15 8, i )S

Sarangi , a section of U l k ^ j , Urissa Brahmans.

Sarangi, a t/>ar or sept of Maiigaism Darjihn;;, "^

Sarangihar, a religiouo „ of Jugis. ^ ^ ^ group

SARAOGI. 238 SAEMA.

^Vtl'tiogi, a mercantile caste of Northern India closely allied to the Agarwals and Oswals. Like these, Saraogis are mostly adherents of the Jain faith. They profess to have 84 exogam-ous groups deriving their names from villages in Khandela and Shekhawati. In marriage tliey exclude both goh, like the Ma-hesri, and reckon them ou both sides.

Sarar i , a title of Byadhs who kill birds by scir or arrows.

^ Saras, a water-fowl, a totem- i istic sept of Bliuiyas and I Hiarwars in Chota Nagpur.

Saraswat, SdrsnUi, Sdrsati, a territorial division of the Pancha Gaura Brahmnns fomid in Behnr, said to derive its name from hav­ing originally dwelled in the country watered by the river Saraswati in the PanjAb.

Saraswati , a sect of Das-n^mi Sanuydsis.

Sarauli, a mid or section of the Chhamulia Madhesiii sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Sarbbanandi, a met or hyper-gamous sub-group of Kdrhi Brah­mans in Bengal.

Sarbesia, a group of the Purbba KuliyA Sadgops.

Sardak-peapi , a sub-sept of the Phejom sept of Limbus in JDarjiling.

Sa rda r , a headman, a chief, (i) In Bengal Proper an ironical title of Tantis, Bagdis, Haris, Doms, Kahars, and other low castes; (ii) in Manbhum a title of the Bhizmij tribe, many of w.liom are headmen of ghatwali ^lUages; (iii) in the Santal Par-ganas a title of Mai Pabarias aud Sautals

Saren, a sept of Santdls.

Sares Pargana Dadddih, a mill or section of the Naomuliii or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Sdrgatia, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidaha Kalwars in Behar,

Sargrami, a gain of the Kds-yapa gotm oi Barendi-a Brahmans in Bengal

Sarihin, a sept of the Patar-Mahili sub-caato of Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

Sarin, a section of the Dharkar sub-ca'^te of Doms in Behar.

Sariswe-Khdngor, a mul of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Sarisv/e-Sakuri, a mill of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

Sariyal, a gain of the Bharad-wdja i/odaol Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sarjal, a sept of Kaurs in Chota Nagpur.

Sarjupari, see Sarwaria.

Sarkar, a title of Brahmans; of Kurmis m Manbhum, used

and by outsiders; of Ju . is Kai-barttas, Kayasths Ndm-fo' i T T Sadgops, a n ' d T a n l i s t t e n g a f '

t h e ^ K w S ; . ' ' r^ «^ section of IJe^Kanaujir, sub-caste of Sonar.

Nefa/^'^'*^" cobbler caste of

nn,,^'''^^;. ^ synonym for Brah-Z n " ^'^^^ of Dakshin-Rdrhi ^ ' ^ Bangaja KSyasths.

SAEiS^ABANtK. 239 SASMAL.

Sariiabanik, Suharnabanik.

a synonym for I Sarna-Kamar, a sub-caste of Kiimars in Midnapuj.

§avnnl;ar , Seh-d, the working goldsmith and silversmith caste of Bengal, an artisan group, probably traceable to the Karmakar and wholly distinct from the Suharnabanik, who never work in metal themselves. Snrnakars are divided into four suh-caates: Brahman-desi, Daknin-Rarhi, Khatangi and Uttar-Rarhi. They have five oxogamous groups, three Brahmanical and two Saha.nta-liishi and Sa-rishi, suggestive of less distinguished associations, (iiils are usually married iis infants, but this is said not to he obligatory—a view which is to some extent borne out by the fact tliat a bride-prioe is paid, and the bridegroom-price characteristic of the fidl development of infant-marriage has not j 'et been introduced. The marriage ceremony is of the orthodox type; its essential and bindinj; portion being the gilt of the bride to the bridegroom and his formal acceptance of the gift. Widows may not marry again, and divorce is iiermitled only on the ground of the wife's adultery.

The leligion of the caste is tliat of the average middle class J lindu— Sdkta or Vaishnavn as the case mny be. The divine artisan, Viswakarma, is reveienced as the special patron of the caste. The women have a special ceremony called Kulai, which is performed during the rains without the assistance of any priest. Brahmans are employed for religious and ceremonial purposes, but these are not received on equal terms by those members of the sacred order who serve the higlier castes. The dead are burned, and the ><rd(lclh ceremony performed one month after death. The caste believe the business of a goldsmith to he their original occup.-ition, hut some ot tliem enga'^e iu agriculture. Their social status is low. None of the higher castes will take water fiora them, and they admit thot they will take water and sweetmeats from any one except the very lowest cartes, such as Ilari, Muchi and Dom.

Sarnar, a curry vegetable, a totemistic sept of lluudas in Chota Nagpur.

Sarnia, a sejjt of the Suraj-bansi division of ilajputs in Behai'.

Sarno, a sept of Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

. Sarpa, snake, a totemistic section of Jagaunathi Kumhars in Orissa.

Sdru, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Sarua, a group of the Pandd sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans.

Sarwal, a "section of the Panclijati tuh-caato of Khatris iu Bengal.

Sarwarid or Saryupari , a sub-caste of Kaiuiujia Brahmans and Tclis in Behar.

Sarw^at, a section jiA Lobars iu Behar.

of Kanau-

Sarwe, a in Behar.

section of Bdbhans

Sasani caste of Orissa.

or Srotriya, a sub-Utkal Brahmans in

Sasankhar, a Kamis in Uurjiling.

section of

Sasmal, a title of SuHis and Kaibarttas in Midnapur. ^

SATAL. 240 SAUDARPUEAI-HANSAULI.

Satal, a thar or sept of the Barah-Gurung sub-tribe of Gu-rungs in Darjiliog.

Satanandkhani, a mol or hypergomous sub-group of R^rbi Brahmans in Bengal.

Satapasti, Satpat i , a group of the Srotriya sub-caste of TJtkal Brahmans.

Satarw&r, a mul or section of the Kanaujia sub-caste of Haj-jims in Bebar.

Satchdsd, a synonym for Sad-gop in Bengal.

Sateswari, a qdm oi the S^ barna gotra of Earhi Brahmaus in Bengal

Satgharia, a sub-caste of Na-pits in Bengal.

Satgop, a synonym for Sadgop iu Bengal.

Sat Gosain, a sub-sect of Vaishnavas recruited from the higher castes and distinguished for their proselytising zeal.

Sathiet, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalds in Behar.

Satisa, a sub-caste of Dhobcis in Central Bengal.

Satlakshe-Sataur, a nml of the Kasyapa section of Muitliil Brahmans in Behar,

Satlakshe-Satlaksha, a mu/ of the Kasyap section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Satling, a sept of Limbus in Darjiliug.

Satola, a //icir or section of Nepali Brahmaus.

Satcria, a i-eition of Gojilas in the Nortli-WoMeiu Proviucos and Behar.

Satra, a section of Sunris in Bohar.

SatsaikiyS, a sub-caste of Aguris in Western Bengal.

Satsudra, a group of ca--,te8 from whose hands a Brahman can take water.

Satta, a section of Patnis in Eastern Bengal.

Sattyal , a thar or seoiion of Nepali Brahmans

Satun, a title of Barhis in Behar.

Satya, truth, a section of Jiigis.

Sau, a section of Godlas in Behar.

Sau or Chalita-Sau, a sub-caste of Sunris in Western Bengal.

Sauar, a mul or section of the Ma^baya sub-caste of Kandus in

Saubarnia, a Babbans in Behar.

section of

Sauchand, a sub-cab.te of Kur nns 111 Behar.

Sauda^Baek, a '/-«/or section of the Satmulia or Kislinaut sub-caste of Uodlas in Behar.

Saudarpurai MahiA, a mul of the Sandil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpur^i-Katk4, a niul of the Sdndil section of ivr -^L . Brahman, in Behar. ^"'^^'^

Brahmaus in Hehiir •'^laitlul

the^^sSlfl^'f^^Sarso, , „,„; ,f

1^-hmans i„ fi't "^ ^^^'^''^^

of ,if!"i^.''Purai-Hansauli, a »»,! B r . r '""^'' SPotion of Mailhil ^'^hmaus in Bohar.

SAUDARPURAI-KHOIE. 241 SAVAE.

Saudarpur^i-Khoir, a mul of the SAndil section of Maithil Brahmans in JBehar.

Saudarpurai-Digaun, a mul of the Sdndil section of Maithil Erahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurdi-Kanhauli, a mui of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurdi-Mdnik, a mul oi the l Andil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurdi-Rohir, a nml of the Sdudil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurai-Sundar, a mul of tlie Sdndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurdi-Dhaul, a mul of the Sandil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar

Saudarpurai-Baghat, a tml of the 8andil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Saudarpurcii-Gaul, a mul of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Sauia, a sept of Hos in Sing-bhum.

Saul, fish, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Sdulok, a general term for members of the Sdh^ or Sunri caste.

Saunaka, a Kshatra-peta ^o^ra or section of Brahmans.

Saundika, a synonym for Sunri.

Saunt, a section of the Bans-phor sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Sauntia-Kandh, a suh-tribe of Kandhs in Orissa.

Saupayan, a section of Brah­mans and of Kayasths in Bengal.

Saur, a synonym for Savar; a tnul or section of the Kanaujid sub-caste of Sonars and of Godlds in Behar; a totenaistio section of Kharids and Turis signifying a fish; a totemistic sept of Doms and Chamdrs in Chota Nagpur.

Saurdstriya, a sub-caste of Brahmans found in Behar.

Sauriyd, a sub-caste of Mau-liks in Chota Nagpur.

Saursambar, a section of the Satmulia Maghaya sub-caste of Kdndus in Behar.

Saukalin, a section of Brah-mans and of Kayasths in Bengal.

^UbUl',> Sdbar, Saur, Sar, Sayar, 8uir, Swiri, a Dravidian Traditions of origin cultivating and servile tribe of Orissa, Chota

p , , _ • Nagpm-, Western Bengal, Madras, and the ^f^"7- , f "J'lnces. Colonel Dalton regards them as Dravidian 2 while JM-iodrich Miiller,^ General Cunningham,* and Mr. R. Gust'*

T,„ cniTcrlit t!^^^ f^ ^^^ iiamc of Savara," savs General Cuuninfiham, " must •t,,tfv n o-i>,r„ . ' " ' ' ' '"5 language of the Aryans. In Sanskrit savara

r H fo• an '"°'^''' From Herodotus, however, we leara the Scythian ^^Jn,- is the same L r T " ' ""^o'-is; and as g and v are interchangeable letters. 1 J the tnbesTho w l " ' ""^'"•- I* -^^^^ tl^erefore not unreasonable to infer

*^ = Nowit ilone of ff" '"'"^d ^°^^ their name from their linbit of carrying rar'elV Sn ' ^ h^ u ran ' ax ' r i ^^ f ' " ^ .P - " ! - ^^^ of the Savaras that t h e / a r ! rareij j i i. 1,„ " ' " their hands. Th s peculiarity hus been frequently-

3 AUgem. Bthnoff., 4.(]2. * Jrhavlofl. Survei/, vol. xvii, p. lOo » Modern Languages of the £„,t /,; . ^_ ^ yj.

SAVAE. . 242

place them on linguistic grounds in the Kolarian .^roun of f.IV The evidence from language, however, is meamre and^n^n. i •^^'•• ^•hxle on the other hand i t ' i s tolerably certSi tSat the ^ ' ^ ^ ' scattered and partially Hinduised as they are, represent t h ^ T - ' ' body of an ancient race, an isolated fragment of which s u r v l . ' ' - " the ITdle' or Saur of the Eajmahal hills. The sIva? Ire Z'\'^ Identified with the Suari and Sabarai mentioned by pTnvf"^^^^ Ptolemy == General Cunningham shows in the paper referred to nh that the tnbe IS very widely diffused at the present day and 1 ^ ' tradition ascribes to the Savars the conquest ol the Chero,' ^^ i !?°?^ expid. on from the plateau of Shahabld, in about t t y ; r 4 2 ^ -the bahvahana era, or A.D. 500. A number nf -,r,n,V,,f •"• °* in the Shahnbad district are stm ; S d o w n T t t T ' ^ ' ^ ' ^ ' ^ Suirs, who are supposed to have b e L dHvIn south V t C - " ^

[ h e t r l ' ' ' ^ ' ' ^ ' ' " " ' " ^'^ ^'"^P^-^ ^^'^*' - 1 ^ ^ ^ ™ade'ln"end of

A good observera describes tlie Savaras near Mahendrajrfri in Physical characteristics, ^^ujam as Small but wiry, often very dark In

. . t h S t i r l i n g ' s a c c o u n t ^ n i l r ^ ^ r ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

'shocks, with whicf nTsu W ^ n „ e m e n t Is a ' t f Z ' ^ r ' ^T ^''^'^ men have small, square beards ^ u o s e ?s t S n l ^ ' ' ^ ° * ^^^ M-ide nostrils. Of those races in B e Z f wTth w L ^ ' ^ ^"'''^' ^^th familiar, they reminded me m o s t S d v of the S '^?^^T'' ^ ^°^ to the Munda family; but I could a l s o ^ e r l v : f n ' r e J s^m ' ^ ' ° ° ^ of resemblance to the Dravidian Paharins of the S Z T i P f r ^ They have not, however, the manly bearing and g o ^ d ^ ^ : - ^ ^ • the latter Their irnTinAr nf An^ • P^Jsique of .Of the E»j„,»,,., P„B.„,,; „?rCeT„' 1 ' S K ? " - » « ' rather than that of either tho Santdls or Kols " Witnessed it,

The exogamous septs current among the Savars of Rn i Internal structure. ^how^ in Appendix I . The totems Q^,'"'^ f ^

.epts, niid It IS possible that the B a n W T a n S o^,? ^° ^'^ve no have picked up their totemistic septs l o c a C T ^ h e tribe may Telmgas (see article on that caste) rather ( l ^^^ case of til Mention has teen made in the a r i i c L ^ t t S M ' , ? * ^^« vi -remarkable fact tliat they have no exogamous iu --^^ tribe of the marriage by tne more modem system of count i l ' ! ' °?^ , 'ind regulate I t follows from this that the section-naaes of fj 'c'l' ' ited degrees, light upon their connexion with the Hale ifi ^^''^^ throw no

, ,I « ?en states />"« jabarai, was r,, , *"at

btirling, Oi-iasa, p. 42.

' Naf. Hist., vol. vi, 23. " «u^ri7^ii^;r~~v---~-_/^^- S- Oldham,

• l& i:& a - "•'"•' »K°"« .o»^'Ci"xA»"°"

243 SAVAE.

however, considers the two tribes to be one and the same, and this view may, I think, be accepted as correct.

Tlie Savars of the Orissa Tributary States are divided into four 6ub-tribos—BendKar, Par i ra , Jharua, and Palli—which are strictly endogainous. The orif^in of the names is obscure, but it seems possible that both Palli and Par i ra may have some reference to the practice of using leaves as clothing. Varaha Mihira, quoted by General Cunningham, speaks of the Parna or leaf-clad Savaras' ; and a Savara messenger mentioned in the Katha Sarit Sigara is a described as carrying a bow in his hand "withhis hair tied up in a knot behind with a creeper, black himself and wearing a loin cincture of vilwa leaves."

Girls may be manied either as infants or after they have attained the age of puberty. Infant-marriage

arnage. . deemed the more respectable usage, but no social stigma attaches to a family which is unable by reason of poverty or any other cause to comply with the demnnds of fasnion on this point. Sexual license before mamage, though vehemently condemned, is said to be tolerated, and if an unmarried girl becomes pregnant her fault is condoned by marriage to the father of her child. The Savars of Bankura observe a Hinduised ceremony, the binding portions of which are gotrantar, or the transfer of the bride from her own sept to that of the bridegroom, and the smearing of vermilion on her forehead and the parting of her hair. In Orissa the ritual is more simple, and appeal's to have beeu less affected by the influenoe of Brahmanieal usage. On the arrival of the bridegroom at the bride's house he is met by her female relatives, who greet him \vith cries of In hi, and burn ghi, rice, nreoa nuts, turmeric, etc., in his honour. This is followed by a curious practice, called seka, believed to be peculiar to the Savars, in which the bridesmaids warm the tips of their fingers at a lamp and press them on both cheeks of tho bridegroom. Tho couple then pass ori towards the bedi, a raised platform of earth, in the courtyard of the house, stopping on the way to sprinkle each seven times with a mixture of mustard seed and salt. On reaching the bcdi they make two and a half turns round a pot of water, in which are mango leaves, after which an elder of the tribe, nominated as priest for the occasion, makes them sit down side by side, and binds their hands togotlior with durba grass and leaves of the borlculi plum tree. This is the closing and essential part of the ceremony. The bride-prioo varies with the means of the families. Among the Bendkar Savars. according to Colonel Dalton, it comprises two bullocks—one for tho girl's father and another for her maternal yyple—a'"i ^ cloth and one rupee presented to her mother.

Polygamy is permitted, and no theoretical limit is set to the umber of wives a man may have Few Savars, however, indulge

? Qiore than two, and usually a second wife is on/y taken in the ^^ t of tbe first being barren. In Orissa (but not in Bankura) ^ ' ' dow may marry ag.dn, and is ordinarily expected to marry her

• ^"V^I^ir^erii identifies the Parna Savaras with the Phyliitag nf Ptolemy'but explains the name to mean •' feeding upon leaves." which seems improbable. ^-

li

SAVAE. 24i

first husband's younger brother or cousin. No comnnlsmx, T, IS exercised in the matter, and a widow mly7^Z^7'''"^' pleases, provided that she returns to her father's h Z e ? / ^ ° °^ •''^ unmmiedfor a year after her first husband's deaS N c ' r e r ^ ' ceremony 18 ordained for use on such occasions, and the U H I ^ ' celebrated by a feast given to the relations of both partLs T)T ' ' 18 permitted for adultery or any other serioui coniu'al ^ C ' The case is considered by the members of the h u s K d t f w i who, If they find it impossible or unadvisable to effect a r c o n c ^ S between the parties, formally escort the woman to the house of C father or gaardian and leave her there. Divorced wives may m^Z again m the same manner as widows. - warry

The Savars of Bankura have become thoroughly Hinduised Beiigion. - d 33rahmaus serve them af pHeSs i^ the

mans are received on e ^ u ^ l l t it'^'^ltr'!-T, ^ 5 - % ? - ^ " Eewats, and other low castes T . O - ^ V ' .°^ ^^-^''' ^o^^is, tribe has been less modifi d W the i S Z l ^ / ^ ^ T ^ ^'^^ '' t^« worship of the Brahmanical d eitiPs s indLn - ^ ' ^^^ " ' ' ^ ' - ^^he them, but the elder gods, ThJnDati Zl!\^'''T^ &^'"^"'i ^"^oi^g sacred grove of the viUage, and" a l n . , ^ " ^^f' ^^ t^« ^/'"« or the same as the tlood.thi;sty she d e 4 ' ° ' Thakuraini, no doubt BUll receive offerings of goats nr f. i I'^l^'^^^ V the Ehuiva« " i the coxmnunity wh? hav ln t t j J Z l n t ^ ""T^. "* « - S of tlie professional Brahman. supplanted m their office by

The Orissa Savars recognize both burial r

The Savars believe their origmal Pn,irl,-+- x i

o»„.„.. %T-'""T?iS"*'z> fc ' r tot of

The bulk of the tribe W-Tf;! TP^^^tivelyreoL?,? ^°^°^ mnssed themselves in regXrvilb. ^ ^ *° Plough S ? •"' s-stiJI adhere in the main tothe " . ^ ' ' i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ B e n d k r . V T ^ ° ^ ^^"^ describe. An interesting aSouTo'/f^.^^abits ^ f c h th "^ ? T ^ . ^ ' ^ given in 1842 hj Colonel T icSroVf , Q ' ^'^^ohSilV'''^'^^''' who found them inhabiting a t a n l i f^^'^tl^-^estF: .-^^^'^^ """^ on the north and Borth-eaft by S e o, r ' * °f i>=U 2 ^ ^ ? ^ ^ " ° . ' ^ . ' "^unities or pirs of Kotgarh andBa. t ' ^ ^ d land o/^/u'^T^r"^'^'^''^ dialect, and spoke either Ho or Uriv^ ^ S hnlwAi^" ^- T ' 'resembled the Bhuiyds of t h a t . ' ? - , In p C e n l ^ ' ' ^ P ' ^ j t ' ^ ' - '*''part of fi,„^-'''"^9,1 appearance they ^ ~ r - - _ _ ^ ^ ^ t h e countiy,i'nd were fair, of a f„ ''"°"- F^thnohqy, p. 149. Tl,„i ^ ———

^ -- "Ke of hill. ,n tie aorth of Eeu^T^"". i t ^ W ^ T T T T " : ; ^'""ijQar. ""oma be staled, is the name

245 SAVAE.

•well-made, and intelligent. They worshipped Kdli, with several minor tutelary deities. In matters of food they appear to have been rather exclusive. A Bendkar would take water from a Ho, but would not eat with him, nor would he touch any food that had been, cooked by a Hindu. Their material condition was extremely poor. They possessed no cattle, and only a few fowls. The houses were mere hovels, not massed together in villages, but dotted about on the hillside in separate groups of two or three, like those of Birhors in Palamau. The crops usually cultivated were maize, high-land rice gora dhdn), and gram chana), which were grown in straggling fields formed by banking up the hillside water-courses. Edible jungle products were largely used for food, and frequently made up an entire day's sub­sistence. They paid no rent for their land, but were liable to be called upon for begari or gratuitous labour by the Raja of Kalikdpra-sdd in Keuujhar. Their funeral ceremony consisted in simply burn­ing the dead body; they did not collect the ashes from the pyre, nor did they, like the Kols, destroy any of the deceased person's property with his corpse.

In writing of the same people Colonel Dalton^ specially notices . their style of dancing:—" The girls dance

ancing. \ni\i their heads covered, bodies much inclined, and faces looking to the ground or to their feet, which have to perform a somewhat intricate step ; the right hand holds down at arm's length the portion of the dress that is thrown over the head. The men, playing on tambourines or half drums, sing as they dance. The girls appear too intent on their steps to respond to them; but their peculiar attitude in the dance, the steps, and the melody, are the same for all Bhuiyas, and are unmistakeable characteristics of the race from the Granges to the Mah^nadi. The Kolarian dances are quite different." I t seems to me that the argument from similarity of custom to tribal affinity has in this case been pressed too far. Subject races everywhere have not been slow to imitate the usages of'the dominant people with whom they were brought into contact, and the Savars have been too long under the virtual control of the Bhuiyds for it to be at all surprising that they should have adopted the dances characteristic of the latter. The Kolarian races, on the other hand, have either maintained their isolation and iude-pendence or have been brought in contact only with Hindus, whose ideas on the subject of dancing would certainly not commend them­selves to a sociable non-Aryan community.

Regarding the Bendkar methods of agriculture, Colonel Dalton^ , . , observes—"When first I saw the Bendkar

Uodoofaginouiture. j^j^^^.piougt it ^as of wood,—only a branch (jut witb a large piece of the stem, from which it sprung attached, and that shaped so as to give it the appearance of a miniature Native

loueli' ^^^ *' ®7 ^^^ improved on this, and now insert a piece of • as 'a share, in further imitation of the Native plough. The W e m e n t answers well enough in preparing for seed the light

Bthnoloqy of Bengal, p. 150. Ditto, p. 162.

SAVAE. 246 SEBAXA.

vegetahle mould of the forest, to which they confine their cultivation • bub ia a stiff clay it would be inoperative. The hill Bendkars cultivate fe«.^«j (Pauicumltalicum), kheri, khodo (Eleusine coracana) or mania, gangoi makai (Zea mays) or maize, a species of coxcomb the seeds of which they eat, a cereal called siho, and a large bean' •which is intoxicating or acts as an emetic if eaten raw, but is pleasant and wholesome when well cooked; also urid. They have ordinarily no rice cultivation. They know well and use all the spontaneous edible productions of the forests, and showed me some wild yams which they largely consume ; they take an immensity of eookin<' "' Here the suggestion seems to he that the Bendkar plough was consciously shaped in imitation of the implement commonly in use in India It is however, possible, and I think on the whole more probable, that it represents the earhest form of the Indian plough—a type which, though improved out of all recognition in the plams, may still be traced back to the c umsy wooden hoe which the B e n S drags after him through the light ashes of his plot of jhumltll

The social position of the Orissa Savars! Hke that of L n y

promotion to that position emiaot lono- ^ ^ ^ T ^'^ ^'^^^S^ tJ^eir step will doubtless L to provid^ h S v e s w i t H ^ ^^'^ ^^'^ Savaxs of Bankura^have aheady done T b ! l T. ^^"^^^mans, as the a high standard of ceremonial purity " and w," 1 . I f1 ' °* *° maintain from the hands of any one exSepra BrahmJn V f ' ''''\'^ *°^d however, are not admitted by their neiD-hhour.;" nr^ f Pretensions, social rank is certainly not higher thin t S of B t d i f ' t S * ' ^ ' ^ Xoras, and similar castes who hang on the o u t s k X K l ^ - ? ' social system. " ^^ " e -timdu

The following table shows the number and ^;.i- -v .-Savar tribe in 1872 and 1 8 8 1 : - " "" distribution of the

DlSTEICI.

Midnapur Cuttaok Vmi ... Balasore

1872. 1881.

16,589 14,179

416

1,562 20,217 17,238

DiSIEIci.

Matibhum Tributary States "• -

Savar-Munda, a sub-trioe of Mundas in Ohola Nagpur.

Sawani, a sept of Gonds in Chota Nagpur.

S^want, a section of the Maga-*i'y^ sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

^aw&Hi, a synonym for Pan.

1872.

36,843 277

18S1.

20,871 494 187 190

^"y^'^ a synonym for Savar.

V^^^RS ^ * ^ e of the so-called ionai ; . • ^^0 perform per-^°^al sez-viee for Brahmans.

Sebaka or Murhia, a group ?| the Pandd sub-caste of Utkal •'^rahnians.

SEDUAH. 247 SENGEA.

Seduah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Sege, a sept of Ohakmds in the HiU Tracts of Chittagong.

Segmang, a thar or sept of the B^-rah-GUirung sub-tribe of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Segul, a sept of Rajputs in Behar.

Sejagd, a gain of the Sdudilja gotra of Earhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Sekov/a, a sept of Chakmds in the HiU Tracts of Chittagong.

Sekra, a synonym for Sarnakar.

§chr t , a sweeper caste of Eastern Bengal, now converted to, Islam and admitted to worship in the mosque and to the privilege of burial in the public graveyard. With their conversion the Sekris have abandoned their original occupation and now taken to cultivation and to the manufacture of lucifer matches, or rather spills of wood tipped with sulphur. All of them assume the titie Shaikh of which Sekri may perhaps be a derivative. iheir personal names are generally takeu from the day of the week, or from the month in which they were born. Thus Shaikh Eamaz&n and Shaikh Itwari are common appeUations.

Sekwahdeng, a sept of Lim­bus in Darjiling.

Sem, a title of Kaibarttas in Bengal.

Semanohangiar, a sept of Lobars in Chota Nagpur.

Sem&rbdr, a sub-caste of Bel-dars in Behar.

Semdri, a sub-caste of Kai-barttas and Gonrhis in Behar

Semarkanda, root, a sept of Mun'das in Chota Nagpur.

Semarwar, a sub-caste of Nunias in Behar.

Semerya, a sub-caste of Baraia in Behar.

Semraian, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Sen, a family title of Siddha Baidyas, B^ruis, and Mayaras; of Dakshin-Barhi and Bangaja Kayasths aud of Subarnabaniks; of Baitis, S^nkharis, and of Tam-buHs in Bengal.

Senapat, a section of Maghaiya Kumhars in Behar.

Senapati , general, a group of the Srotriya sub-caste of XJtkal Brahm.ms; a title of Khandaits in Orissa.

Senbhumia, a sub-caste Telis in Western Bengal.

of

Sendara-Nagasia, a sub-tribe who use sindur at of N^gesars

Senduriar, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sene, a Darjiling.

sept of Limbus in

Senel, a diigu or section of the Kochh-Mandai in Dacca. _ The name indicates the original habitat of the group, probably a hill or village in Assam, and has no bearing upon marriage.

Seng^Ti a sept of the Chandra-bansi division of Eajputs in Behar.

Sengra, horse, atotemistio sp-nf of Mundas in Chota Nagpur . •P

SENIHANG. 248 SHEHEDPUBIA.

Senihang, sons of the snow-chief, a sept of the Phedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling,

Senpuria, a section of Bano-dhid and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

Sentha, a sept of the Eautar sub-tribe of Tharus in Behar.

Seonar iyan i , a religious sect found in Behar. See Sivndrdini.

Seornia , a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Separi , a euh-caste of Groalas in Behar.

Serhar, a kind of bird, a to-temistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Serling, the thief, a sept of the Yangorup suh-tribe of Lim­bus in Darjiling.

Serma, rent-collector, a sept of the PAnthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Serwa, a section of Mangars in DarjiliDg.

Set, Sefh, a chief merchant, from Sanskrit sresbtha, 'best ' or ' chief,' (i) a title of Telis; (ii) a leading hanker or trader among the Marwari Baniyas, usually Jains; (iii) a section of the Oswal Baniyas,

Set or Set-talw^r, a section of the Charjdti sub-caste of Kha-tris in Bengal.

Setarapa, dog-eater, a totem-istio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Seth, a section of the Banodhid and Jaiswdr Kalwars in Behar.

Setisurwdl, a thar or sept of hangars in Darjihng.

Setu, a gain of the Sdbarna gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Setu-Surudl, a section of Kdmis in Darjiling.

§CUli, people of different lower castes in Central Ben­gal who extract the juice of the date-palm and prepare molasses from it. See Siuli.

^ Sewar, moss, a totemisfio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Shah^, a sub-caste of Sunris in Eastern Bengal who have given up their original and taken to other professions, and thereby raised themselves above their caste brethren who sell wine, so that at present they consider the Sunris to he a caste different from, and considerably inferior to, them.

Sh,aha, a synonym for Sunri.

ShSha, see S^h^.

Shdh iUgrakha t r i . a sub-caste of A'guris in Western Bengal healing the title Shdh.

Shaini , a dtigu or section of the Kocbh-Manddi in Dacca.

Shakya Ldma, a thar or sept of Guruugs in Darjiling.

Shalankyana, a gotra or sec­tion of the Baidya caste in Bengal.

,^^, t"S-dah-bo, a rui or sept of the Tongdu sub-tribe of Dejong Lhons, whose ancestor was bom at his maternal uncle's when some tutelary deities were being propitiated.

Shari, a synonym for Bhdt.

Shehedpuria, a section of Ja^aghaya Dhobis in Behar.

SHELO. 249 SIDDHI-PUTHA.

Shelo, sub-tribe of the Bhumij tribe in Ohota Nagpur who are iron-smelters.

Sheo, a thar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Sheor, fish, a totemlstic sept of Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Sherbci Khor, a section of Murmis in Darjiling.

ShergarhiS, a sub-caste of Lobars in the Sant&l Parganas.

Shewa, a thar or sept of DAmis in Darjiling, whose chief profession is sewiag.

Shikhu Karmak^r, a sub-caste of Kdmdrs in NoakhaU.

Sikkhdar, ShiHar, Sikdar, a title of Sudras in Eastern Bengal; an honorary title of Kayasths and Ndpits in Bengal; an officer in charge of a shikk or fiscal division under the Mahom-edan revenue system; a title of Brahmans, possibly of families descended from some one who held the office of shikdar; a title of Kapdlis and Sunris.

Shirasina, a sub-caste of Sunris in Maldah.

Sho^lyiS, a sept of Ohakmas in the Ilill Tracts of Ghittngong.

Shushichd, a thar or sept of Sunuwdrs in Darjiling.

Shyag-chom-bo, a >•«? or sept of Dejong Lhoris, the members of which are the descendants of emigrants from Bhotan "and Nepal.

Shyag-ding-pd or Shyag-tshang-pai a rui or sept of the Bui-chhung sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Shyag-tsangp^, a nd or sept of Dejong Lhoris, the members

of which form the lowest class of Bhotias.

Shyah-pa, a mi or sept of Dejong Lhoris whose ancestor had emigrated from North Bhotan.

Shyang-ba, a mi or sept of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Siar, jackal, a totemistic sec­tion of Zurmis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa; a sept of Asuras.

Siaraha, a section of the Banodhia and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

Siarik, a. gain of theSabama gotra of Edrhi Brahmans in Bengal.

S ia r Tuyio, jackal, atotemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sibala, a sub-sept of theBesrd sept of Santals.

SibingSre, a sept of the Ag-nia sub-tribe of Meohes in the Darjiling Terai.

Sib-rasi, a section of Mdlos in Eastern Bengal.

Siddh, a thar or sept of Gu-rungs in Darjiling.

Siddha, a hypergamous group of the Barendra Kayasths in Bengal.

Siddhal , a gain of the Sdbar-na gotra of Rarhi Brahmans in Bengal,

Siddha-Maulik, a hypergam­ous group of the Dakshin-Barhi Kdjasths in Bengal.

ous in

Siddha-Srotr iya, ahypeream

SSr'™' ° 'J™»y» (or Bhui:

SIDHPTJE. 250 SIKEA.

Sidhpur, a mul or section of the Chhamulia Madheaia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Sidhydl, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Sidup or Siduk, a bundle of straw, a sub-sept of the Saren sept of Saatalp.

Sigadi^, a section of GodlAs in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Sihari, a gain of the Sdndilya gotra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sihdsme-Khor, a mul of the Sdndil section of Maithil Brah­mans in Behar.

Sihisme-Sih^sam, a mul of the S4ndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Sihogiei, a section of Babhans and a sept of Eijputs in Behar.

Sihori^, a section of BAbhans in Behar.

Slhujia, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Sijapatii a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

S'lkalgar, a section of the Mag-haya sub-casto of Barhis in Behar; a title of Lobars or Kamars.

Sikari , a section of Kumbdrs in Singbhum.

Sikauriar , a pur or section of e&kadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sikbandhera, a section of the Axiar 6ub-oaste of Bais Baniy&s ia Behar.

Sikcharo, a bird, a totemistlc Bspt of Mundas in Chota Nag-pur.

Sikddr, a sept of Mdl Pahd-rias; a hypergamous group of Kaibarttas in Bakarganj,

Sikharia, asub-casteofBauris, Karangas, Koris, and Kurmis in Chota Nagpur, who derive their name from Sikharbhum, the tract of country north of the Damudar river, corresponding roughly to the limits of the Pachet estate. In this connexion it deserves notice that Samet Sikhar is an old name for Parasnath Hill, which is conspicuously ^^sible from every part of Sildiarbhum, and may almost be looked upon as forming the -western boundary of the tract. See Statistical Account of Hazaribagh, p. 217. I n the case of the Bauris, the Sikharia sub-caste is also called Grobaria, which may perhaps have some reference to gobar,' cow-dxmg,' as Bauri women earn money by making the cow-dung cakes used for fuel; a sub-caste of Rajwdrs, and of Doms in South Manbhum.

Sikharia or Sindurtopa, a sub-caste of Telis in Western Bengal.

S ikhar iya or Mem, a sub-tribe of Bhumijs in Chota Nagpur.

Sikhoria, a sub-caste of Sun-ris in Behar who deal in liquor.

Sikhwdd, a section of Gro^las in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Sikia, a « t»Ur section of the OihamuhaMadhesia sub-caste of Kalwais m Behar.

5^'%«r, a cleanov of weapons.

i\Su7^' ' ' ^ ^ ' <" sub-sept of tbeMurmuseptofSaatdls.^

' 5 ' ' * ' ' f \ > w k , a totemistio H ; ""t ^'^"^das and P^ns in ^^"ta Nagpur.

SIKEAE. 251 SILAEI.

Sikrar , a pangat or section of T^ntis in Bengal; a section of Bansphor Doms in Behar. Osw41 Baniyas in Behar.

Sil, a title of Suhamabanilcs and Napits; of Dakshin Earhi Silaichia, a section of Sonars and Bangaja Kayasths and of in Behar.

§ i M n (Sansk. Sild, a stone), a magician employed in Eastern Bengal to protect crops from hailstones. Formerly the Sil^ri, like the Qarapagari of the Central Provinces, was a paid village servant; and officiated as priest at an annual festival performed for the benefit of the crops. Now the festival has fallen into disuse, and a menaber of any caste may become a Sildri, being remunerated in kind—it is unlucky to give him money—according to the success of his enchant­ments. Chandals, Jogis, and Bairdgis are the ordinary Silaris, hut a Muhamadan often acts as one, his co-religionists believing as implicitly in this occult science as their Hindu brethren.

" A t the present day," says Dr. Wise, " this magical art is falling info disrepute, and it is no unusual tiling for the peasantry to punish a SiUri who fails to protect their fields. The Sildris confess that their skill is inadequate to call down a storm on a neighbour's crop, as was formerly done; but they still profess ability to drive away a cloud threatening any tract of country.

" As hailstorms in Bengal occur usually in March and April, when the Boro-dhdn, or spring rice, is in the ear, the services of the magician are called for m low lands, where this crop is cultivated. When a storm is impending the Silari, summoned by the peasantry, rushes, almost naked, from his hut, with a rattan wand in his right hand. Invoking Parameswara, the supreme god, he ascends a mound, where, spreading abroad his hands, and waving his rod to indicate the direction the storm-cloud is to take, he recites one or other of the following doggerel incantations in the vernacular:—

I. 0 Narasinha ! Narasinha! mighty Narasinha ! whom the four­

teen gods fear; On hearing the name Narasinha the gods and spirits bend their

heads; My Guru's name is Hira. Wherever you go that quarter of

the world is subdued, Whether it consists of hills or mountains, trees or jungle. Should this charm of mine fail, Mahadeva's hair will be up-

rooted and fall off. I I .

Diamonds cut stones. Rivers retire before them. :^ gold knife is keen as a diamond, i have cut it this day into thirty-two. Begone to the mountains of the north Having paid you tribute to the south. Uavmg scattered you I go home. My name is §iva Sankara.

SINGDYANG. 253 SIEKIA.

Singdyang, a sept of Lep-olias ia Darjiling.

Singh, a title of Oswal Ban-jis, Bahhans, Go4Ms, Ksha-triyas, Kunnis, and Rajputs in Behar ; a title of Subaruabaniks in Manbbum. Intermarriage is prohibited -within the title. A section and a title of KAyasths in Behar; a section of Rajwdrs; a sept of Mundas and Pdns in Ohota Nagpnr whose totem is horn; a title of Tambulis in Bengal.

Singhal, a gotm or section of the Agarwals in Behar.

Singharas, a section Madhesia Halwais in Behar.

of

Singhazari, a sub-caste of Sunris and Telis in Western Bengal.

Singhi, fish, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur; a section of Oswdls.

Singh-rdsi, a section of Mdlos in Eastern Bengal.

Singhror, a section of Goria Godlas in Behar.

Sinha, lion, a title of Khan-ddits in Orissa ; of Kdyasths and Subarnabaniks in Bengal ; of Ed jus in Midnapur.

Sinhi, a section of Kumhdrs in Singbhum.

Sinhinia, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Sinjali, a iJiar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Sinjhikharia, a sept of Pans in Chota Nagpur.

Sinjikuria, a sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Sinkoi, a sept of Hos in Sing­bhum.

Sipahi , a title of Edjputs in ; , ' Behar.

Sipahiya, a section of Bans-phor Doms in Western Behar.

Sir, arrow, a totemistio sept of <-' Goalas in Chota Nagpur.

Sira, a section of Maghayd Kandus in Behar.

Singi, horn, a totemistic sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Singjangkuk, a sept of Lim-bus iu Darjiliug.

Singjuk, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling,

Singogpa, a sept of the Phe-ddb sub-tribe of Limbus in Dar­jiling-

Singpurii , a sept of Birhors in Chota Nagpur.

Singyal, a t/wr or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Sing-yangma, a sept of the Phag i sub-tribe of Yakhas in Darjiling-

Sirasinthi, a gain of the Bha-radwaja gnfra of the TJttar-Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sirasthan, a sub-caste of Kumhdrs in Pabna.

Siriar, a section of Bdbhans in Bohar.

Sirkar, a section of the Bans-phor sub-caste of Doms in Behar

Sirkia, ' the dweller in a sh-k' hut,' a designation of Nat Bediyds and other ^\anderint castes ot the gipsy type da!; § from the materials of V r ' l ^ e d porary huts which they buUd

BUBintiBJa Bjpnajyg- i j^^^^a m -jBqpg oq? JO uwff's ij^,^i^°^ m

•'^.'Pauig

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JO ™i?09s ,0 .*»y " r ^ ™ 2,!g ^

TO « / i / i / j a^r^.. .

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X :jnBg oq; m sjt^j^ jo O SBO -qng B fsjo:)BaiooBA SB paXo^dtua Moir ejra :jnq 'gjo jBinoouj SB p9Si:>

BmsraqBjg; jo ssBp v osp i uoiiioi -.I9A ao unputs -QOS oqAi. Bimig jo

-JBOT m not[Ttm9A. asn ;on op

JO gdas oi!)Sai9^0!j B ' jnpujS ••

JO uoi:joas B 'BfjBMqpuig

sj[oj^ JO not:)oas v. ' jqsunqpuig

q[nq B JO stuoq oq? qono; :)onnBO oqAV jndSBjsj BoqQ ni SUBJ JO

siraB3 JO noi:)oas B 'uoiqouig

•luqag; m ei^uog BUB^ -jBtaBji; JO noi:)oas B 'JBLUIS

•JBqag; pnn

-tBJ\[ JO UOiqoaS B 'J9^L|JO|ig

JO !das JO .toy; B 'gqqo3uo(!g

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TO adas ./^"JT^-^^^a m SJBSUBJ^ ' " " ^ ^ " S

•ayiaowis ess

•layTis

SIEMAUK. 254

Sirmaur, a sept of Edjputs in Behar.

Sirmauriar, apuror section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Sirnli t , a sept of the Suraj-bansi division of Eajputs in Behar.

Si met, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

S i r n i a, a sept of the Siorajbansi division of Eajputs in Behar.

Si rota, a sub-caste of Dha-nuks in Behar.

Sirpur, a section of the Tir-hutiya sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Sirsait, a section of Babhans in Behar.

Siruar, a sept of Birhors in Cliota Nagpur.

Sirwar, a section of the Dhaprd and Pachainya sub-castes of Doms in Behar.

SKANDHASTTEA.

Sisoteir, a mul or section of the Chhamulia Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

W Sisungi, fish, a sept of Mun-das in Chota Nagpur.

Sisutbansi Loharia, a sub-caste of the Lobar caste (iron-smith) ; also called Lohondia.

Sit, a title of Telis in Bengal.

Sitaii, a ffdi'n of the S^barna f/otra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sitar-Dhob^, a sub-caste of Dhobas in Eastern Bengal.

Sithung, a t/inr or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

•Kayasths in Behar.

Siuli or Sew It, a sub-caste of Hdris in Bengal; a title of Chan-dais, Doms, Ilaris and similar lower castes, as well as Maho-medans who extract juice from date-trees for the manufacture of gtir, molasses, or toddy.

Siva, a section of the Mah-o- oivd, a section of the Mnl, Sisab, a section of Karan S^ ' ^b^^ s^b-caste of Ndpits of

5ehar. Jugis and Eap^tlis; of llaltiU

Sisaundia, a section of Sonars L ^ ' f - " ^ ^ " ? ' ' '%•«/•„/, ^ S .™ *°^' ^i-d a title of KnoZ fia bnnsi. nrobnW,, „ !.-^°°^^i or

in Behar. I r>"''"i —*' " " " "• ' '" ' '0 of JfnoKli

f l . r A j r ^ r ; . " °r section of for wor^hiWrs J «• " s " ^ term the Ayodhiabasi sub-caste of among n a S of F ' ' ^ ' ^" "«« Sonars in Behar. n a a n y ^ f wSni" ' f ^ ^''"'''

^ Sisingi, a river fish with two ^^""^^^^^h descended fj-om «• °° thorns on its head, a totemistic Sivn • •• • "^I'^iva. sept of Kumhars in Chota Nag- Siva and" N a r L 7 ' ' ' ^ ' P P e r of ^ h-eligious sec ta r ians \1 '^"'« ^^ ^ Sisodhia, asept of Surajbansi ' ' " ^ ^ ^^^- ^ ^ ' ^^« a ^^ajputs in Behar. Siwarvvar

thf '?°dia, a section of Gcilas in ^ ^ ^ ^ « ^ Behar"! '''^'''''^ °^ f Behar^"^^"^^^^®™ Provinces and Siyar

^ S i s o n i , gah caste i^ S r ° ^ * ^ ^ ^ - -Behar. ' ^ «ept of Rajputs m Skctndh

'Kandh. "^^"'^^ a synonym for

SMAE. 255 SONAKANT*

S m i r , Swar, a title of ' Ddkshin-Rarhi and Bangaja Kdyasths.

Smatt i , a sept of Pators in Chota Nagpur.

Smrit iratna, a literary title of Brahmans. I Soa, a kind of vegetable, a totemistio sept of Mundaa in Chota Nngpur.

Soai , a bird, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

. Sodsi, a synonym for Pan. Sobamarekhd, a sept of Mun­

das in Chota Nagpur. Sober!, a (har of the Kausika

goira of Nepali Brahmans. Sobhadih, a mnl or section

of the Naomulid orMajraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Sobhni Tajpur, a 7)iul or sec­tion of the Naom\ilia or Majraut 8uh-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Sochari) a section of Bais Sonars in Behar.

Sodemba, the spy, a sept of the Pheddb sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Soeka, a bush, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nag­pur.

Sogani, a section of Saraogis in Behar.

Sohagrdmi, a f/diii of the Kdsyapa gotra of Bdrendra Brah­mans in Bengal.

Sohanpur, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidaha Kalwars iu Behar

Sohek, a kir.d of fish, a totem­istio sept of Mundas iu Chota

Nagpur-Sohidamochi, a title of

Chamars or Mucins. qoi. spring, a totemistio sept

of Muudisiu Chota Nagpur.

. Sokhait , a sept of the Rautir sub-tribe of Tharus in Behar. •

Sokhwa, a sub-caste of Barais in Behar.

Sokiria, a sub-caste of Sunris in Behar.

Sokoe, a kind of fruit, a totemistio sept of Mundas.

Sokulkara, a sub-caste of Eajwars in Chota Nagpur.

Solai , fish, a totemistio sept of - -Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Soma, a family title of Kashta Baidyas and Kayasths in Bengal.

Somaj , a hypergamous divi­sion of the Paschim Kuliya Sadgops.

Soma I, deer, a sub-sept of the Kisku sept of Santdls.

Sombansi , a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Somnidih Sagun M4hta Purukh, a miil or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Godlas in Behar.

Somrishi, a section of Maya-rds in Bengal.

Somwar, a sept of the Suraj- ^ bansi division of E^jputs in Behar.

Son, a title of Bangaja Kay­asths ; a sub-sept of the Besra sept of Santals.

Sona, gold, a totemistio sec­tion of Kurmis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa; a totemistic sept of Goalas in Chota Nagpur who cannot wear gold.

Sonachain, a section of Chain sub-caste of Nunit Behar.

the as in

Sonaibar, a section of Babh in Behar.

Sonakant, a section of ^^. Biyahut and Kharidahd R„i wdrs m Behar. •*^9J-

ana

the

SOIS AMAN. 256 SONitR.

.. Sonaman, a section of Kanau-jia Lohars in Behar.

Sonamati, a sept of Pdns in Chota Nagpur.

Sonamdih, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Grodlas in Behar.

Sonaome, a sept of Lobars in Chota Nagpur.

Sonapur Sakarwar, a tmtl or section of the Satmulia or Kish-naut sub-caste of GoiMs in Behar.

Sonar, goldsmith, a sept of Bairagis and Kharwars in Chota Nagpur who do not wear gold.

§ o n i r , Kdin, Kainya, Zargar, the goldsmith caste of Behar-Traditions of origin. f^^° ^ / f t° Some extent in money-lending

.V, . r . . i • 1 ^T-t^ *'^'^'' Co^'^erning the origin of the caste little is known, and it appears to be an occupational sroun cansistiug ot the members of respectable middle-class castes who adopted the business of working m the precious metals. Sonars nvA not rich m traditions and the few they have are of the o r d W mythological type, ana throw no hght on the antecedents of S e caste. A common story is that m the beginnine of timfi w i , / « goddess Devi was busy with the construct i rof m a S d ^ ^- ^ ! called Sonwa-Dwaitya, whose body consisted T t S l y 'o? | d d devoured her ereatious as fast as she made them T r , \ ffl ^?i •' monster the goddess created a goldsmith fnrr„-oi,. -i t- , ^"^^ tools of his frt, and instructed^im how ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ 1 , ' * ^ J ^ giant proposed to eat him, the goldsmith suggested to him that ^f l " body were polished his appearance would be vastly imwrnv^^ ? asked to be allowed to undertake the job. With t h n C ? ' • r stupidity of Ins tribe, the giant fell into the trap, and havinJ harl one finger polished was so pleased with the residt that he aorled to be polished all over. For this purpose, like Oiletes in the Greek legend of Medea, he had to be melted down, and the goldsmith who was to get the body as his perquisite, giving the head only to Devi, took care not to put him together again. The goldsmith however, over-reached himself. Not content with his leo'itimate earnings, he must needs steal a part of the head and bp,' detected in this by Devi, he and his descendants were condem,,^ +^ be for ever poor. omnea to

The internal structure of the caste is shown at Ion a. • Internal structure. tf^Z^^^^^\ ^f^ ^"^:°^^*^« ^^^S.iiZ

, . 1, 1 f ? ^ ° ^^^ ^°°^^ "' territorial type an?f ?^ names do not help us to trace a connexion between the ^' ' other similar groups. The system of exogamy foUfL i°?^^^ ^^^ complete. A man may not marry a woman belonp^inn)? x, ^ ^^^^ section as (1) himself, (2) bis mother, (3) his paternnl ^ . ^"""^^ (4) his maternal grandmother, (5) his father's pa tp t r i &^^°<imother, (6) his father's maternal grandmother. In ntinl • ^^'i°.^'^°*^®^'j prohibitions to any particular case, the sections n-fiFu t ^ s .set of taken into account; 80 that if the proposed b r i d l l u ^ v*i^' ^'A to the same section as the proposed bridegrool>« """^^^ Y if "mother no marriage would be possible, a E l \ r ' ' ^ ' ' T C ^ " -Ives both belonged to dilf erent sections'. T h e ^ ' n t r d T o t ^ u S S ;

257 SONAR.

calculating prohibited degrees is also taken into consideration down to the seventh generation in the descending line.

All Sonars who can afford to do so marry their daughters as infants; and when a girl's marriage is delayed

Mamage. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^1 puberty, poverty is usually the sole cause. The marriage ceremony corresponds in all essential particulars to that observed by the higher castes in Behar. In rich families it is considered right for the bridegroom to go on horseback to fetch the bride. Polygamy is permitted, but is rarely resorted to except when the first wife is childless. In the Kanaujia, Apdhia-puri, Mair, and Kamarkalla sub-castes widow-marriage is prohibited. The other sub-castes allow a widow to marry again, and ordinarily deem it incumbent on her to marry her late husband's younger brother. Among the Sondrs of Chota Nagpur the custom of widow-marriage is recognized in the devolution of property, which proceeds per stirpes, the shares being so divided that the sons of a sagai wife get six-sixteenths and those of a bihai wife ten-sixteenths between them. In Behar the ordinary law of inheritance is followed hy the caste, but a daughter's son is excluded from succession by the nearest male of the same kul or section. The sub-castes which permit widow-marriage also allow divorce, which is effected with the sanction of the panchayat when a woman is suspected of unchastity.

The religion of the Sonar caste differs little from that of other jj^j. . orthodox Hindus of about the same standing in

society. Some Taishnavas are found among them; but most Sonars belong to the Sdkta sect, and pay especial reverence to Devi. The popular minor gods of Behar are also worshipped. For the service of the di majores of the standard Hindu Pantheon, Maithil or Tirhutid Brahmans serve them as priests, and are received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. In the cult of the minor gods, on the other hand, traces of a more primitive state of things may perhaps be discerned. Thus the offerings made to Groraia. are the perquisite of the Dosadhs which looks as if the priests of the deity were at one time chosen from that caste ; while the jjakwdns or cakes given to Bandi are eaten by the members of the family. Some Sonars worship a Mahomedan pir, Shdh 8harf-ud-din; and all offer up silver images of Bandi at marriages.

The dead are burned, and the standard ceremony of sraddh is Disposal of tho dead. Performed on the thirteenth day after death.

Libations for the benefit of ancestors in general are also presented in the first fortnight of Asin every year.

The social standing of the caste is respectable, and their practice , , ^ in the matter of diet does not differ mateWnlu

^ocU. status and o e c , ,^^, f , , 3 , ^ H i n d l L ^ S w ^ ^ Brahmans take water and sweetmeats h-the caste; while Sondrs themselves are on similar terms with Kew °^ Dhanuks, and GoaMs. In former days, it is said, thev t^^®* the sacred thread and abstained from spirituous drinks• 13,1+ T\^^^ marks of distinction have now fallen into disuse The ' occupations ai-e working in metal, mostly in gold a u r s £ *

es3 ief er,

SONAE. 258

money-changing sardfi), and khichri-faroshi or ieaiing in food-grains. In parts of the country where rent is paid in kind on tlie_ bhdoU system, Kanaujia Sonars usually act as weighmen, and receive an allowance of a quarter or half a seer to every maimd weighed. A few Sonars are landholders or cultivators themselves, hut as a rule the .connexion of the caste with agriculture is only the indirect one of lending money to the raiyat.

I t is fair to add that the Sonar does not hear a high reputation for honesty. As a goldsmith he is suspected of substituting base metal for the gold or sEver supplied to him in order to be made up into ornaments; as a money-lender he is charged with numberless devices for extorting money fi-om his clients. A. fair idea of the opinion held of the caste by the agricultural classes may be derived from the following verses:—

Kainyd duh diibiyi

Suthan le gai Td'go hhdi

JEk Suthan menminud ke dehu

Sab Suthan manga, lehu.

" As lie crossed the ford the Kainya was drowned. The Biibhan .stole his gold mohars away : Give one to the Judge , and if justice bo found, You will get all ' the others within the day."

The story is that once upon a time a Sonar and a Babhan went forth from the same village to seek their fortunes. Both returned at the same time and met on the road—the Babhan almost penniless -and the Sonar with a bag full of gold mohars. As they were cross­ing a river, the Bdbhan decided to drown the Sonar and steal his money. The latter gave himself up to his fate, only asking his •murderer to repeat the foregoing verses as his last message to his kinsfolk. The stupid Babhau did so, and thus himself furnished the clue which led to the detection of the crime. The story affords a curious illustration of the popular estimate of the comparative intellectual capacity of the castes concerned. A somewhat similar tale, in which a Kayasth plays the part here assigned to the Sondr, is quoted in the article on Ghasi.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Son&rs in 1872 and 1881. In certain cases the figures of Sekras end Subarnabaniks seem to have been included in the Census Eeports.

DISTEICT. 1872 18S1. DlSTHICT. 1S72.

B i r h l m m Nad iya . i . D m a j p n r R a n g p u r Pa \mn UarjilinR Kuch Belmr Cbittogong HiU Trac t s Vatntt fiya Slwhabad ]." '.'', Ti rhu t J Mozufferpur Baran *• " ^ ' ^ ' l " ' " ! ! ' Caimiporan

21,101 115.258 1.1,907

] 31,720

20,1.17 U , i 8 S

716 1 1

186 1

2U 605

If, 7

2.'5,2V8 15,809 is, i ;« 2.i,6!)'J 16,988 21,4T2 15,047

1831.

Monghvr Blmgalpur . . . Purnmh Maldah Simla". Pttrgacu'is Cutiuok Piiri Bulnsore Tributary SUt'ca HnzanhaKl, I'Ohardaiiii "• J'l'ftbjmm ••• Manbhum ' " inbutary states

13,S48 O.iilO, 9,1I'J

3,758 13,9S7

6,»90 4,2!l7 4,670 4,352 S,3ir2

17l! 1,811 1,200

18,107 10,917

8,000 ]•*

4,281 117 832 c-1 4.-.7

r,,8J2 4,495

2r>l S.SfiS 1,301

SONAR. 259 SOJTPUEYA:.

Sonar, a sjnonyn for Sarna-k^r or goldsmiths.

Spndrbanid, Subarnabanik.

a synonym for

of Sonarekha, a sub-caste Koras in Chota Nagpur.

Sonarwa, a bird, a totem-istio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sonarwar, gold, a sept of Kharwars in Ohota Nagpur.

Sonaul, a mul or section of Easarwani Baniy^s in Behar.

^ Sonbesra, a bird, a totemistio sept of Lobars in Chota Nagpur.

Sonbhadrici, a section of Babhans in Behar, so named after the village Sonbhadra; or who live on the banks of the Son river.

Soncheri, a section of Kanau-]ia Sonars in Behar.

• Sone, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur who cannot wear gold.

Sonechaurupeked^ndi, a mul or section of Kasarw6ui Bauiyas in Behar,

Sonerupekhichri, a mul or section of Kasarwuui Baniyas in Behoi-.

Sonewar, a kul or section of Biibhans in Behar.

Songbangphe, the new settler, a sept of the i'dnthar and Pheddb sub-tribes of Liinbus in Dar-jiling.

Songden, a section of Mur-mis in Darjiling.

Sonhar, a mul or section of the Chhanmlid Madhesia sub-caste of Halwdis and of Biyahut and Kharidaha Kalwara in Behar.

Soni, a section of the Biira-j^t i sub-easte of Khatris in Bengal; a section of Osw^Is and Saraogis in Behar.

Soniyar, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar. •

Sonkhare , a section of Kiy-asths in Behar.

Sonkharihan, a place of worship before cutting grain, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sonkharika, a sept of Pdna in Chota Nagpur.

Sonkoka, a sept of Pans in Ohota Nagpur.

Son Maghala, a sept of Lo­bars and Mundas in Ohota Nag­pur.

Sonmain, a section of Ma-ghaiyd Kumhdi-s in Behar.

Sonmanik, a sept of Ghiks in Chota Nagpur.

Sonoar, gold, a sept of Aga­rics in Chota Nagpur.

Son oat i, a sub-caste of Ghasia in Chota Nagpur.

Sonpur, a section of the Tir-hutiyd sub-casto of Doras in Behar.

Sonpuri, a sub-sect of Vaish-navas.

Sonpuria, a section of Lobars and Soniirs in Behar.

Sonpursa, a section ot tliQ Dhusia sub-caste of Chamars IT, Behai-. ' ^

Songyol^PS' a sept of the Sonpuryi , a section of tl Phagu 6iib-tribe of "iakhas in Paphainya sub-caste of Dom • Darjiliug- 1 Beltar. ^ i^

r 2

SON TIEKI. 2eo SKIKRISHNA.

Son Tirki, a sept of Lobars and a section of Gordits in Chota Nagpur.

Sonwan, a section of Ghdsis in Chota Nagpnr.

^ Sonwan i, a totemistic sept of Go&lAs, Nagesars, who cannot wear gold; a section of Cheros in

. Chota Nagpnr.

Somcdr, a synonym for Sunn-war.

Sonwasi, a sept of CbiVs in Chota Nagpur.

Sonyokpa, tbe guardian of tbe new fort, a sept of Ohaibisa sub-tribe of Limbus in Durjiling.

So-onkobu, a resident of So-onko, a sept of tbe Phedab sub-tribe of Lambus in Darjil-ing.

Sorahaiya, a synonym for Suraliiyd.

Soraiyd, a section of Kanaujia Brabmans.

Scrania , a section of Cheros in Palamau.

Soraw^r, a section of Babbans in Bebar.

Soriy&r, a pur or section of Sakadwipi Brabmans in Bebar.

Soso bheloa, a fruit, a totem-^ istio sept of Mundus in Chota

Nagpux. Sote, Srotr lya, a bypergam-

ous group of Maitbil Brabmans in Bebar.

Sothangeh, a thar or sept of Kbambus in Darjiliug.

Sothiw^r, a section of Lohdrs in Bebar,

Sothung, name of a village, ^ sept of tbe Phedab sub-tribe of l ^ W s in Darjiling. ^,Soti, a thar or section of ^ei,4U Brabmans.

Sotri , a title of Babbans in Bebar.

Sowdni, a section of Mahesris in Bebar.

Sparshan, a title of Muchis in Bengal.

Spashta D^ya a, a sect of Taisbuavas, said to have been I'oimded by one Rup B,4m Kabi-raj, adifcipleol Krishna Chandra Ghakravanti of Saidabdd.

Srdvak, literally, a hearer; (i) a lay member of the Jain rehgion; (ii) a Hinduised branch of Jains in Manbh\im who appear to have lost their rehgion and become an ordinary caste.

Srdvoka, a synonym for Sardk.

Srmcak, a synonym for Sdrdk.

Sreshta-Khandait , a sub-caste of Kband^its in the Orissa Tributary States.

Srestikaran, (i) a title of traders generally; (ii) a title of the Madhyasreni Brabmans of Midnapur.

Sr i , a Bub-caste of Sutradhars in Noakhali.

Sriangabhatt i , a »ip^orhyper-gamous sub-group of l iarhi Brabmans in Bengal.

Sri bakaria , a section of Gonda in Chota N agpur.

Sribarddliani, a mel orhyper-gamous sub-group of B i rh i Brabmans in Bengal.

Sr ibas tab or Mstar, a sub-caste of Uaj]ams and Kayasths in Behai\

Sribitia, a section of Madhesia ivandus m Behai-.

Sri-Gaura, a sub-caste of Gaura Brabmans.

Srikrishna, a sub-caste of ^ulraahars in Noakhali.

SKIMAL. 261 SUBAEXABA^'IK.

Sr'ima, ia Behar.

a section of Oswiils

Sr imaurha, a section of the Banodhia and Jaiswar Ealwdra in Behar.

Sringa, a (juiii of the Bharad-vfa.]o.gotra of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Sringi, a gain of the Sabama gotm of Bareudi-a Brahmans in Bengal.

Sripali, a thai- or sept of Man-gars in Darjiliug.

Srisampad, a title of Brah­mans.

Srishti-Karan, Bhatuntara, a Bub-caste of Karans in Orissa.

Srisrimal, a section of Oswals in Behar.

Srotriya, a hypergamons division of the Rarhi und Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Srotr iya or Sasani, a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

Srotriya, Sote, a hypergam-ous class of Maitliil Brahmans in Behar.

Srutabat i , a ffiii>i of the Bdtsya yotra of Barendra Brah­mans in Bengal.

Ssahoden, born in famine time, a sept of the Tambrkbola sub-tribe of Ijimbus in Darjiling.

Sser-Gomba, a rui or sept of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Sser-Lungchan, a rui or sept of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Sserpa, a rui or sept of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Sser-Phen-Zangnd, a rui or sept of Sherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

Sudi a section of Goillas in Behar.

Suar, hog, a totemistic sept of " Oraons; a section of Kahars.

Suarait, a section of Bhats.

Suargane, a section of Ba-bhans in Behar.

Subansi , a sept of Chandi-a-bansi Eajputs in Behar.

Subarna, a gain of the S^ndilya gotra of Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal,

§«banral)ajlilf, Bam'd, Banik, Snr»fiha)>ik, So>idrbfi)/id, a .„ ,.. , . . mercantile caste of Bengal Proper, who claim Trad.t.0.,. of ongin. ^^ ^^ ^^^ modem representatives of the ancient

Vaisya. In spite of the wealth and influence of the Subarnabanik their high-bred appearance, and the notorious beauty of the women of the caste, their claim to this distinguished ancestry has failed to obtain general recognition. They are excluded from the ranks of the Nabasdkha, or nine clean Sudra castes, and none but Vaidik Brahmans will take water from their hands. To account for the comparatively low status assigned to them the Subiimabaniks narrate a variety of traditions, some of which, however unsupported by historical evidence, deserve to be briefly mentioned here as illustrations of the kind of stories which would tend to grow un •wherever the business talents and practical ability of a particula community advance it in the eyes of the world conspicuousl loeyond its rank in the theoretical order of castes. The Sub ^ nabaniks say that their ancestors came to Bengal fi-om Q ^ r during the reign of Adisura, who was struck by their fino • abjlity and conferred on them the title of Subarnabanik, or t ^ ' ^ in gold, as a mark of his favoiu-. They then wore the Brahm • '

SUBAENABANIK. 262

name of Bal al stn ? • °5 ? ' ' ' t?' ' ' ' '^' '^^'^ "l^ '^^^'^ round tlio ^ith a heZmm'Jll'^ ^ATI ' " l^ '^ (^-^-^ His intrigue fcy some y o u n i l i ^ ' S i f ' ^ ' \* ' ' l ^ e been ridiculed on the stage body refused f n l ! ^^^'^/^ste while the Subarnabaniks in a affected to p i - f v V E T * . "* ^^^ P?°^^«e whereby the king maiden of low S T^H '""^ * H ' ^ ^ °* intercourse with t tte refusal of a leadi ;^?S, 'T'-f .''^''''^ '' «^'^ *« ^ ' ^ been money to c a L on ? ^ . ? i r ' J r " " ^ ^° ^^°^ ^^"^1 I'- ge sums of

Some say that in tbp on,,.! Tx^ ^^°S obtained his revenge, number J f s l i ^ „ o W e n T X . / ^ i ' i P ' ^ ^ ° ^ ^ ^^^^^^^ " ^ rred to a ant Brahmans £ of t W T^^ ^ ' ' ^ ^i^^tributed to the attend-Seu to fill the ho ?ow • - f J ^ ^mf iis was suborned by Ballal <be figure to'a S l r n a £ i k f ' " 1 ^ " ^ ? ^^°-^^^' ^"^ *° ^^^e Subamabanik let out T o 1 . . V '?•'•, ^ *"'^"° *^^ gol<i the to be blood. Htvi^tl thus f-"f ^' ' i " " ''^ " ' ^ pronounced ?nilt of kil l iS a fow / . i r r ' c f ^P°^,,.tbe caste the inexpiable theirBrahmans^tobeTwSl 1^'"^ P,''^^'^^ ^^'^^'^^ t iem and the sacred thread a M e a w T w ^ / ^ ' ? ^ 'I *^^ "^^^ *« ^^^^ one who should eat or a t c k t ^ ^ S t h Z % n T ' ^ f ? \ ^ " y bubamagram, near Dacca hi^ IIBOT, +1 i ^ ' ^P t° ^^is time in Benlal. Many had ;et?led ^^ *^« ^^^-q^J-rters of the caste .

r S ^ ^ i r ' - ' - " o ^ ^ — n T t o ^ - A T n l ^ ^ ^ ^

t r ^ ^ n l t ^ l ^ ' ^ ^ t r b e T e g S . d ? ; r r r t * « histoncal events Tf ,-= -n i i,i ^egaiaea as a narrative of

NotwShSndl 'n i^^ '1f ' ' ' ! '^'"'"^ °^ certain families of Brahmans. from aver? b?^T,^' '*^' '^° ' '^ ' the depression of an entire caste makes a verv ll^ i °' comparatively low rank in the social system that it mav b n ^ \ °"''"^ ^° o'"" belief, and inclines one to suspect position actual^ • ^ T ^ ' ' ia recent times to account for the their riches an7«? v' P ®^ V ^^e caste being lower than that to which point of view S i^-^°"^^ ""^^tle them to lay claim. From this Hindustani BJiniv^^ Z]^^^ f°°i®°ture that the Subarnabaniks are deserve some considerrtiou.° '"""" ^^ residing in Bengal seems to

ccordmg to Dr. Wise the Subarnabaniks of Eastern Bengal internal structure. recognize four sub-castes—Banga, Dakhin-

^adiy^_ rpjj «arhf, Uttar-Rarhf, and Saptagrami or old.t'^Fal durine tb! r»- "^ ^° ® descendants of Sonars resident

Va : .>^-oh of^tie f 3 rff^'i ^^° ' - ^ ^^^ undoubtedly the

^^ '^^u ' i -eve s ; ^ f - J ^ ^ intermarry. Every " S similar claims, cause enm« ' ^^d village Sonars,

' ^ endless squabbles and feuds.

263 SUBAE:jfAB.VNIE:.

Ward distinguishes between theSauvama-kdr and the Sauvarnahanik; the former being goldsmiths, the latter money-changers. I t is remarkable that members of the Banga engaging in the caste profession of goldsmiths are styled Sankai-a, or mixed, baniks, and excommunicated from the society of their brethi en. In the city of Dacca about forty families reside, twenty-five of whom belong to the pm-e town stock and fifteen to the (irami, or rural These two branches are still fuiiher sundered by having two distinct dais, or imions.

The Bangas have three gotras—Kdsyapa, Gautama, and Vyisa. The " Padavi," or titles, are—

Sena. Dhar. Datta. De.

Bordl. Maulika. Xiiiha.

Chanda.

Pal. Sinha. Addi.

The marriage ceremonies are copied from those observed at the wedding of Sri Edmaohandra and Sfta, while in Western Bengal the man-iage service is that of Mahddeva and Paryati. At the former the bridal pair, seated on stools, are carried round the court; at the latter the bridegroom stands while the bride is borne round him. The biide wears a red dress, as well as a lofty diadem mithct(i) with a red turban, from which tinsel pendants hang. The bridal attire becomes the perquisite of the bai-ber; the dress worn on the second day falls to the Ghataka.

The " Pradhan," or president of the caste assembly, is always a Kulina. The Kulina sometimes marries a Maulika girl when her dowry is lai-ge, but this alliance does not exalt her family.

The Banga Sondrs are jewellers, but as a rule do not manu- , factm-o ornaments. They are often bankers, traders, and shop-keepers. The poorer class accept employment as writers, but would sooner starve than cultivate the soil. The lai-ge majority are Vaishnavas, but a few follow the Tantric ritual.

In the city of Dacca reside about seventy families of the Dakhiu-Earhi sub-caste, who originally sought shelter in Eastern Bengal, along with the Uttar-Rarhi and Nadiya Sonars, from the Marhatta invasion of 1741. Among them rage interminable disputes about precedence, and the confusion is increased by the Padavia being the same as those of the Banga.

The houses of Nilambara Datta and Potiriij De are reckoned the first of Kulinas, and next, but at a great interval, are the children of two brothers, Chanda and Madhu, who are Sils, and reside at Balgonah, in Burdwan. Families with the titles of Bordl, Laha, Chund, and Addi are deemed more aristocratic than the Alaulika,

The gotras "of this division are— Madhu Kulyd. Sdndilya. Ktisyapa. Savarna. Gautama. Bharadwaja.

. ^ general rule the Dakhin-Edrlii do not intermarry ^jfi, L^ n(>M but take piai, or cake, from them, and even o^Ti ,

^ * ^ / ' i 7 o u friendly terms. The daughter of a KuUua i ' r y b

SUBAENABANIK. ' ' 364

a Maulika bridegroom sinks to his level, but tlie daughter of a Maulika marrying a Kuhua is raised to his. Dakhin-Rurbi women dress like other Hindu females of Eastern Bengal; the Uttar-RiirM as women of Bardwan and Hughli.

The Dakhiu-liarM worship Lakshmf daily, when rice, sugar, and ilowers are ofiered, and no woman will touch food until this duty is performed. The " goddess of wealth " is also worshipped with especial honour four times every year.

The members of this subdivision are usually employed as writers.

Many peculiarities of their earlier home in Western Bengal are retained by the Uttar-Karhi subdivision. The women still speak the Burdwan "Bhasha," or dialect, and their dress is that of Central Bengal. The gotraa are many, and the following are the most important:—

JTadhu Kulya. ^ Saadilja. J^-asyapa. Parasara. I^taradwdja. Naga-Rishi. Brahma Rishi. Aliman. Gautama.

The titles nrn fi, Savarna. °o Maulika S e L . '""?? ^ ' t^o^e of other R..A v, word for highes^"^ P-^deut i . styled ^ ^ S a S ^ a ' ' ' ^ ^ ^ T'-- '

I t ! Uttar-Rdrhl still ' ' " ^'^"^^^^^

numbering some thirty-fiv7 w S r ^ ° ' ' T ° ° ' ^ « * ^ t " t e s a small T, ^

The principal gotras a r e - ^ ^ ^ ' Q

Madhu ICuliya. Naga-Eishi. ^^^arna. iSanciilya. ^"Jra-^rf^

% ^ a s , and Xarana 7arl Das. ' '^ '^^na, Mauliu j , , ^ tbe K lv^ "• ^^^^i community, the Nad; . ' ^' ^^^i> • H e fc "^'i Uttar-Earhi, and e l ^ f Sonars int.

^ '^"^ry- '"*% obtain 2 ••'^wry ^ith ^ ives by giviug

265 SFBAENABINIK.

While the Tak-sal, or Mint, was open at Dacca, the Nadiyd Sonars worked as Soii-dhoas, gold-washers, or Niyariyas, infusino-and purifying metals, but since its closure they have worked as Son° dhoas on theii- own account. The dust and refuse (/ad) of o-old-smiths' shops are bought for a sum varying from eight annas to five rupees a ser, according to the amount or nature of the business. The refuse being carefully washed, the metallic particles in the' sediment are transferred to shallow eai'then paus, and the larger separated by a skilled workman, or Kdrigar. The smaller, mixed with cow-dung and a calx of lead, form a ball named pindi or pera. This ball being placed in a hole partially filled with charcoal, fire is applied, and as the lead melts it carries with it all gold and silver filmgs, forming a mass called Una. This hna is then dissolved in a crucible, and the gold and silver, being unmelted, are easiij- separated."

Dr. "Wise's interesting information regarding the Subarnabaniks was collected by him nearly twenty years ago from members of the caste residing in the city of Dacca. Since that time a tendency towards the amalgamation of sub-castes seems to have set in. The Subarnabaniks of the present day do not seem to lay much stress on the distinction between the Dttar-Rarhl and Dakliin-Rdrhi groups, and sometimes include both under the designation Rarhf. Stembers of the liArhi sub-caste may, as is mentioned by Dr. Wise marry into the Saptagrami or Nadiya sub-caste, subject only to the condition that the titles or family names of the parties shall not be the same.

Subarnabaniks marry their daughters as infants, and observe the standard mamage ceremony in vogue among

amago. ^j^^ higher classes of Hindus. Betrothal, nandi srdddha—performed on the forenoon of the day of gift, and the formal gift of the bride on the same night, are the essential features of the ceremony.

The rules regarding the avoidance of marriage within the gotra or section, and the practice in the matter of prohibited degrees are the same as are followed by the higher castes. Polygamy is per­missible, but is rarely resorted to except in the event of failure of offspring by the first wife. Widow-marriage and divorce are under no circumstances allowed.

The great majority of the caste belong to the Vaishnava sect

- '' ion. «f ^ i " ^ ,^'^^% ^if--, and Chaitan^a , •. V . . * r K S ° ' ' * i r i ^^^ ^^*t«^' ^ « their favourite objects of worship. Kddhd, the favourite mistress of Krishna, is in their view identical with Lakshmi, and a muin measure kdtd, kiuiki, or khnncM) filled with paddy and shells and daubed with vermilion, is worshipped daily as her emblem bv tho females of the family. In Central Bengal the goddess of leamino-Bageswari, is also worshipped on the day following a marriage V gligioua and ceremonial purposes the Subarnabaniks employ T5 ^ ' ^

mans of their own, who are not received on equal terms by ' ; l u " embers of the sacred order. They claim nevertheless to b

? pfindonts of certain Vaidik Brahmans of the highest lenrr,- *^® eanctity, who were opposed to the policy of Ballal Sen and e f i e ^ ' ^

SUBAKNABAXIK. 266 SUBIIA.

follow the fortunes of the Subaruahaniks even at the cost of sharin"' in their degradation. °

The caste burn their dead and perform the ceremony of srMdh r, , - i, J , in the orthodox fashion on the thirty-first dav Disposal of tho dead. m^ \ • c \ . v "'6U u a y .

The obsequies oi persons who die a violent death are performed on the fourth day.

The social status of the caste, according to the recognized scale of precedence, is comparatively low. Thev

pat"oT' "'^"^ """ °'™" rank below the Navasakha, and the Brahmaua who serve the higher castes wiU not take water

from their hands. There seems uevertholc'^s to be a tolerably widespread feeling that the standing allotted to them by tradition is ludicrously incompatible with their wealth and abilities, and with the aptitude which they have sho\sTi of late years for takin» advantage of English education. Trade has always been their chiol function, and it was as successful merchants that the families of Sil, Mallik, and Laha first won for themselves a place among the leading citizens of Calcutta. In the present generation Subarnabaniks have come to the front as officials, and have attained some literary distinction. They number among their community a District Judge, an Inspector of Schools, four Subordinate Judges, five Deputy Magistrates, and fifteen Munsifs. Tho Eevd. Lai Bohari Ley is well known in Bengal as the author of the clever genre novel Govinda Sdmanta, while Babu Bholanath Chandra's Travels of a Uindu has certain quaint merits ot its own which seem likely to keep its memorv alive. y

The following statement shows the number and distribution f Subarnabaniks in 1872 and 1881. In certain districts tho figures f Sekr^s and Sonars seem to have been included in tlm f Report of 1872:— ^^^s*^

DiSTKICT. 1S72.

Itiirdwnn Jtunkiira Uirbhiun Mldnupur llufTllll HowrttU

^adltt Khulna ... Jt-ssoro Jtur^llcdabad Uinajpur Kajbliahjo -.. RiiiiKpur BoKra Pabna Darjilm^ Jalpigon Kuch Uehar ...

13,313 5,259 6,161

11,M9 8,8S7

27,615 0,628

'6,929 i;,M2

83i M9 411 400 947

49 81

4 751 0,683 J, 167 7,7J1 i.UX 2,461 2,t70 3 7b« 2,799 8,07-i 3,2S«

27 815 299 150 83

679 12S

DisxnrcT.

Dirca Faridpur linkargauj lliiimansinli TippLrnh

xoiar^ '• ••: C h m r " « " ' " Tract,

pZ^lT'^ :. I^hardaKa Slanbhuia ' ' );"iKbhmn Cnttack Pun • • . Balasore ^ n b u t a r y s i g t ^ •

Subarnabisayi , a sub-caste of Telis in Bengal.

Subarni^-panchbha, a section of Babhans in Chota Nagpm'.

4 60(1 ^,280 2.141 3.10« 1,811 S.lW 1.1'JO

4i0

1,778 2.736 6>4sr,

1S9S7 6,'J!I0 «,2»7 •».C)0

."i,l)(!5 2,84 i 1.43'i 3.62J 2,016 l .Hti 1,570

4 196

1,541 73 3

7,725

10,'i<>7 4,11H) 6,209

716

Suberi ' ' ^^" ' '^< '<mVt ' ' ° l thoBharad.

'-•" ^ ' "'• ^-'fah (chief i)arjiliug.

'*»'Uw??:^^..J*'"),a

SUBIIABAJKITANI. 267 SUDHA.

Subhardjkhdni, a nwl or hyporgamous sub-group of Earhi Brahmans in Bengal.

Suchait, a section of Oswal Baniyas.

Suchari, a mul or section of Sonars in Behar.

