MODERN EDUCATION - Lucknow Digital Library

MODERN EDUCATION ITS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN RAJASTHAN

(1818-1983)

By Hi, G. C. VERMA,

M.A. (Hist.), M.A. (Pol. Sc), B. T., Ph.D., Principal (Itetd.) Government College, Banswara.

PUBLICATION SCHEME JAIPUR — INDORE

First Edition 1984 © Author

A m k - f J - D . u!J, PuL.ic Ubraiy

Ace. N ' $hT°m-Class .^, ^ 1 ^ « S 4 4 -Book N, V 3 C) f i

Published by Publication Scheme 57, Missar Rajaji ka Rasta, Jaipur-302001. Branch : Palda, Chitawad Road, ludore

Distributed by Sharan Book Depot, Galta Road, JAIPUR-302003.

Printed by The Kapur Press, Diggi House, Sawai'Ram Singh Road, JAIPUR- 302004.

DEDICATION

This thesis was prepared under the guidance and supervision .of

Shri J.P. Naik, Adviser, Ministry of Education, and later on

Member-Secretary, Education Commission and Indian Council of

Social Science and Research, New Delhi. He took a keen interest

in its "preparation and would have "been happy had he been alive

today-to see it through the. press.

Now that Dr. J.P.Naik has left the world, this book is respectfully and gratefully dedicated to his sacred memory.

G.C. Verma.

ABBREVIATIONS

Admn. Report A.G.G. A.M.Report Commr. C.C. Cons.

D.P.I. For.Genl.Cons.

For. Genl .Progs. For.Intl.

G.G. Home Public Cons.

Home Public Progs. I.G.R. M.K.

M.C.Report N.A.I. N.WP.

P.A. PoI.Cons.

Progs. R.A.R. R.A.B. R.G. Rev.& Agr.Progs.

U.P.M. Report

: Administration Report : Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana : Ajmer-Merwara Report : Commissioner : Chief Commissioner : Consultations (Documents in the National

Archives) : Director of Public Instruction • Foreign General Consultations,

I ForeignGeneral Proceedings >and Foreign Internal. j Documents in the National Archives,

J New Delhi. : Governor General

"j Documents in the National Archives of > India, I New Delhi

: Imperial Gazetteer-Rajputana : Mahakma Khas-the Council of State

(Name of the State concerned mentioned afterwards)

: Mayo College Report : National Aichives of India, New Delhi : North-Western Provinces of Agra and

Oudh (Now U.P.) : Political Agent : Political Consultations (Documents in the

N.A.I.) : Proceedings : Rajputana Administration Report : Rajasthan Archives, Bikaner : Rajaputana Gazetteer : Revenue & Agricultuie Proceedings (Do

cuments in N.A.I.) : United Presbyterian Mission Report

CONTENTS

Pages Foreword

Review

Preface

Introduction : Rajasthan : Its Topography, People and History 1-15

Extent, boundary, rivers and lakes etc., The people, castes and tribes Languages Rajasthan Historical background. The political structure of British relations with Rajasthan States Powers and authority of the Chiefs Responsibilities of the Political Agents General Survey

Ch 1 Indigenous Education in Rajasthan 16-36

Scanty source material,Indigenous schools. Elementary schools- Their teachers, scholars and course of instruction. Schools of Higher Learning: Courses of study Schools of Muslim Education: Their housing, teachers, scholars, couises, holidays and punishments Equipmentsinthe Indigenous schools Some characteristic features of indegenous schools Extent of Indigenous education in Rajasthan. A critical review of Indigenous education in Rajasthan Appendix: Equivalent technical terms

Ch. 2. Beginnings of Modern Education in Rajasthan 37-54

Ajmer-Merwara, Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur, Udaipur, Harauti, Sirohi, Other States, Concluding remarks.

Ch. 3. Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan 55-89

Early Missionary activities in Rajasthan I-Esta-bhshment of the United Presbyterian Mission in Rajasthan (March, 1860). Beawar (1860),

11

Nasirabad (1861), Ajmer (1862), Todgarh (1863), Jaipur (1866), Ashapura (1870), Deoli (1871), Udaipur (1877), Alwar (1880), Jodhpur (1885), Kota(1889) and Piploda-Kota (1905)

Cb, 4 Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan (Contd) 90-104

II—The Roman Catholic Mission. III-The Methodist Episcopal Mission. IV—Other Missions Appraisal.

Ch 5. Education of the Princes and Nobles 105-136

I—Early British Educational efforts: Education of Maharaja Balwant Singh of Bharatpur, Ram Singh of Jaipur, Jaswant Singh of Bharatpur, Sheodan Singh of Alwar. Heir-apparent of Sirohi, Maharana Shambhu Singh of Udaipur, Raja of Shahpura. II—The Mayo College, Ajmer: Its origin, its aims and objects. Its curriculum and examinations. Its management and control. An evaluation. Ill—Education of the Nobility, An evaluation

Ch 6. Education in Ajmer-Merwara 137-152

Primary education, Secondary education. Board of High School and Intermediate Education

Ch 7 Education in Jaipur State 153-170

Primary education, Private schools in Jaipur city (1863) Primary education reorganised (1887), Secondary education.

Ch. 8. Education in the Other States 171-207

Alwar, Bharatpur, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Harauti, Bikaner, Tonk and the remaining States.

Ch. 9. Higher Education 208-238

I—Collegiate education, Government College, Ajmer, Maharaja's College, Jaipur, Jaswant College, Jodhpur. Other Colleges. Professional and Technical Colleges in Rajasthan. Il-Unviersity Education. Efforts for establishing a

Ill

University. Founding of the Rajputana University.

Ch. 10 Education of the Weaker Sections of Society and of Minorities 239-272

Education of girls and women. Education of Europeans and Anglo-Indians. Education of depressed classes. Education of the aboriginals and hill tribes. Education of Muslims.

Ch-11 Technical and Professional Education in Rajasthan 273-302 Medical Education: Allopathic, Ayurvedic, Unani-Tibbi, Homoeopathic. Engineering and Industrial Education Agricultural and Veterinary Education. Forestry Education, Commercial Education, Legal Education, Teachers Training.

Ch. 12 Private Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan 303-319

Arya Samaj Education Society,. Ajmer. Birla Education Trust, Pilani. S. S. Pareek College, Jaipur. Savitri Girls' School & College, Ajmer. Rajasthan Shiksha Mandal, Bombay. Marwari Relief Society, Calcutta. Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur. Banas-thali Vidyapith, Banasthali. Rajasthan Vidyapith, Udaipur. Rajasthan Mahila Vidyalaya, Udaipur. Mahila Mandal, Udaipur. Mahila Shiksha Mandal, Hatundi. An Evaluation

Ch. 13 Education in Rajasthan before /ndependencc (1818-1947)—A Review 320-356

Indigenous and Primary Education. Secondary education. Training of Teachers. Collegiate education. Female education. Nobles' education Administrative structure of Education. The role of Private Agencies of Education, Alwar, Bharat-pur, Jodhpur, Kotah, Bundi, Bikaner and Jaipur.

Ch. 14 Educational Development in Rajasthan after Independence 357-387 Reorganisation of Education. Review of Education in Rajasthan after Independence. I-Organisational set-up and Educational Personnel in Rajasthan.

IV

Education Department of the Ministry, Directorates of Education, Academies, Institutes, Boards, Miscellaneous. II-Primary (Elementary) Education. Ill-Secondary Education. IV-Higher (Univesity) Education.

Ch. 15 Educational Development in Rajasthan after Independence (Continued) 388-413

V-Technical and Professional Education. Engineering Education. Medical Education: Allopathic, Ayurvedic, Unani and Tibbi, Homoeopathic. Agricultural & Veterinary Education. Education in Forestry. Commerce Education. Legal Education Education for Teachers' Training. VI-Education of Women. VH-Sanskrit Education.

Ch. 16 A Brief Survey of Modern Education in Rajasthan 414-425

Agencies of education. Broad features of Education. Board of Secondary Education, Rajasthan, Ajmer. Higher Education. Technical Education.

Ch. 17 Future of Education in Rajasthan : Problems and Remedies 426-449

Universalisation of Elementary Education. Report of High Power Committee. Secondary Education, Vocationalisation. Adult EducationGirls'Education. Education of Scheduled Castes and Tribes. Higher Education, Medical Education. Technical and Engineering Education. Agricultural Education, Arts and Culture. Finance. A Critical Review of Educational System.

Bibliography 450

Index 461

Opinions 464

Introduction Rajasthan : Its Topography,

People and History

"Rajasthan" says Colonel James Tod, "is the collective and classical denomination of that portion of India which is 'the abode of (Rajpoot) princes.' In the familiar dialect of these countries it is termed Rajwara, but by the more refined 'Raethana' corrupted to Rajpootana, the common designation among the British to denote the Rajpoot principalities."! This land of hills and deserts, lakes and rivers, towns and cities, traditional heroes and chivalry represents the true historic India, for it enshrines in it the best and glorious traditions of the past. There are not many parts of India which have preserved so well the old traditions, distinctive Indian culture, manners, customs, dress and art etc, as this land of warriors, for the inhabitants of this region have not only been defenders of their own faith in an age of political aggression, but also the patrons of Indian culture and the protagonists of Indian traditions.2

Extent and boundary

The modern State of Rajasthan, as constituted after the States Reorganisation. Act, 1956, is located between 23°3'and 30° 12' North latitudes and 69°30 and 78°17' East Longitudes. Its total area according to the census of 1961 was 1, 32, 152 square miles3

1. Tod, J . Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, I, p. 1. 2. Rajasthan and its Traditions: Brochure published by the Director of

Archaeology, Rajasthan, Jaipur, p. 1.

3. Rajasthan Census Report (1961), Vol. XIV, part 11—A, p. 5.

2 Modern Education in Rajaslhan

(3,38,309 sq. kms.). More than a century ago in 1865 it was 1,23,000 square miles* (3,14,880 square kms). This increase is due to the interchange of certain enclaves between the States of Rajasfhan, Madhya Pradesh and Bombay (now Maharashtra) after the passing of the above Act. Thus from the point of view of its area, Rajasthan is now the second largest State in India, the largest being Madhya Pradesh with an area of 1,71,217 square miles or 442, 841 square kilometers.2

Configuration

The configuration of Rajasthan is roughly rhombic in shape, bounded on the North and North-East by Bahawalpur (Pakistan) and the Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh; on the South by the Mahi Kanta, the Rewa Kanta and Palanpur of Gujrat and, on the West by Sindh (Pakistan). Its length from Bikaner on the North to Banswara on the South is about 816 kms. and its breadth from Dholpur on the East to Jaisalmer on the West is 864 kms. This represents about one-fourth of the length and one-third of the breadth of India.3

The Aravali mountains

The most striking feature about the physical geography of Rajasthan is the Aravali range of hills which extends for about 688 kms and which intersects this region almost from end to end by a line running nearly north east and south-west. Thus the Aravalis divide Rajasthan into two almost equal parts and form a natural barrier between the rolling sands and arid wastes of the Western Desert and the more fertile plains and higher table-land to the East and South. This mountain range is the principal watershed of Rajasthan and is connected with the Vindhya mountains by a continuous chain of small hills and stretches away its bold ridges

1. Rajputana Administration Report (1865-67), p. 1, para, 2. 2. Times of India Directory & Year Book (1968), p. 132.

The total area of Rajasthan now according to the Census of 1971 is 342, 214 square kilometres; Census of India (1971) : Final Populations Series l-lndia. Paper I of 1972, p. 13 and p. 21.

3. Report on Educational Survey, Rajasthan (1958), p. 38.

Rajasthan : Its Topography, People and History 3

towards Delhi. The culmination point of this range is Mount Abu the so- called Rajput Olympus-which in Guru Shikhar has the highest peak rising to an elevation of 5650 feet above sea level. It is thus the highest point between the Himalayas and the Nilgiris.1 The hills from Ajmer southwards are almost covered with forests inhabited by wild tribes and aboriginals such as Bhils and Girasias who are famous even now for their marauding and plundering habits and customs.

"The Region of Death"

About seventy per cent of Rajasthan is part of the "Maroosthali" or the region of death (figurative phrase for the Great Desert) which extends from Aravali hills in the East to the Indus valley in the West. Numerous migratory sand-dunes, which rise from 20 to over 100 feet high are scattered all over the country. They move in summer due to the westerly winds. The western and northwestern parts of Bikaner division lie within this "Great Desert" and its southern and eastern portion form part of the vast sandy tract known as the Bagar. Similarly Jodhpur division is sterile, covered with sand-hills, rising as high as 200 or even 300 feet, and the desolation becomes more marked as one moves westwards. Jaisalmer district is almost entirely a sand-drifted waste and the soil in the vicinity of the town-within a radius of about forty miles-is very stony,

The country to the east and south-east of the Aravalis is full of vales, fertile table-lands and a great expanse of excellent soil. This area may be sub-divided into two natural regions : (1) Southern Rajasthan comprising the Udaipur division and (2) the Eastern Rajasthan which includes the regions of Jaipur and Kota. Udaipur division receives the heaviest rainfall. It has long stretches of forest where fuel and fodder may be available in abundance. The regions around Jaipur and Kota stand midway between Southern and Western Rajasthan from the point of view of rainfall.

1. Imperial Gazetteer, Rajputana, p. 4.

4 Modem Education in Rajasthan

Rivers

Rivers have played a very significant part in making the surface features of Rajasthan. The only river of any consequence in western Rajasthan is the Luni which rises in the Pushkar valley close to Ajmer and flows west by south-west into the Rann of Cutch. The Ghaggar once flowed through the northern part of the Bikaner State. The south-eastern division has a river system of importance. The most important river is Chambal of which Kali Sindh, Parbati and Banas are the principal tributaries. The last, which is next in importance to the Chambal, is exclusively a river of Rajasthan with its tributaries Berach, Kothari, Khari, Mashi, Dhil and Morel. Farther to the north is the Banganga which, rising in Jaipur, flows generally east through Bharatpur and Dholpur into the district of Agra where it joins the Jamuna.

Lakes

There are no natural fresh-water lakes, the only considerable basin being the Sambhar salt lake. But there are several artificial sheets of water, more particularly in the former Jaipur State. The oldest and the most famous are, however to be found in Mewar, namely the Dhebar or Jai Samandh, the Raj Samandh, the Pushkar, Udaisagar and the Pichhola and the Fateh Sagar at Udaipur City.Sambhar and Siliserh are the other lakes of note.

THE PEOPLE

Ethnologically the people of Rajasthan may be divided into three types : (1) the Indo-Aryaus, (2) the Aryo-Dravidians and (3) the pure Dravidians. The Rajputs, the Khatris and the Jats of Rajasthan belong to the Indo-Aryan group. The other group-the Aryo-Dravidian or what is commonly called the Hindustani-is found in some parts of Rajasthan and is represented in its upper strata by the Hindustani Brahman and in its lower by the Cha-mar (Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909). This type is the result of the intermixture of the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian types. Besides these, the pure Dravidian element is also to be found in the Bhils who are supposed to be the oldest inhabitants of Rajasthan and possess most of the Dravidian features. They live in a large


number in the south of Rajasthan in the neighbourhood of the Aravalis.

Population

The total population of Rajasthan, according to the Census of 1971, is 257.65 lakhs of which 134.84 lakhs are males and 122.81 lakhs females. Thus there are 911 females per 1000 males in Rajasthan. In 1865 the total population of Rajasthan was approximately estimated at one crore. According to the available census records it increased from 1.03 crores in 1901 to 1.10 crores in 1911 and came down to 1.03 crores in 1921 due to the severe influenza epidemic. In 1931 it again increased to 1.18 crores and in 194] to 1.39 crores. In 1951 the figures were 1.60 crores which shows that during one decade it registered an increase of 26.2%. The present population (257.65 lakhs) as compared to the one in 1865 reveals that within a century the population of Rajasthan has more than doubled.

The Hindus form the majority-being abouf 89.63% of the total population while the Muslims and the Jains are 6.90 and 1.99 per cent respectively. The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes form 15.82 and 12.13 per cent respectively. The Sikhs are more than 1% (1.33%), but the Christians are less than 1% (0.12%) of the total population.1

Castes and Tribes

The Census of 1931 enumerated more than 150 castes and sub-castes of the Hindus in Rajasthan,2 but the main castes are Brahmans, Rajputs, Jains, Mahajans, Chamars Minas, Gujars, Jats, Ahirs, Balais, and Sondhias.

The Rajputs.

The Rajputs have been most influential in the social structure of Rajasthan. They are divided into three broad divisions viz. the Suryavanshis, the Chandravanshis and of the Agnikula. The prin-

1. Census of India—1971 : Rajasthan :Population Statistics, pp. 6, 8 and 9. 2. Census of India, 1931, Vol. XXVII, pp. 160-165.

6 Modern Education in Rajastlwn

cipal clans of the Suryavanshi group are the Shisodia, Rathor and Kachhwaha, of which the former rulers of Udaipur, Jodhpur and Jaipur are the respective heads. The principal clans of the second group are the Jados and the Bhatis, represented by the former Chiefs of Karauli and Jaisalmer respectively. Parmars or Panwar, the Chalukya or Solanki, the Parihars and the Chauhans are the clans of the Agnikula. The Chiefs of Bundi, Kota and Sirohi belong to the last named clan. All these Rajput clans have for centuries been the landed aristocracy of Rajasthan. They exercised for ages sovereign power in many parts of India, and have a cultural heritage of their own going back for nearly a thousand years. They wielded great political power, but with the merger of their States in the Indian Union, much of their political influence has now waned.

The Brahmans

Like the Rajputs, the Brahmans have also been very influential in Rajasthan. Their principal divisions are Gaur, Saraswat, Dhadhich, Purohit, Palivval, Pushkarna and Shrimali etc. Their main occupations have been priestly duties, trade, state or private service and also agriculture, in which capacity they were given rent-free land.

Jains and Mahajans

The mercantile castes of Rajasthan are well-known all over the country. Some of them follow Jainism and others Hinduism. To the latter belong the Agarwal, Maheshwari and Khandelwal castes. The Jains are divided into two main sects - the Swetambari and the Digambari. Most of the trade and commerce of Rajasthan is in the hands of these mercantile communities.

Jats, Gujars and Minas

In the lower social strata come the agricultural tribes of whom the principal ones are the Jats and Gujars. They are mostly found in the northern and north-eastern parts of Rajasthan. The Jats claim to belong to the Rajput stock having many social and


physical characteristics common with them. They are mostly agriculturists, but two of the former States of Rajasthan - Bharatpur and Dholpur - belonged to them. The Minas or Mainas, found mostly in Jaipur, Alwar and Mewar, also trace their origin to the Rajputs. There was a time when they ruled over some parts of Rajasthan and it is from them that the early Kachhawaha rulers snatched political power in the tenth and eleventh centuries. But nowadays they are either agriculturists or Chaukidars, that is, watchmen.

Bhils

The only tribe in Rajasthan that may be termed aboriginal is that of the Bhils. They are found chiefly in the southern parts of Rajasthan namely Mewar, Banswara, Dungarpur, Pratapgarh and Sirohi areas. They are the oldest inhabitants of Rajasthan. Most of them still cling to their old traditional ways and are seen wandering about armed with bows and arrows in the forests that surround the hills. But they are now being uplifted by the Government and many social organisations.

Gadiya Luhars

One peculiar Hindu tribe which has roused considerable interest in recent years is that of the "Gadiya Luhars", also known as "Gaduliya Luhars". They lead a gypsy life and are blacksmith by profession as,the words "Gadiya Luhars" indicate. They never settle at one place permanently, but move from place to place with their bullock carts. That is why their tribe is prefixed with the word "Gadiya". Their bullock carts, may, in fact, be regarded as their moving houses.!

1. It is a popular belief that when Chittorgarh fell in the hands of Alauddin Khilji in 1303 A. D., many of the inhabitants of the fort who left it vowed never to return to it until it had been freed Since then they were constantly moving from place to place in their bullock carts. But with India regaining her'independence in 1947 A. D. and the integration of Rajasthan State with the Indian Union, the fort of Chittor was also freed. There was, therefore, no sense in the Gadiya Luhars still leading their

(Contd.)

8 - Modern Education in Rajas than

The Musalmans

Even though Islam does not believe in caste system, the Muslims of Rajasthan, as of other parts of the country, are divided into four broad classes based on racial consciousness, namely, Shaikh, Syed, Mugal and Pathan In addition to them there are the Meos. found mostly in Alwar and Bharatpur, the Qaimkhanis in Shekhawati and in the adjoining areas and the Mairs and Merats in Merwara are the other sections of the Muslim community. These people are marginal between the Hindus and the Muslims because they observe both Hindu and Muslim customs. Their dresses are similar to those of the Hindus. On marriage ceremonies they invite both the Qazis and Hindu Pandits to solemnise them.

LANGUAGES

The language used by the people of Rajasthan is popularly known as Rajasthani, but it may be divided into the following five sections according to variations in geographical areas :

i) Western Rajasthani (Mcwari and Marwari), ii) Northern Rajasthani or Mewati, iii) Eastern Rajasthani or Jaipuri, iv) Southern Rajasthani or Malwi and v) Mountainous Rajasthani or Bhili. In Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Shekhawati, and Ajmer -

Merwara the language spoken is Marwari, while that spoken in

traditional nomadic life. Hence the Government of Rajasthan made efforts for their sedentarization and rehabilitation. A Convention was, therefore, organised at Chittorgarh on 6th April, 1955. The most interesting event of the Convention was the ceremony making the homecoming of the Gadiya Luhars. A grand procession of about four thousand Gad.va Luhars and more than fifty thousand people drawn from the different States of the country led by Pandit Jawahar Lai Nehru moved into the Chittorgarh fort. Thus the Gadiya Luhars have now redeemed their legendary pledge taken by their fore-fathers and saw the revival of the glory of Chittorgarh fort. '

"The Home-coming of Gaduliya Lohars." Pamphlet issued by the Directorate of Public Relations, Government of Rajasthan, .dipur (1955). pp. 7-8.


Jaipur and its adjoining areas is Jaipuri or Dhundhari. Mewari is used in correspondence and speech in Mewar, while in Dungarpur,

Banswara etc the language used in Bagdi. Hadauti which is mixed up with Malwi is used in Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar and Pratapgarh. The language spoken by the people of Alwar and the adjoining areas is Mewati while in Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli the language used resembles Braj Bhasha very much. Bhili which is a mixture of several Bhil dialects in the southern pans is based on Gujrati, but forms a connecting link between it and Rajastbani.

RAJASTHAN : HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.

Before the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Rajputs had played a conspicuous part in the history of Northern and Western India. "They became so prominent", says V. A. Smith, "that the centuries from the middle of the seventh to the close of the twelfth century, might be called with propriety the 'Rajput period.'1 During the Sultanate period too they faced stubbornly the recurring onslaughts of the Sultans and, although they lost temporarily their independence, they never submitted completely and permanently to the superior military resources and barbaric might of the Sultans and the rulers of the adjoining kingdoms of Malwa and Gujrat. It is true that the imperialistic designs of the Mughal Emperors, who wanted to extend their political supremacy all over India, affected the fortunes and future of the Rajput principalities, but the Emperors had the political wisdom and sagacity to recognise the value of Rajput alliance as a potential factor in the consolidation of their rule in India. The Rajput Chiefs too, except Ranas Sanga and Pratap of Mewar, realised the futility of opposing the Mughal Emperors and preferred submission to incessant warfare. This Mughal-Rajput alliance continued more or less throughout the whole Mughal period except for a short break when it had to face shocks and jerks in the reign of Aurangzeb.

The decline of the Mughal Empire encourged the Marathas in their acts of aggrandisement. This changed political situation

1. Smith, V. A.; Oxford History of India, (1923), p. 172.

10 Modern Education in Rajasthan

proved ruinous to the interests of the Rajputs. The Mughal Emperors to some extent were justified in exacting tribute from the States of Rajasthan, for they enforced interna] peace and checked external danger so long as they were strong and powerful. They also afforded the Rajput Chiefs opportunities and scope for the display of their military prowess and administrative skill. But the Marathas rendered them no service in exchange for the huge sums they exacted from them by force. During the middle of the eighteenth century they exploited for their own advantage the internal dissensions of the Rajput States, notably Jaipur and Jodhpur and instead of suppressing them utilised them for their own aggrandisement. By 1803 "all Rajputana, except the remote States in the north and north-west, had been virtually brought under the sphere of influence of the Marathas, who exacted tribute, annexed territory, and extorted subsidies. Sindhia and Holkar were deliberately exhausting the country, lacerating it by ravages or bleeding it scientifically by relentless tax-gatherers while the lands had been desolated by thirty years' incessant war."*

This was the political condition of Rajasthan in the beginning of the nineteenth century when the British came to the scene. They were soon engulfed in a deadly struggle with the Marathas for supremacy. The victories of Generals Lake and Wellesley shattered Sindhia's power in Northern India and the British lost no opportunity to impose subsidiary treaties on Bharatpur, Alwar and Jaipur in 1803 against the Marathas, But Lord Wellesley's successors changed their policy towards the Indian States and left the Rajasthan Chiefs to lake care of themselves. The result was that the great predatory leaders plundered the States thus abandoned to them and became arrogant and aggressive towards the British power. This lasted for about ten years during which period Rajasthan was desolated and the roving bands of Pindaris under their leaders Karim, Amir and Chitu increased and multiplied all over the country. To meet this new menace, which had now assumed gigantic dimensions, the British offered their protection to the Rajasthan Chiefs on the outbreak of the Pindari war (1817-18). Treaties were, therefore, promptly contracted with

1. I.G.R. (1908), p. 20.


each principality separately, Karauli (in November) and 'Kota (in December 1817) being the two earliest and Sirohi (September 1823) the last to give their adherence. Thus the whole of Rajasthan lay prostrate at the feet of the British.

The Political Structure of British Relations with Rajasthan States a century ago*

Rajasthan was then divided into eighteen main principalities of which fifteen belonged to the Rajputs, two to jats (Bharatpur and Dholpur) and one to Mohammadans (Tonk). These States were under the political superintendence of the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana with a staff of four Assistants and five Political Agents, accredited in 1865 respectively to the courts of (1) Mewar (2) Jaipur (3) Marwar (4) Bharatpur and (5) Harauti. The jurisdiction of the Political Agent in Mewar extended over the States of Mewar or Udaipur, Pratapgarh, Dungarpur and Banswara. The Political Agent in Harauti was accredited to the courts of Bundi, Kota and Jhalawar and was also Superintendent of the Mina disticts of Mewar, Jaipur and Bundi commonly called the Mina Kharar. British relations with the States of Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Kishangarh, Karauli, Alwar, Tonk and Dholpur in 1865 were directly under the control of the Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana, but later on three more Political Agencies were created and their jurisdictions reclassified.

The first Assistant to the A. G G. was also Political Superintendent of Sirohi and Magistrate of Abu; the second Assistant held the office of Assistant General Superintendent for the suppression of Thagi and Dacoity in Rajasthan. The Commandant of the Mewar Bhil Corps stationed at Kherwara and the Second in Command of that Regiment detached at Kotra were ex-officio Assistants to the Political Agent in Mewar. The former was also Superintendent of the Mewar Hilly Tracts.

* Based on the fiist Annual Report on the Political Admimstiation of the Rajputana States for the year 1865-66 and 1866-67—pp. 9-12 and p-133


For the administration of the British districts of Ajmer-Merwara which were then under the government of the North-Western provinces there was a separate civil Commission consisting of one Deputy Commissioner, the First Assistant Commissioner, Ajmer, in charge of Treasury; the Second Assistant Commissioner, Beawar, one Cantonment Magistrate of Nasirabad, one Revenue Settlement Officer, one District Superintendent of Police and one Assistant Superintendent of Police. The Agent to the Governor-General was ex-officio Commissioner.

Power and Authority of the Chiefs

The Chiefs of Rajasthan exercised supreme civil and criminal jurisdiction within the limits of their respective States. Controlled by no law but that of custom, and restrained by no check except the moral influence and fear of the British Government, their powers for good or evil, were most absolute and extensive. That check was necessary to replace a stronger curb that previously existed. It was the fear of the nobles' estrangement and the possibility of people's rebellion which prevented the rulers in the abuse of despotic authority. But with the entering into treaty relations with the British Government when the rulers felt secure not only against external danger but against internal revolts by the nobles and the people, the British check on the absolute authority of the ruler in the form of moral influence and fear of political intervention became imperative.

Responsibilities of the Political Agent

The Political Agent had many onerous duties to perform. His responsibilities and functions in the cause of justice and good Government in the State to which he was accredited have often been under-rated and sometimes misunderstood, if not completely overlooked. Without authoritatively interfering, he had to advise and urge the Chief to reforms and progress. Without this advice there would have been little advancement, and perhaps retrogression would have taken its place. The Agent was the channel through which all oppressed persons could secure an audience or attention to their grievances. But in doing so he was


to be cautious and careful not to give any offence to the Chief who was sensitive and jealous of his prerogative and would have become inflexible if his pride of place was in anyway excited. At the same time, the Political Agent and the other British Officers were ever watchful to advance in a subtle way their own authority. Thus good temper, tact, patience and ability were required of a Political Agent, for without these qualities he would surely have failed in obtaining the cooperation of the State Government.

It was under these conditions-when the ruler exercised absolute power and authority within his State, the landed aristocracy was conservative and unprogressive and a feeling was prevalent among ihe Rajputs that learning and knowldge should be restricted to the Brahmins and Banias, and the Political Agent had to use discretion and caution in the offer of his advice to the Chief-that efforts for the introduction of modern education in Rajasthan were made

In the following pages an attempt has been made to trace the origin, growth and development of modern education in Rajasthan . In the absence of any systematic and regular information based on reliable statistical data, it is difficult to evaluate methodically the progress of education in the provision during the early British period. Nevertheless, in many former States of Rajasthan a net-work of elementary vernacular schools variously called 'Chatsha-las', 'Posals' 'Banikas', 'Pathshalas', 'Maktabs' etc . existed . This indigenous system, in spite of its inherent shortcomings and drawbacks, was free and useful as it served the puropose of the commercial and the priestly classes. Centres of advanced learning in the traditional disciplines of Sanskrit, Philosophy.Persian and Arabic were few. These were subsidised either by the religious organisations of the Hindus, Jains and the Muslims or by the munificent and enlightened rulers who were interested in the spread of education. But the feudal structure of society in which the offices were mostly hereditary stood in its way until the establishment of British Paramountcy.

With the advent of the British power, formal education received a new impetus, although some of the States were


economically not very viable. Thanks to the personal and persistent efforts and sustained interest of the British Residents and Political Agents^ tire seed of modern education was sown in the States.

After the failure of the early attempts to open modern schools in Ajmer-Merwara (1819-1831), a number of Government and State schools were brought into existence at Ajmer (1836), Jaipur (1844), Bharatpur (1858), Udaipur (1863), Kota (1867), Jodhpur (1969) and Bikaner (1885). In spite of inadequate resources and varying local conditions these schools later on developed into colleges leading to the establishment of the first University in Rajasthan at Jaipur in 1947.

Simultaneously the Missionaries also entered the field and added much to the spread of education in many directions. Official patronage was also extended to the Missions whenever and wherever possible. Later on some private agencies also came forward and contributed their share in the spread and development of modern educaton.

The British were also not indifferent to the education of the Chiefs, Initial steps were taken to educate the Princes, particularly during their minority, through the appointment of private tutors and preceptors. Sons of nobles also received formal education in schools specially established for them. To impart "a liberal and enlightened education" to the Princes on the suggestion of Colonel Walter, then Political Agent at Bharatpur, the well-known Chiefs' College, the Mayo College, was founded at Ajmer.

Professional and technical education also received attention. The first modern Medical College, although short-lived, was opened at Jaipur in September, 1861. The following first schools, Normal School for men at Ajmer (1864), Mission Girls' school at Nasirabad (1861), Government and State Girls' Schools at Pushkar, Jaipur, Udaipur and Bharatpur (1866), Normal School for women at Pushkar (1867), the School of Arts at Jaipur (1867), the Veterinary School at Ajmer (1894) and the Forest School at Kota (1946), were established.


Schools for the weaker sections of society were the growth entirely of the second half of the nineteenth century. The first institution for the upbringing arhckeducation of the European and Anglo-Indian children, the Lawrence Asylum, came into existence at Mt. Abu in 1854. Ten years later the door of education was thrown open to the depressed classes by the Christian missionaries at Nasirabad. Mewar was the only State to open a school for the Bhil boys at Jawar (1883) which was followed by the Presbyterian missionaries who opened the first Home for Bhil boys three years later. Another significant development was the establishment of the Moinia Islamia School in 1910 by the Mohammadan Association of Ajmer, although four primary Islamic Schools were already functioning under the control of the Dargah.

But despite the concerted efforts of official and non-official agencies, the growth of education in the entire province of Rajasthan was halting. At the beginning of the present century, "the condition of education throughout Rajpootana", observed F. L. Reid, the Inspector of Schools, Ajmer-Merwara, "is lamentably backward and admits of immense development."! The percentage of literacy in terms of school age reached 5% in 1905 as compared to 16.6% in British India. Only about 1.25 per cent of the total budget of all the States of Rajputana was spent on education in 1905 which reveals that the per capita educational facilities were very limited.

The progress of education since independence has been phenomenal. Out of 32,000 villages in Rajasthan 20,000 in 1971 possessed primary schools. All the 26 districts of the State had each a Degree College. Today, a student has not to travel for more then a mile and a half for elementary education and three miles for joining a Middle School These rapid strides towards consolidation and qualitative improvement in education have been reviewed in the succeeding chapters.

1. Foreign Progs. : Internal A, December. 1903, No. 58. 1. Foreign Progs. : Internal A, September, 1905, No. 99.

1. Indigenous Education in Rajasthan

Introduction

When the British arrived in India, they found here a fairly wide-spread but decaying system of indigenous education. Most villages had schools of some sort in which local boys of high castes received instruction in the rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Interesting information about this system of indigenous education is available from the detailed enquiries made in the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay during 1822 to 1838 by Munro, Elphinstone and William Adam respectively. In 1850-51 Henry Steward Reid, the Visitor-General of Schools in the North Western Provinces, prepared a detailed report on indigenous education in the eight selected districts of the N. W. P. All these reports throw a flood of light on the state of indigenous education in the three Presidencies and in N. W. P. and form the most valuable and indispensable source material for a clear and definite picture of indigenous education as it was in vogue in those days.i

Our scanty source material

Unfortunately we have no such valuable reports on indigenous education in Rajasthan. Our sources are three-fold. The first is periodical reports submitted by Government officers between 1855 and 1867. The earliest of these is the Report by Dr. Buch, the Principal of the Ajmer School, which refers to the village schools in the district of Ajmer only in 1855, but which may be taken as

1. Numl lah&Naik : History of Education in India (1951), pp. 115-131.

Indigenous Education in Rajasthan 17

describing the general condition of indigenous education in the whole of Rajasthan. In 1863, E. I. Howard, Director of Public Instruction, Bombay, visited some districts of Western Rajasthan and submitted a Memoir of his tour containing some reflections on the state of indigenous education. As this Memoir was very sketchy, the Government of India directed, in June 1863, the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana to submit a report on the prevailing condition of education in the States of Rajasthan and British districts within his Agency. This report (1864) is the first authentic and reliable piece of information on education and from it we get some glimpses of indigenous education in Rajasthan. Three years later in 1867, the A. G. G. submitted to the Government of India the first annual Report on the Political Administration of Rajputana States. This and the subsequent annual reports casually refer to the state of indigenous education in Rajasthan.

Our second source is the Gazetteers published from time to time such as those by Thornton, La Touche, Hunter, Powlett, Walter, Watson, and Erskine. But they are mostly repetitions of the annual reports and no new information is given in them. Their only advantage is that they give consolidated and compact information for different years in one place.

The third source is the series of Medico-topographical accounts by medical surgeons such as Hendley, Pank, Neilson, Adams, and Shore. They too are mostly reproductions of the earlier annual reports or the Gazetteers. No other source of information, local or foreign, is available mainly because nobody ever cared to write anything about the indigenous system of education in Rajasthan. Even the foreign travellers who visited this province in the nineteeeth centnry such as Bishop Heber (1824-25) Boileau (1831-32), Jacquemont (1832), or Minturn (1857) are silent on this point. Because of this paucity and meagre nature of the documentary sources we had to fall back upon oral testimony, even though it is not a very reliable source. Thus the present chapter is based on both documentary and oral sources.


INDIGENOUS SCHOOLS

Scope

Indigenous schools may be defined as educational institutions established and conducted by the people of the country on old traditional methods and included Hindu Chatshalas and Muslim Maktabs. Under this title could, therefore, be included ( i ) those schools which were maintained by private parties for the education of their own childern, other boys being allowed to attend on paying tuition fees to the teacher; and (ii) those which were kept by the teacher on his own account, his livelihood being dependent on the schooling fees paid by his scholars, or it might be, that he regarded the instruction of youth as a sacred obligation, and taught gratuitously, either maintaining himself from his own private means, or subsisting on alms and charity.1 Thus a school was supposed to exist wherever a teacher was entertained, the teacher being paid either by the masters of the house, or by his pupils, or partly by both, or where the teacher opened a school as a 'speculation', as a means of livelihood, or where, as was specially the case with most of the Quran and Sanskrit schools, an individual, with leisure at his command, believing that to impart instruction to the growing youth around him was an imperative duty, collected as many pupils as would place themselves under his care.2 From this description it JS clear that the term 'school' had not acquired the same precise meaning in the beginning of the nineteenth century as it has to-day. It could then mean any place of instruction having ' a knot of boys sitting in a verandah around an aged Brahmin, who taught them to cast up figures and read the Shastras'.s

Kinds

The indigenous educational institutions in Rajasthan were mainly of two kinds : (i) those dealing with elementary education

1. Reid, H. S. : Report on the State of Popular Education in the N. W. P. for 1859-60, paragraph 141.

2. Reid, H. S. : Report on Indigenous Education (1852), p. 13. 3. RAR : Eastern Rajputana States Report 1885-86, p. 145 para, 32.


and (ii) those concerning higher education. To the former category belonged the Hindu Chatshalas and Posals and Muslim Maktabs while to the latter belonged the Hindu Pathshalas and Muslim Madrasas. The Jain Upasaras belonged to both the categories depending on what type of education was imparted in them.

I. Elementary Schools

Housing

There was no fixed house which was exclusively used for instructional purposes. In Bikaner, education was imparted either in temples, Jain Upasaras (monasteries) or Pathshalas whereas in Sirohi the knowledge of the three R's was imparted to the local boys even 'on the steps of the village temple'.i In Udaipur "knots of boys could be seen shouting their lessons in the larger shops under, the superintendence of the shopkeeper,"2 while in village Ramsur in Ajmer district 'the school was held in an open verandah facing one side of the Thannah Court'.3 The Brahmins generally, though not always, taught in their own houses, sometimes (as at Deogong and Joora in Ajmer district) there was a raised platform in front of the house where the young scholars sat. This platform was in the open air, but in the rainy season the scholars were taught indoors. The other places where instruction was given were the private dwellings or havelis of big Seths, the house of teachers and even the shops or sheds of shopkeepers, and artisans such as painters, sculptors and grocers, etc.

Continuity

Because of the very nature of these 'schools' there could not ordinarily be any continuity in their existence, for they were

1. RAR : Soojangurh Agency Report, 1869-70, p. 182, para. 49. RAR : Sirohi Superintendency Report, 1865-67, p. 337, para 24.

2. Foreign Gen. A Cons. July, 1864, Nos. 10-18. (Mewar Pol. Agent's Report, para. 6).

3. Dr. Buch : Report on village schools in Ajmer District, para. 5. (Home Public Progs : 12 Dec, 1856, No. 64, para 5.


mostly private ventures—-sprouting and disappearing according to local needs.1 A school in a village was not always the concern of the whole village community, but was essentially a private affair when the childern of a wealthy Seth or a businessman were given some instruction. As soon as they grew up, or picked up some working knowledge of accounts, or were married, they were sent (to their parents' distant houses of business to take part in the mercantile operation. This often resulted in the closure of the 'school' in one mohalla and its reopening in another locality or even in another village. The teacher was thus free to close the school and go elsewhere. There was, therefore, no guarantee of continuity of the school in a particular place. But this held good in the case of schools which were kept by the Jatis whereas "the Hindee schools kept by Brahmins, are generally speaking, a permanent character. The teacher remains in the village where he has taken up his abode, unless indeed all means of support fail".2

The Teachers of the Elementary Schools

Castes

Although most of the teachers were Brahmins, there were others who belonged to different castes such as Jain Jatis, Mahatmas,

1. Referring to schools in Bhinai paragana of Ajmer distrtct, Dr. Buch in his report (1855) states : "The schools conducted by the Juttees (or Muhatanee) are generally open only for a few months in the year. The teachers receiving no fixed salary but being supported by contributions, chiefly in kind, generally had a wandering life; they teach for a few months in one village ti l l , as the parents say, the education of their children is finished i. e. ti l l they have learned a little of the Multiplication Table and then proceed to some other place. Schools thus spring up rapidily, and as rapidily disappear."

Home Public Progs. 12 Dec, 1856, No. 64, para. 19. "Another consequence of the wandering life of the Juttees is that many of their schools are shut up for some months in the year, either the Juttee has to go on a pilgrimage or the boys have to assist their parents at their agricultural pursuit. The school is closed, the teacher disappears and returns after some four or five months." Ibid, para. 38.

2. Dr. Buch. op. cit. para. 37.


Gosains, Chhipa etc.1 There were some schools where the scholars and the teachers belonged to the same caste, and yet others which were conducted for the use of pupils of one community only e. g. Oswals, Pushkarnas, Pancholis, or Malis, although their teachers belonged to different castes. It was perhaps the idea of some 'respectability or reverence' attached to the job of teaching which attracted the Brahmins towards it. But in Sirohi, Jaisalmer and Bikaner teaching was "confined almost entirely to the priests of the Jain pursuasion who are termed Jutties."2 Even in Ajmer and Shahpura there were 13 Jati teachers in 1845-46.

Qualifications.

The teachers who taught in the elementary schools (Chat-shalas) were required to teach the rudiments of the three R's. Knowledge of the multiplication tables in their complicated gradation or series formed the essential background of every teacher. Besides, they were supposed to have a good handwriting and ability to read simple writing which thus embraced the minimum attainments of a common school teacher. It is not, therefore, surprising to find teachers who 'were ignorant and who, so far as knowledge from books was concerned, had as much to learn as the boys themselves."3 And as the elementary school masters were mostly drawn from the ordinary stock of instructed men, it was quite possible for the people of other castes, besides the Brahmins, to take to the teaching profession.

Remunerations

The teachers in general were poorly paid. In the path-shalas in Bikaner. the school fees amounted to six maunds of Bajra and eight rupees cash for the whole period. But some of the wealthy Seths paid in the shape of an additional present of rupees

1. Ibid : Para. 13 and 14 2. RAR : Sirohi Superintendency Report, 1865-67, p. 337, para. 24. 3. About the Joonru Hindu School teacher Dr. Buch writes : "The teacher

himself is a most ignorant man, and wholly unfit for the task he has undertaken". Dr. Buch op. cit. para 14.


one hundred.1 But in Ajmer district there was no provision for the regular support of the Brahmin teachers. "They had either to beg or they received presents from their scholars either in mony or in kind."2 Admission fee in the form of presents were paid to the teachers, and, frequently, on leaving the school, pupils gave a parting present in money according to their means. Many of the teachers were paid a monthly salary which ranged from one anna to five rupees according to the status of the pupil. From Political Agent Col. Brooke's account we learn that the lowest fee in Jaipur in 1864 was'onc anna and the highest rupees two and a half a month,* but Captain Hamilton, the Political Agent at Alwar, tells us that the highest fee in that State was Rs 5/- a month.* In some schools when the scholar had learnt a whole Patti' and had certified the fact to his parents by repeating it before them, a fee of two annas was paid to the teacher. The multiplication table in use contained eight 'Pattis' which would give the teacher one rupee. This is what later on came to be known as 'payment by results'. On the Ekadashi or 11th of both the bright and dark half (Sudi and Budi) of every month, each pupil paid in from one 'Adhela' (half pice) to a pice. The teacher was also given 'Sidha', that is, raw food consisting of flour, pulse (dal), salt and ghee. At times in lieu of these regular contributions, the value of the food at the rate of one rupee per mensem was given. In some villages when harvest was cut and deposited in granaries, the school master was also paid a share varying from two and a half to ten seers.s Some Seths and other rich persons gave the teacher a woolen dress and a blanket in the cold season. This was known as 'Jarrawal' or that which could save him from the rigours of Jarra or cold.

1. RAR : Soojangurh Agency Report, 1869-70, p. 182, para. 49. 2. Dr. Buch : op. cit. para. 37. 3. Foreign Gen. A Progs : July, 1864, IMos. 10-18, para 17. 4. Foreign Gen. A Progs : Alwar Pol. Agent's report. 5. "The school master came to be considered as a necessary and important

part of the village community as the Patel, the Putwarry and others." Dr. Buch : para 42.


The Scholars of the Elcmeiitary Schools

Castes

Except of the depressed or the low castes, boys of all castes and communities of Hindu society could be admitted to the common elementary school. In practice, however, the children of Brahmins and Banias mostly joined the schools. In his report about Jodhpur Major Nixon, the Political Agent, says that "nearly all the children of the priestly and trading classes are instructed in the roots of learning, viz., reading, writing and arithmetic... The children of the Thakoors or petty Chiefs are nearly all taught to read and cypher in their youth" The children of the poorer classes of the population such as "Koowars (Koomhars ?), Mallies, (Malis) Koonhees (Uunbis ?)" were also taught. But the children of the outcast classes such as "Dhers, Mehturs etc. were strictly excluded from participation in the benefits of education."!

Captain Hamilton writing about Alwar says that "the 1371 boys receiving education in these self supporting schools consist for the most part of Brahmins and Bunyas, a few Rajpoots and Mohomedans." In his report about the village schools of Ajmer district Dr. Buch writes that out of the 45 boys of the Sreenuggur school 'only 7 of them are Brahmins the rest are chiefly Bunya, Chhipas and others.' Again out of the 56 boys of the Ramsur School "about 20 were Bunyas, the others were the sons of Brahmins, Mussulmans, Kaeths (Kayasthas), Rajputs and other castes."2 Thus the facts and figures given in the various reports reveal that the majority of the scholars came either from the Brahmins and Banias or from the other so-called high castes.

Age

The reports of the Political Agents are silent about the age of the scholars at the schools. But Dr. Buch tells us that in the schools he visited in the four parganas of Ajmer district in 1855

1 . Foreign Gen. A, July, 1864 Nos. 10-18, para 4. 2. Dr. Buch : op. cit. paras. 4 and 5.


the age of the scholars varied 'from about 6 to 15 years but the majority were boys of about 7 or 8 years of age'.1

The ceremony observed at their first going to school

The ceremony observed on the scholar's first going to the school was very elaborate-particularly when he happened to be the son of a rich person. The place selected for the occasion was cleaned with great care and purified with Mantras and charms. The usual paraphernalia were Sariva (earthen pot), flower garland, a clod of yellow earth (Pindol), red and yellow thread (moli), red powder (roli), a few grains of rice, a cocoanut, sweetmeats, a ration of raw food (Sidha) and a small amount of money to be given to the Brahmin in dakhshina. The clod of Pindol represented Ganesh-the god of learning. Offerings were made to the nine planets (Navgraha) and the sixteen female deities-. (Matrikas) and goddess Lakshmi and Saraswati were worshipped. The word 'Shri' was then written on the 'Patti' (wooden writing board). Thereafter some drops of water were swallowed (Ach-man Kriya) both by the teacher and the pupil followed by the prayer in Sanskrit (Sankalpa) and the distribution of money among the Brahmins present. The boy then tied on the Guru's wrist the coloured thread (moli) and the Pandit did the same for the boy. Then the 'Patti' and 'Lekhni' (pen) were worshipped, where after the Guru taking the boy's hand in his own.wrote first 'Shri' and then 'Om Namah Siddham'. Thus completed the initiation ceremony and the boy was dismissed.

Life at School

Duration of their stay

The reports give us little information about the life of the scholars led or the duration for which they stayed in the schools, but from Dr. Buch's report it is gleaned that many of the boys joined the school only for a few months, although some others

1. In ancient India the age at which boys started their education was five years.


had read longer. About the Srinagar (Ajmer district) school he writes, "The boys of the Bynnya caste generally leave the school soonest; the Brahmins stay longer. The school is open throughout the year except on the great Hindu festivals. The boys come at 7-o'clock A. M and read till 10; they then go home and come again about 2-o' clock P. M. when they read till 5 or 6 P. M." Similarly about Kekri school he writes, "Many attend only for two or three months; others stay longer but the number of those who remain long enough to learn a little reading is very small " (Report : para. 13) Thus the number of years for which the scholars had to attend the school varied with the nature of the school and of the studies pursued."

Holidays

The scholars were given eight holidays every month namely the two Pratipadas, the two Ashthamis, the two Chaturdashis, the Purnima and the Amavashya which would correspond to the first, eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, twentythird, twentyninth and the thirtieth day of the lunar month. It was popularly believed that the eighth day of the month was hurtful to the teacher, the fourteenth to the scholar, the Amavashya was harmful to both, while knowledge acquired on the first day was soon forgotten. This belief is apparent from the following Shloka :

In addition to the above regular holidays there were the five annual festivals namely Dipmalika, Basant Panchmi, Holi, Shravani or Saluno and Dashera which were strictly observed.

Punishments

While inflicting punishments on the scholar the teacher was mainly guided by the idea of deterring the offender from further misbehaviour rather than reforming or improving the culprit. The result was that the guilty boy was pitilessly exposed to the ridicule of his companions, and, to achieve this object, severe, and often

26 Modern Education in Rajasthgn

cruel, and sometimes barbaric punishments were given. The ears were generally selected for punishment of different forms some of which were :

1. 'Kanon bich sir karna' according to which a boy was made to sit down and thrust his hands under his legs and retain hold of his ears.

2. 'Gatti rakhna' according to which the boy was made to bend down, and pebbles were placed on the back of each hand and on the back. Should any of the pebbles drop off, the boy was switched. Often he had to slap his own face.

3. Sometimes the teacher took a piece of 'Kankar' (a pebble) in each hand and pressed the upper part of the boy's car between the pebble and his finger.

4. Quite often the boy's hands were tied behind his neck and his back loaded with all the 'Pattis' (writing boards) of the school. This form of punishment was termed 'Pattiyala'.

5. For late coming the teacher slapped the offenders. This was known as 'Chanta marna.' Twigs of 'Neem' or peach tree were used for switching.

These forms of punishments were generally so severe or degrading in nature that the teacher never dared inflict them on the children of his more influential patrons, who often escaped punishment.

As far as rewards were concerned, the poor teachers could hardly afford to give anything out of their petty income, there being no other source of expenditure for rewards. But parents could and frequently did give some rewards to their children on their attaining a certain proficiency and to encourage them for further progress in studies.

The Course of Instruction in The Elementary Schools

The elementary indigenous schools in Rajasthan in- the nineteenth century mostly taught the rudiments of the three R's. This course was in keeping with the ordinary attainments of the average elementary teacher and the need of the average scholar. Lawrence,


the A. G. G , writing about the elementary schools in Rajasthan in 1863 says, "In most of the larger towns, -where its necessity is felt, individuals have gathered round them small numbers of boys, who receive generally a very elementary education, in most parts just enough to allow of the Brahmins reading the Shasters and of the mercantile classes carrying on their different avocations; while in the villages and country-towns boys are taught by the village priests and jutties."1

In his report Dr. Buch has classified the elementary schools into two categories, (i) Hindi-Sanskrit and (ii) Hindi schools but in so classifying them he had in mind not so much a difference in studies as a difference in the teaching. Accordingly he divided them into those kept by the Brahmins, and others kept by the Jutties. In most of the former schools Sanskrit was taught in addition to Hindi, but the amount of information imparted through the medium of Sanskrit was very small. Moreover, as the larger portion of the students attending such schools was learning Hindi, they partook more of the character of Hindi schools. The schools kept by the 'Jutties', on the other hand, were purely Hindi as a rule and were decidedly inferior to those kept by the Brahmins. In all those schools which Dr. Buch visited and where the teacher was a Jatti "nothing is taught but the multiplication table and a little spelling " (para-38)

The procedure adopted for instructing the scholars was the teaching of vowels and consonants, followed by 'Barah Khari' (corrupted from Barah Akhshari i.e., the twelve letters) and then 'Siddho Ki Patti' which the boy had to copy out. After studying the^e the boy commenced Arithmetic on numeration. Then Patti Pahara i.e., multiplication tables were learnt by heart. Calculation was learnt by means of shells (Kauris) and pebbles. The scholar was also taught short and convenient rules for reducing annas, pies etc. into rupees. He had also to cram by heart formulae know as 'Guru'.

Thus the Hindi course taught in those schools was of an elementary nature. The books read were "Balbodh, Dhurum-

1. Foreign Gen. A July, 1864, Nos, 10-18, para, 11.


sindhu, Ram Sum Das's books, Achar Dipika, Ganit Prakash etc." But before 1851 there were no books in use mainly because the language learnt was Marwari which contained no printed books. Hence in most parts of the province "a knowledge of the multiplication table was thought to be all that was required in the way of learning."

In Bikaner the 'Banika' accounts formed the main basis of education whereas in Udaipur "the traders picked up a hereditary smattering of writing and arithmetic sufficient to enable them to carry on their transactions."1 Similarly in Jodhpur "nearly all the children of the priestly and trading classes are instructed in the roots of learning viz. reading, writing and arithmetic. The preceptor has occasionally a few written class books, but instruction is commonly imparted viva voce, and is of a most primitive kind."2 About Jaipur Brooke writes, "Private schools as in other parts of India, exist in almost every village; but the education given is generally of the most elementary kind."3 No better or higher type of education was given in Harauti, for Beynon refers to "several schools containing 40 or 50 pupils which are supported by private individuals, each having a pundit, who teaches the most elementary branches, such as reading, writing and arithmetic, sufficient for carrying on the common routine of a banking or commercial establishment or enough for a trader to be able to carry on his business and keep his accounts, which is the extent of the education a Native generally considers sufficient for all practical purposes."4

The object of the village student in learning Sanskrit was generally to acquire that amount of Sanskrit lore which would enable him to act his part as Pandit to perform religious ceremonies. The books commonly read were "Susti Bhajum (Svasti Vachan) Shigebodh (Shighrabodh), Suruson Muhimum (Shri Mahimmah Stotra), Rudree and perhaps one or two others."5 At

1. Eden's Report, para. 3. 2. Nixon's Report, para. 2. 3. Brooke's Report, para. 18. 4. Beynon's i eport, para. 3. 5. Dr. Buch's Report, para. 37.


the Upasaras or Jain monasteries Sanskrit was studied, and in one that Capt. Powlett entered in Bikaner State he found the priest "teaching geography from a curious map, which showed the concentric oceans and continents, lakhs of coss across, and history to match."1 To sum up, in the indigenous Hindi schools, supported by the people, no books were used. The course of instruction comprised reading, writing and numeration, the Multiplication Table and very rarely the four elementaiy rules of Arithmetic. In most of the schools the method of keeping Bania's or Mahajan's accounts (known as Banika account) formed part of the course.

II Schools Of Higher Learning

The schools of higher learning "were conducted almost exclusively by Brahmins and a very large majority of the students attending them was Brahmins". Such schools may in some respects correspond to modern colleges. They imparted the highest type of education which, iu those days, meant religious education. The sons of Pandits who were destined to succeed to their father's 'practice' (Yajmani) and those who aspired to higher learning and knowledge of Sanskrit language and literature received their elementary education not in the common schools but at their homes under the direct care and supervision of their father, uncle, brother or near relative. The pupils of the common schools, in most cases, did not go for higher learning "When they left schools, they entered into life straightway." Thus the two types of schools, elementary and higher, seemed to exist independently of each other.

Courses of Study

All those who aspired for higher learning commenced their studies of Sanskrit when they were seven or eight years old. After learning the Devnagri alphabet, they read the Amarkosh, learning it by heart, without understanding the meaning. Next they took up the 'Saraswat', a Sanskrit work on Grammar, half of which was learnt by heart. Thus the students' memory alone was exercised

1. RAR : Soojangurh Agency Report (1869-70), p. 182, para. 50.


for the first two and half or three years. The student again read the 'Saraswat', this time the teacher explaining the text. Thus the book was mastered in a year and a half. If the scholar wanted to have a sound knowledge of Sanskrit Grammar, he studied the Chandrika or Siddhanta Kaumudi. Sometimes instead of 'Saraswat', Laghukaumudi was read. Then some work of literature such as Raghuvamsha or Shishupala'vadh of Magh was to be studied. The Puranas and the Bhagwat were also read.1

The above comprised the ordinary "course" which every good Sanskrit scholar was expected to go through. But if he wished to study any particular branch of learning, such as Grammar, Logic or Law, he had to study the relevant works. Thus if he aspired to become a good grammarian, he had to study the 'Manorama' 'Shabdendu', 'Shekhar', 'Kaustubh' etc. If he was ambitious of becoming a good logician, he had to study the 'Tarka Sangraha', 'Tarka Dipika' etc. If he was interested in the study of Sanskrit literature, he had probably to read the 'Kirartarjuniyam', 'Naishadhcharit', 'Sahitya Darpan' etc. To acquire a knowledge of Hindu Law, he had to study 'Manusamhita' and Mitakshara while for a knowledge of medicine 'Nidan', 'Nighantu' 'Sharangdhar Samhita' etc. were considered standard authorities.

III. Schools of Muslim Education

Like the Hindu schools, Muslim schools were also divided into two categories-the elemantary Maktabs and the advanced Madrasas. Wherever there was a sizeable number of Mohamma-dan inhabitants, Maktabs in general and Madrasas in special cases sprang up. Dr. Buch refers to the anxiety not only of 'a number of Mussulman Families and several Kaeths, chiefly Government servants, but the Patel, Putwaree, and some of the principal Bunneahs" of Kekri in Ajmer district who were "anxious to have their children instructed in Oordoo". (para. 15) Thus Ajmer, Jaipur Alwar, Bharatpur, Kota, Patan and Tonk had hundreds of indigenous schools where, besides Urdu, Persian and

1. The Report on Public Instruction in Jaipur for 1895 says, "The books generally in use in these schools are Amarkosh, Sarswat and Chandrika, Raghuvamsha, Sighrabodh and Bhagwat." P. 25,


Arabic were taught. Persian was the court language during the time of the Mughals and it remained so even during the British rule till more than a decade after the mutiny. The importance of Persian as the language of Muslim culture and society was undisputed. Similarly some knowledge of Arabic was considered indispensable for every Muslim-particularly educated Muslim-to read the Quran which was written in that language. Naturally therefore, Persian, and to some extent Arabic, formed the basis of instruction in those schools which were attended chiefly by Muslim students. Even the elementary instruction in these separate schools was acquired through Persian and they were, therefore, called 'Persian schools.'

Housing

Like the indigenous Hindi Chatshalas and Sanskrit Pathshalas the Persian Maktabs and Arabic Madrasas were also held in the houses of well-to-do persons who entertained a teacher for their own children. If his 'employer' did not object, the teacher usually collected for instruction children of the neighbours and friends of the master of the house. The other places where these schools were held were the mosque, the teacher's own house, a Bania or a Patwari's house, or even a Chabutara (platform) or a part of a house hired for the purpose.

Teachers

The Persian teacher was generally better paid than the Hindi school teacher. He was paid solely by the master of the house, who often entertained him as a 'domestic tutor'. His monthly payments were in the form of regular salary or of settled tuition fees, or presents bestowed on festivals and holidays. - His monthly fees varied at the lowest ladder from 2 to 4 anna rising to Rs. 4/-a month. He also received admission fees in the shape of presents, as also the parting present in money according to the status of the scholar. Some taught on the contract system—the rate varying from 2 to 5 rupees 'a head'. Fees were also given on the marriage of a pupil which were termed 'Rasum-i-Shadi' and

32 Modern Education in Rajas than

also on the commencement of a new work, or branch of study. The fee in this case was termed 'Aghazi'. Like the Hindi teacher he was also given a warm dress and a coverlet in the cold season which was known as 'Sarmai'.

Most of the Persian teachers were Musalmans, but in a few cases Kayasthas, Brahmans, Banias and rarely even some Rajputs also taught Persian. The age of the Persian teacher ranged from 20 upto 70 years .

Scholars

Most of the scholars attending the Persian, and a very great majority of those reading in the Arabic schools, were Mohamma-dans, but Brahmans, Kayasthas, Banias and Rajputs too read in them. The age of scholars in them was five years to thirty and above and their length of attendance three months to a number of years.

Courses

Learning the letters of alphabet by constant practice was the method of initial instruction in these schools followed by 'Khalik-bari' and 'Karima' and later on 'Gulistan and Bostan'. Then epistolary compositions such as 'Insha-i-Madhoram' with some poem as 'Yusuf and Zulekha' formed part of the subsequent studies. Supposing the student to have entered the school when he was seven years old, he would now be about twelve or thirteen years old and would then read 'Bahar-i-Danish' in prose and the 'Sikandarnamah,' in verse. These works kept him for two years more in the school when his education was considered to be finished. If he desired to continue his studies further, he could enter the Arabic schools, many of which were of an advanced standard.

Holidays

In Persian schools Friday was observed as a full and Thurday as a half-holiday. But in the Arabic schools Tuesday was taken as the weekly holiday. In addition to these regular holidays, certain annual holidays were also observed- These were the three great


Muslim festivals, namely, Id-ul-Fitr, Id-ul-Zuha and Shab-i-barat. The teachers on these festivals composed verses, a copy of which was presented to the parents of their scholars, who in return gave a small present. The set of these verses was called "Idi" and composed expressly for both Hindu and Musalaman festivals: Thus whereas the Idi Ramzan and Idi Shab-i-barat were composed, the Idi Dashera and Idi Basant were composed just like the Idi Ramzan and Idi Shabi barat.

Punishments

Practically the same punishments as were given in the Hindi schools were inflicted in Persian and Arabic schools also, with the usual exceptions of the sons of the rich and influential patrons. These chastisements were generally known as 'Goshmali'.

IV. Equipment in the Indigenous Schools

In the indigenous schools slates were practically unknown, but writing boards called 'Takhti' in Persian and 'Patti' in Hindi' schools were universally used. They were generally 18 inches long by 9 inches broad and were made of neem or seesum wood. Instead of a Qalam or pen the beginners used the 'batti' (barta i. e. slate pencil) which resembled a drawing chalk, being made of white earth pounded and mixed up with water and rolled between the hands into the proper shape and dried for use. Writing on the ground covered with sand was also common The pen used in village schools was a reed 'sentha' or 'Necha' from which Morahs (reed chairs) are made. Writing fluid was manufactured from Pindol diluted in water. Referring to the indigenous schools in Jodhpur, Nixon writes, "A painted board is furnished to the student which he uses as a slate and writes his lesson with a reed pen and a little charcol and water for ink; the letters are written on the board by the teacher, and their names explained to the pupil, who tries to imitate their shape with . his pen, so that the acquirement of reading and writing may proceed simultaneous-ly.l'l Inkstand was made of earthen-ware, or brass, or copper and was termed "Bholka Bhollua", "Buddhika" and "Kulika" in

1. Foreign Gen. A July, 1864, Nos. 10-18, para. 2.


Hindi schools and "Dawat" in Persian ones. In the latter, pupils often used a 'Qalamdan' which contained the inkstand, pens and a knife. Such an elaborate apparatus was unknown in the Hindi schools.

V—Some Characteristic Features of the Indigenous Schools

The total absence of printed books and the very rare use of manuscripts was one of the distinguishing features of the indigenous schools. Their equipment was very simple, and they had no buildings of their own. There were no classes, no regular periods of work, no particular time of admission. "A pupil joined the school at any time, became a class by himself, followed his own pace of study, and left the school when he had acquired all that he desired to know or the school had to teach."l Accordingly pupils of different attainments and progress could sit together and study There were no regular examinations, no award of marks, and no issue of certificates to the 'Passed' candidates. The teacher was the best judge as to when the scholar should begin the higher course. Consequently the student of yore had not to suffer any worry of reading the lesson to appear in a public examination. Another very distinguishing and notable feature of the indigenous school was that the senior . student had to teach those who were junior to him in attainments. Although this feature was in vogue all over India, its prevalence in Madras attracted the attention of Dr. Bell, the Presidency Chaplain, who introduced it in England as^a cheap and efficient method of educating the poor.

VI—The Extent of Indigenous Educaton in Rajasthan

From a perusal of the report of Dr. Euch, Principal of the Ajmer School, of his tour of inspection of village schools in the four Paraganas of Ajmer district in 18552, of the Memoir of E . I . Howard, Director of Public Instruction, Bombay, of his tour in

1. Nurullah & Naik : History of Education in India, p. 40. 2. Home Public Progs : 12th December, 1856, No. 64.


Western States of Rajputana in 1963,1 and of the various Political Agents in the States of Rajputana (1864),2 it is quite evident that the extent of indigenous education in Rajasthan was considerble. Writing of Mewar Eden says, "Five or six parents would combine to make up the pay of a Brahmin teacher to ten or twelve rupees a month more or less and reading, writing, and account-keeping would have thus be imparted."3 About Jodhpur Nixon tells us that there were 94 schools with 2426 scholars in them,4 while Brooke informs us that in Jaipur city itself there were 110 indigenous schools with 2598 pupils on roll.5 According to Beynon there were in all the three Capitals of Harauti (Kota, Bundi and Jhalawar) several schools supported by private individuals. Similar schools existed "in most towns and in many villages throughout Harowttee."6 In Bharatpur there where a number of small schools kept by private individuals in which Hindi and Persian were taught.7 Hamilton informs us that in Alwar there were 101 schools (Persian 31, Sanskrit or Nagri 28, and Hindi or Shroffy 42, total 101) with 1371 boys in them.s In Sirohi there were 38 schools with 610 scholars.9 In the district of Ajmer there were 99 indigenous schools with 1434 pupils and in Merwara 14 schools with 272 pupils.io These figures amply prove the contention of the Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana that "private schools exist in all the Native States in which Hindi and Persian are taught by individuals for a small remuneration."1 *

1. Foreign Gen. A Progs. : May, 1863, Nos. 61-62.

2. Foreign Genl. A. Cons : July, 1864, Nos. 10-18.

Home Education Progs. : 13 th July, 1864, No. 12 B.

3. Foreign Genl. A. July, 1864, Nos. 10-18.

4. Nixon's Report: para. 14 )

5. Brooke's Report: para. 17 ) 6. Beynon's Report: para. 3 ) Foreign Genl. A : July 1864, 7. Walter's Report : para. 25 ) Nos, 10-18. 8. Hamilton's Report : para, 31 ) 9. Black's Report: para. 2 )

10. Davidson's Report: para. 7 )

11. Lawrence's Report: para. 4 : Foreign Genl. A. July, 1864, Now, 10-18.


VII—A Critical Review of the Indigenous Education in Rajasthan

The foregoing account of the nature and extent of the indigenous system of education in Rajasthan raises a few questions which deserve earnest consideration : could not the modern educational system in Rajasthan be bulit upon the foundations of the indigenous system ? Could it not be revitalised to become a base for a better and improved educational structure ? It is true that the system of indigenous education in Rajasthan had its own shortcomings such as-'the want of a literature to expand the scholars' ideas" (Nixon) "the conservative tendencies of the Hindoo mind" (Nixon) "the feudal apathy towards education" (Howard) and the reluctance of the people to take advantage of the existing educational facilities. But with all these drawbacks the indigenous system of education in many of the States provided elementary education which enabled the Brahmins to read Ihe Shastras and the mercantile classes to carry on their avocations.1 Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh, the founder of Jaipur, had appointed a Special Officer to superintend the indigenous schools, This post continued till about 1813 and according to Col. Brooke, Political Agent at Jaipur, "it kept the moral preception of the country alive to the advantages of education."2 It is because of the continuity of this tradition that more than 500 iudigenous schools existed all .over Rajasthan in 1864 side by side with modern schools.s Even Adam, Munro, Elphinstone, Wood and Hunter strongly advocated the retention and improvement of the indigenous education.* But their proposals went unheeded and in the British administered provinces "the officials of the Education Department" in the words of Nurullah and Naik, "allowed the indigenous system to die and spent their time and energy in creating a new system of education, ab initio^ The same story, was repeated in Rajasthan also where the elementary schools of the indigenous type gradually disappeared.

1. Lawrence's Report: para. 11 : Foreign Genl. A. July, 1864, Nos. 10-18. 2. Brooke's Report: para. 2 Foreign Genl. A. July, 1864, Nos. 10-18. 3. Brooke's Report: para. 2 Foreign Genl. A. July, 1864, Nos. 10-18. 4. Nurullah & Naik ; History of Education in Indict (1951), Chap. I 5. Nurullah and Naik : Op. cit. p. 49.

2. Beginnings of Modern Education

In Rajasthan (Upto 1870) The credit for introducing modern* education in Rajasthan goes primarily to the British Government and secondarily to the Christian missionaries The private agencies came in the field much later when the system had taken deep roots and scores of Government1 and Missionary educational institutions had been established in different parts of Rajasthan.

I. Early Efforts

Ajmer-Merwara

The earliest British efforts for the introduction of modern education in Rajasthan date from 1819. It was in July, 1818 that the British acquired Ajmer-Merwara from Daulat Rao Sindhia. Naturally this district became the first field of British educational endeavour. Lord Hastings was then the Governor-GeneraJ of

1. The word 'modern'in preference to the other two wo ds 'English' and 'Western' seems to be appropriate. It is true that after Macaulay's Minute of 1835, English became the medium of instruction in Indian schools and colleges, but Indian languages were not completely neglected. In fact, both Wood's Despatch (1854) and the Hunter Commission Report (1884) laid emphasis on the importance of a proper study of Indian languages in any system of education to be adopted in India, It is, therefore, not proper to call the education given in India in the nineteenth century as "English" when part of the old educational system was also linked with it. Secondly, before the advent of the East India Company, and even thereafter, the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Danish, German, Scottish, Irish, Canadian and the American missionaries had set up their respective educational institutions in India. Thus,

(Contd.)


India. During his country-wide tours a few years before he had heard much about Rajputana and had formed a high opinion

(Contd.) the word "English" in reference to educational development in India appears to be misleading, particularly when so many 'non-English' foreign missionaries had also contributed their quota in the introduction, growth and development of Indian education.

The use of the word "Western" also is not very appropriate, for it excludes the role our indigenous educational system had played in the nineteenth century. Moreover, the Canadian and the American Missions were, strictly speaking, not territorially'Western.' Hence the choice of the term 'Western' in relation to education could also not be very accurate-specially when Indian philosophy and thought had formed part of the curriculum and the Canadian and the American missionaries were not territorially 'Western.'

The word "modern", on the other hand, includes Indian philosophy and thought as well as Western knowledge of sciences and English educational system. The greatest claim of Indian education in the nineteenth century to be called 'modern' is its distinctive features which differentiate it from the old and the traditional system that was in vogue in the country and is commonly termed 'indigenous' education. The exclusive use of certain buildings for 'school' purposes, the introduction of printed books and teaching aids, grouping together of pupils in different 'classes' according to their educational progress, division of the daily educational work in a number of 'periods' of fixed duration, introduction of a 'time-table' according to which different subjects wore regularly taught in the various periods, periodical assessment of pupils' progress through monthly, terminal and annual examinations, regular promotion of pupils from the lower to the higher classes, periodical 'inspection' of the school by the authorities, maintenance of proper registers for entering pupils' names, attendance and educational attainments such as the marks obtained in the various examinations, training of teachers in the pedagogical principles, and above all the regular system of monthly and graded payment of salaries to the teach-ers-these were some of the notable features which characterise "modern" education. Thus it is because of its comprehensiveness and applicability to all types of education that the word "modern" has been preferred by Indian scholars like M.R. Paranjpe (Source Book of Modern Indian Education), A.R. Desai (The Role of Modern Education in the Development of Indian Nationalism-Chapter IX of his book "Social Background of Indian Nationalism") and Bhagwan Dayal (The Development of Modern Indian Education). The National Council of Educational Research and Training, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, has also used the word 'Modern' in its "Review of Education in India (1947-1961)- Rajasthan." page 4.

Beginnings of Modern Education in Rajasthan (upto 1870) 39

about the land and its people. But he was shocked to see the absence of systematic education among the people there Even the first minister of the premier State of Jaipur, a man otherwise of ability, "could hardly write and scarcely read."* In his Minute, the Governor-General had observed that the predatory raids of the Pindaris and the Marathas had "disorganised the mechanism of Government and had almost destroyed the form of civilised life" in Rajputana which was "capable of reaching a dignified scale of society."2 Hence he decided to send someone to Rajputana who could open schools there. And a certain event had spurred him to come to that decision.

In 1818 Ghazi-ud-din Haider, the Nawab Wazir of Oudh, as a mark of gratitude to the Almighty for saving the life of Lord Hastings, had decided to'distribute a sumofRs. 3,000/-among the beggars. Hastings not only suggested that the amount might be put to a better use for "furnishing some instruction to ignorant natives'^, but also donated an equal sum. Thus a joint fund of Rs. 6,000/- was created for educational purposes. It was on the basis of this fund that Hastings contemplated sending someone who could set up schools in Rajputana. Such a gentleman was found in the person of Jabez Carey, third son of the eminent Baptist Missionary Dr. William Carey of Serampore.4 He was

1. Private Journal of the Marquiss of Hastings : Allahabad edition (1907) , p. 376.

Hastings here perhaps refers, without mentioning any specific name, to Nazir Mohan Ram whom Maharaja Jagat Singh of Jaipur had appointed as his Mukhtiar (Chief Minister).

(Vide Mehta, M.S. :Lord Hastings and the Indian States, p. 147) 2. Governor—General's Minute :

Foreign Progs : 7th Nov., 1818, N o : 1. 3. Private Journal : p. 376. 4. Jabez Carey, the third son of Dr. William Carey of Serampore, was

born in 1793. He went to Amboyna in 1813 at the request of the British Governor of Amboyna for missionary work. He was Superintendent of schools there til l 1818 and left when Amboyna was handed over to the Dutch. He came to Ajmer at the suggestion of Lord Hastings and set up schools and preached regularly. He returned to Calcutta in 1834 and became a Sessions Judge. (Revd. D.A. Christadas of Serampore's letter to G.C. Verma dated 7.2.1966.


appointed Superintendent of Education in Ajmer in November, 1818, on a salary of Rs. 2,00/-per mensem. To meet his immediate expenses of conveyance etc. he was provided with a sum of Rs. 8,00/- (in addition to the aforesaid joint fund of Rs. 6,000/-). He reached Ajmer in May, 1819 where his services were placed at the disposal of Sir David Ochterlony, the British Resident at Ajmer>

Carey started the first Lancasterian2 school at Ajmer in May, 1819. Soon after another school was opened at Pushkar. There were 41 pupils at Ajmer and 37 at Pushkar. These schools were largely attended in the next few years. The Pushkar school became very popular due to the "assiduity and attention" paid to the scholars by Carey.s But in spite of his best efforts, his schools incurred a heavy debt of about Rs. 4,000/-. To resolve this financial difficulty the Serampore TRIO — Dr. Carey, Marshman and Ward — appealed to Lord Hastings for a regular monthly grant of Rs. 3,00/- to pay off the debt and to run the schools smoothly. This amount was sanctioned to Carey with effect from the 1 st February, 1822.4

Two more schools, one at Bhinai (April, 1822) and the other at Kekri (May, 1822), with ten and twelve children respectively, were started by him.

Before assuming the charge of his duties, Carey had given "a distinct and solemn" undertaking "not to try for premature

1. Fisher's Memoirs : (1827) , p. 405. 2. Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) was an Englishman who about 1800

A.D. published a new method of conducting schools cheaply by having the older boys teach the younger. According to this method the pupils who knew a little had to teach those who knew less. The pupil-teachers were called 'Monitors'and the scheme 'the Monitorial System.' By this plan the teacher met his monitors each session and taught them in a class the lessons of the day which each of them then relayed to the small group Lancaster collected and invented a good deal of simple equipment With him the ideal was for one teacher to control a school of one thousand boys. Monroe, P.: A Text book in the History of Education (1956).

3. Foreign Proceedings : 26 January, 1822, No: 74. 4. Foreign Proceedings : 26 February, 1822, Nos. 48-51.


attempts at conversion".?* But contrary to his pledge, he introduced the teaching of the Scriptures. The Governor-General, therefore, regretted the violation of his undertaking which he considered "highly injudicious and objectionable course". Consequently Carey was instructed "to discontinue the use in the schools under his charge of the Christian Scriptures and all Religious Tracts calculated to excite alarm" as to the motives of the British in the minds of the local people.2

In July 1823, the Governor-General in Council resolved to constitute a General Committee of Public Instruction at Calcutta and the four Rajputana schools were placed under its control from the 1st of January, 1824. Thereafter those schools were to be supported out of the funds entrusted to this General Committee. The next three years showed little progress in education. Hence in 1827 these schools-then four in number-were reduced to one at Ajmer. The next year there were less than 200 boys in that school. They were divided into two departments, Hindi and Persian, in neither of which was much proficiency evinced.3 As the report of 1831 gave a poor opinion about the school, it was abolished towards the end of that year.4

A careful survey of the available records throws interesting light on the causes which led to the closure of the Ajmer school in 1831. In the first place, Jabez Carey became "injudiciously involved" in a dispute about the salary to be paid to his Indian colleagues. Secondly, he was bold enough to introduce the Scriptures and religious tracts in the school on the plea of paucity of text-books supplied by the Calcutta School Book Society. This unwise and untimely step incurred the displeasure of the Governor General who was constrained to order its discontinuation in the school. Thirdly, as Jabez himself admitted, the Indians expressed

1. Foreign Progs. 7th Nov., 1818, No. 1 2. Foreign Progs. 5th July, 1822, No: 41 (Letter from George Swinton

to Sir David Ochterlony) 3. Fisher's Memoirs : pp. 439-40. 4. Home Miscellaneous : 1832, No. 471, para 68.


"doubt and dissatisfaction" because of the fear that their children would be sent to Calcutta after sometime for conversion "by force".I Finally, the apathy and indifference of the parents who were not yet fully convinced about the utility or usefulness of this school also led to its closure.

The next Government effort for education in Ajmer-Merwara was made five years afterwards when the General Committee established with the Governor-General's permission an "English" school at Ajmer in May, 1836.2 One Marcus Hare was appointed Head Master with two local teachers-one for Hindi and the other for Urdu. The British residents of Ajmer and Nasirabad gave a good and "handsome donation and monthly subscriptions" for the maintenance of the school.

For some years the school progressed well, though the number of pupils, which stood at 219 at the end of 1837 fell to 143 in 1840. The examination conducted at the end of 1842 showed unsatisfactory results. Although there were 171 boys on rolls-125 Hindus 41 Muslims and 5 Christians - only 70 actually appeared in the examination and they "acquitted themselves in a discreditable manner". The Council of Education (formerly known as the Committee of Public Instruction) in their Report for the year 1842-43 noticed this unfavourable result in terms of great disappointment. And as a further trial of six months allowed by the Government showed no substantial improvement, the Govt. abolished the school on 1st January, 1843. The following reasons led the Government to take this drastic step:—

( i ) uniform failure of the school, (ii) illness of the Head Master, (iii) the expense of providing an efficient successor, (iv) comparatively high cost of running the school in

proportion to the benefits derived from it, and

1. Foreign Progs : 5th July, 1822, No. 40. (Letter from Jabez Carey to F.B L. Wilder, Superintendent at Ajmer dated the 9th May, 1822.

2. Home Public Progs : 4th May, 1836, No, 23.

Beginnings of Modem Education in Rajasthan (upto 1870) 43

( v) low estimation in which it was held by the classes whom it was intended to benefit.

Thus the Government School, Ajmer, established in May 1836, ceased to exist from 1st of January 1843. The School library was transferred to the Agra College. How long Marcus Hare remained as Head Master of the school is not known, for one Porter was the Headmaster when the school was abolished. After the closure of the school he was appointed to Banares and Gill, the Second Master, to Bareilly.i

In the following year (1844) the charge of the Education Department in the North-Western Provinces was transferred from Bengal to the Agra Government2, but nothing occurred to call special attention to Ajmer till Thomason, the Lt. Governor, paid a visit to that place in the winter of 1846-47. The result of this visit convinced him about the desirability of reestablishing an educational institution at Ajmer and the Government of India were accordingly addressed on the subject. In his letter to the Secretary to the Government of India, the Asst. Secretary to the Govt., N.W.P., observed :—

( i ) that during his tour through Rajputana the Lt. Governor was much struck with the desire manifested by many influential persons to study the English language;

(ii) that Maharaja Ram Singh of Jaipur read English well and took considerable interest in the study of it and maintained an English School at Jaipur and that some of the nobles of his court engaged tutors for the instruction of their children in English;

(iii) that Maharaja Kalyan Singh of Kishangarh had also engaged a tutor for the study of English, and had expressed a desire to attain a good knowledge of the language;

1. General Report on Public Instruction in the Bengal Presidency (1842-43), pp. 276-77. Also:General Report on Public Instruction in the N.W.P. of the Bengal Presidency for 1845-46, p. 81 .

2. Home Public Cons: 17th May 1845, No:3.


(iv) that the British Province of Ajmer, situated in the heart of Rajputana, should take the lead in promoting this spirit, and in affording to the surrounding states the opportunity of perfecting themselves in the language and literature of England;

( v) that although the attempt made to maintain a school in Ajmer on a rather expensive establishment, during past years, had not been successful, yet that in 1847 such an institution might be revived with better chance of success, because there then existed a greater desire on the part of the local people than formerly, to study English and obtain a liberal education;

(vi) that, as the Local Government of Agra was then vested with the control of Educational Establishment in the N.W.P., it was able to exercise a closer superintendence than could formerly be maintained from Calcutta;

(vii) that a sum of Rs. 10,000/-being a part of the Education

Fund allotted to the Agra Division of the Presidency was available with the Lt. Governor; and

(viii) that the Lt. Governor was prepared immediately to establish a school, which was all that was then required, if he felt assured that funds would be hereafter supplied to make the school merge into a college, i

The above proposition was then referred by the Governor General for the consideration and orders of the Court of Directors who, in their Despatch No: 36 dated the 31st December, 1847, sanctioned "the establishment of a Government School at Ajmere and reserving for future consideration its extention to a College."2 But the Education Fund was then not sufficient immediately to establish the School. Lt. Col. Dixon, the Superintendent of Ajmer, was then addressed on the matter who, after consulting

1. Shakespeare to Elliot: No. 322 dated 3.4.1847 : Home Public Cons. 4th April, 1847. No: 92A

2, Bushby to Thornton: No. 179 dt. 19,2.1848 Home Public Cons: A 19th Feb., 1848 No: 1. .


Col. Low, the A.G.G., replied that the people not only received the proposal "with feelings of universal satisfaction" but were willing "to support an Institution of this kind" in proof of which he added "that an English school had lately been established by Lalla Bundrabun, the Post Master of the Station".1

The difficulty of finding a suitable person to superintend the proposed school was solved by the appointment of Dr. Buch, a gentleman qualified in all respects for the post. The school was accordingly organised by an order of the 25th March, 1851. A Local Committee for organising and managing the school was, therefore, formed in accordance with the Resolution dated 25 th March, 1851. The following members formed the personnel of the Local Committe on 1st May 1851.2

Col. J. Low, Agent to the Governor General: President

Lt Col. C. G. Dixon, Superintendent at Ajmer "| Mr. Bouverie, Asst. Resident at Ajmer I M , Mr. Macaulay, Civil Asst. Surgeon at Ajmer f Memoers Moulvee Mujeed-ood-deen, Sudder Ameen of Ajmer •) Dr. C. Buch, Superintendent of the School Secretary.

The authorised Establishment for the School was :—

Dr. Buch, Superintendent House Rent

G. Wiggins, 1st Master

Personal

Sookhdeo Buksh, 2nd Master

Rama Chand Mookerjee, Asst. Teacher

Librarian. 20.00

1. General Report on Pub. Instruction in the N.W.P. of the Bengal Presidency for 1850-51, P.83

2. General Report on Public Instruction in the N.W.P. of the Bengal Presidency for 1850-51, P.84

Rs. 400.00

Rs. 50.00

Rs. 150.00

Rs. 100.00

Rs. 80.00

Rs. 10.00

Rs. 10 00

450.00

250 00 80.00

46 Modem Education in Rajas than

Moulvee Mohd. Mazhar, Prof, of Persian & Urdu

Munshi Meer Ali Nuquee, 2nd teacher of Persian and Urdu.

Pt. Deva Dutta, Prof, of Sanskrit & Hindi

Pt. Rasik Lai 2nd teacher of Sans. & Hindi

Servants 2 Chaprasis @ Rs. 5/-each

1 Chowkidar

1 Farrash

1 Sweeper

1 Bhishtee

Fixed monthly contingencies

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

40.00

26.00

40.00

26.00

10.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

5.00

40.00

92.00

26.00

12.00

Rs. 970.00 Total Monthly expenditure

In the above Resolution a provision of charging fees from students was made. The two fees the Lt. Governor suggested were an admission fee and a regular monthly fee. Provision was also made of a limited number of free scholars. The Local Committee suggested that the admission fee (termed 'entrance payment' in the Government order) should, for the time being, be kept in abeyance and monthly fees of from four annas to one rupee be charged. Thus a new Government school came into being at Ajmer in May 1851, and it is this school-later on upgraded in to a college in 1868-that has been in continuous existence since then and not the one formerly opened in 1836.

STATES OF RAJASTHAN

As far as the States of Rajasthan were concerned, the subject of education was one which the rulers-with few exceptions-generally neglected. It was a feeling common to all Rajputs that 'learning and knowledge should in a great measure be restricted to the Brahmins and Bunyas'. Thakurs and Chiefs as a rule "considered reading and writing beneath their dignity, and arts which they


pay their servants to perform for them"i The minority regimes in many of the States during the first quarter of British supremacy over Rajasthan, therefore, gave the British Government ample 'opportunities' to look at the education of the minor Maharajas and to establish modern educational institutions in those States. The first such institutions were established at Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur-during 1842 and 1845. The other rulers followed suit and a number of institutions were founded during the period 18^3 to 1870.

