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BENGAL DISTRICT GAZETTEERS.

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J E S S O R E .

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PLAN OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PABBB.

I. PHYSICAL ASPECTS 1—20

I I . HISTORTT 21—44

III . Tan PEOPLE 4 5 - 5 7

IV, PUBLIC HEALTH 58—67

V. AGRICULTCBB 68—75

VI. NATURAL OALAMITISS" . . . . . . 78—81

VII. RENTS, "WAGES AKD PKTOES 83—97

•VIII. OCCUPATIONS, MANUFACTURES AND TRADE . . 88—105

I S , MBANS OP COMMUNICATION 106—110

X. LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATIONS . . . Ill—123

XL GENERAL AUMINISTRATIOJJ 134—130

XII . LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 181—134

XIII . EDUCATION , 135—138

XIV. QAZiirrBEit 139—176

I«J>ax 177—181

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTBE I.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS. PAQBS,

GBHBBATJ DBBCBIPTIOK—Boundaries—Configuration—Natural flWiaiona—Scenery

— S I Y E B BYSTBH—Miidhuuitifci Or OBISV—Kmusc fit PingSei—Uttcluthili—

Nabagapga—BJmwSnipuT K lisl—Chilia—Gloratbal'i KbSl—Phitki and

Bong—llabadnk—Icbhauiatl—Bhuirab—Horibar—Bkadrfi— Botna—RIVBH

STATISTIOS—LAKES AND MARSHES—^SOXDQY—BDTANT—PACK*—Game

birds—Fiali—Reptiles—Climate—Rainfall and teujpctiitnrc—Mateorplofiicol

statistic* ... ... .., . . — ,.. 1—2D

C H A P T E R I I .

HISTORY,

BAEIY H18T0HY— MOBAMMADAN BULB—PEA TAP ADIT YA—B ABA D BHUITAB—

Jesuit Bccounla—THE M E Q U A I F A M E A B S — U E T O I T 05 SITABAJI E A I —

IBTBEHAL AHMlNISTnATIQH—EiElY BRITISH ADlIINlETBATlOH Pol ice

nil in io nitration—Administration of justice—Revenue administration—

Cornwallis' reforma—IHEIOO EIOTS—AD1USI8TBATIYE CKAHaea ... 21 l i

OllflPTElt I I I .

THE PEOPLE.

OBOWXE OF rorcLATios— O i u u a of 1911—DENSITY—MISIIAWOH--TC>WBB A B B

VILLAGES—LANGnAOI—ItELlGiONS—Mubnmmailnna—Chilklni Miianluiaiis

ChotabliSgia Mucbia—Hindus—Nanifisudms—KnibncttEis—Kurila—D5ua

Goals a—Knliii IhalmiauB—Kulm Kljuatlis—Haidvaa—C HEIST l i t i s

SswapM^ss—Fuss ... . . . .„ _ _ _ ^5 g^

C H A P T E R I V .

MJBLIC HEALTH.

OHNBBAL CONDITIONS—VlLUOE BAK1TATI0B—HBDICAL HIBrOEY—VlTAL

STATISTICS—PBINCIPAI. WSBASBS—Fever—Cholera.~DB.Ai[i»«8 SCHEMES

VACCINATION— MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS... ... ,„ _

... bo—67

DHAPTEK 7 .

AGRICULTUR&

G B K E R M , oouumGHS—SOILS—PELSCIP&L CKOBB—Hi EH—Jute—Dnts-pnlm

oultivstion—Touncco cultivation—Pepper and chi l l ies—EXTENSION O P

CTItlTATIOH ... . . . „ . . . . ,„ m e B _ 7 g

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

HATUBAL CALAMITIES. PAHE9.

FlOOBB—t'lool Of 1885—Flood of 1830—EjOAHSltEKTS— PiMiBB—Famine oE 1897—CKTIJWB OB 1909 .. ... ... ... - 76—81

CHAPTER VI I ,

KENTS, WAGES ABD PRICES.

RESTS—PEODITCB BBNTS—WiCKa-Pmcis—MATBEIAS CONDITION OP THE

FBOPLB ... ... ... ... ... ... 82—87

CHAPTER VIII.

OCCUPATIONS, HANUFACTCHES AND TRADE.

OCCUPATIONS—Agricalfcnral classes—Occupations of WOEDEIII—MANQFAOTUIIBB—•

Sngar mamiEiiotliro—Tupping—Boiling—MunnEfictrira of d&nluH aogiif— ~ Tlio drnpninga—Manufacture of crystalline eiujar~Sugar marts snd re-

fineries—Profits of cultivation nnd maiinfnctiiro—Otliot industrios—Intlign

industry--Tbo factories—Tat OB ... ... ••• ... 88—105

CHAPTER 1 5 .

MEAN3 OP COMMUNICATION.

EiBLT CO MM U mo AT. I ONE—RAILWAYS— Light rnilnays—Boms—Provincial

rouds—District ISouril roads—WATEB COMMUBICAIIOSE—Tlw HalliEm

canal—POSTAI DBPAETKBMT ... ... . . . . . . 105—110

CHAPTEB X.

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION.

K B T K B D E IIIBTCBT — P B B M A N E K T SETTLEMENT—liESIJlTPTJOK t E D C E E D l t ' 0 3 —

LABi> THNOHBS- Estates—Toi mres—Jofs i.nd gtintHi—foi*! taluks— Tenancies—Utb&ndi system—Rent-free tenures ... ... li# HI—J23

CHAPTER S I . GENERAL ADMINISTRATION.

ADurmaTHATirB onABQEa AND STAEP— HETENUB— Land revenue—Stampa—

Ceases—Excise —Income- tin—Regis! ration — ADMIKISTHATIOS OF JQSXICB—

Cinil Justice—C'riminul inslioe—Criminal castes—Pant liiichar KayasthB—

POLICE ~ J AH s . . . „, ... . . . ti_ i g ^ _ i 8 o

CHATTER XIT.

LOCAL SELF-GOVERN KENT.

DISTBICT BOABD—LOCAL BOABDS—UNION COMMITTERS— MUMOIPALTTIBS—

JeBsoru—Kotcbaudpur—Uubrsbpur ... mn |o i i n .

WBtft OF contents. si

EO0CATIOK. PlOTS.

PeWaB33 OF BOt/aAT(tMf-BDOOAJI0!M£ SHT,flTIO»—OOItBM*—SWKMfll*"*

SOHOHIS—PBIHABF SffltOOM—GlSW SCHOOLS— TECHNICS* SDBOOI9-

TaiiHraa SraooLa—PnrrMB nrsriiimoM—BITOMTIOIT OP MBHIIT. KADAffa im< m „ ,., ... 135—1S8

CHAPTEB XIV

GAZETTEER Aa>Tib» Btanr—BJD-JOI, Subiinsnu—Bam Bniar—Bsrtal 5 or Kali!—EasiM-

<Jw or tliuanua—BoJ])khunH—Bidjunandnliti—CliilDchra— GIinugScliliB—

DliitlgrSin—GodSkiili—Jobauru—Jessoro SulidjvjBioti—Jheoiila— Jlienida

Snbcf.nslna—J]iii.Sergi"thbfl—KSlis—KSlijuii]—Kesh.bpur~Ko t c b if u .1-

pnr—L tahiolp^s—LoJiffsara- to ii»iira—.Minora knlnliviBiCn—Mabfsbpnr

llnniiBQipur—WlrzSnngnr—Mub Ltomadpiir or UiifiiDadpirr—Mnluinptu-

^tote—JTaldttUgS—hslcbaga USj—Nnldi—Soldi JJstoto—Hiuid—Korail

BBtnte—Miruil Sulidmniou—NnopEiS— NniiSfiixti—Sffgafdan—Sflilinpo—

Ahirpur—Truooijm—1'15« .. ... .. 130—176

... 177--181

GAZETTEER OP TEE

JESSORE DISTRICT.

CHAPTER I.

PEIY8I0AL ASPECTS.

THIS district of lessors, which forma part of the Presidency GENBBIL

Division, is situated between 2 i° 47' and 23° W north latitude a n d ™ " " between 68° 40' and S9" 50' east longitude. It extends over 2,92-5 square miles, and contains & population of 1,768,264 persona as ascertained at the census of 1911- Its sire a IB slightly greater than that of Lincoln, and it contains nearly as many inhabitants as the county of Lancaster.* Tha principal town and the admi­nistrative headquarters of the district is Jessore, situated on the Bhairac river in 23° 10' N. and 89° 13' E.

Jessore is bounded on the east by the Faridpur district, on trio Uouudar-north and west by Nadia, and on the south by the 24-ParganasIBB' and Khuhia. On the east and north-east the Garai or Madhumatl river constitutes a natural boundary for a consideiahle distance.

The district forma part of the delta between the Hoogbly and Ooniigurn. the Padina, and its configuration is that char&oterjstio of deltaiotl0n' country. It consists of a wide alluvial plain intersected by numerous rivers, wbioli again are connected by interlacing oioss-charmels, called kMls. These rivers formerly reoeived their supply of water from ths Guuges (Padma.) and its affluents or epill-channele, and tha north-west of the district •was gradually raised above flood-level by their periodical inundations. Most of the rivers, however, have silted up, losing their connection with the parent stream and becoming year by year more shallow, the reBult being thnt, for tbe greater pait of the year, their channels contain no flowing water, bat a seiies of stagnant pools, which are flushed only in the rains. In the south, however, where the ootmtry

* The SttthwmBnii'B Year Book, 1BU.

B

2 JK3S0RK.

merges into the swamps of the lower delta, the rivers are.tidal and not dependent for their supply on the Ganges floods.

Offing to the silting up of. its waterways, the dietriot now exemplifies two stages in tbe process of land formation. In asmatl tract to the north and north-east, the elevation of the land by the deposit of silt is still in progress. To tbe north the Kumar carries off the flood water of the MatabhangS, itself an affluent of the Ganges; to the north-east flood water passes down the Garai, another affluent or spill-ohannel of that river. I t is true tbat during the period of low water in the Ganges, i.e., from November to June, little, if any, water passes into these channels from the parent stream, but this cities not affect the foot that they are still t

operative in heightening the land surface. In the ren ainder of the district the piooess of land formation has ceased or is in sus­pension. Here the water-courses, such as the Lower Bhairab, the Chitra and tho Kabadafe, now receive no flood water from the Ganges. Their channels are far too large for their remaining function as reeeptaoles of tbe local drainage, and the vary small slope which is characteristic oi tbe country tends to cause them to become choked with acroatic vegetation, so that tbe flow of water is extremely sluggish. I t is Only the connection with the parent stream, however, which has been dosed or silted up, and the channels are quite competent to receive local drainage and to convey it to tidal waters.

Hatum) The district falls naturally into two main divisions with

dnuaiona. a;Bt;notfve physical characteristics, the country to the north and west Deing above flood-level and fairly dry, while tbe south and south-east are low-lying and dotted, with large marshes. If a line he drawn from Keshabpur, on tbe Uar ihar river south of the town of Jessoro, to Muhammadpur on ths Madhumati, it -will be found that the lauds which lie to the north and west ot t V ' line are generally high, with a slightly sandy soil, and r16

from inundation. The rivers here are beyond the reach / * r 6 S

tides, and, except during the height of the r&ins, rem*1 / _ ' the bouuds of their high bants . The geneial fall ' -&1 w | l h l l J of the country is from north-west to south-eaa*_,>^ t I i e ' , channels and lines of drainage follow this iv ; ' a n d t L e I 1 M f of the district n o w receives little, if any, / - e c t i o n - Tia * ? "

Ganges, and the channels h i m gi wt ly drf , -?™* "™ * h°m ™ „ f „ , . ,, . . i „ , , -inorated and are lull of weeds; th e y are useful only for lo™' J i a i u f l g e j t h e y o l u m e o £

which is small and m no proportion t / t i j e i l n a t u r a i c a t , a e i t y 0f discharge. The tract to the south,^ ad eoutb-east of this imagi­nary line is interaeoted by channels in all directions, and there are numerous swamps, whioh render the country impassabLe oa foot,

PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 3

except in the dry season. The rivers flow backwards and forwards according to the tides, and for some months is the year tiie whole -country is practically under water. There is no definite line of drainage, and the water, when it does drain away, finds its way out in whatever direction local circumstances may determine.

The scenery in theae two tracts varies greatly. In the north Scenery, and west the country 13 generally well cleared and spaisely wooded. The extensive cultivation of the date-palm for the purpose of sugar manufacture relievos the monotony o£ wide expanses of rice fields, but its stunted growth and scanty foliage prevents its taking the place of forest trees in the landscape. Scattered here and there are a few low plains, where avian rice may be cultivated; for the most part, however, aits is the variety which can beat he cultivated, and in the cold season the usual cold-weather crops grow in luxuriance. The villages and towns io. this traot are comparatively large, and there is a prosperous and comfortable air about the people and their hrmaes. In the south-west the country ia more sparsely populated and thinly wooded, but the river banks are high and have the prosperous appearance of more favoured tracts. The south­east, where the rivers still have a flowing ourrent, is the most prosperous part of the district, and large villages are found along some of the rivers, such aa the Bhairob, the Chitra and the Nabagnuga, the banks of which are well wooded. Rioe gmwa in abundanoe, but in some places, where the Mis do not dry up at any time during the twelve months, there are large areaa with no sign of cultivation. Most of the bits are, however, silting up and many have been reclaimed and brought under cultivation.

\ I n order to give a comprehensive account of the river system RITBB

of Jessore, it is necessary to refer to the general river system, of the lower portion of the rfaugetio delta, of which ic forms an integral part, and to describe its past history. Proceeding from •west to east, four great rivers take off from the Ganges in this part of the deha, viz., the BhagTrathi, the Jalangi, the Mata-bhanga, and the G-arai, which ia its lower reaches ia knowa as the Madhumati, Of these rivers and their histoiy the following aooount is extracted from the Repurt of the Drainage Committee, Bsngal, 1207.

"These four channels constitute the main arteries traversing the whole traot from north to south through which so much oi the water of the Ganges flows as does not proceed down the PadmS towards Goalimdo. Between these arteries are various distribu­tary streams running generally from north-west to south-east

B2

i JESSORB.

(although the direction is now the reverse on the eastern aide of the JeSsore district), und falling through a network of channels by independent months into the Bay of Bengal. It is through these connecting links that the water of the Ganges, spreading oyer the delta, has already raised it, or ie m omrrse oi so doing. The process on the western side is now more or less an accomplished fact; on the east it is in progress, and in the centre it is gradually oeasing- It ia between the Matabhgnga on the west and the Madhama.tJ on. the east that the area •par eaxelkiKe. of decaying rivers lies. Here the rivers Kumar, Nabagajiga, Lower Rhairab and Ichhamati still remain as offshoots from the Matabbanga towards thB south-east, until (with the exception of the lohh&nmti) they encounter in their lower reaches the waters of the Oarai and Madhuoiati, which, coming by various cioss channels of communi­cation from the north-east give a general southward and south-westward trend to the river currents. Between the Kumar, Nabaganga and Bbairab lie a net-work of connecting streams, of whtoh the best known aie the Ohitra, Beng, Phatki, Kabadak. Harihar and BUadra.

" I t is evident therefore that the life of these cross stieams is bound up with what we have described as the main arteries; if the latter decay, their offshoots must suffer similarly, put t i e whole history of the delta has been one of the gradual progress of the Ganges eastwards. When tha main rim1, probably m the sixteenth century, quitting the Bhaglrathi, down which it had hitherto flowed , once staited eaatwaida, it may, in time, have successfully found its mam cutlet throuyh the channels of the Jalangi, Matabhanga, Knmfir or ;s abaganga, and Grarai, but its advance was continually further east, leaving the offtakes to the west to dwindle and decay. In the early part of the lust century a reflex action set in between the yeais 1810 and 1830. The waters of the Brahmaputra, which had formerly flowed east of the Madhupm jungle, were diverted to the west, and encounter­ing the stream of the Ganges, threatened to push it back through its old distributaries to the west. Tilts process was not accom­plished fully, but the result waQ the enlargement of the Gfarai, the creation of the MadhumotI (previously an insignificant kh&l), 'uid. tha 'bats/diau r&. im, iLsm tA ,iT«ae<gfc m MIA wie&ani wrf* *£ thB Jessore district from south-eatt to south and south-west as already mentioned. "With this one exception, however, the statement as to the easterly piogress of the Ganges Holds gond, and the result of this advance of the mam stream eastwards wag the diminutiou in bulk of the rivers taking ofi from it on the south.. The deterioration of the

PHYSICAL ASPECTS, 5

distributaries dependent upon these four rivers was the natural consequence."

The Garai in the extreme east of the district ia still connected with tbe Ganges. Most of the other rivers, which formerly derived their main ourrent from the Ganges, are fast ceasing to deserva that name, for their beds are year by year growing more shallow as the prooess of silting up advances. They aip, in fact, the remnants of mere and pass down very little of the Ganges' flood except at the height of the rains. Their land-forming powers have almost entirely ceased, their waters being confined within big!) banks over whieh they have ceased to epiB. They are thus merely local drainage channels and are steadily disappearing in consequence of the deposit of the detritus of the neighbouring land settling in their beds, In the north and east of the district, however, a few of the rivere, which are not so much silted up, are clear of weeds and have a good flow throughout tfie year. These rivers are the Garai or Madhumati, the Kaliganga and the Bankana, the latter two of which hava impioved owing'to the opening up of tbe HalliEaK Canal: on the other baud, owing to the silling np o£ the Muchikhali neither the Nabaganga noi the Oliitra have any flowing water during the dry weather In the west and south-west the rivers are dead or dying, with the notable exception of tbe Iehhamati. This part of the district ia intersected by tbe upper portion of the Nabaganga, by the Chitra and the Bhairab, all of which are silted up and blocked with weeds, md in dry weather become merely lines of stagnant pools.

In this connection, the following remarks of the Nadia Fever Commission of 1882 are of interest. " In th is tract we have a number of dead streams which were once large rivers; these are the Bhatahi, the Kabad&lc or Bhairab, the Nabaganga and t!ia MyBore Obitra, The advantage which would accrue to numbers of villages in botb Nadia and Jessore, if these were reopened, has been pressed upon us in several quarters, and we fully admit this : we are, however, of opinion that the idea is impracticable, Mr. J. "ergusson in his paper on recent changes in. the delta of the Ganges has shewn bow tbe changes in these dead rivBrs occur, and why they leave their old bads and take new courses; and be aptly remarked that tbe course of nature in this matter om be no more interfered with than can a pendulum of 39 inches be made to beat once in two seconds of itself. It can be forced to do so for a time by the application of machinery, but, directly tlie pressure is removed, it will rapidly return to its normal beat. So it is with these rivers ; it ia their olEoe to raise the delta by the deposition of silt, and each river flows in a

6 JEEsORE.

given course until it has completed its work, when it e^tier changes its direction or die's, and a new rivei is opened out elsewhere. The application of various expedients may retard the operation of natural laws for a time, but eventually nature Will effect her end. l h e rivers above alluded to we already dead ; to resuscitate them IB practically impossible. The cause or the change above referred to is this.

" A river runs in a given course, gradually elevating its bed and the country neai tt to or above tho rest of the adjacent delta, until one or two things happens : namely, either t h e n a r overflows into a lower tn.ct of country, and commences to raise the tract, or, if that part of toe delta is practically levelled up and completed, the river ia gradually choked up by its own sedi­ment and dies, and a new river is opened out in soma other part of the delta where the land is low aud requires raising. Tho above livers have followed this latter course ; the delta m Nadia and "Western Jessoie has been raised and piactm&lly completed, and by the gradual deposition of silt the line of drainage whioa was formerly from north-west to south-east u now from north-east to south. In othtr words, the work that had to be psifoimed by tho Bhairab, ihe Kabadak, the Nabflganga and the Mysore Chitra has been completed, and the rivers have died."

The following is an account of the rivers of Jessore. m ^ o r ^ o Madhumatl, the kigest of the Jsssore rivets, is a dis-Gar5i. tnbutaiy of the (Janges, which it leaves near Knshtia. Tho

upper poition of the r h e i , which pa^ee aloe g the bouudaiy of the Jbeaida and Hagura subdivisions ia known as the Garai. The name Madhmuatx (Honey-flowing) was originally given to i t from below the point where tho Nabaganga used to enter it, but at present the name is given to i t as far north as Muhammadpur. IWtlier south, where the stream botomes tidal, it leceives the appellation of Baleswar (tho young lord), while its estuary is called the Harmghafa (the deer-ford)

This nvc-r is one of the principal channels by which the Ganges discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal, but it IB only smee the beginning of the 19th century that it has expanded into a great waterway./ In Bennett's map the river Kumar ie shown as flowing acioss tho north oi •what aie now the districts of Nadia, Jessoie and Farldpur, rejoining the Granges on the other side of F»rjdpur. At the point wheie the Garai now receives the Kumar, the Kumar then leceived the Garai, which at that time was but a trcss-stienm fiom ths Ganges. A little further dowu., the old Kumar Bent ofi a stream, the Barasia, which fiowed southwards, while the Kumar

SHSBICAt ABPEOfS. T

continued its eastern oonrse towards the Ganges beyond Faridpm. When toe head of the Kumar began to silt up, the Ganges poured more and more of its waters down the <JarSi, which then began to swallow up the Kumar The Garai, thus reinforced, continued its course down the B a m i a , and the latter, which had hitharfo been but a narrow river, proved unable to carry off this iuflux: of water, and opened out a new western channel called tan Alangkhali (oommnnly spelt Ellenkhali). These two, TIZ , the Barasia and Alnogkhah, united in a great muish, which ocjupied the site of Muklmpur pwgana aod formed that wide stream above the confluence to whieh the name oi Madhumah was extended.

The inundations whioh ocourred about Muhammadpur in the early part of the 19th cent iry were oleariy connected with the changes then going on After a few seasons of disastrous floods, an adequate channel gradually formed and the new stream flowed more rpgnlarly, inundations on the terrible scale oommoD a century ago have long since eeaaed. This comparatively recent opening of the Madhunmti channel also explains how, while the oouiseB of the old rwetB (viz , the Kumar, Bhairab, Bhadra and Kabadak) are the boundaries of oldparganaa, the new rivers (viz, the G&iai and Madhumati) flow alnost throughout their whole couise through the heart of successive pwganas, uuob as Naldi, Nasrtitshahi, Sator, Mukimpur, Sultiapur, Saliinabad, etc.

Fifty years ago i t was anticipated that the Gaiai would open out still further. Iu 1857 Uaptain Sherwill remarked :— " T h e Gaiai is becoming bioader every year, its fierce current is cutting rapidly away its banks, and in a few yeais it will likely absorb the greater portion, if not all, of the water from the Poddah " Again, I t i Fergussou in 186<3 considered that there was a good chance that the action of (he Bi ahniaputra, already described, would send the Ganges down the Garai, the Upper Kumar (i.e. Matabhauga) and the Ohandana (east of the Garai). Those anticipations have not been fulfilled owing to the Padma shifting northwaids. Tae unfavorable position of. tho offtake of the Garai caused by this shifting of Hie Padma has reduced the discharge of Padma waW into it , and the liver is ooEB.eiinen.tIy ailtmg up m its upper readies. There is also a belief that tbe bridge ot the Eastern Bengal State Railway near Kushtia has also contributed to this result.

The noithemmost m e r within the cliatriot is the Kumar Kumar« (the young prmoe) or Pangasi (the pale one), a bianch oi the s&as^ Malabhauga, whion debouches from that river about 10 miles above Alamdanga on the Eastern Bengal State Railway, and

8 JE8S0RE.

passeB into Jessore after flowing: in a tortuous, course for some distance through Nadia. I t flows through the district in an easterly direction and is uonneoteil with the Garai by a oross-stream called the Aluchikbali, bat the main volume of ita water is carried away by the Nabaganga, into which it discbarges. As late as 1820 five-sixths of the water of the Hatabkanga made its way down the Kumar; and between that year and 1838 various attempts were Made, in the interests of the Matabhauga, to eauso its waters to quit this ohannel, and also a second offtake through the Pangasi, by placing barriers across the month of the Kumar and by cuts in the course of i la tabhauga. Those attempts were not sucoesaful. The offtake at Boalia is still open, but there is little Sow of water, via., about 1^ feet at the end of tbe cold weather. The river is now said to be navigable by large boats in ihe rains only, whereas d0 years ago it was described as " a beautiful etream of clear water navigable by large vessels all the year round." Dining this period, it has deteriorated owing to the silting up of its offtake from tbe MSta-bhan(?a, and its bed is shallow and full of sand bars down to BagSd&nga. In its lower reaches it nsed to roceive water from the Qarai through the Kaligaoga, but this connection has also silted up, I t still, however, carries off the flood discharge of the M&tabhanga during tha rains.

M„ohi. The Huohikhali, formerly Known as the Lit t le Barasia, con-*•>"'• neote the Kumar aud the Kadliumati and extends from Bamnagar

to Kasundi. Chars have formed at both ends of this channel, and its bad dries up after the rains. I t UBed to be the chief ohaouel of communication between Jessore and Faridpur, but within the last 15 years navigation has been impossible except i n the rains. I n 1898 it was proposed to remove tha oban „t a COst of over half a lakh of rupees but the scheme was not sanctioned by Govern-ment; a fresh scheme is under consideration

£ S f l ' ^ N u t e g a n g R (New Ganges), which runs almost parallel

* to the Kumar, t a another offshoot of the M&ttbbawa After

Smiles ao r th -^ r f • ? S » « S 1 , • ^ °S**9' ^ J ™ thia point to MalTZ, £ l n . ^ N o d i * d i > f a ™ t ' ^ supply of flood water 0 * V " Z Z ^ ^ *? gf ^

. is covered with thick w e e T « H f ^ m d t U **""*** Jfaenida, while betw J i h 7 ° I a i m P r a o t a W e ^ ' only for about J l ? ^ *&&«* * ™ ^

1 * « monthB in the year. I ta lower length

PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 9

from MagurE downwards is practically a continuation of the Kumar, which dibohaTiresiuto it at that place. The piocess of silting up has extended as far south as Binodpur, up to which boats of nil sizes can use the channel throughout the year.

Formerly the Nabagauga discharged into the Modauraati at Kaln.T near Lchagara, but the channel from Lohagarft Jo Ea lca has silted up, and the current Hows down the Bankamali and splits up into two streams at Patna. The eastern bianoh, wluoh joins tlie AthSiahanli, is called the Kalia or GaugnnI liver; tha western, bionchj whiali is called, fclira Bhuier KtwL, j/jics the, Kaliganga at Suktagrara,

Tliere seems no doubf, judging from its name and the number of large offshoots it threw out to the east, that t t is nvor played an important part in the deltaic formation I t possibly carried the main stream of the Gauges after the Bhagirathi and other Nadia rivera began to silt up, and before the new bed of the Granges eastward to G/oalundo had been formed. Much of its decay has beeD attributed to the coastmouon across its bed of the Eastern Bengal Railway embankment noith of Chnadanga, anothei result of nhioh las been that the Beng, which used to receive water from the Nabaganga, has lost its supply. Four hAdla foimerly connected the Kumar and Nabaganga, viz., the Bhawampur, Muchia Khal, Chapri and Uaijadupur, but they have almost com­pletely silted up

C^The Ehawaniptii Khal branches off from the Kumar at BhnwSui-Bhawanipui and meets the Nabaganga at Kulgaohha. This !££..,_ channel having completely silted up, Mr. W. Shimff, proprietor ot tlie Suiduri Indigo Concern, managed in 1898 to open it out with (he help of private subscriptions and a contubutiou given by the Jessore District Boaid ; but the channel did not remain open more than two years. I t is now navigable for about three months duiicg the rains.

The Chitra is an offshoot of the Matabbanga the narae Out* means "Spies,," a bright star in the constellation Virgo. I t flona through JeBsoie m a south-south-easterly dnection past Kaliganji Ghorakhali, Narail and Gobia, and joma the Atai at Yaair H id i t tKi sa i fo <j£ <k& <L«fctt iMasdisLg to KscoflU, i t debouched at a point three miles below Damuilmda, and hifiucated between Kahganj and Grhoiakbali, one channel keep­ing the course now descnbed under the name oi Chitia, die other flowing furthei qoith in the course now called the Phatki. T i e bead of the Ohifcja is at piesent completely closed, owing noi>

°nly to the silting up of the Nabaganga, but alio to an aitihraal ^oouueel io i i caused by an tmbanknient which an indigo planter

10 'JESSORB.

threw across its offtake about 70 years ego. From Kbaragoda to Ghorakbali the river doss not get any fiood discharge from the parent stream, aoJ has degenerated into a l o c i drainage chancel covered With weeds. Navigation is impracticable nbovo Kaligwj, but it is navigable from GUiorSkhali to Sibpur • between Sftbpur and. Baruipara the ohannel has silted up. The river below Ghomkhali down to where it joins the Atai is tidal and

.navigable throughout the year by boata and inland steamers. tbih' > The GliorakbaUKbal blanches off fiom the Nabagauga a' Khnl. Naldi and meets the Obitra at Gboc&khali villaga I t is

navigable for big boats throughout the year. Plwtfci mid r The Pha^ki river, fonneily a northern bifurcation o! the

Chitra, derives its water from the Beuga nver, a cross stream issuing from the Nabaganga and passing NaLdaoga. I t crosse3 the distiiet in an easterly aud south-eastarlv course and is alao known as the JaduVhali. T i e Beng is supposed to have once been a large liver, as the Naldanga family Used their residence on its banks; bnt now it is almost diy except in the rainy season-Tie name is a corruption of Begabati, i e, the swift one.

Kubdilak. i h e Kabadak (the pigeon-eyed) flows through the south-west of the district in a south-easterly direction aud leaves it 8 miles south of Tnmolini . I t branches off fiom Tabtrpni on the Ehauab, tliB main stream of which was diverted into it about 1790; the portion near Tabu pur is called the TJhairab Sines 1830, the ehannel has been eiltins np, and it is full of weed3 down to below -Trimobini Further down, it becomes a laige tidal stream, bnt between Tnmohini and Ohandbhs.li in the KhulnS district its excessive windings make navigation tedious. The market towns of Maleshpiu and Kotehandpur owe their existence to it in former days when it formed the chief water way of the we3t of t i e district. I t is now navigable only as far as ICotchandpur.

l«m~ The Ichhamati (the self-willed) branches oil: from the Mata-w a t l ' bhanga at Krislmagatij, wHere tliat river takes the name oi the

Ohurnl, and foims the western boundary of this distriot for a short distance bolow Nonaganj At Bhawauipur i t takes an eastern course, and, pa«iag through the middle of the Baugaon subdivision, joins the river Jamuna at Tippi, whence the united waters run to the sea, This rivei ia fast silting up owing to the s.iuie causes as have closed the other rivers of the distriot. The praetiee of put­ting bundles of brushwood aud of erecting dams of bamboo-woik IQ the bed of t i e river for the purpose of fishing- is also helping to increase the deposit of silt ; but it is not a dead river and still h a a

a fair flow a t its offtake from the MatabhSuga. In , i t s lower tefiolsfl it is a tidal river, on which conutiy boata of large size caa

PHSSIOAL ABPECTS. 1 1

ply. Its waters are unusually dear for a deltaic stream, t u t are infested with crocodiles.

The Ehairab is one of the oldest and t t e largest rivers oF thia Bhmmlj. portion of the delta. Though it has long bem a partly deserted channel, and only settions of it can now be traced, its name Bhaiiab (the terrible) bears witness to the estimation in which it was once held, and in its prime it n.ust have been of great hy-drographic importance At one time it flowed acrosB the present districts of Murshidabad, Nadia, Jeesore and Khulna into the Buy of Bengal, and as it takes off from the Ganges almost opposite to where the Hahananda flows into it, it has been suggested that it originally formed the southern continuation of the Mahanandaj which was cut in half by the Padma during the eastwaid advance of the latter

The river consists of two sections, the Upper Bh an ah inNadia and the Lower Ehairab in Jessore. The connection of tho former with the Gangts entirely olosed up at one time, but was subse­quently forced open again by floods in 1874. I t then expanded into an important distributary which pourtd its waters into the JaLmgi, 40 miles further south. The result was that t t e channel of the Jalangi above the point of junction began to close up; and the Bhairab is now the channel by which the Jalangi proper derives its main water supply from the Ganges, Lower down, the Bhairab flowed for a short distance through the channel now occupied by the Matabfianga (Churni) a id thence passed into Jessore. The present po-ition is that the upper Bhairab joins the Matabhanga at Sukalpur and ,the Lower Bhairab bianohes off towards lessors fiom Siiltanpur, 6 mil&a lower down.

Once the Lower Bhairab formed tho great central stream of Jessoie, but it has been dctenoiatmg for more than a century. About 1790, owing to the silting up of its bed, the main stream was diveited into the Kabadak, which takes off from it at TahirpuT, and four jears later the Collector reported the forma­tion of a sandbank at this point. The stream was, he stated,. nearly dry m the hot season, and as the obstruction of the channel threatened the prosperity of Jeasore lower down the river, hB proposed to out t hough it in older to keep the channel open. In the beginning of the 19th century an attempt was. made to force the waters of the Hahadak down the Bhairab by an embankment near Tahirpnr. For a time this experiment proved successful, but soon afterwards the Kabadak broke across country to its old bed at a point below the embankment. The upper portion o£ the river continued to receive flood water occasionally till about 1830, when ita connection with the

19 JHSSOEB.

M&tabbangS was cut off. Its head has now entirely silted up or about ty miles, and from TaWrpm aB far down as Jessore, the river is in the dry weather little more than a line of marshes while iu the rains it is almost stagnant except after a heavy down­pour. 'ITrom Jessore to Basundia small boats oan pass with difficulty owing to weeds, but during; the rains big boats eonie up to Ttajarhat, 4 miles below Jessore. Below Basucdisi the river is tidal and is navigable by big- boats all the year round. Owing to the current having formerly been diverted down fcha Bhairab as above stated, the stream for a considerable distance above Tahirpur is also called the Kabadak.

The Majiidkhali branches off from tbe Atai Eormerly known as the JJaluar KlialJ and discharges into the Bliairab at Simultala. This river is tidal and is navigable throughout the year by big boats. The Gobra and Afia RMIs leave the (Jhitra at Gobra and meets the Bhairab at Afra. The upper length, which is known as the Gobra Khad, ia navigable throughout tie year by small boats, -while the Mia KMl ia d«ep enough for all kinds of boats in all seasons of the year.

Hiu-ibnr. The Harihar formerly issued from Jfabadak juBfc above Jhingergaohha, wbenoe it flowed southward past Manirampur and Keshobpur into the Biiadra. The bead has long been silted up, and the river bed is now cultivated &s far a« Manirampur. The old channel below that village may be traced >y 8 long shallow marsh ; but two or three miles below Keshabpur the river is still navigable for small vessels at high tide.

Biiadra, The Bhadra ia another dead river, which formerly emerged from the Kabadak near Tri.moh.inI, and after receiving the Harihar a mile or two below Keshabpur continued a aoaih-flftsterly 0OUTB6 to the Sundarbang, The bed between Trimohini and Keshabpur is mostly dried up and under cultivation; below Keshabpur it widens out into a tidal stream.

Bet™. The Betna is a branch of the Bhairab, from which it issues

at Maheshpur. TheDce it rum circnitouBly to Bagdah arid thence * to Jadabpur: it subsequently passes into the Kb ulna district,

where it joins the Kabadak. In its upper reaches it has ceased to be a running stream aod its bad is dry, but below Jadabpur it contains enough water for country boats to ply.

Bivsn The following liver statistics are derived from Colonel TIC™' Grastrell'a Survey Report of 1808 with some additions and altera­

tions to bring it tip to date; in most oases the mileage is ascertained from Mr, Bejnold'tj map of 1857.

The Garai river flows north and south within the Jessore district from Ganesbpur to Haripur for 28 miles.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 13

The Hanu river runs from north to south, leaving the Garai at BhatbariS, and falliDg into the same river at Nisohintpur; length 15 miles; alluvial hanks in its head-watars have rendered it almost unnavigflble except in the rains.

The Madhumati river runs from north to south, extending from GarSi at Haripur to the Sundarbans ; 152 miles in length.

ThB Barasia river runs north and south from tho Madhumati at Khalpara to the same river at BhStiapara.; about 25 miles in length ; niter Novembor its course from Khalpara to Thakurpaaa is a dry bed of sand.

The Hunmr ruas from, north-west to south-east, from Dbulia' to Kasundi, but the portion from. Bagadanga to Kasundi is known as the Muchikhali; length 52 miles.

The Bhawauipur Khal runs north and south from Bhawanipur to Rishkhali on the Nabaganga ; 10 miles in length.

The Masra Khal runs north and south, leaving the Kumar at Phulbari, and falling into the Nabaganga at Muraridah ; leugth 8^ miles; it has completely silted up.

The Kallganga flows from north to south, extending from Sarubhunagar to the Kumar at Jasinihali ; 10 miles in length.

The Dekko Khal unites the Garai with the Kumar and flows Bouth-easfc for a Length of about 16 miles from Kvunarkhali to Sailkupa.

The Kacboftr Khal, a cross channel eonneeting the Dekho to the Kallganga, flows easfc to west; its length is about 8 miles.

The Katakkali Khal commences from Uhuna on the Kumar, and, after a coarse of about 4 miles in a sSmioirele on the north side of that riveT, again falls into it opposite Phulbari.

The Chapri Khal runs from north, to south leaving the Kumar at R&ra and falling into the Nabaganga at Chapri. It is about 10 miles long.

The Bavjadupur Khal runs from north to south, leaving the Kumar at the village from which it takes its name and falling into the Nabagangii, at Bakri.

The Dkobagbata Khal flows south .east from the Nabaganga at Jhenida and, crossing a large awamp, dieoharges its waters into the I'hatki rivei1 after a course of 15 miles.

The Kuniar Khal flows from west to east, leaving the Kumar river at Kajali. and falliug into the Hanu at Aratal Nouata ; 3 miles in length ; except in the rains its bed is almost dry.

The Nabaganga river runs a course generally from north-west to south-east, extending from Badhuti to the Madhusaati at Lohagara; 91 miles in length.

14 JBBflOBB.

The FSUia Ehai runs east and west, extending from the NabagangS at PaltiS to the Jadukhah Khal; 3 miles in length. It has silted up.

The Ghorakhali KhSl, an important channel extending from north to south, leaves the Nabaganga at Naldi, and falls into the Cbitra at (rhorakhali j 4 milea in length.

The Ohitra river flows a general course from north-west to south-east, extending from Kharagoda to the Atharabanfca river; 104 miles in length.

The Beng and Phatki rivers and Jadukbali Khal run from north-west to south-east, extending from Bishkhali to the Chitra xivev at New Bauaghati; 52 miles in length.

The Afra and Gobra Khals (each 9 miles in length) run east and west, and formerly Only served as outlets into the Bhairab and Chilra. rivers for the waters of the large ewampa lying between them, but as these low-Iying lands silted up, better defined channels began to appear, and the two watercourses became continuous. The Afra Khal is now an extension oi the Cuamrul and is almost unknown by its old name. The Gobia Khal threatens before long to close altogether..

The Maluar Khal (Atai) runs from north to south, leavingthe Chitra at Jhaburhat, and flowing into the Bhairab at Solpur; 17 miles in length.

The Baruipara Khal runs from west to east, extending from Baraipara on the Ohitra to Kalia on the Kalia river; length 1J milea.

The Eankana river flows north and south, leaving the Naba­ganga river at LakshmTpaaa and flowing into the Kalia at Patna; 10 miles in length.

The Bhairab river flows generally from north-west to south­east, past the civil station of Jesaore, and empties itself into the Madhiimati at Kachua; 95 miles in length.

The Majudkhali Khal rune from ouith-east to south-west, flowing from the JUSlaur Khal at Iiainnagnr, and falling into the Bhairab at Simultala ; 4 miles in length.

The Harihar river flows a- course from north-west to aoutfl-east, flowing from Keahabpur to the Sundarbanfl; 32 miles W length.

The Eabadak river leaves the Bhairab at Tahirpur and, flow­ing east and then south, leaves it 8 milea below Trimobini after 6 course of about 70 miles.

JDiKBB Lakes properly speaking do not exist in Jessore, but the K.HSHBS. d e e P e r r e a c Q 9 3 °* extinct rivers simulate lakes, from which, bow-

' ever, they are easily distinguished by their sinuons form. Theso

PHTSICA1 ASPECTS. 15

Btretches of water, oEten of a horse-shoe shape, merely mark the beds of dead or dying rivers, while still more numerous marshes sad long iwrrow depessions TGpreaeat the shallower portions of the same streams Between the river banks there arc many large His: fifteen have been enuraeiated with an aggregate area of 98 square miles. Soma of these are connected with the rivers by khats and are legularly flashed out at flood time ; others are connected by Utah which are partly silted up, so that a flush ig only obtained at the time of unusually heavy floods; others again aie unconnected with rivers, and rain water and drainage from the eurroundinq; country lie stagnant in them for the greater part of the year, TIIB two latter varieties are found chiefly m the west and south of the district, where there is a general lack of drainage due to the gradual heightening of the river beds usual iu deltaio tracts. In the north-east the his are mostly covered •with water at the end of the rains, hut owing to bettei drainage they dry up rapidly and more completely, leaving fewer marshes and stagnant collections o£ water than are found elsewheie.

The district is composed of recact alluvial deposits, consisting GEOIOBT, of sandy clay and sand along the course of the rivers, and Hue silt consolidating into clay in the flatter parts of the river plain where beds of impure peat aUo occur Sand is found in large quantities along the banks and ehms of the Madhiirmti

Tha stretches of low-lying land under rice cultivation afford a BOTAHT. foothold for numerous marsh species, while the numerous ponds and ditches are filled with submerged aud floating water plants. • The edges of sluggish creel's are lined with large sedges and bnlmshes, while the bonks of rivers have a hedge-1 ike scrub jungle and bear afewtoeea like Poajjamw plat)a, B(i>imyioim acutaitgnla and 1 hespesiapopidnect. The sides of embankments and village sites, where not occupied by habitations, are densely covered with village shrubberies of semi-spontaneous species liks Oilina, Zizyplots, Acacia, Qlycosmis, Trema, often interspersed with clumps of planted bamboos and groves of Areea, Mormga, Magi ifera, and Anona. "Waysides and waste places are filled with grasses and weeds, usually of little intrinsic interest but often staking becau«e of their d i s t en t ion . A large proportion of the species of this class to be met with m the district have been inadvertently intro­duced by human agency. Besides weeds that are indigenous in other parts of India, they raolude European or Afncan species like Seneii era pw>iatifl&i and Xan'/imn qmiasum, and Ameucan species like Ago alum congzonies, Sco/iaiia dulcis Wmadttla rostrata, Evolmlm nummuiasifokus, Pepetomia pelluetda, Mafochra cantata, Etiptttrit ohama'dryoulez Onion sparri-

16 JJGSSOKE.

flonts aad many others, which not only hold their owe with but spread mors plentifully than similar weeds of truly Indian origin Tl'n babul (AcaUa aiadicj)^ also grows in abundance, and the banyan I'iins indica), pipal tFtctis nhgiosa, tamarind Tamai m<lm iiuhca), and mulberry reach a large size. The north and west of the district are dotted with numerous groves of date-palms [Phceni-c ncaulis), and many of the principal roads are lined with fine avenues of banyan, oasuaiina aud mulberry tieos. Uate-palms are especially numerous in the western half of the Jessore Bungaon and Jhemda subdivisions, which baa been described aa ' the date garden of Bengal.' South and west of Jaeuida the country is almost bristling with data trees planted in square plots of 10 01 15 bigfw, and these increase in number the nearer one goes to the Kabadak.

Piuw. Fifty years ago wild buffaloes were hunted in the Jhenida subdivision by Europeans on horse-baci, but base now entirely disappeared. Tigers are also extinct, and though old reports speak of wolves in the district, noce aie now to be fouud. Leopards however are found all over the district, and are especially numerous in, the jungles of the Bangaon^ and Jhenido subdivisions. Wild pigs aie very common in the higher and leas accessible parts of the district, and do a, great deal of damage to giowing crops, especially to sugarcane. With the departure of planters from the district, pig-sticking has come to au end; but they are tiapped by Buuas, etc., aboriginals from Chota Nagpur brought by iadigo planters to work in the indigo factories, who have seitled down as ordinary labourers o t

cultivators. They catch shorn in snares or nets made of stout twine, and having tied them up, carry them home alire, wbfiie the animals are slaughtered and the flesh cooked and eaten. Jaeltals are veiy oommon and with vultures do useful scavenger wort . Foxes are also fairly numerous. Porcupiues and the wild caj, called kkutask are fo'ind in smaller cumbers. The otter and. mongoose are also found wild and tamed; the lorraer a te extensively ueed by fisherman for t&tahmg dab in tbe Nardil and Magma subdivisions.

Gmne Amung game birds may be mentioned part i idge and quail,

birds. "\lVild. ducts, geese, snipe and teal, etc., are found in the bik and baora which aie numerous iu tbe district I n tbs cold weather the bill or marshes teem with wild fowl from the ponderous a Q ( j aorabie-bued grey goose to the light and bright-plum aged blu e . winged teal,

KBJ,. Tbe risers, marshes and tanks contain rui, hatid, mrtgel, bau&f,

b/ieklt, hal, ar, d/mm (or sifand,) and chttal among larger flah*

I 'HTSICiL ASPECTS, 17

and bde/id, pabdd, tengra, ihairg, putt, maya, etc., among sraslier fish. The hiha is found in the Iehbamati, which flows through the Bangaon subdivision, as well as in the Madhumati or Garai, Naboganga and Cbitra. The few fish of thiB district is proverbial for its good quality, though larger varieties are found in other places. This fish, as we'll as mdgitr, singi, «oi, etc., abounds in the bik in the east. The centre of the district, including the district head-quarters, (is badly off for neb, owing to fclio silting up of the rivers that flow through it, and supplies have to be imported by rail from Calcutta, Khulua. and, Goal undo.

There is not much fishing in the rivers during the rains, and it ptactically begins in October with the subsidence of floods. The busy season is from November to March, the largest hauls being made in December, January and February, During tbja season fish of all kinds and sizes are caught, but the most valuable ones belong to the carp family (Cyprhudte) such asnti, iat/A, mrigel, etc. Fish are caught not only in the main streams, where there is nlwoys a current even in the driest months, hut also in the pools or lakes (baors) which form in the teds of rivers after the rains, acrt in the blind chauueis chhrit) closed at one end but connected with the maic stream at the other; in fact, the largest quantity is usually netted in the latter. Among the river fisheries must be inclnded the old or deserted beds of rivers, (hB deeper portions of wliich often form pools of consider­able extent. The bits in the Magnrii and Narail eubdivisions also foim valuable fisheries. In the raits they afford spawning ground for many fish, and shelter to all during the dry season; being usually full of hardy aquatio weeds and floating plants of various kinds, they aia cot open to free netting and are thus immune from exhausting modes of capture. Tho stater, being practically stagnant, is not favourable to caip life, and the larger varieties usually desert them in favour of rivers. But they are the proper home of the kai or climbing perch (Anabas Bcaudens), magitr (Claims magur), sini/hi (SaccohrancnnB fossiUa) and numerous other fish which, though dark and unsightly and often of small size, are highly prized by tho people as valuable and nourishing food, especially for the convalescent.

With the gradual silting up of the rivors, the 6ils are being reclaimed and brought under cultivation, causing a eorrespond-iiig reduction of the fishery area. On this subject Mr. K. G. Gupta writes in his Report on the I'ishenes et Bengal (1907). ' 'Therivers of the Presidency Division, from the Bbagiratbi or Hooglily on the west to the Crarfti (Madhumati or Baleswar)

c

IS JESSOttF.

on tha east, are all offflhoots of the Ganges, by which they are fed; they were at one time considerable stieams with a good depth of water even in (he dry weather, aEd daring the rainy season carried down laige volumes of flood water, Omng to the rising o£ beds of these rivDra the ourrent of tho Ganges is deserting them and is heing deflected furtbei and further to the east. One by one they mo all but closed, and this year even the GarSi, which leas than 40 years ago gave, by rensoD of its depth and strong current, no small trouble m the eonstruction of the railway bridge over it at Kushtia, has had its month completely cboked up, causing irrepaiable dani.ige to the fresh-water fisheries of Jessore and Khulua, The deter­ioration of the rivers has not only been a direct and potent source of ill-health, but has seiiously affected the supply of the only i ind of aoinwl food that is open to the people.

14 The evil effects are most seen in the districts of the Presi­dency Division, especially in Jesaoie and Khulna. Evendown to 20 or 30 years ago the principal rivers of these two districts remained »weet throughout the year until they entered the Sundarbans, but now there is not a river m Khulua, the water of which does not beoome brackish in the diy season, and saline water goes well up into the other districts. Cnrpa have in oonaequenee deserted these riveis The silting up and reclama­tion of the numerous jlnh has grently affected the simply of those live fish foi which the two districts hive long been famous. Kliulna ibitaaately gets a fen amount of esluanne fish fiom its Sundarbans, but Jeesore is so badly off that it is content to -eoen e all 1 inds of small and inferior fish from Khulua, very dfteti m "• u a ' * decomposed state, and pays a high price fat i t . There is ft scarcity of good fish in Jessore and Bangaon towns, and the price charged (iinnas S to anna310 a seer) 13 equal to or higher than what obtains in Calcutta."

The Gangetie porpoise is common iu the rivers in the south andea«t . The lower reaches of the Bhairab and IcbMmati a*e infested with crocodiles in the laray season, wbicli c a n y off a number of persons eveiy year They also abound in the Madbumalior Gargi, from which they occasionally come into the Nabagauga

(II-IMATH The seasons in Jessore aie the same as iu other districls of Lowei Bengal. January a n l February are oold branicg months with a pievailing north-west wind nnd a heavy night dew fn March, Then the hot weathei beg,us, the wind is vanahle, but there is still heavy dew with occasional fog in the morning. I n April and Ua.y the weather becomes distinctly hot. The

PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 19

prevailing wind blows strong from the south-west, Taut nor*-westers, with lightning and heavy rain, bring ooeaeional relief. Dry weather prevails, but towards the end of May continuous showeis sometimes ooenr, which are colled the chota tarsal or little rains, and ere looked forward to with great anxiety by the cultivators. The early part of June is tot and trying, bat the monsoon raina as a rule set in about the middle of the month. July and Angnafc are the months of heaviest rainfall, hut are compara­tively healthy and pleasant. In September the rains abate, the heafc again becomes very trying and the atmosphere steamy, till the middle or end of October when the Gold weather sets in.

The following table shows the normal rainfall as recorded Rainfall at eaoh rain-registering station for the cold, hot and rainyand teal" seasons.

perature.

Station.

Bangion-. Jessote ... Jllenida ... Madura .,, Harail ,„

District average .,,

Tears rouortLed.

31 4 1 - 4 6 29—30 29-HO 3fl—30

Nov ember to

Febrnarj,

2-39 282 3-59 2-16 2-80

March to

May.

10-07 13-57 11-83 13-88 11-81

2 81 12-23

Juno to

October. Total.

48-10 68-53 50-31 1 66*70 18-49 00-90 1383 GO-IT 4213Q 57-80

45-8K 60-72

Prom November to January there is almost sm entire ab3en.ce of cloud and rainfall, but there is usually some slight rain in January. The mean temperature falls from 74° in November to 67J in December, but humidity COUHDUSS high, and occasional low-lying morning foga, which dissipate with the rising sun, are a feature oF the cold season. The total mean rain­fall for these three mouths is only two inches. In February temperature begins to rise, the mean for tho mouth being 70°, and (southerly winds become more frequent The advance of the hot -weather is cha'aatenKeil by occasional thunderstorms with rainfall, dry westerly whi'le with high temperature alter­nating with southerly sea-winda of inoderata temperature. In May south-West monsoon weather is occasionally experienced whan cyolonio afcorms occur near the head of the Bay of Bengal. Suob. atoi-ma give rise to heavy vain, and the average- rainfall for the month consequently rises from 3'2 inches in April to 7*9 inches in May, "With, the oommenceraent of the Bouth-west monsoon, humidity increases to S-'S yer cent, of Eaturution and

o2

20 JEeSOFE.

heavy cloud is continuous. The average rainfall is 12'6 inches in June, 12 inohes in July, 10*6 inches in August and 8'3 inches in September. Mean temperature slowly dimiaiehes from 86° in June to 82° in Ootober. During the latter half of September and thronghoufc October cloudy weather alternates with bright sun shine, and the bright periods lengthen and meige IUDO che continuous fine weather of the cold saneon.

Meteorolo- ^he following table gives the salient meteorological statistics gical for the town of JeBSore, situated 33 feet above sea-level, etalIsties.