^ItllhJt, a small caste of Orissa, v/ho believe their original occu­pation to have been personal service, but are now for the most part engaged in cultivation. In the census of 1872 they appear to have been recorded under the name of Amayat or Amat, which is one of their titles, and which, taken in connexion with their traditions of occupation, rather goes to suggest some afBnity between them and the Amats of Behar. Sudhas are divided into four sub-castes :— Bara-Sudha, Sano or Kabatkonia Sudha, Paila-Sudha, and Butkd-Sudha. Concerning their exogamous groups my information is incomplete. The Bara-Sudha profess to have gotras and to observe the rule that a man may not marry a woman of his own gotra. But I have not been able to ascertain the names of the gofras.

The most primitive of the three sub-castes regarding which tolerably full data arc available appears to be the Butka-Sudhd. They are a nomadic race, who believe themselves to have immierated into Orissa from Rerakhol in the Central Provinces. They wander about reclaiming waste lauds and tapping date and palm-trees for their juice. H.iving found a suitable spot for their operations, they build small huts of mats, bamboos, and any light materials that aro available and settle down for two or three years, deserting the place and seeking a fi'esh hicality as soon as the soil shows signs of becom­ing exhausted. Marriage is adult, and courtship is a recognized preliminary; b>it after the parents have given their consent to an engagement it is not etiquette for the young people to meet until tho marriage is celebrated. The marriage ceremony is simple. The parties sit side by side before a becU, or elevated platform of earth, the bridegroom having the bi'ide on his right. The headman (BeherA) of the caste ties their right hands together with a piece of string, which is afterwards untied or cut by the brother-in-law of the bridegroom, or the younger sister of the bride, who receives a piece of cloth from the bridegroom for doing him this service. Then some old women—not Ifess than three or more than seven—sprinkle ntap rice and tm-merio powder over the couple and give them their blessing.

Widows may marry again. No regular ceremony is performed. The headman of the caste and the woman's relatives take her to her new husband's house and make her over to him. A feast is given to the caste if tho bridegroom can afford it. Divorce is permitted •nrith the sanction of the caste panehayat, and divorced women aro permitted to marry again in the same manner and by the same form fis widows.

The regular Hindu deities seem to be unknown to the cast rrhAV worship a goddess, called Panoha-Khanda (five swords'), ^vi+l"

TrAr^fS of be-goat-s fowls and rice, which are partaken of hv Iv ofieru^f^ ° The full moon of the month of Aghran is the J ^ ^ U m f f S sacrifice. The Behord or headman of the caste o f i t S

SUDKA. 268 SUDEA.

as priest at this and all other acts of public worship. The Butkd-Sudhas have no Brahnians. The dead are burned and the ashes left on the spot. No siiiih. ceremony is performed. The caste abstain from beef, but eat the wild butfalo, the wild boar, and domestic fowls.

The Bara and Sano-Sudha sub-castes have travelled further than the Butka on the road towards orthodox Hinduism. The first-mentioned group have entirely adopted infant marriage, while the Sano, though still permitting adult marriage, regard infant marriage as the standard to which all respectable people should endeavour to conform. Widow remarriage, however, still holds its ground. A. number of women headed by the barber's wife give the widow their blessino' along with some afap rice and ditba grass, and a priest mutters a few mantras. Divorced women may maiTy again.

For the service of the regular Hindu gods, the celebration of svdd'lh, and the like, Brahmans are employed, who are received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order The goddess Khambeswar, a divinity of a more primitive type, having her chief seat in the wild country of Bod, is worshipped every year in the month of Bhadra with sacrifices of goats. The goddess is represented by a wooden peg kliamba) fixed in the ground, and the Brahmans take no part in her worship, which is conducted by a Dehuri or tribal priest supposed to be specially acquainted mth the way of the local gods. . • i

Bara-Sudh4s believe military or personal service to have been their original occupation. Some of them hold Bervioe-tonures under the Chiefs of the Orissa Tributary Mahals, and the fact that they heal-the title Paik seems to show that they mutt have formed part of the rude militia which once existed in that part of the country. The Siino-Sudha believe that their original profession was the cultivation and manao-ement of date and palm-trees, and regard the katari or pruning k°uife as their characteristic implement. The social status of both groups is considerably higher than that of the Butka Sudha, who can hardly be reckoned as coming within the pale of Ilmduism at all. The higher caste of Orissa Brahmans, Chhatris, Karans and Goalas take water and sweetmeats from the hands of the Bara and Sdno-Sudhas, but the Bhaudaris or barbers alone will receive boiled rice from them.

Suiiril) the lowest and servile caste in the fourfold groupine '^ . adopted by early Indian writers, and, in theorv

0"^"- at least, more or less recognized by the Natives of India at the present day The opinion has been expressed by Lassem and concurred in by Zimmer^ that the name Sudra is n ™ Sanskrit origin but - ^ V ^ ^ J ^ ^ tribal designation one of the chief ^^^^'SXitTed J * ^^^^ - ""^'^^'^ ^^'' Aryan faith and were admittea as sei vile members of the Arvan poUty^ Tribes who foUowed t^e <3xample of the Sudras were t Z a U y e i ^ ^ be called by the same

1 T,id. All., i, 917. 2 All- Ind. Lehcn,2\%_

269 SUDEA,

name. Weber, on the other hand, thinks that the Sudra caste " was composed of various mixed elements, partly, perhaps, of an Aryan race which had settled earlier in India, partly of the aborigines themselves, and partly, again, of those among the immigrants or tlieir "Western kinsmen, who refused adherence to the new Brah-manical order." I t would be foreign to the pmjose of this book to enter upon a lengthy examination of the position of the Sudi-a in relation to the other three castes of the Manavie system, or to discuss the vexed question how far the precepts of the Manava-dharma-sastra were at any time in correspondence with the facts of actual life. The following extract from Mr. E. W. Hopkins' work on the subject sums up the main features of the social status of the Sudra as represented by Mann:—

" The Sudra, once-born, is to be regarded in two lights—the one as general representatire of his caste, irrespective of his master where he IS the abject slave of the twice-born, whose touch is unholy in whose presence the Brahman may not remain, contact with whom is as polluting as with the lowest wretches and outcasts; on the other hand, as the settled servant of one master in whose house he is perhaps born, where his position is by no means so ignoble thoueh the fact of his slavery and lo\vness cannot be done away with The personal contact with the Brahman is here greatly eased of the strict abhorrence with which the dwija is bound in general to regard the Sudra caste. As a servant his position is not in many respects different from the, indeed, not comfortable, because dependent and servile, yet still endurable and not very severe, position of an American house-slave prior to 1860. I t is true that the Sudi-a has no mercy to expect on insulting his betters, and torture and death may be the consequence ; but so long as he retains a respectful demeanow towards the upper castes, he is tolerably secure fi-om danger. His master may give him advice, and bestow on him such old furniture and goods as are no longer fitted for the Brahman himself. H e ha his family, and hia wife is as carefully guarded from freedom with other castes as the wives of the upper orders. His daughter or wif P i wronged by the upper castes, have the right of law, and a lieavv fi'^ IS visited upon the offender. His master has, indeed the rilbf 1 punishing him, but only, as in the case of son and wife for t" good. The striking is, moreover, limited in kind, and'the uli ?T!^ he may not be smitten upon the back shows thnf T ^ t ,°^ * ** honourable part of the body.^ H e m a ^ ^ s t u d ^ n ^ ^ ^ " ^ f ° Vedas recited, but 1-may be present at the s m a U f S ; ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' religious ceremonies and is indeed even praised for so d o W T?-legal privileees are few, but his rights are eranf-Rfi >„•,., „ -iwY . ^ caftes! He has the right of demanding^reXt . fTr I n • ' " * ' ' " ' personal character even from the Brahman himself H ^ " ^ " Y °* fccpai-ttte from tlie very lowest, the mixed castes, and shnnn i ^ himself from tlieir occupations till diiven thereto by w w y represents lus master m occasional business matters Ac ^^e

__!______ — — — _ ^ Matter 1 la the last (wo mniculars he stood, indeed. u p o T T ^ l ^ i Z T ^ " ; ^

the Negro I-l-. W. 11. 'gier 10^^ ^^^^

SUDEA. 270

of principle he can have himself no property, as all belongs to his master, but practically he is a householder and receives a support suited to his need, and has property returned him if it is stolen. H e is enjoined not to acquire very much, but evidently often managed to do so; and if his property in the eye of the law is dependent on the whim of the Brahman, it is at least in respect to other castes not regarded as a fiction. The rights of the Sudra are generally on a graded scale in respect to the other castes, and here no distinction is made between family-slave and general Sudra.^ Distinct mention of Sudra as teacher when others fail, and the possibility of his beine a king, show that he sometimes gained a position superior to the one he generally occupies."-

The modern use of the term Sudra is not easy to define. " In the present time," says Mr. Beames,' " there are no Sudras and no Vaisyas ; no Kshatriyas except the Eajput: only the Brahman is recognizable. The lower castes fused more readily than the higher and the Sudras probably were soon absorbed in the mixed classes' and ceased to have any distinct existence as Sudras." A Native •writer* dealing with the same subject takes much the same view as Mr. Beames, admitting that the Kshatriyas are represented by the Eajputs, while in Bengal, at any rate, the Vaisyas have fallen to the_ rank of Sudras. The Sudi'as, again, he divides into the four following classes:—

i. Satsudra, including the Kavasths and the Nabasdkh. ii. dalacharaniya Sudra, being those castes not technically

belonging to the Nabasdkh group from whom Brahmans and members of the higher castes can take water

iii. Ja labyahaharya Sudra, castes from whose hands Brahman cannot take water,

iv. Asprishya Sudra, castes whose touch is so impure as f pollute even Ganges water. ^ ^^

Here it seems to me that in the attempt to vponno;^ +T, existing state of things with the traditional system nnrl of ^ to unearth the survivors of the fourth caste, the author ^f'l T^ given to the term Sudra a wider significance than i * ^ " ^^^ by popular usage. I t may of course be argued that^+lT^'"^*'^*^'^ propounded by Manu treats all men who are not t • , ^°^^^^e Sudras, and that the same principle, if applied at thp ^ ™ ^^ requires us to include every caste below the Rdjput in !,P ' ^ »< day, . — f___j T'Uat category.

1 How far the legal arrangements of fines in personSTi;^;; ~~^ lained in Manu were regarded as matters of fact and had a Tn"r ' ' ^''^''- Pol­and how far they ^ ore held as legal fiction resulting from^„ ' *'?''l working, and ystematise the relations of all four castes before th/i^''^'''^ *»'Adjust metical exactness, cannot be my purpose to dctorn? ^'^^ ^'t^i arith-valkya howerer, 'as a rule follows the arrangement o f E u " n ^ ^ ^ Jajna-ca.es also according to higher or lower rank, so well bv^\' f"'' '•ettles such

L l deterStio^B, shows the relative worth of t h e s e V t s l ' general determination, shows the relative worth of these lawrn.^'^^^'^t? as by h.m as with Manu. „,, ^„ , . „ , ""' ^""^ ^^ ali-i with

'TheMutualBelailons oftheFour Castes accordin, •ma Cdstram. Leipzig, 1»»'; . I Tlie Race, of the ]!fori/>-Tf%ff^P'-ov>''';e% yol. i, p_ ' Savihandhaninuuia. By Lai Mohan Vidyanidhi, p* j

167. 89 f[.

271 SUDEA.

Still I do not believe that the castes classed as Asprishya would be spoken of by any Hindu as Sudras at all, though the members of any particular group might possibly in a vague kind of way claim that_ title for themselves. At the other end of the scale the classi­fication is equally open to criticism. No place is assigned to the Baidyas, Ehatris, and Bhats; while the Kayasths, though not tech­nically twice-born, invariably claim to rank above the Nabasakh and by virtue of their wealth and intelligence occupy a position which fully bears out their claim.

Failing, then, any classical and authoritative definition, we have only to consider what is ordinarily imderstood by the term. Both in Bengal and Behar I think it is commonly used to denote the entire group of castes from whosa hands a Brahman can take water. Kdyasths, Baidyas, Bhats, and Khatris are not generally spoken of or regarded as Sudras, though persons of a pedantic turn of mind, who are bent on finding survivals of the original fourfold division, would probably set down both Kayasths and Baidyas as tech­nically Sudras._ In Orissa the definition by water offered above seems to hold good in the main, but the Earan, or writer caste, does not hold so high a status as the Kayasths of Bengal, and ranks as a Sudra in popular estimation.

Although in most parts of the country the term Sudra is not Internal structure. ^^^^^ ' speaking a caste-name at aU, but rather

a general designation of a certain number of castes, there appears to exist in the eastern districts of Bengal a numerous body of people who call themselves ^ u b n i S , and are also known by the names of Ghulam (slave), Kayasth, Shikdar, and Bhandari . They form a distinct caste, and as a rule marry only among themselves, though in Maimansinh and Sylhet they marrv women of the Sunri caste, and even bestow their own daughters on Sunri bridegrooms. In the latter case the girl forfeits her caste, but her family are not held to be degraded. The origin of the Sudras ,is obscure, and some say that they are descended from individuals belonging to the Sat-Sudra group, who sold themselves or were sold as slaves to Kayasth masters, and thus, by discharging the same functions as were assigned to the ancient Sudras, came to be called by the same name. The following deed of sale, given to Dr Wise by Babu Brijo Sundar Mittra, a member of one of the oldest and most_ respected Kdyasth families of Dacca, is quoted in illustration of this view :—

•^ " - J ' ' ? ^ " " ? ! " ^^^' ' ? ? / - ^? ' ' P^"" ^^^' ^^<i grandson of Rdm Deva Pal, do hereby execute this deed of sale : " Owing to the debts incmTed at my marriage, and which I am

unable to pay, I, in my proper mmd, and of my own free will SPU jnyselfto you on my receiving a sum of Pdroionodohomasii runPfi« twenty-five, and I and my descendants will serve you as slaves a s C as we ai-e given subsistence allowance and clothing. You, your

: Mr. J-1>. "vVard, C.S., suggests the following read^^TT^^TTrr"""--^ ation :-P" ' ' ' ' (Ml, jana, or gana, dalia (ten), mdsha. Each rZo i ^^P^et-value ten full mashas. A "maslia" equalled 171 grains, and a ! " ^ to mdshas. "- Pee ten

272 "

r. V nQ .slives and have power to sell or and grandsons shall make us ^ ^ ^ ^ J ^ ^ ^ f j i i o u s I execute this houd.

• make a gift 0*^*0 others On these c ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^^^,

"Dated 19th Kartik, 1201 ^•»- | ^ ; • j^i i and has heen Dr. Wise adds that, although^shwery is^ J^^,^^.^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^

so for many years, the »^y)?S -^ ^ ^ t there is hardly a family of goes on, and it '^/^^'^^^''^ot several Bhauddris on its estahlishmeut. any distmction which has ^o^ ^ ^ ^ is called m other parts of The life of the Nafr, or S ' ^^f' ^ X g a l i . Withrare exceptions the country, is most c°BgemaUo the^^eng ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ he is kindly treated, s m d m r b^^^^^^^^

happiness of each ^^^°^^f . ^ ^ m S s many thousands are scattered O ^ n g to thedeaths o f the jma^e i s rn 7 ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ .^

throulhout B.eBgal. J ^ o j a « ^ « ^ J ^ S ^ ^ ^ 3 ^ ^ , , themselves Chiltagong, - ^ ° * ^ ; ^ X u g h orTelding a mattock. In Bikrampur \ ^ ^ ^ " ^ * ^ ^ K o ^ £ n C J e i n D a c c a S u d r a s a r e employed ascontec-they are of^^^^'^^^f^^^s shop-keepers, and vendors olfU and Indian tioners, «=°"^J^'^Srp?e^^^^^^^^ ^^1 Sudrawho is rich and hemp. ^ ' ^ ^ „ ^ " S his family hy iudieious marriages with pure provident c^^,^?J^^ J ' S 2 l y a gJade of that caate. Such families kiyusths as Ingh a.the Lla ^ ^ ^ „, , ^o hecome ahaorhed

drop the t^^^^J^^Jl^Sed Kiyasths. This circumstance is the more iu the ranks of J ^ ° ° f a s are certainly to some extent recruited remarkahle as the budras are ceri J ^ Kiyasths. So from among castes ^^^^^^^ ^ . ^ X n l l a ^ ^ ^ ^ within the range far as I am aware no Parallel ^Jjt-^^^ ^J^^^^^to Dr. Wise, Brahmans, of themodei-ncaste system ihus,a«^^^^^^ ^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ Baidyis, bumns and Ban^ya P ^^ . ^ ^ or assume an have ever permitted t l i o u s ^ ^ ted hy the Kdyasths that equality with their masters. "^«^^/f|^^ descendants of the tnbe the Sudras of the pieseu ^^^ y^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^. ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

resident m Bengal "^^ ^^^ ^^t only are individuals being added this conjecture IS 01 ro^^^^^^^^^^^^^^-^^^^^gg^^^j^^ . ^ f ^^^ even no^ to tbe ^^ ^j ^^ ^eed of sale, who was a Tell hy caste, Kisto Pal, the su ^ . ^^^ documents. can he provea uj ^^^ Sudras deem infant-marriage indispen-

In the case ol a gu- ^ ^ ^^^ . ^^^^^ disgrace a family to have Marriage. a daughter unmarried at the age of puherty.

1- «a oTfi the same as those of the Brahmans, and they Their sof 10°' are ^^ .^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ T^^^y j ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ however, no observe the same ^^^ ^^ ^ ^ , . ^ ^^ V^t^^iX^. A bride-price (^pan) hypergamous g ^^i^^g ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ g^g ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^

is P'^^'^.t° , and This is prohahly due to the fact that the lower rather m aein ^V g jig take wives from among the Sudras, hut do grades ot pur , J^ters to men of that class. For this reason there not give their a fa^^ ^^^^^ -^^ the Sudra group, and Sudra men often 18 a shght ^nrpi'^ ^ tg in life, and always have to purchase their marry comparatu eiy ^'* •- f

"' '-f .1 oct Sudras conform on the whole to the customs of the For the rest, buar^,^^^^^ caste. Widows are not allowed to

Social status. marr j again, aud divorce is not recognizea.

SUDUA. 273 SUKLI.

The status of the caste is respectable, and they rank immediately below theNabasakh group. Erahmans take water from their handa, and will as a rule permit them to eat in the same room with themselves. Kdjasths, except the very orthodox, will eat cooked food prepared by a Sudra. In matters of diet Sudras themselves follow the same rules as Hindus of the higher castes. In former years they used to eat the leavings of influential Erahmans, Baidyas, and K^yasths in whose houses they were employed as servants. This custom, however, is now dying out.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Sudras in 1872 and 1881 :—

DI6TEICT.

Hnnknra Midnapur JeasuFo l lurshcdabad Uiriiijpur Unjshithye ... Kniigpur Fubna

1872.

131 81

0

1831.

17 12

6 5

10

1

DlSTKICT.

Dacca Fandpur Bakai^ganj MaimanMnh Tipporah Chitlagong Noakhali Uhitlagong Hi l l Tracts ...

187i.

86 R,98a 3,1. r 7 2,513

30,-as 4.282

ItjSl.

17,393 15,109 8,573

1S,8'>2 a.ioa

28,113 2,213 . 13

. Suga, parrot, a totemistio sept of Korwas and Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sugdin, a gain or sub-section of 8aptasati Erahmans in Bengal.

Sugardhar, a section of the Biyahut and Kharidaha Kal-wiii's iu Eehar.

Sugargane-Loam, a mul of the Jr'arasara section of Maithil Brohmaus in Eehar.

Suia, a kind of little bird, a totemistio sept of Bedias, Kharwars and Lohdrs in Cbota Nagpur.

Stiir, a synonym for Savar.

Sukalnaki, a sept of the Suryabausi sub-tribe of Eajputs in Bebar.

Sukalvala, a group of the Kdi Gaura sub-caste of Graura Brahmans.

Sukarbar, a sept of the Suryabansi sub-tribe of Rajputs in Behar.

Sukhar, a group of the ^oghar sect of Saiva ascetics foimded in Guzerat by a Dasnami mendicant named Erahmagiri. See Aoghar.

Sukhong, a sept of Limbua in Darjiling.

S u k h s i r i , a pur or section of bakadwipi Erahmans in Behar.

Sukli, a sub-caste of weavers in Western Bengal ranking below the Tantis. They use I wooden shuttle; the Tantis an iron one. Brahmans will eat sweetmeats, etc., in a Tanti'a house, not in a Sukli's.

§ulUi, a small cultivating caste peculiar to the di<!f,.,-< •Mulnaniir S„ui;„ „1„;^ +„ v . xi ,'^'^''ilC

Origin-Midnapur. Suklis claim to be the desol!, ? ^^ of a Sulauki liajput named Bir Siiip-l "^^

e to MidDapur about six hundi-ed years ago and built j - ^ '^°

SUKLI; 274 SULUNKHI-MAHILI.

a fort at Birsinghpur in pargan4 Ked&rkunda. The remains of the iort are still visihle. I t is flanked by two large pounds, called Mundamarui and Gardamarui, the former of wmch is said to cover the heads, and the latter the hodies, of seven hundred Bagdis who were slain by Bir Singh because they could not pronounce the word hesh, meaning a mat made of date-leaves, i he legend goes on to say that after a time Bir Singh himself was defeated, and that his foUowers then discarded the sacred thread, changed the name SulanH to Sukli, and settled down as cultivators. The internal

structure of the caste throws no light on its Internal struoturo. origin. I t is divided into three sub-castes—

Barabhiiy^, Bahattarghari , and Dasasai . The first, which is reckoned ihe highest in rank, is supposed to be descended from the twelve grandsons of Bir Singh. Their sections are of the ordinary

Brahmanical type. • <• 4. t v;i -j 1. Suklis marry their daughters as infants, torbid widows to marry

again, and do not recognize divorce. Por Marriage. xeligious and ceremonial purposes they employ

Brahmaus, who however are not received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. Most of them are Vaishnavas. They burn their dead and perform the ceremony ot smddh m the orthodox fashion on tl.e thirty-first day after death. , , ,

Notwithstanding their conformity with aU standard observances, the social position of Sukhs is very low. They

Social status and occu- ^^•^]^ -with Pods and DhobAs, and Brahmans v^^"^ -will not take water from their hands. Agri­culture is their sole occupation. A few hold tenures and small zamindaries, the bulk of the caste bemg occupancy raiyats.

In the Census Report of 1872 the Sukhs were included with the Tantis. The following statement, however, shows their number and distribution in 1881: -

Bardwan Birbliuin ilidnapur

20 2

19,886

HugUi Howrali 24-Parganas

45 1,32S

339

Sukru, potato, a toteraistio ^eept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Sulmrini, probably a class of religious mendicants.

q.jkul. a title of KannujiA, Sa l swata and aaura Brahmans

in Behar,

Sukulbans, a eept of K jputs in Behar.

gull-caste of Sukuliya, a Ch&sas in Orissa.

Sukwabah, a sept of Limtus in Dariiling.

Sukwar, a sub-casto of Gul-guliis in Q-ya and Hazaribagh.

Sulankhi, a sub-tribe of Raj-puts .-Tod's llajmthan, i, p. 74 ; Slier. 1, p. 122; a sept of the Ohandrabansi division of Baj-puts m Behar; a bird, a tote-mistic sept of Bedias and Mundas lu Ohota Nagpur.

Sultanpuria, a section of So­nars iu Behar.

Sulunkhi-Mahili, a sub-caste of iMabilis in Manbhum who are generally labourers and servants.

SUMAI. 275

SXJNRI.

p i . °* •^• ' " •a rs in Ohofa Nag.

B SL'finXV"""""""'

Sundri . // O^ssa. ^ °* *^"^°gs in

««. i. Di^-^r °'' °' ^°°- J S « .»b-..p. Of .he Be... wuiiana, a section of GoaMs

in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Sundar, a section of the Kishnaut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Sundas, a fMr or sept of D4mis in Dorjiling whose chief profession is sewing.

Sundf, a synonym for, and a sub-caste of, Sunris in Bengal; a section of Go^lils in Bohar. In Chota Nagpur, a totemistio sept

Sungaru, a (Aa?- or senf r.f

H3ls'Jrntr;ofS£2^ Brahmans in Ben|al ^ '

.tain^£!CiSg." » ' °f^p-Sunkewar « « ^

^lintrV " / " " " " " ' ' " "^^PHpu t s inBeba ; . ' ' ^^ °* Kdj-

be the manufacture fnd J ' . ° f °"^"^'^1 profesln^-^^^^^^l and members have now l l f'^ °^ spu-itnous l imff ^ ' / ^«^eved to the title Shdhd anrf A^""" *° mercantile pm-mi f t , ^^^7 of it« the characteristic . i ^ f T " " " ^ ° " ° ^ ^ i o i S f ''^'^ ^hemselres £ advancement has a T f u* *^' ""^^^ Theh 1 ^ ^ ° ^ ' ^o"oJ their wealth anS eJtoS'is^el ''?«^,«'^t»'ely succt^f^ '^^"/ . ^^^ social The bond of traditioS^^,^'l"V^"^^'^««°«iations l i l K f?^,^" «Pite of distillers and sellers of st,n °-^,'"^^- Accord if^r^ '- '^^rfown castes, and a c u z C s l l °?f t f ' v '•^°'^" ^ ° ^ 4 £ t ? / " ^ ^^^^^ memory of their degradaffon I t i Jf^f ' . '^ ^^^a^m £*'^^^^'^^'^d Saturn, failed to adaot n.. ^ i l . , / ' ' . ^^^^ that when filff^^''^ive tl

sumi «'"

Bhagavati, weary and athirst r i b^^^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^ full of water he presented it ^^ JJ^'j^^^ fermented and formed an grains of nee left in it by a p ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ became fntoxicating liquid. B1^.^8'';Lf;^":ei condemned the offender to the aware of the fact, and in ''^r an i^tuous liquors for mankind, vile and servile occupa ion of makrng p^^^^^.^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ Another story t.aces tlieir ^^ ,^ ^.roihev, Balaxam, to minister Muni, who was created ^7 ^ - . diSerent version of the some to his desire for «V'°°!ni toNkanian, a boy found by Bbdskar legend gives them fo^^^^^^^^^Xof country liquor, and brought floating down a rive m a pot tuU ot ^^ .^^^^^ ^^^ traditional ;ip by him as a ^istdler. Otters ag , ^^^.^^^ ^^^^ g^^^^^ method of accounting for * e formaUon ^^^^_ are descended I'^^.^J^^'l^TLZ^y I [hink, find in the internal Patting these f a b l e s ^ e - e may, i ^ ^ ca^te, and most of all

internal structure. ^ ^ ^ number and diversity of Its endogamous . . ™^ „„rl for beliovincr that it probably

and cxogamous divisions, « ° r ^ ^ ^ ^ S i ^ ha^e^isen in different comprises several Y^^^f^'i^^^lf/^^'^a^S t f the community in the parts of the country to ^ . ^ P ^ y X ^ ^ f o ' ^ example, eight sub-castes Latter of stron, drink. ^ - . f ^ ' ^ ^ ^ S u r S h a i y a . l a k a r g a r h a . are said to ^e known §.^'y^['. ' I '^Chkturthan. The first three

admit mtermarri^g ^^^ .^ ^^^^ totemistic sections, a "ngle endogamous group. ^^^ remarriage of widows, pemi t the aduK-mmi^a^ge^ot J ^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ allow aivorc y ^^ races who are beginning to come under characteristics "L^^J^.^^^ In Bchar, as a reference to Appendix the influence oi ^^^_^^g,gg and sections are very numerous; but the I will show, ,-i. I--, aud I cannot find that any totemistio usages latter are m o f ^ "'."t^ ^^o imthi and Bichhu) which appear to bear are connected ^^^j^j^^^^lpur the Kul-Sunri sub-caste is further sub-animal names. n ^j^^^^^^ (mats, hence those who sit together ^"^^ Te ? S matting), the members of which may not inter-on tue same t- ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ distinctive names. " ' ^ T ' Pputral and AVestern Bengal four sub-castes are found— r,^ v,f R4rendra, Bangi. and Magi. In Eastern Bengal, according R^""]!'' w ; t the caste is subdivided into two sections, or Sreni to Dr. ^y\7,__j[ja. The former are distillers, called Siinri'; the BArhi and Bareu^ ^^^^ assumed tlie title of Saha or merchant, latter traders, ^ corruption of Sddhu, ' perfect, honest.' Sahas which IS said TO ^^.^^ ^ - g Sunris, and affect to belong to a usually object i ^^^ ^^^^^^ By some authorities, however, tliey distinct casto ^^" (j^d from a Siidra father and a Siinri mother, are held to be des ^^ ^-^^^ -^^^^ ^-^^ sub-castes are now more

My own enqmrjesg^^^e in Dr. Wise's time. numerous than ^"XJ^ jjaiya sub-caste of Central and Western Bengal

The Magi or ' b ^ ^ ^^ jn ^^^^ ^ - ^^ g^ppoged connexion seems to derive us ^^^.^^^ ^^ compos-d mainly of immigrants h t m ^ h t ^ p r o ' l c T . ' l u various parts'of Eastern ^Bengal a Magi

277 SUNKI.

Srenl, distinct from the EArhi or Bdrendra, and accounted fallen and outcaste. is to be met with. I t is stated that in old days the Mags made marauding expeditions into tliis part of Bengal and outraged some Sunri women, whose offspring,'defiled by the doubt as to their paternity, became the nucleus of a new sub-caste. The Sijnri barber and washerman work for them, but they always have purohits of their own.

Saha or Shdba is the common title of the caste, but on becoming rich a merchant often adopts Das as a surname by way of conceal­ing the fact that he is a Sunri. Dr. Wise also mentions a case in which a well-known Saha trader of Dacca selected Edf Chaudharf ns his family name. In the Maimansinh district a colony of Sdhas have taken the title of Pdnjha, but can give no reason for doing so. They are chiefly talukdars. writers, and shop­keepers, who eat and intermarry with Sdhas in other parts of Bengal.

In Bengal Proper the sections are comparatively few, aod the rule of exogamy seems to be gradually falling

<xogamy. j ^ ^ ^ ^ disuse and giving way to the loss archaic system of reckoning prohibited degrees from a common ancestor. The Sunris of Chota Nagpur observe the simple rule that a man may not marry a woman of his own section, and supplement this by a rather meagre table of prohibited degrees. In Behar man-iage within the section denoted by the title is usually forbidden, but it sometimes happens that the group included under one title has split into two by reason of a quarrel or in consequence of the number of families in the group having increased so as to render the prohibition of marriage within the group unnecessary or inconvenient. In such cases one would primd facie expect the newly-formed groups to adopt new titles or to qualify the original titles so as to indicate the change; but I am unable to quote instances where this has taken place. For reckoning prohibited degrees on the mother's side the standard formula in use is calculated to seven generations in the descending line. On the father's side the rule is said to be that a man may not marry any of his Ke.s-Kdtd female relatives that is to say, any of the women whose male relations would have to shave their heads if a death occurred in the family of the person whose marriage is in question.

The Sunris of Bengal marry their daughters as infants and Marriage. strictly prohibit widow-marriage and divorce.

• 11 . t 1 ^° Behar and Chota Nagpur adult-marriages occasionally take place when the parents of the girl are too poor to arrange for her marriage before the age of puberty. When both parties are children the question of age is not minutely enquired into, and the essential point is that the bridegroom should be taller than the bnde. Ih is fact is ascertained by actual measurement a method which commends itself to illiterate people who kepn record of their children's ages. In the negotiations'which J ? o « T the marriage, height of the parties is stated in gimhs. and it [! -^ to be the right thmg for a girl to be married when she ,-=%^''"^ 12 to U gi'-ahs high and a boy when he is from 12 to 16 oLf "^^^ is unusual for a girl to be unmarried at 16 girahs or a boy t 17 ^*

SUi\BI. 278

ff ry/t/i^s?x6na/maxr%e-bro£er i« deputed to Inof. ox..t for a ^jnt^'i^Jf

•«= «-s 's«= ..vv>T <.S:«- '< '- *Tt ^ oj li,s relations, visits the ^«. t i iB iiittitr, a<;«'.ini..vt>v <! 'Y „^^,^r„ n„;r) on lior neck. This bride's house and i.ute a gart. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^

ceremonial visit is r ' ^ * ™ ' ; . l . g etc., to the bridegroom. Accord-a present itM.) of money J^o^^^^'j^^/^^^;, ^^^st not exceed Es. 101 ing to the custom of t f ^ ^ J ^ ' i , ^f dJwt,s. When the tilak has or be less than ^ ° ; ^J^^^^-^lrologer is called in to fix a lucky ^^4" r t e ' w : d ^ i " l ^ take! place in the Mdo's houJ . The ceremony is of the orthodox typo, and wnhmkn, or the smearing of veimilion on the bride s iorohead and the parting of her hair, is beUeved to be its binding portion.

Polygamy is permitted, but it is unusual for a man to have more than two wives, and a second wife is usually only taken when the fitrst wife is found to be barren. By all sub-castes except the Biyahut, a widow is allowed to marry again by the sagat or chiimaund ritual. As a rule this consists merely of siiidur-dan, but sometimes, when the parties are rich, the ceremony is amplified by introducing some of the forms used at the marriage of a virgin bride. In Chota Nagpur divorce is effected, with the sanction of the panehayat, by tearing a sal leaf in two^ as a symbol of separation. Divorced wives may marry again within the caste. In Behar divorce is not recognized, and a woman taken in adultery is simply turned out of the caste, and probably ends by ioining some of the less reputable religious sects or becoming a prostitute. The Bengal Sunris follow the same rule, but also hold that the husband is polluted by the sm of the wife. They therefore require him to perform an expiatory ceremony jpruyas-chitta) which consists, according to tradition, of giving from three to eleven kalians) of cowries to a Brahman. At the present day, however, one four-anna bit is given for each kahan

According to Dr. Wise abnost every member of the caste is a follower of Cbaitanya, and the rich are

Religion. celebrated for the ostentatious observance of lu QoTikii-ttana chants in honour- of Krishua after the decease of

any relative. X ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ 3 ^ ^ ^ ^ , (April-May) and the 1st worship ot .'J";,,^,o,._peceniber); of Gandheswan on the 10th of ot Agll<^'^ ^iLoheT): of IJurga at the time of the Durga Puja Asfn (^¥''^^, (ink wlioiiovor tlioir boats are starting on a - / Inhcr, fl"'' "'. i . r i fv being Vaishnavas, animals are rarely ,„ Odoba ,,,|,„ maj ' >JY ^^ % jone the victim is afterwards tMdillh^ ^ ' ^ f l i / K - '^"* ' ' " ; I 0 I •gooi.B, and in the courtyard of a'.. J to fl«y '' ^ \ vBi'V i'^"^V ,.' i „« thoy Jelievo that the air

^^^^^ Hhm '"'^ i S o o l '« ^'^'"\ I Thoy are also devoted jW6/i.6«^i. « ' '* , ft doV'^ ^ ( ,„„. luolc. i ' y constructing ul„10«t OVOrX ^''>% ,vi.'g« ' " t h o lUndu f . ^ ' t o d , and keeping it ? l . o d by P^8;fK/.rtik<j,e:;i.e effigy ^^^t^Hindu c^tes throw worshippers ot ^^ aj ^^^ , year. ^ annually m J>o; ^o]"S^^^" within the female ei

279 SUNiM.

the image into the river immediately after the Ki r t ik Puja, but the Shahds allege that their special veneration of the god is often rewarded

.the barren rejoicing and the husband heooming the joyful father of children. I t is easy to understand in what way this figure gives rise to soandalous stories among Bengalis, and how the Saha becomes a butt for the wit and sarcasm of his neighb()urs.

The Behar Sunris follow the average Hinduism of that part of the country, and worship most of the regular gods as occasion offers. Their minor gods are very numerous—Dharam Eaj , Bandi, Goraiva Govindji, Hanumdn, Kari Panjiar, Joti Panjiar, Apiu-ba Panjiarin,' Mird, Saiyad, Jalpa, Sokhd, Hasankhan, and the Panch Pir. Rico cooked in milk and sugar k/'iir), cakes of glu (puri), and various kinds of fruit, are offered to them and afterwards eaten hy the worshippers. Kids axe sacrificed to Bandi. On Sundays milk and flowers ai-e offered to the sun. In Bengal, says Dr. Wise, the Brahman, peculiar to the caste, boasts that he never accepts alms from any one not a Siinri but it is quite certain that none of the clean castes would present him with charity. These Brahmans, who assume the bombastic titles of Vidydsagnr, Vidydlankdr, Chakravarttl, and Pathak, like the purohits of other low castes, read the funeral service at the burning ghat, and are looked down upon by other members of the sacred order. The Svinris of Behar are served by a low class of Maithil Brahmans, who also minister to the religious necessities of the Teli caste. No other Brahmans will eat and drink with these men, who are known by the contemptuous epithet of Telia Bdbhan. In Chota Nagpur the Brahmans who serve the Sunris call themselves Kanaujids, but they have no right to the name, and no other Brahmans will have anything to do with them.

Sunris burn their dead and perform the regular srdddlt oere-^ mony in Bengal on the thirtieth, and iu Behar

isposa o 0 ea . ^^ ^^^ thirteenth day after death The usual periodical oblations for the beuefit of departed ancestors are poured forth on the new moon of Kdrtik (October-November).

Social atatus in Bongal. P'''^,^^^ ^^i^ *'!® f o l l o w i n g aCCOUnt of t h e social status ot bunris m Eastern Bengal •

" The Suiirl is a very degraded individual, indulging freelv in intoxicating liquors. A Brahman may not utter his name before noon. The mnjority of the workmen in the Government Abkdri or Excise Department are Sunns, and most of the ganja shops are owned by them. The Hindustani distiller (Kaldr,%:alwdr) h S ' nothmg m common with the Sunn , as he only manufactures spixft and will not vend it—an occupation carried on bv Kurmi« T Bamyas. - • ^ " ' ^ ^ s . or

"The Sdha, again, is perhaps the most enterprising and prosriR. ous community m Bengal, compnsmg a large number of tb« ? .V merchants, salt-traders, wood-dealers, and bankers 'Yh usually known as Amda-icald, or traders who import e-nnHc ^ ^ ^''^ aud sell them to i>etty dealers by retail. Mahaiaif GnU v ^^^^^e Arhatdar, or broker, are also common designatio'ns "vf x' ^^<i standing their improved position of late years, they are'pfili ^*^^t^-abandoned m the eyes of the Hindus. Even the Bhuh o' ^^^^^y

" " ^ ^ ' j , who

STORIDHANUK. 281 SUNFWAR.

Sunri Dhinuk, a sub-caste of Dhdnuks in Behar.

• B"? ' " ' ^* ' ^ '""^ °^ ^^°*^°° °* '' ^ &hosin sub-caste of GoaUs

Sunriwdr-Solhni, a mul of the Parasara section of Maithil Brnli mans m Behar. j j jau-

§UItltto^r, Sonicar, a cultivating tribe of Nepal, formino- with the Origin. ^J'l^^^ ^'^rung and Khas the class known as

S,,., ^ ' , Mukbya or chief. Although in theory the Sunuwars are a strictly endogamous group, intermarriao-e with Hangars and Gurungs is tacitly recognized. The ceremony cannot be performed m puhbc, hut such unions are admitted to he valid and the children are counted in all respects as Sunuwars excent'that during the first generation Sunuwars of the whole blood may not take rice o^dal from their hands. In the second generation this disability ceases to have effect. Sunuwars say that they came originally from Simungarh near Bara Ohhatri m Western Nepal and fbft Zth • east they came to Chuplu on the L i i h u k h o f a X l C V t o f k r o s ' e S

^ v J ^ ^ ^ T r i ^^"^ ^^^^^^ ruler of Eastern Nepal. Likhukhola and Khuntikhola are now the mam settlements of the tribe °^^

The internal structure of the tribe is shown in Appendix I There Internal structure. ^^\^^ sub-tribes. All the names of the septs

ni, A -n • n T c x° 1 '" ' "^^'^^ ^ conjectured by Babu Sarafc Chandra Das O.I.E., to be a corruption of the Sanskrit > , born of Presumably, therefore, they have reference to descent, and further analysis may show that they preserve the names or nicknames of th« first founders of the septs. For the following derivations and explanations I am indebted to Babu Sarat Chandra Das •—Jespucha means 'bom of the Jespu,' a tree, called Kairal by the Khas of Nepal Proper, the flowers of which are eaten by the hni people K^ticha-Kati is the name of a place. Jirel is supposed to b« o mixe^dsept arising from a cross with some tribe not belonging to the Mukhya group. Although it is reckoned as a sept or thar\,^l Sunuwars do not intermarry with its members, nor will tl, ^ dalov rice cooked by them. For all that the Jirel have - f ^ ' ^ ^ " endogamous but marry with half-bred Sunuwars and ^fl ? T ^ of the Mukhya and KirAnti groups In ^ZIW ^l\ ^^^^"^ ^^^s are not so sharply drawn as in India ind f ! < • •distinctions marriages find plenty of people in ^ 2 fh '^^'P^'i'ig of mixed themselves. The Wangdecha sept is considpri • '"""^ Position as to the rest. Although they are admitted fn ^° °° ® '®^ ® inferior septs, dal and rice are not taken from \\ ."'J^ry with the other eaid to be a Tibetan word, and it may be t w ^u?'^'^^- Wandeh is from Tibet after the others had become S \ v •^tPU'^'^igrated Kyahbohoha means 'born from a Kyahboh '7T^-W^"^ l ^ i n d u ' d e a s ladder used by the hillmen for d e f c e n d i n g S ? ? Y^'"'^^ ^ ^ope wild honey, of which they are very fond TiT ^ °* ^ «liff to I f Bepts, LeoHcha and Jespucha, are both cTlM P^el ior ' * ' * *^^ S and may not intermarry, does nr f c „ „ ! ^ " " ^ ^ or earth k . affinities of the tribe. ^ ' ' ' """^ '^&^«t any inference as t ^ v ' ^ '

In most cases girls are manied after they are . r '

Marriage. « t , ,^^ ^^^.^^^ a^ndV^^^.'^P 0 i^en

" - - ^ e is tacitly . C g t S ^ - o o e oil the

SUNEI, 280

•works for them, will not touch their food, and a Chandal loses caste if he lays his hand on the stool on which one of them is sitting. There is a saying among Bengalis that if a Sudra t e walking down a narrow lane with only Sunri houses on each side, and an elephant approaches, he ought to allow the elephant to trample him under foot rather than take refuge in a house of the accursed. The Dhoha and Ndpit are members of the Siinri caste, the Sudra washerman and barber declining to work for them. Although the Sddra Nipit occasionally shaves the Sdhas, he will not attend at any of their religious ceremonies. When a member of the caste has to be employed. A Siinri will not cultivate the soil, although he does 60 in Central Bengal, nor will he ply as a boatman imless the boat belongs to his caste and is entirely manned by Sunris. He is also prohibited from becoming a fisherman and from selling fish in the market." Some of the lower classes of Sunris have taken to working as carpenters and thatchers of houses.

I n Behar the Darchiia Sunris, who manufacture, and the Behar Ganjwar, Dhakankord, Sikharia, and Chaurthin

Sunris, who deal in country liquor, are consi­dered lower in point of social standing than Kul-Sunri, Sagdhut, and Biahut sub-castes, the members of which are usually shop-keepers or dealers in grain. The entire caste, however, occupies a low position in the Hindu social system, and Telis are the bighest caste which will take water from their hands. As a rule they affect to observe the restrictions in matters of diet which are characteristic of the Yaishnava sect, bub the Kul-Sunris of Bhagalpur admit that they «at mutton, goat flesh, all kinds of fish, and even field-rats. Most of them indulge pretty freely in strong drink. Many Sunris have taken to cultivation, but comparatively few appear to have risen above the grade of tenure-holder or raiyat with occupancy rights.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Sunris in 1872 and 1881. In th e former year the figures of the districts in Behar and Chota Nagpur include those of Kalwars and Kalals.

DiaiKiCT.

Biifdwan Bnnkura Birhhum Midnapur Hughl i Howrah 24-Farganfts . Nadiya E h u l n a Mur^hedabad Jessore Dmajpnr Eajshahje BauKpur BoKra Pabna narjiliiiK J'lpinon Kuch Behar .. Uacca F..riapur

" P S " " ^ -

1872.

2'2.259 12,657 SI.173

3,031

6,609

i:i,273 10,183

i'n,'ui 84,146

6,685 8.228

flits'* 29,728

466 1,116

26,677 26,160 S6,»S2 36,323

18*1. DiBKIICT.

19,688 21,105 15.841 7,iiC6 8,560 1,771 0,270 9,495 9,898

13,039 17,170 4,408 0,871 4,939 6,775

25,319 8t

1,447 6>i7

34,191 10,845 4I,S»8 32,749

Ohilt'igonK Noukhuli PiiUia Gya ; Mwhabad Tirlmt ( ""'iiflerpur

i Daibhanga Snran Champaran . JInnghvr lihiiKalpur ..,

I Puniittli I Miildah

bant4l Par^anas ' Outtack

I Piiri • Balasore I Tributary states •"

HuvanbiKh I I-oliiirdaea

S'liKI-hum ;••

1872.

1.742 0,895

16.666 !',24(i

20,6U5

94,189

21,533 3i,6C« 20.703 36,851 18,724 •t,;92

18,242 3,246 1,976 1,757 8,405

13,277 »,!»'t4 8,274

19.030 1,853

1881.

2,162 S,08l 7.899 6,613 4,409

22,656 25,440

1,163 422

8,982 12,102 14,139

7,2SS 20,30S

4,2Bl 1,709 1,588 »,t83

17,676 9,312 2,011

18,14(1 2,83*

SUA^RI DHXNUK:. 281 SUxNUWAB.

Sunri Dhinuk, a sub-caste of Dhdnuks in Behar. Sunriet, a mtil or section of the Grhosin sub-caste of Goalas

in Behar. Sunriwar-Solhni, a tnul of the Parasara section of Maithil Brah-

mans in Behar.

§lUtUill!it, Sonirdr, a cultivating tribe of Nepal, forming with the Oricin Mangar Gurung and Khas the class known as ""«'"• Mukl lya or chief. Although in theory the

Sunuwars are a strictly endogamous group, iutermarriao-e with Mangars and Gurungs is tacitly recognized. The ceremony cannot be performed in public, but such unions are admitted to be valid, and the children are counted in all respects as Sunuwars, except that during the first generation Sunuwars of the whole blood may not take rice or ddl from their hands. In the second generation this disability ceases to have effect. Sunuwars say that they came originallj' from Simungarh near Bara Ghhatri in Western Nepal, and that wandering enst they came to Chuplu on the Likhukhola river and took possession of it. Makwani Raja was then ruler of Eastern Nepal. Likhukhola and Khuntikhola are now the main settlements of the tribe.

The internal structure of the tribe is shown in Appendix I . There Internal structure. ''™, ° ° sub-tribes _ All the names of the septs

end in c/ia, which is conjectured by Babu Sarat Chandra Das, O.I.E., to be a corruption of the Sanskrit ja. born of. Presumably, therefore, they have reference to descent, and further analysis may show that they preserve the names or nicknames of the first founders of the septs. For the follo-ning derivations and explanations I am indebted to Babu Sarat Chandra Dis:—Jespucha means 'bom of the Jespu,' a tree, called Kairal by the Khas of Nepal Proper, the flowers of which are eaten by the hill people, KAticha-Kati is the name of a place. Jirel is supposed to be a mixed sept arising from a cross with some tribe not belonging to the Mukhya group. Although it is reckoned as a sept or thar, pure Sunuwars do not intermarry with its members, nor will they eat ddl or rice cooked by them. For all that the Jirel have not becomn endogamous, but marry with half-bred Sunuwars and other tribp« of the Mukhya and Kiranti groups In Nepal tribal distinctions are not so sharply drawn as m India, and the offspring of mixed marriages find plenty of people m much tho =,.,«„ ^ " \mixea themselves. The WanVecha sept is c o S e r e . in s o ^ P° ' '*-T -^^ to the rest. Although they are admit tef to i ^ T r i T ^ t r ^ ^ ^ septs, ddl and rice are not taken from theiT h a J d r W / ^ ^ • ' said to be a Tibetan word, and it may be that fl , ,? . . V«n<ieh is from Tibet after the others had become famii;.,. l-fvPU"'^'^.''^*^'^ Kyahbohoha means 'bom from a Kyahboh' m l / f o ^ ^ ."^ ^<^ as. ladder used by the billmen for descending the face S^f^r i l -^ ^^P« wild honey, of which they are very fond. The fanf tl, f ^ S®^ eepts, Leokicha and Jespucha, are both called Pretioh?r.l J , **o and may not intermarry, does not suggest any i n f e r e n o r ^ " ' ' ' ' ^ . affinities of the tribe. ^^ ^ luierence as to the

In most cases girls are married after they are grown , Marriage. «* ^heir own choice, and sesnnl • ^ ^ ' ' « i e n

before marriage is tacitly recogl^'^^^'^ourse s^'zed ou the

SUFCrW"i:E. 282

understanding that in the event of the girl becoming pregnant she will be married without delay. Infant-majnage, however, is some­times resorted to by well-to-do families which have been infected by Hindu ideas. Polygamy is allowed, but is not largely resorted to If a man's first wife has no children, he is held to be justified in taking a second, and the matter is often arranged by hia marrying his first wife's younger sister—an an-angemeiit which is naturally more conducive to domestic peace than the selection oi an outsider The marriage ceremony consists for the most part of ritual borrowed from the Hindus, and sindurddn, or the smearing of vermilion on the bride's forehead and the parting of her hair, is the essential and binding portion. In addition to the standard forms, we find the peculiar usage that the bride's parents wash her feet when they give her to the bridegroom and splash the water over their own heads By doing this they believe that they wash from her, and as it were take back, the quality of membership of her original sept and transfer her to the sept of the bridegroom. On the next r^omins the bride washes the bridegroom's feet, and diinks the water, sayin-at the time that she does this as a sign that she has entered his sepi and IS truly his wife. After this has been done, she is considered competent to cook nee and ddl for her husband and the members of his sept. The Nepalese regard it as characteristic of the Makhya group that they treat the son-in-law as a very important personage ^ ' ' ^ " ' r ^fy/o^^^ 'P ^™ ; wliLle the Kkdntis look upon him rather m the light of a servant. By Kiranti custom, if a young man runs away with a girl and is unable to pay the fine which is appointed for such cases, his childi-en by her are regarded and may be claimed as slaves by her parents. I t is curious to find that the girl's maternal uncle is deemed the proper person to demand payment of the fine. The explanation of the difference of the Mukhya and Kiranti points of view is probably to be found in the fact that the former have been more affected than the latter by Hindu ideas, which tend always to exaggerate the value of men and to depreciate women.

A widow may not marry again by the standard ritual ordained for the marriage of a spinster, but she may live with a man without going through any ceremony at all,_ and in such cases public opinion recognizes her as his wife. _ Her children are deemed legitimate and their status is in no way inferior to that of children born from a woman married by the fuU ceremony. If the deceased husband leaves a younger brother, married or unmarried, he is held to have a prior claim on the person of the widow, and she may not take up with another man until he has decided not to exercise his rights. Divorce is permitted on the ground of the adultery or misconduct of the wife Divorced women may marry again m the same manner as widows and their chUdren by second husbands are deemed legiti­mate UsuaUy the first husband keeps his own children, but if the divorced wife is allowed to take them with her as sometimes happens, they are treated as the children of her second husband.

In point of reHgion the bunuwars may be described aa undeveloped Jlindus, still retaining many traces

\ KoiigioD. pf an earlier animistic faith. They offer rice, flowers, sandal wood and vermilion to Siva, and sacrifice goats to

STJNUWm. 283 ^TTRAHIYA.

Kali, when sickness or domestic trouble affliots them. Bhim Sen the second of the Fandava brethren, is worshipped with sacrifices of he-goats, buffaloes, ducks, fowls and pigeons; but buffaloes are

•ottered only on rare occasions, and the minor victims are usually thought sufficient. Tuesdays and Saturdays are the auspicious days. Offerings of rice, flowers aud sital-putfi Jeaves are also made to the rivers aud mountain torrents and to the main peaks of the Hizaalayas visible from Nepal. Upadhva Brahmans serve them as priests and are received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order in Nepal. Among the minor religious observances of the tribe may be mentioned their solemn worship of the cow under the name of Lakshmi on the new moon of the month of Kartik, and their practice of marrying banyan and tbe pipul when found growing side by side.

Most iSunuwars bury their dead and observe the same funeral Disposal of the dead, ceremonies as the Maugars; but some well-to-do

people have ot late years taken to the Hindu practice of cremation, and perform a, regular srdddh on the tenth or twelfth di.y after death.

The tribe believe himting to have been their original occu-

Occupation. P ^ ^ ° ° ' , ? ' ^ o ° ' T °^ ^ m T ^ ? , ^^'^ s t r o n g l y addicted to the chase. The bulk of the tribe

however, live by agriculture aud pastoral pursuits. Supaha, a section of Kanau- i Suphar, a section of Kase-

' ~ ' ras in Behar. — - 1 - .

jid Lobars in Behar. Supahran, a mnl or section of

the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sonars in Behar.

Supa-Pargha, a sub-caste of Parghds in Behar.

Sup^ra, a sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Supat, a section of the Chha-jdti Bub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

Supolia, a title of Doms who make t>up, a bamboo work for separating the chaff from the grain.

Sur, a title of Dakshin-Rarhi and Bangaja Kayasths and of Saukhdris and Sadgops in Bengal.

Surabani, a section of Kum-bars in Smgbhum.

Origin cultivating, and labouring caste of 1 ^ ^ ^ ' ""^°- According to Dr. Wise t b l v ? • • °*,.,-'^ehar.

of other boatmen, is traced to the f a b u l S w ^ S d " " ' T \ ' *^^* a shadowy connexion between the Surahiya and Chnm '^i. T^^ ^^ use the water vessels and hookahs of the latter but «. n ? ^ ^ ^ assuming a higher rank, will smoke, but will 'nni-fL ybam, intermarry with Surahiya. The Surahiyas hTve T tradir ^ ^'^^ their own, except the common one that their .ancestors o ^ ^ ^ °* the west.' (i&inQ <• f joQ^

Both infant and adult-marriage are in vogue but tl. ^ Marriage. ^'^^^^. n»ore respectable. The m w """^^^ is

'- mony ig the same as is use*! liv °® cere lower castes, w^durdan being the binding portion V^^^ «f the

•^%gamy i .

ec'&ji.^vs; ^. 284 SUEALI.

allowed, but is not pTactised on a laree scale A •m;,i, a second time. I t « ^ W « h t r i g b t % r her to m a r r r h r f a t r W band's younger brotber li tbere is one, but she i / , , ^ ! ^"?^.'^^f obliged to do 80. Divorce is not recognized. positively

I n matters of religion the Surahiyas nrofpw + -L -, , Keii on. Hindus, and e . ^ M S V a W n s for

rebgious and ceremonial piirnrTB T ^°^ . however, the greater gods of the Hindu Panfh ' W&ehce, occasional worship, and the working religion oi tJi receive only

Baha, the boatman's deitj, and Amar S i u l a cnnf ' ' ' ' 5 ? ' ^ ' \ ^ ° J^ who seems to be their special patron. K i s \ o " r ? p S ' o t S house is daubed with cow-dung on stated flnv=T ^ u of the year except Pans (DecemL-Inuary) T d r i ' T ^ a r " " ^ Apiil), and goats, rice, sweetmeats ghTetc nff S^"^* (¥ ' ^ ' °^ -

In point of Booial^^standing the Surahiyas rank immediately Social status and occu- -r.^,, 2^'.'^^ castes from whose hands

will accept sweetmeats S S ^ f e S t ° ^ ^ l ! " ' ^ . *%*'.=^^ ^roup, in their bouses. The c h a r a c t e r ^ S p a t f o n of Z '""t •° v"' ^ ° ' and fishing. Dr. Wise d e s c n b e s ^ t S t ^ t ^ t r ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ sailors often met with in Eastern Bengal during the cold season in large trading vessels laden with grain, pulse, or fuUer's earth^ which IS sold to malmjans and a cargo of rice shipped for the return voyage. They are very muscular and large-boned, and their physique offers a striking contrast to that of the average Bengali boatman. Some Snrahijas have taken to cultivation and hold land as occupancy and non-occupancy raiyats. Their number, however, is comparatively small, and there' ai-e at present no signs of their developing into a sub-caste • in fact even cultivating Surahiyas are ready to engage themselves as boatmen.

The following statement shows the number and rHof^v i- t Surahiyas in 1881. The figures of 1872 were returned a m o n ^ r h Z f ' others' of the Boating and Fishing caste.. ^ " " " ^ *^°^^ °^

Birhhum !i-Pargan4s Muriibeiiabad Dinajpur ... Eajsnahyo . ^''•"I'Pt"' ••• Haimanjinh

onahabad ...

DiSTBIOT. 1881.

106 21

3911 973 163

3 4

19 1,$U

DiBTEICT.

DnrbhnnRa JIoznCTerpur " Champaran Slongliyr "hagnlnur "• I'lirniuh Maldah

1831.

43

** 3 2,863 2,199

493 eS6 139

III

Betglf' ' ^ '"'^ *''' hypergamous sub-group of Rarhi Brahman^ in

SUEAIYA. 285 SURAJ-BANSI.

Suraiyd, a synonym for Surahiyd.

Surajbansi, Surjabansi, a sub-caste of Tiyars ; a synonym for Raj war; a title of the E'ouhh

tribe in Northern Bengal; a divi­sion of Eajputs ; a sub-caste of GodUs in the Provinces and Suryabansi .

North-Western Behar. See

§\Xraj-b<UTSi. This title, properly denoting one of the twomaia stocks of Eajputs, has been assumed within comparatively recent times by a hybrid Mongoloid caste claiming to be the aborigines of Kamrup and now inhabiting the jungly tracts of Bhowal in Eastern Bengal. According to I)r. Wise, from whose notes this article is con­densed, the Suraj-bansis were formerly regarded as akin to the Kochh-mandAi, but the Brahmans. taking advantage of their credulity and ignorance, led them to believe that they were descendants of the Chhatri who, by throwing away their sacred thread, escaped the axe of Parasurama. Accordingly, in 1871, a body of representative Suraj-bansis went to the house of their zamiudar, Kali Narayana Eai, Eai Bahadur, a Srotriya Brahman, and requested him to reiuvest them with the sacred cord. An offer of five hundred rupees was made, but declined. Disappointed at this unexpected rebuff, they retired to consult, and afterwards raised their offer to two thousand. This sum allayed the scruples of the Brahman, the sacred cord was with due solemnity presented, and ever since the Suraj-bansi have assumed the high rank of Chhatri, to the groat disgust of the Hindus of those parts.

The Koohh-mandai, who reside in the same jungle, assert that . a few years ago the Suraj-bansi were known as Kochh-mandai, and even at present Bans! is their ordinary appellation. The Suraj-bansi are peculiar to Bhowal, and are not met with beyond the limits of the Dacca district. They are eertamly allied to the Kochh-mandai, but have modified the Mongoloid type by marrying with low Bengali castes. Their original language, probably a dialect of Garo, has

peculiar Mongoloid cnst of featuies, with oblique eyelids and scanty growth of hair- but the majority have the common Bengali countenance, with bushv moustaches and voluminous cues, for they have adopted the Vaish nava fashion of w.-aring the hair. They already call themselves worshippers of Vi.'-hun, and have engnged the bervioes of a Patit Brahman as purohit Twice a yenr, in Phalgun and Baisakh, thev worship under a ml tiee Kam>.kha Devi, the tutelary goddess of Kamiup. Durga, Wanasa Devi, and B.ira-Buri are invol-J • Beaeons of sickness and domestic trouble, and especial honour ilJ^ to the sun as the reputed ancestor and eponym of the caste V h ^ have borrowed three ryo/;«s, Kasyapa, Aliman, and MadhnTr i- ^ and marriages into the same cjotm are strictly forbidden A W ^ ^ ' marriage has been abandoned; divorce is prohibited and \ l V^^^W. system of marr,ing oirls before puberty adopted' F,, a ^^^^'^^ having assumed the sacred thread of the Chhatris tb^v ? . ^^^ore, in observing the uaddhaon the nineteenth day after d e t T ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^

SUEA.J-BANSI. 286 SUEYABANSI.

By Hindus they are not admitted to belong to a clean caste, but the Sudra servants are beginning to work for them, and in a few years they will doubtless have secured an established position. The Kochh-mandai affirm that the Suraj-bansi secretly indulge in the forbidden luxury of pork, although to curious strangers the fact is stoutly denied. I t is a familiar experience that this taste survives in many tribes long after they have adopted the external observances of Hinduism. Almost all Suraj-bansis are cultivators, growing rice, pulse, tobacco, mustard and cotton on clearings in the jungle. Fish­ing is deemed dishonourable. A few who have acquired a slight knowledge of Bengali are employed as traders or servants to land­holders.

Surajdhaj , a sub-caste of Kayasths in Behar.

Suran, a section of Rautias in Chota Nagpur.

Surania, a section of Kharids in Chota Nagpur.

Surat, a section of the &hosin sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Suratwala, ' a good looking man,' a synonym for Barnasankar. In Gji an ironical designation of the illegitimate descendants of Gryawals by women of the Eajput, Babhan, and Bhat castes, but not of lower castes.

Surava, a sub-caste of MaUdhs in Behar.

Surer), a section of Turis in Chota Nagpur.

Sureswari , a gotra or section of Subamabaniks in Bengal.

Suret, a nnil or section of the Kanaujia sub-caste of Sonars in Behar.

Surgane, a tmiloi the Pai-^sara section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

' Surgria, a section of Babhans m Behar.

> ,. Surhi, a wild cow, a totemis-tic ,sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

•^Suri, fly, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur; a Beotion of the Bahannajati sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal; a synonym for Sunri.

Surijhabu, a sept of Chiks in Chota Nagpur.

Suril, a totemistio sept of Mimdas who do not propitiate the ' Churin Deota.'

Surin, a eept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Surinwar, a section of Tuiis in Chota Nagpur.

Surjahd, a section of the Biyahut and Khandaha Kal-wars in Behar.

Surkhi, a sept of the Suiya-bansi sub-tiibe of Rajputs in Behar.

Surnair, a sept of Eajputs in Behar.

Pdns m p,S|"-uan. a sept of Chota Nagpur.

« J " T ' ^ 7 k ^ ^ ° ^ ornament, a ^ept of Kharwars in Chota JNagpur.

Surwdr, a sept of the Surya-bansiRdjputsiii^Behar.

Suryabansi, Sn>i>, 'desoend-f.^J of the sun/ an hononfic title assumed by many pastes,

SUEYABANSI. 287 SUTHADHAH.

servants of the Haj jam or Kahar caste, -whose duty was to superin­tend their master's stores of pro­vision and edibles.

Suta, a sub-caste of Aguris in Western Bengal.

Siithrd Sahi, Sutrasdhi, certain sect of mendicants said to be •worshippers of Nirgun—Q-od, void of qualities. They attract notice when soliciting alms by beating two sticks together.

§ t t t i l ta r , a low caste who spin cotton thread.

Sutihar, a synonym for Barhi in Behar.

particularly the Eajputs, and castes which, like the Dravidian Eajbansi Kochh of Northern Bengal, attempt to affiliate them­selves to the Eajputs ; a sub-tribe of Eajputs in Bebar; a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Suryabansi Lama, a thar or sept of Guxungs in Darjiling.

Surya-dwija, a sub-caste of Tdmbulis in Behar.

Susan, a sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Suswdr, Susivdri, a title given by the former Eajas of Eamgarh to some of their

§Xttl'ax)ulU', Chhittdr, the carpenter caste of Bengal, named rr^ji- „r • • thread-holder, from the Sanskrit s-iitra, the Traditions of ongui. ,•• , -.i i • n ji n ,i '

tnread, with which the course oi the saw is marked. Siitradhars claim descent from Yiswakarma, or, accordino-to others, from Kama, son of Kunti by the sun-god before her marriage to P^ndu. Kama, as is stated in the Mabdbhdrata, was exposed by his mother on the banks of the Jumna, where he was found by Adhiratha, the charioteer of Dhritarashtra. The Siitradhars seem to have adroitly taken advantage of the resemblance between the words kiita, a charioteer, and chJmtdr or mtdr, a carpenter, to equip themselves with a mythological pedigree of undoubted respectability. Their ingenuity, however, has availed them little. That shrewd observer Dr. Wise describes them as a very low caste, recruited from one of the aboriginal races of Eastern Bengal, and largely employed in boat-building. H e also quotes the story that in the time of Ballal Sen the Siitradhars lodged complaint against the Brahmans for not performing reliffious CPTP monies for them until all other castes had been served wherpnr^m," the king, to prevent all further controversy, enrolled them a m o S the mcha or low castes and gave them a special Brahman of t S

^^The^internal s t r u V e . i s U e r t S o ^ ' J i t ^ Z ' S ^ ' Internal structure. good instance of the t enS^nVTo m X n l t

,sub.castes, which has already been n o t i ^ , ^ the Hindu system. IN |

;houghthe materials at my I i ;p;sr iVe^e I S i l y a t r f n n / i ' ^""^ ^^onns confident that the fi-ni,mr>t„j..„_ : i. /• '"^ii'^i J- am W •„„

characteristic of the lower social gT-o^ps in the H T . , ' ^ ^ot iced^^ less than twenty-five sub-castes^axe^shol?in A^"^^^^^^^^^ N o

j^eans confident that the enumeration is exhaustive Of t i / " ^ ^ ^ ^0 some ai-e local, others occupational, while for many of tl ^ ' ^ ^^^^^Ps explanation at aU is forthcoming.' Thus the W e l t e m ^ ""^"^'^ ^o castes are based on distinctions of locaHty, except the G o ^ ? ! ^ ^ «^b-

SUTBADHAE. 288

a group of uncertain origin. In Dacca the Chhutar suh-caste make boats, household furniture, beams, wheels, and ploughs; the Chur&-Kutf parch and husk rice, make wooden necklaces, and bum shells for lime; the Kathurid make ploughs, tubs, platters, and wooden agricultural implements.

The Chhutars claim, and are admitted to have, precedence of the other two divisions. They are all included in one gotra, the Alamyan, and invariably belong to the Vaishnava creed. The caste has a panchayat, but no union daV, and their headman, styled Paramdiiik, settles disputes between members. I t is derogatory for a Chhutar to fell a tree, which is done by a class of Chandals called Kardtt, from the Sanskrit Kara-patra, a snw. Turning kimd-hdri), however, is the legitimate occupation of a carpenter, and he is permitted to make moulds used by confectioners for preparing fancy sweetmeats, and by plasterers for ornamenting cornices and roofs. Chhutars uever cultivate the soil, but frequently carry on business as mahajans or wholesale traders. Muhamadan carpenters, unknown iu Dacca, are common in Chittagong, where they are employed as shipwrights.

The members of the Churakuti sub-caste are gradually relinquishing their ancestral trade, and of late years have taken Muhamadan servants to husk rice, while they themselves act as grocers, selling pulse, grain, aud oils, or as writers, servants, and shop-keppers. The only wooden article now made by them is the sandal wood necklace worn by all Hindus The Purohit is distinct from the family priest of the other subdivisions. The headman is styled Pradhan, and the only gotra is Alamyan. The Churakuti are aU Vaishnavas in creed, the guru being the Farldabad Gosdin. Their principal festivities are the Gandheswari on the 10th Aswin (Septembei'), and New Year's day, on the 1st of Baisakh.

The Kuthuria subdivision, scattered throughout the Dacca di.strict, is engaged in cultivating the soil, building boats, and manufacturiui; lime vnth. the fresh water shells dredged from tlie extensive,;7»7s, or marshes, in the interior of Bikrampur, being for this reason often confounded with the Bditi or Chunari caste, a perfectly distinct comimmity. The Brahman of this sub-caste is an Achaiji, who performs the same religious ceremonies as the priest of the other two. The headman is known as Sarddr.

Similar distinctions appear under ^ different names in the Smikl Pargands, where the Ket Chhutar are ordinary carpenters working only in wood and making household furniture, palanquins, and the like; the Pa tura are stone-cutters; the Nagare practise turning; and the Bhar-Chhutar parch and pound rice into churd.

The sections have been borrowed from the Brahmanical system, niid give no clue to the origin of the caste.

_Exogamy ..nd hyper- rpj g,, ,,re uot invariably exoj;amous, and the tendency seems to be for the Sutradhars of

• -aKtem Bengal to regard tlie goira as a sort of titular distinction cmlf° " ^ Sulate their mari'iages by tho more modem system of wntmg piobiblted degrees, ihis at least is the case with two out

289 SUTRADHAE.

of the tlu-ee sub-castes tound in Dacca, while in Noakhal i t he caste is stated to have no sections at all. I n Western Bengal , on the otiier hand, the sections are still intact, and three of them—Alamrishi , B a n -rislii, and Kasyapa—appear in that district to be clearly totemistic. The Alamrishi will not eat, and even pay some sort of reverence to the eel (dind), while members of the Banrislii and Kasyapa sections observe a similai' taboo in respect of the ban fish iind the water-tortoise. This curious survival of primitive usage lends impor tan t confirmation to Dr. Wise's opinion that the caste is really of non-Ai-yaii descent. No regular system of hypergamy has ye t been developed amoiig them, but the beginnings of one may perhaps be discerned in the fact that families bearing the title of Pa r^manik are held in special esteem, and are usually spoken of as Kulins. Such families have not as yet reached the point of refusing to give their daughters in marriage to persons who are not Kulins , bu t a liigher bride-i)rice is paid for Pariimanik fjirls, and members of Pardraanik families are treated with special consideration a t wedding and funeral feasts. I n Dacca the Sutradhars of Bikrampur affect a. h igh degi-ee of ceremonial pui-ity, aud demand a special bride-i^rice on giving their daughters in marriage to Sutradhars coming from other places. I n the Bishanpm- estate in Baukura the superior families of Siitradhar jiay a small fee to the Kaja of Bibhanpm- for t h e privilege of calling themselves Euliris , aud tlie Ea j a is supposed to have the power of puniskiug a breach of caste custom by depriving the offender of this coveted distinction. No instance has come to my notice of this power being exercised in recent times, and the fee still paid is doubtless a survival from days when the Bishaupur family possessed considerable autiiority in Western Bengal .

Siitradhars marry their daughters as infants by the standard I H i n d u ceremony, of which siiipak. or the |

arriage. carrying of the bride seven times round the ' bridegroom, is deemed to be the binding portion. A bride-price ia paid, which varies -with the rank of the families concerned. Po ly­gamy is permitted, and there appear to be no theoretical objections to a man having as many wives as he can afford to main ta in Widows are not allowed to marry again, nor is divorce recoo'nized* Sexual indiscretions are usually hushed up within the circle°of t h " family in whicli they occur; but a woman whose infidelity gives rise to public scandal is summarily turned out of the oasto, a i d ceases thencefortii to be a member of respectable society.

The great majority of the caste belong to the Vaishnava sect Koiiijion. ^ " t worshippers of the Saktis are also found

. ^ -f 1 ' ' T ° * ' ' ^'^^^•.,V^^,^'^karm4 is regarded as their patron deity, and sacrifices are ottered to him ou the last Hn « Bb id ra and in Mdgh Fancluimi. Images of the god are somoff „acle in the Ukeness of a white man with t h i l e eyes Z H ^ ' ^ crown, and bearing a club in his r ight h a n d ; bu t usually l , •"' represented by the tools which the worshipper uses ic \1 , ,^^ These are set up inside the house and decorated with f i o w l '^^• offeringsare placed before them, while the god is b e s o u e h t l ?' ^ ^ ^ his votaries on their profession during the ensuing year s - i ^ ' ' ^ ° ^ "

'^utradhars i

SUTEADHAB. 290 SWIEI.

employ Brahmans for religious and ceremonial purposes, but these Brahmans belong to the Bama class, and are not received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. The dead are burned, and the ordinary srdddh ceremony is performed on the thirty-first day after death.

The social rank of the Siitradhar is low. Brahmans will not take water from their hands, and they may

bociai status. ^^ g^^^ ^^ occupy much the same position as the Jugi, Sunri, and Dhobd. I n Western Bengal the village barber has no objection to shaving them, but he marks his sense of their inferior status by declining to cut their toe , nails or

touch their feet. Carpentry is believed to be Mupa ion. their original and characteristic profession, but

besides the occupations already enumerated, Siitradhars are employed in cutting conch shells into bracelets, in making images of the gods and in painting religious pictures. In Murshedabad, indeed, this last occupation seems likely to form the basis of a new sub-caste, for I am informed that painters (Ohitrakir) do not intermarry with the members of the caste who work as carpenters and shell-cutters. In Noakhali some Siitradhars work as goldsmiths. Cultivating Siitra­dhars are usually occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats. None of them appear to have risen to be zamindars or tenure-holders: on the other hand, very few have sunk to the position of landless day-labourers.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Siitradhars in 1872 and 1881 :—

DisiBica'. 1872.

16,978 4,010 7,7-17

10 685

] 6,108

8,27 i o,iai

lb,fi44 10,"70

(.78 4,3i8 2,326 1,661)

10,282 169

1881.

10,131 6,4.71 8,9110

14.78* f 4,667 (. 1,791

1,167 a,4i0 1,632

12,071 9,673 1,019 1,066 2,220 l,6h7

12,714 100

DiSTBICT.

Bardwan Baakura Birbhura Midnapur Hughli Howrah 24-Pai'gan43 Nadija Kltuina. Jessore M urihedabad IJmajpur Eajshiibye EaiiBpur Boern pabiift Darjilmg

S utrasah i, a class of Baniyds in Behar. See Suthrd Sahi.

Suwahong, the mendicant, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjilmg.

Suyal, a thar or sept of Man-gars iu Darjiling.

Swain, a title of Cb^s^B in Orifiaa. »

Jalpigori Kuch Bphar Uacia Fandpiir Bakarganj .,. Maimatiiiinh ... 'lipperah ChittaKong ... Noakhah llaldah Suigbhnm ." Manbhum Tributary States, l.uttack Balasore Tributary States

1872. 1881.

73

15,907 6,086 2,081

21,479 11,801

1,328 2.7i>8 2,189

342 2,i'27 • 112

831. 133

15,295 5,200 1,161

27,188 1,626 2,454 3,.') 54 2,757

881 1,927

89 210

19 1

., ^^^["a-kausik, a section of tne Uttar-Bdrendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Swdrtha, self-absorbed, a title 01 -tsrahmans and Vaishnavas.

Swarupsing, a group o*,*¥ Patehsing Telis in turshedabad

Swetbhadra.ai .»r or section oi

Sakadwipi Brahmans m •^^^^^• Swiri, a synonym for Savar.

TABKAHILA. 291 TAMBRAKHOLA.

Tabkahila , a section of the Biy^hnt and KliariddM Kalw^rs in Behar.

Tabkar, a section of tlie Dha-pr4 sub-caste of Doms in Bebar.

T^bria, a section of Mabesris in Bebar.

Tag-tog-pd, tag or hrag^ a rook—a dweller on cliffs, a sub-sept of the Nab-pd sept of Sberpa Bbotias.

Tahalkia, a setion of GroAlas in the North-Western Provinces and Bebar.

Taia, a sept of Rdjputs in Bebar.

Taijaung, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Tallakdr, a synonym for Teli.

Tailangi or Andhra, a terri­torial division of the Pancha Drdvjra Brahmans who live in the south of the Yindhya range, a country of the Telugu language.

Taili, a synonym for Teli. Taingchait, a sept of Maghs

in the Hill Tracts of Obittagong.

Taipdl, a synonym for Teli. Tairan, a gotra or section of

Agarwals.

Taitia, a sept of Ndgeswars iu Obota Nagpur.

Taitum, a sept of Mundas in Cbota Nagpur.

•j-giya, a title of Hindu JoM-UB in Bebar.

Taina, name of a i-iver, a

'toteuustie^^P*^'**^'^'^''^ Cbota Nagp^-

T<.wware-Ankusi, a nml of

Brab«^au8 in Bebar.

Takware-Nimd, a mtd of the Bdtsa section of Maithil Brah­mans in Bebar.

Talabati, a gain of the KSsya-pa gotra of Rarbi Brahmans in Bengal.

Talahadaba, palm-tree, a ^ totemistio sept of Judngs in Orissa.

Taldibon^, a sub-caste of Doms in Bengal who make palm-leaf mats.

Talapatra , bottom of a pot, a title of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

T^lkata, a sub-caste of Hdris in Bengal who extract the juice from ^d/trees.

Talu, a thar or sept of Man-gars in Darjiling.

Tamag, a i/iar or sept of Murmis in Dai-jibng. The term is sometimes used to denote the whole caste.

Tamagandiya, a section of Tui'is in Bebar.

Tamar , a sept of Edjputs in Bebar.

T a m t r i y a , Murd^ or Mdnki-Murd, a sub-tribe of Bhumijs originally settled in pargana Tamar of Lohardaga.

Tamb^, copper, a sept of Kharwars and Mundas in Obota Nagpur.

TamberS, a -sub-caste of Kaseras, braziers in Bebar.

Tamboli , a group of the Sri-Gaura sub-caste of Graura Brab ' mans.

Tambrakhola, a sub-tribe nf Limbus in Darjiling.

t2

TAMBULI. 292

'U'aillbuli, Tdmnli, Tamli, a respectable trading caste of Bengal, Behav, and Orissa, whose original occupation

OngiD. . supposed to have been the selling of betel-leaf, Sanskrit Umhula. Tradition represeuts them as the descecd-ants of a Vaisja father and a Brahman _ mother, but tbis legend ele!>rly throws no light upon the true origin. I t is possible that they may be an offshoot fiom one of the trading castes, whose usages have been transioimed by contnct with Brahmanical influences. Thp Tambulis of Behar have no sections, and regulate their marriages by the standard formula for reckoning prohibited degrees calculated to six generations in the descending line for dhianid relations and fourteen for dcadi. In Bengal and Orissa the Brahmanical goiras are in use, Yyasa being included among them. Instead, however, of following the ordinal y law of exogamy, theTdmbuli have a peculiar system of their own. which depends partly on the gotra and partly on the family name. Persons who belong to the same gotra are allowed to marry provided ihey do not bear the same family name^ and persons of the same family name may marry if they belong to different gotras. "Where, however, both family name and gotra are the same, the prohihition on intermarriage is absolute. Marriage between iopindas and samaiiodakan is also foibidden.

TheTambuHsof Bengal are divided into five sub-castes or tltaks , , . —Saptagrami or Kusadave, Ashtagrami or

Internal straeture. i . r x t - r > i J J ' • r r A H - . i Kataki, Chauddagrami, Biyallisgrami, and

Bardhamani. The fiist-named say that they came from Northern India, and that their chief settlement was at iSaptagram or Satgaon, where they numbered about 1,400 families. An outrage committed on one oi their maidens by the Mahomedan Governor of the place induced them to leave iSatgdon in a body and settle at Kusadaba, in the 24-Parganas, which they now regard as their head­quarters in Bengal. A similar origin is claimed for tiie Biyallis­grami, the largest of the five sub-castes, who are supposed to have entered Bengal at a still earher date. The Chauddagrami, which is now reckoned the highest in rank, is said to owe its origin to one Sashthibar Singh, _ a member of the Biyallisgrami group, who being turned out of Ins father's house for marrying the daughter of Srimanla Pal, a Tamuli of the Bardhamani sub-caste, took refuge with his father-in-law at Bainchi, in Hughli, and headed a faction of his own. Being a man of wealth and influence, he gained over to bis side several leading families, and thus foimed the nucleus of a new sub-caste, which comprised the TamuHs of fourteen villages chcmhagrdm). borne clue to the time when this took place is giAen by the inscription on a temple at Bainchi, which show.s it to have been built by Gokul, the son of SashtHbar, in the Saka yeai-1 5 0 4 = A.D. 1582. We may place the formation of the Chaudda­grami sub-caste some fifty years earher. The Bardhamani sub- cast e are supposed to have had their eaa-liest settlement in the Bardwan district, but they are now most numerous in Bii-hhum. The Ashta-griimi profess to have come from Uppgj. j ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ g^^^e time as tbe Saptagrami, but residence m Qrissa has cut them off from the rest of the caste, and their social rank is now comparatively low. The

293 TA:MBULr.

Behar sub-oastes are sbown in Appendix I, and demand no speoial notice here.