Alwar The first modern school at Alwar was established in 1842 by Maharao Raja Baney Singh which continued with varying success till it was raised to the status of a High School in 18702. One of its most successful and prominent teachers and also its Superintendent was Pt. Roop Narain who later on became a member of the Council of Regency during the minority of Maharaja Sheodan Singh. For nearly a-decade and a half only Hindi and Urdu were taught in the school. But with the establishment of a British Agency in Alwar in 1858 a new impetus was given to education more especially by the introduction of English which had not been taught previously. During Maharaja Sheodan Singh's reign several other schools were opened in the districts also.

Bharatpur A modern school at Bharatpur was first established by Maharaja Balwant Singh in 1842 3 From that year to 1865 it was

1. RAR: 1865-67, p. 92. 2. Neilson, Surgeon-Major, W.H.: Medico-Topographical Account of Ulwur

(1897), p.18. Hamilton, Captain G. Political Agent's Report (1863) Foreign Genl. A ; July 1864. Nos, 10-18.

3. The Imperial Gazetteer of /ntf/a—Rajputana-(1908) wrongly gives 1858 as the date of the establishment of the first public educational institution at Bharatpur. (p.81). As against this Lt Walter, the Political Agent at Bharatpur, in his "Report on the past and present condition of Education in the Bhurtpor Slate", submitted in 1863 to the Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana, clearly states that "A school was originally established in the city of Bhurtpore by the late Maharajah Bulwunt Singh in the year 1842," (Home Progs. Education: 13th July, 1864, No: 12 B)


under the charge of an officer of the State, but was not in a prosperous condition. In that year only Persian was taught to 55 boys, most of whom were irregular in their attendance. In November 1855 Major Morrison, the Political Agent, made over charge of the school to Sub-Assistant Surgeon Bholanath Das. With this change the number of pupils in the beginning of the next year increased to 290 and three Hindi teachers were, there-fore.appointed through whose sincere, honest, and earnest efforts the number of pupils rose to 426 at the end of the year. The outbreak of 1857, however, reduced this number to half its strength mainly because the school received no support nor superintendence. But after the events of 1857 Captain Nixon, the Political Agent, reorganised the school and introduced the teaching of English. As a result of his efforts the number of pupils in 1858 increased to 274; of them 113 studied Persian and Urdu, 91 Hindi and 70 English. Owing, however, to the lack of efficient teachers, little progress was made. In 1862 an English teacher was procured from Agra on a salary of Rs. 80/- a month. Since then education progressed well in Bharatpur.

Jaipur

As in the previous two instances modern education in Jaipur also was first introduced during the minority of its ruler. In the beginning of January 1844 Captain (later on Colonel) Ludlow was appointed Political Agent at Jaipur. He was a very liberal-minded officer of enlightened views and took much interest in the cause of education. Through his efforts the first public educational institution, the Maharaja's College was established in 1844.*

1. The Imperial Gazetteer of India— Rajputana, gives 1845 as the date of the establishment of the public institution at Jaipur. In his first annual report for the Administration of Rajputana for 1865-67 Lt. Col. Eden, the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana, states about Jaipur, "Pundit Sheodeen Singh was educated at the Government College at Agra, and in 1845 was appointed tutor to the present Maha Rajah". It is perhaps on the basis of this report that the Gazetteer referred to above gives 1845 as the date of the establishment of the 'first public institution

(Contd.)

Beginning of Modern Education in Rajasthan (upto 1870) 49

Sometime afterwards in 1854, he appointed Pundit Shiv Deen, a Graduate of the Agra College, as tutor to the minor Maharaja Ram Singh. In addition to his duties as tutor, the Pandit had also to work as 'Principal of the Maharaja's College1 (which was then only a school but called a college) and Superintendent of Education. He was assisted in the school by two teachers. The"

(Contd.) at Jaipur". But most of the subsequent reports on "Public instruction in Jaipur' where a reference is made about the Ma araja's College, state that i t 'was founded in 1844 by the Jaypur Durbar, to secure for the people of Jaypur the benefits of liberal culture' (Report for 1887, p. 6); 'was founded in 1844 by His late Highness Maharaja Ram Singh' (Report for 1895. p. 8) ; 'was the first public school in the Jaipur State, established in 1844 during the minority of Maharaja Ram Singh at the instance of Col. Ludlow, the then Political Agent' (Report for 1904, Chapter III). The Allahabad University Calendar of 1892-93, p. 126, 'A short History of his Highness the Maharaja of Jaipur and his Country' by Sansar Chandra Sen (1902. p. 231), 'Notes on Jaipur' by Lt. Col. H. L. Showers (1909, p. 84), letter from Principal N.K.Ray of the Maharaja's College to the Jaipur Education Commission (1926) and many other important documents all clearly state that the Maharaja's College at Jaipur was founded in 1844.

On the basis of the documents mentioned above two things now appear crystal clear. First, that the Maharaja's College Jaipur, was established in 1844 and not in 1845 as is stated in the Imperial Gazetteer—Rajputana, (1908), p. 81 . Secondly, that Pandit Shiv Deen was appointed a tutor to Maharaja Ram Singh in 1845, obviously after the above 'public institution' had been established. Apparently there seems to be a confusion somewhere. Generally a tutor to a minor Maharaja is appointed first and then he is asked to look after a'public institution; a responsibility in addition to his basic duty. If we subscribe to this view the date given by the Gazetteer seems to be correct. But we cannot overlook the overwhelming evidences which all clearly state in unambiguous language that the college was established in 1844.

1 . The Maharaja's College, Jaipur, was not the only institution in Rajasthan which, though originally a school, was designated a 'College' right from its very inception. All the earlier reports of the British Political Agents refer to the Bharatpur School as a 'College' even when it was only a primary school. But in the common Indian parlance both the Bharatpur and the Jaipur schools were called 'Madarsa' which means an institution of higher learning.


strength of the scholars in the school in 1847 was about 100. Besides Hindi and Urdu, Sanskrit and Persian were also taught. Later on English too was introduced. In addition to these subjects instruction in some other subjects was also imparted.

One of the main features of the school was the system of examinations introduced therein. In the words of Major Ludlow, "The examination commenced on the 28th June, 1847 and continued without interruption to the 3rd July. The questions in the following branches of study viz. Astronomy, Geography, History of England, India and Greece were prepared beforehand and at the time of the examination the students were placed separate from each other and those books being taken from them the questions were dictated and the pupils were strictly forbidden to use any illegal means on pain of dismissal from the school. These students were not allowed to have the least intercourse amongst themselves and they also did not receive any kind of assistance either from their master or books. When their answers were completed they were taken from them and then a whole number was fixed for the best paper in each branch of study. Thus, all the papers being collected, they were examined and the merit of the students was decided according to the number of marks which they obtained. The higher pupils studying English translated works were examined in the manner above mentioned, and all the .other classes together with the remaining pupils of the Oordoo class were examined vive voce."i

Thus one of the most important characteristics of modern education viz. a system of written examination based on question papers prepared beforehand and the award of marks differentiates this school from the others already in existence on the indigenous pattern.

To promote education, students were awarded half-yearly prizes to the extent of Rs 200/-, a few receiving a sum of Rs 30/-each. The Political Agent was also instrumental in reviving through

1. Ludlow to Sutherland : Letter No. 92, dated 9th October. 1847. (Foreign Pol. Cons, 20th November, 1847, No. 65.)


the exertions, of the local officers 118 of the old schools in the Parganas of Jaipur which were in existence since the time of Sawai Jai Singh, the founder of Jaipur, but which had been in abeyance for many generations. Thus the credit of introducing modern education in Jaipur goes to that liberal-minded Englishman,Ludlow, under whose inspiring guidance many sweeping reforms in social customs such as abolition of Sati, regulation of 'Tyag' the oppressive system of giving huge sums of money to Charans, Bhats, Dholis and Mirasis etc., banning of the sale, purchase and traffic in children and prohibition of slavery etc., were introduced.

Udaipur It has been the boast of Mewar Court and nobles that they always kept aloof and never learnt anything about the customs and practices of other people. This spirit of exclusiveness and resistence to external impressions and alliances always came in the way of their appreciating the benefits and boons of education. Consequently the only schools in the State in the first quarter of the nineteenth century were the indigenous type such as Hindu Pathshalas and Muslim Maktabs in which reading, writing and a little simple arithmetic were taught generally in the open air. It was during the minority of Maharana Shambhu Singh that Major Eden, the Political Agent, proposed in May 1862 to establish a vernacular school at Udaipur and for that purpose sought the Governor-General's permission to spend Company's Rs. 25,000/- on the . construction of a school building, and Rs300/- monthly for thetsalary of the Superintendent, masters, menials and contingencies etc. The Governor General, while sanctioning the monthly amount of Rs. 300/-, observed that it would be futile to spend such a large amount of Rs. 25,000/- on the school building without first ascertaining "the readiness of the people to take advantage of educational opportunities". Accordingly it was suggested that 'the experiment might be tried of having in one, two, or three different quarters of the city, in such rooms or sheds as could be hired at a moderate rent elementary vernacular schools under teachers capable of imparting elementary vernacular instruction."! The experiment having proved

1. Foreign Pol. A Progs, July 1862, No. 75.


successful, the Governor General sanctioned the amount of Rs. 12,000/- for constructing a school building at Udaipur.* Thus the first public school was opened at Udaipur in January 1863 during' the minority of Maharana Shambhu Singh and called after him the "Shambhuratna Pathshala". For two years instruction was given only in Hindi, Persian and Sanskrit, but in 1865 English began to be taught, and the number on the rolls in that year was 513.2

Harauti

With the exception of Bundi, little was done in the field of education by the rulers of the other Harauti States (Kota and Jhalawar) though they all admitted the advantage to be derived from the spread of knowledge, and promised to establish schools to be supported by the State throughout their respective territories. In this connection the Kharitas sent (1864 A.D.) by Captain Beynon, the Political Agent, Harauti, to the three rulers of the Harauti States, are of great importance as showing the deep interest which the British Government took in 'the encouragement of education and promotion of the spread of knowledge, science, and arts' amongst the subjects. The Captain pointed out that 'with a view to promote education in India the British Government have established many colleges, and nearly every town and village within its dominions has its school with its establishment of teachers to the examples of the rulers of Jaipur and Bharatpur (Ram Singh and Jaswant Singh respectively) for taking interest in education, the Political Agent remarked, "I need not remind you of the admirable advice which His Excellency the Viceroy and Governor General imparted to you on this as well as other subjects in his address to the independent Chiefs who were lately assembled at Agra"3

It is as a result of these Kharitas and the advice the Political Agent gave "in private conversation with the Chiefs of Kotah,

1. Foreign Pol. A Cons, October 1862, No. 83. 2. Erskine. K. D. : Rajputana Gazetteers, Mewar Residency, Vol. II—A,

p. 82. 3. Captain Beynon's Kharitas to the Harauti Chiefs.

Foreign Genl. A cons. July 1864, Nos. 10-18.

Beginning of Modem Education in Rajasthan (upto 1870) 53

Boondee, and Jhallawar" when he urged upon them "the desirability of establishing schools and encouraging the spread of education among their subjects" that some schools were opened at the capitals of the three Harauti States.

Siiohi

Sirohi was perhaps the only other State in Rajasthan which could boast of having some semblance of public education It was possibly because of its proximity to Bombay and the presence of European residents at Mount Abu. The ruler, Rao Ummed Singh (1862-1875) got a building erected in the centre of the city for a school where two local teachers, one Mohammadan and the other a Hindu, were appointed. A third one from Ajmer was appointed to teach English In four of the principal towns of the small State, vernacular schools were later on opened at the suggestion of the Political Superintendent.

Other States

In the remaining States of Rajputana, except perhaps Kishan-garh where a Pandit entertained by the State taught Sanskrit to such boys as chose to attend, and Bikaner where a teacher of English was appointed in 1862,1 education received little, if any, support from the Chiefs.

Concluding Remarks

We have given above a brief account of the beginnings of modern education in Ajmer-Merwara and in some of the States of Rajputana in the first half of the nineteenth century and in the decade after the mutiny in some other States. One common feature of all these efforts was the interest the British Government took in the welfare of the Indian princes and of the people under their rule. Of course, in doing so the British Government had her own interests in view. It was then considered necessary to impart western education to Indians so that a sizeable cadre of clerks and lower officers could be created from whom some could

1. Foreign General A Consultations : July 1864, Nos, 10-18.


be appointed to offices of trust and thus help in the organisation and running of British administration in India Moreover, the advance of European knowledge in India could teach the people advantages of the employm-. nt of labour and capital which might increase wealth and commerce. It might, at the same time, visualise India as a supplier of raw materials for British industries and as the consumer of the finished products of England.

Thus it was Government's anxious desire to give all possible encouragement to the advancement of education in British India as well as in Indian States. But it was outside their functions to offer any direct support to educational institutions, the success of which depended upon the direction and interest of the Princes themselves and the appreciation of the benefits of education by their people. Subject to certain limitations, all the British Political Officers stationed at the courts of the Rajputana Princes urged upon the Chiefs, either through written communications such as Kharitas or through private conversation, the need and necessity of the spread of education within their respective territories. In this effort the Political Officer had often to face some opposition from the State 'Mutsuddies' (officials) who were mostly retrograde and conservative. This opposition was overcome by a Kharita from the Agent to the Governor General to all the Chiefs saying that it was "the wish of the Government to extend the benefits of education as widely as possible". Without such Kharitas the conservative elements at the Chief's court would have proved too strong for the few whose minds had deen enlightened by travel and intercourse with persons of education. The energetic and often enlightened Political Officer caught hold of every 'opportunity' for the permanent establishment of education in the various States Thus his part in the introduction and diffusion of modern education in Rajputaua was undoubtedly great and he was rightly looked upon as "the primum mobile to set schools agoing " i

1. Howard, E. I. : Memoir on the condition of education in some of the States of Rajputana. Foreign General A Proceedings; May, 1863, No. 62.

3. Missionary Educational Enterprise

In Rajasthan

The advent of the Christian Missions in India witnessed a remarkable growth and development of modern education throughout the length and breadth of this vast country. Long before the consolidation of the British power in India, these Missions of various denominations in Madras, Bengal and Bombay had undertaken pioneering educational work. Not only they had opened new schools, but had also introduced the first printing press in various Indian and foreign languages. They had manufactured paper, cast the types of different scripts and had also published a number of valuable tracts on useful subjects. 1

In the earlier stage of these Missionary activities, the attitude of the East India Company towards them was generally favourable and sympathetic. But a change became inevitable as soon as the Company gained political power with the grant of Diwani by the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765. The Company then became "conscious of the political importance of maintaining strict religious neutrality and this realisation made it abandon all its earlier inclinations towards proselytisation and to lose all its earlier sympathy for missionary enterprise."^ The Court of Directors in their Despatch of 7th September, 1808, advised not to propagate the Christian religion and to observe strict religious

1. Rlchter, J.A. : A History of M'sstons In India, p. 27. Sherrmg, M,A. : The History of ProtestanrMlsslons In India, p. 75.

2. Nurullah & Naik ! A History of Education In India, p. 66.


neutrality. This important Despatch gives aa early instance of press censorship and the attitude of Government in regard to religion, i

Early Missionary Educational Activities in Rajasthan

The systematic missionary educational enterprise in Rajasthan actually began as an after-effect of the Mutiny of 1857. But individual efforts towards the introduction of Scriptural - knowledge as a basis of education began soon after the British took possession of Ajmer from the Marathas in July, 1818. It has already been explained2 that Lord Hastings sent Reverend Jabez Carey to Ajmer to establish schools there. Soon after his arrival there in May, 1819, he established a school there, followed by three more-one each at Pushkar, Bhinai and Kekri during the next three years. Before assuming the charge of his duties, he had given solemn undertaking not to preach Christianity or "try for premature attempts at conversion". But contrary to his pledge, he introduced the teaching of the Scriptures-Martin's New Testament in Persian script and the Gospel of St. Mathew in the Hindi character.3 Lord Hastings, therefore, not only felt displeased and reprimanded him for it, but also ordered him to discontinue the use of the Christian Scriptures and Religious Tracts in the schools under his charge on the ground that they might excite alarm in the minds of the local people about the motives of the British * The result was that the number of schools which was four in 18^4 dwindled to one at Ajmer in 1827. And even this school was also ordered to be closed four years later (1831).5

With the closure of this school ceased the formal connection .of Reverend Jabez Carey, and also of the Baptist Missionaries of

k Serampore, with the Government of India in their earlier educational efforts in Rajasthan. Thus came to an end, without achieving

1. Sharp, H. : Selections from Educational Records, Pt. I.p.4. 2. Vide pp. 39-41 supra 3. Foreign Progs. : 5th July, 1822, No. 40. . . . - , . . , 4. Foreign Progs; 5th July, 1822, No. 41 . . , . 5. Home Miscellaneous; (1832), No. 47.1, para. 68

Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan 57

any substantial result, the first and the earliest missionary educational enterprise in Rajasthan.

The next quarter of the century was practically barren so far as missionary educational work was concerned. There was an absolute lull and no missionary ever seems to have done anything to establish any school anywhere in Rajasthan during this period. But after the liquidation of the East India Company and the assumption of power by the Crown, a number of Christian Missions set up their centres in Rajasthan also. Of these, the United Presbyterian Mission was first to enter the field of educational activity. It was followed by the Roman Catholics, the Methodists, the Church Missionary Society, the Anglican Church and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Mission.

I. Establishment of the United Presbyterian Mission in Rajputana

(March, 1860;

The Mutiny of 1857 appeared to the devout Christians in Scotland as "the just punishment of God for their most unchristian apathy in regard to the evengelbation of India." In response to this 'new call or a call newly realised' the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland resolved to start its missionary activity in some unoccupied field in India. Rajasthan was, therefore, selected, after much consideration and thorough inquiry, as the most destitute, hopeful and virgin field, and the district of Ajmer-Merwara was chosen as the pivot of evengelical work.1 Accordingly two missionaries, the Reverend Steele and Shoolbred, embarked, in pursuance of the decision of the Scottish Presbyterian Synod of May, 1859, for India in September (1859). They were instructed to proceed to Beawar to lay the foundation of the Mission there. In November they arrived at Bombay. Steele, however, suddenly fell seriously ill at Erinpura and died there. Grief-stricken Shoolbred continued his arduous journey alone and reached Beawar on 3rd March, I9602, where he set up the

1. United Presbyterian Mission : First Report (1862) pp, 5-6 (subsequently referred to as U.P.M. Report.)

2. U P.M. First Report (1862), p. 6. (Cartairs in his "Shepherd of Udaipur' mentions 6th of March 1860,'which seems to be incorrect, p. 50)


first station of the United Presbyterian Mission in Rajasthan. Soon it became the headquarters from which missionaries . were sent out to establish 12 stations in the province as subsequently discussed.

1. BEAWAR (1860)

Anglo-vernacular Schools

With the assistance of a Brahmin convert to Christianity, Shool-bred opened a school in Naya Nagar (Beawar) in August, 1860. The Bible was taught besides the usual secular subjects in Hindi, Urdu, and English. This central school became so popular that it attracted the children of all castes which forced the local authorities to close down the Government School there. Until April, 1862 the progress of the school was so steady that its attendance reached an average of a hundred boys. Thereafter two factors led to the decline in the number of its pupils. One of them was the admission of some Harijan boys and the other was the opening of an indigenous school by local traders with the help of several Gosains as teachers.1 In 1872, under the stewardship of Shool-bred's successor Macalister, a night school was opened. After four years, a Pathshala in the city was merged with the Mission school. But despite its increased numbers, the school showed little improvement.2

In March 1877 the Beawar Municipality opened a new school to teach Hindi and Urdu to the local children. Two years later when attempts to introduce English on the same footing as the Ajmer City Branch School was made, Rev. Pringle Jameson-opposed vigorously the move on behalf of the Mission. The missionaries contended that the existence of another Anglo-vernacular school at Beawar would adversely affect their own school. A bitter controversy arose resulting in long correspondence between Shool-bred on behalf of the United Presbyterian Mission on the one side and F. L. Reid and L.S. Saunders, the Government Inspector of

1. U.P.M. First Report (186Z), p.6. 2. Ajmer-Merwara Report 0876-77), p. 52 Paragraph 236.

1 H \\

Missionary Educational Enterprise In Rajasthan 59 \

Schools and the Director, Public Instruction, Ajmer-Merwara, respectively'',on the other side.i Finally a compromise was made in 1882 according to which the more advanced boys of the Municipal school were to complete their education in the higher classes of the Mission school? In 1891 the Mission school, which was receiving an annul grant-in-aid of Rs 960/-from the Government, was raised to the sta:us of a High School and the English classes of the Municipal school were transferred to it. As a result of this amalgamation the number of scholars increased rapidly and the school was thoroughly reorganised under the charge of Mair. The result was that one of its students stood first in Rajasthan in the Entrance examination of the Allahabad University in 1894.3 In September, 1906 Anders'pn Brown, the successor of Mair, died. He had played a very remarkable role in the educational development of the town for over a decade. The Mission High School was "a monument to his untiring industry and perseverance". Thanks to the efforts of McLeish, Science teaching was started in 1912 with the increased financial grant of the Governments The school made good progress duririg the next two decades, but in 1932 this oldest missionary educational institution in Rajasthan suffered the greatest set-back in its, history when it was finally closed.s

1. This controversy can be studied in details in the Director of Public Instruction Ajmer file No. 15 of 1876 preserved in the Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner. ,

2. U.P.M. : Twenty-first Report (1882), p.4. 3. Ibid. Thirty-third; Report (1894), p.15 4. Ibid Forty-fifth Report (1906), p.5. 5. Foreign Intl.B., Sept., 1913, Nos. 294-95. 6. U.P.M. : Seventy-first Report (1932)

(The Mission report is silent on the reasons-which led to the closure of this fine school of long standing. But the probable reasons might have been :— ' '

( i ) Lack of financial grant from the Home Mission. ( i i ) Dearth of qualified missionaries wil l ing to dedicate themselves

for the spread of education in trie-province, & (iii) The proposal to convert/the High School into a Normal School

with vernacular Final Class. These classes have since been diBCotftinued'from July, 1951 when

a new Anglo-Vernacular Middle'School was retfpBned. i

Modern Education in Rajasthan

Vernacular Schools

To teach the new converts the three R's, the missionaries established vernacular schools. "If the Church is to be really rooted in the soil of India", says Basil Mathews, "one of the first necessities is primary education for the children of the Church and their preparation for the Christian life."1 Imbued by this very spirit, Shoolbred established elementary schools in the neighbouring villages of Beawar, Jalea, Rajeawas (all in 1861), Balar (February, 1862) and Chang and Bhalean (September, 1862). Thus the missionary school system aimed at the extension of its network to all the adjoining villages within a radius of eight or ten miles 2 It was also a part of the Mission plan to visit those schools regularly in rotation, to examine their condition, to teach the Bible lesson, and, as the parents and other villagers flocked around, to take the opportunity of preaching them the basic tenets of Christianity. Thus village teaching and preaching went hand in hand and the school became a means of increasing the sphere of missionary influences S 6 ^ L / 5 '

By 1864 there were ten Mission village schools around Beawar with an aggregate attendance of 337. At the general examination held there in April 1865, nearly 400 children were examined4; this number doubled in the next five years.

The year 1866 witnessed a new feature in Mission school system, joint schools in villages which were at short distances apart. Some idea of the success of this novel experiment can be had from the increasing attendance of pupils in Beawar district which reached 973 (in 1867) of whom 46 only were girls in the eighteen Mission schools 5 During the next few years the missionary village schools assumed a new significance which is evident from the presence of the A.G.G., Col Brooke, at the general

1. Mathews, Basil : The Church fakes root in India, p. 82. 2. U.P.M. : First Report (1862), p.8„ 3. Ibid. . , 4. ' U. P.-M. : Fourth Report (1865), p. 9. 5. U. P. M. : Sixth .'.sport (T867),- p. 9.


examination of more than 800 children of the schools. There Col. Brooke distributed the prizes to the pupils and Pugrees (head-dresses)to some of the Patels (village headmen) who had been most active in fostering their village schools.1 Since then the annual examination at Beawar and Masuda became a regular feature of these Misson village schools and the function was being presided over either by the Chief Commissioner or the Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara By 1880 the number of such village schools reached twenty-two providing education to more than 1,000 children. Then a 'bitter controversy between the missionaries and the Government arose over Vernacular education.

During the second half of the nineteenth century the distinctive features of the missionary educational enterprise were the opening of the night schools and increasing attendance of girls in village schools.2 Towards the end of the century the missionaries, however, changed their policy regarding the appointment of teachers in their varnacular schools. The Brahman teachers were now replaced by Christian teachers. This policy proved unsatisfactory because of the non-availability of qualified Christian teachers. The result was that the Mission village schools which were 15 in 1898 with 500 scholars dwindled to only six with 160 boys in 1913.3 The spread of the national movement and the consequent political unrest in the country, made the Christian village schools an object of popular distrust and suspicion.* Still the Mission in 1921 started a vernacular Final school at Beawar which was closed after a decade only to be revived in 1935.

The Normal School

To secure a continuous stream of qualified teachers for the village schools, a Normal or Training school was opened at Beawar in July 1892 under the superintendence of Anderson Brown. At the outset, a three years' course was introduced when

1. U. P. M. : Eleventh Report (1872). p. 8 2. U. P. M. : Twenty-Fourth Report (1885), p. 6. 3. U. P. M. : Fifty Second Report (1913), p. 11 .

4. U. P. M. : Fifty Eighth Report (1919), p. 5.


sixteen boys joined it. In 1895 one more year was added to the course, making it a four years' course. The response to this training course was not very encouraging despite the lowering of the age limit for admission to 13 years. But the establishment of the Christian Orphanages, after the terrible famine of 1899 served as good recruiting grounds for prospective village teachers In 1907 an English class for those who had completed their vernacular course was added to the Normal School to meet the growing need of Christian teachers for the Anglo-vernacular schools. A hostel was later on attached to the Normal school. To increase its efficiency further, a six months' course of purely practical training was introduced for the first time in 1913. But two years afterwards this school was closed- Thereafter it functioned only as an ordinary vernacular boarding house or a Vernacular Christian Hostel.1

The Industrial School

In September 1883 Rev. Shoolbred suggested to the Beaw&r Municipality to establish an Industrial Training School at a cost of Rs. 4,000/- to be borne by the Municipality. The proposed school, he suggested, would impart training in the manufacture of Persian and other rugs, carpets and carpentry and the higher kinds of smith's work. Lt W. H. Cornish, President of the Beawar Municipality, approved of this scheme and allotted the premises, then known as the 'old jail' as the site for the school. This novel undertaking was promptly sanctioned by the Chief Commissioner in July 1884. Accordingly four boys from Beawar were trained in carpet and durri weaving along with the prisoners inside the Ajmer Jail. The credit of this project undoubtedly went to Dr. Shoolbred.2

Girls' Schools

The missionaries have been pioneers in introducing coeducation

1. U. P. M. : Fifty-fifth Report (1916), p. 2. 2. For details of this project see Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara's.

File No. 21 of 1884 in the Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner.

Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajjsthan 63

in their vernacular primary schools. Later on they opened separate schools for girls. Thus out of the four Misson vernacular schools in Beawar city in 1872 one was exclusively for girls, which was in the beginning attended entirely by Hindu girls, although later on Muslim girls also joined. In 1872 a Christian mistress, Mrs. Martha, was appointed in place of the Hindu mistress and by 1891 the number of Mission girls schools in Beawar district under the charge of the wives of the Christian teachers rose to five. Two years afterwards seven small schools were also opened in this region with 163 names on the roll. Thus "the village girls' schools of Beawar", remarked Dr. Shoolbred, "continue to be a special and hopeful feature in our village work."1

By the end of the last century the Mission was doing commendable work for girls' education. They had opened even a school for the sweeper girls to which sweeper boys were also admitted. In 1905 they opened a school exclusively for Mohammadan girls which was closed after a decade in February, 19142

It only reveals that in spite of the best efforts girls' education did not make any satisfactory progress. Girls left schools at a very early stage. Therefore to encourage them to stay on longer the Government Inspector of Schools introduced an annual examination, the Upper Primary, for those girls who read up to the fourth class, and prizes were given to those who topped in the class. This shows how backward girls' education was in Rajasthan.3

But incessant efforts were made which bore some fruits. The more enlightened parents took interest in girls' education when three other private girls' schools—two by the Jain community and one by the Beawar Municipality—were opened. The Mission also raised one of their girls' schools in the city, known as the Pipaliya Girls' School, to the Middle standard. Its strength in 1934 was

1. U. P. M. : Thirty-third Report (1894), p. 24.

2. U, P. M. : Fifty-third Report (1914), 3. U. P. M. : Fifty-eighth Report (1919), p. 15.


over 200 gir's. In that year Mahatma Gandhi visited the Drynan School, one of the Mission girls' schools at Beawar which was meant exclusively for sweeper children.1 In 1937 English was introduced in the Pipaliya Girls' School and it continued making rapid progress in the succeeding years. Girls of all communities-Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Parsee and Christian-joined this institution. In 1949 it served a very real cause of girls' education in the district of Beawar.

Women's Industrial Home

Another very noteworthy feature of the Mission's educational work was the opening of a Women's Industrial Home in Beawar. In 1892 one of the worst famines occurred in Rajasthan. Parents deserted their children who were picked up by the missionaries. Starving women sought shelter, food and clothes. To give them board and lodging a Widow's Home was established which, when the inmates became experts in needle-work was changed into the Women's Industrial Home. Its purpose was to provide a home for the destitute women-mostly Christian. To provide to the needy, and indigent women afflicted by the serious famine of 1899 a Refuge was built which was amalgamated in 1901 with the Women's Industrial Home. There women and children were lodged and were taught, besides sewing, knitting and coarse work, grinding, weaving and making clothes as house hold duties. Training in crochet, embroidery or drawn-thread work was also given. This proved to be a very useful institution which met a long-felt need of society. But after more than three decades' existence, the Women's Industrial Home was converted in July 1937 into "The Home School for Girls." The old inmates of the Industrial Home had to be accommodated elsewhere. In the new Home School for Girls a two years' course was adopted according to which training in Domestic Science, Cooking and Mothercraft was given. This was a new feather in the Missions cap. In 1940 this Home school was, however, transferred to Nasirabad

1. U. P. M. : Seventy-third Report (1934), p. 7.


2. NASIRABAD (1861)

Anglo-vernacular School

Nasirabad was selected as the second station in Rajasthan by the Presbyterian missionaries. In September 1861 William Martin was sent from Beawar to Nasirabad as a Chaplain following the outbreak of Cholera among the British forces Then on the persistent demand of the local people he opened a school in Nasirabad in December 1861. Beginning with only 25 pupils on roll, the school attendance rose four times within a short period a

A crisis caused by admission of several sweeper boys and placing them on an equal footing with th; hight-caste boys, became the reason for the exodus of more than sixty boys in one day. But after sometime when the novelty of the admission was gone and the commotion subsided, the number again rose to more than fifty, 25 of whom read English In 1864 a new school was opened with 20 scholars, five of whom were sweeper boys. The total number of boys on roll then rose to 140 by December 1870. This was a proof that the people had now begun to realise the importance of education for their children

The school made rapid progress under the able guidance of Montry (1876-79), the English Head-master and his successor K. B. Bose (1879-82). In 1885 the school was reorganised as a Middle school when a small grant-in-aid of Rs. 75/- per mensem was secured from the Government of India.2 In May of the same year a new school known as the Cantonment School was started. But the Cantonment-Committee soon felt that there was not room for two Anglo-vernacular schools in Nasirabad. It was, therefore, resolved to close their school and hand-over the new building to the missionaries with a monthly grant of Rs. 75/- to make their school a really efficient High School. Early in 1886 this decision was implemented. Thus the newly amalgamated Cantonment Mission High School came into being. Three years later a

1. U. P. M. : First Report (1862), p. 12.

2. Foreign Progs. Internal-A April, 1885. No. 72.

66 Modem Education in Rojasthan

Christian Boys' Boarding House was opened with 19 boarders.! This was indeed a novel feature in the educational enterprise of the missionaries.

The results of the school showed satisfactory progress which increased the number of its scholars to 302 in the second year of the present century. The next year with the coming of SO boys from the Ashapura Orphanage the number rose to 400 which fell to mere 90 in 1908 due to the scourge of plague. The figure again rose to 440 in 1913 and 500 in 1914. Then at the instance of the Government, the name of the institution was again changed to "Mission High School" and the word 'Cantonment' was dropped2

on the occasion of the opening ceremony of the six additional rooms by Sir Elliot Colvin, the Agent to the Governor General on 11th March, 1916.3

As a result of the national awakening following the Jallian-wala Bagh tragedy, a new school known as -The National School' was opened in the bazar in 1920. This affected the number of scholars in the Mission High School. In 1934 Lawson's careful supervision was amply rewarded when the result of the school stood second among the schools of Ajmer-Merwara in the percentage of passes.4 In 1939 one of its main deficiencies was made good when Science classes were opened A series of successful Headmasters - S. O. Nath, F. M. Nathaniel and A. C Ericson-led to the advancement of the school in all respects with the result that in 1949 the school had more than 600 boys with a staff of 23 teachers.5 This speaks volumes about the excellent work which the school has been doing during the period of nearly a century of its existence.

1. U P. M. Twenty-eighth Report (1889), p 21. 2. Foreign Progs. Intl. B May, 1914, Nos. 3-4.

Foreign Progs. Intl. B Oct., 1914, No. 136. Foreign Progs. Intl. A Apr., 1915, No. 19.

3. U. P. M. : Fifty-fifth Report (1916), p. 7. 4. U. P. M : Seventy-third Report (1934), p. 21 . 5. U P, M. : Eighty-eighth Report (1949), p. 18.


Vernacular Schools

The Mission opened five schools in and around Nasirabad in 1862 having an aggregate attendance of 84 scholars. While opening the village schools the missionaries kept two conditions in mind : first, that the villagers indicated their desire for a school; and secondly, that they were not so numerous, or at such distances from the station as to render Christian supervision impossible.1

After establishing their village schools the missionaries made vigorous efforts to secure the attendance of girls. Although the results were not very encouraging, prejudices against girls' education began disappearing. In 1866 the number of village schools in Nasirabad district rose to nine. Numerous hurdles stood in the way of further expansion in this direction Dearth of suitable teachers, outbreak of frequent famines, deficit in the Home Mission fund, introduction of fees and the controversy about the simultaneous existence of the Mission and Government schools in the same village—all these factors contributed to the retardation of this type of schools.

Girls Schools

In the very first year of their Mission a girls' vernacular school was opened at Nasirabad (1861). Surprisingly enough the school was held in a private house and was attended by only three sisters. During the next few years some more girls' schools were opened, but most of the girls gave up their studies after sometime. Owing to the earnestness of some of the leading local men a school for the girls of Brahmans and Banias and another for the girls of Kolis were opened in 1868. In the former Mrs. Martin the wife of the missionary undertook the teaching work herself. It was only in 1882 that a sure foundation of girls' education in Nasirabad was laid when the Christian Girls' Boarding House was opened on the 1st November with only 8 boarders and 4 outdoor scholars. The number of boarders increased in the succeeding years till it reached 94 in 1893. In 1894 three Girls from the school joined

1. U. P. M. : First Report (1862), p. 13.


Agra the Medical School making the total four as one Nasirabad girl had already been reading there.1 In 1895 the standard of the Girls' Boarding House was raised to the" Middle class. In the Mochi Bazar Girls' school several boys had also been admitted and were allowed to read along with the girls. This was strengthening the system of co-education in vernacular schools.

The Christian Girls' Boarding School made significant strides so much so that in 1910 its strength stood at 150. In the same year two entirely new features of the School were-a Normal class for the training of women teachers and a kindergarten to provide a practising school for the pupil-teachers. The importance of this Boarding school lies in the fact all the 170 girls (in 1913) were drawn from all parts of Rajasthan. The school gained its popularity because it was then the only institution of the Mission in Rajasthan which provided a secondary education for girls. In January 1914 E.F. Harris, the Government Inspector of Schools in Rajputana, spoke about the school in very eloquent terms. On his recommendation the Government sanctioned a grant of Rs. 1,800/-for 1915-16.2

In 1920 the number of scholars on roll was 190 of whom 164 were boarders. This shows that the parents had now begun to realise the value of English education for their daughters. In 1922 Scouting for the girls, known as Girl Guides, was introduced in the school which was indeed a novel venture. Six years afterwards the school was raised to the status of a full-fledged High School which was undoubtedly an important landmark not only in the history of this school but also in the history of girls' education in Rajasthan. In 1934 for the first time in Nasirabad a Hindu and a Mohammadan girl appeared for the Middle School examination, both of whom passed. Four years later another Hindu girl -passed the Matriculation examination and thus had the distinction of being the first non-Christian girl to pass the examination from this school. In 1940 this fine girls' High School was shifted to

1. U. P. M. : Thirty-third Report (1894), p. 21 . 2. Foreign Progs : Intl. B October, 1914 No. 99.


Ajmer after a glorious existence of nearly fifty-eight years since its re-organisation in 1882.

Women's Normal School

The Normal class for the training of women teachers was started in the Girls' Boarding School in 1910 with only two girls which number increased to 11 in 1912 and the Normal and Kindergarten departments were shifted from the school building to the Orphanage. The successful pupil - teachers got their permanent certificates not only on passing their examination, but after a year's satisfactory teaching. This ensured that their work was supervised for at least a year after they had left the Normal class. The growing need for trained women teachers was thus met, to a certain extent, by this "the only Girls' Normal School in Rajasthan, whether missionary or, otherwise."1 The pupil-teachers of this school for the first time appeared at the United Provinces Girls Normal Examination in 1918, which was indeed a landmark in the history of this school.

The supply of normal-trained women teachers in Rajasthan was very small mainly for two reasons: firstly, the number of eligible girls for the training course was then very limited; and secondly, educated girls preferred more lucrative jobs than the elementary teaching profession. That is why almost all the girls who joined the Mission Normal School not only in its earlier years but as late as 1940 were Christians. It was only in 1947 that five Hindu girls joined the Normal class.

3. AJMER (1862)


Ajmer-the key of Rajasthan-became a Mission station in February 1862 when Robson and Glardon went to reside there. On the 19th March a school was opened in a central place in the city for teaching the vernacular languages. A good number of scholars attended the school from the very beginning till in May the number rose to 103. But the admission of sweeper boys in

1. U. P. M. : Fifty-fifth Report (1916), p. 14.


the school, like the Beawar and Nasirabad Mission schools, led to the protests by the two Hindu Pandits who insisted on the removal of the Harijan boys from the school" as a condition of their continuation in the service. As this was not accepted, they both withdrew, taking with them all the students except four Hindu and seven Mohammadan boys. One of the Pandits then opened a separate school in the bazar.i The missionaries had to use tact, patience, and perseverance to get the number of scholars increased.

When the Mission school was opened, there was already in Ajmer one good Government school, which did not admit boys for part-time study. The Mission school not only admitted regular students but also those who were interested in learning while attending to their own business. With this aim in view the Mission opened its classes in the morning hours. Another novel feature of the missionary educational system was the provision for learning in any branch of study for an hour only. Later on English was also taught to those who wished to learn it. At the beginning of 1870 monthly fees varying from two to eight annas were levied from all excepting the very poor pupils. Shortly afterwards, excepting the exodus of a few high-caste Hindu boys, the rest more or less reconciled to the admission of a few Chamaj boys in the school. No wonder that by July 1870 there were as many as 111 boys on roll. Five years later this number decreased because the fees in the Mission school were higher than in the Government College; and secondly, because another Government school had been established in the city which was attended by over 200 children.2 The school made good progress under the charge of Mc Quiston who had joined it in 1865. In 1882 two students from the school appeared for the first time in the Matriculation examination of the Calcutta University which number rose to six in 1893.

Another heartening feature of the school was the response of the Muslims to the facilities for education contrary to the

1. U. P. M. : First Report (1862), p. 14. 2. U. P. M. : Fourteenth Report (1875), p. 3.


popular belief. This is disclosed from the ratio of Muslim boys to the Hindus which became 2 : 3 in 1903, although this could hardly be justified on the population ratio between the two communities.1 The school as yet received no Government or Municipal grant, still it had been affiliated to the Allahabad University. In February 1909 funds were raised to erect a school building to perpetuate the memory ot Dr. Husband, a popular medical missionary, who had promoted education in the city for the last 35 years. The new building erected at a cost of Rs. 63,000/-was formally opened by Sir Elliot Colvin, the A. G. G., on 19th August, 1916. Henceforth the school was named as the Husband Memorial High School.2 An interesting feature of the school now was the system of keeping a weekly record of the achievements of the boys. And the one great deficiency of the school viz. the absence of Science teaching, was also removed when Science was introduced in 1915.

In 1918 the American Methodist Episcopal Mission and the S. P. G. (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel) Mission closed their Middle schools and transferred their boys to the Husband Memorial High School. The school showed remarkable progress under the able guidance of two well-known Headmasters, A. N. David (1919-41) and S. O. Nath (1942-48). On 19th March, 1937 the school celebrated its diamond jubilee after completing 75 years (1862-1937) of its existence. By 1948 the school had over 800 boys on its roll.

Girls' Schools

In Ajmer, as elsewhere, girls' education in the beginning was restricted to the vernacular side. But owing to a suspicion that the Mission Girls school was a snare to convert pupils to Christianity, it faced popular opposition, Its strength was, therefore, reduced from 21 in 1864 to 15 in 1866. In spite ot this the

1. U. P. M. : Forty-second Report (1903), p. 14. 2. The Husband Memorial. Committee collected only Rs. 6,000/-, the

United Church of Scotland donated Rs. 31,000/—and the Government contributed Rs. 25,000/— U. P. M. : Fifty-fifth Report (1916), p. 19.


Mission opened the first village school, especially for girls at Pushkar in September 1.866 with 35 young Brahman girls on roll. In this land of traditional conservatism and orthodoxy this initial number was indeed very significant particularly when the Government had already established a girls' school there sometime ago. Then as many as 26 girls left the school after a year possibly because of the establishment of a Government Women's Normal School which gave a stipend of Rs. 3 or 4 a month to each of the trainees.*

The year J869 is a turning point in the history of women education in Ajmer-Merwara. It was in that year that Mrs. Drynan, a pioneer in girls' education, joined the Misson and took charge of female education in Ajmer. One of her most significant achievements was the opening of the Central Girls' School in addition to other schools in the different mohallas of the city. In 1878 a new building for the school was opened. Towards the end of the century there were seven Mission Girls' schools in Ajmer and its suburbs.

At the beginning of ihe present century, the Missionaries were confronted with intensive competition from other organisations, mainly the Arya Samaj, in the field of women education. This resulted in the reduction of the number of Mission, girls' schools to four including a sharp fall in the number of scholars. The foundation of the Savitri Girls' School (1914) also adversely affected the attendance of the Mission Girls' School. To increase admissions, the former tempted the girls by the frequent distribution of sweets. The introduction of fees and the outbreak of plague in Ajmer (March 1917) led to the temporary closure of some of the Mission Girls' schools. Moreover, it was almost impossible to retain the girls in the schools long enough to enable them to attain a level of minimum education. This was mitigated to a certain extent by the sustained efforts both of the missionaries and the local people with the result that even the Muslim girls had also now started coming to the schools.2

1. U. P. M. : Sixth Report (1867), p. 28. 2. U. P. M. : Fifty first Report (1912), p. 13.


Ajmer was the most ,important centre for Mission's Zenana work—a kind of tuition undertaken by the women missionaries at the houses of respectable families. This enabled the missionaries to spread the fundamentals of Christianity along with the teaching of the three R's among the Indian.ladies. By 1914 the missionaries in Ajmer were thus influencing some three hundred girls and women through their five girls' schools and six zenana teachers.1

The next two decades saw a new transformation in the cause of girls' education in Ajmer. This was the passing into the hands of the Government and the Municipality the education work among the non-Christian girls as a result of which the Mission Council closed most of their girls' schools in the city. But even in the Government and Municipal Girls' Schools also there was a large percentage of Christian women teachers who thus contributed their own share in the spread of women education in Rajasthan.

In 1938 on the request of the Methodist Episcopal Church, their girls' school, the Avery Girls' Middle School, was taken by the Presbyterian Mission who then shifted their Nasirabad Girls' High School there in May, 1940. This was an event of great significance and may truly be regarded as an important landmark in the educational history of the Presbyterian Mission in Rajasthan. Since then the school has been making steady progress in every field of educational activity and is now regarded as one of the best girls' High Schools in Rajasthan.

Village Schools

Village schools were started around Ajmer as in Beawar and Nasirabad. In 1862 a village school was opened in Kiranipura, about two miles from Ajmer, with 23 scholars on roll. More vernacular schools were opened in the villages of Dhani, Dorai, Gagwana and Pushkar, the scholars in all numbering 320 (March, 1869). One special feature of the Mission village schools was the supply of free books to the needy, besides free education, as a means to popularise their schools. In 1873 there were eight

1. U.P.M.: Fifty-third Report (1914), p. 48.


Mission vernacular schools in and around Ajmer, two of them being in the city and six in the villages The village teachers, then known as Pandits, received the lesson fortnightly from John Hendrie, the Superintendent of the Mission vernacular schools. It was only on the results of the annual general examination conducted for the Pandits of all the Mission schools that a part of their salary was fixed.t

In 1916 the Government curriculum, register and text-books were introduced in the Mission vernacular schools which were then inspected by the Government Assistant Inspector of Schools.

" On his suggestion a nominal fee of one anna per month was introduced.'2 In many of those vernacular schools most of the scholars belonged to low castes.

In 1935 on the suggestion of the Methodist Episcopal Church all their primary classes were taken over by the Presbyterian Mission. The map on page 75 shows the position of Christian Educational Institutions in Rajasthan in 1935. In 1944 the Ajmer Municipality introduced compuslory primary education and opened a number of primary schools for the purpose. This affected the Mission vernacular schools to a considerable extent.

4. TODGARH (1863)

The Todgarh Mission station was opened and inaugurated in Dec, 1863 by Mr. and Mrs. Robb. In May 1864 Dr. Shield joined them. In 1866 the number of village schools in Todgarh Tehsil was five including Mrs. Robb's Girls' school. A year after the number of village schools increased from seven to twelve and the number of scholars rose from 230 to 370 including 29 girls. In seven years the number of schools rose to seventeen which showed great desire for education among the Mair population of the area. It was the growing desire for education which prompted Leslie Saunders, Commissioner of Ajmer-Merwara, to call a gathering of the Mission and Government schools in Todgarh on 27th March 1874 when Patels of all the neighbouring villages were invited.

1. U P. M. : Twelfth Report (1873), p. 23. 2. U. P. M. : Fifty-fifth Report (1916), p. 16.

MISSIONARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

IN RAJASTHAN

(1935)

A PRIUAflV 1C|!00(_I

^ ^ ^ C3 UIOOLC SCHOOLS

^ ^ ^ B 2 HIOH

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ k K0RU*1_ SCHOOLS

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ b IW3U5TI»I*U 9CMOC15

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ f SCHOOLS PDA *AH_ CMR-CWCX


This was an unprecedented event in the lives of the marauding Mairs who were thus made to appreciate the advantages of education in the evening schools.

Another very significant feature of Mission education in Todgarh tehsil was the financial support of the Chiefs (Thakurs) which resulted in the establishment of six of the best Mission schools in villages belonging to Udaipur Chiefs viz. Tal, Daulat-garh, Bednor etc1 Out of the sixteen schools then existing several were night schools. A separate girls' school for Christian girls had also been opened in Todgarh.

With the setting up of a sanatorium at Todgarh in the beginning of the present century, 200 more girls were sent there from the Nasirabad Orphanage and the Beawar Industrial Home. In 1914 the Government Inspector of Schools reported that these village schools were excellent centres of social work.'2 Six years later Macalister was struck "by the really efficient work most of these teachers were doing in the lonely villages under difficult circumstances In every class the boys were abreast of the curriculum, that meant right good work by the Pandit"3 Thus the Mission schools in the district of Todgarh compared very favourably with similar institutions in more central places.

5. JAIPUR (1866)

The birth of a Presbyterian Mission at Jaipur was due to the incidental visit of Dr. Colin Valentine, the famous medical missionary who had been invited by Maharaja Ram Singh to treat his sick wife in April 1866. He successfully treated the Maharani which pleased the Maharaja so much that he offered to place the educational institutions of his State under his supervision. Dr. Valentine accepted this offer on the condition that he would be free to preach the Gospel and spread Christianity. Thus Jaipur became the first Rajput State in Rajasthan to be thrown open to the Gospel in 1865. But it was not till 1872 that some progress in the mission educational work was made.

Twenty second Report (1883), p. 27. -third Report (1914), p 12.

inth Report (1920), p. 16.

Missionaiy Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan 77


With the arrival of Reverend John Traill, the first ordained missionary, at Jaipur in 1872, the number of scholars in the four Mission schools reached 230. The same year he opened an Anglo-vernacular school. By March 1876 there were two Anglo-vernacular schools with a total of 649 scholars including 32 girls.1 In the same year George Macalister succeeded him. It was due to his earnest and sincere efforts that not only the number of scholars, both boys and girls, rose, but the tone and effectiveness of the Mission schools in Jaipur and outside increased greatly. The Anglo-vernacular school was raised to the status of a High School which sent two boys, for the first time, in 1881 to the Calcutta University Entrance examination, but both failed. It was in 1885 that the first boy from the Mission School passed the above examination. But in 1903 the baptism of Pt. Ganpat Lai Mishra and Janki Bai shook the faith of the orthodox people of Jaipur resulting in the sudden withdrawal of scholars from the school. In 1907, however, eight of its boys, the highest number in one single year, passed the Entrance examination of the Allahabad University. In 1915 tuition fees were introduced in the school for the first time on an experimental basis which proved quite successful. It not only improved discipline but enabled the Mission to appoint qualified teachers.

In 1919, B. S. Paul replaced S. P. Andrews as Headmaster. He revitalized the school and added much to its efficiency during the next three decades.2 His dynamic personality, amiable temperament, and social nature contributed much to the all-round progress of the school. It was during his headmastership that a Hostel was opened in 1930 chiefly for the students of the Mission High School, but it was thrown open to the students of other schools also, if accommodation permitted. This was probably "the first attempt to open a hostel at Jaipur with proper arrange-

1. U. P. M. : Fourteenth Report (1875). p. 35 2. Paul was at the helm of affairs of the Mission High School in 1970

which was then known as "The Shiksha Samiti High School". He expired a couple of years ago.


ment and supervision".1 In 1948 Science was introduced which fulfilled the long-felt need. In 1947 the number of students on roll was more than 600 which amply proved the usefulness and utility of the school.

Vernacular Schools

Rev. John Traill, like other missionaries, took a lively interest in the spread of vernacular schools in Jaipur State which in 1872 numbered ten, including two exclusively for girls. Two of the eight schools for boys were located at Sambhar and Kor. But these schools, excepting Sambhar, languished mainly because of the inefficiency of the Pundits. In the beginning of the present century, however, there were seven Mission vernacular schools working in the different mohallas of the city and in the suburbs. Some of these were for the children of the lowest castes. In 1915 the schools were reorganised to make them truly 'feeder' to the High School, but their existence was, on the whole, one of continual struggle. In 1934 the Mission opened a new school for the "Chandpoliyas", a class of religious mendicants, which was indeed a laudable attempt to transform them into decent, hardworking citizens. But unfortunately this school had to be closed in 1940 after the departure from Jaipur of Rev. Dr. Orr which only shows that success always depended on individual initiative. In 1944 the Mission vernacular schools received a substantial grant-in-aid from the State.

Girls' Schools

To promote girls' education the missionaries opened two girls' vernacular schools in the city. The numbr of girls in these schools was 32 in 1872. But girls' education, on the whole, had a precarious existence till the second decade of the present century when public demand for girls' education was felt. To meet this new demand the Jain community opened a number of girls' schools in the city and attracted attendance in them by paying daily for it.

1. Letter Nc. 3703-0-20 D/-7.8.1930 from the Special Education Officer, Jaipur State, to the Education Minister of the State vide M. K. Jaipur, File No. G. 4/Edu 682 of 1930.


In 1915 the Mission was running three small schools for girls, one located in the Pan Dariba, ,i the other on Nahargarh road and the third in the Mission compound itself with a total of 96 girls in the three schools. Besides, the Zanana missionaries were also teaching girls mostly of the Kayastha community. In the next decade one more girls' school was opened, raising the number to four, two of which were Anglo-vernacular schools.

In 1935 the Jaipur State made provision for the education of girls of the depressed classes and from the same year fees were charged in both the Mission Girls' Anglo-vernacular Middle Schools. In 1943 the number of girls in the institutions rose to 370, a majority of whom were non-Christians. This was the time when Sir Mirza Ismail I was the Prime Minister of the State and during his progressive administration, girls' education kept pace with boys', if not outstripped it.

Sambhar and Phulera Schools 'I r ii

Within the first decade ofj the establishment of a Mission at Jaipur a vernacular school was opened at Sambhar. In 1885 it was converted into an Anglo-vernacular school when an English teacher was added to it. The same year a school was opened at Phulera for English and Urdu.1 The Sambhar school was later on closed in 19i6 having been in existence for more than three decades, when two other non-Ghristian schools were opened there. Thereafter the Mission educational work was confined to the low castes for whom there were noi educational facilities.

Bandikui ' i i ' ' i

Bandikui is an important Railway junction, 90 Kilometres north of Jaipur, on the Agra-Delhi-Ajmer routes. It was the headquarters of the Divisional Traffic Superintendent of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway. A good many of the railway officials were Europeans, Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians. It was, therefore, natural for the missionaries to have started a number of educational institutions-both boys' and girls' for the railway community there. The | missionaries through the good offices of Major W S. S Bisset, the Railway Agent, acquired some

so Modern Education in Rajasthan

land at Bandikui in 18811 \n May 1883, an Anglo-vernacular school for the children of the Indian employees of the Rajputana-Malwa Railway was opened with an everage attendance of 47. Soon the Government of India sanctioned a grant-in-aid of Rs. 33.12 per mensem for it.2 It sent up students for the Punjab Middle examination until 1904 when its students appeared at the Rajputana Middle Examination In 1907 Carstairs, a missionary at Alwar, improved the Bandikui school both in quality and quantity which made the Govt/ Inspector of Schools report favourably about it.s

As for the girls' school at Bandikui, it was well looked after by the wife of the Headmaster, Gorey. Another girls' school was opened there in 1914 with the financial support from the European congregation there. But this good educational work by the Mission was adversely affected when in 1947 the Bandikui Mission was closed.

6 ASHAPURA (1870)

During the terrible famine of 1868-69 which affected a greater part of Rajasthan, hundreds of children became orphans. They were not only picked up but taken care of by the missionaries. Those children were sent to Nasirabad for the time being, but to rehabilitate them permanently Rev. William Martin chalked out a scheme by which a tract of land was procured about four miles to the northeast of Nasirabad. There a Christian village was established as a settlement for the waifs and strays which was very appropriately named "ASHAPURA" (Hope Town). Two orphanages-one for boys aad the other for girls-were constructed and occupied in July and September 1872 respectively. Schools were also opened there.

Soon Ashapura became the first centre of community life in Rajasthan. It flourished for three decades when in 1899 a still worse and more devastating famine occurred which gave another

1. t l . P. M. : Twentieth Report (1881), p. 35. 2. Foreign Progs : Internal A November, 1885, No. 37. 3. U. P. M : Forty-seventh Report (1908), p. 30.


opportunity to the missionaries to enlarge the field of their activities. They now found themselves loco parentis to a lage number of orphan children and had to concert measures for their immediate maintenance and future livelihood. The result was the reorganisation arid enlargement of the settlement. They determined to educate the lads, teach them industries and fit them for employment. Rev. Ashcroft guided, managed and controlled every detail. Buchanan, who had undergone a regular scientific training and held the certificate of the City and Guilds of London, introduced training in the following trades :

( i ) Weaving,

(ii) Black-smith work,

(iii) Carpentry,

(iv) Tailoring,

(v) Masonry, and

(vi) Shoe making.

There were six hundred boys, 70 of whom used to go to Nasirabad to attend the Mission High School there and 220 were employed in various industrial arts. The boys spent six hours daily at their industrial occupations, while two hours in the afternoon were devoted to their general education; the older boys being taught Mechanical Drawing. Thus Ashapura became a "busy hive of industry" training young Christian boys as farmers, printers, carpenters, fitters, teachers etc. Tt was, therefore, the first serious effort on the part of the Mission to establish an Industrial School in Rajasthan on the thoroughly sound lines. It soon became an admirable institution conforming, in spirit if not in details, to the principles laid down in the Government of India's Resolution of 14th January, 1904.1 It clearly demonstrated what imaginative philanthropy could achieve in the domain of constructive activity.

1. The Govt, of India sanctioned a capitation grant of Rs. 15/—for each pupil subject to a maximum of Rs. 3,00/—a year and a grant of Rs. 2,500/—towards the cost of furniture and appliances (Foreign Progs : Intl. B June, 1905, No. 297.


7. DEOLI (1871)

The Mission station at Deoli-an important military cantonment in R.ijasthan-was established in 1871. In the very first year of its establishment an Anglo-Vernacular, seven village schools for boys and one for girls, were opened with a total number of 281 pupils on rolls. Two years afterwards the newly appointed medical missionary Dr. James Shepherd reached Deoli and his association with the station not only gave a healing touch to the sick but was also instrumental in opening new schools. As a result of his efforts the number of Vernacular schools rose to eleven with 434 scholars on rpll.i The Anglo-Vernacular school also, in spite of the Government and the Regimental schools, made rapid progress and an additional Munshi was appointed to teach Urdu and Persian. Another girls' school was opened to give fillip to female education. In 1878 two more girls' schools were opened in the bazar-one for higher classes and the other for the lower castes, and three night schools were also started. Thus by 1880 Deoli had become a centre of educational net work. This pace of the educational work continued unabated till the terrible famine of 1899-1900 when some of the village schools of Deoli had to be closed. But by 1910 when the Church Council put the station of Deoli under the charge of the Kota missionary, the schools were revived till the Mission Council decided to curtail their educational work in view of the Government's efforts in the field.

In had long been the desire of the missionaries to get a footing in the States of Rajputana, but so far Jaipur was the only State where the Mission had started its work. To obtain facilities for missionary work the Mission Conference, therefore, sent three deputations in October, 1876, to the capitals of the three important States, namely Kota, Jodhpur and Udaipur. Accordingly Dr. William Martin and Dr. James Shepherd set out in January 1877. They reached Udaipur and, after obtaining Maharana Shambhu Singh's permission, organised a Mission at

1. U.P.M. : Twelfth Report (1873), p. 30


Udaipur, which thus became the second Rajput State to be thrown open to the Christian missionaries.

8. UDAIPUR (1877)


Dr. James Shepherd-the medical missionary-arrived at Udaipur in November 1877. He soon established a dispensary and some schools in the city and the adjoining areas of Udaipur. "The Mission at first confined itself to the elementary stage, but by-and-by it had to rise to a higher grade of teaching demanded alike by the circumstances of the city, and the wants of the students themselves. The Mission school had a very small beginning in an old temple, in the Ganesh Ghati in the city. There for a short while both boys and girls were taught, until the classes became so large that it was absolutely impossible to work in the accommodation The girls retained the old school, and the boys were removed to a higher house in the Dhan mandi Nal."1

The Mission School, which was originally a vernacular school, showed such a marked success that it was raised to the status of an Anglo-vernacular school. It was due to Dr. Shepherd's efforts that the Mission became the pioneering agency of education in Udaipur. But neither funds nor colleagues were available. Ultimately the soaring prices, as the result of the great famine (1899-1900), compelled the Mission to reduce their Anglo-vernacular school to the status of a Primary Vernacular School in 1903 for want of funds^. It was one of the - bitter disappointments of Dr. Shepherd's life.

Vernacular Schools

As the appetite for education increased in Mewar, the Mission extended its activities beyond the limits of the city. Schools were, therefore, opened in Bedla, Bhawana, Kanpur, Nai and Ahar and later on in Bhilwara and Mavli. These Vernacular schools did

1. Shore, R: Medico-Topograhlcal Account of Mewar- p. 2. 2. U.P.M. : Forty-second Report (1903) p. 37.


invaluable work among the illiterate classes in Udaipur where little encouragement was available to boys and girls to obtain even an elementary education.

Girls' Schools

Female education in Mewar, like elsewhere in Rajasthan, had an uphill battle to fight, but the tenacity of Dr. Shepherd enabled him to open and maintain girls' schools, He opened the first one, with the help of capable Christian women teachers. "At first it was only by bribery that the little girls could be induced to attend. They received the large sum of one pice for each day's attendance".1 In 1905 there were four Mission Girls' Schools in Udaipur as againstone run by the State. In 1912 the Mission was maintaining five girls' schools-two in the city and one each at Mavli, Ahar and Bhilwara. This was a good record considering the general apathy of the people towards female education. During the next three decades there were scarcely any schools for girls in Udaipur except the Mission ones.

Bhil Boys' Home

Dr. Shepherd was very particular about the uplift of the Bhils from the state of their abject ignorance, superstition, and addiction to drinks and other bad habits. This could be achieved only through education and constant preaching. Hence he opened a Home for Bhil boys in 1886 with 27 inmates. They were given elementary education and some of -them were deputed to the Hospital to learn the compounder's work. Some were appointed as apprentices in the State workshops The terrible famine of 1899-1900 increased the number of orphan Bhil children, all of whom, both boys and girls, were kept in the Home. The girls were later on sent to the orphanage at Nasirabad. Classes in the Home were properly arranged and good progress made. Eight of the advanced boys in 1902 attended the schools in the city. Then through the efforts of Babu Rup Chand, the Bhil Orphanage School improved considerably Eleven boys joined the Normal school,

1. Carstairs, Q : Shepherd of Udaipur, P. 198.


Beawar. In 1913 the Church Missionary Society of Kherwara handed over their school-house and property at Pipleti to the Presbyterian Mission. Dr. Shepherd opened the Bhi! Mission there and a primary school which became important centres of Christian activity among the Bhils. Thus the Bhil Home and the Pipleti Bhil Mission were two of the most notable achievements of Dr. Shepherd in the field of educational and social uplift of the Bhil population of the area Through these two institutions not only education was spread among the Bhils, but their economic condition and social status were also raised.

9. ALWAR (1880)

The first Christian Mission established in Alwar was the Baptist Mission which was opened there in 1877 by St. Dalmas. He remained there for three years when in January 1880 he requested the Presbyterian Mission to occupy his place and carry on the work he had initiated. The offer was accepted and Rev. Alexander Pringle C. Jameson took over charge of the Baptist Mission establishment on behalf of the Presbyterians. At that time Alwar was considered to be one of the advanced States of Rajasthan in the matter of education. There were already sixty boys' schools and fifteen girls' schools-all maintained by the State.i


The Presbyterian Mission also did not lag behind. Within a year of its establishment it opened one Anglo-Vernacular and seven Vernacular schools. Within two years, the Anglo-Vernacular school was shifted to a new house and in 1887 its status was raised to that of a High school when an Entrance class with ten boys was opened. The same year fees were introduced for the first time. But the next two years convinced the Mission that it was no use keeping the higher status of the school because of the inadequacy of the staff. Accordingly the school was down-graded which resulted in the departure of the senior boys to join the State High School.2

After that the Mission school remained only as an Anglo-

1. U. P. M. : Nineteenth Report (1880) pp. 40-41. 2. U. P. M. : Twenty-eighth Report (1889), p. 22.


vernacular Middle school preparing candidates for the Punjab Middle examination. In 1903 when the latter examination was abolished, the Mission school sent up its candidates for the newly-started Rajputana Middle Examination. In 1907 when Carstairs was appointed a Missionary at Alwar, he gave his attention to the Alwar Mission school and introduced many changes to bring it more in line with the State educational requirements. The number of scholars rose enormously by 1911 which necessitated the extension of the school building. The popularity of this Mission school can be judged by the fact that it was the only Anglo-vernacular school in Alwar to charge tuition fees, when no such fees were charged by the State schools, and yet the number of scholars in the Mission school went up. Thus emboldened by the success of their educational policy the Mission introduced in July 1912 a weekly Teachers' Training Class in the school. In this way the Mission continued rendering a very useful educational service to the people of Alwar.

Vernacular Schools

The Mission opened seven vernacular schools in 1881, two in the outskirts of the city of Alwar and five in the district around. By 1886 their number increased to ten with 800 boys on roll. Some of these schools were established in Alwar, Rajgarh and Bandikui and they acted as feeders to the Mission Anglo-vernacular school. The two vernacular schools in Alwar and the one in Rajgarh were largely attended by the despised Chamars for whose education the State had made no provision. Thus the Mission achieved spectacular success in bringing about a social change in the status of the down-trodden which is evident from the fact that two of the teachers in the Mission schools were Chamars in 1903.1

At the request of the Methodist Episcopal Mission, the Presbyterian Mission took over their station at Malakhera in 1916. Accordingly Wilkie opened a Vernacular school there which soon gained reputation and importance. One special feature of that school was the number of girls who attended it. In the years

1. U. P. M. : Forty-second Report (1903), p. 4 1 .


to come the Mission fulfilled a very great need in the field of vernacular education in Alwar State.

Girls' Education

In January 1887, Mrs. Jameson took over the school for girls in Alwar hitherto conducted by the ladies of the S. P. G. (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel) Mission, Rewari. Maharaja Mangal Singh allowed the Mission a grant of rupees ten per month in aid of the Mission Girls' school. In July 1888, another school for girls where Urdu was to be taught was opened in Alwar. This was later on amalgamated with the previous one. Thus the Alwar Mission was maintaining three girls' schools in 1901, of which the one at Bandikui was the best. The other two were at Alwar and Rajgarh. At Malakhera quite a good number of girls attended the boys' school.

10. JODHPUR (1885)

Although the Mission work began in Jodhpur in 1883, the formal opening of a Mission station there by Dr. Sommerville took place only in 1885. Two years afterwards a Vernacular school was established there in an out-house belonging to the hospital, but because of the opposition to religious teaching it had to be closed after sometime. The next year another attempt was made to open a boys' school with a roll of 30 and a new beginning was made for a girls' school with a roll of ten. These two schools lingered on, the number of scholars going up and down in different years until they were closed. In 1901 Miss Sommerville reopened the girls' school which small boys also attended. The boys' school was also revived. These two schools formed the only Mission educational enterprise in Jodhpur for a long time, and a surprising factor of this enterprise was that it restricted itself to the vernacular side, and no attempt was made to introduce the teaching of English in them. Another noteworthy feature of this enterprise was the special provision for teaching the boys the Marwari system of writing and accounts.

In 1938 the Saint Andrews Hall was completed in Sardarpura and was formally opened on 23rd Feb., 1938 by Sir Donald Field,


the Prime Minister of the State. The girls' Primary school was then shifted there and it continued to meet there in the succeeding years. Thus of all the Mission stations in Rajasthan, Jodhpur was the least benefited by the missionary educational enterprise both in quantity and quality >

11. KOTA (1889)

Boys' Education

Twelve years after the arrival of a Mission deputation at Kota a Mission station was opened there in 1889. As the State had already an Anglo-vernacular school in the capital and as there was not much scope for another, the Mission only formed a class of English speaking youths who met twice a week to discuss questions. Most of these youths were senior pupils of the State High Scools whom Bonnar had collected round him. He also opened some Vernacular schools for both boys and girls which progressed satisfactorily. Thus in 1891 there were three Mission sch ools for girls in Kota, but the smallest of them was closed in 1898.

The great famine of 1899-1900 created a wider field for Christian activities, which were carried through the agency of small Vernacular schools. In 1910 the State introduced the new curriculum for the Vernacular schools which the Mission schools-then eight in number, including three for girls-had also to follow. In 1914 the Mission schools suffered a set back as a result of the opening of a fine State High School with its branches in the city. But still the Mission provided education for a certain class of boys who might not otherwise have received any. Later on when the State made primary education compulsory and opened new schools, some in the very vicinity of the Mission schools, the number of pupils in the latter decreased all the more.

Girls' Education

In addition to boys' vernacular schools, schools for girls were also opened by the Mission in Kota and the adjoining areas. In

1. The girls' primaiy school at Jodhpur is now a Higher secondary school.


1901 there were three Mission girls' schools in Kota, one of which was closed due to the famine. In 1912 the number of Mission vernacular schools for boys and girls grew to eight, three of which were girls' schools. Two of them were situated in the Ladpura and Sripura localities of the city. The great lack of women teachers in Kota limited the number of Zenana pupils. As elsewhere, in Kota also co-education in the lower classes was tried and being found suceessful, was allowed to continue. In 1945 there were five Mission primary schools in Kota-three of which were girls' schools.

12. PIPLODA (1905)

The great famine of 1899-1900 afforded an opportunity for Christian settlement at Piploda near Kota. The site was selected because the Maharao of Kota (Ummed Singh II) met the need of the Mission and granted the village of Piploda, with its cultivable land, on easy terms to Bonnar who had taken upon himself the

- mission of rehabilitation of young Christian boys.t Soon schools both for boys and girls were opened there. Later on provision for kindergarten was also made. Although only primary education was provided there, it fulfilled a great need and created an urge for better social status. The number of scholars both in the boys' and girls' schools increased necessitating the extention of accommodation. Accordingly in 1919 Miss King submitted a scheme for girls' hostel and school which was accepted by the Mission. A Boarding House with 97 girl's as boarders was, therefore, opened in September 1922. This was a red-letter day in the educational history of Piploda which two decades ago was an unknown and neglected village. Side by side with girls' education, boys' education was "also well managed and the Piploda Boys' school prepared candidates for the Vernacular Final Examination of the United Provinces Departmental Board. In 1935 the Girls' Vernacular Lower Middle School was raised to the status of the Vernacular Middle School. Thus Piploda signified the Mission's creative efforts for giving a new life and hope to the people of a village which was steeped in ignorance, filth and superstition.

1. U. P. M. : Forty-sixth Report (1907), p. 31.

4. Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan (Contd.)

II. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSION

To provide education to the children of the European and the Anglo-Indian technicians who had come to Ajmer in the wake of the opening of the railways (1875), a school was established there in 1876. As it hardly met the religious needs of the European Catholic children, Reverend Dr. M.A. Jacopi requested the Commissioner of Ajmer-Merwara in 1881 for suitable financial help for the construction of a Roman Catholic Chapel at Ajmer. With the assistance of a grant made by the Government1, a Chapel came into existence there in the same year. But it took more than a decade for the French Capuchin Fathers of the Roman Catholic Mission to start their first boys' school in Rajasthan at Ajmer in 1893. A reference to the opening of this school has been made in the report of the Prefect Apostolic of Rajputana for the year 1896.

St. Mary's Convent, Ajmer.

In 1896 (3rd February) the Religious Mothers of the congregation of the Saint Mary of the Angels opened a school with 60 children

1. The Roman Catholic Congregation at Ajmer in 1881 numbered about 200 persons - men, women and children vide latter dated 26th February, 1881, from Dr. Jacopi, the Bishop of Agra, to the Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara. Foreign Progs : Gen! B., September, 1881, Nos. 99-100.

Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajas than 91

as Saint Mary's Convent with a hostel for the European girls of Ajmer. Within a year the school gathered 104 children of whom 82 were European, 21 Portuguese and 1 Parsee. The teaching staff consisted of five nuns and two lady teachers-all European. Then through the persistent efforts of Father Berram the Government of India sanctioned a monthly grant of Rs. 100/- to the Convent School with effect from the 9th June 1899i.

In 1901 the Convent School had 114 children (both boys and-girls) as against 108 in 1900 and 104 in 1899. The 114 children included 83 European and Eurasian, 29 Portuguese and 2 Hindus. Of these 114 childern, 19 were boarders. When the school was raised to the Middle standard in 1905, its grant was incraised to Rs.153-12-0 per mensem2. Later on the Junior and Senior Cambridge classes were also opened. In 1951 the Convent was raised to the Intermediate Arts standard and in 1956 Commerce was also introduced in the Intermediate classes. But after having existed as an Intermediate College for a decade, the institution was downgraded when the Intermediate section was abolished in 1961 and it was converted into a Higher- Secondary school, since when it has been maintaining that status.

St. Anselm's High School, Ajmer.

From its very inception the Convent has been a co-educational institution, but in October 1904 it was proposed to separate the Boys' section from the Girls.' For this purpose the Government sanctioned a further grant of Rs. 900/-in 1905-06.3 Thus the separation of the boys from the girls of the Roman Catholic Convent brought into existence a new school-with 54 boys-which came to be known as the St. Anselm's. In 1905 three boys of the school appeared in the Middle Examination which was a step in the direction of raising it to a High School standard. A boarding school had been attached to the school right from its very beginning which in 1905 contained 29 boarders. The next year the school was raised to the High School standard of the Allahabad University

1. Foreign Proceedings Internal A, June 1899, No. 178. 2. Foreign Proceedings Internal B, Februaryi 1905, No. 224. 3. Foreign Proceedings Internal B, February, 1905, No* 227.

92 Modern Education in Rajastlian

and the Government of India sanctioned a grant-in-aid of Rs. 600-per annum with effect from 1st April, 1907.1 Next year the Government increased their grant to Rs l,200/-per annum. A special non-recurring grant of Rs. 500/-was also sanctioned.2

Upto the year 1913 the St. Mary's Convent for girls and the St. Anselm's High School for boys both existed in the same campus in adjoining buildings. But in that year the Convent was shifted from there to a new building on the Nasirabad road. Since then both these institutions have been functioning in separate and distinct buildings in two different localities and have been doing excellent educational work in the province through the medium of English. For about a decade the St. Anselm's existed as an Intermediate College, but like the St. Mary's Intermediate College, it was also downgraded in 1961 and was converted into a Higher Secondary School, which status it has been keeping since then.

Sophia Girls' College, Ajmer.

By its very nature the St. Mary's Convent School primarily looked to the needs of the European and the Anglo-Indian girls, but the admission of Indian girls was very rare. To meet the educational demand of the Indian Catholic families, the Bishop of Ajmer, the Right Reverend Mgr. Fortunatus Henry Caumont, therefore, founded in 1911, with the help of his two sisters, Mother Mary Matilda and Mother Mary Fortnata, two Congregations of Sisters, one to work for the English speaking people and the other for the Hindi speaking people. One of their aims was to impart education to Indian children. To achieve this aim, the St. Angela's school was established at Ajmer in 1911 for the Indian Catholic children. Then on the request of some well-to-do non-Christian families of Ajmer another primary school was opened in May 1919 in the building now known as St. Francis Hospital, Beawar Road, Ajmer. The supervision, control, and management of this new school, known as the Sophia, were entrusted to the Mission Sisters of Ajmer, one of the two Congregations referred

1. Foreign Proceedings Internal B, April, 1907. No. 362. 2. Foroige Proceedings Internal B, August, 1909, No. 43.


to above, and Mother Mary Matilda became its first Principal. The earlier school, the St. Angela's, continued to educate the Catholic children. But in 1926 it was found that two schools could not and should not continue in the same place. Hence the St. Angela was transferred to Jaipur.

Since its very inception the Sophia school gained popularity and the number of its scholars increased from year to year. In 1926 the Education Department of the erstwhile Ajmer-Merwara recognised it and classed it as "a special Public English school for Indian boys and girls." The first grant to this school was, therefore, given in 1927. Since then it has figured as an "Aided Institution". The courses followed were those of the Cambridge Examinations. Then in view of the importance and utility of the school, some parents requested for the opening of private college classes in the institution. Consequently a private tutorial B. A. class was opened in 1942 with only 2 girls. They were sent for the B.A. examination of the Agra University in 1944. As both of them passed, the experiment proved successful and became a regular feature. Since then the institution gained a reputation and earned a place of its own in the higher educational institutions for women in Rajputana both for academic achievements and co-curri-cular activities. Now it is a full-fledged women's Degree College affiliated to the University of Rajasthan. It has shifted to a new imposing building of its own and is considered as one of the best Women's Degree colleges in northern India.

St. Angela's School for Girls, Jaipur.

It has already been explained under what circumstances the St. Angela School had to be transferred from Ajmer to Jaipur in 1926. At its beginning it was housed in a very old building near the Ghat gate which was formerly used by Christian boys studying for priesthood and which had then been left vacant. There the Sisters and the orphans stayed. Soon a new block was constructed as the existing accommodation was insufficient. In those days cannons were fired in the vicinity of the Church to mark the hours. On the night of 5th November, 1927, as the cannons fired, the school building collapsed killing Sister Superior (Sister Margaret) and five orphans. This tragic accident brought to lime-


light the sincere and devoted work and self sacrifice of the Sisters. Requests soon came from the non-Christians to admit their children, which was conceded in September 1928. The first Hindu day scholar was Miss Dhanyavati, the daughter of the Jail Superintendent whom Sister Veronica, the first Headmistress, admitted in the school.

In 1931 the school was recognised as a Middle school. It grew in fame and strength after 1943 and remained as a Middle school till 1959, when it was upgraded as a High School. Now it is working as a Higher Secondary School.

St. Mary's Boys' School, Jaipur

The St. Angela's was mainly a girls' school, although a sprinkling of boys was also admitted to the infant and primary classes. The School impressed some of the prominent citizens of Jaipur who pleaded with Revd. Ignatius for a similar school for the high-caste boys. Accordingly the Bishop of Ajmer appointed Revd. Father Arthur in 1941 to give it a practical shape. Thereupon the St. Mary's Boys school was started in July 1941 by Father Arthur with only three boys on roll. The classes were held in the two rooms behind the Roman Catholic Church at Ghat gate, Jaipur. Two teachers-Rev. Father Arthur and A. F. Ilahi were the only members of the staff of the school which at that time could boast of possessing a dining-room bell and an old time-piece as the only necessary school material. The number of scholars soon increased to 17 and the two teachers taught the classes alternately.

In January 1,942 the school was shifted in a portion of Purohit Dwarkanath's Garden House on Ajmer road where the number of its scholars rose to 55. In July of the year the State Education Department not only recognised it as a Cambridge School, but also granted an aid of Rs. 110/-. This was the second important event in the history of the school which now had four classes. In January 1943, the school was again shifted to Wali-Gardens on Moti Doongari road where the number of its scholars increased to 75. In July of the year the control and management of the school passed into the hands of the American Jesuit Fathers of Patna and this constitutes the third landmark in the


brief history of this school, for now the aims, objects and the scope of the school were changed for the better.

St. Xavier's School, Jaipur

The St. Mary's Boys' school, Jaipur, was later on converted into the St. Xavier's school. This transformation is an important event in the educational history of Jaipur and also of Rajasthan. It has its own story and, like the establishment of the Presbyterian Mission in Jaipur in 1866, the opening of the St. Xavier's school there in 1943 may also be described as circumstantial. In November 1942, Sir Mirza Ismail, the then Prime Minister of Jaipur State, visited the St. Xavier's School, Patna. Pleased with what he saw, he invited the Jesuit Fathers to make a similar venture in Jaipur. This suggestion was taken to be providential. Accordingly in March 1943 Father Loesch took over charge of the St. Mary's School from Father Arthur who had joined the French forces in the Second World War. In July 1943 Father Robert Ludwig opened the school with 69 boys and became its first Principal. In September 1943, Father W. Hussey replaced Father Ludwig as Principal. In the meantime the Government of Jaipur granted 12 acres of land to which were added five acres more, purchased at a total cost of Rs. 25,000/-. On these 17 acres of land now stand the various blocks of imposing buildings which house the school, the hostel and the residences for the Jesuit teachers

The school was moved from the Wali Gardens to its own buildings in January 1945 and six months later its name was changed from the St. Mary's to the St Xavier's. It had then 82 boys on its roll which number rose to 176 in 1946. In January 1948 Father E. Mann replaced Father Fox (he had replaced Father Hussey in July 1947) as Principal and the number of scholars rose to 243, of whom 20 were in the hostel.

The school followed the course of studies set down by the Cambridge University for its School Certificate Examination. Later on the school also prepared boys for the High School examination of the Rajputana University. At first only the very essential 'literary' subjects were taught, but afterwards other courses such as Painting and Drawing, Woodcraft, Radio


technology, First-Aid Training etc. were also introduced. The medium of instruction ni the school was and still is English, but all the boys had to passa public examination in Hindi before they were allowed to take the Cambridge Examination. In 1963 it was-affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi, and its first batch was presented in 1966. At present it is running two courses, one for the Senior Cambridge Examination and the other for the All India Higher Secondary Examination, Central Board, New Delhi. !

The school thus meets a great need of the high class people of Jaipur and Rajasthan who want their, sons and wards, to be given a better type of education through the- medium of English. That this need is real is evident by the large number of students who flock tp-the school for admission every year even though the fees there are very high as compared. with those charged in other schools in the city. A distinct tone, atmosphere and demeanour, prevail in the school which can easily be discerned by observing the students both in and.outside the class-rooms. That sometimes they assume airs of superiority is true, but this is a charge which is levelled against all institutions which run on Public School lines, and the St. Xavier's School cannot be an exception to it.

III. THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION

Another Mission which did much for the educational development of Ajmer-Merwara and the adjoining areas in the earlier period was the Canadian Methodist Episcopal Mission. It was in 1874 that it was founded in Rajasthani, and Ajmer was later on chosen as its district headquaters. The Methodists in the beginning restricted their educational activities to elementary education when they opened a number of primary schools, both for boys and girls. In 1894 they opened a girls' school in Ajmer which developed steadily. In 19.01-02 it began to prepare girls for the Girls Middle School Examination of the Education Department of the United Provinces. Till 1S06 four of its girls had passedthat examination- and in the first decade of the present-century it was 'one of the only two girls' schools in Rajputana.

1. Richter, Julius : History, of Indian Mission,?. 213


that imparted education upto the Middle standard.! The other school was the Presbyterian Mission Girls' School, Nasirabad. The Methodists had also opened a boys' primary school in Ajmer which was raised to the Middle standard in 1907.

In addition to this regular school education, the Methodist Mission had also made arrangements for giving a special course of instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic in the vernacular to girls who were supposed to' be too big for regular schooling. They were also given training in plain sewing, embroidery, drawn thread etc; 44 girls were receiving this kind of training in 1906.

Another noteworthy feature of the educational work of this Mission was the Normal class they had started to train women teachers. They had to undergo a two years' course. The Government Inspector of Schools who visited the Methodist Episcopal Mission Girls' School in October 1906, considered it well deserving of Government support, for it supplied a class of instruction for girls that was not available elsewhere in Ajmer. Accordingly a grant-in-aid of Rs. 600/- a year was sanctioned by the Government of India with effect from 1st April 1907.2 Such was the good work done by this school that not only the number of its scholars increased, but its utility and need were also effectively recognised by the Government of India when its grant-in-aid was increased from Rs. 600/- to Rs. 1188/-per annum in 1915-16.3 This school, then known as the Avery Girls' Middle School, rendered very valuable service in the cause of girls' education in Ajmer during the next two decades more. But for sometime past the Mission was finding it very difficult, because of financial stringency and some other reasons, to run its educational institutions any more. Hence in 1918 it agreed to close its boys' schools and send their scholars to the Husband Memorial High School, Ajmer In 1935 because of the same reasons the Methodists agreed to hand over their girls'Middle School (the Avery Girls' Middle School) to the Presbyterian Mission. A few years

1. Foreign Progs : Intl. B., Marcn 1907, Nos. 37-38. 2. Foreign Progs : Intl. B. March 1907, Nos. 37-38. 3. Foreign progs : Intl. B. October 1914, Nos. 100-101.


afterwards they decided to close their work in Rajasthan and agreed to transfer at a nominal price their Girls' Middle School and its attached Hostel permanently to the Presbyterians. Thus the good educational work done by the Methodists in Rajasthan was brought to an unfortunate end.

IV. OTHER MISSIONS

In addition to the Missions mentioned above, a few others also established centres of their activities in Rajasthan. Thus the Church Missionary Society, by the desire and at the expenses of a subsequent Bishop, Bikersteth, established in 1880 the station at Kherwara amongst the Bhils. There a very devoted missionary, the Rev. C. S Thompson, opened a number of schools and laboured with great self-sacrifice for twenty years until cholera carried him off in 1900.1

Anthother Mission was that of the Church of England which was founded in Ajmer in 1883.2 Although it mainly performed the duties of chaplaincy for the British residents-both civil and military-stationed at Ajmer and nearabout, it did something for the cause of education in Rajasthan. But its educational work was very restricted and short-lived. Similar was the case of the S. P. G. (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel) Mission which had also opened a number of schools for boys. In 1918 it agreed along with the Methodists to close their boys' schools and send their scholars to the Presbyterian Mission School.3

V. APPRAISAL

In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to give a brief history of the educational activities of the various Missions work in Rajasthan. Before we evaluate their contribution and the role they have played in the spread of modern education in Rajasthan, it would be necessary to understand properly the underlying reasons which prompted them to open schools in such far-off lands.

1. Richter, J . : Op. Cit., p. 217 2. U.P.M. : Twenty second Report (1883). p. 16. 3. U.P.M. : Fifty seventh Report (1918). p. 11.


The first question that naturally arises in this connection is were the Missionaries actuated by a mere philanthropic spirit to spread education for its own sake in distant foreign countries, or was education a means to an end. If so, what was that ultimate aim to achieve which they considered education necessary ? This is a qnestion which demands our earnest attention.