J a n u a r y .„ ... Fe i rnn ry Marpli .. \ p r l l ... May J lino . . „ J u l y .. August SfpfPinber October NDvrtataer 1 I t ecomba

Vmr „ , ,.

Moon

es w GO 86 Kfi Nil H Kt H< eg 74 67

?n

TBSIPEBATCBB.

Mean M a i .

78

as i$ 07 M Hi SB Ml S«

as «a 73

68

Mean M J P

Bl 07 OS 51 57 J'l

7n 7Q iS

n in HS

70 i

JIcou Range.

D a i l j .

26 2lS 21 S3 19 13 10 10

in 13

in 23

]S

Month .

S7

w 3* SI El IS 11 11 IS 20 86 28

23

HnMi. WSY,

Mean,

BQ 82 B0 80 SJ

ee on so 10 GO 83 85

SB

ClOTO.

Mean.

I'd S-3 3 ' ! *-7 0 2 j 'O 8-* 8 1 6-9 S'T 2-0 1 8

IT

B i l K I i t l .

Inches.

01S

roi 1-32 S'BQ 7 8 3

IS 17 1VC2 i i - a s

800 S'SIl l'lfi 0-15

8CI0

Days

1 2 9 6

10 IK 18 17 12

n 1

oo

B A B O -3JBTER

Mi-an.

3D 05 SDilO 0BO

oso on ora 0-S7

oes 0 J S

oss 0 M

90'OS

39 83

arsTORt. 21

CHAPTER II .

HISTORY,

IN the early ages Jeiaaore apr^ars to have been a fen land, inter-EAM.J seated by rivers and full of niorasaes, wbioh probably contained a l3T0BI

only a few scattered settlements of fisherman and boatmen. It is known tbat the Sundarbaus jungle extended much further north than at present: Sagardari (a Tillage on the Kabadak in the Keehabpur tbana) ia said to mean the boundary of the eea. Ptolemy's map of the second century A. D,, moreover, showa the southern portion of the delta, formed by the two great branches of the G-angea, the Bhagiratln and the Piidma, a.e out up by large rivers and waterways to such an extent that it was prac­tically a collection of islands, Befereneeg to this part of the delta in the Mahabhwala, the Rayhimma and some of the Pursuits show that it lay between two powerful kingdoms, viz., Suhtna (and probably Tamrallpti) in Western Bengal and Yanga in Eastern Bengal, the boundaries of which were ill-defined and varied aoooiding to the power oi their kings. The Yangaa are described as having fleets of boats and a powerful force of ele­phants, while the SuhmfU lived near the aea-ooaat on a great river with marshes full of can^B, ie. the Bbagirathi. In spite, bow-ever, of the proximity of the latter to Jesflore, the oountry appearB to have been under the control oi the Yaagas in the time o£| the Raymtvama, i.e., the fifth century A. D.

Whott the Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang ^Hiuen Tsiang) visited Bengal in 639 A.. D., he found two large kingdoms in the lower delta, viz., Samatata and Tamralipti, He described Sanaa-tata as a low-lying country bordering on the great gea, rich in crops, flowers and fruits, "The climate", be said, "is soft, the habits of the people are agreeable, 'the men are small of stature and of black complexion, but hardy of nature and diligent in the acquisition of learning- There are some 30 Buddhiflt monasteries with 2,000 priests and 100 Hindu temples, while the naked ascetics called Ni^ranthas are also numerous."* General Cunningham has identified the capital of Samatata with JeBsore and writes:—"It ia certain that Samatata wist be the delta of the Ganges; and as the eountry is deseribBd as 3,000 U, or o[)0 miles, in circuit, it

* S. Btal, Swtdlikl Meaords oj the Western WotU, Vol. I I , pp. 189, ZOO.

23 3 SSBORB.

must have included the whole of the present deltn, or triangular tract between the BMgfratbi river and the main stream or the Ganges."* Considering, however, the distance assigned to Sama-tata from IfSmariipa (Assam), via,, 1,900 or 1,300 H, i.e., 200 roilB3 (at the rate of 6 li to a mils), it appears more reasonable to identify the capital with Dacca.asFergusson doss,or with the ohiei town of the Bikmrapur pm-yana in Dacca, Nevertheless, as Sama-tata is described as being 3,000 li in circuit, aa low and moist, and aa situated on the sea-coast, there is nothing improbable in the supposition that the whole or part of North Jeaiore was included in it. Samatata seems to be another name applied to Yaaiga because of its flat cud level coast; it is also mentioned ia an inscription of Samudrag-tipta circa 360 A. D.) as a tributary frontier kingdom of the Gupta empire. Half a century later circa 00 A. D.) another Chinese traveller to India, viz., I-Ching tlfcsing), mentioned Samatata and its king Hoh-lo-shi-po-t'a, Sanskritized into Harshabliata, Tasovarciian of Kanauj (ptrca 731) ia said in the Prakrit poem Gando-iaJm to have conquered Vanga and to have been powerful in elephants, etc. It is not improbable, therefore, that the fluvial districts of the delta, such as JeBsore, continued to be more or less under the sway of the Vanga kings.

In the tenth and eleventh centuries the northern delta appears to have formed part of the empire of the Pala kings, and it seems practically certain that it w&t* included in the kingdom of the Senas, who were masters of both Vauga and Radha. Aa is •well known, Nadia, which ia not fai to the north-west of Jessore> was a capit&l of the Inst Sena king fiai Lakshmaniya, who was dri^ea Crocv it by tba Mubn,moiadan uwadm under Muhammad Bafchtiysir Khilji in 1199-1200 A. D. Marehiag southwards from Bihar, he suddenly appeared before Nadia with eighteen horaemea and boldly entered the city, the people supposing him. to be a horse-dealer. "Wben he reached the gate of the palace, be drew his sword and attacked the unsuspecting household. The king taken by surprise, "fled barefooted by the rear oi the palace; andbia whole treasure and all his wives, maid servants, attendants, and women fell into the hands of the invader. Numerous elephants were taken, and euoh booty was obtained by tho MuharnnmdanB as is beyond all compute. Wben his (Muhammad's) army arrived, the whole city was brought under Bubjeotion." The conquerors Backed and destroyed the olty, and then eetabliehed the seat of his government at Lakhunuti. "Snob," writes Mr. "V A- Smith, "was the dis-honoured end of the lM t Hindu kingdoms of Bengal aud Bibar,

* AatHtut Btagraptgif Iadia (1871), pp. 5 0 1 - 3 .

'HISTORY 23

which would have made a better 6ght for life if tbej had deserved to exist The udministrafioa of the aged Lakabmaniya must have been hopelessly inefficient to permit a foreign army to march unobserved across Bengal, and toalloW of the surprise of the palace by an insignificant army of ] 8 horoemen !*

It is generally believed that the conquest of Bengal followed the oapture and" sack of NadiS, and, if this was the ease, Je-acre roust haveaoLuowleaged the dominion of thoMubam.ro.adaiis. 'Ibis, howevei, is a doubtful proposition, "The natare of Uuhammad-i-Bakhfciyar's conquest appears to have been much exaggerated. The expedition to Nadfa was only an imoad, a dash for securing booty natural to ihese Turkish tribes. The tioopera lcotei tbe city with the palace and went away They did not take posses-sum of that pait; aud, it thoy ha I tried, they would have most likely failed, as their base m Bihai was too far off and too recent to be of much avail. On removing the scat of govern­ment to Iiakhauawati, there was an attempt to see ire permanent possession or some pait. o! Bengal On the north Diw-kot, where he died on hn letura fiom the disastrous inroad to Tibet, was evidently in possession of the Musolraans. On the south Lakhanor was outside their j iinadietion, because Muhammad-i-Sheiau had been deputed with a foice towaids it at that time Dnv-ltot ie identified with Dfmdamiua, ahout 70 miles north-east of Ganr, Jjakhanoi is identified with Nagor by Stenart and with Laearcondah by Bloehmanri; but neither i lentiflo&tion is aatiafactoiy, both being far away from the river Bbagirathi. Even if either of those identifications be accepted, it would be not more than 90 m'lesfrom Qaur. The tiact between the two is thus hardly large and Eorois an insignificant part of the Bengal province. Talak&t-i-Nawi lteelf carefully speaks of Lnihana-wati only; it is only the later writer who dilate en Ihe vaunted conquests of Bengal In fact, if such plundering inroads be magnified into conquests, and Hindus of Bengal blamed and vilified for allowing the so called easy conquests, then Hahmud of Ghaz'ii has better claims for being credited with the conquest of all Hindustan "f

I t ianot known when Jessorefinally became subject to Muham-Hunan-madau rule, but it must havo been before the middle of the 15thS!iDM

century, when the southern part of the distnot ia known to have been held by a ^uhammadan Governor named Khan Jahan Ali, or, as he is geneially called, Khauja Ah. Local legend relates

* Early Ruto. g of Indta (1904), pp. 320 21. t Monmobnn Cbakravarti, Disputed or Doubtful Semis in t/it) Mtttori/ of

fi««3aJ, J. i S B.,AjiiLim

24 JBHSOSB.

that he oame here over four centuries ago to reclaim aaA. cultivate the Suudarbans, which were then waste and covered "with forest. He is represented as marching through the district with 60,000 men, mating bis road as he went along, and settling finally at Bagherhat in the Kkahia district. Tradition assigns to him various remains, among which may be mentioned those near BidySoandalsati, 4 miles west of KeBhabpur, and at Barabaaar 10 miles north of Jessore, and the traces of a road along the Bhairftb, whioh is identified with the road he made for his march. In his old age he renounced worldly affairs and lived the lite of an ascetic ai Bagherhat, where his tomb may still be seen with an insoription saying that he left this world for a better one in the year 86-3 A.H., t.e., 1459 A.D. He is cow regarded as a warrior^aint, and his tomb is a place of pilgrimage.

Apart from legend we know little of this early Muhammadan ruler. Even the name popularly given to him (Khan Jahan Ali, which is generally corrupted into KhSnja All) is not warranted, for in the inscription on his tomb he is simply referred to by hia title Khan Jahan. It appeal's certain, however, that he was the Governor of this part of the country in the time of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud 8hah (1442-59), and it ia possible, as pointed out by Professor Blochmann, that he may be identical with acertaic KhwSj'a Jaban mentioned in an inscription at Dacca, which says that the entrance to a mosque " was erected by a Khan whose title is Khwaja Jahau in the reign of Mahmiid Shah "; the date of this inscription corresponds to lath June 1457.* Eeyond this, history remains silent. The legends about him as handed down from father to son, are however, not without historical value " In these legends ", writes Dr, BLoeh, " Khan Jahan appeai'3 as a holy man and a staunch warrior, who was sent out by the Emperor of Delhi to conquer the distant country and who worked great miracles and achieved wonderful deeds. Similar stories of a military conqueror being turned into a Fir, or of a saint waging war against the infidels, however fabulous in detail, still retain a distant eeho of the important role that was played in the early centuries of Muhammadan rule in India by saints and leaders of the great spiritual orders " . t

Some further information about this part of the country may be obtained from the rent-roll of the Ain-i-AMan, according to which North Jesaore was included in Sarkdr Mah-mudabad and South-West Jessore in SarMr Khalifatahad. The

* SoUa on Arabic and Persian Inscriptions, J. A, S, B., P«rt J, 1B72, lip. 107-108,

t flqiorf, AreL, Slav Ind. for 1903-04.

SISToKt, S§

name Mahal" d&b ad appeal's first, ao far as ta at present known, in a com of Nasir-ud-din Hahmiid Shah I, dated 858 H. (1454 A !>.)*; ft was evidently named after this king, who probably founded MabmijdE.bad on the. Mndbumati river. 6onth of Mahmudabad lay 3ar&a> Kha-iifatabad [i.e. the vice-regent's khalifa) clearance]; it wag presumably so called after Ko5u Jahan, the first realaimer of tba Sundarbans. who died, aonording to tte maonptwn on his tomb, in the last year of tba reign of Malmud Shah I. Khalifatabad appears &B a mint town m tbs Goins of Nasrftt Shah dated 9923. (1516) and of his suacessor Mahmud ShSht. The fact that the towna of Mabmudabad and RhaMaiabad were important enough to bo mint fcawas skews that by this time the MusalraSns had established tiieir rule firmly i» the two Sufkuis-Several mahah were also named aftet various Sultana to mark their importaoce (e g, Mohmiidshahi, Nasratsbahi, Yusnfpur, and Sulaimanabad); while the Am-f-AIcbai i definitely says that Sher Shah conquered Mabmudabad. Oonsidejable changes probably occurred m the couraes of tba rivers about this time, for in the same work it is said that the marshes lound the fori of Mabmudabad had added to its impregnability and that in that SathSr elephants had increased oonsideraibly—presumably owing to the abandonment of cultivation and the spread of jangle caused by the vagaries of the riveis

Towards the end of the 16th. century the tiaot now inoluded PBWIF*

in the district of Jessore appears to have been ruled o?er b y I M m ,

Prafcapaditya, the Hindu heio ol the Sundarbaas, whose adventures have been commemorated £a sewial woiks, e tj t Vsdya da/idar by Uharat Chatidia, Saja Pratapadiiyn OJmtita by Ram Earn Basu, an abstiact of the last work by Harish Ohandia Tarkalaakar, a life of Pratapaditya by Pa.udit Satya Oharan Sasfcn, and Piatapaditya by Babu Nikhil Nath Eaa, B.i, a Bengali book publi&hed at Calcutta in 1006. A Bengali play of the same name has also bean mitten by Pandit Kehirod Prasad Vidyabenode, M A.

The story of the life of Piatupiidifcya, as handed down by troditioo, is that one Bam Chaarha, a Kayasth of Eastern Bengal, oam.8 with his three sons, Bh.aban.aiid, Gunanan.d and Sivauand, to the capital d Sulatman Kiiiaiaoi, king of Beag^l (1563-72), where be obtained an appointment Sndhar oz Srihari, the son of BliabSuand, and Janakiballabh, the son of GhwaMscI, became favourites of Daud Khan, who auuoeeded his father, Sulaiman Kararani, as king of Bengal. By him SrMhar was given

* J. A Saiicdiilou, Indtm Unseam CatalQgiw, Vol, IE, p, IGI. t Ifai, Vol. II, jp, 177, £25.

2 U •JES80K.E.

the title of Eaja Bikraraaditya, while Janakibrdlabh was also raised to high officer under the ntime of Basant Eai. Subse­quently, wheu Dafid ft.b;~Q rebelled agitinefc the Emperor Akbar and nn imperial army was marching OQ Gaur, Daiid Khan Bed from his kingdom after entrusting all his wealth to Bikraraaditya and Bas.tnt Eai, with orders to remove it to some place cf safVy. The two cousins took all they could lay their bands on to a bouse they had built on the barks of the Jamuna in the Bundaibaus. So great, it is said, was the treasure thsy removod, that the splendour of the oity of Gaur was transferred to this new settle­ment, which was therefore given the name of Yasohara (now corrupted to Jessore) meaning "depriver of glory". Another explanation whioh has been suggested is that the name means that other glorious oities, being eolipasd by this city, had no glory, and that Yasohara is therefore equivalent to ' supremely gliirions". The site of the oity thus founded is at Iswarlpur in the .Khulna district.

Now Bikramaditya had a sou, named Pratapaditya (often abbreviated to Prafcap), at whose birth it was predicted that he wonld one day supplant his father. Even in his early youth Pratapaditya W.UJ distinguished for his ability aad prowess, and the old Raja began to fear the fulfilment of the prediction and to suepeot that the young Prince would not only supplant him, but also till Basant Xtai. Filled «ith these suspicions, Bikraniaditya sent Pratapaditya to Agra, where he won the favour of the Emperor In a short time he was granted a ianad making him a Raja and conferring on him his father's territory. He then returned to Tasohara and, having; ousted his father, removed the seat of government to Dhumghat.

For a time, says tradition, Pratapaditya prospeied exceedingly. So adorned his kingdom with noble buildings, made roads, built temples, dug tanks and well^, and, in fact, did everything that a sovereign could do for the welfare of his subjects. The limits of his kingdom quickly extended, for lie made war on his neighbours and came off victorious in every battle till all the surrounding country acknowledged his rule. Ultimately, be declared himself independent of the Emperor of Delhi, aud SJ great was his power that he managed to defeat, one after another, the generals sent against him. These successes lie owed to the favour of the god­dess Jason ares war! (Kali), who, pleased with his zealous devotion to herself aud his charity to all around him, had promised that she would aid him in every difficulty and never leave him unless he himself drove her away. Her favour was at kst withdrawn, for lJraiapaditya, swollen with pride, became very tyrannical

HIBTORt. £*

towards bis subjects, beheading them lor the least offence. The goddess, anxious to revoke her blessing, one day assumed the form of the U&ja'a daughter, and appeared before him ia court, when he WJIS diapenaiug his so called justice by ordering a. sweeper woman's breast lo be cut off for haying presumed to sweep the palace court in his presence. Shocked at the impro­priety of bis daughter (as be supposed her to be) appearing before hitn in court, the Raja ordered her out and told her to lease his palace for erer. The goddess then repealed herself and told him that her former blessing and promised aid were now withdrawn, as be himself bad driven her iroai bis presence.

The downfall of Pr&tapftditya Boon followed. One of the last and worst acts of his reign was committed when he assassinated hie uncle, Unsant Kai, with all Ida children, escept an infant who was hidden in a field of Imku or arum plants. The infant, Raghab Eai (who, when be attained manhood, was given the name of Kachu Rai to commemorate the way in which he escaped), was taken, to the imperial court by Bhabanand Maaumdar, ancestor of the Ifcajas of Krishnagar and dlmn of Bikramadityo. There hs obtained the ear of the Emperor, who hearing bow his father and brothers had been assassinated, directed Man Singh, the Governor of Bengal (158fMG04), to crush Pratapaditya. Man Singh at last succeeded in defeating bini with the help of Bhabacand Mazumdar, who lad the imperial army by a secret jouta through the Sundarbsns. Man Singh surprised the capital and captured Pratapaditya, i\ho was sent a prisoner to Delhi. But at Benares on his tray up-country, he put an end to his life by swallowing some poison ha kept concealed in a ring, preferring death to the ignominy of being paraded in an iron cage through the streets of Delhi.

The traditional aeoouni of tho fonadiition of Bikramaditya'a fortunes is confirmed from other sources. From the Muhatn-madan historians we learn that there was an offioer of high rani under Dafid Khan, named Sridhar, (or, to mark his nation­ality, Sridhar Bengali). According to their account, Dafid Khan made away with hia nephew Yusui, who had married the daughter of Lodi Khan, his chief, officer (Amir-ul-mara). The latter thereupon deserted Dafid Khan and made hia submission to Mnnim Khan, Altbar's GoTemoi ot Jaanpur. Finding himeelf in hia turn deserted by Sridhar, as weii as by Jalal Khan and Kalapahar, Lodi Kbw. took refuge. in the foi't of Rohtasgarh in Shahabad.* Dafid. Khan having

* AHwiiStittt, JHliot'u Bisloty cE Indin. VT, 41. In the trmislatlcm bbe IMIHU i« mootrectlj given fl8 Sfliyid Huri,

' • is

•46 JXSSOHX.

succeeded by a stratagem in inducing Lodi Khftn fa leave the fort, made aim a prisoner and put Mm trader the charge of Sridhar. He then put his unfortunate captive to death at the instigation of Sridhar and of Katlu Khan, governor of Jagannath (Purl). After this, Sridhar was given the title of BikraaiSjit and got large jdgirs in Jesaore.

Not long afterwards DaEd Elian broke out in revolt against the Emperor Akbar, and, when the imperial army advanced against him. held out in Patna. The Emperor himself came to direct operations, and, Hiijipur (opposite Patna) having been captured, DaDd Kha"n lost heart and fled (July 1574). fcte embarked in a boat at midnight, and Sridhar, placing hia treasure in another boat, followed him,* Daiid Kbau eventually made his way to Orfssa, and Srldnac piesumably want to bis fiefs in Jessore, Muhammad Kull Elian invaded Jessore, evidently in pursuit oE Sridliai and bis treasure, but oot being suooessful, had to return to Satgaou, where be joined Todar Mai, who had marched there in pursuit of Daud Khau.f

In one reapuct the traditions regarding Bikramaditya cannot be aooepted, via,, in the aeouuut given of the origin of the name Jeasore, for oven before his time we End the name " Jesar commonly called ftasulpar" shown in the Ain-i-Akban as that of a mah&l o£ Siii'kai' Khalifatabad, with the largest revenue payable by any maksl in that S«rkar or in tha adjoining Sark&t- of Mahmiidabad, viz., 1,723,850 dams (Rs. -13,096). Even earlier, moreover, Jeseore is found mentioned in connection with the

- invasion of Muhammad Xuli Khan in 1574 A D,

As regards PratSpaditya, no reference to bim has yet been traced in any of the contemporaneous Muhammadan hiatorians, unless possibly he is ths Pmtap Begem who, according to the dkbarndina, helped Khan Jahan to defeat Isa Khan, zamin-dar of Bhati, i-e., the south of the delta in Eastern Bengal) in 1578 A.D. There is however a refeience to Pratapadifcya in the records of the Cfcanohra Rajas (Eajaa of Jessore)-They relate that their ancestor Bhabeswav Bai cams to Bengal with Azam Khan 1582-83 and, as a reward for his services against rebels [t.e., in the great military revolt of Bengal), received a grant of four parganas, via., Amidpur, Muragachha, Mallik-pur and Saiyadpur, which were taken from Pratapaditpa,* apparently in one of tue campaigns against him, I t seems oertain that Pratiipaditya's power must have been recognized aa a

* TaMat-i-AMsH, Elliot, Vol, V,pp, 372-4, 373; Mnnlakhabvl Tawarikk, Love, 11, 1778,184

f din-i-Akbai\ Bbchntinn, J, 341-3 '** \ J. WesUand, Report on ths District uf Jetsore, p, 45.

r

BISTORT. 29

SBrioua menace to Mughal supremaoy by 100) H. (1593 A.D.), when Man Singh gave jUjfirs in .Khalifatabal to a number of Afghans of Orissa under Khwaja Sulaiman, Khwai» Baiix and Usman Begera. By eo doing Man Singh apparently noped to achieve two objects, vis,, to relievo the unhappy province of Orissa of those turbuleat soldiers and at the same time to keep Pratap­aditya in check. Tli9 expedient waa not successful, for the Af­ghan jagirddrs joined with Isa Khan and other zamindara of East Bengal and gave muoh trouble to Man Singh. In fact, they were not finally subdued till Usman waa decisively defeated in 1612 by a Mughal force under Shujaat Khan at a place called Nek Ugyal, which was probably in Sariar Habmudiibad.

Pratapaditya is said to have been one of the Earah Bhuiyas BSEAH

(or Ehuyas), i.e., twelve chiefs -who held the south and east of EBDryI

Bengal towards the dose of the 16th century, about whose his­torical reality there is no doubt. Hindu patriotism, indeed, claims that Pratapaditya overcame all the other Bhuiyas and had undisputed pre-eminence, but precedence should probably be given to lea Kh&n Hasnad-i-Ali of Khiarpur. The latter ia described by Abnl Faal as the Mai'zban-i-Bhati, or governor of the low-lying land near the sea, and as the ruler over twelve great zammdars; whib Ralph Bitch, who visited Sunargaou in 158(5, says that "the chief king of all these oountries'is called Isacan, and he is the ohief of all the other t ings". Apart from this question, there seems little doubt that Pratapaditya waa, in fact, one of the Barah Bhuiyas, who, from occasional references in the works of Muhamniadan historians supplemented by tradition, appear to have been nominally vassals of the Emperor but

practically independent. The researches of Dr. Wise have thrown further light

on these rulers and have shown that their power was attested by early European travellers and missionaries, Jtwiio, who derived his information from the Jesuit Fathers sent to Bengal in 1559, says that the ' pre£eotB' of the twelve kingdoms governed by the king of the Pattens united their forces and drove out the Mughals. They obeyed no one, paid no tribute, and though they displayed a royal splendour, did not call themselves kings but Homes, which ia obviously a Latin transla­tion of Bhuiyas. He then goes on to say that three of these chiefs observed the religion of the country, via., " Glmdecsmt, Siripuramis, et Baialamis," and the remaining nine were Huham. madans. The three Hindu chiefs are clearly the Bhuiyas of Chandec&u, Sripur and Bakla; Chandeoan has bean identified with the capital of Pratapaditya, D'Avity, whose work was

so JESSORE,

published at Paris in 1643, oopies this description of Bengal, hut gives a few additional particular of tha twelve sovereigns, as he calls them. The most powerful Be informs ua, ware those of Snpui and Chandecan, bit the gieatest of all was Masondolio or Maasudalian, i.e., Masnad-i-Ali, tho title of Isa Kliaa of Khizrpur. Again, Sebaetien Mimnque, a Spanish, monk of the order of the Saint -iugUBtin, who resided in India fiom 1628 to 1641, states in bis Itine> ai y that the kingdoms of Bengal weia divided into 12 provinces, among which he mentions Chandecan, and that the ting of Bengal, who resided at Gam, maintained aa vassals 13 chiefs m as many districts, whom the natives called trie Boioues de Bsngala.

"Trie^e authorities," says Dr. Wise, "advance oar know­ledge considerably. The Bhmyas, aooording to them, had been dependents of the king of Gaur, but had acquired indepacdenoe for foroa of aims. They lefused to pay tribute or to acknowledga allegiance to any ono From being prefects appointed by the ting they had become kings, with armies and fieets at their command, eveneady to wags war against each other or to oppose the invasions of Portuguese pirates or Hagh freebooters."* The attainment of such independence tan bo understood when it is remembered that till the olo=o of the 16th centmy ALbai'B rule had not been fiinily established in Ben.jalo ving to a danger-nus military mol t an I the persistant rabDllions of the Afghan?. While the Erapeior's armies war? deiliug with fclie lattei, the Bhuiyas of Bengal weie able to maintain piaotioal independence amidst the swamps and livers of the delta, which were a stron^ natural obstacle to invasion.

The identification of Chandecan with the capital of Piatap-acrniwta. aditra is due to the researches of Mr. H. Bevendge, from whose

aiticlet the following extiaeta aia quoted "By fai the most infceiesting account of the Sundarbans is contained in the letters of the Jesuit priests who visited BaklaJ and Jsssore m 1599 and 1800 Their letters were published by Nicholas Pimenta and have been tran-lated into Latin aud French. I t appears that Pimenta, who was a Jesuit visitoi and stationed at Goa, sent two priests, Fernandez and Joan, to Bengal m 1508, They left Coohm on 3rd May 1598, and aiiived m 18 days at the Little

* Pott (Porto Pequino). Fiom thence they went up the nver to

* Tie Sarah Mim/as of Bengal, J A S. 3 , Vol. TLII I , Purl r, 1874, ^ j V D I . X L I F , Inrt I, 1875

+ Wuethe Saiulaibans irtnnhUi in (tiiaeiit ttnm! J A S . B , V D ] XhV Part I, 1676, '

% Batfi was » SrttHr CDIUJH IBJUJ portions of tlia pieBBnt Ikckergmigo B ( 1j Paces districts.

o

HIBTOKY, 31

Gullo or Goli,* where they arrived eight days after leaving the "Li t t le Por t " . While at Qdie, they were invited by the Baja of a place called Chandecan (in. Italian Ciandeoan) to pay him a visit, and accordingly FemsmdeB sent Joea there, and he WM favourably received by the king. One year after these two priests had left Coohrn, Pimenta seat two other priests, viz., Meloliin de Fouseoa and Andrew Bowes, to Bengal, and they arrived at Chittagong or at Diangat Gome time in 1599. Oa 22nd December 1599, Fernandez wrote fiom Sripur, giving an account to Pimenfca of tho success of the mission, and ou 2Qth Januaiy 1600, FonEeca wrote from Chandccau giving an account Of a journey which lie had made from Dianga to Chandecan by way of Bakla. Fonseca's letter is most interesting. He describes how he came to Baoola, and how well the king received him, and how he gave him letters patent, a u t h o r i n g him to establish churches, etc., throughout his dominions. He says that the king of Bakla va i not above eight years of age, but that he had a discretion surpassing his yeata. The king 'after compli­ments ' asked rre where I was bound for, and I replied that I was going to ibe king QE Ohandecan, " who is to be the father-in. law of your Highness." These last worda seem to be very important, for the king of Ciandeoan was, as I shall afterwards Bhow, no other than the famous Pratiipaditya of Jessore, and therefore this boy-king of Bakla roust have been Bam Chandra Rai, who, we know, married PratapMitya's daughter.

" Fonssea arrived at Ciandecan ou the 20th November, and there lie found Fernandez's companion Dominio do Joea, who must either have been left there by Fernandez in 1598, or had returned some time afterwards. The king received Fonasca with great kindneBS, so much so that he says he does not think a, Christian prince could have behaved better, A. church was built at Ciandecan, and this was the first ev(-r erected in Bengal, and was as snob, dedicated to Jesus Christ. The fair prospects of the mission as described by Fernandez and Fonseca were soon over­clouded, Fernandez died in November 1602 in prison at Obitta-gong, after ha had been shamefully ill-used and deprived oi the sight of an eye; the King oi Oiandeo.ui proved a tiaitor, and •I'-cAVo? ^ifi-mlly; AIIP J W J U X W A P XlnwjMiiilft1; •$£& &&& ^ ^

Jesuit priests.

" Leaving theae matters, however, for the present, lot us first answer the questiou, where was CiandecanP I raply that it is

* iiuUois identities ty Mr. iJeveridge ivitl HMWIBI. It is a corruption of II uogW j

t I inugiv Una heeti WratiBoil ty Fttfewr. BJoclnwum witli I>nk!iiii(13i]£& on tiie Saugu max- south of Clnttogoiig.

32 JBBSOBE.

identical with Pratapaditja's capital of Dturaghaf, and that it wae" situated n9ar the modem Kaliganj. My reasons for this view-are first that Chandecan or Ciandeoan is evidently the Game as Chaud Khan, and we know from the history of R§]'a Piata-paditya by Ram Ram Ba-u (modernized by Harisli Turkalankar) that this was the old name of the propeity in the Sundarbans, which PratSpaditya's father Bikramaditya got from King P&ild, Oliand Khan we are told, had died without heirs, and so Bikramaditya got the property. And there is nothing ID this contradiefory to the fact that Jessore formerly belonged to Khanja Ali (Khan JahSn); for Khanja All died in 1459, or about 120 yeais before Bikramaditya came to JesBore, <o that the latter must have succeeded to soma descendant of Khanja All, and he may very well hare home the namo of Cliand Klian. When the Jesuit priests visited Ciacdecin, PratSpaditca cinnot have been very long on the throne, and therefore the old name of the locality (Ohacd Kh5n) may still have clung to it But besides this, Du Jame tells us that after Fernandez had been hilled at Uhittagong ja 1602, tae Jesuit priests want to SondTp, tut the> soon left it and went with Carvalho, the Portuguese Commander, to Ciandecorj. The King oi Ciandeoan promised to befriend them, but m fact he was determined to hill Carvalho, and thereby make friends with the King of Arakan, who was then very power­ful, and had aheady taken possession of the kingdom of Batla. The King therefore sent foi Carvalho to 'Jasor', and there had hici murdered The news reached Ciandecan, says Du Jarric, at midnight, and this perhaps may give some idoa of the distance of the two places."

THB Under Mughal rule Jessore was sufficiently important to

MOBHAII have a separate Ftm;dui oi military Governor In the time of FADIDiB9, Shah Jakan the Faujdar was Mirza Shafahikan, great-great-

grandson of Shah Ismail, King of Persia, who died heie in 107311. (1663 A. D.J, His head-quarteis appears to have been at Mirzanagar on the Kabadak: river, where there are considerable ruins with an Imambara and seveial tombs. His family sti'l survives, though in reduced circumstances, at this place, which was probably BO called after Mira& Slmfshikao, the Hindu name being 'Inmohini.*

When the revolt of Snbha Smgh and Balnm Khaa broke out (1696 A D.), Nurullah Khan was Fmijilar of Jessore, Hooglily, Burdwa&ond Milnepoie. Tins Fau/<td» had no aptitude for war, having spent his tune in dide and amassing wealth, and, it is

" Siloi ha aim's 4m i Ahhan, Vu! I , p 314, Btytetis sqlatiu (fci inflation J901), p. 197.

HIST0BT, 8 3

said, poasessed nothing of the military character but the name. Being commanded by the Nawab to talse the field against the rebels, he gathered together, after much delay, a few of the 3,000 horse of whioh he was commandant, and marched from Jessore. On the approach of the Afghans, however, he was seized with panic, shut himself up in the fort of Hooghly, and begged for assistance from tbe Dutch Governor of Cbinsnra, Tha rebels, convinced by this pusillanimous conduct that tbey had little to fear from the " merchant soldier," advanced boldly, and k id siege to Hooghly. So peraisteat and vigorous were their attacks, that the Faujdar became alarmed for Ma personal safety, and during the night crossed the river in a boat and made hia escape to Jcssore. The garrison, Snding their commandant had fled, opened the gates, and the rebels got possession of the oity without iois.*

After this exhibition of incompetence, Nurutlah Khan was . reoalled by the Emperor, who appointed Zabardast Khan in his

place. Zabardast Khan was a leader of far different mettle. He soon defeated tho rebellious Afghans and drove them headlong out of the country east of BhagirathT. '' Wherever trace could he found of their wliere.ibouls, they were captured and slaughtered, and in a short time the districts of Burdwan, Hooghly and Jessore were purged of the defilement oausei by the Afghan raiders. The tracts that had been desolated by the ravages of these rebels once again beoame fertile."t

Less than twenty years later, during the Viceroyalfcy t f ^ j Murehid Kuli Khan oiias Jafar Khan, the government of Jessore a s u

was usurped by Sitaram Rai, whose head-quarters were at Mabmudpur (now incorrectly known as Muhammad pur).

This Sitaram was a descendant or successor of one Mukund, who was a powerful Hindu zemindar of Fath&bad and Bhushna in the third quarter of the 16th oentury. "When Akbar's army under Munim Khan Ebanau invaded Bengal and Oriesa in 1674, Mhrad Khan, one of the officers, was despatched to South-Eastern Bengal. He conquered, says the Ahbarn&ma, Sarkdrs Bakla and Fathabad, aod settled there ; but after some time, he oame into oollision with Mukund, who, in order to get rid of binij invited him to a feast and murdered him together with hia sona-t Hia eonSatmjit gave Jahangir's Governors of Bengal much trouble, and refused to send in the customary peshlmfi or "do" nomaga artae'Voinn; G i ^ a c c a . Tiirw&s in secret

- league with the Rajas of Ooooh Behar and Koch Hajo, and

* C. Stewart, Histay of Bengal (1347), p. 20?. t BAyaztt-s-Salahn (truDalatlon 1901), pp. 332, 243.

34 JEBSORE.

was at last, in the reign of Shah Jahaii, Ljpturod and executed at Dacca (about 1636 A.D.) Satrujit's name tsurvma in the village of Satrujitpur in the iioith-east of Jessore not far from Midrmiidpni * Sitaram was equally lefraotorv, u.'d hie raved t caused no little trouble to the Nawab of Bengal. I'he folio u n g Booount of it is quoted from the Hitfaat-s-Sa/dtvi.

" Sitaram, anmiadar of pai qina Mahiuudabad, being sbelterad by forests and rivers, hud placed the hat o£ levult on tho head ofvaiiit). Not submitting to the Yiceioy, lie declined to meet the imperial office.a and closed agnmat. the latler all the avei)U3S of neirss to lua traet. Ho pillaged nud raided tin lands adjuiniog to bis zaniinlau, find also quarrelled with the impend garnsoiis and Faujtei*. Mir Abu Turab, Faitjdw of the GhakIA of Bbashua, who was tho sown of a leading Suyad dan and was closely related to l'nuoe A r u a - i s S b a n a n ] the Timunde BruperoiB, and who amongst bis COD temporal 1G3 and peers was renowned for hie looming a a i ability, lookucldown upon Nawab Jafjr Khan Mir Abu Turab tued to c«ptme S i t l i im , but was not successful. At length, lie detailed hi-, geneial, P i r El ian , with 200 oacalry to chastise Sda ia i i , On being- apprised of thi^i Sitaram oonce itratmg his foiota lay in ambush to attack the afoieanid general One day Mir Abu Turab with a number of frieuds and followers wont out hunting, and IU the heat of the elmse alighted on Sitaram'^ fiontiois. Pir Khan was not m Abu Turab'fl company. Tho zammdar (fiitiram) on hearing of this, fanoymg Wir Abii Tarab to be 1'u Khan, suddenly issued out from the forest with bis foroos and attained Mir Abii Turab horn Uw reai. Altho igh tho latter with a, loud voice announced his name, Sitaiarn, not heeding it, indicted wounds en Abu Turab with ba liboo dubs and felled bim from his

" When this uewa Icached Nawab Jatai Klian, hie body trembled fiom fear of the Emperor's resentment. Appointing Uaaott All Khan, who bad m i m e d Jafar Khan's wife's sister and was descended from a noble family, to be Favjdar of JBbushua, and supporting bun with an efbaeiit foice, Nawab Jaftir Khan directed bim to capture that tioublesome villain (Sitaram). The Nawab ia=uod raauJates to tba ziimridars ot the environs insisting on their not snffeung Sitaram to esrapo aoroBs (heir frontiers, and ala, threatening tlmt, should the fatter efteot bis esca >e across the fiontiera of auy one, ha would cot only be ousted from his zamindan but ba punished. The zamludais ^ j U l j ^ h M M a e d J i i m ^ j i f h e n ^ a , , A.U KLaua inved and

HISTORY, 35

captured BitarSm together with hia women, children, confederates and adherents, nnd sent them with chains round tiieir necks and hands to Nawab Jafar Khan. The Nawab, enclosing Sitaram's face in cow-hide, had him dmwn to the gallows in the eastern suburbs of Ifuraludabiid on the highway leading to Jahanglrnogar aud Mahmiidabad, and imprisoned for life Sitaram's women and children and companions. Bestowing his muilndan on Iiimjiban, the Nawab confiscated to the State Sitaram's treasures and effeots, and extirpating hie family, root and branch, be Bent an account of the affair to the Emparor."*

Silarani was captured and executed io 1719. His children and six women of his family took refuge in Calouttn, where their presence was unsuspected by the English until a peremptory demand for their surrender came from the Governor of Hooghly. This message caused much alarm to the English, who had a search made and at last discovered that Sitaram's family had been con­cealed by their own pattc&ri, who "by concealing and harbouring them endangered vast prejudice to our affairs, in Bengal, for the Diwan Jifar Khan seelts all occasions possible to embroil all European traders." The fugitives were then promptly made over to a guard sent hy the Governor of Hooghly (March 1713).+

After the fall of Kitaram Rai, the diatriet was almost entirely I»TBBB*I divided among three grant zamindaris. The Raja of Jessore, *EU"*"" known as the Ghanchra Raja, held oil the south; the Raja.of NaldSnga held the aaniindSri of Mabmudshahi to the north ; and the Rajs of Natsr held the third zamindari of Blmshna, which included pargam Naldi in the north and also the present district of Farldpur: tho first Raja, of Nator to acquire the latter tract was apparently Bam]]ban Rai, who, as already stated, wasgWeu a grant of Srtaram Rai'a zamindari. These three Rajas collected the revenue of the tracts within their jurisdiction and made them oyer to the Mughal authorities. They were a tmbulent and independent class, ready at any suitable opportunity to withhold payment of the revenue, and were only kept in oheei by the Fai^daf, Who had a amall force under him. So long, however, aa they ware regular in their payments, they were not interfered with, and within their own estates were all-powerful. An officer called the daroga appears to have been almost the ODly Government official in tho district who had anything to do withoivil administration. I t was hia duty to receive from the zaraindars the daeoits, robbers and murderers whom, they apprehended, and to try them. He might also receive complaints, but his

* Mgaiv-3-Suiatin (traiisl.itltio 1901), pv, 265-67. t C. II. WIISOB, Early Amali of tJte English in Bengal, Vol. I I , pp. 160-G8

1»2

3 6 JEESOKE,

judicial authority was limited, for, except in petty cases, ha had to submit Ms proceedings to the Naib Nawab for orders. Neither in theory nor in practice had be any authority to supervise the proceedings of the zamludara, with whom lay prsotioaJy the whole administration of the country. They paid a certain sum by way of excise revenue, and managed excise within the limits of their estates exactly as they pleased. They also handed over to Government a certain nam as duties on internal trade, and Were allowed in turn to make almost any esaotfons they pleased from traders. The duties of polios were in their hands, and they or their subordinates had also a good deal to do with the adjudicature of petty disputes, whether criminal or oivil.

The generalresulfc of this system has been graphically describod by Sir James Westlond. " Almostall the functions of administra­tion were heaped upon t i e namindara, and they might do as they pleased so long as they discharged their revenue. Supervision was a mere name, and the consequences may be easily imagined. The zaraindfirs followed the example of Government and transferred the task of administration to subordinates selected b y themselves, not with reference to their ability or upnghtness, be t solely with reference to their readiness to secure Iheir masters interests. The people were oppressed that the zamjudar might have his rent, and they were plundered in order that the aamfudar'a servants might leocme rich. Ths aamindars, who performed all their polios duties on contract, kept up the most wretchedly inefficient establishments for the purpose, and daooits and robbers plied their profession with vigour, fiuding little hindrance from the police, and often in league with them, and even with the zamindar himself or his higher offloers. Complaint against wrong was useless; the zamindar or his ofEoer had ifc entirely in his own option whether he woidd listen to it or n o t ; and the complainant had very little chance of relief, for the oppressor was often the zamlndar's servant, and the plunderer, even if they took the trouble to trace him, would not find it difficult to make friends with his captors."*

Etxuc Ths dito&ni, i.e., the revenue or fiscal administration of Bengal*

BBIJISH w a e transferred to the East India Company in 1765 ; but for some TBirjoif.tyears the administration was carried on through native agency,

and the British did not assume direct government unfil 17811 when a court was opened at Murli near the town of Jessore. Tae

# J . W^tlEind, 2&ppi t on ths District of Jessore, 1B74, f I'llis account of enjlj Bj'Ltmii Administration hue bean compiled final Srf

Jajaaa WestboA'" Report en the Sittnet efJessert.

HISTORY. 37

jurisdiction of the Adtilal, as this court was called, extended over the present diatriots cE Khulna, Jessore and JTaridpttr, and the first Judge and Magistrate was Mr. Tilman Henokell, whose admioi si ration had a hating effeot upon the district. " H i s acquaintance," writes Sir James Westlaud, " with every sahjeet affecting his district was most intimate; and no wrong was too J emote for his energy to grapple with, no advantage too distant for him to strive after. The idea of his administration was that it was the duty of Government to procure the peace and comfort of the mass of the inhabitants, though it might involve some harm in respect of the Company's commercial interests. These Views were a little too advanced for his age, for there was then too great an inclination on the part of Government officials to look upon the natives as born only to be a means of profit to the Com­pany. Mr. Henokell was never unmindful of his employers' mercantile interests, but he always set this before him as his doty—to guard the then almost helpless natives from the oppres­sions to whioh they were subjected by She eommsicial officers of the Company as well as by their own z&nundars."

Mr. Henokell was succeeded in 1789 by Mr. Kcoke, who carried out tlie Permanent Settlement in this district. He apparently began his service in Jessore in 1781 as Registrar under Mr. Henokell, and when he succeeded him in his office, he continued his policy. " I n t a c t , " writes Sir James Weafcland, "the fruita of Mr. HanckelFs administration are for a long time visible in the history of the district; and it is certain that its early records derive great interest from the faot that it was two anch men as Henckell and Rocke, who weie at the head of affairs during the time which intervened between its first establish­ment in 1781 and the completion of Lord Cornwallis' reforms, whioh by 1793 had changed the first crude attempts ut district government for a system substantially the same as that which ever since has prevailed."

The first duty to which Mr. Henckell set himself was the p0]iee

reform oi the police. In tlie early days of British rule the a^ini* Faujdars had been reduced to the position of superior officers of police, with thanadars in charge of smaller areaa under them. There were altogether four thanas in tho district as then consti­tuted, via., Bhuahna, Mirzaoagsr, Dhftimapur and Nogbad (now Khulna). Subordinate to these thanas were several outposts or chaukis. The thana officers were paid, but the chankis were worked by means of goindat or informers, who received no salary and obtained their livelihood by seizing innocent persons and extorting money from them. This system did

38 JEBSOILE.

not work well The F«uj<iArs oppressed the people, their

y i r i n WBre i u " ^ ' o n with criminals, and when Mr, Jianckell joined the district, there were bands of robbers 60 strong roaming about it. On his appointment, the FaydAr* were abolished and their functions t rans i ted to Mr. Henckell, who proponed to stution at each of the four thaoas a girdatear or head police officer, wkse badness it would be to apprehend dawala and forward them for trial to MurK. Their subordinates were not to be informers, but imported sepoys, as local harltan-dazes were apt to collude with offender. His police wfre to posee^more of a military than of a defective diameter, for the objKrtm view was not the prosecution of minor offences, but the checking of great ones, such aa daeoity and murder. When a daooityoccurcecl, the investigation consisted chiefly in following up the daooits tu their homes; and as the police lelied rather upon their strength than upon the secrecy of their proceedings, this was simply a ?™si-nrilitary expedition. When the pursc^g detachment reached the lair of the gang, the zamindar through his servants was expected, and usually compelled by pressure to deliver up the men.

This system of police, which cost perhaps lis. 800 or Bs. 850 a month, proved too expensive for the commercial ideas of the Government, which in J782 ordered the entire abolition at &6

police establish men t, except the. force at Murli. Tha d u t i < * of the police were transferred to the eamindars, who were diiecte to take effectual measures that no robberies, burglaries or mur­ders were committed within thtir elates. They were [ 0 ° their utmost to bring all offenders to justice; they »'Bre

to establish thanaa wherever the Magistrate should direct, to appoint <>flbei8 for them, and to be answerable for their gooc

oonduct. Persona suffering from robbery were to he reimburse for their losses by the aamicdar of the lands within whichit '« robbery was committed; and if any aaniindar commits connived at murder, or robbery, or other breach oi peace, he uaa liable to a death sentence. This system y which the zaralndars bore the burden of the polioo est»blw&-nieut, continued inforce from 1?82 until 1791 or 1792, when Lord Cornwallis reformed the administration.

The records show dearly how great was the necessity Oj * n

efficient polioe fystem. In 1781, a ao ted dacoit or robber chie, after numerous mirages, in which he was screened by t»e

landholder, was at length captured by Mr. Hendcell. T h e

latter had to apply fOT 'the quick despatch.' of a g&w-'d of f W SBpoysto keep the jail against a large hand, which had determinea

HISTORY. 39

to rescue the prisoner. In 1783, a body of rohbera, about 3,000 in number, attacked an escort conveying treasure fi.om Bhuslma, ii urdeied some of the escort, and succeeded ia carrying off the tieasuie None ol iheae iobbers were caplured. In 17^4, Kali Sanlar, tbe head of tlie Nnrail fumily, was reported by Mr. Honckell to have been a " diicoit and a notorioue diafcurbei of tus peaco" On one oeciaion, Mi Hencfcell sent a paTty of sepoys to captme him ; but Kali S^iikiir, having l,5u0 of bis followers at Narail, fought with the sepojs for tlnee boars and defeated tln.m

As Jjdge, Mi. Henckell dealt with UYII ea-es; as Magistrate, Admuna. be was merely the head of the polic?, mid had DO independent *J*"™ of

judicial poweis All that he could do was to icceiva cases from Ilia johce subord I atea and send them, if he thought 6t, for (rial before tlie Datoga, tin offlcei entirely suboidmate to the Aaaim In 178o thoGrovemment emDowernd Magiatiates to hear petty ca,-es of aseault, abuse and pilfering, and t j iutlict punish­ments nut exceeding, four days' lm prison men t oi 15 stripes. Bo^ond thi«, there wrs DO interference with the authority of the UdrogS imfcil the establishment of Lord Cornwallis' system. The pun idimeiils awaided by tbe Bar y&s were death, lmpuaonraent, stripes or the lcs3 of a limb The accused was often sentenced to perpetual imprisonment , frequently also the period was not specified at all, the prisoner being confined till he made roparaton foi the injury he hud inflicted or found security for good oouduot. When the British Government assumed charge of the jails in 1792, it was found that out of 300 prisoners in the Jessoie Jail, there were 108 coses in which tbe imprisonment was of this unlimited natuie

The ajsteni ot revenue administration will be discussed m KOTCQUO

Chaptei X, and it will suffice to menuoa that a Colleetoiate waaminimis, established at Jessore in 1786 Bitheito the levenuo he ad-quarters t'otwu, of all but the eact of tbe distno had been at Calcutta, but Mr. Henokell, pointing out the inconvenience of thia ariangement, offered himself to nndntake the duties oE Collector without addi­tional salary, " actuated," as he said, " by nutives of public good, nal the enhancement of his own credit and reputation " The Gcvernment readily accepted his offer and cicated a Oollec-torsbip foi Jessore; it was to compiiao Yuaupui (Isafpur) and Sfiiyadpur (wlkti bad appau-ntly been undei tbe Collector of Rojshahi and Bhushnaj, the estates lying between the Ichhamati and thepie£ei.t Paekeigunge district (theii part of Dacca), which had previously been pajing levenue at Calcutta and at Hooghly, and also some ehiaiee detailed horn Muchidabad. To enforce t i e

40 JEBSORfi.

Coru-wallis' reforms

INDIGO

31IOT3.

u 'h lh^r ? ^ Seethe Collector had power to

Slnlr«T 1 |H , , I , a d a d r f a i , l t 8 , ' , i« a i n ^ recusants S o t t X ^ i 8 n d H e m i > h t <*" attach and realize 1WS w t , S ? « " ^ "*•*•• T h i f l V * ™ - ^ n u e d until

bate did all wth, L • f*^8 Wfl9 abolished, and the Magia-

«™rt, and a n u m W . r , M S a a m i BS t h e ^ ^ e r i m m a I

over the d.striot In n P ? ™ a t a f i ° L B WCTe established all was naturally ^ ^ ' * d m i n i ^ i ™ of civil justice there or.minal justice Tl, r * ' ' ^ m t h e admioisfcration of

«Wge of the Judge b « t T T ^ M b e f ° r e n n d " * * m the district. ^Unsifs n o w a p p e a r f o r t h e fiwt t i r n e

-cJt"hbS^;:s f? 8? 0e * f o t * • » - — f n l

by Biropen, appeg

arfl ^ h l * T h e 1 B t t E u f ^ a r e of indigo « early aa i/yg, ^ 1 ^ / M t e d in J e™ a t Ieast

covenant with fhe Court t n- " a f r e a merchant under Rupdia and wanted to oufL , " 0 o t o r 8 " ^eoted a factory at In the beginning of ]?96 a M . a t A , l n a 8 " . '>•> NawapRA start indigo worts in Mflli^r^ i!if'- *'uft Stained permission to « mentioned aB havi™^ £ ! 8 n d b 1 8 0 0 a M r - T a 5 ' l o r

great rivor. I u igQl r> A ? ° f B c t o r ! e 3 '& the direction of the worka at Birandi and N i l ^ • / ! " ? ' t h a C i , , i l Surgeon, erected DauUrpnr. After this an r ™D<»bs of Jessoie) and at come in, and j Q l 8 n T J * " 0 " 1 ™ 1 8 f o r new ]„ ,& continued to w ^ m i i g o faotorie9 i v 1 T ieaorih^ ™ being crowded Wnsiderable landed nm t ' m °° U r a e o f t i m e - a t , 1 u i r e d

important position V " ! ""* g a i n e d f o r t^mselves an «on«n,8( w h 0 E e ' "? ^ " ^ became dotted with large • ' f t Phonal S a P Z S f l t o ^ ' n l M » * - 6 * . - I d give but -t>™ servant,. ^ ^ 1 r « * , and had to leave it to

^ ^ t * often i i X T 8 * ' 8 4 thG m l t™ t a»! ft,ld

S l j t V h e i r «w» VlbBZ°0m^^ ^ ^ tha latter T * factori<*- 7 h t t e r f e e 1 ^ w«. o r d e r e d -^or some vearo ^. •

Possible, ^ 4 g ^ S 1 1 . 63penditur9 was reduced make the

BISTOItY, 41

oultivatorfl disoontentfld. The construction of the Eastern Bengal Railway through Nudia led to a sudden rise in the pries of labour about this time, with which the planters failed to keep pace. Moreover, tbe ryoJs were in a state of chronic in­debtedness to the factories for advances, which were carried on in the books from father to son, and were a source of hereditary irritation against the planters, whenever a bad season forced them to put pressure upon the cultivators lo pay up. A great increase had also taken place in the value of agricultural produce, which led to a keener demand for land ; the cultivation of cereals and oil-seeds now paid the husbandman better than infligo, and so intensified the feeling against it. The discontent of the ryots was fanned by interested agitators, acid i false rumour was spread that Government was opposed to the cultivation. At last, the ryots refused to grow indigo.