Tambulis marry their daughters as infants. The Asura form of marriage is in vogue, and the parents of the

Mamago. bridegroom pay a bride-price, which varies aooording to the status of the bride's family. Kusandika forms part of the ritual, but the- essential and binding portion is believed to be the formal gift of the bride and acceptance of her by the bridegroom. Yellow silk is the proper bridal dress, but should the family be poor a girl may be married in cottou dyed with turmeric.' Polygamy is permitted, and in theory a man may have as many wives as he can afford to maintain Such indulgence, how­ever, is rare, and I understand that few Tambulis have more than one wife. A man may marry two sisters, but he must follow the order of age, and may not marry his wife's elder sister. Divorce is not recog­nized, and on the rare occasions when a public scandal occurs within the caste the offending wife is turned out to shift for herself. Widows are forbidden to marry again, and the custom of the caste compels them to lead a more strictly ascetic life than is usual am,ong the other castes of the Navasakha. They are allowed only one meal a day, of which neither flesh nor fisli may form part, and they must fast entirely twice a month. A Tumuli widow indeed is subject to as severe ordinances of self-denial as a Brahman widow. These ascetio doctrines, however, hold good only in Bengal and Orissa. I n Behar a widow may marry again, and is tied down by no special restrictions in her choice of a second husband, altbough it is deemed right and proper for her to mai'ry her deceased husband's younger brother should such a relative exist. I t deserves notice that among the Behar Tamulis the ceremony used at the marriage of a widow, though called sagai, does not differ materially from that which is performed when a virgin is married. In most cases where widow-marriage is permitted, the ritual is extremely meagre, and usually consists of little more than the smearing of red lead on the bride's forehead. Divorce is effected with the sanction of the panchayat, but divorced wives may not marry again.

The religion of the Tambulis presents no features of special Religion. interest. Most members ot the caste are

Vaishnavas, and comparatively few worship­pers of the Saktis are found among them. They employ Brahmans for religious and ceremonial purposes, who are received on equal terms by other members of the sacred order. Among the minor gods recognized by the caste in Bengal may be mentioned the sun and moon, to whom rice, plantains, etc., are offered occasion­ally; Chandi, Lakshmi, Sashthi, and Manasa. In Behar Bandi and Nar Singh are the favourite deities. The offerings presented to them are wheaten cakes, sweetmeats, curds, and plantains, which are afterwards eaten by the members of the household. On th Purnima or full moon oi BaisaKh some Tambulis set up in=jri^ their houses a vessel of lime, some betel-leaves, and areoa nut \ ff the scissors Jcatari and jdnti) used for cutting the leaf aad nnf ] worship these as the emblems of their trade. The dead are ^

TiMBULI. 294

and the ddya or principal sraddha performed on the thirty-first day after death. Those who are well off make a point of taking some of the ashes to the Granges, but the poor merely throw them into the nearest stream or tank.

To prepare and sell betel-leaf, which they buy from the culti­vators, is believed to be the original occupation

Occupafaon. ^^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^-^^^ ^j,gy g j l adhere" to in-Behar and Upper India, often adding thereto ^ the business of a • pmufdri or druggist. I n Bengal, however, the Tambulis have long since abandoned this special business, and taken to dealing in grain -and petty shop-keeping. Some sell lime, others are employed as g<mdshias in large shops, a certain number hold land, and a few are Government servants, pleaders, wukhtidrs, doctors, clerks in merchants' offices, and schoolmasters. No Tambuli will hold the plough himself, and those members of the caste who have taken to agriculture ai-e zamindars, tenure-holders, and occupancy raiyats cultivating their lands by means of hired labour.

The social rank of the caste is respectable. They are usually classed among the Nabasdkha, and in most"

Socmi stotu3. districts of Bengal Brahmans will take water' from their hands. On this point, however, there seems to be some • conflict both of ancient authority and of modem nsage. The-. couplet of Pardsara, which is usually cited as the locus classicii&. defining the Nabasakh or Nava-Sayaka group, makes no mention of the Tdmbuli; and although it is alleged that the caste is included-imder the Teli, who also are descended from a Vaisya father and. a Brahman mother, this seems rather a forced interpretation. On the other hand the Brahma Vaivarta Purdna omits the Toli and gives the Tdmbuli a prominent place among the Sat-Sudras. So the Brahmans of Bengal, while usually according to the Tdmbuli a place among the Navasdkha, do not invariably allow them the privileges attaching to this position; and a Tdmbuli gentleman,* to whom I am indebted for an excellent series of notes on the caste, informs me that neither Brahmans nor Rajputs will take water from their hands. Tdmbulis will partake of cooked food with none but members of their own sub.caste. Thus a Cliauddagrami will eat boiled lice only with a Cliauddagrami. and BO on. Some, howevert will eat the leavinjis of Brahmans. Their own rules regarding die are the same as are followed by most orthodox Hindus Among lawful animal food thoy admit goat's flesh, venison, and all kinds ifi fish ordinarily sold except the scaleless varieties known as pdmis, gorchd, and eta Some also dnnk wine, but those who abstain from both animal food and strong dnnk are deemed to follow a more excellent path. In Behar, where less attention seems to be paid to the dicta of writers of the iauramc age, the Tdmbuli rank with the Koiri,-and no question has arisen as to the propriety of Brahmans taking water from their hands.

. The following statement _ shows the number and distribution of Tdnibulis in Bengal Proper m 18^2 and 1881. The figui-es for

c^n!-"''^ ^^''°^^" Chandra De, of Hughli, a member of the Chaudda-

TAMBULI. 295 T A N T I .

Behar, Orissa, and Chota N'agpur are included in the table on Barais.

DiBIIilOT.

Bnrdwan Bunkura ... l i i ibhum Midoapur Hunhli Howrah 24-ParKaniis ... Nndiya Jessoro ... KImlna Murshednbsd... Dinnipur llajshaliyo

1873.

14,-128 12,034

2,962 8,S6ii

J 6,325 C.OtS l,OS-i

186

1,172 13

410

1881.

1 6,311

16,"»7 8,051

11,582 f 8,-157 I l,b90

1,651 1,802

iU 2S1 732 618 201

DisTEior .

Eangpor BoRra Pubiia Darjilinp: Jalpigori Dacca Fandpur Bakargan) Waim»nsinh Chitlagong ... XoakhaU Tipperah

1872.

319 399 200 181

I 200 235

63 33

1,116 29

322

18S1.

378 37

130 7

242 S23

a 611 231 130

1 I

Tdmgain, a section of the Biydhut and Khariddhd Kalw^rs in Behar.

Tamgarihar, a sept of •Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tamghuria, a sept of Mundas' in Chota Nagpur.

Tdmi' a synonym for Dami.

Tamil, a synonym for T^m-huli.

Tamra, a sub-caste of Kamars in Midnapur.

Tamuli, a synonym for Tdm-buli.

Tandan, a section of the Bc'lrajAti sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

T^ngbudh, a thar or sept of Khambus in Darjiling.

Tangi, axe, a totemistic section of Eautias in Chota Nagpur.

Tankol, a mid or section of the Naomulia or Groria sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Tannahpurai-Solhni, a mul of the Kdsyap section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Tanndn, a sept of Rajputs in Behar.

•^aittt . Tantrahdya, TantuMya, Tahca, Tanfwa, the weaver caste of Bengal and Behar, probably a functional

Ongin. group developed under the pressure of the natural demand for woven cloth. A common tradition represents them as descended from Siva Das or Gham Das, who was born from tlie sweat gham) that fell from Siva while he was dancing, and his wife Kusbati, who was created by Siva from a blade of kusa grass. SivaDds had four sons—BalarAm, Uddhab,Purandar, andMadhukar, •who were the ancestors of the four sub-castes bearing those names. Another story recounted in the Jdti Kaumudi makes the caste the offspring of a Manibandha father and a ManiMr mother; while a third supposes that the Tdntis, in common with all the artisan castes, were begotten on a Sudra woman by the celestial artificer Yiswakarmd. _ _

The internal divisions of the caste are shown in a tabular form , . . ,„ in Appendix I, and need only a bripf T, <.-

„fnmal structure. ! , „ ,„ T TTT Y -n i •',, "^^"I ttOtlCfi

here. In Western Bengal the Aswini Asan-Tanti claim to be the original stock fr ^^

Internal structure.

Bengal.

T.\NTI. 296

•which tlie other sub.rastes have diverged. The women of this group do not wear nose-rings, and this is regarded as a badge of social distinction. The Aswini sub-caste is very numerous, and has broken up into five subordinate endogamous groups, which appear to deriye their names from particular localities. In the city of Dacca, says Dr. "Wise, the Tantis have separated into two sreni or sub-cast€s, called Bara-bhagiya or Jhdmpaniya, from the jhdmpdn or sedan chair in which the bridegroom sits when going to fetch the bride, and Chhota-bhagiya, consisting of Kayastbs who on becoming weavers were expelled trom their caste. The former are about ten times as numerous. They assume the title Basdk, which was originally taken by rich persons who had given up weaving and become oloth merchants. A few titles inherited from theu- forefathers, who were employed as weavers in the East India Company's factory ciurang), are stUl preserved. Among these Jdchandar, appraiser; Muhkim, supervisor; Dalai, broker; and Sardar, head of a gang of workmen, are the most common. Family nicknames are believed to be commoner among the Tantis than in any other caste, and certain households ai-o called Mesh a, sheep, and Chhagri , goat. The popular explanation of the names is that tho ancestors of the families accidentally killed these animals; but it seems at least equally likely that they are totems, which have survived as family titles. This view derives some support from the fact that among the Tantis of the Santdl Pargauas the titles Lu, Chandra, Pal , Sil, D^s, Datta, Nandi, Bit, and De, serve to denote exogomous groups. In Mag Bazar, a suburb of Dacca, there reside a peculiar subdivision of outcaste Tautis belonging to a Magi Sreni who, though excom­municated for the same reasons as the Magi Kumhars, conform to aU the customs of the Sudi-a Tanti.

According to Dr. Wise, the Chhotd-bhagiya, or Kaynth-Tdntis, formerly goldsmiths, took to weaving as a more profitable trade, and now eat with and visit the Basdks, although the latter do not reciprocate the politeness, The richer families, having always adopted the prerogatives of the Kayasths, have been recognized, and if wealthy receive wives from them. At present only from twenty to twenty-five houses m Dacca are occupied by them, and several households work as goldsmiths, bankers, and engravers (Naqn^sh^

Dr. Wise mentions another class of Tdntis, called Bangi-Tdntis settled in Eastern Bengal. These are quite distinct from the city weavers, and claim to be the descendants of the original Tiintis of Bengal, who suppUed the people with cotton fabrics for aees before the feign of Jahang.r. Although the superiority wli ichtSvclaim over the Basdks is not conceded, there can be little doubt that t S Banga Tantis were earlier set lers in Bengal than their r " a k The Ban|a Tdntis are chiefly settled at Dhamrai, an old t o C ' about twen'ty miles north o Dacca where they ^^J t w o ^ ^ l and fifty houses Their bridal dresses are white, and not of red or other coloured silk, as is the case with the Dacca weavers They manufacture tho native ''"\^'lY''"dar, as well as doriyd and nauhati muslins which are sent to Dacca to be embroidered. At Dhdmrdi the famous female spinners Kdfani), who used to wind the

297 TAJSTTI.

fine native thread, were still to be found in 1873 ; but in 1885, when Dr. "Wise revisited Dacca, the ai-t had died out. In illustratiou of the delicate touch of these spinners,-the story is told that one of them wound eighty-eiglit yards of thread on a reel which only weighed one rati or two grams. Now-a-days a niii of the finest thread equals seventy yards, which proves that either a coarser cotton is grown, or that the women have lost their delicate sensibility

° • The Behar sub-castes of Tatwas, as the caste is generally called in that province, need little comment. We

Behar. j . ^ ^ among them the common territorial groups Kanaujia and Tirhutia. The names Baisv/ara aud^ Uttarha seem also to have reference to locality. Banaudhia occurs among some of the Baniyii castes ; oaisv/ar is a common sub-caste of the Kui-mis, while the names Chamar-Tantf and Kahar-Tantf suggest, what is in itself by no means improbable, that some members of the Chamar and Kahdr castes may have taken to the profession of weaving, and thus formed new endogamous groups loosely affiliated to the Tdntis. In Orissa there appear to be three sub-castes. The Matibans-Tanti weave coarse cloth from thread of English or native manufacture. Many of them have deserted their charac­teristic profession and become teachers in village schools, assuming therewith the titles Abadhan and Khetiputra. The Gala-Tanti weave fine cloth, and the Hansi-Tanti make coloured cloth of

various patterns. . lu r,-L m, . Dr. Wise has the following remarks on the Behar Tdntis

settled in Dacca :— " The Hindustani, or Mungirya, weavers are very common in

Dacca where they comprehend a large proportion of the ' Mothias,' or coolies, street porters, pankha-puUers gardeners, and packers of iute: while at home they are weavers and cultivators I wo divisions are met with—the Kanaujiya and Tirhutiya ; the former, the more numerous, being of higher rank than the latter, who are despised and shut out from all social intercourse. The lirhutiya, degraded by carrying palanquins and by acting as musicians at their homes, collect in Dacca during the jute season, and are remarkable for their squalor and stupidity. They also woik as syces, gardeners, boatmen, and musicians." . * -i m

The exogamous sections ot the Tantis are comparatively few in number, and throw no light upon the origin of tlie caste. In Bengal the Brahmanical gotras have been adopted ; wliile in Behar only three sections are known, and those do not .appear to be necessarily exogamous. In Western Bengal prohibited degrees are reckoned by the standard formula to throe generations in the descendmg line except where bhaijddi, or mutual lecognition of familv events, is kept up. In that case the prohibition extends to seve generations. ^

Except in Behar, where adult-mamage is still practised hv +v . pooler members of the caste, Ta-ntio ^ ^

Mamagc ^^^^^ daughters before thoy have a t t ' T"^^ age of puberty. The bnde-price usually demanded for a ^^ i ^^®

S^i'l does

TANTI. 298

not exceed from Rs. 50 to Rs. 60, but it is deemed more respectable for a man to give his daughter free of price. The marriage ceremony is of the ordinary type. Polygamy is recognized to the extent that a man may take a second -wife if the first proves barren. TAntis are usually too poor to regard plurality of -wives as a luxury. Widow-marriage and divorce are forbidden in Bengal, while in Behar widows may certainly marry again without any restrictions beinfr imposed on their choice, and the balance of authority seems on the whole to incline to the opinion that divorced wives may marry again by the sagni form, which is used at the second marriage of a widow. Others, again, say that divorce is not recognized: if a woman goes -wrong with an outsider, she is turned out of the caste; but if she has an intrigue with a Tanti, her fault is condoned by the headmen and her husband is compelled to take her back. If the bridegroom—elect of a widow has not been married before, he must perform the ceremony of matkonca in his o-wn house, and must smear vermilion on a sword or a piece of iron before going to take his bride.

I t should be mentioned here that instances are said to have occurred of women belonging to lower castes, such as Teli Turha and Gonrhi, being formally admitted into the Tanti caste.' These women had become the mistresses of Tanti men, and the latter having been excommunicated on account of this discreditable liaison, had afterwards prevailed on the panchayat of the caste to admit them and their mistresses to social rights on the condition that a feast was given to the caste and substantial presents offered to the members of the pauchayat. Men of other castes can on no account be received in this fashion. In matters of inheritance a daughter's son is excluded by the nearest male relative of the same kuh

The Tdntis of Eastern Bengal are, says Dr. Wise— " With few exceptions, Vaishnavas, being probably the most

Tliey have no pnnchait and no headman hut the rich guide and instruct their poorer brethren, while the trnrl interests of the caste are secured by the supervision of powerfnl n i or guilds, presided over by a Dalpati, or director. '

" The Dacca Tdntis have always been celebrated for the ir, ficent procession which parades the streets of the citv on f) f "^' m^shtamf, or birthday of their god Krishna, in Bh^dm /A . " September). As long as a Naw^b lived at Dacca Ha t r „ ^ ^ ' ' ° ' ' ' ^ band led the pageant, and at the present day, t h C h r f f ^ ^ ' l many of its attractions, it is still the most p o p S ^ i i h t h r " ^ ° Eastern Bengal. For many generations the DacS ^ t I ' " resided in two quarters of the city, Tanti Bazdr and N ! ^ T ' ? ^^ ' ? on the day following the birthday of Krishna a i f ' ^ * ^ ' ' ' " , from each of these quarters and Perambulates the 8 ^ ? ' 7 T v i the processions mel, and a faction fight ensued u 1855 the Government ordered that for the future thpv d, i i ^1

p m i t t e d t o come out on the same day, and e a c ^ o u t t ? fTe^efore t'^kes precedence on alteruato years, the peace ofthe S t y " S

299 TANTI

been so far assured. Krishna is worshipped by the Tdnti Bazdr section under the form of Mui-aK Mohan; by the Nawdbpfir as the Sdligr^m, or Lakshi Ndrdyana. At the present day the processions are preceded hy a string of elephants, and a " Panja," or model of a hand, presented by a former Nawab, is home aloft, as at the Muharram pageant. The peculiar part of the cavalcade, however, are the " Misls," or raised platforms, carried on men's shoulders. On these are placed images of Hindu gods, figures, and often caricatures of local celebrities. On others are Nach girls and buffoons reciting comic songs and bandying chaff with the crowd. In fact, the anniversary and the show have come to be regarded as the occasion of a holiday, when thousands of villagers throng the city bent on pleasure and amusement, which are more considered than the deity in whose honour it is held.

" The Banga Tdntfs observe with especial pomp the Kimadeva | Pfijd, or worship of the Indian Cupid, which, though generally neglected in Bengal and entirely omitted by the Jhdmpaniya Tdntts, is still kept up in Bhowal, Kamriip, and the districts bordering on that country. I t is undoubtedly a worship of earlier origin than that of Krishna. On the Madana Chaturdas£, or fourteenth day of the waxing moon of Chait (March-April), the festival is held, but it does not last for seven days as formerly. The purohit officiates, no victims being sacrificed. The Banga Tantls, moreover, celebrate the Janmashtami, but in a different way from the Basak. Two boys gorgeously dressed, representing Krishna and his foster-father, Nanda Gopa, are canied about in great state and with much discordant noise. The Visvakarma worship is observed on the usual day, and, as with the Basdks, the loom, shuttle, and other imple­ments of weaving are adored."

In Western Bengal Vaishnavism is the characteristic belief of the caste. Lakshinarayan-Chakra and Riidhci Krishna Bigraha seem to bo the commonest objects of worship. Beverence is also paid to Durgii and Siva, but no sacrifices involving the taking of animal life are offered to them. ViswakannA is looked upon as the tutelary deity of the caste, and is worshipped twice a year with offerings of flowers, rice, molasses, etc, under the supervision of a purohit, who recites appropriate texts. Images are sometimes made, but more commonly the weaver's loom or some of the tools of the craft is regarded as the dwelling place or symbol of the god. In the SantAl Pargands Rangadhdri and Jaikhd are mentioned among the mmor gods of the caste, but I have been unable to ascertain their precise functions

Among the Tatwds of Bohnr Vaishnavism appears to have mado but little way, and the majority of the caste are addicted to tbo grosser cult of the Saktis, or female forms of the great eods Tb tlie Kanaujia sub-caste worship MahA-mayd, or Durgd and fi, ' settled in Bengal keep the ninth and tenth davs nf'+l,^ V ;^^ ' settled m iJengai Keep tne nintu and tenth days of thft r> Pfijah as holidays consecrated to her. On a certain date ir, ^-^^^^ they proceed to an open plain and sacrifice a male trnnf + ^^^^ik a khasi, or castrated goat, to Madhu Kunwdr, who I C ^ ^ ^ i . aTdnti. On the sixth day after abii-th the c/iAatAj'is if^ ^ y ' Was

'^eid, and on

TA'NTI. 300

r e . C r / ^.!'^"*' ^ho founded a / I f ° I °^ ° °^ ^^'ddh Mm,

resL •7 '"P^^^«t i"^sr i tes ,su9ha;bur i f '^f ' ' -^ '^^^^ ^'^^te nsa|es, BeW V T ^ ° ^ °^ vowk B e 3 i ? ^ / ' ' i " a l a m p a u d a d d ? ^ ^ Saisv^^^l ! .^°^ '^ i j^> DharaniraT .Sd I T ' °^" '^^ - "^i"«r gods of

Si^wa? ^ T^' °° Wednesdays a T d s , ? ' " ' ^ ' ' ^ " ^ sacrifices

' T^'^tis of Bengal are served in r.V • Priests. matters by the Ernl, '^^S'^"^ and ceremonial '

Tljese Brahmn. spiritual wants ' * , r ' \ T ^ ° ™""«ter to the position and . m " ' r ^ ^^ the present d ^ ^ y ^ S ^ k h a gronp. look do;n i p o f f r ^ ' ' '°°^« "f t h i T o s t « 7 . ^ ^ ^ " ^ respectable tomany thdr d. ?i ^ ^'''''•"•JoJ'i/^wL '1 ^™bmans aifect to they S reee iv j r^ te rs ; and it m ^ K f f l ' ' ^ ' , ^ ' ^ ' " ' ^ "^« ^ " " ' g order. ' ' '^"'^ ° ° equal teims bv ofi ^^'"^'^'i «" the whole that , . InBeharavervdi f f^ . " '' ' "^^n^bers of the sacred to indicate that th? ^^^rent state of thirm.

oomparativelyLte, , : r ^ ' T^ ^^ve fcr^^^^' ^^^'^^ ^^^'^^ T - ^ ^ y « ° e l m S s L ' ° ^ ""^y ^^ compos d 7 ^ P ^ ^ ^ r ' ^ f f ^ aU, and their r,lo • •*•" ^'^"y places Tni , ' ° ^ g^'eat extent of t'^ve j o i n e d l S r '^PP^^d either W * ' ' ' i ^^^° " ° Brahmaus at Persoi at whoT • ' ' ?^ '°^ '° ' 'der , or bv n 'T^'^'« "^ the caste who

tbe person s e w f l ^ ^'^^^r case, no.wff 1^ ' ^\partioular religious b'm, «nd h e t t l ' ^ P"est, the t!he^^llf^^<i^^.Sthe ignorance of methods of saL^?""^^*^ ^ith e s t r e ^ ! f rahntan is confen-ed upon *« be t e n i r i 1 ^ ^ ? the re l ig fo lTe t l ' ^ A r °^- ^bese primitive beginningTosef 1" " °' *> a u d ^ . ^ ' " ^ « ° ! the caste seem, however, or Alaith^c " ? ' ' ^P ^rabnan« .* .,Z'^^'^^' ^ e other low castes, are ~ ^ ° ' b in Be'n^al ""'.'i?* looked m ^ i r °^ '" ' "«"'''">' ^^^^ Kanaujias e f'uieral c e r e i ^ " ^ ^^ '^^ the eas t t ^ ' '•!?*• ^° ^^'^ P"^«tly order, ^•eber castes ,T r?'^^^e<i ^ore n . l "^'^ ^^f'' '^"'^^ "^^^ P '' ^ ^™ performed on th ! S ' ^^ the Taf ° " ' | 7 tbe observances of the iollo^ng o X ^ / *l"rteenth day a f c "\ ^'^^' ^^'' '^^'•^'^ony is

Althou!^^?^ Sudra usag? « £ " ' 5 ' ' "T'' ^*^ ^''^ bengal Tantis, ^tiough the caste h o l g ^ ^ ^ f " ^ «^^ thii-ty-first day.

>. ^«^i status. B rahmamtn i ^ ? ^ , ' ^ P ° ' i " o n '^ J^ehar, and ^•^•^1 to ra,-c . . tbe T i , ™ take water from their hands,

dL^^P'^ti .l^V^emselves to the ^rn'. ^^'^ ^»2^<^ie"i i"fl' «'i<^« ^ S" ' '^« 0^ S ? '" tlie Nava-sdkha^L " ^ °^ ^ ^ an Sudras, and take

"''' l>4t.''''f''y of the staro\^/J^7-. '^^'' P^'^^^ "^ " '" '"f" ' ' ^ starch from paroherl •' '"^ weaving. The Siidra

"ea nee boiled in water, or ^-ah

301 TAiNT/.

which is not, according to Hindu ideas, ento or, as it is called in Behar, jhiitha, leavings. Impure weavers, as the Jugfs, make starch mar) by merely boiliug rice —a process which is considered utterly abominable. The rules observed in matters of diet bear, as is usual, some relation to tlie social status of the caste. The Beng-al Tautis abstain, or affect to abstain, from flesh and strong drink, and claim to be superior in tliese respects to other Nava-sakha castes. l u Behar flesh and wine aie deemed lawful for Tatwas, and whenever S[)irits are drunk a few drops are poui'ed forth as an offering to Mahadeva. Tatwas a^ain, take both kachhi and pahki articles of food from the Uangota, the Barai, and geuerally the entire group of castes from whose hands a Brahmau can take water.

Although Tautis admit weaving to be their immemorial profes­sion, many of them have of late years been

Occupation. ^ ^ . j ^ ^ ^ Ijy l g :^^^^ of ^ j g p machine-made goods to betake themselves to agricultm-e. These cultivating Tantis are for the most part occupancy raiyats, or smaU tenure-holders, but in the Murshedabud district a member of the caste owns the zamin-dari right iu a large property. I t is difSeult or impossible to say with auy approach to accuracy what proportion of the caste have abandoned their original craft in favour of trade or agriculture. The Uttarkul Tantis of We.4eru Bengal have on the whole adhered to weaving, and it is popularly believed that their comparative poverty is mainly due to their attachment to the traditional occupation of the cabte. Among the Aswiui and Mariali about one-third are supposed to have given up weaving and settled down as regular cultivators. Some minor diilerenoes among weaving Tantis deserve a pas^sing notice. Tlie Uttarkul sub-caste weave only cotton cloth, and the Maridli only silk, while the Aswini make either cotton or silk goods.

According to Dr. Wise, five different sorts of cloth were manufactured by the Dacca Tantis in their palmy days, but the art of making the finer qualities has been lost The five varieties were—

1. Maliiial. Muslins of the first quality included the Abymcaii,^ Tanzih, and Ma.tm' made of Desi (country) cotton orKapas ; of the second quality were the Shabnam Kltusah, Jhiina, Sarkdr 'A/i, Ganga Jal, and Tenwiam-^ of the third were the coarser musUns, collectively ca'led Bajnah, comprising Eammum, Dimti ( ? Dimuati) Ln

2. JJorii/d, striped and ribbed muslin, such as Kai knf Dakbau, Fadshahi-dar,Kunti-ddr, Kaghazi, and Keldpdt.

> Abrn«;m, lUerally runuing water, was solely made for thp Holl • ,„il,. and .he follo»nig Mono, regarding its gossamer-like tenure are s,ilf!"f-Ijy tb.- natives A daughter of AnrangKib, one day on enterintr tl7p . ' ^°'J rebuked tor «oaring immodest drapery, but justified her conduetnl^n"'""'as that she «as rearing s"^™ suits (.Jama). Again, in the reign o f Ar'tP^^'i Khiu ( 7di-56), a Dacca Tanti was flogged and banished from th ! -t^' ^ ' i rd i preventing his cow from eating up a web of Abrawan which hnrl i '^^^ ^or Hot o bleach on I ho grass. ^" "act been laid ont

> Probably from Arabic ta7ah, ' mode,' and Persian anddm • f

^ - ^ ^ ^ I - - 302

3. Char-Khmah, checkered muslins, such ^ NandamluM

4. Jamdmi by the early European traders called Nain suka/,,^ or embroidered muslins. The different ^nlfI are distinguished by the coloured flowers S Z i or network pattern on them. The commnnfuf ' Smbarga-Mtl Cha.al, Mel, T.-./.W, and S E r ""'

a. KMa, or C/»A«», musKns embroidered with Mfik or Tasar silk .generally dyed red, blue, or yeUow ThI commoner ones are Eatmo.Rwni, Naubatti ov NauS Yahudi, Azizullah, and Sanmudar Lahar. •'''«""«",

The common Dhoti, Chadar, and Orhni', or wranner xvifl, coloured or embroidered end, were always r e g a r d e d T E L c T t o '

inn. ° ° f^ '^ '" l? ° ^ ? ^^^ preceding list one is struck by the predom inance of Arabic, Person, and Hindi words, and the r S y ^ f

k n o t ' • ^ ° 4 - ^ r f f • ^^''' ^«^^i°g' like other Native a rTs^as knovm m Hmdustdn pnor to the foundation of the Bentral l - i l f

names given l y T e ^ ' m t ^ f c ' Muhamld^^ S a e d \ f ' ^ % * ^ « ones or that the liberal Mussulman ^^l^Zitmt^^J^'^""''l' developed-the manufacture of the finer sorts of m u 8 H n 7 T h n f . ^ inhabitants of Bengal at an early period mnHn 1 . ^^^ wondrous fineness is^ undoubted, f o ^ f e t l ^ M t w ^ ^ ^ ^ °^ lers of the ninth century mention tliat in an r^^.'^^'^'^'Jan travel-Eahmi3 were woven cotton garments " so fine t W T""* '^ "^"«d drawn through a ring of middling size." Vuic^rh^l i ® ™^^ ^e no further evidence until A.D. 1506, three h u Z H"^ ^ ^ P° ^®^ the Muhamadan conquest, when the Roman Vm-I ^^^^^ ^^^'^^ the fabled city of Bengalla, where the finest cottou'^'^T'^?,! ^^'^^"^ the world were produced, and whence yearly saii 'fl fif ^° °^^ laden with cotton and silk goods. The earliest travail r ^^^P^ who gives us the names of the fine cotton fabrio/ ! f S> ^^^^er, the Arab author of the " Muhit," written in 15545 Jr ^'^^^'^^ is among the goods exported from 'Chittagong by his countr ^ "Mentions cloth C7/ff««a/-), muslin sashes called Ma/ma/, thefiuesf lioT™^** ^°® as MalmaK Shahf, terras wHch are Hindi and Persian Fi f? " ' when Cc-esar Frederick visited Chittagong (156.3-81) ' " b o m w ' ^ w ^ ' of every sor t" was exported thence. After his day t h e ^ u S o r i t t s

' Nayana-suklia, pleasing to the eye. = It is referred to in the Hiff and Athania Vedas R^^ -7-

Lehen, p. 254.-H. H. K. ''^^ Zimmer Altind. , ' Eahmi, however, may not be Bengal, but as it was *i.„

p^nts, of a shell currency, and of the " Karkandan " or „ • ^^iti^y of fle-the assumption is not altogether groundless.-EUiot's m,,'^^ (rhinoceros), ^''l. " -""fo/y of India, vol. i,

5 "( ouiVi Yartomanni Naviijatio. p. 259. 'lournal A. S. of Bengal, vol. v, 467.

303 TANTI.

are numerous, and names identical with those in use in the present day are cited.

The conjecture that the Muhamadans merely developed an already flourishing trade is strengthened by the fact that the terms in use by the Dacua weavers for the warp, woof, shuttle, and loom generally are Sanskrit, while later improvements, such as the shdna or reed, the oharkhd or spinning wheel, and the dafti or reed frame, are Persian.

The decline of the cotton trade of Eastern Bengal has been sketched by a former resident of Dacca, Mr. James Taylor, while much curious information is contained in Mr. Bolts' Consider­ations and in the Avorks of Edmund Burke. Under the Mughal Government, and even as late as the Nawabship of 'AK Vardi Khdn (1742-56), the weavers manufactured in perfect liberty, and the enterprising- among- them advanced money to promote the trade, but with Sir^j-ud-daulah (1756-7) the decadence began, and during his eventful reign seven hundred families of weavers left their homes at Jangall«m, in Maimansinh, otvang to oppression, and emigrated to other districts. Before 1765, when the English obtained the JDiwdnl of Bengal, bullion was regularly imported from Europe to meet the requirements of the tradei-s, but after that day advances were made from the provincial treasuries to buy the annual stock or "investment." This gave a new and unprecedented stimulus to weaving, and in 1787, the most prosperous year on record, the estimated prime cost of the cloths entered at the custom house of Dacca amounted to fifty lakhs of rupees, or 625,000/. This pros­perity, however, was very deceptive, being founded on injustice and intolerable oppression. The first decHne may be traced to the rapacity of the " banyans " and gomustas, who arbitrarily decided the quantity of goods each weaver was to deliver, the prices he was to receive, while his name being entered on a register, he was not pennittod to work for any one but his own gomasta. When the annual supply was ready the gomasta held a bazdr, at which the jachandar, or appraiser, fixed the price of the goods, but the rascality, Mr. Bolts says,^ Avas beyond imagination, and the prices were often fifteen per cent, often forty, below the market rate.

The deplorable condition of the weavers in 1773 is depicted in the following extract from a letter written by Mr. Rouse, the Chief of Dacca' : —" The weavers are in general a timid, helpless people, many of them poor to the utmost degree of wretchedness, incapable of keeping accoxmts, industrious as it were by instinct, unable to defend themselves if oppressed, and satisfied if with continual labour they derive from the fair dealing and humanity of their employer a moderate subsistence for their families."

The following incident that occurred in 1767 gives a vivid idea of the state of matters in Dacca at that period. Mr. Thomas Kelsall,

1 A Descriptive and Sistorical Account of the Cotton JSIavvfactttre of iJaccrt,'•" •P«".'7" - By A Former Eesident of Dacca. LoDdon. 1851.

2 Considerations, part i, igg. 3J?«)Ac'i Works, Bohn'i. edition, iv, 73.

TANTI 304 TAPAEE.

Chief of Dacca, being informed that a certain weaver, Krishna Pal Kumdr, was suspected of selling muslins to the French factory, ordered him to be seized, but he found shelter with the French. Uis relatives, however, were imprisoned and beaten, and their houses pillaged. Upon this the weaver gave himself up to the Diwdn, Bhikam Ldl Thdkur, who ordered him to be flogged, after which he was confined in the factory for eleven days, dming which time the peons fleeced him of forty-nme rupees and two pieces of cloth. By Mr. Kelsall's order his head was shaved, his face black­ened "with lime and ink," and being mounted on an ox, he was paraded through Nawabpdr, where the brokers and Paikars lived. After three more days the accused was forwarded to the Nawdb for trial, who, finding no fault, discharged him.

This hateful system was at last swept away, and the weavers for a short time enjoyed comparative freedom of trade and unusual pros­perity ; but in 1769 Arkwright obtamed his patent, in 1779 Crompton invented the mule, and the cotton manuiactures of Lancashire have giadually driven the finer and less durable fabrics of the Bengali weavers out of the market, and all but annihilated the trade."

The follovvinn; statement shows the number and distribution of Tdntis in 1872 and 1881 :—

niSTBIOT. 187i 1881. DlSTMCT.

B a r d n a n J t a n k u r a B i r b h u m J l r d n a p u r HuRhli How rah 24-I 'argatias N a d i j a K h u l o a .I tssore S turshedabad Dina jpur Rajshttliyo I lungpui BOK™ P a b n n DarjihDK J a l p i g o n K u c h Behur Daccft K a n d p u r B i k a i x a n j Miiimaiisiiib T ippo rah

4C,C»7 ll>.510 lo,-«i 011,317

39,070

ll',57t; •J,ilt>

10.700 17,41111 12,bOO

8 i i

s,a« 1,801 4,05U

eit 4,031

8,UM 3,410 1,S71 7..ilJ l,70a

20,fll3 29,304 15,'JBS 97,7 M

f 29,017 I 14,2r.O

8,129 B,8<)C 2,59^1

10,3-lU li),8U 9,093 1,515 4,553 1,IJ0U 4,110

42S 5,45H 1.4.(7

10,687 3, » 1 l ,3i7 8,l-)0 1,640

Chi t tacong NoaKhah Puti ia G y a t .hahabad 'rirlnif pIoyiifT'irinir l i r h u t l u n r b h a n i t a S i n i n Ciuimpanui JIoiiBliyi Bhapa lpur . P n r n i a h MaldaU hau to l Pargan&3 Out tack P u n Bal isoro T r i u u t a r y S ta tes l la7aribuKb Lohurda i t i . . . ^lDgbbulll M a n b b u m T r i b a t a r y bta tea

I

2,799 1,27J

12,P58 C,8!I4 8,16l3

82,19li

1,800 11. (90 86, i0i (13.037 3.';, 1117 10,300 4,(i50

37,822 14,161 S8,160 13,708

541 5,8.37

20,76'< 13,tt31

4,891 1,.32«

18,8112 6,741

10,389 6B,0S(5 90,913 10.820 21,180 87,2118 5s.,8Sl 29,273

8,501 10,9 111 88.790 14,215 40,01h 19,947

851 ll.SH) 21,280 12,2k3

6,121

Tdnfi, a synonym for Jolhd and Pan.

Tanti-Mahili , a sub-caste of Mdhilis in Munbhum who carry palanquins.

T^ntia, a section of Godlas in the North-Western ProMQces and Behar.

Tantrabdi, a synonym forTanti.

'Hmif''"''"^"' " ^y^onym for

r/o^T«"oTM-''^''''"°^^l^°Batsya Bengal ''''^"' Brahmans in

TAPASPATI. 305

TELI.

c -P.. . T&todr, a qdin of the Sabarna

J:FT^^I^^ - »!"""" """"'" dic^^t^- ^ ^ ^ , ^ ^y^,^y^ for J o M

^ar i th , Te/ri, an up-oountxy ^^^ ^^^._

caste. rTT.iu,.* o •weavms: cast« in Tarat, a sub-section of ttje

Bharadwaja section of Utkai

Brabmans. , BUi>. i= Tar-., a "-"^ or ^eotion f 7 f ^ y ^ for TeE

Clibamulii Madbesia sub-caste la , Halwdis in Bebai-. I Tanlo. eartben-pot, a __,

^Attoa a weaving caste in

silk is made. See Tanti.

alwdis in Bebai-. i jau lo . eartben-po^ a titk o Taridl. a gain of tbe Bdtsya Bdrendra Brabmans m Be g

j7o/mlf Barendra Brahmaus m | ^^_,_ ^ ^^^t of E^jputs i

Bengal. Tarly^, a section of Saraogis

in Behar.

Taunr. a sept of E^jputs in Behar.

Tarkanyark, a inir or section of Sukadwipi Brabmans in Behar.

XTiSttSKit Tayal. a pira or section of

,^ .. , ^garwdls. '^'"'* •• f +!,« -To- n title of Datsbin-E^rbi

maus in Bengal. 1 x«;ani4. a section >

T&rsi, a mul or se(|on of IvasanvdniBaniyasinBehai.

T&rsuriya, a sub-caste of Pdsis in Behar.

]£alw^r8 in Behar-

Tejanid. a section of Sondrs in Behar

TekB^ri . a sub-caste of Gaura

Brabmans. Tekha, a sept of the Chan-

J b a n s i division of E'ajputs in Behar.

" . * fl,« Sur- I Tela, a section of Mabesris in TarwSr. a . f P^^^.^.^'i^ts in Behar.

y ^ ^ ; f totemSiio \ % t of -r^g^, , section of Kharias i . £ d a s hi Chota Nagpur who ^Uota Nagpur.

^^ tnnoh a sword. .,-.1. i „ o«r f nf Binibi^s ilunuuts 111 ,^„ cannot touch a sword,

Tarzukmung, a sejit of Lep-chas in Darjiling.

Tatia, a kind of bird, a totem-istio sept of Muudas in Chota Nagpur

'gpur Telh^. a sept of Binjhi^s in

Chota Nagpur who use oil at mai-riage.

Telhari. a group of Maghaiya Telis iu Bebur.

rr ; !• Tailmh -^«^"' ^ ^^^^^ oil-press-/ rrA\ T«i/^ 7^«'^'''«'^"''f'\'^;; and Orissa. Their origiuif %tJ^E ''''' '^ ^r°'^^'-^:^and tbe caste may be v.^l^i

ing atid ^^*J,^n-obably oil-pressing, and ^ ^ ^

TELI, 306

as a functional group recruited from the respectable middle class of Hindu society. Oil is used by all Hindus for domestic and cere­monial purposes, and its manufacture could only be carried on by men whose social purity was beyond dispute.

The TeHs of Bengal have a variety of traditions, mostly of the mythological type, which are interesting for

TraditioDB of origin. ^^^^^ attempt to account for the origin and comparative status of some of the main divisions of the caste. The creation of the first Teli is ascribed to the god'Siva, who, being of a mind to rub himself after bathing with oil instead of with the wood ashes, which he generally used, made from the sweat of Ms arm a man named Rupnarayan Toll or Mauohar P&l, and inspired him with the idea of an oil-mill (g/idni). Some say that the original oil mill was turned by two bullocks without blinkers, and that theKalus were degraded for using one bullock only and blinding its eyes with blinkers. Anotlier legend bearing ou the same point is the following:—In the beginning of time tho goddess Bhagavati made two men out of turmeric paste and ordered them to bring her oil. One came back very soon with a pot of oil; the other took much longer. When the goddess asked the reason of tlie delay, the latter explained that he had to soalc up the oil with a bit of rag and squeeze it into a pot, while the fonner had stolen a march on him by using a mill with a liole at the bottom, through which the oil trickled out. On hearing this the goddess was mucti offended at the idea that she had used oil procured by a process resemUing one of the baser functions of the human body, and condemned tho more inventive of the two oilmen to pay the penalty of his ingenuity by being degraded to a lower caste. I t would be quite in keeping vath other cases of the growth of sub-castes that the Kalus should have been separated from the parent caste by reason of theii- having introduced an improvement in the primitive oil-mill ; and the myth of Bhagavati's anger may well have arisen to account for their separation and for the lower social status assigned to them. There are, for example, two outoaste classes of oilmen in Eastern Bengal, who have been excommunicated because they manufacture ml m a novel manner: the first, or Gachhua Teli, express the oil by crushmg tho seed between wooden rollers; the second, or Bhunja I en parch the seed and then extract the oil. I do not know wjietlier these groups liave as yet started myths connecting their degradation with the displeasure of a god; but it is reasonable to expect that some such legend should in course of time be evolved.

Ooncemng tho origin of the sub-castes which bear the cui-ious Internal Elluctuie. names of Ekadas and Dwadas Teli an in-

*i,-m ,. . . . . , teresting legend is current. Tho father of all ixlvtS' I 'f ^^!^' ^'" ' Mauohar Pdl, a bcopdri or hawker who he m A ' ' ^ ° ^ * ^'^^'"8 ' i-ious wares, lie hud two wives. Whilo

Vwas A.nr^V" ' journey, a rumour reached his home that he V - f o v n S .i- ''*'.^f^P°Ji the elder wife broke hor ornaments and

^iMieved f " r f appointed for a mdow, but the younger vN-ifo • tWiiecl W n^- ^I" ^ ' '^ Manohar P41 was not dead, and

' "me after a few days. From the two wives sprang the

307 TELI.

two sub-castes in question. The Ekadas Teli are the descendants of the elder wife, and the Dwddas Teli of the younger. I n memory of the elder wife breaking her ornaments on iiearing of her husband's death, the Ekadas women do not wear nose-rings and do not tattoo their foreheads and arms. Each group claims precedence over the other. The Ekadas are of course tlie elder branch, and it is alleged that they represent the original stock of the Teli caste, which is stated in the list given in tiie Brahma-Vaivartta Parana to be derived from a Knmhdr (potter) father and a mother of the builder caste, Kotak or Gharami. I t stands eleventh on the list, and this is the reason for the name Ekadas. The Dwadas Teli in their turn, while admitting the descent of the Ekadas from the elder wife of the founder of the caste, alleged that they have forfeited the precedence they might otherwise claim by submitting to be governed by Paramauiks in all matters relating (o ciiste, and by sending women of the bride's family to accompany her on ber fii-st visit after marriage to her busband's house. Another queer custom of the Ekadas group forbids them to Avear moustaches, but English education is said to be breaking this down.

The Ghana, Ghani, or Gachhua Telis work an oil-mill of primitive patteru. This machine has no hole for the removal of the oil, which has to be soaked up with a bit of rag tied on to a stick The Kalu, as has been explained above, use a miU with a bole to let out the oil. The status of the latter is very low, and their separa­tion from the main body of the Telis is so complete that mauy regard them as a separate caste.

In Eastern Bengal, according to Dr. Wise, there are two great subdivisions of this caste : the Tail-p^l, or Manohar Pal, and the Teli, the former being the richer and more numerous. The Tail-pal arefrequently distinguished by the epithet Do-patti, from having adopted the Sudra marriage custom of carrying the bride and bridegroom on stools. The Teli, again, are known as Ekgachhi, from their planting a champa-troe, on which the bridegroom sits wliilo the bride is carried round him several times, as is the custom with the Gandhabaniks.

Originally, it is said there were no divisions, and ail oilmen belonged to one caste, but in course of time, as wealth accumulated in their hands, the richer families, ashamed of their ancestral oceu--pation, have adopted a new name to conceal tbeir parentage. Thus in the district of Central Bengal Telis who have grown rich call themselves Tilfs, and affect to be of a higher lineage than the Telis, although they still retain tbe old family titles. "Wealth and pros' perity have made them give up the mauufaoture of oil, and led them, to become Amdawahih, or traders buying goods wholesale and sell-U](r them by retail. Some go tlie length of saying that Tili is a caste wholly distinct from Teli, but 1 doubt whether the proeesa of separation has as yet gone so far as this.

In the northern parts of the Dacca district, beyond the limits of flje country afiected by the reforms of Ballal Sen, the oilman caste has liYPei'g^ '"°^^^ divisions, which are said to vary in almost e \ e rv pargam» I " Ra'rura, for example, there are four- classes of tbia/^ort

TELI. 306

as a functional group recruited from the respectable middle class of Hindu society. Oil is used by all Hindus for domestic and coro-monial purposes, and its manufacture could only be carried on by men whose social purity was beyond dispute.

The Tehs of Bengal have a variety of traditions, mostly of the mythological type, which are interesting for

Traditions of origin. ^^^ j , attempt to account for the origin and compaiative status of some of the main divisions of tlie caste. The creation of the first Teli is ascribed to the god'biva, who, being of a mind to rub himself after bathing with oil instead of with the wood ashes, which he generally used, made from the sweat of his arm a man named liiipnarayan Teli or Manohar P&l, and inspired him with the idea of an oil-mill (fjlidiii. Some say that the original oil mill was turned by two buUocks without blinkers, and that the Kalus were degraded for using one bullock only and blinding its eyes with blinkers. Anotl>er legend bearing on the same point is the following:—In the beginning of time the goddess Bhagavati made two men out of turmeric paste and ordered them to bring her oil. One came back very soon with a pot of oil; the other took much longer. "When the goddess asked the reason of the delay, the latter explained that he had to soak up the oil with a bit of rag and squeeze it into a pot, while the former had stolen a march on him by using a mill with a hole at the bottom, through which the oil trickled out. On hearing this the goddess was much offended at the idea that she had used oil procured by a process resembling one of the baser functions of the human body, and condemned the more inventive of the two oilmen to pay the penalty of his ingenuity by being degraded to a lower caste. I t would be quite in keeping with other cases of the growth of sub-castes that the Kalus should hiive been separated from the parent caste by reason of their having introduced an improvement in the primitive oil-mill; and the myth of Bhagavati's anger may well have arisen to account for theu- separation and for the lower social status assigned to them. There are, for example, two outcaste classes of oilmen in Eastern

gi Bengal, who have been excommunicated because they manufacture . oil m a novel manner: the first, or Gachhua Teli, exprefcs the oil • by crushing the seed between wooden rollers; the second, or Bhunja

f"' V^T^'^i^ the seed and then extract the oil. I do not know whetiier these groups have as yet started myths connecting their dogradation with the displeasure of a god; but it is reasonable to expect that some such legend should in coui-so of time be evolved.

Ooncemmg tho origin of the sub-castes which bear tho cui-ious Internal structure. Dames of Ekddas and Dwadas Teli an in-

VL m ,• . . . . ^•erestmg legend is current. The father of all t Z i l 1 ' I ^! . ' "^^^ Manohar Pal, a bcopdri or hawker who C S , ' '^° ' '* ' ^^"8 ^^'-'^^^ ^ ' I'- s. l lo had two wives. While

\wa8 ic..T\?^ ^ journey, a rumour reached his homo that ho V-fornWI ./^''.^f^Pon the elder wife broke hor ornaments and

dilhelieved ff . ? appointed for a widow, but the younger wife r«ttrned L i ' ® ¥ « • - P ^"-f Manohar P i l was not dead, and

•-• tue after a few days. From the two wives sprang the

307 TELL

two suh-castes in question. The Ekadas Teli are the descendants of the elder wife, and the Dwadas Teli of the younger. I n memory ol the elder wife breaking her ornaments on hearmg ot tier \l\\s\x\\l^" * death, the Ekadas women do not wear nose-rings and do not tat too their foreheads and arms. Each group claims precedence over the other. The Ekadas are of course tlie elder tumxcU, u u 4 U \S, l\\\eff6i\ that they represent the original stock of the Teli casto, Nvli\c\i \s SWYPA in the li^t given in tlie Brahma-Vaivartta Puraua to be derived t a Kumhar (potter) father and a mother of tlio builder caste K(^iJ°^ Gharami. I t stands eleventh on the list, and t\\is k t\^r^'v^" " ^ the name Ekadas. The Dwadas Teli in thoir tnrn wV ^^^^^ ^ ^ the descent of the Ekadas from the elder wife of tlm f ^ d m i t t i u g caste, alleged that they have forfeited the p r o c c d o L n j ° " *^'^ otherwise claim by submitting to be governed by Pavin ' -T ^"'^^^t matters relatiug to caste, and by sending women n^ +\ , ' ' t S in ,M to accompany her on her fii-st visit aftov \\v\v ' ' iiUW t ^

house. Another queer custom o h l f t \i\, * '%f\ i \ ' H \ i ^ \ to wear moustaches, but U\uA\ \ ^^ m\\ 0^ U I M l V A this down. ^ ^ f e A . / M ^ S 1 H y x ^ A ^ % \ ^

The Ghana, Ghan". ' '^^^^ ^« S ? , ^ ? ^ - S ' ^ i V - ^ ^

R

oil, which has to be soaked un!^. '; '^-« ^'o l^^t, ^ -"-Ic „, ^^^'^«-The Kalu, as has been exnffn^*^^ «- t i t of , ^'''' tlu j , " oil-niill out the oil. The status of i f , '^^vo, ,,°J ''««: tiol, 'l^'-'^vai ^fof tion from the main body of V^^'^^.^^ vo " ^ ' l ^ v i t ° ' \ t o ^^ f . f i e regard them as a separate oasto "'•^^s is ." ^O v. ^^^^Jl h,,]^ ^tio)-

In Eastern Bengal, ao.-.u.i,,,^. ,,, j ^ '^"''''^'^- IZZ-r^'^^y great subdivisions of this caste : tli.« Tan pai.' or^A^" <fc°j ' ""^" j^-the Teli, the former being the richer uud 1110,.!:'"''-''iftr n-"" 'iWn Tail-pal arefrequenlly distinguisUwl W U ^'\^ K " V A \\\\

having adopted the Svidra marrineium J ^ hliU *%(v ^ l bridegroom on stools. The Telf, ^ T . ''*^ oi ^M l)„^^'UUs ' ^ ' l ( i from their planting a champa-tr'on „ " ' "•'o i.'"''>*ini> ti l^ntrr „-^lin while the bride is carried round hirn °o' '^^'^'oh''f?^^'"'^ n. " ' W,! *""u with the Gai.dhabaniks. ^'^^ejal ^ ^Uo ^^^^^^ ' '^^KMCU''?

OricinnUv. It is Raid thrn'r, « '^^ as ; *^'^"^Otr,''/'' OrisiunUy, It is Baid t\\ovo W^YO ' ' = C ? ^ ^ ^ V jnged to one caste, but in com-sn . ? ^ ^^ivi^; ' ^^ VA ai ^ "

in their hands, the richer f a m i U e ' " ?' -il o ^ *>JiS , , ^^^^^Ih Mmvo adopted a now n u Z V ^ V . ^ ^ ^ ^ v ; ^ ^ ^ ^ . ^

of separation has-^ I n the ni'

tlie couutiy/

has liyp' i'n pnrganc ' . / / / ( / / ff - „ '^ \ s

y

TELI. 308

the Satrah, or seventeen families; the Bais, or twen'y-lwo; the Chaubis, or twenty-lour; and the Char, or four—each taking rank in the order named. These differ from the standard Kulin group­ing in that the competition is for wives, not husbands. Girls may marry in a class below their own, and large dowries are given by the three lower groups for wives belonging to the fii'st class.

In Dacca city at the time of Dr. Wise's researches the Tail-pdls and Tel IS used to intermarry, and were regard-

arnago. ^^ ^^ clean Sudras. The goiras common to both were Aliman, Sdndilya, and Kasyapa. In addition to the well-known Padavis, or family surnames, of Pal, Nandi, De, and Kundu, Chaudhari, and Shikdar, honorary titles bestowed by the native goTemment were common among them, while the headman was styled Mandal. In former days their unions dais) were notorious for the faction fights which broke out whenever differences of opinion were expressed. No dal existed in Dr. Wise's time, but the Mandal used to summon a panchayat when required.

The marriage arrangements of the Telis of Bengal are cast in the orthodox mould, and the attempt is to approach as closely as possible to the example furnished by the higher castes. The sections which regulate marriage are of the eponymous type ; infant-marriage is fully established, and the marriage ceremony is in general conformity with the ritual presoiibed iu the Hindu scriptures. Widows may not marry again, and divorce is not recognized.

In other parts of the country the influence of orthodox tradition has been less powerful, and the aspirations of the caste are more modest. In Behar their sections belong to the titular or territorial types, while among the Tells of Chota Nagpur and Orissa totems are still held in reverence and regulate the intermarriage of members of the caste. lufant-mariiago, though more usual than adult-marriage, is not reckoned absolutely essential; widow-mai-riage is permitted, the widow being usually expected to marry her deceased husband's younger brother. Divorce is recognized, and divorced •women are permitted to marry ao-ain.

In Bengal ahnost all Telis" are Vaishnavas. Their principal Religion, festivals are those in honour of Lakshmi,

Saraswati, and Gandheswari, the last being celebrated at the Dasahara in A'swin (September-October) and not on the full moon of Baiaakh (April-May) as is the custom of the Gandhabanik caste. They employ as their priests RarM Brahmans, who are received on terms of equaUty by the Brahmans who minister to the spiutual wants of the higher caste.'.. The Brahmans who serve the Kalus, on the other hand, are generally looked down upon, and occupy a position hardly higher than that of the degraded Brahmans who are the priests of the Kaibartta caste

rb ^^ ^ ' / ^ r n f H r - l t i P °^ ^^^^^"^ does'not appear to be a special characteristic of the lelis, and the worship of the minor deities

t r ' ^ 1 : ° ' ' r h X ? " " T ' ? * ^^^^o:Z^ is h as;Tn Bengal. AnKong these the Jianauiia Tehsnav „. • T *^ (im Panch Tir ^ G o r a v a . while thp M«L\'^.^'P«.«'^1 ^^^^^'^^''^ ^ ^ T " : , . ! ; ' . .„ .„ . — T i •, TiT Vr ^^y especial reverence to tne iranuu

Goraya, while the Magahiyd suScaste is more addicted to

309 TELL

the cult of Kalilumdi, Jalpait, and Dharam Rcij. To these rural divinities the former offer klurjmri sweetmeats and bread made of seven kinds of giain on "Wednesdays during the light half of the month of Asin, while fhe latter observe a similar ritual on the same dny during tlie light lialf of Sdwan and Magli. If a vow is made or a special boon solicited from the jrod. a more sumptuous offering is neudoii, and iu such cases the Maghuyu, Telis usually sacrifice a goat. On Tuesdays during the light Lalf of Sawan, the Kanaujid Telis oll'er a sucijiiig pig to Goraya. After the blood of the victim has been poured forth on the ground before the lump of dried mud which symbolibes the presence of the god, the body is eitlier buried uuder ground or given to a Dosiidh, whose religious scruples do not deter him I'rom a savoury meal. The practice may u!so bo accounted for by the supposition, in itself by no means improbable, that the Do.-adhs, like the Layas and Bhuiyas in Western Eengal, were generally I'ccognized as the hereditary priests of the more primitive deities, and in that capacity were entitled to claim the offerings as their legitimate perquisitie. An ijiferior class of Biahmans, spoken of conteoiptuously as " Tel-Bdbhan," serve the 'I'eli as priests.

In Eastern Bengal, according to Dr. Wise, the pure Tells only extract til oil from the sesamum seed, and caste is forfeited if any other oil be manufactured. The ghdni, or oil-mill driven by bullocks, is never used, the oil being prepared in the following manner: 'J'he seeds are boiled and given to the Muhamadan Kiiti to husk. After being sifted, the 'I'eli puts them into large vats jdld), boiling water being poured in, and the seeds allowed to soak for twelve hours. In the morning the liquid is beaten with bamboo paddles gliotnd) and left to settle, when the oil floating on the surface is skimmed off and stored, no attempts to pmify it being made. The refuse (k/ia/i] is given to cattle.

The social standing of the Telis differs in different parts of the , . , , , countiy and for different sub-castes. In bocial status. „ , , T i i . -L • i i

Bengal, for example, the higher sub-castes of Telis, who have abandoned the oil trade and become bankers, money-lenders, cloth-dealers, and shop-keepers, take rank among the Nava-Siikha, or nine castes (now in fact fourteen) from whose hands a Brahman may take water, while the Kalus, or working oil men, are included in a lower group along Mith the Sutradhar, the Sundi, and the Kapali. In Behar the entire caste seems to stand on this lower level, and no Brahman will take water from their hands.

Dr. Wise mentions that Krishna Kanta Mandi, better known as Kanta Babu, the banyan of Warren Hastings, was a Teli by caste, and did much to raise its position among the Hindus. On visiting Jagganfith he offered to provide an atka or assignment of land lor the maintenance of the poor, but the Fandd, or presiding priest, refused to accept it from the liands of such an unworthy person. Against this decision Kanta Babu successfully appealed to the Pandits of Nadiya and Hughli, who held that the Teli, by usji i-the balance jf«/a m his trade, must necessiirily belong to the Baui l ' a dean Sudra caste. Kanta Babu died in 1780. He is said to hav '

/

e

TELI. 310 TEiSSIlABA.

introduced the nath, or nose-ring, among the females of his caste, an ornament previously worn only by Brahmans and the higher Sudras. The present representative of his family, Mah4ranf Sarnamayi of Kdsimbazar, is renowned for her muniiicent sui^port of pubHc and private charities, and ber zealous efforts to further the intellectual advance of her countrymen and countrywomen.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of TeHs in 1872 and 1881 :—

DiSTBICT. 1SJ2.

153.275 B1,S86 30,867 75,240

39,93D

S2,902 30,119 21,413

'39,189 6,951 8,060 3,263 1,946

lO.OO-l 413

2,728

13,711 7,818

12,181 7,8 4 4,003

1881.

61,199 95.435 27,920 77,339

J 47,038 1 1^,492

29,896 83,336 14,2S0

7,712 20,730

0,(i4ri 6,929 3,379 2,740

10,272 903

2,471 6U4

10,201 14,190

7,280 9,713 4,031

1831.

Bardwan Bankura Birbhura Midnapur nughli Hownih 24-Parpanlis ... Nadiya Jesiore Klrnlna Murshedabad Dinajpur Rajshahye ,„ KanKpur Boura JPabna Barjihnjj ... Jalpigon Kuch Bebar... Dacca Faridpur Bakarpanj ... Maimnnsinli... Chittagong • ...

Noakhali Tipperah Chittagong Hill Tracts Ptttna Gya Shahabad Mozalfarpur .. Darbhani^a ... Sarun Champaran ... Jlonghyr Bhigalpur ... Punuali Maldah SantAl Parganas Cuttack Pari Balasore Tributary States Hazanbaeh ... Lohardaga ... SinKbhum ... Manbhum Tributary States

2,951 4,911

'47,'509 5(1,701 41,440

130,203 65,138 42,916 62,705 04,10.5 33,701 17,949 27,961 63,17) 80,8.39 37,749 42,470 29,876 24,427 8,901

33,072 3,026

4,4S9 0,838

g 62,880 57,.379 47,836 83,85« 79,411 63,037 62,842 66,632 86,940 S«,136 11,374 35,915 6S,569 33,916 43.200 60,283 42,319 32,835 4.110

32,383 6,227

Telia, a tree, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Telid-Nagasia, a sub-tribe of Nageswars who use oil instead of sindur at marriage.

Teli Baniy^, a sub-caste of Baniyas in Behar.

Teligamia, a group of the Mihtar sub-caste of Telis in Behar.

Teli ha, a section of J iam^. koUa Sonars in Behar.

Teling, the worker in cane, a sept of the Chhotbar sub-tnbe of Limbus in Darjiling.

'JEtUnga, a small caste found in Bankura and believed to be

the descendants of certain sepoys imported from Madras in the last century by one of the Eajas of Bishenpur. Curiously enough, they have adopted the totemistic sections used by the Bagdis and Bauris of "Western Bengal.

Temdih, a mid or section of the Naomalia, or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

ot JNep41i Brahmans.

^Tendun, a sept of E^jputs in

- Ctf N^gpt" '' ^"^^'^

"c 8ept of Ju^nga JQ Orisna.

TENTULIA. 311 TH^PXNGI.

Tentulia, a section of PAtnis in Behar.

Tentulia, TetuU, a sub-caste of Bagdis in Bengal, named after the tamarind tree, and appai'ently totemistic.

Teor, a sub-caste of Bagdis in Bengal and of Kaibarttas who stiLl serve as fishermen and boatmen.

Tera-Hazar or Birbandhi, a 6ub-caste of Oheros m PaUmau.

Terahgharid, a sub-caste of Kurmis in Behar.

Tesa, a sept of Bhumijs in Chota Nagpur.

Tesong, Limbu.

a synonym for

' Teswar, a section of Doms in Behar.

Tetenga, bloodsucker, a totem-, istio sept of Parhaiyas,

Teteteyin or Bagiur, a section of Kharids in Ghota Nagpur.

Teti^, a sept of the Chandra-bansi division of Rajputs in Behar.

Tetiha, a kul or section of Biibhans in Behar.

Tetong, a thar or sept of Murmis in Darjiling.

Teva Panya, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Yewan Raja, a kind of bird, a totemistic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tewari, Tiwari, a title of Kdm^rs in Bengal; of Brahmans

and Biibhans in Behar; a section of Srib-istab Kdyasths and of Magahiya Doms in Behar.

Thada, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Thahrait, a section of the Kamar sub-caste of Dosadhs in Behar.

•^Itailtt, a small labouring caste of Nepal.

Thdkur, a synonym for Brah­man ; a section of the Sribastab sub-caste of Kdyasths in Behar ; a hypergamous division of the Maghaya sub-caste of Barhis; a title of Kanaujia Lobars, Bdbhans, Brahmans, Eajputs, Kamdrs, and of Hajjams or barbers in Behar; a title of a respectable class of Tipperahs in Hill Tipperah.

Thikurmairar, ape^r or section of Sakadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Thakurta, an honorary title of Kdyasths in Bengal.

Thambden, the stay-at-home, a sept of the Pheddb sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Thampai-Mech, a sub-tribe of Meches in the Darjiling Terai.

Thamsong, a sub-sept of the Thekun sept of Limbus in Dar­jiling-

Thandar, a title of Haris and Ohanddls in Bengal who serve as a village watch.

Thapa, a title of Mangars iu Darjiling.

/ Th^pangi, a section of E^r«-

in Darjiling. "^"-^^^

THAEAIT. 312 THAEU.

Tharait, a section of Magliaya i Telis in Beliar. Tlie system of Kmnlidrs in Bohar.

Thdriame-Th^riam, a mul of

exogamy'among this sub-caste of Telis seems, however, either to be

, . - - ( d y i n g out or to be of recent tbe Jiasyapa section of Maithil introduction, for some of the Brahmans in Beliar. Maghayas say they have no

^, ^'V'sl^ut merely prohibit marriage Tharmait, a dih or local sec- within nine jyirliis or degrees of

tion of the Maghaya sub-caste of I relationship.

'Ehan t , a non-Aryan tribe of Behar and Upper India, whose scattered settlements are met with all along the Himalayan terai from the Kosi river in Purniah to the S^rda between Kumdon and Nepal. In an exhaustive account of the tribe published in the Calcutta Revieio,^ Mr. Nesfleld has the following remarks on their name:—

" Absurd etymologies have been given for the name Tkdru some deriving it from iahre, " they halted" (after their alleged flight into the forest), others from tar hua, "wet ," in allusion to the swampy nature of the tract they live in. One writer derives it from WiiDaru, ' an eighth-day serf.' 2 But this implies what is not true The Tharus are remarkable for their indolence, aversion to service' and incapacity for sustained field labour; and they have never bpor,' m the position of serfs to any landlords. Had this been the en.? they would have sunk long ago into the ranks of Arakhs PaT;!' Chamars, Kons, and other Hindu castes of the lowest rank t b ^ serve as field labourers or bond slaves to landlords in the open nkir, and have lost the free life of the forest, which Thirus still eniov' Another etymology suggested is from thar, which in the oolloquial dialect of the lowest classes, but not m t te language of books simoi-fies forest; and thus thdru would mean ' man of the forest' a nam which correctly describes the status of the tribe On the whole^ however, it is safer not to seek for any Hindi etymology, but to consider the name as sprung from the laneunpf, „ / fi,„ r - . .^ , " which is now for the most part obsoletl An i •' -^ '*'^^^' underived from any Sanskrit or neo-Sanskrit sowce i f+F°«. ""^ f' lative to an aboriginal, casteless, and un-Brahmanise^ f -i, ^^F customs have been only slightly modified bv Gont„!.f -11 ', ^^°^®-the Aryan invader." ^ ^ ''"''^''ot ^ i th those of

The origin of the Tharus has formed the c V L ^ .. controversy. The Rautar7l^^^®°* ^^ iQuch

Traditions of ong,n. ^j^^ descendants of certaTn P V ' ' ^ ' " l " -^ to be who quarreUed with their chief after his defeat bvli^^f^ °^ Chittor, divested themselves of the sacred thread, and / \ . ^ahomedans, . ;_J^a^tookto agricultural

^ ' Description of the Manners, Industrie,, and P.j:„ • . Sogsha Tribes of Upper India. By John C. Nesfipi/*?? f ^^^ Thdru and

1885. . °^^''' M.A., Oxon. January , \ ' The first etymology is alluded to m Oudh Qa^.f,

"theX^econd, in Nort/i-West Census Report, 1867 J„i •'"• •®^^' ^ol. ii, p. 126; a u t h ^ o f which is. Raja Siva Prasad, C.S T i ' ' P - ^ 1 ; the third (the ti-ajeMeV, iggi, ^^l. vi, p. 358, ' "'' "» Nurth-West Frovinces

313 THAEU.

pursuits. Mr. Nesfield, however, points out that—"Some Thanis know nothing about this tradition, and those who do are not ahle to tell you whether it was the sack hy Alaudin (A.D. 1303), or that by Bahadur Shah (A.D. 1633), or that hy Akbar (A.D. 1567). The story is absurd on the face of it. Not the slightest allusion to Tharus in connection lyith any of these events is made by the Mahommedan historians. The fiction of having come from Eajputana was invented by some of tlie clans merely to niise themselves iu their o\va and their neighbours' estimation. There is scarcely any hunting tribe or caste in Upper India which has not set up a similar claim."

Putting aside trie hypothesis of Eajput descent as wholly unten­able, we may, I think, conclude from the pliysical appearance of the tribe that they are simply an aboriginal i ace, whose ancestors bore mle at one time in the valley of the Ganges, and were gradually driven up into the sub-Himalayan forests by the expansion of the Aryan community. Thus within the last two or three centuries they have been brought into contact with the Nepnlese, and their physiognomy " has acquired in some instances a slightly Mongolian cast, which shows itself chiefly, but not to a striking degree, in slanting eyes and high cheek-bones. In other respects their physical characteristics are of the strictly Indian type. They have long, wavy hair; a dark, almost a black, complexion; and as much hair on the face and body as is usual with olher natives of India. ' In stature, build, and gait they are distinctly Indian, and not Mongolian ; nor have they any tradi­tions whatevei which connect their oiigin with Nepah A century's intercourse with the people of the hills is more than sufficient to account for tie slight MougoUan cast which some members of the tribe have acimred." They belong, in fact, to the large group of aboriginal racss who are classed as Dravidian or Kolarian, according to the character of the language which they speak. The Tharus having lost tleir language cannot be affiliated to one or other of these linguistic families; but Mr. Nesfield's description of their appearance, which agrees substantially with the accounts given by other observei-s, leaves little room for doubting their non-Aryan descent. The relations said to have sprung up in comparatively recent times between the Thdrus and tbe Nepalese find a tolerably complete parallel in the intermixture which has taken place between the Dhimdls of the Darjiling Terai and some of the lower castes of Nepal.

The internal structure of the tribe, so far as I have been able to work it out, is shown in Appendix I . My own

Internal structuro. researches, however, extend only to Behar, and the enumeration of sub-tribes and septs is probably not complete even for that province. The nomadic habits of the Thdrus, and the great extent of forest-clad area over which their settlements are scattered must in the long run tend to promote the formation of sub-castes' and at the same time to make it difficult for the most careful

' TTrffttive correspondent, to whom I am indebted for .some intorostinp • ~ , 'pharus of Champaran, remarks on the scantiness of their beard ^'^^^^

*" s tflclies, but this peculiarity may have been due to crossing with K ^^^ orMecli.

inquirer to i>ive an absolutely con-eet acconnt of the intprnnl divisions of the community, which in aU Hkelihood are liable fn contmual vaiiations. • ^°

In Gorakpur, according to Mr. Nesfield the Thdrus divide Ibon, selves into two classes,—the Purabi or eastern, and the PachhamI western, the latter of whom call themselves Chattris, and refn.« f eat with members of the eastern branch. Thg western Tharus a.>iin are broken up into an upper barka) and louver CMoffca) division Purther west, in the Gonda district of Oudli, we find tlie Dangar i ; sub-tribe, who eat pork, and the KathSria, who affect to abstain from I r 7" ^f\^''^^^ f "* "" '-^^^ the highest, oviug possibly to the beliet, which therr name may have helped to eacourao-e that the^ are somehow connected with the Eajputs. Eaulars will not eat food cooked by members of the other sub-castes. ChitNAania or Chitaunii Ihkvus follow the profession of weavers, and say that their ancestors were Jolahas, who gave water to the Eaja of Chttor when he was out shootmg, and obtained from him the boon tlat good Hindus should ever afterwards take water fi-om their hands This sub tribe is more common in Nepal than in British territorz. Its members have certain peculiar usages, the reasons for which I "eannot ascertain ihey perform no sraddh after a death, nor do their wonen go throu^b any puiificatory ceremony after child-birth. The b-idal procession barat) is imited to four or five persons, who go oi the& wav ^n silence and employ no musicians to proclaim their erand S their minor deities they worship the Raja of Ch i t r t o w h o t T / owe their promotion from thecomparatively low s t a t i o f S S ^^

The septs appear to be either titular or territorial and t b r * light upon the early affinities. The rule of oxogaSffclToweS^f .f ' simple ono that a man may not marry a woman bel n^fnl n Ji same sept (bd,i) as himself. The standard formula f o ? r ° i ^ ° prohibited degrees is also observed to four generations in +i, i " ^ ing line on_ either side. ^ "«rauons la the descend-

Both infant and adult-marriage are in invna o>,j ., . course before marria-e ill;T, I'^^^l inter-

amount of the brido-price is supposed to be Es 9 "hi ' +1" ™'^itionaI vary according to the circumstances of the familv Vu ^^ ^^^^^ to ceremony is modelled on the ritual in vogue amonj? f>, 1 '^^rriago castes. Slight traces of the form of capture moir J' i ^°'^^r Hindi .•. u i,„A i i — .,«/. 1 -i ^"•y Pernnna k« J- " ' m Bral

!tes. isiigju traces ot tJHe ±orm of capture may naS, r^^^ Hindu it, but these are not very marked among the Th^''^ <iiscernod

„_al)mans officiate as priests, and the brother i 1*^^ °^ Behar the bride usually takes a prominent part in tho^^ isanjua) of the IMardania and Ohitwania sub-tribes the b •J^°°®^'^g8. l u instead of being entertained by the bride's peonl ^^°°'^'8 party feast the latter for three days before the brid •' ^^^ ^^Peeted to second ceremony gaiinci) is performed when the K - i P^'iuced No live with her husband. When she is married n« ^'^^ &°es finally to iior husband at once, and in all cases I umi '^V^'i l t ,she goes to proper for her to spend one night at her h u s b S ' l ' ' ' " ^ ^ is deemed «tor marriage. On the occasion of this vj -f V ^^^^ ^°^^ediatoly "loaccompany her are entertained at a feo'f ^°° ^ d the relations

315 TJIAP.U.

' trivinw rice to the brido," wliich celebrates her formal admission into the soptto which her husband belongs. If she is still an infant, she is taken back next day to her parent's house by her brother-in-law, and remains there until she has attained sexual maturity.

Polygamy is permitted, and there appears to be no definite rule limiting the number of wives a man may have. Widows may marry again, and are subject to no special restrictions in their selection°of a second husband. Divorce is allowed, and appears to be extremely common. The bond of wedlock is held m hght esteem among the Thdrus, who countenance a degree of sexual laxity analogous to that which prevails among many of the Nepalese castes, and generally among the sub-Himalayan races. Divorced women may marry again by the same ceremony as widows, and both classes ai-e distinguished by the designation umri, or ' selected,' liom women who were maiTied as virgins by the full ritual. The social status of m nmn wife is respectable, though slightly inferior to that of a hyahi vifo. Even tliis position, however, is not accorded to her unless she is mai-ried with the consent of the relatives of her second

• hisband, which is signified by the ceremony of bhatana, or formally admittingher to the,/«s cii? of the household. Unless this is done sha is called a surahin, or concubine, aud her husband cannot take water or cooked food from her hands without endangering his owa standing in the family. Bhatana is also necessary when any one has been debarred from social intercourse for an offence against the customaof the tribe. There seems to be some difference of practice among the Tharu sub-tribes in respect of the admission of women from a different sub-tribe. Some groups receive women from any othci' group, others only from certain specified groups, while Eautars decline to admit any outsiders to the privilege of bhatana, although they allow a woman of another sub-tribe to be kept by a Rautar man as a suraUin. Such women, however, have no rights as members of the family, nnd their children belong to their mother's sub-tribe.

The reunion of the Thdrus is a compound of the mingled animism and Nature-worship characteristic of

Eeiigioii. ^^^ aboriginal races and of elements borrowed from popular Hinduism. A prominent place in their pantheon is taken by the hero Eikheswar, whom I suspect to be identical with the Rikhmun of the ;Musahar-Bhuiyas. According_to the legend in vogue among the Tliarus of Khgri,-thi3 deiSecl'founder was a son of the renowned aborigSoTKiniiiaja Ben, whose fame is still rife in many of the oldestcities of 'Djjpe^ India and Behar as one who EeldTHe rank'SnaTifle of Chah-aiarti, or universal emperor, in the olden time. Rikheshwai'-«r -Bakshar-waB banished, it is said, fi-oni his lather's court, and ordered with his band of male foUoweis to seek for a new home in the north, from which they were never to return Setting out on their wanderings, they took as wives any vnmen whom they could steal or capture on the road, and in this

nv the Tharu tribe was founded. I t was not tiU they had reached ?i c„b-Himalayau forest in which they still dwell that they decidAri *^' 1 and settle. The soul of Eaksha js still teUeved to h o i ^ t° ^^^ 4 e people of liis tribe. Just as in ancient days h e l e d i \ ,

THARU. 3^6

snfely through (he wide wilderness into a new and distant Bettle-meut, so in the present day he is said to be the guardian and o-uide ot men travelling on a distant journey. No Thara ever sets out trom his village for such a purpose without first propitiating him with gifts and promising him a sumptuf.us feast of flesh, milk, and wine on his return. His presence is represented by a mound of mud, with a stone fixed in the middle; and he delights in seeing the head of a live capon dashed against this stone, and to feel its Wood trickhng dowu the side. One peculiarity of this god is that he IS deaf - a n emblem of his antiquity ; and hence vows and prayers are addressed to him in a stentorian tone of voice. The title inu-w, which is generally prefixed to his name, implies that during his residence on earth he was famous as a wizard or medicine-man, and acquired through tins means the kingship or leadership of his tribe

Ihe animistic element in the Tharu faith being represet,ted by

w i i f n - ' ' ^ ^ Y P f ^ ' P ' * ' ^ ^ '"'-^"g'^'i survival of N a t u r / Jl^J^-^^° other deities of some importance, to whom Tha ru^

esptlallv o? ZT- ' '"• ' " ^ ^ ^ ' ^ t ^ ° ' '''' g°^ «^ intoxicating liquor especially of the rice-wine made by themselves; the other is Uli-r-

111 Ti r S '°*^°^ed to impersonate the earth Her shrine

|a:p3t-is?5i:?s;a offered, and always on nlates of lenf ^^L oV. • • uews are all the cattle of ?he v i ^ ! t i g e t t r ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ £ ; ^ t l

When the cattle sicken or die, larger and more valuable oflerinffs are made. Neither of these deities is known or worshipped by other natives of Upper India. ^

PowJs are offered to Dliarchandi; he goats to Man, the patron ?°. , . ' ' J • \^°J^'"s and, according to Mr. Nesfield, identical with Kali, ihis, however, seems not to be the case in Behar In Cham paran KUA is worshipped as a village deity by casting sweetmeats tlown a well Icua) and smearing vermilion on its rira All tl primitive deities, however, are rapidly losing ground in the estimnfi!!^ of the people, and giving way to the more popular worshin . 7 s" and his consort Kali. I t is likely enough that both of fh '" themselves merely elaborated forms of aboriginal objects ^ , ^ ^ which may well have been familiar to an earlier genernfm " e m'! P' But Siva and Kali, as now revered by tlie tribe hav« l° t^^"^"^^-borrowed at quite a recent date from the Hindus ^'®^"y been regarded as indigenous deities. ' ^"^^ cannot be

The goddess wiio presides over life and death ThAms believe to be the supreme power in the ,i •' ^"^ * ® —one of the numerous forms of Devi, Bur^a "°"'®''se, is KMika, J'ame all India trembles, especially the low caste , ' ^^ ^^ ° ®

^^I'loea, amongst whom she originally sprunn- nV?- *^^ casteless fo Kaiika as the special patroness of their ait m'^T"'^"™^'^ ' ° ° ^ 1?«\^ goddess of parturition, and her airl •* - ^ "^^ fair sex she • y TJomen who have had no children An ^'P^'^i''% invoked

^^ • • ' ^ ' i claSi-es f nn i l i i T iH t o \

\

317 TH.^EU.

give her a periodical ovation, accompanied with much dancing, banqueting, and drinking of wine at about the middle of October. Thar us also take part in the hufje animal sacrifice performed at her celebrated altar in L)e\i Patan (Gonda district). Such is lier thirst for blood, that at this time 20 buffaloes, 250 goats, and 250 pigs are slaughtered daily for ten days continuously. The sacrifice is vica­rious, the blood of buffaloes, etc., being intended as a substitute for that of human victims. Tliis loathsome festival is thronged with visitors from the plains of India and from the hills of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhotau.