The first and the foremost object of the Missionaries was to convert people to Christianity. It was not primarily their business to educate the people of Rajasthan. They were concerned with education' only so far as it subserved their chief purpose.1

And this chief purpose was evangelization which means "the conversion of people from worldliness to Christlike godliness."2

James has clearly stated, ' The aims of the Missionaries were actually directed to using education, not an end in itself, but as a means to evangelization. But the desire to educate as a means to conversion led to single-minded and whole-hearted labours in the case of education in and for itself ."3 Basu has very succintly put it, "To the missionaries education has always been 'evangelico praeparatio' a preparation for evangelization, and their schools have been fruitful media for preaching Christianity."4

There was another reason why the missionaries had to open and run schools. In the words of Nurullah and Naik, "the early converts to Christianity came mostly from the lowest rung of the Hindu society. They were generally illiterate and as reading the Bible was held to be essential for salvation, the missionaries were required to establish schools in order to teach the new converts to read and write This duty became all the more urgent because neither the indigenous schools nor the Government schools could admit all the Indian Christian children and they would have remained without any education whatsoever if the missionaries had not organised schools of their own. In short, the missionaries soon realised that schools were both the cause

1. Anderson and Whitehead : Christian Education in India, p. 1. 2. Paton, William (Editor) : Studies in Evangelism, p. 46. 3. James, H, R. : Education and Statesmanship in India, p. 13. 4. Basu, A.N. : Education In Modern India, p. 17.


and effect of proselytisation and that educational and missionary work had to be undertaken side by side, and it is out of this realisation that the missionary schools of modern India were born"i

The Christian missionaries rendered yeoman service to the cause of modern education in Rajasthan. Curiously enough, the three Missions-Presbyterian (1860), Methodist Episcopal (1874) and Roman Catholic (lS81)and the two smaller ones, S P. G. and Church Missionary Society-were the main private educational enterprise in Rajasthan (except the Arya Samaj) during the second half of the nineteenth century. Their pioneering activities in this field showed the path to the Government which gradually stepped in and took over the responsibility of educating the common people of the province.

In spite of the fact that conversion was their primary goal, a band of sincere and devoted Missionaries, ignoring the hazards of life, opened schools of various types in the remote parts of the province, even among the Bhils. The names of Jabez Carey (Ajmer), ShooJbred (Beawar), Martin (Nasirabad). Dr. Colin Valentine (Jaipur), Shepherd (Udaipur) and Thompson (Kherwara) have a secure place in the early history of education in Rajasthan. These pioneers faced innumerable hurdles in their way. Inclement weather, recurring outbreaks of epidemics and famines, paucity of funds, dearth of qualified teachers, lack of adequate means of communication with their headquaters, superstitious beliefs of the people and their suspicion that the Missionaries were the potential agencies of conversion, withdrawal of wards by their parents, and even occasional oppostion of the local Government were some of their serious difficulties. But due to their perseverance and persistent efforts, these obstacles did not prove insurmountable.

It is indeed very difficult to evaluate the impact of their educational activities on the common people in the absence of necessary statistical data indicating the growth of school-age children in the concerned areas and the corresponding academic

1. Nurullah and Naik : History of Education in India, pp. 60-61,


waste. Government records in this respect are generally silent. However, it must be admitted that the Missionaries made a significant contribution in developing the personality of the pupils who had the ability and the patience to complete their education in the Mission schools. It can hardly be denied that a handful of pupils were immensely benefited from this type of education as it inculcated self-confidence and self-reliance in them.

In their range and variety of educational enterprise, the Missionaries set an example to the indigenous agencies. The Dayanand Ashram Anglo-Vedic school which came into existence in the eighties of the last century at Ajmer was a response of the Hindu revivalists to the challenge of Christian education in Rajasthan.

There were many distinctive features of the Missionary education in tne State. In the first place, they were the pioneers to penetrate into the villages for the purpose of education. Vernacular village schools, and in some areas joint-village schools, came into existence To enlist the support of the village Patels

(headmen) in the spread of education, Pagrees (head-dresses) and prizes were periodically distributed among them which proved a great incentive to the local population.

Another remarkable feature of Missionary educational enterprise was the promotion of women's education which even till the thirties of the present century was limited to a very minor portion of the population. Not only co-education was introduced for the first time by them, but separate girls' schools and even a women's Indusrrial Home were set up in order to make education purposeful. The latter being craft-oriented, it provided stimulus to the indigent and the destitute women. Even Zenana missionaries imparted elementary education by visiting regularly ai istocratic purdah ladies.

Yet another distinguishing feature of the Missionary educational activity was the systematic training of teachers in Normal schools without which the growth of modern education in this part of the country would have been retarded. As the schools multiplied and the strength of pupils increased considerably, the demand for qualified teachers was met by the training course in


such schools. It is indeed very interesting that the first Women's Normal School was also opened by the Missionaries.'

Still more important from the point of view of democratic socialism was the Mission's effort to educate the sweepers, Chamars and orphans-the neglected and the down-trodden. The Missionaries made continuous and sustained efforts in removing the social evils of untouchability through education and the Message of Christ. Even the hostile and antagonistic campaigns of the conservatives could not dissuade them from the pursuit of such a policy. Indeed, the Missionaries deserve praise for their dogged tenacity and introducing night schools and extending educational facilities to the service class.

No less remarkable was their first commendable effort towards vocational education in this feudal State. The Industrial School at Beawar, almost a century ago (1883 A. D.) provided training in such useful and practical trades as weaving, carpentry, black-smithy, tailoring, masonry and shoe-making. This new approach of 'learning by doing' was unprecedented in the history of modern education in Western India. Besides, the training facilities for nurses, midwives and compounders further widened the scope of education in the backward regions of the province.

A. glance at the educational map of Rajasthan (facing p. 75) showing the centres of Missionary educational enterprise would reveal that the various missions over-lapped their spheres, which more or less, was confined to the eastern parts of the State. The main pivot was undoubtedly Ajmer, but the circumference extended to Alwar in the east. Thus a cosiderable area of northern and western parts remained uncovered and, therefore, neglected. This may be attributed to a number of factors such as the thin population of the region, the lack of suitable means of transport, the unsympathetic attitude of the rulers (e. g. of Bikaner), paucity of funds and the bleak prospect of conversion.

To sum up, the early Missionaries had to face intensive competition of the various Church Societies and Mission working in the field of education in Rajasthan. As many as five Missions operated, each with its own bias-the Presbyterian preferring vernacular as the medium of instruction, while the Roman Catholic


stressing the English medium. It is revealing that in this race the Roman Catholics finally triumphed. They are running today the best Christian Institutions of the State. St. Xavier's and St. Angela's at Jaipur, St. Mary's, St. Paul's, St. Anselm's and the Sophia at Ajmer, St. Mary's and St. Paul's at Udaipur and St. Patrick's at Jodhpur, are the first-grade secondary and higher educational institutions. Though the Government of the day rarely recognised and appreciated the remarkale contributions of the missionaries, yet they were the first to start a Litho press for the printing of school text-books and other propaganda materials in English and the Vernacular languages. In the sphere of higher education, which has been discussed in another chapter, excepting one girls' degree college (the Sophia), the Missionaries hardly played any part in Rajasthan. Still their contribution in the differect branches of education in this State is undobtedly great, as may be gleaned from the map on page 104.


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5. Education of the Princes And Nobles

The East India Company did little for the systematic schooling of the Princely Order in India. Lord Wellesley's policy of subsidiary alliances created a false sense of security among the allied Princes for it "extinguished the spirit of the ruling, fighting and administrative classes, and at the same time degraded and impoverished the people."i it was a populer belief among the common people that as an ignorant and illiterare ruler could easily be made to hang on the British Power for the preservation and maintenance of his rights and privileges, so it was in British interest to neglect the Princes' education. And as education of the ruler was considered to be an internal ' affair of the allied States, the British Government, so the common people believed, took refuge under the treaty obligations for paying scant attention to the education of the ruling Chiefs. Nothing can be far from truth than-this erroneous view, for the contemporary Despatches, directives and letters from the Secretary of State for India tell a different story.

I. EARLY BRITISH EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS.

Rajput alliance had been a potential factor in the consolidation of Mughal rule in India. The value of this alliance was realised by Lord Hastings also even1 when trie Rajputs had become a spent up force. So, with the sanction' of the Home authorities, he opened negotiations with the Rajasthan States, and entered into treaties of "defensive alliance, perpetual friendship, & protection

1. Roberts. P. E. India Under Wellasley, p. 37.


and subordinate co-operation". This involved a moral responsibility - however indirect-for the welfare and good government of the Company's '-natural allies". The period of minoritieb that ensued in a number of Rajasthan States, after Lord Hastings' departure, was thus a testing time for the British government to improve the administrative structure of those states and to adopt measures for the proper education of their infant rulers.

1. Education of Maharaja Balwaut Singh of Bharatpur

In 1830 Trevelyan, the acting Political Agent at Bharatpur, under instructions from the Governor General decided that the young Maharaja Balwant Singh should be taught English in preference to Persian language. Accordingly Lord William Bentinck made arrangements for the supply of suitable English books, "in token of our willingness and anxiety to adjust the Rajah in his English studies."1

Lushington, the next Political Agent at Bharatpur, visited the Maharaja weekly in his fort for hearing him read and inspecting his writing books. In his report to W. B Martin, the Resident at Delhi, be pointed out how difficult it was to educate the Indian Princes, generally surrounded by interested advisers "who see in the Chief's studies their own ruin, in his knowledge their own discomfiture", and who considered that "the time he devotes to English would be far better employed in hunting and other amusements".2 A few montns later the Agent complained of the vicious intrigues and evil influence of Rani Imrat Kunwar which she exerted on the young Raja's mind through one of her partisans. The Agent observed that "various persons holding appointments about his (the Raja's) person had been endeavouring to estrange his mind from his books and from the present ministry with the view of serving thier own interested ends."3

1. Foreign Political Despateh to the Court of Directors, 9th Oct. 1830, No. 17.

2. Martin to Prinsep : 2nd June 1831. Foreign Pol. Cons : 22nd July 1831, No. 49.

3. Lushington to Maitin : 10th Dec, 1831 Foreign Pol, Cons : 23rd Jan. 1832, No, 82.

Education of the Princes and Nobles 107

It is with reference to this report that we get a glimpse of the Government's policy regarding the education of the Indian Princes when the Secretary to the Governor General wrote back to the Resident at Delhi as follows:^-

"It is not His Lordship's wish that the officiating Political Agent should make this a matter of formal representation to the Durbar of Bhurtpore or evince more than such a general interest in the young Rajah's studies, as is natural on the part of the British Government towards a young Chief under its guardianship and circumstanced like the Rajah."1

In spite of this cautious policy of the Government, the Political Agent continued taking interest in the young Raja's education and requested the Governor General for a present of suitable books "as a prooj of the interest which is felt by the British Government in the successful and well-directed prosecution of His Highness's studies.'"'* It was in response to this request that a number of selected books and maps were sent to the Maharaja who gratefully acknowledged them.3

2. Education of .Maharaja Ram Singh of Jaipur

Born on 23rd September, 1833, Maharaja Ram Singh succeeded to the Gaddi in February 1835 when he was less than two years old. Naturally a minority administration was established in Jaipur. During this period the British Government assumed through the Regency Council the duties of guardianship of the infant Maharaja in which capacity the responsibility of his education devolved upon them. When the Maharaja was only three years old the Government of India decided to provide "a suitable education for the

1. Prinsep to Martin : 28th Dec, 1831 Foreign Pol. Cons : 2nd Jan. 1882,

No. 83.

2. Martin to Prinsep : 2nd June, 1831 Foreign Pol. Cons : 22nd July, 1831,

No. 49.

3. Maharaja Balwant Singh to C. E. Trevelyan, Secretary, Secret & Political Dept. Govt, of India : 15th Dec, 1834; Foreign Pol.Cons. 19th Feb., 1835, No, 96. '


young Raja of Jyepoor."1 Three years later the Court of Directors wrote to the Governor General "for giving to the young Raja an education fitting him for the high station he will hereafter fill and for introducing him generally to a knowledge of public business under the guidance of the Political Agent."2 Arrangements were, therefore, made for the young Raja's education which upto his eleventh year was not systematic - being confined only to the study of Sanskrit on traditional lines. Later on a Brahman of Agra College "by name Sheodeen, possessing the requisite qualifications was sent for instructing the Maharaja in Oordoo, Hindee and Persian, and during the first years of his study of English."3

Thus Maharaja Ram Singh commenced his regular studies in his fourteenth year under Pt. Shiv Deen. He soon finished his spelling book and also a part of Aesop's Fables, Geography and History. The other subject of his study were Natural History, Botany and Natural Philosophy. In addition to his regular studies, the Maharaja was also kept informed on all matters connected with State affairs.4

3. Education of Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Bharatpur.

Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Bharatpur ascended the Gaddi in 1853 when he was barely three years old. A minority administration was, therefore, established in Bharatpur. Maharaja Jaswant Singh like his father was also surrounded during his infancy by undesirable persons. It had been a practice in Bharatpur that a wet nurse belonging to the Gujar caste had to be employed to feed the infant Chief. Her husband, called the "Dhaoo" or foster-father, acquired great influence on the ruler. The then Dhaoo Gulab singh and his three brothers encouraged the young Chief to

1. Trevelyan to Bushby : (Forwarding extracts of Para; 15 of letter No, 13 dated 20th April, 1836, from the Court of Directors to the G. G.) (Foreign Dept. Pol. Cons : 5th Dec, 1836, No. 1.)

2. Court of Directors to Governor General, Pol. Letter No. 19 dated 23id Oct. 1839.

3. Ludlow to Sutherland : No. 92, dated 9th October, 1847; Foreign Pol . Cons : 20th November, 1847, No. 65.

4. Ibid.

Education of the Princes and Nobles 109 'i ,i

indulge in vicious habits and filthy practices. They had already taught him the "Che Chury language" in which -they could freely converse with him without | being understood by the Political Agent, and they used to take him daily to the Zanana to accustom him to the vices prevailing there."1

Under such circumstances the responsibility of providing proper education to the young Maharaja fell on the British Government. Dr. Bholanath Das was, therefore, appointed as tutor-guardian to the young Chief, in addition to his duties as Agency Surgeon, and Pt. Mansukh Ram was also associated with the education of the young Maharaja.2

i

Thanks to the watchful superintendence of Dr. bholanath Das, the Maharaja made satisfactory progress in his studies for a number of years, but later on/he tutor found it difficult to check the vicious influence of the base flatterers and sychophants on the Maharaja. To counteract this influence it was suggested that an English gentleman might be appointed, but the Governor General-in-Council rejected the proposal on the ground that if the Political Agent himself with his influence and personal knowledge of six years, could not do what was necessary, a stranger, as an English tutor would be, might fail.3 '

4. Education of Maharaja Sheodan Singh of Alwar

Maharaja Sheodan Singh, when he succeeded to Gaddi in 1857, was still a minor, , and a few months afterwards a Council of Regency was formed in Alwar1, in September 1858 and Lt. E C Jmpey was appointed Political Agent there. The Chief as a young lad was very wilful, obstinate and prone to evil propensities. In March 1859 he practised an open and violent escapade.* It was, therefore, thought necessary \ to appoint a preceptor for him.

i

1. Bonverie to Major Eden : 16th July, 1859 Foreign Pol. Cons : 23rd

September, 1859, No. 298. ! 2. Beadon to Eden : Foreign PoljiCons : 23rd Sept; 1859, No. 301. 3. Muir to Eden : 6th Septembers 1865. No. 1821; Foreign Progs, Genl. A.

Sept., 1865, No 8, |, 4. Foreigh Progs : Part A, November 1860, No. 379.

no Modem Education in Rajas than

Accordingly, Major Eden, the officiating A. G. G. in Rajputana, appointed Munshi Ummed Singh as the young Maharaja's tutor in September 1859. But the evil influence of the intriguing courtiers who always surrounded the person of the Maharaja had already affected his mind and spirit so much so that a few month's tuition convinced the tutor that an outward improvement in the Maharaja's habits and activities was the most he could do. Accordingly he adopted a conciliatory bearing in the tuition of the boy.i Later on the tutor himself became a party to the vicious circle and tried to grind his own axe.

In January 1861, Col. Lawrence, the new A.G.G. in Rajputana, visited Alwar, when with the Political Agent and Captain St. George he examined the Maharaja at his palace in Persian and Urdu reading and writing, Indian Geography etc.2 The enquiries he made there convinced him (the A.G.G.) that Munshi Ummed Singh had left all the work of tuition to his deputy, Chandi Prasad, and himself contented with visiting his pupil once or twice a week. Not only that, instead of doing real good to his pupil, he often gave him bad advice. Accordingly the A.G.G. advised the Political Agent to associate more constantly with the Maharaja and instruct him himself with the aid of a good Indian Tutor. Lala Sheo Dayal Singh, a well-qualified inhabitant of Delhi was, therefore, appointed in April 1861 on Rs. 300/- per mensem as the new tutor in place of Munshi Ummed Singh and his deputy Chandi Prasad, both of whom were then removed from service.3

5. Education of the heir-apparent of Sirohi (1861)

In May 1861 the Governor-General sent to the Secretary of State a detailed report on the affairs of Sirohi State, and sought his approval for the arrangements made for the education of Ummed Singh, the heir-apparent of the State. In reply, the Secretary of State directed that "the education of the Rao's eldest surviving son, now heir-apparent, is an object which should not be lost

1. Foreign Progs : Part A, November 1860, No. 379 2. Foreign Progs : Part A, February 1861. No. 264, 3. Foreign Progs : Part A, Octoder 1861, Nos. 54-61


sight of,"1 and issued necessary instructions to this effect. So far the British Government had been arranging for the education of the infant Chiefs after their accession to the throne. This is, therefore, the first instance when they made arrangement for the education of the heir-apparent before he actually succeeded to the throne.

6. Education of Maharana Shambhu Singh of Udaipur.

During Maharana Shambhu Singh's minority, the responsibility of his education was shouldered by Major W.F. Eden, Political Agent at Mewar who had procured suitable books for the study of the Maharana. The Government of India also approved of the arrangements made for the young Chief's education and sanctioned reasonable expenditure for the purpose.2

In July 1862 the Political Agent appointed Pandit Ratneshwar of the Sehore School as the Maharana's tutor. The Pandit was well qualified to promote the education, both moral and intellectual, of the young Maharana. At first the tutor's arrival was looked with apprehension, as an innovation, and his first efforts were counteracted by some ignorant and jealous Brahmans and courtiers. The young Chief, however, made satisfactory progress in his studies under the tactful supervision of the Pandit.

7. Neglect of the education of the Raja of Shahpura.

The few cases referred to above show how the British Government always looked to the educational needs of the Chiefs during their minorities. But if some British officers neglected their responsibility in this respect, the Government of India, and even the Secretary of State, showed their concern.. Thus in 1871 the Secretary of State enquired as to the causes which led to the neglect of the education of the late Chief of Shahpura (who was installed in 1854). The Agent to the Governor General (Col. J. C. Brooke) was then requested by the Governor-General to see that due

1. Secretary of State to the Governor General, Foreign Pol, Cons : 31st July. 1861, No. 98.

2. Durand to Lawrence : No. 546, 11th June, 1862. Foreign Progs : July 1862, No. 77.

112 Modern Education in Rajastlutn

attention was paid to the training of the then Chief of Shahpura, and the Secretary of State was informed accordingly.1

The above examples eraply prove (hat the British Government took a lively interest in the education of the young Indian Chiefs under their guardianship. It may be that no uniform policy in this respect had been evolved before 1869, but a beginning had already been made in Rajas than in the first half of the last century, and the same policy was being adopted in other provinces too.2

And to meet the educational expenses of the sons of Native Chiefs, the Court of Directors wrote to the Governor General :—

"We consider the education of those who are destined to rule over native principalities, whether great or small, to be an object of much importance as to be worth some outlay even on the part of the British Govt., were there no sources from which the necessary funds could be provided, but the expense ought properly to be borne by the Chiefs who send their sons for education, and when shared among them it would be so moderate that we presume there could be little difficulty in obtaining their consent."3

Thus the British Government, as we have seen, became morally responsible since the days of Lord Hastings for the good government of the Indian States and for the education of their rulers. In the beginning the area of this responsibility was restricted to those States only whose rulers were minor and were thus under the guardianship of the British Government. The terms of the treaties also precluded the British Government from directly interfering in

1. Foreign Progs : Pol A., November 1871, No. 86 2. In 1839 the Court of Directors had sent instructions to the Governor

General regarding the education of the young ruler of Cutch. Provision for English education of the sons of Indian Chiefs had also been made at Ludhiana under Hodges, Treasury Writer to Captain C. M. Wade, Political Agent there.

Pol. Letter to the Secretary of State : Foreign Pol. Cons : 4 th June, 1840, No. 38

3. Court of Directors to the Governor General : Pol. Letter No. 23 dated the 27th Nov., 1839.

Education of the Princes and Nobles H3

the internal affairs of the States. But with the end of the Company's rule after the revolt of 1857, a change in British policy towards the Indian States became inevitable. This change is clearly reflected in the Queen's Proclamation when the Chiefs of the Protected Stales were referred to as "allies of the Paramount Power." "The States," remarks Dodwell, "were to be perpetuated as an integral part of the Indian System."1 The British Sovereign now began to look upon the Indian Chiefs as "supporters of the British throne and pillars of the Empire."2 "The policy", writes Lee Warner." which, after the suppression of the Mutiny was inspired by a new spirit of cooperation and union in antithesis to one of subordinate isolation, has introduced the Native States to a higher position of responsibility as well as of honour" 3 But the rulers could be given a higher position of responsibility and honour only if they were properly educated. This was the crux of the whole problem. No doubt the British Government had been providing some kind of education of the Indian Chiefs, but this education, as explained above, was limited, unsystematic and ineffective.

The education of the brothers and other relatives of the rulers was sadly neglected. Moreover, the very atmosphere of a palace, where the Chiefs were taught and where they were surrounded mostly by sycophants was not conducive to proper education. There could be no emulation or a spirit of healthy rivalry there which is so necessary for advancement in life. Surely a palace could be a poor substitute for a good school. But where could the princes go for education if ever they chose to have it ? The ordinary school was too below their dignity to attend. Old traditions and prejudices were too strong for them to join a public school where children of middle class people mostly thronged. There was, therefore, need of a special school meant exclusively for the scions of royal blood and landed aristocracy. This need was now greatly felt and very strongly and forcefully advocated by the Political Agent at Bharatpur.

1. Dodwell : Cambridge History of India (1958), Voi. VI p. 493 2. Smith, V. A., Oxford History of India (1961), p. 739. 3. Lee Warner : The Protected Princes of India (1894), pp. 151-52.


II-THE MAYO COLLEGE, AJMER

Its origin

The credit for originating the idea of a Chiefs' College in India goes to that liberal-minded administrator and well-wisher and promoter of the social welfare of the Rajput community, Col. C.K.M. Walter, Political Agent at Bharatpur in 1869. He was the first British Political Officer in India who, in his Annual Report of a State (Bharatpur) in 1869, suggested the opening of a Chiefs' College to impart "a liberal and enlightened education to the aristocracy of the country."i Two factors prompted him to submit this proposal : the first was the pressing need to provide suitable education to Maharaja Jaswant Singh, the minor ruler of Bharatpur so that he could be "brought up as a gentleman should be," and secondly, the assumption of direct responsibility of Indian administration by the Crown had placed upon the Viceroy the duty of imparting proper education to the Indian Princes, particularly when they were minor under his guardianship. Walter, therefore, proposed the establishment of an 'ETON in India', "where the royal pupils could be lodged and educated in the best traditions of their race."- Col. Keatinge, the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana, commended the scheme to the attention of the Government who considered Walter's remarks "very suggestive and valuable.'" The A.G.G. was, therefore, asked to "enlist the feelings of the Chiefs and Princes in favour of the plan."

Lord Mayo who attached considerable importance to Walter's suggestion held a Durbar at Ajmer in October 1870. He explained to the assembled Chiefs and other reputed nobles the need for the establishment of a Chiefs' College at Ajmer and invited subscriptions from them, promising a matching grant from the Government of India. The response was so encouraging that fifteen of the eighteen Rajasthan States promised subscriptions amounting

1. RAR : Bhurtpore Agency Report (1868-69), p. 142, Para. 121. 2. RAR : Bhurtpore Agency Report : '1868-69, p. 142, Para. 123. 3. Seton Karr to Keatinge : No. 1396. dated 29.9.1869.

Foreign Progs : Pol. A December, 1870, No. 608-09.


to more than si* lakhs, later on increased to seven lakhs. Each State was also to build boarding house for the accommodation of its own pupils within the college precincts.1

According to Herbert Sherring, Ajmer was the inevitable choice for the location of the proposed Chiefs'College for two reasons : first, it was almost in the centre of Rajputana and students from all the States could easily come there; secondly, it being Government territory, could easily obviate the inter-State jealousy which would surely have arisen if the college had been located in one of the big States.2 The site selected was the former Residency where regular classes were held from October, 1875. The late Maharaja of Alvvar, Mangal Singh, was the first student to be admitted to the college.

In June 1875, the design of Major Mant of the Royal Engineers was finally approved and the foundation stone of the main college building was laid on 5th January, 1878, by Alfred Lyall, then Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana. It was completed in February 1885 and it took full seven years and eight months to complete it at a cost of about four lakhs of rupees. Its opening ceremony was performed by Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, on November 7th, 1885, and the classes were held there for the first time on December 1st, 1885.

Its aims and objects

Buildings alone cannot create life and activity in an institution if there are no worthy aims and lofty ideals to follow. The very fact that the originator of the idea of a Chiefs' College in India, Captain Walter, used the sonorific and significant words "the Eton in India" clearly shows the high aims and ideals which he wanted to associate with the college. Addressing the Chiefs assembled in the Ajmer Durbar on 22nd October, 1870 Lord Mayo explained the aims and objects of the proposed college thus :

"It should be an institution suited to the position and rank

1. Latouche, J. D. : Gazetter of Ajmer Merwara (1875). p. 62. 2. Sherring, H : History of the Mayo College, Vol. I., p. 3.

116 Modem Education in Rctjasthan

of the boys for whose instruction it is intended and such a system of teaching should be founded as wouid be best calcu-tated to fit them for the important duties which in after-life they would be called upon to discharge."!

The succeeding Viceroys who visited the College stressed the conspicuous features of the College. Thus Lord Lytton on the occasion of the prize-giving ceremony on December 5th, 1879 specifically emphasised that the main object of the college was "to provide the advantages of first-rate intellectual and physical training for young men of the higher classes of Rajputana." Two years later on November 21st, 1881, Lord Ripon addressing the students added :

"We do not wish to turn those who are educated here into mere imitations of Englishmen Nothing can be further from our wish than to weaken their connection with their families, or their attachment to their country, or their respects for its traditions Our object is to give you all that we possess of the learning and the civilization of the West, at the same time we wish you to retain all that is good in your own traditions and customs".3

On 8th March, 1883 Lt. Col. E. R. C. Bradford, AfG. G., Rajputana gave the students of the College a timely advice when he said :

"A vast change has come over Rajputana almost within your recollections, and the ambitious careers afforded by war and intrigue no longer serve to give a zest to the Rajput's life. You must now turn to other fields for the emulation and competition which is necessary to life "3

Inaugurating the Mayo College building on 7th November, 1885, Lord Dufferin advised the young students to cultivate

"those manly virtues and characteristics which, in all ages, have been recognised as the proper adornment of the well-

1. Sherring, H : Op. cit. p. 11 2. Shereing, H : Op. cit., p, 191-92 3. Ibid, p. 194

Education of the. Princes and Nobles 117

born, such as self-restraint, fortitude, patience, the love of truth and of justice, modesty, purity, consideration for others, a ready sympathy for the weak, the suffering and the oppressed."

At the same time he cautioned them to be against

"those temptations to which wealth, with its opportunities of self-indulgence, in all ages and all countries, has been peculiarly exposed, such as sloth, idleness, sensuality, effeminacy of mind and body, and all those baser influences which render a man a burden to himself, a disgrace to his family, and a curse to his country, "i

In October, 1890 the Mayo College appeared to Lord Laus-dowue, the Viceroy, as

"an attempt to engraft upon the old aristocratic society of Rajputana a form of education adapted to the requirment of that society, but to a large extent derived from and inspired by the great public schools."2

These few selected extracts so emphatically and unmistakably reveal the ideals, traditions and special features of the Mayo College which have made it a distinguished institution in the country.

Its curriculum and examination.

The curriculum and courses of study followed in the Mayo College could not be "filtered by having to conform to prescribed code."3 Prior to 1890, students were prepared first for the Entrance exmination of the Calcutta University and then for the Matriculation of the Allahabad University. Later on, at the suggestion of E. Giles, Educational Inspector, Bombay, a special curriculum was drawn up for the College."4 This curriculum was again reorganised in 1903. It now provided for two alternative

1. Sherring H, Mayo College, Vol. I, pp. 200-201 2. Ibid, p. 204 3. Watson, C. C. : Rajputana District Gazetteers, Vol. I-A, p. 131 4. Sherring, H : Mayo College : Vol. I, p. 104

lis Modem Education in Rajasthan

courses-one for boys who wished to proceed to a university and the other for those whose education would end with their school career. In 1904-the Diploma course was introduced followed by the Post-Diploma Course in 1907. Later on necessary changes were made in the curriculum for the Cambridge School Certificate Examination from 1944.

From 1890 onwards external examiners were appointed to examine the boys through papers. But as there was no spirit of competition among the young Chiefs with the 'commoners', a special Final examination known as the Chiefs' Colleges Diploma Examination was instituted in July, 1904.1 At first each Chiefs' College introduced its own curriculum and examined its students independently. But in 1905 a common simultaneous examination, which obtained recognition from the Allahabad and Punjab Universities as equivalent to Matriculation, was introduced for all the four Chiefs' Colleges.2 From that date the Mayo College was thus enabled to compete with other Chiefs' Colleges.3 In the first few years the standard for passing the Diploma was low but it was raised in 1911.

Soon facilities for higher education were extended in 1907 when the Post-Diploma classes for the under-graduate teaching were started. They corresponded to the Intermediate standard of Allahabad' University. After a year, a three years' course was introduced (in 1908) leading up to a Higher Diploma which was equivalent to a University degree. This examination for the Higher Diploma was held for the first time at the Mayo College in April, 1910. E. A. Richardson, Inspector of Schools at the Lucknow Division, who was appointed an examiner for the College, held that the course for the examination was equal to the standard of the Allahabad B. A.4 But, in spite of that, the Higher Diploma Course failed to gain the outside recognition that was

1. Mayo College Report (1904-05), p. 8. 2. These four Chiefs' Colleges were : Daly College, Indore; Rajkumar

College, Raipur; Chiefs' College, Rajkot and Aitchison College, Lahore. 3. Stow, V. A. S. : Mayo College, p. 40 4. Mayo Colleae. Report (1909-10) p. 9


hoped, for the Indian Universities refused to recognise it for admission to their M. A. and LL. B. classes. It could not secure the whole-hearted support of the States, for it was regarded by many as a temporary and doubtful experiment.1

To remove these drawbacks the Begum of Bhopal proposed in 1909 the founding of a Chiefs' University for conferring its own degress and the General Council of the College recommended that a separate College for the higher education of students from all Chiefs Colleges be established either at Ajmer or elsewhere. This proposal was however dropped. Consequently it was decided to continue the post-Diploma classes at the Mayo College. In 1931, the post-Diploma course was again reorganised when the three years' course was replaced by a four years' course.2

Thus the Post-Diploma class was now converted into a College section preparing candidates for the Intermediate Examination of ihe Rajputana Board, and the new Higher Diploma course leading to the B. A. degree of the Agra University. It was introduced with seven students in the Intermediate section and five in the Final. Kr. Gajendra Singh of Kunadi (Kota) was the first student who passed the Final Examination of the new Higher Diploma Course in 1934 and was directly admitted to Cambridge University.3 Thus the Mayo College itself attained the status of a Degree College and so performed the part of a Higher College more fully than was at first possible. But this status did not last long, for the Degree classes were discontinued in 1948.

In the school section the Diploma course was continued until 1943 when it was replaced by the Cambridge School Certificate Examination. The syllabus of the Diploma course was modified so as to include a new subject "Indian Administration and Agriculture". The weak boys, however, preferred to sit for the High School Examination of the Rajputana Board. Boys from the Mayo College appeared at ihe'~T£nT5ndge~Sd:iool "Certificate Examination for the first time in 1944. But its degree classes were closed four years later.

1. Stow : Ibid pp. 41 -42. 1. Mayo College Report (1931-32). p. 6

I -I I dustan Tim9S, New Delhi, 20th Dece mber, 1934, p. 13.


Management and Control

The administration of the College was carried on by the College Council constituted in 1877 and reorganised in 1888. It continued for more than a decade. As the College Council had become ineffective and met on rare occasions, a Committee of the Council, called the Working Committee and susequently the Managing Committee, was formed. It met for the first time at the College on 8th and 9th March, 1905. This Committee, of which the Commissioner, Ajmer, was the convener, had as many as sixteen members of whom thirteen were rulers of States. This Committee evinced a close interest in the welfare and progress of the College.-i It is as a result of this interest and the efforts made to sustain it that the strength of the boys in the college increased from 49 in 1903 to 202 in 1912. Of these, 163 belonged to Rajputana, 15 to Central India and 24 to other parts including Kashmir and Nepal in the north and Hyderabad and Vijayanagram in the south 2

After the first World War there had been a "growing demand that, as the Chiefs' Colleges were largely supported and maintained by the financial help and subsidies of the Princes and existed primarily for them, the Princes should have more control over their management."3 The Government of India conceded this demand and drafted a new constitution which came into force in 1931.

This constitution transferred the control of the College from the Government of India to the Princes which opened a new era in the history of the College. The Viceroy and the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana now ceased to be President and Vice-President of the General Council and instead became respectively the Patron and Visitor of the College. Their places at the head of the Council were taken by two Ruling Princes of Rajputana and to give the Thikanas of Rajputana some share in the management of the College, three representatives of the Old Boys Association elected by that body were added to the Council

1. Stow . Op. cit. pp. 27-28 2. Ibid. p. 51 3. Stow, V.A.S., Mayo College p. 57.


in 1932.1 The former Managing Committee was replaced by a smaller Working Committee of six, of which the Chairman was to be a Ruling Prince of Rajputana. The Principal of the College was to act as Secretary of both the General Council and the Working Committee. One important feature of the new constitution was that henceforth the Ruling Princes on the Working Committee were to attend the meeting in person and not to be represented, as before, by their nominees. The size of the Committee was later on increased to eight by the addition of another Ruling Prince of Rajputana and another representative of the Old Boys' Association.2

A significant step in the evolution of the constitution took place in January, 1943, when on the retirement of Principal Stow, his successor, Mc. Canlis, failed to be elected as secretary of the Council and the Committee. An elected representative of the Old.Boys Association, Raj Chandra Sen of Kunadi (Kotah), was elected as Secretary of both the Bodies,3 After a year he was succeeded by Rao Bahadur Th. Onkar Singh of Bagsuri-another elected representative of the Old Boys' Association. Thus the inevitability of the Principal acting as Secretary disappeared and a new convention of electing an old boy as Secretary was made. The Principal was now appointed an additional member of the General Council and of the Working Committee.4

For sometime past the question of the future of the College was hanging in balance and was hotly discussed. Not a year passed when high educational officials did not refer to the big question, "Should the College be restricted to the aristocracy or should its portals be opened to all those who could afford to pay the high fees and get admitted." John Sargent, Educational Commissioner of the Government of India, who inspected the College in F e b r u a r y l 9 3 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * i j j | ^ ^ ^ y n a l U t s impli-


that the college should be opened to all those who could afford to pay for it. Of course the expensive nature of studies and the high cost of living here would automatically^ eliminate, it was argued, boys of middle class families. Accordingly admission rules were amended to admit all eligible boys, to whatever caste, creed, or family they belonged, in the college. This was an important decision which changed the restrictive nature of the college and transformed it into a Public School in 1946 when it joined the family of Public Schools in India as an honourable and honoured member.

Another very significant step taken by the Government of India was to appoint an Indian Principal. So far a tradition-almost an unwritten law-had been that only an Englishman could be appointed as its Principal. In its early stages they were mostly military officers turned civilians. But later on civilians came to be appointed. The policy of rigidly following the tradition of appointing only Englishmen as its Principal was a national insult which the intelligentsia, particularly the educationists among them, resented. The appointment of T.N. Vyas as Principal was, therefore, hailed enthusiastically as ushering in a new era in the history of the college.

An Evaluation

The transformation of the college from an exclusive, restricted and aristocratic educational institution to a Public School assuaged, to some extent, the bitter sting and pungency of nationalist opposition to it. But still the evil effects of the Public School system could not be taken away from it. There is much truth in the view that many of the products of the Mayo College were steeped in snobbery, sometimes leading to crude egoism and self-conceit, isolation, and an ostrich-like attitude towards the problems of life. A l a r g t ^ j ^ ^ g g g ^ g K B H t f B J ^ ^ ^ ^ L ^ y horn nationalist

J>e denied that j^esmen,

is of


Maharawal Laxman Singh and Dr. Nagendra Singh of Dungarpur, to name only a few, who adorned different fields of life, were students of whom any college in the country could rightly feel proud.

Since students from many of the former States all over India joined the college, it gave them a common platform and proved a cementing link between them. That the Chiefs could subdue their parochial and local interests and could think in terms of their common interests was, to a great extent, due to the influence which the Mayo College exerted over them. The proceedings of the Chamber of Princes are replete with instances of regal oratory, statesmanship, political maturity and the thinking and contention that these qualities were not. common with all the students of the Mayo College but were associated with only a blessed few, may hold good equally with the products of even the best institutions in the country. Now the future of the college is intimately linked, to some extent, with the future of the Public Schools. A policy adopted for them will inevitably affect the future of the Mayo College too. Thus judged on the whole it may be said, that the Mayo College has justified its existence.

Ill—EDUCATION OF THE NOBILITY

The Mayo College by its very expensive living and high cost of education was beyond the reach of many poor Thakurs, closely related to the ruling family, to send their sons and brothers there. They were mostly steeped in conservatism, and the influence of Zenana and their Kamdars and Musahibs was too strong for them to send their sons and brothers away from their homes for education. Even when they realised the importance of education, the pride of their family and a sense of dignity and prestige always came in the way of their sons and brothers sharing the educational facilities with boys of a lower class than themselves. There was, therefore, need of special schools in the States exclusively meant for the nobility. And when such schools were opened, the attendance in them was hopelessly thin and it needed the persuation, and often the compulsion, of the ruling Chief to make the sons and brothers of his nobles join such schools. But this could happen only when the ruling Chief himself was educated or realised the

124 Modem Education In Rajasthan

importance of education. Where he himself was uneducated and engulfed in ignorance, the initiative was lost, This was the reason why before the establishment of the Mayo College in 1875 there were only two Nobles' Schools in Rajasthan.

Nobles' School, Jaipur (1861)

The credit for establishing the first Nobles' School in Rajasthan goes to the wise, sagacious and far-sighted ruler Sawai Ram Singh of Jaipur. It was in 1859 that he had ordered the preparation of a list of all the sons of Tazirai Sardars in Jaipur State from the age of 7 to 15. This list was prepared sect-wise in 18611

and the Sardars' school was formally inaugurated by the Maharaja himself on 7th September 1861. Lt. Colonel J.C. Brooke, the Political Agent at Jaipur, has given us a vivid description of the inauguration ceremony.2 The A.G.G. conveyed the expression of his sense of His Highness's enlightened proceedings and also the gratification with which the Governments of India and England viewed it.G

The school actually commenced teaching on 14th September 1861 when five sons of Thakurs were present. But the progress of the school was very disappointing, for Major Beynon, the next Political Agent at Jaipur, in his report dated the 30th March 1867 writes,

"The separate class establishment for the education of the sons of the Thakoors has almost entirely failed. In this class there are 13 boys, 8 are sons of the higher Officials of the State, and only 5 sons of Rajpoots, whose attendance has been very irregular, and their progress unsatisfactory. Indeed it is evident that their presence in the institution is occasioned more by a desire to please the Maharaja than to wish to study and obtain the benefits of a good education."4

"The Rajpoot chiefs keep away", wrote Beynon a year later,

1. Jaipur Government Secretariat Records File No. G-4/07 of 1859. 2. Foreign Proceedings : General A, October, 1861. Nos, 27-23. 3. Lawrence to Durand : No. 213, dated 1st Oct. 1861

Foreign Progs : Genl. A Oct., 1861 Nos. 27-28 4. RAR : Jaipur Agency Report for 1865^67, para. 82


"from pride and dislike to be brought under school discipline, which requires their regular attendance."1

On the occasion of the session of the Rajputana Social Science Congress which was held at Jaipur in March 1868, a very comprehensive resolution was passed eulogising the Maharaja for the establishment of the Nobles' School.2

The passing of this resolution was an event of great significance showing, as it does, the importance and indispensability which the sponsors associated with the education of the Nobility in Rajasthan. It is, however, most regretting to note that these high aims and objects could not be achieved because the nobles themselves, for whose benefit the school was established, did not care to take advantage of it. The successive Political Agents at Jaipur referred to this sorry state of affairs in their annual reports of 1870 and 1887. The Director of Public Instruction, Jaipur State, also wrote in 1887 in the same vein.

This sad story continued till 1905 when Reid, the Principal of Government College, Ajmer, whom the Government of India specially deputed to make a survey of the state of education in Rajputana, observed :—

"At Jaipur the Rajput school has not attained the high degree of efficiency that marks so many of the educational institutions of that State. The total expenditure on the school is about Rs. 3,000/ and the number enrolled is but 18, with a daily attendance of 12. They are housed in no separate building but are taught in rooms of the college. Jaipur, with its numerous nobles of various degrees, might presumably, if the Durbar so desired, maintain a Nobles' School of the very first rank."3

The passing of years brought no substantial improvement in the school which lingered on precariously with occasional increase and decrease in attendance.

1. Ibid Jaipur Agency Report for 1867-68, para. 41 . 2. RAR : Jaipur Agency Report (1868-69) p. 103. 3. Reid, F.L. Report on the state of Education in tne Native States of

Rajputana (1905). p. 16.

126 Modern Education in Kajasthan

In October, 1925 the State Council, therefore, decided to convert the school into a boarding school where students could live, study and imbibe the spirit of comraderi e and corporate life. To achieve this object the school was shifted from Jaipur to Goner-a village about 13 miles from the capital and its name was changed in 1933 to Man Nobles' School as a recognition of the interest taken by the Maharaja.1 It was also then upgraded to the High School status and its first batch of students appeared in the High School examination in 1936. Two years later the admission rules of the school were amended but its aristocratic form was retained as before. However, the changing political ideas and the excessive cost of education and the general apathy of the nobles for whom the school had ijeen established convinced the Maharaja that it was no use maintaining this costly school as a separate entity. In July 1944 the school was, therefore, transferred from Goner to Jobner where it was amalgamated with the Thikana High School.

Thus ended the independent existence of the first Nobles' School in Rajasthan after a precarious life of nearly 83 years (1861-1944). This indeed is a very tragic and pathetic record of Nobles' education in Rajasthan in that the oldest and a well-established Nobles' school was so unceremoniously brought to an unfortunate end. Jaipur was not an exception, for we find that in many other States such Nobles' schools were opened and after sometime closed because of the old, conservative, and rigid ideas of the Thakurs.

The Thakurs' School, Alwar (1871)

Ten years after the establishment of the Jaipur Sardars' (Nobles') School, a Thakur School was established at Alwar in January 1871 with 86 boys on roll during the reign of Maharaja Sheodan Singh.2 In some respects, specially in the number of students, this school was better organised and well managed. In 1873-74 its Headmaster was Lala Shyamjas Rai when the number of scholars fell from 84 to 69 because of the high cost of education.

1. M.K, (Jaipur) File No. G-4/Education 936 of 1933 2. Neilson. W. H. Medico-Topographical Account of Ulwar (1897) p. 18.


\ To overcome this difficulty the1 State Government decided to

keep about twenty sons of needy Thakurs of good family in the boarding school at the expense of the State.1 Another noteworthy feature of the Alwar Thakurs' school was that whereas education in the Jaipur Nobles' School was im/parted only upto the Middle standard, at Alwar it was given uptoithe Matriculation standard which shows the school's effectiveness and utility. Maharaja Mangal Singh who had the proud'' privilege of being the first student to be admitted to the Mayo College, Ajmer, took great interest in the education of his people! and formed a class at his palace in which his own son and nine children of nobles were taught under direct supervision of Pt.i Chunilal, one of the best Education Officers of the State.a ;

To commemorate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee (1897), Maharaja Jai Singh Dev ordered the 'construction of a special building for the Thakurs' school, which1!, thereafter came to be known as "the Diamond Jubilee Nobles' School" when its portals were thrown open to deserving students of middle-class families also. This resulted in the increase in the number of its scholars which in 1905-06 totalled 183, including several sons of clerks in the State service.3 It was reorganised in 1927 when agriculture and military training were introduced as new subjects for study. But when its rules for admission v were relaxed, they had an adverse effect on the number of admissions which in 1930 fell to only 60. It was therefore, decided to amalgamate the Nobles' School w'th the State High School. Thus another good Nobles' School of long standing ceased to exist as an independent entity.

The Nobles' School, Jodhpur (1875)

In 1875 a Thakurs' school was opened in Jodhpur jn the building, formerly occupied by the Durbar School.4 Like similar schools in other States it also did not work well in the beginning, for, beyond a smattering of Hindi, not much education was imparted

i

1. RAR : Ulwar Agency Report (1873-74) p. 190, para. 69. 2. RAR : Ulwar Agency Report (1885-86), p. 197, para. 12. 3 RAR Ulwar Agency Report (1905-06), p. 68 4. RAR : Marwar Agency Report (1874-75), p. 101, para. 24


in it. This led Maharaja Jaswant Singh to lake up seriously the subject of the education of the sons of his feudatories who were then lodged and boarded in the city. But the school continued in a deplorable state and Lt. Col. Powlett, the Political Agent, had to admit that it was as difficult as ever to secure the attendance of the Rajput boys.1 In 1886 two separate schools were amalgamated into one institution styled the Powlett Nobles' school after the Political Officer who was then the Resident.2 Five years later it was converted into a preparatory school for the Mayo College.3 In November 1896 Lord Elgin visited Jodhpur when he performed the opening ceremony of anew school at Mandor for Rajput boys. This school was named after him as "Elgin Rajput School."* Three years Jaterit was amalgamated with the Powlett Nobles' School.5 In 1903 the amalgamated school was converted into a Boarding House for a minimum of fifty boys. Two years later the Nobles' School, which had been in abeyance, was re-established at the capital for the sous of Rajput Jagirdars.6

Thus in the first decade of the present century there were two Rajput Schools in Jodhpur, one for the nobles and the other for the poorer Rajput boys. This was a noteworthy feature of Nobles' education in Jodhpur, for nowhere else in Rajasthan two schools meant for the boys of the same community existed. Desirous of advancing Rajput education in the State, Maharaja Sir Pratap Singh again amalgamated both these schools into one under a European Principal R. B. Vanwart in 1912. Thus a new leaf in the history of Nobles' Education in Jodhpur (and also in Rajasthan) was opened.

In February 1914 when Lord Hardinge visited Jodhpur, he performed the opening ceremony of the newly constructed spacious buildings of the Rajput Nobles School at Chopasani, six miles in the west of Jodhpur. When Principal Van Wart joined the school

1. RAR : Western States Agency Report (1881 -82), p. 120, para. 18. 2. Erskine : Rajputana Gazetteeis Vol. Ill A (1909). p. 167. 3. RAR : Western Rajputana States Agency Report (1891-92), p. 55. 4. RAR : Western Hajputana States Agency Report (1896-97), p. 32 5. Erskine : Op. Cit. p. 168. 6. Erskine: Op. Cit p. 168,


in 1912 there were only 80 boys in the school, but in three years the number rose to 250. In July 1916 the University of Allahabad recognised the school for their Matriculation Examination. Since then the Chopasani school, because of facilities for the education of both the nobles and the poor Rajputs, grew in importance and utility. Its portals were gradually opened to all those who could afford to send their sons and wards for education there. This was a reform in the right direction keeping in view the changing structure of society in the country.. Thus what was once intended to be an exclusive institution for a select class later on became a public school.

Nobles' Class Udaipur (1877)

In 1877 a special class for the sons of the nobles was opened in the State School at Udaipur. It was meant to be a preparatory class for the Mayo College or for such boys who could not be sent there because of financial stringency or family environment. * Although the attendance in the class was fairly satisfactory, the boys did not progress well. Five years later (1882) as the nobles took their sons with them to Chittor, where Maharana Sajjan Singh stayed for most part of the year, the class was abolished. This was only an excuse for not attending the class. 2

Nobles' School, Udaipur (1923)

It was again after forty years that another attempt was made in 1922 for opening a Nobles' School at Udaipur. In that year Maharana Fateh Singh handed over the administration of the State to Maharaj Kumar Bhupal Singh. This infused a progressive spirit in the administration. At that time the Court of Wards of the State was under Diwan Bahadur Pandit Dharam Narain with Pandit Pyare Kishan Kaul as his assistant. These two Kashmiri gentlemen felt that the right type of education for their wards was the only remedy for improving the condition of the Thikanas, encumbered and mismanaged as they were. When, therefore, a scheme for the opening of a Nobles' School at Udaipur was put before the

1. RAR Meywar Agency Report (1877-78), p. 42. Para. 24 2. Erskine : Rajputana Gazetteer: The Mewar Residency. Vol. ll-A. p 82.


Maharaj Kumar, he not only supported it enthusiastically but also offered a State building and a grant of Rs. 15000/- for the school which was opened on 1st January, 1923 with four scholars on the roll and as many members of the staff. The school was then named as the Court of Wards School.

Like all other educational institutions of the time, this school was also very unpretentious in the beginning, for a clock, a map and a few registers were all the equipment that it could boast of at its inception. Its fate, therefore, hung in balance, for left to itself the Court of Wards could not run it and the school was bound to be closed unless a helping hand was extended to it. This hand was extended by Maharaj Kumar Bhupal Singh who granted a sum of Rs. 250/- per month and a recurring grant of Rs, 10,000/- a year for the school building. A.s the number of boys in the school increased to sixty in July, 1923, the problem of obtaining more funds from some other sources became imperative. Thakur Raj Singh and Maharaj Aman Singh, who took the greatest interest in the institution, therefore, bestirred themselves and thought of appealing to the Rajput Community of Mewar in general and the nobles in particular for funds. As the nobles were on their usual visit to Udaipur to attend the Maharana's Dashera Darbar, the occasion was considered opportune and a meeting of the members of the Rajput community was held on 24th October 1923 in the Victoria Hall, Udaipur. The meeting was a tremendous success and its first act was the creation of the Kshatriya Vidya Pracharini Sabha, a body which was not only to look after the Nobles' School, but also to aim at spreading literacy among the Rajputs of Mewar.

The following two resolutions were unanimously passed at the meeting :

(1) Resolved that a deputation should wait upon Maharaj Kumar Bhupal Singh with a three fold request :-

(a) That the Kshatriya Vidya Pracharini Sabha be recognised as a State institution and given an authority to run and manage the school.

(b) That Maharaj Kumar Bhupal Singh be pleased to accept the Presidentship of the Sabha and


(c) That the School be named the Bhupal Nobles' School.

(2) That all the jagirdars of Mewar undertake to contribute one tenth of their officially recognised incomes to the fund.

In deference to the request of the deputation, the Maharaj Kumar agreed to become the President of the Sabha and get his name associated with the School He also sanctioned a recurring grant of Rs. 6000/- per annum in aid of the school which in future was to be known as the Bhupal Nobles' School.

The subsequent history of the school was one of continuous growth and development. In 1929 it became a High School and it sent its first batch of candidates for the High School Examination in 1931. As a result of the raising of its status, the school needed more money. Bhupal Singhji, who was then the Maharana, therefore, increased the State grant from Rs. 6,000/- to Rs 10,000/- a year. As the number of students rose, the State gave two more grants of rupees two lacs each for the expansion of the group of school buildings. And to perpetuate the memory of his father, the Maharana established the Fateh Smarak Boarding House in 1930 and donated a sum of rupees one lac and twenty five thousand to serve as the permanent fund. To make the school of greater use, many new subjects were introduced. Thus Geography in 1942, Hygiene in 1943 and Military Training in 1946 were introduced. In this way the school acquired the distinction of being the only institution in Rajasthan which imparted Military Training to High School classes. Agriculture and Manual Training were also introduced as hobbies for classes up to the eighth.

The efficient running of the school is borne out by the fact that on the average 66 per cent of its boys who appeared at the High School Examination from 1932 to 1947 were declared successful. On three occasions the percentage of passes was cent per cent. Of the 108 boys who passed the High School Examination from the School upto 1947, 5 secured the first division, 40 the second division and 63 were placed in the third division. During the pre-independence days admission to the school was limited to the Rajput boys only and it was working as a Public School. But in 1947 when India became independent, admission was thrown open to all irrespective of caste, creed or religion.


Bhupal Nobles' College (1954)

In July 1954, the Management of the School upgraded it to an Intermediate College status. But when the Government of Rajasthan decided as a matter of policy to abolish all Intermediate Colleges by 1960, only two alternatives were left to such institutions (i) either to downgrade themselves as Higher Secondary Schools or (ii) upgrade them as Degree Colleges. The Management took the bold step of accepting the latter course in January 1960, since when it has been working as a Degree College in Arts and Science, The faculty of Commerce was added in July, 1970.

It is interesting to note that the old boys of the school and later on of the college took to all sorts of professions occupying posts of responsibility. Although the army opened a more lucrative field for employment to the Rajput boys of the School and the College, many of them joined the civil services also. On the technical side the old boys joined the medical, veterinary, agricultural, forestry and drawing and painting professions. Thus the Bhupal Nobles' School, Udaipur, has amply justified its existence first as a High School and later on as a College. It has got the unique distinction of being the only Nobles' School in all the former Princely States of Rajasthan which ultimately became a full -fledged Degree College in Arts, Science and Commerce.

Nobles' School, Tonk (1884)

The credit for starting a Nobles' School at Tonk goes to Maulvi Syed Rashid-ud-Din Ahmad who, immediately after his appointment as Headmaster, Raj School, Tonk, in November 1883, suggested to the Nawab the need and necessity of establishing such a school for the education of the Sahibzadas. Accordingly, a Sardar's class was opened in 1884 with ten pupils-six of whom belonged to the Nawab's family. In course of time it became a feeder school for the Mayo College, Ajmer. But as its progress was not satisfactory, it was later on closed.

Walter Nobles' School, Bikaner, (1893)

The origin of a Nobles' School in Bikaner goes back to 1891 when on 24th July of that year the Council of Regency proposed to establish a school for deserving but poor Rajput boys who


could not be sent to the Mayo College. In October, the Council named this institution as "Walter Nobles' School" after Col. C. K. M. Walter late A. G. G. for Rajputana. This was done to perpetuate his memory in the State as he evinced much interest in the welfare of Maharaja Ganga Singh. But the school was actually started in April 1893 with 4 boys on roll. It was accommodated in the building of the main school in the city. The number of boys rapidly increased from 4 in 1893 to 30 in 1895 of which 24 were hostellers. This showed the popularity of the institution which was mainly intended to impart education to the Tazimi Pattedars. Its curriculum of studies was the same as that of the Mayo College, as if served the purpose of its feeder school.1

In September 1895 the School shifted to a new building with 24 students. From 1899 onwards it went under the direct control of Maharaja Ganga Singh who took a keen interest in its future improvement and thoroughly reorganised it in 1901. In 1905, Principal C. W. Waddington of Mayo College suggested its affiliation with that College. 2 in December 1912 Herbert Sherring, who was then Director of Education in Bikaner, introduced many changes which increased its utility and efficiency. One of the important changes made was to bring it in line with the proposed Dungar Memorial College. Since then its working was carefully reorganised from time to time to keep it abreast of modern requirements. It was later on raised to the High School standard In April 1939 when Scott Hale was appointed its Head Master, it had more than 300 boys on its rolls. But it could no longer be maintained as a restricted school exclusively for the use of the Rajput boys. It was, therefore, thrown open in July 1944 to boys of all communities and converted into a Public School to be run on English Public School lines.3 It was then named as Sadul Public School

Nobles' School, Kota (1895)

Maharao Ummed Singh II, the ruler of Kota, wanted for a long

1. Home Dept., Bikaner, File No. 677-679/51 2. Mayo College Report (1904-05), p. 12. 3. Bikaner State Administration Report (1943-44), p. 103, para. 19.


time to establish a Nobles' school for the sons of his Jagirdars. This wish was materialised only in 1896 when a school was opened for them with 48 boys on roll, of whom 33 were boarders.! It made good progress and one of its three students who appeared passed the English Middle Class Examination of the North Western Provinces in 1897-98. Next year one of its students passed the Entrance Examination of the Allahabad University which shows that it imparted education upto the Matriculation standard. The same year a gymnastic Instructor was appointed which was a proof that not only mental and academic development of the boys was aimed at but their physical fitness was also looked after. To make their living comfortable about thirty five thousand rupees were spent on the construction of a suitable building for the school during 1899-1900. The experience gained in the next decade, however, brought to light a patent fact that the establishment and retention of a separate institution for the boys of Sardars and Nobles alone was not altogether satisfactory from the point of view of education. The Darbar, therefore, decided on the recommendation of the Director of Schools, to amalgamate the Nobles' and the High Schools into one Model High School. Thus the Nobles' School, Kota, lost its separate entity in 1909, and was merged in the Darbar High School.2

Nobles' School, Bundi (1897)

A school for the education of boys belonging to the family of the Maharao Raja and to those of the Sardars and Officials of the State was opened in Bundi in October, 1897.3 But it was later on closed.

Nobles' School, Bharatpur. (1902)

The Nobles' School at Bharatpur was opened in the reign of Maharaja Kishan Singh in 1902 as a branch school of the Sadar High School. Next year it was constituted as a separate school with 67 boys on the rolls. Many of them were descendants of a

1. RAR : Kotah Agency Report (1894-95), P. 109, para. 10. 2. Kotah State Administration Report (1908-1908), p. 21 , para. 123. 3. RAR : Harowtee and Tonk Administration Report (1897-98) p. 69

Education of the Princes and Nobles 235 \

former Maharaja but possessed no lands, and were in exceedingly poor circumstances. For them education in this school was a passport to State service. The curriculum adopted in the school was that of the Rajputana Middle standard. The school also possessed a good boarding house with'1 accommodation for 40 students.'Besides providing academic education, the school also provided facilities for games, sports and(athletic exercises.1

Nobles' School, Karauli (1903) .

As the sons of Jadu Rajputs of Karauli Were not prepared to attend a public school where boys of all castes and communities had free admission, it was intended to open a self-supporting school for such youths at Karauli.2 The idea could be given a practical shape after nearly two decades when in July 1903 a very elementary Nobles' school was started in Karauli with 29 boys on roll. Although they were called 'Jagirdars', they had no landed property. Their claim to admission to such a school was that they were distantly related to the ruling family. A paltry sum of Rs. 250/-per annum was spent on the school which shows that it could have no pretence to permanency.3

Nobles' School, Pratapgarh (1904)

In 1904 a Nobles' School for the sons of Thakurs and of people of means was started at Pratapgarh. In its own way it helped to spread education among the Jagirdars of the State who were quite , apathetic towards education.4 \

EVALUATION

We have tried to give a brief account of the; various Nobles' Schools established in the different States of Rajasthan from time to time. In most cases they had common features and similar characteristics. In all of them admission was very restricted and open only to the sons of the landed nobility or of those belonging to the ruling family. In all of them attendance 'was very thin,

1. Reid. F. L : Op. Cit. p. 16. i i| 2. RAR : Bhurtpore and Kerowlee Agency Report (1884-85). p. 131 3. Reid, F.L. : Op. Cit., p. 16 4. Erskine : Rajputana Gazetteer (1908), p. 167.


irregular, and uncertain, and often the ruler-had to adopt strict measures to coax his nobles to send their sons to these schools. Education as given in them was very expensive which ordinary Jagirdars could ill afford. The States had, therefore, to subsidise their education. Only those nobles who could not send their sons and brothers to the Mayo College could be prevailed upon to. send t

them to these schools. But very few students who read in these" schools continued their studies any further. In some cases these schools acted as feeders to the Mayo College, but in other cases they simply acted as its replicas. Rules and regulations were often amended for admission which only shows that more attention was paid towards retaining their aristocratic character than towards improving their tone or studies. This mentality of the administrators in restricting their use to the sons of a particular class, unmindful of the changes in the social fabric of the country, not only made these schools anachronisms in a changing world, but also brought about their decline. That is the reason why no Nobles' School now exists anywhere in Rajasthan in its original form. But the most significant contribution of these Nobles' schools was that some of them paved the way for their conversion into Public Schools such as the Sadul Public School at Bikaner and the Chaupasani School, Jodhpur. In this limited field Rajasthan was not much lagging behind the neighbouring British provinces.

6. Education in Ajmer-Merwara

Ajmer-Merwara passed through difficult times during the second half of the eighteenth century. Anarchy and misrule resulting from the weakening of the Mughal hold prevailed everywhere. The Rathors of Marwar and the Marathas under Sindhia both wanted to take advantage of the disturbed conditions and capture Ajmer. They fought many battles which ruined the peasantry, devastated the country, destroyed trade and rendered life and property unsafe. Under such circumstances intellectual advancement and economic progress were not possible. It was only after the British took possession of Ajmer-Merwara in the first quarter of the nineteenth century (1818 A.D.), when peace was restored and life became settled once again, that some educational progress could be hoped for. H. B. Sarda, however, tells us that "there were many Pathshalas in Ajmer and a Poswal (Pathshala) in every important village in this province before the British came."1

These institutions anyhow maintained their existence and continued imparting a smattering of knowledge till the British came to the scene. Not many years elapsed before they started their first school sometime before 1833, but the famine of 1834 disorganised it. Dr. Irvine tells us, "The Government has twice established an English school at Ajmere. The first attempt failed, and the school was judiciously abolished by Lord William Bentinck. An English School was again established in 1836, on a more

1. Sarda, H. B. Ajmer : Historical and Descriptive (1 941) p. 355.

J38 ' Modem Education in Rajasthan

extensive and expensive scale."* This school was later on closed on 1st January 1843.2

1. PRIMARY EDUCATION

Describing the state of education in Ajmer in 1845-46, the Report on Public instruction says,

"Thirteen Persian and 28 Hindee schools were found in the cities of Ajmere and Shahpoora, and of the remaining number, 2 villages contained each 3 schools, 1 village had 2 schools, and 15 had one each. Of the Persian teachers all were Mahomedans, and of the Hindee, 19 were Brahmins, and 13 of a class denominated Juttee. One of the Brahmin teachers was a woman."3

In December 1846 James Thomason, Lt. Governor, N. W. P. visited Ajmer-Merwara, when for Merwara he -'sanctioned the support of several village schools, at a total monthly expense of Rs. 44/-"4. He also sanctioned the establishment of a Government school at Ajmer which he wanted to make "the centre of a circle of local schools in the districts of Ajmer and Mhairwarra", and he proposed to place under the Superintendent of the School a similar establishment for inspection as was placed under Reid, the then Visitor-General of village schools in the N. W. P. It was not, however, till March 1851 that the schools at Ajmer were opened under the superintendence of Dr. Buch with a staff of teachers.

; Organisation of village schools.

Soon Government schools were established at Kekri, Bhinai, Ramsar, Masuda and Rajgrah "to serve as a model to the village school masters and as an incentive to the population to seek education for their children". An inspecting agency to visit the .

1. Irvine (Dr.) R. H., General & Medical Topography ofAJmer (1841). p. 108.' 2. For details see Chapter II. pp. 42-43. 3. General Report on Public Instruction in the N. W. P. of the Bengal

Presidency (1845-46), Appendix I, p. XIV. 4. Home Public Progs : 17th Dec, 1958 No. 4, Para. 192.

Education in Ajmer-Merwara 139

schools, assist and advise the local masters of the indigenous schools, reward the most deserving, and in every way encourage the spread of education by showing the interest which Government was taking in the matter, was also appointed. This Agency consisted of Dr. Buch who, as Superintendent of the Government School, was also in charge of the village schools and two Pargana visitors, Pt. Ram Dayal Tiwari and Munshi Jugal Kishore, who were appointed on Rs. 30/- p.m. each to assist. Dr. Buch persuaded the local gentry, Zamindars, and Malguzars to establish schools. Engagements were made and signed through the instrumentality of Tehsildars and Thanedars, villages and towns agreeing to support schools on a scale adapted to their means. In this way seventy five schools were established which later on dwindled to 57.

In addition to the above, there were twenty more schools maintained exclusively by the people. During Commissioner Dixon's tour in Merwara, the people requested him that the Government should grant two rupees towards tha maintenance of each village school while the community agreed to pay regularly to the teacher the remaining rupees two, the total salary of the teacher being then only rupees four per mensem. The Government agreed to this request and sanctioned Rs 46/- per month1 in addition to the allowance of Rs. 44/- already sanctioned by Thomason, the Lt. Governor.

Dr. Buch was succeeded by Edward Hall who was the first regular Inspector of Schools in Ajmer-Merwara. He found the system of levying the I per cent education cess, introduced by Col. Dixon, in existence when he took charge of his Inspectorship. The levying of this cess continued so long as Col. Dixon lived. After his death the clamours of the people against it became very vociferous, for people did not appreciate education on the terms of having to pay for it. Their bitter opposition against the cess and the intensity of its unpopularity may be gathered from the fact that, when the sister-in-law of the Raja of Bhinai was going to be a Sati in 1857, the last request of the Brahmans who

1. Home Education Progs : 17th December, 1858.


surrounded the pyre was that she should use her influence for the abolition of the cess for village schools.! Accordingly in 1859 the Government of India sanctioned the discontinuance of the cess in the districts of Ajmer and Merwara and authorised the closing of the schools in the village where the feeling of the people was averse to their maintenance^ As a result of this order many village schools were closed and the amount of Rs. 44/- p.m. given by the Government as grants-in-aid was appropriated to the establishment of 12 schools in the most important towns in Ajmer and Merwara.3 But this scheme did not work well because the pay offered was too low to attract competent teachers. Goulding, the new Inspector of Schools, therefore, increased the teachers' salary from Rs. 6/- to Rs. 12/- per mensem. This increased salary brought in some teachers but even this scale also did not attract the really good teachers.

Such was the state of primary education in Ajmer-Merwara in 1865. There were at that time ten Government Vernacular Schools with 348 pupils in Ajmer district under the Inspector of Schools and eight Schools in Beawar under the supervision of the Deputy Commissioner. The Inspecting Agency then consisted of an Inspector of Schools (the Principal of the Government College was the cx-Officio Inspector of Schools) on Rs. 100/- p.m., a senior Sub-Deputy Inspector on Rs. 35/- and two Junior Sub-Deputies on Rs. 25/-p.m. each. The duties of the inspectorial staff included supervision of the Government Schools and periodical visits to the village schools in the two districts where they were to exert their influence for the establishment of new indigenous schools and for the improvement of those already in existence by distributing among them books placed at their disposal by the Government. There were at that time 99 indigenous schools in the district of Ajmer with a total of 1434 pupils, and 14 schools in Merwara with 272 pupils.4 In addition to these there were also

1. Watson, C. C. : Rajputana District Gazetteers. Vol. I-A (1904), p. 127. 2. Bdmonstone to Muir : No, 71 dated 18th March 1858. Home Education

Progs : 23rd Sept., 1859, No. 5. 3. Foreign Genl. A July 1864, No. 10-18. 4. Ibid.


a number of schools established by the United Presbyterian Mission.!

It may be explained here that in 1861 the vernacular schools in Merwara were transferred from the charge of the Inspector of Schools to that of the Deputy Commissioner who placed them under the Tehsildars. This arrangement did not work well and the schools were, therefore, again transferred to the charge of the Inspector of Schools in 1868. By then the Ajmer Government School had grown considerably (it had already become an Intermediate College), and it engrossed the Principals' attention and took much of his time which left him little time to go on inspection tours in the districts. So in November 1869 an Assistant Inspector of Schools was appointed on Rs. 200/- p. m. for Ajmer -Merwara for the inspection and management of schools in the district.2

In May 1871 a great administrative change took place. It was the taking away of Ajmer-Merwara from the N. W. P. Govt, and placing it under the Foreign and Political Department of the Government of India. The district of Ajmer-Merwara was constituted into a Chief Commissionership when the A. G. G, in Rajputana was made an ex-officio Chief Commissioner and L. S. Saunders, then Deputy Commissioner in the Punjab, was appointed the first Commissioner of Ajmer-Merwara in 1871.3 In December next year he was appointed an ex-offlcio Director of Public Instruction for Ajmer and Merwara.4 This was an important event in the history of education in Ajmer-Merwara, for during the long period of his commissionership education made considerable progress there.

Vernacular schools in those days in the N. W. P. were divided into two categories : 1. the Tehsili or Vernacular Middle schools and 2. the Halqabandi or the Vernacular Elementary schools. The former were entirely supported by the Government ; school houses

1. For these schools see Chapter I I I . 2. Finance Dept, Progs : Jan., 1869, No. 20. 3. Foreign Progs : Pol. A May, 1871, No. 697. 4 Buckland to Brooks : Letter No. 2471/G dated 5th Dec, 1872.

Director of Public Instruction, Ajmer's Office file No. 8 of 1872 (R.A B.)


were built and teachers paid by the Government, tuition fees being paid by the pupils to defray contingent charges. The latter on Halqabandi or elementary schools depended exclusively on the educational cess realised from all zamindars. School houses were erected and repaired, teachers paid, and all other expenses defrayed from this fund. But in Ajmer there were only Tehsili schools which were entirely supported by the Government, school houses being erected and repaired and teachers paid by the Government, and the contingencies being defrayed from tuition fees.1

The district of Ajmer contained in 1872, 18 Government schools. The staff of teachers was recruited from a Normal class, which was not very prolific in competent men, because the demand upon it had been greater than the supply. The condition of teachers could not be improvised, for it needed three years to train a man for the teaching job. Yet the necessities of village schools compelled the Inspector to send out teachers before they had completed their course. Three new categories of teachers at Rs. 10/- , 12/- and 15/- p. m. were adopted in Merwara which increased the teachers' efficiency and their will to work. The lump sum of Rs. 136/- p. m. contributed by the Government and the Mewar and the Marwar States was redistributed into salaries of of Rs. 10/-and 12/-which brought in 13 schools. Though this new scale reduced the number of village schools from 14 to 13, it compensated the loss by higher efficiency and greater integrity of the teachers. The amont of Rs. 5,000/- which the one percent educational cess was calculated to yield was utilised in the construction of school-houses, increasing the salaries and in the opening of new schools in the two districts.2

In March 1871 the Government held that in.a small district like Ajmer-Merwara it was desirable to maintain only two Tehsili schools-one for Ajmer and the other for Merwara. The other schools in Merwara were to be classified as Village or Halqabandi schools, their cost being met out of the educational cess. The teacher generally received from Rs. 10/- to 16- p. m. and it was only

1. Director of Public Instruction, Ajmer's file No. 7 of 1871-R.A.B. 2. Ajmer Commissioner's file No. 7 of 1872-R.A.B.

Education in Ajmet-Merwara 143

later on that he got an assistant teacher on Rs. 6/- p. m. Therefore, except for the name, these schools were more properly called Halqabandi than Tehsil schools, and the schools in Merwara were inferior to those in Ajmer.1

Executive control of village schools

Upto 1875 Goulding, the Principal of Government College, Ajmer, was in-charge of village schools, being ex-officio Inspector of Schools. But in 1876 the executive control and management of the village schools was placed in the hand of the Deputy Commisso-ner pointing out that his duties were to see that the public funds allotted to education were properly applied to the purpose and to supervise generally the arrangements of the schools, more particularly the village schools The Inspector was also required to visit and inspect each school at least twice a year instead of once as before. He was to submit his report to the Deputy Commissioner who was to forward the same to the Commissioner and Director of Public Instruction.2

Reorganisation of Tehsili schools and extension of elementary education (1876)

In 1875 the course of study pursued in the 'Tehsili' schools was considered too high. The existing organisation of schools in the district was, therefore, altered with a view to extend elementary education. Accordingly a large number of Halqabandi or elementary schools were established. The scheme of study for such schools was fixed at a low scale merely aiming at teaching simple reading, writing and arithmetic, while in the Tehsili schools a better class of vernacular education was to be given, but English, was not to be taught. If there was any desire to learn English, a local subscription for the purpose could be raised and English teaching started. The education received in these schools could, however, enable the more talented boys to join the College at Ajmer for further studies.3 These proposals were soon brought into force. Accordingly 59 schools with 1495 scholars were opened

1. Chief Commissioner, Ajmer's File No. 99-R.A.B. 2. Director of Public Instruction office file No. 12-R.A.B. 3. Chief Commissioner, Ajmer, Office File No. 99-R.A.B.


during 1876. Of these, eight were Tehsili schools-6 in Ajmer and 2 in Merwara - and 49 Halqabandi or elementary schools-35 in Ajmer and 14 in Merwara.i Under the new system a uniform rate of one anna fee was introduced, but the children of agriculturists were exempted as they already contributed to education the one per cent cess. Some of the poorest of the village children were admitted free. The total amount spent on education during the two years (Rs. 18,506 in 1875-76 and Rs. 17,215 in 1876-77) showed that there was no extra cost to the Government in carrying out the revised scheme of education in the district schools.

Between 1881 and 1891 primary education progressed fairly satisfactorily. In the latter year 5859 boys were under instruction in 47 public and 83 elementary private schools. The famines of the next decade affected primary education and in 1900-01 the attendance declined to 3964. But it was made up in 1903. These two years (1891 and 1903), however, show an improvement compared with 1881. The proportion of boys under education to those of a school-going age was 128 per cent in 1881. 13*5 percent in 1891 and 12-5 per cent in 1903. The lowest pay of the primary school teacher was Rs. 6/- per mensem. Out of the 50 primary public schools, seven were girls' schools and 42 were village or Halqabandi schools. In 1903 the total cost of the primary public schools was Rs. 17, 772/- of which the Government paid Rs. 6,105/-, cess and municipal funds contributed Rs. 7,352/-. In addition to these amounts a sum of Rs. 3,232/- was realised as fees and Rs. 1,034/- were derived from other sources.2

In March 1907 C. F. de la Fosse, the Director of Public Instruction, U. P., was invited to Ajmer to advise the Government in regard to the improvement of education in Ajmer-Merwara. In his report (August, 1907) he deplored "the unusually low" rate of pay of vernacular school teachers as a result of which vernacular education generally seemed "starved and languishing." He, therefore, opined that a considerable expansion of primary education was possible, but with it an increase in the pay of the village school teacher was urgently called for.

1. Ajmer-Merware Report (1876-77), p. 50, para, 227. 2. Watson, C.C. Rajputana District Gazetteers, Vol. /-A, p, U8,

/ Education in Ajmei-Merwara 145

/ • -V The Special Education Committee appointed by the_Chief Commissioner also endorsed in its report (October, 1908) the view held by de la Fosse !and remarked, "For at least 30 years the Government system!1 of Vernacular and Anglo-Vernacular education in Ajmer-Merwara has undergone but little amplification." (Paragraph 4) :. It added that in vernacular schools the rate of pay of teachers was much lower than equally qualified-men could command elsewhere and that no school had its full complement of teachers. It pointed out that "the city of Ajmer possesses no recognised vernacular;school where good vernacular education may be obtainable. All and sundry, therefore, naturally flock to the English schools which are overcrowded." (Paragraph 6) Accordingly, the Committee recommended to bring the pay of the vernacular staff and the complement necessary in every school, as nearly as possible up to the standard obtaining in the United Provinces^ The minimum pay recommended was Rs. 10/-but "if the funds did not'permit, it'could be Rs. 8/- instead of Rs. 2/ r p. m. as at that time. The committee suggested the opening of 12 new village schools during the next three yeas. It further suggested that the District Board should support all primary vernacular education in the villages, and the Municipalities all vernacular education in the towns.

i, ; Colvin, the Chief Commissioner, fully agreed with the find

ings of both de la Fossejand the Special Committee and recommended the opening of 12 more primary schools in the next three years. But the Government of India rejected the proposal on .financial grounds.!

On December 12, 1911, at the Coronation Durbar, it was announced that the Government of India would devote at once Rs. 50 lakhs "to promote truly popular education." From that allotment Ajmer-Merwara was given a non-recurring grant of rupees 10,000 during 1912-13 for the "improvement of elementary education" with an assurance for similar annual grants during the next two years. The'Government of India hoped that ' it may be found possible further'to increase the number of primary schools.2

1. Foreign Intl. A Progs:';October 1909, Nos. 21 -22 2. Foreign Intl. B Progs: March 1913, Nos. 12-20.


i

Accordingy the grant was duly utilised in 1912-13 in opening 14 new schools instead of 12 contemplated and in improving the pay of the village teacher and the normal school* There were thus 67 primary schools opened against 43 the previous year. But the grant for 1914-15 was not utilised for primary eduction in Ajmer-Merwara. Instead, a sum of rupees 8,000 from that grant was given to the Mission High School, Nasirabad.2

In 1920-21 the total number of educational institutions in Ajmer-Merwara was 292 and the number of pupils of both sexes in public and private institutions was 14,841. Out of this number 10,063 scholars were reading in public institutions and 4778 in

_ private schools. The percentage of those receiving instruction to the total population was 4-7 among males and 0 7 among females. The total expenditure incurred on education was Rs. 5,44,401. Out of this total expenditure the Government was paying a sum of rupees 37,990 as grant-in-aid to private institutions^

In March 1927 primary education in the city of Ajmer was transferred to the Municipal Committee, Government washing its hands off it.4 The Primary Education Committee in its report (1929-30) gives a disappointing account of Primary education in Ajmer-Merwara. According to it Ajmer-Merwara was the most backward in the field of primary education for boys, excluding Burma, and as backward as other parts of India in girls' education. The Report clearly called for a rapid advance and showed that in order to pull the district to the all-India level in matters of primary education large funds were to be made available to launch a vigorous campaign against illiteracy.

A study of the Report made it amply clear that so long as primary education was under Government control, its progress was very slow. But as soon as it was handed over to the Municipality, primary education made good progress.5 Thus when the Government was in charge of primary education, there were only two

1. Foreign Intl. A Progs: April 1915, No. 18. 2. Ibid. 3. Ajmer-Merwara Administration Report (1920-21), p. 20, para. 104. 4. Sarda, H.B. Op. c\t. p. 357. 5. Report of the Primary Education Committee (1929-30), p. 115.


boys and one girls' school at Ajmer But during the next twelve (1927-1939) years, the number increased to 13 boys' and 10 girls' schools. Of these two were Harijan schools.l

In 1936 out of a population of 7071 children of school-going age in Ajmer, only 2770 were receiving education, as revealed by the report of the Sub-Committee appoinied by the Municipal Board, Ajmer, to go into the question of compulsory Primary education in Ajmer. The Sub-Committee was of the opinion that if the remaining 4301 children were to receive education, the Municipal Board would either have to open schools in the different wards or subsidize the existing schools. At that time the Municipal Board spent Rs. 1-3 a pupil per mensem in its own primary schools. The opening of schools with two teachers each was suggested, as schools with only one teacher had proved a failure. The total estimated cost to the Municipal Board on compulsory primary education in the city was to be Rs. 1,39,500 per annum, but the introduction of compulsory education piecemeal was preferred.2 The report on the administration of Ajmer-Merwara for 1936-37 observed, "There is an increasing demand for the expansion of primary education in rural areas. Compulsory primary education has not been introduced in any part of Ajmer-Merwara."3

It was due to the constant clamourings of the public that in July 1938 a sum of Rs. 94,400 was sanctioned by the Government for primary education in Ajmer-Merwara.'i £ u t the demand for more primary education was not fully met. The eighth session of the Ajmer-Merwara Vernacular Teachers' Conference held in November, 1936, drew the Government's attention towards the growing demand for compulsory primary education.5 But nothing

^substantial, was done,

^SCluis leaving the city of Ajmer, there were 177 primary schools rtKAjmer-Mervvara, in a population of 3,87,440, or one

1. Sarda, H.B. Op. C/?Ss^358. 2. The Statesman. Sept.,r5*<W36, p. 10. 3. The Hindustan Times. S e p t h ^ 9 3 8 . p. 13. 4. The Times of India, July 13,1938%* 4. 5. The Hindustan Times Dec 3, 1939, p. 8.


primary school for 2,188 people. In Merwara, taken separately, with a population of 1,36,374 there were only 55 primary schools, or one school for 2,479.5 people. This state of primary education in Ajmer-Merwara continued till 194' when, with the achievement of independence, greater attention was paid towards primary education, and more primary schools were opened in the subsequent 3'ears.

II. SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary education in Ajmer-Merwara may be said to have begun in 1851 when the Government school was established in that year. It (the school) included within its fold both the primaiy and the secondary sections till December 1874 when its branch was opened in the city of Ajmer to provide education to the poor boys of the city and to children of the tender age who could not attend the Government College on the Beawar road, a mile away from the city. This school was specially provided for by the Municipality of Ajmer. It was originally started as an experiment for one year, but as it was found to flourish during the year, and its usefulness was fully appreciated by the people of Ajmer, it was

v continued. Then with a view to place it on a permanent footing, the Municipal Committee agreed to pay Rs. 150/- p. m. towards its maintenance, and a similar grant was made by the Government by transferring Rs. 150/- from the College grant to this branch school. With this available money it was placed under a resident Head Master on a salary of Rs. 100/- p. m. and some of the English and Oriental staff of teachers was transferred from the College and placed under him. All these proposals were sanctioned by the Chief Commissioner and carried into effect from the 1st April, 1876. The total number of boys on ro'l at the close of the year was 201, of whom 147 were Hinaus and 54 Mohammadans. The total cost incurred during the year was Rs. 1,656-8 of which-Rs. 1,478-8 were contriLiuted by the Ajmer Municipality and the balance was made by the entrance and tuition fees.1

1. Ajmer-Merwara Report (1875-76), pp. 104-05 paragraphs 383-385. Also letter No. 170-E dated 21-2-1898 from Commissioner to Chief Commissioner. (Chief Commissioner Office file No. 224 R. A. B.).


Thus came into existence in ! 876 the Branch School of the Government College which later on was converted into the Government High School, Ajmer. But before it assumed that name, it had to pass through many circuitous ways till it was separated from the College in 1912. In the year 1876 only the 8th class of the College was transferred. Subsequently during the years 1888 to 1890 the,7th and 6th classes were also transferred, to the Branch School. Again in 1896 on the provisional establishment of the B. A. class at the College, the 5th class was also shifted to the school. Thus towards the end of the last century four of the eight classes which constituted the Zilah "High School remained with the College and formed an important part of it.

So far as Secondary education was concerned, Ajmer could be considered well off in the beginning of the present century. But things were not as they seemed to be. Of the 15 secondary schools, nine were purely Vernacular Tehsili village schools;.two were aided High Schools (Nasirabad and Beawar); two were unaided (Ajmer Mission and Dayanand Ashram Anglo-Vedic) and one Government located in the College.

The part which the private agencies of education, especially the Christian Missions, played in the diffusion of Secondary education in Ajmer-Merwara has been very significant. It has already been explained in Chapter III how the various Christian Missions opened both boys' and girls' schools at Nasirabad, Beawar and Ajmer which met a very real need of secondary education. The Mission Girls' School, Nasirabad, the Avery Girls' Middle School, the St. Mary's Convent, the Sophia School and the St. Anselm's High School were some of their prominent institutions ' for secondary education. Later on some other denominational institutions came into being, the most important among them for girls' education being the Savitri School. The Oswal Jain, the Tikam Chand Jain and the Agarwal School-ail contributed their mite in the cause of secondary education in the district.

In his report de la Fosse recommended the separation of the High School classes from the Government College, Ajmer. The Special Education Committee also put up proposals for the


improvement and expansion of secondary education in the district particularly in relation to the pay and emoluments of the teachers. It was as a result of these proposals that schemes for the separation of the High School classes from the College and the establishment of a Govt. Central Girls' School Were prepared. Jn August 1912 the Govt, of India granted a sum of Rs. 9,000/- for the improvement of Secondary Education in Ajmer - Merwara which led to the separation of the High School from the Government College in 1912 and the establishment of the Central Girls' School. In 1921 there were 646 pupils in the Govt. High School which shows its popularity. In 1925 Commerce was introduced in the School as one of the optional subjects.

The establishment of the Moinia Islamia High School, Ajmer (1911), Mohammad Ali Memorial High School, Beawar (1932) Oswal Jain High School Ajmer (1932), Betham High School, Kekri (1932) and Narain High School Bijainagar (1932)—all for boys and Arya Putri Pathshala, Ajmer, Savitri Girls' School Ajmer, Society Girls' School, Beawar, Mission Girls' School, Beawar,

-Mission Vernacular Middle School, Nasirabad andMahila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi—all for girls—contributed much in the field of secondary education in Ajmer-Merwara during this period.

III. BOARD OF HIGH SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION

The need of an organisation like a Board or a University for conducting examinations goes with education. Our modern education is mainly examination-centred. We receive education not for the enrichment of mind, body and soul, not for the development of our latent faculties or for the shaping of character, but for the passing of an examination. That unfortunately is a naked truth which we cannot easily overlook. In fact, education loses all its market value if it is not examined and recognised by being given a certificate, diploma or a degree. Such being the case, education and an examining organisation go hand in hand. This organisation sets limits and puts forth objectives with which education should proceed.

Upto the year 1921, Secondary Education in Rajasthan was under the control of the Education Department of the respective


i States. Apart from the fact that schools and colleges in these States prepared candidates for^the Entrance and Intermediate examinations of the University of Allahabad, there was no single agency for regulating, uniform educational standards. A large number of candidates from these areas also appeared as private

P'idates for the Matriculation examination of the Punjab Uni-;y. In 1921 the Allahabad University was reconstituted in rdance with the recommendations of .the Calcutta University mission, populartyjknown as the Sadler Commission. It was decided that the j'University should confine its activities to

the Degree and Post-Graduates classess. For High School and Intermediate Examinations a separate organisation known as the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, United Province, was created purely as an examining body. It was to this Board that the High School and Intermediate Colleges in Raja-sthan were attached for examination purposes. This Board conducted examination fpr the canditates from Rajasthan also.