As a temporary expedient, an Act was passed in March I860 to enforce the fulfilment of agreements to cultivate indigo and to provide for the appointment of a Commission to enquire into and report on the system and praotioe of cultivation and the relations between tha planters, ryots and landlords. The Com­mission submitted its report in August I860, aDd the conclusion arrived at by the Lieutenant-Governor Sir J, P . Gract, with whom the Government of India agreed, was that the cause of the evils in the system of indigo cultivation in Lower Bengal was to be found in the fact that the manufacturer required the ryot to furnish the plant for a payment not nearly equal to the cost of its production ; and that it was to the system, whioh W»B of very long standing, more than to the planters themselves, that blame attached. The only remedy recommended by the Committee which it was in tbe power of Government to apply, was a good and effective administration of the law aa it stood. Accordingly, new subdivisions were created; measures were adopted for the introduction of an improved system of police ; and Small Cause Courts under Act X L I I of l8t>0 were established at the most important places in tbe indigo districts. The minute of the Lieutenant-Governor was not drawn up till tha 17th December 1860, and the Government of India did not express their views on it till tbe 27th. February 18G1. In the meantime, the rela­tions of. the planters and ij'ota bad become more strained.

Accordingly, towards the end of September 1860, the Govern­ment of India authorized the issue oE a notification to disabuse the minds of the ryots of their erroneous impression that Government wag opposed to the cultivation of indigo ; to convey an assurance to them that their position would not be made worse than it was,

12 jfcSSOfcfi.

and tliat, in regard to future arrangements, their right to tree . action m cultivating indigo would lie respected; to warn all

parties against having recourse to v-oleot or unlawful proceed­ings, and to announce the intention of Government not to re-snnct the temporary Apt foi the aiimmary enforcement oE contracts for the cultivation of indigo

In October 1850, when, this Act ceased to be in operation, the state of aflaiiH was ontical. Lord Canning, indeed, wrote • —'' I assure yon that for about a weok it caused me more anxioty than I have had aiaoe the days of Delhi, anil from that day I felt that a allot fired in anger or fear by one foolish planter might put every factory in Lower Bengal in flames " The intensity of the feeling flioused among the ryota may be gathered from the experience of t.he Lieutenant-Governor when he passed dawn the Kumar and Kaligiinga, livers in Nadia and Jessore and through part of lJabua "Numerous crowds oi ryota," he wrote, " appeared at various places, whose whole prajer was for an order of Government that they should not cul­tivate indigo On my return, a few days afterwards along the Bitma two meis , from dawn to dviak, sia I steamed along these two rivers for some GO or 70 imle->, both banks were literally lined-witn crowds of villagers, claiming justice m this matter I do not know that it over fell to the lot of any Indian officer to steam for 14 hours through a continued double sheet of suppliants for justice ; all wer& moat respectful and orderly, but also were plainly in earnest. I t would bo folly to Bupposo that such a dis­play on the part of tens of thousands of paople, men, women and children, has no deep meaning The organization aud capacity for combined and simultaneous action m (ha cause, which this remarkable demonstration over BO large an extent of country pioved, are subjects worthy of much consul ration."

Eepcits tbat the ryots would prevent l i e Octolei sowings led Government to strengthen the military police in the Jndigo districts f o send two gun boats to the rivers of Nadia and Jessore and Native Infantry to the head-quarfceis stations of those two districts. Subsequently,in. the spring o£ 1861, the planteis com­plained of difficulty in lealiaing their rents, of barag forcibly dispossessed of their mj&had lands, and of danger to their own liven and those ot their servants. Toe difficulty as (o teats being apparent, extra officials were appointed wheie lequired, and Messrs 0. P . Montresor and G. G. Morris of the Civil Seivice were appointed special Commissioners to settle the rent difficulty, the foimer for the Nadia district, Ui« latter lor Jessore, Pabna and Paiidpui. Meanwhile, the planters were assisted by a pioteetive

SlKlOftY. 4b

foice and extra courts ; and periods of grace were allowed, to one or two of those who were zaraiiidara, fur tha payment of land revenue. Thpre wore a few eases of seiious outmge and affrays amended with loss of life, e y., at t i e village of Shastpubii in the Jheuida subdivision six of the villagers were killed and wounded.

Before the sowing Benson commenced, the new arrangement for establishing new subdivision^ in the Division hud been com* V't-ted, and a mnglsteriul oiioer was appointed to each. Extra Deputy Magistrates were also posted wherever their services were requited, and detachments oE Native Infantry, of the strength of 200 men each. Wtie placed at the Sudor stations of Nadia and Jessore. l*lie IT egi?( rates were alto authorized to entertain extra bodies of police wherever they might Hud it necessary to do so, and were directs 1 to keep there in readiness in compact bodies of not less than 2-5 men lor rapid movement na requited. 'J beso measuies proved effectual, and tilings Boon quieted down; but a fatal blow bal been deult to indigo cultivation in the district, from wbioh it never altogether recovered. Cultivation gradually decreased until 1890, when, on account of further iiisturbanees, a board of aibitration was formed consisting of Mr. Alexander Smith, Comnrishioner, Mr. Charles Tweedia of the forahati concern and Habu Jailunath Maaumdar, pleader. Tnia board raised the priee of indigo plants 50 per cent., which deprived the planters of all margin of profit.

Jes6oro has undergoes a long series of changes "with regard to AMIISIS-its nrea, almost fiom the data of its establishment as a separate ' " g 1 ^ , district. When ErBt constituted, the magisterial jurisdiction extended over the present districts of Jessore, Faridpur and Khulna. 'I'he Coilecturship, as established in 1786, did not include within its 6 sou I jurisdiction Mahmudshahi, Jihushna, in which lay the Naldi pargttaa, or Faridpur. I n 1789 Bangaon was the boundary of Nadia, and BfiUBhna and Shalwjial wero both under the Collector of Rajshahi. In 1787, these last maatimied tracts wera excluded from the magisterial jurisdiction ; and as Mahniiidahahi was at the Barne time added to the Collectorate, the two jurisdictions became all but identical extending over the present district of Jesaoie (except Naldi and Shaliujial) and the district of Khulna. In 1793, Bhushna waB added to the distiict, which then marched with Marsbidabad on the north-west ; but shortly afterwards Nawapara and Kuehtia were transferred from that district to Jesaore, while pargma Jaoflia, just AQulh oi these, wus transferred from Je&soru to Nadia,

44 JESSORE.

l a the beginning of 1794 there was a rectification of boun­daries between Jessore, the 24-Parganas, Nadia, MursMdabad, Raj'shihi and Dacca. The chief reBult, so far as Jessore was concerned, was the transfer to Nadia of the tract through which the Bangaon-Jessoro road runs, so that Jliingergaohha now became the boundary of Jassore in that direction. Jessore still retained the lands further south, lying between the Ichhamati and the Kabudak rivers. On tlie north, the district ran up to the Ganges, including that part of Mahmudsbabi which now lies witbin'.tbe Pabna. district, and also including the whole ov nearly the whole of the Faridpm dislriet. In 1811 the tract east of the Mudhumati was transferred to Faridpur, whioh was then subordinate to Dacca but was soon afterwards created a separate district, and in. 1S34 some pai'yanas were transferred to Barasat in the 24-Part! an as. In 1860-61, as a result of the indigo troubles, separate subdivisions were created with headquarters at Khulna, Jbenida, Mag-urfi, NaraiL and Jessore ; and in 1863 thera was a forthnr readjustment of boundaries, by which the land to the south between the Kabadak and Ichhamati was transferred to the 24-FarganaB. i t the same time, the Madhn-mati, or its eastern channel whore it divided into two, was recognised as the boundary to thfl cast, north-east and north, and the Kabadak as the western boundary with the exception of a small tract to the west of it in the Gadkhali (now the Jhinger-g5 oh ha) than a. In 1882 the subdivisions of Khulna and Bagberhat were separated from Jess ore and formed into the district o( Ehnlua with the Satkhira subdivision of the 24-Parganas; while in 1883 the Dangaon subdivision of Nadia was added to tbis district.

Tlie headquarters of Jessore were at first at Murli, two miles from the present station. "When Mr. Henckelf came there, he found one house, " t h e factory", belonging apparently to the British Government. He repaired and extended this house, and afterwards built a outeherry for the civil and criminal courts, another for the Collector, a registrar's residence and office, a record room and a small treasury. -A short time after Mr. Rooke became Collector, i,e., about 1790, the head-quarters were transferred from Murli to their present locality, then known Eta Sahibganj or simply Kasha, i.e., the town.

THE PEOPLE. 45

CHAPTER I I I ,

Tftk PEOPLE.

T H E population of the district as recorded at each oenaus is shown ^ ^ J . 1373-1,46I,5DI, in the margin, from which it will be seen HTJOK. ito'Ci'sBs'slT that the only census showing an intue-ase 1801—i',8i3*i55" was that of 1881. This apparent increase,

— ' '"G4" however, was probably caused by incomplete enumeration at the preceding census In 1891 there was a decline of 2 6 per cunt., and this was followed by a further decrease of 4 per cent in 1901, and of 3 per cent, in 1911. Thia decadence has therefore continued for 20 years, representing a loss of 181,111, and the reasons for it are patent, for Jessore is a land of. moribund rivers and obstructed drainage, The hanks of the rivera are higher than the country behind thorn, and depressions are thus formed between the main water-courses. The drainage of these depressions, always difficult, has BOW become almost impossible owing to the silting up ol the mouths of the rivers and diflinoge channels. Stagnant swamps are formed, while good drinking water is scarce, and the home­steads are enveloped in jungle. The district baa long been notoriously unhealthy, and Eevor is silently and relentlessly at work, destroying many and sapping the vitality of the survivors and reducing tbeii feoundity. In the nine years ending in lt)00 the numbei of deaths returned exceeded the births by no less than 70,934, and at the census held nest year the south-eastern cor­ner was the only tract which showed even a nominal improve­ment. The loss of population was greatest in the country running •weat and south-west from the Mnhammadpur thana on the eastern boundary, which possesses the evil reputation of having been the matrix both of epidemic cholera anil ol " Burdwan fever,"

The unliealthioeBB of the district wn3 no leas conspicuous dm1- c«nw9ot

ing the decade 1901-1910, in which the total number of dea ths 1 0 1 1

exceeded the births by 70,000, whila the death-rate was above the birth-rate m a l l but three yeais (1901, 1909 and 1910), The census of 1911 disclosed a decline of population in all the subdivisions except Narail The decrease was greatest in Jhenida

46 JBBBORE.

6 13 per cent.), where if is due to the prevabnoe nf malarial fever. In the heud-q'tart era subdivision it amounts I to 3 82 pec reut,wbilo il wiia slightly greater in Magma (f\2 per oer±t), and very nearly as great in Biug^oii ('J 21 per cent.). The uoly subdivision which showman sdvancit 13 NatSil in tlie south-east where there was a slight increase of 2 54 per cent.

The follow lug (able givei the salient statistics of this census*—

T L I I « A

1

KiDAlt bUDDi'SIBlOTI

JessorA Uanuaii pur ha*.luihpui . niinnrrxl lilis Ks^i rrrKiiC •-

Total

ISsB*10I 60ID1T1SDB. Rnrttnon . *• VHI chlipur *, . . Jirpa

Oiiilnlft

Total

jHRHII ' i BUBIIIVIBIOM

'jnlkUpl UnhRiini 1 benign llolillSnilpi i

Tutnl .,

MlBUni St'B J1T1BIOH

Uigur* lluhnmil'ailpur SS1IIS ..

r«tai

If A1MII &IB||1\ [BlOIf

KnrkoliR „ ] ahav irk l a n i l l »

DjilHTCt TOTAL

Arm in Fqimre nlUa

1

!IU 1>7 i n ;

713

22s IUO 1811

1 6

IS!

Si

me

KM 1J3

10

Mi .

M I 111 IS.'

« T

2.M5

^UfJDHIt OF —

Towns Inhabit­

ed m min i .

3 | 4

l

1

I

1

1

1

— L -

s

310 W l i t i n 1S5

1101

"a im 13

ins

1.01

B76 Sit

T4

E31

181

Wl SI 3 2!rt

M

%)B8

(ipiilalum

B

la. nss 7a,V>7 7iiH2<] no in J

4f.2.3iJa

mi nc vim rsb&s

and iisi

M U M 71 301 as.i s ss aim

Sli'515

143 "IB

mm ana uss

180,1411

i n SB i SflO 406

1 758 2(14

I'KTlCfcSTT AGR DP T i n i A . HON

100 L In

1311.

e

- SCO - 4-3=] - IMO + 0 4.1

S41

- 3 8a

- J 14 - a 37 + 071 - 380

- 3-ST

- 0 80 - 1 1 211 - 7*71 - i l ia

- B13

- 1-81! + IC2B

- na

+ 5 111 + 7 lo - a 7i

+ B'54

- 3 51

]) rml^

mile

7

Clfi Ifi3 TIT «57 170

(JIB

ii J

r s

737 WIS Ml 66S

Ml 447

696

KII7

543

r 740

1*1

TBB TEOrLB. 4 7

The average density of population is greatest in the east, Dgssiti where the soil is most fertile and still receives occasional deposits of silt, and lenat in the Rangaou subdivision in the west, Tha low density in the latter tract is due partly to the silting up of the rivers, which boa deprived the country of the silt it used to receive, ond partly to long; continued unhealthmess. The most densely populated thana is Barkalia in the NarSil subdivision with 897 persona to the square mile, and ihe mosi sparsely peopled is Gaighata, which supports only 447 persons per square mile.

The volume of migration is small and Jassom is afisoted H&SA-hy the mteimovennmt of the people to a very alight extent,TI0N* Emigration to Khulna is most proaounoed, many of the culti­vators leaving their homes to seek their fortunes in the ' Sundarbans, where laud is olieap and the population is sparse. Every year alsolabomers emigrate temporarily to the neighbour­ing districts of Khulna, Farjdpnr, and Bockergtinge in search of labour, especially in the Cold weather. Both cultivators and labourers similarly go to the Suadarbans for the paddy harvests* returning after a few montlia with boa Is laden with the paddy they receive as wagea; Namasudras from Magura also go there for the collection of fuel, wood and poets for their houses, Naluas from Magura for :ial reeds, and fishermen from Narait for fishing, Most of the immigrants come from the npighhouring districts and generally only make short visits in search of employment The number of immigrantB from upcountry isiiisigLifieant, and most of them do not settle down for long, but return to their homes after a period of service in this district, OE the other immigrants the most noticeable are thi) Marw&ris, who have become senunatura-lized and have settled pBr-nianently in the distiiot.

There are three towns, viz., Jeesore (population 8,9U), Kot - T o w [ l s

ehandpur (8,076), and Maheshpitr (4,211), but they aie all small yiLL'aBs. end altogether they contain only 91,198 inhabitants or 1 per cent, of the total population. The ipmamder of the inhabitants of the district are oolleoted in 3,758 mauzas, moat of which are small, for 87 per cent of the rural population live in mauzas with Uas than 500 inhabitants, and 54 per cent, in mauzas containing 500 to 2,000 persona,

Th<' language of (lie district is Bengali, the dialect apobn Lisao-being that classified by Dr. Grierson as East-Central Bengali10*-because it terms a connecting link between Eflaterc Bengali, aa spoken in Dacca and Backergucge, and the standard dialect of Central Bengal, Eastern "Bengali exhibits \\ ell-marked peculia­rities of pronunciation, e.g., a, cockuej-like hatred, of pre-existing aspirates and, in addition, the regular substitution of an aspirate

48 JBBSOBB.

for a sibilant. White Standard Bengali ia unable to pronounce 'sibbolefch" except as "shibboleth," Eastern Eengali avoida the aonnd of ih and has "hibboleth." Speakera of the latter dialect also oannofc pronounce the letters eft, chh aud i , but substitute £s for the first, s for the second Hcd $ for the third. In Jessore, however, s ia not pronounced aa h, e.g., the people call a make dap and not hdup; eh ia not pronounced h or s, e.g., they say htiJctir (for chtiknr, a servant), not (sdfcnr; and h ia not dropped, e.g., they say Anifa, lie became, not 'aila. The only real mart of an Eastern Bengali pronunciation is in the letter chh, which ia pro­nounced as s, and /,'which is pronounced as B, Thus wehave Hcli/ie, he is, prooounoed Sis, and j'an, a person, is pronounced son. On the other hnnd, allowing for contractions, the grammar is practically the same as that of Central Bengali. The letter a ia pronounced as in " this," not like the sh in " Bhell "j and there is a tendency, as in Western Bengali, for the third singular past to ead in o in the case of intransitive and in e in the case of transitive verhs, e.g., thtiklo, ha remained, and vthfa he arose, but kah, he said, and 4eh, he gave. The habitual past, as usual, is treated as if the verb was intxanei&Ye, «-<?., khafa, they useA to eat.*

flaw. Muhammadans, to the number of 1,087,554, account for 62 per

OIOHS. WD^ 0f t ie population: aa in other districts of the Presidency ""ita™" Division, there is a somewhat striking disproportion of the sexes,

Musaloiaa males numbering 563,257, while the females numbei 534,297.

The marginal statement shows the classes roost strongly represented among them. Tlie Jolahaa are

Shaikh „. SiS,m ^eeu-o^e 0f being known as Sheiks or Sheikh-i ^ S '" i ^ I S Momins, Jolaba being colloquially used Benira ... 17,631 m a E opprobrious sense denoting stupidity.

Ajlaf is the designation of those lower class Musalmans, often converts or their descendants, who do not belong to any of the recognised laeiul groups, snob as Mughal and Pathan, or functional groups, such as DhuniS.

Chltiai There is & peculiar class of Muhammad a DB called GhakW Masai- MusalmSns from the fact that they dwell in and round the village

o( Ch&bla. situated ia thana Maciiampur on Die left t ank of the Kahftdck. A J R F jaila* ussrit #$ Jft&twJB>vnj Alv? -WfiJ* windB and turns to such an extent that Ohakla ia surrounded by it on three sides (east, south and west), while oa its north lies a kkii called Jhacpur Ehal . In this village, ns well as in the neighbouring villages of Diara, Manouarpur, Khurd-Pakuriya,

• Lidgui»tic Survay of Iodin, Vol. V, Par t I , pages 201, 202, 279, 285,

mane.

THE PEOPLE. 49

Uludiinga, Salimpur, Dulaipur, etc., there are a number of Muhummadan families, who are practically ostraoissd by other Muhammadans. Their ongin is accounted for as. follows:—

" Ones upon a time, says tba tradition, there lived a certain family oE Muhnmrriadans m the village of Chakla. Their only offence—a serious offence, indeed, in the opinion of the Indians— was that they had sold fish whioh they had caught m their village benial a channel of innning water obsti noted by cons­tructing a handh (often of bamboo) for catching fish with haps <jr nets is called a bsndol. Whether these Ohakla men Bold the fish in the baaar, or lo fishermen that were passing by tlieir bandai, are matters not je t definitely settled. They, on their part, repudiate the assertion, and maintain that they weie never guilty of such an offence. Then own version of the tradition is that their neighbours, with whom they were at enmity, oon-trived to biicg them into disgrace. A number of fishermen, who weie secietly tutored by their enemies, on being questioned by the villagers whence they had got the fish, replied, " Oh, we bought them from so and so, who were catching fkh and sold them to UB." Those men who—truly or falsely—weie consideiadguilty oE selling fish by the villagers, were at onoe excommunicated."

Whatever may have been the cause, other Musalmans will not oat or drink with them, HOT smoke the same hookahor pipe. The exoommuuioatedmen,whoare called Chaklai Musalmans, whethei they live flt Chakla or not, live m complete isolation. They marry among themselves, and attend only then own tribal ziyafats or feasts. The community is described aa being \ery compact and shy of interfeience fiom outside*

The Chotabbagia Mucins are another small outeaste com- Ci.0u mumty They remove night-soil and have been oufcaated for bJ"S1<1

so doing they woiship Kah and Satya Narajan, and number about a hundred families in all.

The Hindus of the dishiot number 667,936 and account for iiindus, 38 per cent of the population The Namasudras are the most nnmeioua caBte, representing over 25 per cent of the total number of Hindus Oi the higher castes Biahmans and Ka>nstha are well represented, hut the only other oastes with a shength of over

25,000 are the Mucbis, Jlaibartlap, and Maloa, who do not rank high m the po<iol scale. The margiual table shows t h e

numerical strength of each of these caBtcs as recoided at the censuB of 1911,

" Abdul Wall, Origin »J 'fte CliaMai Jfiifofniaui, J A. S l i . , 1 c r t 111, 1S9D, lip. 61-62.

NnniMiiiirEis ,

Kfiyosfchs Mm-hia KnibarttiiB . , BrabmaiiB .. Milos

. 17(1,0118 60,409

m,m , a 162 , 3S.01S . 26 0JJ

SO JSSBOKE.

The Namasudras, or, as they were formerly called, the Cbandals, are not only the most numertruB Vnt nlao one of the most interesting castes in JeaBOto owiog (,o their independence and self-rdianae and their efforts to rise in the social scale As instances of this may he mentioned the re&olutiana passed at a general conference of NamaaCdraa held in 1908. Prom the published reports it appears that its objects were tho spread of education, the establishment of a. permnneDt fund and the removal of social evils. In pursuance of .those objects the following resolutions were pnssed:—" (1) That the Namasudra conference be made permaiieQt by yearly meetings to be held in different districts for the discussion oE social matters and thg spread of education. (3) That a village com­mittee be formed in every Namasudra village, and unions of lb such villages, and a district committee in every district;. (S) Thnfc for acquiring funds for a NtLmasuJin. contribution fund, villaga committees, unions and district committees be authorised to collect subscriptions. A. handful of rioe should be set apart. before meals in every tamily, and collected weekly by the village committee. Every member of village ooinmittee will pay a monthly subscription at one. anna, of uniona of two two annua, and of district committees four annas. Three per cent, of the expenses incurred in sradUhu. marriages arid other occasions must be reserved for this fund. (4) I h a t as some active measures should be adopted towards social reform, it is resolved, that any Namasudra marrying Lis sen under 20 or daughter under 10 will be esoomnmuieated.. The wmmkteea and unions must be especially earelul about strict compliance with this resolution."

lo 1V&9 the NamBeSdrss snd Uuhamm&dnas ol tha Narail Buhdivision made comtoon cause to improve their sooial position hy means of a practical protest against the low opiaion in which, they are held by higher caste Hindus. With this object they combined for some months not to work as menial sorvants in the houses of tho latter, or eat food ooofeed by them. In some parts of ibe Magura subdivision also the Namaaudraa infused to serve in the hauses of the higher olass Hindus or cultivate their lands. More recently there has been considerable bad ietling between, the Namasiidras and the MuhammadanB, which has culminated in eariouis riots over a coasideraUe area. While the Namasudras have become more self-respecting, they have become more self-assartive and the resultant friction between them and ot ter sections of the community has led to a, good deal of turbulence. In Jessoie and Khulua the NamaisSdias u o w 0 l a i m t o be Sudraa

THB PEOTIB. SI

of Brahman descent. Their ancestor, they say, was Kaayapa Muni ; they all balong to the Kasjopa gotra, and perform sd/ddh cere­monies after tan days, like Brahmans, and also like Chamara, the Baying being " Ohaiulal, Bi ahman, Mat hi, igarah iluie suc/u, and they use boiled rice for pwdas. Education is gradually spreading among them; by occupation they aie chiefly agriculturists. The following Account of them is extracted from Sir H H . Bisley's Tubes and Castes of Bengal —

" The derivation of the name Ohondal la uncertain, and it is a plausible conjecture that it may have been, like Sudra, the tribal name of one of the aboriginal races -whom the Aryans found in possession of the soil. Unlike the SEdiaa, however, the Chandals were debarred from entering even the outer circles of the Arynn system, and from the earliest times they are depicted by Sanskrit writers as an outcaste and helot people, performing menial duties for the Brahmans, and living on the outskirts of cities (anlsiasi) apart from the dwellings of the dominant raoe. Iron ornaments, dogs, and monkeys, are their chief wealth, and they clothe themselves in the raiment o£ the dead. Mann biands them as ' the lowest of mankind,' 'sprung from the illicit lntercour.-e of a SGdra man with a Brahman woman, whose touch defiles the pure and who have no auceatral ntas. In the Maliabharatn they are introduced as hired assassins, whose humanity, however revoltB against putting an innocent boy to death. In the Ramayana they are described as ill-formed and terrible in aspect, dressing in blue or yellow garments with a red cloth over the Bhouldeis, a bear's akin arround the loins, and non ornaments on the wrists Even the liberal minded Abtil 1'azl speaks of the Chandals of the sixteenth century as " vile wretches who eat carrion." At the present day the teim Chandal is throughout India used only m abuse, and is not acknowledged by any race or caste as its peculiar designation The Chimlala of Bengal invariably call themselves Namaaudia,* and witli oharaoteristia jealousy the higher divisions of the easts apply the name Chandal to the loner, who in their turn pass it on to the Dom

• Tba deiivatiott of this naum is uncertain. Di "WIEO tlimks it may lo from " tie Sanskrit JVamns, adoration, which, is always used no n iceitivo uliea praying, or tbc licEEali deviate, Mow, underneath" The latter suggestion aoems tha moie pUusibte The PmiJite' intoinreMiou, at t to £OTEICT IS nndei. stood to lie tlat the Chandul is bmiiulto do obeisance oven to a Sudra. It woM bo promotion for tbe Cboudala of Maim to get themselves loeo^niEeil UE & \onor

grade of SUCLHIB. The naaio may .Ueobe red nod to Nairmu m LOUIIIBU Mum, whom aouie Chmdals regard as thoir mjtliical aucoato] On t ie otboi buriiJ Namasn UHIII liimEdf maj bnvebeon evolved from tlie attempt to explain away ti>« suggestion of inferiority implied in t in name HiimB sudra.

ES

52 JESSOfiB.

"The legends of the CbondalB give no olue to their early history, and appear to have heen invented in recent tiroes with the object of glorifying the caste and establishing its claim to n recognised position in the Hindu system. I t may perhaps be inferred from the present geographical position of the Cbanflals that they came into contort with (he Aryans at a comparatively late period, when the caste system had already been fully developed and alien races weie regarded with peculiar detestation. This would account in some measure for the curious violence or the condemnation passed on. a. tribe in no way conspicuous tor qualities calculated to arouse the feeling of physical repulsion with which the early writers appear to regard the Chaudsls- 1 fc is possifala, cgain, that they may have offered a speoially stubborn resistance to the Aryan advance.

"Chandals are very parti on/ar as regards caste prejudices. They never allow a European to sl<uid or walk over their oookmg place on board' a boat, and if any one inadvertently doea so while the food is being prepared, it is at ones thiown away. They are also very scrupulous about bathing1

before meals, and about the cleanliness of their pots and pans. Still more, they take a pride in their boat, aLd tho tidy state in which they keep it contrasts foroibly with the appearance of one manned by Mukamniaiian boatmen.

"On the whole, Dr. Wise regards the Chaudal as "one of the inott lovable of Bengalis. He is a merry, careless fellow, Tery patient and hard-working, but always readyi when his work is done, to enjoy himself. Chandals are generally of very dark complexion, nearer black than brown, of short muscular Agues and deep, expanded chests. Few are handsome, but their dark sparkling ejes S Ed merry laugh make ample amends for their generally r h i u features. In the Si-Parganas many members of the caste are said to be of a noticeably fair complexion. When young, the Ohandal ia

•T-7 ^ ^ M S p e r a o n f l l aPPearauce, oiling, and arranging it m the most winsome fashion known. Many individuals among them are tall and muscular, famed as clubmen and rf W t^i D u T , n e t h e a n a « > M ^ t accompanied the downfall t i J a S"V/T". t h e rife™ of Bengal swarmed with river trade iZ •£ ' Z™ maAf> *»™IUMg unsafe and inland ^ Z ^ \ , n T a f ^ f l * the majority of these

X«ta.tta.. The E l * r J mhiwt o f t h e ^g l i s h Govemmant."

Marfta, S the1"3 S- r hw t h f t Q 3 ° ' 1 9 5 C l l S 8 i

the remainder consist of 4,124 Jaliya

THS tBOtLE. S3

Kaibarttas and 3,833 unspecified Kaibarttas, t e, persona who returned tharns elves ne simply Eaibarttaa, The Ohasi Kaibiirttas, whose occupation is agriculture, and who rank higher m the social sonic than the Jahy a Kaibarttas, whose occupation is fishing, ate alao known as Mahishya, thia being a designation recently adopted by them

A caste of fish-dealera culled Karal, which was not recorded Eamia. separately m 1901, and which was brought to notice by Mr. B. L Caauilhn, B A , B.SC. ( E d i n ) , i s finind in Jessoro I t is repoited that they have the same Brahmaus as those Nama-Budms who cuie and sell fish, and that aeoording to tradition they BniJ the Ohandals a/o brothers The following1 account of them is quoted from Sir. Chaudhn's paper on the subject* :—

" I n December of 190IJ, when touring in phoea remote horn railway oommmiieation, I found that in the eastern parts of the Jessora district the custom of salting, oi ratliei pickling, (As (hilsa) in brme, wna very muoh resorted to owing mainly to the want of adequate local demand for the fish in a fieah condition. In going into the details of different procesBea of salting I came to learn th« following lathei curious fact. All along the banks of the river Madhunmti, it appears that Malas and Tiara (the so-called Eajbausi Tiara), who aie the actual catchers of ih$ (hilaa) and immediate holdeis of the fisheries, do not salt or pickle fish, and are precluded by caste rules from picklmg of fish as a profes­sion. I t appealed alao that there was a quite dt«tiBot caste of Autyaja Hindus, who earned on the pickling and the Bailing of pickled fish. These people are designated Earals, and in then manneis, habits and religions observances are totally different from the fishermen, i e, the Mains and Tiars TTarals have separate Biahmins from Malas and l ia rs and they observe mddhm on the 12th day, whereas Malas and Tiars keep 30 days Earals do not drink wator touched by Tiars or Malas, nor would the Malas and Tiars drink water touched by the Karala. I t was ascertained that though not anmerous in any one place, they (the Iiarals) aie found well scatteied m the- liver districts of the two Provinces of Bengal, via, Jessoie, Kbulna, Darisal and Faddpnr ."

1'oere ifi one peotrliai olasa of Goaks in this district known as DBK> Daga Goalas, who brand cattle, castrate bullocks, etc. They aie,Q o a l l l s ' m fact, cow-doetoiB, who claim to hs expert veterinary Burgeons and whose stock-in-trade consists of a few iron instruments.

•Note on a. Caete of lisb dealers la Bepgal— J. A. 3, B„ Volume VI, «"• U , 1910.

64 JEBSOBE.

Branding' with a. red-hot iron, accompanied 'by incantations, appears to be their favourite method of treatment. Leaving their homes in November, they travel about Bengal during the winter months; their seivices are in considerable request, and in these few months a man can earn as much as Ba, 000.

K«im There are colonies of Kuliu Brahmnns at Lakshniipisa and at BnliimiDs, Kamalpur, five miles south of Jessore. of whom the following

account is quoted from Sir James Wostland'a Report on tke Dhtncl of Jcsnnm (lS7i). " LokshmTpasa is lemarkable as the habitation of a nnmW of the pure Kulin Biakiuans This place and its immediate liciuifcy, and Kamalpur, five miles south of Jessore, are the only places ia the district whore they reside, The peculiar features of lltiliatsm are less known than are the abuses af it, and I shall therefore state them very shortly here The Kulros tire ft caste of Brahmans who aie esteemed very snored, and are held in the highest honor. Their separation into a Bpecial oaste, endowed with these distinctions, they date from Balla! Set), the ancient king of Bengal, the remains of whose palace artf still to be seen near Nadii, and from Lakshnmn Sen, his son (about 1110A. DO- The preservation of their Kuliniem depends upon then strict ahstmeiice from intermairiage with other stocks and their strict adheience to the limitation os to intermarriage among themselves prescribed by the rules of their caste, One of these rules is that the two peieous marrying must be descended from the original stock by exactly the same number of generations. But there are many other rules, and the system of rules (wliich is called paijyd) is, 1 believe, attributed to LakshrQa,B Sen. 80 great i^ the practical restriction which they impose upon marriage, that to each person born thers sre only, m the whole world, a few persons with whom lie may marry.

" The genealogioal records are kept by the gMala, ond when any marriage tales place, it is entered in their books, and they define the persons with whom the offspring of the nmniage may intermarry, and to these they are absolutely oonfiued, if they would keep their caste. Of the persona 30 defined, Homo may not be born and -iome m^y die, hut the restriction, remains. A. father with a holf-a dozen, daughter may find, he has only one bride­groom foi all hie daughters, so they are all married off to him. P^-Jfap? E.sotUr hther has ouiy t i e same man &s s pmiUir bridegroom for his daughters too, so the man gets another batch ofw^ea. Little boys sometimes marry aged women, and little gn-lu aia married to aged men. There is no help for i t , they muet be married, and these are the only biidegrooina the rules allow. Many women find tberasulves without any possible

THB FEOPLE. 55

bridegrooms, and these are held in immense reverence, and are called daughters of the houses of Theka,

" Fathers compel a rigid adherence to all theae rules, for it is their honor that suffers by an infringement; hut there are many fathers who are not Kulits, and who would pay large sums to Kulin bridegiooms to obtain from them the honor involved in having their daughteis married to Kulins. There are several Kulins, therefore, who go abroad seeking foT snah fathers and obtaining from them considerable sums of money to marry their daughters. The father only cares to have his daughter so married, an 1 does not in the least insist upon hia Kulin son-in-law keeping or staying- with his new wife, and BO the Kulin loaves this place, and goes on to find another father with a sum of money and a daughter to spare,

" There are some Kulins at Lakshmipasa who have gone on these marrying tours and have returned to set up a trade with the money they have obtained as the price of their marriages to all therce wives. "When Kulins do this, their Kulinism is of conrse gone for ever and it is looked upon hy Knlintj as a scandalous. sort of proceeding thug to prostitute one's Kulinism for money. I t will be seen from the above that both the legitimate exeraiBe of Kulinism and its abuse operate in restraint of marriage. Women are married to Kulins and never see them again. Some cannot be marriedat all. Hardly any wife can possess a husband to herself or even a considerable share in one. The evils that follow from this state of things—the unchastity and ohild-murder that are prevalent—are acknowledged even by those who live according to the rules of Kulinism.

" The story of the immigration of Kulins into this place is as follows. A number of Kulin families lived at Sarmangal, near Khalin, in Baekergunge, and the Maghs who resided in that part of the country used to annoy these families excessirely by forcibly marrying their daughters to Knliti boys. One old man, Ramanand Cbakravarti, determined to save himself from this desecration and left the plane, intending to find a new residence on the banks of the Ganges. "When he passed this place, Ihe Mazumdara of Dhopadaha, a village 3 miles west oE Lakshmipasa, induced him to stay there and marrv one of their daughters, paying him for the honour hy giving "lim their jama rights in the village. He and his nine sons therefore remained in that village, and though their oaste was slightly blemished by this marriage, still, as the Maaumdars were of high caate, the Chakravaiti family did not lose their KuliEism. Prom that time to this is five generations,

S3 JiiSSOBB

and all the Kulins here derive their desoett from tbia R& in an and."

To this it should be added that Kulinism is not row HO common or so rigorous in its rules, that the practices referred to ore disappearing, and that the Kulins are becoming monogamous.

Kuiin Bagutia in the Narail subdivision and Jaugalbandh in the Knpatiia, fafa subdivision are tho two principal oentrps of the KulTu

Kayasths. Bsiifsafl. There arc two centres of Baidyas in this district viz., Kalla

in tho Narail subdivision and Atlmrkada in the Magura. subdivi­sion.. The Baidyas nra said to bave come here from Earh, i.e., the country uu the west of tho Bhigirathi, at n time when these villages were in the midst of a marshy tract, where they could take refuge against the Inroads of the Marathas. I t is possible, however, that they settled in the district at an earlier date, for Bsllal Sen ia sdd to hare distributed the Baidyas of his time into 27 s i t e s or communes, outside whioh no Baidya could reside without losing caste. Of the eleven prinoipal setll&ments thu9 formed, no less than eight were ia Jeaaote or Khulna, viz., Senhati, Ohandam-Mahal, Daspara, Pdg ram, Karoria, Shendia, Itna and Bhattapratap. The praotion of Sail wrm formerly common among tha Baidyas of this district, Mr. Ward writing in 1S11:—'' At Sonakhah in Jessore, which contains many families of this order, almost all the widows are burnt alive with the OTpaes of their husbands."*

OnBie- At the census of 1911 the number of persons returned as Christians was 1,272, of whom 1,220 were natives. These figures show an appreciable growth in the number o£ Christians Binoe-

• 1900, when the total was 912, of whom 867 weia native Chris­tians. The de nomination a most strongly represented are Baptists with 307 members and Roman Catholics with 903 members. Tha Baptist Missionary Society, the Londm Missionary Society and a Roman Catholic Mission are at work in the district. The Mission Inst named is under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Kristin an agar, and the Vioar General is stationed at Simulia ( P . O . Juingergaohha). At the latter place- is a church dedicated to our Lady of the Rosary built in 1884, and at Jessore is the Church, of the Sacred Heart built about 1860. At Sinrulia the mission maintains a dispensary, a homo for widows and oataehumenB, a boys' school, an orphanage and a girls' school,

JJBWH- At Jessore two monthly journals are published, the Hindu

IAPBBS. jpatrika and the Brahmanhan', of which the former is in Bengali

Tribe and CB3tcB ol JJarsal, Vol. I., p. 49.

MASS.

r

TfcE PEOPLE. 67

and the latter in English: both dml with religious and philosophi-eo,I topics. A •weekly Bengali paper, tfis Jeatore Pafrika, whioh deals with matters of local interest, is nlso published at Jesaore; another Bucguli weekly, cillsd the PaU&aHis, ia puMiEhed at Bangaon, and a third, called the Kalydni, at Magura.

The following are the places at whioh the principal fairs are P*ias. held:—

(I) Trimoliini in the Sadr subdivision, a name signifying shs meeting o£ three rnere, a Bpot alwayB held sacred by Hindus. The fair ia held in the middle ol Starch, and lasts three days There ia a tank in the Tillage, saered to Kali, the water of whioh ia reputed to have mir-iioulons lieolJug properties.

\2) BnlmmpuT in the Sadr subdivision. This fair ia also held in March and lasts three days.

(3) Bodhkpaua iu the Sadr subdivision: the fair ia held during the Dol Jatra.

(4) Mahesw&rkucd in the JhcLiida subdivision: the fair takes place in March iitid celebrates the Ba3ant Puja,

m JFSSORE,

CHAPTER IV.

PTJBLIO HEVLTtf-OWEBII. Tnp, dislriot has long been, notorious for uuhaalthinesa, and this ^ a " evil leputation U not undeserved, lis iusntabrity is due ferns ™ a' physical configuration and the operation <>E great natural changes.

The country is a flat alluvial plain intersected by several rivers debouching from the Ganges, and by numerous leaser ehaunels and khah, some of which aleo formerly branched off from the Ganges or from the larger rivera, but have now tost their connec­tions with the feeder streams, and have become merely channels for local drainage. In other w orda, tbey have oea&eii to he flowing stream*, and, to uaa a graphic native expression, have ' died.' The main rivers, such as the Garni or Madhnmati, the Naha-gauga. below M&gurs., and the poitiou c-E the GhitrS. ia the Narail subdivision, though they have degenerated considerably, still have clear, flowing streams, high banks, and a sandy bottom free from weeds. Other rivers, however, snchy tha Bhairah, and the upper portion of the Nahaganga, have practically no current for the greater part of the jpar; esoept in the rains, •when they iBttirA&vfi a languid vitality, these eo-edhKi rivers are merely tv chain of long stagnant pools overgrown -with weeds. In the south the lower reaehes of the rivers are affected by the tide.

After the rainy season a portion ol the country ia practi- _ cally under water, either from the overflowing of neighbouring rivers or from the local rainfall; many <tf the Tillagea are flooded and some even have to he evacuated, When the land dries up extensive UU are left, some of which retrain stagnant throughout the year, Borne, ol these bih are conASCt&d with the risers by khdiS) through which they receive ri?er water at the time of high floods; but in. many oases the Hh have lost theix oonnootion with the rivers, either owing to the silting up of the hhals or alterations in the course of the rivers.

The natural unhealtbiness of the diatriot ia aggravated by a general disregard of sanitary precautious- The homesteads are enclosed hy a maEB of trees and undergrowth; the drinking water is token not from wella hut irom open tanks, which are

PTJBUO KBAT.TH. 59

Bubjeot to pollution by surface drainage and are also used for wasbitig clothes and bathing.

The followiog account of village sanitotion is quoted from a VrciAoa Report on the Jessore District by Captain &. B. Stewart, I.M.S., **f,TA" and Lieutenant A. H. Proctor, I.M.S., published as an Appendix to tlia Report of the Drainage Committee, Presidency Division, 1907. "The majority of villages in the district consist of a. number of sep irate homesteads scattered over a large area, eaob homestead being oooupled by several members of the some family. The houses ore built of split bamboos raised on a mud plinth of varying height, and in close proximity in the dwelling-houses are the sheds for cattle, the houses and sbeds usually enclosing1 a centrnl court-yard. The whole village is embedded in a dense angled mass of jungle and bamboo thickets, and through this run narrow paths winding in every direction. .Beneath the thick undergrowth round each house lie countless numbera of pits, from which earth for the plinths hae been d a g ; during the rains, and for long afterwards, these are stagnant fcatid pools, full of rotten leaves and vegetable matter. No sun reaches them so evaporation is slow, and they remain for months convenient plnoes in "whioh the female mosquito, heavy with her latest feed '

of blood in the neighbouring house, oan lay her eggs, and swarms of larvffl find ideal surroundings for their growth. The adult mosquito too Ends shelter during the day from sun and breeze in the shade of the jungle round the honsos, end the more domestic species obtain a resting place undisturbed by the smoke in the oow-sheds alongside. To the inhabitants the Jungle affords privacy in their households, and 'probably some protection from cold breezes in the winter, but it is also a convenient latrine, and the stench io some of the villages is overpowering.

" The drinking water-supply is generally extremely bad. Til­lages on a river take it directly from the edges, generally at a spot which is used as a bathing yMt, while the banks in close proximity are made use of as a latrine A few villages have tanks reserved for drinking purposes, but theje are in n very small minority, and generally the tanks are used for all domestic purposes. Som9 villages W V B Vdi&ra, TttJi'ia, Wi, oVwuiifoose are not UBed for drinking purposes, either on aoooaut of religious scruples or because the water is not considered good, and the tank or river water is preferred I n the greatest number of villages there u no attempt at any provision for drinking water, and it is taken from the nearest hi or from casual coUeotions of water in the pita or ponds near the houses, moat of whioh are filthy

t 60 jESBOKfl.

and sticking, l a those parts of the country where jute ia grown there are many ponda in and round ouch Tillage, whioh are used for steeping- and afford breeding places for mosquitos. Hie rivers and tanks from which drinking wafer ia obtained are also often used for steeping ju te ; and though this may not ha a direct cause of malaria, it ia probably injurious to health.

" This extremely insanitary condition of the viHao-es is com­bined with general water-logging of the soil, shown by tlie high level oE the siita-eoil water, wli«re it could be estiiuatsd, and by the innumerable marshy tracts and bits SCuttaiBd all over the country, and it ia to the combination ot the two tliafc the extreme pre­valence of malaria, must be attributed."

Msmoii The earliest epidemic of whioh there ia lecord in Jessoro is the liiaiQBi olioleira epidemic of 18J7, wMot ia said to have caused no less

than 10,000 deaths in two months Of this epidemic and the consternation it caused a graphic account lias been left by the then Civil Surgeon, Dr. Tytler. " 1'he disease commenced its ravages in August, and it was at once discovered that the August of this year had five Saturdays. Tbo number five being the express property of the destructive Siva, a mistical com­bination was at once detected, the infallible baneful influence of which it would have been sacrilege to question. On the night of the 29th a strange commotion spread throughout the villages adjacent to the station. A number of magicians were reported to have quitted Morally (i.e. Murli) with a human head in their possession, which they were to be directed by super­natural signs to leave in a certain, and to them unknown, village. The people on. all sides wore ready, by force, to arrest the progress of these nocturnal visiters; for the prophecy foretold that wherever the head fell, the destroying angel, terminating her sanguinary course, would rest, and the demon o£ death, thus satisfied, would refrain from further devastation, in thie part of the country. Dr. Tytler says that on the night -while walking along the road, endeavouring to allay the agitation and to quiet the apprehensions of +he people, the Judge and lie perceived a faiiit light iasuing from a thick clump of bamboos. Attracted to the spot, they found a hut. which was illuminated and con­tained the images of five Hindu gods, one of which was Sitala. In front of the idols a female child, aboxit nine years of age, lay upon the ground. She waa evidently BtupeBed with intoxicating drugs, and in this manner prepared to return responses to such quefitionB UB those initiated into the mysteries should think proper to propose- By the light of our present knowledge we

PDBLIC HEALTH. 61

may apprehend that the poor little creature lay thus prepared ' rat.ber as the viotim than the oracle."*

I t is generally believed that Jessore was the place in which cholera first appeared in virulently epidemic form. " In one respect," writes Sir James "Wetland," Jessore hoa acquired a very evil reputation; for it was the place where began that first great outbreak of cholera which, spreading up (he valley of the Gauges,attacked and decimated the army of the Marquis cE Hastings, then engaged m operations against Scindia, in Central India, and afterwards extended itself, iD a north-westerly direction, over the whole of the civilize-l world. Cholera had been known before as an endemic disease pievailing mote or less in almosr. every region in the plains of Lower Bengal, but before 1817, the yeaT of the outbreak cow referred to, it had not that dread­ful form which we now associate with itsnams." The belief that * Jessore was ihe place where th& outbreak first occurred does not

• appear to be warranted by the facts. Dr. MaoPherscn, for instance, writes in the Annak of Cholera (London, 1872). "The gie&t epidemio of 1817 is usually described as having commenced at Jessoro; hut in that year ttiere was a fatal ease of cholera in Port William iu the month oi March, whieh attracted no attention. I n May and June the disease waa raging epidemically in Krishnagar and Myroensingh. Iu July it was at Soverganj in the Dacca district and as high up the river as the large city of Pa tn a , and it did not ieaeh Jessore till August, and not till after the middle of that month. I t broke out at Oalcuttft on much the sama date, of a few days earlier. In both places it caused gceat consternation, but the greatest in Jessoie."

Nineteen years Inter, in 1836, there was the first outbreak of that fatal type of fever which spread over Jessore and Nadia, and subsequently devastated tho Bnrdwan Division. I t broke out in March lSiiG near Muhammaflpur among a body of 50u to 700 convicts working on the road from Jessorg to Dacca ; in a short time 150 of the prisoners died, and the native officers m charge of them fled. The epidemic did not qiiit Muhatumadpur Jot about 7 years, but seemed to disappear in 1S43. In 1846, • however, it brake out again, and in the nest two years spread over the whole district, After a temporary cessation the fever broke out again in 1 8 J 1 - E 6 , find about this tune began to spread west­ward to Nadia, and the 2-i-l'argnnas, where i t finally culminated in the severe epidemic which devastated those districts from 1857 to 1864. I t tirfit attracted the attention of the authorities

* Hotman CLerara, Manual of Medical Jwii$r*itaiGe, CskutU, 1870, p. 145.

63 JESSODB.

in 1861 and wag reported on in 1883 by T)r. Elliott, who traced it baot as far as 1824 and noted that " a peotiliar type of fever was prevalent in Jeasore for mnnr years previous to ita

.Erst appearaaoe in tbe district of NadiS." This epidemio was mveatigated by a Committee (usually referred to as the Epiden"0

Commission) in 1864, in which year it ceased. While, however, the epidemic was wearing itself out in the Presidency Division, it spread slowly westwarda into the Burdwsn Division, where i became particularly severe in 1669 and raged until IS74, tn acquiring the name of BardwSn fever. . , mio

Between 1880 and 1885 there was another severe epae of fever. The outbreak commenced in the Jhenida subdivision, chiefly in the villages an the banks of the rivers N&bjtg3^ Kabadak, Bhafrab and Ohitra, to tbe silting up ot which it ^ attributed, The fever was reported to ba of choleraic tnB> . * 1880 the death-rate from it was as high as 41*25 par »>•»> flie Gaigbata thana. In the following year tbe fever deotti-'™ "» the Kotcbandpur and Bangaou thanas was 38-31 ana* Per m-Ue, and the disease spread to the Kallgatj tbana JB heart of tbe district. In 1883 tbe Sanitary Commissioner W°*° that i t« prorailed innoh mote eztmsiydy and fatally t lW lQ "L

K ' V^'" T h e * » l t » t o •* tiiat year rose to M Pg mil e m Jhen.da, a n d it e m e d e d 2 5 m i i l e o v e r the north • £

2 of the fct i a the two Mowing y ^ . ^/fjX

1 T " ; a D d e S d u d i ^ [ ! l s ««**» thanas, tbe death-r^ (ft ° TU l 8 ™ 1 ^ I i t t , e lea3 *l«a 2S per mille down to * ^ Ibe epidemi0 w a a ^ d ^ * ^ N d i s F e W r Com

C ^ I ' , * " t 0 ftl6 < ^ w / o £ r i and «u l**»

Shoe JSoi J1 Urul d B j n a « e o f t h e « " " » ^ ' .lent ' « 4 K ^ J * ™ * ' ,Q88 * " - « * MTe has been F ^ «

"rived w c ~ . „ ;,, ^ T t e conclusions at which the W*m.

lather arinfaj, P m I a wtsostTely everywhere; ( ^ '

malarieue arelfa ^ ^ i l l e m 0 B t n ^ r i * » : 0 **• ^

1 WJtinSergaohbs).»

PUEUO HEALTH. 6 3

YBiHB,

1S0M91Q

A vernge

bi itli-rate. (all ctmses).

12-M 36-41

flaclh-rale (fever).

39-13

The marginal table shows for the 10 years ending in 1910 VITAI, the contrast Swna-between the ™9" birth-rale and death-rate per mille, and also demonstrates how largely

deaths from fever bulk in the returns. As will be illustrated later, the mortality ascribed tu malarialfeveris not BO gieat as would appear from the statistics, but there can be little doubt as to its prejudicial, effect on the birth-rate both by causing abortion and still-birth, and also probably by diminishing the reproductive poirers in tbe case of persons whose systems are weakened by continual attacks.

For the purposes of the enquiry conducted by the Drainage Pamoi-Committee in 1906-07, a special analysis was made of 398 deaths £"Ej8B». registered as fever. The result was to show that the average death-rate directly due to malaria is about 10 6 per raille, i.e., Fever, about 19,O0U or 20,000 persona die annually of this disease alone in Jessore. I t was also found that aoute and chronic malaria are together responsible direotly for 34-9 per oent. o£ tbe total number of deaths returned as due t o ' fever,' while phthisis is responsible for 9 per cent,, and dysentery and diarrhoea for 11*3 per oent. These figures, however, do not represent the total mortality due to these diseases, |as sorre oases of phthisis are probably returned under the heading'other causes' in the returns of mortality, and a small proportion (roughly 1 in 60 cases) of the deaths caused by dysentery and diarrhcea are returned under the correct heading. At the same time, it is well known that malaria, and the lowered vitality resulting from it, is a predisposing cause in hock phthisis and dysentery so that probably it is responsible in part for their prevalence and for tho mortality ascribed to them. I t was estimated that Leishm fin -Donovan infection caused 1 per oent, of the fever deaths; it waB difficult to separate this disease from ohronio malaria by the method of enquiry pursued, but it does not appear to be common in Jeasore,

Altogether fi!tA Viooi exummaYiwis ui TJIOVITWI -fruiw V4 yeaia of ago were made in 25 villages, and it was ascertained that out of every 100 children examined, 6'i Buffoied from enlargement of the spleen, and 34 actually had malaria parasites in their blood. Malignant tertian parasites were found in <S9 per cent,, benign tertian in 20 per cent., and quartan in 11

64 JBSSORE.

par cent, of ihe 644 blood specimens dealt with. 1 he spleen-rats of the whole district (based on an examination of 5,147 children) was found to be 62, or io other words 62 childien out of every 100 had suffered from repeated attacks of malaria causing enlargement of t ie spleen

AB regards the age incidenca, it was found that about half the deaths due to malaria occur in childien under 10 years ot age, nnd that by far the largest numbei of ohildren dying from acute malaria are under five years; out of 128 deaths of children under 10 register&d as due to fever, no less than 32 per cent, were caused by acute malaria and 19 5 by chrome malaria Among adults over 20 years of age, out of 315 deaths Erom fever, 1J per cent, were due to acute malaria and 12 6 per cent, to chronic malaria. Malaiia doea not, therefore, form BO large a propor­tion of the fever deaths in the case of adults as in the ease of children, but still there is a large adult mortality due to it. Dysentery and diarrhoaa were responsible chiefly for deatns under five years; phthisis was most common in middle age, and pneumonia and bronchitis in middle and old age. As regards the seasonal incidence of nminria, it is heaviest, as might be expeotad, towards the end of the lams and the early part of the oold weather, i"« , at the time when the country is drying up. when the pools and maishes winch afford breeding places for mosquitoes are moat numerous, and when chills causing lecrudesOBiioes of malarial attacks are most likely to ooour.