" Another deity revered by Tharus, and, like Kalika, of indigen­ous or non-Aryan origin, is her consort Siva, known chiefly amongst Tharus by the name of Bhairava, the Terrible, or Thakur, the Lord, and amongst Hindus by that of Mahadev, the great god. He, like his spouse, is a god of destruction, and thirsts for blood ; but he is chiefly worshipped by ThSnis as the author of reproduc­tion, of which a stone Imgam, as amongst Hindus, is sometimes made the symbol. I t is more usual, however, for a ThSru to erect a mud moimd in front of his house and fix an upright pole in its centre to represent tlie presence of this phallic divinity."

Although modem Hinduism is fast displacing the earlier gods of the Thtiru religion, it seems probable that the principles of their primitive belief will long survive in the strong fear of evil spirits which continually haunts the tribe. I t is to the action of these spirits that fever, ague, cough, dysentery, fainting, headache, mad­ness, bad dreams, and pain of all kinds are ascribed. In fact, the Thdrus have no conception of natural disease, and no belief in natural death, except what is faintly conceived to be the result of natural decay. Their state, therefore, would bo one of utter helpless­ness were it not for the reputed skill of medicine-men or sorcerers, who profess to have the power to control the spirits of the air or to interpret their grievances and wants. In the Thdru language these men are called bararar; but the titles of Gui'u, Gurua, Bhagat, Nyotya, Ojhait, all of which are borrowed from Hindi, are now in common use, tliough even of these the last two are probably of aboriginal or non-Sanskrit origin. The power of the medicine-man is tremendous. He has a host of Kege spirits at his command. Not only can he expel a fiend from the body of the sufferer, but he can produce sufl'ering or death by driving a malignant spirit into the body of his foe. In order to exorcise an evil spirit, he holds in his left hand some ashes of cowdung, or grains of mustard seed, or wild nuts, aud after bieathmg some mystical virtue into them by the utterance of a spell, ho causes the patient to eat them, or has them attached to his arm. One of the spells uttered at such times is as follows. It is addressed to Kftlika, the Tharu goddess of death and pationess of the magical art :—

Giir Jini 9">' •'""• ^'"" '"»''•« mantra Gin-: Lahhai uiranjan • (oka .nhai viK'lk" ^^'"'•' ^^"'"J"^ ''"^'"' 3«» vidl/d kai bhar: Ya/idii kni Zud nuhin, Kamvu Earn kai ndijd. Jam vidijd Kcunm Kdni kai Idnn;

trtiise mil" '"J*"'

TIIAEU. 318

• J u ° ^'^S^'^Se is that of bad and scarcely intelligible' ninrH o .^ might be rendered thus :— ° ^^^^> and

" Tl « Guru (Kaiika) is great, she is everything, she i . /„„/ <magic by deeds), she is man/ra (magic by words) ShpV. 1 '"'' he way to relief. Thou (oh Kaii&) d L r v e ^ fobe h e S ^ h

floors. I too deserve to be heaped with secret w i s d o m . - t K s ^ j ' i of Kararu Xam, not the wisdom of this countr^. w S ^ effects the knowledge of Kamru Kam produces, such effects w ' knowledge produce a l so" " ^aects let my

'•' The burial rites of Thdrus are of various kinds. Sepulture o Disposal of tho dead. earth-burial seems to have been the original

custom; but the .Hiudu rite of cremation W now become common n many clans, except in the c a e of person, who have died of cholera or small-po^; and these are S v a r k K buried m the earth. After cremation the ashes are scattered on i l ^ nearest river Before, however, the corpse has b S ^ S 3 o^^ either nte, it is usua to paint it with'vermilion and expose it fo^ one mght on a mound outside the house. From this mouml L f a strongliold, the spirit of the dead is supposed to . n 3 P ' 'M"? animals fi.m the c'erpse. AVhether theTo'c?; l U u n l T o r b 7 4 l « ceremony is always performed on the southern Ri,l« ^f f? -n ' ^^ a notion probably borrowed from H n „ . ^ T ! -^^ v i l l age-north is the region c o C o n l y frclented W dfjln''"''''^-!'' ^ ^ 1 "^° south by humtu souls. The S who m t s t ^ e ' f i r t ' ''f ']"' funeral pyre is considered to be unclean w ! ? ^ - ^ ° , *° *^« himself . i th in dangerous reach of Z'ZiaglToti:! ' T ^ ^ ' therefore kept at a distance for ten davs after / . • ^"^ '^ compelled to live entirely alone." ^^Ont i l^ cremation, and day (or the thirteenth, as some ThAras reVte) S T *'i''° t '""^ deceased meet at the house where he died, and a L 1 1 " ' " ' ^ ' °^ ^ " ceremony of shaving they hold ' a feast of the dead ' T^T^T^ ^ ^ prepared for this purpose consists of cooked flesh i P^^^l^ot scent and smoke of which are intended to refresh fl.o f ^""^' *'>° tho solid par t s - tha t is, the flesh and wiue themsplvl! ^^P^^^^ J soul: by the living." '•eives—are consumed

" I n certain rare cases the bui-ial rite is perform i • distinct from either of those ah-eady described. A ^°^ ^ manner his follows for wisdom in counsel, bravery in be ch^^^^ ^^^^i above of the magical and medicinal arts, is buried unde'^Tl' ^^ ^^^wledge house in which he was living before his spirit dena 4 i ^ ^^°°^ ^^ t'^o thenceforth becomes a temple, and ceases to be u ' l '^^^ house place for man. The soul of tho dead becomes if ^^ "^ dwellin"' lives tliere to bless tliose Avhom it has left behin^l ' ^^^P^ t. and it three or six mouths after tho death, the friends a 1 • Periods of deceased assemble around his grave or temple an 1 "^'S^bours of tho clay, parts of which are painted in various colon ^^^^ °-^ ^ ^ " 7 i " duce the appearance of resuscitated life. ] j - ^^^' intended to repro-^eeping and wailing before the image, and i3]„!I°^" ,rPPei-s fall down flesh and wine at its feet. Presently, ^t ^^'^^^ offerings of cooked the soul of the dead is behoved to Jiavo heL^^'^'.^'Snal, as soon as °i loast meat and tho fumes of wine, [l^^^ Propitiated by tho scent

y commence to dance and

319 THAEU.

sing with every demonstration of joy; and the proceedings of the day arc closed with consuming the solid parts of the offerings."

The Tharus stand wholly outside of the Hindu caste organiza-^ . tion, and their social status cannot be defined by ocia s a us. ^^^ ^^ ^-^^ Ordinary standards. No orthodox

Hindu will eat with a Thai-u or take water from his hands, and by the higher castes his mere touch would be deemed pollution. This comparatively degraded position is. however, due in great measure to the nomadic hnbits of the tribe, and to the fact that they come very little into contact with settled Hindu communities. Tharus follow the forest; their typical village is a lino of huts in the middle of a clearing, and their favourite mode of husbandry Avas until lately the J/itiiii method of burning the jungle and planting a crop in tho ashes. The scanty crops obtained in this fashion are eked out by hunting and fishing, by gathering forest fruits and vegetables, and by grazing cows and buffaloes. Avoiding the larger villages of the plains, they live their owu life ou tiio outskirts of Hindu civilization, and no place has as yet been' allotted in the Hindu social system. "Every littlo village," says Mr. Nesfield, " is a self-governing community. Disputes are decided by a council of elders; and this is sometimes presided over by a headman, who in the Tharu language was formerly called baricaik, but who is now dubbed even by themselves with the ordinary Hindi title of CIKIU-cl/iari. The office of headman is not hereditary. The man selected is one whose age, experience, and knowledge of the magical and. medicinal arts entitle him to more i-espoct than tho rest; and ho acquires (he status o£ headman by tacit consent, and not hy form.il election. The decisions of the coimoil or the lieadman are obeyed unreservedly, and there is no sueb thing known as a Tharu taking a follow tribesman before a tribunal outside bis own community. Litigation between Tharus and Hindus is equally imknown. Among themselves tho Thdrus are for tbe most part a peaceful and good-natured race, following without question, as if by a law of nature, the customs and maxims of their ancestors." Notwithstanding their comparative isolation, their customs show many signs of the influence of Hindu example. Their religious observances tend immistakeably towards Sivaism; their marriage ceremony is framed on a Hindu model; tliey revere the cow, and scrupulously abstain from eatino-beof. Their ultimate reception into the standard social system seem's therefore merely to he a question of timo. In other respects their practice in matters of food falls short of the orthodox standard. They eat pigs and fowls, and make no distinction between the clean and unclean species of fish. Field-rats they will cook when pressed for food, and the porcupine sd/ii) is thought a delicacy, because his flesh resembles that of the pig. Mr. Nesfield mentions that when their stock of meat becomes larger tbau they can consume at once, they preserve it by cutting it into strips and dryino- ^^

As agriculturists they are stiU for the most part IQ +1 migratory stage, cultivating the land on x.-!,; 1

TH/tSU. , «,nvin-oS to fresh grounds ^ .«yoo, 0, e*»*-ij'sc^^r^t-r.s lias g^^f/^g,v clearance, -^f f 'years together. _ D ^^^^

In longer the case. , ^ f "? „^e iuterfered very ^^^ present

nionths hetNveen j^^ed. lu tu , ^ ^„i * ^ ! h K effected, sdifti is the q^awy I ^^^ rain c'^jj^- ^tion; aud this is ei

from the forest an ^ ^ ^^^ l e

' i ^ ° - ^ . nlv kinds of art ^ . ^ n S^eav t l eeds . and fibres, Tte oBly »J^ ti,e t^a^^^^^te latter is exemplified in making

eaid to PO^f 'a of carpentry. The laue ^ ^ ^ ^ and a rude l^^^,°',f the V^«^g^'^^i in filing up the sides and tt e -00^^^ ffe corners of - e l ^ ani ui^h^^ ? J accomplishment aove-taihng «> of their houses, iu ^ , ^ ^^^ ^ , . _ ^ 1 , ver

'^°°ton to hack -=^ ^ ^^fiV,^ r S d i a it is practised hy all the ^""^"^Ttm^als exist-, n ^ . ^ t p£i8 Bhangis, liuris, Dharkars, etc.) *^' " T S of Hindus l^l^'^^^'S?, if at all, raised ahove that of ^°^ ' TJe of culture IS ^^"J^yVake strong and durahle mats ^ ^ ° ' ' S £ trihes. The Tl^^^J^^^^, gather iu large quantities ^^! S the fi^e Oonl:as gras^ - ^ J -^ l ^ ^ i quarter%£ the year^

*, ^^^ ' ' . i ; louver ranges of t&e ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^ material; and

i-' • 5°"^! ent r ^ ^ ' ^^ ?°r the manufacture of fishing nets, noosej Excellent t ^ ^^^^ foi the ^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^^ . ^ .^ttle, ' ' ' t ! es for dra^ving j a t e ^ ^ ^ skilled are they i n ^ « f S -

tt.e funnel-shaped hasl. ^^ ^ ^^^^ '""T^^^il ^^^'''"l the loofs of their l ^ o n s ^ ^^^ ^,^^^. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^Jf^^og °«?" nmhieUa made of cf^^^^^n P^ain?. Por plates and drmU vr, u,. e n niirl to the opei i

THARU. 321 THHOLACHA.

they skewer large leaves together to the shape required for either purpose; and for drawing and keeping water they use a hollowed gourd or tomri. Some who are better off than others use vessels made of clay or brass ; but these can only be obtained from Kumb&rs (potters) and Thateras (braziers), both of whom are Hindu castes; for there is no such thing as home-made pottery or brass work amongst the Thdru tribe.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Tharus in 1872 and 1881:—

DlBXBlCT.

UarjilinK I'arblinnga Sumii

1872.

" 320

1881.

IIS 916

2

DISTRICT. IS'2- 1881-

Clrimparan Khiualpur Purniah

21,450 48 45

18,»05 l i s

1,610

Thather or Thathera, a sub-caste of Kiindus in Behari a sec­tion of the Banodhia and Jaiswdr Halwdis in Behar.

a bra­zier ; in Shahabad also called Kasera, which properly means a brass founder. See Kaser^.

Thathung, a thar or sept of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Thatcai, a synonyn for raj mis-tiri or mason, in use in Saran and South Champaran.

ThazcepS, a /•;/' or sept of the Ruiclihung sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Theguba, the son of the cliff, a sept of the Phedab sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Thehbeh, a sept of the Yan-gorup sub-tribe of Limbus. This is an eponymous ihar named after Thehbeh, son of Srijanga, the powerful chief of the tribe, since deified, who fought against Prithi Narayan, the founder of the present ruling dynasty of Nepal.

Jhek, a synonym for Chakmd.

Thekim, he who works in wicker, including the sub-septa (a) Meongba, b) T msong, (c) Chobegu, d) Petehhimba, (c) Angbu, the forest-dweller, ( / ) Yakten, formerly doctors—a sept of the Panthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Thekra , a section of Binjhias in Chota Nagpur.

Themj^ni, a thar or sept of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Thengait, a section of the Dhusiii sub-caste of Ghamars in Behar.

Thenglahbo, the native of Thenglah, a sept of the Ahtharai sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Theni , a section Orissa Brahmans.

ofUtkal or

Thero, Thai 'ua, n sub-tribe of Santals in the south of Man-bhum who employ Brahmans and have adopted portions of the Hindu ritual.

Theya, a sept of Chakmas in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Thholachi , a thar or Bept of SunuwArs in Darjiling.

Th.ng, a BccUo. oi \ ^ ^ , p u k u ^ ^e^^/l.vm\>- ^

^^^^^^^' „o<raoTBeotio^°MpotuP.Bf-^' Th\nga^, a 9'>''-« \ %^x\^Z- « oi a^^^ce,

' I J ^ J l S V i ^ ^ ^ - ^ . „ .ears U ^ i . ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ . „ ^^uP oi ^

1 1

I

\ ^^^'- aBuVcasteoiTA"-^-

^'- w S ^ * ^ ^ ^ ^ ' " vo ^^earslutsi^^^^'^" • a group oi t^o

Thokar ,a „\ totem ot ^^^^ jo t , ^"Dan^'^S- ,„ , , o r s e p t o i U i ^ ^ B g g ^ ^ ^ortli Bba^

„pt ot *» K S n g - I * » " • „ te »ii*i-

' Phfgi BulD-tribe ot * ^ ^ ^ la Beliat-

in DarjiliDg-

TILAIWAE. 323 TIPPESAH.

Tilaiwar, amuloi the SAndil section of Maithil Brahmans in Behar.

Tilakchandi, a sept of Edjputs in Behar.

Ti lak D^s, a sub-caste of Tiyars in Eastern Bengal; a sect of Vaishnavs who follow the tenets of Tilak-dds.

Tilatwar, a nml or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Tilautd, a sept of the Surya-bansi sub-tribe of Edjpuls in Behar.

Tilding, a sept of Limbus in Darjiliug.

^ i l i , a worker in til (sesamum orientale), a synonym for Teli.

Tiliei, a section of the Baran-wdr sub-caste of Baniyas in Behar.

Timllsin^, a thar of the Maut-kaha gotra of Nepali Brahmans.

Tin, a sept of Hos in Sing-bhum.

Tinai Prabarai , a thar of the Basishtha gotra of Nepdli Brahmans.

Tindiha, a section of Ban-tarid Kandus ia Behar.

Tingal, a gotra or section of A.garwdls.

Tingilmung, a sept of Lep-chas in Darjihng.

Tinmulia Madhesia, a sub-caste of Halwdis in Behar.

Tinr iar , a section of the Amashta sub-caste of Kayasths in Behar.

Tior, a synonym for Tiyar.

•^ipperall, Trlpra, Mrung, a wandering tribe of Hill Tipperah and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, who Uve by

Ongin. ^^^ jhum cultivation described in the article on the Magh tribe. Lewin identifies them with the Mrungs of Arrakan, who, accordiag to Colonel Phayre, believe_ themselves to be the descendants of persons carried away from Tipperah by the Arrakan kings. The Maghs speak of the entire tribe by the name Mrung, and do not use the Bengali word Tipperah. _ Members of the Tipperah tribe have no general name for their race, and -when speaking his own language a man describes himself by mentioning the sept to which he belongs. When speaking Bengali, however, he would say he was a Tipperah. I t seems to follow from this that the term Tipperah is not a genuine tribal name, but a designation conferred by outsiders by reason of the tribe being specially numerous in Hill Tipperah. "Whether this was their original habitat or not is uncertain, and some have supposed that they came from Manipur. To attempt to trace the earliest home of a wandering tribe who Uve by jhutn cultivation and have neither written recordl nor definite oral traditions must always be a somewhat hopeless task,

J the most reasonable view of the matter seems to be that taken f Friedrich MuUer and otlier Germau ethnologists, who class

11 the wild tribes of the Chittagong and Tipperah Hills under the vi d Lohitic, a word which denotes some sort of connexion with tha

• a river, and describe them in general terms as standin to the Bm-mese as the H i m a l a y a !

Brahmaputra river, and describe ^ ThTsamo ethnic relation to

TIPPEIUH. 324

races do to the Tibetans.* The classificatior into Toungtha and Khypungtha, hill-people and river-people, av jpted by Captain Lewin, however convenient for local use, fails, as Professor Yirchow^ has observed, to bring out the true racial affinities of the various tribes.

The Tipperahs are described in a survey report by Mr. H . J . Internal Reynolds as having strougly-marked Mongolian

" ^^ features, •with flat faces and thick lips. They are of much the same stature as Bengalis, but their frames are far more mu=cular and strongly made. Many of them have fair com­plexions, scarcely darker than a swarthy European The tribe is divided into a number of septs, •which are shown m the Appendix. They appear to be exogamous, but on this point there is some diffeience of opinion. I have only been able to discover the meaning of one sept name, Kakulu, a kmd of gourd, and •with regaid to this no one could tell me -whether the membeis of the Kakulu sept weie forbidden to eat this gourd or -were subject to anj' kmd of taboo in respect of it. The point seems to demand further inquiry in the Hill Tracts by some one thoroughly acquainted with the language of the tribe. The Biang sept serve as palanqum-bearers, and are said to be looked do \\Ti upon by the others ; but it does not appear that they have on this account been excluded from the right of inter-marri.ige -with other septs The Mahdrajas of Hill Tipperah, who nfi-w put forward an untenable claim to bo Edjputs, are believed to belonf? to the Afang and Jumdtya sept% the members of which frequently call themselves Rajbansi by way of recalling their rehitionship to the royal family. The Kdli sept furnish the euaids of the chief. °

Tipperahs admit into their tribe Lushais, Maghs and Hindus Intermarnage '^^f Ceremony of admission consists simply of

a feast given by the new member, at wiiich a pig IS served up and a huge quantity of drink consumed The proselyte declares himself to have entered the trihp a A • i. 7 , thenceforth as if he had been a Tipperah by birth T / ^ l drunk on these and similar occasions are hhunn Cfpr " t ^^ hquors sipd (fermented from btnn), and arrack (distilled from ri ^ "''^^'

Adult-marriage is the vmiversal rule, and " PT + *' intercourse is allowed bptw„„ i\ iieedom of

Blarnage. m i , . " " " ^ ^ oecween t h e ROY«„ k I Tipperah gul is never known +^ ^ ' '^^^ "•

of her own clan. An illegitimate birth, also 1, ° ^^'^^^ °'^^ among them, for the simple leason that should a'cM i " ^ known her lover has to marry her The giilg are tof 11 ^'^^^^ eiuieute piudery that distinguishes Mahqmedan and Hinrl ^ ^™ ^ ® have an open, fiank manner, combined ^ ith ^°°ien, and they that is attiactive At a maniage there is no ^ ^°^^^^J modesty but a great deal of drinking and dauoinf> / ' ^ i c u l a r ceremony, Bacrifice to the deities of the wood and slrpiTT, +i?'^ '® ^^^^^^ "® "" of the aflair being th is : the girl's moiU? ' ^ «^rowning point

^ ^^oiJier pours out a glass of ', P Mullcr. Allqememe Ethnnqraphie, ^ Ar,.

^^^\i>iaVs ChiUagong Etll-Tnbes, j,ni:]'^ "^"Pologtcal liemai is.

325 TIPPERAH.

liquor and gives it to her daughter, who goes and sits on her lover's knee, drinks half, and gives him the other half; they afterwards crook together their little fingers. If a match be made with the consent of the parents, the young man has to serve three years in his father-in-law's house before he obtains his wife or is formally married. During the period of probation his sweetheart is to all intents and purposes a wife to him. On the wedding night, however, the bridegroom has to sleep with his wife surreptitiously, entering the house by stealth and leaving it before dawn. He then abs-euts himself for four days, during which time he makes a round of visits among all his friends On the fourth day he is escorted hack with great ceremony, and has to give another feast to his coitigc. A Tipperah widow may remarry if it so seems good to her. Every lad before marriage has his sweetheart, and he cohabits with her whenever opportunity serves. This, however, is without the know­ledge of the elders.

"Divorce," says Major Lewin, "can be obtained among the Tipperahs, as among all the hill tribes, on the adjudication of a jury of village elders. One such case I remember to have seen. The divorce was sued for by the wife on the grounds of habitual cruelty. The jury deliberated and found that the cruelty was proved, and that the divorce should be granted. Some cheek, however, they determined, must be put upon the woman, or otherwise every wife would complain if her husband raised his little finger at her. Accordingly they gave sentence that the divorce \vas granted, hut that as the woman was wrong to insist upon abandoning her lawful husband, she should give up all her silver ornaments to him, pay a fine of thirty rupees, and provide a pig with tiimmings, in the shape of ardent spirits, to be discussed by the jury "

The religion of the Tipperahs is a debased form of Hinduism. They offer to Kali black goats, rice, plantains,

eigion. sweetmeats, areca nut. curds, red lead, etc. The goddess has no image, but is represented for sacrificial purposes by a round limip of clay, the edges of which are dra\\Ti out into four points or legs, so that the whole, seen from above, bears a rouo-h resemblance to sea-urchin with four arms. Satya-Narayan is afso worshipped, but in his case the offerings consist only of fruits or flowers. The tribe do not employ Brahmans, but have priests, or rather exorcists, of their own, called Auchai, whose office is hereditary.

"When a Tipperah dies, his body is immediately removed from 1 .^1, .1 J within the house to the open air. A fn^vl i=

Duiposal of the dead. , .,, j j „ , , . . , "±"=" " i i . a. l o w i i s P killed and placed with some rice at the dead

man's feet. The body is burnt at the water side. At the spot where the body was fijrst laid out, the deceased's relatives kill a cock everv morning for seven days, and lea\e it there with some rice as offering to the manes of the dead. A month after death a \\^ ofiering is made at the place of cremation, and this is ocoasionaH ^ repeated for a year. The ashes are deposited on a hill in a sm u hut built for the purpose, in which are also placed the dead n > weapon8,-a spear, ddos of two sorts (one his fighting duo, the oth ^

TIPPEEAH. 326

his every-day bread-winner), arrow heads, his nietal-stemmed pipe, earrings, and ornaments. The place is held sacred."

In connection with tbe beliefs of the Tipperahs regarding the spirits of the dead, Major Lewin speaks of a curious practice. He says:—" "We were travelling once through the jungles, and the path led across a small streamlet. Here I observed a white thread stretched from one side to the other, bridging the stream. On inquiring the reason of this it appeared that a man had ^ e d away from his home in a distant village; lus friends had gone thither and performed his obsequies, after wbich it was supposed that the dead man's spirit would accompany them back to his former abode. Without assistance, however, spirits are unable to cross running water; therefore the stream here had been bridged in the manner aforesaid."

A-tiotlieT w?'© oi tlievjliite tl^iead meTitionftd lay Le'siu as pTractised by the Tipperahs and most of the hill races seems to be a survival of the primitive animistic belief which attributes all disease to the action of malevolent spirits, who nevertheless can bo propitiated by the exorcist who knows the proper means of turning away their wrath. When an epidemic breaks out in a village, the Tipperahs and many other hill tribes call in an Auchai to appease the demon of sickness by a sacrifice. The entire village is encircled with a newly-spun while thread, and the blood of the animal sacrificed is freely sprinkled about. This is followed by careful sweeping and cleansing, and the houses and gates are decorated with green boughs. For three days afterwards the thread is maintained unbroken, and no one is allowed to enter or leave the village. The theory seems to be that if the demon who presides over the malady can be kept at bay for that time he will go away disappointed, while a breach of the quaiantine or khaiig would lead to a renewal of the outbreak.

"The dress of the Tipperahs," says Lewin, "ia of the simplest Dres. description. Among the men a thick turban

is worn, and a narrow piece of hoin cloth, with a fringed end hanging down in front and rea ^"^^^° once round the waist and between the legs. In the nnlrl ' ' P' p®^ wear a rudely-sewn jacket. The males wear silver mrr^2'^?^_ ^^^7 wear a rudely-sewn jacket. Tlie males wear silver earrir, ^ shiiped, with little sUver pendants on the outer edeo 7^1' ^^i^^" ' ^-the women is equnUy uiiornate. The petticoat k si, A . . °^

,1 Tv,n,i« r,t^ /_ " ° onorc, reaehmo-

the unmarried girls cover the breast with a e a i l v T °? ™™® > ^* I fringed ends. The women never cover their if f® "^°*^^ "^^^

earrings like the men; but in addition (0 this nm ! ' ^^^^ '^^^'^ ' the lobe of the ear to the size of half a erowi h !! *^®^ ^"-^^^"^^

a concave-edged ring of silver, placed, not th • 1 ^ ^ . ' ^ °* lobe. Both sexes have lon<;, black, abuDdn^f f':' ^ ' ,^^* ^° ' * ® in a knot at the back of the head. Th ^ '^ ^ " ^ common among them, especially the woffien T^ ¥ ' ^ ^ / f 1«! W ^ a r e wovef in among the back h a i ^ f ^^^i^^tr^i i S

V

TIPPEBAH. 327^ TLRUHA.E.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of the Tipperah tribe in 1872 and 1881 :—

DISIEICT. 187! 18S1.

Kuch Bohar Dacca Fandpur Bakarganj

1,120 47

101 45

Tipperah-Suryabansi , also called Eajbansi—a mixed class of Bengalis and Tipperahs.

Tipr ia t i , a section of the Maghaya sub-oaste of Barhis in Behar.

Tirango, a wild bird, a totem­istic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tirhutia, a sub-caste of bar­bers; of Hindu Jolahas (Tatwa or Tanti) ; and of Kumhai-s iu Behar, who say they can inter­marry with the Maghaya and Desi sub-castes. The Maghayas, however, allege that all the sub-castes ai-e strictly endogamous; a sub-caste of Thathera or brass-chaser and uf Ldheris, Telis, and Tdmbulis in Behai-.

Tirhut ia or Cliiraut, a sub-caste of Dhdnuts, Doms, and Hajjams in Behar,

Tirhuti^ or Maitliil, a terri­torial division of Brahmans ' Behar.

in

DisiKicr.

Chittngoni? Noakliali 'I ippcnih lUll Tracts

1S72.

4S 232

3,004 11,600

ISSl.

2-25 IS

1,895 16,CS4

Tirkar , a maker of bows and ovi-nwB • a title of Doms; a title S ^ W h s who originally killed J - X and beasts and lived on " L Mflined by chase, at present ^^'fS^^Ze taken to.s^i-

cuUure-. , ! bull atotemistioseptof

"•""•^Vsuras, Chamdrs, Khar-GoaUs, ^ M-Uudas, Oraons, wars, ^°'^

and Ndgeswars in Chota Nagpur who cannot touch any cattle after eyes open; a section of Ghasia and Goraits; a totemistic section of Doms and Tuiis implying a mouse.

Tirkiar, tree-mice, a totemistic "" sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tirkoar , a section of Kharias in Ohota Nagpur.

Tirkuar , fruit, a totemistic ' sept of Oraous and Turis in Chota Nagpur,

Tiro, a small bird, a totemis­tic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Tirsuiia, a sub-caste of Pasis in Behar.

Ti r tha , a sect of Dasndmi • Sannyasis,

Tirthjatri, a pilgrim,

Tir t ia , a bird, a totemistic sept of Mundas and Oraons in Chota Nagpur.

Tiru, a kind of bird or fish, a totemistic sept of Mundas and Oraons in Ohota Nagpur.

Tirua, a section of Kdmis iu Darjiiing.

Tiruar, arrow, a sept of Khar wars in OliotaNagpuj; a section of Kurmis m Behar.

Tiruhar, a bird, a totemisK

1 sept of Mundas in Chota N T S ^

A

TIEUSIA. 328

TirusiS a mul or section of KasarwSm Baniyds in Behar.

Tisbaryd or r.md., a section Dnr; • ^^<f amyd sub-caste of •iJoms in Behar.

ViVr°'^ a section of the Sdtmu-hd Maghaya suh-caste of Kandus

•1, ^ilr^f""' ^ '""^ or section of S B S - ^ sub-easte of Koiris

inBeht!^''''''^°°°^^^^^'^°«

of ai;siJ^s!:rsSi° ^

? ; BH.ar, a sub-o^e ^ H t ~ S ^ ^ sZllStyT""'^ ^^^ X i u i o n ' ^ e s t f t t ' ' " ^ ^ ^e d ^ d' d i Z c ^ V v l r ^ ' ^ ' l °'=°^Pation an f t . . " ' ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^'^' than ^liile D h S i s X ^ a corruption of the S a n l ^ ^ ' ' "PP^^^ to be two SrmZZrt::ft''' Sanskrit S ^ w f t f i T " ' ' ^ ^^°*' '^' ' physical type Thf-p^l^w marked differen' s n^^'™'.''^-' ^l.e weU-cut felKes atd """^ ^^^« ' S S ' ^ complexion and of Hindus 0 the ° t , r ° ? ^°«ceably^below t L ' ^ " " "^'i ^^"' y according to Dr W- ^® ''^'^s- The Tivt° ^ ^ . ^ rage stature Jhem, are short n Y ' ' ' ' ^^° ^ ad special o^r ' .° ' ' -^> ' "^^^'^ l^and, b r o w ; _ a W , i f °^'^°»'ar, w i t r p i f P " ' , ^ " ^ of observing

TIYAR.

Tit id BSmbfir, a W2M/ or sec­tion of the NaomuHd' or Majraut sub-caste of Groalas in Behar.

Titipi, a totemistic sept of Bediaa in Chota Nagpur, signi­fying a night bird.

Tititihu, a section of Khariis in Chota Nagpur.

Tittal, a golra or section of Agarwals.

Titung, a section of Murmia in Darjiling.

Tiwdri, see Tewari.

urown—almoRt 1.1 T "''"'^uJar, witb nmr^;., i. T ""* "^ observing ^Ps. and C g coa^eV^^^Ple^ions thS^^^^^^ ' i - ^ ti^ge towar,^ ZTv '''"' ^°^° in a cue tlW ? #'^^^al]y projecting

^--e-utn.eture. Or s^^^^^^jars Call themselves S ^ S S.e title of Sural h . ' ' " ^ ^^oZli^'Z^u'^r'''^^' "^"^'^ Das. ^iagalpur are Hi A T'' Accor<S/ toV ) ^' '^^'^ ^"^ ^1"^^ *° "lean Sudras « S / ' ^ ' *o B^man '^ Buchanan, the Tiyars of

««cetio a c ^ a, ^^^^^^r they „° f ' ' f T'"'' ' ^'^^ ^P^ its, and i"^Pure, a G l ? ^ " ' '*°d a KaSj l T ' ? " ^ '" P^^ ' a Dasndmi ^ ^ m ; n i s . ^. °f bengal is^J ' ' ^ ' ' ' ' ' ' r ^ as purohit; when

li The s^cSns J" "" ^ ^"""^ °^ '^^^'^'^"^

r > * C i s ' ^ ^ ^ ? * tiiSjr S t " T the Appendix throw no '?«tic6 of i f ^ "1 general use fo" .1!^ ' '"^ doubtful whether the

^"'^tiveforl^'^ganiy; and I b.Ueve J K P ^ " « ^ of enforcing the '^°havebeen abandoned; f Practice, at least in its

^ in lavour of the more modern

329 TITAR.

eystem of simply specifying the relations whom a man or woman may not marry. For this purpose they make use of the standard formula mamera, chachem, etc., calculated to five generations in the descending line on the male side and three generations on the female.

Girls are usually married os infants, but eases sometimes occur in which, owing to the poverty of her parents,

Marriage. ^ girl's marriage is deferred until she has passed the age of puberty. Polygamy is permitted, and iu theory at least there are no restrictions on the number of wi\-es a man may have. In Behar a widow may marry a second time She is not obliged to marry her late husband's younger brother, if such a relative exist, but it is considered a very proper thing for lier to do so; and the fact that ho has a right to the custody of the children by the first husband tends as n rule to induce the widow to agree to the arrangement. In Bengal widows never marry, but earn a livelihood by selling fish, by manufacturing string, and such like petty industries. Those who find such an existence too monotonous, and desire a change of life and scene, usually join one of the mendicant orders of the Vaishuava sect. In the matter of divorce the practice of the caste seems to vary. Bengal Tiyars do not recognize it at all, while in Behar it is permitted only with the sanction of the caste panchdyat, a well-organized body presided over by a headman (manjhan), whose jurisdiction is supposed to comprise the traditional number of twenty-two villages. Each manjhun has under him a chhariddr or stick-bearer, whose business it is to procure tlie attend­ance of persons summoned to appear before the panch%at, and generally to carry oul the orders of the manjhan.

Among the Tiyars of Bengal three hypergamous groups iire recognized, the highest being the Pradhan, or chief families; next the P a r a m a n i k s ; while the rest go to form the Gana, or lower orders. Tne last can only intermarry with the higher by paying a large sum of money, the father receiving in all cases money for his daughter, so that female children are more valued than among the true Hindus. Widows never marry, but either earn a livelihood by selling fish, by manufacturing string, or, if desirous of change of life and scene, by becoming lioistubis (Vaishnavis).

Tiyars are almost to a man Vaishnava in cieed, their religious Reii on ceremonies being always held beneath trees,

eigion. rpjjQ ggorhd (TropMs aspera), a very common Bcrubby plant, is held in especial veneration by them, and its shade is usually selected as the scene of their worship; but should this tree be not at hand, the nim, bel, or gujali (S/iorea robtfifa) forms an efficient substitute. Hindustdni Tiyars sacrifice a goat to Kdli on the Diwdli, but the animal, instead of being decapitated in the orthodox Hindu way, is stabbed -with a sharp-pointed piece of wood ^ a practice universal among the aboriginal races of India, after which, as with the Dosddhs, the flesh is eaten by the worshippers •Rpneali Tiyars, on the other hand, sacrifice a swine to Bura-Buri ni xl Pons December-January) Sankranti, slaughtering it in tho = ^ ^ 1 aT heir Hindustani brethren. They do'not, h o w e ^ t r j f ^ III M the GangA festival in Jeth (May) they offer a whi t t k\d'

TIYAE. 330

pigeon and milk to the spirit of the river, and adore with great solemnity Manasa Devi in the month of Srdvan (July-August).

As was natural, the Tiyars have peopled the waters and streams with beneficent and wicked spirits, whose friendship is to be secured, and enmity averted, by various religious rites. Along the banks of the river Lakhya they worship ]?ir Badr, Khwajah Khizr, and, in fulfilment of vows, offer through any Musalmdn a goat to Maddr, whom they regard as a water god, but who may be identified with Shah Madar Badi'uddin. I n stormy weather tod in bad fishing seasons they invoke EZhala-Eumari, a naiad, to whom the first fruits are presented, in the same way as Hindus do to Lakshmi. I n Behar Mangal Ohandi, Jai Singh, and Ldl are their chief minor gods.

I n Purniah Tiyars worship a peculiar deity called Prem Rdja or Pamirdj, wh.0, they say, belonged to their tribe and was a celebrated brigand residing at Bahuragar, in Tirhut. Having been on many occasions favoured by the deity, he was translated (Aprak^sa), and disappeared along with his boat. In 1864 one Baijua Tiyar gave out that Pamiraj had appeared to him in a vision and ordained that the Tiyars should cease to be fishermen and devote themselves instead to certain religious rites, which would procure general pros­perity. Great excitement ensued, and in Februaiy 1865 about four thousand Tiyars from Ghdzipur, Benares, and the adjoining districts assembled at Gogra, in Purniah, and after offering holy water to a private idol belonging to Baijua, which he said came to him out of a bamboo post, 3,000 goats were sacrificed. Shortly afterwards another meeting of the tribe was held in tho Benares district, at which a murder was committed. This movement was a repetition of a precisely similar one among the Dosadhs of Behar in 186'3, andj hke it, was short-lived and unsuccessful.

As is done by all Bengali fishermen, the Jal Palani on tlia " T i l w d " Sankrdnti in Mdgh (January-February), when'the sun enters Capricorn, is observed by the Tiyars. The close timo lo + from two to fifteen days, but the demand for fish being steadt tl catch on the eve of the festival an extra supply and keep tho r " for purposes of sale, there being no offence in selline nlfV, T ^ is in catching, fish at that period, when prices beino- T,?""! ^^T are unusually good. ° ^S^- profits

I n Behar and Bengal generally Tiyars are renV^^ j • and along the northern bank .f . ? ' ^ P ^ ^ '

Social status and oocu- rjij g employed in mann o + • ' ^ Ganges

P^*'°"- the nal reed, and known as frr^ "'^^^ of considered so utterly vUe that the fisher Tiyars repudiate f'^"^^ " ^ sWp with them. ^ ^^^^ a^y fellow-

I n Dacca the Tiyars occupy an uncertain position • of the district being pure and Pancha-varta, havin ° fl « ° ° o P. "** servants working for them, while in another, beinf i ^^^^ servants are members of their own caste T ; ^ ^"dean, these Bengal are usuaUy fishermen, but where the fl^^ ?" ?^^*^^™ "japroduetive, or the river has silted up, tj^/^^lishery has become tW sou, teeping shops, and acting as ho^t^l^^^^^J^^^^l

TIYAE. 331 TOPPO.

their own nets, but their long narrow boats, called « Jalk^,'' are made by Chandals. , j -i- j - u j.- ^t

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Tiyarsin 1872 and 1881 :—

D i s i n i o T . 1S72.

Bardwan Bonkura Birbhnm Midnapur . Hughli Howrah 24-Pargan43 Nndiya Khulna Jessoro Mnrshedabad Dinatpur Bn)shahyo Banf^pur Bogra Pnbna Darjilinf Jalpigon Kuch Behar Dacca Fandpor Bakarganj Maimausinh

3,631 62

807 16,304

] 23,051

49,709 12.123

4,665 12,033 17,164 2,249

141,213 6 530 2,735

1

7,183 Slid B9fi

14,451

18S1.

3,309 866

1,775 14,099

0,687 15,023 37,171

2,302 3,823

239 7,735 2,224 2,016

92,700 218

1,253

35,896 64,113

G,h51 1,374

68 15,009

Tiyar, a sub-caste of MalMhs in Behar.

•^ Toeba, flower of paras tree, a totemistio sept of Mundas m Chota Nagpur.

Toewa, a kind of bird, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Toinya, a sept of Ohakmas in the Hill Tracts ot Chittagong

Toipa, a rui or sept of Dejong Lhoris whose ancestor had emi­grated from South Bhotan.

Toktiham, a sept of the Pan-thar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Tolangi, a thar or sept of Gurungs in Darjiling.

Tolwar, a section of the (Jbliaiati sub-caste of Klatris in

BeD gal-Tonga'", a s6pt of Surajbansi

D i s i E i c r .

T ippe rah Chi t iagong Noakha l i P a t n a Gyn Sha l i abad m r. * f J lozaffarpur T i r h u t l u a r b h a n g a Snran C h a m p a r a n Mongl iyr B h a g a l p u r P u r n i a h U a l d a h bant&l P a r g a n 4 s Cu t t aok P u n B ilnsore T r i b u t a r y S t a t e s H a z a i ibagh LohardagA Smgbhi i ra S l a n b b u m T r i b u t a r y Sta tes

1872

379 1,128

190 1,185

162 242

873

1,513 10

18,014 0,078

18,203 13,717 2,887

641 907 682

1,613 77

761

255

1881.

1,036

16 ISO 190

2,60S 434

19,163 4,296

10,040 15,736 2,381

889 876 688

1,615 96

126 123 49S 153

Bijp"^^ ^ Behar.

Tongbangboha, a sept of Limbus in Darjilmg.

Tongdu-Ruishi, the most res­pectable siib-tnbe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Tongsi, a bird, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nag­pur.

Tono, a big tree-ant, a totem­istio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Topna, a tree, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Topo, a sept of Asuras; a section of Kharias in Chota Nagpur.

Topoar, a bird with a long tail, body mottled black and white a totemistio sept of Mundas Oraons, and Lohdrs and a section of Goraits in Chota Nagpur.

Toppo, a totemistio section oi Tuns in Chota Nagpur deaotin^ a bird. &

TUMBAPO. .333 TURL

Tumbapo, the eldest, a sept 'of the Panthar sub-tribe of Limbus in DarjiUng.

• Tumbli, a red flying ant, a toteraistio sept of Alundas and Kumhars in Ohota Nagpur.

Tumbli, Berni, a section of Kumhars in Lohardagd.

Tumbrok, bom of a step­mother, a sept of the Panthar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjil-iiig.

Tumkohong, a sept of Lim­bus in Dai'jilitig.

Turn ling, a sept of the Yan-gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Tundak, a section of Groalas in the North-Western Provinces and Behar.

Tundal, a gotra or section of Agarwals.

- Tundudr, a tree, a totemistio sept of Klmrwars and Mundas; a section of Km-mis aud Mahilis in Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

Tunga, a sub-caste of Karangas and of Mills in Midnapur and Manbhiim.

Tungbai, a sept of Tipperahs in the Dill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Tungjainya, a sub-tribe of Ohakmas in the Hill Tracts of Ohittagong.

Tungohong, the discontented, a sept of the Chhothar sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

' Tunru, a totemistio section of Mahilis in Manbhum, the mem­bers of which will not touch or cut the grass which the name denotes.

Tuntia Kaibartta, a sub-caste of Kaibarttas in Bengal who cultivate mulberry and rear silk cocoons, and produce all sorts of vegetables which their women sell in the market.

Tura, a sept of Bairagis in Chota Nagpur.

'^Suraha, a low caste who blow horns and play on flutes.

Turaha, Turhd, a sub-caste of Kahars who carry palanquins, sell fish and fi'esh fruit and cultivate; a sub-caste of Nunids.

Turania, a sept of Mundas in Ohota Nagpur.

Turhd, players on the wind instrument called turhi.

"klUl'i, a non-Ary.nn caste of cultivator--, workers in bamboo, , . , . . and ba>ket-makers in Chota Nagpur. The Intornftl structure. , . , . p ,i m - , . ^"•or"^' ' ^^^

physical type of the Tuns, their language, and their religion, place it beyond doubt that they are a Hinduised olfshoot ot the M undas. l a Lohardaga, where the caste is most numerous, it is divided into four sub-castes—^Turi or Kisan-Turi Or, Dom, and Domra—distinguished by the particular modes of biisket and baniboo-Avork which they practise. Thus the Turi or Kisiu-Turi, who are also cultivators and hold bhuiuhdri land, make the •• "/'. ^ winuowiug sieve made of sirki, the upper joint of Saci-hai inn proccnim; the lohri or tnkiyd, a large open basket of split Tjamboo twigs woven up with the fibre of the leaves of the «7 polm; the .srt"- and nndna, used for catching fish. The Ors a r l aid to take their name from the orUia basket used by tlae sow

and made of split bamboo sometimes helped out with tdl fibve. T h ' •J

TOEIL, 332 TUMBANGPHE.

Tori I, a section of the Sdt-mulid Maghaya sub-caste of Kdndus in Behar.

Toringtapd, a thar or sept of Mangars in Darjiling.

Tormeg, a thar or sept of Murmis in Darjiling.

Totabari , a section of Pans in Cbota Nagpur.

Totaka, a gain of tbe Sandil-ya gotra of Barendra Brakmans in Bengal.

Tow, a kind of bird, a totem-istic sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

TrayodSs, a sub-caste of Bdg-dis found in the 24-Par-gands, said to have come from Bankuia.

Tr ibedi , a title of Kanaujid Brahmans in Behax.

Trikoni^, a title of low castes of the North-Western Provinces and Panj'ab.

Trilokpuria, a section of the Banodhia and Jaiswar Kalwars in Behar.

Trip^thi, a title of the Dakshi-ndtya Baidik Brahmans in Bengal.

Tr ipat i , a section of Utkal or Oiissa Brahmans.

Triprd, a synonym for Tip-perah.

Tsak, a synonym for Chakmd.

md. Tsakma, a synonym for Chak-

Tsegkhim-p6, tseg, ' a wall,' and khim, * a house '—a dweller in a stone or walled house, a sub-sept « the Nah-pa sept of Sherpa

Tshe-gyu-thah, the family which sprang from the Buddha of life, a mi or sept of the Tongdu sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Tshendangkya, he who lives apart, a sept of the Ahtharai sub-tribe of Lirabus in Darjiling.

Tsonbang, he who listens and profits, a sept of the Miakhola sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Tsoiig, a synonym for Limbu.

Tsong-zubo, a rui or sept of Dejong Lhoris, the members of which, are the decendants of emi­grants from Bhotan and Nepal.

Tubkd, a section of the Tir-hutiyd sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Tudi, Tudu, a sept of Hos and Santals.

Tuduar, hen, a totemistio sept of Kharwars in Chota Nagpur.

Tukipitd dumurid, dttmur^g^ a totemistio section of Kurmis ia Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

Tulatia, a sub-caste of Telis in Orissa.

Tuisi, a group of Maghaiya ielis m Behur.

\ Tulsiar, a kind of flower, a totemistio sept of Mundas in Obota Nagpur.

Tumali^, a section of Kum-hdrs m Singbhum.

Thi", A °^^^°^bus in Darjiling. ihi3j^«,. e l a i m t o b e i m - i / / ! , c o v e r i ° ^ * ^ H e rock which fnnf^ ^ ® 8pot where their rounder sprang from the earth.

Tura. 334

vert iSfsMeTmS^f ' ^",^ ^^f '^'^''otka dali or da/a « fl„f T. , make tlis / , *°^ handling graiu in cr>, i ' "" ^ basket with and fans fc-"/"'^ «cale-pan^s & ^ , ? ? )1 ' ^ ' ^ ' ^ "«^«- ^ o m s ^hocut b a n , r ' ' ^ ' ' l ^ ^ ^ % ^ e c k o r / i n a T a W , ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ' ^ ^^^ poH

is effected V,v 1,0 i *ormaUy admitted into th^ T - ^ ^ ' °f an Or • c a s t e t S n t H " X X ° ^ ^ tf^* < ^^e ' S d l T i - n t This Bolves Tnri women anH I ' °* f*" ^ wastes w h S f f °^ *^« l°cal -ybeadmitt:ronS,Li:^r ' ^ w r ? ? w ? ? - -

The sections of the Tur isTh;^ '• ^ Ma iage. P«xt totemistTc? a n f e " " ^ " " for the most

W a m y extends o n i ; t a t ' r - - n g ^ h r a ^ ^ ^ ^ ^'^sely S t y the standard tabl j of I i""^-' ° ^ section an^ • ' ' ^^^ rule of and comparatively l a h l f ' * ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ degrees >v ' ! ?"PPlemeuted infant-marriage, girls u u l l / ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ' ^^^ose 4 3 ™ ? ^ m Hinduised recognized, and f e x u a f S ^ "^^''^ ^^ adulL "^"^"^ ^' *" affect youths and tnaidens ire , 'f ^^^^-^ ^ a S ^ a ,'T ^«""«hip i« the Oraons, owins? ,> "''*^' ^'owevor to 15 , tolerated. 'Both frequent t h ; d a , ; ; f 4 t , l ^ J ^ f ? ; ; t e d , to ' th % t ' ^ C " . ^ ^ ^ ^ « ^ -temptations of the flesh J f "'" ' ^^'l a^o thus W *^"^ *i° ^ot consent of the heads of L Ar ?'f ''. ^^^^^ge ea„ be TfT^ *° tJ « tnown respeetiveh as ^ W ^^^'^n'^'' ^ d SurinwL «L?-^^^"^^^^ tl'e price of lis. 2.8SrSd % '^^^^Th-kur, hSned ''^' ^^^ ^^^ tbeCharchdgivrisecC.ffiH'^''^'^g«^^°/'«"atten^^^^ T ^ ^ l>ride.

" » <>"P"»1 religion of Ih. ? 2 , - , " 7 'S»ia. ™'''"- Biwrce BsBgion. to llio £ „ „ , '" . W / o n d (JoilKt l

years Jarge numbers of Turis have . ^ ' " ^P^oia] . « . °«ee of . J ^ ' 7 ec4 known_ to its members as a S S ^ ^ ' ^ ^ d the tenJ '^^e . Of t ^

'i'hese^? ^ &iaz,pm-, who lived e a J r - ^ ^ ' Qame 'f''•^'^ of God,

oasefon i'^^''^'^" with the animistic /r;^'^ravan1^*''f*^^ century

' ^ "g the spirit who is believed t?"^^r ^Cj^T^vs, and in

'" ' afflict ? J ? J °^«tiods on

TUEI.. 335. TUTIEAE.

Tnris will eat cooked food with Mundas and Oraons, take sweetmeats from Ahirs and Telis, and water

Socal status. from the Or sub-caste. They will smoke only with members of their own sub-caste. For the rest they are as lax in matters of diet as the Mundas and Oraons. Sri-Narayanis abstain from beef, from the flesh of animals which have died a natural death, and from spirituous liquors.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Turis in 1872 and 1881:—

DiBTBIOI.

Bftrdwan Birbhum Midnapur HugWi Howrah 2t-PargaD&s Nadiya Jpssore MuTsbedabad Dinajpur ilajshahyo

1872.

47 65 i

4fl 92

836 S6

« S 66

*

1881.

44 8

f .f 1,854

447 78 17

492 43

DisrKiCT.

Rangpur Bogra Pabtia Faridpur Maimansinh ('hittacong Hazanbagh Lohardiijrft Sinicbhum .Maiibhura Tributary States

1872.

407

33

ii.'lM 4,778

251

1,S30

1881

91 171 125

4 84 4

17,529 6,530

25S 75

1,465

Turi or Dakhind, a sub-caste of Doms in Behar.

Turiar , a sept of Agarids in Chota Nagpur.

Turk-Bhat, a sub-caste of Bhdts.

Turkia , a sub-caste of Telis in Behar, who are Mahomedans.

Turkic or Shekh, a sub-caste of Mahomedan Dhobis in Behar.

Turk-Kumhar, a class of Mahomedan Kumbars in Behar.

Turk-Nauwa, a class of Ma­homedan barbers in Behar.

Turk Pasi , a sub-caste of Basis in Behar who are Mahom­edan by religion.

Turku, a sub-sept of the Saren sept of Santals.

Turman, a section of the Chhajati sub-caste of Khatris in Bengal.

Tursia , a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Turu, squirrel, a totemistio sept of Mundas and Bedias in Chota Nagpur;, a section of Mahilis. ^

_ Turuar, pdkur fruit, a totemis­tio sept of Kharwars and Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Turuwar, a section of Oheros in Palamau.

Tuti, a bird, a totemistio sept of Bhumijs, Mundas, and Khar-wars in Chota Nagpur; a section of Kharias.

Tutiear, a section of Mahilis in Chota Nagpur.

TIBER- •336 ULAEK.

u Uber, a mul or section of the

ilaghayd sub-caste of Kfindus in Behar.

Ubhar, a mul or section of the Chhaniuli4 Madhesia sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Uchchharakhi, a gain of the Bharadwaja gofra of B4rendra Brahmans in Bengal

Uchring, an insect, a totem-istic sept of Muudas in Chota Nagpur.

Udadhi, a section of Mdlos in Eastern Beugal.

Udaniyar, a pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Udasi, JJdusin, a religious mendicant; a title of Brahmans and Sanuyiisis; an indifferent person; a stranger. In Census papers may either be a variant for tJdasin, or may merely mean that the persons enumerated under this title described themselves as strangers (udasiu), and the word was taken to be a caste desig. nation.

Udbaru, a tree, a totoraistic ' eept of Mundas iu Chota Nag­pur.

Uddhabi, a sub-caste of Tantis in Bengal.

Udhmatia, a section of Ka-^aujid Lohdrs in Behar.

Udwar, water cat, a totemistic JJP|- of Lohdrs in Chota Nag-

Uengsa, a sept of Maghs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

Ugahar, a mtil or section of the Chhamulia Madhesid sub-caste of Halwais in Behar.

Ugrakhatri, a synonym for Aguri.

Uh, a sub sept of the Hemrom sept of Santals

Ujain, a sept of the Suraj-bansi division of Eajputs in Behar.

Ujald, a gain or sub-section of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

Ujha or Ojhd, a sub-caste of Bagdis in Western Beugal, pro­bably descended from the priests of the tribal gods, who would naturally tend to form themselves into a Eub-caste.

Ujha, Ojha, or Jha, a title of ITaithil Brahmans in Beliar.

Ujini, a group of the Fateh-sing Tolis iu Murshedabad.

K Ujli, a synonym for Dhobi in Behar.

lar in

- t o ? £ v l ? S : ^ t b e A o g h , Guzerat by a 1?° /°^nded iz cant named Br«L ?^ "^^^di-f^- accouuc >!f'-^- l^or a Afghan. °^ the sect, see

Ukniyal „ /. ^^^PaliBrahm^f;«^««otion of

Uksarri n "^ the Hill ^'P* "^ Chakm^s gong. "^"^ J-racts of Chitta-

Ulark ^^kadwini R ?'"• °^ section of

*Pi Brahmans in Behar.

ULIT. 337 UTKULL

Ulit, a sept of Rdjputs in Behar.

Ulluk, a gain or sub-section of Saptasati Brahmans in Bengal.

Ulwdr, a mill or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Q-odlAs in Behar.

Umatwdr, a section] of Bab-bans in Behar.

Unnethw^r, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Unain, a 7?iul or section of the Ayodhid sub-caste of Hajjams in Behar.

Undhil, a section of GoiUs in Behai'.

Undhuri, a gaw of the Sabar-na gotm of Barendra Brahmans in Bengal.

Up^dhydya, a sub-caste of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa; an endogamous division of Nepdli Brahmans ; a title of Kanaujid and Saraswat Brahmans and of Bdbhans in Behar.

Upamanya, a seotion of Brah­mans.

IJphaltopi, a t/iar or section of Nepdli Brahmans.

TJranga, ? Uraun, a synonym for Oraon.

Urddgainhi, a section of the . Biyahut and Kharidahd Kalwars

in Behar.

Urdwar, a sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

Uria'*, a sept of Kharwara in Chota Nagpur.

Uring, a wild bird, a totemis-tio sept of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.

UriyS, a sub-caste of Pods.

Uriyd Dhoba, a sub-caste of Dhobas in Orissa.

Urujd-Eaet, a synonym for Karan.

Urmakhori, a sept of Pdns in Chota Nagpur.

Urmakuli, a section of P^ns in Chota Nagpur.

Urmi, a wave; a title of JdHyas in Bengal.

Urunta, a thar or sept of Gui'ungs in Darjiling who burn their dead on a hill top and then throw the ashes in the air.

Urwdr, a pxir or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Usahiydrk, a, pur or section of Sdkadwipi Brahmans in Behar.

Usauth, a section of the Karan sub-caste of Kiyasths in Behar.

Usr^m, a mul or section of the Naomulia or Majraut sub-caste of Goalas in Behar.

Utamapur, a section of the Karan Kayasths in Behar.

UtardSh^, a mul or section of the Maghaya sub-caste of Kdn-dus in Behar.

Utkal, a territorial division of the Pancha Gaura Brahmans deriving its name from the Pro^ vince of UtkaJa or Odra (Orissa')'

Utkuli, a thar or section n* Nepali Brahmans. *

UTTABA-SRENI. 338 UTTAE-EAEHI.

Uttara-Sreni, a territorial group of Brahmans in Orissa.

Uttar-Birendra, an endogam-ous division of the Bdrendra tirahmans in Bengal.

Uttardaha, a section of the bfttmulid Maghayd sub-caste of iiandus in Behar.

_ Uttarha, a sub-caste of Tdntis in Behar. ^ UttariyS, a sub-caste of Doms in South Behar who work in fi)-ki, and regard this as au

important distinction between themselves and the Maghaya Doms who work with bamboos.

Uttar-Kabit, north gate, a title of Khandaits in Orissa.

Uttarkul, a group of the Aswini Tantis in Bengal.

Uttar-Rarhl, a sub-caste of Kayasths in Bengal; of Kdmdrs in the 24-Parganasj of Chasd-dbobas and Napits; a group of the Hole Kaibarttas and of Bara-bhdgiya Muohis in Bengal.

VAIDIKA. 33& VAISHNAVA.

V

Vaidika, one of the five main i a group of the Srctriya sub-caste sub-castes of Bengal Brahmans; | of Utkal Brahmans in Orissa.

^a is l iual ia , Baishtah, Bairagi, a religious sect based upon the •worship of Vishnu under the incarnations of Rama and Krishna. Founded as a popular religion by Eamanuja in Madras, and developed in Northern India by Eamanand and Ivabir, Vaishnavism owes its wide acceptance in Bengal to the teaching of Chaitanya, a Vaidik Brahman of Nadiya at the beginning of the 16th century. The contemplative devotion inculcated by this teacher as the ideal of the religious life was transformed hy Vallablia-Sw^mi into emotional longings of a more sensuous type. The sects now included under the general name Vaishnava are the following :—

(1) Raminuja , comprising three grades of disciples: the Brah-. maoharya, or novice; TJpa Knrvvana, who lives

" " °" as an udasi in the house of his guru; and the Naisthika, who practises a life-long asceticism. When undergoing the initiatory rite (tapta-mudra), the disciple is marked with the sanhha or conch-shell of Vishnu on the left shoulder and the chakra or wheel on the right, the stamp used being made of eight metals (ashta-dhdtu), gold, silver, copper, brass, tin, lead, iron, and zinc. Riimanujas are most punctilious about the privacy of their meals, and should any one see or speak to them while they are eating, the food is either thrown away or buried. Silken or woollen garments, not cotton, mui-t be worn at meals, and no one may taste food without permission of the guru. Hamanujas will only eat food cooked by a Brahman of their own soot, but they do notTeject articles prepared with ghi by a Rumavat. They will not touch food cooked by a Kulin Brahman of Bengal, nor will they take water from the bands of a man of that caste,

(2) Ramavat, a Hindustani sect, recruited mainly from among fidraAvat Kanaujiya Brahmans, though persons of other

castes are occasionally received on the under­standing that it is open to any member of the sect to decline to eat with them. Vishnu or Rama-Ohandra is the patron god of the com­munity, but in some cases his worship has been supplanted by that of l lar i , who is identified with Krishna. Brindaban is the head-quarters of those who revere the latter, and Ajodhya of those who adhere to the worship of Kdma. Their sacred books are the Ramayana, the Sri Bhag.ivat, and the Bh^gavat-Gita. Most of them, however, are very illiterate, and of those who can blunder through a NogarilDook, few understand what they read. Pilgrimage is believed to bo the chief j^uty of the sect. The Tapasi or penitential order of Ramdvata, erroneously styled Jogis, a term properly reserved for Saiva ascetics' wander through India almost naked, smeared over with ashes and stupefied with ganja, living on alms, but lodging with no one and taking shelter under trees, .in rmus, or among tombs

' ^ , . y 2

VAISHNAVA. 340

m preference to entering a human habitation. A rope round the ^aist and a scanty cloth round the loins form thei? sole a t t ^ T A few shave the head and beard, but most allow tbeir haS to t o w and twist their matted looks round the head like a turban o f S them into coils terminating^ in a large knot or chignon over'the left ear They ^ear necklaces of rudraklha ^^ood EiS^^yZgiaSt^!^ containing seventeen, nineteen, twenty-one, fifty-four or a h n ^ r 5 and eight beads, and when indulging in long fiL of a b ^ r ^ ? they support themselves with a Lmboo crutch A S a t on ' new convert is enrolled in a so-called ' gotra ' bearincr /h i Aichittra; but as aU Eamavats belong to E knd i S o r v L T " ' is strictly enjoined,the procedure is a mere fo m and has no bl • °^ on marriage or tlie relations of the sexes H d m T v a t S 4 H l , " ° ^ notoripusfor their dissolute and licentious c W i ^ r and W ^ K " - ' excessive indulgence in ganja, a drug which t W ^ ^ ' n t I *^''^ cally in order to induce the dreamy fenTual r e S A 7,«<=^^ati-as the highest manifestation of J e W i f s e S ' ? ° ' 1 l ? J^ *^^^°^ worship, except the unceasing repetition of the r r ^ p P^ ^ ^ " ' S ' °* are deemed useless, but in eve^ dkhaS n. T ? ^ ° ' ' ' . ° ^ Hari , an idol is tended at regular ho^s to th« «. ™ ° T * ' ' ^ °^ *^° «ect gongs, while ofi-erings offloweSand L d t are ' ." r /* rfl' '\'^^ ^^^ A tulsi plant in the courtyard and TR\U^ presented by the laity. plete the religious f u r n i t u r L f t W t a w i h S "^ '^' ^ '" '"^ ^ ° ^ -

(3) N.mavat, recruited from among mndustani R.„l Nin^vat. "^embers of those ^castes from S o s e " " T ' '/

Nimavat is a circular S S ^ t r o i l L ^ ^ ^ ?^^^^^^^ parallel yeUow streaks. MathnS and W , , ^ '^!?: '^-^ '*^^^^ t^« places of pilgrimage, and the Bhaeavat Slf^ • ' « *^'"'t.-°"°^* '^''^^ book. The chief duty of the fiSas n ^ ^ ' ' ? ' ' " '^''^ '^^^gioi^s sect is to prepare and offer to th«?^ 7 i T'^'° ""'"^^''^ o! the food consistiag of rice and p u t bo led t ^T ' ° *i^ '^^^^'^ ^^^ogol this compound is laid before J h e ^ i H . ^ ^ 1 '"• ^ ° ^ ^ ^"^^^ a day and his disciples. The idols n s S / l " ? ^ ^ f'f- V the m a h a S Jagannath Madan-Gopal, KddhrKrisIna^^^f ^ > ^ ^'"^'^'^^ ^^e the sister of Krishna. -^nsnna, Balaram, and Subhadra

(4) Vaishnava. colloquially Baishtam of B e . , Baishtam. 'Very easy to define p r e c i s e l t ^ ? ' ' ^ ' ^ '' ' ^s not

* ^ r .u • '^^''^ ^^dvLiss (a) o r Z n . ??.*^« ^ame Vaish-out deserting their original caste, wo sSb V ? ^'^^"^^ ^ho , w th other gods, b) ascetic members of t b f ^ - l ' ^ ^ in preferenoe tn called Bairagi, (.) J^t-Baishtam.'saly^o'g'i 1 ^ / ^ '^'ClTZn^y group formed by the conversion to Vn, I °*^«i' an endoeamona m n y different castes. I t wdl be c o n l : e n T \ " ^ ^^ ^^^^^^^l the last-mentioned group The Baishtam 1 ? ' ' ' *« ^^^at first of of several Vaishnava sects and in theo^v f ' ''''^''^^^ "members these sects is prolubited. But if a man o 7 '''^''^^^ie.ge between ritlT^t.-^^ ''"^^^"^ '"'=*' ^' ^^' only to """"^ect wishes to marry S > ^ ' \ ° ^ ° «^«t' and the- obstacles to .r^ '" '"^ ^^r by a simple S £ ? ^.r.^ ^° ^'^''''' ' ^ C n? ' ' ' . . ^"^«^ are removed.

''onspanbar), supposed to be d e L ' / . ' ^ ' i d e d into fifteen descended from the principal

341 VAISHNAVA.

disciples of Chaitanya, such as Adwaita-Paribar, Nitjanarda-Paribdr, Achdrya-Paribar, ttydm Chdnd, Jagadish Pandit, (iadadhar Pandit, Bakkeswar Pandit, Adhiram Gopal, etc. Although these groups are supposed to stand to the Baishtams in the place of gotms, marriage between persons belonging to the same paribar is not forbidden, and the grouping has no more effect on marriage than the yuasi-endogamous division into sects referred to above. Outsiders are freely admitted into the community, however low their caste may be, provided only that they are Hindus. Chaitanya is said to have extended this privilege even to Mahomedans, but since his time the tendency has been rather to contract the limits of the society, and no guru or mathdhdri (superintendent of a monastery) would now venture on such an act. The ceremony of initia­tion is simple. The guru or mathdhdri, known on this occasion by the title of Bhek-gosain, ' the ascetic of alms,' after worshipping Chaitanya, gives to the convert a string (dori), a piece of cloth kaiipiti) just sufficient to cover his nakedness, and a bahirhdsh, a larger cloth, to wear round his loins over the kaupin. At the same time he whispers in his ear the mantra or sacred word, usually a mono­syllable, indicating a name or attribute of a god or goddess, which is to guide him through life and must never be divulged to any one. The novice then bows down, and a small necklace of wooden beads is hung round his neck, and a karanga or cocoanut shell given him for the purpose of collecting alms.

Baistams profess to marry their daughters as infants, and this J . may be taken to be the rule of the caste,

' ^ ' although in many instances it is departed frum, as might be expected in a community comprising so many hetero­geneous elements. Sexual intercourse before marriage is not visited by any social penalties, nor are girls who have led an immoral life turned out of the caste. Only before they can be formally married, they must again pass through the ceremony of initiation described above. The standard Hindu ritual is not observed in marriage, A guru or gosain presents to Chaitanya flowers and sandal wood paste, and lays before him offerings of mdlsabhog, a compound of rice, fruits and other articles. Hymns sankirtan) in honour of Krishua and Chaitanya are then sung to an accompaniment of the mridanga, an elongated drum, tapering towards the ends, and the kartal or brass cymbal. The guardian of the girl takes her right hand in his and gives it to the bridegroom, and the couple exchange small garlands of flowers and necklaces of beads. Sankirtan is sung once more and the ceremony is over. Its essential and binding portion is the exchange of flowers or beads, technically known as kaidhi-badat. "Widows may mmry again (sa»gd), and are in DO way restricted in the selection of their second husband, except that they may not marry within the prohibited degrees originally forbidden to them, ijlje ritual is the same as that described above, except that no one pives away the bride. For a widow, as for a virgin, knnthi-badal • held to be the binding portion of the ceremony. Divorce is ' i rmitted at the option of either party, and divorced persona K h e r s e x u i a y m a n - y a g a m

VAISHNAVA. 342

Krishna is the tutelary deity of the cast^, and most Baislitams KeiigioD. worship h im exclusively and disreo^ard the

worsliin PI, •* °*,^^^, S"*^ °* *^® B.mdvL system. T h e v also worship Chaitanya as the latest incarnation of Vishnu N I H T - ^ i as Balaram, and Adwaita as an incarnation of Siva T l ^ S ° ' gunis panic as patron saints t-Swai-up Gofwaml^San^ an B W . f liaghunath, Srijiba, Gopal Ehalta, and Das K a ^ W t h ' T - ^ I are presented flowers of any colour but red S e of s a n f l ^ T iukt leaves, mdMbhog, parched rice, curds s u ^ L r o n i f ? ' ' ° ° ? ' ineats of various kinds."^ Boiled rice aTd vegefable c u n l ' ' " ' ' * • times offered. B4uls offer fish, and membefsof tho S - ' ' ' '''^': masur ddl seasoned with onion. The twelfth ? L .f ° ^ ' ' ' ' ° * and >«««.s««,m-, the birthday of KxMna are t l i T . ' " ' 7 ° ' ° ° / ' ' such offerings. The Kartd B h a j ^ ho'Cr^^^^^^^^^^^ especially sacred. After beinp ln,V1 W ?i' , J^riday to be are distributed among the T o r h i l l ' ^^\^°^' *^^ ''^'^''^^Ss Although Baishtams do not I S J . r ' ' " " ' ? ^^' °°°"«i°^-mans for religious or ceremoniTpurpost t S T ^ *° ' ' "P^"^ ^'^^• who look after the religion of the e X ! ' • f^^ '^'^ goswamia of the sacred order. But as thei^ snirituS a"" *"f "'^"^^^ °^^°^bers castes, and they themselves e a r i u ^ t W ^ - •'1^'?', ' '°°'° ^""^ 1"^^ water from their handset fonoVsthii'^f.^^/=,^Pl^^^^^^ and take received on equal terms by the C h m a L w. "^ ^^al^nians are not and the latter would as a ^ w S l i e T ' ^ ^ i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^t^ ' had been touched by a Baishtam Brahman ' ° ° ' ' ' ^ *°°^ ^^^'^

Baishtams bury their dead in a sittin.. posture Pn.l f ., Burial. f veral sects included in the caste t *''?

but it is not an u n c l t ; % ^ r X l o \ t n , ^ ' ^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^^ precincts of the homestead. ^S^D re °f^^^ w '„^ ' . ' ^ ^ ^ ' " n the Chaitanya is worshipped, and ,«ri/,awfi^^„^^^^^^^^ ^ performed; after death, and the relations of the r i l l ! 1 !f ^^^^"^ °^ ^k^^ days to showthat the time of mourning L t f , ' ^ ^^'"^ ^^'^"^g^ i^ a feal?

Baishtams eat cooked food onlv w,-fv, Sociaistatus. ^^\tl^^y t a k e V a S - a S ° ^ " ' ^ ^ ° ^ " «aste ;

almost all castes e x c e p r M t h ^ a n l s t ^ " ^ ^ ° S t f c ^ ^ IS low, as the caste is recruifpHr ^^^epers. Their e ^ - ' . °^ °* large numbers of pros t S t d ? ' T ° " ^ ^'1 W s o f ? ' • *f "^^"^ consequence of sexual iSuTalP'"^^*^ ^^« W e l o - n r r * ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ T h e y \ a v e no characteri^tfe t u S t ^ *°^°'^ a ^ ^ f t l , ? " ^ ' ^ ^ ^ deemed respectable by middle cTasfHr.' ""^^ ^^^ow f l l ^ f ' ' ? ^ ' '

In the distiict of Midnapore H '• professions caste seems to differ in some points 5, °'^'*'>ization of fl, ry • x.. endogamous classes are ^oclTL ,^'om thu deZ^A^^^ ^''''^^'''^ of those whose conversion to V t ^ ^ d ) J a t S ' f ^ ^ ^ b o v e . Two memory, and (2) ordinary P ' • 1 ""V'^ dates h^!?''?;^' consisting ' wearers of the garb,'who are . ^°'^K callprl , ^^yond living at a recent date. The former ^P^^^d to h J ! ," ^0 Bhekdhari or formed to ordinary U i i , d m - 1 ? ' '^ea of « , ! , ''P^'^'^ Vaishnavism Baishnabs in little more thn. ^° ^^ch an '"^/*''°««> who have con-

than name, i^^ «^tent that they are now ^^e matter of marriage they

343 V.1ISHNAVA.

f oUow the usages of the Nabasakha ; they bum their dead ; mourn for thirty days; celebrate the sra fcfi , and employ high caste Brahmans

- to officiate for them for religious and ceremonial purposes. They do not intermarry or eat with the Baishnahs who have been recently converted. The latter are described to me by a correspondent as " the scum of the population. Those who are guilty of adultery or incest, and in consequence find it inconvenient to live as members of the castes to which they belong, embrace Vaishnavism, first, because they can by so doing place themselves beyond the pale of the influence of the headmen of their castes, and secondly, because their conversion removes all obstacles to the continuance of the illicit or incestuous connexions which they have formed."

With this attempt to define the extent to which Vaishnavism has developed into a caste, we may pass on to

Gosains. noticB the more purely religious aspects of the Vaishnava community. Tradition has it that when Ofaaitanya died, his most zealous disciples formed a society consisting of six Gosains, eight Kabirajs, and sixty-four Mahants to organize the new teach­ing and to make proselytes throughout Bengal. In course of time there arose three great centres of the faith—Khardaha, between Calcutta and Barrackpur, the home of the Gosains or religious mendicants who traced their descent from Nityananda, a devoted disciple of Chaitanya ; Santipur, on the river Bhagirathi in Nadiya, where Adwaitananda or Adwaita, another zealous disciple, had settled ; and Saidabad, in Murshedabad, the residence of Birbhadra, the son of Nityananda. The Gosains or " Gentoo bishops," as they were called by Mr. Holwell, have now become the hereditary leaders of the sect. Most of them are prosperous traders and money-lenders, enriched by the gifts of the laity and by the in­heritance of all property left by Bairigis. They marry the daughters of Srotriya and Bansaja Brahmans, and give their daughters to Kulius, who, however, deem it a dishonour to marry one of their girls to a Gosain. As a rule, they are tall and well-made men, of light complexion, fair specimens of the Aryan type as found in Bengal. The Adwaitananda Gosains admit to the Vaishnava commu­nity only Brahmans, Baidyas, and members of those castes from whose hands a Brahman may take water. _ The Nityananda, on the other Jiand, maintain that any such limitation is opposed to the teaching of Chaitanya, and open the door of fellowship to all sorts and conditions of men, be they Brahmans or Ohandals, high caste widows or common prostitutes. The Nityananda are very popular among the lower castes, and hold a leading position aniong Vaishnavas. A panjah or silver hand is the badge of the family. The Gosains themselves worship Durga, but their disciples do not follow them in this. They observe the birthday of Chaitanya on the 13th Phalgun, the Govardhan Puid on the first day of the new moon in Kartik, and the Diwali on the niffht of the 'Kili Puja. The Adwaitananda Gosains are highly esteemed by the upper classes of Bengal, and it is very unusual for fl Brahman or Baidya to enrol himself m the ranks of the other 1 nnnh They are said to be more sincere and more open to reliffLono

nHves than the Nityananda, and they avoid much scaadal W Sfusing to initiate womea. 7

VAISHNAVA. 344

For the purpose of making proselytes and governing the V^Bbnava church, Bengal is divided into circles, each crrole having itsov»n GoEainvdthTvhoso jurisdiction no other Gosam is supposed to interfere. Under the Gosainis the adhikan or superintendent who acts as deputy, initiates disciples-mthin a certain area, and collects fees. Under him again is thefaujddr, called also Jchuro or uncle (the Gosain being-the father), ^'hose business it is to beat up proselytes, and whose activity is stimulated by a percentage of the fees. Lastly comes the chhariddr, or usher of the rod, who is inerely the messen­ger of the fmjdar. Persons who ]oin the Yaishnava commumon pay a fee o£ twenty annas, sixteen of which go to the Gosain and four to the/a«idar. , ,^ , , . , •, ,.

The mendicant members of the Vuishnava community, as dis­tinguished from the Jat-Baishnabs or Grihi-

Mendicant Vaisiinavas. gaishnabs on the one hand and the governing body of Gosains on the other, are, says Dr. Wise, "of evil repute, their ranks being recruited by those who have no relatives, by widows, by individuals too idle ot depraved to lead a steady working life, and by prostitutes. Yaishnavi, or Baishtabi according to the vulgar pronunciation, has come to mean a courtesan. A few undoubtedly join from sincere and worthy motives, but their numbers axe too Bmall to produce any appreciable effect on the behaviour of their comrades. The habits of these beggars are very unsettled. They wander from village to village, and from one akh^ra to another, fleecing the frugal and industrious peasantry on the plea of religion, and singing songs in praise of Hari beneath the village tree, or shrine. Mendicants of both sexes smoke Indian hemp ganjd), and ' although living as brothers and sisters, are notorious for licentious­ness. There is every reason for suspecting that infanticide is common, as children are never seen. In the course of their wander­ings they entice away unmarried girls, widows, and even married women, on the pretext of visiting Sri Kshetra (Jaganndth), Brinda-ban, or Benares, for which reason they are shunned by all respect­able natives, who gladly give charity to be rid of them.

The following account of an annual religious gathering in Bengal discloses the true character of these disreputable mendicants Amid the rains of ancient Gaur are large reservoirs of water, called Rupa and Ssn^tan, after the two distinguished Mahomedans converted by Chaitanya, on the banks of which the 'Eds Mela,' or ' Prem tala/ ie.,real love festival is held m the month of June. Crowds of Bairagis and Bairagms resort to this faii< from all parts of Bengal, the atter being seated m long rows with their faces eovefed. Should a Bair^i he in search of a companion, he pays the customary fee to thQfaujdar and a selection is made. He leads the female aside, raises her vei, and if satisfied takes her away, otherwise he retuses to allow another choice, unless the twenty.annas fee is again paid, i t IS a law with these licentious BairAgis that a man cannot vear-r^Ii. . ^"^^'^ Belected, even for adultery, until the next

V) Bay^n.Kaup(na, a sect of Yaiehnavas, so called because, »4yiii-K«up!n&. contrary to the usual custom, they wear the

kaupin or loin cloth fastened on the left side

345 VAISHNAVA.

instead of on the right. The story goes that a guru while initiating a disciple tied the kaupin on the left side by mistake. H e was about to change it when the novice insisted that Kxishna himself must have pre-ordained the error, refused to have it corrected, and, going forth as he was, founded the Bayan-Kdupini sect. The members worship Eddha-Krishna, but they are said to abstain from the immoral practices usually laid to the charge of those who worship this union of the male and female principles. Bilydn-Kdupinas abstain from flesh, fish and intoxicants, and only women of moral character are allowed to be initiated.

(6) Kisori-Bhajana, 'maiden-worshippers,' or Sdhuja, a sect of Vaishnavas concerning whose beliefs and ritual

Kisori-Bhajana. j ^ j ^ difficult to get any Very precise inform­ation. The members seem to be aware that the equivocal name of their commuuity lays them open to the suspicion of sexual immora­lity, and they are said to ward off curious inquiries by placing a book or an article of common use in a conspicuous part of the house and worshipping it as a symbol of their faitL The sect is supposed to be au offshoot of the Eadhd-Ballabhi, or, according to another account, of the Spashta-Dayaka. The latter view is improbable. A Spashta-Dayaka will not look upon a woman or take food from herj while the Kisori-Bhajana makes woman the chief object of worship. The sect is peculiar in having no Uddsi or mendicant class. The guru or pradhan initiates neophytes and conducts all religious services. The cult is said to be popular, especially with women and with the Sunri caste, and to have a large number of adherents. No distinctions of rank are recognized, and all converts, whether Brahmans or Chandals, enter upon a footing of entire equality.

According to Dr. Wise, " at the initiation of a disciple a mantra, consistino- of tiie word ' Hang-sha,' is whispered into his ear, and is b>lieved''to possess a certain mystical meaning, the first syllable tvnifving the air breathed, the latter the air expired. An indecent Bcene in which a naked woman sits on the knee of the neophyte, is then rehearsed, as a crucial test of his having mortified the flesh and ., ijjg^g and of his having become a worthy candidate for admission. * "The chief ceremony resembling the Edsmandalis of the , Mahdrdjas of Bombay, which they have styled 'carnal love

tings,' is celebrated in a suitable room, where a long strip of ^yte cloth is spread on the floor with plantain leaves laden with fish and rice, while flesh and spirits never appear.