.But in 1927 it repesented to the U. P. Govt, that the jurisdiction of the Board had become unwieldy and that it could no longer conduct the examinations for areas outside the United Provinces.. Hence arose the need of a separate Board for Rajputana. A scheme was drawn which the Govt, of India approved. Thus was born in July 1929 the Board of High School and Intermediate Education Rajputana (including Ajmer-Merwara), Central India and Gwalior with headquarters at Ajrrier. The first meeting of the Board was held in August, 1929. !1

The formation of the!' Board was indeed a very bold step in the inter-State integration'. and co-operation in the important field of secondary education. The Chief Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara, was appointed as the Controlling Authority of the Board. Out of a panel of three names thei1 Controlling Authority appointed K. P. Kichlu, Special Education; Officer, Jaipur State, as the Board's first Chairman for three iiyears. The Board conducted its first examination in 1930 with 70 High Schools and 12 Intermediate Colleges. In 1947 the University of Rajputana was established and much of the area covered by the Board was reduced. Thus whereas 201 High Schools and 42 Intermediate Colleges were being served by the Board in 1930, the number was reduced to


102 and 23 respectively in 1947. But there is no doubt that within the course of the first seventeen years from 1930 to 1947 the Board did creditable work in improving the quality and standard of Secondary education in the institutions recognised by it, through periodical inspections carried out on its behalf by compe-^ tent and experienced inspectors. To the same end, the Board alsj established in 1941, the Teachers' Training College at Ajm During the next eight years (1941-49) the Training College J duced hundreds of trained Graduate teachers. There is thus doubt that the Board contributed a good deal in the rapid growth and expansion of Secondary Education in Rajasihan. This is quite evident from the number of candidates who appeared in and passed its examinations till 1947 when the University of Rajputana came into existence and started conducting its own examinations for Secondary Education also.

7. Education in Jaipur State

Jaipur was one of the first and educationally the most advanced State of Rajasthan where modern education began. As early as 1844, the first modern school was established there through the efforts of Major Ludlow, the Political Agent. Maharaja Jai Singh, who founded the city of Jaipur in 1727, was a great patron of learning. He had established scores of schools in the city, its suburbs and districts where he had appointed Brahman Pandits as teachers. These schools later on ceased to function. There were in 1844 fifty two Parganas in the Jaipur State and Major Ludlow tells us that in twenty of them "one hundred and eighteen village schools have been revived and brought into operation by the local officers, under whose superintendence they will henceforth remain.1

1. PRIMARY EDUCATION.

The school established in 1844 was superintended by Pt. Shiv Deen, Maharaja Ram Singh's tutor, who was assisted by two persons, Muushi Kishan Swaroop and Munshi Makkhan Lai. In 1847 the school which had 250 pupils was divided into four classes; namely Sanskrit, Persian and Urdu and later ou English was also taught seperately. Villages were granted by the State for the upkeep of the schools in Jaipur. The yearly expenditure for the school was Rs. 2.772/- and a sum of Rs. 25C8/- was spent on the

1. (i) Ludlow to Sutherland : No. 92 dated 9th October, 1847. Foreign Pol. Cons. 20th Nov , 1847, No, 65.

(ii) M. K. Jaipur, File No. G-4/02 of 1847.


maintenance of the other schools.1 In 1853 Major William Henry Richards informed the State Council through a Kaifiyat that the villages assigned for meeting the expenses of the school had been taken possession of by Pt. Shiv Deen and requested that some other villages be assigned for the purpose.2 In the next year a monthly expenditure of Rs. 810/- was spent on the maintenance of the Maharaja's College (then only a school) and the Printing Press. Munshi Kishan Swaroop was Head Master on Rs. 60/- p.m. and Munshi Kanhaiya Lai was the English teacher in 1854.3

In 1860 two branch schools were established, one in Ganga Pol and the other in Chandpol, two Chokries or wards of the city, for the facility of small children who could not go to the Maharaja's School due to long distances. Only Hindi and Persian were taught in them. In the same year Munshi Kishan Swaroop, Supeffnten-dant, Raj Madarsa, informed Thakur Lachhman Singh, the Musahib-i-Raj, (Prime Minister), Jaipur, that in accordance with Mahakma Khas order dated 1st October, 1860, issued at the suggestion of Lt. Col. Brooke, the Political Agent, an education fee of annas one to annas four per boy per month according to the status of the parents was levied and a sum of Rs. 30/- a month was realised.4 The amount thus realised was credited to the Library Fund. In 1863 there were 476 pupils under instruction in the State School in Jaipur city including 106 reading in the two branch schools. In 1861-62, seven schools were maintained by the State. They were attended by 215 scholars, and the annual expenditure on them was Rs. 1428/-. But the progress of the boys was not encouraging because of the difficulty of getting enthusiastic teachers on fixed salaries in areas where supervision could be but slight. Maharaja Ram Singh wanted to try in the district grants-in-aid to private schools instead of fixed salaries for State Schools.

Private Schools in Jaipur City (1863)

There were 110 private schools in Jaipur city. Some of them were

1. M, K. Jaipur, File No. G-4/03 of 1848. 2. M. K., Jaipur, File No. G-4/05 of 1853. 3. Ruqqa from Pandit Shiv Deen dated 30th January, 1854. 4. M. K., Jaipur, File No. G-4/06 of 1860.

Education in Jaipur State 155

well attended and exacted high tuition fees. There were in all 2598 pupils reading in them. The largest number of boys attending any one school was 60, and the lowest fee charged was one anna a month, the highest fee being as much as Rs. 2\ per month. So for as education in the districts was concerned, it was confined almost exclusively to the Brahman and Baniya boys to whom it was more particularly useful in their daily transactions in life. One deplorable feature of education in Jaipur, as in the other States of Rajasthan, was that education was fostered in the capital, but in the districts it was left to itself. There were schools in large towns like Jhunjhunu, Ramgarh, Fatehpur, Sambhar etc. very well attended and maintained by private agencies, but they were only exceptions to the rule that throughtout the territory generally education was at a very low ebb notwithstanding the fact that the State was spending in 1862-63 Rs. 17,088 per annum.1

This amount in itself was not very large considering the total ' income (about Rs 40/- lakhs) and the population (19 lakhs)°of the State in 1867.

The number of private schools in the city which was 110 in 1863 rose to 128 during the next four years (1867) with a total of 3000 pupils. In the majority of these schools only Hindi was taught; but there were several Urdu and Persian schools largely attended by Muslim boys. A few Sanskrit schools also exitsed. By 1867 the State got opened through its subsidies 170 schools, 146 Hindi-Sanskrit and 26 Persian-Urdu, in the districts with an attendance of 4022, composed of 3576 pupils reading Hindi-Sanskrit and 446 Persian and Urdu.2 The State also established exclusively at its own expenditure 21 Persian and 9 Hindi schools in the districts with a total number of 532 pupils in them.3 In addition to them there were 58 Maktabs and 309 Chatshalas partially supported by the State with a total roll of 7060 pupils in them.* By 1880-81, the number of vernacular schools in Jaipur State entirely supported by the State rose to 48 with a total

1. Brooke to Lawrence ; No. 44-25 G dated 13-8-1863/Foreign Gen!. A July 1864, No. 10-18.

2. R. A. R. Jeypore Agency Report (1867-68), para. 45 & Appendix A. 3. R. A. R. Jeypore Agency Report (1869-70), p. 75, para. 67. 4. /6/cf. p. 90.


number of 1169 pupils reading in them. Eesides these schools, there were 109 Maktabs and 303 Chatshalas more or less supported by the State imparting instruction to 8,377 boys.

Primary Education Reorganised (1887)

The year 1887 is an important milestone in the.educational history of Jaipur State. It was in the previous year (in October 1886) that Babu Haridas Sastri M. A. of the Free Church Institution, Calcutta, was appointed Principal. Maharaja's College, and Superintendent (later on designated Director) of Public Instruction, Jaipur State. Immediately after his appointment, he entirely reorganised the schools and considerably strengthened the inspecting staff. The principles underlying the reorganisation were :—

1. the abolition of a number of very thinly attended schools in villages where education was not appreciated;

2. the opening of new schools at two large tehsils at the * — request of the chief inhabitants of the places;

3. the dismissal of incompetent teachers or their removal to less important places;

4. the establishment of Upper Primary Schools with English knowing Head Teachers at all the district Headquarters to serve as model and to excite and encourage imitation; and

5 change in the schools course to make it more useful to the students in their ordinary occupations in after-life, and the importance attached to the knowledge of the vernaculars in preference to the knowledge of Persian and- Sanskrit to which the most ambitious of these schools were addicted, to the neglect of such indispensable subjects of study as arithmatic accounts, and mensuration.

Under the new scheme the tutorial staff of these schools consisted of ten Head Teachers, 23 teachers of Hindi and 17 teachers of Urdu; and their salaries ranged from Rs. 10/- to Rs. 25/- p. m.i

2. Repoit on Public Instruction in Jaypur (1887) p. 16.


Primary Schools Under Private Management

There were 22 schools, maintained by missionaries, Jagirdars, and other rich people, which had 980 pupils. The education given in these schools was of an elementary character. The standards and methods adopted were of an improved nature, and corresponded to those of the primary Stale schools. There were nine schools under missionary management. The education given in them was of a lower primary character. The total number of pupils in them was 560 and the total expenditure was Rs. 118/- p. m.

Indigenous Education

The Jaipur State for a long time aimed at the extension of elementary education by fostering aud improving the indigenous schools, but systematic efforts in this direction were made only in 1887. Careful enquiries were instituted for ascertaining the actual number of useful indigenous schools in the Khalisa villages of the State, and the manner in which they could best be aided, encouraged, and utilised as a part of the State educational system. A grant-in-aid scheme was devised for this purpose. The number of such schools was 120 and the State sanctioned from March 1887 a grant of Rs. 174/- p. m. for aiding them. The grant-in-aid to each school varied' from one rupee to three rupees a month. The State now made it a policy to treat the indigenous schools as an integral part of the general sytem of education and wanted to put them on firm basis by giving grants-in-aid. The inspecting staff was accordingly strengthened by the appointment of four additional Inspectors in order that indigenous schools receiving aid might be inspected in situ, and clear ideas formed as to their real character and efficiency, discipline and tone. These schools were of an elementary nature, but they fulfilled a useful function, for almost all the Patwaris, Kanungos and other village officers then got their primary education in the Hindi Chatshalas.

Thus altogether 10,780 children were getting some sort of education in the Jaipur State in 1887. Of these 10,099 were boys and 681 were girls. If we exclude 3849 pupils of 144 indigenous schools, which were unaided, from the total number of 10,099, we


get 6250 boys under instruction in schools which were recognised and supported by the State. The population of school-going children of Jaipur State, exclusive of Jagirs. was 1,36,125 out of whom only 6250 were actually in school which comes to less than 5%. The State spent nearly Rs. 70,000/- on education which was 1-3% of the whole expenditure of the State.1

Scholarships and Prizes

A comprehensive system of scholarships was sanctioned by the State to connect lower schools with the Maharaja's College. To the really promising boys in primary schools and in primary classes of higher schools opportunities for advancement were offered by a chain of scholarships, the awardee of which could pass through the several stages of education up to a University degree.

The Jaipur Council sanctioned in July 1882 an annual grant of Rs. 600/- to be awarded in monthly scholarships to the students of the primary schools in the mofussil who should succeed in passing the annual competitive examination held at the end of every session at Jaipur. The scholarships were tenable for four years, and the scholarship-holders were required to continue their studies either in the Maharaja's College or in the Sanskrit College so that pupils of ability in primary schools had the opportunity of carrying on their studies in schools of a higher class. Similarly, prizes for good conduct, regular attendance, calligraphy, general proficiency and skill in athletic sports were also awarded. All these scholarships and prizes helped very much in the encouragement of education at different levels. The total expenditure under the head scholarships and prizes during the year 1887 was Rs. 4712-4-0 2

As a result of the above measures education got a fillip and there were 167 public educational institutions at the close of the year 1890-91 supported by the State, containing 8,259 scholars. There were 346 private institutions with 12,018 scholars. On the whole, therefore, there were 20,277 scholars under instruction in

1. R. A. R. : Eastern Rajputana Residency Report (1886-87), p. 12. 2. Report on Public Instruction in Jaypur (1887), p. 21 .


public and private institutions of all kinds at the close of 1890-91 consisting of 19,719 boys and 558 girls. The total population of Jaipur State, excluding Jagirs, was nearly 16,83,000 of whom 9,07,500 were males and 7,75,500 females. According to the usual principles of calculation there were 1,36,125 male children of school-going age and 1,16,325 girls of the same category. Hence of all boys of school-going age one in seven was at school, and of all girls one in 207. As the number of towns and villages in Jaipur State was close upon 400, it appeared that there was rather one school to every eight villages. The total expenditure on education in 1891 was Rs. 76,382/- which was spent as follows :—

Class of No. of Govt. No. of Total Average annual Institutions Institutions pupils expenditure cost per child.

Colleges 3* Secondary schools 5 Primary schools 26 Indigenous schools 123 Girls Schools 7 Special schools % 3 Inspection Scholarships & Prizes Furniture and apparatus Miscellaneous

Total 167

109 1443 1284 4728

548 147

8259

(Rs.) 14,959 15,228 8,116 2,112 5,550 7,230 2,124

11,158 809

9,096

76,3821

(Rs.) 133-9-0

10-8-10 6-5-2 0-7-6

12-8-0 52-0-0

The above table shows how small was the cost of education in Jaipur State The total expenditure on a pupil receiving high

1. Report on Public Instruction in Jaypur (1890-91), p. 2. * 1 . Maharaja's College, 2. Oriental College (Sanskrit Department) 3. Oriental College (Persian and Arabic Depatrment) % Special Schools :

(1) Rajput School (2) Female Normal School and (3) School of Arts.


education was only Rs. 133-9-0 a year or about Rs. 11 a month, on a pupil receiving secondary education Rs. 10-8-10 a year or less than a rupee a month; while the expense of giving primary education to a child was as low as only eight annas a month, liut so far as the classification of pupils according to their progress in all types of schools was concerned, one thing is quite clear that proportionately greater attention was paid in the State to the spread of what is now called mass education as the following table will explain :—

Class of No.' of State Schools Schools

Secondary • 5 Primary 26 Indigenous Girls' Schools 7 Special Schools 3

Total 510

Private Schools

1 22

446

469

No. of pupils

1600 2717

15,156 548 147

20,168

High Stage

107 — — — —

107

Middl Stage

176 — — — 5

181

e Primary Stage.

1317 2/17

15156 548 142

198S01

By the end of the last century (1899) the total number of elementary schools in Jaipur Slate rose to 7S4 with 21,129 pupils and the total annual expenditure on primary education to Rs. 14,927 as shown below :—

No. of No. of Expenditure Expenditure schools pupils from State from private

revenue sources

Primary schools under direct management of the State 45 2,843 Under private control 32 1,364 Indigenous Schools : 707 16,922

Rs. 6.441 Rs. 8,886

Total 784 21,129 Rs. 14,9272

1. Repoit on Public Instruction in Jaypur (1890-91) p. 4. 2. Report on Public Instruction in Jaypur (1899).


I ii

Extension of Primary Education and Local Cess (1902) To provide sufficient funds for opening new primary schools in the districts, the imposition of local rates on land assessment was recommended by ShrrSanjiban Ganguli, the Director of Public Instruction, Jaipur State, in 1902, so that several halqabandi or circle schools throughout the State could be opened like those in the United Provinces The expediency of imposing special rate on land for the provision of elementary education was first enunciated by the Education Despatch of 1859, accepted by the Government of India, and emphasised by the Hunter Commission of 1882. In the Punjab and the United Provinces the compulsory rate was above 1 per cent, and in the Central Provinces it was above 2 per cent of the lental. In Jaipur the cess system was not at all an innovation. It already existed in certain villages and taluqas. All that, the Director of Public Instruction urged was its systematic extension and imposition, subject, however, to the following two necessary conditions :- (i) that the salaries of the teachers from the cess should be regularly paid through the State agency, and the State should afterwards realise the amount from the zamindars'at the harvest time; and (ii) that the amount realised from the cess for education should on no account be spent on any other purpose than the education of the masses in the districts.

Educational qualifications for certain offices

Another measure adopted to give an impetus to vernacular education in the districts was the fixing of some educational qualifications for certain offices, wrongly supposed to be hereditary, such as the village Patwaris and Qanungos. It was urged that the Vernacular Middle Examination certificate should be the minimum qualification for candidates for such posts. It was believed that the fiixing of some1 minimum educational qualification would not only improve the efficiency of those offices, but would also encourage the spread of education in the districts

As a result of,these measures the number of primary schools rose to 143 with 6,353 scholars, and those for girls to 20 with 1246 pupils in 1909. The percentage of scholars to the school-age population, taking the latter at 15 per cent of the total


population, was 14.36 for boys, 0.66 for girls and 7.6 for boys and girls taken together.* ,

In 1921-22, the expenditure on education amounted to Rs. 98,900, while a sum of Rs. 1,18,057 was spent next year. Three years hence the amount increased to Rs. 2,13,256' in 1925-26 which means that during four years the expenditure on education in Jaipur State nearly doubled. Besides the State expenditure, considerable sums were contributed by the Thikanas and the philanthropist public for educational establishement ,as is clear from the following table :-

Year

1921-22 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25 1925-26

Total

State amount

1,13,971 1,81,057 1,17,190 1,98,844 2,13,256

8,22,318 •

Thikana amount

26,273 30,826 36,342 39,824 60,561

1,94,826

Public Amount Total

1,81,049 1,77,784 2,54,726 2,71,285 2,75,228

11,60,072

• 3,21,293 1 3,26,667 ! 4,70,258

5,09,953 1 5,49,045

21,77,2162

The total number of educational institutions (both State and private) was 1090 in 1921-22. Four years later it rose to 1102 in 1925-26. The'corresponding figures for scholars for these \ years were 37,175 in 1921-22 and 48,432 in 1925-26. The popute-tion of the Jaipur State according to the census of 1921 was 12,42,742 males and 10,96,060 females. Reckoned at the usual proportion of 15 percent, the male population of school-going age was 1,86,411 and the female population 1,64,409, giving a total of 3,50,820. Of these 46,505 boys and 1838 girls were at school in 1925-26 against 35,374 boys and 1760 girls in 1921-22. Thus 24.94 per cent of the males and 1.11 per cent of the females and 13.78 of the entire population of school-going age were under instruction in 1925-26 against 18,98,107 and 10.58 in 1921-22, showing

1. Showers, H. L. Notes on Jaipur (1909), p. 83. 2. Report on the Administration of the Jaipur State (1922-23 to 1825-26),

para. 317.

Education in Jaipur State 163 li ii

an increase of 5.96 per cent in the case of the entire population of school-going age, during'the four years (1921-22 to 1925-26).

The highest percentage of children of school-going age under instruction was naturally jirecorded in the city where it was 47-26 percent in 1925-26 against !

: 35-99 in 1922-23 showing an increase of 11-27 percent during the four years. In the other districts of the State, the maxmura .percentage to the total population was 14-86 in Shekhawati in 1921-22 and in, 1925-26 it was 19-91 in Torawati, the increase 'in percentage being about 5. The figures give an increase of 13-78 percent for the whole of the State including the city in 1925-26 against 10-58 in 1921-22. The proportion of scholars to the entire population of the State in 1925-26 was 3-74 per cent males, 0:16 females and 2-67 for both the sexes taken together as against'2-85 percent males, 0-16 females and 1-59 for both taken together in 1921-22. In the city it was 7-08 percent in 1925-26 againsti|5-39 percent in 1921-22.

In 1921-22 the total number of public schools was 81 with 4909 scholars while that of the schools under private management was 305 with 35,513 scholars, and the indigenous schools numbered 704 with 18,753 scholars. Thei|number of indigenous schools fell to 6"63 on the 31st of August 1926. The number of scholars in these schools also increased by !imore than 2500, the figure being 22,315 on the 31st August 1926. J

The proportion of educational institutions in 1921-22 to the total number of towns' and villages in the State (which was 6,122 according to the census of 1921) was 17-23 for. boys and 0.56 for girls and, 17.79 for both boys and girls taken together.

Taking only the number of public schools into account there was in 1925-26 one public school existing for every 14 villages in the State as against one! public school for every 15 villages in 1921-22. The average enrolment in each State school was 61, in each private school 44;; and in each indigenous school 27 in 1921-22. The average cost per scholar of all categories in 1921-22 wasRs. 11-03.1 •:

i! 1. Jaipur Administration Report (1922-23 to 1925-26), one volume, pp.

103-105.

164 Modern Education in JRajasthan

Another important step taken by the Education Department of the State was the establishment of a Norma] School in 1925 to improve the quality of teachers of the district schools. It was affiliated to the Department of Public Instruction, United Provinces.

District Schools

The condition of district schools at the commencement of the Minority Administration (in 1922) was far from satisfactory, nearly 85 percent of the total education grant being spent in the city alone, leaving only 15 percent for the districts, which as a matter of fact, contained 95 percent of the total populaion of the State. Schools in the districts existed only in name and the designations Middle and Upper Primary in the majority of cases were misleading. Neither text-books nor maps and charts and boards were supplied for education in subjects like History, Geography and Arithmetic. Progress was consequently uneven and irregular, as the teachers devoted themselves to the top classes alone. An attempt was, therefore, made to put the existing schools on a proper footing by engaging 97 additional teachers and providing a sum of Rs. 13,000 for furniture, apparatus, books and other requisites. Revision of the Courses of study was also undertaken and Mahajani (Commerce) was introduced for students who wanted to take to business in after-life. English was introduced as an optional subject in the Vernacular Schools. The system of scholarship was revised. Importance of games was stressed.

Private Schools

Considerable sums were spent annually on education by the public in the Jaipur State. The majority of private institutions existed in Shekhawati and Torawati and all those schools were financed and controlled by the wealthy merchants of those districts, specially of Shekhawati, and were maintained by the charity-fund of their respective business firms, on the prosperity of which the fate of the schools depended. Most of them had no permanent status and were liable to be closed any day as the 108 schools of Seth Surajmal Shiv Prasad of Chirwa were closed in 1924-25.

Education in Jaipur State 165 ii

The population of the State according to the census of 1931 was 13,87,067 males and 12,44,708 females. The male population of school-going age was 2,08,060 and female population 1,86,706 giving a total of 3,94,766. Of this 40,995 boys and 3,002 girls were under instruction in 1930-31. There was one public school for every 10 villages. Ten years later the total population of the State was 15,95,068 'males and 14,45,497 females. At the revised rate of 12 percent, the female population of school-going age was 1,91,408 and the female population 1,73,497 giving a total of 3,64,905. Of this total 56,776 boys and 5,953 girls were under instruction in 1940-41. 'Thus 29/-6 percent of the males and 3.43 percent of the females Jand 17-19percent of the entire population of the school-going age were under instruction hi 1940-41. The total number of institutions was 1115 with 62,729 scholars on the rolls. Thus there was one public institution for every 7.84 villages, for every 22 square miles, and for every 3,990 inhabitants in the State. The State expenditure on education in the year was Rs. 6,70,699, that of the Thikanas was Rs. 1,05,171 and of the private persons and agencies in the State Rs. 4,23,949. Thus the State was spending Rs. 28-11-9 on each scholar in the State in 1940-41.1

Out of the total population of 30,40,876 the number of literate persons in the State, according to the census of 1941, was 1,67,243, that is, 53 out of every 1000. Ninety four per thousand of the male population could read and write, while the proportion of female literates was as low as 8.5 per thousand There were 58,178 boys and 4,791 girls under instruction in 1946-47 and the number of educational institutions including the Colleges, during the year was nearly 1200, imparting education to about 65,000 pupils, both boys and girls, f Literacy in the Jaipur State was thus appallingly low and the State Govt., therefore, took energetic steps to increase ft.2 It opened 106 new Primary Schools, raising the number of Govt. Primary schools to 586 with 22,920 pupils, and 267 under private management with 9728 pupils on 31 8.1947. In August 1946 the State passed the Primary Education Act, according to which compulsory primary education was introduced in

i

1. Jaipur Administration Report (1940-41) pp. 87-88. 2. Jaipur Administration Report (1946-47), p. 8.

i


certain wards of the city municipality, The number of Girls' schools was 178 (including 105 maintained by private agencies) with 7411 girls on rolls. Twenty schools for depressed classes with 627 scholars in them were also opened. A special grant of Rs. 1 lakh was sanctioned for adult education.1 So far as pre-primary education in the State was concerned, the Birla Education1 Trust was the first to start a Montessori School in Pilani for infants. In 1939, one of the Assistant Mistresses of the Maharaja's Girls' School, Jaipur, was deputed to Adyar (Madras) to undergo training in the class conducted by Dr. Montessori. On the trained teacher's return a Montessori class was started in the Maharaja's Girls' High School which had 50 children on roll. A separate Montessori school, the Nerendra V. Durlabhji Bal Mandir, Jaipur, was started in July 1947. Another private Montessori school in Jaipur city was the Mahavir Vidya Mandir.

i

A school for deaf, dumb and blind children was opened in Jaipur in 1947 by Seth Anandi Lai Poddar of Nawalgarh. The number of children was 20 with two whole-time teachers and 3 instructors. The total expenditure on the school in 1946-47 was 0-12 lakh.2

II SECONDARY EDUCATION , i

Secondary Education in Jaipur commenced in 1844 when a school was established there through the efforts of Political Agent, Major Ludlow. It was opened in the temple of Shri Ma dan Mohan ji, just in front of the famous Hawa Mahal (Wind Palace). But its opening there was gratly resented by the local shopkeepers on the plea that Muslim boys would also enter the temple and there would be an ingress and exgress of people there.3 The objection was not attended to and the school remained there as usual. The classes in the school were divided into English, Sanskrit, Persian and Urdu. In 1863 English was taught to 83 boys, Sanskrit to 72, Hindi to 77, Persian to 82 and Urdu to 56.

1. Jaipui Administration Report (1946-47), p. 181. 2. Jaipur Administration Report (1946-47), p. 183. 3. Kaifiyat dated 30th July 1847 from some shopkeepers of Jaipur.

(Jaipur Govt. Secretariat File No. G-4/01 of 1847).

Education in Jaipur State 167 \ i,

Many of the boys learnt two or more languages. The total attendance of the school was 370 pupils. It may, however, be pointed out here that though it was only a secondary school, it was designated as a College right from its very inception. All the contemporary official records in English designate it so. But the local people called it simply a 'Madarsa'. Attached to this school or college were two branch schools which were established because of the long distance which many boys had to cover to attend the college. These branch schools were opened in Gangapol and Chandpol-two localities of the city. Hindi and Persian alone were taught there to 106 boys who, when added with the boys of the college, totalled 476 pupils. Both Stewart Reid and Kempson, Directors of Public Instruction, N. W. P. who visited the school, were well pleased with its progress. Kempson visited the school twice-once in Nov. 186,1 and again in December 1863, and he was so well impressed with what he saw that he decided "to give some prizes in the name of Govt. N. W. P. to mark its appreciation of the educational success of the institution and the zeal and industry of the masters and scholars."*

In the beginning1 Pt. Shiv Deen and then Munshi Kishan Swarup was its Headmaster. In June 1864 when the former died, the latter was included in the State Ministry and was succeeded by Babu Kanti Chandra Mukerjee as Head Master. During the period of his Headmastership the school made good progress. Four boys passed the "Matriculation examination of the Calcutta University in 18652 and three years later (1868) a class was opened at the school "for training young men in the science of Engineering, levelling surveying etc." From 1st January 1873 the school was affiliated to the Calcutta University for its First Arts Examination and since then was rightly called a College.3

Thus under the head 'Secondary Education' there were two State schools, namely the Maharaja's Collegiate School and the Oriental Collegiate school, and one private school, the United

1. Lawrence to Durand No. Il- i G dated 5th Jan., 1864. Foreign Genl. A Cons. Feb., 1864, Nos. 86-87.

2. R. A. R. Jeypore Agency Report (1865-67), p. 186, para. 83. 3. R. A. R. Jeypore Agency Report (1872-73), p. 101, para. 54.


Presbyterian Mission School at Jaipur. Of these, in the Maharaja's Collegiate School and the Mission School, English formed the main part of the curriculum, and Persian or Urdu, and Sanskrit or Hindi were taught as the second language. The school standards ranged from the primary stage to the High school standard of the Allahabad University, and the text-books used were those prescribed for the Entrance and the English Middle Examinations held by the Department of Public Instruction, North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Instruction was given free in all the State Schools as in the College, and scholarships and prizes also were awarded to the successful candidates.

The Maharaja's Collegiate school contained two departments, an Anglo-Urdu side and an Anglo-Hindi side, according as the second language taught was Persian or Urdu and Sanskrit or Hindi. In 1891 there were five departments in the State Secondary Schools viz. (i) English Department (ii) the Anglo-Vernacular Department, (iii) the Sanskrit Deparment, (iv) the Persian Department and (v) the Chandpol branch school. Six years later (1897) there were 16 secondary schools in Jaipur State, of which nine were under State management; two aided schools and five schools were under private management. The two aided schools were the Digam-bar and the Swetambar Jain Pathshalas at Jaipur, founded and maintained by the Jain Community, with a monthly aid of Rs. 50/-grantedjlo each of them by the State. Of the other secondary schools under private management, the United Presbyterian Mission school, the Roman Catholic school and the Faiz-i-Am school were in the city of Jaipur. Two other schools were maintained by the Thikanas of Khetri and Jobner. Thus towards the end of the last century, there were four High Schools in Jaipur State, namely (i) the Maharaja's Collegiate High School, (ii) the Mission High School, (iii) Jai Singh High School, Khetri and (iv) the Anglo-Vedic High Scoool, Jobner. There were ten English Middle Schools, three of which were in the city of Jaipur, namely (i) the Chandpol Middle school, (1) the Digambar and (J) the Swetambar Jaiii Middle Schools. Seven schools were located at Dausa, Hindaun, Gangapur, Sambhar, Sri Madhopur, Bairat and Malpura.1 By

1. Report on Public Instruction in Jaipur Stats (1899), p. II

Education in Jaipur State 169 ,!

1909 the number of Secondary schools in Jaipur State rose to 36 with 4,279 scholars on rolls. Ten of the schools were Anglo-Vernacular and 26 Vernacular Schools.1

The number of State High Schools till July 1923 was one. Two years later one of the State Middle Schools was recognised by the U P. Board for the High School Examination.,In the same year (1925) three private Middle Schools, viz, Pareek Pathshala (in the city) and Chirawa and Pilani Schools (in the districts) were also upgraded. Thus the number of High Schools in the State in 1925 was 8, four in the city and four in the districts against four in 1921-22. This number further increased to 10 in 1931 and 13 in 1941. The total number of Secondary Schools in the State which stood at 20 in 1923 rose to 99 in 1947. A noteworthy feature of Secondary Education in the State during th"e two decades (1927 to 1947) was the part played by private enterprise. There were institutions of all grades from the lowest Primary standard to the highest College course maintained by private agencies. These agencies shared the responsibility with the Government for education and received grants-in-aid towards the maintenance of institutions and buildings and equipment. Thus out of the 37 High Schools in the State in 1947, 11 were Govt, institutions (including one High School for girls and the Maharani Gayatri Devi Girls', Public School which prepared girls for Cambridge examinations) and the rest (including one for girls) were private. Of the 63 Anglo-Vernacular Middle Schools, 23 were Govt, institutions and the rest were under private management. Of the 79 Vernacular Middle Schools, 58 were Government institutions and 21 were under private management. The number of pupils in Secondary schools was 43,798 in 1946-47, out of which 24,999 (including 154 girls) were in Govt. Schools and 18799 (including 79 girls) in private institutions.2 The total number of private institutions that received grants-in aid from the Government was 138 and the total amount of grant given to private-managed institutions was Rs. 1-08 lakhs.3 The total Governmental

1. Showers, H. L. Notes on Jaipur, p. 83. 2. Jaipur Administration Report (1946-47), p. 181. 3. Jaipur Administration Report (1946-47), p. 185.


expenditure on education which was 1,18,067 in 1923 rose to Rs. 23,45,970 during 194647,1 which was the highest amount spent on education by any State in Rajasthan prior to its formation-the second and the third place being occupied by Jodhpur and Bikaner respectively.

1. Jaipur Administration Report (1946-47), p. 49.

8. Education in the Other States

1. ALWAR

Alwar has the proud privilege of being the first State in Rajas-than to have opened a modern school in its capital as early as 1842 when Maharaja Banney Singh was the ruling Chief i. The school was fortunate enough to have, first as a master and then as Headmaster, Pt. Roop Narain Sharma "a man of great rectitude of character, much natural ability, and of a studious disposition." After he left the school to become a member of the Regency Council, the school frequently changed hands and suffered in consequence. But after the establishment of the British Agency in Alwar in August 1858, a new impetus was given to education, more specially by the introduction of English, which had not been taught previously. Then Munshi Ummed Singh, tutor to Maharaja Sheodan Singh, was appointed Superintendent of Education. He was succeeded by Munshi Shiv Dayal Singh," a gentleman of great acquirements and intelligence" who had written several books for the teaching of Urdu and English. As he was also tutor to the young Maharaja, he did not get sufficient time to look after and superintend the school. Babu Mihir Chandra Mitra, who was educated at the Govt. College, Banaras, was, therefore, appointed Superintendent and Headmaster of the School in August 1862. He was very ably assisted by Munshi Kanji Mai, who was the second

1. Hamilton to Lawrance No. 39A-14 G dated 11-7-1863. Foreign Genl. A July"1864 Nos. 10-18 I. G. R. (1908). p. 81


master in the school and was to play a very notable part in the spread of education in Alwar State in the next decade and a half.

The total number of scholars on roll on 1st May 1863 was 328, out of whom the number of different communities was

Brahmans 121 Rajputs 37 Baniyas 49 Kayasthas 12 Others 46 Muslims - 63

Total 328

The subjects taught were English, Geography, History, Natural Philosophy and Mathematics. Besides English, Hindi-Sanskrit and Urdu-Persian were also taught. The annual expenditure on the staff of the school was Rupees 6168 and some amount was spent on the library and in giving scholarships. The annual examination was attended even by the Maharaja (Sheodan Singh) and the Political Agent (Captain Hamilton), both of whom took a lively interest in the school. A committee of competent examiners was appointed to visit the school and examine all the classes.

In addition to the one secondary school maintained by the State in the Capital, there were 17 private or self-supporting schools with 1371 boys, mostly Brahmans and Baniyas and a few Rajputs and Muslims. But only an" elementary education was given there. The teachers received very slender remuneration. Some of the children paid in grain, but there were some other sources of income such as the payment of a fee varying from Rupees 2 to 5, and the presentation of a piece of cloth to the teacher by the parents on the completion of their boys' education, which enabled the teachers to live and carry on their profession. Thus 1699 boys-328 in the State school and 1371 ini the private schools were under instruction in Alwar State in 1863.

Shortly after taking over the administration of the State in his own hands in Sept., 1863, Maharaja Sheodan Singh instituted

1. Foreign Genl. A, July 1864, Mos. 10-18.

Education in the other States 173

a cess of 1 per cent on the land revenue to cover the expenditure of the schools. This cess brought about Rs 17,500 per annum. In 1865-66 the expenditure on education exceeded this amount, but it was soon brought down to Rs. 12,000 per annum. During his first tour through the State in 1871 Col. Cadell, the Political Agent, visited many schools where he found "many of the masters lazy and inefficient and the boys dull and stupid without life and emulation."1 He, therefore, dismissed many of the inefficient teachers and adopted several jneasures which improved the schools considerably, particularly the one at Tijara which could favourably be compared with the one at the neighbouring and much larger town of Firozpur in the British district of Gurgaon.2 There were in the State, besides1 the State High School and the Thakur School 16 Tehsili and 44 Halqabandi or primary or village schools in 1872-73 with 2,904 scholars Munshi Kanji Mai, the Inspector of Schools, rendered good service as Superintendent of Education Department. The State spent Rs 24,000 on education in 1873 which was then the largest amount spent on education by any State in Rajasthan or Central India except Jaipur.^ Next year the amount was increased to 26,587 and the number of schools rose to 76 consisting of 16 Tehsili and 60 Halqabandi schools with a total of 3,403 scholars on roll. The High school opened as an ordinary school in 1842 in the mausoleum of Maharaja Bakhtawar Singh, was reorganised in 1871. The building was found insufficient to accommodate 3 2 pupils and a new building was, therefore, constructed. The Thakur School was also opened in 1871. The High School shifted to the new building in Nov., 1873

In October 1874 Maharaja Sheodan Singh died. He had introduced "unprompted by any European Officer'.'* the one per cent school fund in 1863-64, but very little of it went to the villages. In April 1874 Major Cadell, therefore, resolved to exact fees from the parents of all those boys who did not contribute to the one per cent educational fund, that is, who were not agriculturists. This measure brought about a reduction in the

1 - R. A. R. Ulwar Agency Report (1871 -72), p. 213, para. 3. 2. Ibid. 3. ibid. (1872-73), p. 171, para. 54. 4. Powlett, P. W, Gazetteer of Ulwar (1878).


number of attendance from 3,403 to 3145, but it increased the number of boys of agriculturists attending the schools from 937 to 1383 in 1874. In May 1877, Munshi Kanji Mai died. For many years he was at the head of the Education Department in Alwar State. Son of a blacksmith, he showed natural abilities from childhood which attracted the attention of Maharaja Baney Singh, who sent him to Agra College for higher studies. There he availed himself of the opportunity to improve his talents. He became a good scholar and wrote and spoke English with great proficiency. He assisted Major Cadell in the reorganisation of the Education Department and it was mainly owing to his tact and knowledge of the people of Alwar that education made considerable progress among them. It was he who induced Maharaja Sheodan Singh to institute the one per cent education cess with a view to meet the expenses of the schools which would otherwise have been closed by that extravagent ruler.' George Heatherly, the Superintendent of the Jail, succeeded Munshi Kanji Mai as Inspector of Schools.

Thus as a result of the continuous efforts of Munshi Kanji Mai and his successor the number of educational institutions in the State increased. In 1881, besides the Thakurs'and the High Schools, there were 11 Tehsili (or Middle), 77 Halqabandi (or Primary) and 13 girls' schools in Alwar State with a total number of 4115 pupils as shown below :—

School Number of pupils

"""68 280 964

2516 287

Total 4115

The expenditure on education in 1881-82 was rupees 34,688.!

The number of schools increased to 114-100 for boys and 14

1 . Ft. A. R. Ulwar Agency Report (1881-82), p. 178, para, 15.

Thakur School High School 11 Tehsili Schools 77 Halqabandi Schools 13 Girls'Schools


for girls, in 188\ As this was considered to be a sufficient number of educational institutions in the State, greater stress was now laid on an increase in efficiency and better working of the schools. With this aim in view Lala Kunj Bihari Lai, Headmaster of the High School, was appointed Director of Education which post was held so long by George Heatherly, the Jailer. Lala Shamjas Rai, Headmaster of the Thakur School, succeeded Lala Kunj Bihari Lai as Headmaster of the High School.1 Thus owing to the liberal support of Maharaja Manga! Singh and the enlightened direction of Lala Kunj Bihari Lai students of both sexes were comparatively numerous in Alwar in J 890-91 and by the next year there were 16 Vernacular secondary schools for boys and four for girls and 81 primary schools for boys and 11 for girls along with ten Mission schools. This was a fairly satisfactory progress of education. Towards the close of 1897 a Committee was formed with Rao Bahadur Munshi Bal Mukand Das as President to enquire into and submit a complete scheme for reorganising the Alwar High School and other educational institutions in the State.2

By 1904 there were 103 educational institutions in the State excluding the 32 indigenous schools attended by 500 boys. The number of scholars on rolls was about 5,500. Of the schools, six were maintained by the United Free Church of Scotland and the rest by the State. There were altogether 12 schools for girls attended by about 300 pupils. English was taught in the High School, the Nobles' School, and the Mission school at the capital, and also at Rajgarh and Tijara. The total expenditure on education was about Rs. 42,000 a year, and towards this sum the education cess of one per cent on land revenue, fees and miscellaneous receipts contributed over Rs. 23,000, As a result of these efforts literacy in Alwar stood 12th among the 20 States and Chiefships of Rajasthan, with 2.7 per cent (5.1 males and O.I females) able to read and write, in 1908.3

1. Ibid. (1885-86), pp. 186-87, para, 12. 2. Ibid. (1897-98), p. 75. 3. I, G. R. (1908), p. 438.


In 1909-10 steps were taken for improvement of the educational fabric of the State. Gradation of schools was placed on a systematic footing and Urdu was entirely removed from the primary schools and was replaced by Hindi. The introduction of Hindi as a court language gave further impetus to the study of the language. Two years hence the teaching of Persian and Urdu in all the district schools was abolished. Due to the recommendation of the Text-book Committee, the curriculum and the system of classification of the lower forms were completely overhauled. More instructive and uptodate course of study was prescribed. Religious instruction was made compulsory and a text-book was compiled by the State for the purpose.1

In 1920-21 when Pt. Ram Bhadra Ojha was appointed Inspector General of Education, some important changes were made which resulted in the raising of 9 Lower Primary Schools to the status of Upper Primary schools. A Normal school was also established to help in the expansion of Primary education. In January 1928 the Inspector of Education submitted a scheme for the reorganisation of education in the State.2 Many of the proposals were accepted and brought into force. Thus the Alwar High School was raised with effect from 5th October 1930 to the status of the Intermediate standard and was named Raj Rishi College.3 It was located in the Baney Bilas Palace. Military training was introduced in the D. J. Nobles' School. An Inspect-ress of girls schools was appointed to augment girls' education. Education in all classes of the College was free tilll 938 when tuition fees were introduced in the senior classes i.e., from IX to XII. In the same year the Director of Education, Shri K. K. Nanavati, divided the State for educational purposes into four Circles for Secondary and Primary education and an Inspector of Schools was appointed for each Circle. During the session 193S-39 there were 187 schools maintained by the State. A new feature of

1. Alwar Administration Report (1911 -12), p. 24 para, 1 , 2. Letter No, 94 dated 25-1-1928 from the Inspector General of Education

to the Judicial Minister, Alwar (Alwar State Education file No. 43 R.A.B.).

3. Alwar State Education File No, 48 (R.A.B.)


educational advacement in the State was the admission of several girls in the village schools.i The total number of girls on roll was 1375. Out of them 238 were in the Anglo-Vernacular, 292 in the Vernacular Lower Middle, and 545 in Primary schools. Girls' education was free in all schools with free distribution of books and sewing material except in the Anglo-Vernacular school in the city. Slates, Takhtis and other articles of stationery were given free. An aided school was converted into a State school for Urdu-reading girls at Tijara.

In 1939-40 Secondary and Primary education made much progress. Many philanthropists opened several schools in the various towns such as Barrod, Nimuchana, Ghilot, Shahpur, Bhopseda etc. The Model and Anglo-Vernacular Middle Schools were amalgamated in July 1939 to form one Central Middle School. Science was introduced in the Intermediate classes of the college in 1943-44. In the same session the Alwar Girls' Anglo-Vernacular Middle school was converted into a High School, and the Girls' Lower Middle School, Malakhera to a Middle School. There were in all 1741 girls in the year reading in the 21 girls' schools of various types and grades which showed that girls' education was making slow but steady progress in Alwar State. The total expenditure on girls' education in the State during 1944-45 was Rs. 47,461.2

The Raj Rishi College was raised to the Degree standard from July 1945 and affiliated to the Agra University. Consequently the High school classes with their staff were shifted to the Yashwant A-V Middle school in July 1945. Since then education progressed well in Alwar.

2. BHARATPUR

A school was originally established in the city of Bharatpur by Maharja Balwant Singh in the year 1842.3 From that year to 1855 it was under the charge of a local officer, but was not in a very

1. Alwar Administration Report (1938-39), p. 80. 2. Alwar Administration Report (1944-45), p. 117. 3. Walter to Lawrance : No. 24-3 G dated 1st July, 1863.

Foreign Genl. A July 1864 Nos. 10-18.


prosperous condition. Persian alone was taught to 55 boys in 1855 but few of them actually attended the school. In November of the year Major Morrisson, the Political Agent, appointed Sub-assistant Surgeon Bholanath Das as incharge of the school. Within the short period of a few months of his superintendence the number of pupils in the school increased to 290 in 1856 which necessitated the appointment of three Hindi teachers Through his earnest efforts the number of pupils rose to 426 by the end of 1856 which speaks volumes about his enthusiasm, earnestness and sincerity.

During the year of the mutiny the school received no support or superintendence with the result that the number of pupils fell considerably. In 1858 the number was 274 of whom 113 were studying Persian and Urdu, 91 Hindi and 70 English, the study of which was introduced in the sehool in that year by Captain Nixon, the then Political Agent. But owing to the want of efficient teachers little progress was made. In September 1862 an English teacher was procured from Agra on a salary of Rs. 80/- a month; he was also made Head Master of the School. Shortly before leaving for England, Stewart Reid, ex-Director-General Public Instruction in the N. W. P., accompanied by his successor, M. Kempson, visited the school. Both were well pleased with the efficiency of the boys. Yearly examinations were conducted by Dr. Bholanath Das and the other examiners after which prizes and awards were distributed. The prize distribution ceremony was attended by the Maharaja (Jaswant Singh), the Political Agent (who usually distributed the prizes) and all the Sardars. After the examination held in April 1863, eight scholarships-five by the State, two by the Political Agent and one by the Superintendent of Education, Dr. Bolanath Das-were awarded. This shows the keen interest which the Maharaja and the Political Agent took in the spread of education in the State. Additional encouragement was given to the intelligent and diligent pupils by bestowing State appointments on those who had completed their studies efficiently.

Besides the State school at Bharatpur, there were a number of small schools at the capital run by private individuals in which


only Hindi and Persian were taught. It was the intention of Maharaja Balwant Singh when he originally established the school at Bharatpur in 1842 that the sons of the Sardars should attend it, but the intention was never carried out. Most of the Sardars persuaded the Maharaja to let them have tutors at their own houses for the education of their children, those tutors being paid by the Durbar. This system continued for a long time but the results were not very satisfactory.

District Schools

Major Morrieson established schools at the headquarters of the different Parganas, but the teachers were generally inefficient. Major Bonverie-a later Political Agent-introduced some improvements but the system did not work as satisfactorily as was expected. In 1862 when the settlement was revived, and anew settlement was made for a period of six years, a cess was levied of six annas per cent on the revenue which gave an annual income of about Rs. 6,200. Tehsili and Halqabandi schools were, therefore, organised for the education of the sons of the zamindars and other village people, and all the schools were placed under the charge of Sub-assistant Surgeon Bholanath Das. Kempson, the Director General of Educal ion, N.W.P., supplied the State with a number of teachers who made a beginning in organising an educational system with satisfactory results. There were in 1863, 12 Tehsili schools with 499 pupils and 6 Halqabandi schools with 162 scholars. Out of these 661 pupils, 388 read Hindi and 273 Persian. Four more Halqabandi schools were opened in June 1863 and the Pargana Visitors reported about them favourably.

The course of study and the management of the district schools were much the same as in British Provinces. For the superintendence of the schools two Pargana Visitors were appointed in May 1863 which contributed to the successful working of the schools. The Political Agent, when on tour in the districts, visited the schools and examined the boys, collecting all the zamindars of the different villages. Thus an educational system was tolerably organised and the pupils began to see the benefit of it which was quite evident from the interest which the heads of villages took in


education by "constantly petitioning for a school to be established in their villages."1

Regular fees were introduced from Sept. 1862. The sons of cultivators who paid, as mentioned above, a cess of six annas per cent, were exempted from the payment of fees. Altogether 935 boys received education in the Government schools of Bharatpur in May, 1863. Of these 479 read Hindi, 386 Persian and 70 English. The total cost on education per month was Rs. 522/- or Rs. 6,264 per annum.2

Thus Bharatpur was the only State in Rajasthan in the post-mutiny period to have "a regularly organised system of Education"3

in 1865-66. The educational establishments of the State then consisted of the Bharatpur School (called the College), 13 district or Tehsili Schools, and 54 Halqabandi or village schools with a total attendance of 2,146 scholars. The whole educational fabric was under the superintendence of Sub-assistent Surgeon Bholanath Das who had compiled many of the class - books which were used in the State .schools. The total expenditure on education during 1865-66 was Rs. 11,817-11-6* A very notable feature of village education in the State during this period was the progress "amongst the Meos who seemed to be the most forward amongst the cultvating class in sending their children to school.5

By 1873-74 the number of Halqabandi or village schools rose to 181 with a total of 3,039 scholars in them. English was taught in the Central or Sadar School at Bharatpur. There were also Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit classes. In the district schools both Persian and Hindi were taught, but in the village schools only Hindi was taught. A Lithographic Press was attached to the Sadar School in which elementary books for beginners both in Persian and Hindi were printed. In 1878 a new school was opened in

1. Walter to Lawrence No. 24-G dated 1 -7-1864. Foreign Genl. A July 1864, Nos. 10-18.

2. Ibid. 3. R. A. R. (1865-67), p. 72, para 245 and p. 75. 4. Ibid. 5. R. A. R. Bhurtpore Agency Report (1868-69),p. 138 para. 98,


Sewar Cantonment (three miles from Bharatpur) with elementary classes in English, Persian and Hindi. During the next few years facilities for primary education were much extended and they compared favourably with those afforded in most of the Rajasthan States. What was then wanted was an efficient and intelligent inspection and supervision of the schools already in existence.

During the last few years of his reign (1853-93) Maharaja Jaswant Singh took little interest in education which not only reduced the number of scholars but also the annual expenditure on education. Thus the number of scholars which stood at 3,442 in 1886-87 declined to 2,632 in 1892-93. Similarly the expenditure was reduced from Rs. 21,743 to Rs. 14,943. The Maharaja died in December 1893 and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh. He took very little interest in education. Consequently education suffered in his short reign of two years. He was deprived of his ruling powers in February 1895 because of incompetency. In the next five years sincere efforts were made to improve education which bore some fruit, for the number of scholars again rose in 1901 to 3,369, in the Sadar School (456), 12 Tehsili schools (1116) and 77 Halqabandi schools (1797) all combined. The total expenditure also increased accordingly.

In 1904-05 there were 99 educational institutions, excluding the elementary indigenous schools (Maktabs and Pathshalas), in the State of which 96 were maintained by the Durbar and the remaining 3 by the Church Missionary Society. The number on the rolls of these schools was about 4,400. The more important institutions were the High School, the Sanskrit School, and an Anglo-Vernacular school for the upper classes at the captial and an Anglo-Vernacular school at Deeg. Elsewhere Hindi alone was taught. There were four girls' schools, attended on the average by 100 girls. The State expenditure on education including stipends and scholarships was about Rs. 48,000. Fees were charged in some cases and in 1904-05 yielded about Rs. 1,000.1

In 1931 Lala Jugal Bihari Lai was in charge of the education department when the number of State schools was 127 and that of

1, I.G.R. (1908) pp. 334-35.


the private schools was 71. The total number of scholars in these institutions was 8,347 consisting of 6,810 in the State and 1537 in the private schools. The percentage of male scholars to male population of school-going age was 18.7 and of females 1.83. There were 13 Vernacular Middle Schools with 2,482 scholars and 104 primary schools for boys with 3,274 scholars in them. English was also taught in the vernacular middle schools as an optional subject. In the next few years an attempt was made to provide educational facilities to the children of the Depressed classes by opening a school for them in Bharatpur. Similarly several primary schools were opened in the backward areas of Mewat. The Jatav and other Depressed classes took advantage of the. educational facilities provided by the State for them.

The most important event in the educational history of the State during the year 1941 was the opening of an Intermediate College to commemorate the marriage of the Bharatpur Chief with the youngest sister of Mysore Maharaja. The College was named after Her Highness as Maharani Shri Jay a College. This was a step to give impetus to higher education in the State which had 145 schools maintained by the State in 1941 besides 131 private schools. The total number of scholars in both State and Private schools was 12,042. There were 13 Vernacular Middle Schools with 3,262 scholars and 119 State primary schools with 3,954 scholars. The percentage of literacy was 23.5 for boys and 6.67 for girls. The total State expenditure on education in 1940-41 was Rs. 1,19,820.1

In 1943-44 a local Board consisting of the Director of Public Instruction as its Chairman and four other officers of the Education Department as its members was constituted to prescribe courses of study for the primary and middle classes similar to the courses of the Rajputana and United Provinces Boards for these classes. It was also proposed to conduct a Final Middle class examination. In July 1945 the Girls'Middle School was raised to the High School status. Basic Education was also started at Bharatpur and Deeg where instruction was imparted through the

1. Bharatpur Administration Report (1940-41), p. 36.


basic craft namely paper and cloth work, clay modelling and gardening.

Thus Bharatpur State kept pace with the other' States of the province in the field of education with tolerably satisfactory progress in the different stages of education.

3. UDAIPUR

During the eighteenth century, owing to the Mohammadan and Maratha wars, education in Mewar State had suffered considerably. When times became settled, many indigenous schools were opened by private individuals. Thos^ schools were for the most part under the charge of Jatis and Bhattaraks (Jain priests).i The State did not give any material assistance. But "if a Brahman evinced any particular eminence in knowledge or aptitude in tuition, the Maharana might increase his charitable allowance from the public granary, but the allowance was more of the nature of a propitiary religious endowment than of a salary to a school master."2 Thus upto the middle of the nineteenth century the State did not feel the necessity of taking any concerted step or making any provision of public education Not only that "the boast of the May war Court and nobles has ever been that they have mixed less with and learned less of the customs and practice of other countries than any State of Rajpootana or of India. Any progress in art or science has been generally considered by them as a weakness bred of the ascendancy of neighbouring powers, who have from time to time overrun the State and cut off some of its most fertile tracts; they seem, however, to have been tolerably well satisfied if they might retain their ancient reputation for exclusiveness and resis-tence to external impressions and alliances. This feeling, added to the very general idea that education and knowledge should be confined to the Brahmanical class, has sufficed to deprive the community in general of the advantages and impulse that State patronage or support might be expected to lend to this element of progress.'^

1. Shore, H. Medico-Topographical Account of Meywar (1909), p. 21 . 2. Foreign Genl. A.Ju ly 1864, Nos. 10-18. 3. Foreign Genl, A. July 1864, Nos. 10-18 para 2.


It was Major Eden, the Political Agent, who, for the first time, submitted in May 1862 proposals, on behalf of the Regency Council, to the A.G.G. for the opening of a "school for Vernacular tuition in the city for the benefit of the people, an establishment scarcely known here seemingly". He, therefore, solicited sanction for a sum of Rs. 25,000 "for the building, its furniture, books and all that may be essential to its completion and a further sum, on its perfect establishment, of Rs. 3,00 monthly for Superintendent, masters, menials and contingencies, to be increased in the event of any expansion of the institution becoming evident."1 The Government of India, while approving of the proposal, stated that before sanctioning the expenditure of a large sum on the construction of a school, it must be shown ' that the readiness of the people to take advantage of educational opportunities rendered such an outlay warrantable. They, therefore, suggested that "the experiment might be tried of having in one, two or three different quarters of the city, in such rooms or sheds as could be hired, at a moderate rent, elementary vernacular schools, under teachers capable of imparting elementary vernacular instruction."2

In the meantime Major Eden procured the services of a well-qualified Brahman teacher, one Pt. Ratneshwar from the Sehore School, for the education of the young Maharana Shambhu Singh. At first the Pandit's position was difficult, for his arrival "was looked forward to with apprehension as an innovation, and his first efforts were somewhat counteracted by some ignorant Brahmans and Courtiers." But the Pandit soon "conquered their apprehensions and secured their respect." Not only that, he "willingly devoted much of his leisure" in teaching in the school which the Political Agent had brought into existence by converting "scattered bodies into one large school" in response to "a desire among the population for the means of educating their children." As "gratuitous education" was given there, "the young population flocked to the schools, of all sizes, the majority

1, Eden to Lawrence : No. 54-39P Dated 7-5-1862. Foreign Pol. A. Progs. July 1862, No. 76.

2. Foreign Pol. A. Progs. July 1862, No, 77.

Education in the other States ' 185

of them of a most intelligent and promising appearance." He, therefore, again recommended the constru-ction of a building - for an institution which, in its "rude and skeleton form", had already become so popular. He pointed out that the proposed school would be no charge either to the British Government, or on the Udaipur Treasury, for there was still left unspent a sum of nearly 52,000 local rupees from the charitable donations * of the late Maharana Swaroop Singh.1 In response to this request the Government of India sanctioned the building of a school at Udaipur at an outlay of Rs. 12,000.2

Thus the first State school in Udaipur was opened in January 1863 during the minority of Maharana Shambhu Singh and was called after him the "Shambhuratna Pathshala". For two years reading, writing, arithmetic and geography were the chief subjects regularly and systematically taught and some of the seniors were grounded in Elementary Algebra and the outlines of History while others were reading the favourite Sanskrit.3 In 1865 English began to be taught and the number on the rolls in that year was 513. A girls' school was also established in 1866 at Udaipur under the superintendence of two lady teachers. There were 51 girls who were taught in the same building.* In 1869 Ingels, the Deputy Opium Agent., was appointed as Superintendent to supervise the school in addition to his duties. Four years later an Englishman George Baird was appointed on Rs. 150/- p. m. to teach English. The Hindi girls' school, a branch of the city school, had an average attendance of 20 girls. Two other schools were opened at Bhilwara and Chittor 5

In 1874 Baird was promoted as Headmaster and his pay was increased to Rs. 200/- p. m. A new teacher Vinayak Shashtri, a Sanskrit scholar, was appointed to teach Hindi and Sanskrit in

1. Eden to Lawrence No. 161/129 p. Dated 9-9-1862. Foreign Pol. A, Cons : Oct. 1862, No. 82.

2. Foreign Pol. A Cons : Oct. 1862, No. 83. 3. Eden to Lawrence : Foreign Genl A July 1864, Nos. 10-18. 4. R. A. R. Meywar Agency Report (1865-67) Part II , p. 149 Paras.

149-50.

5. R. A. R. Maywar Agency Report (1872-73) ,-p. 62, para, 37-38.


place of the Head Pandit Khemraj who died in the beginning of 1874. The Urdu and Persian classes were under the Head Maulvi Abdul Rehman Khan. Ingels, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, spoke highly of all the three departments viz, English, Hindi-Sanskrii and Urdu-Persian. In 1876 an English Mistress Mrs. Lonorgan was appointed as Headmistress of the girls' school which had two other lady teachers. Maharana Sajjan Singh took great interest in the school and increased the monthly grant by Rs. 161 p.m. in 1877. In the same year an influential committee was formed for the management of the school with the Maharana and the Political Agent as Presidents. A Nobles' school was also opened that year. Three years later in July 1880 two branch schools were opened in the city to relieve the congestion of the central school building. There were 420 pupils in that school in 1881 during which year the State spent Rs. 9011-9-6 on education, the average annual cost of educating each pupil being 17-11-4.1

During Baird's absence on leave in England Dwarkanath Sarkar of the High School at Jabbalpur was appointed Headmaster in October, 1882. He reorganised and remodelled the school on the system then in vogue in the Central Provinces. But as he demanded higher pay which the State was not prepared to pay, he left Udaipur in December 1883. He was "a most useful and efficient Headmaster and did much good during the time he was at Udaipur".2 He was succeeded by Hazari Lai, Head Cleric of the Executive Engineers's Office at Abu, who took charge of his new duties on 5th May 1884.3

Extension of Education in Udaipur.

At the death of Maharana Sajjan Singh on 23rd December 1884 it was decided that, instead of throwing away such large sums of money as had been done on the occassion of the death of the two previous Maharanas (Swarup Singh and Shambhu Singh) in feeding the Brahmans, a sum of Rs. 2 lakhs of Udaipur currency-equal to one lakh, fifty seven thousand four hundred and eighty

1. R. A. R. Maywar Agency Report (1880-81), p. 71. 2. Ibid. (1883-84), p. 57, para, 55. 3. Ibid. (1884-85), p. 63, para, 99.


rupees of British Indian currency-should be set aside for the purpose of establishing schools and dispensaries or hospitals in the districts, and that all these institutions should be called after the late Maharana "Sajjan School" or "Sajjan Hospital". It was also decided then to levy a cess of half an anna in the rupee of land revenue for the first seven years of settlement, of three fourths of an anna for the next seven years, „ and of one anna for the remaining six years. It was hoped that the investment of the capital of two lakhs of rupees would help in the construction of good buildings for schools and dispensaries and the income derived from the cess on land would cover all other expenses.1

But much against hopes the total number of boys in all Government schools, instead of increasing, actually decreased from 498 to 429 in. 1886 One possible reason for this decrease might be the introduction at the end of February, 1886 of school fees, on which the School Committee, formed in 1884, insisted on.2

According to Erskine the city school became a High School in 1885 and was affiliated to the Allahabad University.3 This is not correct for there was no Allahabad University in 1885. It came into existence in 1887. The fact is that it was in 1886 that the school, for the first time, sent three boys to Ajmer to appear in the Middle Class Examination.*

District Schools

Five of the seven schools sanctioned out of the amount of the education cess were opened in the districts in 1886. During the next year, buildings for the schools at Bhilwara, Mandal, Pur, Nangauli, Rashmi, Dhindholi and Jharol were completed, and one at Kapasin was commenced.5 During the next four years three more buildings for the schools at Chitor, Mavli and Untala were erected and those for Mandalgarh and Hurra were commenced.6

1. R.A.R. Meywar Residency Report (1884-85), p. 64, paras 110-111 & 115-116.

2. Ibid (1885-86), p. 102 para 27 3. Rajputana Gazetteers : The Mewar Residency (1908), Vol. 11—A, p. 82 4. Meywar Agency Report (1885-86), p. 103 5. R.A.R. A.G.G.'s Report (1887-88), p. 18 6 Ibid (1890-91) p. 18


In 1891 there were five schools at the capital supported by the State. "It was for the first time this year that five students of the High School appeared in the Allahabad University Entrance Examination, and all passed creditably. Three students also passed the Middle Class Anglo-Vernacular Examination of the North-Western Provinace."1 In June 1893 Hazari Lai, the Head-Master of the High School, was given the title of Rai Sahib in view of the creditable work he did for the school which was upgraded during his tenure. In July 1894, the school and Dispensary Committee, which was formed in 1884, was abolished and its duties were taken over by the Mahakma Khas. During the ten years of its existence, the Committee took considerable interest in its work and did much to encourage education. During the next decade there was little progress in education.

In the first year of the present century there were five schools including one girls' school in the Udaipur city, supported by the State and 36 in the districts. The total number of pupils on rolls in the city schools was 555 and in the districts 2,185. Total expenditure on education was Rs. 26,476 Udaipuri, of which a sum of Rs, 10,810 was incurred in the schools at the capital and Rs. 15,666 on the district schools.2 In March 1906 Hazari Lai, the Head Master, died. His contribution in the making of the High School was very great, for it was to his untiring zeal and devotion that the success of the Maharana High School was entirely due. He was succeeded by S.K. Datta, M.A.B.L. The dissolution of the Education Committee in 1894 was a retrograde measure which seriously handicapped educational progress in the State. Two private schools-the Harish Chandra Arya Vidyalaya for boys and the Taiyabia Bohra School-were started at Udaipur in 1907-08. In the former English, Sanskrit, and Hindi were taught, whereas in the latter tuition in Urdu, Persian Arabic, Hindi and religious instruction was imparted to about 200 boys and 150 girls, all Bohra. Both the institutions were run on private charity and donations.

1. R.A.R. Meywar Residency Report (1890-91) p. 35, para, 19 2. R.A.R. Meywar Residency Report (1900-1901). p. 10, para 15


In 1911 there were three Secondary Schools and 41 Primary District Schools in Udaipur State. The number of pupils on rolls in all the State Schools in the year was 2722 boys and 115 girls. The total expenditure on education was Rs. 25,476 and the average cost of education for the whole State per student was Rs. 898 per annum1 which was palpably low as compared with the average cost in the other major States of Rajasthan.

During the next decade little progress in education was made by the State except that the Maharana High School was made an Intermediate College in 1922. It was then located in the Nawlakha Palace. Ten years later, it moved into its present premises on the station road. Degree and post-Graduate classes were opened in the College in 1945 when its name was changed to Maharana Bhupal College.

The deficiency in State's educational efforts was made good by certain private agencies which came into the field in the thirties of the present century. Through their efforts a number of educational institutions were brought into existence. These agencies were the Vidya Bhawan Society (established in July 1931), the Rajasthan Vidyapith (established in August 1937) and the Mahila Mandal. In the beginning they started tiny educational institutions which in course of time became important centres of progressive eduction. They made very bold and significant experiments which greatly shaped the aims, objects and methodology of education. Through their educational activities the name of Udaipur has become famous as a great seat of education and the city has now occupied an honoured place in the educational map of India. (For details see Chapter XII).

4. JODHPUR

Modern education was first introduced in Jodhpur in 1844 when Col. French was the Political Agent at the court. He conceived the idea of educating the people of the capital. "For that he pravailed upon Maharaja Takht Singh to lay out thirty thousand rupees in the erection of a 'College'. The building completed, he engaged

1. Mewar State Administration Report (1910-11), p. 8

190 •Modem Education in Rajasthan

some residents of Jodhpur as teachers of Persian and Sanskrit, and opened the 'Vidya Shal' to the public". But no students joined the institution simply because the building was too distant from the houses of those who were otherwise willing to go to school, but would not walk so far. E. I. Howard, the Director of Public Instruction, Bombay, who visited Rajputana in January 1863, tells us in his Memoir submitted to the Government, that "Disappointed, but not baffled, Col. French again had recourse to to the Maharajah, whom he persuaded to send out the court carriages every morning into the city for the conveyance of pupils the "Vidya Shal" who had no longer any excuse for shirking lectures. The School was thus fairly furnished with attendents."! It is interesting to note that this is perhaps the first and the only instance in the whole of India of State carriages being sent to the houses of the pupils for taking them to the school free of charge.

The equivocal success of the -'Vidyashal" lasted only for six months, when Col. French was transferred and was succeeded by Major H. H. Greathed in 1845 "who had not the same zeal for teaching Sanskrit and Persian to the youth of Joudhpore. The court carriages ceased their morning rounds and shortly afterwards the "Vidya Shal" was closed for want of pupils."^ It was reopened in a different form only to exist for a few years more as an "ordinary school" to impart education "in Sanskrit and Persian to about 32 scholars'^

The next public institutions were apparently a couple of Vernacular schools (at Jasol and Barmer) in the Malani district. It is not known when they were first opened, but they were attened by one hundred boys in 1868 and were maintained from a special fund under the control of the Political Agent. In the following year (1869) the Durbar (Maharaja Takht Singh) established an Anglo-Vernacular school (which soon developed into the Darbar High School) and a Hindi pathshala both at Jodhpur, while in 1870

1. Foreign Genl. A. Progs : May 1863, No. 62. 2. Foreign Genl. A. Progs : May 1863, No. 62 3. Major Malcolm, P. A., Jodhpur to Col. J . Low A. G. G., Rajputana

letter No. 76 dated 4th Sept., 1849, para 29. (Rajputana Agency Office Jodhpur File No. 74 Vol II preserved in the Rajasthan University Library Jaipur).


Vernacular schools were opened at the headquarters of nine districts. An Anglo-Vernacular school was started at Pali in 1873; a branch of the High School at the capital in 1875, when also two schools for the sons of Thakurs, came into existence. The Durbar School was made a High School inJulyl876,i Sanchorgota Vernacular School in 1880. In this way, the State institutions (including two in Malani) numbered 18 in 1881-82, namely one High School, two Anglo-Vernacular (Primary), thirteen Vernacular and two special schools, and the cost of the maintenance was about Rs. 10,000.2

The year 1886 is important in the educational history of Jodhpur. It was in that year that the first girls' school, called after Hewson, who was guardian to Maharaj Kumar Sardar Singh and had died in August 1886, was established. It was also in that year that Anglo-vernacular schools were opened in many important towns such as Jalor, Merta, Nagaur, Phalodi and Sojat and Vernacular schools in eight other places, including three in Malani. It was again that year that the two Thakurs' Schools were amalgamated into one with a new name of Powlett Nobles' School. A Sanskrit school was also established in that year. The only other addition made during this decade (1881-1891) was the starting in 1891 of a class at the Darbar High School for teaching telegraphy. Thus the number of State institutions (including five in Malani) had increased to 32 in 1891-92, namely one High School, seven Anglo-Vernacular Primary schools, 21 Vernacular, one girls' school, and two special institutions (one for Sanskrit and the other the Nobles' School). Omitting the Malani schools-for which figures are not available-the number of pupils on the rolls at the and of 1891-92 was 1,665 (inculding forty-four girls), while the expenditure amounted to about Rs. 21.0003.

In 1893 a College, named after Maharaja Jaswant Singh, was established which was affiliated to the Allahabad University. It sent its first batch of Intermediate candidates in 1895 and of B.A.

1. Reu, B.N. Marwar Ka Itlhas, Vol 11, p. 467. 2. Erskine, K. D., Rajputana Gazetteers Vol. Ill-A (1909), p. 166. 3. Erskine : Raj. Gaz : Vol. Ill A—p. 167


in 1899. In 1896 a surveying class was started, but as it was not popular, it was closed in 1904. In 1896 (November) the Elgin Rajput School was opened at Mandor which three years later was amalgamated with the Powlett Nobles'School (1899). A few more Anglo-Vernacular schools were opened in 1 he districts. Consequently the number of State institutions became 34 in 1901-02, namely one College, one High School, ten Anglo-Vernacular Primary and nineteen primary schools, one girls' school and two special schools. The total number of scholars was 1718 (including fifty girls) and the total expenditure on education by the State in 1901 wasRs. 37,000.1

Reorganisation of Education

Education was reorganised in the State in the first decade of the present century, when the status of a number of State Schools was bettered and buildings constructed to house a number of district schools. The Superintendent of Education Department suggested that in view of the limited demand of English education in Marwar, it would be better to maintain fewer but more, efficient schools at important places, and he pointed out that Baroda maintained only 4 or 5 English schools. To popularise education in the districts he recommended the grant of scholarships, the sending of students for teachers' training, the establishment of a boarding house at Jodhpur, and the introduction of type-writing, shorthand and drawing as extra-subjects to be studied. Many of these recommendations were accepted and enforced. A retirement age of 55 years was also fixed for all teachers. It was during this period that the Nobles' school was reorganised, 3 Anglo-Vernacular and 2 Vernacular schools opened, inspecting staff strengthened, additional staff in the Hewson Girls' and a few other schools appointed and the Darbar High School buildings extended.2

The policy of giving grants-in-aid to institutions maintained by private agencies was inaugurated in 1902. There were in Jodhpur city six schools maintained by certain castes which were given

1. Erskine : Raj. Gaz : Vol. Il l A—p. 167 2. M. K. Jodhpur, File No. 3/8 Part I (R.A.B.)


grants-in-aid from 1902. These were (i) the Sardar School maintained by the Oswal Community, (ii) the Sir Pratap Institute maintained by the Kayasthas (iii) the Sumer school maintained by the Malis (iv) the Anglo-Vedic school maintained by the Shrimali Brahmins (v) the Islamia Madrasa and (vi) the Faiz Mohammadi Madrasa.1

Both in the districts and in the capital there were a large number of private schools called Poshals and Maktabs. They were largely attended and conducted by Gurans and Maulvis respectively. In the Poshals boys were taught just so much Hindi and Arithmetic as would answer the requirements of business. About Rs. 4,000 - were spent annually in grants to these schools since 1906. Education in all the State institutions and the denominational schools was absolutely free. Scholars carrying their education beyond the primary and the secondary stages were given stipends during the regular course of their studies. The most noteworthy features of educational progress during 1909-10 were the conversion of two Vernacular schools into Anglo-Vernacular, the opening of one Anglo-Vernacular School at Jodhpur and 10 Vernacular schools in the districts, and the appointment of 17 new teachers and 2 new Deputy Inspectors of Schools in the districts. The State educational system now extended over all the more important centres of population having a thousand or more inhabitants.

As a result of these measures the number of State institutions rose to 65 with 3884 scholars in 1911. There were 25 aided schools with 2136 scholars. The total expenditure on education during the year , was Rs. 79,968. The inspecting staff consisted of 2 Inspectors and 2 Deputy Inspectors of Schools. In August 1911, the Rajput Nobles' Schools were reorganised.2

To improve the condition of education in the State the services of H. T. Knowlton I.E.S. (an educational expert of the Punjab,) were requisitioned in 1911-12. In his report he made

1. Marwar Administration Report (1907-1908), p. 53. 2. Marwar Administration Report (1910-1911), pp.'52-53.


some important suggestions for the improvement of education in the Slate. Some of his suggestions were :

1. To induce the leading Thakurs and Jagirdars to take a personal interest in the education of the people.

2. To bring private Poshals under State control.

3. To erect new school-houses at Jodhpur and other places where schools were held in hired buildings.

4. To convert the Anglo-Vernacular primary schools into vernacular middle or vernacular primary schools at places where the population was less than 10,000.

5. To send vernacular middle-passed students for training at the Jodhpur Normal School.

6. To revise the salaries of the teachers of all categories.

7. To revise and liberalise the grant-in-aid rules.

8. To rebuild the Hewson Girls' School and open branch schools.

9. To erect a new Darbar High School building and to reorganise its staff.

10. To appoint a whole time Director of Public Instruction

Almost all the above suggestions were accepted by the State and implemented. In 1921 the number of institutions maintained by the State stood at 80 and there were 19 schools which received grant-in-aid. The total number of pupils in the State institutions was 4502 and the State expenditure on education in 1921 was Rs. 1,79,292.1

During 1923-24 some noteworthy improvements were made in education in the State as given below :—

1. An extensive scheme for the expansion of primary education in the State-both in Khalsa and Jagir villages-was worked out and approved. The State sanctioned 1 lakh of rupees for the same. Accordingly 17 Jagirdars were advised to open primary schools in their villages.

2. A training class for teachers was opened at Jodhpur.

1. Marwar Administration Report (1920-1921), p. 81.


3. Pay of the teachers was increased to attract better class people.

4. Rules for the grant of scholarships, bursaries and studentships for technical courses such as medicine and engineering were framed.

In April 1925 the post of an Assistant Superintendent was created to relieve the Superintendent who was also Principal of the Jasvvant College, Jodhpur. J. J. Hathi was appointed on the post. Two more Deputy Inspectors of Schools were appointed-thus making the number of Deputy Inspectors of Schools to four. In 1930-31 the State decided to abolish State control on Poshals (the indigenous schools) and to allow them to work independently. There were 146 educational institutions for boys under State education department and 19 for girls. Of those for boys 130 were State, 11 State-aided and 5 were recognised schools. Of the girls' schools 15 were State and 4 State-aided schools. The total number of scholars in State, aided and recognised institutions in 1931 was 15,023 boys and 1626 girls. To meet the demand for competent female teachers a female teachers' training school was opened in October 1930. The total expenditure on education in 1931 was Rs. 5,70,050.1

In 1941 the educational system in the State had three main branches: (I) the College, (2) the Anglo-vernacular schools and (3) the Vernacular schools for boys and girls. Anglo-vernacular schools were of two types (a) Secondary Schools and (b) Middle Schools both for boys and girls. The Secondary Schools were affiliated to the Board of Secondary Education, Ajmer. There were separate schools for the training of men and women teachers. There were 223 institutions for boys and 46 for girls. Of the 223, 170 were State, 43 aided and 10 were recognised institutions. Of the 46 girls' schools, 36 were State, 8 aided and 2 recognised schools. There were 24,463 boys and 3965 girls reading in all the boys' and girls' institutions in the State in 1940-41. The total expenditure on education was Rs. 10,68,850 out of which a sum of

1. Marwar Administration Report (1930-1931), p. 52.


Rs. 1,23,900 was meant for the grants-in-aid to aided institutions.1

Since October 1926 A. P. Cox was working both as Director of Education and Principal, Jaswant College. This left little time to perform efficiently both the functions simultaneously. Hence early in 1934 the State Government separated the function of the Director of Education and Principal, and a separate post of the Principal was created. In 1943-44 in addition to the Director of Education, there were (i) one Inspector of Schools who was also working as his Personel Assistant and Registrar of Departmental examinations (ii) one Inspectress of Girls' education, (iii) 4 Deputy Inspectors of Schools (iv) one Physical Instructor, (v) One physical Instructress (vi) one Drill Instructor and (vii) One Physical and Health Instructor. This shows that Jodhpur State had organised education on a systematic basis covering all the different aspects and types of education.

During 1943-44 there were 200 schools for boys and 48 for girls. Of the boys' institutions 165 were State, 33 aided and 22 recognised whereas of the 48 girls' schools, 38 were State, 7 aided and 3 recognised. There were in all 28,570 boys and 4899 girls attending all boys' and girls' institutions. The total expenditure on education during 1943-44 was Rs. 13,13,000.2 Thus Jodhpur State was making fair progress in education when it merged in the Union of Rajasthan in 1949.

5. HARAUTI

With the exception of Bundi, little was done in the two other Harauti States (Kotah and Jhalawar) in the field of education before 1863. It was only after Captain Beynon had sent Kharitas to the Harauti Chiefs in June 1863 that some schools were established in Kotah and Jhalawar. But there were in all the three capitals several indigenous schools having 40 or 50 pupils which were supported by private individuals each having a Pandit who taught the most elementary branches, such as reading, writing and

1. Marwar Administration Report (1940-1941), p. 49. 2. Marwar Administration Report (1943-1944), p. 89.


arithmetic, just enough for carrying on the common routine of a banking or commercial establishment, or enough for a trader to carry on his business and keed his accounts which was the extent of education which people in those days generally considered sufficient for all practical purpose. Similar schools were found in most towns and many villages throughout Harauti, but none of them received any aid or support from the State.

(i) Bundi

Maharao Ram Singh, the Chief of Bundi, was an educated man who took pride in his knowledge of Sanskrit and Hindi and could talk on most subjects of Indian literature. He had also some knowledge of astronomy and Captain Beynon, the Political Agent in Harauti, was much surprised at the knowledge the Maharao possessed of many abstruse questions connected with Science and Art.i

There were 50 elementary schools-41 Sanskrit and 9 Persian in Bundi with 451 pupils reading in them in 1865-67.2 The Raj School at the capaital continued to suffer for long for want of a proper school building, but it had an average attendance of 120 pupils in 1881 in which year Hindi Schools (Pathshalas) were established at the 11 district centres. Captain W. J. W. Muir, the Political Agent, found them well attended.3 Many of these schools were later on closed (3 for instance in 1887-88) for want of pupils. The Raj School languished deplorably till 1894-95 when under the headmaster ship of Randhir Singh it made some progress. Two years later it sent four candidates to appear in the Entrance Examination of the Allahabad University, two of whom passed' Thus the highest examination for which scholars in Bundi could be prepared was the High School examination till the High School (later on known as King George V Jubilee High School) was raised to an Intermediate Standard in 1945 and was named Hadendra, College.* This name was again changed to 'Government College'.

1. Beynon to Lawrance : No. 4-3P dated 22nd Jan. 1864, paras. 2-4. (Foreign Genl. A July 1864 No. 10-18)

2. R. A. R. Haraoti Agency (Bundi) Report (1865-67), p. 300, para. 153. 3. R. A. R. Haraoti Agency (Bundi) Report (1881-82), p. 161, para. 25 4. Bundi Administration Report (1944-45), p. 48.


Girls' education was also not in a flourishing condition,

(ii) Kotah

The first State school in Kotah was established in 1867 when Sanskrit and Persian were taught by two teachers, a Pandit and a Maulvi. Hindi and English classes were added seven years later (1874) in the School which till 1881 was the only school maintained by the Darbar. In 1891 there were 19 State schools with a daily average attendance of 752, and by the beginning of the present century these figures rose to 36 and 1106 respectively. The State expenditure on education also increased from 4000 in 1881 to Rs. 9000 in 1891 and to Rs. 25,000 in 1901. Omitting indigenous and private schools not under State control, there were 41 educational institutions maintained by the State with 2447 pupils (including 115 girls) on roll in 1905. The State expenditure on education in that year rose to Rs. 33,000. Of the 41 institutions, 39 were primary schools. Five of the latter were girls' schools. The two notable institutions were the Maharao's High School and the Nobles' High School. Although no fees were charged and books, paper, pen etc. were supplied free by the State, the people of the State were apathetic towards education., and did not care to have their children educated.1

In 1908-09 the Nobles'High School was amalgamated with the Maharao High School, when Lala Daya Krishna was appointed Head Master of the amalgamated High Schools in Dec. 1909. By 1911 the number of State schools became 61 of which 51 were in the districts and 10 in the differenc localities of the city. Next year the Kotah "High School was removed to a new building when it was renamed 'Herbert High School'after the Political Agent's name. It was raised to the Intermediate standard in July 1924 by which year another State school-tbe one at Baran-was also made a High School. As in Jaipur, Bikaner, and Jodhpur, the Principal of the College in Kota also was the Director of Education in the State.

In 1931 the total number of educational institutions in the State rose to 130 comprising an intermediate College, 4 Anglo-

1' I. G. R. Kotah Jhalawar Agency (1906) p. 18.


Vernacular schools, I training school, 1 Sanskrit school and 114 Vernacular schools of which 10 were girls' schools. Thet otal number of scholars in 1931 was 9684, of whom 954 or 9.5 per cent were girls and 8730 or 90.15 boys. The total expenditure on education in the State in 1931-32 was Rs. 2,58,335.0.3. An encouraging feature of education in Kota was the number of girls reading in the Herbret College along with boys. In 1940 the posts of Principal and Director of Education were separated and the Maharani's Anglo-Vernacular Middle School was made a High School Thus by the time the State was marged in the Union of Rajasthan it had made considerable progress in education.

(Hi) Jbaiamtr

Jhalwar was the latest addition to the number of States in Rajasthan. Being an infant (born in 1838) and comparatively a smaller State, it had yet made a fair progress in education, the credit for which goes to Shyam Sunder Lai and Pandit Parmanand Chaturvedi. The former was for a number of years Inspector of Schools in which capacity he paid much attention to the spread of education in the State. Due to his efforts education was not only properly classified but extended even in the districts. He opened libraries and reading rooms. He also gave fillip to girls' education in the State. He was succeeded by Dammi Lai Chaubey in Sept., 1884. He and his successor Surgia, a local Christian educated in England, also paid much attention to education. The Chhaoni Middle School was now raised to the High School standard and under its energetic Head Master John it made good progress.

On the abolition of the State Council in Sept. 1894, Pt. Parmanand Mir Munshi in the Bhopal Agency, was appointed Diwan of the State. He was a highly educated and cultured man who devoted much attention to education. During the period of his Diwanship and the Inspectorship of John, education made some progress, with the result that in regard to literacy of its population, Jhalawar in 1904-05 stood seventh among the 20 States and Chiefships of Rajasthan, with 3.4 per cent (6.4 males and 0.2 females) able to read and write.1 In that year there were

1. I. G, R. Op. clt. p. 33.

200 " Modern Education in Rajasthan

nine schools in the State with a daily average attendance of 424. The only notable institution was the High School, Jhalrapatan-the other schools were all primary-including one for girls and one for Sondhias. No fees were charged anywere and the yearly expenditure was about Rs. 6.000.1

To perpetuate the memory o Pt. Parmanand and as a recognition of his services in the cause of education in the State, a hostel was erected and duly opened in December 1915. A.distinguishing feature of the institution was that all the expenses of education, food and clothing were defrayed by the State. In this respect it was a unique hostel in Rajasthan. Another notable feature of it was that the rooms in the hostel were named after sages, heroes, poets and philosophers. Another land-mark in the history of education in the State was the opening of the Colvin Girls' School, Jbalrapatan, in February 1917. In 1910 the number of girls at the Chhaoni Girls' School rose to about a hundred, and as the building was found insufficient, a new building was constructed at a total cost of Rs. 33,000. As a result of the efforts of Pt. Shyam Shankar, the Director of Education and later on Education Minister, Jhalawar, the number of girl students increased, which made the construction of a new school building necessary. The subsequent history of education in the State is the story of slow but steady progress in education looking to the resources of the exchequer.

6. BIKANER

Education in Bikaner before 1870 was practically non-existant. The only places of education which existed before that date in the State were the temples, Jain monasteries and Pathshalas. In the latter the sons of rich merchants were taught simply to read, write and cipher. The course of letter reading and accounts took about three years. The school fees amounted to six maunds of bajra and Rs. 8/- cash for the whole period. Rich persons paid an additional amount of Rs. 100/- as a present. At the 'upasaras' or Jain monasteries Sanskrit was taught. A few Muslim boys were taught Quran in one or two mosques.

1. I. G. R. Kotah-Jhalawar Agency (1906), p. 33.


During the minority of Maharaja Dungar Singh the State Council encouraged education by the establishment of a school in Bikaner. Funds were raised by private subscription and a suitable state building was repaired and altered for the accommodation of a large number of boys, for whose education teachers and books were provided at Slate expenses. Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi and Accounts only were taught. To give fillip to education, Major Roberts, the Assistant Political Agent, called, in consultation with the Maharaja (Dungar Singh), a meeting of the Seths of Bikaner at the Residency on 12th March, 1882. The meeting was unanimous that a Government School at Bikaner was an urgent necessity and accordingly a sum of Rs. 6,119 was collected on the spot for the purpose. This was the first attempt to establish a formal school in Bikaner-rather a creditable effort in those days in the far-off and isolated place like Bikaner. The Maharaja gave sites for two schools which were formally opened on 27th February 1883 by Major A. W. Roberts, the Assistant Agent, Governor-General Soojangarh.i These institutions, the first of their kind in Bikaner, promised to be popular, for the people of Bikaner had begun to realise the importance of education. An English School was, therefore, established at the capital on 8th June 1885 whioh later on became the Darbar High School. It was affiliated to the Allahabad University in 1897 when Sanskrit and Hindi were taught in addition to Urdu. Formerly the curriculum of the Punjab University was followed and education was chiefly imparted in Persian or Urdu, There were 526 pupils reading in the school. They included 54 Rajput, 170 Brahmin, 145 Mahajans, 89 other Hindus and 66 Muslim and 2 Parsis. These figures show that almost all classes of society were represented. The Brahmans and Mahajans, of course, predominated, but their chief study was the "Hindi Banika" or Bankers' Accounts. They had little taste for acquiring English. The expenditure on education in 1896-97 was Rs. 5,916.2

Female Education

In 1887 a girls' school at Bikaner was opened in honour of Queen

1. R. A. R. : Sujangarh Agency Report (1882-83), p. 268, para. 18. 2. Neilson : Medico-Topographical Account of Bikaner (1898), p. 12.