The general conclusions arrived at by the enquiring officers are as follows •—

"The excessive prevalence oE malaria in the district as a whole oa.il he attributed dhectly to the great facilities afforded to the breeding of mosquitoes, chiefly by the presence in and round the villages of jungle, dirty tank-, ditches, marshes and casual water in every direction, and, in a lesser degree, to the bth

"and dead rivers acting ia the same way in some oase= In its turn, the presence of so much water in the villages is due in part to the carelessness and ignorance of the inhabitants, and in psit to the want of natural drainage in the country owing to its position in a deltaic tract, where the process of la ad -building H still going on The river3 are gradually heightening then banks and beds unld ths drainage is away horn instead ot towards theoi. The s .b-soil watei is unable to drain away lapidly, remains long at a high level aftei a wet seasun, and prevents the soaking mof ram-water, resulting in casual collections of water remaioingfor lung periods in every hollow, natural and artificial, it is the combination of these two factors, the high sub-soil water

POBLIC HEALTH. 66

and tlie jungly and insanitary condition of the villages, that results in ao high a malaria rate. Tho pita, hollows and jangle in the villages would in themselves he insufficient to account for , so grant a prevalence of the diseise, were they not combined with the lack of uaturol drainage, whioh allows the surface collections oE water to remain (or ao long a time; and on the other hand, go far as our present knowledge goes, the high sub-soil water has no connection with the disease except in so far as it is a canse of these surface collections of water, The silting up of the rivers is merely one sign of the lack of natural drainage, and, apart from that, la not iu itself a cause of malaria to any large extent.'"1

The medionl records of the district show a long aUBCOasioa Cboleta, of epidemics of cholera; in fact, they hove occurred almost every year since I860. In 1831 tho death-rate from oholera alone was 17-47 per thousand in thSna Jhenida and 1192 in Kotohandpur. In 1S82 it was reported that " at Jhenida and Sailktipa, where the disease prevailed extensively and severely, its special virulence—the death-rate in Jhenida was 10'tf3 per mille— was displayed on the banks of the Nabagaaga river, the extremely 'foul waters of nhieb ^verc at one time rapidly subsiding." In

1883 the death-rate from this disease in BaugSon thana was 10-47, in Gaigbata 7'30, and iu Garapota 6'55 per thousand. In 1884 nearly all the northern and western fchauas returned a rnortahty from the same disease exceeding 6 per mille, Iu 1885 again the death-rate from cholera in Bangaon thaua was 13*13, in Garapota 7*48, and in (ilaighiita 5'45 per thousand; in this year the practice of throwing the corpses of victims of the disease into the seuii-sUgnant rivera of the Bangaon subdivision waa held to be the ohier" oiiuBe of its great prevalence. Its ravages diminished in this quarter in subsequent years, but there was much cholera iu the east of the district in 1S89-90. In the next decada (1891-1900) (have were no lesa than 60,000 deaths caused by cholera, the worst epidemics being those of 1892 and 1895, when the death-ratg per mille was 5-Q7 and 5-35 respectively During the subsequent 10 years the mortality has been less, amounting to 57,'JOO in all, but the district has never been free from the disease; and in 1904, 1907 and 1908 the death-rate rose to over 4 per miiie.

The sohemeH hitherto proposed ov attempted for the. improve- Dwmu*** ment oi tbjj draimga of the district h a w moat\y fiim&u.atttiaaCEitilBa' diversion of the water oi ono river into another. In 1833, fl/5. 47,000 were spent in opening up the Bhairab in, the hopes ol improving the flow at Jessore and thereby diminishing malaria, but tn& works were destroyed by floods. Next year Rs. 87,000

F

66 JESSOKB.

were sanctioned for their reconstruction—with what result ia not dear, hut obviously it was unsucoessftil. I t is believed that some time before 1850 an attempt was made to reopen the Nahagangg but failed, as the cut again silted up. Subsequently, in 18755

a scheme for reopening' this channel was put forward by the local officers and enquired into by Mr. Wickes, Executive Engi­neer. His conclusion, which was accepted by Oovernmeat, was to the effect that " ii is quite impracticable to re-open the Naba-ganga) at any reasonable cost; if opened, it would probably eilfc 7jp again, and even supposing that it could successfully be kept open, the disadvantages would outweigh the advantages • for

though it might supply water, when it is now needed, i t would supply a great deal too muob and would inundate the country disastrously unless bunded."

Of the drainage schemes whioh have been proposed during re­cent years, the most important is that for tho drainage of the Bhairab, generally known aa the " Ehairao valloy scheme," though this h a misnomer as the Bhairab does not flow in a valley. This project, whioh has been abandoned, contemplated straightening the bed of the river by outs, so as to improve the flow in it, and making outs from the neighbouring StVs, so as to give, a better flush in the river by bringing in an increased volume of water during and after the rains. Other schemes whioh have been mooted are—(1) the re-excavaiion of the HuehikiiaH Khs.1, with the' idea of bringing water from the Chirai into tha Kumar near Magma. (2) The drainage of the country along the course of the Beug, (3) The drainage of the country along the course of the Betna, (4) A connection between tha Kumar and Nabaganga new Madiar Hoar in tha Jhecida subdivision, with the object of bringing more water into the latter channel • a

suggestion has also been made to block (he Dhopaghatfi Khal j n

order to keep the water of ths Nabaganga in its own bed, which at present is here diverted. (5) The deepening of the Bhawanipa,. ifbal in the Jlienida subdivision with the same obj'ect, i e, in order to bring water from the Kumar to the Nabaganga. (<>) 'Ihe re­opening of the Hanu river in the Magura subdivision by a

yonnection with the GarSi, which, it ia hoped, would improve the health of the SrJpur outpost. (7) The opsning of the N a b a . gangs below Lohagara eo as to connect it with the Madlramati.

Eegerding the first six projects the Drainage^ Oommit,teQ

remark:—''It will be observed that the old idea ol diverting t a Q

water of one river into another figures largely in these suggestion^ Although we espieBS no final opinion, pending further esamin , . tiott of the facta, we would only note that past experience n a a

PUBLIC HEALTH. 67

shown that such schemes frequently fail in two ways: either the water will not continue to run in the artifloial course designed, or the diversion of the water will do as much harm to the old channel as good to the new."

Vaccination is compulsory only in municipal areas, but dops VAC^HTA-not meet -with any marked opposition outside them. In 1910-U H M ' the number of persons successfully vaccinated waa 72,919, repre­senting 36 9 per mille of the population; the ratio for the preceding 5 jears was 40'G9 per mille. Small pos, aa a rule, only breaks out sporadically. The records of the district show that since 1892, when the present system of vital statistics was introduced, the death-rate from small-nox has never exceeded 0"25 per mille.

The following table shows the different public charitable ^ m o ' dispensaries in the dietrict with details of their administration for TIOBB. t i e year 1910.

Same.

JeBsoro Kotchftudpnr Wnlieshpur Jhemda ... MEeurff BrralinrpaP Noratl BiXD&ian Bealwbpur Nao l is ts RuinrBuL Lobogam KBlia ... S n p u r . ,

Mumcipul giiinl.

Ba. 1,C0D 1,403

319

...

. . . •

13COKE SBOJL

District Bonci g ran t .

Ii3. (fl)fl.OT

soo 300 1,4m 1489

903 1,668 1,230

m SBo 458 70S •3I1Q 9D0

Govern­ment con-

iribuUoDg,

E s 1,089

SJ 18

no 126 IS 53

113 19 lfl 14 22 IB 18

YriTate 1 u^Bcnptlous, endow men Is \

and other \ sources. I

E8 57n

eo 3s 860

aoa so

ins 107 103 44a 13G Sal Bifi 28i

Total

'

Be. 5S5S 1,902

«91 1,7B1 1.7SS

8 « 1,815 1.6«

935 155

e» 1,169

671 ssa

Name, Expendi­ture,

TOTAt HDHBBE IHEVTED.

In­patient^

Out- Tola!,

DAILY AVERAGE

In piltlUIltR

Out-

Jeqsnre KolcliSndptir MnbeHlipur Jhenida

Siidhatpur

Seshobpur N achats R&igrSm

Kalia „ Srrpnr

Es, 5,344

i,ena 6B1

i.fls* 1,735

m 3540 l,a40

985 783 BS5

1,1119 1,137

658

423

so TS 48

S3 SB

( ...

14,843 13,B13 3,865 0,810

11,568 3 057

13 SOS 9,650

fl.ua 4,133 n.iaa 8,100 2,749 2,745

15,285 K,273 8,863 B.SBS

ii,ace S.B6T

13,000 3,1135

8,11* 1,433 B,4SB 8,1 DO S,JM 2,748

14 30 •ST

i'33 VS7

ns

72-11 SG31 42 67 16 88 4S-69

43 44

H-S7 65 77 M07 22-36

[a) Ropeas 8,16S trora. District Boarci fund and B«. IDS fnini the BBiyadpra Tinat

F 2 Estate

JESSOBE.

OHABTEB V.

AGKIUBLTTniE (iRHEDit. I N the south and south east of the diatiiot the lauds are low, JIO*S' t I l e " v e r s a r a &1&U ani*- t t t ro ara many 6*7* or morasses. In (he

north and north-west ths land is highei, having been raised by the deposit of silt from the rivers which traverse it. This pToeeas has now stopped owing to the m e i s haying silted up at their head, the result oE which ia tbat the periodical inundations, wbioh used to occur when they were in flood, have (teased. I " the Jhenida subdivision there have been no floods for the last 16 years, and the country is the pecrer for i t ; while ia the MagurS subdivision the floods are now comparatively slight and the laud is not fertilized to the same oitent as formerly. In the higher tract to the north, jute, tobacco, sngajmne and various cold weather crops are grown in addition to rice (clnolly the dus or autumn orop), and thB date-palm is extensively cultivated. The country to the south, which ia lower and less thickly populated, is chiefly under paddy cultivation, dtimn or winter rice predominating,

Sous. The soiL in the north of the district ia highly fertile ; it is formed half of clay and halt of sand, although towards the west tho cluy preponderates. The tract lying between the Nabagonga and. the Kuralir was foimerly a vast swamp, but. has been reclaimed and 3 ielde abundant harvests of rice. In tho MagurS subdivision the soil is loamy for a depth of BIX or seven feet, and below that it is sandy; hut in some parts it is so hard, that it IB almost impervious to the spade and cannot be prepared for cultivation unless it is softened by inundation.. In the Narail aubdivisioE clay predominates near the bil lands, and elaewheiu tho soil is loamy,

In low-lying depressions lying between rivers, there in a heavy clay suited to rioa cultivation, wbioh is called mahiti. Outside this area the soil may be broadly eob&ividad into two

classes—(1) doss (half-clay and half-sand), and (2) bdha (aandy). 2)cas is ft loose friable aoil, brown in colour ; it oomea next to maiial ia jxtiot o i productiveness and is very favourable to the

AQRICULTTJBS. 68

growth of nets, jute and rabi orops. B&Na ia a poor sandy soil, which yields a scanty haiveet of due and jute, but is St for oil­seeds, melons, eto.

Land on the outskirts of tils is locally known QB samk* tnalial or hhnrya maii&l. This soil contains traces of limestone in its composition and becomes loose on absorbing rainwater. I t is less productive tbau matml The date trees, which are reared in large numbers all over the district, thrive on lauds known as nonopanta or raspanta. The retention of moisture ia one of the chief characteristic9 of this soil, which comes under the category ol dons and has a reddish tinge. Lands of this kind ate found in patches all ever the diatriot.

On low lands ar/rn/i paddy is cultivated, and en lands of (

intermediate level das paddy, jute and rabi crops, pulses and oil­seeds ara grown. Date-palms, eoeoanuts and fruit trees are cultivated on an extensive scale on'.high lands, while melons of different kinds ore grown on sandy soil on river bsiita in the spring. The following table shows the normal area of the principal crops and their percentage on the normal net cropped area, according to statistics compiled by the Agricultural Depart­ment in 1907.

Nnmo ol Cinp,

Winter rioo Bugircsufl

Total offfiani crops ,.,

Autumn rice Otiier M s d o i eetpite

and nolaes, -Other bhaiioi toon crm>g J a l o

Til i M ^ o n Other 6/ioiIoi aon-tooil

crops.

Total Vhadoi crop*

Normal Bcranfffi.

611,.KM 13.400

62-l,?DD

3CO.G00 13,000

87,800 09,700

im 3,200 3,100

oin.ooo

W

1

*3

31 1

R

' " l

H

Name D[crop.

Summer rice , ... Wheat Katies Gram ... , Olber rabi cereala anil

pnUea. Qt&er ra&i /otrif.crons ._ Linseed Bfipe u n i mustard Til ( ™ i i ) , ... Other oil-seeda ... Tobacco Otl>er rabi noo-foOLl

Total rail cropa

Orchards and garden produce.

Twice-ciOypcd area

Normal

12,500 1,500

s,;oo 24.800

153,0110

s,m 31,000 43,000 10,300 0.0OU

3.W0

M9,8(j0

W.SOO

I 903,100

Pore on 1-1 ano on -I iioi'itml

nut Grop­ed area ,1

1

'"a u

I 3 4 2

"t

20

2

A T h e staple crop oi'riiie oi&riiA 'is TITO, "tfinifo, iBjooriimg \o fo^1

above table, occupies no lesa than 76 per cent, of the normal uet cropped area. The thres principal crops are amtin3 dm aad bora. Am&ii or winter rioe is cultivated in fairly low land, where fchB water lies in the rains from one to (hree feet deep. TIJB

70 rassosB-

land is ploughed four times before sowing which takes plat* in April and May. Except in marsh lands (bile) the young shoots are transplanted about July and harvesting commences in November and December.

Aus rice is sown ou higher ground than the aman; it ia not transplanted, aud the land yields a second or winter crop of pulses or oil-seeds. For iius cultivation, the prepaiation of the land commences early in January; sowing takes place ia March and April, and reaping between the middle of August and the middle of September. Tbe land selected for this Und of nee is ploughed five or six timea

Btsro rice is sown on marshes which dry up in winter, and the preparation of the land commences m the middle of November. (Sowing takes place ten daya later, and reaping lasts from fhe middle of Maroh till the middle of Apiil. The land ia hardly ploughed at all, the aeed being scattered broadcast in the marahoH or bik as they dry up. The young shoots are transplanted when about a month old and sometimes a second time a month latter.

In the Narail subdivision, a long-stemmed variety called Jo*'** mat* in sown, the stubble of the previous year's crop being first bornt dowD and the ashes, which serve ae manure, ploughed mto the soil. Tile stubble is tired, on hot dry days, it is a lemarkable eight, as the evening closes m, to see large btls on fire, dense clouds of smoke being borne along by the evening breeze and blotting out the landscape like a thick fog This variety of ri°* is principally grown in the marshes (litis), many of which dry up in winter, and are flushed again ia the rains. "It grows to a height of from 12 to 16 feet, and will live in almost any depth of water, provided that the water rises gradually after the seedlings have attained a height of from 12 to 18 inches. A rapid rise would swamp the plant; but the growth easily keeps pace with a rise of an inch or two in 24 hours The stem adapts iteelf to every fluctuation in the flood, its long-jointed divisions resting in layers on the bottom when the water falls, and floating with the nest rise. The orop is an easy one to cultivate, ' ° r

alter the grass sad straw on the dried up lands is burnt down, little ploughing ia required. Sown broadcast on the edges of * t e

bill, when the water is low, it rises as. the water rises and is ripe before the water has disappeared.

Next to rtoe, jute covers a larger area than any other single orop. Thirty years ago, however, it was reported that the ryots merely oultivated a few plots near their homesteads, chiefly for their own use, such plots seldom exceeding three or four kathat. In the Narail eubdiviaion, jute cultivation had begun to be

AaaiODLTtTBB. 71

carried on a largur scale, but throughout the district there was no extensive trade in the fibre; tbe area occupied by the crop was roughly estimated in 187S at 6,000 to 7.00Q acres. One cause of this limited cultivation was stated to be that nearly all the land available after tbe sowicg oi the food-graias was taken up by indigo. Now lessors is one of the prinoipal jute growing districts of ihe province, the returns for 1907-08 showing no less than 142,800 owes under this crop. In 1908-00 the area under jute waa reduced to 49,800 acres, and in 1910-11 to 40,000 acre?, this decrease being attributed to a heavy fall in the price of jute and high prices obtained for food-grume. Two varieties of jute are grown, viz., desk* iu the Sadr, Jhenida and BaDgan subdivisions and bilapaii or dsora in tlie Magura and Narail subdivisions; tbe former fetches a higher price in the market.

The seasons of sowing and growth are much the sums as for the early (aus) rice orop. After tha usual ploughing, the seed i% sown broadcast from the middle or end of March to the beginning of June, and the plant is generally out frura the middle of August to the middle oE Ootober. Before it is out the plant grows stout and strong, and is from five to ten feet in height. The stalks when out are made up in bundles and are then at once immeised in water. The steeping process is called retting. While tlie bundles are under water, they are examined from time to time to test how far decomposition has progressed, and as soon as it is found that the fibres peel off- readily, the handles are takon out of the water and the separation of the fibre begins. The process of separation most generally followed is to beat or shake the stalks in the water in which they are steeped till the glutinous substance in the bark ia entirely washed away. The fibre is then dried in the sun, and, when dry, is made up into hanks for the market.

When the jute has heen prepared, the ryot carries the bundles, into whioh the hacks are made up, to the nearest market, or to the large marts, according to local eiroumstances, and there sells it to traders, who take the produce away, and, in their turn, disposo of it to wholesale dealers. Betty traders also go about from homestead to homestead making purchases of the fibre, which they either dispose of on their own account or make over to the merchants from whom they; ha?e reoeived advanceB.

In Jessore the cultivation of the date-palm tor the production Date-pali of sugar is of special importance: it is, in fact, the ohief date-CHlLi" Hugar-growing district in Bengal. The soil beat suited for date™ °°' plantations is a light loam, but the chief consideration is that t h j

72 . JESeORE.

and must be situated above inundation level. As a rule, ground h chosen which ia too high for the succesbful cultivation of rice. The trees are planted m regular rows, the standard distance between the trees being about 12 feet; the number of trees in a plantation of 1 aore will therefore ho a little over 300. Transplantation is the ordinaiy method of sowing adopted, but there are many cultivators who are not in favour of tlih pi art ice. Date fields are often sown with pulse crops the first year aftei transplanting, but sLilful date growers will not BOW auxiliary ore-pa until after 3 or 4 years, whgn t i e plantation is well established. Aua paddy is not an uncommon subsidiary crop, but ita produce when thus sown is not good, being tit only for provid­ing straw. The idea of glowing such ciops is to teen the land in a state of proper cultivation. Annual hoemgs are given (with the korfalt) for the feat 3 or i years, when noorop is taken from the land.

Tapping commences wlien the tree is "ripe" t.e., after seven or eight years of growth, and it is continued thereafter from year to yejir until the crown of the tree presents a withered and half dead appearance and is no more erect. Some trees show ovei 40 notches, indicating that they have bean continuously tapped for as many years. I t is said that transplanted trees yield sap earlier than those sown in the field Thp insect moat injurious to the date-pelm ia a larva kcown toeally as man a or loi a, which bores out the heads and eats up the top leaves of the plant, causing it. to wftber.* An account of tho tapping of the pal ma and the processes of sugar manufactuie will be found m Chapter V I I I .

Tobacco ia another special crop of J^asore, being l>uge]y grown for Txado and export The cultivation ia of special importance in the Bacgaon subdivision, where the best tobacco is giown This is a variety of ikskt tobacco (Niiotiana tabacum) called fimgh, from the village of E iugb situated on (he left bank of the Jamuua river, 4 miles west of Gaigliata I t sella foi Its 5 to Ha. 7 or Es 8 per mauntl, and BODIO apetial qualities of the leaf are said to fetoli as much as Es. 20 per maund. The following is an account of tho methods of cultivation and curing

In April and May, both the nurseries and the tobacco fields are manured with btl silt consisting of decomposing watei plants and With weli-rotted cow-dung They are repeatedly ploughed und the clods crushed with a mm, or ladder, Join times eveiy month J possible. The seeds aie sown in the nuiaeiies in the latter ° g " oi Attgjiat^and the seedlings are tiauaplanted in the firet

N W. Bniicrji, The I>a!c $V3ar pa[,„ W t o i , Jcumal of >*"• A a i imUiinil ^o|>Brtmoiif, Benjri, Jnnuury 1%B -

AGRICULTURE. 73

half of October, when they are 3 or 4 inches high. They are planted in rows 18 inches apart and about the same distance apart in the rows. Immediately after transplantation they are watered, and they era generally given two more waterings later, once when the plants are about 6 inohes high, and again in the firat half ol December some 10 or 12 days before harvesting. The fields are hoed twice or thrice after watering; or after a fall of rain. The plants are topped when they get 12 or IS leaves, and then suekering goes on regularly every eight days till harvesting. The plnnts are oat when the leaves hang down, turn colour _ and have spots upon them. No rotation is practised, for tobacco after tobacco is said to give the best results.

The plants are harvested in January, and carted off at once to a grassy plot to prevent the dust of the fields sticking to the leaves. Tiioie they ore out up info three pieces, each piece having from two to five leaves. The pieoes are spread out in the sun ior tluee days, at the end of which they are gathered together and hang up on grass ropes inside cow-sheds and houses. They are left alone for a couple of months till the south wind, bringing fogs with it in the morning, sets in nad the leaves are in ' case,' as it is called. The leaves are then taken down with the ropes, cut into pieoes of about 18 or aO inches with the leaves hanging from tham, and tied into [oops.

Sweating or fermentation now begins. A number of bamboos are spread on the floor of the house with some straw placed upon them to keep off the damp. Over the atraw the tohacco is piled up in heaps of SO or 60 mauads covered with gunny sheets The temperature rises as fermentation proceeds, and the degree of heat is felt by the hiiiid from time to time. When the proper temperature is reached, the heap is biokeu up and rearranged to prevent overheating; the top and bottom leaves go to the centre and the inside leaves come to the outside, so that fermentation may proceed evenly. The interval between building the first heap and breaking it up varies, depending upon the c case' or moisture in the leaves, and a third heaping may be necessary if the leaves are still soft.

Pepper is cultivated in the north of Jessore in the country Pepper adjacent to the Clmadanga subdivision of Nadia and in the*??.,. Vraifi 1xymls ^ " " W * V ^ i ^ i w k i . % %xA TSssJifiJapw. T H I S 'is almost the only part of the Province where it is cultivated, for elsewhere in Bengal it only grows wild daring the rainy season. The creeper is planted in the beginning of the rains; as i t grows in the shade, the seeds of the stout dlmneeha hemp plants are sown near to it to afford shelter as they grow. The preparation

u JfiSSOEfi.

of pepper for sale | is a simple ; process. , The poda, which wisea first yu&ed ftia ot u je l lcs M light i i d ealftra, use ufc out in the sun to dry; and in January and February (the picking season) on the places where they are exposed are a blaze of dolour. After some few days' exposure they are dry and attain. a deeper hue of red, after which they axe packed ia sacks for export. Uhillus are also largely grown as cold weather crops in the soulh of the district.

EIIBH- According to the returns of the Agricultural Department for

C'UWTT*. 1910-11, out of tha total area of 1,872,153 acrea which makes up »ioy. the district, the net area cropped waa 1,104,500 acres. Current

fallows accounted for 127,620 acres, and culturable waste other than fallow for 28,620 acres, while the area not available for cultivation was 611,413 acres. The Bmall area of culturable waste is noticeable as Blowing that cultivation has apparently almost reached its utmost limit. The following table give3 the salient agricultural statistics of that year in percentages: —

I'EBOBHTIBE OB TOTAL J R E i

Oultdfable.

67 '3

cultivated.

biJ'll

FencEBTion TO CCLTrVABIE " K J L OC

cultivated.

BO'6

Double cropped.

VI 3

PEHCEffTAOE OP OT09B cOIpTiTiTED 1EE*. TTHDEK

Rice.

we

Other ?ere?i]s and

pulses.

3-0

J u t e .

3-8

Other GIOpi.

1V0

With this statement may be compared the estimate made by Lord MoDonnell in his Report on the Food Qi-am Supply of Bihar end Bengal (18761. The area under tillage in the Jhenida and Magura subdivisions was, he estimated, 75 per cent, of the gross area. For the Bangaon subdivision the Subdivisional Officer estimated that five-eighths of the total area was under cultivation* but Loid McDonnell considered that this was an milder-estimate and that the proportion of cultivated land was not lees than in the other two subdivisions.

I t is reported that cultivation has suffered from the deterioration of the rivers, which year by year used to deposit a layer of silt on their banks and i n the Ms daring flood time. Many are choked with weeds and no flood water down goeB them, so that

ACIBICOI,TDfiE. M

this natural farm of fertilization has ceased. The Ihenida sub­division ifi said to have suffered much from tho drying up of its livers ; m the Magura aubdivifiion the area under aman rioe is contracting owing to defioient floods, but on the other hand the area under &m rice and jute ia increasing. Indigo oultwation has practically disappeared, aud so haa that of gdnja, though Jessore iraa at one time one of tho chief centres of ga«ja and mdigo cultivation in Bengal, Their place haa now been taken by jute, the area under which baa, aa ahaady shown, expanded enormously during the kat 30 yeara.

76 JE8B0MB.

OHAPTHS VI .

BATUEAI, CALAMITIES

PIOOES. T U B district was formerly subject to destructive floods, but inundations are now rare owing to fluvial changes. Wifchic the last century nearly all the rivers have degenerated into drainage channels which carry off the surplus loonl rainfall and no longer convey the vater of the Ganges to the sea A century ago, the country between the Kumar and NabegangS, •wLieh, although siili lew mscrahy land, is now only rea tWl by mraaxiBi inundations, wae annually swept by -violent floods 'f he Naba-ganga waa then a dreaded liser, and nruch money was spent in maintaining embankments along its southern bank, the remains oi which may BttU be seen. Now, the uorth-west of the diatnet is becoming higher and dner every year. The tract north of the Kumar, however, is still subject to floods periodically, when the Kallganga and Dakho Klial become deep and rapid streams. In the extreme south also, in the Mamraaipar fhanu, a small area is liable to inundations of salt water biouglit up by the tides, which cause destruction to the crops owing to the length of time they take to subside.

'Ihere is ample evidence of the number and severity of the floods wliioh swept across the north of the distriot at the end of the 18tli and the haginnicg of the lcJth centimes Sir James Wefithmd mentions that the Hahmudsiiahi embankments buret ia 1787 and that this occiiirence, followed by a cyclone, did great injury. In 1790 there was a heavy flood, which damaged the Yusufp'ir and Saiyadpur estates, and m 1795 there was ac.oth.ee inundation, which, howe?er, was slight and did little harm, ia the following year again much loss was oau&ed by a. flood and a cyclone. There was another Eenes oi floods from 1798 to 1801, that of 1798 being the highest withm the memory of the oldest inhabitants. The adjacent districts apparently sufleied much more than Jessoia ifcaelf, for the people had recourse to Jesaore for their euppliee of gram. Sir James Westiand connects the unexampled floods, from 1795 to 1801 with the opening out of the Madhnmati already referred to in Chapter I i

/

HATITRAL OALAHHIES. 7?

Among more recent floods, those of 1838, 1847 1856 and 1871 are the most memorable. That of 1838 was specially severe, -while the inundation of 1871 was the most calamitous known for many years. In the Utter year, heavy rain (ell la May and at the beginning oE Jans, and the rivers began to rise rapidly, till in August nearly the whole district was submerged The people suffered gieat hardships, and the loss of cattle and of crops waa very great, '

The last serious floods affecting Jessore were those oi 1885 Flood o£ dud 1890. The first great inundation occurred i a Septembei 1885, On the 11th September the r i 'er Jalangi rose nearly 29 feet above its Lowest hot--veather le^el. The Lalitakuii embankment, which rune along the left brink of the m e r Bhagirathl in. the Mnrshidabad district, had already given way on the 24th August, and a vast tide swept southward across the centre of the NadiS district and the west of Jessore There were simultaneous freshets in both ihe Ganges and the Brahmaputra, and the water of the focmer, banked up at Goalundo by the latter, was forced to find egress to the sea by the rivers of the Nadia district, •which had been silting up for two centuries and were quite in­adequate to carry such an immense volume of water as the Ganges was briLging down i b o u t half pf the Nadia district was flooded to a depth of five to eight feot ; the Eastern Bengal Bail-way was breaeh'd in three places, aud the mails were earned °in Bteam launches uver a countiy, which a few weeks before was dry land, covered by a promising rice crop. In Jessore 400 square miles of country were more or less flooded, with very divergent effects on the crops The Hag or a and N a rail subdivisions reaped good crops oi winter rice, but lost most of the dim ; while in the Sadar and Bangaon subdivisions the floods had the reverse effect, destroying most of the dman, but only slightly injuring the dm.

In the autumn of 1890, when the district had barely reeo- Slaoi oE vered, it suffeied from a similar disaster, and the crops were again destroyed The Nadia rivers iose a foot and a quarter higher than in 1885 ; the Lalitakim embaukment burst again, and the railway was seriously breached. The flood affected the greater part of the Bangaon subdivision and parts of the Jhenida and Sadar subdivisions, which suffered from the over­

flowing of the Ichhamati, Nabaganga and Betna I n the affected area tlie aman rice was entirely destroyed and the outturn of 6«* was only half the average. The damage could not be remedied by fresh sowing or transplanting au the floorlB subsided late in the season ; but, ou the other hand, the outturn of the rabt oorps

78 JEBSOKB.

helped to compensate Ihe cultivators, and there was plenty of work for labourers after the flood subsided. Relief was freely given wherever needed, the district being dividad into oiroles,

, each under a circle officer. The relief measures consisted of (1) agricultural loans, (2) supply of boata for the transportation of the people, their cattle and goods, (3) charity, and (4) employment of labourers on relief works maintained by the District Board.

; ' i n the latter pait of the ISth century, the maintenance of the then numerous embankments formed one of the Collector's most important duties ; the expenditure on them from 1798 to 1802 amounted to Its. 78,(580. They were subsequently placed in charge of an European Superintendent, and the burden of their cost transferred to the landholders, who were allowed a reduction of lauQ revenue in consequence. Up to 1811, the district officers frequently went out to examine the embankments, but the changes in the river beds and iiuesof drainage soon after rendered them unnecessary. Even now, the embankments of the Naba-ganga are traceable for some miles upon both sides of Magura. At many places they are washed away, and stand only two feet high ; but at others their height is eight feet, and they are still stiong enough to resist heavy floods.

The district is not subject to drought, and the number o£ rivers, creeks and swamps is so great that no irrigation works are re­quired. Prom 1787 to 1801, when Jeaeore was frequently inundated, famines due to the destruction of crops by floods were no means rare. In 1787 much distress was caused by floods in September and a cyclone in October. A great quantity of rice floated uWay, or was submerged and rotted ; the HI crop was completely destroyed ; and the date-trees, mustard seed, and pulse crops were seriously injuied. Prices rose rapidly, the culti­vators sold their ploughs and other agricultural implements, and flocked to Jessore, offering: their children for sale. After various ineffectual measures taken by Government, Mr. Henokell, the then Magistrate, advanced Es. 15,000 to the cultivators and spent EB. 6,000 in repairing the embankments. He had already induced tbe zamludar of Yusufpur to advance Ea. 5,000 to his tenants; and the boro dh&nt or spring rice crop, cultivated with bia money, materially improvod the situation. I t is worthy of notice, that even in the year of this famine, the whole of the Government land revenue demand was realized.

In l~9l the district was visited by drought, the Collector reporting on the 20tb. Ootober that there had been no rain for thirty-eight days. The realization of the revenue was twice

NATURAl OilAMITIBE. 79

postponed, and, as in 1787, the Government forbade the expor­tation of gnin by sea. On the 31st December 1791, prices had risen to twice and thrice their usual lates. The opening of all tanks and reservoirs, whiob the Government ordered as a remedial measure, had no effect, as the water-level in them was low and the water could not of itself flow from them over tha surrounding fields. An abundant harvest in 1794 induced the Government to establish public grauaries,—two in lessore, one at Babukbali near llsgurg, and one at Shorganj, near Pliultaia, on the Bbaimb. But misfortune pursued these granaries from the first. The buildings rapidly deteriorated; one was struck by lightning' and burned down; the native agents employed in purchasing rioe proved dishonest; many losses were entailed by the renewal of stock ; the establishments involved a large anoual outlay; and eventually, in 1801, the granary system was abolished.

There was some distress in 1866, when the maximum price of common rioe was 10 seers per rupee, but in 1874 this district remained unaffected by the lemma and was even able to export grain to Nadia, A fuller account is required of the famine of 1897 as illustrating modem conditions.

I n 1895-96 there was an unusual drought resulting in a poor Faoiiao of harvest. Heavy rain in May 1895 drowned the boro or Bummer rice, whioh is grown on low lands in the Narail subdivision, and prevented the sowing of aman rice on such lands throughout the district. Short rainfall iu July and August partially affected both the bhadai and winter rioe crops, and finally want o£ raio in November prevented the development of the winter rice. The preceding year, however, had yielded a bumper Crop, and ao the partial failure of the rice harvest in this year did not occasion much distress. Next year (1896-97 the rainfall in the district as a whole was 16-26 inches, or about tha same aa in 1895-90, but considerably less than that of 1894-95, wliieh was 58-66 inches. The rainfall was not only short, but ill-distributed, and the outturn of the dm and the amin crops was consequently poor. The sowing of these orops was late for want oi rain in April, and tha Hoanty showers of May did not enable the plants fco grow. Ilhere was some rain in Juue, but insufficient rainfall in July retarded the ripening of the om rice, and the outturn was less than had been aspected. Again, the short rain of August and the absence of raiu in October and November prevented a fair

, return from the standing aman crop, which iu many places failed entirely. In the end, the outturn of aws was S annas BB against 10 annas in 18&S-9R and 17 annas in 1894-95, while that of aman

80 IKSSDRB.

was SJ annas as against 8 annas in 1895-96 and 16 annas in 1894-95. The rain crops yielded an outturn of 5 annaa only, as against 9 annas in 1895-96 and 8 annas in 1894-95.

The result was that the hulk of the people, who are ftgnout-tunsta, were more or less distressed The market however was supplied "by imp Dilution's and the psoplft had soma purchasing resources from the good outturn of then jnto mop This, coupled with the proceeds of date-juice and sugar, which are impor. taut products of the district, enabled the people to tide over their difficulties. There was actual scarcity in an area oE 1,083 square miles with, a population of 829,000 persons, hut the area for which relief works were found necessary was only 36 square miles with a population of 30/100. The portion affected 'ay m small tracts in thanas Muuammadpur, Keshabpur, Bagbaipara and Magnra and in the Sahkha outpost, and consisted of high lands along the banks of riveis and of some low-lying marshes. The affected area had hitherto been cansidered safe, for the people aie in ordinary tunes well off, their prosperity depending to a. great extent on the success of the dwiffw rice crop, whieh seldom fails, and on the trade in. data sugar Unfortunately, there had been in this tract a partial failure of both dus and &man orops in the two previous years, while m 1896-97 the (image outurn of avian rice was only 3 annas as against 10 annas in the previous year and of aui 7 annas as against 10 atmns

A test work was commenced m thaua Muhammadpur on the 25th Februaiy I&97 and was kept open till the Oth March, -when it was closed, as it attracted no labourers. Teefc works were also started m June at Naohata, Muhammadpm. a c d Paohuna, hut were soon closed for the same reason The aggregate number of poisons employed on these worha was 8,991, and the wages paid were RE 1,259. Giotuitoua relief began in December 1896 and altogether 68,980 persons wore relieved, hut the highest daily aveiage numbei was only 481 in April. Private relief was afford­ed by the Mahabodhi Somety, whioli opened a relief oentro at L'lhagara and fed 1,026 peisons, and by the Narail aamindar^ who fed 1,000 persons daily fioii the end of July to the- end of August. Besides these measures of relief, fes 64,351 were advanced as agricultural loans.

A severs cyclone struck the district on the l7xu October 1909, the atorm reaching Jessora at 2 e M (but not becjmmg eyolomo till alter sunset) and -themda at 6 E.M , while at Bangaon its full force was not felt till 10 p M. At Jessoie it was accompanied by toneotial ram, the fall for the day being 1 2 liiohes. Oonsider-able loss ot property was caused by its ravages, The number of

NAIUKU 0AIAMIT1EB. 81

country boats sunk was estimated at 1,157, while no less than 446,905 buildings were blown down. They consisted for the most part merely of thatched Lufs with wattled walh and roofs supported by bamboos, and in some oases of open shedo on bamboo supports. I t must, moreover, not be suppose 1 that the houses wore completely destroyed. Many of them collapsed or had their roofs and walls damaged, but were capable of being re-ereited, though at some cost and labour, Trees were blown down on all sides, and. practically every road in Jessore town waa blocked by them, traffic being stopped for several days. No coolies were obtainable at the time, though wages of Re. 1-8 a day were offered, for every one was busily eugaged in restoring his own bouae ; eventually jail labour had to be employed to clear the trees away. In the disti'iot, as a whole, it is estimated that 662,436 fruit treas were destroyed. Altogether 8,274 cattle were billed, chiefly in the Sadar and N&mil subdivisions. The losa of human life was fortunately small, 70 deaths being reported, of which 40 occurred in the Sadar subdivifiion. Of the total number 36 were due to the fall of houses, 11 to falling trees and 16 to drowning. •

62 JE880HE,

CHAPTER YII.

C I B » of Iimd,

~ Basin fhoraeatesJ

land) Bigat (garden land) Diani rice land) •PaZirafvegetiiblelantl) Sar»j (p3« fond) Poises, mustard anil

linseed. Chillies

Dn to-palm treffl SngniCMie

Bent per acre m tupeea.

10 to IS 10 to SO

1-fi to 13 it to 9

8 (0 20

3 (D *.8 3 toC-G 3-3 to 0

3 to 7-8 Tobacco .., 4 (aterugc). Jnte .., ... B.lOto'E-13 Betol-nnt nni cocoa-

nut tries. 10 to 1C

BENTS, WAGES AND PEIOES. Emm. THE rents paid in Jessore vary groatly according: io the posi­

tion and quality of the land, as will be seen from the marginal table showing: the current lates reported by the Collector for different clas­ses of land growing different wops. Tbe rates of rent are said to bo almost tie same for all subdivisions esoBpt Bangaou, where the land is less fertile and tbe highest rent for rfoe land is only Rs. 3 an acre; on the other band, as much as Its. 6 to

Es. 9 per acre is foA *01' s o m e

Unds in this subdivision on the bank of the Ichhamati, which pro­duce melons aud paiah. It does

not appear that the rents of tbe first two classes of land shown in the table have altered much siDoe 187J, when the rent for tow land was repoited to be Es. 9 to Ra. 15 per acre, end of bag&i l^nd RB. 9 to Es, 18 pel1 acre. The average rent for dhdni land was iheu 6 annas to Ra. 9 an acre, the average for ordinary rioe land being about lis. 3 per acre. Now, however, no land St for cultivation can be had at so low a rate as annas 6 an acre.

One peculiar form d rent is that paid under the ufbandi sys­tem, ('•», the ryots pay rent only upon the area actually culti­vated during the year, and by measurement at harvest time, according to the actual outturn of the crop. The cultivators till tbe land for two or three years and (hen allow it to lie fallow for a year or two, the fertility of the soil not being sufficient to allow of uninterrupted cultivation. No rent is paid for the period during which the lend remains fallow.

No general settlement of leuts has yet been carried out, hut some private estates ha?e been settled under the provisions of the Bengal Tenanay Act, The records of these settlements Bhow that the maximum rate of rent is Ra. 10-8, minimum Ra. 4-8, and average RH. 6 p e r acre for dry land, while the maximum, minimum and average rate for wet lands is Es. 12, Its. 9 and

RENTS, WA0K8 AND PRICES. 83

Re. 10-8 respectively: the rates last mentioned are applicable only to low-lying 61/ lands, whioh are very fertile. Recent experiences show that settlements are generally made with tenants on lump 1 onfalls and that the rate generally varies from Rs. 3 to RB. 6-8 per acre.

A large amount of cultivation is carried on under what is PBOMJCH known aa the bargti system, i e., by means of produce rents, nn™. Where this system ia in force, Hindus and Mubammadans of the lower classes cultivate (ho land, generally, on condition that the produce is equally divided between them and the tenants or owners. In some places, however, this rule is not adhered to, and the actual cultivators, who ara known as bargadd'S or bavgaits, make agreements by whioh they are entitled to more than half the pro due 9.

In the Hagura subdivision, the litrgadSrs, as a rule, agree to pay hall the produce only when the o^ner or tenant supplies the necessary seed, The extent of the share also depends upon the quality of the soil For fiist class land the owner doss not supply any seed, for second class land he supplies half the quantity required, for third class land he supplies it all. I n cases where an owner doss not agree to this arrangement^ the bargadSr will not pay as much as half the produce, and in the case of jute the owners only gat n, six annas share. In the Narai! subdivision also the share is not always half and half, bat varies according to the nature of the soil, the orops cultivated, the special agreements made, &• In 1903 theie was a general strike [n one village of the Sadar. sublivision on the pnrt of the Hnbamroadan cultivators, who combined not to cultivate the lands of theii Hindu landk rds, unless the latter agreed to allow thBm to retain a two-thirds share of the produce instead of a half share, whioh was the prevailing rate hitherto

The following table shows the daily wages paid to different WjgB-s

classes of labourers during the lost 15 jeais :—-

Class of labourers.

Superior moson... Common mason . Sopeiiorctipentcr Common carpentei Sujiernr blacksmith Common blanks mi lit Adntt male cooly Adult female cooly

1894-95

As. r 8 0 6 0

10 8 8 0

10 8 8 (J & 0 2 8

1S90 19OQ

As P 8 3 6 8

10 8 8 O

10 9 8 0 4 0 2 8

1904-05. '

As. i> 10 0 6 0

10 0 a 0

10 0 8 0 6 0 4 n

1909-10.

As. p. 10 a

8 0 10 0 8 0

10 0 8 0 8 0 fi 0

Q 2

84 JESS OBE.

PBICBB

I t ie said that owing to the unhealthmess of the district there has been a decline m the number of skilled labourers for some years past, and that the supply of agi cultural labourers is unequal to the demand, especially during the fever season, BO uvuoh BO that land sometimes remoina uncultivated for want of men to till them. A considerable piopoition of the field labour­ers or ins/ians are peid m kind, especially when engaged in harvesting operations, e g , they receive one bundle of paddy lot every 20 bundles they cut Some of the hat-gat Is previously mentioned are landless labourers When the baigad cannot piovide cattle, seed., eto, in foot, nothing- but his own. labour, an advance in money is usually made to him by the ryot who has the right to the other half of the crop These advances are expended by the la-bouror ID the puichaee of seed, implements, oattle, etc., and are lepaid by him with interest after harvest

The following (able shows the aveiage prices in seers per rupee) of the staple food-grains and of salt for the last six years: —

Cmnntoa PICA Wheal Barley Oram . Suit

HID j 08

SKB. (me 10 l l j B IS) [1 13

13 Ui 13 131

190 E 07.

Sne CEB 7 11 9 0 S G

10 ]2 34 0

1307.63

Sits, e n s J M 1 10 8 0

id io 10 13

iM a-W.

SBB OHB 8 0 T 3i 7 0

10 1 17 B

13 0640.

Sue ous 11 0 J 6 3 3

Li 1) 13 8

1910 11.

S s s OHB 12 a S 4

11 111 17 B 13 11

There baB been a remarkable rise in prices in recent years, whiuh will be sufficiently illustrated by the faot that in 1897, which was a year, of scarcity, the average price of common ncB, which forms the staple food of the people, was 9 seers a td 12 cbittacks in March as against 15 seers 1 ehittack m the previous j ear—the maximum price was 7£ eeers per rupee (in the Magma BUCdivision)—while in 1866 a year of fan ino) it was 10 seers per mpee. As a contiast with the present high, range of pikes may be mentioned the fact that 30 years ago the Collector reported—" Famine may be considered imminent when coarse r.ee iieea to the price of eight seers per rupee At this rate the poorer classes can barely live and they cannot hold out if the price rises higher ."

MiTBBiit Past acLOunta of the material condition or the people give e. OF THE E0mewhafc biight picture of prosperity. In the Statistical Account reopiE of Bengal, 1877, for instance, it was s t a t e d - " T h e husbandmen

of Jesaoie, as a claBS, aie well off. la the high-lying half of the disincUhe date cultivation for sugar yields large pi outs, and in the lower tracts the land is fertile, and the crops as a rule abund­ant. The custom of g ivkg gaitht grants, a kind of hereditary

KENTS, WAGEB ATID PBlcEB, S5

and transferable tenure on a permanently fixed rent, also tends to elevate t i e position of the cultivator The gan'hiAsr, or grantee, is practically a small landholder, strong enough to resist oppression on the part of the superior landlord fcarmndar), but not sufficiently powerful to oppress the husbandmen ov under-renter , who do the work of actual cultivation on his grant. A holding above eight acres (25 hgk&t) in estent would he consi­dered a huge one, and anything below two oi three acres a very small one. A fair-sized holding would be about five acres (15 bighan) in extent; but a single pair of oxen arB reported to be unable to cultivate moie than 3£ acres In the adjoining dis­tricts to the west it is generally reckoned that one pair of oxen ean till five acres A husbandman in Jesaore district with a small farm of five acres is as well off as a petty shopkeeper, or ae a hired servant on Ee. 8 a month in money. The peasantry are usually in debt, and few of them succeed in keeping out of la for any length of t ime,"

In 1888 a spatial enquiry into the condition of the lower classes was carried out by (he Collector, who reported as follows:—" Any man or woman in these parts can by honest labour better hia or beT position. The number of people in, comparatively easy eireumstanees scatteied all over the country create a demand for simple Luxuries, and it is in supplying them that the poorer classes find woik. Cows can be kept arid tended and their milk sold, Lice busted, baskets and mats made, vege­tables grown. Then taere is domestic service and, for men, the taking of land in balm, i.r, oa the metayer system. Esoepfc in the sugar industry there is little working for wages m these paits. However, mea do so work, getting never less than two annas a day besides two meals. Moreover, their servieesare mach in deirand, and those of a hamlet of Much is, for instance, who are ready to engage for doily wages, are muph competed for. A largo /otd&r will offer them strong inducements to settle on hia lands, and they mal.e their own terms, In the Bugai industry, Ihe men who tap the trees and help the rennets command really good wages, but it is hard to put them into a daily iate as they are paid by piece woik. Certainly they reoeivc 4 annas a day; and then in their homesteads they have their livestock, cows, goats, ducks and fruit trees, besides a little cultivation.

" Another way to regard these matters is to look at the homes oi the people. Heie ^ e are presented with an aapect of comfort that will compare favourably with the peasantry of even many European countries, I have had statistics prepared under my

66 J£SSOK£.

immediate superintendence of nine large villages situated in. different parts of the district. Cultivators with ten biglide ond up-watds I put in chtss I ; tboae with less than ten iigMs, but with euougli to live on without working for daily wages, and fishermen and those having some other calling, are placed iu cla^s I I , I n class H I are labourers and thosa with small menus, and in class LV indigent people. Out oi 798 homesloads esarnined, 155 belong to class 1,232 to class I I , 90S to class I I I and 46 to class I T , hut the latter included professional beggars; the true number was about 20, there being two or thiee really poor householders in a villnge. I t wdl be Been tbat half of the people are in the first fcffo classes.

" The houses of the first class are well built and well stocked with cattle and poultry. Each homestead is composed of four houses, often with little out-offices; aud the agricultural imple­ments and produoe lying about are proofs of the posuessiou of some substance. Men of this class generally have under tenants and ottieiB in various degrees of dependence on them; and, where they hava date-tree cultivation, they are extremely well off, as demonstrated by the clothes they wear and the air of comfort about their houses. These men are certainly not aa a title in debt, but are often money-lenders, This class comprises the numerous lakhirajdai-s, who aia mostly Hindus of good caste, and still more numerous ganthiddis, who are of all castes and Muhammadons. Class I I are men fairly well off, but many ai'9 in ombarrassed circumstances. They represent the poor respectables of ihe agricultural world. Class I LI iocludes all the low caste people, such as Muchis, who as labourers find work suitable to their position. The high rate of the wages they command suggests that they must be well off, and the well-led appearance of themselves and their children satisfactorily proves it. The piospority of tho agricultural classes of this district is alw secured by various estra crops, such as eliiliies, tobacco, turmeric and sugaroa&e; and then there are many men other than the cultivators with shares in such crops. OD this ground, too, DO statistics that merely dealt with areas of holdings and amount of rent paid would give any true conception of the condition of the peasantry. The weavers also of these parte are fairly numerous m& gain a comfortable compet­ence."

This account fails to take into consideration iha extreme uiihealthiness of the district, The death-rate is high, healthy people are said to be rare, and there can be no doubt that niuoh misery is caused by the continual ravages of fevor and the lowered Vitality of the people. I t also fails to allow for tho indebtedness

RENTS, WAGES AKD PRICES. 8 7

of the people. On this point the Collector (a Bengali gentleman) mites :—

" I f l i e above account represents the condition of the people 20 years ago, a true picture of the present day would certainly be darker and more gloomy. Several successive lean years have rsduced tho circumstances of the agriculturist a and the labouring classes. The chronic indebtedness of the cultivating olaeses ia almost proverbial. Kven in a yeor of plenty they cannot get entirely out of the dutches oE the maliajan. The extension of jute cultivation has worked soma important changes in the condition of the people: while bringing some ready money into their pookats, it has considerably increased their ideas of comfort. The cultivators are now in many Instances belter housed and better clothed (ban before, but they now spend mors than what they actually earn and this indebtedness is increasing year after year. The cost of living is steadily increasing, owing to a general rise in the prices of food-grains, as well as of the other necessaries of life- The condition of the middle class bhadt a log) and those living on small fixed incomes ia also getting decidedly worse. UnEor innately, the people are excessively fond of litigation, and the stamp revenue shews a steady increase year alter year."

9S JESSORB.

CHAPTEE Y U I .

OCCUPATIONS. MANUFACfDRES 4.ND TKADB.

OoBDPi- ACCORDING to the statistics obtained at the oensua of 1901, T!DFB- Bgrioulture supports 71 per oeut. of the population, industries

15 per cent., the professions 1*9 per cont., and trade 0-& per ceufc. Of the agricultural population, 32 per coat, are actual workers, and these include 376,000 re at-payers and 30,000 rent-ieceivers; the number of the latter is unusually large for a Bengal district and is explained by the prevalence of subinfeudation. Of the industrial population 38 per cent, are actual workers, among them being 25,000 fishermen and fish-dealers, 14,000 cotton weavers anil 6,000 persona engaged in husking rice, most of whom are women. The proportion of actual workers is higher in the case of the professional classes, viz., 44 per cent.; the returcH shuw under this head 5,000 religious mendicants, 4,000 priests and 3,000 mediaal men. Among those engaged in other occupations are 44,000 general labourers, 11,000 herdsmen, 6,000 pu&W-bearers, 6,000 beggars and 3,000 boatmen*

Agrimi- Ot the local zamindari families possessing large landed pro-hml perties, only one, viz, that of the Raja of Naldanga, is Brahman, c Resea. ^ ^ ffl0Bt Qj ^ e 0( : j ) 6 r B gjg i^^yagthe. There- is one European

zamindar, Mr. Tweedie; he and the llaja of Naldanga are the only two resident landlords of importance, the other Bamiudare being mostly absentees. The higher classes of Muhammadans and the Brahmans, Baidyas and Kayasths are generally tenure-holders. Their social status cot alio mng them to till the land with their own hands, they generally acquire a permanent interest in the land from the zaroindsr, and then sublet it to others, who, in their turn, sublet it again, this process being continued until the aotual occupier of tbe soil is reached. Thus, there stand between the Bami&darand the actual cultivator different sets of tenure-holders and under-tenure-holdera, who have no interest in the land except as Bharers in its rent. The Sheikhs and lower Hindu oastes, such as Kaibarttas, Ohasadhopas, and Namasiidras, are ueually occupancy and non-occupancy ryots; while the field labourers ore usually Namasiidras or Sheikhs. A special class o£ field labourers consists

Statistics f S thu cenaua of 1911 are out j e t available.