'• The feast being over, songs m honour of Eadha-Knshna are , . J ^ t h the effect of often causing extravagant and violent

' ' d e m e n t terminating in hysterical weeping and convulsions. The ^A^n then selects a woman, possibly the prettiest; the pair are ? f H with sandal wood powder, crowned with flowers, and the

V make adoration to them as the personations of Eddhd and company •g-j.jgjjua. Bach man present then decorates himself lier love ^^^^ r^^^ silence being observed, and is presumed to ^ -^f a dreamy sensuous condition, with mind abstracted and fall «^° ^ the contemplation of the semblance of Eadha at hia

bide."

TAISHNAVA. 316

. (7) Jagat-Mohani, an obscure sect founded about two centuxies ago by one Jagat-Mohan of Mashulia in Silhet.

Jagat-Mohani. ig^^ morals of its members are said to be exemplary. Women are not allowed to live in the monasteries, and the meu are expelled on second conviction of immorality As in most Vaishnava sects, there are two classes of votaries-the Grihi and Bairari, the former being house-holders, and the latter wander­ing about the country as beggars. The latter may not eat fish or flesh, and may not smoke ganja or tobacco or drink spirits. Corpses are usually thrown into a river, not burned, and burial is only resorted to at the express wish of a dying mahant. In such cases the patient is lowered into the grave before he actually dies, as it is considered luckY for him to die in sifu.

(8) SpasMa D&yaka, said to have been founded by one Hup Bam Kabir^j, a disciple of Krishna Chandra

Spashta DAyaka. Ohakravartti of Saidabad. Although EMhd Krishna is the principal object of worship, the members of the sect affect a high standard of morality, and decline to take 'food that baa been cooked by a woman. Women are admitted to the mantra^, but not to the bhek. All castes including Chandals are enrolled, but a preference is shown for the pure Sudras, from whose hands a Brah­man may take water. The Spashta Dayaka take alms from any Hindus, and even from Mahomedans, but reject the offerings of prostitutes and of Chamars. They may not touch flesh or fish, or eat with any one not a member of their communion. They wiU not eat with Bairagi Yaishnavas, but ia this case the objections are said to be ' mutual. Their sectarian mark is a smear of ochre (Gopi Chandan) on tlie nose with two narrow lines drawn upwards to the roots of the hair. The sacred name of Hari is stamped on the temples, arms, chest, aud shoulders. The dead are buried in a sitting posture, with a cloth [mmd-bali) stamped with the name Hari wrapped rcimd the head : the arms are folded across the chest, a necklace is hung round the neck, and a cocoanut shell karanka), a wallet and a staff dancla) are placed by the side. If the dead man has had influence in the sect, and has left behind him many disciples, an akhdrd is built over his grave, religious rites are performed at his tomb, and his spirit is invoked for aid on ocoasions of trouble.

(y) Kavi-lndra Paribar, a small Vaishnava sect, claiming to be KaTi-indra Paribar. ^® Paribar Or attendants of Vishnu Dis Kavi

who went out into the'^nVl?! 1 ^ \ ' original sixty-four mahants The story is that this YisWi T^ ^"t,^\^ ' "^ T ' ' .?•! ^^^^f ^y^' a point of eating tL CT ^^l ^^^"^^^ great humility and made teacher left nothfngoVhf7"i^f "^ Ohaitanya's food. One day the himseHhadtomaketbR ^ t *' ^'^^ ^^^ disciple seeking to abase spat out. This he swnll . ^ S "™ °* ""^ "^^^^^ Chaitanya had with blood. A rival ob "^^^^^^ noticing that it was tinged to Chaitanya the qnpat- ^®J *^^' ^^^ seeing his opportunity put tasted the blood of\ig " ' ^ ' ^ ^^ould be done to a disciple who should be excoffiJ'.S'^r^- Ghaitany a unwarily answered that ne recalled, Vishnu D^,T-, / f"" "" ^^^ judgment could not be

''a Uad to leave the original community and set

347 YAISHNAYA-

•»+^ nf li,-H own Thedocti-inesofthe Kavi Indra up a dissenting society of f ^ / T ^ V jg^navas. The office of mahant, are much the same as those °f * ^ ; J ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ L only be held by a Sudra. bowever, is elective, ^lot here-ix ^ ^ ^ Tnd aU the'^nembers are family ^ ' " ^ I S ' S ' a r ' S S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ and even Srotriya

i::im^l::^Jo ^fo^^^fl^'t'l^;-X^ generic (10) Baola ( « « t m T n T u d ^ W a - n i £ e r o f ' d i s r eU

BioU. S orders which have separated fi-om the

. a i n body of Y a i s h n t S ^ and are . c r g ^ ^ ^ ^ Z ^ ^ the lower castes. They « f t^?^^ ' ' !^^Li ters S e r ^ g from each Dds Bdolas, after the great Yaishna,va t^achjs. -Um^ ^ ^

' ^ t k S l s S l ^ r . - or wooden pattens y t founder axe also ° ' ° ' \ - ^ o ^ Baolas as a class are believed to be grossly immoral, ^ T X e U in very low estimation by respectable Hindus, and are held m very ^^^ ^ Vaishmva sect,

(11) Darwesh ^^^^^^^ ^ ^g^O ^^ Udaya Ohdnd Karmakar Darwcsh-Faqir. of Dacca. They worship Krishna, and_ dis-

• 1 +l,fiir creed by the term Brahmadharma. ^ h e n a novice is tiagmsh tb«^ '/.^gg ij,auvin or loin cloth, a A/uVAa or gown reaching admitted, he receiv ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^1^ ( . ;, ) in ^j^oh he is to collect to the ankles, ^J"^ , ^^ and some of the Baola sects, he is required alms. Like tl ® :^^ ^JQ^ substances in order to show his superiority to taste various dis^u ^ ^^^^^^^^ p^^i^^ ^^^^^ cut their hair or to ordinary .preju^i - ^ ^ ^^^^ themselves and have, and instead ^ j a s ^ ? _ Celibacy is professed, but no

tbeir clothes ^ " t h m ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ community of ascetics has severa.1 practised, and ev^iy .^^^:^^iy to keep the place m order and cook ^omen attached to it, ^^^^^ g^^^t austerity and pretend to the food. ^^"^,f^i,„Yaishnava sects. Animal life is never taken, iQ the strictest ot_iu^^^^^^^Qgtlj^g|3j.anches or even the leaves and it is deemed smi ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ founders, and on receiving a of a tree. Betore in i^eisance is made by kneeling, touching the ^resent, a very elabo ace ^^^^ the chest and face with dust. SounA with the fore lead^a^^ -J ^^^ sect believed to have been founded ^ (12) *^^''*^° - p'arlv in the eighteenth century by one Aul

, i,i,»ia. riinnd who was considered by his followers to Kartabhaja. f^t^^- A^l Chand obsei ved no distinction

be an incarnation ot ^^^.^^p of one god and certain moral "f caste, and taugu"' As 'Karta or spiritual head of the P P ^ ^ f r h \ n 7 t s u c S e d by Bam Smaran Pal of ahoshpara caste, A ^ l ^ l a thloffice is still held by members of the Pal family. • '•Nadiya. ^^.lYeKa^td are the Mahisays o. Deputies of whom Next in ^ • ^ f . X to every viUage congregratxon, his duty being to

VAISHNAVA. 348 VAISYA.

collect the dues for the support of the Kart&, and to transmit or account for all amounts so leceived at stated dates. The religious ceremonies of the sect are kept secret and performed in private.

The following statement shows the number and distribution of Vaishnavas in 1872 and 1881:—

DiSIBICT.

Baidwan Kaukura Birbhum l l idnapar Hughli Howrab 24-Fargan&a . Nadiya Je-sore Ehu lna l lurshedabad Uinaipur Bajshahyo Bangpur Bogra Pabna Darjiling Jalpigori ... Kuch Bchar Dacca rnndpur Bakargan] Mnimantinh Chittagong

1872.

87,362 1 10,260 23,243 06,178

] 20,373

36 563 16 88S 13,039

,. 21.4M 16,710 14.268 24.541

8,013 8,726

2.'2 1,877

11886 6,201 5,700

11.991 bOt

1881.

28,652 29,825 21,411 81.858

( 12,107 I 15,2&l

81,788 21.S30 14.8hl 12,911) 25.0al 19,149 17,081 26,974 11,111 13,167

567 8,420 1.210

17,'3 J 7,055 6,149

18,028 2,035

J •

•

1

1881.

Noakhali '1 ipncrah Hill Tracts ot Chittogong Patna Gya bhahahad Mozaffiirpur , Darbhanza S iran Champaran Jlonghjr Bhagalpnr Purnitth Maldiih SantM Pargan&s Cuttack P u n Balasoro Tributary States Hazanhaph Loburdag^ Sini-bbum . Manbhum Tributary States

2,111 6,847

.',082 1,115 1,070

6,726

3.777 2,666 3.184

18196 1.809 0.0 lO 6,100

24,J.in 6,770

I8r5l 6,410

799 4,459 2,713

l.',?62 603

2,(183 6,l&t

5 717

2,767 1,643 4,744 1,917 2,320 2,145 2,759 2,763 3,412 »,6G9 6,146

29 614 7,271

21,067 7,1)81

441 2,679 2,8B8

11,943 1,640

^aisga, a caste of Eastern Bengal claiming to he the modern representatives of the Vaisyas of classical tradition. Accordine to Dr. Wise, upon whose notes this article is based, they are most numer­ous in the Bhowal pargana of Dacca, and at Jahangirpur in Maiman* sinh. They can give no account of themselves, nor do iht^v T «cc„ ' oiuu. ^^^j vc. 6 - - ^« _„„„„ ..„ „. themselves, nor do they possesq any traditions of their original home. (They deny that Balldl Se ruled over or reorganized them, and boast that no honorarv tifl ° inherited from ancestors serving the Muhamadan GovpVTiTn ! survive. For these reasons they regard themselves as exopnf ii pure, having lived uncontammated amid the ciianges of A P' ^^^^ 'J The Vaisyas are generally short and squat, some havine fin ^"^^f?'^-noses and prominent superciliary ridges, while otheis 1 ^^?"^^^ cheek-bones, badly formed chins and lower jaws Th -X '"o^d nomy suggests cunning combined with intelligence' butT^^ P^ysiog-the inanimate vacant expression so common am'one- P* " ®^^^^* castes. The Vaisyas have relinquished many of tho n r * ' ' " enjoined by Manu, though still wearing the sacred \SvT ^""^'^^ of three strands knotted together, and another diRnn^\''°,°^P°^®'^ three threads, called Utari. The ceremony of tonsure O I ' ? ' ^ T ? ° ° "^ is observed before the thirteenth year, not postponed L * J . ^ ^ ' ^ ' ' ° ' fourth, and on this occasion the youth is invested wUWi ^ twenty-ical cord Vaisyas profess to "repeat the who « * !! Brahman-but the Brahmans assert that at the present dnT t , Gayatn, than three-fourths of it, and not having fuH ^ n , - " ^ know more a blessing on the §fidras, they twist the A,SjZTf^'''''- t . 1 ' ' T - d ho lLg the^ight hand on a level . i ^ Z ' ^ l A ^ t e

VAISYA. 349 VYASOKTA.

usual benediction. Vafsjae are permitted to read one of the four Vedas, and that always followed is the Yajur-veda. Each household celebrates by itself the Sdligram, Chakra, and Vishnu Ptijas, although Brahmans dispute their right to do so without requiring the services of the guru, or purohit, who are Srotriya Brahmans. I n creed the caste is a Vaishnava one, yet a few Sakta worshippers are met with. The Vafsyas formerly committed the sin of marrying in their own gotra, or exogamous group, but of late years, in order to fitay the scandal, new gotms have been formed.

They have no peculiar titles, but Gupta is often adde to their names, while individuals employed as assistants to merchants fre­quently assume the surname of Biswas, Hterally a holder of one-fourth share. Manu says that the first part of a Vaisya name sliould indicate wealth, the second prosperity; but the Bengali Vafsyas have ceased conforming to this rule, and the names ordinarily met with are Ram Kamar, Dev Nardyana, Sitala Chandra, or liam Gopdla, to which the surname Vafsya is always appended. Baidyds and Kayasths residing within the BalMIf country refuse to touch food prepared by the Vaisyas, but those living beyond those limits readily do so.

The Vaisya is generally a tolerable Bengali scholar, but few learn English, as it entails expense and delays the young from starting in life. In Maimausinh a few enter Government employ, but the majority are pleaders, mukhtdrs, rent collectors and land surveyors. Formerly the cultivation of the soil wan general, but now-a-days holding a plough is considered dishonourable, while managing a harrow is admissible. When a Vaisya meets a Brahman he does not, like other Hindus, make the salutation Pranama, as the Brahman bestows his benediction without it. Among Vafsyas the period of impurity after a death is fifteen days. All the Hindu festivals are observed by them, but the favourite one is that in honour of Lakhsmi, the goddess of wealth.

Vahat, a variant of Bhakat.

Vasta Gdin, a thar or section of Nepali Brahmans.

Vatsa, see B4tsya.

Veddnta, ho who knows the Vedas, a title of Brahmans.

Veni, a variant of Beni, a synonym for Baniya.

Vidy^dhara, a title of Kawd-lis in Eastern Bengal.

Vishnu, see Bishnu.

Vishnumasi, a section of Baruis in Bengal.

Vishnuswdmi, a sect of Vaish-navs.

yiswdl , a title of Chdsds in Orissa.

Vumik, a variant for Bhaumik, a title of Kaibarttas.

Vy^sa, a section of Kaibarttas, Tdmbuhs, Subamabaniks, and Tantis in Bengal; of Qaura Brahmans in Behar.

Vyisokta , a title of those Rarhi Brahmans who perform reHgious offices for the E a i -barttas.

WADSUESA. 350 WINIH-

w Wadsuesa , a sept of Maghs

in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong. Wahe , a section of tlie Panch.-

jati sub-casto of Khatris in Bengal.

Wahsa l i , a thar or sept of Ehambus in Darjiling.

Waientsa , a sept of MagBs in the Hill Tracts of Chittagong.

WangdehchS, a thar or sept of Sunuwars in Darjiling.

. Warggu, a sept of Chakmds m the a m Tracts of Chittagong.

Weh-ba, a rui or sept of bherpa Bhotias of Nepal.

YAHMN. 351 YUEUMBANG.

Yahidn, a section of Naiyds.

^aldl^, a small agricultural caste of Nepal belonging to the Kii'anti group.

Yak-kyukpa, a sept of the Phiigu sub-tribe ' of Yakhas in Darjiling.

Yakpangden, the dweller on the pass, a sept of the Yan-gorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yakshoma, the guardian of the fort, a sept of the Ahtharai Bub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yaktacha, a thar or sept of SunuwArs in Darjiling.

Yakten, formerly doctors, a sub-sept of the Thekim sept of limbus in Darjiling

Yakthumbai Limbu.

a synonym for

Yamphu, a sub-tribe of Yakhas in DarjUing.

Yangdenba. he who Pfjdjiis footSgT a sept of the tanthar suSfbo of Limbus in Darjihng, aid to be descended from a

Mech, who got admission into the Limbu tribe by bribing the heads of the iJMin-thum.

Yangdi, a thar or Mangars in Darjiling-

Yangmi, a thar or Hangars in Darjilmg.

Yangorup, a sub-tribe of Lim­

bus in iJai'Jili^S-Yangsoba or Namlagpa. he

V fof the tribe, a sept of the S h a r s u W r i b e of Limbus m Darjiling-

sept of

sept of

Yeti, a thar or sept of Sunuwars in Darjiling.

Yijarri) the wanderer or eater, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yithingu, tho huntsman, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yo-chang, a sub-sept of the Pon-po sept of Dejong Lhoris or Bhotias of the south.

Yoksuma, a sept of the Ph%u sub-tribe of Yakhas in Darjiling.

Yong-tong-ba, a rui or sept of Dejong Lhoris, the members of which are the descendants of emigrants from Bhotan and Nepal.

Yongyah, a sept of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yongyahang, the son of a chief, a sept of the Yangorup and Charkhola sub-tribes of Limbus in Darjiling.

Yulsahb, a rui or sept of Dejong Lhoris, tho members of which are the descendants of emigrants from Bhotan and Nepal.

Yul-then-bo, a rui or sept of the Tongdu sub-tribe of Dejong Lhoris whose ancestor was tm'ued out of his fatherland.

Yungm^, the idler, a sept of the Yangorup sub-tribe of Lim­bus in Darjiling.

Yurumbang, they of the central village, a sept of the Fhedab sub-tribe of Limbus iu Darjiling.

« *> * "iqtj

• • H / -J .

.352 ' I'lH 7. . «» ^li'zA3:TLi

Zaminddr, a synonym for Bibtian.

Zaminddr Brahman, & synonym for Bdbhan.

Zargar, a sjrnonym for Sonar.

Zargar, Zardozi, a maker of clotli of gold.

Zatti, a title of Kewats and Mallas in Behar.

ETHKOGRAPHIC GLOSSAlll

V O L . II-

APPENDIX I. PAGB.

List of castes and tribes with their titles, sub-castes, sub-tribes, sections and septs 1—141

APPENDIX II. Proceedings of Conference on EthnograpLy of Northern India,

held at Lahore 143—44 Suggestions regarding some doubtful points of Ethnographic

nomenclature I44 jg Ethnographic questions—

General series 145 4g Special series 14S 73

APPENDIX III.

Mr. Denzil Ibbetson's Memorandum on ethnological inquiry inthePanjab 175—gg

APPENDIX IV.

List of Correspondents selected to take part in the ethnographic sarrey of Bengal jgo go

* . * ' « '

APPENDIX I.

LIST OP TEIBES AND CASTES WITH THEIR TITLES, STJB-CASTES AND SUB-TEIBES, SECTIONS AND SEPTS.

Titles:—Dhdngar, Parja.

Sub-tribes Pahdria-Agaria. Brijia-Agaria. Assur-Agaria. Lohar-Agaria.

Septs. Baheroar, a jungle fruit. Mahatoar, a title. Samduar. Sonoar, gold. Turiar.

^gnrtojil, AgarwaU.

Sub-caslcs.

Pachhainya. Purbiya. Das^. Bisa or Bir^dari R^JS.

Sections.

Airan. Batsil. Bhaddal. Garg. Gaw^l. GobhiF. Goil . Goin. Kasil.

Manga 1. Mittal. Singhal, Tairan. Tayal. Thingal Tingal. T i t ta l . Tundal.

Sub-castcs. Bdgh&. Bardw^niyd. Ch&gn ya or Ch&nga.

KasipuriS. Satsaikiya. Suta.

SCguri, Ugra Kshatri.

Titles :-Kesh, Pai, P^l, Samanta, Syam.

Sections.

Bharadw^ja. Gautam. Kasyapa. S^ndilya.

NOTE.—In order to facilitate roforcQce to tUese libts, the names of en.ln ganious groups are printed m red ink. ^^'

AMAT.

Titles :—Ghibih^r, Khawds, Saghdr.

Sub-casles.

Gharbait or Raut, Bahiot.

Sections.

Larwir. Narhan. Parabwdr. Pataiwdr.

^BUtit, Agoiia, LohrL

Titles:—Majhi, Parja.

Sub-tribes.

Agaria. Birjia. Kolh-Asur. Lohra-Asur. Pah^rid-Asur.

Septs.

Aind, an "eel. Baroa, a wild cat. Basriar, bamtoo. BeliSr, belhmi. Kachua, a tortoise. Kaithiwar, kaitha

fruit. Kerketa, a bird. Mukrudr, spider. Ndg, a snake. Rote, frog. Siar, jackal, Tirki, a bird. Topo, a bird.

or chichinga

iiabluin.

&yaonyia&:—AiuyyaL Biah.nan, Bhu'uMt, Chaudhnji, Gnhusth )ah)tmi, Maghayd Btdh„ian, Pachhimd Bidhinan, Zaminddr, Zimia-B.

dat BidhMOii

Titles:—Arape, Bharsi-Misr, Chaube, Chaudriji, Dikshit, Dube, Mawdr, Misr, Ojha, Panchobe, Panda, Pathak, Rai, Singh, Sotri, Thakur, Tiwari, Upadhiya.

Abkihon. Aggechal. Agnidhaut. A'lw&r. Ajahid. Ambari4.

SECTIONS.

(a) Territorial.

Ana rai. Anwar. Araich. Arait. Arewar, Arnwait.

Aswaria. Atrab. Auigh bald Badoni^ ' Badramia. Bagauchi^.

'-.-^

BABHAN.

Bagri. Balai^r. Bandih^. Banrid. Barhambid. Barhampurid. Barnait. Basmait. Baswait. Bauriha." Begampurid. Belkuar. Belonchd. Bemwdr. Bhadsuhid. Bhaju Chakwar. Bhalrait. Bh atari. Bnelorid. Bhomdpoli. Bhunasware. Bigahid. Bijalpurid. Bilkhari. Chaksidr. Chakwdr. Chandrdwat. Chasiwar. Chauridr. Chausd. Chesid. Chiksoria. Chilimdr. Chiwdr. Dabhinchhwdr,

bhauchwar.

(a) Territorial—oonoluded.

Dumrdit. Dundwar. Gambharid. Gangtiait. Garhid. Gaur. Ghatait. Goait. Hararid, foundling. Hariambd. Hartakia. Hastgame. Indrawar. Jaitharia. Jdji. dajim. Jamraidn. J an war. Jesiwdr. dethuliar. Kadarai. Kalemnid. Kanchanbhdr. Karmud. Karnautid. Karndyati. Kestwdr. Kataunid. Katewar. Katidin. Kathautid. Kathwajt. Katthawa. Kausonjhid.

Da- Kinwdr. Korache.

Dalihare, Dullihard. Kordnch. Darihare. Dhakdit. Dhanichhwdr. Dharan. Dharwdr. Dhaurdni. Dighwait. Digiiwe-Dipar. ^ Pornkatar. Donwar. Dudhnait.

Kuihd. Kumedwdr. Kunjalwdr. Ladild. Lamgorid. Larwarid. Mahbaria. tViahuari. Maind. Wlalikaulid. Malitwar. Manaria.

*1*

Manchia. Mandra. Mangraunt. Maniksharid. Nanjord. Naradwdr. Nifctawdr. Nonaitwdr. Ok in war. Onwdr. Pachbhajud. Pachgotya. Panchobe. Parhape. Parsaria. Pilch war. Piliksawdr. Pilkhait. Raini. Ramayd. Rampai. Ransadiyd. Sahasnanghid. Sahdaulia. Sakarwdr. Sakhwait. Sakmait. Salhariyd. Sandalid. Sapdohd. Sarwe. Saubarnid. Senr\raidn-Sihogid. Sihoria. Sihujia. Siriar. Sirsait.

o

Sonbhadrid, livinp-on the banks the Sone.

Sonewdr. Sorawdr. Suargane. Surgria. Tetiha. Tetihia. Tilachhwar. Umatwdr.

l a

o of

Bhusbarit, husk-gatherer.

Chaubhaia, bornof four brothers.

BABHAN.

(J) Functional or Personal.

Eksari^, bom of one brother.

J alewar, holder of fieibng nets.

Koddrid, worker with the spade.

Panchbhaia, born of fiye brothers.

Agnihotra. Atharb, Basisht. Bharadw^j. Garg.

(c) Brahmanical.

Gautam. Hiri t . K^syapa. Kaundin. Kausik.

Parasar. S&barna. sand i I. Vatsa.

g^Qbi, BAgtit.

Titles :—Bdgh, Dhdr4, Khdn, Mdnjhi, Masdichi, Mudi Pai= khdi, Parimanik, Pherka, Puil^, R^i ^ ^"" Sardar. S^ntra,

Sub-castes.

1. B^jdnddri^, found in Jessore, 2. Dandamdnjhi. 3. Da rat id, found in Nuddea. 4. Duli^, a palanquia-bearing sub-caste. 5. Gulimanjni. 6. Kasai kulidi said to live along the banks of the Kasdi river in

Manbhum and Midnapur. 7. Kusmetia, Kusmdtid, orKusputra, said to be named after the

kiisd grass, and apparently totemistic. 8. Let, found in Murshedabad. 9. Machhu^, Mechhua, orMecho, a fishing sub-caste.

lo! Malla metia, Mdtia, or Mdti^l, fishermen and earth-workers 11. Noda, found in the 24-Pargan£s, said to have come from

Bankura. Tentulia, named after the tamaimd tree, and apparently

totemistic . ,-, ^A -o i •-,.•, Travodas, found in the 24-i:'argaDds, said to have come from

Bankura. Ujha or Ojha, probably descended from the priests of the

tribal gods, who would naturally tend to form themselves into a 8ub-oaste. 'Fov a parallel case, see Mallik.

12

13,

14,

BAGDI.

(«)

SECTIONS.

Toteniistic— (6) Eponymous— Ardi, fisk Alamydn. Baghrishi, the tiger. Kasyapa. Kachchap, the tortoise. Kasbak, heron. (c) Uncertain— Pakbasanta, bird. Bagri. Patrishi, the bean. Ddsya. Ponkrishi, jungle cock. Gadibhdrat. Salrishi or Salmachh, the Kal.

sdl fish. Rancho.

gaillVilt, Vaidya, Ambastha, Bhit,aJc, Childtsak.

Sub-castes (Endogamnus).

Rirhi. Banga, Bangaja. Barendra, Varendra. Panchakoti.

Hypergamotts groups.

Kulin. Bangsaja. Maulik.

Family titles (padabis).

Dds •) Gupta J-Siddha. Sen J Datta

Shar iS^^^y-Kar

Chandra") Kundu N a g I Nandi ^Kashta. Raja Rakshit Soma

Sections (Exogamous).

Atdya. Alamalaka. Angira. Atreya. Baisvfinara. Basishtha. Batsya. Bharadwfija. Dhanvantari. Dhruba. Gautama. Ghritakausika. Hi ngu. Kasyapa. Kausika. Krishnatreya, Madhukuliya. Markandeya. Maudgalya. Sabarna. Saktr i . Salankayana. SSndilya. Vishnu.

Titles or popular designations of Baidyas practising medicine.

Used by themselves. Baidya-nidhi. Kabi-ballabh. Kabi-bhushan. Kabi-indra. Kabiraj. Kabiranjan. Kabi-ratna,

I ' BA'IDYA.

Uned hy outsiders. Atal Baidya, doctor who defrauds the ignorant. Ch&sa Baidya, plough doctor. Dehati Baidya, village doctor. ^ Hatur ia Baidya, a doctor -who attends market,

or, according to Wise, a quack, a meddlesome fellow.

Nari-tepS, pulse-feeler.

fiaitigt, Jogi, OosHn.

Snb-tribea. Sopts in Chota Nagpur.

Nil. Achut. Anaet. Anchit, tiger. Barandia. Bishnu. Dhobdhar , can't wash their clothes in

child's birth ceremonies. Gobans, cow. Idri, a jungle fruit. Kansi, a kind of grass. Karanjea, an oil-seed. Nag, cobra. Ramgharra, a place. Sonar , can't wear gold. Tura .

^ a i t i , Bdoti, Chiindrt, Chuniyd, Barnak-Tanmh

Titles:—Bhuiy^, RAi, Sen.

Snb-castes. Sections.

1. Baitf of Dacca and Central Bengal. Aliman. 2 Magi of Faridpur. Baghrishi.

Kasyapa. Tilalochan.

l l u i u , Bmhat.

Titles :-Manjhan, Maraiya, Mistri, Rai, Satun, Thak

Sub-castes. / Sections.

1. Kanaujia ^ (Work only in ^ Territorial— I 2. Kokds i wood.) Bachberait. J 'a . 'MaghayS (Work in wood Balbherait.

and iron.) Bansdili.

ur.

•BARHI.

Sub-castes. (a)

4. Lobar. (Found in BMgal-pux. Work only in iron.)

5. Kam&r-Kal!^. 6. Mathurici.

Sections. Territorial—concluded.

Barhioth. Barnait. Balhatt. Bharaii. Charwa. Chaudhrdna. Dasaonth. Dobhait. Gri tar i . Hathian. Kapri. Kharait. Lakwar. Mukund. Parus . Pipr ia t i . Sikalgar. Winih.

(6) Eponymous—

Biskarma. Sandilya. Kasyapa.

Mypergamous divisions of the Maghayd sub-caste.

Thdkur. Rai . Kuar.

IN BENGAL.

^^rUJ, Barai, Barqjt, Bdrajibi, Latd-baidy a

Titles:—Ain, Ash, BawSI, Bhadra, Bhaumik, Bhawal , Biswas, ChSnd, Chaudhr i , Dam, Das, Deo, Datta, Dhar, Guha, Hdlddr, Hor, Kar, Khan, Khor, Kundu, Ldha, Majumd^r, Mallik, Mandal, Mantrini , MannS, M^rik, Mitra, Ndha, Nag, Nandan, Nandi , Pdl, Rakhit , Rudra, Sark4r , Sen.

Sub-castes.

1. Rarhi . 2. Barendra, 3. Nathin . 4. Kota.

Sections.

Aliman. Batsya. Bharadwaj . Chandramahars i . Gautama. Jaimini .

KanwamaharsP Kasyapa. Madhukuljya Sandilya. Vishnumaharsi Vyasa. * '

^t

IN BEHAR. tv' M ^

13AR4t.

Sub-castes.

1- Maghaya. 2. Jaiswdr. 3- ChauraslS. ^- Semerya. 5. Sokhwd.

Title:—Raut. Sections.

Kasyapa. Nag.

§mn, Bnno.

Titles : -Digha , Mandal, Manjhi, Maulavi, Pardmanfk.

Sub-castes. Sections. 1. Dhulia or Dhulo. Ai iman. 2. Jh^tia or JhetiS. Kasyapa. 3. K^thuria. Madhukulva. 4. Mallabhumfa. Mdihi . 5. Malua or Mdlud. •' «. Moia. ~- Panchakoti. 8. PSturia. 9- Sikhari6 or Gobarid.

4'

^Cbi^, .Pc erf, J?e/(7rf.

Title;—Mahto.

Sub-tribes. Septs. Nil. Bar, the banyan tree.

Biha or Binjha, a fish. Chidra or Cherrd, squirrel. Dhechua, a black bird. Dian, a kind of fish. Kachua or Kachchh, tortoise. Khopchd, an owl. Mahanadi, name of a river. Mahua, bassia laiifoha. Mahukal, a bird with long tail. Maina, a bird. Ndg, a cobra. Parewd, a pigeon. Pech&, an owl. Suia, a bird. Sulankhi, a bird. Sundi. mahua flower. Titipi. a night bird. Turu, a bird.

BELDAE. • I ^ . I ' V f - . 9

i 's

Titles:—Gadahya, Mar^r, Rdut.

Sub-cast08. Section. ~

Bhojpurid. Chauhdn. Kathautia or Kathdw^.

Kasyapa.

Sub-castes.

Bang&li. Dakhini. Desi. Kharid. Khurdd. Gola. Hatu^.

^hanMl'i , N6pit, Ew'dm.

Titles:—Barik, Kshuri.

Sectiou.

Sub-castes.

1. Banguii. 2. MaghayS.

ghar.

Title :--RanS.

Sections.

a) Totemistic—

Binsrishi, bamboo. Bel, belhuii. Kachhap, tortoise. Mayur,.peacock.

(6) EjjoDi/nwus—

Agni. Brahmarishi. Rishi.

» > 1 0 »" •» '^' ,*

f^ti''', ,'•* BHAT.

Titles :—Bh4rata, Dasaundhi, Kabiji, Rai.

Sub-castes.

Baram-Bh^t. ' Raj-Bhdt.

Turk-Bhat (Matomedan).

^

Sections.

Anal. Antahria. Balbandhia. Bharadwaja. Gaighatia. Kailia. Kdsyapa. Kunwar. Lakhsaria. Loharkoriya. Mahrajia. Menwar. Sahar. Sandilya. Sanhakia. Sindhwatia. Suarait.

AtselS, Barua, Bhatara, Chaurasi, Chungele, Dasaundhi, GuiriwdU Jangira, Kailia, Mah4pdtra, Nagauri, Sikatpiirea, are mentioned by SirHenrv Elliot as subdivisions of Bhiits, but it is not stated whether these names denote sub-castes, sections, or merely titles.

^lUlinm^U, BhtmtxJu), SuWii'jndra, Biri.

Sub-castes.

1. Bara-bh^giya. 2. MitraSeni Behara. 3. Chhota-bh^giya.

'.4. AmarSb^di \ Found m Noakhah, . ' 5 . S&raiiS / and apparently *f'6- HStia j peculiar to that

7. Bhululi ) district.

Sections.

Pa rasa ra. Alinnan.

B'HWTYA. 11

'•^huilj^, Bhiiinyd, Bhuiydii, BhuiuMr, Bhitmiyd, Musahar^ Ndik Klianddyat, Khanddyat-Pdik, Gfiahcdl, Ohatwdr, Ttkdyat, Rujtodr, Rdi-Bhuiyd, Ber-Bhtiiyd, 8arddr, Pnran.

Titles:—Bhogta, ChharidSr, KopSt, Mahton, M^njhi, N^ik, Rai Singh, Thdkur, Tikayat.

Sub-tribes.

In Lohardagd— BichwSr. Desw^li. Dundwdr. dunwar. Khandait. Maghaiyd. Mahtwar. Marheria. Rajwar. Rikhiasan. Tirwdr.

In Keonjhar— M6I or Desh-Bhuiya. Pandsena. Khatft. Rfi jkul i ,

In Manbhum— Dhora. Kdtr^s. Musahar.

In Bazaribagh— Ghdtw^r Tikayat.

Septs.

Asura. Bag^li. Baliar. Banini. • Banka. Bankiar. Banui. Champiar. Chirra or Rikhiasan, sqtiirrel. Golari. Jagda. Jagorar i . Kach, tortoise. Kaliar. Kandni. Kanrui. Kenduari. Keruri. Kihar. Kussum, a tree. Kutar. Lota. Nag. Naragi. Narari. Noah. Pachoar. Pansi. Rdi. Ranangi. Sani. Satadi. Sinhi.

« 12 BHUMIJ.

ghumij. Titles:—Manki," Matkum,^ Mura,^ Sardir.*

Sub-tribes.

Desi. TamSriS, Mur , or Mdnki-Mura.* SikhariyS or Meno." Pdtkumid 7 Shelo, iron-Bmelters. Barabhumia, zamindar Bhumij.^

Septs. Badd^ Kurkutia, a kind of

worm. Barda. Bhuiy^, fish. Chandil. Gulgu, fish. HansdS, wild goose. Hemrong, betel palm. d aru, a bird. Kasyab, tortoise. Leng, mushroom. Nag, suake. Obars&ri, abii-d. Pila. Sagma. Salrishi, sawfish. Sandilya, a bird. Saola. TesS, bird. TumSrung, pumpkin. Tuti, a sort of vegetable.

' This title is common among the Mundas. ' Applied to the Bhumij of Dhalbhum. * Mura is the common form of Munda in Manbhum. * Possibly borrowed from the ffhaUeali system, the leading executive unit

of which is tae sarddr or head of the subordinate ghatwals (tabidars) of a village.

•> The two latter appellations clearly suggest Munda descent. " This group is supposed to come from Manbhum. ' The I'atkumia and Tamaria sub-tribes occasionally intermarry. * Probably descended from members of the Barabhum zamiudari family

Titles .-—Chaudhri, Mahto, Mukhia, Raut.

Sub-castes.

Khar i at Awadhiyd Lodhiya Gondh OutautBind Nun Bind Bin

. In Behar.

Sections.

(«) Territorinl— Jarhuait. Jhauait. Odania.

In Eastefa Bengal, b) Ep Kasyapa.

BINJHIA. 13

g in jh i i , P>''Mi SrijH, Binjhw&r.

Titles :—Bar^ik, Dandia, Gaunjhu, Kdrji, Minjhi, Mird&hS, Naik, N^th, Parja, Pradhan.

Sub-tribes.

Pahiriya-Binjhi^. Dand-Binjhid. Agaria-BinjhiS.

Septs.

Bair, zizyphiis jujuha. Bansetti, don't touch bamboo at

a wedding. Bhair. Cheruka, fish. Chidra, squirrel. Chingri, a river-fish. Chorka, a pond-fish. Chutia, rat. Dddul, buU-frog. Garai, a river-fish. Huru, paddy-bird. Kachua, tortoise. Kasi, a kind of grass sacchaiuin

spontaneum). Kuns, grass. Mangar, crocodile. Murgi, hen. Nag, serpent. Pusway, a river-fish. Sinduria, use sindui; a red paint,

at marriage. Teiha, use oil at marriage. Tengra, a river-fish. Thekra, a river-fish.

Ijiulioi".

Title:—Birhor.

Sub-tribes.

Nil.

Septs.

Hemrom, a kind of fish. Jagsaria. Liluai. Mahli. Nag, cobra. Nagpuria. Singpuria. Siruar.

^^ BRAHMAN.

•<i, Dwijo, Th&hir, Sarmd, Deva-Sarmd, Bhudeva, Bhtisur, Agraja, Mahardjjl, Bdbdji, Oosdinji.

Main divkions. Territorial divisiona.

Pancha Gauriya—Saraswat, Kanyakubja, Gaura, Utkal, Maithil.

Pancha Dr^vira—Karn^ti, Tailangi or Andhra, Gujrdti or Gurjjara, Draviri, Mahdrdshtriya.

Miscellaneous—Nepali, Vydsokta, Sdkadwipi, Kraunch-dwipi (including dausi, Jotkhi or Jyotshi.DdkantiS, BhadaridorBhareri, Jadwd, Sagunid, Sanicherd), Mdgadha, Bandijan or Suta, Atharva, Mdthur, Maha Brahman otherwise called Mahd-pdtra or Kantdha, Lakhauria, Belontidi Kathak, Kaldwat, Tikaur, Sakuntald, Sawaldkhi, Kashmiri, Kdmrupi.

Tirtha Pnrokits, Debal or Paudd :—Gaydwdi, Prayae-wal, Gangaputra, Dhdmin, etc.

Sdraswat.

Sub-castes. Sections.

In the Panjdb.

Four local divisioDS, igt di^igi^^ f High ... 50 The gotras are

S l e 'and fow ^ ^ i \ - ^"'^ common to all ^dogamoSgroup! ^""^ " (LOW .*:: J3 ^^^^^^^as.

3rd „ jHigh ... 9 1^°^, ••• 48 High ... H

4th „ ; Middle on ILO

Total

T e... 20 •L'ow ... 124

469

0U8

Upddhyay

KanyaKubja.Kanaujid.

Titles (m Behar) :—Misr or Misra, Suknl T-Pathak, Pdnre, Upadhyaya, Chaui4 ^^^'''> ^ube or Dobe, Dikshit. Lakhnau or Bajapeyi, g." '^ or Chobe, Dichhit or

^rwariyd or Saryupari.

BRAHMAN. 15

Titles in Bengal):—Bhattachdrji, Ghatak, Chakrabartti, Bandya, Chatta,"Mu khati, Rii, Munshi, Chaudhri, Sarkar, Majumdir, Haldar, Bidyaratna, Bidyab^gis, Smritiratna.

' Sub-castes.

In Bengal.

Rdrhi. Pirali.

Barendra. Uttar Barendra Pdnchuria.

Madhyasreni Madyadoshi.

Barna or Patita Brdhman.

AgradSni. Acharji, Daibajna,

Ganaka. Bhdt or Bhatta. Maruipora. Saptasati or Scitsati. Vaidik.

Paschdtya. D^l<shinatya.

Sections or qotras common to all BrAhmans.

Abya. Agastya. Alamyan. Anabrikaksha. A'ngirasa.

or Atreya. Atri. Baijahmapadya. Baiy^ghrapadya Basishtha. Basuki. Bdtsya. Bharadwaja. Bhargava. Bishnu. •' Biswdmitra. Briddha. Brihaspati. Garga. Gautama. Ghritakausika. Gotama. Jabdii. Jaimini. 3-.?- =

Mi

Kanwa or Kdnna, Kasyapa. Katyayan. Kaundilya. Kausika. Kaustav. Krishnitreya. Kusal. Maudgalya. Maunas. Parasara. Paulastya. Rikhab. Rohita. Sabarna. Saktri. Sdndilya. Sankriti. Saukalin. Saupayan. Sunaka. Upamanya.

.''Swarna-Kausik. Rajata-Kauslk. Ghrita-Kausik.

Jdjnabalkya. ..„„__^ Jdmadagnya. J f l S f §lKaundilya-Kausik. Kalvisha. | n 8 | f [Kausika. Kanchan.

Ill w

rSaunaka. JKanwayan. iRathitara. lAgnibesma.

1. The Rarlii and Barendra sub-castes have the fnlln™,; ™ G ', K&syapa, SAndilya, Sabarna, Bdtsya, and Bharadw&ia. "°"^'"S nvo gotras .—

2." Tl anjona B s in use ^ Sdik B r i a n s ' ! ' " " " ' ° ' ' " ' ^""-"^ °^ - ° g - ° - -'=tion

3. There can be no intermarriage amongst persons nf fh^ f^u • ts :-J4madagnya, Batsya, Sabarna, M f u d S s - J ^ - " - ^ ^ ' " P ^^" 3

ao^-as:—J iimaaagnya, ilatsya, Habarna, Maudgalya, SauD4van7"^V'"* fapposed to be of common ancestry and a r e ^ h ' ^ r ^ & T e X ' n e d as exogamous section. CUILUULQ as

4. The Madhyasreni or Madyadoshi Brahmans of

are one

West have the toliowing srofmjT i-Si'mdilya, Batsyaba. Kdsvann " S r •^'•' tabamya. Pardsara, Gautma. Ghrita-Kausika. •"^"•'•yapa, Bharadw ^

5. The Bhdts or Bhattas have the ioWoxtina ootras--Kt, djft,_Sdndilva, Ghrita-Kausika, Aurbba liishi, i i t fya , l i i ; f ^^^'^P^- Bhara, •vruja

Eachgoiya has its pravaras, i.e., a group of from threrVn fi he saiiie.9«<ra. Intermarriage between person,^ • ^^^ ^

pravaras is m theory prohibited, but this rule is not now , t r^ 'f i!^ '?g ^^^

Bengal aja,

d-

belonginR.'ot'i*' snme gvtra. InU e Kisl,i,

«Wctly ob te '^ed ."^ '

16 BRAHMAN.

• ,. Gain or Gr^min (oG or 59) of the Rarhi suh-caste under the live gotras:—

Sandihja Gotra (16).

Baiidya. Gargari. Kesarkuni. Kusumkali. ParihAl. Eulabhi.

Ghoshli. Sejagd. Maschatak. Bardl. Basudri.

Kadal. Kusdri. Kulisa or Kulkuli Akds. Dirghdti.

Kasyapa Gotra (16).

Gur. Ambuli. Bliuri. TalaWti. Pitamundi. Chatta.

PaMi . Har . Pordri. Pdladhi. Kodri.

Pdkrdsi. Simldi. Pushali, Pusliildl Bhatta. MuL

Bhamdwaja Gotra (4),

Mukhaiti. Dingsdin.

Sdharik. Eayi.

Ganguli. Xundalal. Siddhal. Diyl

Saharna Gotra (12).

Nandi. Bali. Sidrik. Punssika.

Sdteswaii. Parial. Ghauteswari. % 'dr i .

Mahinta. Ghoshdl. Siruldi. Bdpuli.

Bdtsya Gotra (8 or 11)

Pippaldi. Putitunda. Purbba. KdujiJal.

•^Qjiaii. Cbautkhaudi. -Dighal.

15JI.V11MAN. ir<

The Giiins whom Rfljcl. BallAl Sen made—Kulhi,Qaum Kulin, and Srotrii/a:—

Kulin (8).

Bandya. Oliatta. Miikhaiti.

Ghoshdl. Putitunda. Gauguli.

KdnjiMl. KundalSI.

Qauna Kulin (14).

UAyi. Gur. !Rlahintd. Kulubhi. (Jhautkhandi.

Pippaliii. Gai'gari. Ghautoswari. Kesarkuni. Dingsdi.

Pdrihdl. Har. Pitamundi, Dirghdti.

The remaining 34 or 37 are S ro t r iyas .

Those Gbataks who reckon 56 Gains, include Pordri among Gauna KuKns aud exclude Dighal, Ohautkhandi, and Piirbba. Those who reckon 59, exclude Pordri, Diglial, and Purbba from Gauna Kulin, and show 34 Srotaiyas.

liypergaraous groups bliuha and sub-groups mel of HdrLis I'ormed by the famous social reformer Devibar Ghatak:—

Groups.

Kulin. Bhanga Kuiin,

j Suddha. Srotriya | Sadhya.

(Kash ta . Bansaja.

Mels or bub-proups, mostly cudoganious.

Phulid. Khardaha. Ballabhi. Sarbbdiiandi. Panditratni. iidngal. Siu'di. Achdrjya Sekhari. Gopdlghatald. Chatta 2ld,'habi. Eijayapauditi, Mddhdi. Bidyddhari. Pdnhdl. Sriangabhatti. Pramodui, Bdli. <.

Uhandrapati.

Sribarddhani. SatdnandkMni. Chhayi. Achambitd. Dasarath Ghalaki.' Subhiirdjkhani. Malddharkbdui. lidghub Qhoshali. Delia ti. Nariyd. Kdkuslhi. Dhardduari. lidyi.

Bhairab Ghatak j i 'armdnanda Slisi..

18

Gain or Grdmin five gotras :—

< Maitra. J Bhaduri.

Karanja. Ealayashthi. Modhagrami. Balihari.

' Eudratagclilii. •I lAhen.

Sadhub^giilibi. Champati. Nandandb^si.

•< Sannj'dl. Blumkali. Bliattasali. Kamkali. Kurmuri. Bharidl. Lakslia. Jimrukhi.

J Bbddar. Ldruli. JMmal, Jhampati. AtuitM. Eai, Eatndbali. Uchchharaklii. GoohohMsi.

Singdiar. Pdkari, Dadhi. Sringi. liledari. "Undhuri. Dhuudhuri.

BRAHMAN.

(100) of the Bdrendra sub-caste under the

Kdsyapa gotra (18).

Modli. Kiral. Biikunia. Sargrami. _ Sahagrami. Katigrdmi.

Sdndilya gotra (14).

Kamendxa. Sihari. Tdroald Bisi. Matasydsi. Champa.

Bdtsya gotra (24).

Simli. Dhosdli. Tdnuri.. Batsagrdmi. Deuli. Nidrdli. Kukkuti. Borhgrami.

Madhyagrdmi. Mathgrami. Gangagrdmi. Belgrdmi. Chamagrdmi. Asrukoli.

Suhama. Totaka. Pushana. Beluii.

Srutabati. Akshagrdmi. Sahari. Kdligiami.

/Kdlihdi. Paundrakdli. Kalindi. Chaturdbandi.

Maradtcdj'a gotra (24).

Bala. Sdkati. Simbi. Bahal. Sariydl. Kshetragrdmi. Dadhiyal. Puti.

Sdbarna gotra (20).

Tatodr. Setu. ^ Naigrarai. Nedhuri. Kapali. Tuttari. Panchabati.

Kdohhati. Nandigrdmi. Gogrami, Nikhati. Pippali. Sringa. Khorjar. <^08walambi.

' Khandabati. Nikari. Samudra, Ketugrdmi. Jasogrdroi. Sitali.

BRAHMAN. 19

G^in of Uttar-Barendras according to " Gaure Brahman " :—

Sandilya. Ohampati. Bdgchhi. liabar. Nandandbasi. Sihari.

Bharadwdja. Edi. Gopurbba. Sirasinthi. Jhamdl.

Kdsyapa. Bhdduri. Karanja. Simbi.

Sabarna. Ann^sani.

Batsya. Kdlayi. Grrihasodhani. Madhugr^mi.

KuUns made by BalMI Sen:— L^heri. • Maitra. B^gohhi. Sanny^l. BhSduri, Misra.

Bh^dar.

Srotriyas divided by Eija KansaNdriyan :

Karanja. Nandandbdsi. Bhattasali.

Uchchharakhi. Jdmrukhi. Ratnabali.

a) Siddha Srotriya. Laruli. A'tiirtbi. Ohampati. Kalihdi. Jhampati.

b) Sddliya Srotriya. Sihari. Bisi. liai. Karjjuri. Gosw^Iambi,

c) The rest are Kashta Srotriyas.

Hypergamous groups bhaba and sub-groups pathi of Bdrendras formed by the learned social reformer TJdayanicharya Bhaduri-—

Groups. Sub-groTips. SoniW. Nirdbil. Bhushnd. Rohild. Kutabkhini. AHdkhdni. Bhabanipuri. Beni.

Kulfn. C Siddha.

Srotriya I Sddhya. ( Kashta.

Kapa, Chhagharia.

Barendra titles :— Bagh, tiger. Bliera, sheep. Dhol, drum. Gappi, tell-tale. Gonj, peg.

Panja, heap of bricks. Patha, goat. Prachanda, furious. , Talapatra, bottom of ~ a pot Taulp, earthen pot. "

2 a

20 BEAHMAN.

, Gdin of Saptasatis:—Arath, Bdguri, Bdlthubi, Bhdgdi, Dlidm, Dhardhar, Halui, Hdturi, Jabagrdmi, Jagdi Kdlm, Kdndare, Kanthard, Kanya, Edtadi, Kdtani, Kdturi, Kusald, Muluk]un, Nalsi, Ninaksdi, Pdtari, Pharpliar, Pithdri, Sdgdm, Sdm, Sugdm, Uiala, UUuk, etc.

Vaidik.

Sub-castes. Pasch^tya f J o n a n .

Vaidik. iKonar*.

Sections (gotras).

Sandilya

Basishtha

Sabarna

Bharadw&ja ..

Saunaka Local groups—

Groups, samdj.

f Akhara. «! Madhyabh^g. l^Pankunda. / J o a r i . \ Gaurali . ) Aladhi . \ D a d h i c h i . . Santaru,

, < Brahmapur . (Mar ich i Gram.

f C h a n d r a d w l p . .• Navadwip .

LKotalipar4. . Samantas^r .

Purbbasthai i . Bishnupur. Bh^ tp^ r i . Purbba Banga.

Bralimans of the follo-wing gotras came later on (1102 Sak or 1180 A.D;) and mixed up -with the Pasehdtya Yaidilcs:—Krishnd-treya, Gautama, Bathitara, Kdsyapa, Bdtsya, Sunak; and still later on (1403 Sak. or 1481 A..D.) came Brdhmans of the Ghrita-Kausika,

•Kansika, Atieya, Sankarshan, Pardsara, Agnihesma, Maudgalya, Hdrita, and "Upamanyu gotras.

DaksMlnAtya Vaidik. Kdsyapa. Gautama. Batsya. Kanwayan. Kausika. Ghrita-Kausika, oatukarna. Sabarna.

Hypcrgamous groups.

Kulin. Bansaja. Maulik.

Local groups or samdj.

Majiipur. R^jpur.

The Dakshinatya Vaidiks have the following titles :—

' t n p 4 t l i i , Misra, R^thak, Chakrabar t t i . "

BR.VrrMAN, 21

Titles.

Sukul.

Pdnde. Misra. Joshi.

Dube. T iw^r i . Chaube.

Vyasa.

Sub-castes.

Kevala Gaura.

(Sukalvdia. ' Adi Gaura < Joshi.

I Ojha.

(Chingala. Sanddhya | D6ymia.

(Khandelvaia.

Hariydna.

Sn-Gaura [^^. Sri.Qaura.

Gurjar Gaura. Tek BArd. Chamar Gaura. Kritanay.

Maithil or Tirhutia.

Titles:—Majhrote, Misir or Misra includiug Chaudhari, Raya, Parihasta, Khana and Kumara, Ojhd, Ujha or J ha, P^thu, Pura includiug Bakriyar and Charviy^r, Th^kur, Pddri.

JL/pergaiiiOKS r/roiijhs. Golra.

Srotriya or Srotri . Jog. Panjibaddh. N .g^""- Batsa Jaiwar.

Sections. A

Dih or Mill.

• <

(• 1. Karmahe-2. Karmahe 3. Karmahe 4. Karmahe 5. Karmahe 6. Karmahe 7. Karmahe

L 8. Karmahe

Majhaura. Tarauni. Naruaj.

-Behat. Majhiam.

-Alanpur. Baghat. Urara.

S^ndil ... 9. Karmahe-Ahpur.

f 10. Belaunche-Kako. I U . Beiaunche-Ojnaul

Biaradwa-.aJ ^^- Belaunche-Sudai. B.iaradwaja< ^3 Belaunche-Ratpar

I 14. Belaunche-Garh. L15. Belaunche-Dih. '

22 BEAHMAN.

Gotra.

B^tsa

B^tsa

B&tsa

r 16. \ 17.

.< 18. 1 19. I 20.

Lih or Mul.

Hariarre-Rakhw^ri-Hariame-Siba. Hariame-Balirajpurr Hariame-Kajm^. Hariame-Ahil.

r 21. Paliwar-Mangrauni-22. Paliwar-Mahesi. 23. Paliwar-Dibra. 24. Paliwar-Sakuri. 25. Paliwar-Haripur. 26. Paliwar-Samaul. 27. Paliwar-Kachhra. 28. Paliwir-Phuldaha. 29. Paliwar-Mahendra.

L 30. Paliw^r-Jarhatyd.

31. Budhw'&re-Mahesi. 32. Budhware-Sakuri. 33. Budhw&re-Dumrd. 34. Budhware-Balha.

S&ndii

Kasyap

35. Saudarpur^i-Mahi^. 36. Saudarpurai-Katka. 37. SaudarpurSi-Jagaur. 38. Saudarpurdi-Sarso. 39. Saudarpurai-Suket 40. Saudarpurai-Hansauli. 41. Saudarpurai-Khoir.

,• 42. Saudarpurii-Digaun. 43, SaudarpurdiKanhauli. 44, Saudarpurai-M^nik. 45. Saudarpur4i-Rohar. 46. SaudarpuraiSundar. 47. Saudarpurii-Dhaul. 48, Saudarpurai-Baghit.

L 49. Saudarpurdi.Gaul.

r 50. Darihare-Dih. 1 51. Darihare-Rdjanpura. I li' ^^'"''^are-Bargamia.

KA ^^'•'•^are-RatauIi. ^ 04. Darihare-Sahasrdm.

S5. Anraiwar-Anrai. B^isa ... ^J-Anraiwar-Usrauli.

o7. Anraiwdr-Jaui. 58. Anraiwar-Baingnl.

BEAHMAN. 23

Kasyap

Qotra.

Kasyap ...

Kasyap ...

Bdtsa

Kasyap ...

Kasyap ... |

\

Katy^yan ... <

Sandil

Sandil

Dih or Mul.

Balidse-Narsam. Baliase-Balha. Balidse-A'sr. Baliase-Sakuri. Baliase-Dharaura. Baliase-Suket. Baliase-Baghant. Tannahpurai-Solhni. Takware-Ankusi. TakwSre-Nima. Knowire-Nahas. Khoware-IVIahua. Khoware-Mahnaura. Khoware-Kokrahi. Khowdre-Khari. Kh oware-Murajpur. Satlakhe-Sataur. Satlakhe-Satlakha. Kunjilwar-Malangia. Kunjilwar-Sater. Kunj i lw i r -Ul lu . Kunjilwar-Bhakhren. Kunjilwar-Digaun. Kunj i Iw^r-Bhakhraul i. Khanraure-Bhaur. Khanraure-Khutti. Khanraure-Gurd i. Khanraure-Eknria. Sakariwdr-Harari. Sakariwar-Tatail. Sakar i war-Ch hamu. Pagulwir-Barhiam. Pagulwar-Taralohi. Pagulw^r-Dhen. Marare-Sihol. Marare-Jagaul. Marare-Ukki. Marare-Barhampur. Marare-Adauri. Marare-Misrauli. Marare-Rajaura. Marare-Jagatpur. Dighwe-Tipri. Dighwe-Nagar. Dighwe-Kankaura Dighwe-SannahpuV Dighwe-Sakarpura."

24 BUA'irMAN,

Goti-n.

Batsa

Kasyap

Bharadw^j

Sandil

Kasyap

Sandil

Batsa

Batsa

Kasyap

Kasyap Gautama

Kasyap

Sandil

Sabarna

\

Batsa

Sandil

Dih or Mill. 106. Bahirarwar-Parhat. 107'. Bahirarwar-Punach.

. 108. Bahirarwar-Parkhand. ( l09 . BahirarwAr-Kasiatn. \ 110. Bisaiwar-Nanhpur. ) 111. Bisaiwar-Bisphi. f 112. Ekahre-Ora. 1 113. Ekahre-Ruchaul.

<; 114. Ekahre-Kanhauli. j 115. Ekahre-Sagram. 1 116. Ekahre-Torne.

117. Gangulw^r-Sakuri. 118. Gangulwar-Dumra.

f l I9 . Kataiwar-Andhra. 1 1-20. Kataiwar-Phet.

^ 121. kataiwar-Malangia. \ 122, Kataiwar-Loam. ^^123. Kataiwar-Wlarachi, f 12-1. Sariswe-Khangor. 1,125. Sariswe-Sakuri.

126. Ghusaute-Nagw^r. r 127, Babhanyame-Katma. \128. Babhanyame-Karrain,

129. Kusmare-Sabas. 130. Kusmare-Dhanauli, 131. Narware-Rampur, 132. Barhampurai-Barham-

pur. 133. Purue-Mahendra.

jl34, Andarai-Nehra. ... 1135. Andarai-Lagunia.

\ 136. Andarai-Pirapur. rl37. Panchaubhe-Khajull. 1 io5" ^^"^haubhe-ohaua.

139, Panchaubhe-Birpur, 1 ']?• ^^"'^fiaubhe-Barhmaul,

\; E^^cliaubhe-Bhithi, \TO ^^"^haubhe-Dadri.

Li-l-i. Panchaubhe-Kariaun. 11!" ^^I^'war-Jale. 45, Jaiaiwar-Maranchi,

1^0. oalaiwar-Ganraul, - i* ' - Jalaiwar-Mali,

11Q ^^Jware-Bhardm. \,- "ajw^re-Udanpiir.

1-Jl. vJajware-Pachahi.

BKATTlNrAN. 25

Qotra.

Kasyap ... Kasyap .. Kasyap Sandil Sandil Sandil Pa rasa r .. Pa r a sa r Kausil<a .. Sandil Sandil

Sandil

Batsa Kasyap .. Biiaradwdj Bharadw^j Kasyap Kasyap Gang Pa ra sa r ..

Parasa r ..

Sandil Sandil Krishnan ..

Dih or M)il.

152. Pakar^e-Mahesi . 163. Budhaure. 154. Bharhe. 155. Gangaure. 156. Bhatore. 157. Sakarghore . 158. Surganai. 159. Sugarganai-Loam. IGO. Nekutwar-Barahi . 161. Nonaitwar. 162. Talaiwar.

r 163. Sihasme-Khor. t l 6 4 . Sihasme-Sihasam,

165. Kaiare. 166. Ainwar. 167. Domtakarai . 168. Kanigame Kanigam. 169. Bliandwal. 170. Thar iame-Thar iam. 171 Basahe. 172. Sunriwar-Solhni.

f 173. Naraune Teghra. I l 7 4 . Naraune Saktarapur.

175. Chliatimane-Clihatman. 176. Kodarie. 177. Bhusware.

Utkal. •

Ti t les—Nanda, Pate, Kara, AchSrya, Satpathi , Bedi, Senapat i , Panigralii, Nisank, Bainipati, Panda, Padahar i , Murhia or Sebaka, Ghatiya, Daja, Paya, Baghi, Muosi, Devata, Dandapat, IVlaiianti, Dharsarnnakar, Tripati , Mahapatra , Misra, Rath, Das, Sarangi, Samagrahi , Hota, Nath, Cheni, Patra, Laik, Bahali, Pati , Padha Salu, Pathak, Pani, Fakir, Feringi, Lau, Maio, Ghasi, Ladu, Basu, Pakharpaila, Kantaru, Gorea, Tara t , J a y i , Karpur, Kandarpa, Parhatia, Phunknali .

Sub-castes. Srotr iya or Sasani—

S^manta.

Bhatta Misra

Golra or scction.s.

Batsas. Kausika. Atreya. Kasyapa.

Kautsasa. Bharadwaja. Atreya. Dattatreya. Krishnatreya.

2G BRAHMAN.

Sub-casles. Vaidika.

Upddhyaya.

Asrotriya— S a r u a P a n d d = B a r d h u s i k a or

Paniar. Murhia Panda or Debalaka. Gr^nn Jachaka. Mahasthan, Mastan, Sarai-

balia or Halia. Jh^rua .

Dakshina Uriya or Dakhinatya. Ja jpur ia or Uttar-Sreni. Raghunathia. J a i a or PurbiyS.

Besides those mentioned above, aro found among Utkal Brahmans :-

Gotra or sections. Atreya. Kautsasa. Harita. Kausiica. Katyayana. Maudgai. Sandil . Kaundinya. Gautam. Kasyapa. Bharadwaja. Kapinja'a. Sabarnika. Jatukarna. Parasara.

Gotras are all tl>e Sasani, Kausika

same as in except Batsas and

Bharadw^ja. Gotras as of Vaidiks.

Ditto. Balar^m or Baiabhadri^.

t to following goh,n

A'ngirasa. Autathya. Baikhayana. Basishtha. Bisw^mitra. Garga. daimini. jJ^madagna. ivaphalya. Kamakayan. Kaucfiha. ^si thinasa. o f ^ i m a n n a .

J^unaka. /^^'ttiriya.

^Pamanna.

« or seel ion 3

BRAHMAN. 27

Mr. John Beames gives the following scheme of the suhdivisions of the Brahman caste in Northern Orissa,—fii-st, according to the Veda, whose ritual they profess to ohserve, and secondly into gotras or families: —

I.—Dakhinatyra Sreni or Southern Line. '

Gotra or Sections. Basishtha.

11

K^syapa. Dharagautama. Gautama. Parasara. Kaundinya.

Bharadv/dja— a. Bharadw/^ja. h. Sambhukar. c. L^ndi.

A'treya— a. Dattatreya. h. Krishn^treya.

Haritasa.

K&uclihasa. Ghritakauchhasa. Mudgala.

Batsasa. Katyliyana. Kapinjala.

1. Rig-Veda. Updihi or Titles. Sarangi. Mahap^tra.

2. Sdma-Veda.

Nanda. Tripathi. Udgata, mlgo Uta. Dibedi, vulgo Dube. Tripathi, mlgo T\he<r\.

3. Yajur-Veda.

Sdrangi. Misra. Nanda.

[Ratha. >i

Mah^pdtra. Dasa.

It

» Satpathi, vulgo Path!, also

Satpasti. Ddsa, A'charya, Misra. Sarangi. D4sa.

II.—Uttara Sreni or Northern Line

1. Rig-Veda.

Not represented.

• >

28 BRAHMAN.

2^ Yfi/iir-Vrdri.

(^otni or Sociion^

KatySyana. Sandilya. Krishnatreya. Bharadwaja. Barshagana. Kaphalya. Gautama.

Vpdillii or 'rides. Panda.

If

It and Dasa. )•

Misra. I I

Kara.

3. Athtina-V(da.

A'ngirasa. Upadhyaya, vnlgo Upadhya.

Of lower braiicho.=, and considered inferior to the above, aro— Sankhyayana. Mahanti.

Dasa, Mahanti. Magasa.

Sdkadwipi, Bhojyak, Dhuisf.

Their gotras are the same as in the other siib-castps of Brahmans.

Pur

Adrian. Ahilasariar. Aiyar. Awadhiar. Baghwar. Barisw^ar. Barsai. Barwar. Batsauriark. Batwakariyar, Bhalauniar. Bhedbakarar. Bherapakri. Bholark, Binsaiya. BudhwapK. Chadchak. Chandratiar. Chandrorh. Chhariyar. Chhathwark. Chhatrawar. Chitauriar. Chonchwar. Dadhpuriark. Dakrahi. Debkuliar. Dehlasariar. Deodhiar.

or sections. —^

Deorahiar . Dewdrk. Dihwar. Dumaridr. Gadahpurnd. Gadraha. Gandark. Gochhpuria. Gorhark. Gunsaiya. Hadauriar. Hemri irk. Uamuar. "Jurha. ;i"^hibariar. Kara lark. •^^usikarak. Kh Kh

3jurak.

Khantwar. ^natsopark. •^onark. Korankark. Kukurbandha. Kundark. Kurai. Lokark, lyadhubanld. Madh Unas lark.

BEAllMAN. 20

Pur

( 77 Mahdaur ia r . Maheswar. Mahrasia. Makhaiwar. Makhpawar. Malauri^r. MSrkandark. Maur iya r . Nandark. Osi^ r . PachhwSr. Ranch bat iar . Panchhai . Panchkanth i . Pandiar . Par ia r . Pa tha ia r . Pa t iyar . Pawa iyar .

or sections. A

Punda rk , P un rakh ia . Rahdau r i a r . Sabha i ya r . Saphark. Sendur iar . S i kaur ia r . S i rmaur i a r . Son iyar . Sor iya r . Sukhsara. Swetbhadra. Tarkanyark. Thakurnnai rar . Udan iyar . Ulark . Urwar . Usahiyark.

Endogamous divisions.

Nepali B rah mans.

Gotra or sections. Thar or sub-sections.

Up^dhy^ya. Kamiya. Purabi .

Basrshta . - <

Dhan jaya

•iSftr^i

Kaus ika

'•Bhatta R a i . D a w ^ r i . Cha l isa , Chelisj'a B h a r a r i . B is ish ta S a k t i . Paraswar . T i n a ! P r a b a r a i . B r a h m i m a Dhan.

[ R i j & l . Gura Ga in .

. H o m y a Ga in .

f Pare ! , PoudyAl. 1 A r j e l .

(• Regmi . ( .Sober i .

Kaund in

Dhar ta Kai is ik

r A'charjya. < P a r a j u i i .

C^eopani, Nivip/i j Nepaliya.

ipauya.

Baral. I Khodal

or l i lu iudydl .

30

Endogamous divii,ions. Gotm or sections.

Bharadwaja

Bachh

Atri

Kasyap Kasya Agasti

Mautkaha

Upamanya Kannia

Gargya

BRAHMAN.

Thar or .sub-soclions.

/ Suberi. ., I uamar Katyal.

( Bagalya.

f Doh^l. •• (. Langsal or Lamsal.

fGautam. I Khatiw^ra.

..«( Misra. I Champagdin. LArchnani.

. Dhimire.

. Adhikari.

. Dhungial.

Timilsina. Kainrala.

Dhakal. Sapankotya.

f Murtel. '\ Pyakarel or Pokhar-

tfuj-^-^^'^'""" *° ^^' " ^ ° " ' ' ^'^^'^^'^ liBt contains the foUowin.

Khandl. Nirola. Mahdrdshtra. , Pakonyal. Sattyal. Rimal. Devakotya. Parbatya. Kaikyal. Eupakhetl. Desja. Riikai. Saival. Laiydl. Dotiydl. Danjal. Singyal. Bikrdl. •Ukniydl. "•'attvdl. Gajuiy4i_

Chavala Gdin. Vasta Gdin. Banjara. Ddji. Soti. Osti. TJtkuli. Kandaria. Ghartmel. Grhartydl. TemrakotL Uphaltopi. Parijai Kavala, Pandit. Teva Panya. Kaphalya. Graithaula. Grairalia Pipli. Ghimirya. Simkhdrd. Phuuval.

Chdmkasaini. Purdsaini. r>lmrdri. Bhurtydl, Paneru. Loityal. Sidhydl. Grotanya. ^horasaine. Risydl.

&¥'-• oatola. gliurchol:. Jielatoui. Glial. Lahoni. Muthbdri.

BUNA. 31

§X\\\&, Bamia, Bu>io.

Sub-caslcs,

mi.

(^\\ihX, Barchain.

Sections.

Bharadwdiji. Charanbansi. Kasyapa. Sdndil.

(Ehahini, T.mhna, T&ak, T/iek (Buim)-

Sub-tribes. Septs.

1. Chakma. 2. Doingnak. 3. Tungjainya-

SoptB of the Chakmd ) bub-tribe.

; Amu. Bamu, named after rivers. Barbora . Baruv/a. Batalya, a cHsel. Boga. Borsege. Bung. Bungza. Darjea. Dawin. Dhaona, he of the mended cloth. Dhurjya, the wearer of 6Aj;«rdy feathers. Durjea. Ichapocha, the eater of rotten shrimps. Kai^, a plantain tree. Kengragati. i the giver of the big crab. Khambe. Khiongje. Kur&, named after rivers. Kurjya, the idle one. Kutua. Larma. Leba. Loskra. Molima, named after rivers.

the tribe Tlio progenitor of this section ii? said to have presented to tl i, ibe a crab so large that a pig could cross the river Kanguli on "7 Y^^^ "^

its back.

32 -

!»»' Siib-tnbcs.

A h% «» Ui ^t"' iCllAKiMA.

Septs.

Molima-Sege. Phaksa. Phe-dang-sirri. Phedungsa. Phema. Pirabhanga, tho fat man who broke tho

stool. Poa.

^'?.^. ? i ^ . ? ^ ? ; S I RalTg^celunya," the lover of %\xAh ov mothei-of-peiu'l.

Ranyin. Sadonga. Sege. Sekowa. Shoalyia, the jester. They a. Toinya. Uksarri. Warggu, namo of a river.

" 1 - - - -

sub-tribe—co«c/"rf«/.

Sei)t8 of the Tuns;-jaiiiya sub-tribe.

Aruyai, tho man as thin as a skoloton. Badal, a chisel. Bangal, descended from a Bengali father. Bhumar, he of high back ribs. Bola, he whose family was as uumoroiis as

the wasps. Dunya. Fariansa, he who oxcellod in wiclcoduess. Gochalya, the strong mati. ,

I Icha, he who was too fond of shrimps. j Kachui, they who built their houses in

a row. Karua. / Lambacha. Lulang.i tho devil. Mil long. Mongla. MO-u. Ongyo. Puma.

\

' ' A Ku-1 became i^roguunt, but «ould ,,ot „ , fycrely bcvU.u, aud was voscued by a.dcvU, wUo was M^ tjilhorloE Uie child. . , '

l„v,.r. Si.o «•'« ,d to bo Uw

t I '|)oaoo

GHAMAR, . ' I ' t f tU ' ' 83 f

dthnm^r, Chdmdr, CharmaMr, Eabi-Dds.

Titlesr—BeSr, Bohit, Chunip^r^, Kaprl, Mahaldar, MaharS, Marar, Mehtarii, N^ik, Panarha, Pradhan, Raut.

Sub-caste3,

Channir-T&nti. Dhdrh. DhusiS. Dohar. Goria. Jaiswara. Janakpuri. daunpuri. Khdti-Mahard. Kor^r. Larkor. Magahia. Pachhi^n.

Sections.

S Hondagia.

, , M°ogha?ia. Bub-oaste. j sonpursa.

(Thengdit.

Septs in Ckota Nagpur.

Azghalla. Dhusia. Harbans, cannot wear

bones in any shape. Kachud, tortoise. Karwa. Kerketa, a bird. (Vlahua, bassia lali/olia. Mus, rat. Nag, cobra. Raot. Sindh, bull. Saur, a fish. Tirki.

\ Snb-casteg enumerated ' by Mr. Sherring.

Jaiswara, scrrants. Mangatiwa, professional beggars. Dhusia or Jhusia, shoe-maliers and harness-

makers. Katua, leather-cutters. Kori. weavers, grooms, field-labourers. Kuril, workers in leather. Rangiya, leather-dyers. Jatua, labourers Tantua, maker or leather strings.

Aharwar, Azimgarhia or Birheria, Dakshinia, Dohar, Qaraiva u-,„tlot. Jatua, Kaiyan, Kanaujia, Kuril, Kori or Korchamra, are inB«t^'®^3*"a, Sir Henry Elliot and Mr. Beames. ' " ^ ^entiouea b^

34 CHANDAL.

(Ehiini^I, Nama-Sudra, Kama, Changn, Chinr&l, Kofdlor Eotwdl, Fraiham-bdkya, Swapacha, Nishdd, Antebdsi.

Titles :—Bagh, tiger, Bhala, Biswas, Dds, Dauk, bird, Dhdli, Dule, Hdit, Hajra, Haldar, Hathi, elephant, Hauikar, Khan, Laskar, Mahara, Majumdar, Manda!, Manjhi, Mirdada, Mistri, Namadhani, Padhwan or Pradhan, Pandit, Par^m^nik, Patra, Phaliyi, fish, Rai, Santra, Sena, Seuli, Shumardar, Singh, Tengrd, fish.

In Eastern' Bengal.

Sub-castes.

f Halwah. Gh^si. Kandho or Behar^. KarrdI, Keral. Bar). BeruS. Pod. Baqqil. Saralya. Annardbddi. Bichhdr.

LSandwipi.

Sections.

Kdsyapa.

J^ l i i . In Central J Jiani, Jiunl.

Bengal. *> K^rdl. 1 Nuni^. L3i4Ii.

In Western Bengal.

rChdsi, Helo. Jelo. Kesarkalo. Kotdl. Mdjila. Nalo. NuniS. P^nphule. Saro.

LSiule.

Bharadwaja. Lomasa. Sandilya.

CHASA. ' 35

QLU&i. -

Titles:—Lenka, Puh&r, Muduli, Swain, Parlda, Padhdn, Viswal, Naik, Raut, Jena, Samal, Mahanti .

Sub-castes. Sections.

Orhchasd or Mundi-ch&sd. Benltiy^. Kasyapa. Chukuliya. Sal-rishi. Sukuliyd.

dhliS^ihob^, Chdsddhopd.

Titles:—Rdi, Paik, Haladhar, Ballava, San, Samaddar, Biswas, Haldar, Hazara, Mistr i , Raj-Mistr i .

Hypenjamous Groups.

Kulin. 1 Maulik.

Sub-castea. Sections.

Uttar-Rarhi. Allnnan. Dakhin-Rarhi. A'tuirishi. B^rendra. Baghrishi.

Brihatbat. Dhabalrishi. Kasyapa. Sandilya.

dhcro.

Titles :—Babuan, Kanwar, Manjhi, Manar, Rautia, SAnw&t.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Bara-Haz^r. .(") Totemistic— Tera-Haz^r or Blrbandhw BesrS, hawk.

Kachchhua, tortoise. Kun warder. Mahto. Maiiwar. Sonwani. Sorania. Turuwar.

b) Bmhmanical— Kasyapa, etc.

n r.

86

driiil:. See iJjiu.

Titles:—Baraik, Mahato.

Sub-tribes. Septs.

CHIK,

Aujana. Baghail, tiger. Bagti. Bajarpuriji. Bakura, paddy-bird. . Balbandhiya, are bound lo tie up their

hair. Banichar. Bar, Ficu& Indica. Bara. Barabhaia, ship. Bati. Bhengraj, kingcrow. Bhojraj, a kind of medicine. Bichwar, a centipede. Bora, a kind of snake. Ciiachet, a small bird. Cliaenchair, a bird. Chand, moon. Chikanjari. Darka, born out of a crack in the earth. Dhan, paddy or rice soup. Dhandn, plum busbes. Dilibans. Dip, may not eat after lights have been

lit. Dundoar, an owl, Gandha, flying bug. Gandhi. Ghatoar. Goherwar. Hanuman, monkey. Harin, deer. Induar, a kind of eel. uanannkiar. Kachua, tortoise. Kaita, curry vegetable. Kansi, field grass. Kara. Karhar, a fruit. Katri, subject to fits. Kechengia. Keora, a flower Khambha.forkofatree. Khukri. Korlaj fig.

UH 1 K.

Sub-tribo. Septs.

Kotri, a small deer. Kowriar. Kulhai, a tiger. Kumharia, a trihe. Kusumni, a tree or its fruit. Loharbans, iron. Loyna. Magh i. Mahabaar, may not kill or chase the

wild boar. Mahanadi, name of a river. Mahtoar, a title. Malta. Maria. Malua. Mawar, peacock. Munjaniar, a fruit from which oil is

extracted. Mus, field-rat. N^g, cobra. Newra, mongoose. Nikharbans. Nlmuani. Phul, flower. Phungune. RiKhiasan, may not eat beef or pork, Sdg, vegetable. Samjhar. Saur, a fish. Singi, horn. Sinjikuria. Sonmanik. Sonwasi. Surijhabu. Tajna, name of a river.

J3i\\\X, Dam-yi, Tdmi, Kotwdl, Ndgareki^ Darji.

Than or Septs.

Bhusuwal. Kala Khati. Panchkuti. Burdewd- Kurki Dholiar. Shewa. pamma Parriw^r. Kurno Beheri. Sunam. parnal. Mohara. Sundas. Qhuli- Mutai. Sungaru.

38 DEJONG LIIORI.

gCJOttg %\\aXX (Dejong Sikhim), Lhopa Bhotia or Tibetans of the south.

Sub-tribes.

Tongdu Rui shi. Bed d silent) or

tshan-gye. Ruichhung.

Beh t o M

CQ

m . 5

Rui, Thar or septs. f Guru Tashii the blessed rid, of -which Guru Pema -was guide. 1 Shang-dah-bo, ancestor bom at

his maternal uncle's when some tutelary deities were being pro­pitiated.

Tshe-gyu-thah, the family which sprang from the Buddha of life.

_ Yui-then-bo, ancestor turned out L. of his fatherland. fBangrongpa.

Bhadpa. Dokhangp^. Ghingpa. Gnyambipa. Gyon-sah-pd, he of the new

monastery. Khyung-toipa.

, Lagdingpa. Of the Bed tshan gye sub.tribe< Lin-dseh-bo.

Nam-tsang-koba.

'on-po \

Mixed septs of low origin^

Lowest septs of Bhotias'

Septs which emigrated from^ Koyungnn Tibet and North Bhotan' . . .1 ou/.-,"6P0'

rChhungp^. ' Lhasung, domestic

priest of all the ruis. Nah-dik.

I Nambcn. . p lYo-chang. f-u-tsho-bo, a mixed progeny of

rAsslSfpr'^^'-'^^'l'^^i^^t^-f'^tl^^-j Chungyepi. < Kah-tsho-bo. I Mang-beh-pa. LNamang-po.

nah-po.

under

and

iShyah-'pa. ^Toip^,

'Those.groups of sopts fonn '» each l l i o s e . g r o u p s Ot SOT)tB l o u u ••• cawi case PH^^™ , ..„(rn.teS, luembera of Ih ich do not iutenna.ry with (he othei sub t T e s . ''^^''^

tUo

DEJONG LHOEI. 39

Sub-tribes.

Septs which emigrated Bhotau and Nepal'

from

Of the Ruichhung sub-tribe

Sai, T/iar or septs. 'Bendah. Bindumbo. Gah-oh, blacksmiths. Gurumbo, Gyu-rumbo. Ling-tamba. Ongdahba.

_ Parubo. .•( Phensa-p6.

Pu-tsibo. Pyc-chhembo. Sang-behbo. Shyag-chom-bo. Tsong-zubo. Yong-tong-ba. Yulsahb, of new country.

"Dorompd. Khol. Lah-ogpd, dwelling below la or

mountain-top or pass. .< Mang-tshang-wa.

Nahmah-pd. Shyag-ding-pS or Shyag-tshang-

pa. ^Thazoepa.

' These groups of septs form in each case endogamous aggregates, the members of which do not intermarry •with the other sub-tribes.

Titles :—IVIandar, Raut, Rai, Mahato, Kamati, Khawas, Ghibihar, Saghar, Bahfa, Bah lot, Sankatw^r.

Sub-castes.'