Victoria's Jubilee. Another Girls' school was established in the next year. In these two schools there were 70 girls who studied the same course as was followed in the boys' Lower Primary Schools. In 1896 the leading bankers of Bikaner subscribed a sum of Rs. 50,000 for establishing a fine girls' school, to commemorate the visit of Lord and Lady Elgin to Bikaner in November 1896. The foundation stone of the school known as Lady Elgin School was laid on 26th Feb., 1897 and it was formally opened on 31st March 1898 when the two small girls' schools in Bikaner were closed.

Walter Nobles' School

For the education of the sons of Nobles a separate school known as Walter Nobles' School was established in April 1893 with 4 students on roll. It shifted to a new building in Sept. 1895 when it was converted into a boarding school with 24 boys. The studies pursued there were in accordance with the Mayo College.

District Schools

Prior to 1884 there was no established educational system in the districts, there were teachers called Gurans of Marjas who taught the multiplication table and Bankers' Accounts (Banika). In 1884-85 two district schools were opened at Rani and Sardarsha-har. In 1896 there were twelve district schools.i

Four Decades of Education in Bikaner (1897—1937)

In 1898 Maharaja Ganga Singh assumed full powers of administration of the State. During the next four decades of his regime education made considerable progress in Biknaer. Immediately after assuming full powers the first step he took was to reorganise the Nobles' School. In 1905-06 the number of schools rose to 31. But owing to the peculiar circumstances and local conditions of the State, there were insurmountable difficulties in the way of diffusing village education to any greater extent than had been possible for the State to do. The distances between the villages were so great that a school opend in one village could not be

1. Neilson, W. H. : Op. Cit. p. 13.


expected to serve any one of the surrounding villages, as was the case in the more favoured and thickly populated parts of the country. This was one of the greattst difficulties that had to be encountered. The result was that until a village in itself could bring together a sufficient number of boys to read in the school it was a mere waste of money to establish one there. The bulk of the total expenditure on education incurred by the State was devoted to the institutions at the capital. Very few boys cared to read up to the final standard of the school, - Matriculation - as out of the total average number on the roll, only some 4 or 5 went to the highest class.

There were 74 private institutions with a total number of 2,701 pupils on rolls in 1910. They included 5 Anglo-Vernacular schools, 65 Pathshalas and Poshals and 4 maktabs. The number of State schools had risen to 42 with 2,680 pupils on the rolls so that including both the State and private schools the number of institutions and pupils rose to 166 and 5,381 respectively.1

In 1912 the post of Director of Education was created and H. Sherring was appointed on it. In December 1918 a new Educational Scheme was introduced, the salient features of which were :

1. Popularising College education by the offer of liberal scholarships.

2. Raising the status of the Walter Nobles' School to the Matriculation standard.

T. Improving and enlarging the staff of the Dungar Memorial College2 and the Anglo-Vernacular Schools.

4. Much wider diffusion of primary education by opening • new State Schools and giving liberal grant-in-aid to private institutions.

5. Extending the benefits of female education by opening new schools and offering assistance to private institutions.

1. M. K. Bikanar State, file No. 1501 of 1910 2. In 1912 The Dungar Memorial College was not actually a College but

was designated so.


in the shape of grants-in-aid, advice and supervision by the State Inspecting Staff.

6. Providing greater facilities for the study of Sanskrit by opening a Pathshala in the capital for the training of the local priestly-class in Jyotish, Vyakaran and Karmakand.

7. Providing facilities to local men to undergo training in arts and professions both within and outside the State.1

Table showing progress of education in Bikaucr.

Year

1897-98 1920-21

-1930-31 1935-36

No. of State Schools

29 74

108 122

No. of Pupils

1,606 5,238 7,701 9,361

Expenditure

18,126 1.42,862 2,41,537 2,92,367

; Percentage of increase in expenditure since 1897-98

688 1232 15132

In 1928-29 a Compulsory Primary Education Act was passed and brought into force in Bikaner and a number of important towns. In Ganganagar the District Local Board was allowed to open and maintain Primary Schools under the general supervision and guidance of the Education Department. This experiment was the first of its kind in Rajasthan-except Ajmer Merwara both from the point of view of rural welfare and from that of giving extended privileges in Local-Self Government. The District Board in 1937 maintained 29 boys' Schools and one girls' school.3

In 1940-41 the number of State schools rose to 131 with 12,313 scholars, that of private fund schools to 137 with 7,186 scholars and of the purely private schools to 191 with 7975 pupils4 In July 1940 Intermediate classes with Biology as an optional subject were opened in the Dungar College. Two years later M. A. Classes were also opened. Thus the college became a

1. Four Decades of Progress in Bikaner : p. 42 2. Ibid page 43, para 72. 3. Ibid : page 44, paras 74 and 76. 4. Bikaner Administration Report (1940-41) . p. 102 para 5.


post-graduate college. Facilities for higher education were provided when a total amount of Rs. 21,571 was given in scholarship. The number of High Schools in 1941 rose to 10 of which 7 were State and 3 were private aided schools. The Sadul High School made very considerable progress during this period when its number of scholars rose to 1023 in 1941-42 with a total of Rs. 34,903 as expenditure. A number of private Middle Schools were upgraded in the districts to the higher standard. In July 1940 High school classes were started in the Lady Elgin Girls' School. In July 1944 the Walter Nobles' School was thrown open to students of all communities and status and was coverted into a Public School. In the same year Rs. 49,511 were given in scholarships to 49 students and a very liberal amount of Rs. 5 lakhs was set apart for the grant of Scholarships for education in foreign countries in the next 5 years. (1944-49). Four students were sent to the United States of America. In 1944 the expenditure on education increased to Rs. 7,53,371 which made Bikaner one of the most progresive and educationally advanced States of Rajasthan. In July 1945 the Rampuria High School at Bikaner and the Lohia High School at Churu were raised to the Intermediate standard. Thus by the time the State merged in the Union of Rajasthan in 1949, it was spending Rs. 11,00,000 a year on education and from that point of view was the third State in Rajasthan, the first and second positions being occupied by Jaipur and Jodhpur respectively.

7. TONK

The first school in Tonk was established in 1868, but it had very thin attendance in the first few years, because of the violent opposition of the priestly class to any save religious instruction. English education was denounced as a crime, and even secular teaching in Arabic and Persian discountenanced on account of the Wahabi proclivities of the ruler. In 18 70 a Hindi class was opened in the Raj School. The total number of pupils which in June 1870 was 55 increased to 212 in March 1871. The expenditure in 1871 was only Rs. 1622. The school did not progress well because there was no competent Head Master. It was only after 1883 when Maulvi Syed Rashid-ud-din Ahmad was appointed Head-Master of the School that some progress in education in the State was made. The Maulvi came to Tonk with a rich and wide


experience of teaching in the Rae Bareilly High School. Immediately after joining his new duties in Nov., 1883, he reorganised the existing schools under the name of Central High School and opened two branch schools as feeders-one in the old Hindn town of Tonic and the other at Amirganj. Classes were formed on the model of Government Schools to teach the ordinary English course, Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Hindi. A school for the Sahib-zadas was also opened. The Sadar School was soon shifted to a new building which was inaugurated on 27th January 1884 by Col. Bradford, the Agent to the Governor-General in Raj-putana.1 Next year two of the Mullanis, who taught Muslim girls, were induced to place their 30 scholars under the superinten-dance of Syed Rashid Uddin. The girls were simply taught Quran and some elementary Urdu books. Two more girls' schools were opened next year. In January 1887 a boys' school was opened in Aligarh and the total number of scholars under instruction increased to 883 of whom 768 were boys and 115 were girls; of the boys 486 were Muslims, 400 Hindus and 2 Christians. The total amount spent on education was Rs. 6,165. There were 4 indigenous schools with 135 students in Nirabahera and 10 schools with 245 pupils in Pirawa.2

A student from the Tonk High School passed, for the first time, the Entrance Examination of the Allahabad University in 1890. The same year a female pupil was sent to the Agra Medical School by the State, which shows that the conservative and orthodox ideas of the people were now slowly giving place to some liberalism in education. During the period of the next eight years (1890-1898) 27 boys passed the Middle and 14 the Entrance Examinations of the Allahabad University. In 1905 the percentage of literacy in Tonk was 2.3 (4.4 males and 0.1 females). The Tonk district in Central India was much more backward, only about 1-2 per cent of the population being literate. Excluding indigenous schools which were not under State management, there were 15 educational institutions in Tonk State, 10 for boys and 5 for girls, attended by about 800 pupils, half of whom were

1. R. A. R. Harowtee and Tonk Agency Report (1883-84), p. 138. 2. /A/rf (1886-87). pp. 171-72.


Muslims. Ten of the .schools, including all those for girls and the High school, were at Tonk City and there was one at the head-quaters of each of the other districts. In the latter, English was taught only at Nimbahera and Sironj. The total expenditure on education was about Rs. 9,000 a year.1 In the next four decades little educational progress was made in the State and the highest standarad of education was only the High School.

The Remaining States

Education in the remaining States of Rajasthan was of an ordinary standarad, in none of them was there" any education beyond the High School stage. Students who wished to prosecute their studies beyond this stage were given some stipends and scholarships by the States to study either in the colleges in the province or at Agra. Girls' education was also not imparted beyond the Middle school stage and it was rarely that girls from these States passd the High School examination. It was only after their merger in the United State of Rajasthan that Intermediate Colleges were started in some of them

1. I. G. R. (1908), p. 305.

9. Higher Education

This chapter deals with the growth and development of higher education in Rajasthan with special reference to (i) a brief history of Collegiate education and (ii) the efforts for the establishment of a University in Rajasthan. Curiously enough, the contemporary official documents designate some of the earliest schools in a few States as "Colleges", although they were not even of the status of a modern Middle School at the beginning.1 The first Col!ege-the Government College, Ajmer-came into being in 1868. Five years later the Maharaja's College came into existence at Jaipur. These two colleges at their inception were affiliated to the Calcutta University. They were then designated as "First Arts" (F.A.) colleges. In 1893 the Jaswant College was founded at Jodhpur. These colleges were later on affiliated to the Allahabad University when it was established in 1887. Before the end of the century these Intermediate colleges were raised to the Degree standard-Jaipur in <. 1890, Ajmer and Jodhpur in 1896-providing educational facilities to the talented youths of Rajasthan. Chronologically the Maharaja's College, Jaipur was the first Degree (1890) and Post-Gradu-ate (1896) college in Rajasthan. Thus, despite economic and social backwardness, Rajasthan was not lagging far behind the other provinces of India in the sphere of higher education at the beginning of the present century.

1. All the earlier reports of the British Political Agents refer to the Jaipur and Bharatpur Schools as "College". But in the common Indian parlance they were called "Madrasas" which mean institutions of higher learning.

Higher Education 209

I-COLLEGMTE EDUCATION

Government College, Ajmer.

It has already been explained that the two earliest attempts for the spread of modern education in Ajmer-Merwara (one in 1819 and the other in lt-36) had come to a sad end in 1831 and 1843 respectively.1 Then through the efforts of Thomason, Lt. Governor. North-Western Provinces, a new Government school was established at Ajmer in May 1851. Within five years of its establishment the school made rapid progress with the result that the number of its scholars in 1856 stood at 234, comprising 192 Hindus, 41 Muslims and 1 extra. During Dr. Fallon's superintendence the school made good progress. He was ably assisted by Goulding, the energetic and enthusiastic Headmaster. The school library enriched by a valuable collection of 700 volumes-many of which were rare and precious books belonging to late Col. Dixon-was well utilised by the students, two of whom viz. Sohan lal and Ayodhya Prasad were applauded for their extra reading On the establishment of the Calcutta University in 1859, the school was at once affiliated and when the University held its Entrance Examination in April 1859, three students from the Ajmer Government School appeared in the examination. Of them A,yodha Prasad passed the examination in the First Division Four Students appeared in the same examination held in December 1859. One of them Sohan Lal again passed in the First Division He later on distinguished himself as an intelligent and zealous teacher.2

Fallon was succeeded by Goulding as Superintendent. During his tenure the School made very good progress and its status was raised in all essentials. It was he who introduced for the first time in 1864-65 English games such as "cricket, quoits, skittles and rounders" and the sight of the boys playing them was '-truly exhilarating as an earnest of better things."3 The usefulness and popularity of the school increased so much so that an indigenous

1. Vide Chapter II ante pp. 37-43 2. Report on the State of Popular Education in the N. W. P. for 1859-60,

para, 50. 3. Education in N W,P. Report for 1864-65, Para. 15.


Vernacular school having 57 pupils - almost all Mohammadans-presented itself for incorporation with the Ajmer School. Another indication of the importance and utility of the school was the average number of boys on rolls which increased from 177 in I860 to 295 in 1866 with a corresponding increase in the percentage of attendance from 79.5 in 1860 to 94.5 in 1866. Similarly the amount of fees realised increased from Rs. 515-4 in 1860 to Rs. 1423/- in 1866. All these figures unmistakably show the good work of Goulding and his colleagues But his greatest achievement was the success he obtained in getting the status of the school raised to a College level, In his report for 1866-67 he referred to the hope which Thomason, the originator of the school, had expressed in his letter to the A.G.G. that the school would in time be formed into a College, with the full establishment and with the range of education usually assigned to places of that designation and become the 'Bonn or Gottingen of Rajpootana".1

M. Kempson, the Director of Public Instruction, N.W.P. was himself convinced of the necessity of raising the status of the Ajmer School to that of a College and in his letter to the Secretary, N.W.P. Government, he very strongly recommended the case of the school on the following grounds :—

(1) That it will be carrying out the original idea of the persons who founded the school.

(2) That the success of the school is a strong argument in favour of increasing its tuitional power.

(3) That the name and influence of the school will be more widely known and felt in the neighbourhood.

(4) That a liberal subscription (Rs. 17.000) has been raised among the people towards the creation of a suitable building for the school under a changed character.2

The above reasons were so sound and weighty that the Govt, of India sanctioned the upgrading of the school to the level

1. Report on the Progress of Education in the N.W.P. for the year 1866-67 para, 35, page 14.

2. Kempson to Simpson. No. 944 dated 17.8.1867 Home Education Progs. Oct., 1867 Nos. 34-36.


of an Intermediate College. Lt. Col. Keatings, the A. G. G. Rajpootana, laid the foundation stone of the new (the present) building of the College on 17th Feb. 1868. Thus the school was converted into an Intermediate College in April 1868.1 Later on Captain Rapton, the Deputy Commissioner, Ajmer, opened the Boarding House for students who came from the district and distant places. Lord Mayo formally opened the new College building on 21st October, 1870.

Progress of the College

The formal opening of the new building of the Government College was a very memorable day in the history of the College, for few colleges in India had been opened under the auspices of a Governor-General and certainly none (till then) under those of a Viceroy. During the next quarter of a century education made some progress in Ajmcr and Rajputana. Whereas 21 boys appeared in 1876 in ihe Matriculation examination, in 1896 the number rose to 200. If proper facilities had existed, a large number of those students would have continued their studies for the B. A. examination with a view to finding employment in Government and Rajasthan State offices, or as members of the Legal, Medical or Engineering professions. It was, therefore, considered desirable that efforts for raising the Government College to the Degree standard should be made. Both Marlindale and Cobb (Commissioners of Ajmer-Merwara) approved of the idea. A meeting was, therefore, held at Daulat Bagh on 10th April 1896 under the presidentship of Cobb. A sum of Rs. 40,000 was collected with assurances of monthly contributions totalling Rs. 330/-whereupon the Chief Commissioner sanctioned the opening of B. A. Classes in the College which actually started from 15th July, 1896. The other proposal of starting Law classes was given up. Thus another milestone in the progress of the Governmemt College was reached.

The generosity and spontaniety with which people of all walks of life living in a district like Ajmer-Merwara with a population of five and a half lakh, donated nearly half a lakh of

1. Allahabad University Calendar (1892-93). p, 124.

212 Modem Education in Rajastlian

rupees, shows that Ajmer-Merwara was greatly interested in the course of higher education and was determined to make a fresh start in which she had been so sadly out-distanced by other administrations.

The present century dawned with new hopes and aspirations for the College. The absence of Science teaching in the College was greatly felt and efforts for it were made. But the proposal was rejected by the Government of India.i In March 1907 C. F. de la Fosse, Director of Public Instruction, United Provinces, was deputed to visit Ajmer to advise in regard to schemes for the I improvement of education in Ajmer-Merwara. In his report he I referred to the intermingling of the Governmet College and the High School into one and to the absence of B. Sc. classes. He recommended that separate staff be maintained for both the institutions and that if new buildings could not be erected for the one or the other, portions of the present building adjoining one another and sufficient for all its needs be set apart for the College. He also pointed out that as B. Sc. classes were regarded as an indispensable part of a first grade college, the same should be opened in the College.2 Both these recommendations were later ' on given effect to when the school section was separated from the College in 1912 and removed to another part of the city and B. Sc. classes were opened in 1913.

The subsequent history of the College is a story of rapid expansion. In 1929 came the first Biology block and six years later was added the Chemistry block the opening ceremony of which was performed on 12th March 1935 by Lt. Col. G. D. Ogilvie, the A.G.G.3 The sports pavilion was built in 1938 with the money donated by the old boys in 1936. The first instalment of M. A. and M. Sc. classes, namely Economics, Botany and Zoology came in 1946 which may, therefore, be considered another important land-mark in the chequered history of this college. Two

1. Letter No. 2206-I. A. dated 11.6.1904. Chief Commissioner's Branch

File No 224 (R.A.B.) 2. Foreign Intl. A, October 1909, No. 21 . 3. Hindustan Times, 14th March, 1935.


years later M. A. classes in English and History were opened.1

This, in short, is the history of this premier College of Rajas-than. For more than a century the College, first as a High School and later on as a College, rendered most useful service primarily to Ajmer-Merwara and secondarily to several parts of Rajasthan, Central and Northern India. Hundreds of its students have not only entered different walks of life, but have also adorned them. The College can rightly boast of having produced able administrators, politicians, lawyers, doctors, engineers, scientists, teachers, industrialists and army men who distinguished themselves in whatever profession they adopted. The late Diwan Bahadur H. B. Sarda, Sir S. M. Bapna, Major General Apji Onkar Singh, Kunwar Tej Singh Mehta, Diwan Bahadur Pyare Lai Kasliwal, Rai Bahadur Mool Chand Bijawat, Rai Bahadur Mitthan Lai Bhargava, Dr. M. S. Mehta, Chief Justice B. P. Beri, Maharaj Nagendra Singh, have been some of its illustrious alumni.

Maharaja's College, Jaipur

Like the Government College, Ajmer, the Maharaja's College, Jaipur also came into being as an ordinary school. It was through the efforts of Major Ludlow, the Political Agent, that the school .was established in 1844. Its progress during the first three years has already been described in chapter II. Pt. Shiv Deen, Maharaja Ram Singh's tutor, was its Superintendent; he was assisted by Munshi Kishan Swarup and Makkhan Lai, both of whom had been the students of Agra College. There were at that time 250 pupils out of whom 200 attended daily the four classes comprising Urdu, English, Sanskrit and Persian. Pt. Shiv Deen and Munshi Kishan Swarup taught Urdu to 88 pupils, Makkhan Lai English to 20 pupils, Pt. Bal Mukand Shastri Sanskrit to 143 and Meer Murad Ali Persian to 64 pupils. It is interesting to note that Hindi as a separate subject was not then taught; it formed part of the Urdu class.2

1. Since then Post-Graduate Classes in many other subjects have been opened and research facilities provided. All the four major faculties-Arts Science, Commerce and Law now function in the College.

2. Foreign Pol. Cons: 20th May 1847, No: 65


For the first few years the number of boys in the school was small, but when Maharaja Ram Singh attained majority (in 1851) and the influence of Pt. Shiv Deen increased, and students from the school got appointments in the Stale Offices a marked impetus was given to the school. In November 1861 H. S. Reid, the Director of Public Instruction, N. W, P , visited the school and was very much impressed with vvhat he saw there. In his report he writes, "The visit was really a gratifying one, for it confirmed the high opinion I had formed of the school from the accounts given of it by former visitors".1 Two years later Kempson, the next Director, visited the school on 4th Dec. 1863. Like his predecessor he too was so much pleased with the progress of the school that he offered to the best boys "prize books in the name of the Government, N W. P , which marks thereby its appreciation of the educational success of this institution, the management of which is highly creditable to the Principal and his Assistants."2 Even the Governor-General in Council also expressed gratification "at the results exhibited in this Report, which are creditable to the teachers and pupils, and must be satisfactory to the Maharaja."3 In 1864 Kanti Chandra Mukerji was appointed Head Master. Next year the school was reorganised and its success as an educational establishment may be said to date from this period. In the same year it sent up its first batch of four candidates for the Matriculation (Entrance) examination of the Calcutta University, all of whom passed.4 In 1869 it again sent four candidates for the Matriculation examination three of whom were successful, one passing in the first division and two in the second.5 In January 1873 it was affiliated to the Calcutta University, since when it was raised to the First Arts standard and so became a second-grade College in I eality, although it had assumed (he ostentatious name of "College" from its very establishment. Next year three students from the College appeared in the F. A.

1. Foreign Gen. A July 1864, Nos: 10-18. 2&3 Foreign Gen. A Cons: Feb.1864, Nos. 86-87. 4. Jsypore Agency Report (1865-67), para. 83, p 186. 5. R.A.R.Jeypora Agency Report (1869-70), para. 60, p. 71 and para. 63

page 73


examination for the first time since the affiliation of the College with the University.1

When the University of Allahabad was established, the Maharaja's College was affiliated to it upto the B. A. standard in 1888, but the B. A. classes were not actually opened until July 1890. In 1891 it sent up its first candidates for the B. A. degree of the Allahabad University, three of the candidates being successful. In 1896 it was raised to the M. A. standard and was affiliated to the Calcutta University for its M. A. examination.2 In 1898 the first candidate from the College, Suraj Narain Sharma, took his M. A. degree of the University." In 1900 the University of Allahabad also recognised the College for the teaching of its MA. standard and the Calcutta M. A. and B. A. classes were, therefore, abolished next year (190I). In 1900 the University of Allahabad recognised the College as qualified to teach upto the B. Sc. standard.4

This, in short, is a systematic and chronological history of the Maharaja's College, Jaipur during the last century. It reveals that at the beginning of the present century, it was the only first-grade College of the Allahabad University in the whole of Raj-putana teaching the highest standards of the University both in Arts and Science.^ The College laboratory contained many good instruments and appliances which had been brought up-to-date with a permanent allotment of Rs. 1200/- a year. In the beginning of 1904 it was inspected by two competent authorities, E. Vrendenburg, Curator of the Geological Survey of India, and Professor Fredrick J. Jervis Smith, of the Trinity College, Oxford,

1. R,A.R. Jeypore Agency Report (1874-75), para, 79, p.89 2. (i) Report on Public Instruction in the Jaypur State (1897), p, 11

(ii) Welcome speech by William Owens, Director of Education, Jaipur State, on the occasion of the opening ceiemony of the new building of the Maharaja's College-12th October, 1933. (M.K.Jaipur File No: G-4/Education 943, parts I and I I , Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner).

3. Report on Public Instruction in Jaypur (1898-99), p.6. 4. Showers, H.L.:Notes on Jaipur (1909), p.85. 5. Showers, H.L Notes on Jaipur (1909),p.85


both of whom expressed their satisfaction at its working.1

The College continued functioning with Post-Graduate teaching in almost all the Arts subjects such as English, History. Mathematics, Philosophy, Sanskrit and Persian. But in 1921 the Allahabad University Act was passed according to which the form of the University was changed from an examining to a teaching-cum-resi- ) dential one, and the students of which had to reside in recognised Boarding Houses in Allahabad itself. But in order to give ample time to the colleges outside Allahabad to,make their own arrangements, the new University was empowered to continue examining students from those Colleges for the degree of B.A., B.Sc. and M.A., on certain conditions. The most important of these conditions demanded that since the University was not concerned with any examination below the Degree Examinations, the Intermediate classes of outside colleges should be entirely separated from the B. A. In accordance with this demand, the Intermediate classes of the Maharaja's College were separated from the B. A. classes and the College had to be split up into two separate Colleges^known as the Intermediate College and the Associated College. This arrangement continued for three years. In the meantime a bitter controversy arose between S. S. Sharma, the Director of Public Instruction, Jaipur, and N. K. Ray, the Principal, Maharaja's College over the question of the amalgamation of the two Colleges. The former held the view that the decision to separate the Intermediate classes from the main College was the right one and was perfectly in keeping with the Calcutta University Commission Report The whole trend, he pointed out, had been to convert the Intermediate Colleges into schools on the lines of the Public Schools in England and it was with that idea that the Mackenzie Commission (1925) had recommended the amalgamation of the Intermediate and the High School classes and the separation of the Primary Section. He further added tint the retention of the Intermediate classes was only a temporary measure and not a matter of permanent educational policy as was evident from the approval which the Government of India had given to this policy

1. Report on Public Instruction in Jaipur State (1904), p.2.


by addressing a circular letter to all the States of Rajasthan asking them to establish an Intermediate Board for themselves.

The Principal, on the other hand, held the view that the amalgamation of the two Colleges under one Principal was necessary primarily to secure better supervision, more efficient teaching and a better organisation and equipment of the Library and the laboratories by preventing duplication in the purchase of apparatus and books; secondly to restore undivided authority and responsibility to a single person entrusted with the management of the entire collegiate education of the State, so that the needs of both the sections of the Maharaja's College might be satisfied within the budgetted limit to the best advantage of all concerned; thirdly, to erect a new college building accommodating both the Inter and Degree Sections outside the walls of the city so that the area for the entire collegiate education in all its stages might form a separate unit with possibilities for future expansion.*

As both the Director and the Principal rigidly and vehemently stuck to their views, the question of the amalgamation of the two Colleges was included in the terms of reference of the Jaipur Education Commission appointed in July 1926 for their earnest consideration and report. The Commission after mature thought came to the conclusion that it v/as not desirable to continue the separation of the Intermediate and B. A. classes. They opined that it was not required by the statute, was uneconomic and served no useful purpose. Moreover no other institutions in the U. P., barring those situated at University campus, had till then separated the Intermediate and the Associated College. The Commission, therefore, recommended the "the present separation of the Inter and B. A classes should not be continued."2 The Government accepted this recommendation and the two Colleges were reamalgamated in August 1927.

Ever since its inception in 1844 the College was accommodated in a temple building in the city, which, as the institution developed, became entirely inadequate. The State Government,

1. M.K.Jarpur G-4 Education File No: 156 (R.A.B.) 2. M.K Jaipur File G-4/90 part XII (R.A.B.)


therefore, sanctioned a new building for the College which was constructed in a new type of architecture with its extensive playing fields and modern furniture and equipment, at a cost of eight and a half lakhs of rupees. It was ready for occupation in July 1933. Its opening ceremony was performed by Maharaja Man Singh in the presence of a distinguished gathering on 12th Oct. 1933 which, therefore, then became a red letter day in the history of this nearly a century-old institution.

The next decade and a half was the story of its vigorous growth and expansion and wider field of service. By the time the Union of Rajasthan was formed in 1949 this College had attained a stature and a grandeur of its own as being the most modern and the best-equipped College in Rajputana and Central India.

The Jaswant College, Jodhpur.

The third College established in Rajasthan in the nineteenth century was the Jaswant College, Jodhpur. The brilliant and unprecedented results of the Darbar High School, Jodhpur, when nine out often pupils who appeared in the Entrance Examination of the Allahabad University in April 1893 came out successful, attracted the attention of ail-particularly of Maharajadhiraja Col Sir Pratap Singh, the Musahib-Ala (Chief Minister) of Jodhpur. who realised the need of establishing an institution of higher education in the State. Accordingly a college named Jaswant College, after the reigning Maharaja Jaswant Singh, was established at Jodhpur in August 1893. It was started in Talheti-ka-Mahal from where it was soon shifted to Nazar Bagh. It was affiliated to the Allahabad University for the Intermediate Arts in English, Logic, Mathematics and Science-Physics and Chemistry. As it was started in August wheu the session had already begun, and as most of the Entrance-passed students had joined State service, they were allured to join the College by being awarded a monthly scholarship of Rs. JO/- each. The first year class, with which the College started its life, had contained 5 students.1 Pt. Ganga Prasad who was the Superintendent of the Darbar Schools and to whose

1. Marwar Administration Report (1893-94)


endeavours the school owed its property and the college its existence, died of paralysis soon after the opening of the College. This was a tragic loss for the College and his death was widely mourned. He was succeeded by Pt. Suraj Narain Wattal M. A. (Chemistry) as Principal of College and the Superintendent of the Darbar School.

The tenure of Wattal's Principalship marks the first period in the history of the Jaswant College, [t was the formative period during which the College had to take firm roots and justify its existence. The first batch of 5 candidates from the College for the Intermediate examination of the Allahabad University appeared at Ajmer in 1895. Two of them came out successful In 1895 the College was shifted to Nanniji-ka bungalow in Raj Bagh.

Just as the brilliant results of the Entrance examination in 1893 led to the establishment of the College, the highly satisfactory results of the Intermediate examination in 1895 (six out of eight passing) led to the upgrading of the College in 1896 when B.A. classes were opened, Education in Jodhpur received considerable stimulus after 1902. In 1914-15 P.P.Shahani joined the Philosophy Department of the College and next year H.B.Chhablani, the Economics Department. The former was destined to guide the affairs of the College for more than 30 years and the latter to occupy the Professorship at Banaras and Delhi Universities. In 1915-16, 5 out of the 7 candidates passed the Intermediate science Examination.

With the retirement of S.P. Wattal in 1926 after a long period of 34 years' service ended the first period of spadewark under his able stewardship and a new era of modernisation of education in the State was ushured in by the appointment of A.P.Cox as Principal and Director of Education in October 1926. This year is also important in the history of education in Marwar because Drake Brockman was appointed as Revenue and Education Minister. Under the care, guidance and direction of these two gentlemen began the era of improvement and expansion of higher education in Marwar. During this second period young blood was brought in to invigorate the college life. It was during this period that


S.D.Arora joined the Chemistry Department of the College. He was destined later on to become the Principal. It was during this period that Shahani was appointed Vice-principal to assist the Principal in the administration of the College. In 1928 Hindi and Biology were introduced in the Intermediate classes.

In 1934 the posts of the Principal, Jaswant College and of the Director of Education were separated when P. P. Shahani was appointed Principal. During his tenure many experiments in Colle* ge education such as compulsory physical education, tutorial instructions and improved and scientific methods of study were made. During the first few years of his Principalship, the results were the best; College won five trophies at the Rajputana States Inter College Tournaments (1936). Corporate and social life at the College was full and rich.

The period from July 1938 to May 1942 was a period of glory in the history of the College, for it was during this period that the College had unrivalled results in the examination. During these four years the College could boast of the best result in the B.A. examination in the entire Agra University. The result in Inter (Commerce) was also the best in the Board for three successive years. In games and sports the College won the largest number of trophies. The College also built up new traditions of social service during this period. One event of great importance during this period was the visit of the great English writer H. G Wells to the College. A new series of extension lectures was introduced during this period.

But the most phenomenal progress in all fields of college activity was witnessed during the next four years i. e. from July 1942 to April 1946. The year 1942 marks the chief period of expansion of the College, as it paved the way for its evolving out into a full-fledged Degree College in all the three faculties of Arts, Science and Commerce. The next year was the peak year for students' activities and advancement in both curricular and extra-curicular spheres. From July 1943 B. Sc. and B. Corn, classes were started which afforded the long-awaited and much-needed relief for the parents, guardians and students. Urdu-was also introduced as an optional subject. In the B.A. examination of 1945 the College


was the first in order of merit among all the Colleges with a pass percentage of 91.8. Equally good progress was made in games and sports, character building and social service work. In 1944 the College won the sports Trophy for the fifth consecutive year; the Voley-ball shield and the Athletic and general champion-ship trophies for the fourth consecutive year. In 1945 the College won the following trophies: (1) Sir T. B. Sapru All-India English Debate at Agra (2) Shantabai All-India Hindi Debate Trophy at Jaipur (3) Gopal Lai All-Iadia Philosophical Debate at Jaipur. In 1946 the College completed fifty years of its existence as a Degree College when its Golden Jubilee was celebrated on a grand scale.

The brief history of the Jaswant College given above shows a brilliant record of achievements of which any College in the country may feel proud. Joining late the fraternity of Degree colleges in Rajasthan in the nineteenth century, it gained strength and power step by step till at the time of its Golden Jubilee in 1946 it enjoyed full bloom of youth. It had all the vigour and vitality of a developed personality with hopes and aspirations for still better and greater achievements in the future.

Other Colleges

1. Maharana College, Udaipur (1922)

No other college - except the three mentioned above-existed in Rajasthan in the last century. The first to come into existence in the present century was the Maharana High School, Udaipur, which was upgraded to an Intermediate standard in 1922. Degree classes in Arts and Science and post - Graduate classes in Arts were added to it in 1945 when its name was changed into Maharana Bhupal College, Udaipur.

2. Herbert College, Kotah (1924)

Since the passing of the U. P. Intermediate Education ^ct in 1921 the question of opening Intermediate classes at Kotah had engaged the attention of the State Education Department. When, therefore, the Maharao gave his consent, the State High School, which was then known as the Herbert High School, was raised to the Intermediate standard in Arts and Science in July 1924.


Degree classes in Arts and Ssience were started in July, 1945 and M. A. classes in four subjects were started from July 1947.

3. Dongar Memorial College, Bikaner (1928)

On the occasion of the Silver Jubilee of his accession to the throne Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner announced on 24th September 1912 certain Jubilee boons to his subjects. These included the appointment of a Director of Education to overhaul the department of education, raising the Durbar High School to the status of a college and the provision of a hostel for the institution. Since a building had already been constructed for a college, its opening ceremony was performed by the Maharaja himself on 25th September 1912. The college building constructed at a cost of Rs. 1,18,816 was to bear the name of the late Maharaja Dungar Singh1. On 30th November, 1912, Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy and Governor-General, accompanied by Sir Charles Bayley, Lt. Governor of Bihar and Orissa, Sir Elliot Colvin, the A.G.G. Rajputana and the Maharaja visited the College. Montagu, the Under-Secretary of State for India, also visited the College.3

The reports tell us nothing about the number of students who actually joined the College at its inauguration in September, 1912. The report of 19) 1-12 only tells us, 'Tt is proposed to commence the college classes as soon as six students join the First year class."3 It is, however, doubtful whether there were actually six students at the start of the College, for according to the report of 1912-13 there was not even a single student in the College on 30th September, 1913.4 It was perhaps this absence of any student as also "the delay by the University of Allahabad in dealing with the question of affiliation" that led to the closure of the nominal first year class of the College in July, 1914.5 It then took exactly

1. Report on the Administration of Bikaner State (1911-1 2), paras 215 and 220, pp.43-44

2. Report on the Administration of Bikaner State (1912-13), paras. 198 and 200 pp.48-49.

3. Ibid (1911-12), para 221, p. 45 4. Ibid (1912-13), para. 132, p. 51 5. Ibid (1913-14), para. 201, p. 50

Highei Education 223

fourteen years for the Dungar Memorial College to become a reality when the college classes were actually started from 1st July, 192°-.1 In 1935 Degree classes in Arts and in July 1940 Intermediate classes in Science were added to the College. It was raised to the Post-Graduate standard in Arts in July 1942 and B. A. classes in Mathematics were opened during the session 1942-43.°-

4. S. D. P. College, Beawar (1929)

The first private Commerce College to come into existence in Rajas-than was the Sanatan Dharma Pracharak College at Beawar. Originally started as a Sanskrit School in 1904, it was made a High School in 1926 and an Intermediate College in Commerce in 1929. Since then it became the main centre of Commerce education in Rajasthan. Subsequently it became a Post-graduate College.

5. Birla College, Pilani, (Jaipur State) (1929)

Opened as a chatshala for the education of his grandsons by Selh Shiv Narain Birla of Pilani, the doors of the Birla family school were soon thrown open to other children of the village. A good number of them began Lo attend it regularly and in 1916 it was recognised as an Anglo-Vernacular Upper Primary School by the Education Department of the Jaipur State. It was made Middle School in 1922 and High School in 1925. Four years afterwards it was raised to the Intermediate Arts standard in July, 1929. Next year Commerce classes were opened (July 1930). In 1931 the Birla Education Trust decided to raise the College to the Degree status and the Maharaja of Jaipur formally inaugurated the new College building in December, 1931. But due to the refusal of the Jaipur State Council to accord permission for the upgrading of the College, the degree classes could not be started. They were opened twelve years afterwards in July, 1943. Post-Graduate classes in some of the subjects were introduced from July, 1947.

6. Raj Rishi College, Alwar (1930)

The State High School, Alwar, was raised to the status of an

1. "Four Decades of Progress in Bikaner (1897-1937)" A Bikaner State publication, para. 79, p. 45.

2. Report for 1942-43 para 8, page 102.


Intermediate College in Arts and Commerce from October, 1930 and was affiliated to the Rajputana Education Board. Science teaching was started from the session 1943-44, that is, from July 1943 and the Degree classes in Arts and Commerce were adfled from July, 1915. In July, 1947 the College started B. Sc , LL.B. and M. A. classes in History and Economics. The M. A classes were however, discontinued next year.1

7. M. S. J. College, Bharalpur (1941)

In order to give impetus to higher education in the State, the Sadar High School, Bharatpur, was raised to the Intermediate standard in Arts and Science in June 1941. As the opening of the College synchronized with the Maharaja's marriage with the youngest sister of Mysore Maharaja, the College was named Maharani Shri Jaya College after the name ;'of the Maharani. It was raised to the Degree standard in July 1947.

8. Podar College, Nawaigarh (Jaipur) 1941

The Seth G. B. Podar High School, Nawaigarh, was raised to the status of an Intermediate College during the session 1941-42. It thus increased the number of Intermediate colleges under private management in Jaipur State from 1 to 2 (the other Intermediate college being the Birla College,Pilani. Degree classes in Commerce were started in July, 1947.

9. Maharani's College, Jaipur (1944)

The State Girls' School, Jaipur established as early as 1866 was raised to the High School status in 1931. During the time of Sir Mirza Ismail, who was Prime Minister of the State, girls' education in Jaipur State got the greatest fillip. It was through his initiative that the above girls' High School was raised to the Intermediate standard in July, 1944. Three years later it was raised to the Degree standard in July, 1947. It had thus the distinction of being the first Women's Intermediate College in Rajasthan It was also the first and the only Degree College for women in the whole of Rajasthan at its formation in 1949.

1. Univeisity of Rajasthan Report (1948-49), paia. 1, p. 75.


10. S.K.N. Rajput College, Jobner (Jaipur State) 1944

The Anglo-Vedic High School, Jobner (Jaipur Stale) was the first Thikana High School in Rajputana to be raised to the status of an Intermediate College in Arts from July 1944.1 Intermediate classes in Agriculture were started from July 1947.2 When it was upgraded to the college status, its name was changed to Shri Karan Narendra Rajput College.

11. S. S. G. Pareek College, Jaipur (1945)

A tiny chatshala opened in the very beginning of the present century in his own house by Tiwari Jhumar Lai, a public-spirited contractor of Jaipur, it grew into a High School in 1925. It was upgraded to the Intermediate standard when Arts classes were opened in 1945. Being the first Private college in the city, it met a very real educational need of the ever-growing student population of Jaipur.

12. Hadendra College, Bundi (1945)

The King George V Jubilee High School, Bundi, was upgraded to the Intermediate standard in Arts in July, 1945 and was named Hadendra College, Bundi.

13. Lohia College, Churu (Bikaner) 1945.

The State High School at Churu (Bikaner State) was also raised to the Intermediate standard in Arts and Commerce from July, 1945. As a local Seth (Kanhaiya Lai. Lohia) got the college build-

-ing constructed at his own expenses, it was named Lohia College after his surname.

14. Rampuria Jain College, Bikaner (1945).

One more private High School-the Bahadurmal Jaskaran Sidhkaran Rampuria Jain High School at Bikaner was upgraded to the status of an Intermediate College in Arts and Commerce from July, 1945.

1. Report on the Administration of Jaipur State (1943-44), para. 240, p. 61 2. Report on the Administration of Jaipur State (1946-47), pare 351, p.180


15. JRajendra College, Jhalawar (1946) The Maharaj High School, Bnjnagar (Jhalawar), started in 1887 was raised to the Intermediate standard in Arts in 1946 when its name was changed to Rajendra Intermediate College, Jhalawar. Intermediate Science classes were added in July, 1948 though actual teaching could not start before January, 1949.1

16. M. S. College for Women, Bikaner (1946)

The first girls' school in Bikaner was established in February, 1897 and was named Lady Elgin Girls' School, Bikaner. It was raised to the status of a High School in July, 1940. In the reign of Maharaja Sadul Singh, it was upgraded to the standard of an Intermediate College in August, 1946. As the Maharani took a keen interest in its upgrading, it was named after her as Maharani Sudarshan College for women, Bikaner.

17. State College, Ganganagar (1946)

The State Middle Scool, Ganganagar (Bikaner State) was made a High School and the first batch of its students appeared at the High School Examination in 1939-40. It was raised to the Intermediate standard in 1946.

18. S. M. K. College, Jodhpur (1947)

As the number of students in the Jaswant College, Jodhpur was constantly increasing, the existing College building could hardly accommodate them. The Intermediate Arts and Commerce classes of the College were, therefore, shifted to the local Durbar High School which was thus raised to the Intermediate standard in 1947 and was named Shri Maharaj Kumar Intermediate College, Jodhpur.

19. Raj Mahal Girls' Intermediate College, Jodhpur (1947)

Girls' education in Jodhpur-as in the other States of Rajputana, was looked upon with suspicion with the result that very few girls could dare come forward to receive high education. The first girl to go in for it in Jodhpur was Miss Shakuntala Tatke who

1. Rajputana University Report (1948-49), p. 153


took a lead and paved the way for higher education for women in Jodhpur by joining the Jaswant College as a regular student in 1929. After a decade the number of regular girl students in the College rose to 3 in April, 1939. Six years iater this number increased to 31 in July 1945. Thereafter the number increased rapidly till the need of opening a separate Intermediate College for girls in Jodhpur was felt. The Raj Mahal Girls' College, Jodhpur, thus came into being in 1947.

20. Chamaria College, Fatehpur (Jaipur State) 1947.

Seth Ram Pratap Chamaria of Fatehpur opened a Primary School in his home town in July 1927. It was made a High School in July 1941. Six years later it was upgraded to the Intermediate standard in Arts and Commerce in 1947.1

21. Shri Kalyan College, Sikar (Jaipur State) 1947

The Thikana School, Sikar, was made a High School by Rao Raja Kalyan Singh when its name was changed to Shri Kalyan High School. It was raised to the status of an Intermediate College from July, 1947.̂

The academic "status of all the above Colleges has now been raised to the Degree and of some even to the Post-graduate standard.

Professional And Technical Colleges in Rajasthan

There was no professional and technical college in Rajasthan prior to 1940. Neither the Rulers nor the British Political Officers posted at the capitals of the various States ever felt the need of such colleges. But it does not mean that there were no arrangements for imparting some sort of professional and technical education in Rajasthan. In fact, some of the bigger States such as Jaipur, Bikaner, Udaipur, Kotah etc. had opened classes of professional and technical education and had attached them with their Colleges or High Schools. Later on, the growing political conscientiousness, particularly after the introduction of the Provincial Autonomy, made the people, the administrators and the Rulers

1. Jaipur State Administration Report (1946-47), para. 352, p, 180 2, Ibid (1 946-47) para. 353, p. 180

228 Modern Education in Rajasthati

realise the dire need of opening colleges of technical and professional education in their States. Hence some efforts were made in this respect after 1940.

1. Teachers' Training Colleges

V.B.G.R. Seksaria Teachers' Training College] Udaipur (1941)

The Vidya Bhawan Education Society was founded at Udajpur in 1931 by Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta. Ten years afterwards the Society started a Teachers' Training College at Udaipur. As a philanthropist donated a handsome amount for the construction of the college building, the college was named after him as Gobind Ram Seksaria Teachers, Training College. It prepared students for the Teachers, Training Certificate Examination of the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. It remained affiliated to the Board until 1947 when it passed under the jurisdiction of the Rajputana University. Thereafter the college was recognised for the B.Ed, degree of the University from July 1948.

Teachers' Training College, Ajmer (1941)

When the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana (including Ajmer-Merwara), Central India and Gwalior came into existence in July 1929, there was no Teachers' Training College within the areas served by it. Only a very few graduates from those areas could gain admission into the training colleges in the U. P. or the Punjab. Hence the High Schools and Intermediate Colleges in Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior were staffed mostly by untrained teachers. Dr. J.C. Chaterjee, the Chairman of the Board, therefore, made earnest efforts for the establishment of a Training College. His efforts bore fruit when the Teachers'Training College was opened at Ajmer in July 1941.

Teachers' Training College, Bikaner (1946)

A Teachers'Training School was opened at Bikaner in 1941. In the beginning it catered to the needs of Primary Schools, but in 1946 it was upgraded to the status of a College preparing candidates for the Teachers' Training Certificate Examination of the Rajputana Education Board. In November, 1948 the then


Maharaja of Bikaner passed orders for its closure, but through the intervention of Shri Venkatachar, the Prime Minister, the College was saved from extinction. Subsequently its status was improved when it was raised to a Degree standard preparing candidates for the B. Ed. examination of the Rajputana University.

2. Engineering Colleges Birla Engineering College, Pilani (1946)

When the second World War was going on, the Birla Education Trust, Pilani established a Technical Training Centre at Pilani in 1941 for the training of technicians for ordinance factories and for the various industries created and stimulated by the war. On the cessation of hostilities the Centre was wound up in 1945, but its workshops and buildings were later on utilised by the Trust for opening an Engineering College in July 1946 At its inception the. college was affiliated to the Agra University, but when Rajputana University came into being in 1947, it was affiliated to that University. It was thus the only Engineering college in the province when Rajasthan was formed in 1949.

3. Law Colleges

There was no separate Law College in Rajputana when the University was established there in July 1947. Only in the Maharana Bhupal College, Udaipur, law classes had been opened in July 1946. But when the Rajputana University was established at Jaipur, it was considered necessary that a separate Law College should be started there. Hence it was opened as an evening college in the premises of the Maharaja's College, Jaipur, with a separate Principal and teaching staff.

Thus when the University of R.aj putana came into existence in July 1947, teaching of Law for L.L.B. degree was started in the following four colleges in addition^to the Maharana Bhupal College, Udaipur :—

1. Law College, Jaipur.

2. Jaswant College, Jodhpur.

3. Raj Rishi College, Alwar and


4. Dungar College, Bikaner.

Next year (1948) L.L B. classes were started in Herbert College, Kotah also.

4. College of Agriculture S.K.N. Agriculture College, Jobner (Jaipur State) 1947

The only Agriculture College in Rajasthan at its formation was located at Jobner, a Thikana of Jaipur State. The Thakur Sahib converted his Intermediate College into the College of Agriculture in the year 1947. It was thus the only Intermediate and when upgraded in 1949, the only Degree College of Agriculture in Rajasthan when it was formed.

5. Medical College S. M. S. Medical College, Jaipur (1947)

The first Medical College in Rajasthan was opened in Jaipur as one of the development schemes of the five-year plan chalked out by the.Jaipur Government. A sum of Rs. 33,99.000 had been put aside by the Government for the whole scheme, out of which a sum of Rs. 18,45,314 was earmarked for 1947-48. The College was named Sawai Man Singh Medical College after the name of the Jaipur Maharaja. The first session of the first year M.B.B.S class of the College began in September, 1947 with 50 men and 10 girls students.

The brief history of College Education in Rajasthan given above reveals a significant fact that the Rulers, administrators and public spirited people of the various States had after all realised the urgency of imparting higher education to their talented youths. Not only the existing State High Schools were, therefore, upgraded, but even some of the private agencies and Thikanas had come forward to add their quota in providing higher education in their areas. The quick succession in which new Intermediate Colleges were opened and the existing ones upgraded during the decade immediately preceding the achievement of independence shows that the indispensability of higher education for the all-round development of the province had dawned upon all concerned. It was this awareness which had led the education authorities in some of the bigger States of Rajputana to set aside


a substantial amount of money for scholarships to their deserving students, some of whom were even sent abroad for getting higher technical education.

II UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

The need of a separate University for Rajasthan arose as early as 1921. The Sadler Commission (1917-19) recommended the establishment of small residential universities of the unitary type under which the teaching of the Degree classes were to be undertaken by the Professors and Lecturers appointed by the University itself, and the scholars were to be in residence in the Halls and Hostels directly under the management of the various colleges affiliated to the University-all located within the limits of the University town. Colleges remote from the University town were henceforth to cease their affiliation to the University. Colleges remote from the University town were henceforth to cease their affiliation to the University.

In pursuance of this recommendation and in response also to a long continued agitation for the concentration of Graduate and Post-Graduate studies and for the reduction of the external colleges to the position of Intermediate Colleges, the United Provinces Government passed in 1921 the Allahabad University Act and the U. P. Intermediate Education Act which fundamentally modified the system of education, both Secondary and University in all areas within the educational sphere of the Allahabad University. According to this Act, the University was to be divided into two portions, namely : (1) the unitary teaching University at Allahabad consisting of all colleges within a ten mile radius of the Convocation Hall, and (2) the colleges outside the 10-mile radius which were affiliated to the University.

Effects of these Acts on education in Rajasthan

In Rajasthan, University education was given only in the three Colleges at Ajmer, Jaipur and Jodhpur. They were affiliated to and associated with the Allahabad University. But after the passing of the above Act their continuance as Associated Colleges of the Allahabad University depended on their fulfilling the conditions prescribed by the Act, the main condition being the separation of the Intermediate classes which meant considerable

232' Modem Education in Rajastlian

expenses, since separate accommodation and instruction had to be) provided for those classes. The maintenance of Degree classes also involved heavy expenses for appointing additional staff, besides additional library and laboratory accommodation in accordance with the requirements of the Act. The University gave a time limit of five years to these Colleges within which they were to adjust themselves. If they were anxious to avail themselves of this concession, they had to meet double the expenditure by employing two sets of Professors and also make arrangements to house the B. A. and Intermediate classes separately. This was more than what the three Colleges could do, as their degree classes, taken sepaietely, were too small to warrant this extra expenditure. The first effect of the new Allahabad University Act on them was to be the inevitable closing of the Degree classes. Had it been agreed to, it would have meant depriving about 150 young men from Rajasthan, who every year studied for the B. A. and B. Sc, of the means of taking the B. A. and B. Sc. degrees. Most of these students were too poor to go to study in a residential University where the expenses were very high as compared with those in the Colleges of their own places. These Colleges were of long standing; two of them had enjoyed an existence of nearly three quarters of a century. The Darbars of Jaipur and Jodhpur and the Government officials at Ajmer could not agree to reduce the status of their Colleges and would not allow them to dwindle into a High School or an Intermediate College. Even if they chose to feel satisfied with only Intermediate Colleges and High Schools, they had no examinations at which students from those schools and Intermediate Colleges could be examined.

Under such circumstances the need of having a separate University for Rajasthan was widely felt. A University, with the States of Rajasthan fully represented on its various bodies, would, it was argued, not only give a free hand to the Ruling Princes in the control of education in their respective States, but would also enable them to give to their subjects education suited to their social and political requirements. This University, it was believed, would be an institution quite worthy of the name of the land of India's aristocracy and would help the industrial development of the States.


Since Degree Colleges in Rajasthan then were located only at Ajmer, Jaipur and Jodhpur, it was quite natural that the people of these places alone should feel most perturbed at the passing of the Allahabad University Act. They had all agreed that Rajasthan badly needed a University of its own. But they differed over its type and form. The people of Ajmer wanted to have a purely affiliating University resembling very much the old University of Allahabad. According to them a purely residential University centred in a single town of Rajasthan was too expensive, as it would involve the upkeep of an Intermediate Board in addition to the University proper. The people of Jaipur, on the other hand, wanted to have a residential University at Jaipur,

It would be interesting to study the arguments and reasons given by these two groups of people belonging to two different areas. The protagonists of Ajmer believed their city to be an ideal place for the location of the affiliating University because, to quote the actual language of their pamphlet,

(1) Ajmer has two excellent Colleges, the Mayo College and the Government College, whose staff will form a valuable part of the University body.

(2) So far as the States go, Ajmer may be said to be a neutral zone and it would perhaps be more convenient to locate the University there than within the territory of any other State.

(3) Ajmer has a large number of educational and other officers whose ready assistance will be very valuable to the University. Besides in the Government Hospital, and in the Railway workshops. Ajmer, there are already possible nuclei for the development of studies in medicine, and electrical and mechanical engineering.

(4) The climate of Ajmer is salubrious and bracing.

(5) The town is easily reached from all parts of Rajputana.1

The advocates of Jaipur were not less vociferous in praise of

1. "A proposal for the establishment of a University in Rajputana" Pamphlet issued by some prominent residents of Ajmer (1922)

2 34 Modem Education in Rajasthan

their metropolis. One of them enumerated the reasons which entitled Jaipur to become the seat of a Residential University. To use his own words, they were :—

1. The Maharaja's College, Jaipur, is the oldest College in Rajasthan. It produced M. As. of the Universities of Calcutta and Allahabad, when the Government College, Ajmer, had not even opened the B. A. Classes

2. Jaipur is provided with Faculties of Oriental Learning and Literature. The Sanskrit College and the Persian College have produced alumni of eminence who have shed lustre and radiance all over the country.

3. It has got the School of Arts to impart training to students of fine arts. Many of the artists of Jaipur, especially in sculpture and picture-painting have got world-wide reputation.

4. It has got an Observatory-a unique one in the whole of India-the correctness of which has even been acknowledged by people of Europe.

5. It is provided with a Museum, which has got a valuable collection of art and industries of various departments.

6. It has got very nicely arranged Botanical Gardens, with a good stock of Life Museum.

7. It is the centre of Jain religion and literature "a Vrin-davan for the Jains".

8. It has got a first class Hospital, well-furnished with every department of Medicine and Surgery.

9. It has a very grand Public Library which can easily be converted into the University Library.

10. Arrangements are already on foot for the installation of a power House and a factory for cotton industry.

11. It has got close-by under the joint jurisdiction of Jaipur, Jodhpur and the British Government, the wonderful Lake of Sambhar, which would afford ample opportunities to the students of Science in making many a discovery useful to the human race.1

1. M.K. Jaipur, File No. G-4-9 of 1922,


The Jodhpurians took a queer view of the whole problem as revealed by the educational policy submitted to the State Council by Lt. Col. Lyall, Finance Minister, Jodhpur. The main features of this policy-to use the sponsor's own words-were :

1. Not to attempt higher education within the State.

2. To found a State Hostel at one of the Colleges of the larger Universities, say Allahabad.

3. To reduce the College to a High School, teaching upto Intermediate and bring other High Schools upto Inter Standard.1

The question of establishing a University of Rajasthan thus engaged the minds and thought of all educated persons in the province in those days. The A. G. G., R. E. Holland, issued a scheme of his own for the establishment of a University at Ajmer. He published his scheme on 25th October, 1922 which he elaborated further in his Note dated the 1st March 1924. Several meetings were held at Jaipur and Ajmer in 1923 and influential committees were formed. The question was later on taken up at the highest level when the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana called a Conference of Ruling Princes and Chiefs at Mount Abu on 20th June 1924 which was attended, besides the representatives of various States, by the Maharajas of Bikaner, Kota and Alwar in person. • The Conference lasted for two days and all the possible alternatives including affiliation with the Universities of Agra (which was then only in the offing but had not yet come into existence), Benares, and Delhi, were discussed. Towards the end, R. E. Holland, the Agent to the Governor General, summed up the proceedings of the Conference in these words :—

"The general sense of the Conference seems to be that there are strong obstacles at piesent to a Rajputana University, and that the scheme is premature, but that the respective advantages of affiliating either with Agra or with Delhi

1. Lt. Col. R.A. Lyall's Note dated 20th March 1923 to the State Council, Marwar. (M.K.Jodhpur, Education File 3/5-A Record No. 25 R.A.B.


under changed conditions as can be brought about should be explored".

Further efforts for a University in Rajasthan.

Thus came to an end the first series of efforts for the establishment of a University-affiliating or residential-for Rajputana. The only result of these efforts was that the Rajasthan Colleges were affiliated not with the Delhi or Benaras but with the Agra University when it came into existence in 1927. Sporadic efforts, however, were made from time to time for establishing a separate University for Rajasthan. Thus in 1936 the question of a separate University for Rajasthan arose because of the uncertainty of the attitude of the U. P. Government waicU could any day ask the Rajputana Colleges to set up a Univeisity of their own, as the Rajputana States contributed nothing to tho maintenance of the University of Agra to which those Colleges were affiliated.l Next year the question was taken up by the Ajmer Board when its Chairman, J. C. Chatterjee, formed a Committee for exploring the possibilities of establishing an affiliating University. Parkinson, Educational Commissioner with the Government of India was coopted.2 But nothing concrete came out of it. Some time later a member of the Agra University Senate raised the question of separating the Rajasthan Colleges from the purview of the University and suggesting their disaffiliation.8 Two years later the General Committee of the Ajmer Municipality passed a Resolution strongly recommending to the Local Government to consider the feasibility of establishing a Rajputana University at Ajmer.'1 But the most visionary proposal-for establishing a Muslim University and a Military College at Ajmer, came from Fazlul Haq, Premier of Bengal. While addressing a big congrega- -tion of Muslims at the Moinia Islamia High School, Ajmer, he expressed a desire to establish a University which, he said, would also impart besides arts, science and technical education, spiritual knowledge and Muslim culture. As for the finances for the

1. The Leader: October, 23,1936, P. 7 2. The Leader: March 24,1937, p. 9 3. The Times of India: Nov. 8, 1937, p. 16 4. The Hindustan Times: Aug. 8, 1939.

Higher Education 237'

University, Haq stated that he would formulate a scheme to collect funds and gave the assurance that he would put in all his efforts to make the scheme a complete success*. He found Ajmer a suitable place for the University as a large number of Muslim pilgrims from all over the country visited the place.i

Jn 1942 Sir Mirza Ismail, the Prime Minister of Jaipur, took up the question of a University for Rajasthan, for which purpose he appointed J C. Rollo, as Special Education Officer. J.C. Chatterjee, the Chairman of the Rajputana Education Board also felt keenly interested once again in the question. Sir Ismail sent letters to the Diwans or Prime Ministers of all the Rajasthan States. In March 194 a Slates Conference was held at Udaipur where the question was discussed in all its details, and a tentative scheme was outlined and approved. Some difficulties and obstacles were naturally to come in the way, but the tact, perseverance and wisdom of Sir Mirza Ismail and of SirV. T. Krishnamachari, his successor, surmounted them all In Dec 1946 the representatives of Udaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Alwar and Jaipur finally decided to eslablish the proposed University at Jaipur. It was also agreed that all the participating States should be invited to issue a Proclam-tion on the ?lh of January 1947 for the establishment of the University. Thus the Rajputana University came into existence on 8th January 1947 by virtue of a Proclamation issued by the Rulers of the States in Rajputana who had voluntarily joined together to constitute it and endow it with adequate finances.

The Rajputana University is thus the result of co-operative effort. This is the only University in India which owes its origin to the joint efforts by the States in a distinct region. The University was established, to use the words of the Proclamation, "to conserve and promote culture and the arts" in their widest sense. Rajasthan is a distinct region with a history and cultural tradition of its own. By organising research in these fields, in their relation to and in the wider context of Indian culture and civilization, the University has amply justified its existence. Rajasthan at its formation in 1949 had to face many problems relating to the economic development and the raising of the standard of life of the people of the Stale.

1. The National Call, November 2,1939.


In the training of the technical personnel for this gigantic task and in the wide diffusion of the scientific spirit and in the creation of a new sense of values, Rajputana University, later on known as the Rajasthan University, has nobly contributed its own share.

10. Education of the Weaker Sections of

Society and of Minorities

Educational facilities, as we have seen in preceding pages, were available in most of the States of Rajasthan. These facilities, generally speaking, benefitted the higher strata of society which included the feudal nobility and the mercantile, professional and administrative sections of the population. But the other sections such as women, the depressed classes, the Muslims, the Anglo-Indians and the aboriginal and hill tribes had special educational problems of their own deserving earnest attention. The present chapter is addressed to a discussion of these problems.

Education of Girls and Women

The Auxiliary Committee of the Indian Statutory Commission, while reviewing the growth of education of girls and women in British India, pointed out three major obstacles to women's education. They were (i) Conservatism, (ii) 'Purdah' system and (iii) Early marriages.! The conservative attitude of even educated fathers towards their daughters' education was simply surprising. The social system in which 'Purdah' was taken to be a symbol of respectability naturally militated against the education of women. But the most formidable obstacle in the way of women's education and theirgeneral progress was the system of early marriages. It was not uncommon to see girls of tender age, in many cases much below the age of ten, being married in lakhs every year all over India.

1. Hartog Committee Report (1929;, p. 152.


And when such potential obstacles could function so successfully even in British India, their potency and rigid application in Rajasthan during the middle of the nineteenth century can better be imagined. There is no wonder, therefore, that we do not find any girls' school in Rajasthan before 1860.

Beginnings of Girls' Education

The earliest reference that we come across of girls reading in modern schools in Rajasthan goes back to 1864 when Kempson, Director of Public Instruction, North-Western Provinces wrote, "In the Ajmere Circle, the Inspector mentions the existence of a caste, the Oswal, which has always considered it their interest to educate the female members of their families. Two girls belonging to this caste were found by him learning to read and write in the Pisangun Boys' school It is quite possible to take advantage of the opening and a beginning shall he made as soon as possible."*1

(Italics are mine)

From this extract two things are evident. First, that girls could and did read in boys' schools in Rajasthan even in rural areas as early as 1864. Incidentally, this is the first instance of co-education anywhere in Rajasthan. Secondly, that before 1864 there were no girls' schools on modern lines in Rajasthan, for the second part of the last sentence in the above extract viz. a beginning shall be made as soon as possible" indicates that girls'schools in Rajasthan followed and not pieceded this example of the two girls reading in the Pisangun boys' school. It is perhaps because of this promise of a beginning to be made that a girls' school was established at Pushkar in 18662 and a few others at the capitals of

1. Report on Education in N. W. P. (1863-64), p. 48 para. 84. 2. In his Report on Education in N. W. P. (1865-66) the Director of Public

Instruction, N. W. P. states, "The girls' School at Pushkar numbered 17 pupils, of whom 15 were examined by me and received small present of toys, sewing materials etc. with the greatest glee, and with every promise to continue their attendace. The number has since risen to 25, and the entire management is in better hands. I have already solicited a small monthly remuneration for rhe Mistress and her assistant teacher." Report for 1865-66, p. 25, para 94. Addressing his report to the Lt. Governor he further wrties," His Honour wil l have observed in para. 94 above, that a Girls' School of 1 / girls has been established in the Ajmer Circle, at Pushkar, and I have every hope that the example will not be without weight throughout the territory." (p. 37 para. 124).

Education of the Weaker Sections of Society and of Minorities 241

some States of Rajasthan. Thus in his first Annual Report on the Political Administration of Rajputana States, Col. Eden, the A. G. G., Rajputana writes :—

'•In 1866 a small girls' school was established at Oodeypore, and has since been maintained. Similar institutions exist at Jeypore and Bburlpore. I cannot record that they have attained any public favour. Public feeling is adverse, rather than otherwise, to the propriety and advantages of educating females. However, in establishing girls' schools at all, a step, though a small one, has been made in the right direction. The Maharao of Kotah has also expressed an intention of founding a like institution."

(R. A. R. First Report (1865-67) p. 21, para 78)

1. Girls' Education in Ajmer-Merwaia

We have shown above that the first girls'school in Ajmer-Menvara was established at Pushkar in 1866. The report for 186 -67 tells us that 41 girls and 12 widows were included in the list of attendance at boys' schools. This was a new feature of educational development in Rajasthan and shows that a beginning in girls' education had been made. A special sanction for the establishmeet of ten girls' school in Ajmer-Merwara was given by the Government of India, but this could not be utilised because of the non-availability of women teachers To solve this difficulty Goulding, the Inspector of Schools, Ajmer-Merwara, established a women's Normal Class at Pushkar in 1867.1 But the experiment proved a failure "solely for want of an educated woman as school mistress."2 The class was, therefore, closed at Pushkar but was reestablished at Ajmer in 1871 with 11 pupils^ One Mrs Fleming was appointed as Headmistress, who, two years afterwards, was asked to work as an Inspectress of Girls' Schools also in Ajmer-Merwara in addition to her own duties. There were five girls'

1. Report on Education in N. W. P. (1866-67). p. 39, para 102.

2. Goulding to Saunders : No. 5 dated 17th Feb., 1872 (Commr's File No. 7 R. A. B.)

3. A. M. Report (1873-74), p. 105, para. 468.


schools in the district at that time, but their work was not satisfactory. The women's Normal School also did not work well. It started with 11 pupils in 1871 but in 1892 its number decreased to 5. Reid, the Inspector of Schools, therefore, relieved Mrs Fleming of her duties on 31st March 1893 and on the same date the Normal School was also closed and the five pupils were dismissed.1

One of the main reasons for the closure of the Women's Normal School at Ajmer and for reducing the number of girls' schools in the district was the dearth of women teachers. The Inspector of Schools, therefore, wrote to the Inspectors of Agra and Allahabad Circles enquiring whether they could recommend suitable women teachers for Ajmer-Merwara, but from everywhere he received disappointing replies. This shows the sad state of women's education towards the end of the nineteenth cernury not only in Rajasthan but even in the adjoining N. W. P. as well.2

The emergence of the twentieth century brought new hopes and aspirations. A number of private girls' schools in Ajmer-Merwara, therefore, came into existence. In Ajmer the Savitri Girls' School and the Gulab Devi Kanya Pathshala were opened during this period. The Government also established a Central Girls' school. All these schools, in addition to the Christian Girls' schools, did much in the spread of girls' education in Ajmer, but they could only touch a fringe of the problem. Till 1936 there was only one private girls' High School in Ajmer, the Savitri Girls' High School As yet the Government had not come forward to open a High School for girls. A correspondent of the Hindustan Times had to deplore this state of affairs when in his letter, published in the paper, he wrote, "We have in Ajmer-Merwara a Government College and a few High Schools to cope with the educational needs of the province for the boys. But, unfortunately, there is only one High School for girls, namely Savitri Girls' High School, which being entirely dependent upon the

1. Commr's. letter to Chief Commr. No. 2737 dated 11-8-1893. (File No. 27, R. A. B.)

2. Inspector of Schools to Director of Public Instruction, No. 209 l-dated 21-12-1893 (File No. 27, R. A. B.)


generous donations of the public from time to time, might collapse any day for want of funds "1

The introduction of Provincial Autonomy in British India had its effect on Ajmer-Merwara also, for it was during this period that girls' education also got a fillip. The upgrading of the Government Central Girls' School, the St. Mary's Convent, the Sophia School, the Mahila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi, and the transfer of the Mission Girls' High School from Nasirabad to Ajmer all contributed much in the cause of girls' education in Ajmer-Merwara.

2. Girls' Education in Jaipur State.

The first mention of the establishment of a girls' school in Jaipur was made by B. Kanti Chandra Mukerji, then Head Master of the Maharaja's College, who in his Kaifiyat dated 7th May 1866 informed the Mahakma Aliya (that is the Stale Council which later on came to be known as the Mahakma Khas) that according to His Highness's order (Maharaja Ram Singh was then the ruler) the girls' school was established at Jaipur and that a sum of Rs. 90-2 was spent on Durri, Chairs, table etc. The school was opened on Jyestha Sudi 5 Sambat 1922 i. e. on 5th May, 1866. Two lady teachers were appointed : Sada Kaur and Jiwani @ Rs. 10/- per mensem each. Rukma a maid servant-and Ram-kunwari, a watch woman were appointed. In addition two girls who taught needle work were also appointed on Rs. 4/- per mensem each 2

It is thus clear that the first girls' school in Jaipur was established before May 1866. This is also corroborated by Major Beynon who was then the Political Agent at Jaipur. In his report dated the 30th March 1867 he writes :—

"Female education has received encouragement from the Maharaja. In April last a girls' school was opened in the city, when 25 girls enrolled themselves as pupils; these have been pretty regular in their attendance. The studies are as

1. Hindustan Times, March 17, 1936, p. 9. 2. Jaipur Govt. Secretariat Records File No. G-4/0-10 Pt. I Ft. A. B.


yet purely elementary, consisting of reading and writing Hindee, and needle work on which many show considerable interest and aptitude. Owing to the want of efficient teachers the progress has not been such as could have been desired, but it is hoped that this may ere long be remedied, and that the desirable object of female-education will make progress in Jeypore."!

In May 1867 an experienced lady teacher from Calcutta, Mrs. Ockeltoh, was appointed Headmistress when the number of girls rose to 30. But many of the girls soon left the school within a year because of their marriage. This number was hopelessly small keeping in view the large population of Jaipur, city which was at that time (1867) 1,50,000. But judged at from the difficulties in the way, specially the strong prejudices of the people against girls' education, even this small number was encouraging. Next year there was an unexpected increase in the number of pupils from 35 to 160. This was the most heartening feature of girls' education in Jaipur mainly because of the personal interest which the Maharaja took in it. In December 1868 the Maharaja accompanied by the Political Agent few English ladies

attended an examination of the girls which was highly satisfactory. Several of the more advanced girls qualified themselves as teachers and one of them was appointed to teach, the women prisoners in the Jaipur Jail.2 In J870 the school was divided into eight classes in seven of which Hindi was taught and as the eighth consisted entirely of Muslim girls, they were instructed in Urdu.3 This shows that even Muslim girls also came forward to read in the school, but the complete absence of Rajput girls and the girls of the State officials was very disappointing.

In July 1873 the girls'school was reorganised with a new Headmistress, Miss Jane E. Joyce. During her tenure the school made good progress when a number of branch and auxiliary girls' schools were opened. • Among them was the 'Training School' and the 'Upper class school'. In 1875 the original Female School was

1. R. A. R. : Jeypore Agency Report (1865-67), p. 186. para 86. 2. R. A. R. Jeypore Agency Report (1868-69), pp. 86-87, paras 71-76. 3. R. A. R. Jeypore Agency Report (1869-70), p. 75 para. 7 1 .


split up into three schools known as the Central School for Girls, Female Normal School and the Female Industrial School. The last one was for the benefit of widows and other girls requiring help. By 1881 the number of girls' schools in Jaipur and in the adjoining areas rose to 11 with a total roll of 748 girls-the average expenses per pupil being Rs. 8-15-3. The first girls' school to be opened under private management in Jaipur State was the Mission Girls' School at Sambhar which had 15 girls on roll in 1897.t Next year another girls' school (under private management-the Jain Saraswati Pathshala) was opened by the Jain community at Jaipur.

In the beginning of the present century the number of girls' schools maintained by the State decreased to 7. But by 1909 eleven more private girls' schools were established-four in the city of Jaipur by the Jains, four by Seths at Ramgarh, Mandawa, Fatehpur and Chirawa respectively, and three by the Mission. The establishment of these private schools indicates a growing desire for girls' education among the people. Thus by 1909 there were twenty girls'school running in Jaipur State-] 5 by private agencies and 5 by the State. The total State expenditure on girls' education in 1909 was Rs. 6,184,3 which was practically the same which the State was spending in 1979-80 (Rs. 6,283 according to the Agency Report of 1879-80, p 201). This shows that even after the lapse of three decades (1879-1909) the State's contribution to girls' education remained static, whereas private contribution increased considerably.

In the third decade of the present century many philanthropic Seths came forward and established several girls' schools at different places in Shekhawati Primary education for girls was also provided in Maktabs and Chatshalas. The Presbyterian and the Roman Catholic Missions also opened a number of girls' schools in the City Some other communities like the Agarwals and the Maheshwaris also established their denominational schools for girls. Two private agencies-the Birla Education Trust Pilani, and

1. Jeypur Education Report (1897), p. 20. 2. Showers, H. L. : Notes on Jaipur (1909), p. 88.


the JiwanKutir, Vanasthali-rendcred valuable services in the cause of girls' education in their own areas. The State also upgraded the Central Girls' School to the High School status in 1931. During the time of Sir Mirza Ismail, who was Prime Minister of the State, girls' education in Jaipur State got the greatest fillip when a Girls' Public School, (the first of its kind in the whole of India) named after Maharani Gayatri Devi and an Intermediate College for women were established at Jaipur in July 1943 and July 1944 respectively. Three years later the College was raised to the Degree standard in July 1947.1

3. Girls' Education in the other States

The other two States which had each a girls' school at their capital in 1866 were Udaipur and Bharatpur. No other State of Rajasthan (except Jaipur which has already been mentioned above) had any girls' school in 1866.

GirJs' Education in Udaipur.

Major Nixon, the Political Agent at Udaipur, refers to the •establishment of a girls'school at Udaipur in 1866 with 51 girls and two women teachers.2 It was located in the boys' school of which it was considered to be a branch school. In 1876 an English mistress, Mrs. Lonorgan, was appointed as Headmistress in the school where she taught needle work etc.3 There were two other women teachers. The school did not make progress because Mrs. Lonorgan resigned her post in 1879-80 and no competent mistress was available to supply her place since women teachers were not ready to come to an out-of-the place like Udaipur. It was during the Headmastership of Shri Hazari Lai, who was also in-charge of girls' education, that the number of girls in the school rose to 151 in 1885-86. In the meantime, the Presbyterian Mission had also opened a girls'school at Udaipur. In 1886 the Church Missionary Society opened the first Bhil girls' school atKherwara.

1. Now it is a Post-Graduate College for women. 2. R. A. R. : Meywar Agency Report (1865-67), p, 149, para 19. 3. Ibid (1875-76), para, 38.


Thus upto 1909 the State maintained only one girls' school at Udaipur which was looked after by a Brahman woman who taught Hindi i The Presbyterian Mission met the need of girls' education in Udaipur State to some extent by opening a number of girls' schools in the city and districts. Thus they maintained two girls' schools in Udaipur city, and one each at Ahar, Bhilwara, Bedla and Mavli. As the people were very apathetic and indifferent to girls' education, the State was also not very keen to open more schools. It was only when some private agencies came to the field that the State became serious and earnest about girls' education and upgraded the State Girls' School to the High School standard.- The private agencies were the Vidya Bhawan Society and the Manila Mandal whose contribution to education in Udaipur has been very significant and valuable.

Girls' education in Bharatpur

Captain Walter, Political Agent, Bharatpur, refers to one girls' school in the city of Bharatpui in 1866 with seven pupils.s Another school was opened next year with six girls. The meagre total number of girls in these two schools (13) shows the colossal apathy and indifference of the people of the premier Jat State which resulted in the closure of one of the two girls' schools in 1873. Thus girls' education did not make any progress in Bharatpur State which is quite evident from the fact that even forty years after the establishment of the first girls' school (in 1866) there were only four girls' school throughout the whole of Bharatpur State in 1906 attended on the average by 100 girls.4

This state of affairs continued for long. It is only in the thirties of the present century that the girls' school was upgraded to the Middle standard and later on to the High School stage in. July 1945.&

1. Shore, R : Modico-Topographical Account of Mewar (1909), p. 21 . 2. It is now a Degree College known as Meera Girls' College. 3. R. A. R. : Bhurtpore Agency Report (1865-67). 201, para 6. 4. I. G. R. : (1908). p. 335. 5. Bharatpur Administration Report (1944-45) p. 35.


Girls' Education in Ahvar.

Unlike Bharatpur, girls' education in Alwar was on a firmer footing. It was in September 1872 that Pandit Roop Narain, one of the members of the State Council, who had been a teacher and then Headmaster of the State High School, opened two girls' schools attended by 64 girls, all daughters of Brahmans and Banyas of respectability. Owing to his exertions 12 more girls' schools were opened next year at the principal towns in the State. Three girls from Alwar were sent at State scholarship to Agra in June 1886 to study medicine there.i This shows that, unlike other states of Rajasthan, some of the people in Alwar had realised the importance of giving even medical educatin to their daughters.

In the first decade of the present century there were 12 schools for girls with 300 girls which shows that the number of girls' schools in Alwar State remained almost the same. In the next twenty years nothing substantial was done to promote girls' education in Alwar and the Inspector General of Education, Alwar State, had to bemoan this state of girls' education and submit a scheme to the Judicial Minister of the State'2 It was as a result of this scheme that girls' education was reorganised in the State. In course of time the State Girls' School was raised to the status of a High School in 1944-45.3

Giris' Education in Jodiipur.

The first girls' school in Jodhpur was established in 1886 under peculiar circumstances. It was on the 10th of August that F. T. Hewson, Guardian to Maharajkumar Sardar Singh of Jodhpur, died of typhoid fever at Bombay. Because of his sterling qualities Hewson had made himself very popular in Marwar. His premature death was a great shock to his royal pupil and the regal patron. It was, therefore, decided to perpetuate his name in the State and the best way of doing so was considered to be to give his name to an institution of public utility. That is how the Hewson Girls'

1. R. A. R. : Ulwur Agency Repoit (1886-87), p. 187. 2. Alwar State File Mo 43 (R. A. R.) 3. Alwar Admn. Report (1944-45)

Education of the Weakei Sections of Society and of Minorities 249

School was established at Jodhpur in J886.1 For a very long time to come this was the only girls' school maintained by the State. GMs' education in Jodhpur, as in many other parts of India, was looked upon with suspicion and disfavour. And when there was no public demand for it, the State education authorities also remained indifferent to it. It was in the thirties of the present century that the national awakening and political consciousness in the country created an urge for girls' education. Jodhpur could not keep itself completely isolated from this upsurge and the absence of proper educational facilities for girls' education in Jodhpur was felt. This led the State to open a few primary and middle schools for girls and later on raised one of them to the High School standard.

In 1929 the first girl, Miss Shakuntala Talke, joined the Jaswant College as a regular student. By July 1945 the number of regular girl students in the College rose to 31. Thereafter the number increased rapidly which led the State to open a separate Intermediate College for girls at Jodhpur. This is how the Raj Mahal Girls' College came into being in 1947. A number of feeder institutions for it were also opened.

Girls' Education in Bikancr.

We get the first hint to the opening of a girls' school at Bikaner from the Political Agent (Captain Thornton) who in his report referred to the 'intention' of Maharaja Dungar Singh "to build a girls' school at Bikaner in honour of the Queen's Jubilee"2 This intention was realised two years later when "a girls' school was opened at Bikaner (in 188 -89) the average attendance at which was 35.2 girls."3

The next important landmark in girls' education was the establishment of a new school to commemorate the visit of Lord and Lady Elgin to Bikaner in November 1896.4 It was formally opened on 31st March, 1898 with 60 girls. But the two girls'

1. R. A. R. : Western Rajputana Residency Report (1886-87), p. 24. 2. R. A. R. : Bikaner Agency Report (1885-86), p. 234, para. 81 . 3. Ibid (1888-89). p. 85, para. 23. 4. Regency Council, Bikaner; Home Dept. File No. 147-164/19 (96),


schools already in existence in Bikaner city were closed.1 Thus there was only one girls' school in Bikaner in 1904-05 with an average daily attendance of 85 girls 'l This was a deplorable condition of girls' education in a State of which an education-minded person like Maharaja Ganga Singh was the ruler. This backwardness in girls' education continued for long.

In 1910 a note on the progreess of education in the State was prepared by the Bikaner Government for submission to the A.G.G. From this note it appears that the condition of girls' education in the State was almost the same as it was in 1904. The State was, therefore, advised by the A. G. G. to accelerate its efforts for education. It was in compliance to this advice that some primary schools were opened in the State but the people's apathy and prejudices always came in the way and proper advantage was not taken of the facilities provided for education. In 1929 the State passed the Compulsory Primary Education Act. This was a step in the right direction and it is only after its promulgation that some progress in girls' education in Bikaner could be hoped for. The philanthropy of some public-spirited seths also contributed its own share in establishing girls' schools in the city and in rural areas. But girls' education in Bikaner made real progress only in the last decade (1933-1943) of Maharaja Ganga Singh's reign when the portfolio of Education was in the hands of K. M. Panikkar. It was during this period that the benefits of female education by opening new schools and affording assistance to private institutions in the shape of grants-in-aid, advice and supervision by the State Inspecting staff, were extended.3 It was again during this period and in the reign of the next Maharaja (Sadul Singh) that the Lady Elgin Girls' School was raised to the High School standard (July 1940) and later on in August 1946 to the Intermediate status4 with its name changed as Maharani Sudarshan College. A new girls' school was opened in the fort at the capital for the daughters of the Chiefs and Nobles

1. R. A. R. : Bikaner Agency Report (1897-98), p. 117, para, 27. 2. I. G. R. (1908). p. 418.

3. Four decades of progress in Bikaner (1897-1937). p. 42. 4. Since July 1956 it has been functioning as a Women's Degree College.


of the State. It was a unique institution of its kind in the whole of Rajasthan, as it provided education for the daughters of the Chiefs and Nobles of the State under strict purdah arrangements. It progressed rapidly and a suitable building providing a hostel and a play-ground was constructed at a cost of Rs. 92,459. The idea of providing such a school originated with the Maharani after whom it was called Maharani's Nobles' Girls' School. Thus it is only after the thirties of the present century that girls' education in Bikaner made some real progress.

Harauti States.

In the three States of Harauti girls' education was in a very elementary stage throughout the nineteenth century. There was only one girls' school at Kota which was opened in 1875.1 By 1905 the number of girls' schools rose to five with a roll of only 75 girls. Four of these girls' schools with 45 girls were in the districts.2 This shows the palpable state of girls' education in Kota in the first decade of the present century. Bimdi did not fare better. On the other hand it was still in a worse condition so far as girls' education was concerned. The only redeeming feature was the interest which Maharao Ram Singh took in the education of the female members of his family and the ladies of the Zenana who were taught to read and write. The first girls' school opened ia. Jhalawar was the one established at the Chhaoni (Cantonment) in 1883 with 35 girls on rolls. Looking to the prejudices of the people this number of girls joining the school was encouraging, but by 1905 this number dwindled to only 12 which was quite disheartening. But the State made rapid progress in girls' education after 1906 and by 1916 more than half a dozen girls' schools had been opened with 471 girls on roll. By calculating the number of females in the State between the ages of 10 and 14t o be 2737, and those attending the school roughly 470, the percentage of literate girls rose to 17.16 which was quite encouraging. In February 1917 the Colvin Girls' School was opened at Ihalrapatan

1. RAR : Harowtee Agency Report (1875-76), p. 122, para. 17. 2. I. G. R. (1908), p. 381,


and the progress girls' education made in the State was satisfactory.1

Kotah made some headway in girls' education only after 1926 and by 1931 the number of girls' schools rose to 10 of which 2 were Lower Middle, 1 Upper Middle, 4 Lower Primary and 2 Preparatory schools. One of these schools-the Maharani's Girls' School-was later on converted into an Anglo-Vernacular school. The rest were all purely vernacular schools. One very heartening feature of girls' education in Kotah was the number of girl students reading in the boys' schools and even in the Herbert College (six).2

Thus co-education continued in Kotah despite the fact that the Maharani's Girls' school was raised to High School standard in 1939-403 On 3Gtli June 1941 there were 14 girls' schools in Kotah State with a total roll of 2208 girls in them.*

Girls' education in Tonk, as in some other Rajasthan States, was in a very rudimentary stage during the nineteenth century. There were only two private girls' schools in Tonk in 1885 under the charge of two Mullanis who taught the Kuran and some elementary Urdu books to girls who were all Muslims. These two schools were taken charge of by the State and two more girls' schools were opened in 1886 raising the total number of girls in them to 115inl887.5 A noteworthy feature of girls' education in Tonk was the interest some gentlemen took in their . daughters' education when the State sent a girl student to Agra in 1891-92 for Medical education at State expenses.s This was really very heartening specially when the ruler of the State had Wahabi proclivities. But girls' education in Tonk during the first quarter of the present century did not make any headway. It was only after 1935 that some progress in girls' education was made there

1. Brochure regarding the opening of the Colvin Girls' Schools, Jhalra-patan-published by the State (1917)

2. Kotah Administration Report (1933-34), p. 43, para. 212 3. It is now a Degree College. 4. Kotah Administration Report (1940-41), p. 46, para. 184 5. Haraoti and Tonk Agency Report (1886-87), p. 171, para. 46. 6. R. A. R. : (1891-92), p. 10.


In Kishangarh the first girls' school was opened by the State in 1897. This was the only girls'school in the town maintained by the State for the next half a century which shows that the State paid little attention to girls' education. There were two private girls' schools in the town, one the Mission Girls' School and the other Shri Tikam Jain Kanya Pathshala. The State maintained another girls' school at Sarwar. These were the only girls' schools in the State of Kishangarh till 1945.