OCCTltATlOHS, MANUFACTURES i\N» TRADE. S§

of the dawals or paddy *oulters, who flock to the rice-prodaclng tracts in the winter season, and obttun employment in cutting the paddy of the ryots' fields

females belonging to the higher Hindu castes, viz., the Bran- b.m oV macs, Batdyas aud Eayoaths, and to the upper olassea among women. Mnhammadans are exoluflively employed in domestic service in their husbands' or fathers' houses. Among the low castes, such as Bagdis, the women assist the males in cultivation of their fields and agricultural pursuits. As regards industrial castes, the Barui females arrange the betel-leaves into bundles before 'hey aie taken to the. market for sale; Kumuar women assist in tho preparation of earthen pots and m drying thssa in the sun; Malakar females prepare artificial flowers from cork. Tanti females prepare the thread with which the males weave; while the Goala and MayrS. females share, to a large extent, in the industrial pursuits of tbeir caste. The Dhohx's wife constantly assists her husband in washing elotb.es, while Namasudra and Sheikh women help m gathering and husbanding the paddy crop. Females of the Kaibartta, Buna, Bagdi and Dai castes attend on the wealthier classes and thus earn something to help in defraying the household expenses; tbey geneially work m the houses oE the wealthier classes as maid-servants, those of the Dai caste attending on new-born babes and serving as midwives and as nurses in the lying-in rooms. Buca, Bagdi, Dom, Hai i , Mucin and Hehfcnr females earn regular wages by day labour; thoy aro generally employed as Btieet and house sweepers, while the Mucbi females prepare and sell wickeiwork and cane baskets and other utensils for domestic use. Miuiammadau females of tha lower classes also earn money by selling rice, milk, etc., and by doing the work of maid-servants in Huhammadan houses. Both among the Hindus and Muhauuoadans, some women of the inferior gradea of society maintain themselves by husking paddy in the harvest season.

One of the most important industries in the distuct of Jessora UAVOFSC. is the cultivation and manufacture of date-sugar. Indeed, the | r t t E a

ryots in the north and west of the diatiict, and to some maiwfac. extent also in other parts of it, may almost be said to depend asV u i e* much upon the cultivation of date-palms from which sugar is

* fliia -iLCOiuifc D£ sugm m mufaUui e m Jcusurc; lius ton compiM fro« Sit Jnmcs Wcstittiul's Report <=» t&s Pa/net of Jtieare (1874), in irtick, Sugar Mann/actuse Btid Ttaievt Jessois, pnbliifaid m the StiitisLiml UoporLoi, 137G, Uo a titka bj Mr N N. li uwiji entailed The Dufe Sugar i'altn and Manufacture of Date Sugar (pulillaticd m tlio Quarterly Journal of the Bengal AEvmultiit«l Department, January and A[PIJI 10Q8), uid iioies conlulmted bs ub9 Coliettor.

90 ' Jfesaoftc.

produced, as upon any other branch of agriculture, This is no new development, for the district has long been prominent as a sugar-growing district. In ] 788 the Collector, in enumerating the loflBes caused by the cyclone of 1787, specially referred to the injury to the date trees and the deeiease of the sugar produce; ill 1792, he reported that "date sugar is l&ige\y manufactured and exported"; in 1791 the annual produce was leturned as 20,000 maunia, of which about one-half was exported to Calcutta. Of this, however, a Considerable quantity was eane'flugai, wbioh now-a-daya has been dihren from the fielJa and markets of Jessore by the produce of the date-palm.

lotbeBrst half of the- 19th wnturj the establishment of European factories gave & couaiderable impulse to t!ie manufac­ture. The first .English faiioiy in Lower Bengal was at Dhoba in the Burdwan district, and w&s erased by Mr. l^lake. When his profits began to decline, he formed a company, wbioh pur­chased the works from him for 4^ lakha.* Tire company had factories in this diatuot at Kotchandpur, wheie they set up English machinery, and aUo dt Trimo'iini, but failed about 1842. The Kotchandpur factory then passed into the hands of Mr. Newhouse, who brought out ins first vacuum pan, while TrimcfunI beojme the property of Mr. Saintsbury, who wonted it for three or. four years and then closed it. The factory o£ Chaugaohha was established about the same time (1842) by Gladstone Wyllio and Co., of Calcutta, and was first under the management of a Mr. Smith, and afterwards of a Mi'. HcLeod. There were out-faotories at Keshabpur, TritQohini, Jhingor-gachha, Narikelberia and Kotchandpur; but as i t woiked at a profit for only a year or two, it was SOJU closed. After I860 the factories at Lhaugachha and Kotchandpur alone were iu working order, aud they only manufactured sugar occasunally. A factory at Tahirpur, which was built about 1003 by Me. Newbouse, was worked for only two yaars, after wliich it waa sold and converted into a rum-distillery.

From the summary given above, it will be obvious that the history of the English sugar refineries is not a record of success but of failure. The explanation is that, after they bad deve­loped the industry, native merchan t stepped in and appropriated tha trade to vrhfch t i ey had given biith. The demand *"" native refined sugar was greater than that for the first-rate eugar manufactured by European means, and the Europeans conse­quently lost the trade. The pioneers among these native mer­chants appear to rnwe be%n members oi the Mavr i or confectioner — — - - i | ' J _ I -*i

* The Stnis of til SMigwt^ .. Q^atu llaYllls, « iSlb)f ya\, , '1, i>.

OCCtTAHONB, M-i U&ACTUREa AND TRADE. 9 l

caste, who st&ited operations about 1820, To those curious in audi mutters it may be interesting to Lnow tliat these success­ful merchants •rce.e Bam Sen from Daulatganj ID the Nadia district, Bhagaban De, and Da&arath India, who were followed by others from Salgaohbia in Bard wan and Santipur in Nadia. In couiBe of time they practically monopolized the sugar trade, which throve until about J S&D when it began to suffer from the competition of imported sugai 'Ihis decline has contmund, but in 1900-01 theie were 117 factories with an outturn valued at Us 15,15,000 ; the number at work lias since decreased stdl further, owmg to the fact that the raw pioduot is now diverted to Calcutta, where it is used for adulterating highar grade imported sugar In spite of the decline in the manufacture, Jessoie is still the ohief date sugar-producing district in Bengal, the outturn per annum being estimated at 1,221,400 cwts. out of a total of 1,559,679 owts. fc-i the whole Province.*

The factories are scattered over tbe district along the bants of the Nabogauga, Ihe Chilra, and the Bhou-ab rivers, Kotonand-pur on the Kabadak river is the principal centre of manufacture and trade At Tabu pur the sugm troika factory was repaired ia 1910 by an Iud an coro.pa.ny with the object ot producing sugar without employing animal substances in the manutaoture, but the work ia now (1911) at a standstill.

In Jessoie sugar is manufactured not flora the sugaieane, as elsewhere, but from the date-palm, the cultivation of which is much cheaper. Sugarcane occupies the best laud, lor which a high rent has to be paid, and it occupies it throughout the whole twelve months, leaving the soil exhausted at the eud. I t also demauds constant weeding, with imgalion and heavy manming. The date tree, on the other hand, will grow on almost any fairly dry ground It requires very littia attention oi tillage, the plantations merely being kept free from undergiowth and ploughed, fioia time to time ; and although it yields no letum for the first BIX or seven yeaia, it goes on giving an annual supply of juice for the next twenty-five years A peasant can scatter a date seed here and there though his holding, and in seven years he finds himself mieceipt oi a steady income fiora the tieea. When planted on a large scale, they ais laid out ra rows, with 12 feet between each tree, or even less, such rows form boundary lines between fields and holdings.

Tapping begins when the tree is seven years old and ia oanied TflH»Dg. en in the cold weather. When the rainy season is over, and

* S. N. Bitieiji, The Bats Sugar Falm, Cliwvterly Joiiirul „£ t i l c Ucngal Agricultural Depaitwcub, Jtuuiurj 130S, pp lbl-62.

93 JESSORK.

Iheio is no more fear of rain, the lower leaden of the terminal tuft of foliage are cut of£ for one-half of the circumference of the hunt, leaving a bars surface mensiiring about 10 or 12 inches square. This surface ia at first white, but with exposure turns brown, and weathers into the appearance of coarse matting. After about a week, when it is dry, tapping begins. The firet thing done is to maJce in the exposed surface a out in the shape of a very broad hollow V, about three inches across, and a quarter on half an inch deep. Sap exudes from the surface, and, caught by (ha sides of the V, runs down to the angle, where a split bamboo twig, seven or eight inab.es long, is inserted to catch the flowing liquor and carry it, like a spout, into an earihenware jar, which is attached by string to the trunk of the tree. This wort has to be done carefully, for careless insertion of the bamboo spout may rip up the tree and cause its death.

The prooees of tapping is repeated every sixth evening in thu foEowing manner. On the first evening, a out is muds us above

described, and the saccharine sap is allowed to run during the night; it is removed in the morning, when tho heat of the sun cauees fermentation, which closes tho pores of the wood. The liquor thua obtained, which is the strongest and best, is called jifan. On the second evening a new cut is mado, not nearly EO deep as the first, a mere paring in fact, and for the second night the sap is allowed to run. The produce is termed dokat, and is not quite so abundant or BO good as prai/. A third paring (tekdl) is rarely made, but on the third night the esuding surfaoe is merely Bcraped clean or rubbed to make the sap flow. The liquor collected on this night is called jh&ia and is stili lesa a.bundent'and less rich than the rMai; moreover, towards the end of tho season, when the weather is getting hot, it is unfit for sugar manufacture and yields only coarse molasses. These tbree nights are ttte period Di activity in the tree; and it is then allowed to remain at rest for three nights, when the same process is renewed. A rotation is secured by dividing the trees in a grove into six or seven groups called paid*. Thus, different sections UTG in different stages of tapping: and the owner is always busy.

As a new cut is made over the previous one every sixth day, it follows that the trea gets more and more hewed into as the season progresses; and towards its end, the exuding surface often is as much as four inches within the bark of the tree. I n alternate seasons alternate sides of the tree are used lor tlie Lapping; and aa eBeh season's cutting is above that of the previous season, but on the opposite side, the stem of the tree has, if looked at from the side, a cuiious zigzag appearance. The age of a tree can of

OCCUPATIONS, MANUFACTURES AWE IHADB. 9 3

flonrae be at once ascertained by counting the notches, and adding BIS or seven, the number of years passed before tlio first tapping. Forty notches hfLva been counted on a 'ree, b .t one rarely sees so many, and such a tree would be almost useless except as timber. The bared surface, made previous to the notching, becomes smaller and smaller as the palm advances in height and age, and is some­times not. more than four inches square. The notohes are almost always on the east and west sides of She tree, as baing mora exposed to the sun, and very rarely on the north, and south sides; also, tbe first notch appears to be mado in by far the majority of instances on the east side.

One may expect from a good tree a regular average of five seera of saccharine sap per night, excluding the quiescent nights. The colder and clearer the weather, the more copious and rich is the produce. Foggy and cloudy nights, rain and high winds affect the sap injuriously both in quality and quantity. Tapping is begun in the early days of November. In December and Janu­ary the liquor flows heBt, and it dwindles away as the warm days of March ooma. If. the cultivator begins too early, or carries on too late, he will lose in quality and quantity as much as he will gain by extending the tapping season.

Tbe nest process is the boiling of the liquor, and this every Boiling, cultivator does for himself, usually -within the limits of the plantation. Without boiling, the sap speedily ferments and becomes useless; but ouco boiled, it may be kept for very long periods. I t is therefore boiled at once in large pots placed on a perforated dome, beneath which a strong wood fire is kept burn­ing, the pared leaves of the trees being used among other fuel. The liquor, which was at first brilliant and limpid, becomes a dark brown, half-visoid, half-solid mass, called yur (crude sugar). This, when still warm, is poured from tlio boiling pan into earthen­ware pots containing 10 to 12 seers, there to OQQI and solidify. Experiments made some years ago by the Agricultural Depart­ment showed that better IJW than tliat obtained by the rjots could be prepared by boiling the juice in shallow iron pans, such aa are used in BihSr for boiling sugarcane juice, than by boiling the date juice in deep earthen pans as is now done. The guv pre­pared in shallow pans was judged to be of an exceptionally fine quality by competent persons, and yielded Eugar of better quality than the best kinds of sugar produced by the country sugar refineries by their own methods.

A. cultivator, after boiling down his juioe into gur, does not ordinarily do more, but sells it to the refiners, who complete its manufacture into sugar Near Itefihibpur, however, a number

94 JESS0HF,

of peasants manufacture their own sugar and afterwards Bell it to the exporters. There is also, in almost all parts of tha district, a class of refiners different from those who are refiners by profession. These are the more substantial cultivators, many of whom combine commercial dealings with agriculture. They receive the gur from tiro small cultivators in their vicinityj and sometimes also purchase it in the adjacent markets; after manufacturing what they thus collect, thev take their sugar to some exporting mart, and Bell it to the larger merchants These, however, are the outsiders in the sugar trade, for by far the greater quantity of the sugar is manufactured by regular refiners. Few of the latter purchase direct from the cultivators, ae the small quantity which each man offers for sale would render this procedure highly inconvenient. There is consequently a class of middlemen, called befdm, payors or ddials, who collect the produce from the growers, and sell it at a email profit to the refiners. They also sometimes make advances to the peasants to aid them in their cultivation, being repaid in produce; but the growers are not as a tide, dependent.on such advances, oud the greater number of bepaiu simply make ewiumcuB round the country, buying up the gur, and bringing it in to the merchants.

On market days aho, another class of bepdris may be seen lining the roads by which tho cultivators bring in their produce. They pick up the jai'3 of gur by ernes or twos from the smaller cultivators, and make a profit by selling them in bulk to the refiner. The mere substantial lyote sometimes bring in quantities large enough to be sold direct to refiners, but this is only done when they have a considerable amount to dispose oil—one or more cart­loads— nnd the great bulk oF. ihe gur cornea through the hands of intermediaries in the various methods just described. Of course the earthen jar is transferred along with the gur that it contains ; separation is, in £aet, impossible, and the refiners have to smash the jars to get out the content". There is cocsequently a great trade in pottery during the whole of: the sugar season, for every cultivator must buy as many BBW jars as he sells jars of gur.

Maniif»c- Having traced the gur into the hands of the refiners, the piooeaa ^ r a , °I of manufacture remains to be described. There are several asgnr methods of refining, and two or three sorts of sugar produced.

Tho following is the manner of mjLmjfa.ctiir.iiig; dhislua sugar, a soft, moist, non-granular, powdery sugaT, used very largely in the prefnraticL] oi native sweetmeats. The pots of (jiir having been broken, the contents of each are carefully seraped off the broken piows, and tbe j a r ij, put in baskets, which hold abort * mimnd W f c , a i r f u » about fiitccu i,l0heB doey. The ntr iow ia k a t e u

OCCUPATIONS, MAHDFACtURES AND TRADE. 95

down pretty level, and the baskets are placed over open, pans for eight days, during whioh the molasses drain into the open pan beneath, leaving the more solid saccharine matter in the basket. In order to complete the refining, a layer of ziyate, a river weed, which grosra freely in the Ka-badak, Is placed on the top of the sugar. After about eight days of this treatment the sugar on the surface is purified and much blighter in colour This Heaohed sugar is out away, chopped up and put out to dry and a fresh quantity of &\yal& weeds is placed on (he sugar remaining in the baskets, the process being continued till it has all bean bleaohed. According to Sir •lames "Westland, He effect of the weed is to keep up a continual moisture, wbioh descending through the mass carries the liquid molasses with it, leaving thesugareomparatively white and pare. I t seems more probnble howevei that it is not the moieture from the siyala that blenoba= the sugar, hut an acid or alkaline in the weed, as there are no other river weeds found in the Kabadak that are known to possess this quality. "When dry, the sugar is a fnir, lumpy, row sugar, find weighs about 30 per cent, of the original mass, the rest of the r/ur having passed off in molasses. I t ia kuo^in as (Ihulua sugar from the fact that it is produced in clods, which have to be chopped up, beaten and reduced to powder.

By diminishing the period of exposure under dyald weeds to five or sis days instead of eight, a less lefin&d sugar is prepared. Its inferiority is shown by its deeper colour, hut that ia in a measure remedied, by pounding it into a fine powder. This coarae sugar is often adulterated with earth, or snud, and it has been observed that the floors of the refineries are somotimes a foot or more bene&th the W e i of the giound outside, the differ­ence representing (he amount of dust which has been swept up with the sugar when it is collected after drying.

The first " droppings" of molassps, which ooza ont from the The .irop. baskets in the manuer described, are rich in sngar, and are used, '>!n85,

especially ia Ehu Urtifed Provinces, to sweefeu articles of food. I t entirely depends upon the prioe offered, whether they are sold at once or reserved for auother process of sugar manufacture In the latter case they are b-iled, to prevent fermentation, end placed in large earthenware jars to cool On cooling, they form into o. mass somewhat like gur, but not so rich. After this, sugar ia obtained by draining and the cigala tieatmenf as already described, but it is coarser and darter iu colour thfui the kind Erst diseribed, If thn rcfioor is not very honest, and if heia sure oH fhiditg immediate sale, lie employs a much moie speedy process. Taking tha cooled <j«r, ho squeezgs out the mola'saa by compressing it in a bag and then, drying and breaking up the

06 JESSORE.

residuum, as Belle it os engar. It does not look very different from that prepared m the raoie elaborate way, but soon ferments— whence the necessity of finding an immediate purohaser. The last droppings are also boiled and thus become molasses, which are shipped to the Eastern Bengal markets of Niiayanganj, Jhalakati, Nalchiti and Bluwal These molasses ate known as data gw and are used ior sweetening tobacco and malting country rum, The yield oE one maund of gm- is repoilcd to be 15 eeers of sugar and 22 seers of molasses, which leaves 3 seeis to he accounted for. This loss of 3 seers in the maund is known 09 falli and is the reduction of weight resulting from the different boilings.

Manurac- The ordinary soft oi dlmltti sugar enn never be clean, because, crystalline from the processes employed, whaierer impurity there may msar- he in the origmal crude mass mnst always appeal' m the

fmi'-hed article. Another objection to it is that it liquiEes readily and cannot be kept for any considerable time. Crystalline or paH sugar does not suffer from these disadvantages and is ruannfantured in the following manner.

The guy is first east upon platfoima to allow the EIQIBSSBH to run out, and as ranch as then flows off ia collected as first drop­pings. It is neat put in gunny hags and squeeaod to separate the moIasseB further. The sugar which remains behind is boiled wilh water in Imge open pans, and as it boils, all Bourn ia taken oft It is then strained and boiled a second time, and left to cool in Hat basins. When cooled, it is already sugar of a rough sort, and styafa leaTes are put over it, and it ia left to drain. The result is a good white sugar known ae pala or saefi/ti (true sugar)-Should any remain at the bottoiji of the vessel still unrefined, it is again treated with siyala leaves. The fSist droppings and the droppmgs under the leaves are collected and squeezed again in the bags; from the sugar left bobmd a second small quantity of refined sugar is prepared in exactly the same way, i.e., by two boil-iuge The final droppinga, tthioh are known as chili f/ur, are not used for further sugar manufacture. About 30 per cent, of the original weight of the gut is turned out in the form of pure on atalline sugar,

There ia another method of manufacture peculiar to Kesbab-pur, and slightly differing from that just deaciibed. Thenar is fiitt boiled m [orgo open pots, and into each potful ia put a hand­ful of i/tchh or burnt molasses; it is then left to cool. As it oools, it begin* to crjstilli?e, after which it is heated with mj&la leaf, and thus refined. The droppings are again tieated m the same nmnner. The last droppings are ta int ; they fond

OCfTJPATIONS, M4HUFACTURES AM) TRADE 9 7

the bkhh used in manufacture, the offset of which is apparent ]y to ranks one boiling do instead of two. The produce 10 sugar 13 2a or 3ij ^ei cent of tlio weight of tho ongiiial gur

The English process of manufacture, in uso in factories at LCotchan Ipui and Ohaugachha, is at follows. The raw material 13 mixed intb n ecitiin nmount of wuter and boiled i t open osteins, the boiling bung accomplished, not by five, but by the introduction oi a earn The 1 gStei impurities fl mt to the surface and are ekmnud off, aftei which the boiling solution ib made to Bow anay tiuough bliuket straiceis into aoothei cistern I t only remains to d m e off the water and desiccate the sugar by heat. If this is effected by raising the whole to boilirg tc niperalure, the result would be sugar, giiumlir indeed in oonsti ucfciou, but cot differing in this respect iiom nati e crystallized sugir. But if the water be driven off without raiBing it to boiliiig point, the crisp and spark­ling appeaianee of. loaf sugai is alwnj s obtained. This object is attained by bodng in B vacuum pan, ihatis to say, a large closed cistern, lroni winch a powerful pump-exhauat haB paitially exhausted the an Tbc 1-wer the ntmospheiic pressure on the surface of the liquid, the lowei the tempi latuie at which eUilLi tion fakes pittce. Tlie pump is theiefore regulated so as to diminish the pleasure to EUIII a point that the liquid boils it about lhu° Fahrenheit. Tho apparatus leing kept regulated to this point, all the water is diiven oft by boiliug, by meai s of introduced steam, without the tempera'iue becoming higber than 160° I t is tmaccesbaiy here to describe the mechanical devices for emptying, watching and testing the liquid within the closed cistern, m lor lcgiilnticg the supply of heat and Ihe action of the pump, whioh is dnveu by steam I t is sufficient to pass at, once to the end of tho vacuum pan ttage, which lu^ts eight hours, offer which the mass in the pan, which is m a viscid state, is inn off into sngar-loaf moulds. It is then left to cool in the moulds, which are placed, upside down, above a pot. The molasses by lis own weight diopa out through a IIOIB m the vertex and is caught in the earthenware pct.bencath

The last of the molasses is washed out m the following « ay The uppermost inch of the sugar m tho mould is eeiaped off, moistened, aud put hack. The moisture *mks tlnough the mai«, find with it theniolassea. This is dune thnce thesugai lennining Uelve days in the moulds, and then IhB purification is oonsileied to be finished, and the loaves may be turned out of the moulds If the raw material used is the pa; as it cornea from the cultnatoi, the result is a yellowish, sparkling loaf-sugar; but if native

n

98 JESSOUfi,

refined dhulaS sugar ia used, the loaf is a brilliantly white sugar,

r*r d ^ e following description of the sugar marts and refineries is refineries, quoted from Sir Jaiuea Westlfmd's Eeport. "There can be few

biiBier sosnea than snob places asKofebiiidpiu' or Kesho.bpur dis­play during the sugar Benson. For tour or five months (he produce ia every day seen pouring ia from every direction. At Eotohaudpur alone, two or three thousand maunda is the daily supply nf gvr, and at Kenbabpur probably about one thousand. Curts laden with jars, cultivators bringing in their own gi,r, fill the streets ; the shops of the beparit are crowded, with SDIIMS, and the business of weighing and receiving goes on withcut intermis­sion. Larger transactions <tre going ou at t?ie doors of the refineries, where carta fully laden stand to deliver their cargoes to the refiner. At Koteliandjmr HUE occurs every day, DDOID cr \eBS, though on tlie regular market days there is more business done than on others. At Keshabpui'also therois a daily market, but nt the other places the supplies are mostly timed so as to reach on tho market day,

"Letusenter a refinery,—a large cpen square, shut in with a fence, and having sheds on oue or two sides of it, where part of Ike vmrii, and specially tho storing, is done. If it is a refinery of pakS sugar, we Hud several fucnaoes wifhin fleynrd, and men busy at each, keeping up the flic, or skimming the pots, or ^par ing them. If il isdhuha sugar, woBeemnnyrrmsof baskets, with the sugar, covered with si$a/d leaf, standing to dicp; rows of enrihen p< fs, Willi i/iir, or sit^ar, or molasses, according to the stage of manufacture are seen ou all sides; and in the same open yard nil the different processes are at the same time going on.

" T i e manufacturing foason extends from the middle of .December to the middle of May. In Peceniber the merchants and the refiners all congregate at the snjrar towns, and in M'ny they finish their wort nad go home. CVnipared with tin iv slate during these five months, the nppearanec of such places at Koteliandpnr nnd Ecshabpur during the rest of the year is almost that of a deserted town. Tlia reilncries are filut np; no gar is coming in; nothing going on."

cultivation ^ s r«gnrds the profits of cultivation and manufacture, Sir an<l tag. James Westland mutes the following estimate, Assuming 4$

months as the duration of the tapping Benson or about b'7 productive nights, and 5 seers as the j i d d oE one night, the outturn of one tiee would be 335 aim of liquor, which would give about 40 seers or one maund of r/w, at the rate of Bs. 3 to Its. 2-4 a maund. A plantation with, an area of one bigM coptainiug a

OCCUPATIONS, MANUFACTURES AK» TRAM. 9 9

hundred trees will therefore produce Rs. 201) to Rs. 225 worth of (/HI; if all the trees are in gool bearing. AB it takes from 7 to 10 seers of liquor to produce one seer of gur or crude sugar, the amount of produce which one good tree can yield ia a season can be easily estimated. According to another estimate,* however, the average number of sap-yielding day 3 is only 50, so that the outturn per tree would be 2a0 seers, and the profit would therefore he less. This Litter estimate is supported "by a note contributed by the Collector stating that the ordinary computation of the profits derived from a date-tree plantation in this district ha3 hitherto been eight annas per tree peT annum clear profit. One bigha oE land will hold 100 date trees, and the net profit, if they are all in good bearing, is generally ri'okotiofl at Es. 50 per annum.

The cultivator's expenses in makiug gur are coueideiable. In addition to the ground rent, he has to pay the wages nf the labourers who prepare the tieea for tapping and then tap them. These labourers arc engaged for the season at fixed rates, which arB mentioned later Then, the cultivator has to procure fuel to boil down bis date juice, and fuel ia more difficult to procure now than it was formerly; in foot, the cultivator has to buy most of the iuel be wants, The prico of the gur pots is another big item in the list of expenses For oveiy pot of gitr he prepares, the cultivator has to get a new pot, which ia broken up at the sugar factories to which his gur is sold and is subsequently converted into road metal. He wants at least one pot for each date tree in bearing iu his plantation. I t has also to he remem­bered that for tho first seven yerua the date tree is not productive. The average life of a date tree is about 25 years, so that the pro­fits of 25 years must he divided oy 32 to represent the profit of eafih. year.

The following estimate of the profits of cultivation is contri­buted by a former Collector. " Sir James Westland's calculation that one maund of gur is the yeaily yield of a good tree appears to be much too high, especially for an aveioge yield. From en­quiries made it would appear that the yield is about 15 to 20 seers of gur per tree. Taking a una-big/ta field oontaming 100 trees, it would follow that the cultivotor gets 50 niaunda of gur, for which he gets E.s. 75 at the rate of lie. 1-? per mauud. His ex­penses are ground rent (unless the plantation be one ho has him­self mads), l is . 5 ; price of 300 gur and date-juice pets Us. 9 -6 ; price of four large pots for boiling juice, He. 1 ; fuel, Rs. 8 ;

•* ~S. N. Bunerjl, Tie Dale Sugar Palm, Quarterly Journal of the Bangui Agrloultui'J Deiiai'LuiLiiii, Jimiwj 1903.

H 3

100 JEflSOO,

wages of labour for cutting the same, Es. 4 ; rjSehkl for shaving-the trees, Es. 3-4; gaehfti for tapping them, Es. 10; o servant fo hail tho date juice (wages for 4 months) Its. S; cart-hire for Winging 50 m&wi&a of guy to markat, Es. 5; cultivation of the laud (ploughing), Re, 1-8; setti.Bg of tho .Cac/j &W« ddss (a yearly charge) annas 8; in all, lis. LJ4-10.

If the caltivator gets as much as 20 seers of gw per free be makes a net profit of Es. 20. But if the yield per tree is ies*, say 15 seers oi gttr per tree, lie gets only 3 r£ irauods of, t/w from his aneMf/ha plantation, which he sells for Es. 56-6 while his expenses Tsmain practically the same.

"Auother calculation as to the cultivator's profits reaches me from JTotohandpur. My informant, who is thg leading attthon\y on the sugar question in ICotcbfindpur, writes:—'Two hundred trees on 2 bighSs of land produce 50 matmds of aw which at P.s. 2 par mauud yield Es. 100. The expenses are gaohi lobnu-rers, Es. 24 ; 7t/^n labourers, Es. 15; perquisites of above (food, etc.), Bs. 38-4; knives daos), KG. l j pots, Es. 5-5; rope, Re. 1; fuel, Rs. 15; rent, Es. 4 ; in all Rs. J 03-9, which works out at a loss to the cultivator.' Puttier, my coirespondent admits that the average piioe of £""' this yeai (1902) is Es. 1-13 and not Es, 2, and this price of Ee. I-13 is what is paid to thepadst: The cultivator parts with his ym' for considerably less. My oor-

.reapondent adds that where a cultivator worts himself and also has the assistance of bis relatives, gar pays, but not otherwise. I t is clear, however, thai if lelatives assist, ihey take a -hare of

•the profits. Further, the labour contributed by the cultivator himself is as much an expense, to be debited against prcflts aris­ing- from the price of gin; as if outside labour were employed and paid for,"

As regards the profits of the refiners, (he Colleotoi wrote in 1502;—(l At present, Eotcbandpui umefiued sugar sails at about Us. •! a niauad, fcntcbft weight, that sua representing a rough averflge between the prices of dhra sugar (No. I) at Efl 4-6 aud Itunda sugar (No, I I ) at Es. 3.12 to Es. 4. Molasses sells at

"Re, l-I a nmivnd, Itutcba weight, while guv is bought by the sugnj manufacturers at JEotchaadpur at l ie. 1-13 per mannil, tutcha weight. As one mauud of git)' produces about 15 seeri of sugar and 23 seers oi molasses, a simple calculation shows thai the sugar manufacturer mates a gross profit of aunas 4-6 on every raaund of gUl- ho hays. Uoit much of the gj OK proS t is swallowed up in maimfflcltiring- the f>ugar, I Lave no means oi determining' but there can be no doubt that after deducting the working ex­penses of a sugar factory which must be considerable, the margin

OCCLfATIONS, MAMJFAfltJREB A\D 1RA15E 1 0 l

of profit left to the sugar man u factum can only be very small."

A company, with Indian gentlemen &s share-holdeis and Other directors, has lecemly (in 1909 been fcinied, and a factory opBned at Jessore, foi (he mnmifnctuiG of combs, buttoi a and. mats, under ths supaivision of an Indian e\peit tiained in Japan The hand-loom weaving industiy is fctill of some importance especially m Sidbipaia and Naubata, there being a considerable manufacture both of coarse and fine cotton cloths, and al=o of mosquito cuitaim; m parts of the distuct the Serampoie pattern of hand-loom has been adopted Mais and baskets ore made by Mucbia and Dorns and have a good heal sale, Jesenre being one of the few districts wlieie theia is somo ocritmlized mat-malting Cart-ivheeln ore eTtensiuely made, those prepaied m the Jheoida subdivision being exported la bGats and sold at the maiket of Badmia north of Basrrhat m the 24 Fnrganas. Lime for white-washing and eating with pan is piepared from shells found in the maishes 'Jlhey are gatheied by Buna and Bagdi women and fold to Bailis, who bum them iu miniature kilns and convert them into lime. Pottery of various shapes is mamifaetuied in tlia distnct, the vessels aie used foi domestic purposes, and for boiling date juice before its conversion into sugar. I t is not all kinds of poltety whioh will bear tne continuous haul firing required for boiling down the juiee, and 'ome pofters have obtained a special reputation foi the excellence of their wares in this lespeot The whole |of the country about Chaugachlia and Kotchandpur 13 supplied princi­pally from one village, Baglidauga, a little west oi Jea&cre, where the clay seems to be of unusually good quality. Native gold­smiths make gold and silver ornaments of a common type, ircnsmiths prepare the ordinary does, knives, e tc , and biats-ware of an oidinary ohnraclor is produced by the local braziers, Thesa articles, as well as the country shoes prepared by Mucins, are sold at local markets and bazars CutL?iy of a superior quality is produced at Bhawakhali near Jessore, gond specimens, of winch weie exhibited at the Jessoie Iudis tnal Exhibition

of 1909. A number of brazieis live at Mdgiam, 2 1111U3 north-west of

KeshnbpuT, and at the adjoining village of Jagannathpur. Their manner of trade is thus deuei ibed by 811 James "Westl&nd — " A t the beginning of the cold weather Ihey go out with iheir wares—nil aolta of brass vessels Many oE ILera wander over the eattem parts ci the district, and over Backergunge, travelling m their boate, whioh are filled with their goods; a few go laudwaidia,

J 02 JESSORE.

1907.

t*kmg their wares in carts. They sell them as occasion offers, pamy tor money, partly for old brass; and after they have, for four months or 30, g0m about hawking their goods, they come back to tHeir homes The old biass which they baye obtained, they hand over to the So/autidr& or brass founders who work it up at the rate of about Es 10 per maund, and thus prepaie a stock, which ho kmua, t, g 0 out to sell nRSt cold Weather." At LohagiirS in tie Narad subdivision some immigrants from the United

frounces have sot „p the manufacture of bracelets, made of XrtTTJ'Tr , ° a l o , l t t a At Talmpur tobacno cming was jtertM by Mr. AfcLeod of Kotchandpur, but was girea up in

h>''Q.irj. ^ ^ t h e e s t i n o t m a n f u o t u r e s of the dutnct special mention should be made of the ind.eo industry, on account of the iuipor-7 ,P"T i t , L a s P % e d in a Q economic history of fcbo district. A sKelcnhasalreadybeengivaujnOMpicr JI of its early history A ° t V

h o m d ' ^ 110WIS6O There w a s then a Dumber of noumnmg concerns scatferol over the d-sfnot, but the riots « M M a considerable dtmiuutioa of the area under cultivation tui 17 f '

afS t r y 8 r " d u a l I 7 helmed l a 1893-96 there wore J ' / Uf°\™> the produce of wlneli was returned at 1,416 m a u n d s T a b e d fit 3 H a k b . b a t 8hOTtly after this the Km piice ooiamea toi the natwal prodnet and the tompefahon oflhe a r M m ] <jJe dealt a fatal blow to the indnstiy There u e now only two W i s e , which are m a moiibund oondzt.cn, and the

1 memorial of the industry consists of the rama or sites of old t a c o „ e s dotted oyer the district, especially 3n tha a r t of the S L l ^ g U l a s u d m » 'J te following account of the OoiJeoS. p l e p M ' e d h 0 m a n o t 6 ^ t u b u t e d by the

f" ^^geS-'' em'n l% l h^ e h'ga C0UeGrm imder B u r ° P B a D

facto,; , r c - ~ ^ J UwSindlmn concern, with its headquarters the rf -A , n CD i h e W a b > « a on the western border of K i r k m n s " M l 7 i s i 0 D ' wiioli bad mbordmate f a c t o r s at

oa .«X e s S T ; ' T 1 ^ BisMia' *«•*«»•• A f c f l Bnd

faetorvafT T i J o t a ( ' a b concern, witli its headquarters a t D b ? i « m . r ° I L t I l f l ' C n i n f l r U 7 W ' a c d Jflpondent factories

H a a a L j n j T , r B j * l t h ^ q u w t e r a factories at Furanafci and tones at W n \ N a b a g a n S s - w ! l l c h kad subordinate fec-" d w o concern 7 , ' ^ W ^ Pabahati, etc There m s aleo an

family, which h ? ? D £ t 0 0 n e ° f f , ' e c ° - s h a r e r s o f t h e N a r 3 i l

BubdiTJSiou, iaetoriss on the Kumar river in the Magura

OCCUPATIONS, MAHTIFACTURES AND THAI*. i 0 3

Of these concerns the Siiidhuxi concern was by far tbe largest and Taost important, its factories in a good year, being able to send oyer 1.000 maunds ol iudigc- to the Calcutta market. Joradah in a good year could produce about 600 maunds, and the two divisions of the Purohati-Hazrapur concerns about 400 maunds. At that time (ho prices obtained for the indigo of Jessore ranged from about Us. 380 to Es. 300 per maund lor good indigo, and from Rs. 160 to Es. L80 for inferior qualities. "With such prices the planters were able to assure themselves of a steady profit in spite of tbe loss nrtused by steadily recurring lean years. But with the advent of chemical iudigo into the market tbe price of the natural dye began to fall, nnd it become obvious to those interested in the industry that a point would soon be reached when it would not be prolitible any lunger to grow indigo. Had labour become cheaper as the ptioe of indigo fell, it would have been possible to continue ihe industry f.ir some years lunger; but. in this district, as elsewhere, owing to an increased demand for labour in other places easily accessible by railway, and also owing lo a rise in the price of food ttirffs, both tilled and unskilled labour were able to command higher wages,

The downfall of the industry wa* hastened by two other Onuses, (1) tbe increasing demand for bind, and (9,1 the unpopu­larity of tlie indigu crop aniung the cultivators themselves. To explain intelligibly how these two causss operafod to secure the extinction oi an onoe flourishing industry, it will be necessary to touch briefly on the zarmndari system of the indigo concerns in this district. An lmligG concern rop:Gscntel by its manager was, to nil intents and purposes, a aanmidar of the lands belonging to the concern, and, in common with most zarniudars, did not hold all its e&tatea under the same right and title. As regards some ol its estates, it was in the position of a supoiior landlord paying reveuue direct to Government; as regards other estates it occupied the subjulinate position of a lessoe or fanner of rants for a term of years. When these bases or tiaras expirtd, & difficulty was often felt in thsir renewal. The lessor frequently wanted an enhanced rent, which the lessee was unable or unwill­ing ta pay. The friction, which arose between tbe superior faniiloid and (ha subordinate concern, if not ramoral by tlie more peaceful method of aibiti&tion, not infiequeutty resulted in a crop of cases in the courts. Litigation, even under the most favourable cireum stances, being sn espenaive luxury, there oan bo little doubt that an indigo concern which required the dubious aid of a series of contested eases in the omuta to obtain

•io4 JBSSOijB.

« « dibble ffiauDerf a S i f/!n whe» " !««» ™ renewed

J»«d W to in ooLaQOSrof t t " " -S e D e r a 1 '^ "»*»"•*«* a t w » tbe inore„; ™ J « 'Wore dear that in

^ r ^ ° ^ f ^ t i o n m u | ; ™ o f W coupled With thG ^ mdigo concerns. B 8 r , 0 M l^ diminished the profits

the h e a d l l i a n of the T]Uaf le thlfT S0li ' Orally through

»*ffc At the beginaiJ tfaf a p a r f f o r * " cultivation of

% ported out the lands Xoh J f f t ' 0 * a " a r f ^ rfU-g* d™g thscomi^ year J 7 b 9 r e S e " e d *>r indigo « ^ W to by the UwJr l T ^ W a s uo t- « ^ mla. »««rily not very ...itaSe for i i l ' T ^ *""**> were

l™g0 ^YinS W parodied on flL . t o "waved for

was ready for the Si0tle, who* h e R6 t 0 t h e ™>P m^u! tbora fo the feb™ Be ™ u b u D d l e 3 " and brought

WM ridiculously W fo/^^^'V.^Uttheelo.eoflt ^ i the ryot a * ^"™J>™*> g»d Sold" £ 2 paddy, JiaTfl b r , °.Uf,s l J r o " of ft3. 3 ^ , wnwn

< * « ' * > " a l l0 f f e d ( 0 ^ J » * » odtivatioilo£ his fc^o!

'«t»iy h-d M t e m p b 7 e d l l " ^ to ol"*f l Et= « d if the

« * only f0Ur b , ] n d J *> ryot did a o t c a r a

s s s f c ;Ld;g°- «*Cd!/s 2ui?Gant ciiftt wh-the i^go g . I e f e r , a ^ ( S ^ ' J ? ™-d by the

OCCUPATIONS, MANUFACTORBS AND TRADE, l 0 5

Regarding the extinction of the- industry a format1 Collector writes; "The disappearance of the indigo concerns of the district has been, on the whole, a distinct loss to the people of Jessore. The planler was a. friend to his rjots in many ways. The indigo factory w*s a e jurt where petty oases were cheaply " aud fairly decided ; the indigo planter was a banker from whom the ryots got adTanocs in bad arsons on very easy temva. The factory used its iufkeace to settle disputes between the ryots and promoted ihem fa carious ways. The Uhawanipur KhaL. which was re-excavated soma years ago in the Jheuida, subdivision, and is admittedly a, boon to tl.e hundreds of villages on or neaj.' it, x

was re-excavate,! chiefly thiough the personal exertions of the manager of the Sindhrui concern. Schools and dispensaries hiye grown up round indigo factories and have been supported by the . factories ohiefly. If the village roads in the Jhenida aubdivisioa are in good condition, it is due to the planters who made aad maintained them. In a word, the planters of the district identified themselves, to a great extent, with tho interests of (heir tenantry, and this should he noted and planed to llieir credit before they are entirely forgotten."

The piLnoiptil imports are rice, and sitiidrt (Eeritiera hlorttlis) TIUDE. wood froni Bnekergunge and the Suudarfcans, cotton piene-goods, cotton twist, salt, kerosene oil, flour and potatoes from Calcutta, and coal from Burdwau. The prinoipal exports are poddy, pulses, jute, linseed, famnrind, cocoa-nuts, unrefined sugar, oil­cake, hides, earthen jars, cart-wheels, bamboos, bones, betel-nuts, timber, rjhi and hsh, ^hich are exported chiefly to Backorgunga and Calcutta. Most of tho sugar produced at Kotcliandpur goeB to the Calcutta market to supply the requirements of native sweetmeat vendors; while the chief market, for its rnrJasses is Narayangnoj, Some of ifa sugar also goes to Naleliiti and Jhalakati in tho Eaokei'gunge district, and the remainder is scattered over the numerous bnaaia of the Jessoie, Nadiii and Mursbidabad districts. Almost all the dhulna. sugar pioduoed at other places finds its way to Nalobiti and Jhalakati. Except in the Jhenida subdivi­sion, where there is a large amount of cart traffic, most oE the trade ia carried by boats and is in tbe hand of i-ab.5 and Teli dealers, but considerable quantities of jute aad bamboos are sent by rail to Calcutta, Kotcliandpur ia t i e largest, and Keslmbpur the second largest centie of t rade; Naldauga, Chaug&chbA, Magura, Jhenida, Cbandkhali, Khajura, and Binodpur are important trading villages. ^ ^

106 JESS ORB.

CHAPTER r X * J

/ MEAEs'3 OP COiUMTTNICATIOH-. EiKi-r TUADIIION relates tliat tlie Qnt road in tho district was made CSTION>. ' ab>ng the bank of the Bhairao by KhSnja Ah and his followers

as they marched southwards to tlie Siiodarbans in the fiftoent.li century. Traces of tbia road a;e still found in places raised upon a fairly high embankment. This road is not enieied in too earliest map showing roads m Bengal, 712., that of Yalentijn (puhlisl'ed ia J723, but based on data collected by Van den Brouoke in 1658-Q-i), according to which the district was served by two roads, oue lying within the limits of Jessore and the other outside it. The former started in Burdwfia and passing through Hooghly and Jessore., stretched acioss JbViIdpur to the Dacca district. The latter road wig an important route to the north running along the right baDk of the Padma from Suti to Fathabad (Faridpur) and thence to Dacca. At the end of the eighteenth century the district remained almost as destitute of roads a-, two centuries bafore, presumably because theriversTurniBhpd the most convenient means of transit. At this time the public road from Calcutta to Dacca passed through Jessore; but it appears [0 hare been rather a. track kept up for country traffic than a regu­larly maintained road. Betides this road, there were, in 1795, roads from Jessore via Jheafcla to Kuraarkhali and from Chauga-eliua to XhuinS. In 1S02 only 20 miles of road, properly so called, existed ia tlie distsie', and none of the considerable rivers were bridged, f

In the first half of the 13th century several bridges were built by Ka'i Prasad Rai, better known as Kali Poddar, who lii'od near Jessore, and, having amassed much wealth, resolved in his old age to spend it fur the public benefit and on pious uses His idea was to construe1, a route from Jessore to the Gauges by means of a completely bridg-ed road. Be accordingly built bridges over the Daitala khal n.t Daitala, five miles east of Jessore, and over the Bhairabat Nilganj 1$ miles east of Jess >ie on the Dacca road, both of which remain in use to the present day. He also bridged the two or three streams which He between the Kabadak and

MEANS OF COWMCHICATloW. 107

Iehhaiiiati rivers, i.e., between J"Fung3ig-aclilia and Baugaon; these latter bridges have since been replaced by move substantial structures built by Government. He further constructed several loads, of which the most importunt was that from Bangaon to Cliagdaha, which was planted nith trees on both sides.*

In 1HS he assigned a landed estate yielding an income of Ba. 301 per iranuro. for the repair of his works, with n. sum of Ea. 9,000 to build n. bridge over the Kobad&k noar Jhiogergachha, and Us. 18,000 for cue over the Icbhilmati near Bangaon. With the first Us. 9,000, to whioh it added an equal euro, the Goveru-raent in 1S46 erected o chain bridge at Jhin^ergachha. The Militaiy Board, -which had ibe managemen: of such works, oacie up about Apjil ] 846 to test the usw bii&ge, tbe j spent more than Rs. 2.50O in this testing and pronouuoed it safe. On September 3uih of the same year, when t ie festival of the Durga, Fuja was beld, people flocked into Jhuigergachha to see the image being thrown mto the river, and the bridge was crowded with people. All of a, sudden, the chains gave w&yi the bridge fell do".n bodily, and ramj people were drowned, both among those on the bridge and those who weie in boats beneath it. I t coat Es 9,000 or Ea. 10,000 more to raise the bridge and replace it in position. Many yenrs passed before nnythiog' was done with the remaining Es. 18,000 given for the bridge at Bangiou ; but finally, about 1864-65, with this sum and about as much more gipeii bj- Government, a bridge-of-boats ivas erected) and the only breach in the road between Jessore and the Gauges was filled up.f

The south oi the district ia t ravemd by ths central section, of Kiit-the Eastern Bengal State Railway, which auters Jessore from the 24-Farganas a little to the north of the Gobardsnga station. Thence it goes north to BaDgaon and noith-east to Jessore, after

which it strikes south-east into the Kliulna district. The margi­nal table shown the stations lyiug within this district and their distances from Calcutta (Sealdah). The line, which is on the stand­ard (5 feet 6 inchesi, £$uf»e..,we,B opened in 1884 by the Bengal CaiHral Eailwar, hut bas been worked by the Eastern Bengal

State Kailway since 1st July 1905, the date of ths termination oi

" The BaVksoj ike MajjiiaiW, CnluitU Kevkn Q84G), Vol. VI, p. 412. • J . WeeUanil, Riport oft the District of JSiore mi, 131-05.

Station

Cbanripiii BangSoiL lioc.ipol .., linbliarnii JfaingcrglciiiiS Glud JfamgcrgacliUS

Ifvijidul Singm HmupSra

ItllleS. ... 42 ., 43

53 . , 60 ... CJ ... 1>S

. 75

. , 80 81

,.. 01

lOS J-Bsaoafi.

the contract between the Seoretai'y of State for Indin. and the private tympany wliioh used to work it. I t la connected with the eastern section (main line) of the liastem Bengal J-'tate Bail way by a branch, from Bangaou ti> Ranaghat, On this branch there is only ODP station within the limits of Jessore, vis., Grcpalnagar, sis mile^ from Baugaon. Thei'o is no other railway line in the Uistnct, but tho eastern section oi the Eastern Bengal State Railway runs almost parallel to tue western boundary throughout this length, aud at no great distance from it, and serves lessors by moans of EBTerol feeder roads leading from its stations.

J.i ht A light railway fiorU Jessora to Jhouida, with a brniioh. from rjiIWlJ9 KaligBoj to Kotobandpur, a distance of 37 miles, is now under

construction. This line, when uomple-to, will ojien up some considerable trade markets.

HOADS. Exoluding the roads in municipal areas, the district contains over 1,000 miles of road, of wliioh, however, 451 miles are classed as village roads, i.e., they me practically only cart tracks. L'he Sadar, Jhsnida and Bangaon subdivisions, where tho bind is higher than elsewhere, are best provided with roads, while there are compaiatively lew in the Magura and Narail subdivisions. Tho reason for this is that the two latter subdivisions formerly depended on their waterways lor the transpoit of goods and passengers, and it is only since the deterioration of tho rivers that the necessity for roads has been felt. The following is a brief account of the principal roads.

1'ro«iiii iai Tlie only provincial road in the district is the J ess ore-Calcutta YOais' road, which is ft Government road maintained by the District

Board. Altogether i'4 miles of this road lie in. the district, of which until recently only 32 miles (from Jessore to Bangaon) weremotalled; the work of meialling the remaining ten milt's up to Kalasima on the boundary of the district was taken up two years ago, and .only four miles remain nnmetalled. The road is bridged tb.rough.ojs and lias two pontoon boat bridges, one at Bangaon over the Iohhamati m e r , which is here ortliaarily 273 feet wide, and the other at Gaighata over the Jnniuna. river, which is 126 feet wide. Only half a century ago this road used to be the most important route in the district, for it was the highway used by people travelling to Dacca and Assam. After the opening of the Eastern Bengal State Railway in 1862, the portion south of Bangaon began to be less used, as traflio with the interior began to he effected by rail fioni Chagdaha station. Sinoo 1884, when the Bengal Central Railway was opened, traffic baa greatly decreased, and the road is now mainly used as a feeder to the railway.

MF.ANB QY COMMUBlCiTlDN, 1 6 9

The District "Board maintains 158 miles of metalled roads uistmL and 461 miles oi unnietnlled roads, besides a number of village rj™l(

roada with an aggregate leugth oi 1D1 miles. The following is n list of the moat irupovtairt biatrict Board ruadE, wbioh may bu divided into two classes, "via., the roads radiating from Jess ie and the othei: siibdivisianal head-c^artera and the railway feeder ioada. In the former class may be grouped (1) the road from Je^sore to Jhenida via Kaligauj, 28 miles ling. I t is metalled throughout and has inspection bungalows at Kaligan] on the liith mile andat. Jhenida. (2) JeMore to KeshabpuT ti& Rajhat 5 miles Eiom JessoLe, and Mauritt'npur, 18 miles from Je*sore. I t is 21 miles long, uiid is metalled throughout. There nro inspection bungalows on this road at Haniiampur and at Keshab-pur (3) Jessore to A.fra, la miles, all metalled. (4) Jhenidd to MSgurR, 17 miles, of which 3 miles only are roe tolled. (5) Tho road to IChnhia iiYi S'ngia nudTaltula on the border of the district. I t is metalled as far as Sirgia, and the remaining 10 voiles are uumetolled. The second class includes the following roiute proceeding from north to south1.—(1) Jheiuda to Brum \i\ miles), and thenoe toObustdanga nihvay station, I) Kali­ganj to KotehiudpuT (10 miles1, and thence to Hansada (9^ miles) and t-o the KAslianganj railway Nation, (3) Bangaou to Bahoi (10i miles), and thence to Chagdaha lailway station ( T h e rivers are in many casts no longer navigable in their upper vun'ii

leaches except during the ruins; hut lower down they are tidnl CC»«VKI and caviylaige boats and s'eaniers throughout the year. Steamer, eemcea ply (1) iromKVnilria-up the AthanibarAu and TvLadWnnt its tivr as i luhammadpur; (2) IromlChulua by Kalia to Lohagam •, and by the Majudkhali, Qb.it ra, bhoraMiali Kbll and NabagaugB. to Binodpur throughout the y e n , and during the rajas as far as MasrurU; and (3) Irjm Kamlmnni up the ICabadah to •lhiiigrergacb.ua, feeding the railway at the plate Inst named: the steamer service between iSapiiintiui aud Jb.iii<H>rgaohba was stinted by the Bangya Uker Steam Navigation Company in 1<H) 1. Dwing the rairs large boats, ranging up to 2,000 mounds, O'H'ry juta to the stations on the railway, while some go direct to ^ulonttft, LarjB pnsseng-r ho\ts also ply on t i e Wahaganga and OYiitra rivers and the claimels connecting then with the railway stations^

The only ounnl in the district is tho ITallikx Canal, a niV'llia >n length, which cnnneits the Madhuranti and Nabagan^a rivers ,ILS

, a the Narad subdivision, The cic-sa channels connecting these, r m r s having silted up to the detriment of traffic, the District fiOaM, in t oo l , esetwated the Tona Kliftl at a. cost of l i s 17,000.