Chhilatii or Silhotid. Magahy^. Banodhi^. Tirhutia or Chiraut. daiswdr. Kanaujia. KahpariyS. Dudhwdr or Dojwdr. Sunri-Dhdnuk. Kathautid. Khawdsi^ Mandat Gharbeta or

Gharbait.

Sections.

Kasyapa. Nag.

In Purniah.

tiya 1 Longbasta, Mathuriii, Katharia, Jaiswiir, Magahyd, I)o\wI7~Z~l~^ are given by Sir H. Elliot •, Yasawav (Jaiswar), MagahCSi^^ '^J ^^ '^1

iyd are mentioned by Buchanan. ^^«, ChhiU.

40 DHENUAR.

Sub-tribes.

Nil.

gitcnunr.

Septs.

Baiga, a tribe. Bard. Karwar, a tribe. Sanuani, can't wear gold, Sumai, a kind of fish.

^luin^I, Dkam&l, Maulik.

Sub-tnbes.' Septs.

AgniS. Chonga. Lliter. Dauwa. Dungi4. Kauw^.

Rdng4.

' I t is conTenient to describe these groups as sub-tribes. They are not, however, strictly endogamous, as has been mentioned in the article on Dhimdl.

IN BENGAL AND OEISSA.

^iiobi , D/iopa, Dhupiy DMvalca.

Title:—Dds, Mistri, Rajak, Sabhd-Sundar, S4kalya.

Sub-castes.

1. RSmer Dhob i 2. Sitar Dhob& 3. S i t i s4 4. Athisi 5. Hajar^-SamSj 6. N i t i Sin& 7. Bara-Samij 8. Chhota-Samdj 9. Dhob^-Samaj

10. Rdrhiya-Samaj 11. Bangali 12. Gori4 13. Maghayd 14. Khotta 15. Bhulu^ l«. Jugidia 17. Sundip 18. Uriy^Dhobc'i ...

Sections.

1 Eas te rn (r/) Totemistic— 5 Benga l . N d g a s a (Orissa).

) Central (*) Eponymous-\ Benga l . A l a m y a n . j Kasyapa .

S^ndi iya ,

H u g b l l .

Manbhum.

Noakhali. • *«.;

Orissa.

DH0I3I. " -ii

IN BEHAR AND CHOTA NAGPUE, EXCEPT AIANBllUM.

glhobr, Ujli, Baithd, Safi.

Titles:—Gozar, Mahto, Raut.

Sub-castes. Section.

1. KanaujiS. Kasyapa. 2. Maghaya. 3. Belwdr. 4. Awadhiyd. 5. Batham. 6. G6rs^r. 7. Gadhayd, keep donkeys. 8. BangIS, immigrants from

Bengal. Turkiaor Shekh, Mahom-

edan.

JOili, Doi, Chalania, Daidya. Lakhiputra, Pdtia Dds.

^Ont, Domrd, sometimes called Chanddl by outsiders.

Titles:—Malik, Marar, Mehalo, Mihtdr, Marik, Mirdah^, Raut.

Sub-castes.

In Behar— B&nsphor or B^nsbakurd, basket-makers: have nothing to

do with funerals, and do not eat beef. Chapariyd, make baskets and build the bamboo framework

which supports the thatched roof of a house.

DhSpPcii sweepers. Dharkar, workers in cane. Gadahia, breeders of donkeys. H^ri or Bangali, probably immigrants from Bengal. Harkdr, scavengers. LarhorS or Purbal-Mihtdr, scavengers and basket-makers. MagahiyS, in Nortli Behar cultivators and thieves- i,> n

basket-makers. ^e*", m bya Pachainyd.

SBhojpuri^ \ Ghar-Raut sweepers. Gh^zipurj6j...

Supara. * . *" Tirhutiya. Uttariy , workers in lirld basket and mat-makers.

42 DOM.

Sub-castes.

In Bengal— Ankurld or Ankhuti, basket-makers. Bijuni^i musicians. BanukiS, breed silkworms and -work in silk filatures in Mur-

shedabad and Eajshahye. BisdeliS, make baskets and palm-leaf mats. Dai-Domi the men are day-labourers and the women serve

as midwives. Dhesid Dh^k&I or Tapaspurid, remove dead bodies, etc. DholS, supposed to come from Dhalbhum. Ghaserci, cut grass for sale. K^lindii cultivators and basket-makers. Kaurd, breed pigs and act as scavengers. Magahiy^i musicians and basket-makers. Mdnd4ron&. Murdafar4sh, remove dead bodies. Sdnchi. T&ldibon^ make palm-leaf mats.

Sections.

In Behar—

Of the Binsphor or B^nsbakura / sub-caste.

I Baitha. I Chiranjia. I Dagri.

Darbe. G&in. Hat. Isar. Kotwal. Lakrihar. Manjhi. Marar. Marik. MasrakhiyS. Nauriya. Sakr4it. Saunt. Sikrar. Sipahiya.

Of the Dakhina or Turi sub-caste ^^f^|^;

Of the Dh4pra sub-caste

Of the Dharkar Bub-caste

Hari. I Mukaria. I ParwariS. I Pusaita. ' Rosrait.

Kaibtar. Manjhi. Mehtar. R&ut. Sarin.

DOM. 43

Sub-castes.

In Jiehar—

Of the Tirhutiy^ sub-caste

Of the Magahiyd sub-caste

Of the Pachalnyi sub-caste

Sections.

Barbatta. Belsandi. Chanauli. Hansa. Har. Maggah. FVlahw .

jMurwa. J Pusadih. Sirpur. Sonpur. Teswcir.

\ Tubka. / Akhauri. ' Belsandi.

Chaudhri. Chauhan. HdnsS. Jadu. Manjhi. Mirdaha. Raja. Rana. Santari. Sawant. Tesw^r. Tewari. Adhdrpur. Barabatia. Bargamaet. Belsandi. Bhojpuri. Bikrannpur. Chahralta. Chandaulyar. Dholi. HansS. HansotS. v

I Kanauli. \ Kolandh.

Mohbaita. Murba. Pahasrait. Pohobait. Pusa. Puseta. Sans^it. Sirwar. Sonpurya. Tabkar.

\Tibarya or Teswar.

^ '.

44.

Sub-castes.

In South Manlihum—

Afur5. Mold. Sikharid.

DOM.

Septs.

Azghala. Dhusia. Harbans, bones can't wear in any

sliape. Kachua, tortoise, Karwa. Kerketa, a bird. Mahua, a tree; wino ia made

from its flower. ' Mus, rat. N&g, cobra. Raot. Sandh, bull. Saur, a fish. Tirki.

gOSibh, Dusarf/j.

Titles:—Chaukidar, Gorait, Hajari or Hazara, Mahato, Manjhi, P^sban, Rai, Ram.

Sub-castes,

Magahiyd. Bhojpurid. Kanauj!4. Pailwdr. Kamaror Kdnwar. Kurin, Kuri, or Kurrna. Dh4r or Dhdrhi. Silhotiaor Sirotii-B^ha\i&.

Sections.

o I'Agiyari. ! Barbaik.

Barik. I Bear. i BhaddiyS-Bhunsi Kurtho.

1 Darbe. 1 Fotad^r.

K S

^^1

^ Kotw^l. M •^(KumarsanBakri . g " (Mahr^na. ^

Mahton. t4 Malti. ^ Mandar. ^ Manjhi. ^ Marik. Mirdahd. Parbe. Patwe. Rai. B^na. Raut.

^ Sanda.

Badshahi. , Bara Kharak. , Panjiar.

, Aghrait. Amam. Amo!. Assiswar. Bhabaniswar. Busgarait. Kamlait. Kariont. Lab N agar id.

^ Madhupuria. Mahabbat. Mahesbara.it. Mainkisrar. Nabanapuria. Purukhinu Na-

rain. ' Rajaisur. ••Thahrait.

GAN'DHABANIK. 4.

^Jtlibliabllttih, Qandhahaniyd, Banit/d, Putuli.

Titles : - 0 f the DesA sub-oaste-Sah5, SSdhu, UhS, Kh^n; of the A'ut sub-caste—Datta, D6, Dhar, Dhar, Kar, Mag.

Sub-castes.

A'ut-A'sram. Chhatris-A'sram. Desd-A'sram. Sankha-Asram.

Sections.

A'lamyan. Bharadwdja. Kasyapa. Krishnatreya. Modgalya. Nrisingha. Ras-rishi. Sabarna. Sandilya.

Sub-castes.

1. Jethkar. 2. Maghaya.

6imgot^, Oangautd.

Title:—Mandar.

Sections.

Gangdjhi. Jahnavi.

Sub-castes.

Nil.

6.inr^r.

Section.

Aliman.

€arcvi, Qadariya, Bhenrihar,

Titles :—Kamblid, Kammali, Marar, Raut.

' Sub-castes.

1. Dhengar, 2. Farakhabddi. i. Gang^jali. 4 Nikhar.

Chak, Chikw6 (Mahomedan)

Sections.

Of the ( Chandel. Dhengar ) Jt'^^^^^^ria. sub-caste, ^-^^yapa.

, _ , \ Nankar.

n • ' • " ''' GII^SI.

Sub-castes. Sections.

|j^j.j Ahir, a tribe.

SimarlokS. ^ ' ' j J ' . ^ H * ' ! ^'^• SonaSti.

t

> ; -

Badhiria, bats. Bagh, tiger. Bhat, a tribe. Degraded, dhuana, a tribe. Bbuiya. Bhuinkorai hog. Bhurungia, a kind of

tree. Bunduar, a tribe. Chahubar. Chinear. Daspuria. Desoar, a tribe. Dhamna sap, a red

snake, poisonless snake. Dowalbandhi. Golvar. Kachua, tortoise. Kalhia, Lobar. Kasi^r, corruption of

Kasyapa ? Kewat. Loharbans, iron-worker. , Malar, a tribe. Mohdiar, honey-bee. Mukhi, Mukhi is a

person, one of five, -who can reinstate outcastes by eating first with tkem. Mukbi can lose his O'wn. jat. Mukhi only wear pagri.

Pandki, dovo. Phansia. Rajbandh. Rajput, a tribe. Sakri. Sanukra, shell. Sanwasi, cobra. Simarlasa, gum. Simarloka, a tree. Sonwan, cannot wear

gold. Tirk i . Uraon, a tribe.

GOALK; ' 47

^Oili, Goal, Godr, Gqpa, Gopil, Falldb-Gopa, Ahir, Ahhir,

Tii\es:—InBengal—Bknk, ' Chomar, Dhali, Ghosh, Jana, Mandal, Paramanik.

In Behar—Bharari, Bhogta, Chaudhri, Ghoraila, Khirahd, Mahato, Mandar, Manjhi, Marik, Panjiara, Rai, Rast, Saonra,Singh.

Sub-castes. * Sections. /)) Bengal—

PallaborBallabh. Gaura or Go-baidya. Gop or Ghosh Goali. Karanjd. Kajol. B^gre or Uja'mj. Madhu Godld. Rdrhi. Gumia. Ahir or MahishdGo4IS. Magai or MSgadhi.

( Pallal. \ UheH.

Bdrendra (Mula. j Gdwd. \ Dhgktixk.

« ° * \^<^^\

Almasi or Alamydn. Bharadwaja. Gautama. Kasyapa. Madrisi or Madhukulya Sandilya.

rijpergamous.

In Orisna—-Dumala Jadupuria Go^rS. Gaura or Gopopuria. Magadha GoAr&. Mathuraor Mathurdbdsi.

In Behar—

Gori^or Oahi&ra. Bhadraj. Bhatasan. Chalasinghi. Chalasan. Dasil. Dhenu. Gaudhal. Uaiiasinghi. Jethautia. Kalasan. Lahagot. Mahraul. Nagasan. Nagraj. Pakra. Sakraul. Singhror. Tanokl.

<*« GO ALA.

• » I *

Sub-castes.

Majraut or Naomulia.

Sections! '

A'bhepur. Aganpuria. Anrhrahi. Aunria. Baergod. Baini (Mh^des). Bajitpur. Baldgachhpokram. Balg^ch. Barsam. Basdithi. Basdrh. Bastiburhoni. Baurdm. Belw^r. Bh^onroi. Bheludih. Bhotieth. Chamuar. Chamuk-Sh^hpur. Chanchar. Ch^ndkator^. Chaumukhdih. Chiksari. Dabhrait. Dahiet. Dhaman. Dharampuria. Doalak. Dudhpuriet. G^ngthaid. Ghiu4dhdr. Gobarg^rha. Golram. Gotsobhni. Gudbari. Habibpur-Phupidih. Hansi. dagatpur. Jailok. Jhaj . Kab^i. Kailwar. Kamram. Kanhaiwdr. Kataiya. Kdthadularpur. Khajuri. Khanrsim&ria. Kherho. Khut'na-Bhagwinpur.

i - . f

G0ALA.

Sub-eastes.

r Sections.

Kirtolia. Kotsobhni. Labnagar-Kumet. Lagmeta. Lakshanpuria. Ldwapur. Lepuriet.

/ Barar. Levatia < Chhalor.

( Ddmu. Lohdr. Madhepuriet. Maharano. (Wahisirupjan. Mailidhurlak. Mailwar. Manickhak-dudhpuria. Meghalbariarpur. Mehdipur. Mehmanpur. Mithoria. Mogalkach^. NimachandpurS. Pachhipargana.

^Patori. Pipret. Raghopurdih. Raghunathpurdiar. Rajapdkur. Rajapatischhni. Rasakmarhe. Sahasradih. Sahrwar. Sakarpuriet. Salkhini. Samastipur. Sankarpur. S^nrdri (Jaideb). Sarespargana-Dadad i h, Sithiet. Silothaer. Sobh^dih. Sobhni-Tajpur. Somnidih. Sonam. Termdih. Tilatwar. Titiabambar. Ulwar. Umethwar. Usrdm.

49

A *

60 GOALA.

Sut-castes.

Kanaujid.

Kishnautor S4tmuli4.

Bargow&r. Dhanro^r. Chau^nla* ChauthS. Goit. Kantitdha. Puhod. Sepir i . Banpar. Guji4r or Godaga.

Sections.

Chaudhri. Gopa. Kaksa. Kasyapa. Khiraha. Mandar. Raksa. Raut.

Alakjaridarhua. Banikarnauti. Bharduar. Chalasinghi. Dadhraut. Deseriet. Dhanu. Jeseriet. Kachasimar. Katkiphulberia. Khelaut. Laungijarhua. Maghachewar. M&jh^liar. SVlaikarnauti. M&lkid. Nagri. P^li. Rajipaker. Saudabaek. Sonapur-Sakarw^r. Sundar.

Jti general— Aindwar. Baghwar. Barhadagi^. Bella. Bhainsu. Bhant. Cher. Dhokasan. Dumar. Hat. Kachhua. Kasi. Khanduar. Kurji. Kutar. Lauria, Lukhasan.

GOALA. • - • \ ' ,51

Sub-castes,

GSddl, Ghosi or Ghosin.

Jdt.

j,i Cliota Nagp'ii— Bhogta. Chauania. Goro. (<ishnaut.

Sections. In gene)-al—

IVlahar. Mahtwar. Mongar. Muntri. Nag. Nagar. Pur. Sahbar. Sanuar. Sau. Saur. Sua. Sundi. Tirl<i. Undhii.

Angaria. Banrait. Barbaria. Bhadiswar. Bhindwar. Bhuskulia. Biraji. Darl<huri4. Dhurjh^r. Goit. KaiwAr. Kusieth. Lohutia. Madowan. Mahatma. Marik. Mukhia. Nagh. Parsel^. Sadhak. Santu-Kusaet. Sunreit. Surat. Chitosia. Gadhual.

Septs.

Aind, a kind of eel. Am, mango. Bacha, calf. Bag, tiger. Bar, Ficus Indicus.

52 GOALA.

Sub-castes.

In CItotu Na(jur—coucld.

Majhwat. Saonra. Sabor.

Septs.

Chownia, field-rat Demta, red tree-ant. Diller. Gaegoal,/)aA-rtr fruit forbidden. Garaur. Hasa, earth. Kachua, tortoise. Kaita, curry vegetable. Kamal, lotus. Kanojia, a tribe. Karam, a tree Karsal. Karthia, a kind of grain or dul. Kasail, deer. Kasi, a grass. Maina, bird. Markam. Morpachi. Wlus, rat. Nag, cobra. Phulwar. Rajhans, swan. Sir, arrow. Sona, can't wear gold. Sonwani. Tirki, can't touch an' cattle after ej'es

open.

I» the Novth-WeUcni Pfot incef,—

Sub-casles.

Desi. Nandbansi. Jadubansi. Surajbansi G^abansi Anar Katha

Sections.

Apharia. Bachas. Bachhwalia. Badgar. Badhwadia. Baghia. Baiwan. Bamboria. Ban. Bathotia. Bhaklun. Bhalkia. Bhambasra. Bhangar.

Bhansria. Chabdia. Charkhid. Chikana. Chitosia. Chcra. Dagar. Dahma. Damboria. Deswal. Dhaia. Dhoran. Dhundhiii. Dhundhia.

GO A LA.

Sub castes.

In the North-Wcsfeni Procinces—concld.

Sections.

Dohan. Dudhlia. Dumania. Dumdolia. Dusad. Gadharia. Gadhojii. Gahala. Garwal. Ghumla. Gidad. Gigania. Gothwal. Gumi. Gurah. Hada. Hadkwal. Harda. Hudinwal. Jddu. Jadwal. Jdnjdia. Jhadadia. ohagdolia. Kadayan. Kadidn. Kakas. Kakrolid. Kalalia. Kalgania. Kalinwal. Kaiot. Kalwadia. Karir^. Katna. Katnid. VCesNwal. Khadolia. Khadotia. Kbadumia. Kha i rw i l . Khalhad. Khamta. Kharnia.

Kharsan. Khatadia. Kheswa. Khodia. Khosa. Kidat. Kosl i^. Lahania. Larnba. Lohchab. Luniwal. Mahakaria. Mahala. Mahta. Makada. Mandhaya. Molan. Moldhia. Motiia. Nadhia. Nahadia. Nania. Nigania. Nikum. Nirban. Pacheria. Padhania. Parhar. Puhania. Rabad. Raria. Sahjawan. Salangia. Salodia. Samp. Satoria. Sigadia. Sikh wad. Simalwal. Sisodia. Sunaria. Tahalkia. Tantla. Thukrart. TundaK.

54 IGOND.

©OTlb.

Title:—Gaunjhu.

Sub-tribes.

Gond. R^j-Gond. Dhokar-Gond.i Doroi-Gond or Naik.-Jhor^.

Septs.

Bagh, tiger. Baghel, tiger. Besra, hawk. Bhainsa, birffalo. Bod, a big river-fisli. Gaek, a kind of fish. Ganga, sea. Ghora, horse. Goh. Hansa, geese. Honti, a kind of fish. Jagaha, buffalo. J agat. Jaipuria, name of a city. Kachhua, tortoise. Kana Machhri, fish. Karma, a tree. Koput. Kusro. Loha, iron. Mahanadia, name of a river. Marai. Moti, ahead. Nag, snake. Naitam, tortoise. Pachia. Phaguahi. Poia. Poiti. Porri , a kind of hawk. Sawani. Sribakaria.

as the Naik

.•QONEHI. , 1 « . i «

©cmrht, Mall&h, Machhu&.

55

Titles:—Chaudhhri, Jethman, Mandar, Mukhiar,'' Nakhuda, Sahni.

Sub-castes.

Banpar. Ch ib o r C h i b i . Dho^r. Khunaut or Khulaut. Kolh. Kur in. Parbatti-Kurin. Sem^ri>

Sections.

Bant. Gorait. Jathot. Kasyapa. Mandar. Marar. Mukhiyd. Pandit. Pan re. Parihar. Raut.

S o d l t , Kordit, Baikar.

Sub-caste.

Nil.

Sections.

Adra. A'indowdr. Bagh, tiger. Baghudr. Bar, Ficus Indicus. Baroar. Induar, a kind of eel. Kachhud. Kerketa. Khaikho, a fish. Kujri, a fruit, makes oil. Kujur. Nonoar. Pithoar. Sandh, buUock. Sontirki, gold. Tirki, cannot eat birds born

^ blind, nor deep-setting egt»8 ••^Topoar, a kind of bird. '

5G •» GULCULIA.

Cjiilgulil

Sub-cnstos.

Bantari. Pachpania. Sukwar.

Section,

mi.

CSuvung, Giirum, Guviniijii, Uiirungiih.

Sub-tribes.

Das-Gurung Char-Gotra.

Bdrah-Gurung,

Thars or septs.

or Bagalya. Barahi. Bhumjan. Bulung. By^pri. Chandu. Charki. Dah Ldma. Dhakaren. Dharen. Gharti. Ghunddne. Gohori. Golangya. Gonduk. Gosti. Gothi. Guaburi. Oimel. Kar^mati. Khangblia. Khaptarl.

(^Chheni-lama. Ghaleh. Ghoneh. Kohl i . Korangi.

5 I Lamsani Ton-> g i .

Lhebo Lamsani Poinju-lama. pungi-lama. Rahul. Rana Umsani.

Khati . Khuidl. Koki. Lama. Lami Chhanya. Leh Lama. Lopi te. Lothang. Madan. Meghi, Mengi. Paindi. Paiami. Pengi, Shakya Ldma. Siddh. Suryabansi Lama. Thathung. Themjani. Tolangi. Urunta.

I £ 0

<I> fen

- §

I Buthuja. ', Ghybrim. (0 hagreb. ' Satal.

Segmang.

IJAJJAM.

^jajj.im, Nui, Ndu, Nattd.

' 57

Titles:—Naheri, Osta, Thakur.

Sul)-castes. Sections.

AwadhiS. Bangali. Kanaujii or Biahut-Magahiya. Sribastab or Bastar. Tirhuti^. Musa)wkn')ii or Turk-Naua.

0/ Awadhid Hajjdms-

Amraut. Barthoir, Beauran. Beraut. Bilsar.

'Chausar. Denrgamll. DharmShu. EkauniS. Gaya. Hargami^ dainagaria. Jaipur. Oanagadhia. Odrdar. daru. Jaum. Jurvaunt. Kaisab. Ka\aen. Kant. Kapur. Karaf. Karaunti. Katur. Khavur. Koplnyar. Kor^nch. Kujharia. Kumair. Kundi. Kurnat. Mahrat. Manerar. Paithan. Parura. Pauriar. Purain. Rat. Samaiyar. Sansihar. Sisah. Telar.

I IAJJAM.

Sub-castes. Sections.

OJ Awadhid Hajjims—conoid. Unr i . Urkiser. (Jtraunia.

Of Kanaxtjia Hajjams—

Baksar-Chaus4. Kharpaik. Maura. Nipari^. Satarwdr.

Titles:—Chaudhri, Das, Modi, S^hu.

Sub-castes.

KanaujiS. Magahiy^. Bantiria orBaJamtiriS. Pachhainya^ Madesi^. Purbiy^'^ Madesia. Bhojpurid. Koranch. Maltari^*

Sections of Kanaujid caste.

Sections of Bliojpuria caste.

Sections.

('KachuS. the I KusmauliS.

sub-< Laskoria. Lukdthia.

(_Santop PaiwSr. 'A'khandh^ri. Amgh^t. Bis^riS. Basdebpur. Bharsahar. Bijaiban^ras. Dhakais. Dharkia. Gauli. GauthShS. Jab^l id. Kandwar. Karo. Kotsa. Naorakhia. Narauni. Pach^ttar. Pachop&t.

_ Pdtor. (_Sakarw6r.

tho sub <

Section of Korancli caste.

tlio sub- pi ndwdl.

' Also called Tinmulia Madesiu. ^ Also called GUhaumulia Miidosiu-

HALWAI. oO

Sections of the Purbij^ Madesi^ sub-caste.' A

A'jner. Akhanbdri. A m i . Anar. AnokonwSr. Anrud. AsarmdIIa. Badabasti. Bijai. Baksar. Bakulari. Banebanaras. Baniapdthar. Bansahar. Bator. Chanwdr. Chausa. Chilhdr. Dddukli. Daharak.

Daridpar. Dehadbanaras DeoghSt. Dhakais. Dhakait. Dhanej. Dhema. Doem. Don. Gahundgaona. Gangapali. Hatser. Indri. Jewel. Jirabasti. Kada. Kalasdih. Kdndar. Kdngkol. Kdra. Karar.

Kdrkado. , Kami. Kasiaon. Katari. Kathej. Kesaur. Khonta. Kotsa or Korsd. Kurisar. Kusarpakri. Lakhansaria. Larauni. Loiutra. Mahepura. Mail. Manimanaras. iVIarar. Marua. Mohkr. Nageswar. Nagneswar.

Naknesa. Ninghiam. Pachauta. Pachottar. Paiharware. Phuli. Raksise. Sahuri. Sakarwar. Sakih. Sakrol. Sarauli. Sidhpur. Sikia. Sinhagarh. Sinharas. Sisotar. Sonhar. Tari. Ubliar. Ughar.

Sections of the Pachhainyfi Madesid sub-caste.

Akhanblri. Basaria. Bharauli. Bijaibandras. Chauberid. Dhdkdis. Dhdnautd. Dhaneswar.

Dighwara. j<fchwar. Difmri. Kahmwar. GSngaulid. Kandeii. Gauangahundr.Kanpakar. Gureni. Karadhanauta. Hdnridot. Kararihd. Jawdlia. Karu.

Kausar. Khirkatora. Khopriha. Maruaha. Narauni. Paciiottar. Panlhpakar.

^iv'x, MiMar, Earsantdn.

Siib-caslcs. Bard-Bhdgiya.orKlord-pdik. Madhya-bhagrydor Madhauku!. Khoreor Khoriya. Siuli-Mihtar. Banga"* Maghaya-Karaiy/-purandwar.

Section.

Nil.

GO HO.

^ ]0 , Lavha Kolh,

fc5ub-tnbes. Septs,

Alru. Angaria. Babanga. Bandi. Bansa. Barpai. Birua. Bodru. Buriali Kalundia. Buri Samat. Chaki Dukri . Ciiampia Tubir. Chatra Tuiu. Chorai.i Echaghatu. Emboro. Gagria. Gatsora. Haiboru LSngi. Hansda.i Hembaran. Hesa. Hone-hoga.

Jamulu. Janku Samrai. Kalundia. Kisku.i Kora. Kuntia. Lagori. Lamamaka. Marl i . i Munduia. Murmu.i Naguria. Paraya. Pata Saya. Pingua. Podoro. Purthi . Sauia. Sinkoi. Sundi Deogam. Tihu. T in . Tudi. i

' These septs are common to the IIos and the Sauii'iK

Jili];^, JcUa, Jcle, Jdlo, JaluA, Mala, Mdlo, Dhihar, Machhid, Ma/ii/urosh.

Titles—A'rash, Bag, Barddhan, Barik, Bera, Bidy^nto, Bisoi, Biswas, Boral, Chaudhri, Das, Gal Guria, Halddr, Kundu. Laha, Mandai, Manjhi Mauna, Pakre, Palde, P^rai Patra, Pradhan, Roja, Santra, Sarkar, Sasmal, Sem.

Sub-castes.

lit KoaJc/iali — Chatgaon. Bhulu^. Jhalo. Kaibartta.

Sections.

A'liman.

61 JOLIIA. •

Jolhit, Joim, JnWii, Mowhi, Tdntl, Tat,m.

Titles—Lauki, Mahrano. Mahton, Mandar, Mandarl Manjhi, Marik, Mehter, Nuri, Pandit, Sanah.a. Taiya.

Sections. Sub-castes.

Kachua. Tirhutia. • Rarasar. Kanaujia. / Manjhi. Chapota. Chanpadda. ^^ ^ ^ ^^^^^^^ \ ^^^^^_ Khatwe. sub-caste. ; Parimanik.

(. Purbe.

SulD-tribes. Septs.

-sTji Alemba, hailstones. • • Baitiriba, buffalo.

Baiinnba, mosquito. Banaiba, boar. Barataba, boar. Dumriaba, a kind of tree. Gaghraba, paddy. Hatisalaba, elephant. Jarigannba, yarttreo. Kalimba, tobacco flower. Kanchaba, dog. Kelobo, bee. Keralaba, pumpkin. Kot&b^ndab. Lihinnba, dove. Mundiba, mahua tree. IVIunduab, small mushroom. Odhalaba, fox. Rangataba, a Idnd of yellow-coloured bird. Rdsannba, mufehroomfa that grow on aat-

hills. Saramba, tigress. Sundriaba, red mushroom. Talahadaba,palmtioe. Tenshaba, a bird.

62 JUGI.

J u g i , Jungi, Jogi or Yogi, Ndlh.

Titles :-Adhik&ri, Biswds, Dalai. Gosw&ml, d&chand^r, Mahanta, Niajumd&r, N^thji, Pandit, R^i, Sark4r.

Sub-castes. R&rhi. Bdrendra. Baidik. Bangaja. Khelenda. Bhulu^. Sundipd.

Functional gyoiq)s. Hdlwa. Kambule. Manihari. Rangroz.

iDhandi Mandal. Jndnbar. BhaganBhdjan. Paban.

Ekddasi. Mdsya.

lie/ig'ious groups.

Br&hman. Sanny&si or Kdnphit. Dandi. Dharmaghare. J^th. Kdlipd. Durihdr. Aghorpanthi. Bhatrihari. Sirangihdro

UijperyamoM groups,

S Raghu. Mddhab. Nimdi. Pagnnal.

wadhyald. Bangal.

Sections. Kasyapa. Siva. Adl. Alarishi (AUamyin?). Anddi. Batuk. Birbhairab. Goraksha. Matsendra, king of fish. Min, fish. Satya, truth.

K-iDAI?. 63

Sub-castea,

Kddar. Naiyd.

JPbar, Sfm'yd.

r Bare.i Barik.2 Darbe.' Hazari. Kampti.'' Kapari. Mandar. Mandri.

Sections. -

-\ Manjhi. Mara! a. Marik.s Mirdaha." Naiya.^ Raut. Rikhiasan.

' "Will marry only with Mirdaha, Kampti, and Eaut. ' Will not marry with Mandar, Mirdaha, Eaut, and Bare. = Will not marry with Marik and Bare. * Will marry only with Barik, Kapari, Marik, Darbe, Manjhi, and^ Bare. ' Will only marry with Bilrik, Kapari, Manjhi, Mandar, and INTaiya. • Will marry only with Darbe, IManjhi, Kampti, and B&re. ' Will not marry with Marik, Hazari, Naiya, Kampti, and Bare.

Titles :—Behard, Bhandari, Kamkar, Mahara, Mahato, Raut, Sardar.

Sections. Aliman. Bando, a small wild cat.

Siib-castes.

Rawdni or Ramdni. Dhurid. Dhimar. Kharw&rd. Turhd. Jaswar. Garhuk or GarauwS. Bisarid. MagahiyS.

Kanda, sweet potato. Kansi, a kind of grass. Kasyapa. Nag. Rawanpur. Suar, a pig.

fUtibarttiT, KaiUHta-Dds, Chdsi-Dds, Edlid-Ddsj Pardsar-Dds, Dhiiara, K/ii/i •;.

Titles:—III Beii!jal—fida.k\, Arash, Bag, Bardhan, Barik, Ber4« Bisw&s, Boral, Chaudhri, Das, Gharui, Giri, Haladhan Haldar, Jana, Kundu, Laha, Maiti, Maliik, Mandal, Manjj. Manna Mete, Naskar, Pare, Patnaik, Patra, Pradhan. Rojd, Sarkdr, Sen, Santra, Sasmal.

In 0//m—Behara, Bhuid, Dalai, Das, Maiha, Matial, Ndrk, Sahu.

Sub-castes.

h Murshedabad— Panchsata Bahdttarghar. Chauddap4ra R^rhibindus. Rarhi. Bagri-Barendra. Dakshini.

Sections.

Alddasi. Almisi . Alamyan. Kasyapa. Majlisi (Maudgalya).

G4 KAIBARTTA.

Sub-castes. Sections. In Mkbwpur—

t-i 1 IT u xi. rUttar-Rarhi. He!e-Kaibartta (oakshin-Rarhi. (Ul-Chatai.

) Ekside. j Doside. ^Makunda.

Amrita-Rasi. Kasyap-Rasi. Mesh-Rasi. Padma-Rasi,

In Huf/lili— Uttar-Rarhi.

iDakhin-Rarhi or Marwar. I Tutiya. .deliya, M41a or JaliyS.

In Jcswre— M^lo or Mdld. Rajbansi.

JJ|fo^°Hypergamous.

In 24-Pflc^««as— Kaibartta. Das.

In Central Bengal— Chdsa or Halw^ha Kaibartta. Tutiyd Kaibartta.

In Maldah— i Hallk. j Jal ik.

In Noakhali— f Bhulu&i-< Sundipe. ^Karalai.

Ddntrai- Kasyapa. Patua. Phirt i .

Ill Dacca— Ois. Jalwah Kaibartta.

In Bal-arganj— Hal ia Das, Parasar Das, Kaia Ray

or Chasi Kaibartta. Ha ha Balai Jadab Ray Bhuban Kuri

Alm&l. Kastu-Rishi. Kasyapa. Madhukulya. Sandilya. Vyas.

Manji Samadd^r i a CharmanaiRdy \h

. Alamyan. I Biiaradvaj. g Ghrita-Kausik. fo Kasyap. S Parasar.

KAIBAETTA. 65

In Bakarganj—

Sub-castos.

Kaibartta, Chandradwip.

In Orissa— Orh. Rdrhi.

In Behar— Uethaut. Garbeta. Desi. Semari. Bangdii.

Bara-Hazari.

Kdwdr Mandal Manjhi Pathar Sikdar Bangai.

Sections.

>Hypergamous.

DhamdI. Khaunia. Ghani. Gundi. Ni^li.

Titles:—Abkar, Bhakat, Bhatthid^r, Chaudhri, Goldar U l a , Modi, S^hu. '

Sub-castes.

Banodhi^. Biy^hut or Bhojpuri. Desw^r. uaisw^r or Ajodhia-

basi. Jasar. VChalsd. KhariddhS. R^nki or Kaldl

(Mdhomedan).

Sections of the Banodhia and Jaiswar bub-castes.

Arddhdiakhi i . Bachhraian. Baniya. Bardarh^. Barpasera. Behn^han. Bhaiskayari. Chailaha. Chamraulid. Chaubhaid. Chauraha. Dewan ke asami. Gadahia. Gaudanha. Ghorcharha. Harchanpuria. Hosainpuria. Karaiachor. Kl;alrih4.

Kumharia. Lakhnaua. Mahatma. Maurhia. Modi. Motriha. Nagaria. Niktha. Rami dhdmi

asami. Rampuria. Sadabarti. Senouria. Seth. Siarahd. Srimaurhd. Thather. Thorelia. Tn iokpu r i ^ .

ke

66 KALWAE.

Abkahila. Ami. Bakat panre

panre. Baksaria. Ban^rasia. Banrahd. Baraha ke Mahto. Barharia ke panre. Baruar. Basundar. Bathuake Mahto. Bathuake Raut. Battisi. Beruke kisan. Beruke M^hto. Beruke panre. Bhadwaria. Bhojpuria. Bhutane. Bihia. Chanre ke raut. Chaugain. Chaugainke panre. Chausa. Datta ke raut. Daulta ke raut. Ohika'ich. Dhankharia. Dhobaha. Dhurfanda. Ekauna. Gadheyia. Gimel. Gangdahid. Gareyia. Gharikarak. Goa.

Sections of the Biyuhut and Kharidaha sub-castos.

Gonr. Hardwar.

ke Harni tar . Hazari panre. dagmanra. Jaintpur. uannuaon. Kaithar. Kalanud. Kanrialsar. Kamsar ke Mahto. Kandh pakar. Kaneil. Kante ke rakmal. Kante ke ras. Karjaha. Kasarbani. Kasmal. Kates. Kateswar. Katharia. Katherd. Katsarwa. Khan. Khapraha. Kharkndke ke raut. Khataia. Khereswarke p^nre, Krish^n. Laksham Seria. Lakshneswar. Lamgarid. M^hara. Mahuari. Majhaura. Mallik. Maneria. Mdngaf.

Masdre ke raut. Mujnia. Mulmahali. Nalakhia. Nunaon. Nuneswar. Nunhar. Nunkharia. Osai. Otonia. Pabai ke kisan. Pachhnaria. Pailaha. Pdniha chaur. Pankharaya. Panre ke Panre. Panthpakar. Pariharbari. Pariak Panre. Prasi. Ramkisan. Rangpiar. Sahadar. Sahal. Sahan. Sanha. Sanichrd. Sargatia. Sohanpur. Sonakant. Sonhar. Sugardhar. Surjaha. Tabkahiia. Tamgain. Tartar kekhir puri. Urdagdinhi.

%iimit, Katndr, Kurmikdr (Bengal), Lohdr (Debar), Bhindhiiii (Singbhum).

Titles — l u Benga l -Ar i , Das, De, Tewari : in Behar-Karund, Mistri, Thakur.

Sections. Sub-castes.

r r. , -w Behav— In harawan— Beldsi. Bathuait. Mdhmudpur.a, Darsuna. >«^ml4-Kamar. Garbaria.

KAMAE.

Sub-cas,tes-.

In Midnapur—

marry. K5nsari, Sarna-Kdmfir. Ghatra-Kamdr. Chand-Kam^r. Dhok r i .

/« 24-Par<;raids~

Uttar-Rdrhi. Dakhin-Rarhi. Anarpuri .

Jn Eauleni Bengal—

Bhusn^pati. Dhakai. PaschimS.

/// MnnJicdahad—

Rdrhi. Barendra. Dhak^wil. Khotta.

In Palna—

R^rhi orDSs-SamSj. Barendra or Panch-Samaj.

In Noalc/tali—

J^ti-Karmak^r. Shikhu-Karmakfir.

In Ma nil li ion—

Magahiya. Dhokra. Lohsa. Basun^.

Sections.

In Behav—conoid. Godhanpurd. Harsarid. Hasanpurid. JakhaipuriS. Jarangait. Jasiam. Kalait. Katosid. Marturid. Pokharmid. Ratwaria. Sdgi. Sonpurid. Soth iwdr.

In Bengal—

Alamydn. BharadwSj. Kasyapa. Maudgalya. Sandilya.

LI Singbhum and (he Sautui Pargands—

A'lam-rfshi. Bdgh-rishi. Bamunia. Kachhud. Khuj i r id. Manjar i . Nag. Netria. Pota. Puralid.

In Sautdl Pan/and^—

Ashtalai. Beldlai. Churdlai, Sankhalah

68 KAMI.

^^ in i , KdmiA.

Baraili. Darnal. Devapathi. Diali. Dudhrdj. Dural. Gadaili. Gadal. Gahatraj. Gajmer. Gham-ghotl6. Gharti-ghaure. Ghatani. Jar-Kami. Kairala. Kati-chiore. Kharkibayu. Khati. Lamgade.

Sections.

Lohagun. Lobar. Lokandri. Mangrati. Parbat6. Pokhrel. Portel. Rahapal. Ramudan. Rasaili. Rijal. Rujal. Sapkotfi. Sasankhar. Setu-Surual. Sin-chiori. Singa-ore. Thapangi. Tirua.

fUinbh, Kaudt

Titles:—Abbaye,

Sub-castes.

Malua or Arria Kandh.

Orh or Uriya Kandh.

Bcniah-Kandh. Betiah-Kandh. Nikitia-Kandh. Sauntia-Kandh.

Eoiid/i, Khond, Kui-loka, Eui-eijju, Skcndhamra.

Desauri, Jhankai or Jani, MSji, Maiik, Muth^.

Gochi or septs.

1. Besringia

2. Bhetumendi. 3. Rasimendi. 4. Sagormendi. 5. Bankamendi. 6. Bidumendi. 7. Baloskuppa. 8. Grandimendi. 9. Gumalmendi.

10. Dutimendi. 11. Sandumendi.

.<

Klambu or sub-septs. • 1. Besera.

2. Masara. 3. Boboto.

I 4. Binjarra. 6. Suna. 6. Motaro. 7. Mallika. 8. Murkuri. 9. Moku.

LlO. Dokeri.

KANDH.

Sub-castes. Goehi or septs.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21 . 22.

Tuniamendi. Bhetimendi. Sidupari. Delapari. Kaliapari. Rakodmoska. Pundilkia. Bogalkia. Teridikia. Koskirabi. Domsing.

23. Kalabag.

24. Kutrengia

25. Jehilingia. 26. Petingia. 27. Kerlingia. 28. Bakolmendi. 29. Dopsingia. 30. Sehelengia. 31. Dangnikia.

32. Adgirkia

33. Lotpongia. 34. Danikia. 35. Robingia. 36. Mutungia.

Ganingia. Behingja. Dubosingia. Dondikia. Bhusangia.

42. Koinjabari. 43. Suramendi. 44. Bhursamendi. 40. PoDingia. 4b. Gopingia.

49 , ^ ' ' ' " g ' a .

50- Bobdengia.

37 38, 39 40, 41

.< o. 6.

L7.

69

Klamhu or siib-sopts.

f l . Kotringa. I 2. Bisunga. < 3. Damlunga. I 4. Somanga. LS. Mongalka.

2. 3. 4.

Koskigan. Panjurika. Surumanega. Pandega. Sarenga. Neringa. Damanga.

70 KANDU.

IPnbu, Kdnu, Bharhhmjd, Bhunjd, Bhujdri, Bhurji.

Sub-castes.

Madhesid. Magahiyd. Bantaria or

Bharbhunji. Kanaujia. Gonr. Kordnch. Dhurid. Rawdni. Ballamtiri^. Thather or

ThatherS.

Title:—S^h

Sections of the Madhesiii

sub-caste.

Banidpdthar. Bijaibanaras. Dhanuta. Hathsukhd. Kota. Pachtar. Sribitid.

J.

Sections of the Magahiya

sub-casto. A

r- -Akan. Akhg&on. Ankuri. A rap. Baghakol. Barhi. Bere. Bharath. Bhater. Bireri. Chhitni. Datiyan. Gager. G^nrol. Hathidkan. Ichbaria. Jiarwar. Kanap. Kaneil. Karian. Kasiam. Katear.

Sections of the J

^» Khadhnu. Kokras. Mahuli. Maldhid. Maner. Masaur. Mehaus. Murti. Nenijor. Nepra. Pali. Parsautia. Pilich. Rsjgiri. Raunia. Saraihat. Saursam-

bar. SirS. Tisor. Toril. Uttard4ha.

^Tindiha. Bantari^ sub-caste. \Chaudiha.

Sections of the Koraucli sub-caste.

rChasi. Dehri. Hathia Kan

dh^. Koriar.

^Mutha.

Titles :-BhuIya, Rai, Hdldar, Maid, Mandal, Mdnjhi, Mutabar (headman of panchcijjat), Shikdar.

Sub-caste.

Nil.

Sections.

Kasyapa. Siva.

KAEAN. 71

Slarait, Kathi'Kiet, Uriyi-Kdet.

Titles:—Das, Mahanti, Mahapdtra.

Sub-castes. Karan, Nauli-Karan. Srishti-Karan, Bhatuntara.

Hijpergamous groups.

Khara. Pura. , Chaian. Kulina.

Sections. A'treya. , Bharadwaja. Kantsasa. Kasyapa. Mudgul. Nagasa. Parasara, Sankha.

Sub-castes. Dhalu^. Mdlud. Sikharid. Tungd.

S^rang^, Migtri.

Titles:—Bishoi, Dalul, Kaur, Khan.

Sections. Sdlmdch. Kachchhap.

| l«3Cri, Kanseii, TamherA, TMhera.

Sub-caste. Sections. None. ' Banaudhiya.

Basaiya. Chauarsa. Chaughara. Hariharno. Lakar-Mahauliya. Machhua. Mahauliya. Mauhariya. Suariya. Suppar.

15Ir. Sherring enumerates seven sub-castes—Purbiya, Paclilm ' orakbpuri, Tank Tauchara, iJhariya, Uolar—none of which appear to^'?' G

kuowu lu Bchar

72 , 11

»,r r- < — ' | - i

• i

• 11 i^sth«. Sub-castes.

Madhyasreni-Kdiyastha. Kastha.

« KASTHA!

•7 «

Sections. Same as of Kayasths.

liaixr.

Sub-tribaa.

Chdmi . Cherwa. Dudh-Kaur. Pa ikard . Rathiy^.

Septs. Bambai, a kind of eel. Banjar. Bhainsa, buffalo. Chalenga, a kind of vegetable. Kariar . Kolkatar i . Motiom^n. Pakar, a fruit. Pharsddhent i . Rankankar . Sanwdni . Sarjal . Singar.

Tit les:~DhaIi , Hdlddr, Mdla, Mdnjhi, Vidyddhara.

Sub-casfo. Nil.

Section. Aliman.

Sub-CQstes. Aithdna. Amashta. Bdlmik. Bhatndgar. Gaur. Karan. Kulsreshta

i Mdthur. Nigam.

I SaksenS,

SribdstabltJ^^'*® _ C Dusre j ' Surajdhwaj.

f&^Uafith. Kiel, Liild

T i t l e . : - D a s , U l , R 4 i , Singh.

In general

Kasyapa. Dedhgawe.

Sections.

Kablearr Katariy^r.

, Kathautiar. I Lakhauriar.

i [^andkiriar. i^arhatiar. IJ^imandih. Nuniyar. Samaiar. Saraiyar.

LSonkhare.

•,KAyASTH. 1^

r^)«

Siib-castea.

Of the Amashta gub-caste.

Sections. fBaidsdin.

Bardiar. Bilwar. Birnawar. Datkiliar. Dharkiliar. Gaprai. Gyasain. Hargambai.

^ daipuria. Jamuar. Kachgawai. Karpatne. Mahtha. Mandilwar. Pansain. Rukhiar. Sandhawi«*.

^Tinriar.

'Ajaidapal. Ambahla. Atari. Badisama. Bakhola. Baiain. Barhari. Battikbal. Benk.

, , ^r I Garhbiwar. Of the Karan ' „^ , ^„_

sub-easte. Kachhra. Kanchanpur. Kothipal.

1 Munga. Narangbali. Oari. Pakli. Si sab. Usauth.

^Utamapur. Kasyapa. Akhauri. Bakshi. IVIisir.

Oi the Sribastab i Pande. sub-caste. 1 «a i .

Saliuliar. Singh. Tewari.

^Thakur.

74 KAYASTHA.

ll^Uastlut, K&ot, Kait, Kdyath.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Uttar-Rdrhi. Dakshin-Rarhi. Bangaja. Barendra. Madhya-sreni.

Agnibesya. Alambyan. Ari. Atreya. Baiyagrahapadya. Basishtha. Basuki. Batsya. Bharadwaja. Biswdmitra. Gautama. Ghritakausik. damadagnya.

Kalvisa. Kasyapa. Kausika. Krishnatreya. Kusik. Maudgalya. Parasara. Rchita. Sabarna. Sandilya. Saukalin. Saupayan.

Titles arranged in Hypergamous Groups.

Dakshin R^rhi.

/u///«.—Basu, Ghosh, Mitra.

SiMift Mattli/c—Das, Datta, De, Guha, Kar Palit Sinha. ' ' Sen.

Sdclhya-Maidik or £a/idl/iire. — M\tya, Aich, Ankur A^ou As, Baittash, Bai, Ban, Bandhur BardriK^n' Barma. Bhadra. Bhanja, Bhur'Bhut mn" Bindu, Bishnu, Brahma, Chandra nfu^' Dana. Dhanu, Dhar, Dhkrani S a n V ? i""' Ghar, Guha. Gui, Guna, Guptk, ^ " L u"«^' ^ Has. Hon Hui, Indra, uas, khH u-^.?)' Kshann,Kshem,Kshom,Kunda. LOHU r!;""^ '' Nag, Nandi, Nath, Dm, Pal p , i ' 'S^?a . Rahut, Raja,Rakshit, Rana, fiknea R,!i.^^' Sain, Sakti, Sdl, Sam, Sana, s f r m ? " t ^ ' Sonri, Sur, Swar, Tej, Upaman. ' ®'''

Bangaja.

ir»/(«.—Basu, Ghosh, Guha, Mitra.

2tad/njah/a.—Dana, Nag, Nath.

J/«/(«»a7ra.—A'dhya, Ankur, Bhadra, Bishnu, Chandra, Das Deb, Dhar. Kar K^ndu, Nandan, Nandi' Pdl, Palit, Raha, Rakshit. Sen, Sinha! Som.

KAYASTHA. 'O

ylc/i«/.—Abasakti, Aditya, Aich, Apa, Arnab, Baitosh, Bal, Ban, Bandhu, Barddhan, Barnna, Bed, Bhanja, Bhuin, Bhunnik, Bhut, Bindu, Brahma, Chain, Chaki, Daha, D^m, Dand, Ddnri, Dhanu, Dha-rani, Dhol, Dhunri, Dut, Gan, Gandak, Ghania, Ghar, Guna, Gupta, Hathi, Hem, Hes, Hom, Hor, Hu •, Indra, uas, Kachu, Karaiya, Khil, Kirtti, Ksham, Kshem, Kshom, Lcdh, Maguri, Man, Mana, Nad, Naha, Nalu, Pal, Pil, Rip, Puin, Rahut, Raja, Rana, Ranga, Riti, Roi, Rudra, Sain, Sanga, Sarma, Si I, Smar, Son, Suman, Sur, Syam, Tej.

Uttar-Rarhi.

7r«//«.—Ghosh, Sinha. Sanmauli/c—Das, Datta, Mitra. Sdmdnija Maitlik.—Das,i Ghosh, Kar,' Sinha.

Bdrendra.2

Siddha.—Chkk\, Dds, Nandi. /Saf%a.—Datta, Deb, Ndg, Sinha. Jlr/".—Dam, Dhar, Gun, Kar.

Honorary titles:—Bakshi, Bhdnddri, Biswas, Chaudhri, Dastd-d^r, Dhdli, Kanungo, Mahalia-navis, Majumdar, Mallik, Munsif, Mushrif, Mustaufi, Neogi, Pattadar, R^i, Sarkar, Shikdar, Thakurta.

' These two families are considered a quarter each, so the Uttar-Hurhis reckon 74 ont of 9 families.

= Originally the Barendras had seven families, but now they count 7^ by adding the descendants of one Sarama, a iS'apit, as a half family besides many immigrant families from other parts of the country which go to swell the Hej group.

^CtoiU, Kiot, Kaibartta.

Titles:—7» i?e/m>-—Bhanddri, Chaudhri, Deradar, Jdndar Kamat, Kapar, Khawas, Mahto, Mandar, Marar. '

Sub-casles. Sections.

In Behar—

Bahidwak, Bahiot, or Ghibihlr. Bhadauria. Garbhait, Gorwait, or Saghar- Biswas. Ajudhi^basi. Hazara. Jathot. Itwar. Machhua. Kapar. Mah^danda. Kasyapa.

Maharna. Marar. Mukhia.

76 KHAMBU.

^iha^bU, Nau-ldkh Khamlu.

Titles:—Dhan, Jimdar, Kirdti, Mandal, Mukhid, Rai, Sing, , Thars or septs.

Babhaunchha. Bangdel. Barlos. Bokhime. Bonth^rua. Boyong. Bumakamchha. Butepachha. Chamlingeh. Chaurasi. Chuiraclihd. Dilpali. Dungmali. Haidibutha. Hatuwili. Homodimchha.

- Horongpachha. Jubhingeh. Kasi. Klialing. Kheresanchhd. Kuasanchha. Kulung. Laphaunchh^. Maiduchha. Maikam. Male Kumchha. May^hdng. P/Iukaranchh^.

IVtilukuas. Nambochha. Ndmdung. Nardauchhd. Nechahli. Nimambaunchh^. Ninauchha. Nomahang. Paderachha. Phlumachha. Phulehli. Phurkeli. Plembochha. Rabchhali. Rajabin. Rakhali. Ranauchhi. Rapungchhi. Regalaunchhd. Rimching. Rochingdchha Sangpang. Silongchha. SotRangeh. Sungdele. Tangbuah. Thulung. Wahsali.

iHwni^it , Khandait-Pdik, Ehmd&yat, Bhuiyd-Pdik. Titles:

In C/wta Kagpur -.—Amkut, Arha, Baraik, BeharS, Gaunjhu Kotwar, Mahapatra, Manjhi, Mird^h^, Naik, Ohdar, Patra' Pradhan, Raut.

In Ori\sa, Bagha, tiger. Bahubalendra, like the god indra

in strength of arm. Dakhin-Kabat, south gate. _ Daubarik, messenger or sentmel. Garh-Naik or Sinha, leader or

lion of the fort. Hati, elephant. liena. Maharath or Maharathi, great

charioteer. Maila, wieatlers.

Mangaraj. Ndik, leader. Paschim-Kabat, westo-at., Praharaj. Ranasinha or Samar-

sinha, lion of the fight. "aut, horseman. Rui. Samanta, officer. Senapati, general. Sinha, lion. Uttar-Kabat, north gate.

KHANDAIT. 77

Sub-castes. Sections.

(a) Totemistio—

.- fDas-gharid, in Saranda of Singbhum. KachhuS, tortoise. i I Pachas-gharia, in Chota Nagpur. Kadam, nauclea gj'< Panchsau-gharia, in Gangpur. _ grandtfolia. ^ I Pandrasau-gharia, in Gangpur, Bonai, Mor, peacock. ^ l Bamra, an^ Sambalpur. Nag, snake.

Chhot-gohrl, in Chota Nagpur. Sal, fish.

(6) Eponi/mous~-

Bharadwaja. Kaundilya. Nagasa, etc.

S.'^i'/ ^-J^'^Q*^^?"^^LLw * • ; ] I^ Balasore and Cuttack. Mah^ndik or Sresta-KhandaitJ Bhanja-Khandait - l l n P u r i . Harichandan Khandait ...J Khandait-Pai K^ - | In the OrissaTributary States.

Titles:—Dhangar, Kisan, Kol, Parja.

•Sub-c«hte.. Sections.

Berga-Khari^. Bage, a bird. Dhilki-Kharia. Bar, Fwus Indica. Dud-Kharia. Barla. Erenga-Kharid. Baroa, an animal. Munda-Kharia. Bilung, Nun, or Nona Maila, Oraon-Kharia. salt.

Demta, red ant. Dhan, paddy. Dhanuar, can't eat rice soup. Dheiki, a bird. Dungdung, Aind, or Indu, eel Durang, a fish. Hathi, elephant. Kasi. Kerketa, a bird of that name Kiro or Bagh, tiger. Kulu or Kachchhua, tortoise Mailwar. Murgear.

78 KHARIA.

Sub-castes. Seclions.

Nag, cobra. Naik. Naniar. Pardhan. Pathal. Purti. Sahul. Samdi^. Saur, flsli. Surania, a rock. Telga. Teteteyin or Bagiar, a bii-d of

that name. Tirkoar. Tititihu, a bird. Topo, a bird. Tuti, vegetable.

The above groups are fouud among the settled Kharids. I have been unable to ascertain whether the wild Kharids, com­monly known as Ban-Wlanush, ' men of the woods,' have any siuiiUiv divisions.

'tear.

Titles:-Bhakat, Bhogta, Das, Gaunju, Kapri, Mahto, Mandar Manjhi, Ohdar, Panjiara, Pradhan. '

Sub-tribes. Ill Puhunaii—

Patbandh. Daulbandh. Khairi.

In Southern Lohanland-Desw^ri-Kharw^r. Bhogti-Raut, Manjhi^.

Septs. Aind, a kind of eel. Bag, tiger. Bahera, a jungle fruit. Baherv/ar, a tree. Bail, a fruit. Bair, plum. Bamnia, salt. Bandhia. Bania, a caste. Bar, Mens Indica. Bhogta. Binjoar. Biserwar. Bisra, a hawk. Chardiar, pineapple. Chirra, squin-el. Chorant, a grass. Chundiar, a top-knot. Chuniar, lime. Deoita, red tree-ant. Dhobi, can't touch washerman.

KHAHWAK. 79

Sub-tribes. Septs. Dolbandhr. Dudul, a kind of bird. Gai, cow. Ghansi, a pond fish. Hans, swan. Hansarwar, duck. Hasdajia, a duck. Hathi, elephant. Hemr^mina. Kachua, tortoise. Kans, a grass. Kanwad, a jungle fruit. Karhar, a jungle fruitlike 'bel. Kerketa, a bird. Kesargia. Khapu, a bird. Khichengia, a fruit. Kowriar. Kuardar. Kurdur. Kussum, a fniit. Maderwar. Mahukal, a bird. Mailwar. Manjar. Manjhi, a title. Munga, coral. Murgi, hen. Murmurwar. Mus, rat. Nag, cobra. Patmurmur^rS. Radhar. Rikhiasan. Sai Sonarwar. Samudwar. Saras, a water-fowl. Sheor, a fish. Sonar, goldsmith. Sonarwar, gold. Suia, a kind of little biid. Sumedhiar, a tree. Surunia, neck ornament. Tamba, copper. Tirki, a bird. Tiruar, Tirkuar*,an an-ow. Tuduar, hen. Tunduar. Turuar, a fruit [imkur). Tuti, a kind of bird.' Uriar.

••J \ XHAEWAK.

' • \ Sub-tribes.

Septs of the

Septs. 'Behrodr. Kaunsiar. Kauriar.

Daulbandh<^ Manriar. Bub-trite. Pat-murmu.

Raj-murmu. LSonoro^r.

lihatik.

Sub-castes.

Khatik. Dharamdasi.

Section.

Kasyapa.

Sub-castes.

flhlltri, Purbi^d Khatri. '

Titles :-Barman, L4I, MShSta, Sahu.

Sections. Ch^rjati. Panchjiti. Chhaj&ti. B&rajdti. BahSnnajdti. Piruwal.

Of the ChdijiUi suh-caste.

Of the Panclijdtisub-caste.

Of the Chhajiti sub-caste.

Of the BAraj/iti eub-caste.

Kapur. Khanna. Mehera. §^tor^eM4Lw4j.. Beri. Birj. Saigal. Sarwal. Wahe.

Bhale. Dhawan. Supat. Tolwar. Turman. Chaupre. Ghai. Kakkar. Meheden. Soni. Tandan.

nypcrgamous divisions, ttie oraer oi p.i.u-c..tui,B oeing t t MDiarriage between members of different snb-castes is -present day, but it is considered right for a man to marry in his ow"n crouD" • and the » ,b-ca5tes are practically endogamous. The Piruw41 sub-caste has ' always been endogamous for the reasons explained in the text

KHATEI.

Sub-castes.

81

Of the Bahdnnajdti 8ub-caste.

SectiouBi • I Behal.

Chal-agge. Dhandh^be. Gayalpure. Handi. Keolr. Khosle. Kuchal. MarwShe. Nai^r. Nandi. Suri.

Brahmantcal Oolras-Angirasa. Batsya. Bharadwdja.

- Hangsarishi. Kasyapa. Kausalya. Lomas^.

Title :-IV7andar.

Sub-casles.

Bahio. Goro.

Section. Kdsyapa.

UllL'^ll or Jlolita.

Sub-cflstes mi.

Sections. Aladish. Alamydn. Agni batsya. Kans^ri. Kasyapa. Kauchan rishi. Madhukulya Mugrish.

*i82 EOCHH.

Ilochll, Edjlansi, Sivabam, Sunjahansi, Mdncldi, Bhanga-Kshatri, Kshatri-Saiikocli, Pa(ita-Ks/iatn, Paliya, Desi.

Titles:—Bhaumlk, Chaudhri, Dks, Wlahat, Mdjhi, Tdnti, Bans-drd, Sagun-ure.

Snb-castes.

In Northern Bengal—

Paliy4. Sadhu. Babu, Bydbah&fi.

RSjbansi. Kdntii. Desi. Tiar or Dalai. Modest. Dobh^sir. J&lu^ or Jh4lud.

Bodo. In Dacca—

Kochh-Wlandal.

Sections.

Kdsyapd.

Dugu or Sections.

Mekhun. Ddsik. Senel. Chisim. Ndphak. Darang. Richi l . Parak.

^Oivi, Murdo.

Darang-Chiachi. Darang-Saudana. Darang-Dambuk. Darang-Dakal. onaini. Doi. Durgu. Lori.

Titles :—Mahto, Murdo (green-grocer), Dhelphor (olod-breaker).

Ma rar.

Sub-castes. Sections of the Ban&phar eub-cagte.

B^rki-Ddngi. Chhotki-Ddngi. Bandphar, Banapdr. Jaruhdr. KanaujiS. Magahiyd-Tirhutid. Chirmait. Kumdrd. Goita Dhdr Reutid \

K t r I^ Chota Nagpur.

Palmohd)

Bagwe. • Darbe. Kdno. Kdpri. Mdnjhi. Mardr. Marlk. Panjidrd.

In Champaran.

KOIK], 83

Sub-castos. Dhalo. Molo. Sikharii . BaddmiS. Sonirekhi. JhetiS. Guri-B^w^.

Sub-castea. Sections of the Magaliiyd sub-caste, Amrot. GamaFyi Pargan^ Kharakpur. Kargaha. Maiketari begun^ b^gii. ' Mdi. Sais.

j Kdsyap. I In Ohota Nagpur \ NSg.

( Mujni.

^01"^, Kaord, Khaira, EJiayrA, Han (used inaocurately by outsiders only).

Titles:—Mud i,RSi. Sections.

Aiu. , B^rdS. Butku, pig. Hansd^, wild goose. Kasyab, tortoise. Kasibak, heron. Sam^. Sk\ or SaulS, fish. Sanpu, buU.

Title:—Majhi, Septs.

Ainduar, a kind of eel. Amba, mango. Asotoar. Bagher, tiger. Dhan, unhusked rice. Ginmuar. Ginuar, a kind of eel. Har, plough. Harrd, nayrabolam. Hasda, wild goose. Huruj. Kerketta, a bird. Mujaniar. Muri, ancestors made a chuld of

four skulls and cooked their dinner.

Pakhua. Samat, pestle. Samp, snake. Sarai, a jungle fruit. Si Mi, a kind of fish. Suga, parrot.

Sub-tribes. Agaria-Korwa. Dand-Korwa. Dih Korwa. Paharia-Korv/a.

l-t ;,KOSHTA.

%

Sub-castes.

Atp&rS. Dhukursdni. Kutabpur. Manoharsfihi.

^OfihtiJ, MdluM.

Title:—Dds.

Sections.

Baghal, tiger. Bagutia. Bhat, rice. Bhatpihari. Chaudhri. Chaur, yak's tail. Gobi. Khanda, sword. Kurm, tortoise. Mdnik, gem. Nig, sn&e. Son.

JRolJlI, KoUcAl.

Title:—Pradh&n.

Sections.

Nil.

fiumh^r, iTtOHar, KumaU, Kumhhakdr, KuW, Ohatakdr, Ghataharpur, Ptajapati, Jiudjabans, Pudrapal, Pandit.

Titles :-Behara, Biswas, Dis, Deuri, Kunkdl, Mdhato, Mijhi, Wlarar, Marik, Mehrdna, Pal, Ran4.

Sub-castes.

In Jessore-— Belgdchi. Ddspira-Nautana. Bhushna.

In Murshedabad and Hughli—

', R4rhi-B&rendra. D&spin. Chaurfisi-

Sections.

Aladoshi. Alamydn. Hansa. Kanaka. Kasyapa. Rishi. Sandilya.

'KUMHAR. 85

Sub-castes. In Pabna~-

Sirasthan. Mdjhasthan. Chandan-s4ra. Chaur4si.

r Prdmdnik. Daspira | P^npatra.

( Mujgarni.

In Dacca — Bara-bhdgiya I Lai. Chhota-bhagiyd jSdda. Khatya. Rajmahdiia. Magi.

In Noakhali—

Sections.

Bhulaiya. Sardlia. Chdtgainya. Sandwipa.

In Behar and Chota Nagpur—

MaghaiyA. fAsmait. Kanaujid. Tirhutia. Desi, Deswdr. Bardhia.

Baid. Bdrik. Biswas. Chaudhri^n.

Bidhut. Gaim. Ajodhyabisi. Jeruhet. Ardhauti. ( Kapar. Godahiya. Chapud. Banaudhia. Masawar. Bangaii orR^rhi Of the Magaliiya

Kasyapa, Kaisab Kathalmalet. Kheri. Madhust. Mahatha.

Turk-Kumhar. sut-caste. <( Mahatman-

t.

Maheswar. Mehtar, Mukh. Mag. Pachmait. Panjiar. Parrarit. Pharkiet. Raut. Raworh. Senapat. Sonmain. .Tharait.

8G KUMHAR.

Sub-casteB. Sections. fCh&na.

Kharud. IVlaher.

. Mandap. Sections found in j Natanya.

Sinebhum. \ Ranubad. ' Sikari.

Sinhi. . Surabani. LXumalia. rBailhor. I Kisyab.

In Manbhum -i Min, fish. Nig, snake.

ISandil. pBar, Ficua Indica. Garhatia. Hathi, elephant. Kansi, a grass. Parihar. Sisingi, a river-fish, has

two thorns on its head. ^Tumbli, Berni.

In the SantdlfKdchim, tortoise. Pargands. I. Nig, serpent.

In Lohardag& <

In Orissa— Jagannithi or Uriya-Kumhir Bhad-bhadrii, sparrow.

Goru, cow. Kaundinya, tiger Kurma, tortoise, Mudir, frog. Neul, weasel. Sarpa, snake.

Khatya-Kumhir. Kasyapa.

IRxtrW, Emit, Kuiambt, Kunm, Kunm&nik

T;tlfiB-.-Chaudhri, Mahanta, Mahirii , Mahato, Mandal.Marir, [Viukhya, Paramanik, Raut, Sarkir, Singh.

Sections. Sub-cast€3.

(rt) In Bchar— Ayodhiyli or Awadhiya Chandel or Chandan Chanaur Ghamela. Ghorcharhi

(«) In Be/tar— Garain. Kasyapa.

KUEMI. 87

Sub.castes.

(a) In Behar—conoid.

JaiswSr. Kachaisei. Katr i^r . Kharchwi r . RamaiyS. Sainthwar. Sanswdr. Sauchand. Tei'ahgharid

(b) In Chota Nagpu)— Adh-Kurmi or Madhyam-

Kurmi. Bagsarid or Bagsari^. Khoria. Kurum. Magahia. Nich-Kurmi. Sikharia or Chhota-

Kurmi. (c) In Orissa—

Bagsari. Gadasari. Gaysari. Mais^sari.

Sections.

(i) In Chota Nagpur and On'ssa — Andhach^bar. Andhachipa p a n a r i s . Baghbanuar, tiger. BSghwar, tiger. Bagsaria, tiger. Baherwar, a fruit. Bans, bamtoo. Bansridr, will not play the

bdnsi or bamboo flute. Banudr, hunter. Bendidr. Bhokwdr. Bildr, cat. Chhonch Mutrudr, spider.' Chilbindha panaris. Chilbinuar, kite. Chiluar, kite. Chorharua. Dugriar. Dumurid, dumur, fig. Goridr. Hdnsdd. Hasdagid, wild goose. Hastowdr, tortoi&e Hemramid, betel palm. Henduar. Homwdr. Jdlbanuati net. Jhdpdbasriar. dhdtidekd. Jurudr. duthasankhwdr. Kachiari. KachimSr. Kaiobanuar. Kairawar , illegitimate issues. Kdnbindha, pierced ears. Kdrakdta Karwar , buffalo. Katiar, will not wear silk

cloth. Kesaria, Kesar, grass. Khecha Kesria. Kundiar.

1 In Midnapur Kunnis say that once upon a time water being needed to CIP „lace for some relis ious ceremony, a Kurmi there present made use af \

^ f e for the purpose, and his descendants were therefore called Chhon v, urine mutruar,

ZURMI.

Sub-oaBtes. Sections.

Mangar, crocodile. Mantrawdr. MathrwSr. Murmu, nilgao. Mus, rat. Nag, snake. NSgbasriar. NangtoySr, give children their

first rice naked. Naudkhuri. Punridr. Rajmor. Rimr imid. Salbanwar, sal jungle. Sankhawdr, will not wear

shell ornaments. Sidr, Jackal. Sona, gold. Tiruar. Tukipita dumuria, (lumi<r, ^ % T unduar.

Sub-castes.

DakhinhS. Tirhutid. Nuri.

ICnhcrr, Laherd.

Title:—Sahu.

Sections.

Kasi. Mahurid.

Sub-tribes.'

Rong. Khamba.

I^Cpcha, Mon. Septs.

Barphungpuso. Adinpuso.2 Singdyang. Tlngilmung. Rangomung. Tarzukmung. Sungutmung. Namzingmung. Luksom. Sangmi.

' A8.stated in the text, these groups are not no v endoeamous • As stated in the test, Adinpuso is the only onp .Tf f^l™

•lo'^ exogamous. < >" • H 'y one of these groups which is

LIMBU. 89

II, Daa Limhu, Yahthumba, Tsong, Chang.

Title :—Subha or Suffah (chief).

Sub-tribes (thum or thum-tkum).

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6, 7. 8. 9.

10.

Panthar Chhothar ... Ahtharai Yangorup ... Chaibisa MiSkhola orTerothar Charkhola ... Maikhola . . . Phedab orBhu Tambrkhola

iphuta

-1 ... ... > ... 1 ...J . . .^ ... 1 . . . ).

••••••

Septs

Classed have

as Kasi-gotra, immigrated into

Benares.

Classed have

(thar).

supposed to Nepal from

as Lhasi-gotra, supposed to come from Lhasa.

Of the Pdnthar Bub-tribe.

'Angdenba, lord of the forest. Chehmjom, a native of Chehm. Chikchab^. Chobegu. Hangsnemba. Ingmaba, he who kept fowls. Kerungma. Kokenamba, he who rises with the sun. Laoti, he who was obeyed.

Manglagpa,> the dancer. Mephagpa, the butcher, literally, pig-roaster. Phejom, the A;«Ar(-bearer, including (a) Nem-

bong, (b) Sardak-peapi. Pheodan, the water-carrier. Phyagpa, the knife-grinder. Serma, rent-collector. Songbangphe, the new settler. Thekim, he who works in wicker, includino-

the followmg sub-eepts:—(a) Meongba, (^ Thamsong, (c) Chobegu, d) Petehhimba, (e) Angbu, the forest-dweUer, ( / ) Yakten, for­merly doctors.

Tokt iham. Tumbapo, the eldest. Tumbrok, bom of a step-mother. Yangdenba,2 he who paid his footing

LYangsoba or Namlagpa, the chief of the tribo

I The ancestor of this thar was ?idden (possessed ?) by a "od and d J Descended from a jyiech who got admiision into the°Liml-,., + -i"*^^-

bribing the heads of the (hum-thum. • '"" ' t"be by

90 LIMBU.

Of the Chhothar Bub-tribe.

Bargharri, the twelve brethren. Khema,'^ a pheasant. Apparently totemistio. Khojom, he who ate his earnings. Kurumbhong,^ the divider of the village.

) Legma, the worker in mud. IVladen, the son of his mother. Sangma,* a buffalo. Apparently totemistio. Teling, the worker in cane.

I Thogleng, the suicide. l^Tungohong, the discontented.

(Angbohang, king of the fir •*70od. Inglamphe, the liar. Kondongwa, the vagabond.

yjx iu« .cai.^c^^. • P o m o , the large fanuly. Bub-tnbe. . j h e n g l a h b o , the native of Thenglah.

I Tshendangkya, he who lives apart. l^Yakshoma, the guardian of the fort.

f lngyaromba. • Khebangba, the native of Khebang.

Khingba, branch of the same sept may not intermarry.

Lechenche, the dissolute one. Lekhogma, he with swollen testes.

Lo)«o^m 1 •^<i™itted from the Lepchas.

Mahbho, branch of the same sept may not intermarry.

Mangmu. Menyangbp, the unsuccessful one. Mongtupo. Phav/ahong, the name of a village, Pondha, the wanderer. Puktebu. Seriing, the thief. Suwahong, the mendicant. Thehbeh.* Thupuku. Tumling,

.Yakpangden, the dweller on the pass.

Of the Tango rup sub-tribe.

' This thar will not eat a pheasant or fowl or -u-The story is that the founder went out to shoot pheaR ^ • °* '^"^ *' " ' found none, and vowed never to eat a pheasant again ^" ^ ^'^ copse, but

'The founder of this thar is said, for reasons nnf t . j nia village into two parts by drawing a line down tl,» •/,? ' ^ '^ ^^^^ divided ^ , ' The buffalo is taboo to this thar: the legend i""!^^''" ' hema thar. ^'^^ »a the same as that of the eliip 4" fponymous thar, named after Thehbeh s n t o - .

•C*.°;*>«Limbus, since deified, who fou .U°"?^ fyaiRa, the powerful ''•iderof the present ruline dynasty of Ne^^i ''Sainst Fnth.- Ndrayan. the

LIMBU-

!

Yfj4mi the waBderer, or eater. Yithingu, the huntsman. Yongyahang, the son of a chief. Yungma, the idler.

fLhoringten,! the chief of Morning.

p l p s S l i r a d o p t e d one.

"""•""""• I Pichagma,2 the son of the monkey. l^Sonyokpa, the guardian of the new fort.

f Hangam, the king's officer. Of the Miikhola 1 Lfbang, the archer.

Terothar< Nahlibo,^ he who chased his wife.

91

or Buh-tribe.

Of the Charkhola 6ub-tribe.

Of the Phedab Bub-tribe.

I Thoilong, the ragged one. LTsonbang, he who listens and profits.

Aktenhang, name of a domestic demi-god. Lingdam, admitted from the Lepchas. Mahbu,* the physician. Nembang, the swollen one. Pho t ro . Thogphelagu, he who wears the rhododendron

flower. [_Yongyahung, the aristocrat.

Chikkophung, he who planted the brihnii.^ Hupachongbang, he who was blessed and pros­

pered. Isbo, name of a village. Khamapong, the dweUer under the bar Ficus

religiosa) tree. Lokmahung. Lumphongma, those who shared the laud.

'^ Maden. Musuhang, the lowland chief. Ninglehku, one who outs poisonous plants. Obung-gyskpa, the dweller above the fountain. Phehim, the singer. Pho-omphu, the hangman. Phungthag, he who stole to order.

, Pongyangu, he who carries his goods on his back. ^_Senihang, sons of the snow-chief.

' This thar was formerly under the Morning Eajn. 5 This thar is said to have formerly worshipped the monkey, s The story is tliat the wife of the founder of the thar runaway from him

tnt he caught her and brought her back, and afterwards liad a large family by

' • Literally a shaker; one who being ridden by ghosts or devils shak Viimself fr 6 = hence a physician.

» A thorny plant with a bitter berry used for medical purposes.

es

92 LIMBU.

Of the Phedab sub-tribe— < concld.

Of the brkhola tribe.

Tam-sub-

Anglah. Aniabcing. Baidohang. Bakhim. Chempajong. Chungbang. Hemphd. Hukpah. Ichommah. Ikteh. llamhang. Imsong. Ithinku. Kambahang. Kambang. Kephuk.' Khamth^k. Khobaipong. Khuadang. Kunbahong. Laktomdh^ng. Lingdenbeh. Linglamphen. Lugumah. Mangoyak. Mangyong. Muromah.

fSingogpa. Sodemba, the spy. Songbangphe, the dweller ia the valley. So-onkobu, a resident of So-onko. Sothung, name of a village. Thambden, the stay-at-bome. Theguba, the son of the cliff. Thobukya, he who has stin disease. Tumbangphe,* the earth-bom or Bhuiphuta. Yurumbang, they of the central village.

Legbahang. Lingkhim. On-chhombo, the horse-seller.

-( Phendua,^ the hammerer of iron. Sahmbahang. Ssahoden, born in famine time.

^Thup-yumah, name of a place.

Septs. <•

Nagen. Nermah. Nogo. Palu. Parkhari. F^atalang. Pekhd. Petungbah. Phalechhuah. Pheyak. Ponthak. Samwah. Sangbah. Sanjokmah. Satling. Seduah. Sekwahdeng. Sene. Singjangkuk. Smgjuk. Sukhong. Sukwabah. Taijaung. • ilding.

T°"Sb(ngboha. ^mkohong. Yone--' ° igyah.

, ' This th.. the spot -Hrhere

ar claims to be terra Jilii< and point out 1, re their founder spraug from the earth * ^^'^ ^^^ which covers

rhis thar « as formerly the blacksmiths of fi . • "t the tnbe.

LOHAE. 93

^oh^l-, K< amar.

Titles:—Mistri, R4ut, Th^kur.

Sub-casles. In Behar—

Kanaujid. Kokds. Maghaya. Kamdr Kalla. Mahur or Mahuiiya. Mathuriyd. Kamid, immigrants from

Nepal.

-§

IS

-a

In Santdl Pargands— Birbhumid. Govindpurifi. Shergarhia.

In Lohardagd— Manjhai-Turiya. Munda-LohSr. Sad-Lohar. Sisutbansi Lohana,

dia.

Sections.

Asesmegiirdm. Baswarid. Begsarid. Bermdn. BhSkur. Biskarmd. Bunichhor. Chausdhd. Damdaria. Dhakanii. Gungambhir. Kamtariei. Kantithia. Kdsyapa. Kathar. Kathautid. Kissaurid. Kukurjhampar. Kulthars Mallik Pahlampuri. Pdnre. R^ne. Sabri. Sdmil Thdkur. Sangiri Thdkur. Sarvvat. Sonaman. SupdhS. / Udhmatia.

.Sdirishi, sff/Bsh.

Lohon-

/« Banhira— Angaria. Gobra-Jhetia. pansil'

94 LOHAR.

Sub-castes. Sections.

In Manbhum— Lobar Manjhi. Danda-Manjhi. Bagdi-Lobar.

Sub-tribes. Totcmistic septs in Chota Nagpur.

Bagh, tiger. Ban, a kind of eel. Bando, wild cat, makes a loud noise

at night. Bdns, bamboo. Baroha. Beloar, fruit. Besra, a hawk. Bhengraj, kingorow. Bhutkuar. Bodra. Bukru. Chouria. Churuar. Demta, red tree-ant Dhan, rice soup forhiddeu Dunnria, fig. Gal nt war. Goloar, sweet potato Gunj, a kind of fruit. Hardi, turmeric. Hastuar. Hatti, elephant. Hemrom.

'nduar,akindofeel ^Jalwar, net. Kachua, tortoise.

Kae,hoar,ao.„yveg.tabU.

Kamal, lotus.

Karkusa, a bird. Kaua, crow. Kerketta, a bird,

LOHAE. 90

Sub-tribes. Totemistic septs in Chota Nagpur.

Kisnot, a tribe. Koed, a wild beast. Kons, grass. Kusuar, a river-fish. Lalihar, a bird. Lumr ia , a fox. Maelwar. Maghaia, a place. Maghnia. Mahili Munda, a tribe. Mahili, a tribe. Mormu, deer. Mutr iar . NSg, cobra. P^nru, a snake. Phutka, vegetable. Purti. Retha, fruit. Runda, awUdcat. San, heron. Sandh, bullock. Sangalv/ar. Saur, a fish. Semanohangiar. Sonaome. Sonbesra, a bird. Son Maghia. Son Tirki. Suia, a small bird. Tirki, can't touch any animals

after their eyes open. Topoar, a bird. Udwar, a water-cat.

Sub-caste8 Sections.

Bisw^s-Madak. Alamydn. Jati-Madak. Bharadw^ja. iVIadhu-Madak. Kasyapa. Relati-Madak. Maudgalya.

Pardsara. ' - " S^ndilya.

M All ILL 97

Sub-castos.

Seotious of the Mahili-Muiida sub-caste.

Sections.