The condition of girls'education in the remaining States of •-Rajasthan was deplorably poor. None of them had any girls' school worth name except a few primary schools. It was only in the forties of the present century that some of these schools were upgraded to the Middle standard

II EDUCATION OF EUROPEANS AND ANGLO-INDIANS

Abu Lawrence School

The first school for European and Anglo-Indian children established m Rajasthan was the Abu Lawrence School. It was started by Sir Henry Lawrence, the A. G. G , Rajputana, in 1854 "to provide for the orphans and other children of soldiers serving or having served in Rajputana and Western India, a refuge and .... to furnish an asylum .... wherein to give them a plain practical education adapted to their condition ... and to train them to become useful and intelligent members of Society".! Later on its affairs were managed by a Committee formed of certain officers serving in the Station presided over by the A. G. G., the Secretary being generally one of his Assistants. Voluntary subscriptions also added to its maintenance, but on their fail ng, the Government of Bombay liberally consented to make up any deficit. The Government thus, to all incnts, took it over and its management was vested in the A. G. G. In 1855 the school had 14 boys and 6 girls but ten years later (in 1866-67) the number rose to 64, of whom 37 were boys and 27 girls. In 1906 the number was 80 of whom 48 were boys and 32 girls The staff totalled 6-four masters and two mistresses. The special Inspector of European Schools, Bombay and

1. R. A. Ft. : (1865-67), p. 99, para. 329.

254 ~ Modern Education in Rajasllum

Central Provinces, inspected it periodically.1 This school right from its very inception had played a very important roll in the education of European and Anglo-Indian children in Rajasthan.

Railway schools at Ajmer and Bandikui

Owing to the opening of the railway to Ajmer scores of Europeans and Eurasians had come there as Engineers and technicians. Many of them were in railway service, but some were in Government service also. The need for a school for their children was soon felt and a school was, therefore, established (with 10 boys and 6 girls) at Ajmer in April 1876 through the efforts of an influential committee composed partly of parents and partly of officials. The management and control of the school was provisionally taken ever by the Revd. G. Gothard, Chaplain of Ajmer, and Mrs. Gothard The school was temporarily located in a large upper room above the police barracks in the Old Fort. Next year the Government of India sanctioned a grant-in-aid of Rs. 100/- p. m.2 A similar school was established in January 1880 at Bandikui by the Rajputana Malwa Railway for the children of its European and Eurasian employees. In the beginning the number of children in it was 20 which number rose to 37 three years hence. In 1884 the Government of India sanctioned a monthly grant-in-aid of Rs. 60/- for the school which amount was raised to Rs. 100/- p.m. with effect from April 1, 1886.3 Since then both these schools did much for the education of the children for whom these were established.

The Abu High School.

In 1887 the Bombay Baroda and Central India and the Rajputana and Malwa Railway Companies jointly established a school at Mount Abu for the children of their European employees. It rendered good service to European and Anlo-Indian children for their education for more than a decade. But in 1901 the attention

1. Foreign Progs : Intl, B. August 1906, No. 645. 2. Home Department letter No 196 dated 14-8-1877.

Commissioner's File No. 16-R. A. B. 3. Foreign Progs : Intl, A, March 1886, No. 70.


of the Railway authorities having been drawn to the high cost of its maintenance, it was decided to close the school. Another reason which led to this decision was parents' preference to send their children to other hill schools Thus the school would have been closed, but it was saved from ineeting this fate when its former Principal Revd. B. H. Skelton came forward and agreed to run it as a private undertaking under the name "The Abu High School". The school was, therefore, managed and run as a private enterprise by Rev. Skelton from 1902 to 1904; after which the Government of India placed it on a regular footing as an aided school under the management of a Board of Control consisting of four British Officers with the A. G. G. as its Chairman.1 The grant-in-aid which the Government sanctioned in 1904 was raised from Rs. 4080 per annum to Rs. 6,000/- per annum in 1907 and to Rs. 9000/-in 1918. In 1921 a r.on-recurring grant of Rs. 10.000 with another grant of Rs. 12,300/-a year for a period of two years was sanctioned with effect from 1st April 1921. Despite these generous grants from time to time, the financial condition of the school did not improve. The Government of India, therefore, agreed to accept the suggestion of the Bishop of Bombay to hand it over to the Society for the Preservation of the Gospel (S.P.G.) which was willing to run it. Thus the management of the school changed hands when the Society took it over in 1924.

After four years' management of the School by the Society it was found that the Society was unpopular with the Anglo-Indian parents whereupon the Superintendent of Education, Ajmer-Merwara, inspected the School and submitted a report in which he pointed out, besides other things, the unsound financial position of the school. The Government had, therefore, once again to take the school under their management and run it as a Government institution. Ultimately the Roman Catholic Mission came forward to take it over and run it with a changed name as St. Mary's High School. Thus the Abu School has, since its establishment in 1887, gone through so many vicissitudes, but its contribution in the cause of European and Anglo-Indian education has been very great.

1. Foreign Intl. B, Jan, 1905, No. 41 A.


St. Mary's Convent and St. Anselm's High School, Ajmer

The Roman Catholic Mission had established two more schools for the European and Anglo-Indian children at Ajmer. They were the St. Mary's Convent and the St. Anselm's High School. They had contributed their important share in the spread of modern education primarily among the European and Anglo-Indian and secondarily among the Indian children of Ajmer. (for details see Chapter IV).

European Railway schools at Abu Road, Phulera and Gangapur.

Besides Bandikui and Ajmer, Abu Road, Phulera and Gangapur had also developed as Railway Settlements where a sizeable number of railway employees lived. The Railway authorities, therefore, thought it necessary to provide facilities for the education of the young children of their European and Anglo-Indian employees. Accordingly schools were established at Abu Road, Phulera and Gangapur. When approached and requested, the Government of India also granted recurring financial help in the form of grant-in-aid to these schools.i

Concluding Remarks

We have given above a brief account of the establishment, growth and development of a number of schools for European and Anglo-Indian children in Rajasthan. Proper data in the form of annual products from these schools is not available. We are, therefore, not in a position to give an exact picture of their numerical contribution in the field of education of these two communities. But certain facts come to the forefront which need explanation.

, Many of these schools, in fact all except the one at Mount Abu, were either upper primary or at the most Middle schools.

1. Foreign Intl. B. August 1910, Nos. 182-83. Foreign Intl. B. April 1914, Nos. 97-98. Foreign Intl. B. May 1915, Nos. 991-992. Foreign Intl. B. July 1915, Nos. 59-60. Foreign Est. B. June 1916, Nos. 243-244. Foreign & Pol. Dept. File No. 221-R of 1928.

Education of the Weaker Sections of Society and of Minorities1 257

In some the number of pupils was very insignificant. The expenditure that was incurred on some of these schools, when considered in relation to the number of pupils taught, was very high. The insistence on their maintenance as separate institutions for the children of a particular section of society could not, therefore, be justified in terms of money spent on them, particularly when the average cost per pupil in Indian Schools was very low. It is argued that the small number of children which formed the total attendance in some of the Railway schools could well be sent to the better type and well-managed schools, for instance, the pupils of the Phulera Railway School could be sent to the Ajmer Railway School with profit and better results. Similarly the pupils of Gangapur Railway School could be sent either to Ajmer or to Bandikui, being financially helped by suitable stipends from the Railway management or the Central Government. In justification of these schools, however, it is said that these smaller Railway Schools acted as feeder schools for the bigger ones. If they had been closed, the schools at Ajmer and Abu would have been starved.

There is another point. The bulk of the community resided at Ajmer, Bandikui, Abu and Gangapur where they lived a sort of reserved life and took pride in European fashion in the matter of clothing, food, housing etc. All this happened in pre-independence days. After 194/ most of the Europeans left the country and the few Anglo-Indians who remained here reconciled themselves with their changed lot and sent children to Christian schools at Ajmer. Consequently some of the Railway schools were either closed or changed considerably to admit Indian boys also.

III. EDUCATION OF DEPRESSED CLASSES.

The term 'depressed classes' sometimes causes difficulty. According to the Memorandum on the Progress of Education in India prepared by the Central Government the term refers to—

"those members of the Hindu community who are regarded as out-castes or 'untouchables' and who have in consequence suffered from serious social disabilities in the matter of education and general advancement."


In this section of the chapter we shall restrict our account to the growth of education among these castes which were regarded by orthodox Hindus as 'untouchables'. They are now popularly called "Harijans".

A study of the educational documents available in the different States of Rajasthan reveals one significant fact that no systematic attempt was ever made anywhere in Rajasthan before 1921 either by any private agency-or any State administration for the education of the depressed classes. The only exception was the Christian Missionaries who were the first to admit sweeper boys (and sometime later even girls also) in their schools. We have already explained (vide Chapter III) how the admission of some sweeper boys in the Mission Schools at Beawar and Nasira-bad in 1862 led to an exodus of more than sixty boys in one day from the latter school; but after sometime when the novelty of the admission was gone, five sweeper boys could get their admission in the Nasirabad Mission School in 1864. Thus except in the Mission Schools in no other school-Government or private-sweeper boys were admitted in the nineteenth century. Of course, there was no legal, constitutional or administrative bar on the admission of Harijan boys (or girls) in Government Schools, but neither the Government officials nor the Harijans themselves could dare to take the bold step of admitting or entering public-leave aside private-schools in the last century.

The earliest reference we come across of a Harijan School being opened as early as 1923 relates to Jaipur State where the Director of Public Instruction recommended that Seths Govind Ram Than Mai of Fatehpur (Shekhawati) be permitted to start a school at Bissau to impart education to the untouchables at their own expenses under the supervision of Shiksha Mandel, Shekhawati.1 Three years later the Samaj Sudharak Mandal, Jaipur, opened a school for the untouchables in Chaukri Topkhana Huzuri (a Ward of Jaipur city) which was closed after three years because some other societies had taken up the work.2

1, Director's Vernacular Kaifiyat No. 67 dated 5th Nov,, 1923 to the Regency Council.

2. M. K. Jaipur File G-4/646. of 1929.


In 1927 the members of the Chamar, Naik, Balai. Khatik, Regav and Koli communities (the depressed classes) of the city of Jaipur and its suburbs submitted a petition to the Education Department praying to grant them facilities of primary and technical education to their children. They prayed that their boys be admitted in all the public schools maintained by the Darbar but if some orthodox Hindus felt some difference, they would be quite content if separate primary schools were opened for them. The Director of Public Instruction to whom the application was forwarded, proposed that it would be better if some two or three lower primary schools be opened for them in the city with two teachers in each school.

It is with reference to this recommendation that the Council of State, Jaipur, resolved in 1927 that one school be opened in the Jaipur city for the depressed classes and that if this school proved successful others could be opened later.* Incidentally this is the first instance of a Harijan school being opened by any State in Rajasthan. This example was followed later on by Rajasthan Shiksha Mandal, Jhunjhunu. which opened in 1930 schools for the education of the depressed classes at Sikar, Nawalgarh and Bagar. Subsequently the Mandal opened some more schools foi the depressed classes in Shekhawatee viz. the Achhut Pathshala, Chirawa (Khetri), Arya Pathshala Ramgrah (Sikar), and Dalit Pathshala at Jhunjhunu.- This again is the first instance in Rajasthan when an educational society started opening schools for the depressed classes. The Birla Education Trust, Pilani also came forward and not only opened a number of schoo's for the depressed classes but also a Harijan Hostel at Pilani. The Bharatpur State too opened a school at the capital for tht children of the depressed classes in 1933-34.::

But it was only after the formation of the Rajputana Harijan Sewak Sangha that systematic and methodical work for educational facilities for the Harijans could be hoped for. During

1. Council Resolution No. 21 dated 7th Sept,, 1927. (M. K. Jaipur, File No. G-4/11 of 1927).

2. M. K., Jaipur File No. G-4/Edn 677 (1930). 3. Bharatpur Administration Report (1933-34), p. 27.


August 1934 the Sangha opened five night and 3 day schools for the Harijans at different places and seven Harijan students were secured admission to ordinary schools at Baswa (Jaipur State). It supplied books etc. free of cost to 234 Harijan pupils and 40 were offered sweets, fruits and other edibles. The efforts of the Bansa (Jaipur) Harijan school resulted in reduction of expenditure on a death ceremony from Rs. 100/- to Rs. 20 only.1 In December 1935 the Koli community of Ajmer celebrated the ninth anniversary of their Anglo-vernacular middle school under the presidentship of Shri S. C. Chatterjee, Principal, Government Training School Ajmer. One noteworthy feature of this school was the number of caste-Hindus and Muslim boys reading therein 1936 the Harijan Sewak Sangha conducted 73 day and night schools for the Harijans containing 1943 students including 319 Savarnas. Three night schools-one each at Ajmer, Chirawa (Jaipur) and Bayana (Bharatpur) and one day school at Ajmer were also opened by the Sangh. Fourteen Harijan students were secured admission into ordinary public schools and 130 Harijan students were supplied with reading and writing materials free.3

Alwar and Jodhpur States also did not lag behind. A Harijan Pathshala at Alwar which was opened, and at one time financed by, Major C. G. Prior, the ex-Prime Minister, was taken over by the State in 1938-39.4 A number of Harijan Schools were opened in Jodhpur during this period. In July 1942 Shri A. V. Thakkar, the General Secretary, All India Harijan Sewak Sangh, Delhi sent a personal latter to Sir Mirza Ismail, the Prime Minister, Jaipur State, which resulted in the opening of a number of Harijan schools in the State. The question of admission of Harijan boys in Government schools in Bikaner arose in 1944 when some Harijan boys were denied admission The matter was considered by the Scate Council and on the analogy of Jaipur and Jodhpur States, Harijan boys were allowed access for admission to schools. Separate primary schools for Harijans were sanctioned to be

1. The National Call : 29th Sept. 1934, p. 2. 2. The Hindustan Times : Dec, 17, 1935, page 8. 3. The Hindustan Times : Sept., 11,1936, p. 7. 4. Alwar Administration Report (1938-39), p. 81 .


opened in the following towns from July 1944 :

(1) Bikaner (6) Churu (2) Rajaldesar (7) Rajgarh (?) Ratangarh (8) Nohar (4) Sardarshahar (9) Bhadra and (5) Sujangarh (10) Chhapar.i

Thus in the pre-independence period, efforts had already been made first by some philanthropic and public-spirited individuals and societies and later by the Rajasthan Harijan Sewak Sangh to open schools at several places for the education of Harijans, Some of the other States also were led by Public agitations and progressive trends in the country to open schools for the Harijans. But even all these efforts achieved little in the field of Harijan education in the province where depressed classes, including the Scheduled Castes and Tribes, formed a substantial portion of the total population.

IV. EDUCATION OF THE ABORIGINAL AND HILL TRIBES

The Bhils form the most important and significant section of the aboriginal and hilly tribes in Rajasthan. They are found exclusively in Mewar and in the three adjoining former States of Banswara, Dungarpur and Pratapgarh. As usual the Christian Missions were the first to open a few schools for their education. The Presbyterian Mission and the Church Missionary Society took the lead in this respect and tried to reclaim these people through education. As has already been explained earlier (Chapter Til) Dr. Shepherd of the Presbyterian Mission was very particular about the uplift of the Bhils from the state of their ignorance, superstitious life and evil habits of drink. This he did through

. education for which purpose he opened a Home for Bhil boys in 1886 with 27 inmates. They were imparted elementary education. The terrible famine of 1899-1900 increased the number of orphan Bhil children for whom classes were opened. Many of the Bhil boys later joined the Normal School at Beawar. The Church Missionary Society also opened a number of schools for both Bhil

1. M. K., Bikaner, File No. 14/B of 1948.


boys and girls mostly in the Khenvara area U opened the first school for Bhil girls in 1885. Next year the Maharana made a grant of Rs. 1000/- to the Society for carrying on work of education among the Bhils. By 1913 the Society had expanded its educational work among the Bhils very much. But in that year the Society handed over its school-house and property at Pipleti to the Presbyterian Mission. Thus the Bhil Home and Pipleti Bhil Mission were two of the most notable achievements of the Christian Missionaris for the educational advancement, and social uplift of the Bhil population of the area.

The East India Company also did much for the reclamation of the Bhils and established the Mewar Bhil corps during the middle of the last century. This had a very civilising effect on the community for whose education the corps opened two schools. The Mewar State also opened a number of schools for the Bhil boys. The first of these was opened at Jawur (July 1883) with 77 Bhil boys. Another school with 48 boys was opened at Rishabhdeo. Subsequently two more schools were opened at Bara Pal and Puduna-the total number of boys in them being 90 in 1885-86.

The Mission work for Bhil education continued unabated till the thirties of the present century when some enthusiastic young-men came forward and took in their hands the work of social service among the Bhils. Prominent among these persons were Shri Bhogi Lai Pandya and Shri Manikya Lai Verma. They worked with missionary spirit and through their efforts a number of organistions, such as the Bhil Sewa Sangh and the Adi Vasi Sewa Sangh, came into existence. Due to their selfless work and devoted spirit they could succeed in creating a band of workers dedicated to social service. They opened a number of schools even in the interior Bhil areas where no such attempts had been made before They continued their work devotedly until the Government of Rajasthan came to the field and started educational and social uplift work in the Bhil areas on an unprecedented scale.

V. EDUCATION OF MUSLIMS

Before the revolt of 1857 Indian Mussalmans did not take kindly


to the modern system of education. '-They remained sullen and reserved in their attitude to the British administration and continued to educate their children in the traditional Maktabs and Madrasas rather than send them to Mission or Goverenment schools of the modern type."1 The East India Company also generally neglected their education. It was the Government of Lord Mayo that first gave serious consideration in 1871-72 to this neglect of Muslim education and passed a Resolution desiring to give it every encouragement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who had already realised "that the Muhammadans of India must absorb the science and education of the West and must also introduce social reform among themselves," seems to have taken advantage of this resolution when he established, in 1875, the Mohomedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. Subsequently the Indian Education Commission also considered in 1882 the different aspects of Muslim education and recommended several measures to improve it. Most of the recommendations of the Commission were accepted by the Central and Provincial Governments as a result of which a period of steady expansion set in and by 1901-02 the position of education among the Muslims considerably improved.

This was the state of Muslim education in British India in the beginning of the present century. They had awoken to their short-comings and had made amends, to a certain extent, for their past forgetfulness. But the condition of the Mohammadans in Ajmer-Merwara, and also hi the States of Rajputana, had remained unchanged. Not in touch with external iefluences, they had remained contended with a quite and peaceful life at home, until the hand of time had brought them face to face with a vision of the direct calamities which befall those not prone to catch it by the forelock. The Mohammadans of Ajmer, therefore, awoke to their sense of responsibility as a result of which two small schools were started on traditional elementary lines, one in the Deshwali Mohalla, near the Diggi Bazar, and the other in the Purani Mandi. The Khadims of Dargah had also then started a similar movement. Thus within two years (1906-1908) four

1. Nurullah and Naik. History of Education in India, p. 202.

264 Modem Education in Rujastlwi

different Islamic schools (including the Dargah Madrasa) had been opened at Ajmer which shows that the Muslims of Ajmer had also begun to feel their way to the goal of advancement and progress.

Soon it was felt and agreed that a united effort would ensure better results, and to achieve this end the leading members of the Mohammadan community assembled at Ajmer on the 14th Feb.. 1909 under the auspices of the Ajmer Mohammadan Association. It was then decided that the above two schools (of Diggi Mohalla and Purani Mandi) should be combined into one and the Dargah school should also be amalgamated with them to make a "Central Mussalman Educational Institution for the whole of Ajmer." This was a move in the right direction, for it could meet the educational needs not only of the town of Ajmer or the distirct of Ajmer-Merwara, but of the whole of Rajputana in general.

Moinia Wamia High School Ajmer.

After having taken the above fateful decision, the members of the Mohammadan Association, Ajmer, waited on 17th Feb. 1909 in a deputation upon Col. C. H. Pritchard, the Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara, and acquainted him with their aims and objects in founding an institution which could be raised l,to the status of a High School up to the Matriculation standard."1 The deputa-tionists then requested him to procure for them from the Dargah Committee "adequate annual grant and funds... and control of the Dargah Madrasa." They also requested him to obtain for them the piece of ground belonging to the Dargah close to the camping ground (Parao).

Thus the Mohammadan Association, Ajmer, finally decided to open a Muslim school for which the first donor was Haji Abdullah who donated Rs 3,000/-

An influential Managing Committee was formed which sent a deputation of some prominent Muslims of Ajmer to Bombay to collect money for the school. A sum of Rs. 40,000/- was thus collected in Bombay. The Dargah Committee also approved the

1. Moinia Islamia High School, Ajmer, FI'IG NO. 7.


amalgamation of the scattered Muslim schools at Ajmer into one Central School. For that purpose the Committee agreed to pay regularly, besides the sum of Rs. 160/- per month which was spent on the Madrasa of Dargah Sharif, a sum of Rs. 300/- per mensem. It further suggested that the Madrasa might be called "Moinia Chishtia" so that on account of the name of Huzur Gharib Nawaz (i. e. Khwaja Sahib) the nobles and princes and all the Mashaik ( holy men ) and Sajjadgani-Hind (Spiritual superiors of religious endowments in India) might induce their disciples and followers to help in the improvement and good of the school, and no one either from the Ahl-i-tasavvaf (people believing in mysticism) or Arbab-i-tarikat (devout religious persons) might have a word to say against the Committee which was spending a large amount for the purpose. The Committee was of the opinion that the school should impart both kinds of education, i. c , secular as well as religious (Ilm-i-maash and Ilm-i-maad). In the establishment of this school Col, Pritchard, the Commissioner, had played a very important role. He always took keen interest in safeguarding the Muslim interests in Ajrner-Merwara. The Muslims of the area had, therefore, expressed their deep sense of gratitude to him and had publicly acknowledged his services and expressed their gratitude by associating his name with the Central Hall of the school which was named PRITCHARD HALL

The school was formally opened for instruction in July, 1910. It was carried on with the Dargah contribution of Rs. 460/- per month supplemented by tuition fees and private subscriptions. In 1913 the Government of India made enquiries on the subject of Mohammadan education in the country. The Muslims of Ajmer-Merwara, therefore, convened a meeting under the joint auspices of the Anjuman-i-lslam and the Managing Committee of the Moinia Islamia High School and submitted a note to the Commissioner, Ajmcr-Merwara, on 23rd April, 1914 pointing out the stringent financial condition of the school. The Committee, therefore, decided to hand over their school to the Government. The Chief Commissioner accordingly requested the Government of India to take it over.1 Thus the Moinia Islamia School was

1. Letter No. 1208-C/1324 dated 20-11-1914 from Chief Commissioner to Government of India, Foreign & Political Depaitment.

266 Modern Education in Rajastlian

formally taken over by the Government from 10th September, 1918 and Syed Raza Hussain B. A., L. T. was appointed as the new Head Master.

Thus after its brief existence of eight years as a private educational institution, the Moinia Islamia High School changed its ownership and became a Government school. During that short period and in the subsequent years it rendered great service in the cause of Muslim education not only in Ajmer-Merwara but iu the whole of Rajasthan. Most of the Muslims who entered Govt, or private service in the next decade or two had received their education in this school.

Muslim Schools in Jaipur.

Madrasa Talim-ul-Islam

Within a year of the establishment of the Moinia Islamia School at Ajmer, another school for Muslim boys was started at Jaipur (1911).Its name was Madrasa Talim-ul-Jslam. Its founder was one Maulvi Mohammad Hidayat Ali Khan, and his main aim in starting the school was to impart religious education to the Muslim boys as well as to create in" them a taste for oriental learning specially Arabic, Persian and Urdu. The school made such a steady progress during a very short period that several branches of it were opened at Sawai Madhopur, Dausa, Sanganer and at the Khanqah of Maulana Ziauddin at Jaipur wherein the number of boys rose from 160 to about 400. As the institution was patronised and aided by the Muslim community not only of Jaipur but also of Africa, Bulsar, Surat and other places, it had a strong financial position. The education imparted there was of the Munshi, Munshi Alim, Munshi Fazil (Honours in Persian) and Maulvi, Maulvi Alim, Maulvi Fazil (Honours in Arabic), Adib Adib Alini, and Adib Fazil Oriental (Persian '& Arabic) Examinations of the Punjab and Allahabad Universities. More than 50 students of this school had passed the aforesaid examinations of the said Universities till 1935. Progress continued even after that.

Muslim High School, Jaipur.

A representative body of Jaipur Muslims was formed in 1926. It was known as Islamia Punchayat and its objects were (i) the

Education of the Weaker Sectioiu of Society and of Minorities 267

spread of education and (ii) the reform of Muslim Society. Its inaugural meeting was held in March 1926 in which an influential committee was constituted. In the meeting a donation of Rs. 500/- was announced by Maulvi Hafiz Mohammad for starting a school. An ingenius way of raising subscriptions by means of collecting flour (Atta Fund) from door to door was devised in the meeting. Some enthusiastic members of the society collected quite a good amount of money on the occasion of the Urs at Ajmer by taking care of shoes of the pilgrims. With the amount thus collected from different sources the Committee started an Upper Primary School on 26th June 1926 Two years later it was raised to the Middle standard and it remained located in rented houses upto 1938 when the Maharaja of Jaipur made a free gift, for the purpose of the school, of a piece of land at Fateh Tiba with three rows of artillery barracks.

In August 1942, a deputation on behalf of the Muslims of Jaipur waited on Sir Mirza Ismail, the Devvan of the State, and submitted a memorandum on Muslim education in Jaipur. The deputation requested for a special grant for raising the school to the High School standard and for making suitable additions and alterations to the existing building In August 1944 Ameer Uddin Khan, Secretary of the Managing Committee of the School again submitted a petition to the Prime Minister requesting him to improve the financial position of the school. Accordingly the grant-in-aid was increased and a building grant was also given. The school was then raised to the status of a High School in 1945 since when it has been rendering very good service in the cause of Muslim education in Jaipur and adjoining areas.i

In addition to the above two schools, a number of other schools for the education of Muslims in the former state of Jaipur were started at Jhunjhuuu, Nua, Chatsu and a few other places. Through the efforts of Mr. Ameer Uddin Khan a school for Muslim girls was also started at Jaipur in 1942. Thus the combined efforts of all these schools resulted in the rapid growth of education among Muslims of Jaipur, and of other places.

1. It is now a Higher Secondary School since 1 971.


Mohammad AH Memorial High School Beawar.

Beawar, originally a small village, grew into a prosperous town during the East India Company's rule. Founded in 1836 by Col. Dixon, it became the headquarters of the Merwara district and being a railway station on the main Ajmer-Ahmadabad line and the chief cotton mart for Merwara, it assumed the form of an industrial town with flourishing cotton mills, presses and ginning factories. Its importance increased all the more because of its advantageous position between the two premier States of Udaipur and Jodhpur. Its population in 1901 was 21,928 including 3947 Muslims who formed about 18 per cent of the total population. For this substantial minority there were no proper educational facilities in the town although there were a number of High and Middle schools. Ajmer being 33 miles away, the Muslims of Beawar were little inclined to send their children there for education. They, therefore, wanted to have a separate school of their own in Beawar particularly when the Moinia Islamia High School at Ajmer had been taken over by the Govt. The growing reluctance of the Presbyterian Mission to continue their High School any more because of financial stringency spurred the Beawar Muslims to speed up their efforts for opening their own school. The Presbyterian Mission saw in those efforts a wayout of saving themselves from financial embarrassment without taking recourse to the closure of the school. It was, therefore, suggested that the Muslims should take over the management of the Mission High School in their own hands and should pay a sum of Rs. 100/- p.m. to the Mission for their school building and equipment.

In January 1931, Maulana Mohammad Ali died. He was a man of brilliant attainments and retained a life-long attachment for and interest in education. He had also been a prominent leader of the Muslims all over India. The Muslims of Rajasthan, therefore, wanted to perpetuate his name by opening a school in his memory. For that purpose the Rajputana Mohammad Ali Memorial Trust consisting of Muslims of different shades of opinion and walks' of life was formed and registered at Ajmer on 29th April 1932. Some of the prominent members of the Trust were Mirza Abdul Qadir Beg, President Rajputana Muslim


League, and Messrs Muinuddin Qureshi, Ghulam Hussain and Azizuddin, all respectable persons in public eye. It was this Trust which negotiated with the Mission authorities for taking over their High School. After the necessary details had been thrashed out and agreed upon, the Mission handed over their High School in 1932 to the newly formed local Managing Committee of the Mohammad Ali Memorial High School. The Committee comprised 21 members, prominent of them being Khan Sahib Rahman Bakhsha, Honorary Magistrate, as its President, Mohammad Yasin Nurie, as its Vice-President, and Muinuddin Qureshi.

The formal opening ceremony of the school was performed OJI 8th July 1932 by E. C. Gibson, Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara. Mr. P.D. Ariel, Principal of the Mission High School, was retained and appointed as Headmaster of the M. A. M. School. Sometime afterwards an influential deputation which had the active support and backing of the Nawabs of Tonk, Bhopal, Jaora and Palanpur, went to Ahmadabad to collect money for the school. A substantial amount was thus collected which was utilized for erecting the school building, the foundation stone of which was laid on January 22, 1935 by Col. G. D. Ogilvie, A.G.G., Rajputana. About 10,000 persons were present at the function, prominent among whom were C. H. Gidney, Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara, Maulana Shaukat Ali, Begum Mohammad Ali, Capt. L.A.G. Pinhey, Assistant Commissioner, Diwan Bahadur Har Bilas Sarda and Principal P. Sheshadri of Government College. Ajmer. Col. Ogilvie highly commended religious instruction in the curriculum of the school in accordance with the respective faiths of the different communities attending the institution.1

The contribution of the Mohammd Ali Memorial High School in the cause of Muslim education in Merwara in particular and Rajasthan in general has been very great. Many of its students entered the legal profession, trade and business and occupied important civil posts both in and outside Rajasthan. Some of its studetns-Abdul Aziz, Shaikh Abdul Rahman, Mohammad Mukhtar and others who later became prominent members of the bar did much for the social and educational uplift of their community.

1. The National Call (Delhi), 25th January, 1935, p. 6.


Mahatma Gandhi High School, Jodhpur

A school for the education of Muslim boys of Jodhpur was established in the twenties of the present century in a house near Zinde Shah's Mosque. It was known as Islamia Madrasa As its financial position was not good, the State Education Dept. in response to a representation made by the Muslims of Jodhpur, took it over in 1928 and maintained it at State expenses with a new name as 'Darbar Muslim School, Jodhpur'.1 Next year while laying the foundation stone of the Chhittar Palace (now known as Uramed Bhawan) Maharaja Ummed Singh proclaimed to get a school building constructed at State expenses for his Muslim subjects.2

This was a great boon to the Muslim community of Jodhpur. In December 1930 the Darbar Muslim School was shifted to a rented building, known as Bhaiyya Faizullah Khan Ki Haveli, the expenses of running the school being met by the State. By 1934 it had become a Middle School when the absence of a suitable building for it was keenly felt. On a representation being made by the Muslims, the State, therefore got a good building constructed for about a lakh of rupees. The opening ceremony of this new building was performed by Maharaja Ummed Singh on 18th Feb. 1936 which became a red-letter day in the history of Muslim education in Jodhpur. But the Muslims were not yet fully satisfied with the status of the school which they wanted to upgrade. They therefore, collected a sum of Rs. 97,000 as a reserve fund for the school which by 1947 had become a High School.

In the establishment, growth and development of the Darbar Muslim High School, Jodhpur, A. P. Cox, the Director of Education of the State had played a very important part. Like Col. Pritchard at Ajmer it was he who had awakened the Muslims of Jodhpur and made them conscious of their educational backwardness. It was mainly through his efforts that the School from a tiny primary school became a full-fledged High School and the

1. Letter No. G-26-E/2922 dated 12-3-1928 from the Director of Education Raj Marwar, Jodhpur, to the Mohammadans of Kharadiyonka-Bas, Jodhpur.

2. Marwar Gazette : extraordinary issue :—21st Nov., 1929.


Muslim community of Jodhpur had, therefore made him the President of Marwar Muslim Educational Society, Jodhpur. On the eve of his departure from Jodhpur in March 1947 after his retirement from State service the grateful Muslim community of the State paid him rich tributes for his most valuable services in the cause of Muslim education in the State.

fn 1948 the name of the Muslim High School was changed to Mahalma Gandhi High School. During the course of its existence of over two decades the School had done much in the field of Muslim education in the State. Most of the leaders of the community and people in the public eye had got their education in the School.

Other Schools for Muslim education

In addition to the above four High Schools for Muslim education in Rajasthan. there were many others of lesser pretensions which were founded in the States of Alwar, Bharatpur, Kota and Tonk and in the Shekhawati district of Jaipur State. The Muslim residents of these places, conscious of their educational backwardness came forward to establish schools which, though mostly aimed at imparting religious education, did much to remove illiteracy. Every important mosque had its Maktab where, besides teaching the basic tenets of Islam, some elementary instruction in the three Rs. was given. The various State governments also realised their duty of doing something for Muslim education. Both Alwar and Bharatpur opened many primary schools in the areas of their States where Meos and Mewatis predominated (Rajgarh and Tijara being two such Tehsils of Alwar State). There the Meos willy nilly sent their children to these schools. The Qaimkhanis of Shekhawati and Torwati areas of Jaipur Slate,who were originally Rajputs but later on converted to Islam, formed an important unit of cavalry in the Indian army. Many of them were officers in various Regiments and, being in touch with the outside world, had realised the importance of education for their children. To give one example, the Qaimkhani Indian Officers of the 17th Q. V. O., Poona Horse, Bannu, collected in Dec, 1923 some amount to open a "Muslim Rajput Middle School" at Jhunjliunu. At the opening of the school it was decided that the Indian Army Units

272 Modern Education In Rajasthan

enlisting Qaimkhanis might tie called upon to pay a donation of Rs. 400/- and subscribe monthly Rs. 33/- to the school to help to meet its expenses.1 In Jaipur city the State Government opened special primary classes for Muslim girls in the Maharaja's Girls' High School and 26 girls joined those classes.2 Thus through all these schools, education among the Muslims of Rajasthan received the much needed encouragement and attention.

1. M. K., Jaipur, File No. G-4/Edn 17 of 1924. 2. M. K., Jaipur, File No. G-4/Edn 1640 of 1942.

11. Technical and Professional Education

in Rajputana

We shall include in this chapter a brief account of the growth and development of each of the following branches of technical and professional education in Rajputana during the pre-indepen-dence period :—•

I. Medicine II. Engineering including Arts and Industrial Schools,

III. Agriculture including Veterinary Science, IV. Forestry, V. Commerce,

VI. Law, VII. Education.

I. Medical Education

A. Allopathic

The need for medical education on modern lines was first felt when trained Indian doctors were required for the British army in India. So far only English doctors were appointed as surgeons to some of the Political Agencies in Rajputana. But as their number was not sufficient to meet the army and civil requirements, Indian youths were required to be given "training in the various branches of medical science cultivated in Europe." For this purpose the first Medical College was established at Calcutta in June, 1835. The same year a medical school was opened at Madras also. Nearly a decade afterwards efforts for opening


medical schools at Ajmer and Jaipur were made. But before such a proposal could be entertained, hospitals and dispensaries had first to be established.

In May 1841 Major Thoresby and three years later Major Ludlow, both Political Agents at Jaipur, sought the Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana's sanction of a sum of Rs 800/-for constructing a hospital building at Jaipur. Although in the beginning the request was refused,! it was later on accepted and a hospital and dispensary were established at Jaipur in the beginning of 1845.

Proposals for the establishment of medical schools at Ajmer and Jaipur.

In June 1846, Lt Coi. Sutherland, the Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana, informed the Governor-General about the successful working of the hospital and dispensary at Jaipur and suggested "to extend the benefits of similar institutions to the other capitals of Rajputana." This suggestion was not accepted because of the insufficient number of trained youths produced by the Medical College at Calcutta. Hence Sutherland, in concurrence with Dr. Ernest Coleridge, whom he had brought with him from South Africa and appointed as in-charge of the Jaipur Hospital, suggested that "with the assistance of a few sub-assistant Surgeons from the Calcutta College, a medical school on a small scale might be established at Ajmere, sufficient in process of time to supply all our wants."2 A similar suggestion of establishing a medical school at Jaipur had already been made by Ludlow, the Political Agent Thus there were two proposals for establishing medical schools, one at Ajmer and the other at Jaipur, but as two institutions of the same type could not be established simultaneously at two separate places, the Government of India sought the Medical Board's expert opinion about the feasibility and suitability of "establishing a medical school at Jeypore with the help of a few sub-assistant Surgeons from the College at Calcutta."3 The

1. Foreign Political Proceedings: 8th June, 1844, No.52. 2. Foreign Political Consultations: 18th July, 1846, No.183. 3. Ibid. Consultations: 18th Ju ly 1846, No. 187.

Technical and Professional Education in Rajputana 275

Board, however, rejected the proposal on account of-lhe known prejudices and superstitions of the Hindus regarding the dissection of human body without which a practical knowledge of Anatomy could not be imparted to a medical student. Hence the Board gave their considered opinion that "the attempt to establish a Medical School in Rajpootana or elsewhere is at present altogether unnecessary."1 The Government of India concurred with this opinion and informed the A. G. G. that it was "inexpedient" to establish a Medical School at Jaipur.2

Sutherland, however, reiterated with greater force and renewed arguments the necessity of establishing "a medical school, hospital and dispensary at Ajmere" and added, "Several of the Native States, Jyepoor, Bhurtpoor, Beekaneer and Ulwur have named persons to be seDl for instruction to the Medical School."3

Regarding the Hindus' prejudices against touching dead human body for dissection, he pointed out that "through good anatomical plates much may be done even in this respect."* To win over public support and gain a wide publicity for his scheme, he had got published in the Delhi Gazette of 29th August, 1846 a notice about the opening of a medical school at Ajmer."5 Such was his earnestness and zeal for the school that he was even prepared "to bear the expense of the Institution during the early period of its operations."s There is no doubt that it is because of his earnestness and sincerity in espousing the cause of medical education in Rajputana that Maharaja Takht Singh of Jodhpur and the Regency Council at Jaipur had proposed to contribute to the scheme. Even the Rao Raja of Sikar had also offered to subscribe five or ten thousand rupees.7

The matter lingered on for two years, but Lt. Col. Sutherland seems to have opened in the meantime a medical school at Ajmer,

1. Foreign Pol. Cons: 29th August, 1846, No. 102. 2. Foreign Pol, Cons: 29th August, 1846, No. 103. 3. Foreign Pol. Cons: 17th October,_1846, No. 276. 4. Foreign Pol. Cons: October, 1846, No. 274. 5. Foreign Pol. Cons: 3rd October, 1846, No. 40. 6. Foreign Pol. Cons. 17th October, 1846, No, 277. 7. Foreign Pol. Cons. 20th May, 1848, No. 56,


as is quite evident from his letter to the Government of India which runs thus : "The experience which I had attained of the advantage arising from the Madras and Hyderabad Medical Schools led me to originate the establishment of a medical school at Ajmere under the superintendence of Dr Coleridge, M. R. C. S. of London." This is further corroborated by the following sentence from the same letter, '-There is a medical school house at Ajmere, for which I have paid Rs. 4,500/- and Dr. Coleridge has had several pupils sent to him by the States."1 Then he pointed out that as Dr. Coleridge was performing medical duties of the Rajputana Agency and was also attending the A. G. G. on tours, he (the Doctor) got very little time to do full justice to the School. Sutherland, therefore, suggested that the Civil Surgeon of Ajmer might be instructed to manage the Medical School. On that plea the A. G. G. renewed his proposal that '-it-i. e. the medical school-should by brought into active operation.'^ This proposition was not accepted by the Government of India and they informed the A. G. G. that "The Government are not prepared at present to go to the expense of establishing a Government Medical School at Ajmere."3 Thus the sincere efforts of Sutherland for getting a Medical School established at Ajmer proved abortive, and he soon died at Bharatpur on 24th June, 1848.

Establishment of a Medical "College" at Jaipur.

Even after Sutherland's sad demise, efforts for the establishment of a medical school in Rajputana continued, but the focus of attention had now shifted from Ajmer to Jaipur. In December, 1855 Dr. Kingsford Burr took medical charge of the Jaipur Agency. Soon thereafter he established a number of medical institutions at Jaipur with the approval and sanction of Maharaja Ram Singh, the ruler of the State. They included the Midwifery Hospital, branch dispensary and a vaccination centre.4 But the most notable and significant achievement of Dr. Burr, who was

1. Ibid No. 56. 2. Ibid No. 56 3. Ibid No. 57. 4. Foreign Progs. General A, February, 1860, No. 110.


actively supported by Major Brooke, the Political Agent, was the revival of the question and the ultimate establishment of a medical school at Jaipur. This Burr-Brooke combination was the second stage in the efforts for introducing medical education in Rajputana, the first stage being the efforts made by Lt. Col. Sutherland and Dr. Coleridge.

Thus it was through the joint and sincere efforts of Dr. Burr and Major Brooke that Maharaja Ram Singh sanctioned the establishment of a medical school at his capital. This school (called "College" in all contemporary official documents) was formally inaugurated by the Maharaja at Jaipur on 7th September, 1861 in the presence of "all the principal Thakoors and officials of the State as well as the English gentlemen." After the inauguration, Dr. Burr "explained the advantages of the Medical College,"1

which started the actual teaching work a week later to 24 students who had "already enrolled their names and attended the first lecture" on 14th September, 1861. Col. G. St. P. Lawrence, the A. G. G., conveyed to the Maharaja "the expression of my sense of his enlightened, proceedings, and the gratification with which the Governments of India and England will view it."2 September 7, 1861, is thus a red-letter day in the medical history of Rajputana, for it was on that day that the first medical school in the province was established at Jaipur "for the introduction of the European system of treatment of the sick and for the education of a number of young men to practise as Native Doctors in Jeypore and the principal towns of the district."3 Dr. Burr, the Agency Surgeon, was appointed as "the Superintendent of the Medical College and Lecturer in Materia Medica, Practical Therapeutics, Surgery and Practice of Medicine" on Rs. 3,00/- p. m. Doctor Najeeb Khan and later on Dr. Hussain Bukhsh were appointed as Demonstrators in Anatomy on a monthly salary of Rs. 50/- and

1. Just as the State schools at Jaipur and Bharatpur were designated as "College" in all official papers even though they were not even Middle schools in status, the Medical School at Jaipur was also called a "Co l lege". This was perhaps in uniformity with the educational system then in vogue in Rajputana.

2. Foreign Progs. General A. October 1861, No. 27, 3. Foreign Progs. General A. February, 1864. No. 109.


Sub-Assistant Surgeon Parvati Charan Ghosh was appointed as a Lecturer in Principles and Practice of Medicine, Physiology and Materia Medica of Rs. 225/- per mensem.1

Closure of the Medical School (

The Medical School progressed well for the first three years when Col. Brooke was the Political Agent at Jaipur. He was succeeded in the Agency by Captain Beynon in March 1864. Next year Dr. Burr submitted the first report on the working of the medical school in which he made certain observations which were objected to by the new Political Agent. This created a misunderstanding, leading to a bitter controversy, between Dr. Burr, the Agency Surgeon and Superintendent of the medical school, and Captain Beynon, the Political Agent, which not only resulted in "the suspension of Dr. Burr from all his duties connected with the Durbar" ̂ but also in the closure of lhe Medical School, Unfortunately the two reports about the working of the school, one submitted by Dr. Burr3 and the other by Col. Eden4, the then A. G. G. in Rajputana, are reported either to have been destroyed by the British Government of India or not transferred to the Records at Calcutta. As such it is now almost impossible to find out the true facts and reasons which led to the closure of the Medical School at Jaipur.

The immediate and apparent causes of the closure of the school were given as

(1) - Dr. Burr's "mismanagement of the medical institution", and

(2) the expensive and costly nature of the medical school.

As regards the first charge levelled by Beynon, the Political Agent, namely "mismanagement" of Dr. Burr, it falls flat and loses all its weight in the light of the views and opinion held about Dr. Burr by the two successive Agents to the Governor-

1. Ibid. 2. Foreign General B. October, 1866, No. 130. 3. Home Education Consultation: October, 1866 No. B15C 4. Foreign General B. November, 1866, Nos. 9-11.


General in Rajputana, the Principal of the Calcutta Medical College and even by the Government of India. Thus Major -General Lawrence, the-then A. G. G., believed Dr. Burr to be "a hard-working man, who had given much time and labour to the institution established by him at Jeypore."1 The next A.G.G. Col. Eden had also similar views about Dr. Burr when he (the A G.G.) wrote, "Considering the difficulties Dr. Burr has had to contend against, the formation and progress of this medical school are very creditable."2 The Principal of the Calcutta Medical College, Dr. Joseph Ewart, had opined that "the medical school at Jeypore has been very usefully conducted with very limited means."3 And lastly, even the Government of India held the view that '-Dr. Burr, too, is entitled to credit for the zeal he had displayed in connection with the school."'1 Thus in the light of these testimonies Beynon's charge of "mismanagement" against Dr. Burr falls flat.

Regarding the expensive nature of the school, there may be some substance in this charge, for, compared to the expenses of the Calcutta and Agra Medical Colleges, the expenses of the Jaipur medical school were certainly higher, but they could be reduced and economy effected without impairing the efficiency of the school, if only suitable measures had been taken. That was the view held by Dr. Joseph Ewart, the Principal of the Calcutta Medical College, who considered this closure as "the most retrogressive step", and therefore, earnestly entreated Beynon "in behalf of the Native medical education in India" to use his "best endeavours with the enlightened and liberal Prince of Jeypore with a view rather to improve and extend the medical school at his capital than to take measures for abolishing such a noble insti-tution".s But the entreaty went unheeded and that "noble institution" was finally closed on the 1st of March, 1868.6 Thus the closure of the Jaipur Medical School was not due so much to

1. Foreign Progs. General A: Febiuary, 1864, No. 109. 2. Foreign General A Consultation: August, 1867 Nos 1-7. 3. Foreign General A Consultations: August 1867, Nos. 1-7 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Jaipur Agency Report (1867-68), paragraph 79.

280 Modern Education in Rajasthcm

academic or economic reasons as due to the hostility and bitterness betwen two British officers Major Beynon, the Political Agent, and Dr. Kingsford Burr, the Agency Surgeon and Superintendent of the School. With the closure of this school ended the second series of efforts for medical education in Rajputana.

Further efforts for Medical Education in Rajputana

Hardly a year had passed after the closure of the Jaipur medical school when fresh efforts for the opening of a medical school at Ajmer were again made. The difficulty of getting Indian doctors for service in the various States of Rajputana induced Dr. Moore, Superintendent General of Dispensaries and Vaccination, Rajputana to submit in 1869 to Col. Keatinge, the Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana, a detailed scheme for the establishment at Ajmer of a Medical School for the whole of Rajputana. Dr. Moore pointed out that because of the dearth of properly qualified doctors even for British India, the Deputy Inspector General of the Agra Circle found it difficult to send doctors for service in Rajputana. Doctors from far off Bengal found Rajputana more expensive and unsuitable from climatic point of view. Because of these reasons Dr. Moore suggested the establishment of a medical school at Ajmer to be jointly supported by the various States of Rajputana and the Government of India. Col Keatinge carefully reviewed the scheme and took it with him to Calcutta in 1869 with a view to submit it to the Viceroy (Lord Mayo). But from what Sir William Muir, the Foreign Secretary, told him, Keatinge did not press for the school scheme

In 1870 Moore again submitted his scheme to Keatinge's successor, Col. Brooke. The Commissioner of Ajmer, Leslie S. Saunders too had expressed himself in favour of the scheme. Even Lord Mayo who visited Ajmer in October, 1870 was also favourably disposed towards the scheme. But Col Brooke, having then the Mayo College payments on hand, did not press the medical school scheme at that period and the matter was shelved for the time being.

Moore's further arguments for establishing a medical school at Ajmer

But Dr. Moore, like the late Lt. Col. Sutherland, was not the

\ Technical and Professional Education in Rajputana 281

' man to lose heart He vigorously pointed out that there were 57 / medical institutions in Rajputana in 1870 many of which needed

qualified doctors. As regards the suggestion that the Agra Medical School could meet the requirements of Rajputana, he pointed out the limited capacity of that school to meet "even the medical needs of the surrounding British districts." Moreover, students there were mostly Musalmans, while in Rajputana Hindu doctors were required. Then Rajputana youths were not willing to go in those days for medical studies to Agra, much less to far off Calcutta. He further remarked that students, if sent to Agra, would be educated at the expense of Government, whereas if they were trained at Ajmer, the different Durbars might be induced to pay. Above all the availability of a building suitable for the purpose, a large dispensary which could be attached' to the school for the purpose of clinical instruction, and the possibility of obtaining on loan from the Maharaja of Jaipur the models, plates etc., formerly used in the Jaipur Medical School, were benefits which could not be enjoyed elsewhere. To supplement his arguments he cited the names of Doctors Townsend, Abbot and Fayrer of the Calcutta Medical College all of whom favoured Indian youths being educated 'locally'. And finally, he pointed out that three of the former Agents to the Governor-General in Rajputana to whom the scheme was submitted, namely Col. Elliot, Col. Eden and Col. Keatinge were "favourable to the establishment of a Medical School for the supply of an existing want and as calculated to prove generally beneficial."1 Sometime thereafter he solicited" the expert opinion of Dr. Playfair, who was then the Deputy Inspector General of Hospitals of the Agra Circle and who was for many years the Prinicipal of the Agra Medical School. After perusing the whole scheme Dr. Playfair concluded that a Medical School at Ajmer was a "desideratum."2

Initially the Government of India sanctioned the scheme of the school subject to the Rajputana Rulers agreeing to subscribe sufficient funds to meet the outley.3 But ultimately the scheme was

1. Foreign Progs. General A, March 1874, Wo: 25' 2. Ibid No: 23.

3. Ibid. No: 26.

282 Modem Education in Rajasthcm

shelved. The reasons were not made known. Rajputana then had to content herself by sending her youths to Agra, or to Calcutta and Lahore, for medical education until the Indofe Medical College was opened when. Rajputana youths were sent there. The province had then to wait for nearly seventy yeais to have its own first Medical College opened at Jaipur in 1947.

13 Ayurvedic Education

Jaipur had made a significant achievement in the field of Ayurvedic education in the pre-Independence period. In fact, Jaipur may claim the proud privilege of being one of the very few cities in India where systematic efforts were made for imparting Ayurvedic education in the middle of the nineteenth century. The regular teaching of Ayurveda in Jaipur began about 1852 A.D. when a separate Department of Sanskrit was opened in the local Maharaja's College. Ayurveda was one of the six branches of learning which constituted this Department and Rajvaidya Jcewan Ram Bhatt was oppointed as the first teacher of Ayurveda. He belonged to a very illustrious family of Vaidyas which had been invited to Jaipur from Ahmadabad in the reign of Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh ( 1778-1803 A. D. ).

In 1865 the Sanskrit Department of the Maharaja's College was seperated from its parent body and came to be known as the Maharaja's Sanskrit College. Krishna Ram Bhatt, son of Jeewan Ram Bhatt, was appointed as a Professor of Ayurveda in the College in 1875 A. D.. It was to this Krishna Ram Bhatt that the credit of developing the Department of Ayurveda in the College on a very sound footing mainly goes. He was a great Ayurvedic Physician who had made extensive researches on Medical Chemistry (Ras Shastra). During his teaching career he taught scores of students who brought fame to his name. The foremost among them was Swami Lakshmiram Acharya, a Dadupanthi Sadhu. He was the first to pass the Ayurvedacharya (Honors in Ayurveda) examination from the Maharaja's Sanskrit College, Jaipur, in 1896 A.D. Next year when Krishna Ram Bhatt died, Swami Lakshmi Ram Acharya was appointed Professor and Head of the Department of Ayurveda in the Sanskrit College, a post he held for full 37 years till he retired in 1934 A.D. In 1928 A.D. the Dhanwantri


Aushdhalaya (Dispensary) was also opened at Jaipur through his efforts where Ayurvedic students could make case study of the indoor patients and thus gain practical training. Four years later formal practical training was made compulsory for all students of Ayurveda. This system continued till a fully independent Ayurvedic College was established at Jaipur on 1st August, 1946. This was, therefore, a red-letter day in the history of Ayurvedic education not only in the former State of Jaipur but in the whole of northern India. Rajvaidya Nand Kishore Sharma was appointed the first Principal and Vaidyaraj Swami Jairam Das the first Vice-Principal of thisnewly-started Ayurvedic College.

Maharana Ayurveda College, Udaipur (1933)

Thirteen years before (he establishment of a fully independent Ayurvedic College at Jaipur, the State of Udaipur had already established at its capital an Ayurveda College. It was named Maharana Ayurveda College and was started in 1933. Vaidya Omkar Mai Sharma was its first Principal. Thereafter it made satisfactory progress and was in a flourishing condition when the Union of Rajashan came into being.

Private Ayurvedic Colleges in Rajputana

The credit of being the earliest Ayurvedic College in Rajputana in the private sector goes to the Rajputana Ayurvedic and Unani-Tibbi College. It was established at Jaipur in 1926. Its main aim was to impart indigenous medical education of both the systems-Ayurvedic and Tibbi. The Ayurvedic section of the College provided two courses, Bhishagratna Shastri and Bhishaga-charya Shiromani. This Ayurvedic College in the private sector did much for the spread of the indigenous system of medicine for more than two decades. But when the State opened its own full-fledged Ayurvedic College at Jaipur in 1946, the Rajputana Ayurvedic and Tibbi College lost its importance and utility in the field of Ayurveda,

A number of Ayurvedic Colleges in the private sector were


also established at some other places in the province but most of them were closed by 1947.1

C. Unani-Tibbi Education

A College to promote Unani-Tibbi education as one of the two units of the Rajputana Ayurveda and Unani-Tibbi College was set up at Jaipur on 29th August, 1926. From its very inception

1. Particulars of such Colleges are given below:—

Name of the Location Year of establi-College shment

(i) Mohta Ayurveda College Bikaner 1930

(ii) Sanatan Dharma Ayurveda College Bikaner 1946

Year of closure

1946

Remarks

•

It was a successor 01 Mohta

f the College.

(iii) Gopiram Ruia Ramgarh Ayurveda College (Sikar) 1935 1945

(iv) Harnandram Ruia Ramgarh Ayurveda College (Sikar) 1946

(v) Seksaria Ayurveda College Nawalgarh 1938 1948

(vi) Birla Ayuiveda College Pilani worked as a

Department of the Birla Sanskrit College.

(vii) Boobna Ayurveda Fatehpur College (Shekhawati) 1940 1945

(viii) Department of Ayurveda, D.J. Sanskrit College Jaipur 1942

It woiked as a Department of the Digambar Jain Sanskrit College

In addition to the above Colleges a new Ayurvedic College was opened at Sikar in 1944 through the efforts of Vaidya Gajanand Sharma. It was named as Parasrampuria Ayurveda College and was managed and controlled by the Rajasthan Ayurveda Society, Bombay. It did very good and creditable work in Shekhawati in paiticular and in the adjacent areas in general.


the control and direction of the College had been in the hands of a Board of Trustees which included many prominent Hakims, Vaidyas, Doctors and other respectable citizens of Jaipur. The chief of them were Hakim Wahid Ali Khan and Swami Lakshmi-ram Acharya who had contributed substantially towards its foundation and subsequent growth and development. It prepared students for the degree of 'Tabib Fazil' and 'Umdalul Hukma'.

D. Homoeopathic Education

The history of Homoeopathic treatment in Rajputana dates back to 1870 A D. when two famous Homoeopathic Practitioners, Dr. Saltjear and Dr. Rajendra Lai Datta, were invited from Calcutta by Maharja Ram Singh of Jaipur for his treatment.1

They were the first to create some interest in Homoeopathy among the local educated youths. Two of them, Kishan Lai Kacholia and Narain Das Parwal, then got training in Homoeopathy and commenced their practice at Jaipur-the first town in Rajputana. where practice in Homeopathy was started. Dr. Parwal later on got some aid from the State for his Homoeopathic dispensary which continued even in the time of his son Dr. Radha Krishna, also a famous Homoeopath.

Many young men were attracted towards Homoeopathy in the beginning of the present century because of its efficacy and cheapness. But as the interested persons were mostly State servants, they got their training in Homoeopathy either through correspondence or through short-term courses conducted by some Homoeopathic Institutes of Calcutta and Lahore. They then started their free dispensaries at different places such as Ajmer, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Bharatpur, Jhalawar etc. But as yet there was no systematic and regular arrangement for Homeopathic education anywhere in Rajputana. These Homeopaths, therefore, used to give free training to prospective Practitioners in their own dispensaries.

The credit of starting the first formal Homeopathic teaching Institute in Rajputana, however, goes to Bikaner where Dr. P. C. Khatri opened the K. H. Medical Institute in the thirties of

1. Champawat, F.S: A brief History of Jeypore (1890), p. 235.


the present century. During the next two decades the Institute trained hundreds of Homoeopathic Practitioners.

II ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Engineering education in the North-Western Provinces, to which Ajmer-Merwara and the States of Rajputana were educationally attached, began when surveyors and draughtsmen for irrigation and mechanics and ordnance artificiers for the army were required. In Rajputana it began when efforts for opening an Arts and Industrial school were made. The rulers of Rajputana States had been patrons of art and industry and under their fostering care and benevolent patronage local art and industry had thrived well. The province had great potentiality for development in the shape of raw material and a skilled artisan-class. The need for tapping local resources was, therefore, felt and the first Arts School in Rajputana was established at Jaipur in 1867.

A. Industrial Education

The School of Arts, Jaipur.

In 1864 Maharaja Ram Singh of Jaipur visited Calcutta where Sir Charles Trevelyan suggested to him the need of opening a school of industrial art at his capital. Sometime thereafter Lord Napier deputed Dr. Hunter, Principal of the Madras School of Arts to visit different parts of India to study and report on the condition of arts and manufactures in the country. The doctor visited Agra in February 1867 where Dr Valentine, personal physician to Maharaja Ram Singh of Jaipur, suggested to him to visit Jaipur also. Accordingly Dr. Hunter visited Jaipur where "finding the many natural resources which the city and district possessed, both as to industrial skill in the population and richness of indigenous products, he warmly advocated before the Maharaja the advantages of establishing a School of Arts at Jaipur." His Highness, having been already spoken to on the subject by Sir Charles Trevelyan, readily agreed to the proposal. Thus came into existence the School of Arts at Jaipur in June, 1 67. Dr. C. S. Valentine was appointed its first Principal. It was formally opened by Lt. Col. Keatinge, the A.G.G. in January, 1868. In the beginning the branches taught were carpentry, pottery, coach-building, drawing and book-binding. Dr. Valentine lectured on

Technical and Professional Education in Rajpwtana 287

Philosophy and Pneumatics and Lt. Jacob on Mechanics.1 There were seven teachers and 25 pupils. Within a year the number of scholars rose to 135.

To enhance the usefulness of the school the Maharaja requisitioned in April 1869 the services of Dr. De Fabeck of the Deoli Irregular Force to which the Government of India agreed.'2 Dr. De Fabeck joined the school as Principal in place of Dr. Valentine in October 1869, He soon introduced geometrical, mechanical and architectural drawing and mapping. The industrial branches of study in the school were ten in number which were increased to 15 in 1870-the additional branches being printing, electro-plating, engraving on wood, photography and ornamental embroidery. In October 1872, Dr. De Fabeck was succeeded by Scorgie who made many effective changes in the school-the most important being the extension in the duration of the course and the introduction of some elementary literary instruction. During his tenure the School made rapid progress, but in December 1874 Scorgie left it. The School had to suffer a set-back. It was, however, during the tenure of the next Principal, Upendra Nath Sen, whose period of office'continued from 1875 to 1907 that the School made good progress.

The original aim in establishing the School was two-fold :-(1) The teaching of new forms of art and industry, and (2) The improvement of the existing arts and industry. The first aim did not yield very satisfactory results, but the second aim was more successful In course of time, however, the School deteriorated and became more of a commercial than an educational institution with undesirable consequences. The Jaipur State Council, therefore, requested Thakur Kushal Singh of Geejgarh, in May 1923 to inspect the School for reorganisation. In his report the Thakur stated (in August 1923) that "the commercial activity of the School must be stopped", and that "the aim of the School must be to revive, develop and improve the indigenous arts and crafts". He also recommended the appointment of a competent Principal to reorganise the School. As a result of this recommendation, Asit

1. R.A.R. Jaipur Ageney Report (1867-68) Paragraphs 46 and 47. 2. Foreign Cons. General A June 1869, No: 55.


Kumar Haldhar, a member of the staff of the Vishwabharati, and Sailendra Nath De, a favourite student of Dr. Avanindranath Tagore, were appointed as Principal and Vice-Principal of the School.

When Shri Haldhar joined the School in October, 1923, he found it "more like a shop than an Educational Institution." He, therefore, submitted a scheme for the reorganisation of the School by which the commercial work was to be separated from the School and "undertaken entirely by a workshop under the charge of a separate Superintendent to be located in a separate building."1 Agreeing with the Geejgrah Report, the Council of State in the meantime stated that "in future the object of the Arts School should be to raise the standard of indigenous arts, not to •make money or cater for tourist traffic." They wished the institution "to be a school and not a shop." But before these decisions of the Council could be implemented, Shri Haldhar left the Jaipur Arts School. Shri H. Roychowdhury succeeded him and he also tried to improve the' working of the School. He was successful in his efforts to improve the School to a great extent. But the basic defects of the School continued as before. The Council, therefore; invited Percy Brown, the Principal of the Calcutta School of Arts, to inspect the Jaipur Arts School and suggest measures for its improvement. But Brown's sudden departure for England deprived the School of the benefit of his visit and suggestions for improvement. Thus all efforts made since 1923 for the improvement of the School proved abortive.

In March 1933 the name of the School was changed from the "School of Arts" to the "Maharaja's School of Arts and Crafts." But a mere change in its name did not improve the nature of the School. Hence a high-power Reorganisation Committee, consisting of Rawal Sangram Singh of Samode, B. J. Ryan, State Architect and William Owens, the Director of Education, was appointed in January, 1934. A. K. Haldhar now Principal, School of Arts and Crafts, Lucknow and former Principal of the Jaipur School of Arts, assisted the Committee in its enquiry. In its

1. M X , Jaipur, File G-4/Edn. 64 Pt. 1.


unanimous report the Committee opined that "the aim of the School should be to turn out skilled artists and craftsmen and to raise the standard of local arts and crafts."1 The Council accepted this recommendation and got it incorporated in the Jaipur Education Code in 1938.

In February 1941 efforts were again made to bring about improvement in the working of the School and the Director of Education (William Owens) warned against allowing the School "to sink again into the commercial pit from which it was dug." He, therefore, recommended an attempt to render it effective as a school giving vocational training in arts and crafts. He also recommended the appointment of a Governing Body for the proper working of the School. The Prime Minister (Raja Gyan Nath) accepted these recommendations. But little substantial progress was made beyond forming such an Advisory Committee and passing a few more resolutions. Thus the School continued going from bad to worse till by 1947 it had lost much of its name and fame, importance and significance.2

The Mission Industrial schools

The Presbyterian Mission had much earlier realised the importance of industrial education and had opened Industrial schools at Beawar (1883) and later on at Ashapura (1901) where Christian lads, most of whom had been deserted by their parents and given shelter by the Missionaries, were taught some crafts to enable them to stand upon their own legs. Besides the manufacture of rugs and carpets, they were taught carpentry and smithy at Beawer. Training under the direct supervision of Buchanan, who held a certificate of the City and Guilds of London, was given at Ashapura in the following trades :—

1. Weaving, 2. Black-smith's work, 3. Carpentry, 4. Tailoring,

1. Ibid. 2. It is now again facing troubles.


5. Masonry and

6. Shoe-making,

Some of the older boys were also taught mechanical drawing. Thus the Mission was the first private agency jn the field of education to establish Industrial Schools in Rajputana. But even though the Missionaries had designated their institutions as "Industrial Schools", they were not properly so. They were, in fact, Craft Schools where elementary training in some crafts only was imparted.

The Birla Shilpashala, Piiani.

The Birla Education Trust, Piiani, had visulised the value and importance of literary education in and through crafts which harmoniously coordinate the brain and muscle and infuse in the children a genuine love for manual labour. With these aims in view the Birla Shilpashala (Industrial Corporation) was brought into existence at Piiani in 1931 when classes in cap making, " fretwork, shoe-making, dyeing and printing were started. Durrie, carpet, and blanket making were added in 1933, while carpentry and weaving were included in 1934. The attendance in these classes was optional in the beginning but in 193 4 handicraft was made a compulsory subject in all the classes of the High school and an extensive work-shop was built at a cost of Rs. 8,000/. Tailoring and book-binding were later on added to the existing crafts. Thus each child was required to offer coinpulsorily one of the above crafts as a subject of study and pursue it through his entire stay in the school. It served both as a useful hobby and a profitable training for vocation.

The Shilpashala also made an effort to revive village industries and increase the efficiency of the rural artisans. Improved methods, better design, proper tools to economise effort found their way in the homes of the artisans who received training in the Industrial Home. Arrangements for training village teachers in indigenous handicraft were also made and every year classes were organised to impart such instruction in handicarfts which could be introduced in the village.

Technical and Professional Education in Rajpittana 291

TheD. A. V. College, Ajmer.

The Arya Samaj Educational Society, Ajmer, which controlled and managed the D. A, A. V. High School, Ajmer, celebrated the Golden Jubilee of the school in 1941. It was then decided to raise the High School to the status of an Agricultural and Industrial Intermediate College on the occasion of its Golden Jubilee in April, 1941. Accordingly (he High School was converted into an Intermediate College in Arts, but the industrial classes could not be started due to the War. It was only after the War that pottery works were introduced in 1946 which marks the beginning of an Industrial Education.

B. ENGINEERING EDUCATION

Although classes in levelling and surveying as the basis of an Engineering Education were started in the Maharaja's College, Jaipur, as early as 1868,1 and at Jodhpur in 1&96,2 no systematic and formal Engineering education was imparted anywhere in Rajputana before 1941. The credit for establishing the first Engineering College in Rajputana goes to the Birla Education Trust, Pilani which kept technical education as one of its foremost aims. During the Second World War the Government of India, in collaboration with the Birla Education Trust, Pilani, established there a Technical Training Centre in 1941 for the training of Technicians required for Ordnance factories and for the various industries created and stimulated by the War. The Training Centre was later on converted into a 'Civnaval' centre for the training of shipwrights, engine-room artificers, electrical artificers etc. required for the Royal Indian Navy, and it was called HMIS "PILANI". On the cessation of hostilities, the Civnaval Centre was wound up in 1945 and its workshops and buildings became the necleus on which the Birla Engineering College was established. The College which started functioning on 15th July, 1946, was affiliated to the Agra University. Its first Principal was V.Lakshminarayanan. It had its sanctioned strength of 120 students-60 each for Mechanical and Electrical Engineering course. This number was later

1. R.A.R.: Jaypore Agency Report (1868-69)' p. 90, para. 100. 2. Raj. Gazetteer, Vol. I l l -A (1909), p. 167


on increased to admit more students. The College has since then contributed much in imparting an integrated and wide-based Engineering education not only for the students of Rajputana, but for the whole of India. It has made a definite contribution in the industrialisation of the country and in raising the standard of living of the masses by eliminating unemployment and by creating all-round prosperity.

III. AGRICULTURAL AND VETERINARY EDUCATION

Rajputana is very rich in mineral resources. Yet throughout the ages it was mainly an agricultural province. Its whole economy primarily rested on land and its products, and its social set-up was feudalistic in character. As in other provinces, so in Rajputana also, the majority of its people depended, directly or indirectly, on land and its resources for their subsistance. It is, therefore, very unfortunate that nothing was done for formal agricultural education in Rajputana till the forties of the present century.

Agricultural Education.

Agriculture as a subject of study was first introduced in the Rajput Schools. Chopasani, (Jodhpur) in 1922. The D. A. A. V. High School, Ajmer, also introduced gardening as hobby in 1934. But these were isolated attempts to teach agriculture in one form or the other. It was only after the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in British India.when schemes for rural reconstruction were chalked out, that some attention was paid towards agricultural education in Rajputana. Like the other Indian States, many of the Rajputana States also drew their own schemes of rural reconstruction wherein some provision for agricultural education was made. But the credit of introducing agriculture as a subject of study in Rajputana goes to two private agencies. The Thakur of Jobner (a Thikana in the former Jaipur State) introduced the teaching of agriculture as a regular subject of study in his High school in 1942. Four years later he upgraded his High school to make it as an Intermediate Agricultural College. The Arya Samaj Educational Society, Ajmer, also introduced agriculture as an optional subject in the High school classes of the D. A. A. V. High School in July, 1943. Three years later the subject was


introduced in the Intermediate classes also of the D. A. V. College. Thus these two private educational institutions were the first to introduce agriculture as a subject of regular study in Rajputana.

Veterinary Education

Veterinary education in Rajputana began with the establisnient of the Rajputana Veterinary school at Ajmer. It took the Government of India nearly five years to bring the school into existence. It was in October, 1889 that the Government of India emphasised the importance of the Civil Veterinary Department to agricultural interests and to the breeding and rearing of horses and transport animals for the army. Col Trevor - the A.G.G. - suggested that if a separate veterinary school was started at Ajmer, it could be maintained entirely or to a great extent by subscriptions from Native States and that such a school would be popular.1 Accordingly the Government of India asked J. H. B. Hallen, the Superintendent of the Horse-breeding Department, to work out a scheme. He, therefore, prepared a scheme in Feburuary, 1891 for the establishment of a veterinary school at Ajmer the cost of running the school was to be met by subscriptions from the several States of Rajputana.2 Sir E.C. Buck, the Revenue and Agriculture Secretary, approved the scheme as beneficial to the Government of India for promoting horse-breeding in Rajputana for military purposes: Even as a political measure it could prove beneficial if the native aristocracy could be induced to take up any occupation which would keep them "out of mischief" and would satisfy their cravings to have something more interesting than the ordinary life of a native palace.3 The proposal met with support from the Darbars many of whom undertook to subscribe Rs. 10,000/- for the construction of buildings. Thus the Rajputana Veterinary School was formally opened at Ajmer in May, 1894. Veterinary Captain W, R. Hagger was appointed as Principal who started admission of students on 1st May, 1894.

1. Revenue & Agr. Dept. Progs: November, 1891, No: 44. 2. Foreign Progs, Internal B. June, 1892, No: 476. 3. Rev, & Agr. Progs, November, 1891, No. 72.


In the first year of the school a two months' short term commenced on 1st May, 1894 with 24 pupils 23 of whom were the States' nominees and one a private candidate. The long term extended from 15th September, 1894, with the same number of pupils. In addition, six men - 4 from Kotah and 2 from Bikaner attended a course of 'shoeing'.

The school worked satisfactorily, but even from the time of its birth au anxiety was expressed on account of the non-availability of animals for clinical dissections due to the conservative ideas of the people and their religious beliefs. The question of the retention of the school was, therefore discussed next year.^J (1895). The following decade brought to light certain important factors relating to the school which led to its closure. In taking this decision the Governor-General-ia-Council was influenced by the following considerations :—

(i) The school was founded to train Veterinary Practitioners for the States of Rajputana, but the Rulers ceased to take any interest after the first few years.

(ii) The school could not prove successful because of the dearth of animals for clinical purpose and the distance of the school from the city which was about two miles. Consequently very few people took their horses or cattle there for treatment, because of the transportation difficulty in taking the sick animals there.

(iii) Complaints were received that the students turned out by the Ajmer school were inferior in knowledge and training to those who came from other veterinary institutions.

(iv) The Lahore Veterinary College enjoyed a well-established and well-deserved reputation as a veterinary institution, and the Government of India, therefore, came to the conclusion that a higher degree of efficiency and economy would be attained if the staff and students of the Ajmer school were transferred to the Lahore College.*

Thus the Ajmer Veterinary School was closed on 31st March, 1905 after a decade, its staff and students were transferrd

1, Foieign Progs: Internal A. March, 1905, No, 201,


to the Lahore Veterinary College. The number of students that qualified as Veterinary Assistants since the foundation of the school in 1894 was 171, including the 19 who passed in 1904-5.1

IV. FORESTRY EDUCATION

There are in Rajputana, as in many other parts of the country, extensive and rich forests which could yield valuable products if only they were properly protected and organised. This unfortunately was not done, for the Rulers preserved the forests only as their Shikar (game) preserves, and they with their guests used them for hunting and shooting purposes only. As there was no systematic exploitation, very little revenue was realised from these forests.

In the good old days when feudalism was prevalent in Rajputana, internecine wars were very common and the Rulers felled all the tops of the hills and ridges to provide themselves with observation posts to watch the movements of hostile forces. Nobody then appreciated the protective value of these forests and, therefore, even when peace was restored and frequent feudal wars came to an end with the advent of the British Government, for years there was no check on the indiscriminate destruction of forest wealth. It was only in the middle of the nineteenth century that some attention was paid towards the preservation and maintenance of forests as a source of revenue. Besides Ajmer-Mer-wara, the States of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Kota and Tonk were the first to realise the importance and value of forests. Thus to maintain their forests in good order, they felt the need of proper demarcation of their boundaries and the systematic plantation of trees. But to achieve this object trained local personnel was not available. Hence the services of trained Rangers and Foresters from British India were requisitioned on loan for a fixed period. Through their efforts Forest Departments were opened in the various States, but those Departments had no independent existence of their own, as they were joined with some other major Departments.

The Forest Officers appointed by these States throughout the

1. Revenue & Agr. Progs: A. August, 1905, No. 1.


nineteenth century were mostly those who had passed the Dehradun Rangers' course which was of two years' duration. Quite often the States deputed their own students for training at the Dehradun Forest School who after the completion of their training were appointed Forest Officers in their respective States. They invariably trained their own subordinates in the A. B. C. of Forestry. This was the only formal Forestry education that was imparted in the various States of Rajputana till the Forest School at Kota was established in 1946.

In 1945 the Kota State invited A. P. H. Hamilton, the Inspector General of Forests, Government of India, to visit the State and advise on the development of their forests. It was on his suggestion and recommendation that the Forest School was established at Kota in 1946 for training subordinate personnel. The course was of one year's duration which was open to Matriculates. This course was equivalent to the Foresters' Course at Balghat (Madhya Pradesh). Thus the Kota Forest School supplied the initial needs of trained Rangers throughout Rajputana.

V. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION

Rajasthan, the birth-place of a large number of millionaires and business magnates, who occupy an important place in the mercantile world and who control no insignificant proportion of the business and trade of the country, sadly lacked facilities for commercial education till the twenties of the present century. The Marwari business houses which are dotted all over the country needed hundreds of youngmen with commercial training and knowledge of modern banking systems. But facilities for such training in any educational institution did not exist in Rajputana for quite a long time. To make up this deficiency the Marwari Seths picked up their local youths and sent them for commercial training in old and indigenous system to their own business concerns at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and at many other important cities of India. Il was only in Bikaner that "Banika" classes existed in all the schools wherein training in working out arithmetical problems orally in accordance with the "Banika" system was imparted. Beyond this training of traditional type no formal commercial education was imparted in any educational institution


anywhere in Rajputana till the first quarter of the present century. To meet this crying need the teaching of Commerce was, for the first time, started in Rajputana at two places - at Beawar and Pilani in July 1925. At both these places Intermediate classes in Commerce were started when their High Schools were upgraded to the Intermediate standard in July 1929 at Beawar and in July 1930 at Pilani. A few years later B Com. classes were also added in some of the Colleges. To meet the demand for Master's course in Commerce, Post-Graduate classes were opened in a few selected colleges Thus by the time the University of Rajputana was established in 1947, Commerce was being taught upto the Post-Graduate standard in four, B. Cora, standard in eight and Intermediate standard in twelve Colleges of Rajputana.

VI. LEGAL EDUCATION

Legal education pre-supposes the knowledge of law relating to the rights and duties of common man A study of law by its very nature and contents creates in the student's mind a spirit of independent thinking and balanced judgment-qualities which most of the State Rulers of orthodox and conservative ideas never appreciated. It was not a mere coincidence that most of the Indian political leaders in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were lawyers by training and profession. This seems to have developed in the minds of the Rulers of Rajputana States and their educational officials a belief that the study of law would create a spirit of independence in the people and might inspire them to criticise the aristocratic and despotic rule prevalent in most of the States and turn them into agitators. This was probably the reason why law classes were not allowed to be opened in any Stale or private College in Rajputana till 1946. But it does not mean that there were no lawyers to plead cases in the courts or that they did not get legal education to equip themselves for the profession. This education they obtained outside Rajputana.

There were two categories of Vakils in Rajputana before 1946. (i) To the first category belonged two types, one included those persons who did not get proper and regular legal education in any college or institution, but who were granted Sanads either


by the State Council or by the Nazims in Jaipur and Hakims in Jodhpur States on which basis they could appear in courts to plead cases. These persons were known as Vakil Sharishta and they-were originally either the Munshis of the Advocates or in some rare case the personal servants of the Nazims. Because of their constant association with the latter, they picked up some legal knowledge, appeared in the preliminary examination and obtained the Sanad to appear in courts. Their basic qualifications were very low. Many of them were not even Matriculates but because of their rudimentary knowledge of law and their association with the Nazims and Hakims, they could manage to obtain the Sanads. In course of time many of those Sharishta Vakils acquired good knowledge of law.

(ii) The second type of Vakils in this category were the Mtikhtars or Revenue Agents. They too did not study law regularly in a College or Institute, but acquired some legal knowledge privately, and after passing the Mukhtar's examination got the Sanad of Vikalat. They were supposed to belong" to higher cadre than the Vakil Sharishta. The main difference between the Mukhtar and the Vakil Sharishta was that whereas the vikalat-nama of Vakil Sharishta bore only eight-anna stamp, that of a Mukhtar bore a two-rupee stamp. These two types of Vakils could appear in law courts to plead cases. But after 1925 no new Sanads were granted and only those Sharishta Vakils and Mukhtars could plead cases who had already appeared in the courts.

To the second category belonged those Vakils and Advo • cates who had studied law in a College and had obtained the degree of LL. B. There were no facilities for the study of law for the LL.B. degree anywhere in Rajaputana before 1946 and students from Rajputana had, therefore, to go to Agra, Allahabad, Lucknow and Kanpur for the purpose. The credit of starting law classes first of all in any College in Rajputana goes to Udaipur which introduced the teaching of Law in the Maharana Bhupal College in 1946. This College was then affiliated to the Agra University. When the University of Rajputana was opened in 1947 the teaching of Law for the LL.B. degree was started in the following four Colleges :


(1) The Law College, Jaipur,

(2) Jaswant College, Jodhpur,

(3) R.aj Rishi College, Alwar and

(4) Dungar College, Bikaner.

Teaching of Law for the LL.B. degree was also started in Herbert College, Kota in 1948.

VII. TEACHERS' TRAINING

The need of giving some kind of elementary training to the teachers in Ajmer-Merwara had been recognised by the Government of North-Western Provinces as early as the sixties of the last century,. Primary education both in the towns and rural areas could not expand without qualified teachers. To achieve this object, the Director of Public Instruction, North-Western Provinces, advocated the establishment of a Normal School at Ajmer which the Lt. Governor sanctioned in 1864.1 Thus the first Normal class for giving elementary training in teaching to male primary school teachers was opened with nine pupils at the Ajmer school in 1864. A similar class for the training of schoolmistresses was opened at Pushkar in 1867 by Goulding, the Inspector of Schools, Ajmer-Merwara. This class contained ten young Hindu widows whom he could persuade through his assistant Pandit Shiv Narain to join the class. But as the Pushkar Girls' School was transferred to Ajmer after some time, the Women's Normal School was discontinued there only to be revived at Ajmer in 1871 with eleven pupils. With the apooint-ment of Mrs. Fleming, an English lady as Inspectress of Girls' Schools, Ajmer-Merwara, the Women's Normal class made some progress, but it was not continuous. During the next two decades the class merely lingered on which led F. L, Reid, the Inspector of Schools, to submit an adverse report on its working. In his report he writes, "No progress whatever is being made nor has been made many years... . There are only two village and two city girls' schools, so that a teachership rarely falls vacant and while waiting, these women (pupil-teachers) spend their lives doing

1. Report on Education in N.W.P (1863-64). p. 198 B, para, 24.


nothing and drawing Rs. 4/ 8/-p. m. This two of them have been practically doing for some 15 years and when placed in charge of a school, they prove incapable" The Women's Normal School at Ajmer was, therefore, closed from 1st April, 1893.

The Men's Normal School also faced some difficulty later on when really eligible young men for the class were not coming forth. Still the school continued and supplied some real need of the primary schools. But after the publication of the Education Commission's report in 1883, the working of the school was reviewed from time to time, and as measures for its improvement did not bear any fruit, the Inspector of Schools had to write in 1883 that "our Normal School is far below what it should be." He then suggested that "with an extra Rs. 50/- p. m we should obtain proper teaching and turn out better village teachers, and the whole tone of Education in Ajmer would rapidly improve."1

Some of his suggestions were accepted and carried out, but when many of his proposals for the improvement of the school were rejected on financial grounds he was led to suggest its abolition.2

Thus the Men's Normal School, Ajmer, also met the same fate which its counter-part had met earlier. But in the beginning of the present century it was revived with lesser number of pupils.

In 1907 the Government of India deputed C. F. de la Fosse, Director of Public Instruction, United Provinces, to visit Ajmer and give advice in regard to the schemes for the improvement of education in Ajmer-Merwara. In his report he recommended the establishment of "a genuine Normal School for the training of Secondary Vernacular teachers throughout Rajputana." The Special Education Committee appointed to review De la Fosse's report also endorsed his views in this respect, particularly when a suitable building left vacant by the closure of the Ajmer Veterinary School and a sum of Rs. 1870/- per annum formerly paid by the States to the School were available for the purpose.3 The Government of India, however, regretted that it was not possible

1. Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara File No. 27 in R A.B. 2. Chief Commissioners Branch File No. 121 in R.A.B. 3. Foreign Progs: Internal A, Octobei 1909, Nos.21-22.


to consider proposals which involved extra expenditure. It was only after the educational reorganisation of the district of Ajrner-Merwara that a Normal School on a revised and enlarged scale was established at Ajmer. From July 1926 the Anglo-Vernacular Teachers' Certificate Course was also introduced there. Since then the School met the need of trained teachers not only in Ajmer-Merwara but to some extent in the States of Rajputana also.

The Presbyterian Mission also opened two Normal Schools-one for men at Beawar in 1892 and the other for women-at Nasirabad in 1910. After rendering some good service in its initial stages, the formar outlived its utility and was closed in 1916. But the other school continued to render useful service in the cause of women's education in the district.

Training schools both for men and women were also started in some of the States of Rajputana Thus a 'pupil-teacher class' was established at Jaipur in 1869 "to supply teachers for the district schools."1 A similar class of "six pupil teachers" was established for women also.2 These classes worked well and proved effective under the supervision of Kanti Chandra Mukerjee, for two members of the former were appointed tutors to the young Chiefs of Khetree and Uniara.3 The progress of the five women pupil-teachers was very satisfactory considering the amount of opposition and prejudice against female education in Indian States. It is because of this class that women teachers could be made available for the ten girls' schools in the city of Jaipur and its vicinity with a total of 717 girls on rolls in 1879. How long these Normal classes continued, it is difficult to say, for no information is available either in the Jaipur Agency Annual Reports or in the Educational Reports of Jaipur State. But it is presumed that they were closed when their need was not felt. This is corroborated by the fact that the Director of Public Instruction, Jaipur State, submitted a scheme in March 1925 for the

1. R.A.R.: Jeypore Agency Report (1869-70), p. 73, para. 62. 2. R.A.R. Jeypore Agency Report (1869-70), p. 75, para. 73. 3. R.A.R. Jeypore Agency Report (1870 -71), p, 68, para,66,


opening of a Normal School at the capital which was sanctioned and a new Normal School was thus born at Jaipur.1

Normal classes were also opened at Udaipur, Kotah, Alwar, Jodhpur and Bharatpur at different times. For how many years each of them existed is difficult to tell, for all the relevant reports are silent on this point Their sporadic beginning and premature end is, therefore, a noteworthy feature of these training institutions. Another noteworthy feature is that except the Normal Schools at Ajmer and Jaipur, the other schools prepared only Primary and Vernacluar teachers. It is to make up this deficiency that the Rajputana Education Board started a Teachers' Training College at Ajmer in July, 1941, to train Graduate teachers for the B. T. degree. The College was affiliated to the Agra University, Another Training College-the Vidya Bhawan Teachers' Training College, Udaipur, although established in 1941-was up-graded in 1948 only when it was recognised for the B.Ed, degree of the Rajputana University.

We have given above a brief account of the growth and development of Technical and Professional Education in Rajputana in the period immediately preceding the achievement of Independence in 1947. One significant feature of this growth is the fact that in no other discipline of Technical and Professional Education-except Medical-were efforts made in the nineteenth and upto the first quarter of the present century to train the youth of the province. Perhaps the Rulers of the various States and their Administrators did not think it necessary to equip their manpower for a new field of enterprise. That is a sad aspect of the whole educational fabric that it was out and out purely literary. Efforts for the introduction of Technical and Professional Education in this land of aristocracy and feudalism is the significant feature of educational growth in the post-independence period.

1. Mahakma Khas, Jaipur, File No: G-4/Education 36 of 1925,

12. Private Educational Enterprise

in Rajasthan

Writers on Indian Education generally refer to three agencies jointly contributing to the growth and development of our modern educational system. These three agencies in the nineteenth century were : (i) the officals, (ii) the Missionaries and (iii) the private individuals. So for as Rajasthan is concerned, by 'Officials' we mean primarily the British Political Agents stationed at the Courts of the Rajasthan Chiefs. In the earlier stages of educational development the State's Official machinery for education invariably moved, with rare exceptions, at the suggestion given to the Ruler by the Political Agent. The second agency was that of the Missionaries who came to Rajasthan in 1860 and started their educational enterprise immediately thereafter. The third agency comprised private educational efforts made by persons either in their individual capacity, or on behalf of a certain caste, community, or organisation. It is with this third agency that we are now concerned and we shall briefly describe here the private educational entreprise in Rajasthan. In our rapid survey we shall include only those institutions which have made a mark in the educational field in Rajasthan. We shall take up these institutions in chronological order, that is, we shall deal with that institution first which was the earliest to enter'the field of education and then with the next one and so on.