110 JESSOBE.

The canal thus formed was at first known by that name, but in 1902 was Galled the Hallifax Canal after Mr. A. Q. Hallifax, I.O.S., the then District Magistrate. This canal baa greatly improved the river communications of Jessore to the advantage of its merchants and trad era, for it has let in water from the Madhuniatitothe stagnant bed of the Bankaroali, and hasfacilita-ted traffic with the eastern districts. I t has also proved of benefit to the Distriot Bomd, for tolls are laviad on boats using the canal at the rate of ODB anna per 100 mauoo's, and the lease of these tolls brings in about Bs. 4,000 to RE. 5,000 per annum.

I'IISTAL The retinas for 1908-09 shuw that there are 136 post offices DEMHT- a E ( j (J14 miles of postal communication. The number of postal

articles delivered in the same year, including letters, post cards, packets, newspapers and paicela, was 3,625,284. The yalue of money orders issued was Bs. 15,02,351 and of those paid Ra. 16 51,740 ; while lha number of Savings Baidi daposits was 12,138 the amount deposited being He. 9,05,911. Festal-telegraph offices hn"ve been opened at Jessore, Bangaon, Jhenida, Kotehand-pur, Lnksliiiilpasa, Magma, Nnldanga and Hara.il.

l A S D REVENUE ADMIMIBTRATTOH, 111

CHAPTER X. •

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION.

WHBK the Bin am of Bougal waa COEJ:erred upoa the East India:

Campnuy in lltfv, it was not at first considered advisable to euttust the iraiaedioto administration of land revenue to Euro­pean officers, who had had no experience of its intricacies- But in l?(i9 European Siipervisirrs were appointed by Yerelstwith powers of supervision over the Dative officers employed in collecting tliG revenue and admiaisteritsg justice in different parts of the country ; and in 1770 Couuoib, with superior authority, were established at Murshidabad and Paten. The Supervisors were instructed to obtain lull information regarding the produce and capacity of the loud, to give details not Only of the revenue, but also (if the cesses or other demands made from !be cultivators, and to report on the regulation of commetee and the adDiiGlslratio-i of jnslipe. Tiia Information elicited by these enquiries showed that the internal government was in a state of disorder, and that the people were suffering great oppression. Nevertheless, siven years plujist'd from the Acquisi­tion of the J3TM'»JH before the Goveniiuent deemed itself mm-patent to remedy these delects. It was not till 1772 that the Court of Direetore resolved fo ''atnnd faith as Ditcdf, find by the agency of the Company's servants to late upon themselves the entire care and management of the revenue." A Board of "Revenue was Accordingly appointed at Calcutta, the Supervisors were given the designation of CuJleotors, and a native officer Btyled D'wan, who was chosen by the Board, was associated with each Collector in Lb© control of revenue affairs. The European officers were recalled, however, iu 1774, and native agents (dmits) appointed iu tlit-ir sfead. I t was not till 1786 that ft European Collector was again appointed (or each diftiiet, the first in Jesaors being Mr. Heuekell, who was vested with (ho united powers of Collector, Civil Judge and Magistrate.

The district, in common with other districts of Bengal, was ettled in the year 1772 for a terra of fivs years, on the expiry of which yenily settlements wece made with the zauuudSi'B tilt the

112 JESSOFE.

Decennial Settlement of 17Pu When the .settlement of 17"2 was made, it nos baoed on the enquiries mrde by anoffidr named Mr. Lane, whom the Committee (J Htumie haflde] nted io make an estimate of the zamiiiu'ais' assets No fuithei enquiry wtis made, and lUien the task of making flio ye-ily erftlements devolved upon the Collector, he had few settled pritxifles mid little detailed information ou which to [roiceil l ie thueforc mode a rough ostim te nad got the Eainmdai to uudtiUl.e to pay n.s much as he could ho niado to consent !os If no niiiicaUe settlement could he omved at, the 3iimiiid.ii \ias tern] orardy ousted, and the Collector tried by direct collections to ieili?e the estimated reyeuue. The same course was adopted in case of direaiy, and the defaulting zaniicdar was uleo liable to be put info jajl, the sale oi estates for annus beiug appniently an espedieut which had cot heeu thought of a' the time. Iu oi a COSQ at lea=t the authorities followed tbe. eld Mughal plan, when the ziniliidSrs of ths Suliacpui estate (now m Khulna) defaulted io paj meat of the deti and They neie dispossessed^ aud the estate was ti ausfrn ed to one Kvt-i Nath Dafta on ins paying up ths arreais and engaging io pay the levenue aooiuing in future.

The annual settlements of land revenue, bised on such imper­fect data, resulted in an. moieascd as-c-r,nicut e?erj j « i r and operated vew harshly upon the zamiaflan. 11 any were rlupged in debt, and then enibairassmeut leaefed oil tlieir tenants, from whom they squeezed as rantli as thej coiild Mi Henekell repoited that it was almost impossible Io obtain from the zamindSis mora revenue tlmu tbey WQ:G actually paying, and bis successor, Mr Rorke, based bis caloulations for the l"tiiuiinent Sftllemtiit 011 those of 1772 on the expiesa gionud that there had bei-u h tie or no i ingus^ since t int t iu i \ The- parnlitdais, he said, wtie then assessed to liieii utmost, and had FO little to spare f i themselves (hat tliej eled out their rei emit by exactions from then ryots. The oppiessiOu of ll>e iyo(B no. inally cause I loss to then estates, so much so, that m 1790 the Collector stated it to a. «cll-ltaowo Jnot that "cultivation evciyivheio m cicry diatiict had deciEased since 1772, iud thciet ias a difficulty then vtlncli theio was not before m eojlutling (he icnts from the jyots."

" The zamindare ", writes Sir James Wesllmd, "iineeifaio of to-monow, cud having little enough J or te-da\, fell b.ici> on the r_sot3 and determined to get the utmos1 out of fhpni, they nei'P pinched in their turn, and pjogre^t. of any soit was rondcuvd

impossible, No rjot would improve hie land or estead bis

/

I.AMD ItttVEHUE ADMIN 1ST It ATI OP. 113

cultivation when lie knew that the zamindar would at once demand nil the advantage that might accrue; and no zamindar would attempt improvement of his estate when he knew the certain result would be an increased demand, and an. indetermi­nately increased demand, on the part of the Collector. The mutual distrust between Government, zomindar and ryot—tie natural consequence of ac annual settlement syshm, especially' where no principles were laid down as a basis to work upon— barred all progress, and remedy was loudly called for."

As an example of fho results of these early experiments in land revenue administration, the case of the Muhammadshaiii (Mahmudshahi) zamindari may be oited. This estate was settled in 1772 upon tho basis of Mr. Lane's enquiry, and at the same time was divided into two shares of four-fifths and cne-fiftha respectively. Shottly after this, the proprietor of the four-fifth share being considered incapable of undertaking the settlement, his estate was given in farm to OBB Pran Bose, who held it in bis own name 01 that uf hia son from 1779 to 1784. The estate hnd already been assessed at the highest possible figure; it was liable to continual inundation; and the zamiudJi had granted await half of its entire area either rent-free or on quit-rents, so that it oould not pay the w e n o e assessed upon it by Government. lJrau Bo3e had, however, undertaken the farm with the intention of making it pay, and a system of oppression and exaction followed. Tho ryots were made to pay numberless cesses and impests, and were so impoverished that they gave up extending cultivation and sometimes fled altogether. The l&lvMdrs too were ordered to pay an enhanced rent and tutned out of possession until they did. Many of (hem abandoned their tahh, leaving Iheir ryots the alternative of quitting their lands or paying iha farmer hia exorbitant demands. The latter, finding greater and greater difficulty in. realizing the revenue, imposed upon those who remained that part of the assessment which had been previously paid by these who had fled and given up their lands. The oonsequence of all this was that a large amount of land fell out of cultivation, and the estate became impoverished.

The Government had so far to participate in fcho baa, that, when in 1785 they settled the ftur-fiftha share with the zamindar himself, they reduced the assessment on the whole estate to lis. 2,44,223, whereas in 1772 it had been Es. 2,87,614. Even thiB reduced assessment waa so exorbitant., that the zamindar after holding the estate for two years (1785-86) found UiniBelr. hope­lessly in arrears. H e waa therefore dispossessed, and the CoUeotor in 1787 divided the whole estate into parts, each of which wan

I

1 1 4 JBSBOH.E.

farmed out at a reduced asEeesment. Even this could not be collected, and the zaraiodars were held responsible for the arrears though they had been ousted from the estate.

PsMii. In 1790 Mr. Roeke, who had succeeded Mr. Henokell the year

Statu b e f o r e ' c a r r i B d o u t t h e Decennial Settlement, which was declared raw.." permanent in 1793. This settlement, as is well known, was a

great advance upon t i e previous system, and involved a _ g1 8" deal more than a mere settlement of the revenue to be paid by samm&MB, Hitherto, at each settlement the asaete of the estate had been estimated; the zamludar retained the produce oi l

rent free lands, together with a suitable but not accurately defined allowance, and handed over the remainder to tb.o G a ^ w -meat. A fixed demand was now sottled. At the same time tha zemindars were bound in their turn to mate a similar settlement with their ryots, so that the profits from extension of cultivation and from the settlement of new ryots would be enjoyed by the Bamindar, while the profits from the improvement oi each ryot a h i d i n g would be obtained by the ryot bimsell Previously! the ryots had no permanent fixed tenure, and when the Collector settled what the zamindar should pay tt> Govern Went, bo also settled the amount payable by the ryot to tha zamindar.

Another important change of system consisted in t i e separa­tion oi dep&ndant takikdars. These were a class oi minor zamiudars created by, and paying their revenue through, the regular zaralndars, The taluls were oi two classes, pditai, t.e., founded upon a lease or pattd, and kharida, »>., purchased, i n either case they had 6een created by the Kannadar, who, in return for an adequate consideration, made over to [the talubdar almost all his rights in a small portion of hia estate, subject to the payment of an annual rent. In this Way zamiodars ansious to realize money had granted away large portions of their estates either rent-free or on quit-rent tenures. Government now ordered that these grants should bo separate from the paieut estate, « - , instead of paying their revenue to the zamiodar, the tdliiJidars should pay it direct to Government. They were thus placed on the footing of other zarahidars, but those who were bound by their engagements to pay revenue through t i e zamJudars only, were held cot to be entitled to separation Another change effected at the same time was tha abolition of sair dues, if., duties levied at to, or markets, upon goods brought for sale.

Apart irom these and a few other circumstances, the basis of the Battlement was the settlement oi the previous year or of the Collector^ calculations, which were accepted for all but the largest estates, in respect of which the Board went into details

LAND KBVENOB ADMINISTRATION, 115

and somewhat modified his estimate. That the terms were not very favourable to the aamindars will ha seen from the figures ehowiog ">« settlements of the largest estates. Tusufpur (leufpur) was settled at RE. 3,02,37?, or about RB. 5,000 more than the demand of the previous year; while the four-filths share of MuliammodBhafii, an estate which, as already described, bad been almost ruins'', not only bad its revenue raised from Es, 1,34,665 to Us. 1,3?,697, but a further increase of Us. 12,634 in fivo yearly enhancements was imposed. Some of the zamindare, the zanrind&r of Yuaufpur particularly, fought hard for a modification of the terms proposed, but finally had to accept them.

In the end, moat of the great zamindar families were turned and lost their estates, Tha assessment was too high, and the entire assets cmild not 6e realized, OB the ryots.were too strong and tbe law too weak for the zamindars. While the law insisted upon the punctual payment of the full amount demanded from the latter, it placed in their hands the most insufficient means of ooliecting their dues. If any ryot failed to pay his rent, they had to go through the dilatory, expensive, and by no means certain process of suing ldm in court and eseouting a decree against bim. In the meantime the ryot might take advantage of the

, delay and abscond. Even the Collector felt this difficulty. We find him complsining in 1798 that he found it most difficult to collect rmt in the Government estates; and. again, on Slst January 175)9, he wrote that the ryots refused to pay acd utterly disregarded his orders. Suing them was useless, and he urged that he should be rested with power to imprison defaulters. In the same year (13th March) he wrote that people were refus­ing to purchase estates when put up for sale, so great was then* fear of being ruined through the contumacy of the ryots. Besides the contumacy of the ryots, there was nnother, [hough a less effective, cause operating to ruin the old zawjndars. The Permanent Settlement, by declaring estates to he the aamindars' property, but transferable by sale, had facilitated their transfer­ence to creditors. Before the settlement many of the zamindars were in debt, and now some at least' had to part with their, lands to meet their creditors' demands.

The general result may be gathered from the fact that, aocording to a report made by the Collector in 1800, no less than ljOOO estates were in arrears. Among the BBmlndars who were ruined Was the largest landholder in the diatriot, Raja Srikanta ftai of Yimfpur, who Inst one by one the parganas making up bia estate. Two branches of the Naldanga family holding the Muh&mmadshftbi estate also lost their property within 10 years

i 2

116 JE6S0KB.

of the Permanent Settlement, and were reduced to poverty. The third branch ([bunded by Earn Sankar) with difficulty escaped the same fate, being only saved by the intervention of the Collec­tor. Of all the large zamindaris in the district only two sppfl" to have withstood the ordeal of these ten years, viz., the Saiyad-

i pur estate, now inown as the Trust Estate, and Sultaapur, which tad baen acquired hv Kasi Nath Datto ia the maimer already mentioned.

The necessity of finding a remedy for this state of affairs at length pressed itself upon the attention of Government ; and Regulation V I I of 1799 was the result. But the misohieE was already done, for the new regulation could not give back to the old zamladars the property they had lost; it could only give the new aamindars stability in the estates they had purchased, by giving tham greater facilities for realizing their rents. " Although," writes Sir James Westland, " the ruin of the old zamlndars cannot but be looked on as matter of regret, ye* it was not without roany great advantages to the district. Hampered on every side with debt, they could do nothing for the benefit of their estates, having absolutely no capital to work on. The new purchasers of the large zaraiudaris were for the most part men of business from Calcutta, Thoy had often, like Radhamohan Bauerji, who purchased Muhammadshahi, got their first footing through having lent large sums to the aamludars, and at all events they were men who had by their own osertions amassed some dogree of wealth. They had consequently, so early as 1801, acquired the reputation of being goo 1 managers of their estates; f hey began looking into the old sub-tenures, they extended the cultivation and ceased to oppress the ryots, through whose co-operation alone impr-ovement oan be expected. Iu 1802 tha Collector notices the extension of cultivation, and again in 1811 he writes that there is a general reclamation of waste lands, aud that the regulations are now strong enough to ensure a speedy realization of the public dues. The regulat ion of 1790 had, in fact, so rouoh changod the position of aEfairs, that whereas the Colleotor and the zamlndars had up to that year been continually complainicg that they could do nothing with the ryots the Collector wrote in 1800 that he found the ryots abscou-

HESTMF e L b c d , l V h 8 n P r 9 e 6 e d b y t h e P ° w e r 8 t l w ^ w had given him." T I °* " H,:.J?*™0? raP"rtant e ™ n t ™ the subsequent revenue history of S T " " " 1772 11« lB th? m u m V ^ of ^ e n u e free-grants. Before

areas rent ZT M i c d i s e r i * i n a t e l y g r a n t e d away large rth Z L S i , r T r h D s <*<»>* "«,ooo ™ or. consider able proportion 0f the total area ox the district. Actual aad

LAND BEVENtfE ADMINISTRATION. 1 1 7

loud Me alienations oould not be distinguished from those effected fraudulently, while the zammdars being unable to iodize from Buoh lands the revenue assessed upon them by Government were themselves rendered incapable of paying their revenne. The Collector attempted to trace out the alienated lands, but was not successful, for the aaioJndari papers Gould not be relied on, wbib the farmers and talitldai s colluded to conceal the tenures which were in danger of being rea&sesed. At the time of the Permanent Settlement authority to scrutinize such revenue-free grants, and if invalid, to resume them, was especially reserved. The grants were divided into two classes—backhahi and hulmiii, the former being those granted by the Mughal Emperor du eet, and the J art or those granted by l i s aubordiaate officials. Regulation X X S Y I I of 1793 dealt with b&dthahi giants, and Regulation X I X of the same year with the others. bSilihd/ii grants were recognized as valid (banati) if the holder was in possession and oould prove his saimd \vn3 hereditary. ff'jkumi grants, though in their nature invalid, were accepted as Vfthd if dated prior to 1785 All grants uf a subsequent data were invalid and were resumed (bdzydflt), but those dating between 1765 and 1790 were accorded a privileged rate of assess­ment B j Regulation X I X all revenue-free giants made by z»miiidarB after 1730 were invalidated, and aanoindars were authorized to nullify their own grants

No practical Bteps were taken to give effect to these Eegu. lationa when they were passed, but in 1800 an attempt was made to intioduee compulsory registration of idUittaj giants. I t proved abortive, and, by Regulation I I of 1819, the power of resumption was transferred from the Civil to the Revenue Courts. The latter Regulation was supplemented by Regulation I I I of 1828, which appointed an executive ageney, in the person of a special OommiBBioner, to give piactical effect to the policy of ,

Government. Under his supervision, lesumption proceedings were systematically undertaken between the years 1830 and 1850, and a large number of estates were added to the revenue-roll.

The proprietor of estates are known as zamindars or taluk* LIND ddrs, the latter being generally potty landholders, who reside on IENCBSS. their estates, while the Iaiger proprietors are generally non­resident. The taluks have their origin iu the separation, of portions of estates, the zamindara having1 disposed of them by sale, gift or otherwise. The persona who obtained possession of Huoh separated portions of Ksjnindsria either paid their quota of revenue through the zamindais or direct to the State treaBuiy The exactions of the zammdars BOOH obliged them, however, to

118 JESSORE.

obtain recognition as owners of distinct estates. The separated portions oame to be known as ttihifo, and the holders as indepen-Asattalukdais having rights, privileges and responsibilities ia atf respects similar to those of the zamiudars, the tliffcronoe being in origin only. A good instance of the way in which estates became independent fmd their cumber increased is afforded by the case of the Nawara estate. This consisted of some 1,176 holdings soattered all over the district, the revenue of which was, under the Mughal rule, set opart for the maintenance of a river-fleet nawarn) to protect the Ganges and Brahmaputra trom the inoursions of Magh pirates from Arakon. In. the early days of British, land revenue a dminisf ration, the proprietors fell into

' arrears with theii' revenue. The different portions sihiated in each large estate nere then separately sold, and the purchaser of each became the proprietor of a hhai ida taluk.

At the time of the Permanent Settlement there were only 122 estates in the whole district held direct from Government-Within the course of the nest ten years nearly all those fell into arrears, weie parcelled out into email shares, and sold to the highest bidders. Yusufpur parr/atia, for instance, wbioh in 1793 was held by liaja Srifeanta Itai, was thieo years later divided into 100 large and 39 final] eahdt-s, apd told to as many separate proprietors. In like manner, Muhamms.i'shabi, in 1802, and Bhuahna, in 1799, were split up inlo 115 and 06 separate estates, respectively. In" this way the 122 large eBlafes were converted into 5,044 Email zamindaris, many of which were subsequently transferred to other districts at diffeient times as the bouodaries of. JeBBore were readjusted and itB area decreased in the manner described in Uhapter I I . In 1873, when the district was much larger than at present, there were 570 large and 2,386 small estates, making a total of 3,856; m 1383-84 the number of estates in the district as now coustiluted was 2,580; and (he number at present borne on the revenue roll is 2,649.

As regards the nature of the large estates, the following description is quoted from Sir James Westland'a Report en Jessore'.—" I t lias been described as a ooasequenae of the Permanent Settlement that small zamindaris and small zomindars came to be substituted for great zamindaris and great zomindars. I t was, 'noweyev, natural ftiafc or 't'bese small zamindars some ehouift increase their substance above others, and by buying upzamindari after zamindari, and tenure after tenure, aggregate in the end a very lwge estate. Such estates differ entirely in their nature from the old zamindSriB; they are nnt compact and single estates extending over some tract of country where tlieir owner ia

LAND KEVENDE ADMINISTRATION. 118

prominent as the great zamindar, but they are an accumulation of separate and separately held tenures, acquired in different ways and at different times, held under all aorta of different rights, and scattered here and there over the country, Zamindari in fact has become more of a profession and less of a position "

The proprietors of estates have freely exercised the power oE Teuarei, alienation and have created a large number of tenures, such as palms, yarns and gaiUhn. ID creating these tenures, and even in giving a lease for a terra of jearfi, it has been and is a. common practice for the tenure-bolder to pay a bonus or premium, which discounts the contingency of mnny years' increased rent. The system, while meeting the zaimndar's present necessity, means a loss to bis posterity, because it is clear that if the bonus were not exacted, a higher rental could be obtained, permanently from tlie land. The process of subinfeudation has not terminated with, the ;M/JITriors, ymadats and gdnthidars. There are lower grada-tiona cf tenures under them called darpatnls, darij&rai and dartjantlm, and even further subordinate tenures called eepatnU, segaiiff/is, etc. Many of the under-tenures are of petty size and were originally ryoti holdings. Tli9 present holders, having in course of time acquired the status of under-t enure-holders, are now middlemen who collect rents from the ryots and pay them over to the superior landlords, keeping some profit for themselves.

Three classes of tenures call for special mention, viz, gdntlm, 3ats anil jott and ptiltfi tahih. The two former have been described by S i r s " w" Jnmea Westland. as follows;—"One finds in almost every part of Jesgore that the lowest olass of tenants claiming an interest in the soil is the ryot, who hulils a jama and actually cultivates the soil himself, or gives it out in part to a man, half-labourer, halt-ryot, who cultivates with his own hand some little piece of ground, but never claims to have any right in the land he cultivates. Above this MWia-hoIdcr, there is another class of ryot, whose holding extends over a village or half a village, who never cultivates with his. own hand, but sometimes has fields under cultivation by his servants. This class is in Narail and Maguraoalledyo((/ar, and in the west of the district is called gSnihuiar; and their tenures are, whatever the law may say, urderstoedby the people to be fined. Theeejol^srs, or tputiwandw-s, as they are called from the fixed nature of their tenures, are Bpread in great numbers over all Nftldi. They are for the most part very well off, the rent they pay heiag small in comparison with what they realize; and the zamind&ra find them a most refractory set. They have substance enough to resist, and they decline paying their tents as long as they can possibly hold them back."

130 JBSSOM.

Sir James Westlurid eonsidersit probable that theee tenures me founded upon rights acquired or granted at tbe time of the reclam­ation of the land—not necessarily its orginol reclamation, which may be very aaeient, but the extension of cultivation, which is of more modern date. In support of. this view, heoiteatlie descriptions of the tenure given in the BluishuS, iswds of, 1798 At that time tbe land3 of eaoh jot were scattered have and there, and TOTO far from compact. Each jot apparently contained lands that wave being reclaimed, or. had been reelairoedi by the jo(<6if ; Naldi and Telih&ti, especially, were far from completely reclaimed at tbe end of tbe eighteenth century To the g&nUl tenure in the west of tbe district be ascribes a different origin, regarding the arrangement rather as orfe^de by the zamindar for the collection of his rents, though the gdnthu dar there also had much to do in the way of promoting cultiva­tion and settling land. He points out that .in 178S Mr. Henckell reported that the ganth'dsr was usually also the farmer of the lands adjoining his own holding, who, having a profitable Secure in Lis own lands, was expected to remit to tlje zammdiir the entire realisations of bis farm.

" Whether the origin of the tenure called g&nthl was or was not that indicated by Mr. HenoteU, viz,, giving certain lands on a low refit to an individual who undertook to oollect and pay in, as farmer, tb.9 revenues of other lands adjacent, it ia Certain that in many places this sort of connection still exists between gaiilki and farming. In many plaoes the ganthiiiar of tbe whole or part of a village is still looted upon as the person who naturally occupies the position of farmer in some adjaoent lands, and tbis theory of the connection between S/atitli'idSr and farmer is supported by tbe terms which Mr. Heuo-feell's sueceasoi' uses in a letter where be says that almost all the cultivating ryots pay reat either to a farmer or a (janth\dd,r. I t is not meant that tbis theory is applicable to all (jdntlm at present existing, for many, ir not most, of these date their origin from periods subsequent to the time of which I am writing, and have more to do with the zamicdars desire to fill his purse- than with the land system indicated above. The Raja of Chaochta, for example, when in 1796 be was getting into difficulties, created in tbe Yuatifpur estate a large number of gdnl/M enures, receiving of course a premium from tbe .tenants,"

jafoi The/>s;«i talnfa are a class of tenures which originated in tbe

«*«**. estate of tbe Maharaja of Burdwan. At the Permanent Settle-input the assessment of t ie estate was very high, and in order to ensure easy and punctual realization of the rent, leases of land

LANS REVENUE ADMIBISTRATIOM 12i

in perpetuity, to he held at a fixed rent, were given to a large num« ber of middlemen. These tenures are known as patnl (literally, dependent) ialuks, and are in effeot leasee wHoh bind tlie holders by terms and conditions similar (o those by which superior land­lords are bound to the State. A large number were created in Jessora after the enactment of Regulation VIIIof 1819, known as the Patni Sale Law, which declared the validity of such permanent tenures, defined the relative rights of the zaraiodird and their subordinate palni talukddi's, established a summary process for the sole of such tenures in satisfaction of the Bamindar's demand of rent, and also legalized under-letting, on similar fortes, by l ie patniddri and otlierB. This was followed by the creation of an large number of patnis throughout Jessore. In Nnldi, (or instance! there were only fi?e of these tenures in 1819, but they increased to 231 In 1851, the whole paii/am with the exception oi five villages having been let oat on permanent leases Thejwinf tenure is now very popular with zemindars who wish to divest theoiselves of the direct management of their property or part of it, or who wish to raise money in the simps of a bonus.

As regards its incidents, it may be described as n tenure oreated by the Bamind&r to be held by the lessee and his heirs or transferees for ever at a rent fixed in perpetuity, subject to the liability of annulment on sale of the parent Bstate for arreara of the Goverameut revenue, unless protected against the rightB exercisable by auction-purchasers by common or special registry, as prescribed by sections 37 and 39 of Act X I of 1859. The lessee is called upon to fnraish col lated security for the rent aDd for his conduct generally, or he is excused from this obligation nt the zaniindai'a disci etion.

I t is reported that in Jessore the provisions of section 50 [Bunnell. of the Bengal Tenancy Act, tbat, unless a landlord can prove thai the rate of rent has been altered wifhin the last 20 yeans, it shall be presumed to be permanently fked, is constancy tending to convert the holding of an occupancy ryot into a permanent and hereditary tenure and a suitable investment for the moneyed classes. There is consequently a tendenoy for the. non-cultivating classes to bay up the rights of occupancy ryots and sub-let the lands to under-ryots, who actually cultivate them. These middlemen, who buy up the rights of occupancy ryots, extort high rests from the aotu&l cultivators. The latter are said to pay about two-fifthe of the value of the gross produce of the land they bold, but under-ryots usually pay in kind, and not in cash. If they pay in kind they generally give half the produce, but if they pay cash, they

122 JESSOBE.

have io pay oa an average about twice aa much aa an occupancy ryot pays to the Eamindir.

Utinndi There is iu tbia district a peculiar claBS of holding known aa »js em. utiandi, t.e, assessed according to cultivation, from ut/iit',

meaning riaen or cultivated (as opposed to pattt, falkn or uncultivated), and hamU, meaning assessment. In 1884 these holdings were described by tbe Collector as follows.—"There ore few tenures oE this description in this district. They are generally confined to waste lauds and bil lands, which are for the whole ut greater part of the year under water, and which ma cultivated by the ryots under epeejol contract, generally from year lo year. These lands are tafcon at fixed or progressive rates of rent oil terms agreed to by the ryots. The landlord cannot, or at all events does oot, enhance the rent, which should he payable in proportion to the quantity of land reclaimed and cultivated. The same ryots eon have (bo same lands for any numbers of years, but the custom is that be does not acquire a. right of occupancy, As a matter of fact, the ryot ia not disturbed as long as he pays his rent and behaves himself well. The landlord does not enhance the rate originally agreed to if tbe ryot refuses to pay such increase, hut if there arc conditions in tbe lease or conditions verbally agieel to, the rate is enhanced. Tbe ryot can he ejected at the will of the landlord as the tenures are not 1mm or pucca. 'J he aamiudSr claims no rant for any year for land not cultivated, though it remains in possession of tbe ryot. The land is gradually cultivated by the ryotj and after tbe crops are haivested, the land ifi measured, and the real; is afaessod. The assessment is of course made at the rate originally agreed to."

In the report of the Government ol Bengal on the Bengal Tenancy Bill (1884) the ittbamti holding was described as follows:—" A tenancy from year to year and sometimes from season to season, tbe rent being regulated, not, as in tbe case of halJmiJi, by a lump payment in money for the land cultivated, but by the appraisement of tbe crop on the ground, and according to its character. So far it resembles the tenure by crop appraisement of tlie bMoli system; but there ia between them tbia marked difference, that while in tbe latter tbe land does no', change bands from year to yenr, in the former it may." The Bengal Go7einment, when tbe Tenancy Bill was under

consideration, proposed to treat utbnndi limds as ordinary ryotj lands were treated, i.e., to presume that t e n a n t of utbaudt lands were settled ryots if they bad held any land in the village foi 12 years, and as Bettled ryots to declare that they had occupancy

ZA.&V KEVESUB AUMiNiarKii'rroK. 128

rigbts in all lands held by them in the village. The Saleot Committee did cot, however, agres to this proposal, and applied the provisions relating to e/inr sad didrn lands to utbatidi lrvnd also Accordingly, by section 180 "f the Beogal Teaanoy Aot, it was laid down that a uttandi tenant can acquire no rights of occupancy until he has held the land for 12 oontinuoua years, and tha^, until he acquires such a right, he ig liable to pay the rent agreed on between him and the landlord.

As regards the nature of the tenancy, the most authoritative dictum of the High Court wouli appear to he that delivered by the Chief Justine Sir Vf. 0. Petherara, and Mr Juslice Tottenham in the case of Seal Madhab jChidtravarii term* Bhutan Mohan Biswas (I. L K., 17Calc., 393). They rejected tha earlier opinions of Judges, which " had not been quite uniform," and after discussing those given by Sir W. TV. Hunter and of Sir Henry Cotton, and the reports submitted to Govern­ment by the Collectors of the Presidency Division in 188!, concluded that—" Tha descriptions of ulbstttli seem to refer rafher to re t icular uveas taken for cultivation for limited period*, and then given up, than to holdings of which parts sre cultivated, and other parts Ho fallow, while the rent for the whole is assessed year by year with reference to the quantity within the holding under cultivation In that year. A holding of the latter description hardly seems to answer to the general conception oi uttandi."

The following are the chief varieties of rent-free tenures;— naat.frM

Debotiar, lands assigned for the maintenance of worship of tha tonun*, gods; JBrahmottai^ lands granted to Brahnians; Eliogottar, lands gianted to priests or spiritual guides; Mahattrait, granted to religious persons; (JAiVajfij, set apart for keeping a lamp huming at a Muaammadfti tomb; Paoltar, set apart for tho maintenance of the torab of a Ptr or Muhfl.mmai.lan saint; and Ohahr&n \ aervice-lands granted to village watchmen, nrtisanB, etc

124 JESSORB.

CHAPTER X L

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION.

TBATIT'E' T H E cdminiatrBljon of the district is i n charge of the Collector C HA BOBS undar tl>o CommiBeioner of the Presidency Division. F o r general STAU. administrative purposes, it is divided into five aubdmsiona, wi th

h e ad-qu niters a t Jessore, J h e m d n , M a g m a , NarSil and Bangaon . T h e head-qua iters subdivision la imder the d n e c t supeivisiun of the Colleotor, who has a regular staff of fivo Deputy Collectors with one or two Sub-Deputy Collectors ; while the Jhenida,^-M a g u r a , N a r a d and Bangaon. subdivisions are each in charge of a BubdiTisional Officer, general ly a, member of the Provincial Civil Service. T h e Subdivisionol Officers are assisted by Sub-Deputy Collectors.

BijiNDB Tlae levenue of tLe district, under the main beads, was K B 14,96,000 in 1883-84 after t he formation of the district as now constituted, t he B a n g a o n subdivision being t r ans fened to it from the adjoining district of Nad ia in 1883 I t rose to Rs 15,42,000 in 1890-91 and to R s . 16,92,000 m 1900-01 I n 1910-11 i t amounted to R s . 17,99,860, of which Rs . 8,73,917 were derived from land revenue, R s . 5,66,994 from stamps, R s . 2.12,422 from cesses, R s l ,0b,378 from excise, and Rs . 41,249 from income tax

BCTemie T J i e e f l l l e c t l 0 n s ° f Jund. revenue increased from Es. 8,34,000 ' in 1883 84 to R F . 8,69,000 in 1890-91, but fell to Rs. 8,60,000

in 1900-01. In 1910-11 they amounted to Rs. 8,73,917, when they accounted for nearly half of the total revenue of the distiiet. The current demand in the year last named was Rs. 8,67,177 payable by 2,636 estates, of whioh 2,581 with a ourrent demand of Re 8,57,352 weie permanently settled estates, and 45 with a demand of Re. 4,181 were temporarily settled estates, while there were 60 estates, with a demand of Rs. 5,614, held duect by Government.

Stamps. Next to land revenue, the most important source of revenue

IB the sale of stamps, the income from which amounted to Rs. 4,5 i,034 in 1895-96, and averaged Re. 4,47,928 per annum

GENERA!, ADMINISTRATION. •135

in the quinquennium ending in 1899-1900. Daring the Eye years ending in 1904-05 the reneipts averaged Bs- 4,81,478 per annum, and in 1910-11 they were Es. 6,65,994 as against Rs. 4,77,825 in 1900-01. The Bale of judicial stanza alone realised Be. 4,60,170 iu 1910-U, as compared with Es, 3.88,927 in 1900.01; this increase may he attributed to the growth of litigation, the sale of court-fee Btamps realizing Ea. 4,24,797 in 1910-11. The receipts from non-judicial atamps rose during (he aarne decade from Ha. 89,898 to RB. 1,05,824.

Road and public worka cesses are, aa usual, levied at the Ceases, maximum rata of one anna in the rupee. The collections rose from RB. 2,(10,462 in 1901-02 to Ba. 2,12,4*2 in 1910-U. • The ounent demand in the year last named was Es. 2,01,693, of which the greater part (Rs. 1,73,565) was payable by 8,463 revenue-paying estates, while Re. 4,299 were due from 217 re­venue-free estates, Rs 23,830 from 11,087 rent-fee lands, and Rs. 2,999 from 206 hah and fairs. Thenumbsr of estates, assessed to cesses was thus 14,973, while the number of recnrded share­holders was 49,496. There were 40,259 tenures assessed to cesses with 71,303 shareholders, taerEumber of tenures being thus nearly thrice the number of estates. The total demand of ceases Rs, 2.54,704) was nearly equal to a fourth of the demand of land revenue (Rs. 8,90,779).

The nest important source of revenue is escise, the receipts Excise, from which increased from RB. 1,03,482 in 1900-01 to Es. 1,06,278 in 1910-11—a total lower than in any other district in Bengal except Angnl. The net excise revenue iu the latter year was RB. 544 per 10,000 of the population (approximately 10 pica per head), as compared with the average of RB. 5,977 for the Presidency Division and RB. 3,236 fur the Provicce as a whole. Over a third of the total excise revenue was obtained from the duty and license fees levied on jd»/Vf, ie., the imim pre gnat ed dried flowering tops of the cultivated female hemp plant (Cammbt* iniicit) and the lesinous exudation oa them, whioh realized RB. 38,313 in 1910-11. The total incidence of the reveaue accruing from hemp drugs was, however, Only Ks. 220 for eveiy 10,000, and the number of shops licensed to sell by retail was 6i>, or ono shop to every 27,050 pereons.

After gun/a, the largest item in the excise revenue consists of the receipts from, the sale of country spirit, which in 1910-U realized Rs. 38,197 or a little over a third of the total. The manufacture and sale of country spirit are carried on under what ie known as the eontraot eupply system, which was introduced in 1906. "Under this system the local manufacture of country

126 JESSORB.

spirit has been prohibited, and a contract has been made with a firm of distillers for its supply. The contractors are forbidden to hold retail licenses for the sale of the spirit, but bring it to the various depots, where it is "blended and reduced to certain fixed strengths, at which alone it may be supplied to retail vendors and soli by the latter to consumers. In 1910-11 tliers were altogether 41 shops licensed for its sale, i',<2,v one retail shop to every 66 square miles and 39,960 persons, while the ave­rage eimsumptiou of the liquor was only 9 proof-gal Ions per 1,000 of the population. These figures alone show how little addicted tho people of Jeseare are to drinking spirits. If further

. ' ' proof be needed, it may be mentioned that the gross receipts from tfie licanse fees and duty on country spirit and lari ('ho consumption of which is insignificant) lire less than in any other diet riot in the Provinoe except Balasore, representing (in 1910-11) Es, 223 per 10,000 of the population, as compared with l is . 4,25S for the Presidency Division and Ra. 2,251 for the whole of Bengal.

The.receipts from opium account for praelically all the remainder of the excise revenue, amounting1 in 1910-11 to Bs. 28,206 or Es. 160 per 10,000 of the population, as against the average of Es, 960 returned for the Presidency Division and Es. 503 for the whole of Bengal. There were in that year 56

- shops for the retail sale of opium, representing oue retail shop for every 62 equate miles and every 31,398 persons.

Income. I n 1 8 9 G " 9 ? ^ e income-tax yielded lis. 46,659 paid by 2,3^5

fan. assesBees, and in 1901-02 the amount derived from the tax increased to Its. 49,976 and the number of assesses to 2,342. At that time the minimum income assessable was Ea. 500, but this was raised to Es . 1,000 in 1903, thereby affording reliet to a number of petty traders, mouey-lenders and darks- The number of assessees coaseijuently fell in 1903-04 to 729 and the collections to Es. 36,174. I n 1910-11 the tax brought in Eg. 41,249 paid by 816 asseseees.

KsniaVTs. There are 26 offices for the registration of assurances under,

twn. Act I I I of 1877. At Jessore the District gub-Begietrar deals, « usual, with tiie documents presented there and assists the Dis­trict MagistmtB, who is ex-offiew District [tegistrar, in supervising &# pwetaAi.Tgtr cnP the Stth-ffcg&tesxs in ts&eage si Wier registration offices. I n the five years l£95-99 the average number of documents registered annually was 82,699 j in the next quinquennium. (1900-04) it was 91,287; and in the quinquen­nium 1005-10 it rose to 100,721. The increase is ascribed partly to poor harvests and parriy to a growing appreciation

G E N E I U t AD MINI ST RATION. 127

of the advantages of registration.

O F F I C E S

Tolal inimijer of dociiiutDts registered in Sooks I , i r , ii bd

IV.

Jcssorp, 111 JwrA Uo , 2nd ilo.

M«l ipnSr£ EnnRSin GiidMiidi (Jlimfifl mm Mi­l l niinSkiiiiilft ...

. J I IPDI^ I I |-JlipnidR, Jo in t lit GupSl"" -

KSlKno! Bo Joint lit l lmnBain r

KEtll ., Ive&liiilipur KMlispur Kptcl l in ipur

Ditlo, Joint nt AH« [ISiigS,

3)XIWS Do, Jo in t rtt Silpur

Blanlrtt input Jlltlo, Joint at 1L5JK»II)

AluUnlmiiELdpiir H B I S I I

l)n , Joint nt Suipf-alpm KB Ik his (Chiiinliii) SailbuiXi

l>n, J o m l a l Alimpin

To tul

Total receipts

Totnl cs-puuiliUiie.

1,131 1,813 n,?n 1,75-k 3.121 1,275

2.S13 E,U10 0,8111 6,J3> 2.133 1,003 6 , 7 * 3,816

5,7111, S,U!>-1 6,27* 3,C21 6.SJ1 *,7f» 1 1 1 5 2 1311 5,0)3 3,00 J

03,163

lis

1Q.55J

1,*W +,00+ S,'J33 1 311 2.fill>

•J0J

J.1S7 i , 4 M 3 560 1,0311 1,981 4.J88 S,7'JI

1,110

a,a is 3 371 1.SI71 3,531 3.M.S S,8« 1,156 4,|153 2 0iB

J8.SG8

In 1910 tbe number fell to 06,7(J3 as

shown in tbe marginal state­ment, wh i 0 h gives the salient ttatistics for that year. This de­crease ia chiefly due to good har­vests m 190!>. l tegis t r a t i o n would have pro­bably decreased further 111 1910, tad it not been that a cj clone in October li>09, and (he result­ant diOTs-ge to the %ma» and jute crops iu certain parts of

Us

a i a i

i .sat a, sen 1,631 s ,ai | 2,618 l . j ' -H

1,405 1,1,10

s.uss 8113 3 47! 1,200 S,EM 1S0C

a,8?a ] ,*p 1.ST3 1,4*1 S,7tft 2,EOT a 071 1,011 2,91)5 1,621

5 8 , t M

Juatico.

the district, led to no increase in mortgages and bonds. The judicial stair entertained foi the administration of civil Austins-

justiceconsists of the Distnot and Sessions Judge, ft Sub-Judge, an ™ATIon

additional Sub- I-udge.wbo is also Additional Sub Judge of Khulna JUSTICE and of 12 Munsifs, of whom three hold their courts at Jesaore, j 1 V 1 ' three at T^arail, and two each at Jhenida, Magura and Bangaon.

Criminal justice is administered by the Distik-t and Sessions Criminal Judge, the Distuot M a g n a t e , and the various Deputy, Sub-Deputy and Honorary Mag isti ate e subordinate to him. The aano-tioned staff at Jessoie oonsista, m addition to the District M agistr&te, o£ four Deputy Magistrates of the first olass and ons Deputy Magistrate oi the second or third class. Besides these officeis, one or two Sub-Deputy Magistiates with eocoud or third olass powers are generally posted to the head-ouaiters station. The Subdivisionol Officers of Jhenida, Narail, Bangaon and Magura are almost iDVnriably Magistrates of the first OUBS, and the fiwt three are sometimes assisted by Sub-Deputy Magis­trates vested with second or third olass powers. In addition to the_ stipendiary Magistrates, there are Benches of Eonormy Magistrates at Jessoie, Jhenida, Magura, Narail, Bangaon,

128 JESS06B.

MaheshpuT and Kotohandpur. Some Honorary Magistrates we also empowered to sit singly for the trial of cases made over to

them. Crimiiml There is one criminal caste in Jessore, via., the Eediyas, who r l • are found in the Jhingergaobha thana. They are a predatory caste,

who call themselves Shikaris, but are known by others as Bediyas. which has the same meauing, beingdemed from by&dha, a hunter, Nominally they are cultivators, and they keep up the semblance of that profession by holding a Jij/.ii or two of loud, but really they, make their living by burglary. During the light half of the moon they remain at home, but in the dork hall they leave their houses, and wander over Nadia, the 24-Parganne, Hooghly and other districts cutting their Way into houses at night (an art in which they are adepts) end taking any plunder they can get. Shey confine themselves chiefly to ornaments in silver and gold and to cash, because they are easily carried away and disposed of,

• and after their fortnight of plunder is oVer, they return home with their spoils, They hardly ever conceal the stolen property ia their houses, but hide it in distant placee, until they find an opportunity to dispose of it.

p . . . . Another OIOSB consists of the Pankhaohar Kayaalhs so eWK>j- o u ^ e d fr"'-11 the place of that name in the Lohagora thana, mliJ. Their modus cpe> audi is as follows:—They sally forth in boats

or on foot to markets and twl&s, e, favourite disguise beiug that of well-to-do Babus, Entering I he shops of jewellers or cloth, merchants, the fiotitions Babna. examine their goods, and take the opportunity to pass articles from hand to hand to their companions outside. After this they leave quietly, offering a price considerably less than that asked by the shop-keeper, which the latter naturally refuses. Or they go into a poddar's shop |

and tendering a bad coin, ask for change, A. dispute follows, in ilie comse of whioh the rest of the gang- rob thejwd«Vn\ U one of tbem is caught in the act of stealing anything, he will throw it away and feign madness. If the thief runs away with his booty and is pursued, one of his companions warns him by crying out 'Pfoia Pf>ela'—& man's name, which also means throw it affay.

"Phras also. fnwpsju\. »piKtiUiiMi hiMW^, m a W t a - n a s t i t u t e s drunk and then rob them. Another device of theirs is to go dressed up as a barber, io a shopkeeper or manjlti of a .boat* Before shaving his unsiiepectiug client, the Fankbaflhar Eayasth diverte bis attention by telling him wonderful tales, e t c , while other members of the gang enter the shop or boat mi carry off whatever they can lay their hands on. The principal actor then

OENERAL ABMlNlSTHAflON. I 2 d

Subdivision.

Jaasorfl

Bangtioii

Than a.

JecEDre ... t„i

DEfcherpKriC JhiupergSrlilia

fllaniiiiinpur hi J

Kefiliabpiir Hi"KBOn ,* G-tiphxia. „

Hahei(lJ>U]' "H, Jhcn i t a .. „ j

BEilkUpji ... j KBLffanj . .

HSgura „ ,., J

Muhammadpar NJI rail

BapbKlin iKalitt] ... S

Lohagaro ... j

FcUce-st&tLooa in Cficb tbEnn.

&otwaH,

UnOherpfinl. JmnpergSuhha. JlMaJrilnipiir. NikunSlS-KpFtfiabpur. ItanpioiL

3nr*iiF BfaheEhpur*

KoIolirtnipUT, SiiilkLipn. BariDaLnada.

Sripur. SaliKii. H EI ha mm ad in. r. Kurail, AbTinypTioioir* JSnrtaiia [KffiMnJ

Alfudjinga.

dips away with some excuse, e.g., that he haB left hia razor »t home.

For polioe pnrpo=es, the diatriot is divided into 17 thanas POEIOB. with 26 police-stations as shown in the margic. At AmritaBazar there IB a beat-hcuse, which has been established to ohsuk crime among the Bedi-yas; there is another beat-house at Pan l;hachar, a river patrol b e i n g maintained there for the protection of river tram's and for the

prevention and detection of crime on the waterway. The regular police force consisted in 1910 of the Superintend­ent, 7 Inspectors, 55 Sub-Inspectors, 56 Head Constables and 425 constables. The total strength of the foroe was, there­fore, 544 men repiesenting one policeman to every 5'4 squar^ miles and to every 3,332 of the population. There ia also a small body of town police in the municipalities. The rural police for the watci aod warl of villages in the interior consisted in the same year of 250 dafad&is and 3,401 cIm«Hddrs, representing one ohaukiiloy to every 517 in habitants. The new pane/idyat system, has been introduced, * *., heads of panchayati are vested with the powers of a Magistrate under oertaia sections of the Criminal Procedure Code.

There is a district jail at JessoiB and a subsidiary jail atjAiw. each of the outlying subdivisioEal head-quarters, viz., Jhenida, Magtirst, Nflrail nad BnngJioD, Jn J910 the sub-jail at Jhenida had accommodation for 11 prison™, via,, 8 male convicts and fl female <wn™!s, and that at Magwa for 71 prisoners, via., 34 mala convicts, 9 female convicts, and 20 under-trial prisoners while the hospital had accommodation for 8 patients. The sub-jail at Nar-ail had accommodation for 34 prisoners, viz., 9 male and 4 female convicts, 18 under-trial prisoners and 3 patients in the hospital, and that at Bangaou lor 12 prisoners, via., 9 male

IdO JESSOKE.

and 3 female oonviotG. The district jail had aceom-irodation for 402 prisoners ; there aie barracks for 300 male

* convicts, 10 female convicts and 29 under-trial prisoners, and cellfi for 6 priaonei B ; while the hospital hns beds for 57 patients. The industries carried on in the distnct jail aie brick-making, itirki HB(| hliCG pounding, eime aud hnrnlioo WOJL, and the manufacture rof jut« atriug, coir mots, wire netting', ]uiiBt'w(i PLI?

cotton ruga, atfons and c/>adar&.

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT. 131

*-,

CHAP3?Elt XII .

liOUXj, HiiLP-ooVEllNMEST.

OUJSIDE tho municipalities of Jeesore, Kolabaudpur fUWlDiatBlw Maheshpur, the administration of ]ocal affairs, suoa as the D o i »" . imnagsza&iit of roods, supervision o! midlife and primary achoola, I lie control of dispensaries and provision for sanitary works, rests with the Uiatriot Board, assisted by the Looal Boards of lessors, Jhenidfl, Madura, Narail aud Bangaon and by Hie Union Committees of Keshabpur, Kalia, Hariuakunda, Jhauida and Bangaon.

The District Board consists of 23 members including die Distiiet Magistrate, who is Chairman), of whom 6 are nomi­nated by Government and 12 are elected, while 7 ace ez-ojficio members. Us average annual inoome during the 10 years ending in 1901-02 was Rs. 1,87,000, of whioh Eg. 91,000 weie derived fn>m Provincial rates; and tbe average annual expenditure was Its 1,86,000, of which lis. 1,18,000 were spent on civil works, Rs. 32,000 on education, and Us. 5,000 on medical relief. In i910-ll its income was Rs. 1,81,90) (exclud­ing: au opening balance of Rs, 57,710), the principal receipts being R-.. 1,02,041 derived irom rotas, Rs, 25,4:<!<J obtained from civil works (.ineluding lie, 10,534 from oontiibationt, and lis. 11,642 from tolls on ferries), Rs. ly,t)63 abtainad from 2SG pounds, Ha 18,745 from contributions for medical puruuees, and Rs. 8,55a from education. The incidence of taxation was I I pies per bead of the population. The expenditure in the same year was Rs 1,83,244, of which Ea, J,14,349 were spent on civil works, Ks. 4J,0;3 on education, and Rs. 16,040 on medical relief.

According to tlm returns far 1910-11, the District Board maintains 1,040 miles of roads, of which 128 miles are metalled and 461 miles ore unmetalled, the remamdei heing village roads with an nggrtigxte length of 451 miles; t ie cost of maintaining these raids in 1910-11 was Es. 320, KB. 31, and Rs. 9 per mile, respectively. It gi?ea grants-in-aid to 1 High school, 39 Middle aohoals, 129 UppeE Primary flohoolB,

TS. 2

182 IESSOHF.

LOCAL Bo* BBS.

UBIOH COM II IT-

TBI 8.

1020 Lower Primary Echools, 208 nisktabt and 17 Uh. No educational institution is wholly maintained by tbo Board. For the purpose of supervision, it entertains 7 Inspecting Pandits. I t pays four scholarships of Es . 5 each Cor training pupils belonging to this district in the artisan class of the Coronation Technical school at Khulna, besides pioviding scholarships for students in the Sibpnr Engineering College and the Calcutta Deaf and Dumb School. The Board maintains 7 dispensaries and aids 7 others, and has recently appointed a Sanitary Inspector to look after the sanitation of the district; in 1910-11 altogether 11"2 per cent, of its ordinary income was expended oo medical relief and sanitation, I t also maintains a Yeteri-nary Assistant and a veterinary dispensary at lessors, and it provides a scholarship at the Belgaehhia Veterinary College.

In subordination to the District Board are the Jessore, Jhenida, Magura, Narail and Bangaon Local Boards, the jurisdiction of each corresponding to the subdivieional charge of the same name. The Jessore Local Board has 18 members, of whom 5 are elected and 13 ate nominated by Oovernment-The Jhenida Local Board has 9 members, of whom 2 are eleoted and 7 are nominated by Government; the Magura Local Board has 9 members, oi whom 4 are elected and 5 nre nominated ; the Narail Local Board has 9 members, of whom 3 are elseted and fj are nominated by Government; while the Bangaon Local Board has 12 members, all nominated by Government. The fractions of these bodies consist of the administration oi village roads, payment of stipends and rewords to tbo gurus of Primary schools and the collection oE pound and ferry rents.

There are 5 Union Committees in the district, of which Kalia and Keshabpur weTe established in 1895, Htuiuakunda in 1896, and Jhenidaand Bangaon in J yi 1-12. There also used to be a Union Committee at Garapota, which has recently

abo­lished. The m a r g i n a l table shows the art'Q and popula t i o n comprised in each Union

as constituted in 1910-11. The functions of the Union Committees consist of the maintenance of roads within their respective areas, and the supervision of primary education and village sanitation..

Name,

1. HariiiSfeundit 2. Kalm 8. Keslioipur 4. Jlisnicln 6. Bnngion

Area i.n square tnileB.

S SB 171 6 4

Population.

9,600 14,798 18,891 6,059 4,430

No. of members.

0 0 9 i) 7

No. of villages.