Goondii, a kiud of grain, forbidden. Hansda or Hasdagiar, wild goose. Hemron. Induar, a kind of eel. Kantuar or Kanti, ear.' KarkusS. Khangar. Khariar. Katharg^ch, jack fruit tree. Kerketa, a kind of bird. Kundiar. Mahukal, abird; its long tail. Mandriar. Marri.2 Murmuar, nilgao. Patariar. Pilua, a caterpillar. Rondiar. Sarihin. Sil l i . Tapaer, a bird. Taw. Tirki, bull. Tunduar. Turu, grass, cotton, fruit or seed. Tutiear.

f BhuktuSr. < Lang Chenre. ( Sanga.

' Members of the Kantuar section maj not eat the ear of any animal. = Members of the Marri section do not allow their married daughters to

enter thoir ho^iscs.

Titles:—Haldar, Khamid, WlachhuS, Manjhi

Sub-castes. Sections.

Dhalid ) Gobra • Khera Bajbansi Sanaganth^

I n Uaukura.

Dhunak^ti Rajbansi Sapuryd or

Bediya-Mal.

Tung^

>In Miduapur and Manbhum.

Fenga, a bird. Garur, adjutant. Ghatu, a bird. Kach hap, tortoise. Nag, snake.

Patrishi, bird. Penkal-machh, fisli. Sal-machh, fish. "

96 MAGH.

S'^HK Mag. Sub-tribes. o

Maramapri D^ : I y^'-fiividgn. Ohingnsa. Maramagri, R^jbansi Bhuiya Magh.

Barua or

Sub-oaste. Oasa.

<^ahcBvi.

Hroimajusa. Kaukdaintsa. Keophasa. Kogdengsa. Kolasa. Krong Khyungtsa. Kwiniusa. Kyaukmatsa. Kyaukpiatsa. Mahlaingtsa. Marotsa. Ora. Palalnggritsa. Palaingtsa. Pal4sa. Phrangroatsa. Rigretsa. Saboktsa. Taingchait. Uengsa. Wadsuesa. Waientsa.

Sections.

Palaur. L^bna Janwdr. ^" '" '^ '^ KSbra. Baoti.

• «urri •^urkia. Kalifini.

Sub-cabtes. Bansphor-Mahili, Mahili-Munda. P^tai-Mahih. Sulunkhi-Mahili, ^^fiti-Mahili,

TitIes:-Manjhi,Mahoto. Sections.

^hardhaeia

'98 MAL.

Sub-castes. Khuturid Mallik Rajbansl Desw^r Magahlyd Raj bans!

R4jd-Mal Rarhi-M&l Slndur^

!••

Sections.

Birbhum.

or In the Santdl Par-

ganfes.

/Ki le Samarid-MdU, Saurid, Samr Pahdrid, Sdmil Pahdrid, * Asal Pahdrid, Sangi.

^iVi, Mdlakdr, PhuJmdli.

Title:—Riut (mBehar).

Snb-castcs. (fl) In Bengal—

Phulk4td-M4li

Dokdne-Mdii.

(J>) In Behar— None.

' 1 . Rdrhi. 2. Bdrendra.

.3. Athghari^.

Sections, (a) In Bengal—

Alamydn. Kasyapa. Maudgalya. S4ndilya.

(6) In Behar— Bhandari. Mallik.

^i\S, Mdh.Pdtni.

Titles:-Bepiri, d^liyi, J4lo, Jalw^, M^njhi, P4tra.

gnb-r-aste. Sections. None. Alim^n.

Banar^si. Bangas-rasi. Bharan-rasl. Khonr^-rasi. Kartik-rSsi. Kulin-rasi. ^esh-rasi. Padma-rasi. ^^"yi-rasi. Singh-rasi. Sib-rasi. Udadhl.

MAL PAHAEIA. 99-

Titles:—Minjhi, Ndik, Sarddr.

Sub-tribes. Kumdr or Komar-Bhdg. Mil Pahirid proper.

Septs. 1

Ahriti, hunters. Dehriti, priests. Grihi, householders. Manjhi, village headman. Pdtra. Pujhor, priests. Sikddr.

' The names of the septs are said to denote the original occupations of their members at the time when exogamy was introduced. The Male tribe, of which, according to Buchanan, the Mdl Pahdrias are an offshoot, have no exogamous divisions.

Snb-tribes.

Athdrdh Panth. Burithoki. Gharti. Sakhali.

( ^ m g a t , Maffur, Thomi.

Titles :—Rdnd, Sing, Thdpa. Thars or septs.

Achami.i Agri. Aleh, Allia.i Arghaunle (?). Bareya. Bhujal. Braili. Brangplagi.i Bydngnasi. Charmi.Chermi (?), Chitauria(?). Chumi. Darnal. Darra.Limi. Datt.-Devapiti. Dhamala. Dhanuki. Dukhchaki. Gacha. Gadaili. Gadal. Gajamer. Gandharma (?)• G e l W . Ghali.

Ghatani. Ghatraj. Gonda. Grdnja. Gurmachhan. Gydngmi. Halo. tihdngdi. Jhdri (?). Kairila. Kalalohdr. Keli. Kiiapang!, Khaptari. Khati. KhulaL Krubchhdgi.* Kydgchhdgi,^ Lahakpd. Lakandri. Lamgadeh. Ldmichanya. Lamjal. Lha-yo.i Lolidgun. Lungyeli.i

1 These seven thars, besides one not known, are called the Bira Mangar, and h M , tiUc of Thipft. • °°"* tha

7 a

100 1

Sub-tribes. Thars or

Magrathi.i Marsydngdi. Mdski.

, Meng. Namjdli. Pachain(?). Panthi. Parbateh. Phyuyali. Pithdkoteh.i Pongwar.i Puldmi.i Pun. Pung. PusdI. Rahapal. Rakhal. Rasaili. Rijal. Sabkota.

MAN'GAE,

septs.

Saddsankar. Sardngi. Sdru. Setisurwdl. Sheo. Sijapati (?). Sincheuli. Singauri. • Sinjali. Sithung. Sripdli. Sundrl. Surya Vansi. Suydl. Tdlu. Thdda. Thokchdki. Toringrapd. Yangdi. Ydngmi.

1 Those four (Aai-J, besides one not Vnown, are called tho B&ra Mangar, and hold thu title of Thfipa.

^ t , Mdhoe Rajptd.

Sub-castp.

Nil.

Scctioub. Aind, eel. Gandharb. Kdsi. Paras.

^aulilt, Liyd, NayL

Title :-Bhumphor, peculiar to the Mai sub-caste.

Sub-castes.

Chandana. Hariydn or Jehanya-Mai or Mdr. Saunyd. , Rajbansi I Call themselves Deobansi Hindus.

Sections.

Belawahari, tree-rat. DOro samp, rock-snake. Dud hi a, snake. Rikhidsan or Pdtrisii

described as a srnaU rod biid with a long tail.

MAYARA. 101

'ftltgltVJi, Modak, Maird, Kuri.

Titles:—Alsh, Chandra, Datta, Bardt, De, Ddn, Gui, Indi, Uha, N^g, Nandi, Rakhit, Raj.

Sub-castes.

In Central Bengal—

Rarh-^sram. Mayur-asrann. Aja-Ssram. Dharm-asram or

Dharm-Sut.

In Dacca—

Ekpatid. Dopatia.

Sections.

Alamy&n. Bharadwdja. Chandrarishi Debrishi. iVIadhurishi. Kasyapa. Gautann. IVlajurrishi. Ganesrishi. Nagrishi. Sandilya. Somrishi.

(i?lC£h, Mechi.

Sub-tribes.

(a) In Darjiling—

Agnid-Mech. Jati-Mech.

(6) In Assam —

AgniS-Mech. Assann-Mech. Kachra-Mech. Thampai-Mech.

Septs of tlio A gnia sub-tribe.

Bannoda. Bosmath^. Chhongphthdng. Chongphran. isare. Kuktaiare. Modihire. Narjendre. Nobaiare. Phadam. Sabaiare. Sibingare.

102 - MUCHI.

JKuchi, Bisht, Rishiputra, Nishi.

Titles:—Darshan, Muchiram D^s, Patrad^s, Ruid^s, Sparshan.

Sections.'

Kasyapa. S&ndilya.

Sub-castes.

Chhota-bh^glyS. Chasa-Kurur or Chdsd-Kolai. Betua. dugi-Muchi or Kord. Baital. Kurur. Malabhumia. Sabarkar&. Sanki.

' These are not esogamous, and no sub-caste appears to have more tliau one section, Kasyapa or aundilya, as the case may be.

(|fl\mba, Mura, Soro'hon.

Titles:—Bhuinhar, Dhangar, Kol, Konkpat, Mahato, Manki, Nagbansi.

Sub-tribes.

Bhulnhar-Munda. Karangi-Munda. Khangar-Munda. Kharid-Munda. Kol-Munda. Konkpat-Munda. Mahalf-Munda. Mdnki-Munda. Munda-Minjhi. N^gbansi-Munda. Oraon-Munda. Sad-Munda. Savar-Munda.

Septs.

Aind, a kind of eel. Amba, mango. Ambras, a fruit. Area, a kind of fish. Aru, yam. Arul. Ashar, a month—June. Asur Lohara. Aura, fruit. Baba, rice. Bage, anything forbidden Bagear, tiger. * Baghela, quail. Baghtuar, a devotee Bahera, a fruit. ' • Bahomar.

MONDA. 103

Sub-tribes. Septs.

Balum, salt. Baman, may not touch or be touched by

a member of the Brahman caste. Banda, a kind of leaf. Bando, small jackal. Bar, Ficus Indies. Barabhaia, the twelve brothers' sept. Barha, hog. Bari, flower. Barjo, name of an ancestor's village

some miles south of Ilanchi. Barjoki, fig tree root. Baria, a fruit. Barukandal, the kussum tree. Barunda, a big frog. Barupendil, kussum tree. Barwa, small cocoon. Basaroar, a kind of small hawk. Batkuar, a bird. Beng, frog. Besra, small hawk. Bhaji s ag , vegetable. Bhaonra, a large black bee or hornet. Bhengra, a horse. Bhingraj, kingcrow. Bhinjo, a yellow bird. Bhuina. Bhutkuar. Bihan, seed. Binha. Binjuar, a kind of eel. Bis rot. Bisru, a kind of bird. Bocho, a bird. Bodra, the ancestors of this sept did not

wash their mouths after eating Bojra, a kind of grass. Budh or Budhwar, Wednesday. Buim, aworm. Bukru, a kind of bird. Chadil , place of worship of a head

man. Chadu, a kind of bird.

• Chali, rice soup. Champia, a bird. Chata, umbrella. Chauria, rats. Chelekchela, a small bird. Chilhia, kite. Chirko, mushroom.

I ' i j

104 MUNDA.

Siib-tribes. . Septs.

Chitt i , a kind, of snake. Chocha, a bird. Chota , a kind of bird. Chutia , a small rat. Dang, a big stick. Dahanga , torcb-bearer. Dangarwar . Dauru. Demta, red tree-ant. Dhan, paddy. To this sept rice and

rice soup are forbidden; they eat only gondii or millet.

Dhechua, a kind of black bird, Dhelakata, a kind of tree. Dirwar, a -wood fruit. Dobongwar. Dodrai , a kind of bird. Dub Sag, vegetable. Dumrfar, figs. Dundu, a kind of eel. Dungdung, a river-fish. Dura, a fruit. Ergat, a kind of mouse which lives in

plum bushes. Gandura, a big bird. Garabing, a big river-snake. Gari , a monkey. Garr ia , a kind of bird. Ghager, field bird. Ghi, clarified butter. Ghunri, a kind of fruit. Gidh, a vulture. Gobolachan, may not eat beef. Gondii, a kind of grain. Goria, red earth. Gua, areoa nut. Gundki, a kind of wood. Gundri, a bu-d, Gurni, a kind of vegetable. Guru, may not eat beef. Habin, a tree. Hadung, big black tree-ant. Hajeri, a kind of tree or bush Haluman, monkey. Han, nest of ants. Hanjait , a wild fruit. Hanre, a bird, Hansa, swan. Hanthi, elephant. Ha rdwar .

MUNDA. 105

Sub-«ribe9. Sept<!.

H argil rra, bone. Hari, aDcestors did not wash their

mouths after eating. Harin, deer. Hasada. HasarS. Hassa ara, a hind of vegetable. Hausakar. Heding, a bird. Hembowar, ancestor. Hemram, a kiud of fish. Hemromi, ashes. Heride, a bird. Herung, a kind of bird. Hoduar, a bird. Homjah. Hcng, a kind of bird with a long tail. Horia, a wood bush. Horo, a red ant on tree. Hularbaha, a flower used to flavour

curry. Hundar, wolf. Huni, mouse. Hutar. Imli, tamarind. Indur katea, house-rat Ingaria, moonhght. Jagdar. J ago, tamarind. Jamtuti, a kind of grain or vegetable, dangatras, the bone of a cow. datrama. J atria. dhuri, dried bubhes. d ia, a river-fish, dirhul, a flower, used for curry, ditiapipar, a kiud of fruit. donk Haper, leech. Kachhua, tortoise. Kakin, aunt. Kamal, lotus. Kanda, a kind of sweet potato. Kandir, a bird. Kandru, fish. Kandurua, a fruit. Karania, a kussum tree. Karma, a tree. Katea, a field-mouse. Kaua, crov?. Kawnria, a water-snake.

106 MUNDA.

Sub-tribos. Septa.

Kera, plantain. Kerketa, a hird. Khandania. Khondua. Khoyea, a wild dog with a long tail Khukri, a kind of mushroom. Kiri, rice weevil. Kissi. Koa, cocoon. Kodosag, a kind of water vegetahle. Kongaddi, crow. Kotah kaisi, a small vulture. Kujri, a fruit from which oil is made. Kufeur, dog. Kukura. Kundiila. Kurkuti, red ant. Kursi, fruit. Kusumbaha, kussum flower. Lang, a kind of bird. Lapung, a small hird. Larapa, monkey-eater Larsunar. Lenda, earthworm. Li 11 a, a wild cow. Lipo, a tree. Litiya, a hird. Logna Kotra, small deer, Logo, a kind of animal. Lohrakhukhri, a kind of mushroom. Longa, a hirdwith a long tnil. Lugniar, rabhit. Lugum, a tree. Lugun, a tree. Lugunki. Lupu, paddy husks. Luti, small black fly. Machli, fish. Madhuras, honey. Mahukal, a hird. Maina, a hird. Mar, new rice soup. IVlarmu. (Vlatha Sag, a kind of vegetahle Mathia.hruss bracelet ^^''^^' IVlaugh, fish. JVlind. Minjur. peacock. Mowl. Muduk.

MUNDA. 107

Snb-tribe3. Septs.

Mundoraj, a tree. Mundri', quail. Munga Sag, a kind of vegetable. Munri, fried rice. Murum, stag. Muri, a wild fowl. Musa or Musu, mouse. Mutri. Nadi Samp, a river-snake. NAg, cotra. Nagduar, a water-insect. Nagrua, a kiad of mud. Nimak, salt. Nois. Oaria, verandah. Orea, basket-maker. Pakhora. Pamia, a tree. Pandar, a tree. Panduchone. Panduki, dove. Pankhi, a bird. Panr, a tribe. Pardhiel kokaw. Parsi, a tree. Parsu, a bush. Peo, a bird. Peroan, pigeon. Phurti. Phuti, a rainbow. Pikord, a bird. Porti, crocodile. Pussi, cat. Putam, dove. Raja, a bird. Ramgharia. Rani Poka, a red worm. Raut, the Eautia caste. Rugri, a kind of mushroom. Rukhi, equirrel. Runda, leopard. Ruta, a tree. Sadom, horse. Sailum, porcupine. Saisarunduar. Sal, a big pond-fish. Salkar, a kind of potato. Salu, a root in pond. Samal or Samar, deer. Samdoar.

108 MUNDA.

Sub-lribe9. Sopts.

Sand i , plough. Sandigur ia , black monkey. Sandi l , full moon. Sandipur t i , cock. Sandi Sar in , fowl. Sanga , sweet potato. Sang Chir ia , a kind of bird. Sangoar , sweet potato. Sankura , kingorow. Sanpur i , a resident of Sanpur. Sa ra i , a tree. Sa rna r , a curry vegetable. Semarkanda , root. Sengra, horse. Seornia . Serhar , a kind of bird. Se tampa , dog-eater. Sev/ar, moss. S i a r Tuyio , jackal. S ikcha ro , a bird. S ikra , hawk. Sindur, vermilion. Singh, horn. Sisungi, a kind of fish. Soa , a kind of vegetable. Soa i , a bird. Sobarna rekha , name of a river three

miles east from Ranchi. Soeka, a wood bush. Sohek, a kind of fish. Soi , spring. Sokoe , a kind of fruit. Sola i , fish. Sona rwa , a bird. Sone, may not wear gold. Sonkhar ihan , a place where they

worship before cutting grain. Son Maghia . S o s o bheioa, a fruit. Suga, parrot. Sukru, potato. Su lankhi , a kind of bird. Surh i , a wood-cow. Sur i , fly.

^ Deot^^' " ° ' ^''^'^'^^' the Churin Surin. S u s a n . Ta i t um. T a m b ^ . copper.

MUNDA. 109

Sub-tribos. Septs.

Tamgarihar. Tamghuria. Tarwar, may not touch a sword. Tatia, a kind of bird. Telia, a tree. Tewan raja, a kind of bird. Thithio, a bird with long legs. Tirango, a wood-bird. Tirki, a bird.

. Tirkiar, tree-mice. Tiro, a small bird. Tirtia, a bird. Tiru, a kind of bird. Tiruhar, a kind of bird. Toeba, flower oipartk tree. Toewa, a kind of bird. Tongs i, a bird. Tono, a big tree-ant. Topna, tree. Topoar, a bird. Tow, a kind of bird. Tulsiar, a kind of flower. Tumbli, a red flying-ant. Tunduar, a tree. Turania. Tursia. Turu, squirrel. Turuar, a fruit—kussum. Tuti, a kind of vegetable. Uchring, an insect. Udbarn, a tree, the oil of which is not

used by members of the sept. Urdwar. Uring, a wild bu-d.

c^Utmi, Tamang, Mang, Sain.

Sub-caslc. Sections

Ifil. Baiba. Gabag. Baju. Galan. Bal. Ganthen. Baitong. Ghale. Bomjan. Ghising. Bulun. Gole. Chapen Khor. Gomdan. Chunni. Gongba. Dumjan. Gothar.

110

Sub-caste.

MURMI

Sections.

_, * / •

Grandan. Hopthen. J imba. Jongan. Khani Khor. Kitung. Khungba. Kulden. Lama Khor. Lo. Lopchan. Marmunba. Mekchan. Moktan. Ni rba.

Neki, Nesur. Pakhrin. Rumb^. Sangba. Sangdan. Sherba Khor. Singar. Singden. Songden. Thing. Thokar. Titung. Tuban.

^US^hi tV, Mmhar, Bhuiy&.

Titles:— Manjhi, Sada .

Sub-castes.

Bahtaw^r. Chanrwar. Chiksauria. Dhar. Kanaujid. Maghaiy^ or

Deswar. Nathua. PachhmS. Suraji i . Tirhutia.

Of the Chanr-war sub-caste.

Sections. ) Ghurmutna.

Of the Chiksfiu-ria Bub-caste.

Giari. Kanghatta. Kosilwar.

• Mahatwar. Patwdri. Phulwar.

i^Sonwahi.

rBa lakmuni . Daitinia.

I Gohlaut. Of the Magahiyd<i Pai l .

Bub-caste.

Of the Tirhutia sub-caste.

Rikh-mun, Rishi-muni.

[^Tisbaria.

Bdnsghit Pahadi-nagar.

Dhanharia. < Sarpurkhd—

Chakbaria. Kasmeta.

[ Martaria.

MDSAHAK. I l l

Sub-castes. Sections. Baiy^r. Balgachhia. Batwar or Batwari. Bhachhuar. Bhakhiasin. Bhuiydr. Churihdr. Dhangpatid. Diar. Dodhudr or Dodwdr. Gaur'iA. Genduci. Gibhdri. Kasyap. Khatdhdr. Mehariya. Mandwir. Sandhod. Sondhudr. Suruar. Tikait Bhogta. Uiauria. Upwariya.

S^QAV.

Titles :—Biswds, Chaudhri, Langi, Mahdrdnd, PanjiSr, Panch-ndma-Mandar, R&ut.

Sub-castes. Section.

Jethaut. Kdsyapa. Pulauns. Ndgbansi. Kathautid. Bhatndgar.

^agCfiiir, Ndgasid, Eisdn,

Title:—Ban-Ganjhu. Sub-tribes, Septs.

Sendara-Nagasia, use sindur at Amba, mango. marriage. Baria, Ficus Indica.

Telia-Nagasia, use oil instead of Dhanki. sindur at marriages. induar, a kind of eel.

Mahto, a kind of eel. Manjhi, a title. Ndg, cobra. Sonwani, can't wear gold. Taitia. Tirkii a bull.

112 JNAIYA.

S.ub-ea>to.

Ml.

Sim^. Title:—Pujaha.

Sections.

Bhula. Chilkhor. Dhankoi. Kulkhwar. Yah i an.

Jlipit, Mi Naud.

Titles :—Blrik, Bhandari, Baidya,' Chandra-baidya,' Das, Khyaurakar, Khan, Nara-Sundar, Nandi, Paramanik, Sn, Biswas, Mazumdar, Mandal, Shaha, Sarkar, Shikdar, oardar.

Sub-castes.

Anarpuri&. ^ Banrtanbane. B^rendra. Uttar-rdrhi. Dakshin-rarhi. Paschim-rdrhi. Mahmudab^z ' Saptagrdm. Satgharia. Phul-Napit.

In Noak/iali— Bhulua-NapiT. Sundipa-N&pit.

In the 2i-Parijan<is— Haldar-Par^manik. Kola-Par^minik. Hansadaha-ParamSn i k. Mujganji-Par^m^nik. Khotti. '•'

Sections.

Alannyfin. Gargrishi. Kasyapa. Madhukuliya. Maudgalya. Sandiiya.

fBhagaban. Daibaki. Uadab-Madhab. Kanai-Madan.

r^ 6

^ ° ^ ^

" - Mahamanda lo >g I Rann. O cC Raghab.

Rajib. t.Siva.

' These titles are borne only by Napits who practise medicine. - A few cases have occurred ot marriages between members of these

groups, but the breach of rale had m each lustauce to be expiated by giving a feast to the community. „.>,„-„ „ i , i_ii i • T> i C

=• A desi'^natiou ot up-country baibors who luive settled in Bengal. Such persons nractically form a separate sub-caste as Beugali barbers will not inlennarry with therrx, and' they are regarded (ts-impure by the barbers of Upper India and BeluvrJ»y reason of tlioir liaving (iakcn up their residence in Bi-ngal. * K & r ..'•'•

Is'UNIA. 113

<^Uni^, Lwitd, Nonujiin, Niingalid.

Titles :—BeIddr, Chdimardr, Chaudhrr, Jamaddr, Mahdtmd Mahton, Mandar, Mardr, Mihtar, Raut. '

Sub-castes.

Awadhiaor Ayodhiabasi. Bhojpurid. Kharaont. Maghayd. Orh. PachainyA or Chauhan. Semarwar.

Sections,

(a) Totemistic—

Andhigot. Jamgot. Ndg. Pechgot. Phulgot.

b) Eponymous— Bachgot. Bdghgot. Kdchhgot. Kdsyapa.

Sub-tribes.

Berga-Oraon. Dhanka-Oraon. Kharia-Oraon. Khendro-Oraon. Munda-Oraon.

with thorns on its

ru»hh.

Titles:—Dhangar, Kol, Parjd.

Septs. Amri , rice soup. Bagh, tiger. Bandh. Bando, a wild cat which barts at ni. Bakula, paddy-bird. ' Bar, Ficus Indica. Barwa, a wild dog. Basa, a tree. Bekh, Bait. Beanh, a large fish

back. Bhakla. Chigah, a jackal. Ch i rra, a squirrel. Chouria Musa, field-rat. Dhan, rice soup forbidden. Dhechua, kingcrow. Dirra, a kind of eel. Dom Khakha, a raven. Ekka, tortoise. Ergo, a rat. Gari, monkey. Garwe, a stork.

,, Gede, a duck. v Gidhl, a vulture;

Gislihi, abird. Godo, crocodile.

:hf.

I

114 OK AON,

Sub-tribes. Septs.

Golaia. Gondrari, a tree. Induar, a kind of eel. Kachua, tortoise. Kaith, curry vegetable. Kanda, sweet potato. Kaua, crow. Kendi, a tree. Kenu, a fish. Keond, a fruit. Kerketa, a bird which makes a noise

like " ket ket." Khalkhoa, cannot eat fish caught by

baling water out of a tank or pool. Kheksa, curry vegetable. Khes, cannot eat plants that grow in

ponds. Khetta, a cobra. Khoepa, a wild dog. Kinda, a date palm. Kispotta, pig's entrails. Kosuar, a kind of fish. Kujur, a fruit used to stain the horns

of cattle at the Sohrai festival. Kundri, curry vegetable. Kusuwa, a fish. Lakra, a hyena. Li la, a kind of fish. Linda, an eel. Loha, iron. Mahato, a title. Minji, a kind of eel. Munjniar, a wild creeper. Murga, cock. Nagbans, cobra. Orgonra, a hawk. Pusra, fruit of kusum tree. Putri, a tree. Rori, a fruit or tree. Runda, a fox. S&l, fish. Sarno. Suar, hog. Tig Hanuman, monkey. Tirki, young mice. Tirkuar, fruit. Tirtia. Tiru, a kind oC fi^h. Topoar, a bird with a long tail, and

bod'j! mottled ^lack and white.

OSWAL. 115

Sub-castes. Oswai DasS.

©Stoil, Vswdl.

Titles:—Chind, Dis, Dosi, U b , Singh.

proper.

« j

Sections. Baid. Baidmota. Chajia. Chaudalia. Chopra. Chur^liye. Dhdriwar. Gelra. Golchid. Hinga. •Jambar. M^lkas. Methi. Nakat. Nolka.

^ a n k a . Saitiya. Set or Seth. Sil. Singhi. Soni. Srimal. Srisrimal. Suchait.

iiin, Pdnwa, Pdnr, Pab, Pdiiika, CM; Chik-Bardik Ti. i Mahato, (janda, Smcmi, Tdnti ' ^"""^'

Sub-castes. In Manblntm—

Baraik.

In Lohardaguand Sarguja-Chikor Chik-Baraik. Sawasior Tanti. Ganda.

In Orissa— Orh-Pan or Uriya-Pan. Buna-Pan. 0etra-Panor R^jPfin.. Patradia- _ ! .

M it^A ^ f

Sections. Aind, a kind of eel. Babunhathia. Bagh \ ^ .. Baghel j a tiger. Bagti. Bail. Bajar. Balbandhi. Bajeswar or Balasore. Bando, small wild cat. Banjor. Bar, Ficm Indica. Barabih^. Bardi. Bariaro.

8 a

116 PAN.

Sections. Bel, a fruit. Beniaro, frog. Benkurd. Besra, a email havfk. Bhaisa, buffalo. Bhanjor. Bhata, brinjal. Bir4ri a cat. Bordi. Buru. Cherabesari. Cherchete, a shrub jungle. Chik, a tribe. Ch ownr, yak's tail. Dan d pat i. Disabigha. Dasbiha. Daskaria, wUd fowl. Demta, a red tree-ant. Dhondh, a -water-snake. Dhunkro. Dond-Chatra. Gajbanli. Ghogor. Ghordbach. Goal, cow. Hekoria, tomato. Hunjar. Hurjor. Jia. Kachua, tortoise. Kansi, a grass. Karunjua, a big black bird. Kaua, crow. Kesarari. Kesrd, rahar dal. Khechinjid. Khutibaran. Kirki. Kukuria. Kulhai. Kulhasia. Kunjakuli. Kunjasiri. Kurai. Kusum, a fruit.' Kutunjid. Loha, iron. Lowa. Machiwar.

PAN. 117

Sections.

Mahdnadia, name of a river. Mahatoar, a title. Mahua, bassia latifoUa. Malua. Maraii •wood-louse. Mayur, peacock. Mechari. MongrK Mudu. Mul. Murchulia. Mus, Musa, rat. l^^^, cobra. Padowaf. Panchbiha, Panchbhia. Panchhiah. Purti.

,R4Jbansia. Rajhasia, swan. Raotia, crab. Renta. Saonsia. Saruan. Saul, a fish. Sikra, hawk. Silli, a place. Sindhikuria, bull's hoi-n. Sing, horn. Singhi, fish. Sinjhikaria. Sonamati. Sonkharika. Sonkoko. Totabari. Urmakhori. Urmakuli.

^ar^h*, Tai'ig^^

Sub-castes. , Sections. .^

1, Sup&-Pargha. Kumar. P^tar. 2. paliySr-ParghH, Mfinjhi. Rai.

Marar. Raut. V Marik. Siyar. * Ojha.^

118 PAEHAIYA.

Titles :—Kheroar, Ganju, Manjhi.

Sub-tribe. Septs. ^ Nil. B^g, tiger.

Gachai. Gidh, vulture. Fanig&, graashopper. Kau^, crow. Main^, a bird. N&g, cobra. Ophia. Tetenga, bloodsucker.

Title:—Mahato. Sub-castes. Section.

K&syapa. 1. By&dh&. 2. Gaiduha. 3. Kamani. 4. TirsuliS.

Turk (Mabomedan).

IJatui, Pdtuni, Pafauni, Dom-Pdtni.

Titles .-—Gangiputra, Gh4t-M^njhi, Manjhi, Pradh^n.

Sub-castes. 1. Jat-Patni. 2. Ghat-Patni, Balami <^^

Ghatwal. 3. Dom-Patni, Machhwi °^

Nagarchi. 4. Bansphor. 5. Dagara.

Sections. (c) Territorial—

Bhadragh^t. Jhinid. Kal^achi. Kaliwala. Naskarpur^. Paramdnik. Prdchir. Raipur. Saidabad. Satta.

Tentulia.

b) Eponyinous—

Alyaman. patOl,

Title:—Mahto. Sub-tribe.

Nil. Septs.

Bhengraj, kingcrow. Charak, a festival. Kachua, tortoise. Katuri Kerwari, a tribe.

PATOK. 119

Sub-tribe. Septs.

Maitbukru, place where ho buries his bones, being his ancestral birthplace.

Nag, cobra. Samatti. Sandilai. Sarihin. Silli, place where he buries his bones,

being his ancestral birthplace. Taw.

I^Ob, Padmaraj, C/idsi.

Titles:—Baidya, Biswds, Hdldar, Kaydl, Laskar, Mandal. Mistri, Pdik, Pdtra, Pundari Kdkhya, Sapul, Sarkdr.

Sub-castos.

Bdgande. Bangld. Chasi-Pod. Kliott4 or Maun4. Uriya.

Sections.

Alamydn. Dhdnesri. Kasyapa. Maudgalya or Madhu

Kulya.

'^ijpiXt, Kihatriya, Chhatriot Chhetri, Bdhtija, Bhupal, Bhupati, Bhusur.

Titles:—Bdbu, Baraik, Barman, Khdn, Malik, Mandal R^; Raut, Samant, Singh, Sipahi, Thakur. '

Sub-tribes.

In Behar— Suryabansi, Surajbansi.

Septs.

Amaithia. Baghail or Baghel. Barahi. Baraia. Bargdir. Besain.i Bhadarid. Bharsurid. Birwa. Chandall.

Chaubaria. Chaubnan.' Dandwar. Gaharwar. Gautam. Harihobans. Jasatbar. Kachhwah. Kakan. Kanwar.

> Besfiin Chaublmn, and Maliraur cannot intermarry, being su„,,n, A be descended from thp same ancestor. ''"Ppoaed to

120 EAJPUT.

Sub-tribes. Septs.

Chandrabansl. Sombansi.

Karnwir. Khati. Kinwir. Kulchulid. Kulharia. Kurminia-Maulwar. Nikumbh. Nimundih. Pamar. Parihar. Raghubansi. Rahtaur. Raks^in-Ran^.

Agnili-:iJl. Bhojpuria. Jadubansi,

In Chota Nappur— Malwe or Mar-Rftjpui

Ranauni. Sdngir. Sarni i . Sirnait. Sirnia. Sisodhi i . Somw&r. Sukalnaki. Sukarb^r. Surkhi. Surwir. Tarwar. Tilaut^. Tongar. Ujain. Bais. Banaudhi^. Barn^r. Budhbansi. Damarwdr. Dangar. Eh./Xr. Gahlaut. Kailw^r. Kapur. Kausik. Kusbansi. Mahraur.^ Narauni. Nauthni or Lautni. Nis^n. Oh-Ar. Sabarnid. Sakarw^r. Sengar. Subansi. Sulankhi. Tekha. Tet i i .

Chaudhri^. Mahto. P^ali.

' ~ ^ ^ ^ ; ^ ; ^ a u b h d n : and Mabraur cannot intermarry, being supposed to be descended from tbe same ancestor.

RAJPUT.

Sub-tribes. In Bardwan Division-— •

Balgori. Baradai. Mulki.

The following septs are common to in Behar:—

Gaudhania. Gauldni. Gaura. Gehuan^. Hard. Hudda. Jadan. Jadawdr. Jadubansi. Kachnarid. Kakir. kdlhans. Kamar. Kanakwar. Kandwar. Karangarhyi, Karcholii. Karjhulid. Karmwdr. Karsa. J<hdnni. Kliarbahia. Khdt. Khechar. Korwar. Kuchhaina. Kukd. Kukurbans. Kundail. Kusbhab^ni. Lahtaur. Ldhulia. Lakat. Lohtami^. Lukum. Madhwal. Mahudr. Mandiar. Maralbai. Marhwar. Mariar. Maunachh.

121

Septs.

Ahir-Paik. Ataid. Athral. Bachhil. Banampur. Bandphar. Bardhii. Bardia. Barhwatid. Barnid. Basbarid. Basharia. Beruar. Bhadanid. Bhalesultdn. Bhandari. Bharchuiha. Bhatgdind. Bhora. Bhuthd. Bichila. Bijhunid. Binrid. Bisokid. Bundeld. Chakwdn. Chalhuk. Dhdn. Dhaul. Dhekhd. Dhor. Dikshit. Don war. Dorowar. Durgbansi. Gdigwar. Gdin-Gajkesar. Gandhauria. Ganhwaria. Gargbansi. Garhwdr.

all the sub-tribes of E^jputs

Maunas. Mehra. Mehri. Mendru. Nagbainsi. Nimr i . Pachhanid. Pachtarid. Pailwdr. Pdlki. Phetid. Pundul. Purubansi. Rachhuani. Raikwdr. Rdjkuar. Rajwdr. Rekhaur. Raksel. Rankwdr. R.prah. Sankarwdr. Segul. Sihogid. Silewar. Sinduria. Singhinia. S'lrmaur. Sirnet. Sisonid. Sombansi. Sukulbans. Surnair. Taid. Tdmdr. T^nndn. Taunr. Tendun. Tiar. Tilakchandi. Ulit.

122 •i« • s r

'EAJPUT.

The IWjputs also use the Brahmanical gofvas or sections, of which the following are generally found in the caste:—

Baiaghrapad. Batsya. Bharadwdja.

Kasyapa. Kausika. Nag.

Parisara. Prasidha. Sandilya.

Title:—Sinha.

Sub-castes. Ddin& or Chau^n. Bain4. Sdr. Bigh^i or B&ghdI-

Sections.

mi.

PajlD^r, Rdjbansi.

Title : -Maha to .

Snb-castes.

Angrok or Angwar. Chapwdr. Sikharia. Sukulk^ra. Bar-Gohri \ Majhal-Turiy^l In Lohardagi.

* .

Sections.

Bhogta. Chapa. Ch i r ra, squirrel. Dorihar-jogl. Karhar, a fruit. Kasyapa. Katwar. Kharakwar. Lathaur. Loharatengi, Majhiya. Marr ik . Matwara. Nag, cobra. Rikhi, Sankw^. Singh.

EAUTIM 123^

Titles;—Bardik, Gaunjhu, Kotwdr.

Sub-caste.

1. Bar-Gohri. 2. Chhot-Gohri.

\

Sections (parts or got).

a) Totemistic— Aind, the eel. Karsul. Kashib, tortoise. Kks\, a kind of grass SaccJiarum

spontaneum ?). KfitoSr or Garur, vultiire. Kharak, sword. Kharia, blade of grass. Koy^, the wild dog. Manjar, cat. N ^ g , snake. Rukhi, squirrel. Sanwani. TSngi, an axe.

h\ Eponymous—

BSsudeo. Chandramani. Jogi. Kumar. IWanJhr. Sandilya. Siva.

(c) Territorial—

Baghel. Kanthwdr. Kharakw^r.

d) Uncertain—

Chatgohri. Kabar. Kherkoar. Kum. Kundil. Lachh. Lathaur. Suran.

124 • SADGOP.

§itbQOp, Satgop, C/idsd.

Titles:—B^kundi, Biswds, Dds, Ghosh, Konr, Neogy, Pal, Sarkdr, Sur.

Sub-castes. Sections.

(Of PaseHm Kuliyd.) Paschim Kuliya. Alamyan. P u r b b a K u l i y i j i S - , , . a ^ P ' - ^ .

Sand i lya.

HYPERGAMOUS DIVISIONS.

(a) 0/ (fie Paschim Kuliya sub-caste.

Kulin (BhaUd, Kdnkshe, Prahardj, Siur). S o m a j . P ra t iha r (Bangram and Gogram). Maulik.

(6) 0/ the Ptirbba Kuliya sicb-caste in Midnapur.

Kulin (Biswas, Neogi, Sur), Maulik.

(c) Of the Piirbba Kuliya sub-caste in Murshedabad.

Konr-Gop, who take their wives from other Sadgops, but give their daughters only in their own group.

^anlvhsri, Sa,'Mu, \uUnihmiK.

Titles:—Bandhu.Bhadra, Chandra, Das, Datta,Dhar, Kar, Kundu, N^g, Nandi, Sen, Sur.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Sara Bhagiya or Bikrampur Alyam^n. Sankhari. Brahmarishi.

Cliota Bhagiya or Sunargaon Gautama. Sankhdn Gargya.

Kasyapa. Madhukulya Mobrishya. '

;• Parasara. " Sandilya,

SANTAL.

^lintlil, Sdox/di; Kharwdr or Sn/d-IIor.

Titles:-Bund, Mandal, IVl^njhi, Pradh^n, Sarddr.

Sub-tribes:—DeswAIi Santdl, Kharwdr orSafa-Hor.

125

Sub-septs.

fNi j . • - ISada . ... mi.

Bundra. Kahu, crow. KSra, buffalo.

J Nij. - > S^da.

Sibala. Son.

LSung.

BarwSr. Chilbindhd, eagle-slayer. Jihu, a bird,

wild I Kerwar. < Mdnjhi-Khil.

Niiki-Khil. Nij. Roh-Lutur, ear-pierced. S6di.

fDantela, so called from their breeding pigs with very large tusks for sacrificial purposes.

Gua, areca nut. ,1 Jahur.

Hemrom, Hembaram, betei^ Kumar.

Septs.

Baski

Bediyd (sheep?)

Besrd, hawk ...

Chonre

Hansda, Hasdak, goose.

palm.

Kisku

Laher. Naika-Khil. Nij.

I Roh-Lutur, ear-pierced. LUh. rAbar.

Ah. 1 Kachua, tortoise. 1 L^t, bake meat in a leaf-platter. <( Nag, cobra.

Nij. Roh-Lutur. S^da. Somal, deer.

126 SANTAL,

Septs.

M&rndi, grass

Sub-septs.

fBuru-blrit, of the hills. I Kekra, crab. I Laher. j Nl^njhi-Khil. \ Niaki-Khil.

Nij. Roht, pdnjattn tree.

Murmu, nUgai

fBitdl. • Boar, fish,

Chope^r. Ganr, fort. Hindi, earthen vessel.

<( Muro. Nij. S i d i . Sangda. Sikiyi, a chain.

LTikka.

Pauria or Pauli i Nil.

''Barchi, epearmen. Hat. Jogi . U t .

Saren, the constellation , ,y,ypjju or Badar,adensejungle. Pleiades.

Tudu

Nij. S^nkh, conch shell. Sidup or Siduk, a bundle of

straw. \_Turku.

Agarid, charcoal-burners Chigi, Chiki, impale. Dantela breed pigs with very

oTs sacrificial pur-

Naiki-Khil. Nij.

. S^di!:"*"''' oar-pierced. LSung.

127

SANTAL.

Septs. Sub-septs.

Adeb. Aind, a kind of eel. Bansdeo.

^i^ril t , Srdwak, Srdmka.

Sub-caste. ' • Sectioas.

Nil. Adyeb. Ananta. Machli, fisL. Sandilya.

gavAogi,

Sub-caste.

Nil.

Sections.

Kastuwdl. Sogani. Kodar. Pdtni. Bhainsa. Chaunra. Soni. Gadiya. Dosi. Bakliwdl. Koter i . P^todi . Pandra. Sah. Kald. Barjatya. Bllala. Tariya. Papriwal. Ch^i^iwal. Janjhri. Paharia.

123 SAllNAKAE.

§l^tttttt;Jt, Seh-d, Sarna-Kdmdr.

Titles :—

Sub-castes. Sections.

BrShmandesi. Bharadwdja. Dakhin-Rdrhi. Kasyap. Khatangi. Sabanta-Rishi. Uttar-Rarhi, Sandilya.

Sarishi.

§;abar, Sabar, Satir, Sar, Sayar, Star, Swiri.

Sub-tribes. Septii.

Bendkar. (a) Totemistic— ^^ly^' Kdsibak, heron. g^".'- Sdlmachh, fish. Panra .

b) Eponymom— Gargarishi. Sdndilya.

§hcrpa-^ItOtia of Nepal, Khim, Sdlakhd, Nag-Chhanq Shakznno.

Bui, Thar or Septs.

Chah-ba. Dong-ba. Jing-ba. Mi nag-pa.

fBhindsd, S Bindsa, destroyed; occupier of a ' deserted village. ^

Goleg-pd, Go, a head, and kg, good ; the peaceful Manding, Jfan, medicine; a prtctiser of medicine

. Pang-Karmo, Pang, pasture, and Kal„TivT' Nah-Pd ...<; a dweller on pasture table lands. ' ' '^ '

Sdldk-khd, a merchant carrying on trade

' diffs. "'' ' '" ' ' ''" ' ' '""^'" ' ^ " ^ °° Tsegkhim-pd, Tseg, a wall, and 7r/,„ T,

. a dweller in etone or walled house ' ^ ' ' ' Non-pa. Shyang-ba. Sser-Gomba. Sser-Lungchan. Sserpa. Sser-Phen-zangna. '^i',-'' Weh-ba.

SONAE. 129

§011^1*, Kciin, Rangdharia, Zargar.

Titles:—Chaudhri, Poddar, Sahu. Sub-caslcs.

Ajodhydbdsi. Ajodhyapuri. Bais. Bhojpuria. Gaur. Kamarkalla. Kanaujia. M^ir. Oria.

Sections.

Ainia. AminSpur. Anril. Aswaria. Baguan. Barmait. Barni. Bathuet. Belh^. Bhaunr^Jpuri. Bhekh. Bibarhid. Bihdri.. Bilar. Bllaurid. Borhd. Chalhakd. Chauswdr. Chithfi. ChonrhS. Ddnrsuria. Dhakaichhd. Dhaundrid. Dubalthid. Dumrahar. Fatehpuri. Ganesid. Ganet. Garahid. Gehani. GhiohaddS. Hamdabadi. Hanuman. Hardiw^l. Jakhalpurid. Jannalpuri.

Janakpuri. Josidm. Karbhaid. Kastudr. Kasf. Kdsyab. Katalpuri. Kokarsd. Kothadomar. Lohatid. Machhilhd. Machi. Makundpuri. Marich-bliuswal. Marj-bhuswal. Mirchwan. Musamid. Noinjord. Pachpdkar. Paridn. Prohd-Kerautd. Rdjgrihi. Rdmpuri. Rautar. Saharwdr. Sakaddi. Samundar-Kh ora. Silaichia. Simar. Sisaundid. Scchari. Soncheri. Sonpurid. Sultdnpurid. Tejanid. Telihd.

Titles:—Adhya, BardI, Barddhan, Chandra, Ddn, Dds Datta, De. Dhar, Laha, Mallik, Mandai, Nandi* N4th, Pdl, Poddar, R^i. Sen, Sll, Sinha. '

Sub-castes. Sections. Bangaja^ . ^ Aliman. '^ ' ' " •• Bharadwdja. Dakhin-Rarhi. Uttar-Rarhi. Saptagrami or Nadiya

Brahnna-Rishi. Gautama.

9

130 SUBAENABANIK.

Sub-caates.

Sypergmnous groups—

KuHn. • Maulik.

Sections.

Kasyapa. Madhukulya. Maudgalya. Nagrishi. Parasara. Sdbarna. Sandilya. Sureswari. Vydsa.

Titles :—Annayat, Behera, Dehuri.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Bara-Sudh^. Nil S i n o or Kab&tkoni4 Sudhd. Paila-Sudh&. Butkli-Sudh^.

§ul)ra, Ghulam-Eayasth.

Titles :—Bhandari, Shikd^r.

Snb-casto.

None.

§uiai. Sub-castes.

Barabhiiy^. Bahattarghari. Dasasai.

Sections.

A'limman. Maudgalya. Vasishtha.

Sections.

Alyaman. •kasyapa. Sandilya.

^\\\\X\, muiri, Siiri, Sundi, SaundiLa, Slia/ta, C/ialila S

Titles:—J» Bengal—Bhakia, Bhuiya, Chaudhr- r.^ Duryodhan, Kirttan, WlauLP^^' ^^°^'^' Nirbhaya. Poddar. P r a d C f R ^ i ^ " " ^ ^ ' '

J« ^6//ffr—Bhandari, Chaudhri, IAI ,,. Modi, Mohasib.Saho. ^^"d^''> Manjhi,

Sub-castes.

In Bankiira—

Mandarane. Sinehazari. Jaibele, *)hol«.

Secti ions.

Kasyapa.

SUNK I.

Sub-castes.

In Bardwan and Murshedabad—

Sau or Chalita-Sau pl^lh"^'"^" e,,„^; fBich, distillers.

Chaturdsrdm or Chaturthan, vegetable-sellers. Barnakule.

In Maldah —

Mani. Shirashina. Jogidasi. Duarbandha.

In Eastern Bengal—

Rdrhi. Banga. Banger Rdrhi. Rarher Rdrhi.

fPhul. Kul. Aich^.

131"

Barendra •••-

Majlishi.

In Tipperak—

Rarhi, Panchasid Barendra

I Panchsam^j. I Mahendra Khy^ni. LMaugh^.

f Atharachur^. IChhaphuli^.

In Noakhali—

RSrhi

Barendra

/Mul. IPhuI. /Mul. IPhul.

In Sanldl Pargands—

Bich. Barendra. Chaturthan. Paripal. Kulsunri,

In Mongliyr—

Sagahut. Biy^hut. Gaunjhu.

Sections.

A'ladasi. Bamrasi. Gagarish. Sindilya.

A'lamydn.

Aliman. Gautama. Kasyapa. Maudgalya. ^

Gagrish. Andrish. Madrish, Sdndilya.

132 SUNKI.

Sub-castes.

In Bhagalpur — Kulsunri. Ganjwar. Dhul<anl<or4. Barpara. Sagahut. Biyahut. Bitwar. Maghaiy^. Bangld. Darchua. Purbiya. Sikhoria.

In Tii'hut^ Maghaiy^. Sagahut. Biyahut. Darchua. Kalwar. Sokiria. Chaurthan.

Jn Pallid— Biyahut. Sagahut. Khajkalia. Bishtwir. Bhangera.

Jn Maiihlnim— Biyahut. Lakargarha. Ariyar. Maghaiya. Sikhariya. Chaturthan. Sigahut. Paripai-Holongw&r.

Sections.

Bharwe. Mah&set, Bichhu. Mahton. Bidr. Mandar. Chaudhri. Marar. Dobar. Mehran. Gdin. Naik. Gdrd. Panjiira. Garain. Pardhan. Hdthi. Parihar. Kapri. Purbe. Kirak. Raut. Kdsyapa. Sada. Khan. Satra. Khargd.

rKamti. I Mandar.

Of the Kulsunri 6ub-caste< Mdnjhi. 1 Mehtar. CSahu.

Kasyapa. fAndrishi, a rope of untanned ' hide, with which the yoke is

fastened to the plough. Kdch, crab.

_ . ,, 1 Madrishi, honey-bee OfthePaiipaljBandrisi.fish ^ sub-caste. <

Nagrishi, snake. Sandil or Sanrishi, a bull.

The members of the section do not castrate their own cattle, hut purchase bullocks and sell their own bulla.

.StJNU-WAE. 133

^linit-lUilV So»ica>;

TJiars or septg.

Brahmilch^. Chhapdticha. Durbich^. Jeshkuchd. Jespucha. Jijicha. J ire I. Kdtichd. Khyongpotich^. Kintichd. Kyahbohch^. Liokich^.

Pargdchd. Rahpdchi. Rujicha. Shushichd. Thhol^cha. Tholocha. Thumuchd. Wangdehchi. YaktachS. Yeti.

^UViUUPl^, Suraii/u, Sorahm'i/u, Kahrai-Malldh.

Titles:—Jal Chhatri, Marar.

Section.

Kasyapa.

Titles:—Datta, De, Kar, Mistri, Kundu, Pal.

Sub-castes.

Akrur-Paramiknanda Chaturan-Khan Man-Gauranga Gopcil-Karikar '.

Ket-Chhutar Patura-Chhutar Nagare-Chhutai Bhai Chhiitdi

In Mursliedabad.

In the Santal Parganas-

Sections.

Alamrishi. Aiamyari. Kasyapa. Sdndilya. Banrishi. Kanakrfshf. Madhukulya.

134

Sub-castes,

Chhutfir , Saitgharid [[ ChaliisghariS' Sri Srikrishna Saini [, D^turia

Duman Ari Mandarins . Bardwiniyd2 Kharipari Goalabhuiya2 Chhutir Chura-Kuti KdturiS

SUTEADHAB.

Sections.

. yin Noakhali.

•^

^In Western Bengal.

J

In Dacca.

' The Chhutar appear to be carpenters properly so caUed, while the other eight groups are endogamous subdivisions of the Chura-Kuti sub-caste found in Dacca.

" Of late years these two groups hare begun to intermarry.

^imbttU, Tdmult, Tamil.

( Chaudhri, Chail, Datta, De, Khur, Pal, Panti, Rakshit, Titles :— Sen, Singh (in Bengal).

(Shakat, Khili-w^la, Nagbansi, Paiti inBehar)

Sub-castes.

((») In Bengal— Saptagrinni QJ, Kusad4ye. Biydilisgrdmi. Chauddagrdnni. Bardhamani. Ashtagrami or Kataki^

(6) InBehar— MagahiyS. Tirhuti4 Bhojpurid. Kanaujid.

, Kurram , ^Karan . Surya-dvija

Sections.

(a) In Bengal—

Kasyapa. Parasara. Sandilya. Vyasa.

(' ) InBehar—

None.

- •• • ' •«

TANTI. ' 135

%i\\lX, TantrabAya, Tantubdya, Tatwd.

Titles:—J» Bengal-BsiTksh, Basak, Bhadya-bau, Bit, Chand, Chhagri (goat), Daldl (broker). Das, Datta, De, Gui, Hansi, Jdchandar (appraiser), Kar, Lu, iVlandal, iVIesha (sheep), Muhkim (supervisor), Nandi, Pal, Pramanik, Sadhu, Sardar, Sarkar, Sil.

In BeMr—Dks. Mahto, Manjhi, Marar, Marik.

Sub-castes. Sections.

In Bengal— . . rBardw^na.

Aswini > Barna-kul. . °^' < Madhyakul.

ip^^"' I M^ndarond. l an t i . (_uttarkul. Baiaratni. Banga. Bara-bhdgiya or J ham-

pan iya. Barendra. Chhota-bhdgiy^ or K^yath-

Tanti. Kature. Kora. Kshir. Madhukari. Magi. Mari&ii-Nir. Pattar. Purandari. Purbbakul. Rarhi. Uddhabi.

In Behar— Baiswara. Banaudhia. Chamar. Jaiswar, Kahar. Kanaujia. Tirhutia. , Uttarha.

In Orma—

M^tibans-TAn*i. G4la.TaP.ti. Hansi-Tanti*

A'gastya Rishi. Aladashi. Alamyan. Attri-rishi. Bararasi. Batsya. BharadwaJ. Biswamitra. Brahmarishi. Garga-rishi. Gautam. oanarashi. Kasyapa, Kulya Rishi. Madhukuiya. Parasara. Sandilya. Sabarna. Vyasa.

Channartali. Hindu4. Kasyab.

136 It

TELI.

UTcU, Till, Chahi, Garai, Kah, Fausaii, TaiMur, Taili, Taihha, Tail-Pal.

Titles:—In jBe«^rt/—Chaudhri, De, Dhabal, Kundu, Koleman, Mandal, Masanta, Nandi, Pal, Par^m^nik, Parihara, Sddkhan, Shaha, Sit.

In Behar—Beh&ra, Chaudhrl, Dafdddr, Gorai, Kapri, Naik, Podddr, Sahu, Sh^hd, Tdlukd^r.

Sub-castes.

In Bengal— 'Anwarpuri. B^rendra. Bikrampur.

Chandradwip. Gangabisayi. Subarnabisayi. Tuiatia.

In Pahna— Barapatti. Chhotapatti. Dispkrk. Govindpuria.

Bhunja Teli. Dw^das. BSrahazdri-

Bardwan^. Chhagulid-Mandaran^. Maureswari. Singhazari-

Ek^das. Chinpuri^. Haiudbond-

Fatehsing. Manoharshdhi-Swarupsing-

Gdchhud or Ghan^Teli-Kalu. Desle.

Misle. Pishle.

Kutabpuri. Maghad Khandi. R4rhi. Saptagrdnni, Senbhumia-Sikhana or SindurtopS

Sections. Aiiman. Chandrarishi. Kdchim. Kalmi. K&syap. Madhukulya.

Maudgalya. Ndg. Niskalanka. Niydrishi. Sandilya.

Sindhurlshi

TELL 137

Siib-castes. Ban or sections.

Ill Orissa— Abhiram. Ekadas. Cauda. Haldia. Kalu. Tulatia.

In Behar— Araiya. ^ Barharia. Biahut. Desi. Hermania. Janakpuri. Jaunpuri. Kanaujia. Khuskhelia. Lathaur. Maghaiya.

Masnath. Sarwaria Tirhutid. Turkia

In Shahahad—

Demahd. DhobahS. Jhagar^hfi. Rath -charh -bagh-mar wS.

Sahu. Naik.

Kapri.

Gdim. Garain. Indrab&ra. Mahaseth. Mihtar.

Malik.

Mandar-Mahto. Panjidr-Sangwe. Tharmait.

Boria. Harpati, 'plough-owner.' Khargpur. Musipur. Telhari. Tulsi. Bhusiwar. Kapri. Pata-Ratnauli.

Ldlg^mia. Mihtar. Pata-Ratnauli. Teligamia.

138 TELI.

Sub-castcB.

In Chola Nagpur— Dakhini. Haldia. Hiapela. Kanaujia. Maghaya. Mathuria.

Etjpergamoiis groups in Bengal— Paraminik. Kolefnan or Kalu.

Sections,

In Lohardagd— Karak. Kasyapa. Pandiain.

In Singbhum—

Nagasya. Pakhichata. Barharoa, a fruit. Kachua, tortoise. Kansi, a kiud of grass. Nag, cobra. Pandki, dove.

Titles;—Barwaik, Khan, Mahto, Rai.

Sub-tribes.

In Behat'— RautSr. Gaurihcir. Marichwar. KhawSsiya, including—

Babhan-KhawSsiyl. Donreha-Khawasiyi. Dhotiy^-Khawasiya.

Khatkaia. Bantar, including—

Dhelphorwd-Bantar. Kath Katwa-Bantar.

Bot. BatewSr.

In Nepal— Chitwanid or Chitauni^-Belwadhiya. Kochiia. •sw^jitauni.

Of Thdrus in general.

Of the Rau-t/ir sub-l tiibe.

Septs.

Chaudhri. Dahait. Das. Gauro. Guro. Kaji. , Khatait. Khojwar. Mahaut. Mahto. Patwari. Rai. Raut.

Banth. Bhanr. Chautaria. Chitauniha.i Dahait.

Tliey are notorious for charms and spells.

TIIAEU. .139

Sub-tribes, In Nepal—concluded.

Nau6. PurbiyS.

Of the Kau tar sub tribe—con

' eluded.

J

Seiits. Dangwaria. Danrehd or Gaiinhd. Donwar. GaharbSri. Gaharwdr. Gauro. Kachhriya.* K^ji."-Kanphata. Katharia. Khon. Koch IIS. Konhar. Lampochhi. Mahto.« tViajhiaur. Mardania, barber.-Nawalpuria.* Ojhalya. Patwari." Rai. Sentha. Sokhait.

' They are notorious for charms and spells. 2 These groups are said to have recently become endogamous.

'SipiJfrah, Triprd, Mrutig.

Sub-tribes. mi.

Septs. A'fang. Aialong. Fadung. Gaibing. Garjang. Harbang. Husoi. Jumatya. Kdkulu. K41i. Keoya. Mising. Mongbai. Naithung. Nowattia. Osui. Puran. Riang. Tungbal.

140 TIYAB.

%'nm', Tiar, Tlor, Rajhansi, Machhua.

Titles:—Chaudhri, Chharidar, Mail^h, Manjhan, Marar, Mul<hfar.

Sab-castes. Sections.

Rajbansi or Tilak Dds. Itbai or Itb^r. Surajbansi. Kasyapa. Nal Tiyar. Ja i Singh.

Found ly Buchanan in Bhagalpur—

Bamanjagya. Govariya.

Hypergamous Divisions—

Pradhin. Paramanilf. Gana.

^Uri, Tori.

Sub-castes. Sections.

Turi or Kisan-Turi. i") Totemistic—

^''' Bar, M'cus Indica. •^om. Charhad, tiger. Domra. Hansdfi, ivild goose.

Hastadd^, eel. Induar, a kind of eel. Jar lar , lizard. Kachhu^, tortoise. Kerl<eta, a kind of bird. Samp, snake. Saur, fish. Sumat, deer. Suren, a kind of fish. Tirki, mouse. Toppo, bird.

(i) Uncertain—

Bagehdr. CharchSgiya. MSdalwar. Mai. Panchbhaia. Surinwar. TamagandiyS. Tirkuar. IL

VAISYA. ^aisua.

:A'I'

Titles :—Arya, Bhumisprik, Bhumijivi, Dwija, Panik, Banik, Byanaharta, Uravya, Uruja.

Sub-caste.

mi. Sections.

Aliman. Kasyapa. Katyayana. Madhukuliya. Sandilya.

Sub-tribes.

Phagu. Lhorong. Yamphu.

Jl^hlw.

Septs

Of the riiagu

'Manem-ma. Mangthog. Okrabo. Sing-yangma.

1 iu« xi.«ju i songyokpa. sub-tnbe. 1 Thungong-hehta.

' Thupra. Yak-kyukpa. Yoksuma.

APPENDIX 11.

PKOCEEDINGS OF CONFEEENCE ON ETHNOGEAPHY OF NOETHEKN INDIA, HELD AT LAHORE ON THE

ISTH TO 22ND MAllCU 1885.

JJ r e s e n t :

MB. D . G. J . IBBETSOJT,

Director of Public Instruction, Paiij'db.

„ J . C. NESFIELD,

Inspector of Schools, Oudli.

„ H . H. ElSLET, On Special Duty, Bengal.

T H E memhors of the Conference met at Mr. Ibhetson's office. Mr. Kisley explained that he had come to Lahore, with the • permission of the Glovernment of Bengal, to consult Messrs. Ibbetson and Nesfield in consequence of certain demi-official suggestions received from Mr. FitzPatrick, Secretary to the Goverument of India in the Home Department. He stated that the Government_ of Bengal had decided to make an exhaustive enquiry into the' CHstes and occupation of the people of these pro^ances, based upon xhe statistics recorded in the census of 1881, and had "placed him on special duty for two years for that purpose. _ He laid before the meeting («) a 'draft note setting forth the objects to be aimed at in the enquiry and the meaus to be adopted to obtain those objects, consistently with giving the minimum of trouble to the regular administrative stafE; it) a set of ethnographic questions framed BO as to facilitate the collection of fresh data in a systematic form through the agency of district officers, and of such private indivi­duals as might be willing to give_ assistance iu the matter. H e asked the other members to assist him with such criticism as their experience of ethnographic enquiries might suggest. Messrs. Ibbetson and Nesfield, while ready and willing to assist to the best of their ability in discussing the papers in question, felt unable, without due leisure for consideration, to commit themselves to any final opinion as to the form that would be best suited for adoption in their respective provinces, should it eventually be decided to set such an enquiry on foot in tliose provinces.

In the absence of precise official instructions as to their functions, it appeared to the officers present that all they could usefully do was to indicate, with as much completeness^ as the circumstances under which they were called together admitted of, the direction ill which ethnographic enquiries of the kind under description might btst bo pur^iied by any Local Government which might

think it desirable to undertake thera. With this view the members of the Conference prepared a note on certain difficult points of ethnographic terminology, a series of general questions calculated to elicit the salient characteristics of the several castes, and a set of special questions dealing with caste customs in greater detail, to be used by those whom inclination might lead to pursue the subject further. These papers form annexures A, B and C to these proceedings. I t would remain for the Local- Governments and Administrations concerned to determine in what manner the sugges­tions contained in them should be utilized.

At the present stage of the proceedings, and while the data have still to be collected, the members of the Conference did not feel prepared to consider the form in which the final results should be arranged and recorded.

DENZII , C . J . IBBETSON.

JOHN C . NESFIELD.

H . H . E.ISLEY.

A.

Suggestions regarding some doubtful points of Ethnographic nomenclature.

MUCH confusion is often caused by the indeterminate use of the various terms applied to the divisions upon which society ?n India is based. I t seems that some attempt to define more precisely the nature of the groups to which these terms should respectively be applied might usefully be made, and the following is set tortJi as a suggestion. » , „ „ mni'n

The group organization commonly follows one of t^^ "'^^^ t y p e s - ( l ) the caste, (2) the tribe. The former m a y b e dfjied. as the largest group based upon community of occupation j t u e m i i e r as the largest group based upon real or fictitious community ot descent, or upon common occupation of territory. _ .„/,.raiin

Within the caste we find the sub-caste, and withm J ^ f " ; ^ ! the section. The sub-caste may be defined as the smallest ^ f g ' ~ group, and the section as the largest esogamous group, ^ J ^ ' J - ^ caste. No lower unit than the section need be regarded i n e of the caste and sub-caste will occasionally be identical, tnere g no smaller endogamous groups included under a common caste name

' ^ ^ i ^ S r t b e we find many subdivisions ^ ^ ^ -^dogamous group within the tribe may be « f " f J ^ ^ t f ^he ;vhieh, as before, will occasionally comc.de ^vith the tnbe^ i h e largest exogamous scroup withm the trihe may be called me sept, -^d no lowef unit t h S h i s need be considered, Dmsions luterme-^ late between the sub-tiibe and ^epi may, where they exist, be termed clans and s u W a n s . ",; »

145

Some cases will occur in which the two types will run into each other, the caste based upon occupation being made up of tribes or tribal fragments based upon commujoity of descent. In these cases the terminology of each type will be followed so far as the organiza­tion stands upon the same basis as the type, and no further.

I t might be explained that the Brahmanical gotras have,, in many cases, been adopted by or imposed upon castes and tribes in addition to their projier caste or tribal divisions. In such cases the gotras are not what is-wanted : what is wanted is the organic divisions and subdivisions of the caste and tribe, not unusually called goi by the people themselves, as distingxiished fi-om gotra in the strict Brah­manical sense. Occasionally these orgauio divisions and the gotras are identical; but where the latter are distinct from, and have been superimposed upon, the former, the gotras run through the divisions, tlie same division often, though not always, including several gotran, •while, on the other hand, the same gotra is found in several divisions. The Brahmanical gotras are chiefly used by the officiating priest at marriage and the ceremony of i>anka/p, and are often unknown to the people themselves without reference to their priests.

DfiNziL 0. J. IBBETSON.

JOHN 0. NESFIELD.

H . H . RtSLEY.

B.

ETHNOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS.

General Series.

1. Write in English and vernacular the name of the caste with synonyms, if any, noting if any of these are used only by outsiders. ^ ,. , , i -i

2. Write m English and vernacular the names of the exoo-am-oua subdivisions of the caste, if such subdivisions exist.

iV.i5.—By the term esogamous subdivision is meant a group from within which its male members cannot take their wives.

3. Show the endogamons divisions of the caste, if such divisions exist. If these divisions consist of groups of the subdivisions mentioned in question 2, show the grouping. If they ui-e distijd-guished by separate names, write the names in English and vernacular. .^.j^

N.B.—By the term endogamons division is meant a g r ^ from outside of which its male members cannot take their wives.

4. State the limits \vithin or beyond which marriage ' prohibited, e.g., that a man must marry within, the caste, but must not nif^jy iilto hi». own or certain other subditisions, or withia cer tain 'wtees of rektionship, or may not mari^^wo sisters.

146

5. Name any prohibitions on inter-marriage based upon (a) social status, b) geographical or local position, (c) differences of religious beUef or practice, d) differences or changes of occupation.

6. State the popular tradition, if any exists, as to the origin of the caste, naming the common ancestor, if any, the part of tho country from which the caste is supposed to have come, and the approximate time of its emigration, as marked by the reign of any particular king, or the occurrence of any historical event, together with the number of generations supposed to have intervened.

7. Is the habit of the caste settled or wandering ? Have they any recognized head-quarters in the province ? If wandering, over what tract of country do they wander? Are their migrations periodical or irregular, and what are the shape and material of their dwellings ?

8. Do they admit outsiders into the caste ? If so, from what classes, by what forms, and under what conditions ?

9. Is marriage infant or adult ? If the latter, is sexual license before marriage recognized, or tolerated ?

10. Is (a) polygamy, (b) polyandry, permitted; if so, under what conditions and within what Kmits ? In the case of polyandry, must all the husbands be brothers?

11. "What form of marriage ceremony is in ordinary use? Name the forms and state the essential and binding portion of the ceremony.

12. Is the remarriage of widows permitted? If so, is the widow obliged or expected to marry her husband's elder or younger brother ? If she does not marry a brother, within what limits may she marry ? What form of marriage ceremony is used, and what is the essential and binding portion of it ?

13. Under what circumstances is divorce permitted, and by what form is it effected ? May wives who have been divorced marry again ?

14. Do the members of the caste follow the Hindu or Maho-medau law of inheritance, or a tribal custom of thoir own ?

15. To what religion and to what sect within the religion do tho caste belong ? If Hindus, do they by preference worship any special one of the regular Hindu deities, and are there any reasons for this preference ?

16. Name any minor gods or patron saints specially wor­shipped by the caste. State what offerings are made, on what days of the week, and what class of people receive them ? Is the worship of any of these gods or saints confined to women and children ?

17. Do the caste employ Brahmans for religious and ceremo­nial purposes ? If BO, are these Brahmans received on terms of equality by other Brahmans? If they do not employ Bralamans, what class of people serve them as priests ?

18. Do the caste burn, bury, or expose their dead ? If buried, in what position ? Where are the bodies or ashes finally disposed of?

19. Are any ceremonies performed for the propitiation of («) auoeBtors in general, (b) childless ancestors, (c) men who have died

147

a violent death ; and if so, of what nature and at what seasons ? Is the ceremony of srdddli performed or not ?_

20. Is the caste, or any of its subdivisions, named after any animal, plant, weapon or implement ? Do they show their reverence for any such object either by special worship, or by abstaining from killing, eating, cutting, burning, using, or naming it ?

21. What do the caste believe to have been their original occupation or group of occupations ? To what extent have they or any sections of them departed from i t? Describe their present occupation.

22. If they are agriculturists, state what position they usually occupy in the agricultural system, i.e., are they—

(1) Zamindars; (2) Tenure-holders, specifying the kind of tenures they

hold; (3) Occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats, stating whether

they have or claim any privileges in respect of rent;

(4) Nomadic cultivators, specifying the mode of cultiva­tion they follow;

(5) Landless day-labourers, stating the manner in which they are paid ?

23. If their occupation is that of—

(o) Artizans, what is their industry, and in what special material do they work, or abstain from working;

(5) Hunters, do they catch game or vermin ; (c) Fishermen, do they catch fish only or also crocodiles

and tortoises? d) Sweepers, do they remove night-soil or not ?

24. Name any implement or mode of working which ig charac­teristic of the caste, and also note whether there is any form or detail of their main occupation by abstaining from which they believe themselves to be raised above others of the same craft ?

25. Do they habitually prostitute their (1) unmarried, (2) married women ?

26. Which of the following articles of food do the caste eat or abstain from eating :—flesh, wine, monkeys, beef, pork, the flesh of cloven-footed or uncloven footed animals, fowls, scaly or scaleless fish, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, jackals, rats, other vermin, the leavings of other people ? Is there any special article of food their abstaining from which tends in their opinion to raise them above some other caste which does not abstain from it ?

27. Name the lowest well-known caste with which the caste will—

(a) Eatpakki. i (c) Drink. (6) Eat kachhi, | d) Smoke.

Name the highest well-known caste which will eat, etc. (as above), with the caste.

^'' 10 a

148

Sources of information.—'RerQ should be noted the names, resi­dence (village and thaua), profession, caste, sub-caste, and section of the persons who answered the question. If any of them are ghataks, g'Puealogists, heads of caste panc/iai/af, or occupy any hereditary offici.il position in relation to the caste, the fact should he stated. If tlie answers to the questions have been derived from any som-ce other than personal enquiry addressed to members of the caste concerned, the source should be stated, and such references given as may enable the officer iu charge of the enquiry to test the correctness of the answers.

DENZIL 0. J . IBBETSON.

JOHN 0. NESFTBLD.

H . H . KlSLEY.

O.

ETHNOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS,

Special Series.

I5TE0DIICT0RY IJEMAEKS.

The following questions have beeu drawn up in order to suggest Hnesof enquiry likely to prove interesting. T h e j do not claim to be exhaustive, nor is it neceFsary that all of them should bo a u s w e r e d ' S e , for instance, will ajply only to Mahomedans other^ only to Hindus, and others again only to abongmal nbes In making use of them various forms of bias on the pait of the person questioned will have to be guarded agamst, such as—

ia) The wish to exalt his own caste or subdivision of his caste at the expense of other castes.

(6) The tendency to give ideal or book explanations oi facts.

Care must also bo taken not to tire the persons questioned by asking too many questions at a time and to check their statements occasionally by asking for actual instances of any specially remark­able custom. Questions should bo put in as concrete a form as possible, in order to avoid the daugerof people assenting out ot laziness in order to save tbo labour of thinking.

I t will be found in the case of many—perhaps of most—castes that there is a primary division into what may he called sub-castes, each of which is again divided into sections. .Where several of these sub-castes are present side, by si^o in the locality, their names will probably be given. But where all tlio local representatives of the caste belong to the came sub-caste, there is a danger of the sub-caste name being taken for gi-anted and only the sections being named. Roth groupings are required, the 8ub-castes being, if anything, the iiiore important of the two.

149

I.—CONSTITUTION.

1. Origin and internal organization.—Write in English and vernacular the name of the caste, with synonyms, if any, giving its derivation if known.

2. If the caste has more names than one, explain their meaning and state which are used by the members of the caste, and which by other people.

3. Are any distinctions between the synonyms based upon the occupations of those to whom they are respectively applied, their place of origin, habitat, religion, or the like?

4. Is there any name used only by members of the caste.P 5. State in detail any tradition that may exist as to the origin

or foundation of the caste, the place fi-om which they came, and their subsequent migrations.

6. Do they believe themselves indigenous in the district or to ' have come from elsewhere ?

7. If from elsewhere, note any king's reign or historical occur­rence contemporary with their migration, and how many generations are believed or ascertained from genealogical lists to have intervened.

8. Is there any place which they consider theii- head-quarters in Bengal?

9. Note particularly the name of the place from which they or their ancestors are believed to have come direct to their present locality.

10. Are any pilgrimages undertaken by the caste to places which purport to be their original habitat or serve to suggest its

11. Is there any place in which the members of the caste are or should be buried ? , . . ^ , •,

\-Z. Do they draw their pnests, barbers, or genealogists rfom that place? , . ,

13. Do they trace their descent from a first ancestor or chief, and does he appear to have actually existed or to have been an eponymic personage invented to account for the existence of the tribe ?

14. If any genealogical tree exists, trace the descent of the founders of the existing subdivisions from the common ancestor. Is there a shrine to him in the village or neighbourhood, and is it built on a brick or stone brought from elsewhere ? If so, from where ?

15. Do they consider any other castes to have branched off from them, or that they and others have come from the same national source ?

16. Have they any tradition regarding changes of religion, introduction of new ceremonies, etc. ?

17. Are there any local legends connecting them with any monuments, such as old tombs, mounds, forts, sites of villages, oto. in the district ?

18. Is any light thrown upon the former movements of the tribe by the names of villages or by the existence of monumental Btones? For instance, the Mundas of the Chota Nagpur plateau can be traced to places far distant from their present settlementf by these

150

places bearing Mundari names and containing Mundari grave-stoneg, which are now worshipped by low-oaste Hindus.

W. Write in English and vernacular the names of the exogamous suhdivisions of the caste, if such subdivisions exist.

iV.J5.—By the term exogamous subdivision is meant a group from within which its male members cannot take their wives.

20. Write in English and vernacular the names of the endogam-ous divisions of the caste, if such divisions exist. _ If these divisions consist of groups of the subdivisions mentioned in question 19, show the grouping.

]ff.B.—Tiy the term endogamous subdivision is meant a group from outside of which its male members cannot take their wives.

21. Iti ttiB caste oi lioth. classea of divkioTis and aeotions «xplam the meaning of each name, and iE the name denotes animals or edible substances, state whether the members of the subdivision bearing that name are prohibited from naming, eating, killing, cutting, bumiag or otherwise using the animal or substance denoted ?

22. Cases may also occur in which the name of the sub­division is the name of an instrument which its members are prohibited from using; or conversely, where the caste is one of occupation, of a particular instrument or mode of working to which the members of the subdivision are hereditarily addicted.

23. Are particular subdivisions bound to observe or refrain from particular actions, such as the eating or burning of certain plants, the worshipping of certain trees, etc. ?

24. Do the names of the subdivisions correspond with those of the subdivisions of any other caste, and if so, how is the corre­spondence explained ?

25. Have, for instance, the members of the lower caste done service to the higher caste and adopted their subdivisions ?

26. If so, is there any trace of their having had different suh­divisions of their own, and are there any reasons for supposing that these were aboriginal and were abandoned in favour of a Brahmani-cal classification ?

27. Have they any representative assembly or governing body ? 28. What is it called? 29. How is it constituted ? 30- What are its functions ? 31. Who presides at its meetings ? 32. How are its orders enforced ? 33. Is there a permanent president ? 34. 11 so, by what title is he called, and is the office here-

mtary? 35. If the hereditary president happens to be a minor, by

whom are his duties carried on ? 36. In the case of the trading and artisan castes the functions

of the panchayat of the caste are of special interest and should be ^refully ascertained, most of aU where the occupation is followed by members of distinct castes united in a sort of trades guild, in which case tho connexions and cases of conflict; between the panehavats of tue oaet<. and guild should be investigated-

151

37. Rules of Intennamage.—St&te the limits within or beyond which marriage is prohibited, e.g., that a man must marry within the caste, but must not marry into his own or certain other subdivisions or within certain degrees of relationship, or may not marry two sisters.

38. Give the formula (if any) defining the prohibited degrees of relationship.

39. Name any prohibitions on intermarriage based upon (a) social status, (6) geographical or local position, (c) differences of religious belief or practice, d) differences or changes of occupation.

40. How far are differences of reUgion or sect a bar to marriage ?

41. Can persons of different castes intermarry r 42. If so, of what castes, and by what form of marriage ? 43. Note oases in which wives will be received from another

subdivision or caste, but daughters will not be given in marriage to members of that subdivision.

44. Is the distinction referred to in the last question based mainly on social status or on what ?

45. Is there any formal ceremony of admitting the bride into the husband's house, village or family by payment, after a mimic struggle, by eating together, or otherwise ?

40. How many wives are allowed ? 47. If more than one, is there any head wife, and what are

her privileges ? 48. Do the wives live together, or do they have separate

dwellings ? 49. Is concubinage permitted r 50. Is polyandry permitted ? 51. If so, how are the husbands selected ? 52! Must they all be brothers P 53. Are the women allowed much freedom before marriage ? 54. Are they prostituted before marriage, or are some prosti­

tuted and others reserved for marriage ? 55. In the case of a girl who has been prostituted, is any pay­

ment made to the parents or the community, or is any special feast given by the bridegroom F

56. At what age may marriage take place ? 57. Is an infant marriage voidable, if not actually consum­

mated ? 58. Who arranges the marriage ? 59. Are there professional marriage-brokers ? 60. Whose consent is necessary to the validity of marriage

(1) if both parties are minors, (2) if both are of full age ? 61. Is there any freedom of choice on the part of the persons

marrying ? 62. Is any price paid a) by the bridegroom's family for the

bride, (6) by the bride's family for the bridegroom ? 63. How is such price determined ? 64. Does it or any part of it become the special property of

either bride or bridegroom, and does it devolve by any particular rule of succession ?

152

65. What physical defects -will be sufficient ground for the annulment of a marriage which has actually taken place ?

66. State •whether idiocy or lunacy, impotence or mutilation are such sufficient grounds.

67. Is any distinction made if the party seeking annulment knew, of the deiect at the time of the marriage, or if the defect has arisen after the marriage was consummated ?

68. Under what circumstances is divorce permitted ? 69. What form of divorce is in use ? 70. May wives who have been divorced many again ? 71. How are the offspring of (1) first marriages, (2; maii'iages

of widows or divorced persons, (3) illicit connexions between parents of different tribes, castes, or religions now classed ?

72. Do aU. inheiit on the same teims, or are any excluded ? 73. Do they follow the tribe and caste of the father or of the

mother, or are they known by an entirely new name ? 74. Is there any distinction between them and others bom

into the tribe or caste in a more usual or legitimate manner ? 75. Are there any cases in which members of one subdivision

cannot many into another subdivision as being of common origin with themselves ?

76. Do illicit connexions ever entail a change of caste on either of the parents ?

77. Are there any caste or subdivisions of castes the origin of which is ascribed to connexions between members of two different castes ?

78. GriTO particulars, and state the evidence on which the tradition is based.

79. Is it admitted by the members of the caste or subdivision in question ?

80. J\Iay widows remarry .P 81. If so, by what form of marriage ceremony ? 8i . Must the widow of an elder brother marry the younger

brother,^ and may the widow of a younger brother marry an elder

of ^ ^ y ^ ® widow marry outside her husband's family ? Iinr 1 ij ^°' ^^'^ ®^ husband's brother a right to the custody of

children p''^'^' " " ^ *^^ ^^"^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^° ^°*^ ' '^^ ^^^ " " ^ ^

85. If she marries an outsider, what rights in her husband's pToperty accrue to—

(1) The widow, 21 Her children by ber first husband

(3) Her husband's brother?

bfir h l \ ^ i ' ^ ° '^^''T^ ^ ^ ^ ° * ^ ' ' Y^^h^^ile of succession applies to ber husband s property, e g„ what nght in it accrues t o - ^

U) The widow, (2) The brother whom she marries, (3) Her childien by her first husband (4) Her ohildreu by her second husband ?