304 Modem Education in Rajast/ian

1. The Arya Samaj Education Society, Ajmer.

The earliest private agency (but next to the Missionaries) to come to the field of education in Rajasthan was the Arya Samaj Education Society, Ajmer. It was at Ajmer that Swami Dayanand Saraswati breathed his last on 30th September, 1883. The Parop-karini Sabha which he had formed before his death, therefore, decided to establish an Ashram in his memory. It was in this Ashram that a small school was later on opened in 1888, the Paropkarini Sabha bearing a part of its financial burden. Since the school was established in the Ashram, it was originally called Dayanand Ashram Anglo-Vedic School. It was this small school, opened on 8th February 1888 with the late H. B. Sarda as its President, which ultimately became the famous D. A. V. College. The story of its rapid growth from a primary school to a multi-faculty college during the course of the next half a century appears like a magic tale. The magic, however, lies in the high ideals which the sponsors always kept before them and the dedicated spirit with which they worked for its progress. Non-communal in outlook, open to rich and poor alike, due stress on moral and cultural along with secular education-these were some of the special features of the D. A. V. School, Ajmer, which attracted towards it students of all castes and creeds resulting in its upgrading to the Middle school standard in 1892 with 208 boys on rolls and to the High School status in 1897 with 500 scholars.

The career of the School as a High School was also characterised by the same speed of progress which had marked its earlier stages. By 1940 the number of its scholars rose to 1500 including those in the primary and middle classes. Similarly the annual expenditure increased from Rs. 700 in 1889 to Rs. 39,000 in 1940. This rise from five to fifteen hundred and from sev^n hundred to thirty nine thousand is truly a fascinating story. The examination results were also uniformly good both quantitatively and qualitatively. Thus its continuous progress and the rising number of its students brought to the minds of the Managing Committee the immediate need of shifting the High School to a bigger building and to a higher status. It was through the devoted, sincere and earnest efforts of the Committee, more

Private Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan 305

particularly of Pt. Mithan Lai Bhargawa and Pt. Jia lal Sharma-that the High School was ultimately raised to an Intermediate standard in 1941 on the occasion of its Golden Jubilee.

Since then the D. A. V. College has made rapid progress. In 1943 Commerce in the Intermediate and Agriculture in the High School classes were started. The opening of the pottery works in 1946 under the aegis of the Aryan Industries near and for the College, marked the beginning of Industrial Education in addition to commercial and agricultural training. The same year Dattatreya Yable, who had so long been working as Vice-Principal, was appointed Principal of the College. This was another landmark in the history of this institution, for during the next few years of his Principalship the College made great strides in every branch of its activity. In July 1948 the teaching of Science in the Intermediate classes was started. Throughout its long history the chief aim of the institution has been to give cultural and vocational education along with moral and religious training to the poor and rich alike of all castes and creeds. It is because of these aims and objects that the D. A. V. educational institusions have won a place of respecc and esteem in Rajasthan as in other parts of the Country1.

2. BirJa Education Trust, PiJant

The story of thi Birla Education Trust, Pilani, is a brilliant record of continuous educational activities of which any Trust in the country may rightly feel proud. It is the story of a judicious blending of wealth and imagination, foresight and planning, faith and fervour. Started as a private school in 1901 by Selh Shivnarain Birla for the education of his grandsons Rameshwar Das and Ghanshyam Das Birla, who were its first students, the insitution

1. The College was raised to the Degree standard in Arts and Commerce in 1951 and in Science and Agriculture in 1959. It was raised to the postgraduate level in Arts and Commerce in 1958. Its popularity can be judged from the number of students (which in the Intermediate College in 1942 was only 8 rose ro 1140 in the post-graduate College in 1966. The Arya Samaj Education Society has also opened the Jia Lal Institute of Education as a separate College adding another feather to its cap.


during the course of the next half a century became a first-rate Post-Graduate College in all the three faculties.

Seth Shivnarain's son Raja Baldeodas Birla, prompted by a desire to spread education in his birth-place and the surrounding villages, threw open the doors of the School to other children. This private, personal and family school thus became a public primary school where the founder gave free books and clothing to those who needed them. A sufficient number of children began to attend the school which was recognised as an Anglo-Vernacular Upper Primary School in 1916 by the Education Department of the Jaipur State. The increasingly large number of students rendered the building insufficient. A magnificent and commodious building was, therefore, got built in 1921 through the munificence of Raja Baldeodas. Soon thereafter the school was raised to the status of a Middle School in 1922

The Middle School was raised to a High School in 1925 and a boarding house for 100 students was built in 1926. The eldest of the Birla brothers-shri Jugal Kishore Birla-donated a large sum of money for the award of scholarships to the poor and deserving children of Shekhawati. The provision of residential accommodation for students of the School and the possibility of easily getting scholarships attracted large number of students from far and wide who flocked to the portals of the institution for admission. This increasing rush of students made accommodation in the school fall much short of its requirements and a new block of building was, therefore, added in 1928.

The rapid growth in the number of students in the School now made the members of the Birla family, particularly Seth Ghanshyamdas Birla, think seriously about the future of the school. Due to his wisdom, sagacity, and foresight he could see in the school established by his grand-father, the genesis of an institution which, if properly maintained, could one day become a great seat of learning not only in the desert district of Shekhawati, but in the whole of India. To give his dream a reality he created a Trust called the Birla Education Trust which was registered on the 23rd January 1929 for the attainment of a number of high aims and ideals. At its registration the Trust had an asset of


Rs. 9 lakhs. Soon after its registration a programme for the development of the institution was chalked out and the Birla High School was raised to an Intermediate College in July, 1929. In December S. D. Pande was appointed as its Principal.

Extensive building programme involving an expenditure of one and a quarter lakh of rupees was immediately undertaken to meet the new requirements of the institution Very soon two hostels with an accommodation of 160 students and the Superintendents' quarters and residences for members of the staff were added to the existing buildings. In July 1930 Science and Drawing in the High School and Commerce in the Intermediate Classes were introduced. These subjects added much to the utility of the institutions. The Trust soon decided to open Degree classes in Arts and Commerce and the Agra University accepted the propsals. The Maharaja of Jaipur declared open in December 1931 the magnificent building constructed to house the degree college. But to the utter surprise and great disappointment to all, the State Council, Jaipur, ordered the Trust a few months later not to open the degree classes. "This is perhaps the only instance of its kind in the history of Education in India where a benevolent institution had been refused permission to provide facilities for higher education entirely out of its own funds". It was not till the induction of the liberal administration of late Sir Mirza Ismail that the College actully started degree classes in 1943. Two years later the Trust opened post-graduate classes in Science, Arts and Commerce Since then began an era of all round growth and rapid expansion. The establishment of three Colleges, three High Schools and a number of other schools as also the installation of a power house and starting of the dairy and farm and other connected concerns was a natural corollary in this expansion.

The cpntribution of the Trust in the field of primary education and spread of literacy in the country-side was very great and unparalleled in the history of private educational enterprise. For several years the Trust was running in the former States of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Patiala, and Jind about 400 primary schools with 500 teachers and 18,000 pupils at an annual cost of Rs. two lacs.1

1. Diamond Jubilee Souvenir, Birla Education Trust, p. 5


But in 1946 the Chairman of the Trust Shri G. D. Birla expressed a desire to give such help as the Trust was able to render to push the 5-year plan of the expansion of education in Jaipur State. Accordingly it was suggested to the State that as the latter was opening a number of primary schools everywhere, it would be in the interest of education that the State took over first of all the primary schools the Trust was running.

In the case of the acceptance of this suggestion the Trust assured that they would then establish for every ten primary schools taken over either one Anglo-Middle School or Vernacular Middle School in consultation with the State's Education Department which also contemplated to start a number of Secondary education institutions. An agreement was, therefore, made between the Trust and the Education Department of the State to the effect that primary schools maintained by the Trust in the State would be gradually taken over by the Education Department in such number every year as was convenient to both parties.* Thus was the primary education work of the Trust partially taken over by the State.

By 1947 the Trust had outgrown the existing accommodation and felt the need of much more commodious buildings. The services of W. W. .Wood a celebrated architect, were requistioned to design the new building with a 'campus', comprising hostels and residential quarters around it. The formal inauguration of the newly-completecl building constructed at a cost of about 27 lakhs of rupees, was performed by Rashtrapati Dr. Rajendra Prasad on Basant Panchami, 1951, the day the Trust institutions celebrated their Golden Jubilee Since then the ideal educational colony of Vidya Vihar has sprang up around the main building comprising the three collegiate institutions, and Trust offices, auditorium, library, museum and cafetaria.

The subsequent story of the Trust's further progress is a fascinating and exhilarative story. For assessing the Trust's contribution in the cause of education, we cannot do better than quote the Souvenir itself, "Education imparted here is bold,

1. M. K. Jaipur, File NO G-4 Education, 15 of 1946

Private Educational Enterprise in Rajas than 309

resolute and imaginative, where the cultivation of personality with creating of traditions is the main object. The hall-mark of education at Pilani has been that it, instead of weaning the taught from Indian traditions and culture, connects them to their fold. The people cluster round here from all parts of India and their intimate contacts with one another imbibe in our students a spirit of mutual brotherhood and mutual understanding. To do this they cross all barriers of caste, creed, language and province and become Indians in the true sense of the word."1

The Trust is now the biggest endowment of its kind in the country. Its assests are over 4 crores and its annual income of about 20 lakhs of rupees. It has a network of institutions at Pilani and outside, through which it provides educational facilities from the kindergarten to the Post-Graduate degree in the three faculties of Arts, Science and Commerce and also in professional courses like Engineering (of which an account has already been given in Chapter XI), Textile Technology and Pharmacy. Research leading to Doctorate degree forms an integral part of the academic activities of the collegiate institutions run by the Trust.

S. G. Pareek College, Jaipur

The S. G. Pareek College, Jaipur, was born as a tiny Chatshala in the very beginning of the present century in the Haveli (residence) of Tiwari Jhumar Lai, a public-spirited contractor of the city. It soon gained the numbers and took the form of a Pathshala when its founder got a house built for it on Fort Road, Jaipur, were it shifted in February 1906. Since then it made regular progress until it was raised to the High School standard in 1925. The Tiwari family regularly financed the school and it is through their generous financial help that a fine site in Bani Park outside the city was purchased in 1935. The inauguration of the new building of the High School was performed by Maharaja Man Singh of Jaipur on March 10, 1939. The High School was upgraded a few years later when it was formally declared open as an Intermediate College in 1945 by J. C. Rollo -the Special

1. Birla Education Trust: Diamond Jubilee Souvenir p.- 4


Education Officer of the State. Since this was the first private Intermediate College to be opened in the City, it met a very real need of the over-growing number of students of Jaipur.1

Savitri Girl's Higher Secondary School and College, Ajmer.

In 1913 one Shri Lalji Shrivastava joined the Government College, Ajmer as a Professor. He and his talented wife Smt. Ram Pyari Chandrika on coming to Ajmer found that not even primary education was available for girls in the town. They, therefore, started the first two primary classes on February 4, 1914 and allotted two rooms of their rented house for the purpose. Thus was born the 'Savitri Pathshala' which had at its inception two teachers and fifty girls. Gradually it moved to rented buildings in Kaiserganj, Kayastha Mohalla, Ghee Mandi and Babu Mohalla.

From 1914 to 1930 its progress was slow but when it was made a Middle School in 1931 the number of its students rose to 140 and the total annual expenditure to Rs. 2,725. Next year it was raised to the High School standard when the increased number of ils students found the existing building insufficient. Efforts were therefore, made to secure more land for its expansion for which purpose an appeal for donation was made in January 1935.2 Next year the Municipal Committee, Ajmer, allotted a suitable plot of land to the School.3 Magnificent buildings were constructed when in July 1943 the High School shifted to its present building and was recognised for the Intermediate examination. It had then 427 students and the total annual expenditure was Rs. 14,178.

Since this school was the first girls' High School in Ajmer, its utility and importance to the people of Ajmer was undoubtedly great. The inclusion of such subjects as Music, Home Science, Drawing and Painting in the curriculum has added to the importance of the Savitri High School and College. Many useful

1. It was later on made a Degree College and it added its utility when B. Ed, classes were also started a couple of years ago.

2. The National Call, 7 th January 1935, p 2 3. The Hindustan Times, April 7, 1936, Page 6.


subjects such as sewing, embroidery knitting and gardening, and their higher cultural activities and frequently good results have secured for the group of Savitri institutions an important place in Girls' education in Ajmer-Merwara and the adjoining areas.1

Rajasthan Shiksha Mandal, Bombay.

The Rajsthan Shiksha Mandal was a Society registered in Bombay with the object of spreading education in all its branches throughout Rajasthan. It was originally organised by some educated enthusiasts of Shekhawati under the name of Shekhawati Shiksha Mandal and in 1925 it was transformed into the above Society. Since its very inception the Mandal (Society) had confined its activities to the spread of primary education and the reform of private educational institutions in Shekhawati and the adjacent districts. For this purpose the Society maintained a centre at Jhunjhunu under the charge of a capable worker who was styled as Inspector of Schools, Rajasthan Shiksha Mandal. In 1931 the Mandal maintained'and managed 27 primary schools (17 upper and 10 lower), out of which 5 were meant for girls and 5 for boys of the depressed classes. Twenty one of these schools were situated in Shekhawati and 3 in other parts of the former Jaipur State. In all 1650 boys and 250 girls received their education in these schools. The annual expenditure incurred by the Mandal on these schools was Rs. 20,000/-. The Mandal had also under its regular inspection 11 other private schools, most of which were situated in the country, side where they were rarely visited by the officials of the Education Department of the Jaipur State.

The Mandal's work in the cause of girls' and depressed classes' education was very commendable at a time when the State authorities never cared to go there and when the Thikane-dars had no idea of what modern education meant. They had to depend upon the advice of their courtiers who, in most cases, were men of ordinary calibre. Thus whatever little activity in the sphere of education was visible in Shakhavati in the thirties of

1. The College was teaching upto B, A, and B. Sc, classes in 1964 when its total scholars from Primary to Degree classes numbered 1800 and the total annual budget on salaries alone Rs. 2, 36, 500.


the present century owed its existance mainly to the efforts and i philafhrophy of private individuals belonging to the merchant class of the district who carried on their business in British Indian territories. It was out of their love for their land (that is birthplace) that they considered "it their duty to spend their money on the objects of public utility.

The annual educational budget of the Mandal which was Rs. 20,000 in 1931 rose to 80,000 in 1947. At that time the Mandal maintained 25 schools of which 2 were Anglo-Vernacular upper middle 6 Vernacular middle, [ Anglo-Vernacular lower middle, 3 Anglo-Vernacular primary and 13 Vernacular primary schools. All of them except 4 schools were receiving grant -in-aid from the State Education Department. With a few exceptions the schools were all situated in Shekhawati Thanks to the private munificence of these public sprited philanthrophist Seths Shekhawati was already ahead of other areas of the Jaipur State in matters of education.

Manvari Relief Society, Calcutta Another charitable organisation known by the name of Mar-

wari Relief Society, Calcutta, was also working in the field and maintaining a few primary schools as early as 1914. In 1927 the Society transferred all its schools to the Rajputana Shiksha Mandal A third Society known as Ramgarh Shiksha Mandal, Sikar, was also running a few Primary Schools in Sikar and the adjoining areas.

In 1947 all these schools maintained and managed by the above Societies were handed over to the Jaipur State Education Department in the same way in which the Birla Education Trust had handed over its Primary schools. Thereafter it became the duty of the State to provide primary education to the masses both in rural and urban areas.

Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur In the wake of the national movement in the country a consciousness was gaining ground among the intelligentsia that there was something wrong with the educational system of the country, that the education that was being imparted to the students was not preparing them to face the hard realities of life in a bold manner but was turning out mere bookworms in large numbers. If by


education was meant the all-round development of the individual, it was sadly lacking in the educational system then in vogue. All sane persons believed that service of others, real happiness and true culture ought to be the end of a sound system of education. With this object in view, the Vidya Bhawan School was established at Udaipur in July 1931 by Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta.

Briefly the objects for which the Vidya Bhawan Society was established were :—

(i) to promote sound education and develop a broad and open-minded outlook;

(ii) to conduct and promote sound educational experiments and research;

(iii) to disseminate sound ideas on education among parents and people in general;

(iv) to establish educational institutions to meet different requirements;

(v) to publish journals and produce suitable educational literature etc. etc.

The Vidya Bhawan started as a small school with four classes and about a dozen masters. The total number of children in the first year was less than 60 and the budget amounted to slightly below Rs. 10,000. It is unbeliavable how a tiny sapling that the school was in 1931 became during the next two decades a mighty educational tree with thick branches spread out all around. During the next twenty years which was its formative period, the Vidya Bhawan School made very bold experiments in progressive education which has made this institution a type by itself. These experiments are in evidence in every educational institution that the Society runs. Some of these institutions are :—

1. The basic School established in 1941.

2. The G. R. Saksaria Teachers' College started in 1942, &

3. The Handicrafts Institute founded in 1944

Many of the Institutes that are now functioning under the auspices of the Vidya Bhawan Society were established during the

314 Modem Education in Rajastlum

post-Independence period It must now be said to the credit of the sponsors that the torch of learning which they lighted half a century ago is still burning bright and throwing radiant light all around.

Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali

Banasthali Vidyapith was founded under very tragic circumstances. It was in April 1935 that Shanta Bai, the 12-years old daughter of Pandit Hira Lai Shastri and Smt. Ratan Shastri, suddenly died after a brief illnes. The parents were overwhelmed with sorrow. To forget their grief and perpetuate the memory of their daughter they decided to establish a girls' school in the village which they bad already made the centre of their constructive work. Thus was born in October 1935, with a background of pathos and service and a living and dynamic faith, the Girls' School which now is an all-India residential institution for the education of girls right from the nursery to the Post-Graduatc standard.

It is in the context of this living and dynamic faith in the noble cause that the Vidyapith has formulated the aims of its educational effort in terms of a synthesis of the spiritual heritage of the East and the scientific achievements of the West. It is planned to raise the Vidyapith to the status of an independent University in due course of time,

Pauchmukhi Shiksha

The Vidyapith is so well-known for its "Panchmukhi Shiksha" (five-fold education), which has been designed to equip the girls of the Vidyapith for the duties of the citizenship including the special role women have to play at home and in Society. It comprises the following five aspects: —

1. Physical Education- including drill, yogic exercises, games, sports, cycling and riding as well as boating.

2. Practical Education- including house-hold work of all kinds and a uumber of crafts.

3. Aesthetic Education- including painting, vocal music, sitar and dance.

Piivate Educational Enterprise in Rajas than 315

4. Moral Education- through daily prayers, weekly post-prayer talks and reading and reciting of scritptures.

5. Intellectual Education- including teaching in a wide range of subjects.

Institutions of the Vidyapith

Corresponding to the various stages of education the Vidyapith runs the following institutions :—

(i) Primary School

(iij Multipurpose Higher Secondary School and

(iii) College.

The Vidyapith holds its own special examination at the end of class VIII This is known as Sanskrita Examination. Right from its very establishment, the Vidyapith has been making rapid and striking progress which has earned for its pioneering work due appreciation both from different parts of the country and abroad. Some of the special features which have made the Vidyapith a unique institution for the education of women are :—

1. Its all-India nature which is quite evident from the number of girls coming from all parts of the country.

2. Its emphasis on spiritual values and scientific attitudes.

3. Its insistence on progressivism with a judicious blending of the cultural and utilitarian ends of education.

It is ideals like these that have made Banasthali Vidyapith a unique educational institution in the whole of India. No wonder Mahatma Gandhi said, 'Banasthali is enshrined in my heart'.1

Rajasthan Vidyapith, Udaipur

Another set of educational institutions that made Udaipur so well-known in the educational map of Rajasthan came into existence in the fourth decade of the present century. It is not a mere coincidence that three of Rajasthan's most renowned and successful educational institutions were born in this decade.

1. Vidyapith Brochure.


These were (1) VidyaBhawan, Udaipur (1931), (2) Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali (1935) and (3) Rajasthan Vidyapith (1937). The fact is that the intensity of the national movement in the post-Round-Table Conference period, that is in the fourth decade of the present century, created a strong urge in the minds of the people to start educational institutions on national and progressive lines. There might have been some other immediate causes also, but the one powerful factor that led to the creation of these institutions in that decade was undoubtedly political consciousness. The pamphlets issued by the sponsors of the Vidyapith amply testify to it.

The Rajasthan Vidyapith was established on 21st August 1937 with a view to create love for Indian culture and civilization, to develop political, social and culturel life on democratic basis, to shoulder the responsibility of public education, to organise the multifarious activities of poets, thinkers, litterateurs, to do research in folk-literature, to develop Sanskrit, Hindi and Rajas-thani languages etc Although the Vidyapith chalked out a comprehensive programme, we are concerned only with its educational activities, some of which are :—

1. Adult Education Centre.

2. Shramjivi College (Opened as a night College in 1948)

3. Social Education Centre.

4. Janta College.

5. Higher Secondary School, Dabok.

6. Udaipur School of Social work.

7. Janpad reading room and travelling libraries.

The above institutions give us an idea about the range and scope of the Vidyapith's multifarious activities. The very fact that the Vidyapith used designations equivalent to the Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor. Registrar, Senators and Syndicators point to only one direction that the Vidyapith aspired to be a full-fledged University. This was also in keeping with the political awakening in the country when the intelligentsia aimed at establishing national universities. Everything considered, Rajasthan Vidyapith

Private Educational Enterprise in Kajasthan -317

is an important experiment in national education on modern lines.

Rajasthan Mahila Vidyalaya, Udaipur,

This Manila Vidyalaya is again an important institution in many respects. Established in 1916, it has been imparting education to girls from kindergarten to the College classes. The noteworthy feature of this Vidyalaya is the special provision made for the teaching of Home Science, Fine Arts, Music and- Handicrafts. About 300 girls receive education there in a very congenial atmosphere.

Mahila Mandal, Udaipur

To bring about the all-round development of women this Mandal was established at Udaipur in November 1938. It has a very respectable Board of organisers belonging to different" fields of activities. Its contribution in the cause of women's awakening has been valuable. It conducts various examinations and maintains and manages the Kasturba Training School to train women teachers for the rural areas. The Mandal has also undertaken the work of uplifting Adivasi women. Thus the Mandal's share in the field of social uplift is also very great.

Manila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi

The latest entrant to the fold of progressive educational institutions in Rajasthan is the Mahila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi. As the name suggests it is a women's educational home. It was in 1927 that the Gandhi Ashram was started at Hatundi-a village near Ajmer-to organise the constructive programme of Mahatma Gandhi. As during the time N of the British supremacy such an activity could not be organised in a State, Hatundi was purposely selected as being in the Centre of Rajasthan and as near the Princely States as possible. From 1927 to 1945 Hatundi remained the main centre of political, national and constructive activities. But by 1945 the country's future destiny was seen approaching a definite goal. As women had taken a valuable part in the political struggle in the country, it was deemed desirable that a new organisation for the education, uplift and all-round development


of women should be established in the Gandhi Ashram at Hatundi. Thus was born on October, 1945 the Mahail Shiksha Sadan.

Shortly afterwards primary, including Montessori classes, were started. In course of lime a multipurpose Girls' Higher Secondary School was established there. Thus through all these different branches the Manila Shiksha Sadan is meeting a very great educational need of such girls who, but for the Sadan, would have remained quite steeped in darkness.

Evaluation

While evaluating the role of private educational enterprise in Rajasthan, certain broad facts come to our mind. First is that except by the Arya Samaj, the Christian missionaries and the Birla Education Trust, no other organised effort was made before 1930 in the private sector for educational development in Rajasthan. The work of the Rajasthan Shiksha Mandal could not be a permanent feature of this enterprise, simply because the source of the Mandal's income was indissolubely linked with the fortunes of the business firms which financed the Mandal's activities. Any slump in the firms' income could have a baneful effect on the Mandal's future.

Secondly, in the birth of the private educational enterprise, the influence of the then prevailing political atmosphere in the country had a great hand. But for this political consciousness, perhaps this enterprise would not have been so potential and forceful, for it was strongly believed that in a democratic country, which India was going to be, education had a great bearing upon the economic prosperity of the people.

Thirdly, during the period from 1930 to 1949 the role of private enterprise in education was significant. The Birla Education Trust, Pilani, the Arya Samaj schools and college, Ajmer, the Missionary schools and college all over Rajasthan, the Jain Colleges, Bikaner, the Sanatan Dharma College, Beawar, the Mahila Mandal , the Vidya Bhawan and the Rajasthan Vidyapith institutions at Udaipur, the Poddar and the Ruia College at Nawal-garh and Ramgarh respectively, the Mahila Shiksha Sadan


Hatundi, the Banasthli Balika Vidyapith, Banasthali, and the Muslim Schools at Ajmer, Jaipur and Jodhpur were some of the well-known institutions in the field of private educational enterprise. The Vidya Bhawan Rural Institute, Udaipur and the Basic Education Training Colleges at Sardarshahar and Sangaria are other examples of the private educational effort. Altogether the private educational enterprise has been an important factor in the expansion of education in Rajasthan.

13. Education in Rajputana Before Independence (1818-1947)-A Review

Rajputana has always been known as a land of chivalry and martial traditions. It is not surprising, therefore, that much against the popular maxim that 'the pen is mightier than the sword', the ruling class, until nearly a century ago, took little or no interest in education and gave preference to training in arms than giving formal education to the masses. More than a century ago a feeling was prevalent, which was common to all Rajputs, that learning and knowedge should in a great measure be restricted to the Brahmins and Banyas (trading caste). Thakurs and Chiefs as a rule considered reading and writing beneath their dignity. In most cases, education was more or less stagnant because of the opposition of the reactionary and conservative Kamdars (Managers of the Thikanas or estates) who were mostly hereditary. To them an enlightened and educated Chief would mean a death-blow to their vested interests, powers and privileges. They were even hostile to the opening of schools in the villages because they believed that an educated Thakur (Chief of an Estate) would deprive them of their livelihood and age-old status. No wonder, therefore, that this class of persons was keenly interested in perpetuating a state of affairs which would ensure their continuous ascendancy in the affairs of the Thikanas. In some cases, the Chief was engrossed in personal comforts and in the traditional way of living, while in others, their studied indifference and apathy were responsible

Education in Rajputana Before Independence (1818-1947) 321

for the neglect of education. Living far away from the centres of civilization, commerce and learning and lacking in the means of communications, the common people were equally indifferent towards the education of their children.

Under such circumstances the progress of education largely depended on the views about education held by the Ruler or his adviser or minister. This was specially true of the smaller States which had limited resources and some of these States were not always a viable unit. This accounted for the difference in the level of educational development in the different States. One thing, however, was common to all these States big or small that while the capital towns of the Princely States were centres of attraction and the majority of educational institutions centred round about these towns, facilities for education in other areas were extremely limited. Again, while education for the masses was seldom the cherished aim of the State, education of the aristocracy was given greater attention and proportionately more money through the personal interest of the Ruler.

Thus the progress of education in the States depended upon the size, resources and interests of the Rulers. While some of the major States made some progress in providing educational facilities to their people, the smaller States could not do so be* cause of their meagre resources. Then again States which bordered on the British Provinces and in which minorities occurred during the middle of the last century were foremost in the diffusion of education and the interest created for it mainly because of the efforts of the British Political Agents. In this respect chronologically Bharatpur came first, Alwar second and Jaipur third. In the capitals of these three States there were good schools established and maintained by the respective Governments. In fact, they were the first to establish schools in Rajputana except Ajmer-Merwara which was under Central control. In Bharatpur and Jaipur nominal fees were paid by the scholars in 1865 but in Alwar education was entirely defrayed by the State. Thus educational standards in the institutions of the various States differed from one State to another and were not common.


Indigenous and Primary Education

Principal F. L. Reid of Government College, Ajmer, who was specially deputed by the Government of India to visit the educational institutions in the various States of Rajputana in December 1904 submitted a very interesting and instructive report on the condition in the States he visited. In this report he has pointed out that until the last years of the nineteenth century, there was no systematic education, no education worth the name, in any of the Rajputana States, "beyond the imperfect practice observed in the indigenous pathshalas, attended mainly by the children of the trading classes and artisans."i These schools taught arithmetical tables and a method of mental Calculation. A rudimentary knowledge of reading and writing was also afforded in some of them. But for higher purposes they were quite inadequate and useless. The introduction of railways in Rajputana in the third quarter of the nineteenth century brought modern ideas and began slowly to revolutionise the condition of the people who were aroused from their apathy, indifferance and ignorance. But the education that was given them in the indigenous schools was not such as to fit them for their changing environment. For instance the type of indigenous education that was prevalent in Bikaner and which was known as the "Banika" system did nothing except stuffing the minds of the pupils with advanced and complicated mental arithmetic. In such a system of education there was no room for the study of literature or such subjects as History or Geography.

Thus the indigenous schools in Rajputana as they existed in the beginning of the present century fell far below the primary schools of British India. Beyond teaching some mental arithmetic, they achived nothing substantial in education as it is understood today. Moreover, as there were no well-conducted. Primary schools in their neighbourhood to serve as models, they had undergone no improvement and even in the first decade of the present century were, according to Reid, "as they were hundreds of years ago."2 And as the great majority of the population of Rajputana

1. Reid, F.L: Report on the State of Education in the Native States of Rajputana (1905), p. 1.

2. Reid: Op. Cit. p. 1. para. 5.


was agricultural and pastoral, people did not avail themselves to any great degree of even the limited educational facilities afforded by the indigenous schools.

The various Staes differed considerably in regard to primary education. In none more pains were taken than in Jaipur, while in Kotah and Kishangarh there was atleast the foundation of a good system In some of the smaller States, such as Bundi, Dholpur, Shahpura, Banswara, Pratapgarh and Dungarpur there was no semblance of any system of primary education, while in Tonk, Udaipur, Jodhpur and Jhalawar the framework alone existed, but had not been filled in. One reason why the Durbars generally were reluctant to extend an educational system in their States was that the expense thereof fell directly on the States' resources which were already so light that no more expenditure on education could be afforded. Except a few, a majority of the States did not levy any educational cess from which to meet the additional expenditure on education i

In his report Reid has given us the following list showing the expenditure on education in 1905 in all the Rajputana States except Alvvar Jaisalmer, Banswara and Dungarpur. Thediagram on page ? gives us at a glance the revenue of the State and the expenditure on education with its percentage in relation to total income of the State.2

State Revenue of the Expenditure on Percentage of State education income

Bharatpur 36,50,000* 55,113 1.51 Bikaner 20,00,000* 27,00(3 1.35 Bundi 8,00,000 3,438 0.43 Dholpur 10,00,000" 3,677 0 36 Jaipur 62,00,000 90,000 1.45

1. Kishangarh levied one per cent on land revenue from Khalsa villages only. Tonk levied a trifling amount of Rs90/-per annum as educational cess In Alwar and Bharatpur the cess contributPd substantially to the spread of education there, Reid: Op Cit. Paragraphs 8 and 9, pp. 3-4.

2. Reid: F.L Op. Cit. para 9, p. 4.


Jhalawar Jodhpur Karauli Kishangarh Kotah Pratapgarh Shahpura Sirohi Tonk Udaipur

Total

5,00,000 50,00,000* 5,00,000 6,00,C00

28,00,000 1,75,000

3,00,000 3,00,000

15,00,000 20,00,000

2,73,25,000

6,000 44,500 4,048

11,127 28,000

1,500 3,274

700 12,100 28,000

3 18,477

1.20 0.89 0.81 1.85 1.00 0.85 1.08 0.23 0.81 1.40

1.16

*These figures seem to represent the total income.

"This figure seems to represent the 'Land Revenue' only.

The school going population of Rajputana (excluding Alwar and Jaisalmer not visited by Reid) was computed in 1905 at 6,70,567. Of these 33,540 or 5 per cent were actually under instruction.!

The total expenditure of the States on education (excepting Alwar, Banswara, Dungarpurand Jaisalmer) was Rs. 3,18,477 on a total revenue of Rs. 2,73,25,000 or 1.16 per cent. These figures suffice to show that education in Rajputana States in the first decade of the present century was very limited. The mass of the people were agricultural and pastoral and did not receive practically any education except what was imparted in the indigenous schools "where instruction of children was of too inferior a character to be taken into consideration. The wealthy classes were conservative and did not attach any importance to education.

Secondary Education

Schools teaching up to the Middle or Final standard in 1905 were 15 in Bharatpur, 15 in Jaipur and 3 in Kishangrah. In the Bharatpur State to five of these schools English classes of an elementary nature were attached. This was the standard that in

1. According to Reid about 16.6 per cent of school going population were receiving education in British India in 1905.(Ibid.)

Education in Rajputaua Before Independence (1818-1947) 325

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326 Modem Education in Rajaithun

British India was considered as completing a vernacular education, and yet in all but three States of Rajputana not a single school of such a standard in the beginning of the present century existed. This standard was supposed to convey sound practical knowledge such as would make those who possessed it more useful members of society in-every condition of life. Throughout British India these schools had a tendency to transform themselves into Anglo-Vernacular ones; but in the States of Rajputana where English was in no case court or official language, but where- all correspondence was conducted in the vernacular, schools of this class would have considerable usefulness.

In British India the passing of the Anglo-Vernacular Middle standard was regarded as a necessary qualification for employment. Consequently the schools were well-filled, and official work was performed in a much improved manner. In Rajputana, however, employment in a State depended notupon competence, or any educational qualification, but upon practical utility or hereditary claims. Where such claims did not exist, patronage depended largely on favour. Consequently, in some of the States many departments were thronged with uneducated and inefficient officers, who failed to realise their responsibilities If some minimum qualification had been insisted upon for filling the hundreds of small appointments such as those connected with revenue work, the customs, civil and criminal courts, police and other branches of administration, education could have been much encouraged.

Secondary Anglo-Vernacular education had not till then been needed in the small States of Dungarpur, Banswara and Pratap-garh. These States were content with the primary stage of English. In Dholpur and Shahpura, the Middle standard was the highest reached. Such few boys as desired to continue then-studies to a higher standard were, in many States, awarded scholarships enabling them to join a High school and sometimes subsequently a College elsewhere. All other States supported High schools, whose aim was to pass boys at Allahabad University Entrance Examination. But the upper classes of even those High schools were poorly filled, and in some the results scarcely warranted the increased expenditure that a High school demanded in excess of the cost of a Middle one. There was, however, a feeling


x \ ill each State that the establishment of a High school enhanced its dignity tftnd; importance; and the lowering of its status would have been an unpopular measure. The smaller number of students in the higher classes often indicated a small desire for higher education. The , only High schools that could be considered satisfactory were those at Jaipur, Udaipur, Bikaner and Jodhpur. But the efficiency of the Maharana High school at Udaipur was due to the special zeal and industry of the Head Master, Hazari Lai. The schools, at Kotah, Bharatpur and in the other States required the strengthening of their staff.

The Secondary ' schools in Rajputana were not to be judged merely by the number of boys who passed the Entrance Examination. Their\ efficiency depended in a greater degree upon the condition of their lower classes. Quite often it happened that a large majority of pupils who swelled the total number in the schools were fountl in the preparatory and primary classes and very few of thern Continued their studies upto the higher classes. The education that the younger boys received was often of an imperfect nature in Karauli, Bundi, Jhalawar and Tonk. In a lesser degree it was true of Bharatpur, Kotah, Dholpur, Udaipur and Jodhpur. At Bikaner and Jaipur the organisation was satisfactory, the staff was sufficient, and the control over them strict.

Till the last years of the nineteenth century, the Anglo-Vernacular High schools in Rajputana used to prepare candidates for the Middle Class Anglo-Vernacular Examination of the United Provinces. In 1901, 159 candidates were sent from 17 schools in Rajputana for that examination which, in the words of Reid, "has ever been regarded as a most valuable test for the work and •efficiency of a school, and the possession of certificates of having passed it has been a necessary preliminary to boys being able to proceed to higher standards of study."* When, therefore, as a result of the Educational Conference at Simla (1901) this examination was abolished. Ajmer and Rajputana States faced a difficult problem. In the United Provinces this problem was easily solved

1. Foreign Internal A, December, 1903.

328 Modern Education in Rajasilian

when the Director of Public Instruction decided to send Inspectors to schools and hold examinations at the end of the Prima/ry stage. Thus the place of the Middle Examination there was taken by a High School Scholarship Examination at which selected boys from Midole classes could compete for scholarships. But in most of the States of Rajputana there was no properly organised staff of Inspectors and except the test afforded by a public examination, there was no means of assessing the value of the work performed by any school. A new Middle Anglo-Vernacular Examination was, therefore, introduced under the control of the Department of Public Instruction, Ajmer-Merwara. This examination held for the first time in January, 1903 at Ajmer, was meant to be a substitute for an efficient system of general inspection which, for various reasons, could not be introduced in the States of Rajputana.

Training of Teachers

The want of trained teachers was much felt throughout Rajputana. Without competent teachers no school could succeed and the money that was spent was a mere waste. Trained teachers were required for all types of schools. There were no efficient Normal schools in Rajputana in the beginning of the present century. Properly qualified teachers could not be procured from the adjacent British Indian Provinces where also the demand was greater than the supply. As long as a better class of teachers was not forthcoming, it was futile to hope for improvement in education. A Normal school was, therefore, established at Ajmer in the premises left vacant by the closure of the Rajputana Veterinary School in 1905. This Normal school met a very long-felt need of trained teachers for Ajmer-Merwara and the adjoining States.

Collegiate Education

There were three Colleges functioning in Rajputana in the beginning of the present century. These were :—(1) The Government College, Ajmer, (2) the Maharaja's College, Jaipur and (3) the Jaswant College, Jodhpur. There was very limited demand for higher education in Rajputana till the twenties of the present century and these three colleges, located in three different and


distant places, fully met that demand. But the reality is that the demand for collegiate education in the States was so small that even these three colleges did not have for long a sufficient number of students in them. Once the number even in the Ajmer Government College fell so short that the Goverment of India thought of closing it. But things improved gradually and the college, in course of time, became one of the foremost colleges in northern India. James Thomason, its founder, had fully envisaged its utility and importance. In his communication to the Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana he had expressed a hope that the school would in time be formed into a college and become "the Bonn or Gottingen of Rajpootana." The subsequent growth and expansion of the college fully justified the expectations held by the originator of the whole scheme. It had a number of eminently qualified English men as its first six Principals who through their sincere and hard work, had made it famous all over the country.

The other college of repute is the 'Maharaja's College, Jaipur, which was opened as a Madrasa in 1844, During its long continuous life it has served a very real cause of higher education in Rajputana. It had many first things to its credit which its two other contemporaries at Ajmer and Jodhpur did not have. It was the first college in Rajputana to have been affiliated for M. A. courses as early as 1896. It was also the first college in Rajputana where the teaching of Science upto the Graduation level was started in 1900. It was again the first to have earned the distinction of turning out in 1898 a Master of Arts in English (Suraj Narain Sharma) who "beat down in order of merit all the colleges of Bengal excepting the Presidency."1 Another distinction of this college was the production in the same year of a still brighter student-Chandra Dhar Sharma Guleri-who stood first in order of merit in the Entrance Examination of the Calcutta University, "thus beating down over three thousand candidates from all the colleges and schools in the North-Western Provinces, Oudh and Rajputana."2 He again secured the first position in the B. A.

1. Report on Public Instruction in Jeypur (1898-99), p.6 2. Ibid, p.6


Examination of the Allahabad University in 1903.1 Such results speak volumes about the efficiency and brilliancy of the college which had an exclusively Indian Staff as compared to the senior European staff of the Government College, Ajmer.

A late comer in the field of higher education in Rajputana was the Jaswant College, Jodhpur. Started in 1893 it obtained its maturity in the first forties of the present century when it gained many distinctions and obtained well-deserved recognition in all its activities. By the time it celebrated its Golden Jubilee in 1946, it had earned a brilliant record of achievements of which any college could legitimately feel proud.

These were the only colleges in Rajputana upto 1921 when Udaipur (1922) and later on Kotah (1924), Bikaner (1928), Beawar(1929), Pilani (1929) Alwar (1930) and Bharatpur (1941) colleges came into being and joined the fraternity of higher educational institutions in Rajputana. When they were started, the number of students in them was not sufficient to justify the amount of money spent on them. But the number gradually increased and some of these colleges later on showed their utility and proved their worth. In course of time the Udaipur, Kotah and Bikaner colleges came to the forefront and competed on equal terms with the older colleges in both curricular a.nd extra-curricular activities.

Female Education

Female education was extremely backward in the States which can easily de seen from the fact that there was not even a single Girls' High School in any of the States of Rajputana till 1930. The credit of having the first Girls' High School goes to Jaipur where the State's Central Girls' School was upgraded to the High School status in 1931. In Bikaner and Udaipur in the first decade of this century only 6 or 7 girls reached a standard equal to the

.Upper Primary in boys' schools which shows how great was the apathy and indifference to female education throughout the entire area. The purdah system was very strictly observed throughout Rajputana among the classes who alone could have any desire for education. Child-marriages prevailed on a large scale which

1. The Advocate, Lucknow, 17th May, 1903.


necessitated the withdrawal of girls from schools before the age of puberty. Only qualified and a respectable class of women teachers could create confidence in the minds of parents and thus could achieve better results in the field of girls' education. But such teachers were not easily available. The few trained lady teachers who were available in British Provinces could not meet even the local needs and demands. The question of their going to distant places in Rajputana, therefore, did not arise. It was this difficulty which led to closure of the infant girls' school in Banswara in 1916, and although it was reopened after four "years in April, 1920, no Headmistress was available. Hence an aged Brahmin-Pandit Shyam Lai Nagar was appointed as iu-charge of the State girls' school with 55 girls on roll* This shows why female education could not make any headway in some of the States of Rajputana upto the first quarter of the present century.

Nobles' Education

The Nobles' schools in many of the Rajputana States served two purposes :

(i) either they acted as feeders to the Mayo College or (ii) they existed as local schools for such sons and brothers

of the nobles who could not send them for education to the Mayo College.

Three factors played an important part in the education of the nobility.

(i) The Chiefs of certain States such as Bikaner, Kotah, Alwar and Jaipur tried hard to mould the lives of their nobles or their sons by educating them mentally, morally and physically and thus fitting them for their responsible positions. •

(ii) The rulers of some other States, retaining old traditions and prejudices, were jealous of their powerful nobles and dreaded lest with modern education they should prove less amenable to control and more inclined to assert their independence.

1. Report on the Administration of Banswara State (1919-20), para. 111,

page 26.


(iii) The Sardars and Jagirdars themselves were also, in many cases, reluctant to allow their sons to leave their homes to participate in what appeared to them to be a blessing of very dubious advantage : and it is with great difficulty that the ruler could induce them to send their boys.1

The position of the Nobles' schools vis-a-vis the Mayo College was sometimes very anomalous. In some cases they were feeders to the Mayo College but in others its rival. Later on with the growth of national awakening among the people and the development of the ideas of liberty and freedom, the Nobles' schools were looked upon as an anachronism and were, therefore, either closed or amalgamated with other public or State schools2

or were completely transformed3.

Administrative Structure of Education

Except in Ajmer-Merwara, Jaipur and Bharatpur, there was no proper system of educational direction and control in any of the States of Rajputana during the last century. There are instances where a Jailor, an Assistant Opium Agent, a Head Clerk, a Sub-Assistant Surgeon, a Superintendent of Revenue and Excise, a State Engineer, a Magistrate, a Secretary in the Home Department and even a Translator and a school clerk held charge of education in the different States at different periods. Thus we find that Sub-Assistant Surgeon Bholanath Das appointed in-charge of the Raj School and Superintendent of Education in Bhartpur in 1856*; Inge Is the Deputy Opium Agent was appointed Superintendent in 1869 to supervise the schools in Udaipur5; George Heatherly, the Superintendent of Jail was appointed

1. The Sikar-Jaipur tussle of 1938 is the most glaring and recent example of the Ruler of a State persuading rather forcing his powerful but unwilling Sardarto send his son abroad for education.

2. The Nobles' schools of Kotah and Jaipur come under this category. 3. The Nobles' schools-also called the Rajput Schools-of Chopasani

(Jodhpur) and the Nobles' school of Bikaner furnish good examples of this category.

4. Foreign Dept. Proceedings: April, 1964, General Q, No. 31. 5. Meywar Agency Report (1869-70), Para. 28, page 32.


Inspector of Schools in Alwar in 1877.1 Hazari Lai, Head Clerk in the Executive Engineer's office, Abu, was appointed Head Master in 1884 of the Maharana School, Udaipur.2 Although technically they were not qualified in the principles and practice of teaching, they justified their appointments creditably. In fact, they were the pioneers who laid the first stone of the educational fabric in the various States and such was the firmness and strength which the fabric attained that the future educational superstructure could easily be built upon it

Even in the first quarter of the present century the question of direction and control of education was not given 'the importance it deserved in many of the States of Rajputana. Thus we find that Pandit Shriram Dixit-Magistrate, was also the Inspector of Schools in Dungarpur in 1906.3 In the next decade the Department of Education in that State was under the supervision and control of Ram Swamp Rawat, Superintendent of Revenue & Excise, as Inspector of Schools with Munshi Ganesh Ram Rawat, the Diwan, as the Director of Public Instruction.4 Even after the lapse of a decade the same state of affairs continued, for we find Pandit Niranjan Das Datt Chaudhry, State Engineer, Dungarpur, holding the charge of education as Superintendent in 1921-22.5 The adjoining States faired no better, for as late as 1937 a school clerk, Pandit Keshav Lai was working as Inspector of Villege Schools'* in Banswara. Even some of the big States were no better in this respect, for Mehta Sheo Bux-Translator, Mahakma Khas-was appointed as Inspector of District schools in Bikaner in April, 19147. Next year Shiv Govind Singh, the Secretary in the Home Department, Mahakma Khas, was appointed Director of Education, Bikaner State, when the post of

1. Ulwur Agency Report (1877-78), Para. 17, page 150. 2. Meywar Residency Report (1884-85), Para. 99, page 63, 3. Dungarpur Administration Report (1906), Para. 9, page 25. 4. Dungarpur Administration Report (1913-14), page 21. 5. Dungarpur Adminisiration Report (1921-22), page 35. 6. Report on the Administration of Banswara State (1937-38), Para. 93,

page 28. 7. Report on the Administration of Bikaner State (1913-14), p.51, para 216


Inspector of Schools was abolished.1 When such was the condition of direction and control of education in one of the premier States like Bikaner, the condition of smaller States can better be imagined.

In Tonk State the Development Member, the Finance Member, the Home Member and the Judicial Member respectively worked one after the other as Director of Public Instruction till the end of 1946, that is, just before Indian independence. This shows the subordinate status given to education in the only Muslim State in Rajputana.

The Principals of Government College, Ajmer, Maharaja's College, Jaipur, Jaswant College, Jodhpur, Herbert College, Kotah and Maharana College, Udaipur, held concurrently the charge of the education department in their respective areas. The thoroughness and regularity with which they performed their multifarious duties of teaching, direction and supervision of education, prove that they were men of calibre and were endowed with an extraordinary capacity for hard work and sustained efforts. They were later on assisted by a number of Deputy and Assistant Inspectors, but the system they introduced continued more or less, with minor changes here and there, not only throughout the nineteenth but even in the first quarter of the present century.

Till 1920 the Commissioner, Ajmer-Merwara, was ex-officio Director of Public Instruction, while the Principal, Government College, Ajmer carried on the duties of the Inspector of Schools in addition to his own duties. In 1921 a separate post was created with the designation '•Superintendent of Education" and L. T. Watkins took over charge of it. The duties of the Commissioner as Director of Public Instruction, Ajmer-Merwara, were also delegated to him. But as he was the head of the educational administration in both Delhi and Ajmer-Merwara, he was not able to devote all his time to Ajmer. In 1923 owing to post-war

1 . Report on the Administration of Bikaner State (1915-16), p.39, para.184.

Education in Rojpatana Before Independence (1818-1947) 335

economy even this appointment was al̂ olished and the Educational Commissioner with the Government of India, J. A. Richey. was made ex-officio Superintendent of Education in October, 1923. He held charge of his post till February, 1925 when he went on leave. R. Littlehailes efflciated for him. Towards the close of the year an Assistant Superintendent of Education was appointed in place of the Deputy Inspector of Schools. Ram Dhan held this appointment till 31st March, 1925 when P. B Joshi was appointed in his place. The former retired after 40 years' valuable and efficient service.

The system of educational control in Ajmer-Merwara as mentioned above had three vital defects. It was controlled and supervised by an officer whose headquarter were for seven months in a year in Simla and for five months of the year in Delhi, an officer who could never be in constant and direct touch with the educational requirements of the district ( Ajmer-Merwara ). The Educational Commissioner with the Government of India who combined the offices of the Superintendent of Education in Delhi and Ajmer-Merawara had little time at his disposal to do more than pay a few flying visits to Ajmer. In his capacity as Superintendent of Education, he submited propsals to the local Administration, which, when approved by it, were then submitted to the Government of India. There they were again had to be examined by the same Officer in his capacity as Educational Commissioner to the Government of India. This was an unnecessary repetition and could hardly be in the best interests of educational administration in Ajmer-Merwara. The old arrangement was, therefore, reviewed in 1931.1 Since then under the Superintendent, who had his headquarters at Delhi, there was a District Inspector of Schools, and under him there were three Assistant District Inspectors in charge of schools in Ajmer, Kekri and Merwara.

Contribution of the Bengalis to Education in Rajputana

One very distinguishing feature of education in Rajuptana was the significant and valuable part played by the Bengalis in the

1. Sarda, H.B.: Ajmer: Historical and Descriptive, page. 357.


introduction, development and growth of modern education in the nineteenth and to a great extent in the twentieth centuries. In no State was this part so memorable and continuous as in Jaipur State. To name only a few-Kanti Chandra Mookerji, Krishna Vihari Sen, Dinanath Mukarji, Chandra Nath Basu, Kalipado Banarjee, Sanjivan Gangoli, Nav Krishna Ray, Nirmal Kumar Mukarjee, Anil Kumar Mitra, Jatindra Mohan Ghosh, Dinesh Chandra Datta,, Upendra Nath Sen, Asit Kumar Haldhar, H.Roy Choudhary, Sailendra Nath Dey and Kaushal Kishore Mookarjee were men of sterling qualities who, undaunted by the numerous obstacles that came in their way, laid the surer and firmer foundation of education in Jaipur. Dr. Bholanath Das (Bharatpur), Dwarka Nath Sarkar and Dr. P. Basu (Udaipur), Tarak Nath Mukarji (Bikaner), Bholanath Chatterji (Karauli) Uma Charan Mukarji (Dhoipur), Rama Charan (Bundi), Jadu Nath Ghosh (Kotah) and Reverend J. C. Chatterjee-(Ajmer), to name again a few - were persons of whom any State in India could legitimately feel proud. They were the persons who left their hearths and homes to make Rajputana their new abode and dedicated most part of their lives to make education a reality in this land of feudalism.

The Role of Private Agencies of Education

Like the other parts of India, Rajputana has also been greatly benefitted by the educational efforts of private agencies. These agencies were either individuals, whole castes or communities or registered Trusts. In this connection the earliest to come to the field were the Christian Missionaries whose educational activities have already been described in details in chapters III and IV. A similar organisation with almost parallel aims and objects was the Arya Samaj which started the first D. A. V. School in Rajputana as early as 1888. Since then the tiny sapling has become a very thickly-grown and fully-developed tree casting its shadows and green foliage all around. The small Ashram School started in 1888 become during the next more than half a century one of the best equipped and picturesqely-located colleges in Rajputaua. Its distinguishing features are the introduction of Agriculture and the starting of B. Ed. classes as alternate courses of study. The


group of Arya Samaj educational institutions have carved out an honoured place in the educational set-up of Rajputana.

Another very important and most extensive educational agency in Rajputana is the Birla Education Trust, Pilani. A brief history of this Trust has already been given in the previous chapter which shows the magnitude and the wide range of its activities. The Trust is perhaps the greatest single educational organisation in India financed entirely by one family whose multifarious educational activities are spread all over the country. Tt has now given up its hold in the field of primary education, although it still has the bjst equipped and the most developed Montessori Sshool in India and has been devoting more and more attention on the different aspects, branches and types of higher education.

Denominational schools run and controlled by the various castes and communities are dotted all over Rajputana. The Khandelwals, Agrawals, Maheshwaris, Jains, Pareek Brahmins and Kayasthas as distinct communities have been running their well-established High Schools (except the Kayastha School which has not yet been upgraded) and some even Degree Colleges in Jaipur. Similar High Schools are maintained by the Pushkarna Brahmins, Oswals, Kayasthas and Malis in Jodhpur. The Rampuria College of Bikaner, though'managed and controlled by a single family, essentially represents the Jain community as a vvhoie.

The rich business magnates and millionaires of Shekhavvati have endowed their birth places (Jhunjhunu, Bagar, Falehpur, Ramgarh, Dundlod, Nawalgarh, Bissau, Sikar, Khetri, Chirawa, Mahensar, Alsisar and a few others) not only with good High Schools but many even with Degree Colleges. Their annual expenditure on education runs into lakhs and thousands of boys and girls every year get light and learning through the munificence of these public-spirited businessmen. Had these schools and colleges not been established, the doors of the temples of Saraswati would always have remained closed to these young boys and girls.

But it is not only the stereotyped High schools and colleges that spraug up in Rajputana during the last more than three


decades. There were persons who made bold experiments in the field of education and the institutions that have emerged out succeessful through their incessant, sincere, devoted and earnest, efforts, have attracted the attention of all thinking persons all over the country. Udaipur, Banasthali and Hatundi stand out prominent in this respect as the places where these educational experiments were made mainly because of the initiative and efforts of Dr. M. S. Mehta, Janardan Rai Nagar, Hira Lai Shastri and Hari Bhau Upadliyaya. The success they have achieved was beyond expectations. The Vidya Bhawan Society, the Rajasthan Vidya Pith and the Rajasthan Manila Mandal, these three organisations have made Udaipur a great educational centre. The rapidity and assiduity with which they spread their educational net all over the city and its suburbs virtully wiped away the disgraceful blot of "educational backwardness that was associated with Udaipur State during the last century.

The Balika Vidyapith, Banasthali, is another such bold experiment made in the field of girls' education. Most of the top leaders and educationists of the country who visited the Vidyapith on different occasions eulogised its services and the ideals which actuated its sponsors in the field of women's education. A similar experiment, but'on comparatively less ambitious and moderate scale, has been made at the Mahila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi (near Ajmer). The Ashram-like simplicity and the rural setting within which girls are educated there have made Hatundi an important centre of girls' education in Rajputana.

Unlike the Vidyapith and the Sadan, the Sophia and the Savitri Girls' Colleges, Ajmer, are women's colleges run apparently on traditional lines but with certain characteristic traits. Every effort is made there to educate the girls mentally, morally, physically and aesthetically. The academic results and the cultural distinctions which their students achieve now and then have made these institutions so conspicuous not only in the educational history of Ajmer but of the whole of Rajputana.

To sum up, the account of the growth and development of modern education in Rajputana given in the preceding pages spotlights certain broad features. First, modern education here


in the nineteenth century was very backward as compared to the general standard of education in British India. This backwardness continued right up to the beginning of the present century as is quite evident from Reid's report on education (1905). There was however, one State. Jaipur, which made continuous and systematic efforts for the spread of education at all levels even in the nineteenth century and could, therefore, be favourably compared with British India as gleaned from the contemporary periodicals and reports. Thus an important educational magazine, while commenting on Jaipur's efforts for education, wrote in 1896 thus : "Jaypur continues to occupy the foremost place in Rajpootana in matters educational....Not the least hopeful feature of the educational progress of this State is the remarkable activity of private enterprise. The percentage of boys actually at school in each

distrtct is 63, which is better than Calcutta itself, which is 60 A regular code of education has deen prepared".1

An influential daily paper wrote a year later (1897) thus : "It Jaypur) is now, we believe, the only State in all Rajputana that can boast of a fully equipped educational Department, enabling the pepole to reap the benefits of liberal education and keep pace with the people of the other provinces in the race of culture and progress The proportoin of pupils to the population of school-age in Jaypur compare most favourably with that in the North-West Provinces and Oudh."'i

Another magazine corroborated the above observations when it wrote a year afterwards, "Jaypur is now the only State in all Rajputana that can boast of a fully equipped Education Department maintained by the liberality' of the Durbar bringing systematic instruction, intellectual, moral and physical within the reach of its people living in the remotest corners, training up students for some of the highest degrees that it is in the power of the Indian Universities to confer on their alumni, and supplying the State with a class of honest, intelligent and efficient men in all departments of

1. N.W.P. and Oudh Education Magazine, December, 1896. 2. Englishman, 28 December, 1897.


the Administration."! The State continued its liberal patronage to education in the present century also as before.

Secondly, not only Rajputana but practically the whole of India with few exceptions was backward in technical education in the last century. This was perhaps in keeping with the British Industrial Policy in India in the nineteenth century which did not like this country to be technically so advanced as to become a potential industrial rival to England and jeopardise the interests

' of her industries. It is, therefore, not surprising if no serious efforts were made to impart technical and industrial education to deserving Indian youths. Still, some of the Rajputana States, particularly the bigger ones, did try to arrange some kind of technical education for their students. They had not only opened classes of professional and technical education and had attached them to their High schools and Colleges, but had even sent some of their students outside for technical and professional education. Thus in the last quarter of the nineteenth century some students from Rajputana had been deputed to the Punjab and elsewhere for training in civil and revenue administration. Jaipur had sent four students to the Dehradun Forest School and some others to Roorkee for Civil Engineering. Four students from Marwar (Jodhpur) had been sent to the Punjab to learn surveying and several boys from Alvvar had been sent to Lahore and Agra and to Madras for agricultural training at Saidapet.2

Thirdly, dispensaries and hospitals established and run according to the allopathic system were looked upon with disfavour and even with suspicion in Rajputana during nineteenth century because of the conservative ideas of the people. Consequently there was an apathy and indifference towards medical education. In course of time, however, this apathy and indifference decreased and the importance and utility of western medical education was recognised. But as no facilities for such education existed anywhere in Rajputana during the last century except for a few years

1. The Educational Review, February, 1898.

2. Report on the Political Administration of Rajpootana State (1884-85), para 6, page 2.


(1861-1868) when there was a Medical School at Jaipur, a number of students from some of the States of Rajputana were sent to the Punjab and U. P. for medical education. But as yet no Rajputana girl student had come forward to go in for medical education. In 188? when C. K. M. Walter was appointed Agent to the Governor General in Rajputana, the subject of medical education of women was brought to the notice of all the Durbars in Rajputana, several of whom responded. The Maharaja of Jaipur not only sent four pupils from his State Female School to Agra for medical education, but even donated a sura of one lakh of rupees toJLady Dufferin's Fund. Then during the course of a decade (1887-1896) three girls from Alwar, two from Tonk and one each from Kotah, Udaipur, Jodhpur and Karauli were sent to Agra for medical education. This was in addition to the male students already sent for the course. The Rulers of Bundi and Shahpura had also agreed to depute one girl each from their States for medical education, but no suitable girls were available for the purpose.1 When later on a medical college was opened at Indore, students from Rajputana States also got admission there. Subsequently when more medical colleges were opened in British India, students from Rajputana States also were admitted there. Thus the medical need of the different States of Rajputana was met primarily by her own doctors, failing which more doctors had to be invited and appointed from outside from time to time till Rajputana had her first Medical college established at Jaipur in 1947.

Fourthly, private educational enterprise has played an important role in the diffusion and spread of education from the lowest primary standard to the highest'college course in Rajputana. Many of the individuals, societies and organisations that entered the field, not only supplemented the educational efforts of the various States^but also catered to the educational needs of such areas as were practically overlooked and neglected by the State education

1. Report on the Political Administration of Rajpootana States: (i) (1886-87), p. 9. (v) (1890-91), p. 14.

(ii) (1887-88), p. 1 1 . (vi) (1992-93), p. 1 6. (iii) (1888-89), p. 12. (vii) (1894-95), p. 23. (iv) (1889-90), p. 11. (viii) (1895-96), p. 149.


authorities. This was true of the Shekhawati and Udaipurwati regions of the former Jaipur State where the local philanthropic Seths opened scores of Primary and Middle schools, most of which were later on upgraded to the High school standard and some were even converted into Intermediate colleges.

The Christian Missions also rendered invaluable service in the cause of education and penetrated even to such interior areas as were practically inaccessible to outside influence in the nineteenth century. Thus whatever little education could be imparted to the backward tribal and aboriginal people of the hilly tracts of Udaipur, Dungarpur, Banswara and Pratapgarh States was due mainly to the efforts of the Christian Missions.

Another noteworthy feature of private educational enterprise in Rajputana was that although the private agencies mainly looked to the quantitative needs of the people, educational quality was not lost sight of. In fact, the credit of making bold aud far-reaching experiments in education goes to these private agencies. In this connection the part played by the Arya Samaj Education Society, Ajmer, the various Christian Missions working in the different States of Rajputana, the Birla Education Trust, Pilani, the Vidya Bhavvan Education Society, Udaipur, the Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, the Rajasthan Vidyapith and the Mahila Mandal, Udaipur and the Mahila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi (Ajmer) is too well-known.

Finally, except in a few States, education was generally very back-ward in Rajputana aud this backwardness continued right up to the third decade of the present century. In the meantime, the freedom struggle in British India had gained momentum and it was quite natural that Rajputana should also be affected by it. The emergence of Praja Mandals and Praja Parishads in most of the Rajputana States and the activities of the Rajputana and Central India States' Peoples' Conference had created a political consciousness and an awakening among the people of Rajputana. The introduction of Provincial Autonomy in 1937 had given an opportunity to the Indian National Congress as the most powerful political party in the country to form ministries in nine out of the eleven Provinces of British India These Congress ministries

Education in Rajpulana Before Independence (1818-1947) 343

laid particular emphasis on literacy and adult education and prepared several schemes of rapid educational expansion. The States of Rajputana also could not remain unaffected. As the popular ministries had been formed in some of them, they took a cue from the Congress ministries and chalked out their own programmes of educational expansion. Fortunately at this time the reins of government in some of the premier States of Rajputana were in the hands of wise, experienced and progressive administrators who had fully realised the importance of educational expansion and improvements. They had not only given their full support and approval to all schemes of educational expansion

"\and reform, but had also advised the Rulers to see the changing ttimes and act accordingly. It was thus through the wise advice a\nd sagacious instrumentality of Diwans and Ministers like bir T. Vijayaraghavacharya (Udaipur), Sir Mirza Ismail (Jaipur), S)ardar K. M. Panikkar (Bikaner), Sir V. T. Krishnamachari (Jjaipur), C. S. Venkatachari (Jodhpur) and a few others that the Rollers of Rajputana States had now begun to read the writings oil the wall and had realised the urgent need of liberalising their State administration and adopting a progressive policy of reforms. It was no wonder, therefore, that education had made soijne strides in all the States of Rajputana in the decade immediately preceding the attainment of Independence, as the progress in /the field of education in some of the States shown below clearly indicates.

(' Alwar (1945-46)1

; There was one Degree College, the Raj Rishi College in Alwar in, 1945 which had 224 students on rolls. The expenditure on the college was Rs. 84,788/—The other institution of higher education was the Sanskrit College which had 107 students on roll.

There were 229 Schools of Secondary and Primary education in the State as shown on next page.

1. Alwar State Administration Report (1945-46), Pp. 109-125.


Secondary and Primary Schools

Category of the schools Number

(i) High schools (ii) Anglo-vernacular Middle

• schools (iii) Verncular Middle schools (iv) Branch schools (v) Primary schools (vi) Sanskrit College &

Pathshalas (vii) Aided & recognised schools

5

4 35 6

152

4 23

Total 229

Number of scholars

There were 17,596 students who were studying in the different types of educational institutions as indicated below :—

Institutions Hindus Muslims Others Tc^tal

Sanskrit college 107 High schools 1340 A. V. Middle schools 884 A. V. Middle Aided schools 101 Ver. Middle schools 4702

Total

State Schools 6723 Aided & Recognised schools 1352 Sanskrit Pathshalas 70

Total 8145

— — '^107 I 157 4 1^01 j 179 6 I(p69 \

— — 1-01 ,' 622 — j 5324 j

1021 — 7744

98 6 1456 — — 70

1119 6 9270

7134 958 10 8l,C

Primary Schools

10 "8102


Number of students stage-wise

College .... 224 Secondary education .... 8102 Primary education .... 9270

Enrolment of girls & backward class students in Secondary & Primary Schools

Schools Harijans Meos Agriculturists Girls Total

Secondary

Primary

Total

229

431

660

176

273

449

2616

4392

7008

152

435

567

3173

5531

8704

Percentage of Scholars to population

Total Number of scholars .... 17596 Percentage on total population .... 2.11% Percentage on Male population ... 3.90%

Teachers

There were 607 teachers as distributed below :—

Institution Number of teachers

High schools 90 • A. V. Middle schools 61 Vernacular Middle schools 229 Primary schools 227

_________ ~~——-~~J07 ~~

Out of this number there were 48 women teachers on the staff of girls' schools which numbered 21 as detailed below :—

Category Number of girls' Number of schools Scholars

High school 1 74 Vernacular Middle 3 427


Lower Ver. Middle 7 487 Primary 10 700

Total 21 1688

These 1688 scholars belonged to different religions as follows :—

Hindus Muslims

Christian

1400 275 13

Expenditure on Girls' education

A sum of Rs. 53,802 was spent on girls' education in the State as detailed below :

Type of school amount spent

High school Rs. 10, 245/-Secondary education Rs. 24,905/-Primary education Rs. 18,652/-

Total Rs. 53,802/-

Total expenditure on education

Out of an actual receipt of Rs. 2,22,94,256 which the State derived in 1945-46, it spent a sum of Rs. 4,74,824 on education in the State.

Bharatpur State (1945-46)1

There were 256 schools in Baratpur State in 1945 out of which 68 were private schools with 2418 students reading in them. There were 23 girls' schools including 1 girls' High school at the capital and 2 Vernacular Middle schools at Deeg and Nagar. The other 20 girls' schools were of primary status scattered all over the State. There was only one private girls' school which was the Arya Kanya Vidyalaya at Bharatpur. A total number of 1422 girls

1. Report on the Administration of Bharatpur State ^945-46) pp, 7-69


were reading in the State, 1261 of whom were reading in the State schools and 161 in the private school. The State teachers' training school was raised from the P. T. C. to the V. T. C. standard and was training 20 vernacular school teachers. Two Graduate teachers were sent to Ajmer for the B. T. course. There were in all 12,945 scholars consisting of 11,680 boys and 1265 girls reading in the different educational institutions in the State. The State had also introduced the adult education scheme in 1945 under which 1057 persons were made literate and a sum of Rs. 2,000/- was given as reward to persons who taught the illiterates.

In the field of higher education the State had one Intermediate colJege which was known as the M. S. J. College. Jt was raised to the Degree standard in July, 1947. It had 360 students on roll.

There was one residential Public School named after the founder of the State. It was called Maharaja Badan Singh School and was originally intended to run on English public school lines preparing boys for the Senior Cambridge Certificate Examination. It had 55 scholars on roll.

The State spent a sum of Rs. 2,39,479 on education in the year 1945-46.

Jodhpnr State (1943-44 A

There were 268 schools in the State including 220 schools for boys and 48 for girls Of the boys schools, 165 were State, 33 aided and 22 recognised schools. Of these institutions 14 were Anglo-Vernacular and 206 Vernacular schools. Out of the former one was a College, 5 High schools and 8 were Anglo-Vernacular Middle schools. Vernacular institutions comprised 31 Middle schools, 51 Primary, 123 Lower Primary and 1 Oriental institute. There were also 2 teachers' training schools-one for men and the other for women. There was one Technical Institute attached to the Jaswant College and one business coaching class attached to the Durbar High School.

1. Administration Report of Jodhpur State (1943-44) Pp. 89-90


Of the 48 girls' schools, 28 were State, 7 aided and 3 recognised of which 2 were Anglo-Vernacular High schools, 2 Vernacular Middle schools, 14 Primary and 30 Lower Primary schools.

Number of scholars

There were 28.510 boys reading in the State out of whom 19,645 boys were reading in the State institutions, < 920 in the aided schools and 1945 were getting their education in the recognised schools. There were 4899 girls under education of whom 3486 girls were reading in State girls' schools, 1245 in aided and 168 in recognised schools. Thus the total number of scholars on roll was 33,409. There were 44 pupil-teachers reading in the Teachers training Institute of whom 30 were men and 6 women teachers. 21 boys attende the Technical Institute and 13 boys the Business Coaching class. The Jaswant College had 475 students including 18 girls on roll.

Kotafa (1944-45)1

The total number of schools in Kotah State in September, 1945 was 212 consisting of the following :—

Schools No. of No. of Recognised/ Chatshalas Total State aided unaided

schools schools schools

A. V. schools 9 — — — 9 Sanskrit schools 1 1 — — 2 Vernacular schools 150 9 5 — 164 Girls* schools 17 1 1 18 37

Total \TI U 6 ~l8 212

Grades of schools

Besides the Herbert College, there were 2 High schools, 3 A V. Middle schools, 2 Lower Middle schools, 1 Upper Primary school, 23 Vernacular Middle and the rest Upper Primary and Lower Primary schools.

1. Report on the Administration of Kotah State (1944-45) Pp. 59-63


The total number of students was 15,835, of whom 2328 or 14.69% were girls and 13,510 or 83.31% boys. There were 816 teachers working in the various institutions. The number of girl students was 2259 which consisted of the following :—

School

Shri Maharani Girls High school, Kotah

Vernacular schools Girls reading in boys' schools

Number of girl students

296 1359 604

Total .... 2259

The State spent a sum of Rs. 3,42.518 on education.

Bunds State (1945-46)1

There were 107 State schools including one Intermediate college, one Normal school, 3 Anglo-Vernacular Middle schools (including one solely for girls), one Vernacular Middle school, one English Lower Middle school, one Sanskrit Pathshala, 7 Upper Primary schools, 77 Lower Primary schools, 4 Night schools, one Adult Women school and one school for the convict persons. In addition to them, there were 20 more schools of which 7 were State aided Municipal schools and 2 Mohammadan schools aided by the State. There were 213 teachers and 4,510 scholars in those schools. There were 6 girls' schools with 220 girls on roll.

The State spent a sum of Rs. 1,01,724 on education.

Bikaner State (1946-47)2

College education

The Dungar Memorial College was an institution of post-graduate education in the State with 338 students, including 14 girls, on roll. The State spent a sum of Rs. 1,33,482 on the college and gave Rs. 58,972/- in scholarships to Bikaneri students for studies outside the State A sum of Rs. 5 lakhs was also set

1. Bundi State Administration Report (1945-46), Pp. 44-49. 2. Bikaner State Administration Report (1946-47) Pp. 119-132 and p. 185.


apart for the grant of scholarships for education in foreign countries and 7 students were given scholarships to go abroad for higher studies.

Secondary and Primary education

There were 689 secondary and middle schools in the State with 40,505 students on roll as shown below —

Schools by management Schools Number of scholars

State schools Private schools

Total

238 451

689

20,390 20,115

40,505

Besides the Dungar college, there were four other colleges in the State which, being of Intermediate standard, were included under secondary education. They were the,

(i) Lohia College, Churu, with 429 students,

(ii) B. J. S. Rampuria College, Bikaner, with 390 students,

(iii) Government College, Ganganagar, with 669 students and

(iv) Maharani Sudarshan College for women, Bikaner, which was previously only a Girls' High School and was known as Lady Elgin Girls' High School. It had 348 girls on roll as High School and 75 students in the College.

High schools

There were 24 High schools in the State, 19 of which were financed and managed by the State and 5 were aided High Schools. There were 4871 students on roll.

Middle Schools and Anglo-Hindi schools

There were 23 Middle schools consisting of 20 State, 1 aided and 2 recognised Middle schools with 5728 students on roll. The Sangaria Hindi Middle school had 246 students on roll. Anglo-Hindi Lower Middle schools were 14 of which 8 were run by the State and 6 private recognised ones There were 2041 scholars in them.

Education in Rajput ana Before Independence (1818-1947) 351

Primary schools

There were 29 Anglo-Hindi Primary schools of which 21 were run by the State, 5 were recognised and 3 aided ones with a total of 3034 scholars on roll. 94 Hindi Primary schools (including those for Harijans) were runs by the State and 4 were aided Primary schools.

Compulsory Primary education

Primary schools opened and run by the Municipal Board in towns were 35 of which the total number of scholars was 3205.

District Board schools

40 Primary schools were maintained by the District Board, Ganga-nagar, 12 by the District Board, Suratgarh, 12 by District Board, Rajgarh and 5 by the District Board, Bikaner. Thus there were 69 Primary schools run by the four District Boards with 1700 scholars on roll.

Eleven Hindi Primary schools run by the State were meant for educating the Harijans where 295 scholars were studying.

Adult education

Two schools were started for adults in 1945-46 when 40 adults studied there. The number of schools rose to 15 and that of the students to 289 in ! 946-47.

Female education

The education of girls made steady progress in the State. All Khalsa towns having a population of over 2000 persons were provided with a girls' school. The total number of State girls' schools was 36 and the number of private girls' schools was 13 which consisted of 5 aided, 1 recognised and 7 unrecognised schools and the total number of girl students reading in them was 4,919. The Maharani Nobles' Girls' School was a unique institution of its kind not only in Bikaner but in the whole of Rajputana, providing educational facilities to Rajput girls of the State under strict purdah arrangement with 85 girls on roll. The State spent Rs 20,042 on the maintenance of this special school. There were


some other girls' schools in the capital in addition to the above. The State also maintained girls' schools at Sardarshahar, Suraj-garh, Churu, Rajgarh, Hanumangarh and Nohar and 2 private schools in the districts-one in the capital and the other at Churu-were run by some communities.

Other educational activities also existed in the State such as a business class at the capital where 13 candidates learnt typewriting and shorthand. There were indigenious commercial classes known as the "Banika schools" in which advanced training in arithmetical calculations was imparted.

Sanskrit education

There were 30 Sanskrit Pathshalas in the State-the most important of which was the Ganga Sanskrit Pathshala at Bikaner which imparted education in Jyotish, Vyakaran and Karmakand to 37 students. The other Sanskrit schools provided elementary education in the traditional way.

The state spent a sum of Rs 11, 70, 833 on education in 1946-47.

Jaipur State (1946-47)1

In no other State of Rajputana did education make such an al-round progress as in Jaipur State. There was already a scheme for the establishment of a separate University for Rajputana at Jaipur which had materialised in 1947. Tt provided facilities for academic studies of the highest standard and the pursuit of knowledge in all branches including technological studies, scientific research and promotion of art and culture.

Higher education

Besides the Maharaja's College and the Maharani's College for women run entirely by the Government, there were 7 other

1 , Report on the Administration of Jaipur State (1946-47) Pp. 47-49 and pp. 177-185.


collegesi-one in the city and six in the mofassil - run by private enterprise. Until the beginning of the fifth decade of the present century, the Maharaja' s College was the only college in Rajputna providing courses of post-graduate study. In that decade its activities greatly expanded when new courses were added and the staff strengthened. Two new College- the S. M. S. Medical College and a separate Law College-opened in 1947 provided facilities for professional studies in the city and the State.

Secondary education

In the field of secondary education a noteworthy feature was the part played by private enterprise, There were institutions of all grades-from the lowest primary standard to the highest College course- maintained by private agencies. They shared the responsibility with the Government for education and received grants-in-aid towards the maintenance of institutions and buildings and equipment.

During this decade there was an increase in the number of High and Anglo-Vernacular and Vernacular Middle schools, out of the 37 High schools in the State, 11 were Government institutions (including one High school for girls and the M. G. D. Girls' School which prepared for Cambridge Examinations) and the rest (including one for girls) were private. Of the 63 Anglo-Vernacular Middle schools, 23 were Government institutions and the remaining were under private management, of the 79 vernacular Middle schools, 58 were Government institutions and 21 were under private management. The number of pupils in Secondary schools was 43,798 in 1946-47, out of which 24, 999 (including 154 girls) were in Government schools and 18,799 (including 79 girls) in private institutions.

1. The other Colleges were:—

1. S.S.G. Pareek Mahavidyalaya, Jaipur, 2. Birla College, Pilani, 3. Birla Engineering College, Pilani, 4. G.B.Poddar College, Nawalgarh, 5. Shri K.N.Rajput College, Jobner, 6. G.R.Chamaria College, Fatehpur and 7. Shri Kalyan College, Sikar.


Primary education

one hundred six new Primary schools were opened when the total number of Government primary schools rose to 585 on 31.8.1947. Besides these, there were 267 primary schools under private management with 9,728 pupils. Th;re were 22,920 pupils in Government primary school for boys. In August, 1946 the Jaipur Legislative Council passed the Jaipur State Primary Education Act. Thus to enforce general compulsion in the city, the ground was prepared by opening primary schools in every municipal ward of the city.

In the field of pre-primary education, the Birla Education Trust was the first to start a Montessori School in Piiani for infants. Subsequently a Montessori class was started in the Maharaja's Girls' High school at the capital which had 50 children on roll. A separate Montessori school, known as the Narendra V. Durlabhji Bal Mandir, Jaipur, was started in July 1947. Another private Montessori school in Jaipur was the Mahavir Vidya Mandir.

Girls' education

There were 178 girls' schools in the State of which 73 were maintained by the Government with 7,411 girls reading in them. 105girls' schools were maintained by private agencies and 20 schools were run for the girls of depressed classes which had 627 scholars in them. Besides, 559 girls were reading in mixed schools. A sum of rupees one lakh and sixty-six thousand was spent by the Government on girls' education in 1946-47.

Adult education

The Government sanctioned a sum of Rs 1 lakh to organise a literacy campaign during 1946. From January 1947 to July 1947 99 adult classes were started in the districts and the successful condidates were awarded certificates. In 1947 the movement was confined to Jaipur city where 18 Government Schools for adults (10 for men and 8 for women) were conducted by trained teachers. Four private classes were also conducted by social workers.

Education in Rajput ana Before Independence (1818-1947) 355

School for deaf, dumb and blind

The only school of this nature in the State was the one named Seth Anandi Lai Poddar School for deaf, dumb and blind at Jaipur. It had 20 pupils on roll on 31-8-1947. A sum of Rs 0.12 lakhs was apent on it.

Sanskrit education

The Sanskrit College rendered useful service to the cause of Sanskrit learning for nearly a century. It had 255 students on roll in 1947 and a sum of Rs. 0.37 lakhs was spent on it during the year. Besides this College there were two Government Sanskrit Path-shalas in the districts. In addition to the Government institutions, there were 11 Sanskrit Colleges and 148 Pathshalas under private management with an enrolment of 605 and 2,944 respectively. The Ayurvedic section was separated from the Sanskrit College in July, 1946 and constituted a separate Ayurvedic College. This was in addition to the Ayurvedic and Tibbi College at Jaipur which received a grant-in-aid from the Government.

The State spent a total amount of Rs. 23,45,970 on education during 1946-47 including a sum of Rs. 1 08 lakhs given as grant-in-aid to 138 private institutions in the year.

The brief account of educational progress in some of the States of Rajputana as given above reveals one significant fact that in no one decade had so many educational institutions of all types-primary, middle and High schools and Colleges-were established and those already existing upgraded as during the decade commencing from 1937. Lakhs of rupees were set apart by some of the States of Rajputana for giving scholarships to their talented students for such courses of study for which facilities did not exist there. Bikaner alone gave a sum of rupees two lakhs and five thousands in scholarships during the period of five years from 1939 to 1944 and set apart a further sum of rupees five lakhs for scholarships to Bikaneri students for education in foreign countries during the next five year*

1. Report on che Administration of Bikaner State (1944-45), para, 8, p, 108


Thus by the time India achieved Independence most of the States of Rajputana had realised the importance of education and had taken in hand schemes of educational development in their own way, keeping in view their limited resources. Then it was for the successor Government to make a rapid survey of the educational needs of the newly-formed State of Rajasthan. and plan accordingly.

14. Educational Development in Rajasthan

After Independence

India achieved independence on 15th August, 1947. Soon thereafter efforts for redefining the provincial boundaries and for bringing together Indian States and amalgamating them into new political and administrative units were made. This was a very uphill and difficult task mainly because of the historical past and the inter-State jealousies. However, due to the wisdom, political sagacity, foresight and statesmanship of Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon as well as due to the patriotic spirit, good sense and understanding of the Rulers and political leaders, an apparantly impossible task was successfully achieved. Thus was born on 30th March, 1949, the State of Greater Rajasthan comprising most of the Rajputana States. Subsequently the Matsya Union and Sirohi State were also merged in the new State on 15th May, 1949 and 26th January, 1950, respectively. Later on Ajmer-Merwara, Abu Taluka and a few enclaves were also amalgamated with and merged in Rajasthan on 1st November, 1956, in accordance with the provisions of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Thus was formed the modern State of Rajasthan in its present form.


Reorganisation of Education

The political and administrative unification of Rajasthan was thus achieved, but the educational integration in the new State had yet to be accomplished. This was a colossal task of great magnitude because of the different educational standars in the covenanting States. Immediately after its formation in March, 1948, the Matsya Union, therefore, appointed under the chairmanship of K. 3. Lai, the Administrator, a Committee to reorganise its services.1 The recommendations of this Committee, submitted in October, 1948, could not be implemented because of the merger of the Matsya Union with the United State of Greater Rajasthan. The Union of Rajasthan then appointed another broad-based Committee with S.K. Zibbu, Director of Education in the former Jaipur State, as its Convener.2 This Committee considered all the aspects and requirements of education for the whole of Rajasthan, except Ajmer-Merwara, and submitted its important report in 1949 to the Government of Rajasthan which not only accepted most of its recommendations but made them the basis of their future educational policy. The Committee pointed out that at the primary stage there were only 10 Moiitessori schools while the number of Primary schools was 4514 (2823 were Government and 1691 private). Considering the vast area and population of Rajasthan, the number of such schools was too few and the percentage of literacy too low, that is, only 5% as compared to most of the neighbouring States of the Indian Union.

So far as Secondary Education was concerned, the Committee was of the opinion that the existing number of High Schools, namely 112 (65 Government and 47 private High Schools) was quite inadequate. The number of High Schools for girls, namely 8, was particularly very low. The Committee, therefore, recommended that some of the existing Primary schools should be

1. Report of the Pay & Reorganisation of Services Committee, United State of Matsya, October, 1948.

2. The other members were:— 1. K.N,Kini (Jodhpur), 2. M.N.Tolani, Bika-ner), 3. Ayodhya Piasad (Matsya Union) and 4. R. G. Gupta (former Rajasthan).

Educational Development in Rajasthan After Independence 359

raised to the Middle standard and the Middle schools to the High school standard. Out of the existing 605 Middle schools in 1949, there were 452 Government and 153 private Middle schools. The Committee strongly felt that there should be a Middle school in every town with a population of 5000 or more and the ratio of the Middle and Primary schools should be 1 : 8, namely, there should be in every district one Middle school for 8 Primary schools.

The Committee considered the existing 10 Degree colleges (7 Government colleges for men, 2 private colleges for men and 1 Government college for women) necessary to cater to the needs of higher education in the United State of Rajasthan. But it considered the number of Intermediate colleges (13) too few, It, therefore, suggested that a number of High schools in the districts be raised to the Intermediate standard and that the backward areas should be given preference for future expansion of higher education.

In the opinion of the Committee there was to be at least one Normal school in every district for training Middle-passed teachers, as there was no Government Teachers' Training College in Rajasthan at that time. Only a private Training College was run at Udaipur by the Vidya Bhawan Education Society. There were twelve Training schools including two for women one each at Jaipur and Jodhpur which were frightfully short of the requirements. The Committee suggested that immediate steps be taken to start women's Normal schools at Bikaner, Udaipur, Kota, Bharatpur and AI war.

There was only one institution in 1949 for the education of the physically handicapped children in the whole of Rajasthan-the Poddar school for Deaf, Dumb and Blind at Jaipur-which was maintained by the Government. The Committee strongly recommended that there should be at least one such institution in every Division to start with and later on one in every district.

There' was one Medical College in the United State of Rajasthan at its formation. This was the Sawai Man Singh (S.M.S.) Medical College at Jaipur. The Committee was of the opinion that this college was sufficient to meet the existing needs


of Rajasthan for some years to come. The only Engineering College in Rajasthan was the Birla Engineering College at Pilani which was not a Government College. This college provided education only in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering. There was no college for Civil Engineering in the whole of Rajasthan and the Committee felt that there was great need for Civil Engineers in the covenanting States of Rajasthan. The only Agricultural College was maintained by a private agency, the Thakur of Jobner (Jaipur), which privided courses in Agriculture only up to the Intermediate standard. There was urgent need-of raising the status of this college to the Degree level.'

There were 23 Sanskrit Colleges 4 of which were Government colleges and 19 were maintained by private agencies. There was one Government Ayurvedic College each at Jaipur and Udaipur and Ayurvedic classes were attached to the Sanskrit Colleges at Alwar and Bharatpur. In addition to these, there were 6 private Ayurvedic Colleges. The Committee proposed some improvements in the working of these Sanskrit Colleges both Government and private.

The total budget provision for education in the year 1949-50 in the various units of the United State of Rajasthan amounted to Rs. 1,78,92,307 and the total expenditure on various sections of education was as shown below :—

College education Rs. 15,23,468 Secondary education Rs. 40,30,334 Primary education Rs. 58,74,973 Other type of education. Rs. 21,37,032

Total Rs. 1,35,65,807 The Committee suggested the uniformity of fees in the

different units and recommended that no fees should be charged up to the tenth class in all High schools for both boys and girls. In the college side only boys were to pay fees, but education to girls in the college would be free. The Committee also prosposed . the abolition of any distinction between local and outside (non-Rajasthani) students. To encourage higher education in the State the Committee recommended the grant of freeships to the extent of 25 per cent of the total college enrolment.