17 22 I t 9 S

LOCAL SErff-OOVEBNMEST. 133

There are three municipalities in the| district, via., Jessore, Mrmoi. Kotahandptir and Maheshpur. The number of rate-payers ia M B I W M-1910-11 was 4,042, representing- )9 per cent, of the fatal number (21,198) of persona residing within municipal limits, as compared wiili tlia average of l6'2 percent, for the whole of the Presidency Division. The average incidence of taxation was Re. 1-4-1 par head of the papulation, as against the •• Divisional average of Re. 1-7-6, and it varied from annaa Mabeshpur to Rs, 2-2-3 in Jessore.

The Jessore Municipality was estibliahed ia 1864, and its Jeisoro. affairs are admiai&tai'ad by a Murtiojpal Bnaid, Consisting of 18 members, of whom 1<* are elected, and 6 me nominated by Government. The area within Jjjaaioipal limits is 4 square miles, and the number ot tate-payera is 1,690 or 19 percent-of the population. The average annual income for the decade ending ia 1910-11 wasRa. 28,826 and the expenditure Rs. 24>301. In 1310-11 the income was Rs. 28,710 (besides an opening balance of Rs. 46,41!)), the main sources of income being (1) a tax on houses and lands, levied at the rate of 1\ per cent, on the annual value of the holdings, which brought ia Es. 10,558; (2) a conservancy rate, assessed according to tv scale varying from Re. 1 to Rs, 50 per annum, which realised Rs. 5,424; and (3) a tax on animals and -vehicles, which brought ia KB. S2.996, The total income from municipal rates and taxes was Rs. 19,307 and the inoidenoe of Usation -was KB. 2-2-9 per head of the population. The expenditure iu the same year was Re. 31,645. The Municipality is now engaged in the construe tion of water works, costing \\ laths, which will give the whole town a supply ot drinking water: the work is approaching completion.

The municipality at Uotebaudpur was eatablisfied in 188S. KotchStid-It is administered by a Municipal Hoard consisting of 10 members, P"'* of whom " (ire elected and 4 are nominated by Government. The area within municipal limits is 4 square miles, and the cumber i Of Bate-payers is 1,4~H, re-presenting 18 per cent, of the popula- j tion residing within municipal area. The average annual income for the decade ending ia 1910-11 "was Es. 7,232 and the expendi. ture was BB- 7,071. In 1910-11 the inoome was Es . 7,195 (besides an opening balance of Rs. 1,670), the praeipa! BOiKeea of booms being (I) a tax on persons, levied generally at, the Kite of 1 pes cent, on the annual income of the rate-p ayere, which brought in R& 3,103 ; \2 ) a tatrine tax levied in poifcions of Wards Nos. I and I I at the rate of Be. 3-12 per annum on the annual value of holdings, which brought in Es . 646*; and

134 ' JESBORE.

(8) a tax_ on onimala and vehicles, which realized Rs. 2,15JJ. The aggregate income from municipal rates and taxes was Ha. 6,268, and the incidence of taxation was annas 10-8 per head of , the population. The expenditure in the eame year was Be. 7,481.

Maheshpur was constituted a municipality in 1869 and is admiuistered by a Municipal Board consisting of 15 Commis­sioners, of whom 10 are elected and 4 am Dominated by Govern­ment and 1 is an eZ'Oflicio member. The area within municipal limits is 3 square miles, and the number oE rate-pajeis is 89H, representing 21 per cent, ot tne population. The average annual income and expenditure for the decode ending1 in 1901-02 were lie. 3,600 and Es. 2,700 respectively. In 1910-11 its total income was Bs. 3,016 (excluding a small opening balsnoe of lis, 902), the principal item in the reoeipts being a tax on persona assessed at the rate of lie. 1-8 pei annum on the annual income of the rate-payers, which biought in lis, 1,935. The expenditure in the same year w<i» Es. 3,4^0. 'Ihia Municipality has suffered severely from malaiial fever.

FODCAT10H, 136

CHAPTER XIII.

EDUCATION.

THK marginal table shows the number of schools and scholars FHOOSRSS

in lha JesBOie district since 18S0- ^ T I X ° " Yssr. school*, sotciirs. gj. The figures for 1370-71

mm ... 1,063 SO.STS m& 1 6 8 0 . 8 1 include the returns 1900-01 .. 078 34,878 v , , . , . , ,, , , 1910.11 ... i,«4 63,070 i ° r li-huLca, wtiicb then formed

part of Jessore, and exclude those or B&D&aon which was then comprised in the Nadia district. l a spite, however, of the faofc that the district as then constituted extended over a larger area than it does a t present, there has been a ooosiderable increase in the number both of schools and scholars, On the other hand, the statistics obtained at the census of 1911 do not show a ?ary high standard of education, for the number of persons returned as literate was only 12^,678 representing 6't) per cent, of the population, the proportion m the case of males being 12 per cent, and in the imsa of females not more than 0'9 per cent. The number of persona able to read and write

Engl ish was also small, oeing only 14,201.

According to the returns for 1910-11, altogether 35*36 per gent, EDOOI.

of the boys of aohool-goiog age are under instruction, t h e ™ 4 * corresponding proportion in the case of girls being 4'2 per-em, cent.; there is on the average one school to every 3'3 villages. T h e supervising staff in t h a t year consisted of a Deputy Inspector of Schools, aBsiBted by an Additional deputy Inspector, 9 Sub-Inspectors, 1 Assistant Suh-Inflpeotor and 7 Inspecting Pandits,

There is only one college in the district, viz., the VictoriaGOLMQEB. College a t K nrail. This Oullege was originally a H i g h Engl ish school, founded by the late Babu R a m Ea tan Kai of Narail , and was raised to the statue of a second grade college iu 1886. I was constituted a first grade college ifi 1890, but there are at present no B , A . classes. The stafi consists of a Principal and Professor of English Li tera ture , a Professor of Mathematics, a Professor of Logic and His to ry , and two Professors of Sanskrit .

SacoSE.

136 JBSB0K1.

There fs a hostel attached to the college, and also a oollegiafe school boti of which are under (he supervision of tLo Principal.

Tiers are no less than 8-; eeconday schools in the district including 24 High schools, 33 Middle English schools and 25 Middle Vernacular schools The High sciioola had, on the 3Iat March 1911, 4,556 pupila on the roll?, giving an average of 190 per school. The following table givea the salient statistics of the High schools on that date ;—

Managed by Government. School,

Jeseore Zila

Numbei Q| p ipils.

277

Dangaon Maheshpur Magura Warail Collegiate . . '

Jhenida Sailtupa Ectehandpur Abaipur /oradaha Panjia Ssdhuhati

Aided.

200 138 237 294 528 109 271 118 210 153 80 82

Jessore Sammilani Naldanga BJmsarj... BidydBandalafci ... Biaodpur GaDgaramptir Baghutia Jtna ... LakshraJpaBd Narail.Subdiyisional' iionSgnrft JBenipur

Vnatded,

-f%*

265 75 64

215 61

132 275 230 230 316

•171

SDtfCATlOM. 13?

Of the Middle English schools, 27 receive grants-in-aid and 6 are unaided; they had -r,4G5 pupils on the rolls on 81st llarok 1911, the aveiagu per school being- G1). The attendance at Middle Yemaoulai schools is far less, 'lie oumbei of piipiln on the same date being only l,Si>7 or 65 per school, ^3 of these schools are aided and 2 nie unaided

In 1'JlO-ll there nere 980 hoys' Primary sohools with an Pvatns aggregate attendance of 33,572 pupils; of these, 144 with «0"°™. 6,896 pupils were Upper Primary, sad 836, with 26,676 pupils, were Lower Primary schools, the average attendance being 48 and 32, respectively Among sohools of the former class, 10 are under public man agement, 132 are aided, and 2 only are uuaided; of the latter class 721 are a'ded and 115 are unaided.

The number of gills undei instruction, whether in boys' Grata' or girls' schools, waa 4,577 in 191(1-11, viz., 5 m Middle eCH00M* schools, 350 in Upper Primary sehouls, and 4,222 in Lower Primary sohools Altogether 216 sohools have been opened for girls, which in that year had an attendance of 4,126 scholars in 1910-11, representing an overage of 19 per school. Of these

sohoob 8 with 377 pupils are managed by Government, 183 with 3,298 pupils are aided and 25 with 451 pupils aro unaided. An aided zanana class at Panisora is reported to be doing useful wort.

The Baptist Zanana Mission has started an industrial aohoolTBOH,rT' with 18 female pupils at Jeoaore, at which laee work, embroidery, scaoois, drawing and threadwork are taught in addition to arithmetic and Bengali. The District Board also giants two scholarship8(

of the value of Its. 10 each, tenable, at the Civil Engineering College, Sibpur, aa well aa four scholarships of Ea. 5 each tenable • at the Khulna Coronation Techmoal School.

Ten guru training schools have been established, viz., two in TRIINIHQ eaoh of the fivo subdivisions of the district. In 1908-09 they a c n o ( '1 3 ' had not all got buildings ; those at Lak slim on pur, Mohanpur and R a y i i had been completed, and materials only had been collected for those at CImiamankati, Digb&hn, Chaichaudanpiatap and Ghatbaan.

The few private institutions in the distriot consist of Koran PWTATB

sohools and elementary schools whioh have cot adopted the ?ioxa, '

departmental standard In the jear 1910-11 there were 2 schools of this class, with 31 pupils.

Tho returns for 1910-11 show that thera are 26,389 Mubam-Ew°** madan pupils at school or 49-72 per cent, of tho total number ™HiM-of pupils, as against 26,589 Hindu pupils or 50*11 per cent. **B*»S,

138 JRSSORB.

With these figures may be compare^ those returned for Muham-madans and Hindus at the census of i91[ , according to which they constitute 62 and SS per cent., ielective!y, of the population. I t is apparent, therefore, that the Muhammadana of Jesaore are not so ready to take advantage of their eduoatiooal opportunities aa the Hindus. Most of the Muhammadan pupils moreover are in the pi'inwry stage of instruction., only 2,20& studying in secondary schools, of whom 955 attend High sohoola Three Middle BoholaiBhips ate reserved foe MuhammadaiiB, and 2'ii maktoba have adopted the departmental standard.

GAZBTTBEll, 139

CHAPTER XTV.

1 OAZETTEKIi

A m n t a Bazar —A village in the Jassore subdivision situated 4 miles noith of Jbngergaehba. Neatly half a centtiiy ago a laraily of G-hoses, who nere email aaininilars mthe adjoining village of Magora, established a bnz&i here, which they named, a^ter the r mother, Amnta After this they set up a printing: press, and in 1868 established a. Bengali newspaper culled tile Amtita Baza) Pntnka. '1 he paper was subsequently BIIII Ted trc Calcutta, where it waa published in English. It is now one of the principal Anglo-Indian journals, i ' „ journals pul lished in English ni.d owned, edited and read by Indians. Amnta Bazar is also the birfh plate of the late Bubu Shir Kumai Ghose, the author of several Bengali religions hooka

BangaOn.—Head-quarters of the subdivision of ths same name situated on fcae Ichhamati river, 27 miles south-west of Jessore Population (I91li 3,96). Foimerly an insignificant village, Bangaon became of importance owing to its position on the Caloutl a road, and ita trade increased still further when a railway station was opened It now foims a junction of the central and eastern eeotions of the Eastern Bengnl State Railway, thus having connection with Calcutta, Jeesore and Ranaghat. The town contains the usual public offices found at a subdivisional bead-quarters, a Munsif'a court, sub-registry office, postal-tele graph office, di&pensary, and dak bungalow. There ia a printing piesa, called the Pallibarta Press, •which publishes a weekly newspaper, the Pallibarta I h e nvar Iokba-mati, on which the tovvn stands, is here spanned by a pontoon bridge constructed, in 1863 A Union Committee was established at Bangaon in 1911-12

Bangaoa Subdivision.—Western subdivision of the district lying between 22° 52' and 23° 26' N and between 88° 40' and ^9° 2' E , with an arei of 649 square miles. I t is bounded on the east by the JSBSOIS subdivUion; on the south by the 24-Pfuganas (Baraaat and Basirhat subdivisions); on the west bj the Eanaghat and Sadai subdivisions of Nadia ; and on the north by the Ohnadanga subdivision of Nadia and the

140 JESSOHE.

Jhenida subdivision of Jessore. The land, is comparatively high and contains nn marshes, but there are a number of small l^Keei or baors, whioh murk the channels of extinct rivers. Tlie r^T e r

Iehbamati traverses the subdivision from north to south and is a deep s t e a m navigable throughout the year. The other chief rivers are the Befcna and Jamuna, which have now almost com­pletely flitted up, rendering the adjoining country very unhealthy-I t s population ia 1911 was 306,984, and it is the most sparsely inhibited part of the district, having only 473 persons to the equare mils.

Bars. Bazar. —A. village in the Jeasars &\ibdivisioa situated 10 miles north of Jessore. I t contains a sub-registry office, and also tho ruins of some buildings and several old tanks (one of great siaejr which are ascribed to Khanja Air, who is said to have halted here on his way to the Snndarbans. The traditions of the Nawapara family, however, attribute these remains to ona of their ancestors Raja Ham Chandra Khan, who is said to have been a favourite of M m Singh and to have held high office under him H e auquired the eamindari of Muhammadpur and made his head-quarters at Bara Bazar, but his grandson Kama] Mar&yan Bs i removed the »eat of the family to Bodhfcbana, 12 miles to the south-west.

Barki l ia or Kalia.—A village in the Narail subdivision situated about 10 miles south of Lakshmipasa on the Kali-ganga river. I t contains a polioe-etatiou, dispensary, sub-registry office and a flourishing High school. There is an association here^ known as the Kalia Young Men's Association, which maintains a amitll library: its object is to help the poor. The people, who are mostly Baidyas "by caste, have taken full advantage of the educational facilities afforded by Government; even 20 years ago, some fifty graduates ip arts, law and medicine, many of whom practised elsewhere, had their homes here- The origin of this place is said to have beeu connected with the fact that the south of the district used U> be liable to the attacks oE the Magha, and the western end north-western to the ravages of the Marathas. To escape from these dangers, a number of respectable families sought aa inaccessible spot, where they could live at peace undis­turbed by Magh or Marathas, and established themselves at Kalia, which was then, as ahown in Rennell's map, in the midst of a marsh. Many of the officials and people employed in the Jessore offices and courts belong to this "village, to which they return in the Durga Puja, when boat races are a favourite pastime.

Basundia or B&saat ia .—A village in the Jossore sub­division situated on tho Bhaimb, about 12 mile3 east of Jessore, Being the poiut nearest to Jessore to which boata of

HI OAZBTTBBE.

* *j *rt upTve as «• port to w oftn b« na^gatad.* ^ *e ^ ' a ' and rio*. and

death o t i t t s tn" 1 " t i m e h e ^as u

iawrttion, th-* "° 0 J ' B ^ 1 1 1 . n a B t t t i *t tout 7WJ t ( B 1 k. ' . .

toto.t™-to ^ \ i k e othai tab » yito—,

Numerous l e g ^ - S b a n ] a A * ^

tt. tot 0 E 6 , ^ h to e5«mt«m of . i ^ J « » rf to

rf da**- ThB made w1i a ^ ^ ^

u ^ ' f f ! j ^ £ l s n a f f ie. ^ ^ ^ ^ J , " Lavation by tba nver a S B C c i f t t e d ^ ^ tfc6 001ir6e • J ^ S s t t o t a o I t t a t a E * ,

142 rassoKB.

The tank is believed to be a repository of treasure. It is said that as long aa there was free communication with the river, gold mohurs and various other articles used to float on the surfaco nod go in aud out with the ebb and flow of the tide. frVheu in process of time tha water became ahnllow, the oupidity of the people was aroused Two greit eaithen jars filled with gold coins were then seen lo issue from the middle oE the tank, and cutting a passage in its baik near the southeastern corner glide lapidly through it till they disappeared in the river. In proof of this fact, the villagers point to a gnu still existing which is called e/Ji'iudktma, i.e., the torn corner

About a hundred yards north of the tank there are several buck-kilns, the tops of which aie just visible above tne surface. The bricks, which appear to have been cut and not moulded, ara generally thinner and smaller than those mads at the present day. No one ventures to remove them for fear of incurring the ven­geance of the dead; and stories are told of tne evil fate of those who have tried to do BO In the neighbourhood aia mounds of emit at varying distances, the mtervamQg spaces Wag under cultiva­tion, winch miy be the remains of old roada thit Uav, been cut into lor the purposes of cultivation. An old road in fair pieserva-tion runs through the village abng the river hiuk, and there are

traces of a airailai load, probally <i continuation of the first, also running: aloujj the bank of the l i r a , and bounding the village towards the noith and the easl. It has been suggested that this was originally nor a road, but a fortification intends 1 to proteot the place from invasion, or an embnnki ant to cheek the encroach­ments of the river. The position of the village, surrounded by the river, also supports the belief tha' it wa.5 originally a fortified position. Further, " the existence of numwouB tanks and roads, and the discovery of bricks underground in the vicinity, seems to show that the chief whu established his fort at Bidyanawtakatj held sway over a rich and flourishing community. Krom the direction of the tanks it may be safely presumed that this commu­nity constated who'ly of Hindus."*

Chanchra—A. village in the Jessore subdivision situated a mile south of Jesaoie and included in the municipal area It contains the palace (r&fbari) of the old Rajas otOnanclnaor Jessore, which once had a rumpnit and fusse surrounding it, or which the ruins are still traceable. Near the palace is a large tank, dug by one or the ancestors of the Raja's family, and called

•J.1EB BihSri Qhoao, The BHlna B e a r Sidi/Snandaiati, Mookorjw's MM-'MUMJ 1B73

GAZEITEBR ud

the Chor-mata, or thief-beating tsnli. It is Baid that the jail where the Eajfis confined malefactors waa adjacent to it, and that the tanl. talps its name from this circumstance The Tillage also contiiioa a tempts of Dnsha Mahavid;!, which is non in ruins.

The KfijSe of Chandra tiaoe tlieir origin to Bhaheewor Km, a Boldiei in Khan 1 Azira'sarmy, who received Itsnr pnrganes, n a , Saiyadpur, Ahiimdpur, Muragachba, and .Unhkpur, out of the temtones taken fioni Bfija Pratajtaditja Bhabaswar died in 1583 A D. 195 B S , oi SW A . H ) , and wan succeeded by Mabtab Ham Eai (1588 to 1619) Luring Man Singh's war with Pratapaditjn, lis gave as'ielaiiee to the Musalman tioipa, and retained po<saseton of the four pargws made over to his predecessor Dtujug the last BeTen years d MB life, however, he had to pay revenue on account of hie lacdn, which npparently bad cot before been assessed Tbis was during (he rule of telaia Khan, Governor oi Bengal, and here there ie collateral evidence in favour, of the family histur3 The nasi successor, Xaivdarpa Eai, held possession of the estates Irom 1619 to 1G49 A.D., during which time he succeeded in acquiung ptttgiwas Dontia, Khaliakbah, Baglin.ia.ra, Sdim&bftd aad SJiahujialpur, extending his estates south westward from Soiyadpiir.

Jiandajpa'a suece'sor, Manohai Baij who succeeded m 1649 and Itvud tijl 1705 A D , ia looked upon as the principal founder o± (ho family The estate, when he inherit ad it, was of moderate dimeusioua, but vthen he died, it had become by far the largest in the neighbourhood owing to the acquisition of the following par gams — Eamchandiapur, in 1682 A D ; Husainpm, m 1689; Eangdia and B&hTtrjabad, in 1691, Chingutif, m lb&Oj Yusaf|itr, ID 1G9G, Mnlui, Sobuali acd Sobua, m 169M, and Sftbos, in 1703; bisides olber smaller pargaiws, viz, TaU Phahia, Snpad Kabiraj, Bhatla, Kalitata, etc. ilauobar Uni IB said to hays acquired most of the iitcgaiian by paying tlie anears due on them when their actual pr>pnetura ruada 6s. fault in payment of tho revenue, ami by mgagmg to pay the asse=Ement himself in future. After Manohar'a death, Kmhna Bain held the estate up fill 1729, and added to it Haheab.-waipSsa and liaitnangnl, in the same way a, his predoceasoi had acfluued Irs neighbours'pioperty. Some smnllei ^utynnns, m . eluding BaBiipm, were acquired about this t i m e by puichas from the Baja ol N a d u . The nest heir was Stikh Dob Itai •who was induced by Manohar's widow to divide the eatata iuto a tbree-quarterB (twelve annas) and a one-focuth (fourennas) share, the latter of wkwU ha ga<re to bja brother Syam Bandar

144 JEBSOKE,

In 1745, Suth Deb was succeeded in the three-quarters or twelve annas share by Nilkant, who held it till 1764 ; but the quarter oi four annas share was left without an beir in 175*) or 1758, Syam Smidar and hie infant son having died.

The three-quarters share (generally called the Yusufpnr estate, that being the name of the chief va>gana iu it) was inherited in 1764 by Srikant Rai, At the timo of the Permanent Sett'ement be lost pa/gatia after pay gam, until his family, having nothing left, weie forced to fall hack on the bounty of Govern-meat, Siikant died m 1802, and his son Banikant, haying suc­ceeded hy means of a suit in regaining that part of the ancestral property which lay within the Saiyadpur paignna, gave up his pension and became once moie a landholder. Baci iant died m 18i7 : and the Court of "Waids greatly inoieased the value ot the estate for his eon Baradakant, whilst a minor. In 1823, Government restored to him the confiscated pai gana of Sahoe; and subsequently bestowed upon him the title of Raja Bahadur, m recognition of his position and the services rendered by him during the Mutiny. He died in 1880 and -was succeeded by his three sunB, Gyanadakant Mnn«dakant and Heinadakanj. The title of R&ja, which is not officially recognised as heredi-taiy, was conferred on the eldest, &janadakant, in 1888.

The estate, or rather a lesijue of it, is now held by Euinar-Satishkant, Kshiiodakant and fitmadakant They used to be the proprietors of pat gana Sajyaupur and Iraadpur. extending over 99,434 acres, with a revenue of lis. 1,38,101 and paying » Government leverme of Bs. 55,317.9-8, but tbey had to part w l t ^ tbeir entire interest in pargana Saijadpur s'jmo time ago, an they have now got only a fractional interest in pargana ImSap • The only property of any importance BOW held by them is B_ annas 8 pies mteiesfc in pargana Salios in the Kliulna distnc • The assets of their shaies in this pnigana amount to lis- 3 1 , and th&y have to pay a revenue of Us 2,431-15-8. ,

Chaagacttha.—A Tillage in the Jeseore subdivision eifcuatea on the Kabadak, 16 miles noith-west of Jessore. The village oontains a police-station and Distnot Board bungalow, and an im­portant hat JBheld twioe a week. I t appears as a prominent place on EenneU's map, and its importano e at the end of the eighteenth eentnry is attested by the lact that a road to OhaugSehha was one of the chief lines of eomraunioation which the & Hector proposed for cdnstruotion in August 1800. A bridge across the Kabadak w a a constructed here about 1850 by the then Magistrate Mr Beatiort but sufficient waterway was not left, and it was swept 9 w a y about three yeais aftei. i t ^ ^ £

8AZEITBBE. 146

ane of the centres of i t s BUgar trade of the district. Messrs. Gladstone, Wyllie & Co. established a refinery here, but it did not succeed and passed into the hands oE Messrs. Newhouae of Kotehaudfiur. Mr. McLeod used to reside in the house attached to the augur factory, and a large quantity of indigo was grown by him. There used aho to he a large indigo factory here, built by a Mr. Bunliswoilh, which was closed over 30 jears ago, and also a small iudigo factory built hy a rich merchant called Nilk&nt Pare. One day, when Nilkant was bringing back liom Calcutta KB. 14,000, the produce of his indigo sales, he was attacked hy dacoite, who robbed him of all. Nilkunt never recovered from his loss, and eventually fold the factory to T&riui Gharan Gho&e, a aajnindar resident in tbe village and formerly Govern­ment Pleader at Kriahnagar.

DhulgriLin,—A. Tillage in the NaTail subdivision situated on the left bank of the Bhairab, 5 miles south of the Abhayacagar police outpost. I t contains the residence of tbe Mitra family which has built a series of) temples on the bank of the Bhairab. Owingj however, to the encn achmects of the river, meat of thesB temples have been washed away.

Ga&khali ~ A village in the Jessoro subdivision situated two ruilee from the J hmgergaobha railway station I t formerly contained a polioe-station and sub-registry office, which have been removed to Jhiugergachlia. At Bodhfeuana, 4 miles north of Gadkh&li, a fair is held annually immediately before that at Trimobini. There are at BouhHhaDa the remains of a ditoh and ramp, the garb, as it is called, of an old Eamiridar'B family. This house-was piobably that of Karoal t sa r iyanSai , an ancestor of the Kawapara family, who is known to have made his bead-quarters here,

Jessore. - Head quarters station of the distrior, situated rm the Bhairah river, with a station on the Eastern Bengal State Railway, 75 miles from Calcutta. I t contains a population, according to the ceases of 1911, of h,911 persons, of whom 5,565 are Hmdus, 3,202 ;ue Muharamadans, and 143 are Cbrisliaas

• The towtt was constituted a municipality in 1864; besides Jesaore proper, the villages of Puraaa Kasha, Baghchar, Sankarpur, Gope Barandi and Chanchra [q.v.) lie within municipal limits, The town contains the usual public offices, criminal, revenue and oivil courts found at a district head-quarters, a dietrict jail, a High school, a dispensary and a town hall The obie( ednca. tional institatioDB are tb.e Zila School, whieli is maintained by Government, and the S&uiurilaui School teaching up to the Entrance standard, which was started in 1888 by eome private gentlemen

L

H6 JEBSORE.

and is managed by trustees. The town has not a large trade, but ie the hear]-quarters of three banking concerns, viz-, the Jeeaore Loan Company, which was started in 187fi, the Trading- and Banking Company and the United Bank. Kecently a factory for the manufacture of combe, buttons and mats has been established near tho railway station: the factory belongs to a company, composed of Indian gentlemi-n, which was formed la 1909. There are four printing presses in the town, of wbioh two do job work, while the otber two publish newspapers. The Hindu Patrika Press publishes two monthly journals, the Hindu Patrika in Bengali and the BrafimacAdri in English : the Jassore Patrika Press publishes a Bengali weekly called the JetMre Patrika.

There are no remains of archoological interest, with thg exception of the shrines of two )irs or Miisalman saicts— GboribShfih aud Bahiam Shah. The shrine of the first ie just beside the Collect orate; the other is a little distance off in the direction of the cemetery. Legend relates that Ghnrib and Bahrain Shah were companions of Khanja AH, and that, when he was march­ing southwards fo the Sundarhans, ha sent them ahead to prepare food for him at Jessore. "When he arrived, it was not ready, and he therefore left them behind when he went on. As they were, l i te Khanja All himself, men of great piety endowed with Divine power, people lesorted to them, and to this day the people Of Jessore visit fchoif shrines with votive offerings.

Am oil,!? modern building's may be mentioned a church of the Church of England, which was opened in 1843, fioverc. ment having given the labour of the prisoners in the jail, the cost of erection was only Re. 3,167, tvhich was raised by subscriptions among" the residents and indigo planters of the district. Mr. Bentkall, the then Judge, -was the moving spirit in the matter, and along with others subscribed largely fo the building, which, when erected, received the name of Christ Church. About 1846 a pareonsge was built (also by subscription among the residents oiid planters) at a cost of Es . 7,064, prison labour apparently being again used. 3Ir. J . Foy, the first clergyman (Additional Clergy Society), occupied this house from his arrival in Decemher 184K till he left in December 1856. The church ff&s apparently a bare place when he first came—little but -walls and seats; but in 1848 a clock purchased by subscriptions was plaoed in the tower, and in 1853-04, mainly through his exertions and the subscriptions of the residents in the district, a chance] was built, an altar was set up and decorated, stained -windows were put in, etc. \ a 1854 a public library -was started, whioh

Q A Z B T T E B R - ar is still in existence. It lias recently bean transferred from the Municipal Offtoe buildings to tbg Town Hull, which was built to 1909. There are two cemeteries near the European quarters one of which is old, ivhile the other was described in 1870 as new, Bo that it is now over 40 years old.

Near JVI urali, two miles from tlie station, is a temple containing an idol of Haghunath with an endowment, which ia spent in 'he maintenance of the temple and the worship of the idol, and in feeding travellers and religious mendicants. The endowment was made in 1B13 by Krishna- Baa Brajabasi, who devoted the rental of five villages to that purpose and handed the management to two persons of his own easte. After hi8.death in 11*6 the trustees set up a forged will to prove that tha estate had been conveyed to them for their own benefit and not for pious uses. The fraud was discovered, and for long afterwards ths trust was managed by the Collector, hut eventually it was made over to a oomrai-fea appointed by the caste to whom the idol appertains.

When British rule began, tho head-quarters wera at Marali, whoro there was a factory, which Mr. Henekell, the first Judge and Magistrate, mado his residence. About 1790 the he ad-quarters were transferred by his successor, Mr. Rocke, to tha town of Jessoro, whioh was then known as Kasha (meaning the oity) or Sahibgary ; the last name is no longer usad, hut tlie town is still sometimes called Kasba-Jeasore. The derivation of the Word Jeasrjre is doubtful. According to General Cunningham, the name means a bridge and "shows the nature of the country whioh is so completely intersected by deep watercourses that, before, the construction of the present roads and bridges the chief commuoipatioii was by boats." * The basis of his theory is not known to ihe compiler of this volume, nor is it under­stood how Jeasore could mean a bridge. Popular tradition states that the name is a corruption of Yasofcara, meaning the dapriver of glory, and that (his nama was given to the capital of Bikramaditya in the Sundarbans, whioh was so magnificent that it eclipsed the capital of Gaur, The name, it is said, was first given to Iswanpur in Khulua, which was known as Jasor-Iswaripar and was subsequently transferred to this town, This tradition cannot, however, be credited, for, as stated in Chapter I I , the tame Jasor was given to this part of the country before the time of Bikramaditya.

The town is known to have been an unhealthy one for more than a century. In 1800 the station was described as

* Ancient Geography ofln$i» (&!l),f, SQ2,

i , 2

14H JESSOttB.

"all jungle frees and bamboos," with its bazar and roaflg covered with unhealthy vegetation, and letters of otbor periods say the same We rW that in 1806 Mr. Willock, the Oolleota* who had succeeded Mr, R. Thackeray cthe father o£ tlie noveliGt)|

had to leave suddenly in bad health, only to die at Jessie next year. His successor, Mr. Parker, also had to I0 a v e tJirioa on aooonnt of ill-health, aad also died here in 1809,^ The Bhairab river waa then, as now, a source of malaria, for it was almost dry in the hot seaeon, and the place retained for a very long time its reputation as an unhealthy station. Sir Jaia^ Weatland, writing in ISrO, slated:—" Its character in this reg. peat has been entirely changed since Mr. Beaufort, the Magistrate, about 1854 supplied it with an efficient system of drainage, the first great step in its sanitary improvement. " Tbjs "Ppears to have been an optimistic view, for the station is now a a

unhealthy as ever owing to the deterioration of the Bhairab, This river used to have a rapid flow and was the source from which the inhabitants got their drinking water-supply* besides carrying off the drainage of the town. Now, however, owing to the collection of silt in its bed, the water is almost oorflpletejy stagnant; and into this stagnant water there still passes the drainage of one side of tue town The drainage of the other side runs off towards the Harina til.

For the improvement of the Bhairab a number of scheraeg have been suggested, e.g. (1) to convert the Bhairab into a lako by placing a dam across it below the town, (2) to drain it entirely, (3) to introduce a fresh supply of vrntfr into its bed from the Ohitra by returns of a cut, (-1) to divert the whole of the drainage of the town into the Harina ML Begarding the first Boheme the Sanitary Commissioner remarked in 1892 :^. " The proposal to bond up the river and turn it into a lake is j n

my opinion highly objectionable, from a ea-nitary point of view the lake, if formed, would not only raise the level oi the sub-soil water, thus causing an increase of malarial fererj hut would soon be filled with noiicus water plants and be a greater nuisance than ever." Regarding the olher three soheiaes his

Mb mi ifflflF.'-"Tl|fl M Biig£CBli°n is im p r a c .

, & • the C O B . . ™ * of . tou, - - ^ Z b ^ ' k m to

AHUM* « ,*• hT ° 7 1 ' l r -*»•if tK" °lM™"»

QAZEWEEH. 149

is aot carried out under stilled Bnperviaion, there will he a. great liability that the levels -will be disarranged and the drains made useless. The only remedy for this appears to be the construc­tion o£ masonry drains, bat the east would he very heavy— probably prohibitive,"

Tlie latest soheme is to introduce a flow of water during the rains from the Hatabhaaga in the Nadia district. The progreaa of (his soheme has been stayed for futlsr enquiries about ifs prob­able effects.

At present, part of the town only is provided with a filtered water-supply, bat a soheme for supplying drinking water to the entire town bos be»n recently taken IE band by the Municipality at an estimated cost of Us. 1,54,000. Of this sum Government contributes Rs. 54,000, besides a rent-free grant of 14 acres of EhSs Mahal land ; the reat of fche amount is to he raised by a loan of Rs. 65,000 and from private subscriptions: Government has already given a hian of Rs 60,000 and a further loan of Rs. 5,000 ia being proposed. The supply of water is to be obtained from two big tanks escavated for the purpose. The- water from the tanks will flow thi ough floating arras to a pump well, from whiob it will be raised by an oil engine and a centrifugal pump to two unaltered water tanks placed on the Erst floor of the engine house, which wiU contain between them 15,000 gallons. From these tanks the wafer is to pass through a set of three meebanical filters, eaeb capable of filtering 2,000 gallons per hour; so that when all three are workiog, the total supply can be filtered in 6f hours, or, when only two are in use, in 10 hours. After filtration, the water will gravitate to au under-ground reservoir, whence it is to be pumped a second time to the service reservoir, whioh is a steel tank situated on the top of the engine house, the draw-off level being 28 feet ahuve ground level. The pumps and engmen are to be in duplioate, the pumps being ran off s. counter-shaft ia such a way that any pump ciu be worked by either engine, so as to furnish a safeguard against a breakdown. The 8itered aad un filtered water pumps can Gash raise 6,000 gallons per hour, equal to the masiinum rate at which the filters can work. The filters will be placed ia a special room forming an annexe to the engine house. To ensure a sufiMect supply of Water throughout the year, it has been decided to drain rain water falling on an area of 1,000 square feet into the tanks. The total length of pipes to be laid out will ba 34,448 feat or a little over %\ miles, and 53 hydrants ara to be placed at convenient places ia the town,.

idd tassoitfe.

Tl\& existing' ejstein of drainage U defective. There are about 46 miles of knboha and pnoca drains for r-anying iaia water, partly into (lie m e r Bbairab and pai t l j into the Hariua Wl eoathoi the Ohanchia-Bogcbar Road. l a the rainy season the fiitBoods up /hrough. tbe colvevia nndei tho lailway into the

lowlymg poition ol the tonn, unci thus lenders drainage pntati-on)ly ineffectual for some tioie m tbp j ea r The oiinaut of tbe

Bhairub, moreover, is not shoag enough to curry off within a sufficiency- shoit time the ra inwater discharged mto it. The result is tha t during: the rainy season iaia water soaks into the ground and mates tiia entire urea damp and unhealthy; while the d rams do not c a n y off suilage water, which either sinks into the g iound m thfi immediate neighlouihood ol iha bouses or inns

• in to tanks by Burfwce flow. A scheme has recently been pre­pared for removing sultage wtilei fioin the vicinity of inhabited areas, for keeping- the faults and wells free from pollution, and for carrying off rain water moie effectually, eithoi into the b\l or the river, by means of a syatem of open chain*.

Jes so re Subdivis ion —Head-quaiters subdmsion of the district wifcli an aiea of 7H squaia miles. The subdivision is an alluvial tract sloping; from north-west to south east, thiongb the eentio of which t h e nver Bbairab flows. This nyer and the other sli earns t iaversing the subdivision have now silted up except in the lou er reaches ; the couutiy between them contains some large marshes?, and the wbole tincf is veiy unhealthy. At

the census of 1901 the area of the subdivision was %8Q square mi les wi th a population of 561,242, hut owing to changes of jur isdict ion i t has now (1911) been laduced to 748 square miles wi th a populat ion of 462,305 persons, representing 618 persons to the square mile.

J h e n i d a — rJhe head-quaiters station of the subdivision of tha t name, s i tuated on the uver Nabaganga, 2S miles north of Jessore Populat ion (1911) 1,0^2. I t is nearly 23 miles distant from the neaiest ladwfty station, Chuadanga on the Eastern B e n g a l S ta t e Rai lway, with which it J8 connected by a metalled r o a d ; I h o i e i e a regular ticca gfy i service between Jeesore and J h e n i d a , ca r ry ing passerjgeis daily from Jhenida to Jessoro and back- T h e N a b a g a n g a used to be the principal channel of com­munica t ion between J h e n i d a and the outside world, but it haa si l ted up aud Is now piactioally a sheet of stagnant water dignified by tho name of a river

QAZETTBEH. 161

to the tliKaa of Bhushna. In 1786 Jhenida was the head-quirlers of the Colleutorate ot Mahmiidshahi, but nest year it was absorbed ia the adjoining district of Jessore, and it beofime a police thaua about 1793, The indigo disturbances of 1860-61 led to the establishment of the subdi visional head-quarters iieie m 1862, the Jhenida subdivision till then being fot the most part within the subdivision of Magura

Jhecidn is the bead.quarters of a TJniuu Committee established in 1911, The principal public and jMom-publio offices and institutions a r e . - ( 1 ) The subdmsional ofBoe established in 1861-62. (2) The Civil Courts consisting of the Courts of the Erst and second Munsifs of Jhenida, The Hunaif's. court was fiist established here in 1S61, but previous to (hat jear the Munsif of Magura was designated the Muraif of Jhenida. In 1861 the iluusif's court was abolished, but it was re-established in 1871 ; there also used to be a Court of Saudi Causes, but it irae abolished in le91. (3) The sub-registiy office. (4) The police-station. (5) The post and telegraph offices 6 The di established in 1064, which is supported by public subscriptions nod grants by the Distnot Board (7) The office oi the Local Board foimed in 1887. (8) The High English school established in 1878, which is maintained by public subscriptions and a Government giant (9) The Medrata, which has been recently established, (10) The Uhnst Church Mission house Kot far fiom the courts there is an inspection bungalow belonging to the District Board,

Jhenida has a considerable bazar, and a little distance to the wett of the bazar is Hatkhola, where a hi weekly hat is held every Sunday and every Thursday. There is a temple of. Kali here, which is maintained by contributions consisting of a. hand­ful of everything brought for sale in the hat. A. little to the nest of the latter, m the village of Chakla, there is a large lalisll cnteherry if the Marail zamindais. In the adjoining village of Ohuadaoga there is a shrine of a godlrag called Panohu-panohui, of which Sir James Weetland gives the following account - ' f anchu-pauchui has the reputation of: giving children to barren women, and on Tuesday, which is her leree day, thirty or forty women nwy be seen visit­ing her She lives in a small thatched hut, and her guardian is an old woman The applicants aidiess this old woman, and ehe retues behind a screen, whence soma Inarticulate Bounds are then heard. The old woman then comes out and states the tarns which Panchu-panobui has dictated as thcsB on -vhich she will accomplish the applicant's desire. The latter

1*2 JE8S0KE.

goes away, and whec a obitd is born to her, she returns with theoffering—a two-anna pieoe, or a cloth, or a howl of mili , etc-— which Partchu-panolmi haa demanded." The vionritv of Jlienidft formerly bore a bad reputation for robberies and dacoities. &-% tank, a mile or two from Jhenida, used to be a labourite spot for the perpetration of these outrages, a-od the tack still

" bears tbo scggestive names of Ohakshukora (eye-gonging) and Maridhapa (j'aw-eqiiashiug). .

Jhen ida Subdivision.—North-western subdivision of the disiriot with an area of 616 square miles. I t is bounded on the north and wast by the Kusthia and Ohuadanga subdivisions of the Nadlfi district; on the east by the Magtira subdivision ao by the Goalundo subdivision oF Furjdpur ; and on th« sojitn ? the Sadar subdivision of this district. I t is an alhwial pla»^ somewhat hieher than the Jessore subdivision., traversij"1 * north-west to south-east by the Kumar, Nabagasga and l> rivers. Of these, the first is still navigable almost throng the year, but the latter two have practically silted up <)•£" * r f Me from the Kumar still occur, but at rare intervale. The a ^ ^ has be«o raised by the inundations of the distributaries o ^ Ganges till it is now beyond the reach ot the ordinary a°°a^-^ consequently it no longer receives the deposits of silt ^ formsrly enriched it. At the Census of 1801, the eabii"^ b u t

an area of 475 square miles with a population of LfOi.'* ' "he Kffigtmj thacn with an aiea of I4t square miles and a t ^ latfon of 81,285 was subsequently .added to it, so that i f e " fl

now 616 square miles and its population 362,BlSxspreeoBO^S persons per square mile. _ -fuafced

J h i n g e r g a c h h a — A village in tha Jessore subdivision 8 * e r n

9 miles west of Jessore. There is a station here on the J* ft

Bengal State Kailway, and the river Kabadak is span"0 a

suspension bridge, the history of whioh has already been g ^ in Chapter I X . The place contains a than*, a 8 u b ' j ! B

h e i d , office and a District Board bungalow. & cattle w a v M f ^ ^ and it is an important centre for the export trade 1 ^ f

8 l j e n U i n 9

rioe. An indigo factory was established here by Mr- ^ . ^ about 1800; either this faofcorv, or more probably aaoiW ^ fl

subsequently took its place, came into the han . T e i 0 p Mr. Mackenzie, who died about 1865. H e did much to ^ Jhicgergaahha, and established a fiat which is called a

Kalia.—SeeBartSlia. ' . i t u f t ted KiUIganj .~A village in the Jessore subdivision, ^ ^

IS miles north of JesBore, at the point where tire •>

GAZBTTBEE. 153

oroases the Ohltra; the latter is spanned by a bridge hnilt about 1863. It contains a pijlioe-stntion, sub-registry office and District Board bungalow, and liaa a considerable trade in o:nde sugar and rice. Tha sugfl-r produced in the vicinity of Kallganj is considered to be of the best quality in the tlistriot and fetches the highasfc price. Refineries have been established near it a t . the villages of Sbgha Muafcafapur, Baruipara and Nagar Ohaprail ou the CliitrS,

Keshabpcr- - A village in the Jeasore subdivision, situated on the Harihar river 21 miles aouth. of Jeasore. I t contains a thana, dispensary, sub-registry office and District Board bungalow; and it is an important trade centre, the river being at thia pWe sufficiently deep to float vessels of about 5'K) maunds burden. At low tide in the oold season, however, the river is BO shallow, that the merchants osoavote rude doeka opening into it, hi which their vessels may lie when loading, The village is a saafc of the import trade ic rice aiid. tlie esport trade in raolassea and chillies. IE used to contain several iirfrMngs or refineries, mosi of which sis in the Calcutta Patti (i.e., Calcutta street), the principal thoroughfare, which w&8 so called from the number of Calcutta merchants who lived or had agencies in it. None of them, however, are at wort and the manufacture of sugar in this neighbourhood is ROW confined to Srlganj, a suburb on the other side of the river- Keahabpur haa one advantage over the other places in the sugar tract, viz,, its proximity to the Sundarbans. The river Bliadia leads from it straight down to the Sundarbana forests, and by it cargoes of firswood were formerly brought up to be used in refining the sugar. I t ia probably to Ibis circumstance Ihafc it owed its former proroinenoe as ft seat of manufacture. Quantities oi earthen pots and vessels are made here for the collection ol the juice of the date-palm and the preparation of crude sugar, and another local manufacture ia brasswork. Oue-quarter of the town is inhabited by a settlement of Kaoras, who used to be employed aB labourers by the refiners. These men have now adopted a new and, it is said, rnoce lucrative occupation. They Bre employed to carry the d.ead bodies of wealthy Hindus to the banks of the Gauges for cremation and are paid high wages.

The town ia entered on the Survey maps as Ganj-Keshabpur,

Kennell's map of 176'4-72 does not mark the place at all, but

shows the whole region about it as a raorass, called ' Barwanny.'

Sit James Westland says:—"Thia name ahoWB that he has been

led into a mistake b j the uame Bara-ani (twelve annas, i.e-i

three-quarters), givea to oae of the share? of the Tueafpur

156 JESSOEB.

is also the head-quarters of the Naldi za mind an and the Lohagara-police-station, and contains ft sub-registry office, a postal-telegraph office and a l i g h school Close to the bazar there is a temple dedicated to Kali, which contains an idol, to which the following legend attaches: A hundred years ago, or more, there lived here a pious blacksmith, who used frequently to make images of Kali and after worshipping them to oast them into the river, according to the ceremony of bisarjan. One night Kali appeared to him and told him that she had determined permanently to take up her abode with him, so he gave her a house, and her fame went abroad. Not very long afLerwards a masonry temple waB built for her by one of the Ranis of the Naldi family. To this temple people come to worship and make offerings of goats, especially on Tuesdays and Saturdays. There is a family of priests in charge of the temple, who divide the offerings among themselves. The temple consists of a one-storied brick build­ing with a nalmandtr in front,

A number of ICulin Brahmana live in Latflhmipasa and in the adjacent villages of Kasipur and Jaypur, who take much pride in their high birth. Regarding this colony the Collector reports:—" Kulmism is in full force here. 'I here is only a limited number of families who can find bridegrooms and brides for their daughters and sons ; bene© there are many old women who oannot get married at all, and several sisters are sometimes married tn one bridegroom, who rarely, if ever, visits them. With the spread of English education, however, tbis practice is gradually dying out." Lakstmlpasa is also the home of a number o£ educated persons, pleaders and Government servants. * Lohagara-—A village in the Narail subdivision, situated on the Nabaganga in close proximity to Lakshmipa^a, I t contains a. large bazar and is a centre of the trade in rice, pulses and jute. I t contains a High Bohool (unaided), whioh was estab­lished by Rai Jadu Nath Mazumdar Bahadur, Government Pleader at Jessore, aud a dispensary called the Pitambar ohari-table dispensary; a road 10 miles long connects it with the sub-uiviaional head-quarters at Narail, and there is a steamer service of the India General and River Navigation Company between it and Khulna.

Magura.—Head-quarters of ihe subdivision oE that name situated XT miles e&Bt ol Ubenida and 28 miles north oi Jessore on the Nabaganga at the point where the Muohithali brings dow the water of the Garai and the Kumar into it. Population MQi n 3,44.2. The town is enclosed by roads forming a quadra l • whioh lie the jail, the dispensary, the High English h i ' °

GiZETTEBR. Ifi7

MuneifB1 quarters, the Bubdmsional court, Local Board office a sub-registry office and District Board bungalow besides 4 tanks, one of which IB reserved for drinking purposes There are also two printing presses, of which one publishes a Hengnli weekly called the Kaly&at. A bnaar belonging to the Hhifedor Babus of Abhaypur lies on the oast and south, and a prosperous hat, which belongs to the Bajaof Naldauga, is held, on Thursdays and Sundays, at a little distance to the west.

Mag lira waa made a sttbdivision&l head-quartera in 1845, noton amount of its being a trade centre, but because dacoity waa frequent in the "eighbourhood, and Magma being Bituated at the confluence of the rivers, was the most convenient place fiom which to deal with it The first Subdivisions] Officer waa Mr Cookbura, who built a fine residence tor himself and then commenced the construction of a road from Magura to Jhtnida The nest building erected waa the jail, wbioh was begun in 1849 and completed in 18ob, while a hosyiial was constructed about 1853-54, chiefly by subscriptions giveDby the indigo planters. In >S58 it was found neceseaTy to rtpair the embankment along the Nabagaaga, for the water of tbe Muolukbali was pouring into that river, and, breaking through at U asm ate pur, was forming a new river southward. I t wis hoped in this way to save the Subdivisional Officer's house, but tbe villagers out through the embankment foi the purposes ot irrigation and the current eroded the southern bank of the Nabaganga year "by year Between 1872-and 1871 the house disappeared into the river, and a new building had to bs elected.

Magura Subdivision—Nortli-eaetein subdivision of the district lying between 23° 16' and 9d° 41' N. and between 85° 25' and 89° 41 ' E . with an area of 4' a square miles. I t is bounded on the south ly the Narail subdivieion ; oa the west by Jhemda aadSadar Bul&ivieionijjaud on tbe north and east by the Goaluodo subdivision of tbe Faridpur district. Like tbe rest of the district, it is a deltaio ylain traversed from north-west to south-east by rivers, of which the Kumar, tbe Nabaganga and the Madhumati are the wo=t importint. I t is now bejond tbe reach of inundation with the exemption of a traot along its eastern bolder lying between fcheKumai and the Nabaganga on the one side audthe Madhumati on the other. Some shallow marshes make parte of this subdivi­sion very nubealtky, and tb.fi Muh&mmadpur tbana has fre BTII reputation of having been the matrix of Burdwan fever B a population decliued fiom 277,381 in 1901 to 265,918 in 1911, whan there were 626 peiBone to the square mile.

\S$ JESSOBE. *

Makeshpnr.—- A town in the Bangaon subdivision, situated on the Kabadak river 25 miles north." weet of Jessore, Popula­tion (1911) 4,311- The town rose 11 importance owing to its hating good water oonHounioation with the N&diii district, but tlie weatern branoh of the Kabudak on woioli it stands has now silled up. It was consKtuted a municipality in 1869 and the area within municipal limits ia 3 square miles. It contains a dispensary and a District Board bungalow,

MahmSdpnx—Sea Muhammfldpur, ManirimpBT —A Tillage in the Jeasore subdivision, situated

13 miles south of JesBore, on the Haiihar, now a dried-11 p river. It contains a thana, sub-registiy office and a large iaai dug 100 )'0flr3 flg'0 o r m o r ( l D7 ^ S l l i Kaeiswari, a lady ol the Raja of Chacohra's family ; a market is leld here twioea week on Mondays and Fridays. Kbanpur, a large village, 3 milea from Maairampar, ia aaid to ha foil of litigious Muhamnmdans, who data their local and domestic events by the mvka&lamas or law suits in waioh they have beau engaged and talk of the various hours of tbe day as * the time for going to court,' ' tbe time for filing complaints,' etc.

MirzaaajW-—A. village m the Jeesoie subdivision, situated half a mils from Trinwhini on the road to Keahabpur. I t was formerly the head-quarters of the district, beiflg the seat of 'he favfddr or Military Governor under the Mughal rule. It appears to have derived its name from Miraa Safehikan who died heie in 166J, and was subsequently tbe bead •quarter of Natalia Khan, who held the office of Faujdar in 1696, It is probable thai the village of Nurullapur to the east end Norullanagav to the south were named after Ihe latter Faajdar of whom BO aeoount will be found in Chapter I I . Mlrzansgar is now only a small hamlet of Trimohini, but in 1815 the Collector wrote of it as one of the three largest (owns in the district.

ArchrooIogicflHy, it is one of the most interesting places in Je&sore. Tlie rule of the Fanjd&rs ia still commemorated by B.n old brick building called the Nawabbari or NawaVs palaoe. It la composed of two square courtyards eeparaled by »high wall, with smaller walls oa the north of the northern court­yard aod oa thfl smth. o£ ths sOtttiwin B»B. On tbe eastern side of both the squares ia a double rfi'V of little nrohed dwellings, whioh ware apparently the retainers' quarters; the only entrance to the courtyards is through tham. Ou the western side of the northern bquare is a three-domed structure, which was the pa,bice proper; the masonry k dilapidated, but the domed

GAZETTEER, 169

roof still remain's. In front of this, and within the courtyard, is a large masonry reservoir, whhb is s&iJ U &a** been a bsih. The water was brought in by being primped over the top &g t&s retainers' houses, and could be discharged by a subterranean channel. The source of the water was the river Bbadra dose by, which, though cow closed, was a flowing riper at the time when these buildings were occupied. The southern courtyard oontaius a few Mnsalman tombs, and there are arnne more tombs outside the building. _ _

About a mils duo south of this building h whit is c a l l e d g t f Eilahari or fort. I t is a large area raised some eight £ ^ * feet by earth excavated, in all probability, from a long and TOHI* trenoh cjlle 1 She Moti Jhil, which bounds it on tbe south. This raised area was, it is said, at one time surrounded by a wall, but no traces of it now remain. Its length is east and west, and the principal entrance to it wa3 OIL the oast. The entrance appears to have been fortified, for there used to be three cannon lying here. Two of them were taken away by Mr. Beaufort when he was Afagibtrate (1854) and, according to the inhabitants, one was converted into fetters for prisoners and the other used as a roller on the roads, A natire gentleman at Jeesore, however, told Sir James IVestJand. that he had purchased ore of them for lis. 3, and would, if he liked, let him have it. The third gun is still lying in (he field dose by. There is, the villager say, some magio power in it which mates it refuse to be moved ; according to (hem, three hundred ooavicts and nn elephant onoe tried to raise it, but failed to move it. I t is an iron gun, about five feet long, and composed of tlnee or four conomtrio layers of metal.