153

87 Are children begotten of the widow by the brother of the deceased considered to be the children of her first or of her second husband ?

JSf.B —In illustration of the last eight questions, it may be noted that among the Jeswar Kurmis the widow of an elder brother usuaUy marries a younger brother by the sagaz hrm, but majm^vy an outsider. If she marries the younger brother, she gets half of her deceased husband's property. If she marries an outsider, she forfeits all claim not only to her husband s property, but to the custody of her children, except m the case of daughters who stay with her tm of a marriageable age, when she is bound to bring them back to be married from her husband s brother s house. The widow of a younger brother cannot marry an elder brother.

88 Adoption.—Is it necessary that the adopter should be destitute of .a son, a son's son, and a son's grandson ?

89 Must he obtain the consent of his heirs i' 90' Is a daughter's son a bar to the right of adoption ? 91* May a man adopt who has male issue, if such issue be

disqualified by any legal impediment (such as loss of caste) from performing the exequial rites ? ^ , , , , , , ,,

92. Can a man who had already adopted a son adopt another during the lifetime of the first ?

93. Can the foUowing persons adopt— (1) A bachelor,

(2) A man blind, impotent, or lame,

(4) An^ascetio who has renounced the world ?

94. Can a woman adopt ? 95 State whether it is necessary to the vahdity of an adoption

l,v a widow that she should adopt ^vith the permission written or hJ of her deceased husband, or with the consent of his kindred,

^ ^ ^ 9 6 Can a widow adopt a son as her own without thereby raakine him a member of her late husband's family ?

97 Can she adopt a son as her own in addition to a son adopted as the representative of her deceased husband?

98. In the event of the death of a son adopted by a widow •with the sanction of her husband, may the widow adopt another person without permission of her husband to that effect ?

99. • May a man give in adoption— (1) His only son, (2) EQs eldest son, (3) His brother?

100. Must the person, adopted be less than any specific age ? 101. If BO, up to what age may a person be adopted ? 102. In the case of the higlier castes, can a person be adopted

after tonsure or investiture with the sacred cord m his own family ? 103. Can gii'ls be adopted ?

154

104. Is there any rule by which it is required that the person adopted should be related to the person adopting ?

105. If so, what relatives may be adopted ? 106. Is any preference required to be shown to particular

relatives ? 107. If so, enumerate them in order of preference. 108. Is it necessary that the adopted son and his adoptive

father should be (1) of the same caste of tribe, (2) of the same got?

109. Is there any rule prohibiting the adoption of the son of a woman whom the adopter could not have married, such as his sister's son or his daughter's son ?

110. Does an adopted son retain his right to inherit from his natural father ?

111. Can he inherit from his natural father if the natural father die without other sons ?

112. Describe the rights of an adopted son to inherit from his adoptive father.

113 What is the effect of the subsequent birth of natural legitimate sons to the adoptive father ?

114. Will the adopted son take equal shares with them P 115. When a son-in-law leaving his own family takes" up his

residence permanently with his father-in-law as ghar iamat, what will be the ettect on the rights of such son-in-law to inherit (i) from his father, (2) from his father-in-law.

116. Succession.—li a man die leaving a widow or widows a son or sons, a daughter or daughters, brothers, and other relatives' upon whom will the inheritance devolve .P

117. If there be more sons than one, will they take equal shares ?

^ 118. If the sons do not take equal shares, state upon what principle the shares are regulated.

(1) IB any regard had to uterine descent? Are the shares in m o t w ' * ' ' ' ' ' ^ distributed according to the number of

oaste, or tribe with the fn+f . ?^*®' ^ °* * ® "° ® the sons by the wife nf , ' '" ' ' ke larger shares than caste or tribe ? ^°^ ^^ste, or of a different

(3) Is any regard had to the ao-« 4! ii, eldest son, (2) the youn?p«f ^°°S' ^° ^'^^^ (1) * ® or less share than his brethrer? '^^^^ ^ ^® * greater

119. Can a father in his lifetime nn^- x the fit person to take a larger S W P rr™^°'''*'3 a particular son as father's decease? 'lan his brethren after the

120. When an estate has been helrl • • .i i his sons, and is distributed amongst t T ^°^^^^y " ^ ^ father and acquisitions made by the sons exempt 1* ' ^ ' ^^ decease, are all the sons share in all the joint estato "^ distribution; or will

"*''°) moveable or immoveable,

155

ancestral or acquired, whether or no any part of such estate have been acquired by any one or more of the sons, by gift or succession from a maternal grandfather or father-in-law, or other relative through a female ?

121. Where there are male descendants who do not all stand in the same degree of kindred to the deceased, and the persons through whom the more remote are descended from him axe dead, will the neai-er descendants exclude the more remote, or are the more remote descendants entitled to succeed simultaneously with the nearer descendants ?

122. If in the case stated in question 121 the more remote descendants succeed simultaneously with the nearer descendants, how is the estate to be divided ?

Is it to be divided in equal shares amongst all the heirs; or is it to be divided into such a number of equal shares as may correspond with the number of the male lineal descendants of tbe deceased, who either stood in tlie nearest degree of kindred to him at his decease, or, having been of the like degree of kindred to him, died before him, leaving male lineal descendants who survived him ?

123. Where there is no son, but where the male lineal descendants are all grandsons or all great-grandsons, will the estate be divided equally amongst all such grandsons or great-grandsons, as the case may be, or will the shares he allotted to the grandsons proportionately to the shares which the sons would have taken had they been Kvin<r, or to the great-grandsons proportionately to the shares which the grandsons would have taken had they survived the

124. Do the principles stated in the replies to questions 121 and 122 apply to every case of the distribution of an inheritance; or is there any distinction wlion collaterals inherit; that is to say, does a son or grandson always take the share his father or grandfather would have taken, if such father or grandfather had 8u^^ived the deceased, whether or no the share descend lineally or through a collateral relative ? • , , ,

125. Does the inheritance successively devolve upon all male lineal descendants, how low so ever ; or is there any degree fixed in the descending line within which, if there be no male lineal descend­ants, the inheritance will devolve on other relatives. If so, state •what that degree is ?

126. If a man die leaving a widow or widows, and either a daughter or daughters, or brother or their descendants, or uncles or their descendants, or great-uncles or their descendants, but no male lineal descendants, within three generations, upon whom will the inheritance devolve ?

127. If the estate devolve upon the widow, define her interest therein P

128. What rights has the widow to alienate by sale, gift, mortgage, or bequest ?

(1) Are there any special circumstances or expenses under, or on account of, which alienation is permissible j

;. Ifflfio, what ar« these ?

156

(2) Is there any distinction in respect of moveable or im­moveable, ancestral or acquired property, or iu respect of alienation to the kindred of the deceased husband?

(3) Supposing alienation to be permissible, whose consent is necessary to make it valid ?

129. As regards the right of a Mahomedan widow to alienate, is any distinction taken in respect of her legal share ?

130. If there be several widows, do they take in equal shares ?

131. Is any distinction made in respect of the rights of widows who are not of the same family with their decensed husband ?

132. Is there any distinction in the rights of widows based upon the circumstance whether the husband WHS or was not associated •with his brethren ?

133. What is the eff«ct of unchastity upon the right of a widow in respect of the estate of her deceased husband ?

134. In the case of widows who are not Hindus, what is the effect of their remarriage ?

135. Under what circumstances are daughters entitled to inherit ? Are they excluded by the sons or by the widow, or by the near male kindred of the deceased ? If they are excluded by the near male kindred, is there any fixed limit of relationship within which such near kindred must stand towards the deceased in order to exclude his daughters ? If so, how is the limit ascertained ? If it depends on descent from a common ancestor, state within how many generations relatively to the deceased such common ancestor must come.

rS6 Is there any distinction as to the rights of daughters to inherit (1) tlie immoveable or ancestral, (2) the moveable or acquired, property of their father ?

137. (1) Under what circumstances are daughters entitled to be maintained out of the estate of their deceased father ?

(2) What is the effect of a) marriage, (b) residence in a strange village, upon the right of the daughter

,„. to inherit, or to be maintained ? ^'^) If a married daughter with her husband live with

the father up to his decease, can the daughter inherit? ^

^V ^an daughters who are mamed and barren. widowed, and without m a l o T '""'^ *'^'\^''' "l daughters only, inherit the J.fl f' °'. ^ ° ^ ^ ' ' ' °*

166 \V]..t-- .-, " ^^^ lather's estate ? in thenrL ^I'^'^i'IS the nature of the intere.f + i b y X ^ T ^ '^^ '^l^eri ts? D e f i n e h e S > ' ? ^ . V a daughter

1%^ k ?° ' 'Sage, or bequest. ''^^^« of alienation, if any, ^^BXiior,'.^ •^^^^,daughter8, do daughters' c

so J ^ ' '^"^^^ Propori^ioned to the n u m b l "i' °^ ''^''^^ daughters, ' ot daughters who leave

157

140. When a man dies leaving no male lineal descendants, no widow, and no daughters or daughters' sons, upon whom will the inheritance successively devolve ?

141. When the estate devolves upon the mother of the deceased, what is the nature of the interest she acquires ?

142. Define her powers of alienation. 143. On the deatli of the mother, wiU the property devolve on

the heirs of the fion, or on her heirs ? 144. When the property devolves on brethren, what, if any,

regard is paid (1) to uterine descent, (2) to association ? Do uterine associated brethi-en exclude all others ? In what order succeed—

( (•) Dnassociated brethren of the whole blood ? (ii) Associated brethren of the half-blood ? Hi) TJnassociated brethren of half-blood ?

If a man die leaving a uterine brother separated and a half-brother associated, how will these two inherit ?

145. When a man dies leaving associated brethren and unasso-ciated brethren, and the property devolves on his brethren, have the associated brethren any preferential claim to acquired property, moveable or immoveable property, or to ancestral moveable property ?

146. In default of brethren, does the property devolve upon their sons ?

147. Does the property ever devolve upon sisters, or upon sisters' sons. If upon sisters' sons, how are their shares computed ?

148. Where a wife dies holding property in her own right, is the husband entitled to succeed to such property, or any part of it ?

149. Can the son by a former marriage of a woman who contracts a second marriage inherit from (I) his natural father, (2) his stepfather ? If from his stepfather, is her share equal to, or less than that of, his stepfather's own sons ?

150. Is any distinction taken as regards the stepson (t) if he bo not born tiU after the second marriage of his mother, ((V) if the stepfather in his lifetime assign him a share by deed ?

151. Are stepsons entitled to be maintained by their step­father ? If so, tiU what age ?

152. Enumerate in the order of their succession the persons entitled totho estate of a man who dies intestate leaving no relations.

153. If a person voluntarily retires fi-om the world and becomes a member of a religious order, what is the effect upon (i) his right to retain his property, ii) his right to acquire property by inherit­ance? Upon whom wiU devolve property which he would have inherited if he had not retired from the world ?

154. State any rules recognized by the caste governing the succession to—

(«) Zamindaries. h] iServiof tenures. (c) Headships of vilhiges.

155. In the case of tribes practising polyandry, state carefully the rules of inheritance, e.g., does a man's property devolve upon his brother, his sister, or his sister's son ?

158

156. System of Relationships. —Are any persons considered to be relations besides those who are descended. from a common ances­tor?

157. Are all or any of the kindred of the wife considered to be the relations of—

(1) the husband, (2) the husband's relatives or children ?

158. If 80, state the persons who are relatives, with the names of the relationships

159. How are generations reckoned ? 160. Give a table of kindred with the local names of the

generations up to the third degree in both the ascending and descend­ing line.

161. By how many generations are the following persons said to be related to the person whose relatives are to be reckoned ?

D Brother, (2) Father. (3) Uncle. (4) Cousin-german, i.e., uncle's son. (5) Brother's grandson. 6; Great-grandson. (7) Great-grandfather.

162. Fill in the following tables with the local names of the relations.

A.—Relations, through the Father, whether of man or woman.

GEBAT-GBBAT-GBAITBPAIHBB.

[ ]

Great-grandfather.—

C ]

—Great-grandmother.

1

1 '' 1 Grandfather s brother's son.

C ]

1

] c ]

'

Fathers' elder brother's wife.-Father's el der brother. Father's younger brother.;—His wife. Father's sister.—Her husband. Father.' Stepmother.

] £ J L - j i r n r 1 . . . . . - - I c ] c ] C ] C ] [ ]

Male cousin. Female consin.

, |,,. I , Male cousin's son. Female ooasin's son,

[ ] [ ]

Bell. Btep.brothor.

[ ] [

CO

^^-^Belations, through the Mother, whether of man or woman. Qxeii-fmxiMM\or. . firrnt [rrtir''"i"th"r

I Grendfathor. [ Grandmother.

3 ! c . ]

His wifo. Mother's brotli«r. llothor's sister.. ! Hor Imsband, Mother.

L ] ' [ • ^ ^ ^ C ] [ '

Coushi. ^ Self. [ ] C 3

C.—Belations, through the Brother and Sister, whether of man or woman.

Pntlior.

[ ' ]

His wife. Eider hroth'T. Yonngor brother. His wife. Self. Sister.— Sister's husband.

Bi other's daughter. Brother's son. Sister's son. • Sister's dauBhter.

" [ • J C I ] C ] . C ] Brother's grandson.

r J

Solt.-

D (1).—Relations, throui/h the Wife, of a man.

Wife's fathor. ——Vfita't mother.

-Wife. Wife's brother.- -His wife. Wife's Bister.-

] c ] : 1 C

Wife's nephow. V

Wife's nepheir.

-Hor husband.

c ] [

D (2).—Relations, through the Hnsband, of a icomnn.

Husband's father. ^Hnnband's mother.

] [ ]

« If Husband. — Hia other wife. Husband's elder brother, His wife.' Husband's younger brother. His wire. Husband's siator.-Her husband

1 ' [ ] C 3 C ^ ] C 1 [ U ) ' [ ]

Siep-son. - Huiband's nephew.

] [

] / ] Husbuud's nephew.

C ]

E (l).—IicMwns, through the Son, whether of man or woman.

Self. Son's ^ ife's fatlipr.- -Son's wife's motlicr.

Son.. _Son'8 wife.

H.S wife,- . Grandson.

[ ]

Giandd.iUKlitG!'.-

C ] I

Hi>r liusban 1

[ ^

Great-grandson. Great-grandson.

j^ (9y—Belaiiom, through the Datightcr, whether of man or tcomnn.

Daushtor's futho.-m-Iaw.— Dauchter's mother-in-law. Sou.

Daughter..

] C ' i ' Daughtoi's husband.

[

H i s wife. • ••

[ ] r -Daughter's son. Daughter's daughter.

C ^

163

163. How is each group spoken of coUeotively b j a man and

by a woman ? , . i i i • .i a 164. Add any relationships not included in these groups tor

which there are special names. . . , , . j j ; ii, . j 165. Is a great-uncle distmgmshed from a grandfather s and

a parent's cousin from a man's own cousin ? 166 Into what classes are relations distributed .r- _ 167! Specify each class and the relations mcluded m it.-168] Give the distinctions, if any—

( i) between sapindas, sakulyas, samanodakas, bandhus, and gotrajas,

(ii) between personal, paternal, and maternal kindred; (iii) between legal sharers and residuaries, near and

distant kindred, lineal and collateral relations. 169 State the various modes of addressing and speaking of

particular relatives," e.g., how do men and women address and speak of their husbands and wives respectively ? . , • t, .T, •

170. How does a man address and speak of his brother-m-1 p

"^^"ir] Are there any cases in which names originally denoting narticular relationships are used in addressing or speaking of parsons not related in the manner the name denotes ? e.g., a man sometimes speaks of another man as his b/mi, when in fact he merely means that the other is a member of his own caste.

172. Are genealogies carefully kept . 173 Do they include the names ot females ? I7A ' Note any forms of adoptive relationships based upon

friendship or on land e.g., phulbahin auibhmnbhai), and state what consequences and obHgations ai-e annexed to them.

II.—DOMESTIC GEEEMONIES.

175 Birth and Pregnancy.— Describe any ceremonies performed during pregnancy, and state what effect, if any, they are believed to have upon the mother or child.

176. What posture is adopted m accouchement ? 177. Who attends on the mother a) during her confinement,

(J) after the confinement is over? -i i.. ., c , . 1 , 0 178. What ceremonies are performed on the birth of a child ? 179. Are the ordinary occupations of the father given up or

interrupted in any way in consequence of the birth of a child ? _ 180. What reasons, if any, are assigned for such interruption ? 181. Are there any special customs with reference to twins ? 182. Adoj)non.—\)QmYi\iQ the different ceremonies in use for

adoption. i .. ', j ,1 183. Does the validity of the adoption depend upon the

performance of the customary ceremony? , , , , , 184. Does the status of the person adopted depend upon

the form of ceremony used ? , f ii, vn? *f „ 185. If so, what is the effect of each of the different forms ?

W'.

164

186. Puberty or Adolescence.—What ceremonies are performed when (a) a son, (b) a daughter, attains puberty ?

187. In the case of a sou, is there any ceremony purporting to admit him among the grown men of tbe caste ?

188. Betrothal.—Descv'ihe the ceremony of betrothal. 189. What is considered the binding portion of the ceremony ? 190. Is there any distinction between formalities after wbiob

the betrothal is reversible and formalities wliich are absolutely •binding ?

191. At -what age does betrothal take place ? 192. Whose consent is necessary ? 193. If a betrothal be annulled, is there any custom as to the

repayment of tbe expenses incurred ? _ . , -194. Marriage.—Describe in detail the various kinds of

marriao-e" ceremonies in use, distinguishing between superior and inferior kinds ? - , , , . . , , . , .

195. W h a t is considered to be the essential or binding part of eacb kind of ceremony ?

196. I n tbe marriage ceremony is there any pretence of capturing the bride, or does any part of the ceremony or of the previous or subsequent proceedings suggest that marriage by capture was formerly in vogue. _

197. In tbe marriage ceremony is there any symbol of a previous marriage to any deity, e.g., is the bride first married to a tree or to any natural object ?

198. Death and BuriaL-Do the caste burn, bury, or expose their dead ?

199. If buried, in what position ? 200. Where are the bodies or ashes finally disposed of^ 201. Describe the ceremonies performed at the burning or

burying of a corpse ? . propitiation of a) 202. Are any ceremonies performed for the proi ^^^^ ^.^^

ancestors in general, h) child ess ' ^ f ««*'"• \ ^'t X * ««^«°"'• a violent death; and if so, of what nature ana at ^j^ether the

203. Describe the ceremony of sraddii, anu caste perform it or not ? . . +i,„ funeral ceremonies and

204. Who- officiates as priest at tbe lune repeats formulte of prayer (mantras, etc.^^ ^^^ employ Brahmans it

205. Tn the case of castes wiu«ii ^^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^^.^^ ^^ should be enquired whether the si»f ^ ^^^ Brahman the female side officiates in the plj^^^ ^ 1 purifications'practised?

207. Are any persons «^ a J ^ . ^^ .^ l ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ requiring purification, as after cnu"- " ' o >

' " " s o r ' p o ' r how long does the ceremonial impurity last? 209. How are they purified/

J J J _ _ _ B E L I G I O N .

, 210. Worship, Priests, and Temples.—To what religion, and to ^vlmt Beet within the religion, do the caste beloag ?

165

211. If Hindus, do they by preference worship any special one of the regular Hindu deities, and ai-e there any reasons for this preference ?

212. Have its members always professed that religion, or were they converted to it en masse, or gradually ?

213. How did their conveision take place, and when—before their migration to their present abode or after ?

214. Are members of the caste found in the neighbourhood professing the teuels of different religions or sects ?

215. Do they affect a peculiar saint or shrine ? 216. State the names, origin, and attributes of the minor

village deities and local or patron saints whom they worship, describing, if possible, the shape and aspect of the shrine, the ceremonies observed in worship, the nature of the offeriogs made, the times, days, or seasons when they aie made, the caste and subdivision of the officiating priests and of the persons who take the offerings.

217. Are any of these deities peculiar to women and children ? 218. State any indications of ancestor worship, snake or tree

worship, sun, moon, fire, or devil worship, whith the religious practice of the caste suggests.

219. Is there any special shrine to which pilgiimages are made, and at what seasons ?

220. Has any great religious teacher arisen in the caste? Give his name and state his peculiar tenets.

221. Is the caste, though nominally belonging to one of the main religions, excluded from any of the rites and ceremonies practised by other castes belonging to the same denomination, and is any specific reason assigned for this exclusion ?

222. All cases of left-handed sect and worship of sexual principles, orgies, etc., should be noted.

223. Have they any ceremony of admission into the religious body corresponding to baptism or cii-cumcision ?

224. All cases of Hindus and Mahomedans, or their women and children, worshipping the same deities or saints, or frequenting the same shrines, should be carefully noted.

225. Do the caste employ Brahmans for religious and cere­monial purposes ?

226. If so, to what caste or section of Brahmans do they belong, and ai'o they received on terms of equality by other Brahmans ?

227. If they do not employ Brahmans, what class of people serve them as priests ?

228. Are there any family priests who perform ceremonial functions not connected with any particular deity ?

2J9. Are particular persons or clans &et apart as priests ? 230. Is the same person often hoth priest and chief ? 231. Do they practice austerities, observe chastity, etc. ? 232. Is any special building set apart for worship V 233. Is it built in a particular position, as facing the east

etc.?

166

234. Has it any special shape, and is it called by a special name?

235. Are idols kept there ? 236. What rites are performed ? 237. Are all the rites public, or are any of the nature of

mysteries or orgies ? 238. Sacrifice.—Is sacrifice offered, to what deities, and of

what animals ? 239. May any one or only priests offer sacrifice ? 240. Where is sacrifice offered ? 241. After sacrifice, do the priests or worshippers consume or

remove the objects oiiered ? 242. Are substitutes used in sacrifice, such as part of an

animal, an efiigy or imitation ? 243. Do worshippers siicrifice parts of themselves, such as

hair, nails, drops of blood, etc. ? 244. I s there any tradition of men, women, or children having

been sacrified in former times to any deity ? 215._ If so, name the deity, and state all you can learn about

the tradition. 246. Whence and in what manner was the victim obtained ? 247. Enquire why the custom of human sacrifice was discon­

tinued, how long ago, and what was substituted in its place ? 248. Festivals.—Giivo a list of the festivals observed, stating

the dates when each is celebrated. 249. What do they consist in—processions, games, dances,

banquets, etc. ? 250. Which are at regular periods and which occasional ? 251. Are there annual religious festivals marking the months,

seasons, equinoxes, solstices, seed-time, first fruits, harvest, etc. ? 252. I s there an annual feast of the dead ? 253. To what extent docs the caste observe the great Hindu

^ '"254. Is there any great festival observed by the caste, but not observed by Hindus generally ? • n ii 1

255. Are there festivals at which marriageable youths and inrls mix, and matches are made ? , •, •L^ •, •,

266. Are any festivals speciaUy connected with sexual rela­tions ? ,,

257. Is di-unkenness common on these occasions, and is the use of any particular intoxicating drink regarded as part of the festival , ...

253. FciicInsm.~T)o spirits or deities enter mto or attach themselves to objects, such as sticks, bones ornaments, etc. ?

259 Are such objects kept sacred and believed to contain supernatural power?

260 Are blocks of wood, stones.^etc, believed to be inhabited by deities, and worshipped accordingly .

201. Worship of natural spirits, piants, and animals.~Axe thero spirits especially attached to natural objects, such as rivers, springs, wells, rooks, trees, animals, etc. ?

1(J7

262. How are they worshipped ? 263. Are fields believed to be haunted, and by whom ? 264. Are groves and woods favourite places of v 'orship or

sacrifice ? 265. If so, explain what gods are worshipped there, and note

if the wood or grove is or is supposed to be part of a large forest which has been cleared, a portion being left as a refuge for the forest gods.

266. Are any heasts worshipped as gods ? If so, describe the mode of worship.

267. Ancestor tvorsJiip.—Are the souls of ancestors worshipped •with prayers and sacrifices ?

2GQ. Describe briefly the ceremony in vogue ? 269. Is the supposed primitive ancestor of the caste worshipped

under the form of, or in connexion with, some sacred animal, plant or other object as a totem or clan deity ?

270. Are animals sacrified at funerals; if so, with what object ? 271. Are any funeral offerings given, so that the souls of the

dead may become possessed of objects or their phantoms ? 272. Are food, money, ornaments, etc., placed near the corpse,

burnt or buried^\-ith it, or cfferedperiodically at the place of burial.? 273. Are the survivors in fear of the ghosts of the dead ? 274. Do they attribute dreams to their influence, and do they

take any means to get rid of them, or keep them off ? 275. Do ghosts of the dead haunt houses or burial-places, and

if so in what forms? , . , . . , 276. Does their doing .so indicate that rheir bodies have not

been properly buried ? .,. ^ •, o 277. How are ghosts propitiated f 278. Are there several kinds of them; if so, state the names,

characteristicj, aud attributes of euch ? 279. Ai-e any days sacred to aucestors, and what is done on

these days ? 280. Do the caste go to Gya or to any other well-known place

of pilgi'iuinge to perform the xntddh of their aucestors ? 281. Totoms.—1& the caste or_ any of its subdivisions named

after any animal, plant, weapon, or implement ? 2Si. Do they show their reverence for any such object either

by special worship or by abstaining from killing, eating, cutting, burniug, using or naming it ?

2H3. Are there any cases of the object which the caste reverence being tattooed or painted on the body, possibly ia a very convention­alised form, or of its representation being always carried about on the person ?

284. If so, how do the members of the caste explain the practice ?

285. Do the women of the caste pay special reverence to certain trees, by veiling their faces before them as if in presence of an elder relative, or worship them in the hope of getting children in the belief that tlie spirit of the ancestor inhabits them 'i

2^6. Are any trees or plants used or worshipped at weddmf^a and similai' cerem.onjes, and aro childi'en named after them ?

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IV.—SUPERSTITIONS.

287. Omens, etc.—Do any superstitions prevail as to lucky and unlucky days, numbers, animals, places, houses, points of the com­pass, roads, physical functions, such as sneezing, spitting, etc., natural events, or calamities ?

288. Are there any superstitions connected m t h stars, and may they be got over by burying a pictvire or rude representation of the star?

289. Is there any objection to crossing water under certain conditions? Is meeting a particular animal regarded as ominous, and does the character of the omen depend upon the direction in which the animal is seen ? Are omens taken from accidents, such as stumbling, etc. ?

290. Are there any peculiar customs as to wearing or abstainiu"' from wearing particular kinds of dress, jewels, ornaments, etc.; as to using particTilar kinds of cooking vessels; or as to eating or growing particular plants or drugs ?

291. In the case of plants, notice whether the name of the plant affected by the superstition corresponds with the name of a sub­division of the tribe ?

292. Are there any superstitions as to the naming of children e.g., are two names given, one for every-day purposes and one for ceremonial use, or is a son whose elder brother has died given an approbrious name ?

293. Do these practices apply to girls as well as to boys ? 294. Oalhs and ordeals.—Are any forms of oath in common use,

and are they accompanied by any symbolic forms, such as swearing on a tiger's skin ?

295. What consequences are supposed to be entailed by break­ing an oath ?

296. Are any ordeals in use, such as plunging into water, pass­ing through fire, eating food under special conditions, etc. t

297. Are they used merely for the decision of personal disputes or for questions affecting tbe community, such as the boundanes of villflffss GIC ?

298. Magic and witchcraft.—^^ t^e practice of magic arts confined to special sorcerers, witches, etc. r ,

299. Are these priests, etc., connected with rehgion, or is there jealousy or hostility between the priest and the sorcerer ?

300. What are the functions of sorcerers and witches, and how are they generally regarded ?

301. Are there any supposed arts by which it can be deter­mined whether a particular individual is a witch or sorcerer or not?

302. Are spirits or demons called upon to give oracles, disclose secrets, do good or harm? , ,.

303. Is demoniacal possession believed in, and what remedies are resorted to in order to cure persons supposed to be possessed ?

?04. Is saeh possession regarded as a valuable quality; if so, how IS it acquired; is it confined to particular castes or clana ?

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305. Are dreams regarded ? Do they give iufonnation of the past and prophecy or omens for the future?

306. Are any special persons called upon to interpret them,'and is there any recognized system of interpretation ?

307. Ai-e they ascribed to visits or communications from spirits, as, for instance, to persons recently deceased in the family of the person who has the dream ?

308. Js there any mode of propitiating the spiiits of persons recently dead so as to prevent them from causing dreams P

309. Is the effect of the evil eye believed in ? 310. To what is it attributed ? 311. How is it obviated ?_ 312. Are sorcerers and witches supposed to act on their victims

by objects belonging to them or intimately connected with them, such as cut hair or nails, or by making effigies or pictures of them and wounding the piutures in order that tlie victims may be affected .P

313. Is special care therefore taken to destroy cuttings of hair or nails ?

314. Is any kind of divination or astrology practised ? 315. Who are its professors ? 316. Describe the modes of divination and exorcism in use,

and state what class of persons are resorted to as exorcisers. 317. Is disease attributed to the influence of spirits ? 318. How is the particular spirit at work detected and how

appeased ?

Ceremonial Prohibition or Taboo.

319. Is any particular food, animal or vegetable forbidden, thouffh obtainable and wholesome ?

320. Do the whole caste abstain irom it, or only certain families or individuals, or persons imder some special circumstances ?

321. Is the prohibition religious ? 322. Is the animal or plant abstained from regarded as in any

way divine, as a tribe fetish, the incarnation of a local deity, or personal guardian spirit or the soil of some ancestor ?

323. Is it the animal or plant from which the caste or sub­division derives its name ?

324. Give any explanation that may be current of the prohibi­tion in question.

325. Do any members of the caste object to eating with, touching, speaking to, looking at, or calling by name other persons ?

326. Do these prohibitions apply to persons of different rank, occupation, or caste ?

327. Is any particular caste held in peculiar abhorrence, and if so, why ? A good instance of what is meant is afforded by the fact that the Doms hold the Dhobis in special detestation. I t is believed that other low castes have similar eccentric prejudices.

328. Are women and chlidrea specially prohibited from doing any particular religious acts, entering paxiicular temples, performing particular acts of worship, etc. ?

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329. Do similar prohil)itIons apply between relations? And spefially between relations by marriage, e.g., does the husband's father avoid the mfe's relations, etc. ?

330. What appears to be the motive ? 331. Is the person whose name may not be mentioned supposed

to be holier than the other ? 3 32. Is there au idea of magical harai, or is it merely a ques­

tion of social separation ? 333. Are tho names of chiefs, dead persons, etc., avoided in

conversation ? 334. Are any special words or subjects considered improper ? 335. Are there any pases in which gods, persons, or subjects

whose mention by name is prohibited are spoken of tmder some honorific title ?

336. Agricultural 8upersfifions.—lention any remarkable superstitious beliefs connected with agriculture, such as the days on which ploughing, sowing, reaping, etc., must be begun, intermitted, or finished ; the periods within which a shower of rain is specially lucky or unlucky ; the customary number of times agricultural opera­tions should be performed; the objects set up in the fields to avert injury to the crops, to frighten away demons, etc. ?

337. Is any propitiatory or quasi-religious ceremony observed beforethe commeneeiuentor after the completion of any agricultural operations, such as the sinking of a well, sowing, reaping, or the like ?

388. What times and seasons are lucky or unlucky for the commencement or completion of the various agricultural operations ?

339. Are there any gods specially connected with particular crops.''

340. If any of these are peculiar to the caste, the fact should be noted. ^

v.—SOCIAL CUSTOMS.

341. Food and drwlc—'Which, of tho following articles of food do the caste eat or abstain frf)m eating :-flesh, wme, monkeys, beef, pork, the flesh of cloven-footed cr uncloven-footed animals, fowls, scaly or scaleless fish, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, jackals, rats, other vermin, the leavings of other people ? _

342. Are there any seasons during which the use of special articles of food is forbidden ?

343. Are such restrictions due to the desire to increase tho stock of such article of food or to superstitious or sanitary causes ?

344. I s the use of certain articles of food restricted to women or children, or to chiefs and persons of rank ?

345. Are individuals or famihoa prevented from eating certain animals and plants for superstitious reasons, such, for instance, as their being the totems of the individuals or family ?

346. Does all the household eat together, or each person separately, or is there a distinction of ranks, sexes, or ages ?

84.7. Do men and women eat together ?

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3-18. Are tliero any ceremonies used at the commencement of meals, such i.s offerings to the divinities, etc., or any religious rites connected with them ?

349. Are there any marked peeulinrities in the mode of eating and drinking of the caste, and how are these peculiarities explained ?

350. State what spirituous liquors, drugs, and narcotics are in ordinary use.

351. Are any of them • connected with particular religious ceremonies or festivals ?

352. Are any of them supposed to have the effect of keepjjig off malaria ?

353. How is the use of spirituous liquors and drugs regarded by the caste—for instance, is (a) drunkenness, (b) habitual Indulgence in opium or ganja looked upon as disreputable ?

354. Customs of sucial intercourse.—What customs prevails as to salutation ?

355. Do they differ according to rank and relationship ? 356. l low do members of a family, friends and relations, and

strangers greet one another ? 357. ^Vbat special processes of compliment and rules of prece­

dence are in vogue ? 358. How are guests, women, and aged or infirm persons

treated P 359. Wbat are the rubs of hospitality as recognized between •

tinsfolk, neighbours, and strangers f 360. Are peculiar forms of language in use ? 36J. Are certain words or forms of address used or avoided in

addressing certain people ? .362. Customs bearing on social stnlus.—Name the lowest well-

known caste with -which the caste will a) eat paki, (A) eat kachhi, (c) drink, (d) smoke.

363. Name the highest well-known caste which will eat, etc. as in the last question with the oasto.

364. Is there any special article of food their abstaining from which tends in their opinion to raise them above some other caste which does not abstain from it ?

365. Mention any remarkable customs of the caste regardino-dress, ornaments, implements of handicrafts, fishing or hunting? distinguisliing marks, cutting of hair and beai-d, music;.l instru­ments, dancos, etc., which affect their social status in relation to their neighbours.

VI.—OCCUPATIONS.

366. Wbat do the caste believe to have been their original occupation or group of occupations ?

367. To what extent have they or any sections of them departed from it ?

368. Describe their present occupcatioE ? 369. If their occupation is that of—

(a) Jn'/sff«s---What is their industry and in ^vhat special material do they work, or abstain from working ?

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b) Rimters.—^Do they catch game or vermin ? (c) Fuhermen.—Do they catch fish only or also cro­

codiles and tortoises ? (d) Siccepers.—1)0^Qy remove night-soil or not?

370. Name any implement or mode of -working -which is characteristic of the caste, and also note whether there is any form or detail of their main occupation by abstaining from -which they believe themselves to be raised above others of the same craft ?

371. Do they habitually prostitute their (1) unmarried, (2) married women ?

372. Does a change of religion, such as conversion to Maho-medanism, or a joining a special sect of Hindus, usually involve a change or modification of occupation on the part of the convert ?

373. I n cases where an hereditary occupation is abandoned, do the persons changing^ their occupation change or modify their caste name, and are their ties with those members who adhere to their original occupation in any way broken or relaxed ?

VII.—EELATI6XS TO LAND.

374. To what class of agriculturists do the caste or tribe usually belong, e.g., are they—

(1) Zamindars; (2) Tenure-holders, specifying the kind of tenures they

hold; (3) Occupancy or non-occupancy raiyats, stating whether

they have or claim any privileges in respect of ren t ;

(4) Nomadic cultivators, specifying the mode of cultiva­tion they follow;

(5J Landless day-labourers, stating the manner in which they are paid ?

375. Have they any legend or tradition accounting for the position they occupy ? , . . , . ,

376. Have the caste any privileges m respect of land, e.g., do they—

«) hold at loVer rates of rent than their neighbours; (6) hold a certain proportion of their holdings rent-free; (c) receive a certain proportion of the produce of each

field or of particular crops in consideration of any kind of service ?

377. Do they hold any peculiar kinds of tenures ? 378. If so, have they any tradition accounting for the fact,

such as that they are the descendants of the first clearers of the soil, of a former dominant race, or the like J

379. Do they claim special privileges in respect of land on the strength of traditional affinity to, or supposed contact with, the ancestors of the local zamindars r

380. Have thoy any hereditary right to perform certain ser­vices or receive certain fees ?

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381. IB it supposed that the ancestors of the local zamindara were members of the caste or tribe, and do they now admit this, or deny it ?

382. Are there any traces among the _ _ caste or tribe of village communities, or of a communal organization embracing groups of villages ? , . , j , .

383. Give all details that can be ascertamed on this subject, or if the organization has already been described in print, quote the reference. . ., ,.. • •. j • , o

384 Does the system preserve its vitality, or is it dying out ? 385 If the latter, state from what cause. _ 386 Are there any traces of the periodical redistribution of

common'arable land among the members of feections of the com-

""sb" ' If the communal organization has now fallen into disuse, can any "trace of its previous existence be found in the character of distribution of the tenures now held by the caste or tube ?

388 Are there any restrictions upon the order in which certam fields are to be cultivated or certain crops sown?

389 Do communal rights of pasturage exist, or are they asserted over land which is private property ? , -, ,

390 Among hunting, fishing or wandermg tribes_ does any r,Tinrtionment of land or water exist between the divisions of the

• tribe each division confining its operationsto tlie tract allotted to it, aud does the apportionment extend to the individual members of the

'^' ' ' ' '391^ Does tliis custom obtain even where the land or water

the peisou ^^ ^^^^^ praic/wi/af, or occupy any hereditary ^fl"- 1 osS'on in relation to the caste, the fact should be stated. If ofhuiai p ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ questions have been derived from any source ther^'thau personal enquiry addressed to members of the caste

° cerned the source should be stated, and such references given a8°may enable the officer in charge of the enquiry to test the correct­ness of the answers.

DEXZIL C. J . IBP.ETSON.

JoBN 0. NESFIELD.

H. H. ElSLEY.

^ - . \

APPENDIX in .

MR. DENZIL IBBETSON'S MEMOEAig-DCJM ON ETHNOLOGICAL INQUIRY IN THE PANJAB.

1882.

Memorandum for guidance in collecting Ethnological Notes.*

N.B.—Proper names and vernacular words should be very clearly and correctly written, and in vernacular as well as in English characters, if possible.

1. Caste or Tribe—Clan—Locality—Tahsil—District.—This information should always be given at the head of the note regarding the people fi'om whose statements the note is compiled; and if they belong to a single Tillage, it should be named in case of further inquiry being needed.

I t is often difficult to decide what should be entered as the caste. Many clans, for instance, are called Jals in some districts and Eajputs in others. A mere tradition of Kajpul origin, even though admitted by the Eajputs of the neighboui-hood, is not enough to warrant their being entered as Eajputs, though the tradition and the fact of its admission should of course be stated r for a casto yvill often claim Kdjput origin, while readily admitting that they have lost the status which their ancestors enjoyed.

The real question is icheihtr they are, for practical purposes, looked xipon and treated us Rajputs at the present lime by admitted Rajputs of il,e neighbourhood. The same test applies to claims to be classed as Pathans, Qoreshis, &c., &o. The claim, however, should always be noted, together with the considerations which may lead you to hold that it is inadmissible.

In any case the name by which the people are best known and most commonly spoken of among their neiglibours, generally that of their clan, should always be prominently noted.

2. Distribution.—li is useful to state whether the particular caste or clan is numerous in the tahsil; where their local head­quarters are; and if few, where they are to be found iu laiger """ " numbers. The provincial head-quai-ters, if any, should be named The people wiU often tell you that they hold 27 villages in this and" 84 in that tahsil, and so on, giving the old traditional number of villages rather than the number as they now stand, auch statements should be recorded.

3. Subclwisions.—The various grades of tribal subdivision to which the people belong should always be stated: for instance, [hey a:

• I need haidly say that I 'am indebted for many of the notes in this memoi^^iJdmrT *^^ the suggestions of friends who h»V6 been kind enough to help mo in its compilation.

176 /

should be described as belonging to the A family of the B clan of the 0 tribe of the D race or caste. And especially it wiU be useful to give the traditional number of subdivisions of the tribe or clan under discussion, and to detail the names of as many of them as possible, as these names often appear in the census papers with nothing to indicate to what tribe they belong, and in such cases the barest list of names would be most valuable to me.

A tree allowing the local subdivisions of a caste or tribe is always exceedingly useful, and should be accompanied by a detail of the vernacular terms used to denote the various degrees of subdivision; such as zdi, gut, al, jnd, pal, muhin, thok, movi, sutan, kuldevi, varri, bolalc. tnman, pdro, phalli, zai, khel, 8fc., S^c,

In the case of menial castes, it should be noted whether the name of their subdivision is the same as the clan name of the villagers whom tbey 8erve,_ or of the prevailing agricultural clan in "the neighbourhood, or in the part of the country whence they came.

4. Synonyms—

(a) If the caste or clan is known by more thano no name, all p ? r a ^^^^^.' ^^ Jli^inonr and Kahar, Julaha and I^oh. _ So, too, if the name varies with the religion ; as . Umhraiov Hindu, Mmalli for Musalmdn ; and Muzhi for bikh sweepers; Mahrn for Hindu and Sikh, and ^/«;nrariorMusalmanir«/id)-s; Mn,,ar for Musalman EAj p6(s, and so on. I t should always be noted whether the synonyms are co-extensive or not; whether, for instance, the term Eangar is applied to all Musalmdn Eajputs, and to them only, or not.

b) Too great caution cannot be exercised in accepting synonyms. To the educated and twice-born Native, every vagrant is a Nat, every outcast a Chithrd or Bum, and so on. The real test is whether, for instance, the same individual will call himself J hi it icar and Sahdr indifferently; whether a Hindu Chiihra would be called on conversion a MusalU; whether a Julahn from the east would, on settling in the west, be recognized as a Paoli; whether the people themselves accept and recognize the identity. More identity of origin is not sufficient. For instance, Parachas are said to be converted Banya.; but no Bau>/a could now become a P . m 7 , a by conversion; the caste is closed to outsiders, and has become separate and dis,tinct. """-si^^is,

(c) Names of ° ^ 7 f ^ ^ «"en give rise to most difficult questions of Jhis sort. For instance, some sav that Jhin.ar - - ' J ^ ^ l ^ ^ ^ ; and t h a U l l S / w " Bhatyams, baibhunjas, and Dayds are Jhmrnr bv caste these words being the names of ncnnnnf;! , A

i f *„o Tnti'Tio. If , , •"• occupations on y, and not of castes. ^°-^^^S 'flalldhx nnW ',^^^ i L " V „=

would be something o f th i s so t l ^ J h t t y ^ ' ^ S who never were JMnu-ars; would a Jhil^ar on first taking to work as a boatman, call himself J^/i,,«•«/-. or

177

Malldh, or both indifferently ? What would his son call himself? What would he call himself if he reverted to working as a porter or village water-carrier or cook ? Would he ordinarily marry a Malldh woman (1) while still working iis a porter, (2) while working as a boat­man, and vice versd ?

(d) Where the custom of the neighbourhood forbids marri-ao-e out of the caste, freedom of intermarriage is the best possible test of identity. But this is often not available. As to tlie general question, see section 21 below. Questions of this sort are the most difficult which ha^'e arisen in the classification of census figures, and a thorough examination of them is much needed.

5 Origin or fomclafion of caste.—The tradition as to the origin or foundation'of the caste or clan, though often absurd, should always be given, together with any facts which may seem to bear upon its probable truth. „ . ,. n^•L u^ L ^

6 J>/ace of 01 igin and course of migralwn.— lhe ultimate place of oriffin as stated by the people, should be recorded, together with such account as they may give of their subsequent stages^ But especially the name of the village or neighbourhood from which theix ancestors came direct to their present locality should always be stated, as this last can generally be relied upon, and enables us to trace them back, step by step, in their wanderings. I t wil often be found that they still make periodical pilgrimages to a place of origin, thereto worship at a ^atti, or at the shrine Oa//^er«) of their

" ° ' " r . ° X f of origin of their Paro/nt,^ and mis will often be a cuide: and it is useful to know where their family genealogists (mat Jdga, Chdran, Mir&si) live, and to what caste and religion thev belong These men should always be got hold of and examined if possible, as they are the repositories of all the traditions of the

The number of generations since immigration is often known, or can be got from the genealogical tree, and is useful as approximately fixing the date of arrival.

The people generally have a tradition as to who beld the village or locality before their coming. Tbese traditions often throw light on past movements of tribes, and should be examined into and recorded over as wide an area as possible.

7. Religion—

(fl) Should be stated; and whether the same caste 0K:<!lan is found of more than one religion in the neighbbur; hood. Original Musalmans, who came into India as such,, should be distinguished from those whose auces-tori; have been converted from Hinduism. The latter can'often state who converted them, and when and where. [ I t is important to ascertain whetKer their conversion took place before or after their Settlement in t^ieir present homes.] ./

:• •' J 12

178

(5) The sect, where it can be discovered, should also be stated. Whole villages of nominal Hindus or Musal-mans are sometimes adherents of a sect which practi­cally echpses the parent religion. I t will often be found that the people aileet a particular gurii or pir or gtcriidwara, and will be of the sect to which he or it belongs see further, section 20 infra); especially weavers, water-carriers, and other village menials are often devotees of some saint or shrine, local or distant; and in such cases the fact should be noted.

(c) I t will generally be found that the peasantry worship minor village deities and local saints far more than the recognized gods of the Hindu Pantheon. Particulars regarding worship of this sort are especially valuable. The names, origin, and attributes of the deity, the shape and aspect of the shrine, the days of the week or year consecrated to him or her, the ceremonies observed in worship, the nature of the offerings made, and the class of people by whom they are taken, should be given.

d) I t shovdd be especially noted whether any of these deities are peculiar to any particular sex, age, class, caste or clan, or their worship specially affected by them, or in any given locality.

(e) I t is not impossible that the minor deities may bo dis­tributable into two classes, Aryan and Aboriginal, the former being worshipped by all, and the offerings made to them being pure and taken by Br^hmans, while the worship of the latter is often largely confined to women and children, and the offerings consist of fowls, pigs, churmas, and other impure things, and are taken by Jogis, Faqirs, Chtihras, and the like. The latter class are perhaps more often malevolent than the former.

( / ) I t should also be stated whether Sikhs or Hindus worship the same deities at the same shrines or n o t ; and it will often be found that Musalmdns still worship these minor deities of the neighbourhood, especial/!/

^'"^^''"tomen and children. (/) Customs loibidden, or not authorized by the nominal

religion, are of special importance, as, for example* the worship of saints by Musalmdns, and of Ifusalman Baints by Hindus, the circumcision of females, and ttie liko.

(A) I t is particularly important to note the cases where a caste, though nominally Hindu, Sikh or Musalman, is ^°'^^jognized as such, and not admitted to a religious

nies Wy, or to a participation in ^^^^io rites and ceremo-by others of the same denomination.

^^^ " " o u S t ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ' ^ f the i-eHgirand worship of the ?ariou ^A ^T"^- "'*'• ' ' ' ^ <>1 as sweepers and the various kinds of gipsies, isjhuoh needed.

179

Snake-worship and tree-worship will be found in full vitality in many parts of the province, and traces of fire-worship and devil-worship shoidd be carefully looked for.

8. Fairs, Fash, and Festkah.—These almost always have a Bemi-religious significance, and are of great sociological interest. The places at which they are held, and the fixed dates on which they fall, ehould be noted; and the name, history, and attributes of the saint or deity, if any, in whose honour they are instituted given; if none, the origin and significance attached to them by the people. I t should be stated what sex and age, what castes or clans of people, and of what sect or religion, principally attend or observe them; what is the nature of the oflerings made, and who takes these offerings. A rough estimate of the numbers usually attending a fair will be useful. Any . tradition connected with the occasion should be narrated, and aU rites and ceremonies observed should be minutely described.

9 Omens and Stipenfitions.—These axe often peculiar to a elan or a locality, and are always interesting for comparison with those of other races. Divmation ; sooth-sayers (b/iagai si/diia, SfC.); witch­craft • the evil eye; the release of animals or scapegoats durmg enidemies • fthe use and nature of charms, especiaUy agamst small-TDox and cattle-plague]; the sanctity of certain days, especially m connection with horned cattle; auspicious and inauspicious days, numbers, sights and events ; and behef in and propitiations of ghosts (bMf mrct. chliurel) and fuhies niiri Mlqmri) are some of the pmnta on which information is needed; as also the worship of ancestors and the propitiation of those «ho die by violence (upnal) ov childless S / ) , the custom of building liltleplafforms wi.h cup-marks bhorka) fofthkr worship, the custom ofheapmgup earth .y. the ca.rns of E ™ e ) Tn their honour, or in honour ol some of the minor deities,

'ri/ero is a largo mass of superstitious custom connected with nericulture, such as the days on which ploughi..g. sowing, reaping, A- must be begun, intermitted or finisiied; the rites observed or Invocations employed at their ooramencement or completion ; the ceremonies attending cotton-picking, cane-crushing, winnowing and division of grain, and commencement and completion of a well; the customary number of times which weeding should or should not be performed; the dimensions of wells and well-gear being measured in so many and three quarter hands, and the like.

The number 5 and its aliquot parts, as U , 2\, will be found to run through many of the superstitious, and even of the religious, customs of the people.

10. ZTse o/*5)-a/(?«(Z»s..i-Musulm^n8 often still retain and fee the family BrAhmans, employing them especially at betrothals and. weddings, m casting horoscopes and fixing lucky names and dates,"-and the like. This is valuable, as indicatmg Hind 6 origin. The class of Brdhmau so employed should always be ascertained.

Some of the lower castes have a sort of outcast Bralimans who minister to them only ; and I understand that there are Musalmau BrAhmans (called Huseni; who perform hereditary offices foi* 'their converted clients. Any special-Order of priesthood of this sort should be described. Moiip* of the f imitier tribes include Levitical objis, who

t f W I

180

have the monopoly of priestly functions, and occupy a position some­what similar to that of Brdhmans among Hindfis.

More information is needed about the different classes of Brdh-mans, as the Achdrj, Dahaut, Gujrati, Sfc, what position they hold in the sacerdotal ranks, what offerings they aeeept, what functions they perform, and what is the origin of the distinction into classes.

11. Totemism —Signs of reverence for some animal or plant peculiar to the caste or clan will often be met with. Thus, some olans will not eat or bum certain plants ; the women of others veil their faces before certain trees, as if ia presence of an elder ^ela tive, or worship them in hope of getting children, in the belief that the spirit of the ancestor iuhabits them; others use or worship certain plants at weddings and similar ceremonies; and some castes call aU their sons after plants. A clandestine marriage round a fire made of certain wild plants, even though performed without the usual cere­monial, is sometimes considered to be of a pecnliary binding nature. The clan name is sometimes derived from that of a plant or animal; and there is often a tradition connecting it with the clan and account­ing for the reverence shown it. The people's explanation of the clan name, though often appai-ently absurd, should always be given.

12. Social Customs.—All social customs are exceedingly useful in tracing ethnic affinities, as they are marvellously persistent. The simplest method of recording them probably is to describe minutely any set of customs or ceremonies as practised by the principal tribe of the neighbourhood; and, taking that as a standard, to note the points in which the practice of other tribes departs from it—

a) differential customs, which are special to _ one _ tribe, and differ from the custom of other tribes ia the neighbourhood, are most important of all.

(i) Birth customs; the giviog two names, one for every-day wear, and one for ceremonial use; the meanings of names, often intended to deceive or frighten the small­pox goddess by depreciating or exalting the qualities of the child; name-jingles or rhymes within the fatuily, perhaps marking the paternity in polyandrous fami­lies ; the ntes connected with the soalplook, puberty, and cuttings and offerings of hair in general, are all interesting and often important The period of ceri-monial impurity after birth and death sUtalc mipdfalc) should always be given, as they vary with the caste.

(c) Mamage and betrothal customs are especially valuable. It will often be found that a Musalmdn tribe will have Identical marriage ceremonies with those of its Hindu neighbours, with the smgle exception of the substitu­tion of the mm for thepAerd, or even the addition of the iormer to the latter.

(d) Polyandry is practised, i^ a sort of half-recognized manner far more generally throughout the Pani&b than t L n ^ '"P?°''.i • ^/.^"y ^ W s t e suspected where the custom is for the eldest only of a family of brothers to marry. Other curious forms of marriage will also

181

be found in certain parts, such as the infant son marrying an adult woman who cohabits with the nominal father

(e) I t should always be stated whether the people burn or bury their dead; if the former, where the bones and ashes are finally bestowed; if the latter, whether they are buried lying or sitting, on the face or on the back, in a graveyard or at home; in both cases, in which direction graves or shrines face. In the case of menials, it should be noted whether they have a distinct custom proper to their caste, or whether they merely follow the custom of the village to which they are attached, which will vary with the religion of the villagers.

(/) AH customs of committing corpses or ashes _ to local streams or tanks should be noted, and the origin and natui-e of the virtue these possess should be recorded. This practice is believed to be dying out in favour of the more orthodox localities.

13. Karewa.—It is of capital importance to know whether a tribe practises kareica, or the remarriage of the widow, as the exis­tence of this custom helps to fix both origin and social status. The custom exists in two forms, which must be carefully distinguished :—

(1) The Levirate, in which the eldest surviving brother of the deceased talces the widow: this is either a remnant of past or a token of existing polyandry.^

(2) Where the existing restrictions upon maniage out o± the caste, &c., are relaxed in the case of widows, a marriage vdth almost anij widow being permitted.

I t should be noted which of these forms is practised; [and further, what rule of inheritance is observed, especially under the Levirate : whether, for instance, the son begotten of the widow by the younger brother of the deceased inherits as the son of the elder or of the younger brother.]

14. Inheritance—

(fl) Minute details of the rules of inheritance do not gener­ally bear upon our subject. But it is important to know whether the tribe follows the strict Islamic law of succession, or whether their rules, by denying rights of succession to females, tend to keep property iu the clan.

(b) Primogeniture; equal division between sons; Pagband and CMndaband; succession of sons during the father's lifetime ; distinctions between whole and half-brothers on the father's and mother's side respectively; succes­sion of daughters; and inheritance by the son-in-law of a sonless father (jg/iarjairai), are all points which may be usefully noticed, more especially when customs are found to differ on any of them.

f

182

(c) Any traces of inlieritance through the female line, such as inheritance by brothers or sisters, or by sister's sons, should be carefiilly recorded.

d) Traces of vesh, or the periodical redistribution by lot of common arable land among the households or adults of the community, are interesting.

15. Relationship and its incidents.—A table showing the terms used for the various kinds and degrees of relationship, and the people who are included under each, will often throw valuable light upon the ancient constitution of the family. It should be stated what relations may not be mentioned either by name, or by the term for the relationship; as for instance, that a woman may not name her husband, and' that a man will not describe his brother-in-law (sa^«) as such.

The admission of strangers to inherit, the manner of and reatrietioDs upon adoption, the relations arising from and destroyed by adoption, gharjaicat, and foster kinship, and by the custom ot making MiwJ/ifli, should all be noted.

Especially the relations which are created by marriage-;-(l) between the woman and the members of the family she marries into, (2) between the two families, are important. In the west of the Panjab a woman changes her elan (got) by marriage; in the east she does not. I t would be interesting to discover where the custom changes, and to note any facts bearing upon i t ; as, for instance, the custom of_ formal admission of the bride into her husband's cla,n. Ihe functions which custom assigns to sisters' sons and husbands, brothers] wives, sister-in-laws' mothers and similar relations, in social ceremonials, such as marriage rites, are exceedingly interesting and instructive, and need further examination.

further facts bearing upon the importance of eating togetber K<^njarreatio) m ceremonies where a new relationship is created, ox needed. The custom often takes the form of a distribution of i/«' or sweetmeats.

16. Intemaniage.

(a) It is specially important to discover the limits within OT beyond which marriage is forbidden; for ii^stanc , ™at a man must marry, in the first instance at o. y rate, within the cast*; but must not maiTy i^*' ' f j .

; own his mother's or Ms paternal or maternal S^^. ^ l^other's clan, nor a girl, of whatever clan, ^vho ii^ . ^ a village marching with his own, and m^^ ^ ^ ™ y two sisters; or whether the prohibited degr jg I islam are the only limitations observed.^ ^^ j.

S T ' \ ^ ' ^ ° ^ ^ ° ^ * ^ differences of reUgxo^ lh\ T+ • ® ^ "^^ to marriage. '• . • _n

\ * 4P< fM' •^.

183

are now classed; whether they follow the tribe and clan of the father or of the mother, or are known by an entirely new name; and what distinction, if any, is made between them and others who are bom into the tribe and clan in a more usual or legitimate manner.

(c) Clans often cannot intermarry with certain other clans as bein"- of common origin with themselves; for instance, the 'bestcdl, Man, and Dalai Jats, the Mandhdr, Kan-dhar and Bargujar Rajputs, and so on. Ties of this sort should be carefully sought for and recorded.

id) Castes and clans often refuse to, or are not allowed to, intermarry with certain others on the score of social status. In some cases wives will be received, but daughters will not be given in marriage. I t is useful to give these particulars, as helping to fix the social standing.

17. Social status.—This is denoted in three ways :—

(a) by the customs regarding intermarriage Just referred to ; lb) by the standing of the castes which will—(1) eat, (2)

drink, (3) smoke with them, the Brahmanical distinc­tion between pahln roll, or dry food cooked in ghi, and kachhi rati or food not so cooked, being noticed where it exists. Thus, in some parts of the province a Gaur Brihman will e&t pakki roH from the hands of a Hindu Jat wliile lio will not oat kach/il rati oven from the hands of a Sdrsut Hrahman ' • . , , , , , . ,

M bv the general custom of the neighbourhood, which con-demns certain castes to live in separate quarters, drink from separate wells, and so on.

IS Occupation.—The principal local occupations of the caste fihould "be specified. I t will often be found that change of religion affects the occupation. Thus a sweeper converted to Islam usually ceases to remove night-soil, while a Sikh OhamSr will often leave leather work and take to weaving. It is often the case, moreover, that different clans pursue different branches of the occupation hereditary to the caste. Thus some Ghosi clans keep cattle and sell milk only; others buy milk and sell butter.

Instances of abandonment of hereditary occupation should >o noticed, and whether ia such cases the caste name is abandoned or altered, and the ties with the original caste broken or relaxed (see section 21 below).

19. Minor peciliaritica.

(«) Custonjf^ohibiting or enjoining the eating or growing of c&rf.,yri plants, as onions,_ turnips, indjgo, &c., the eatinfef flesh, drinking of wine, smoking^and use of drugN'l'ke use of vessels made of a particiilar metal or of e » i , or ^ t n e n t e d with stripes or otherwise,

'*«••' ofteAiford uaHrindioations.

'*: K- ^^ *'

184

(6) I t will generally be found that the dress and jewels vary with the religion, caste, clan and conjugal condition; especially as to the colour of the clothes, red, blue, whole or party-coloured; the use of drawers or petti­coats, dhotis or tali mans; the use of boddices; of nose­rings, small or large, of gold or of silver; the use of bracelets of silver or lac; tbe colour of the wrap and of the bead-dress; and the general method of shaping and wearing the garments and jewels. Customs regu­lating personal adornment, such as tattooing, orna­menting the teeth with gold, compressing the skull &c., &c., are always valuable

(c) Honorific titles peculiar to castes or clans should be noted.

(d) Peculiarities of language will often point to place of origin, and peculiarities of physique betray ethnic descent; but these two are very difficult to detect.

(e) Local songs, proverbs, and folk-lore often afford curious and useful hints about custom, and are always interest­ing and valuable. They should be taken down exactly as spoken or sung, and not doctored to make them conform with grammatical rule or theory.

19a. Tribal and Vilhge Organization.—Traces of tribal organi­zation will generally be found, even where the tribe is now least prominent. iSome of the points to be noted are—the tract, often called Thapa or Tliambn, held, now or formerly, by the tribe or clan; the existence and organization of a tribal assembly or panchdyat ] how it is convened, and what questions it deals with ; whether its constitution involves any rudimentary idea of representation, either hereditary or elective; the mode of selection of a tribal chief or Sarpaneh; whether he must necessarily belong to the head Hhika)

• village or family; how that village or family is determined, and the privileges it enjoys; how far the assembly or chief represents the body, so that the latter is bound by its or his acts, and how its or his decisions are enforced ; what privileges the chief enjoys; what dues he receives; what power he possesses over the land of the tribe, and what share he owns in it, or whether he is the one tribesman'who has no share at all. The organization within the village should be Bimilarly described. . Eelics of a now extinct tribal organization wiU sometimes ha found in the titles or social privileges accorded to members of a certain family; and it is often the case that the organization which has almost whoUy died out among he and-owni?g commuStiet survives in comparative integrity among their priests and menials whose pamhayats are organized upon the basis of the land-owinff tribe to which they are attached, wh:k those who come from thf ihika village enjoy certain rights and privileges

20. Sects and Ascetic Orders.-^^,u ^.^ exceedingly numer­ous, especialy among Hindtis; and new ones are constan fy s S -1 8 mto existence. The various orders nf i^^'„^ ..,„ ^ " ' - ^ P ^ X / ^ - ^ e d s . while the census papers s h o ^ m a „ 7 e " c r o f ^ ^ t U e

185

or nothing appears to be known. The points most worthy of record are—the name, date, and life history of the founder of the sect or order; where its head-quarters are situated; peculiar tenets and ceremonial practices which distinguish it from other sects or orders; what deities or saints are specially venerated; peculiarities of dress, if any ; what castes are admitted, what chiefly enter, and whether caste names, rules, and distinctions are recognized after entry; the rites used in admission; whether any special occupations, colours, dress, food, &c., are encouraged, prescrihed, prohibited or discountenanced. In the ease of a new sect, the estimated number of followers, where they most abound, to what classes they belong, and whether it is spreading or dying out. In the case of an order, whether the faqirs are celibate or not; whether they are wholly wandering and indepen­dent or are attached to monasteries and have a system of internal government; what is their general character; and what functions, if any, they perform in the life of the people

21 Trade-guilds.—These guilds appear to .assume every form intermediate between castes proper and the European trades-union. Even true castes, such as that of the sweepers, where the occupation S wescribed by birth, are, where they foUow a trade, handicraft or men?al occupation, generally governed by an elaborate panchayat ^ I T n L t i o n . And this is almost always the case where the guild S for S t a n t e , that of tailors, includes men of very different

' ' ^ '^ 'TT, these cases the nature of the organization should be des-m tnese tuseo 11* „i,;„)i ,> orfiroises over the members of

cribed, the degree of control wh h exer ses.^^ ^^ . . ^^_ ^^.^^^ the g " M and the met^b^djjhi^oh^^t^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ worthy of °ote are ^^^ ^^^ reUgions usually enter the guild; religions, ana w n u ^ ^ ^ . abandoned for that of the occupation, whether tbe CM ^^ tl^e geeond generation, and whether either in t ^ ^ T ^ • ^ t^e occupation is abandoned; whether the it is resumect ag ^ ^ ^^^ intermarry with each other, with different castes ^ . j ^ the guild, or with their own castes outside their own cas te^^^ the occupation tends to beoom hereditary; in the guua , , - j ^ supersede or override those of T l X ^ ' i h^^peL I f n the tw'o conflict. The titles of the ? T n f t S various gidlds should always be given, ^Mahtar, Baj,

* ^ ^ % ? ° X S o « of ne. castes.^^^y facts bearing .pon the . . i . i n or growth of new castes should be carefully watched for and

S I & l sometimes be found that a tribe or famdy has lately r ! ^ m to a C t a-reHgious sanctity or a social exolusmness beyond tegun to aneui, » 5 „!,„ ° " j nr abandoned its former occupation that of Its fe iQWS ^^^^f^^f^,^ j X V s h e d t h e custom of widow-in whole or m part has adopted or rehnq^ ^^ inatrimomal alliance marriage, HaB f cuided from or ad^u and so on. clans ^ i th which it .formerly did or did ^^^^^ ^ ^^^ It is believed t^at mstance^.of a olanjr ^y ^^j ^^^^ _

% ^ ^ l m i ; ; : ^ S i t ^ t ; U or of the descend.1 of

186

a Jat grandfather having now, by virtue of mere change of occupa­tion, become N^fs or Lohdrs, and been admitted to caste privile<»e3 by the other Ndis or LohArs of the neighbourhood, are more com­mon than is generally supposed. Nothing can be more important than a careful record of the actual facts in such cases ; -whether the people in question have risen or fallen in the social scale ; liow their position in respect of intermarriage with other sections of the com­munity has been afieeted ; whether they have adopted a new or are still known by the old name, and so on.

23. Boundaries.—It is important to define, as far as possible the boundary which marks any change in religion, language, custom' or tribal distribution or nomenclature; such as the line at -which Khatris supersede Banyas or Aroras Xhatrfs, at which B .»ri take the place of Dese Jats, KutAnas and Musallis of Chuhras, or Charhoas of Dhobis and Chhimpis, at which Julaha yields to P^oli, JAt to Jat Hindi to Panjabi, Hinduism to Sikhism, at which the custom chanees as to marriage within the caste but outside the clan, as to the her (\' tary nature of occupations, or as to the change of a bride's clan T1i'

' limits within which dialects are spoken also stand in great need of definition, though they are often by no means clearly marked There is very generally an intermediate or neutral zone, within which the distinct dialects, tribes, or customs which prevail on either sid f 'f are to be found in a state of intermixture or transition. Such 7°OTIP« should be defined as accurately aspossible.

24. Tracts.—It is useful to define the exact limits of the manv local tracts into which the people themselves have divided the nro vines; such as the Bagar, the Nardak, Haridna, Bhattiana the Malwa, the Mdnjha, the Pawad, theBajwdt, the Rohi, the Jano-al-des the Dogar-des, the Daman, the PachhAd, and a hundred "others' These divisions are permanent; and, unlike our artificially formed districts and subdivisions, represent natiii-al features, either rihW 1 or ethnographical. 1 j a

Information is also much needed regarding the limits of the Id parqanahs, uirlcars, subahs and other ancient administrative di " of the country; as in the absence of such information we cannnf^f ^l^^ understand the statements of the old historians which rpf^r f n? " divisions. The Sikhs often altered considerably the old .f^^^l Mughal administration; and it should always be statfld f " ? • i . these two dynasties the facts given refer._ ^ ' ^ stated to which of

25. Bibliography.—K-ach information on thp snl^- <. ^ .-, divisions of the people will be found in all the varim^^Q ..? * ® Reports; while their religious and social customs n T f '^fl^ement m. Lyall's Report on KAngra, paragraphs 66 72 t . 7 . 1 ! ' ^ . °^ ^^ 154, 160 to 169, in Mr. Barnes' Report on K^ ' rn ZJ' ? ^"^ ^^^' 294, in Captain Waterfleld's Eeporfc on G u i X ' f ™S™Pl s 253 to 164, in M^ Maconaohie's Report on D e l h i / ' ; ^ . S i f t P^ ^° ^ Mr. Canning ' s Report on Gurgaon, p a g e s T i T ' S ^^\ *? ^^^' ^eP0J^<pn Kamdl (now passing through the VrL\ n^ ^"^^ l^K & . and part of V l l . ElHot'f Races nf I' ^t^^^^ ^ ' ^ ^ c e f ' o i India, edited by Beam6s ( L o n S T , ? K ^° / th -Wes t -1« • Svo..V;oe 36 . ) , is a .'tore-houae^of v l ^ ^ i t r m l S T^

187

are a little book on the Domestio Manners and Customs of the Hindus of Northern India by the Eev. Ishuree Dass (Benares, Lazarus, and London, Triibner, 1866), Wilson's Sketch of the Eeli-gious Sects of the Hindfls (Calcutta, Bishop's College Press, 1846 cost about 5s.), and some of Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays (reprint of 1858, cost (is.)

The constitution of the tribe and family can be studied in pages i to c of vol. I I of Mr. Tupper's work on Panjab Customary Law; and in the earlier pages of Mr. "Wilson's Code of Tribal Customs in the Gurgaon District (reprinted in the volume just mentioned).

The learner who is anxious to acquaint himself with some of the published results of sociological reseai-ch cannot do better than begin •with Sir John Lubbock's Origin of Civilisation (London, Longman, 1870, ono vol., 8vo., price 16s.); while the following are a few less elementary works on the same and cognate subjects:—Tyler's Early History of Mankind (London, Murray, 1870, one vol., 8vo., price 12*.); Tyler's Primitive Culture (London, Murray, 1871, two vols., 8vo., price 24s) ; MacLennan's Primitive Marriage (London, Quaritch, 1876, one vol small 8vo., price 16.?.) ; Morgan's Ancient Society (London, Mac-Miilan 1877, one vol., 8vo., price I6s.); Maine's Village Communities (London, Murray, 1872, one vol., 8vo., FJce I2s.); Maine'sEarly His-UTV of Institutions (London, Murray, 1875, one vol., 8vo., price 12s.)

26 Fniatly I would remind you that tw notes can possibly be too franmentan, or too trivial to be icodli sending me. Incomplete as S s memorandum is, a complete examination of even a single caste • • ^n^l« district with regard to all the points noted would be a very m a single f^«*™^7"^j' „'t it is only meant to suggest ines of inquiry, serious uuderiakng^^iu y^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^j^^^ ^^^^ ^^J^

ff' i : i ^ s and ubdTvisions, or a note that a certain single clan if t to such a t r i K will be most useful. And all details regarding belongs lo B opie, however minute or apparently uninteresting, the customs ol^tnepi.^^^ value; nnd esf,eciall!/ points in xchich the lossess gi Mcrfrom those of another. For instance, a state-•' T hich I have just seen that the temporary huts which the

ri^° X , bnild for themselves are circular in plan, at once suggests f^.l7nmmr where the pattern was brought from, and invites compa-' • n with the bee-hive shaped tent of the nomad Mongols. I t is

"iw5 .-8 well to test and confirm any information which has been ^iilpofpd bv inquiries from fresh individuals. But where this cannot ^ ! done the iiformation will still be of great value; for it can bo ; cfpd bv comparison or by subsequent inquiry whiiC, if not noted : f once it is lost. I t is as well, however, m sending notes, to state fow far the information has been tested and supported by repeated

" " ^ " ^ L wiraary distribution .of the Panjab peoples among the abori-„;nal inhabitants, and the sevei-al great waves of imnngration which f ve at d X r e u t times swept into the country can only.be arrived at have at umtjieuu n^,, . _„_:ous social ana rebgious customs; by a minute ^ ^ ^ ^ P ^ °^f - T . S and nature of caste can oni ; and the immense question of the growm ^^ y

^ ^ ThSi?f %:X^ -^ - - «^-- ord

188

an almost untrodden field for the one inquiry; the exceedingly interesting and elaborate caste-organization of the menial castes, and of those numerous trade-guilds of which it is often so difficult to say •whether they are castes or only occupations, affords equally unexplor­ed material for tlie_ other. Work in either field, or indeed in any cognate direction, will help on the inquiry into the early history of social institutions whicli has lately assumed such great interest and importance. "We in India have an inexhaustible store-house of facts at our very doors, and unequalled facilities for ascertaining and record­ing them. Every year sees some of the existing material disappear under the powerful solvent of contact with European thought and the appliances of civilization. We are probably too near our subiect to generalise with success; but we, and we alone, can obtain the facts from which generalisations can be made.

\-\

APPENDIX lY.

LIST OF COEEESPONDENTS SELECTED TO TAEE PAET IN THE ETHNOGRAPHIC SUEVEY OP BENGAL.

BABDWAH

PEBSID'SN CT —i

Midnapur

Bardwan

Hughli

Howrah

Birbhiun

Bankura

24-Pargands

Calcutta

...

1

1

Names of correspondents.

Baboo Bisseswar Banerji. „ Kali Narayan. Eoy.

The Deputy Inspector of Schools. K. C. Ghosh, Esq. Baboo Eajendra Lai Gupta. The Executive Engineer, Cossye Divi­

sion.

W. B. Oldham, Esq. Baboo Tara Prosad Chatteni. The Subdivisional Officer, Culna.

Ditto ditto, Cutwa, Ditto ditto, Eani^anj.

Baboo Jaga Mohan Bhattacharji.

B. N. De, Esq. Baboo Kedar INath Dutt, The Subdivisional Officer, Jehanabad. Baboo Aswini Kumar Bose.

Baboo BanMm Chandra Chatterji. „ Prasanna Kumar Bose.

Baboo Bhuban Mohan Eaha. N. V7arde-Jones, Esq.

Baboo Atul Chandra Chatterji. „ Guru Das Barman.

The Snb-Kegistrar of Khattra. Ditto of Kotalpur.

Baboo Haris Chandra Eai.

Baboo Hem Chandra Ear. Kumar Gopendra Krishna Deb. Pandit Hara Prasad Sastri. Baboo Eanga Lai Mukharji.

Dr. Eajendra Lai Mitra, C.I.E. jagannath Khanna, Esq. Baboo Protab Chandra Ghosh.

Adya Nath Banerji. 'r"lf. Mukharji, Esq. Baboo Protab Chandra Eoy.

190

DIVISIOS. District. Names of correspondents.

P B E S I D E N C T — • concluded.

RAJSHAHYE . . . .

DACCA

Nadiya

Jessoro

Kliulna

Murshedabad

Eajshahye

DLaajpur

Eangpnr

Bogra

Pabna

Jalpigori

Darjiling

Kuoh Behar

Dacca

Baboo Tarini Kumar Ghosh. „ Ishan Chandra Ghosh.

Baboo Krishna Kali Mnhharji. „ Kedar Nath Biswas. „ Bankim Chandra Chatterji. „ Chandi Das Ghoso. „ Troylakya Nath Sen. „ Annada Prasad Sen. „ Kali Prasanna Sarkar.

Baboo Khagendra Nath Mitter. „ Bhubaneswar Sing. „ Narendra Nath Eoy Chowdri.

Baboo Bansidhar Eoy. „ Pran Kumar Das. „ Bipin Bihari i lukerj i . ,, Bijoy Krishna Boso. „ Srinath Gupta.

Baboo Mahendra Nath Bhattaoharji.

Dr. tr. C. Mnkerji. Baboo Sarat Chandra Chatterji.

iroulvi Abdul Khaleque. H. E. Eansom, Esq. J . T. Mackay, Esq. Baboo Sarada Prasad Chatterji.

„ K\imud Biiiaii Samanta.

Baboo Bhubancswar Gupta.

E. P. Growse, Esq. Baboo Barada Churn Mittor.

„ Puma Chandra Gupta.

Baboo Priya Nath Mukerji. H. H . Heard, Esq. D. Sunder, Esq.

Baboo Parbati Charan Eoy. „ Sarat Chandra Das, C L E .

Ea ja lenduk Palgar. Baboo Mari Das Pradhan.

„ Hathura Nath Chatterji. » Ueiong Nimsring.

Baboo Calica Das Dutt.

Baboo Mat; Lai Sarkar. jajani Nath Ghosh. °yam Kishore Bose. •^swini Kumar Boso. Aditya ChandraChakrabarti. Kam Chandra Dhar.

193

B a l - . - .- . .m i 'atn JUitra. „ Gropal Chandra Bose.

r\ Dacca—concW. -l E. B. Harris, Esq.

Baboo Bagala Prasanna Mazumdar. „ JBaj JCumar Sen. „ Dina Jyath Dliar.

( Baboo Ehetra Gopal Eo j , Faridpur ... ^ ^ Giriudra Wath Cliatterji.

I r Maulri Syed ObeduJla.

J „ Sasi Sekliar JJutt. Bakarganj ,..-( p_ Wilcox, E^q.

Baboo Pitambar Sing. „ Asnini Zuraar Dutt. „ Parbatti I^ath Ghose.

r Maulri Moliamed Maimansinli ... < Baboo Jogendra JVath Banerji.

C Mr. Ellison (missionary).

r

CHITTAOONO ...^ I

CMtfagong

J^oakbali

Tipperab

r

BHAQAlPDa ,.,J

Baboo Gaur Jfoha^ T,

••• S b o ^ o f e ^ u l l e n .

^^"T^PPerah ... Baboo H , , ^ " ' " ^ " ^ ' -

^ S - . H i H j B a b o o B r a , . C ; ^ -

Btagalpur

Burniah Baboo Karunafflaya T? ^urii Kumar A^„f, "l^nern

Baboo Kastori S t ' ^ ' • q -

[| konghyr . J f f t P ^ ^ ' . P r a s a d

•••lUbebubdmsionnlOfl, V Ditto ri;u " ''C'". fin

•••[l| °"-?fc>.

192

Dmaios. District. Names of correspondents.

BHAQAIFtTB— concluded.

PATNA

Santal Parganas

Patna

Gya

Shahabad

Darbhanga

MozufEi :erpur

Saran

Caamparan

Hazaribagh

11 /

LoUardaga

Baboo C. N . Gupta. „ N. C. Banerji.

A. W. Stark, Esq. Syed Nejabat Hossein. Eev. L. O. Skrefsmd.

The District Superintendent of Police. Maulvi Majibar Eahman. Syed Zabiruddin. Baboo Bemala Charan Bhattacharji.

„ Sheo Nandan Lai Koy. C. N. Banerji, Esq. Maulvi Wahed Uddin.

Dr. E. Macleod. Baboo Eajkishore Narain.

,, Eadha Lai. „ Sarada Prasad Ganguli.

The District Superintendent of Police. „ Subdirisional Officer, Buxar.

J . E . Hand, Esq. The Subdivisional Officer, Bhabua.

The District Magistrate. „ Subdivisional Officer, Tajpur. „ ditto ditto, Madhnbani. ,, Sub-Registrar, ditto.

Maulvi Gowhar Ali. Baboo Dwarka Prasad.

„ Pramath Nath Chaterji. ,, Okhoy Kumar Chaterji.

Baboo Earn Prakas Lai. H . W . C. CamdufE, Esq.

The Deputy Inspector of Schools. A. Tytler, Esq. Baboo Eaghunath Sahai. B . F. H. Pughe^ Egq^

^ ^ " ^ W l i i s p e c t o r of Schools. " rarmn"''^"?*''' °f Schools.

VV.inrfglf£^^-''^^*^°"- -The Sub-Deputy Collectorf Bettiah.

„ t^anungo at Bettiah.

I^^Vo^pirendraNathMitra. Ea iJaduNathMuker j i .

Baboo Girindra Chandra Banerji. » Gagan Chandra Banerji.

P . A. Black, Esq. Baboo Rakha] Das Haldar. '

\ .

193

DiVISIOS. District. Names ot correspondents.

CHOPA NAQ--I pxm—concld.

Oiiissi

Manbhum

Singbhum

Tributary States

Cuttack

Puri

BaluRoro •

I Tributary States

Baboo Surya Kumar Guha. „ ParesTi Jvath Ghosh.' „ Atal Bihari Moitra.

Rev. A. Campbell. The MunsL£ of Bara Bazar.

Tho Deputy Commissioner, Singbhum.

Tile Commissioner of Chota Nagpur.

Baboo Eamakhoy Chattcrji.

The Senior Deputy Collector at head­quarters.

Baboo Bash Behari Naik. „ Akhoy Kumar Chatterji.

Hou'blo Kumar Baikant Nath De.

The Tehsildar of Khandmals. „ Manager of Kilgiri. >> ti of Dlienknnal. >. I. of Mohurbhanj.

KcT. Father SchafE. Srinath Dutt, Esq.

W. J.-Keg. Mo. i01«-12l)-ii.ij.3i 13

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