Close by, outside the entrance, is a range of brick-built dark chambers', said to have been the prison-hones. Two of the chambers have small wells in them, and on the onlside of the building theia is a large and deep well. Into these, it is said, malefactors were oast, and tho inside was smoothly plastered over, so that they might have no chaace of climbing up. Close to Triinotiim bazar is what is probably another part of the same set of buildings, via., tho Imambara, or prayer place. This is merely a mill on tho top of an artificial mound.

Muhammadpur or MahmSdpnr-A village in the Magura subdivision, situated 14 miles south-east of Magura and about 2 miles from the right bank of the Madhuraati I t contains a police-station and sub-registry office, The proper name of the place is Mahniiidpur, and it waa so oalled after Mahmiid Shah, king of Bengal ; the name Mubjimwadpiir is only a modern designation,

160 JE8S0RE.

I t wae the head-quarters of Sitaram Eat, whose history has been i given in Chapter I I ; and when British rule began, it was a large town marked in big letters in Eenneil'e map «B the oapital of Bhushua Its decadence began with the outbreak in 183fi of an epidemio of fever, wHch subaequently spread over Jessore and the. adjoining-districts, and is now known aa Burdwan iever, The ruins of old houses show how far Muhammtidpur once extendedi but it snow a small village, situated on pait of an elevated rampart, north of the Ram Sagar tank; only a few houses are scattered about in the space oaoe occupied by the town-Formerly during the rains, large quantities of hiha fish were exported to Calcutta paeled with salt in earthenware jars At that time the MadhumftM flowed immediately below the village, hut a large alluvial accretion, 2 miles wide, has since formed between it and the river, and the trade in fish is now earned on at the neighbouring village of Oljnni, which stands on the river side. In 1870 the two streams, the Uadhumatf and. the BaraBia, bent towards each other near Muhammad pur, their loops meeting and forming a sort of curved cross. Since then the rivers have .again separated, the Madhumatl having cut out a new bed for itself across the chord of the loop it formerly followed.

Popular tradition ascribes the foundation of the town to Sitaram It si, whose adventures form the subject of numerous legends. According to cue legend, Sitaram had a taluk in Hariharnagar, a village on the left bank of the Madhumati, and an estate in Syamnagar close to the present Muhammadpur.

.- One day, while visiting his estate, his horse's hoof stuck in the mud. He called some men to dig up the earth round it. A. iri&ul or Hindu trident, then came to light, which, on digging deeper was found to be the pinnacle of a temple, in which they discovered an idol of Lakshmi Narayan, the deity of Good Fortune, m the shape, of a round stone. Sitaram ttai forthwith proclaimed hims If the favourite of the goda ; and collecting the Uttar-rarhi Kayaeths, to which ciste he belonged, he attacked the landholders of the neighbourhood, seized upon the whole of Bhushnft, and refused to pay revenue to the Governor of Bengal Another version of the legend relates that

* Sitaram was sent by the Emperor of Delhi to cuerce the twelve lords ol the Sundarbans who had omitted to pay revenue. This duty he performed by ousting them, and installing himself in possession of their estates. He then refused to acknowledge the Nawab's mthority or to pay revenue to him, olaimiDg to hold the lands from the Emperor direct.

GAZKrTHEK. 161

The Nawsb made war opon him, and, his first attack being unsuccessful, sent his own son-in-law Abu Tarab, but the latter was slain in buitla by Men&hati, a giaat of SitarSm's own caste. Then Hie Nawab sent a yet greater foroe under his Iwst general, who succeeded in taking Menahati unawares. Meaahafct was bound by bia oaptorB, who kept him for seven days, belabour­ing bim with sticks sod hacking at him with swords. Bat Menahati had a wondrous drug buried under his skis, tlte virtue of which waB such that, thongb it could not prevent him from feeling the pain of the blows, it rendered his flesh impene­trable to stick or sword Weaned, however, with the continual assaults of hig enemies, and willing' rather to suffer death than o life of such paid) he at last confessed the secret of the drug-The mflueDce of it could be got rid of onlp by taking him to the bank of the BSm 5&g&r (a huge tank about to be des­cribed), pluoking it from hie arm, aad throwing it into the water of the tank. This they did, and so Menahati died After the IOSB of fitenahati, Sitar&m either surrendered or was captured by the Nawab, aad, aeoordicg to tradition, sucked poison from a ring and died Thia legend does not agree with the authentic account of the Mubammadaa historian which has bees quoted in Chapter I I .

The following is a description of the principal remains The fort consists of a large quadrangle, which encloses most of Sitarf-m'e buildings including bis pslaos. I t measures more than half a mile in each direction, and is snrrounfccl by a moat, the earth of which was thrown inwards to raise the level of the quadrangle, forming a kind of ramp round it. On the eaat and north the moat has gradually silted up, but on the western aide it is still full of water, while on the south it forms a fine sheet of watBr, a mile long The ohief entrance to the quadrangle is at the south-east corner From here is seen, towards the north, a broad high ramp upon which sfood the bazar, and at the southern end of which is the more meagre bazar of the present day. On the south, just outside the boundary of the quadrangle, is a great tank built by S5taram and called after him Bam Sagar. I t is 450 to 500 yardB long, and 150 to 21)0 yards ^o&i, though. 200 years old, it is etill the fiuea! reservoir in the district, and contains 18 or 20 feet oi water. West of this is another tank, the Sukh Sagar, Oi Lake of Pleasure, also excavated by SitSram, wjth an island in the middle, on whioh he built a summer retreat.

Going north irom the Earn Sagar, along the eastern lamp of the quadrangle, we pass along what waa SitarSm's baaar, the

M

/ (

162 JEBBORE.

minp heing made high and whle expree&ly fot its accommodation. At the oortiei of this road we find the ruins of a bricfe built house, which ia said to have been the old kHuimgo outoherry attached tu the aonaindan. Proceeding along the road westward, towaids the oentre of the quadrangle, wa pass between two tanks, which are BO silted up that they aie now jungly marshes. The southern one is called Paduio or ' lotus tank,' and the northern one Chuna or 'Imie trait,' baoauae Sit&t&m prepared tlieie the lime which he used for erecting hia buildings. After passing these, we enter the central spate which contains the ruins of Sifcaram's greatness. The first Duildmg we come across is, however, not one oi Sitaram's I t ia the temple of llamchandra, which was erected about the year 1800 by the Nator Raja, whose family obtained the zamlndan aftei it had passed out of Sitaram'a hands I t is a two-storied building, with an arched veiandah in front of eaoh storey, and is of. no particular interest. This building is on the south 01 the road, and on the north side m front of it is an open space, in whioh is the Dot Mandir, wheie the swinging festival at the full moon of fhalgun (the Dot Jatra) is held. 'Ihis ia a building of Sitaram's time, shaped like a magnified sentry-box. ,It has a pointed stroked roof, supported upon four columns placed square; these again elevated upon a pedestal of three tiers. Nes t we pass between two modern but ruined buiidmga the Punya-ghar on the north, and the eutcherry of the Naldi estate on the south. The nest budding tsstends some httla distance to the north of the road. The part of it nearest the ioad was the Chakla or cuele ouloheiry, where SltBram mado his eollectioBB and kept bis zamlndan accounts '-the long extension northward, was his jail, the place where he naed to eotk&ie "dur ing pleasure" those ryots who did not or oould not pay up the demands made upon them. The walls oi the cutebeiry are still standing, but only lb.o lines of tlie jail can. be tiaeed.

Along the western side of the outchpriy and jail extends a tank, at the furthei end of v-hich aie the rums of Sitaram's own house, on one side of which is another tank—the Treasure Tank. The house >tse[f is in total ruins, and inaccessible through the dBiise jungle which has overspread the quadrangle. The tank runs up close to the house, and a wall, the foundations of whioh are still tradable, ran lound the tank on the east aiid north sides, enclosing i t BO aa to foim a private enclosure Tbia t a r t ) it is said, was used as a treasury, tlie wealth that Sitaram accumulated being thiown mto it until wanted. I t is believed that much heaeiire remains buued at its bottom, beneath the giowth of weeds which now fllU it, and some evidence of the

eazurjeisK. i

truth of the tradition is cited. In 1841, one Ram Krishna Cuakravaiti was lucky enough, to Slid a box containing five hundred gold mohurs, which he sold at Es. 20 a piece; and about 186J, a boy of the Teli eftste found in the tank a p&ift (brass goblet) full of rupees. The Narail zamindare, who for some time had pc^flession of the temple lands at Hubammadpur, made diligent search, and tried to pump oat the water, but popular belief declares that n spirit who dwells in the tank frustrated these impious efforts. Every night the water rose and refilled the tank, eo that the quest fee treasure had to be aban­doned. Another tank, close by, which had a similar reputation was alao misiicoBSBf iillj searched by the same zamindars.

The road, immediately after passing in front of the Ohakla Outcherrj, passes under the ' lion gate'(Singh Darwaaa), which opened on to Sftaram's private buildings. This gate waa onoe a large structure, but now only the arch oi it jemaina. Adjoin­ing the gate on the north is the Punya-ghar, i.e., the plaoe where the first collections of the year were mode, a ceremony per-formed about Aatlib [June-July) in each year at the principal collecting place of a zamindari. The lion gate leads to a email Gourtyard, with three buildings, one on each side, not mnob. larger than ordinary native huts, but built of bricks, That facing the gate is the Malt'iana or treasure room of SftSram, and that on the loft side is the guard-house. After Sitararn'a time these two buildings continued to be used for the same purposes by the Kajas of Nator, but when their zwnindari of Naldi was sold up (about 1800), the Eurclmsers forcibly axpelled their agenfs, and being obliged to erect a treasure-room for themselves, built the little one on the right hand Bide. Just eouth of the treasure-room there is a small gateway dating back to Sitaram's time, which leads to a small courtyard «6 the back of the trefisaro-i'oora. The building facing the gateway on the west is a common Siva Mnndir (temple of Siva) erected by the Nator Rajas,

Ou the north, on the bank of the treasure-tank, there Is a temple of Kali, the smallest and the oldest of Sitaram's three temples. In form it resembles the Siva Mandir just mentioned—a masonry ereetiou in the shape of ft native hut, with a verandah in front. The deity worshipped here is a small idol, and is called UasuDhuja, the ten-armed, an epithet of the goddess Kali. The temple ODCG bore an inscription, which has either been stolen, or lies among the debris of the broken arches. The inscription, which was in Sanskrit, lan thus :—"In the^ear of the Saka eia, earth-aruis-iflstes-eartlij this teffiple, the aboile Of

a 2

164 JKSSORK.

Daaahhwja, was built by Sitarama Eaya." The date is ex­pressed in ca enigmatical manner, " Earth " stands for one, for there is only one earth ; " Arms " meaos two, for every one has two arms; " Tastes " stands for sis, as according to the Hindus there are 6 tastes, viz., pungent, eour, saline, hitter, acid and sweet; " Earth," as above, represents one. The date is therefore 1 and 2 and 6 and 1, or as we write it, with the largest denomina­tion first 1621 Saka, whioh began in April 1699 A.D.

Close to the Siva Mandir, on the west, there in another courtyard, the weBt and south sides of which, are closed by the Toshakhans, a long building now in ruins fronted with arches, in which the vessels were kept which had an) thing to do with the temple service, and probably profane vessels also. This courtyard is separated from the Treasure Tank by the temple of Tjaltshmi Nar&yan, an octagonal structure with two storeys and a flat roof which has no pretensions to architectural teauty. In the upper storey the god reposes at n igh t ; during the day he is brought down to the lower sEcrey, where be remains upon a couch. In front of him, and upon the same couch, are Iwo little idols, three or four iuche3 high, called Govinda and Laksbmi, who are probably his attendants. I t is agreed by eveiybody that the emblem of Laiahimi Narayau (whioh is very l i te an ordinary round-shaped stone) was fouud by Sitaram underground, and the legend already quoted states that the temple also was discovered by him buried in the earth; but an inscription, which has been either atolen or lost, ascribes its erection to him. I t r an :—' For the abode of Lakshrai Narayan in the Saka year logic-eye-taste-earth, this temple was built by Sitaram for the beatitude of his father ' The dots is thus read- - " Logic" stands for six, as there are six systems of logic;" Eye " for tiro, as a man has only two eyes; " Teste" for six, as explained above; and " Kar th" , as shown above, stands for one. Beading this with the last figure (the thousands) first as we do in English, we have the date 1626 of the Saka era, which commenced in April 1704 A . P .

To the west, beyond the limits of the quadrangle, lies the village nf Kanhayanag&r. Buried amid its trees and bouses there is a square of temples built, by Sitaram, one of whicb, viz., the temple of Krishna built in 1703, is said to be the finest building of the sort in the district. I t is described as follows by Sir James "Weatkud:—" The Tsmlduig is on the west, side of the square, and therefore fronting eaafc. I t is a square building with a tower, surmounted by a pointed dome, rising out of the middle of it. This tower is as high again as the building and is composed merely of the cupola and the pointed arches which support it.

GAZETTEER. 185

The front of the temple shows a face gradually rising; from the sides to Che middle, and flanked by two towers which rise rather higher than the roof. The tower to the front presents s face showing three arebss of the pointed form one above the other supporting a pointed dome . . . Above snob, of the doorways is a large square, of equal breadth with the doorway, containing a. device virion at first sight looks remarkably like "the Iron and the unicorn fighting for the crowo." I t is, however, intended to represent two lions supporting a chalice, The spaces between the aides of the arches and the squares above the doorways are also oraamented. The whole face of the building, and partly also of the towers, is one maea of traoery and figured ornament The soalptured squares, of which tberomuat be about fifty on thisironfc faoo, represent each aa episode io Krishna's iife. The figures in them, as well as the rest of the ornament, are done in relief on the briok-work of the building, the brinks being sculptured either before or after burning. The figures are ?ery well (Jpce, sad the traoery ia ail perfectly regufor, having none of the slipshod stylo wiu/ib iw aft an xsbjWsjfi-ftTJJW naHre art ia fias* digtj-iets Tb& aides of the building present moch. the same appearance as the front, hut, instead of three doorways and two spaoes, they have five doorways. Within the doorways, both in front and at the sides, is a verandah, and the entrance to the temple is from this verandah, the iiungo of Krishna being inside. The ttnole temple is raised on a pedestal, whose floor is some three feat above the soil; and temple, pedestal, and all are still in very good order though signs of decay are showing themselves."

On the top of the lowest arch of the tower, a amall round stone let into the face of the brick-work bears a dedicatory inscrip-tion written in the Sanskrit language, with Bengali letters. The inscription, which is written in four lines of Pralriti metre, is as follows;—"In the Safca year counted by airow-pair-limb-moon, desirous of gratifying Krishna, SltSrama Bay a, who is l i te a resplendent sun of the lotus of the family to whioh ^(taohes the great name of Biswas (i.e., who casts a lustre on the great Biswas family, to whioh Sitarara belonged, as the sun oasts a lustre on the lotus), erected in big devotion this splendid houst) of Krishna within Tadupatinagar, a oity filled with innumerable mansions and (so beautiful that it) deprives of beauty that which is beautiful." Yadnpati nad Kanhaya arB both synonyms for

Krishna; Yadupatinagai is aocovdingiy made, for metiioal reasons, to do service for Kanhayanagar, the name of the village within

which this temple ia situated, The date remains to be explained,

" Arrdw " refers to the 6ve arrows of Oupid; " Pa i r " stands ft

1-613 JESSORG.

two j " L i m b " wenna six, as Hindus enumerate six limbs; aud '' Moon " one, as there is only onemooc. The year therefore is 1625 Saka, which began in April 1703 A.D.

The building which looks into the same square, facing south •ward, is the temple of Balarama. I t has no architectural pretensions, being in the shape of two native huts placed alongside each other; ths front one being a verandah with three arches and the one farther back being the abode of Dalarima. Tha N_ building on the east aide of. the square, and facing west, ia. a much finer one than the last, though not nearly so g^od as the temple oi Krishna.. I(a frontage shows three doors, the centre one being higher than the other two, aud all being ol tho pointed arch shape. They are each surmounted by a hquare containing in relief the same device anon the temple o£ Krishna, vtz.i two lions and a cup. The top of this building is composed of three domes all of the pointed form and finished off with pinnacles, the central dome being higher, than the two side ones. Between the doore, and across the Lop of the face, there is a good deal of tracery-work executed in relief in the brickwork. An octagonal building closes the equarj on the south. I t was the place lot keeping the vessels which bobuged to tbe service ol the idols oE these buildings which were all erected by Sitaram. The three-domed temple last mentioned ie almost torn asunder by the pipal trees that ha"?e taken root in it, and a portion- of tbe temple of Krishna has fallen down; but what remains still attests its architectural beauty. A little to the west of the village of Kanhayonagnr is another oi Sitaram's large tanks, the XiiBhna Sagar, so named from tbe god of the tenjple. This is a fine tank about half the sissa of the Ram Sagar and ttill in good condition.

Mukimpui Estate .—A large estate comprising the Mukim-purpargatw in the east of the Narail subdivision and extending also aeroes the river into the Fondpur district. I t s head­quarters are at Ohandpnr, a small place 4 mileB south-east of Lakshrnlpasa. 'The founder of tbe family which at piesent possesses Mulimpur was one f r i t Bam, who acquired much wealth by trade- and bought the zarnindari shortly after i t was aold up fie part of tbe Nator estate. 'J he Btory of hie acquisition of the estate is as lollows. A large cloth warehouse of the Jiaat India Company in Calcutta was iu charge oi two sdJ&w'h Sibram Sanyal and Dnlal Sarkar. The warehouse having been burnt down, the Government ofGoiaJs condemned the burnt cloth, and ordered it to be Bold to the higueet bidder. The Sarkars alone made a hid and got it for Us. 16,000. When they came to sell K, they found that beneath the surface there was muoh good

GAgELTTBEK. 167

cloth, and they realized seven or eight lakhs by the sale. With his share oE the proceeds Sibram purchased M-ukimpur, bat tbig proved an unprofitable investment. Makimpur was swept by floods, and in the whole pargana there was only one holding which could pay its way, and that was Frit Ram's holding oi Ra. 1,000. Sibiam Sanyal, therefore, seeing no hope of paying * the Government revenue of Ra. 19,000, sold the pargmta to Prit Ram for that suni. fortunately for the purchaser the inundations now began to decrease) and the immense quantities of silt brought by the river began to raise the lived. The iwgana thue became more and more fertile, and the. estate became a valuable one Prit R a n wis succeeded by bis sou Rajobandra, and the latter by his widow Basmaui Dasi, commonly known as Eani Rasmani, who, it U said, died possessed of an income of 3 lakhs After her death, the property was divided in five Bh.tn.es among her grandsons. The principal share fell to the late Babu Trail&kya Jfilth Biswas, on whose death in 1903, the property passed to his sona; on tba death of his eldest son in 1901, it was placed undei the management of the Court of Wards. The present proprietors o£ the estata are Nritya Gopal Biswas, Mohan Qopal Biswas, and Srimati Sindhn Bala Dasi (wife of the eldest brother), who hold an eight annas share, and Babu Arnrita Lai Das, who holds the remaining sight annas share. The rent-roll at the Wards estate is lis. 1,60,000, and it p&yB'Rs. 5-3,000 ns Government revenue and rant to superior landlords. There are " two outoheiries in the Narail subdivision, viz., the Court of Wards cutehe'rry at Chaudpur and that of Arorita Lai Das at Amritanagar (called also Nar&gsictM). A. survey and settlement of the portion of the estate lying in the Jessoie district is almost complete.

Haldanga.—A village in the Jeasore subdivision, situated 2 miles from Kaliganj (with which it is connected by a metalled road), 9 miles from Jhenida and SO miles fioni Jessore. The village contains a postaUelegraph offiae, and abo a dispensary and High school, whieh ara maintained by the Raja, of Naldanga. h, includes in its area four vilkges, viz., Naldanga proper, Matbati, Kadipnr and Gran jan(i gar. Matbati contains 8 old temples dedicated to the gods and goddesses of the Naldanga family. The residence of the Raja of Naldanga. is in the village Ganj&oagar, which etands on the river Benga or Begbati and contains a Wga edifice called the Ohandimandap, which is set apart lor the annua), worship of the goddess Durga, There ere thi&e legends of acme interest oonneoted with the place. The first is that, in days gooe by, there was at Matbati a temple dedicated to the goddess Kaltt

168 JESSORE.

with an altar(called the Panoha Mundi Eedi) under whioh were buried the head of & Chandal woman, a monkey, a cat, a mongoose, and a jackal. I t IB said that severnl Braonians who tned to worship the goddtss, were huiled hy evil spirits at the dead of night to the opposite side oi the Kalifeatala ilahn., a big

" deep pool belo™ the temple. At last, one Bbairab Bliattaohaijya, an ardent devotee of the goddess, succeeded in woi shipping her tlieie ihroughout the whole night. The secotd legend relates that, about a century ago, the sound of ronBical instrument* used for worship, such as the coneb, bell and gong, used to be heard at midnight in the Eahkatala Daha by fishermen fishing in the pool The people of the locality believe tliat this sound showed that the goddess Kali was worshipped hy the water deities residing in the pool The third legend i's that E i j a Indra Narayan Deb Kai, one of the ancestors of the Naldauga famiU', built a beautiful temple at Matbati under the directions of Brahmananda Gin, the spiritual guide of the family ; this temple was called Indies-wari aftei the name of its founder. After his deaLh, the ascetic Brahnmnjnda appeared one night to hiB BOH Surjya Narayan and directed him to follow him. to the temple of Indreawan Surjya Narayan obeyed the <3iri, sanctified the idol, and ordered it to be called thenceforth by tlie namo o! SiiMheswan. Alter this, it is said, the ascetic went down into the Kalikatala Daha and never roae again.

The Naldanga Raj family has set apart a portion of their zamiodan called Isw&fbnthi to meet the expenses of the daily worship of the idols at Matbati and of feeding any uninvited guests who may happen to be present there at breakfast time. The Duiga P5]a is celebrated every year at the Raj bat i wuAx great pomp, and the Ba] family religiously keeps up other old Hindu customs, eg, the old system of teaching boys tree of all coat hy the establishment of Cfiafti&paUitt, the grant of pensions and of icnt-free lands to Brabmans etc.

N a l d a u g a Raj.—The Naldaajga family trace back their descent to a Brahman named Haladhar Bhattach&rji, who about 450 years ago lived m Bbabrasuba, a village IQ tli9 district of Dacca. His descendant in the fifth generation, BiBhnu Das Hazra, settled some three hundred yeftis ago a tKharaeani , a village in the Eeighbourhood of Naldanga, which was then full of reeds (whence the name) Theie he lived the life of a hermit , and Hharasani is etill known as Hoarabati after him. This hermit is said to have possessed aupernatural powers, and once miraoulously supplied the Nawab and his retinue with rood when he was returning from a -visit to Dacca. The Nawab'a auppliea

GAZETTEER. 160

had run short, he was in the middle of an almost uninhabited jnogle, and he and his men were in great straits. The hermit asked efich person to name what he desired, and then gave them all the food they wanted, raunng it suddenly to come out of the ground before them. The Nawab, to show his gratitude, bestowed upon BiBhnix Das Bve adjaoent Tillages, and these formed the nucleus of the Naldaage, zamlndfiri. Bishnu Das had a son named Srimanta Rai, who from hia great prowess obtained the name of Ranbir Khan. He was a warrior lather than a saint, and having put to dtath the Afghan zamindare of Eotchandpur, toot possession of their estates and established his residence at NnUangS. This event may perhaps he put down as occurring in the second bolf of the sisleenth century. The title of Raja was first conferred by theNswab on Chandi Charaii Deb Hai. the third in descent from Ranbir Khan, who followed his esaraple by putting to death one Raja Kedareswar and taking possession of his Btunindari, after which he became tbe sole master of pargana Muhammadshahi. Ohandi Chaian's Bon was Raja Indra Narayan Deb hai, during whose time the idol Siddheswari, previously called Indrawail, was brought from Benares and plaoedinthe temple at Matbati. The family now increased in number, and small portions o the Knmiudaii were distributed among the minoT members of the family. 'l!he main branch, however, retained the title of Rajs and kept in its possession the major portion of the zamindari.

I D 1737, the then Raja, Raghu Deb Rai, having failed to pay hia revenue to the Nawab, was dispossessed of his Lands, which were made over to the Raja of Nator, but was reinstated three or four 3 ears later on hia promising to pay up all arrears. Hia sueoeasor Krishna Deb Rai died leaving three sons, Oorinda Deb Rai, Mahendra Deb Hoi and R8ni Sankar Deb Rai, among whom the estate was divided in 1777. Govinda Deb Rai got a one-fifth (3 annua 4 gandaa) share of the estate and was called the Tinani Raja, while the other two brothers, Mahendra and Ram Sankar, each received two-fifths and were respectively called the Bara Raja and the Cbotn Raja. The Tinani Raja and the Bara Raja soon lost their property which was purchased at auction sales tor arreaiB oE revenue, first by Babu Radha Mohan Banerji of Salikha and then by Babu Ram Ratan Rai of Nara.il. The descendants of the Chota Raja Ram Sankar have, however, held their own and increased their property.

Ram Sankar Deb Rai was Bucoeeded by Sashi Bhusun Deb Rai who enlarged hia zamindtm by purchasing an eight annas share of laraf Saohani, Pratappm, Kanejpnr and Kuatabaria,

. 1 7 0 JKSSOK2

His son Indu Bhushan, who was distinguished for his charity received the title of Eaja and died in 1870. The present repre­sentative of hia family ia bis son Pramatha Bhushan Deb Eai, who was granted the title of Raja in 1885 and has tivo eons, Kumai Pannaga Bliuahan aEd MriganLa Bhushan Deb Eai . The estate is scattered ovei the districts of Jessore, Nadia and I'aridpur, and its gross ytarly income ia reported to ho lis 2,60,481 The annual Government revenue and the rent paid to superior landlords amount to lis. 51,116 and Ha. 94,116, respectively, the cess payable- to Government annually being Hs, 11,573, while the rant paid to super tor landlords is Es . 5,3t)5 Thus the total amount annually paid by the estnte m the shape of Government revenue, rents and cesses conies to Bs, 1,62,200.

Naldi.—A village m the Narad subdivision, situated 11 miles north of Narail. I t ia a place of some antiquity and must iormeily have been of imj oittince, foi the large pargana of Naldi WHS colled after it. I t contains a temple with an old idol called Kalacbaud, and a market is held twioe a week.

Naldi E s t a t e — A n estate comprising thepaigana of Naldi, which occupies the northern half of the Narail subdivision and also part of the M (piia subdivision The whole pmgaiia belongs to the Faikpara fnmily, one of who=e »cce;tois, Pian Krishna Singh, purohased it about 1798 ou the disintegration ot the Nator estflte. The head quarters cutcherry of the estate

was formeily at Miiliammadpui, but this place was daserted afte r

18(6, when it was decimated by fever, and a new cutcherry was built at LakshmTpa^a. The family is said to have been founded 40 generations ago by Anadibar Singh, one ot" whose descendants, Hara Krishna Singh (born about 1650 A D,), acquired gieat wealth under the Muhammadan Government His son Bihari Singh had foar sons, of whom the two youngest, Eadha Govinda Singh and Ganga Singh, p k i e d a prominent paifc in the revenue history of Bengal, when it was acquired by the Eu t i sh Government Eadha Govinda Singh was a levenue offieei unde r

All Vardi Khaa and Sira] ud-Daula, and whan the British undeitook the hmatn of Bengal, he was rewaided for his services by the grant of a tat/a> mahal or right ot collecting octroi in Hooghly, The family still diaw KB. 3,698 per annum from Hooghl j , the compensation given them for the iesuirtption of this sayar m 1790.* The other brother Ganga Govinda Singh was Uiwdn of the East India Gomuany under Wairea Hastings and spent large sums on social and religious ceremonies, especially his mother's BI add/it On this latter ceremony a fabulouB sum is

S!r J . Wflrilftni't Deport on the Uiatrict of Jeaaoro.

GAKETTEEK. 171

said to have been spent,- the family manager puts it donn at 2 crores of rupees, while in Sir Jamei Westlacd's Report on th« District o£ Jessore it is put down at 2U lakhs He left his family destitute, but his son Plan Krishna Singh, whom he placed in charge of his brother Kiidiia (Jovinda Singh, was, as already stated, able to acquire the Naldi estate Prau Krishna had a son Krishna Chandra Singh, better known aa La!a Bibu, who was boru in 1775 A D. and addedl argely to the estate. He even­tually became an ascetic and took up his residence at Brindaban where be was. distinguished for bis liberality and piety, T-jfila Babe's sou was Sri Narayan, who was succeededby his adopted aoc Prfttap Chandra Singh The latter helped to fcuad Hie British Indian Association, of which be was a Vice-President, received the title of liEija Bahadur, and was made a O 8 . 1 . Ha died in L86S, and the present piopiietor of the es'ale is his son Kumar Sarat Chandra Singh. The gross assets of the estate are reported to ba Es. 11,34,841; it is Bituattd in IS districts, but the principal properties Ha in Noakhali and Jessore.

Naradl, —Head-quarters of the BubJivuiou of Ihe same name, situated 22 miles east of Jessore on the Otiltia river, which is hete very deep trod affords a regular route tor large boalH throughout the year. Population (1911) S63. The town extends for a mile along the river banks with ihe subdivisional offices at the northern dxtremity. Tu are are also a Munsif's court, a sub-registry otfieej two dispensaries, a postal-telegraph offioe, two Uigh schools and a college. The latter, which is called the Victoria College, was founded as a High school by B&bu, Earn Hatan B.ai o£ the Narail lamiodari family, and was raised to the statue of a college in 1886. TS'.e basar at Narail was established by "Rupvam, one of the ancestors of the Narail family, and the market place is named Bupganj after him. Two bi-weekly markets aie held, one in the bazar on Sundays and Thursdays and the other at a smaller market place on Mondays and S'rjdaj a.

Narail baa been the head-quarters of a subdivision since 1861. The subdivision was one of those which were started during the indigo disturbances, and its fhst site was Gopalganj, which is on the Taiidpur ban t of the Hadhumati, just above the separation of the Atharabanka. Thi-uca it was brought to Bliatiapftra, opposite Inhagara, thence to Lohagara (-which was then, a Mnnsifi], thence to Kumarganj, opposite Naldi, and fiually a permanent site was chosen at Narail.

Nara i l Estate .—A large estate owned by one of the leading families of the district. The family claim to be descended from

172 JK8S0KE.

Punishcttam Datta of the story of king Adisur, and at tha begin­ning of the eighteenth eentrtry they dwelt at Bally (Bah) near Hcwiah To eafape the idatatha incursions, they first retreated to a village celled Ubauia near Murshidabad, and afterwards, when Madan Q-opal was head of the laraily, to Narad M&dan Gopal bad amassed some wealth in the Nawab's seivioe, with whioh he established a mercantile business. His grandson, Eiipram Datta, beoamo agent at tha Nawab's Court fir the Raia of Nator, fiora whom be obtained in 1791 a lease of land in »essore, foi which be paid rent of l is . 148 a year Kupram died in 1803, leaving two sons Kalieanknr and ftammdhi. Kahssn&ar, e, man of great energy and foice of character, wnmenoed life with an estate of a few hundred f/tjkatt near Narail, and wlien be died, left a large property Through his father's oonnection with the Nator family, be became farmer, under the Raja of Nator, of the BhushDa zaimndari Soon after tbe time of the Permanent iSetHement, the Raja's estates of Telih&ti, Bmodpin, Riipapat, Kalia, and Poktani were sold for default of payment of ievenue, a lesult apparently brought about by LCalisankar, who in 1795 and 17y0 bought them up in the names oF obscure individuals, his dependants In i OO he was imprisoned for arrears on his Bhushna farm, but though able to pay revenue for his btmami property, be preffired tovemam four years m jail xathei than mate good his debt on acoount of Bhuahna H o was afterwards released on a compromise, by which a portion of the arrears were remitted. He then lived with his eon, Ram Narayan and J a y Narayan m Narad, and retired in 1820 to Benares, where he continued to amass landed property up to bia death in 18d4j both of his sons having died before him. Kalisaulsar received the title of Ea i from the Nawab of Murshidabad, aDd the family now use it as a surname in place of their patronymic of Datta,

When Kalisankar died, he left as bis heirs the son of Bam Narayan and the sons of J a y Narayan, who henceforth formed two branches of tha family. After his death, Gtirudas, Jfly Narayan's son, instituted a law suit, claiming a half share of the whole of the family possessions, against tbe elder branch of the family, I ©presented by Earn Rtitan, the eldest eon of Ram Narayan Ram Ratan on his side produced a will, and contended that the larger share of the estates had been given to the elder branch In the lower court fchirudas lost hts suit, but tbe decision was reversed in the H i g h Court. After this the oase W&B carried on appeal to the Privy Council, and was decided, m 1876, in Gurudas's favour. He had, however, died two years previously, and before tbe result of the appeal to the Pr ivy

Con noil became known, his son, Govinda Chandra, had acoepted an amicable settlement, by whioh he withdrew hie claim against Earn Ratan'e heirs on receiving landed property, yielding a rental of Es. 1 ,000, besides a Bum ol Es. 40,000 in Cash.

Bam Hatan, the representative of the elder (Narail branch, extended the property considerably and acquired a three-fifths share of Muhainmadehahi. He died in 1859 or I860, and his brother Bai Bahadur Haruatb. Rai became the head of the family. On the death of the latter in 1868, Radha Charan Eai, third son of Ram Narayan Rai, succeeded. At present the property is held by aix co-sharers, via > Raj Kuniar Bai, Govinda Prasnnna Bai, Bijan Bihari Rai, Kiran Chandra Eai, Narendra Rai and Jogeudra Nalh, Rai. The foremost member of the family is reported to be Babu Jogeudra Nath Rai, who resides at Ooasipore, the other family residence being at Narail. The family has long been noted for acts of liberality and piety. They have endowed temples, dug several tanks upon their estates, and have constructed other works of public utility The Narail property, which is reported to yield a gross income of abont six or seven lakhs, extends over the Jlienida subdivision and the western part of the Magura subdivision, running also into Nadia, Pabna, and Faridpur. There ace likewise large estates belonging to the family in Hooghly, the ^4-Parganas, Backergnnge, Benares and Calcutta. Their estates H» chiefly in the following purgmuis and lara/s:—(1) Pargamis Telihati and Ubuldi in Faridpur; (2) Pargana Muhammadahabip which estenda into several districts, but lies ohiefly in the Jheuida and Magura subdivisions of this district; (3) Pargana Yusufpur (Isafpur) and taraf Rasulpur in the districts of Jessore and Khulna; this property is mostly held in patni; (4) Par/jenn

- Belgaohhi, whioh consists chiefly of (&!uk»i(5) Pargam Dantia . in Khulna; (6) Pargana Birmohan iu Faridpur; (7) Taraf

Dariapur in pargam Naldi in the Jessore JistriDt. The junior branch founded by Gurudas Rai, which is known as the Hatbaria family, owns the following properties;—(I) Ta-of Ealia iu Jessore district; (3) Turn/ Rupapat and pargana Poktani in Faridpur district; (3) Lot Uairpur Patni under the Naldi Raj; (4) Taraf N&girafc ia Mubammadshahi pargam; and (5) Pargana Ithuldi in faridpur.

Narail Subdivision.—South-eastern subdivision of the district lying between 22° 58' and 23° 21' N, and between 89° 23' and 89° 50' E., with an area of 487 square miles. The subdivision boarders on the Faridpur district, and is lower tliaa

174 J BBS OTIS.

other ports of the district. Tha process of laud formation has not yet ceased, aud it receives occasional deposits of silt. I t is less unhealthy than other piirfcs of Jessore, and this toil is very fertile, It abound? in deep marshes and its prinoijial rivers, which are tidal, are navigable throughout the year. IU population was 360,509 in 1911, and with TJO persons (o the square mile it is tha most thickly populated part of tha district.

Nturpara — A vilhige in the Jessore subdivision, situated on the Bhairab, C milsa south of Singia. It is a trade centra at some local importance, and is known to have been a prominent market place at the time of the Permanent Settle-

- ment, when it went by tbe name of Aiinagar. The present name is said to be due to tha numerous boats freqi enting tbo place.

Nawapara.—A village situated 2 miles north-nest oi Jessore, It is the head-quarters oE a family of zamindars known as the NawaparB Babus, who trace back tboir descent to one Harideb Deb, who lived near Satgaon in the Huoghly district. Puraudar Deb, tha eighth in doseent from him, is said to have held high office unler the Mughal lu'er^ from whom he received the title of Khan, while the Kulin Kayastbs conferred on hiai th i titla of Gnutipfrti. Tuo Seventh in descent from Puraudar was Bam Chandra Khan, who acquired the zamln-dari of Muharuinauabad in NadiS and made his bead-quarters at Bara Bazar. His grandson Kama! Naiayan transferred it to Bodbkhana, white ono of the ktter's sons, named Raja Kansn Narayau Bai, removed it to Oangauandapur in Nadia. His son Ratneswar quarrelled with tbe Etaja of NadiS, who in the end dispossessed him of his estates about 1735 A.D. Bolcg unable lo obtain redress at the Court of Muishidabal, Ratneswar retired to Nawapara, possessed of only a few taluks aud iskfurdj lands, " f'he history of rbe family," writes Sir Jame3 Wostlund, "deserves further tlucidatiou. They appear to be one of thoeo families who, in the time of the large zamindai'S, possessed the small zimindavis, single pargawB, or similar estates, and wero therefore a prey to their larger and more wealthy neighbours. They are nowhere prominent in the history of tbe district, &ua in its leoords I find no mention of them. Then- ancient history is, I am inolined to think, something quite apart from (ueir modern history, and they are an instance where one of the zarnindari families of modern days happens to be also a represeri-tathe of a family that had possessions in olden ti-nes. The E>5]* of Jessore, in his iccourit of his history, mentions that this

eiZBTTBKH. xru

Nawapara family owe their prosect p o t i o n to their connection witb Ma house, Kaliiant Rai'a elder brothers baric/? besn »iw"fa upon his estates. Thia IB perfectly possible, for, us their entire property is oompoaed of pstty aimindins an<t palni and darpatni tenures, it is undonbte 11/ of modern acquisition, and is, in con­tinuity of history at any rate, entirely nep&iate from whs! their family originally may nnvB posseted.''

Sagardari,—A village and steamer eta'ioo, sitiin-ted on the banks of the JinbadnJt. I t is noteworthy as being tbe birth-plaoe of the well known poet nod dramatist, Aladhu Sudan Oattn, who has besn described ns the greatest literary genius produced by lSoogal during the nineteenth century. Here also was born Sriiuati Manfeutngri Deri, a cieoa of f&u poet and an authoress who wrotfi several Bengal poatas.

Sailfeupa-—A village in the Jhsnida subdivision, situated on the north bank of the Kiraar river, 12 milaa no tb oF Jhsuidn.. I t contains a thaua, sub-registry office, a flourishing High eehool a post offioe, a Middle English school and some rrisjary schools,

- It; is aUo a cousidarable. trade aentre, at whioh riee fpjtn Paridpur avid mustard, Unseed, jute and pulses growo locally are sold in large quantities. The idol HamgopSl in this village is held in great veneration.

T&lirpuX •—A village in tbe Jessrcre subdivieiffia, siiuated at the cODflueuce of the Bkairab and Kabadak about 6 miles north of Obaiigaolilia. ft contains a large sugar factory which was built by the lato Sfr Newhotiae in 1854. I t passed through the hands of mimf European merchants and was, for a time, converted into a rum distillery. But this industry did not pay, and sugar manufactora was resumed by a company, whieb, how­ever, soon afterwards failed. I t then became the property oE Jiai DuanaprLt Singh Bahadur, by whom the manufacture of sugar was again undertaken. In 1910 an Indinn company begin to rspa r the factory with tiia intention of refining sugar with (he latest mnolnnery, but tbe work is now (1911) at a standstill, The curing of tobacco «as also started beie by Mr. MeLeod of Koiehandpur, but was given up in 1907.

Tl'iDiohiui.—A village in the Jeseore subdivision, situated 5 miles west of Kesltabpur, with which it is connected by road I t was formerly an important seat of the sugar trade, but was. iu eonifce of time completely overshadowed by Eeababpur, Till of late years, however, it had several sugar refineriea, but they are now all closed; and at present Triawhim is little more than an ordinary market village, where ucdraiaed sugar ig brought for sale atdr joi for refining,, A mela or fair is held here every March

176 jEasonB.

at the time of the Bamni or bathing' festival. Half a mile from Trimohini, on tha road to Keshabpur is Mirzauagur (j.v.), the reaidenoe of the Mughal Faujdars or - Military Governors of lessors,

IJlasi. —A. village iti the Jeasore subdivision, It is tlie birth-place of Madhuaudhan Kan, founder of the system of jStra dhap.

I N D E X , m

is

A,

Adminibtnitiva changes, 4%, i'k staff, 124, 127.

Administration, general, 131—1.10. AfraKhal, 13,14. Agriculture, BS—'•&. ... Agricultural clawei, 68. Aman rice, 69. A mtitu Bui if, 12D ; accouut of, 139. Animals, wil > 16. Atni rit6V, 12, 11. Ant rUe, 70.

3.

KagliuSngo, 101. BuuljQs, 6l, BnHS, 80.

BndgBoo, ffispcniiiry at, G7; aCi'omit of 139.

Bmigaiio lubdiriaiori, account of, 139. hSiiVKua river, 14.

Stori, 17, tlnrnhainr, a 4 ; mmuiuu, uC ltd. 135K.U Uliulyij,, UO, SO.

3ni'jjo »ydi>iii of cultivation, 68, Barnela ri^oC, li) BafkSlia, aetoiiiit of, WO, BarniiJatn It LSI T14, Basket making, 101.

BsdijSa, 12a.

Bflngali language, 47,48. Befigs river, 10,

BofcnS uvar, 13.

BhadrS rivfli, 13,

Bbalrab river, 11,13.

Bhawanipur Phal, 9,13, Bhan-nkbBli, 101. •

EX.

Eidpn»adakiti, 24; aooonntot, 111.1

JJ«», 15. lSoohkliana, 116. Bora rice, TO, SOTO annul, 10.

Hoaudwies of iii'.rict, 1, Eotiry, IS, 16. Brims, msnaCactnru of, ldl. BritiaU sdminiitLition, early, 36—10. liunl nan fovei, 63. ISuttons, mmmtactnee of, 181-

c CalamitiM, natural, 93—81. Cm ale, 109 Census toaulta, 45, 4S. Cessna, reyeim^ [10m, 13». Civil Courts, 137. Ciiatlii illuralmiUB, 19.

ChiiiiAri, account of, 112—144

CbBDilals, 60-52.

Cnayri Kbit, 13.

Cbjsi KuibavttaB, 53 Olmu^ui lilim, m ouiuit of, 144.

(.ViOiiAiild,., 1SH,

OUillim, mltlvstltlU Of, T *i CWtrB i-iTor, 0,10, CllQletB,(id, (JI.OB, Clnitnlli5|j"iii Mnchis, 4D QlimafJ, 18—30. Collogfla, 1S5. t'oiabs, Barnfuctorii of, 101,

Commerce, 105.

Comuanicatiaot, 10ft-»ll0,

Oonflguratiwi of district, 1,S.

Cornwallis, reforma of, *Q>

Criminal dussca, US,

Criminal court!, 137,

178 I N D E X .

Crops, 69.

Cultivation, £8—75; QifcottBlii" •>!, 74.

Cutlery, manufacture of, 101*

Cyclones, SO, SI.

D-

DSga amm, 63. Date piilms, cultivation of, 71 , 72

Duklio KhSl, 13. DliobSghiitS Kbal, IS .

Dliulgram, 115.

D&vlwl sngnr, manufacture of, 94, OS,

Dispensaries, 67 .

District, formation of, 43, 44.

District Board administration* 130.

Drainage, E.

Dratnaj;^ achsmea, 65,6B.

E.

Edncatiou, 135—13S.

Educational eta"", 136.

SmbanVmonts, 78. ,

Estates, H 7 , 1 1 8 .

Escise, ravonuo from, 12E.

Eiports, 105.

P.

Fairs, 57.

Fvninas, 78—80.

Psujasrs of Jeesore, 32, 33.

Faunu, IS.

Fever, 63—65.

P u t . 1 6 - 1 8 .

PWde, 7 f l - 7 8 ,

ftitthSli, MS.

Game birds, IB.

SflntSlt, 119,120.

Gttrai river, fi, 7.

Gsnnrei administration. 134—180.

Geology, IB.

GhorSkliSli Kan] , 10—1 J,

GirU' ached, 137. OobrS KliHl, 1 2 , 1 4 .

Gorii-training- school, 137.

H.

HalliEo: canal, 103, 110.

Harm IYSET, I S .

H^ribar rivor, 12.

H i r i n a B i i , 148, 150.

Hoaltli, public, 5 8 - 6 7 .

lieocke'll, Mr . , 37—39.

Digh schools, 136,

Hindus. 19 .

History of tke district , 21—44.

Hospitals, Q7.

*

1-Iclbiiiimti riv*?v, 10.

Impoits , 105,

IllGOinO'tftX, 1^6.

Indigo riots, 4,0—13 j industry, 1U3—106,

Industries, 89—105,

Inundations, 76—78.

Isafpur. Sis YosnEpur.

J. f

Jails, 129.

Jos3ora, meteorological statistics of, 2 0 j

diepcnanrj at, 87 ; rouiiiciuol admi­

nistration of, 1 3 3 ; account of,

145—150.

Jessore-Calcutta road, 108,

JassarG subdivision, acoonnt of, 1EO.

Jesui t accounts of Jesaara, 3 1 .

JlWttidn, dispensary at, 67 ; accuout of

150—152.

Jhenida subdivision, account of, 1&3.4

J U i g ^ ^ J i ' i a , iKftoottt "J , 162,

Joradah lafligo concern, 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 .

Jots, 119 ,120.

Judirinl officers. 127.

I N D E x . 179

Judicial administration, early, B9.

JoatiCB, ndmiruttration of, 137

Juta, cnltiTation of, 70, 71

Kabadlk tiver, 10

Knclinar Khal, 13 Eaibarttas, 52

EaliS, dispensary nt, 0 7 , nccomit ofi

1*3. KSliganEu rivor, 13. EjilTgaojt account of, 15s. Kariln, 63. Eatokhah Kh.1,13 Kesbabpur, acnonnt of, 1EB KaalifsHbad, 25. Eh ah, 1.

Knunja All, 23—ES-Kotcbondpur, diBpeOBaij nt G7 , muiuci.

pal aduunlauratioii of, 133 , account

of, 151

Kulin. Brolium™, 54—5G, Kajastlis, 6G

Kinufr Klin], 13; nvor, 7 - 8 \

h.

Lukes, 16. Lnkabmipaan, 6 4 , amount o£, 155. Land rovm(w niliiimmtintioii, 111—

133,

Laud revenue, statist"* of-1S4.

Land tenures, 1 1 7 ^ U S

Language, 47 ,43 .

Light railmija, 108

Littlo Buraaia n i t ' . s

Local Boards, 132

Land self government, 131 131

Lobagaii, 102; diauEtaary nt, C7 ; EIP

count of, 156.

M.

Maulumnti r iTCr< $>'

MSgnra, dispensary at, 67 , account oF, 166.

Magura aabd viaiou, account of, 157 Wabcshpur, dispensary at, S7, municipal

administration of, 13± account of, IS S

MalimSdibad, 35

MalimMpur. Sie Mil bam re ad1 pot MajndlJ.ali KuBl, IB, 14. Mulaur KU51,14. Muloe, 49,

Manufactures, B9—105, Afauiraniuur, nccountof, 153. Varabea, 15. Moira Khal, IS

Material condition of tbc peoplp, Bt^B7 Mot making, 101, Middle o liools, 137, Modicnt aspects, 63—6Y. Mctoorology, IB—20. Miraanajnr, 32 , account of, 158, Money orders, 110 Muchiibah rifct, ft, Jlnchis, 45

Hul amuisdane, conquest by, 2B , nilo of S3—35, causiia statistics of. 4 8 ; education cf, 187

Mnhainmadpur, 6 1 , account oE, IS?—ISO, Muhamumdahahi, 113, 116, 118 Mckliimpur estate, account of, 1BC Mul groin, 101. Humc-iualitics, 133,131 Mnrli, 36, 44, 147.

N.

Nelaganga river, 8, 9

Ualdangn, account of, 1G7.

NaldanBa Us), account of, 168,

Nnldi, ace on Lit of, 170

Naldi, estate, account of, 170,

Naujasudrae, 50, 52.

Kaobata, ilisjwuaiiry at, G7.

Naopuia, account of, 174.

Sural 1, uiapeiisaty at, 67,account oF, 1 7 1 ;

I college. nL, IBB

180 t a n i x ,

Naniil eelata, account of, 171-

fnta.il snbdm&iou, account of, 173,

Natural calamities, 76—81.

Navigation, 109, UK.

NswapSrs, account of, IT*.

R a m i * eatato, 118.

Nan spapers, Eg.

NnroIJa Khun, 32, 33.

o.

Occupations, 8 8 - a 1 .

P-

Palms, cultivation of tlats, 7i> 72-

P5ngii9i river, 7—8.

PankHcuar, 129, Kayastha, 128.

Pa ta f («f«S», 120,121

People, mu teml condition of tiio, BA.

Peppor, cultivation of, fa .

Pmmanaut Settlement, 114,

Phntki river, 10.

Physical aspects 1—20.

Police, 139.

Police attain I strati on, «nrlj , 37—39.

Police stations, 130.

Population, growth 0f( ^ 4 5 . ^erLHi:ty

of, 47 ; migration of, 4 ? ; rural, 4 7 ,

urban, 47.

Postal department, 110,

Potterv,manufacture uf, 101.

PjntSpidiiyiij 25, 28.

Prkes , B4.

PTIIHIITJ sell 00 Is, 137,

Produce rants, 83.

Pornbati Hawnpni mdigc conwln, 102

103. '.

E.

M t t e r i a s , eu^nr, 90, 01 ,08

Buigraiii, dispenssiy at, 67

BsijSiiupur SliSl, 13.

H a i W o ) 3 l 0 7 , 1 0 3 .

RuinEaii; 19, BO,

II rgi strati on, 126, 127.

Itolitrioits, 18.

Rent*, 82, 83

liellt-free tenures, 1113.

Resumption proceedings, 1IG, 117.

lie venue, administration of laud,

111—J23.

Hevonne of district, 124.

Rice cultivation of, GB, 70.

RiTCL ayBtenij 3-^)4 .

Eoaila, 106 ,107 ,108 ,109 .

HocLe, Mr,. 37.

s.

SugnMiii , 2 1 ; aceoant of, 176-

Soillfiipn, account of, 17B.

Sanitation, 5 0 - SO,

Savings baling, 110

Sconary, 8

SC1IOO]B,135, 138.

Secondary schools, 13G.

Self-government, local, 131—134.

Siiidlinri indigo coutcm 102, J03 ,

Sit5r5in ]J»i, revolt of, 33—35.

Smal'-poi, 61.

Soils, fiS

SiidhirpnT, dispensary at, 67.

Supuv, diBpanaaiy vA, 67,

Stamps, r ucuuo Erom, 124.

Stcumer scivicea, 10-1

Sub'dmBiuus, census statistics or, 4fi

Sublia Singh, revolt of, 32, 33,

Sub-js-Hs, 120 ,130. •

Sub-reijiBtiy offices, 127.

Sugnr, lnanoFacWe of, 69—100,

TalurpiiT, account of, 176.

Ttiluldar j , 114.

Technical schools 137.

Temperature, 19, 20,

TeiiBiiLiea, l i l

Tenures of land, 117—123,

I B D E X . 181 l i a n a s , 139; csnSM statistics o?, 46, Tobacco, eultiv&tfrm of, wi2l 73. TQWD«, i J .

Trade, 106. Training scboola, 137. Trtmohinl, 32; sccomit cf, 175,

V.

UlSsi, 176,

Vaion eommikteeB, 1S2,

Utitmdi Bjatem,;l22.

V. Vsoniunlaon, (t7.

Vilisgffl, 47.

Vital futilities, A3.

w. Wages, 83.

Weaving indcatrj, 101, Womoii, occnpsllons ofj 89.

YoHif]jur, 118.

Y.

Z,

Zamimlfins, 8S, 117,118.

Zila.w;liool,'.13G,

I\ S. Jms-M-jS12-3iJ6,J-«]-C. A, P

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