The Committe opined that after the merger of all the units in the united state of Rajasthan, there should be only one Head of the Department of Education at the capital who could be called the Director General of Education. He should be assisted by three Deputy Directors-General in the Central office at the capital. They would be in-charge of various branches of education such as College education, Secondary education, Primary education, Girls' education, Physical education, Sanskrit education, etc. The Committee also suggested that there should be a senior Education Officer in each Division who could be designated as the Director of Education. Under him there were to be one Inspector of Schools for each district and one Deputy Inspector for every set of the 30 Middle schools. For educational purpose each district was to be divided into Circles, which could be under the charge of Sub-Deputy Inspectors with one Sub-Deputy Inspector for every 50 Primary schools in a Circle.

Review of Education in Rajasthan after Independence

The new Government had to face many intricate issues particularly in view of the diversity in the courses and curricula as also the heterogeneous educational Pattern in the different Princely States. It was a herculean task to tackle, for, with the attainment of freedom, there was a general urge among the masses for the expansion of educational facilities at a fairly rapid rate. People had now begun to realise that there was a direct connection between the level of educational achievement in any given society and the standard of living. This need for rapid educational development was felt more in Rajasthan, as she was educationally one of the most backward areas in the country. Every effort was, therefore, made to expand educational facilities at a rapid speed so as to bring the State at par with the other States of the country. To achieve this object the first thing that the Government of Rajasthan did was the establishment of the Department of Education at Bikaner in December, 1949. Within the next two

- months the integration of officers was completed and they started functioning in the first week of February, 19501. The State

1. Report on the Administration of Rajasthan (April 1949-March, 1950), Paragraph 1 , page 47.

362 Modem Education in Rajaslhan

Government also set up an educational Planning and Expansion section the same year. When Ajmer-Merwara was merged in Rajasthan on 1st November, 1956, further changes in the educational set-up and policy became inevitable. A new Directorate concerning College Education was then brought into existence in 1958. Thereafter an integrated educational policy was adopted in which further changes were made as and when deemed necessary in the years to come.

In the following pages we shall give a brief review, under different headings, of the growth and development of education in Rajasthan after independence. Before we review this development, it would be necessary first to describe the organisational set-up of education as it emerged after the formation of Rajasthan.

I. Organisational Set-up and Educational Personnel in Rajasthan. A. Education Department of the Ministry

The Department of Education is located at the capital (Jaipur) and is a part of the Government Secretariat. At the helm of its affairs is the Education Minister who is assisted by a Minister of State for Education. Next to them is the Education Commi-ssioner-cum-Secretary who is a link between the State Education Ministry and the various Directorates of Education, Academies, Institutes and other educational-cum-cultural organisations. One Special Education Secretary, three Deputy Secretaries and two Assistant Secretaries assist the Commissioner. They have been given charge of the various branches of education. There are three Officers on Special Duty—one for Plan, one for Technical Education and one for Higher Education. There is one Assistant Director of Statistics, one Accounts Officer, one Assistant Accounts Officer for statistics, four Section Officers and other clerical staff in the secretariat office. This is the organisational and administrative set-up of education at the capital which is concerned with the policy and programme of education for the whole of the State.


B. Directorates of Education

(i) Directorate of College Education.

There are two separate Directorates of Education, one for College and the other for School education. The office of the Directorate of College Education is located at Jaipur. The Director is the executive Head of ihe Department who is ultimately responsible for the proper control, supervision and management of College Education. He usually sanctions grants-in-aid and all postings and transfers are made under his signatures. He is assisted by a Joint Director and two Deputy Directors. All academic work and problems of establishment are now the responsibility of the former, whereas the latter have drawing and disbursing powers with them. They also control the office and periodically inspect the colleges under the Director's instructions. There is one Administrative Officer who looks after the general supervision of office establishment. One Accounts Officer and two Assistant Accounts Officers manage and work out the finances of the Directorate.

(ii) Directorate of Primary & Secondary Education

The office of the Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education is located at Bikaner. The Director is assised at the headquarters by an Additional Director, a Joint Director, 6 Deputy Directors, 3 Assistant Directors, 3 Deputy Inspectors of Schools, 1 Senior Accounts Officer, 1 Statistical Officer and 1 Assistant Accounts Officer. In the field, the Director is assisted by 3 Deputy Directors, each in-charge of one of the following three Ranges :—

(i) Jaipur-Ajmer Range (headquarters at Jaipur),

(ii) Jodhpur-Bikaner Range (Headquarters at Jodhpur) and

(iii) Udaipur-Kota Range (Headquarters at Udaipur)

There is one District Inspector of Schools in each district in charge of boys' schools. There are at present 27 District Inspectors of Schools. Jaipur has got two Inspectors because of its size and a large number of schools. There are Deputy and Sub-Deputy Inspectors of Schools working under the Inspector. But with the introduction of the democratic decentralisation in October, 1959,


the Sub-Deputy Inspectors of Schools have been transferred to the Panchayat Sarnits, except in urban areas where Primary education is still under the control of the Department. The Director is assisted by the Secretary, Board of Nationalised Textbooks with headquarters at Jaipur and by the Registrar, Departmental Examinations with his headquarters at Bikaner.

The Director of Primary and Secondary Eductaion is also the executive Head of Women's education in the State, but this branch is placed under the direct charge of a Joint Director with her headquarters at Jaipur. For women's education also the State has been divided into 3 Ranges in each of which a Deputy Director has been posted except at Jaipur where the Joint Director is to work as Deputy Director also. Under these Deputy Directors there are three Inspectresses of Girls' schools-one for each of the three Ranges, namely, the Inspcctress for Jaipur-Ajmer Range with her headquarters at Ajmer, the Inspectress for Jodhpur-Bikaner Range with her headquarters at Bikaner and the Inspectress for Udaipur-Kota Range with her headquarters at Kota There are a number of Deputy and Sub-Deputy Inspectresses of Girls' schools in these Ranges with their headquarters at different places.

In addition to the above, there is one Director of Vocational Guidance Bureau with headquarters at Bikaner, the Director of the State Institute of Education at Udaipur and the Evaluation Officer at Bikaner. These are centrally sponsored schemes which are functioning in Rajasthan. For the supervision of Physical Education, there are two Deputy Inspectors of schools with headquarters at Jaipur and Bikaner.

(iii) Directorate of Technical Education

To give proper attention to Technical Education in the State, a separate Directorate of Technical Education was established at Jodhpur in 1957. There are three wings functioning in the Directorate-one dealing with Training, the other with Education and the third with the Board of Technical Education. For the Training wing, there is one Deputy Director who is at present designated as Deputy State Apprenticeship Adviser-cum-Deputy


Director Training. There are two Assistant Directors working in the Education wing at Jodhpur. The office of the D. S. A. A.-cum-D. D. T. (Deputy State Apprenticeship Adviser-cum-Deputy Director Training) is situated at Jaipur. There is a Registrar in the Board of Technical Education whose office is located at Jodhpur. The Director of Technical Education is the ex-officio Chairman of the Board.

(iv) Directorate of Sanskrit Education

Rajasthan has been a great centre of Sanskrit learning for the past many centuries and Jaipur has been one of the most reputed seats of Sanskrit Education next only to Varanasi in northern India. Hence to maintain its old traditions and to give fillip to Sanskrit learning, the Rajasthan Government set up a separate Directorate of Sanskrit Education at Jaipur in 1958. The Director is assisted by one Deputy Director, one Assistant Director and 3 Deputy Inspectors.

(v) Directorate of Oriental Reserach

The origin of the Directorate of Oriental Research in Rajasthan goes back to December, 1949, when soon after the formation of the first ministry in Rajasthan after Independence, Pandit Hira Lai Shashtri, the then Prime Minister of the State, announed the establishment of a Sanskrit Board to preserve, propagate and develop Sanskrit language and literature in Rajasthan. In its first meeting held on 8th March, 1950, the Board decided to search, catalogue and arrange the preservation and proper storage of the works of ancient literature available in the different Bhandars scattered all over the State. It was also decided to establish a Central office at the capital, Jaipur, where ancient works and old documents of Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Apabhransha and Rajasthani languages could be stored, studied annotated and published. To achieve these and other aims a permanent Institute called the Rajasthan Puratatva Mandir (Rajasthan Oriental Institute) was established at Jaipur in May 1950 in the premises of the Sanskrit College. Muni Jinvijayaji the noted Orientalist was appointed its first honorary Director.

366 Modern Education in Rajastluit

For the first eight years of its existence (1950-1958) the Institute remained at Jaipur, but in December 1958 it was shifted to Jodhpur and was housed in a building specially erected for it. Since then the scope of the activities of the Institute has much widened. It has so far published 136 valuable books, treatises, commentaries and translations and has published them in a series called the Rajasthan Puratan Granthamala.

(vi) Directorate of Archives

Immediately after the formation of Rajasthan, the Government of the new State had to face many political, economic and administrative problems. Still it devoted its attenion towards the organisation and consolidation of the archival records of the erstwhile Princely States of Rajputana. Accordingly it set up at Jaipur in 1955-56 the Department of Archives which was later on shifted to Bikaner. The present set-up of the Directorate consists of a Director, two Assistant Directors, Research Officers, Archivists and a number of other technical personnel. There are now seven Intermediary Repository Offices located at Ajraer, Alwar, Bharat-pur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota and Udaipur with one Archivist and a number of other staff at each place.

(vii) Directorate of Archaeology and Museums

Rajasthan is very rich in archaeological and architectural remains, since many of the Rajas and Maharajas of yore took great interest in enriching their capital with magnificent buildings such as palaces, forts and temples etc. Many of the States had their own museums where relics of ancient art and architecture and valuable pieces of other antiquities had been kept in museums. The officials of these museums-except those of Jaipur where there was already a separate Department of Archaeology- had also to look after the old monuments of their States. But when Rajasthan was formed in March, 1949, the educational and instructive value of museums and their importance as an informal agency of general knowledge and culture was realised. With a view to preserve and maintain properly the monuments of archaeological importance, scattered all over the State, a combined Department of Archaeology and Museums was, therefore, established at Jaipur in April, 1950.


There were already in existence at that time nine other museums located at Amber, Ajmer, Alwar, Bharatpur, Bikaner, Jhalavvar, Jodhpur, Kota and Udaipur. The museum at Ajmer was then under the direct control and management of the Central Government. But when the part 'C State of Ajmer-Merwara was merged-in Rajasthan, the Ajmer museum was also entrusted to the above Department on 1st November, 1956.

After the formation of the present State of Rajasthan, four more archaeological museums were established at Ahar (Udaipur), Mount Abu, Mandor (near Jodhpur) and Chittorgarh and one Art Gallery at Dungarpur. Later on during the next two Five-Year Plans four more museums were opend-making the total 18 consisting of 7 museums in Jaipur, 6 in Udaipur and 5 in Jodhpur Circles.

In the field of archaeology the Department has excavated many sites from where valuable finds and hoards have been obtained which are of national importance.

(viii) Directorate of Bhasha Vibhag

The Government of Rajasthan established the Bhasha Vibhag (Language Department) in January 1965 to accelerate the Central Government's policy of giving Hindi the status of the State Language of India. The Vibhag is located at Jaipur. It is looked after at the Secretariat level by the Education Commissioner. At the departmental level there is a Director as its executive Head. But as the post is lying vacant at present, the Deputy Director virtually works as the Director. He mainly looks after the translation, establishment and Trainees' sections. He is being assisted by a Language Officer whose main task is to look after and inspect the language work as well as to help the Deputy Director in getting implemented the schemes of expansion and use of Hindi in all the Departments of the State which has been the State Government's policy since the 26th of January, 1968, There are two Head Tras-lators, four Translators, two Stenographers, one Junior Accountant, one Librarian, two U. D. Cs., four L. D. Cs and eight class four servants in the Vibhag.

(ix) Directorate of National Cadet Corps The National Cadet Corps (N.C.C.) was born in Rajasthan in

36S /j Modem Education in Rajastlian

1949, that is, a year after it was established in the country by the Government of India. But the N.C.C. Directorate in Rajasthan was established in January, 1963. It has now four Group Headquarters at Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota and Udaipur controlling 36 NCC Units comprising Army, Navy, Air Wing and Girls' Division and 305 Junior Division Troops. It covered all the three Universities of the State enrolling 13,520 Senior Division Cadets in 112 colleges and 27,300 Junior Division Cadets in 222 schools in the State in 1978-79.1

The various types of training events and camps arranged by the NCC Directorate bring about emotional integration, comradeship and a sense of adventure among the Cadets and widen their outlook.

(x) Directorate of Adult Education

A very extensive programme of National Adult Education Scheme was launched all over the country in 1978-79. To implement this programme efficiently in the State.a separate Directorate of Adult Education was established at Jaipur. To give fillip to this programme at the district level,where peasants' literacy campaign was already in vogue, six posts of District Education Officers were created. Within the jurisdiction of each of these six districts (Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Bikaner Udaipur and Bharatpur) three hundred adult education centres were opened under the peasants' literacy programme. Subsequently one hundred adult education centres were opened at each of the following ten other districts:

1. Jalore, 2. Nagaur, 3. Sirohi, 4. Ganganagar, 5. Bans-wara, 6. Jaisalmer, 7. Jhalawar, 8. Tonk, 9. Kota and 10. Alwar.

In addition to them 800 informal education centres were already functioning in Banner, Bhilwara, Jalore, Jhunjhunu, Bundi, Churu, Dungarpur and Pali districts.

The State Government had also tried to bring forward and encourage, in accordance with the Central Government policy, voluntary service societies working in the field of adult education.

1. Pragati Prativedan (Shiksha), (Progress Report of Education in Hindi)-1978-79, p. 22. Government of Rajasthan Publication, Jaipur.


Such societies had, therefore, been entrusted with the work of organising adult education centres at different places. Rajasthan has thus sincerely tried to implement the adult education programme.

C. Academics

Rajasthan has a glorious tradition of literary pursuits and a long and uninterrupted heritage of cultural achievements. Here efforts had always been made to impart aesthetic education and to create opportunities for literary endeavours. The State also did not lag behind in this field. It established the following Academies in the post-independence period.

Rajasthan La I it Kala Akadami, Jaipur.

The Rajasthan Lalit Kala Akadami was established at Jaipur in 1957 to foster activities in the sphere of visual and plastic art. Its main aim is to encourage cultural unity and promote research in the fields of painting, sculpture, architecture and applied arts. It also coordinates art associations. Besides publishing literature on art-including monographs-journals and art albums , it recognises the outstanding achievements of artists and awards scholarships and prizes to deserving ones. Folk Art is also encouraged by the Akadamy which organises regional surveys of indigenous craftsmen, painters and sculptors.

The Akadami has organised a number of art exhibitions where the masterpieces of selected painters, sculptors and othet artists were put on show. Apart from organising all-India symposia on art, the Akadami has also served the cause of artists of the State by giving scholarships, grants and awards to many needy and deserving artists.

Rajasthan Sangit Natak Akadami, Jodhpur.

Rajasthan has a rich legacy of folk culture, folk songs, folk dance and folk dramas. A household department-such as Gunijankhana or Patarkhana had been established in some of the former Rajput States where talented singers, dancers and musicians were regularly employed and patronised. To revive and develop these cultural traditions, the Sangit Natak Akadami was established at Jodhpur

370 Modem Education in Rajastkaii

on 6th September, 1957. Its main aims have been to bring the talented artists, musicians, dancers, singers and other folk artists-before public eye", to create opportunities for them to demonstrate and exhibit their histrionic talents and to help them financially through awards, grants and aids etc. for developing their inherent aptitudes. To achieve some of these aims the Akadamy has periodically organised at different places in the State music conferences, dance festivals, dramatic performances, seminars and symposia etc.

Another notable achievement of the Akadamy has been the recording of hundreds of tunes, playing of musical instruments, talks by some of the topmost artists and songs including folk songs of Bhils, Sansis, Dholis, Kanjar and other aboriginal tribes. It has also made a few short films on the different types of Rajas-than folk dramas such as Shekhawati Khyal, Kuchamani Khyal, Turra Kalangi, Rawalon ki Rammat and Rasdhari of Me war and on folk dances such as Gindar, Gair and Dandia etc.

Thus Rajasthan has contributed its own share in the development of Indian classical music and Kathak dance.

Rajasthan Sahitya Akadamy, Udaipur. The Rajasthan Sahitya Akadamy was established at Udaipur on 28th January, 1958, to promote literary traditions. Its main aims have been to bring the literary persons and societies in the State together, to create among them a spirit of cooperation, to organise literary conferences, seminars, poetical symposia and exhibitions etc. It recognises the outstanding literary works of eminent litterateurs and gives scholarships and fellowships to deserving persons and helps them in the publication of their works. To encourage literary pursuits, the Akadamy publishes four periodicals in four different languages. One of them is a monthly magazine in Hindi called 'Madhumati'. The other three are quarterly journals, namely, -Swarmangala' in Sanskrit, 'Nakhli-stan' in Urdu and 'Jagtijot' in Rajasthani.

The Akadami has also celebrated the Jayantis (birthdays) of Sur, Tulsi, Meera, Prithviraj and Tessitory etc. Thus the Rajasthan Sahitya Akadamy has helped the growth and development of fruitful literary pursuits in the State,


Rajasthan Hindi Granth Akadamy, Jaipur.

Tht Government of India launched a scheme in 1968 of making the regional languages the medium of instruction for higher education. To achieve this objective, a number of Hindi Granth Akadamies were established in the different Hindi speaking regions of the country to encourage scholars text-book writers and University Professors to write original books in Hindi for higher education and to get those already written in English translated in the regional languages. The Rajasthan Hindi Granth Akadamy came into existance at Jaipur in July, 1969. During the last more than a dozen years the Akadamy has published hundreds of standard books in Hindi-both originals and cranslation-on all subjects of human knowledge.

Urdu Akadamy

Till 1975 the Rajasthan Sahitya Akadamy looked after the development and progress of Urdu language and literature in the State, but in that year a separate Urdu Akadamy was established at Jaipur. It was an important step to give greater encouragement and financial assistance for the development and expansion of Urdu language and literature in Rajasthan, whi;h is basically a Hindi speaking State. It is hoped that more and more people will now feel encouraged to learn and master this language.

Sindhi Akadamy

One important after-effect of the partition of India in 1947 was the great exodus of Hindus from sindh to India. They had come to this country with their culture and traditions and with a language which they continued speaking after their migration to a new land. The number of Sindhis now living in Rajasthan is great, perhaps next only to Bombay. Naturally they were anxious to preserve aud retain their language and literature which they were earnest to develop on right lines. The State Government also realised their anxiety and, therefore, established the Sindhi Akadamy at Jaipur in 197S-79.

Sanskrit Akadamy

The Government of Rajasthan announced on the occasion of the


Sanskrit day in 1980 the establishment of the Rajasthan Sanskrit Akadamy at Jaipur. Its main aim is to preserve the language and literature of Sanskrit in the State, to bring the rare and unknown manuscripts to light, to edit and annotate and translate them in Hindi and thus to make them accessible to the readers and to preserve and popularise the traditional and old system of recitation of the Vedas on right lines. It has many more aims in view. The Akadamy will also function as a Central Sanskrit Institute in the State. Dr. Mandan Mishra, at present Principal of L B. Shastri Central Sanskrit Vidyapith Delhi, has been nominated as the first Chairman of the Akadamy. The Akadamy has now taken in hand the work of editing "Swarmangla", a quarterly Journal in Sanskrit which has so far been edited by the Rajasthan Sahitya Akadamy.

D. Institutes

The Government has established a number of Institutes in the State to study the problems of Primary and Secondary Education and to improve its quality. They also impart training in new techniques and methods of teaching various subjects, particularly Science and Languages. These Institutes, which were opened under the Centrally sponsored schemes, are:-

The State Institute of Education, Udaipur.

This was established at Udaipur in 1963-64 for bringing about improvements in the standard of Primary and Secondary Education. Its main functions are to provide in-service training to Inspecting Officers and teacher-educators, to conduct research and experiments and to produce educational literature necessary for teachers and students.

The State Institute of Science Education. Udaipur.

The Government established the State Institute of Science Education at Udaipur in 1964 to develop a love for the study of Science and to find out Science aptitude in the young students. The Institute has evolved new methods of teaching Science in the Primary, Middle and Secondary schools and has given encouragement to a systematic and methodical study of Science at the school stage.


The State Institute of Language Studies.

All educationists have laid due emphasis on the importance of studying basic languages, without which a proper understanding and expression of other subjects of the curriculum is hardly possible. Realising this, the Government of Rajasthan, in cooperation with the British Council, started the State Institute of Language Studies at Ajmer (later on shifted to Jaipur) which has been organising in-service training programmes for the teachers of English language.

The H C. M. State Institute of Public Administration, Jaipur.

The Harish Chandra Mathur (H.C.M.) Institute, which has played a very important role in the improvement of the State Services, came into existence as the State Institute of Public Administration in 1963. Originating as the Officers' Training School at Jodhpur in 1957, it imparted in-service training to the Officers of the Rajasthan Administration Service. It organises orientation courses for senior school and college administrators. Thus it has played an important part in the planning and administration of Education. Likewise it has organised and conducted courses and orientation programmes for the officers of the other Government Departmeuts also.

National Institute of Ayurveda

It has already been explained that the erstwhile Jaipur State had established in August, 1946, an absolutely separate Ayurvedic College at its capital. A couple of years after that the State was merged in the Union of Rajasthan in March, 1949. Since then it was in the contemplation of the Central Government to establish an Institute of advanced Ayurvedic studies at Jaipur which had enjoyed a rich tradition of Ayurvedic studies lasting for more than a century. Accordingly the National Institute of Ayurveda was established at Jaipur in 1976 by the Government of India as a joint venture with the Government of Rajasthan. This Institute was to serve as a model to evolve and demonstrate high standard of teaching, training and research as well as to inclucate a scientific outlook for a study of Ayurveda. The Ayurvedic College which was already in existence at Jaipur was amalgamated, along with


its attached hospitals and the Regional Research Institute, with all their activities with the above National Institute of Ayurveda in February, 1976. An agreement was accordingly signed by the Secretaries of both the Governments on 21st August, 1980. which day has thus become a landmark in the history of Ayurvedic studies in Rajasthan.

Food Crafts Institute

To meet the growing needs of hotel industry in the State, a Food Crafts Institute was established at Jaipur in 1976-77 with the total grant from the Department of Food, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. In its.first year the Institute had admitted 54 students. Out of its grant a sum of Rs. 20/-lakhs was earmarked for the construction of the Institute building. Two new courses (i) Caning and Food Preservation and (ii) Travel and Tourism arc to be introduced in 1983-84.

Arabic and Persian Research Institute

Rajasthan is the only Hindi speaking State of India where a full-fledged Institute for the maintenance and preservation of Arabic and Persian manuscripts and books has been established. Tonk is the fortunate town where this Institute was opened on 4th December, 1978. An outlay of Rs. 32.00 lakhs has been provided for the Insititutc for the period 1980-85 including a sum of Rs. 20.00 Jakhs for the construction of the Institute building.

E. Boards

In addition to the Akadamies and Institutes mentioned above, there are a number of Boards functioning in Rajasthan which go with education. They are :—

The Board of Nationalised Textbooks

The Government of Rajasthan established the above Board in February, 1976, to prepare the best possible textbooks in conformity with the revised curriculum and to improve their quality from time to time. There is a Secretary of the Board with his headquarters at Jaipur.


The Board of Departmental Examinations

The Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education conducts some departmental examinations through its above Board. There is a Registrar of the Board whose headquarters are at Bikaner.

The Board of Technical Education

This Board, which is under the direction and controi of the Directorate of Technical Education, is located at Jodhpur. It conducts examinations for the candidates of the Polytechnics in the State. There is a Registrar of the Board and the Director, Technical Education, is its ex-officio Chairman.

F. Miscellaneous

The Vocational Guidance Bureau

The Bureau was established at Bikaner to advise and guide students in the selection of proper vocations for their life keeping in view their aptitude and bent of mind. The Bureau has its own Director who is under the overall control and supervision of the Director, Primary and Secondary Education.

The State Evaluation Unit

The Unit was opened at Bikaner in January, 1963 under the centrally sponsored scheme to bring out reform in the examination system. For this purpose it organises workshops and seminars. Its immediate Head is the Evaluation Officer.

Rajasthan State Sports Council

The Council was established for bringing about improvements in the standards of games and sports in the State. To achieve its object, the Council started regional coaching centres for promising and talented players and athlets in the State in different games and spotrs. The Council has a governing body with a President at its head.

This is a brief account of the various Directorates, Academies, Institutes, Boards and other Organisations through which education of different kinds and at different levels is being imparted in Rajasthan. The map after page 375 gives at a glance the

376 Modern Education in Rajasthau

locations of the administrative set-up and organisation of education in Rajasthau. The tabic below gives a clear idea of the organisational set-up and educational personnel in Rajasthan :

Organisational set-up and Administrative Personnel in Rajasthan

S. No. Category Name of the Organisation Location

1. A State Ministry of Education Jaipur B Directorates

2. (i) Directorate of College Education Jaipur 3. (ii) Directorate of Primary & Secondary

Education Bikaner 4. (iii) Directorate of Technical Education Jodhpur 5. (iv) Directorate of Sanskrit Education Jaipur 6. (v) Directorate of Oriental Research Jodhpur 7. (vi) Directorate of Archives Bikaner 8. (vii) Directorate of Archaeology & Museums Jaipur 9. (viii) Directorate of Bhasha Vibhag Jaipur

10. (ix) Directorate of National Cadet Corps Jaipur 11. (x) Directorate of Adult Education Jaipur

C Academies 12. (i) Rajasthan Lalit Kala Academy Jaipur 13. (ii) Rajasthan Sangit Natak Academy Jodhpur 14. (iii) Rajasthan Sahitya Academy Udaipur 15. (iv) Rajasthan Hindi Granth Academy Jaipur 16. (v) Rajasthan Sanskrit Academy Jaipur 17. (vi) Rajasthan Urdu Academy Jaipur 18. (vii) Rajasthan Sindhi Academy Jaipur

D Institutes 19. (i) State Intitute of Education Udaipur 20. . (ii) State Institute of Science Education Udaipur 21. (iii) Slate Institute of Language Studies Jaipur 22. (iv) State Institute of Public Administration Jaipur 23. (v) National Institute of Ayurveda Jaipur


24. (vi) State Institute of Food Craft Jaipur 25. (vii) State Institute of Arabic & Persian

Research Tonk

E Boards 26. (i) Board of Nationalised Textbooks Jaipur 27. (ii) Board of Departmental Examinations Bikaner 28. (iii) Board of Technical Education Jodhpur 29. (iv) Rajasthan Board of Secondary

Education Ajmer

F Miscellaneous 30. (j) Vocational Guidance Bureau Bikaner 31. (ii) State Evaluation Unit Bikaner 32. (iii) Rajasthan State Sports Council Jaipur 33. (iv) Katthak Kala Kendra Jaipur 34. (viii) Kendriya Sanskrit Vidhypith Jaipur

Numbers of Organisations assigned to different cities

Jaipur 1,2,5,8,9,10,11,12,15,16,17,18,21,22,23,24,26,32,27,34—19 Bikaner 3,7,27,30,31—J Jodhpur 4,6,13 & 28—¥ Ajmer 29—1 Udaipw 14,19, & 20 3 Tonk 25—1

II. Primary (Elementary) Education

Rajasthan was and still is very backward in Primary education, although great efforts have been made since independence to wipe away this backwardness. On the eve of the integration of the Princely States, Rajasthan had only 2864 Primary schools for boys and 331 for girls, but soon after integration these numbers rose to 3563 and 372 respectively!. During 1950-51 the number of Primary schools increased to 4336, which meant 27 Primary schools for every one lakh of population as against the all-India average of 58 Primary schools during the same period. At the end of 1981-82 23125 Primary schools were working in the State which increased the number of schools per one lakh of population to 66.

1. Review of Education in India (Rajasthan)-1961, pp. 5-6.

37 8 Modern Education in Rajas than

The total enrolment at the Primary stage was only 3.30 lakhs (2.75 lakh boys and 0.55 lakh girls) at the end of 1950-51, which meant 16 6 per cent only of the age group 6-11 as against the 42.6 per cent of all-India level. This level of attainment was the lowest in the country in 1950-51 except in Jammu and Kashmir. By 1981-82 the total enrolment in the Primary schools rose to 31.26 lakhs (23.41 lakh boys and 7.85 lakh girls). This increased the percentage of the school-going children from 16.6 to 69.11, that is, an increase of 53.5 per cent within three decades which when worked out, comes to an annual average increase of less than 2 per cent. In spite of this increase Rajasthan was even in 1981-82 at the lowest ladder of literacy (24.05 percent) in the country except Jamuu and Kashmir. This low percentage is mainly because the problem of literacy in the State had been so colossal in the past that in spite of State Government's best efforts the increase in the percentage of literacy has been negligible. This is also because Rajastan had to begin with a big handicap in 1950-51 which has yet to be overcome. The diagram on page 379 illustrates the progressive growth of literacy in Rajasthan.

The number of Primary school teachers was 6,566 in 1949 which increased to 50400 in 1981-82. Similarly the number of teachers'training schools rose from 12 in 1949 to 31 in 1981-82 which resulted in the increase of percentage of the trained teachers in Primary schools to 89.00 in 1981.

One of the most important events in the development of Primary Education in Rajasthan was the introduction of democratic decentralisation on 2nd October, 1959. Rajasthan was thus the first State in the country to accept the recommendations of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. In accordance with these recommendations Panchayat Samitis were established in all the blocks and they were given the entire control of Primary Education. Thus Primary schools in Rajasth an became cither full-fledged basic-schools or Primary schools oriented to the basic pattern and an integrated curriculum was followed in all of them. Efforts were also made to provide the schools with suitable buildings, play-grounds and school gardens. To improve the quality of

Educational Development in Rajasthan Aftet Independence 379

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Primary and Secondary Education, a State Institute of Education was established at Udaipur.

III. Secondary Education

Secondary Education is the vital link between Primary and College Education. For the former it provides teachers and for the latter it supplies students. Since the students at this stage are all adolesents, the importance of Secondary Education is undoubtedly great. That is why the Mudaliar Commission on Secondary Education (1952) suggested a course of eight years on integrated basic education followed by three years of Secondary Education—with a marked diversification of subjects—and finally, by three years of University Education leading to the First Degree. The Higher Secondary Course was to include social studies, General Science, three languages and a selected craft as compulsory subjects. The net result of the Commission's recommendations was to make Secondary Education terminal in character.

In pursuance of these recommendations, the Government of Rajasthan started Higher Secondary schools. Prior to that there were 732 Middle schools at the end of 1950-51. This meant 4 schools for every one lakh of population which was just equal to the all-India average of 4 schools. By the end of 1981-82 the number of Middle schools in Rajasthan increased to 5444(4812 for boys and 632 for girls).

The total enrolment at the Middle school stage was only 0.61 lakhs in 1950-51 which formed 5.4 percent of the total population in the 11-14 age group as compared to 12.7 per cent for all-India. Within the next three decades it increased to 8.21 lakhs—thus raising the percentage to 32.85 (51.27 per cent for boys and 13.16 for girls). The number of teachers in Middle schools in 1950-51 was 6486 (5570 males and 916 females) which increased to 45900 (35900 males and 10.000 females) in 1981-82. The percentage of trained teachers also increased from 34.2 in 1950-51 to 97.00 in 1981-82, as is depicted in the graph on page 381.


PERCENTAGE OF TRAINED TEACHERS

IN RAJASTHAN

1950-51 to 1981-62

I

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382 • Modern Education in Rajasthan

On the eve of the integration of the Princely States into the Union of Rajasthan, there were only 146 High schools for boys and 7 for girls. The Zibbu Committee was, therefore, of the opinion that the number of High Schools in the new State of Rajasthan in 1949 was quite inadequate for a progressive State. Accordingly the number of High Schools increased progressively and by 1981-82 the number of High (Secondary) and Higher Secondary schools in Rajasthan increased to 2517 (2151 for boys and 366 for girls).

Corresponding to the increase in the number of institutions, there was a substantial increase in the number of students. In 1950-51 the enrolment at the High/Higher Secondary stage was 17,661 (15,641 boys and 2,020 girls) which increased in 1981-82 to 4 lakh and 44 thousand students (3 lakh 70 thousand boys and 74 thousand girls). Accordingly the percentage of school-going children of the Higher Secondary stage was 1.8 (3.1% boys and 0.5% girls) as against the Indian figure of 5.3 per cent (8.7 per cent for boys and I.P. per cent girls) in 1950-51 which rose to 20.1 per cent (19.4 per cent for boys and 4.1 per cent for girls) in 1981-82. The percentage of school going children is depicted in the graph on next page.

The number of teachers in the High schools in Rajasthan in 1949 was 2,630. It increased to 3,367 in High/Higher Secondary schools (3,133 males and 234 females) in 1950-51. During the next three decades the number increased to 50,400 (39,100 males and 11,300 females) in 1981-82. The precentage of trained teachers in High/Higher Secondary schools was 36.6' in 1950-51 which increased to 100 per cent in 1981-82. The number of teachers' training colleges also rose from 2 in 1950-51 to 26 in 1981-82. Similarly the expenditure on Secondary Education increased from 1 crore 28 lakhs in 1950-51 to 7 crores and 65 lakhs in 1981-82. It will be seen from the above account that Secondary Education in Rajasthan has progressed both quantitatively and qualitatively. But there was the difficulty of getting qualified Science, Agriculture, and Craft teachers in adequate numbers. The State Government, therefore, appointed a Commi-ttee-with G. C. Chatterjee as its Chairman-to examine the system

Educational Development in Rajasilian After Independence 383

L

PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL-GOING CHILDREN

IN RAJASTHAN

1990-51 to 1981 -82

7 0 1

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0.50-51 55-56 80-61

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of Higher Secondary Education in Rajasthan and to recommend measures for its improvenment. The Committee recommended the substitution of a 3-year course in place of a 4-year course after eight years of Elementary and Middle Education. It also recommended the splitting up of the Higher Secondary Examination into two parts-one at the end of class X in the core subjects and the other at the end of class XI in 3 optionals and languages.

The State Government accepted these recommendations and introduced an integrated course in High and Higher Secondary schools. According to the new scheme students had common courses in High and Higher Secondary schools and were to be examined at a public examination at the end of class X, and those continuing their studeis further were to be examined at the close of class XI. This system had done away with the pre-University courses and students for higher education had now to join the First Year of the 3-year Degree Course after passing the Higher Secondary Examination.

Examinations at the end of the High/Higher Secondary school stage were now to be conducted by the newly-established Board of Higher Secondary Education, Rajasthan, Ajmer. The Board also prescribed the syllabus and selected and approved text-books for these examinations. For making suitable reforms in the existing system of examinations, an Evaluation Unit under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme was established at Bikaner in January, 1963. The Unit organised Workshops and Orientation Courses in the evaluation technique. A Vocational Guidance Bureau was also established at Bikaner. The establishment of the Unit and the Bureau brought about many reforms in the system of examination by which teachers were greatly benefitted.

IV. Higher (University) Education

When the University of Rajputana was established in July, 1947, it took over from the Agra University five Degree Colleges (including one Engineering and one Medical College) and 6 postgraduate Colleges and from the Ajmer Board 13 Intermediate Colleges (including 2 Training College for Teachers' Training


Certificate Examination).! Out of these Colleges 5 Intermediate and 2 Degree Colleges were run by private agencies. The remaining colleges were under the control of the State Government. The only one Degree college for women in Rajasthan-namely the Maharani's College-was located at Jaipur. It had 72 girls on roll in 1949.

On the recommendations of the Zibbu Committee new colleges were opened. Thus the number of colleges for General Education rose to 27 (21 for boys and 6 for girls), to 8 for Professional Education and to 5 for Special Education in 1950-51. During the successive Plan periods, there was substantial increase in the number of Institutions. The State also accepted the scheme of the 3-Years Degree Coure and started converting its Intermediate colleges into Degree colleges which work was completed in 1961-62.

During the Third Five Year Plan period two new Universities-one at Jodhpur and the other at Udaipur—were established. In the same period eight new colleges, including one for girls, were opened. But with the down-grading of the remaining Intermediate colleges to Higher Secondary standard and with the conversion of the local colleges of Jodhpur into the Teaching Departments of the University there, the number of colleges in Rajasthan during the Third Plan period still remained the same, namely, 96.

The number of scholars in the Teaching Departments of the Rajputana University in 1949 was only 26 (all boys), in colleges for General Education 10,671 (9650 boys and 1111 girls), in colleges for Professional Education 1,056 (1,047 boys and 9 girls) and in colleges for Spepial Education 687 boys^. During the subsequent Plan periods the numbers greatly increased in all fields of higher education. Thus during the academic session 196^-70 the enrolment figures in the Government colleges in respect of boys and girls were 21,878 and 4,22} respectively. In aided colleges there were 13,302 boys and 2,530 girls. Similarly

1. University of Rajputana: Annual Report for 1947-48, p. 12. 2. Review of Education in India (1947-1961)- Rajasthan, p. 13.


in the three Universities of the State there were 9,289 boys and 958 girls, while the corresponding figures in the constituent colleges were 4,205 and 2,970 repectively.i In 1973-74 the enrolment in the Universities and colleges was 96,000 or 3.5 per cent in the age group 17-23. During the next few years more emphasis was laid on qualitative rather than on quantitative improvement with the result that by 1981-82 many more subjects had been introduced at the post-graduate and graduate levels. The number of colleges also increased to 134 by 1981-82. Consequently the number of students at the higher education stage (University and college education level) had also increased to 1.52 lakhs. '

The expenditure figures also showed a proportionate increase from Rs. 6.43 lakhs to 19.94 lakhs in the University Teaching Departments, from Rs. 34.93 lakhs to 106.97 lakhs in colleges for General Education, from Rs. 8.42 lakhs to 59.02 lakhs in colleges for Professional Education and from Rs. 1.88 lakhs to 6.60 lakhs in colleges for Special Education during the period 1951-61.2 The Government of Rajasthan spent Rs. 16.07 crores on higher education in the State during the Fifth Five-Year Plan period (1974-79). A sum of Rs. 1.25 crores was set apart for the expansion of the existing educational facilities in the three Universities Adequate provision was made for the opening of new Government Degree colleges in areas which remained comparatively neglected. The Plan laid special stress on the consolidation of all the other schemes of higher education. These included an expenditure of Rs. 3.51 crores on improving the existing colleges by adding teaching blocks, laboratories, libraries, hostels and staff quarters. For the introduction of new subjects a sum of Rs. 30/-lakhs was set apart. The other highlights were a provision of Rs. I0/-lakhs for student-welfare activities, Rs. 13--lakhs for National Service Corps and Rs. 50/--lakhs for grants-in-aid to private colleges. The University Grants Commission also made available Rs. 15 crores as their matching share for the various projects taken up by the three Universities. A sum of Rs. 20/-

1. Hindustan Times, 15th August, 1973, p. 7. 2. Basic Educational Statistics (1962), p. ix


lakhs was earmarked for College buildings.1 Thus the total expenditure on college (higher) education in Rajasthan which was only Rs. 15.23 lakhs in 1959-50 increased to 102.02 lakhs in 1981-82.

To sum up, not only the number of colleges in Rajasthan had increased to 134 but the number of their scholars had also increased to 1.52 lakhs by 1981-82. Similarly the quality of the colleges had also been improved. They were enriched by the introduction of many new subjects both in the Degree and postgraduate colleges in all the faculties. This has now made postgraduate teaching available to a large number of students both in rural and urban areas. So far as financial grant was concerned, as against a sum of Rs. 3.70 crores spent in 1950-51, a sum of Rs. 18.95 crores (including a sum of Rs. 52.85 lakhs for scholarships and a sum of Rs. 42/- lakhs to the three Universities for their developmental plans) had been earmarked for education in 1981-82. This reveals a satisfactory progress of higher education in Rajasthan.

1. Indian Express, 15th August. 1973, p. 7

15. Educational Development in Rajasthan

After Independence (Continued)

Technical and Professional Education

Engineering Education

1. Biiia Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani.

The first batch of the Birla Engineering College, Pilani which was established in July 1946 passed out in 1949-50. It may also be pointed out here that the Birla Intermediate College, Pilani, which was already in existence was raised to the Degree standard in 1943 and to the post-graduate level in 1947. In 1950 Pharmacy course, was introduced and two years afterwards the College was bifurcated into (i) the College of Arts and (ii) the College of Science, Commerce and Pharmacy. Thus for the next twelve years (1952-1964) three separate Colleges, namely (i) Birla College of Arts, (ii) Birla College of Science, Commerce and Pharmacy and (iii) the Birla College of Engineering existed simultaneously at Pilani, During this period the Master's course in Electronics was started in the Engineering College in 1955 and four years later degree course in Civil Engineering was also introduced. It took four years more to add degree course in Chemical Engineering in 1963. Next year the greatest change took place when all these


institutions were converted into a Registered Society called the Birla Institute of Technology and Science.

In the new set-up the Arts, Science and Commerce faculties were relegated to a lesser position and the Engineering faculty occupied the place of pride in the Birla Education Trust. The Union Ministry of Education, meanwhile, declared the Institute a "Deemed" University (June, 1964) and it started functioning from 1st July, 1964. It introduced soon thereafter the Master' s course in Civil, Electrical, Mechanical (all in 1965) and the Chemical Engineering (in 1968). Thus it is now an all-India Institute for higher Engineering education enrolling more than 2,000 students. It is collaborating with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Ford Foundation for its development plans.

2. Magniram Bangur Memorial Engineering College, Jodlipur.

Appreciating the importance of Technical Education in the context of the programmes of modern economic development, the Government of Rajasthan started an Engineering College at Jodh-pur in 1951 with a substantial donation from Seth Bangur. Affiliated to the University of Jodhpur (1962), it is now functioning as a separate College in the Faculty of Engineering. Since it started with Civil Engineering course, it met a very genuine need of the State.

3. Malviya Regional Engineering College, Jaipur.

Under the third Five-year Plan, the Government of India launched a scheme of opening Regional Engineering Colleges-one in each region. Accordingly one Regional Engineering College was opened at Jaipur in July, 1963 as a joint venture of the Central Government and the Government of Rajasthan. It was named after the late Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya. The Master of Engineering Course in Metallurgy (non-ferrous) was started in July, 1971. The College also provided for its teachers the Master of Engineering course in Mechanical, Electrical and Civil Engineering branches. A one-year post-graduate Diploma course in Irrigation and Hydrology was launched in 1972-73 with the support of the Government of India,


To look after the Technical Education below the collegiate level, a separate Directorate of Technical Education was established at Jodhpur in 1957 for coordinating Polytechnics and Industrial Training Institutes. During the second Five-year Plan period (1956-61), 5 Polytechnics were opened at Jodhpur, Ajnier, Udaipur, Kota and Alwar for providing Diploma course in Mining, Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering and in Draftsmanship. During the third Five-year Plan period (1961-66) 3 more Polytechnics were opened at Bikaner, Bharatpur and Jaipur. Thus there were in 1978 8 Polytechnics and 16 Industrial Training Institutes functioning in Rajasthan. The courses provided in these Institutes include Blacksmithy, Carpentry, Civil and Mechanical Draftsman, Electrician, Wircman, Motor Mechanic and Survey.

Medical Education

A. Allopathic

The first Medical College in Rajasthan was opened at Jaipur in September, 1947. Subsequently four more Medical Colleges were established at Bikaner, Udaipur, Jodhpur and Ajmer.

1. Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur (1947)

The S.M.S. Medical College at Jaipur was formally opened in September, 1947, to meet the need of medical education primarily in Jaipur State and secondarily in the whole of Rajputana and its first session started more or less at the dawn of Indian Independence.

The Sawai Man Singh Hospital is the main teaching hospital attached to the College, the other hospitals being the State Zanana Hospital, the Hospital for Chest and Tuberculosis diseases, the Mental Hospital, the Lazaretto and Isolation Hospital and the Jaykeylon Hospital. Since then more money has been spent on these hospital buildings. Now all the Departments of the College are well equipped for post-graduate studies. The College has earned a name and good reputation both as a teaching as well as a research centre.


2. S. P. Medical College, Bikaner (1959)

The Sardar Patel Medical College, Bikaner, was started in July, 1959, to meet the growing need of doctors in Rajasthan. The College building is contiguous with the associated group of hospitals where the clinical departments of Medicines, Surgery, Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Ophthalmology and allied specialities are placed. The departments of Anatomy and Physiology are fully equipped and post-graduate studies in different branches of specialisation have also been started.

3. R. N. T. Medical College, Udaipur (1961)

The Ravindra Nath Tagore Medical College, Udaipur, came into being in July, 1961 Located in the immediate vicinity of the General Hospital, it houses the departments of Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology, Pathology, Preventive and Social Medicines and Forensic Medicine. Apart from the main College building, the General Hospital, Zanana Hospital, T. B. Clinic, Public Health Laboratory and the staff-quarters are also within its extensive campus.

4. J. L. Nehru Medical College, Ajmer (1965)

The Jawahar Lai Nehru Medical College, Ajmer, was started in July, 1965 to meet the ne~ds of medical education primarily of the inhabitants of the region. The J. L. Nehru Hospital and the Panna Dhai Maternity Home are attached to the College for teaching purpose. The College is well-equipped for under-graduate • and post-graduate studies in medical sciences.

5. S. N. Medical College, Jodlipur (1965)

The Sanrpurnanand Medical College, Jodhpur, was started in July, 1965 to meet the ever increasing need for medical education in Rajasthan. The following hospitals are attached to the College : —

Mahatma Gandhi Hospital (General Hospital), Ummaid Hospital for Women and Children, Hospital for Chest diseases, Mental Hospital, Isolation Hospital and Leprosy Hospital.


The brief account of medical education given above shows the growth of medical education in Rajasthan in the post-Independence period. There are now five Medical Colleges which are imparting graduate and post-graduate training in most of the major specialities. During the period of five years from 1967 to 1972, 17225 medical graduates came out of these Colleges. The State had become surplus and remained so upto the end of the Fifth Plan period despite the fact that the intake capacity of these Colleges has been reduced from 600 to 400.

6. College of Nursing, Jaipur (1963)

With the establishment of more Medical Colleges in the State, the need for trained nursing staff was greatly felt. To provide efficient and qualified nurses to the hopitals, a College of Nursing was established at Jaipur in 1963. A four-year Degree course in Nursing was introduced.

In the first year (1963) only 4 candidates got admission and the first batch of the Bachelor of Science in Nursing came out successful in 1968. In 1967 the Government had, however, decided to close the College due to economic cut, but those who had already been admitted continued their studies upto 1971 when they cleared their course and obtained the degree of B. Sc. Nursing. Thus during the period of eight years (1963-1971) 43 candidates had obtained their degree. In course of time as the dearth of trained and qualified nursing staff was keenly felt, the Government had to revoke their earlier decision and reopened the College in July, 1971. But hardly had it remained in existence for three years, when the Government again decided to discontinue it from 1974 on account of financial stringency. During this period (1971-74) 62 candidates had got themselves admitted out of whom 6 left leaving only 56 students on the roll. For sometime the fate of the College hung in balance, but the Government again decided to continue it and it is now functioning quite satisfactorily.

B. Ayurvedic Education

The growth of Ayurvedic education in the post-independence period has been fairly satisfactory. Thus whereas some of the older Ayurveda Colleges were closed (e. g. the Department of Ayurveda


in Shri Digambar Jain Sanskrit College, Jaipur, in 1962 and the Birla Ayurveda College, Pilani in 1970), some others were either established or upgraded during this period. The Parasrampuria Ayurveda College, Sikar (establised in 1944) was recognised by the University of Rajasthan for its Ayurvedacharya examination. A new College-Narain Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya-was started at Jodhpur in 1960 through the efforts of Vaidya Parmanand Sharma. For a number of years it prepared students for the Ayurveda Visharad and Ayurvedacharya examinations of the All-India Ayurveda Vidyapith, Delhi. It also coached students for the Bhishagvar examination of the Education Department of the Goverment of Rajasthan. It has now been recognised by the Rajasthan University for the pre-Ayurveda examination since 1970.

Government Ayurveda Colleges

Maharana Ayurveda College, Udaipur (1933)

As stated earlier the Maharana Ayurveda College was established at Udaipur in 1933 with Vaidya Onkar Lai Sharma as its first Principal. A series of brilliant Principals-Pandit Prem Shankar Sharma, Vaidya Roop Shankar Sharma, Kaviraj Pratap Singh, Pandit Shyam Sundar Sharma and Pandit Prabhu Datta Sharma not only put the College on sound footing but also enhanced its reputation. It is now known as Madan Mohan Malviya Government Ayurveda College.

Government Ayurveda CoHege, Jaipur (now designated as National Ayurveda Institute)

The Ayurveda Department of the Maharaja's Sanskrit College, Jaipur was separated from its parent body and was converted into a full-fledged independent Ayurveda College in August, 1946. Soon thereafter a 20-bed Ayurvedic hospital was opened along with an out-door section. The Departments of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmaceutics were also soon opened. A chemical laboratory had already been established. Further, to give proper incentive to Ayurveda, a Directorate of Ayurveda was established at Jaipur in 1951. Four years afterwards 10 more beds were added to the Ayurvedic hospital for gynaecology and child patients and the number of beds were later on increased to 100.


In 1956 when Ajmer-Merwara was merged in Rajasthan, the Directorate of Ayurveda was shifted to Ajmer. A year afterwards a separate 20-bed Ayurvedic hospital was opened at Jaipur in Novenmber 1957. This provided additional scope and more opportunities to Ayurveda students for practical training. In October, I960 an Ayurvedic Research Centre was opened in the College. All these developments led the University of Rajasthan to open a new Faculty of Ayurveda in 1967 and the Government Ayurveda College, Jaipur, was affiliated to it. Four years later post-graduate classes in Medicine were started in the College which in 1976 was converted into the National Institute of Ayurveda with financial help from the Government of India.

C. Unani-Tibbi Education

The Rajputana Ayurvedic and Unani-Tibbi College which was started at Jaipur in 1926 has done much for the spread of indigenous system of medicine since its very birth. The College which is now more than half a century old has proved its worth as the only Unani-Tibbi College in Rajputana.

D. Homoeopathic Education

The history of Homoeopathic treatment in Rajputana begau-as has been stated earlieri-at Jaipur in 1870 A. D. The first formal Homoeopathic teaching institution in Rajputana was opened at Bikaner in the thirties of the present century. The second institution was started at Jaipur in March, 1957 and was named Hahnemann Homoeo Mandirum. It now runs a study Centre and conducts examinations. During its existence of more than two decades the Mandirum has taught and trained nearly 400 Homoeopaths who are spread all over Rajasthan. A decade after the opening of the Mandirum, a regular Homoeopathic Medical College was established at Jaipur in September, 1965. It caters to the needs of not only the whole of Rajasthan but even of the adjoining States too. A four years' course is being followed in the College and the first batch of its trainees successfully completed the course in 1969 when the College was affiliated to the Homoeo

1. Vide Page 285 ante.


Board of Uttar- Pradesh. During its short existence of more than a decade and a half, the College has not only become popular in the Homoeopathic world but has also rendered good service to patients in Rajasthan and outside.

The Government of Rajasthan has also now recognised Homoeopathy as an approved medical science and has passed an Act called the Rajasthan Homoeopathic Medicine Act, 1969. According to it a Board called the Rajasthan Homoeopathic Medical Board was constituted which now conducts examinations and awards degrees. All the Homoeopathic educational institutions are affiliated to this Board which also registers Homoeopathic Medical practitioners all over Rajasthan.

The University of Rajasthan has also not only recognised the Homoeopathic system of medicine, but has actually started a Clinic in its campus. Medical bills of University employees for their Homoeopathic treatment are reimbursed just like their bills of Allopathic and Ayurvedic treatment. The Adult Education Department of the University has started a short-term course in Homoeopathy. Efforts are now being made for getting Homoeopathy included in the regular course of the University syllabus and for getting the same managed and controlled by the Ayurveda Faculty.

This brief review of Homoeopathic education in Rajasthan and the registration of more than 4,000 Homoeopathic Practitioners by the Rajasthan Homoeopathic Board has shown the popularity of this system of medicine.

Agricultural and Veterinary Education

For nearly a decade after 1942 the Thikana High School, Jobner and the D. A. V. High School. Ajmer (both later on upgraded to the Intermediate standard) were the only institutions in Raj-putana where the subject of agriculture was taught regularly. But in 1954 it was stressed by the first Indo-American Team on Agricultural Research and Education that to meet the needs of increasing human and animal population, India must achieve

1. Vide p. 318 ante.


self-sufficiency in food, feed, fibre and other agricultural products. With this aim in view, the Government of Rajasthan established a College of Agriculture at Udaipur in August, 1955. It was affiliated to the University of Rajasthan. But when the Rajasthan Agricultural University was established at Udaipur in July, 1962, the College was affiliated to it. To widen the scope of the new University by including the other faculties, its name was changed to the University of Udaipur in 1963.

The University has now three campuses-one at Udaipur, the second at Jobner and the third at Bikaner. So far as Agriculture and Veterinary Science are concerned, the following are the constituent colleges of the University at present :—

College of Agriculture having two campuses, namely,

( i ) Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur and

(ii) S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner.

College of Technology and Agricultural Engineering, Udaipur and College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Bikaner.

These Colleges impart systematic course of training in basic skills and scientific knowledge relating to the rural life of the country.

College of Technology and Agricultural Engineering, Udaipur.

This College, situated at Pratapnagar, near the Udaipur Polytechnic, provides specialisation in principles of science and engineering related to agriculture. The academic programme of the College is focussed on the integrated training in Agricultural Engineering which is primarily related to the needs of rural Rajasthan.

Other Institutions

In addition to the above Colleges at Udaipur and Jobner, agriculture is also now taught upto the B. Sc. standard in the D. A. V. College, Ajmer. Another College of agriculture in the private sector is managed by the Gramotthan Vidyapith at Sangaria in Sri-Ganganagar district where also agriculture is taught upto the graduation standard.


Veterinary Education

After the closure of the Veterinary School at Ajmer in 1905, there was no provision for veterinary education in the province for exactly half a century till the Government of Rajasthan opened its College of Veterinary and Animal Science at Bikaner in August, 1954. The College has its own dairy and poultry farms where practical training is imparted to the students. A few Danish bulls have been imported to improve the milk production in the local cows through artificial insemination. A very important adjunct to the college is the ambulatory clinic which provides clinical and diagnostic facilities with valuable treatment to the animals in the rural areas around Bikaner.

It addition to the post-graduate classes in the various branches of the Veterinary and Animal Science, it also organises refresher courses for 3 months' in-service candidates.

Education in Forestry

It has been mentioned in Chapter XI* that in most of the States of Rajputana the Rangers and the subordinate forest staff were generally untrained. A Forest School was, therefore, started at Kota in 1946 to train subordinate officers of the Rajputana States and Ajmer-Merwara. This School trained 95 candidates upto 1951 when it was closed down. Earlier a Forest school had been opened at Alwar after the formation of Rajasthan to train Foresters and three schools had also been opened at Banswara, Jhalawar and Udaipur to train Forest Guards. During the next two decades 340 Foresters and 2594 Forest Guards were trained at these Forest Training Schools. In addition to them, 40 officers and 49 Rangers had been trained at the Northern Forest Rangers' College, Dehra-dun upto 1967. Besides them, 7 officers were sent on study tours under the point four programme, F. A. O. and Colombo Plan Scholarships for advanced studies in Soil Conservation and two Conservators were.deputed to Sweden in 1966 for training in tree-breeding and Genetics under the scholarship of SIDA (Swedish International Development Agency).

1. Vide pp. 295-96 ante.


It would thus be seen that during the succeeding decades after the formation of Rajasthan the Department of Forest has made good progress in staffing the Forest Organisation of the State with personnel having requisite professional standards.

Commerce Education

The industrial development and expansion of banking facilities and the demand for entrepreneurs in Rajasthan after its formation depended entirely on a continuous supply of highly qualified and competent commercial personnel. Thus arose the steadily increasing demand for higher commercial education in the State in the Post-independence period.

The establishment of the Rajasthan College of Commerce at Jaipur in December, 1956 by bifurcating the Maharaja's College was an important event in the field of Commerce Education. Its main aim was to develop a model professional Institution for the teaching of Commerce in the State. It was then known as the Commerce College, Jaipur.

Another significant step was the introduction of Honours course in Commerce in the Rajasthan University in July, 1964. An important milestone in the sphere of Commerce Education in the State was the founding of the Institute of Correspondence Studies at Jaipur in 1968 for B. Com. (Pass) course. The Institute started a quarterly Bulletin called "Home Study" which is perhaps the only publication of its kind in the whole of India.

The establishment of a two-year M. B. A. Programme at Jodhpur in 1968 and of a one-year Programme at Jaipur in the same year forms yet another important landmark. The Jodhpur Programme is a two-year post-graduate course leading to the degree of Master of Business Administration. This Programme was initiated by the Faculty of Commerce, Jodhpur University. It aims at providing the Management Education to prospective business executives. The Programme is designed to develop managerial knowledge, skill, attitude and capacity so that the Graduates emerge out as professional Managers. Each year fifteen students are admitted through an open admission test.

The first Institute of Management in Rajasthan was established at Jaipur in 1974, It was only in 1967 that a one-year M.B.A.


Programme after post-graduation was launched with 11 students-including one girl student. Thanks to the generous donation by the Podars of Nawalgarh, a spacious building for locating the Podar Institute of Management was constructed by December, 1974. By this time the one-year M.B.A. course had been converted into a two-year course. Then with a view to develop managerial skill of the working executives, a three-year evening Programme for the post-graduate Diploma in Business Management was also started at Jaipur with the financial support of the Union Ministry of Technical Education and the State Government. Rajasthan thus can now keep pace with the other States in the held of Commerce Education.

Legal Education

Although the Maharana Bhupal College, Udaipur, was the first College in Rajputana where the teaching of law was introduced as early as 1946, the credit of establishing the first exclusive Law College goes to Jaipur where soon after the establishment of the University of Rajputana in 1947 a seperate Law College was started in the same year. Initially it was maintained and financed entirely by the Jaipur Durbar and was under the management of the State Education Department, but finally it was transferred to the Rajasthan University.

The first decade after independence was very important in the history of legal education in Rajasthan. Eminent educationists all over the country had criticised legal education as it was imparted in our Universities in the thirties and forties of the present century. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru had also drawn our attention to the shortcomings of legal education. The Radha Krishnan Education Commission too had considered the matter in details and had made some recommendations to improve it. The Rajputana University also gave serious thought to this important question and its Syndicate accordingly appointed on 23rd November, 1952, a Committee under the Chairmanship of Hon'ble Shri K. N. Wanchoo, the Chief Justice of Rajasthan, for the reform of legal education in the State. The other members of the Committee were : —


1. Shri L. R. Sivasubramaniam, Dean of the Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, Delhi.

2. Shri K.S. Hajela, Advocate General of Rajasthan and Principal, Law College, Jaipur.

3. Shri C. L. Agarwal, Advocate, Jaipur and

4. Shri N. C. Chaterjee, ex-Judge, Calcutta High Court, and Senior Advocate, Supreme Court, New Delhi.

Subsequently, Shri R. S. Soni, ex-Judge of the Punjab High Court, was appointed as an additional member of the Committee.

As a result of the Committee's recommendations suitable changes and amendments were made in the curriculum and course of legal education in the State. The most noteworthy change was the prolongation of the LL. B. course from 2 to 3 years. The teaching of this integrated course was to be done during day hours. Another change was the permission given for double course, that is, Law with M. A., but Law classes were to be held either in the morning or evening hours. These and several other changes reorganised legal education in Rajasthan on an efficient basis.

The Law College, Jaipur where LL.M. classes had been started in 1951 was tranferred to the Rajputana University in July, 1953. From the session 1961-62 the College was designated as the "School of Law" in conformity with the pattern adopted for other post-graduate Deparments of the University. The Head of the "School" was henceforth to be called the "Director". A new one-year Certificate course in Labour Law was started in 1961-62, while a Diploma Course in Labour Law was introduced in the next session. Another important addition to the Department was the institution of a Diploma Course in Criminology and Forensic Science. Thus the Jaipur Law College (subsequenty known as the University Law College and later on as the 'School of Law') has amply justified its existence as a model institution for Law teaching and research in Rajasthan.

The Law class which was in existence in the Maharana Bhupal College, Udaipur since 1946 was taken over by the Udaipur University from July, 1964. A separte constituent Law


College was, therefore, later on set up there which, in addition to the degree and post-graduate courses in Law, also now provides, instructions in Diploma Course in Labour Law, Labour Welfare and Personnel Management since 1970. Post-graduate course in Law (LL M.) was added next year.

Like its counterpart at Udaipur, the Jodhpur University had also instituted a Department of Law. The curriculum and courses of legal studies adopted there :.re almost the same as followed in (he other two Universities of the State. Since the seat of the Rajasthan High Court is located at Jodhpur, it is but natural that the highest degree and standard of legal studies should be provided by the Jodhpur University in its own Department of Law.

In addition to the School of Law functioning under the Rajasthan University at Jaipur and the Department of Law in the other two Universities of the State, provision for legal studies has been made in many of the post-graduate and degree Colleges also-both Government and private. Every region of the State has now facilities for the teaching of Law, The present position is that LL. M. course is being provided in the three Universities and also in the Dungar College, Bikaner. The University School of Law at Jaipur provides two other courses also, namely, Diploma in Legislative Drafting and Diploma in Taxation. Facilities for research in legal studies exist in all the three Universities which have produced a number of Ph. Ds. in Law, Rajasthan can thus now successfully vie with the other States of India in the sphere of legal studies.

Education for Teachers' Training

In some of the States of Rajputana Normal Schools had been established before 1947, but there was no Teachers' Training College where Graduate teachers could be trained for the B. T. degree. The Rajputana Education Board, therefore, established the first Training College in Rajputana at Ajmer in July, 1941. In the same year two more Training Institutions had been established at Udaipur and Bikaner, but they did not train Graduate teachers for the B. T. or B. Ed. degree of a University. This status they achieved later on when the Udaipur College was upgraded in


1948 and the Bikaner College in 1956 to the graduation standard and were affiliated to the Rajasthan University for its B. Ed. degree. In the meantime the Government of India took a retrograde step when they closed the Ajmer Teachers' Training College in November, 1949.1

We give below a-table showing the training courses which were in vogue in 1950. It gives us at a glance the training facilities which existed in Rajasthan two years after its formation :

S. No .. Training Course Location

1. B. Ed. Udaipur 2. T. T. C. Bikaner 3. T. T. I. Ajmer 4. H. T. C. (Hindustani Teachers' Certificate)

ol U. P. (formerly called V. T. C.) Bharatpur 5. V. T. C. of State Deparments Jaipur, Bikaner,

Udaipur, Kota, Alwar & Jodhpur

6. P. T. C. (Primary Teachers' Certificate) Parasramdwara for men (Jaipur), Paota,

Goner & Sawai Madhopur (all

. from former Jaipur State)

7. P. T. C. (for women) ' Jaipur 8. Arts and Crafts Course Jaipur.

The remaining 13 States had no such facilities.2

After the integration of the remaining Princely States with the Union of Rajasthan, the new Government reshaped its educational policy in January, 1950. It promised many facilities to private agencies for undertaking new schemes of educational development and expansion. Accordingly a number of Teacher's Training Colleges came into existence, most of which were being managed by private agencies. The number of Training Colleges

1. It was started again in 1957. 2. Mukerji, S.N. (Ed.)£rfucaf/on of Teachers in India-Rajasthan, Vol. I I , p.286

Educational Development in Rajasthan After Independence 403 '

rose to 26 in 1981-82. Five of them are now of Post-Graduate standard teaching up to the M. Ed. course.* During the period of 20 years (1953-73) 6\5 persons took their M. Ed. degree from these Colleges and 16 persons their Ph. D. in Education during the period of ten years (1963-73). The greatest percentage of these M. Eds. goes to the Rajasthan University mainly because four of the Training Colleges where the M. Ed. Course is being taught.are affiliated to that University and only one College to the Udaipur University. The percentage of women teachers obtaining M. Ed. degree was about 24 which number increased considerably during the succeeding years. This is an encouraging indication of growing interest among women for higher education.

VI. Education of Women

At the time, of the formation of Rajasthan in March, 1949, there were only 429 girls' institutions in the State, including 4 Women's Colleges for general education, 7 High Schools, 66 Middle Schools, 331 Primary Schools, 3 schools for professional education and 18 schools for special education exclusively meant for girls.2

This was indeed a dismal picture of girls' education in Rajasthan. The Government, therefore, tried to improve it. Next year (1950) the total number of girls' institutions increased to 570, consisting of 6 Colleges, 10 High Schools, 102 Middle Schools and 452 Primary Schools. But even after this slight improvement the percentage of school-going girls in the age-group 6-11, 11-14 and 14-17 was only 5 7, 1.6 and 0.5 respectively. Accordingly the percentage of literacy among girls was as meagre as 3.0 which

1. These five Colleges are:—

University to which affiliated

1. G.R.Seksaria Teachers'Training College, Udaipur. Udaipur. 2. Basic Teachers' Training College, Sardarshahar. Rajasthan 3. Banasthali Vidyapith Teachers, Training College,

Banasthali Rajasthan 4. Government Teachers'Training College, Bikaner Rajasthan 5. Regional College of Education, Ajmer Rajasthan

2. Review of Education in India (1947-1961), Rajasthan. p.15.


was indeed very low and deplorable for any progressive State. Special efforts were, therefore, made for covering such a wide gap during the next three decades as a result of which the position improved slightly as shown below :—

Number of Girjs' Institutions

Type of institutions 1950-51

Primary schools 452 Middle schools 102 High/Hr. Sec. schools 10

1960-61

614 202

69

Number of Girl Scholars

Primary section (6-11) Girls (in lakhs) 0.55

Percentage of school-going girls (5.7)

Middle section (11-14) Girls (in lakhs) 0 09

% age of school-going girls (1.6) High/Hr. Sec. sections (14-17)

Girls (in lakhs) 0.02 % age of school going girls (0.5)

2.15

(16.3)

0.28 (4.1)

0.08 (1.3)

Number of Women Teachers

1950-51 1960-61 Type of Number %age Number Schools of trained

teachers

Primary Schools 1005 (41.3) 2912 Middle Schools 216 (28.0) 2261 High/Hr. Sec. 234 (51.7) 1156 schools

%age ofTr. Trs.

(45.8) (43.5) (42.5)

1970-71

1113 262 175

3.81

(21.7)

0.69 (7.5)

0 31 (3.8)

1970-71 Number %age

of Tr. Trs.

7973 (49.9) 3535 (78.9) 3035 (75.1)

The above figures give us an idea of the development of girls' education during the three decades. The graph on the next page gives us the number of teachers of different stages in Rajasthan. Although some increase had been achieved, the disparity between the enrolment of boys and girls was still very great. For


6 0 .

55 .

50 _

45 _

, 4 0 _

m 3 5 -o

< § 30 -o X \-5 2 5 -in K 20 :r o

< o O 1 0 .

z 5 „

Q

NUMBER OF TEACHERS

IN RAJASTHAN 19 50-51 to 1981-82

//

7 / *

_ - e ^ a-

i ' • " l ' i i

1960-51 5 5 - 5 6 60-61 6 5 - 6 6

Y E A R >

/°4

/ y o45 9

^•^ / ^ 1

1 ? 40 * / . /

/ / / / / '

/ ' y / . . ^ '

1 70-71 8 1 - 8 2


example only 20 girls as compared to 100 boys attended the Primary schools in 1950-51. This number increased to 37 in 1969--70. Still it was much below the national average of 55 girls per 100 boys in 1965-66. Similarly as against 17 girls per 100 boys in 1950-51, 22 girls attended the Middle Schools in 1965-66. A

~sirrrilar disparity existed at the High/Higher Secondary stage also, for we find only 18 girls per 100 boys reading there, whereas the Indian level was 26 in 1966. So far as the percentage of girls attending the institutions of different levels was concerned, the same story was repeated. Consequently Rajasthan with its literacy of 24-05 percent as shown in the graph on next page was at the lowest level of literacy in the country right from the time of Independence. The Government of the State was quite conscious of it and adopted suitable measures to increase the enrolment of girls and to attract more lady teachers. Accordingly a sum of rupees 15 lakhs was set apart in 1972-73 for the development of Women's education in the State. These measures hrought about some progress in girls' education during the next decade as shown below :

Type of schools 1970-71 1980-81

Primary section (6-11) Girls (in lakhs 3.81

Percentage of girls (21.7%) Middle section (U-14)

Girls (in lakhs) 0.69 Percentage of girls (7.5%) High/Hr. Sec. section (14-17)

Girls (in lakhs) 0.31

Percentage of girls (3.8%)

A similar trend was visible at the higher stage also. In fact, the progress of women's education at the College level was more encouraging and hopeful keeping in view the feudalistic pattern of society and the orthodox and conservative ideas of the people both in rural and urban areas. The tables given below showing the progress of higher education among girls during the decade (1970-1980) amply bear out this view.

•6.95

(31.9%)

1.46

(12.1%)

0.71

(6.3%)

P E R C E N T A G E OF L I T E R A C Y


Progress of College education among girls

In 1972-731

Type of Colleges

Government Colleges Aided Colleges Non-aided Colleges Colleges under University control University

Total

Type of Institutions

Universites and Deemed as University Institutions of national importance Arts, Commerce and Science Colleges Medical Colleges Engineering Collej Teachers' Training Colleges (B. Ed.)

No. of Colleges

50 26 11

6 3

96

In 1979-80

No. of Institutions

4

1

120 5

?es 2

26

2

No. of girls

5419

32

20903 851 —

1753

No. of girls

5668 2577

479

1888 3019

13631

No. of Women Teachers

261

765 130

3

89

1. Annual Progress Report (Education) in Hindi: Govt. Publication (1972-73) p.4

2. Education at a Glance: Directorate of Primary & Secondary Education, Rajasthan, Bikaner (1979-80), p. 2.


Enrolment of girls in higher education by level in 1979-801

University Courses

P h . D . (a) Arts (b) Science

' (c) Commerce

(d) M. Phil.

Total

Graduation B. A. (All the 3 years) B. Com. (All the 3 yrs. B. Sc. (All the 3 yrs.)

Total

No. of girls

149 42 61

55

307

14937 .) 1087

3467

19491

Post-Graduate Courses No. of

(a) (b) (c)

girls

M. A. (Prev. & Final) 4048 M. Sc. (Prev. & Final) 530 M Com. (Prev.

& Final) 422

Total 5000

Diploma : Arts, Sc. & Com. 69 Certificate Course Arts, Sc. & Com. 290

Grand total of girls in Higher Education : 25,157.

In short, the responsibility for the growth and expansion of girls' education after Independence fell to the new State of Rajasthan and to its successive Governments, and although this expansion was not very great and much appreciable, it showed a slow but steady growth. The number of girls studying at the Collegiate and University level (25,157) in 1980 as indicated above was quite satisfactory in the State which was till recently steeped in feudal traditions and superstitious beliefs and where the social evils of early marriage and pardah were very widely prevalent.

Vll-Sanskrit Education

Rajasthan had, at its formation in March, 1949, 23 Sanskrit Colleges. 4 of them were Government and the remaining 19 were private colleges which were located in Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota and Bikaner units and scores of Sanskrit Pathshalas existed in some

1. Ibid Education at a Glance, p. 2.


of the other States But they were neither adequately equipped with teaching staff nor with other teaching aids and appliances. Moreover, modern subjects were not included in the syllabi of Sanskrit Education. Hence during the period of six years after the formation of Rajasthan, three Committees were appointed at intervals in 1949, 1951 and 1955 for the purpose of revising the syllabi. According to the recommendations of the first Committee modern subjects like Mathematics, English, General Science and Social Studies etc. were introduced upto the Praveshika standard, that is, upto class VIII. The recommendations of the second Committee (1951) resulted in the preparation in 1954 of the "NIYAMAVALI", that is, a set of rules. According to this 'Niyamavali' the course and syllabi of Sanskrit education were so amended that the teaching of modern subjects formed an integral part of Sanskrit studies.

To give further encouragement and create popularity of Sanskrit education in the State, the third Committee (1955) recommended the establishment of a Department of Sanskrit Education. Accordingly the State Government set up a separate Directorate of Sanskrit Education in 1958 to look after and manage all Sanskrit institutions in the State. With the establishment of this Directorate, Rajasthan earned the distinction of being the first State in India to establish an absolutely independent Directorate of Sanskrit Education in the country for the promotion and encouragement of Sanskrit Learning.

One of the first and very significant steps taken after the establishment of the new Directorate was the shifting of the Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute from Jaipur to Jodhpur in December, 1958. Another important step taken was the Government's decision to standardise Sanskrit institutions. Accordingly all Sanskrit institutions were categorised as follows :

Purva Praveshika Pathshala .... Middle School Praveshika Pathshala .... High School Upadhyaya Mahavidyalaya .... Intermediate College Shastri Mahavidyalaya .... Degree College

Acharya Mahavidyalaya .... Post-Graduate College

Educational Development in Rajasthan After Independence 4 11

Then to make the Sanskrit-qualified persons eligible for appointment to State Service, the Government recognised the Praveshika, Madhyama, Upadhyaya. Shastri and Acharya examinations with English and other subjects as equivalent to High School, Intermediate, B. A. and M. A. examinations respectively.

To encourage research work and to create interest in higher literary activities, the State Government introduced a scheme of giving financial aid and awards every year to prominent Sanskrit scholars in the form of

(i) Creative allowance @ Rs. 100/- per mensem,

(ii) Subsistence allowance @ Rs 100/- per month and

(iii) Merit Award ranging between Rs. 2,000/- to Rs. 3,000/-

The Government sanctioned and adopted this scheme in 1960 since when several eminent Sanskrit scholars have been benefitted. Scores of scholarships were awarded every year on merit to brilliant students reading in Sanskrit Pathshalas and Colleges. The State Government also appointed a Standing Advisory Board of eminent Sanskrit scholars and educationists to advise the Government on matters relating to Sanskrit Education.

Thus not only the work and worth of prominent Sanskrit scholars recognised, but regular grants-in-aid amounting to nearly four lakhs of rupees every year were given to more than fifty non-Government Sanskrit institutions Besides this, financial grants were paid to Sanskrit Sammelans (Conferences) held every year on State and sometimes on an all-India level. The tradition of celebrating Jayantis (birth anniversaries) of old Sanskrits poets, dramatists and writers such as Kalidas, Magh, Bhavbhuti, Bharavi etc. was also started and Government gave financial grants for the same. '

Training facilities for teachers working in Sanskrit Pathshalas and having modern subjects were provided in the Training Schools of the Stale. Praveshika or Upadhyaya passed teachers with English were deputed for Basic S. T. C. training course. Teachers possessing Shastri and Acharya degree with English were sent for the B. Ed. course in the Training Colleges of the State.


After the establishment of the separate Directorate of Sanskrit in 1958, every effort was made to expand and improve Sanskrit education in the State. Accordingly the number of Sanskrit institutions and of the students reading therein both increased considerably. Thus whereas there were only 120 Sanskrit institutions of all levels in the State in 1959-60, the number increased to 219 in 1978-79 and to 253 in 1980-81 as shown below:-

S. No. Level of the Govern-Institution. ment.

Aided Recog- Total Total nised in 19791 in 1981 a

1.

2.

3.

A.

5. 6.

1978-Sanskrit Colleges of higher standard affiliated to Rajasthan University: Acharya ) Shastri ) 11 Shiksha Shastri (B. Ed.) Purva-Praveshika and Praveshika affiliated to the Secondary Education Board, Ajmer. 42 Higher primary Sanskrit Schools 1 Primary Sanskrit Schools — B. S. T. C. (Sanskrit) 1 Hostels —

-1979

14

41

31

3

3

8

47

17

28

91

79

17 1 3

14 31

- 3

90

81

30 1 3

Total 55 89 75 239 253

Similarly the number of students also increased from 9140 in 1959-60 to 47, 056 in 1978-79 and to 52, 861 in 1980-81.

The Rajasthan Board of Secondary Education, Ajmer, conducted the praveshika and Upadhyaya examinations, and the Rajasthan University the Shastri and Acharya examinations. The Univer-sity also introduced a new Faculty known as "Sanskrit Faculty".

1. Progress Report, (Education)- Rajasthan (1978-79) p. 13. 2. Progress Report (Education)- Rajasthan (1980-81) p.-5.


This was a very wise step, for it not only improved the tone and standard of Sanskrit education, but also created interest among the intelligentsia for Oriental Learning. The Government also tried to make the study of Sanskrit education more profitable and paying by introducing typing and Shorthand courses in four of its colleges.

Thus the progress of Sanskrit education made in the decade immediately following the establishment of the Directorate in 1958 continued in the next decade (1969-1979) also. Earnest efforts were made to achieve quantitative as well as qualitative improvement in Sanskrit education. In fact, Rajasthan may now hope to be included in the few States in the country which have sincerely tried to bring Sanskrit Education in line with the modern system of education. The very fact that nearly fiftythree thousand students were studying Sanskrit in Rajasthan in 1980-81 shows that people have now begun to realise the importance of Sanskrit education as a basis of cultural renaissance. A significant feature of this resurgence is that more than six thousand students belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes were studying Sanskrit in Rajasthan in that year. It is thus gratifying to note that the study of Sanskrit is not restricted to the students of the twiceborn castes alone,.but even the students of the so-called Shudra Varna have now taken to it. This is a great Social change in our ideas and thinking.

16. A Brief Survey of Modern Education in Rajasthan

We have traced in the preceding pages a history of the genesis, growth and development of Modern Education in Rajasthan during the last more than a century and a half. This history can conveniently be divided into three periods of unequal length. The first period covers the entire nineteenth century During this duration the credit of establishing schools of modern education goes to three agencies. In the first place come the British Political Agents who got established through the munificence and generosity of the Rulers, to whom they were accredited, modern schools at their capitals. Those Political Officers not only successfully subdued the opposition of the State 'Mutsuddies' (officials), but seized every 'opportunity' of promoting education in the States where they were posted.

The second agency comprised the Christian Missions, the earliest of whom were the Scottish Presbyterians who established their first station in Rajputana at Beawar in March, 1860 A. D. The next to come were the Canadian Methodist Episcopal (1874), the Roman Catholic (1876), the Church Missionary Society (1880), the Church of England (1883) and the Society for the Propagation of Gospel (S.P.G.) Missions. The last of them came at the end, but their year of arrival in Rajputana is not known. The advent of these Missions witnessed the earliest attempts for the introduction of education in the private sector. Their pioneering work in the field of education showed the path to the Government

A Brief Survey of Modem Education in Rajas than 415

which gradually stepped in and took over the responsibility of educating the common people in the province.

The third agency comprised private educational efforts. In this connection the first to enter the field was the Arya Samaj Education Society, Ajmer, which established an Ashram School there in 1888 A. D. This later on became the famous D. A. V. College. The Jains and the Muslims of Jaipur also played their part, besides the Thikanas of Khetri, Jobner and Chomu (all in the former Jaipur State) in providing education in the nineteenth century.

These agencies established the earliest Primary and Secondary schools in the various States, but their scope was quite limited mainly because of the meagre resources of the smaller States and their reluctance to levy any educational cess as also due to the apathy and indifferent attitude of the majority of the people who were interested more in agriculture and farming. The wealthy classes were rigid and conservative who attached practically no importance to learning and academic knowledge. Hence education in the States of Rajputana at the end of the nineteenth century was, according to Reid, "very limited."!

Certain broad features may be discerned here. First, education in Rajputana (except Jaipur) during the nineteenth century was poor as compared to the general standard of education in British India. Secondly, Rajputana was very backward in technical education, although some of the States had tried to

-provide an "elementary technical education and had opened classes for the same. They had also deputed some of their students outside for training in civil and revenue administration, forestry, surveying, civil engineering, agriculture and medicine etc. Thirdly, the private agency of education consisting of wealthy individuals or communities had not yet entered the field except the Christian Missionaries and the Arya Samaj. The latter assumed importance and its contribution became significant only in the next century.

1. Reid, F. L. :Report on the state of Education in the Native States of Rajputana (1905), para. 6.

416 Modern Education in Rajasthcm

The second period covered educational development from the beginning of the present century till the advent of Independence in 1947 A. D. This period is characterised by the growth and development of education in the province at all levels. The national movement in the country and the political ideas then prevalent in society had greatly influenced the policy and pattern of education. It was quite natural that the States of Rajpulana should also have been affected by this new change in thinking and perspective in the country and many of them, therefore, passed an Act by which compulsory primary education was introduced in some of their selected areas. As a result of such efforts the number of primary schools increased, but still the percentage of literacy in Rajasthan at its formation was very low.

We may now summarise the salient features of educational development in Rajputana on the eve of Independence. The first period which covered the last three quarters of the nineteenth century was marked by the formation of a faint educational policy which was halting, irregular and unsystematic and which differed from State to State. The second period which covered the first half of the present century was characterised by the expansion and development of education in which the official as well as the private agencies both took active part and contributed their share. The national movement in the country had made people conscious of the defects and drawbacks in the current educational system. Consequently a demand for radical changes in the whole educational system was continuously made. Hence some bold experiments were made in some of the progressive educational institutions in the province which was a distinguishing feature of this period.

Efforts for the expansion of higher academic, professional and technical education constituted an important landmark of this •period. The establishment of the University of Rajputana marks another milestone in the march of education which provided good scope and opportunities of higher education to the local talented youth.

The first and the most important feature of the third period which began after Independence was the reorganisation and

A Brief Survey of Modem Education in Rajasthan 417

integration of education in the newly-formed Union of Rajasthan. This could be achieved as a result of the recommendations of the two Committees appointed by the Matsya Union and the Union of Greater Rajasthan. These recommendations were mostly accepted and implemented by the new Government. Accordingly the organisational set-up and personnel of education was overhauled and the integration of officers completed. When Ajmer-Merwara was merged in Rajasthan in November, 1956, some more steps were taken to improve, expand and reorganise education in the State.

Literacy and a minimum standard of education being the sheet-anchor of democracy, the new rulers and administrators of Rajasthan took a keen interest in elementary education, set apart a substantial amount of money (Rs. 149.16 lakhs) for primary and secondary education in the State in 1950-51 and opened hundreds of new schools every year and appointed teachers there. This resulted in a total additional enrolment of nearly 28 lakhs in 1981-82 which roughly means an average increase of more than ninety-thousand fresh scholars every year. The number of teachers also increased considerably. Thus beginning from 1951, the three decades (1951-1981) of planned development have al- , most been completed in the State and a ceitain level of educational progress has been achieved. However, when we compare this level with that attained at the national level, it reveals that the State has still a long way to go before it may attain the national standard or the standard of other States' development.

The growth and development of secondary education (including education at the middle stage) fared comparatively better. The State had realised that the entire educational system was to be seen as one complete chain, because it is through this that a direct link could be established with the primary and the higher stages of education. As such secondary education gained immense importance and the pattern of education was streamlined at this stage and linked with the needs of economic development, Accordingly the State made every effort during the two decades commencing from 1960 to increase the number of schools and students at all the three stages. The two graphs given on pages 418 and 419 fully illustrate this fact.


<

z

V

(-2

Ll

C

V

\

32 -•

30 -28 .

26 .

24 -

22 _

20 .

IS _

16 -

12 -

10 .

1

8 _

> 6 -

4 _

2 '-,

0 j 1950

ENROLMENT OF STUDENTS

IN RAJASTHAN ^t

1950-51 10 1931-82 /

i / v /

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r i i i i • » -51 55-56 60-61 65-66 70-71 81 -02

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Board of Secondary Education, Rajastlian, Ajmer

Since its very inception in August, 1957, the Board not only conducted various examinations, but also took in hand several schemes and projects for the expansion, development and improvement of Secondary education and for the welfare of students, teachers and its employees as detailed below :—

Recognition of institutions

The Board has given recognition upto 1980 to the following number and type of institutions :

Type

Secondary Schools Higher Secondary Schools Sanskrit Schools (Praveshika) Sanskrit Schools (Upadhyaya)

Total

Number

1648 481

91 - 47

2267

Examination work

The Board conducts various examinations. The diagram after page 420 gives at a glance the number of candidates appeared at and passed the High/Secondary and Higher Secondary examinations from 1958 to 1981. The number increased considerably in the succeding year as is evident from the following figures :

Examination Number of candidates (1982 year)

Secondary School Exam. 2,05,785 Higher Secondary School Exam. 99.459 Sanskrit Praveshika Exam. 1,423 Sanskrit Upadhyaya Exam. 690

Total 3,07,357

Academic work of the Board

Orientation progrmmes, workshops, seminars, symposia, extension lectures etc, are some of the academic activities which the Board


regularly organises. Internal assessment, correspondence course, contact programmes are other schemes which have been introduced to benefit the students. Teachers' welfare Trust and scholar ships are the financial aids which the Board gives to teachers and students respectively.

It is schemes like these that have made the Board one of the foremost organisations in the field of Secondary education in the country.

Higher Education

At the formation of Rajasthan the State had only one University and 40 Colleges working in the province. This number increased by 1981 to 4 and 134 respectively. Consequently the number of scholars and the amount spent on their education also increased considerably. The following table shows the growth of Higher education in Rajasthan during the three decades after its formation : -

Years Number of Number of Number of Colleges Students Teachers

1950-51 40 10,326 872 1960-61 76 31,242 2452 1970-71 113 74,232 5583 1980-81 130 1,31,934 6,466 1981-82 134 1,52,000

The figures given above show a good take off in higher education during the earlier Plan periods. This was because the State had at the helm of its affairs an administrator of the calibre of Mohan Lai Sukhadia who was a tower of strength both as the Education Minister and as Chief Minister, The University was fortunate enough to have as its earlier Chancellors, Vice-Chancellors and Registrars men of academic interests and scholastic attainments who always took active interest in the progress and welfare of the University. Their successors were also capable persons who tried to make steady and continuous progress in all the Departments ot the University. Thus there has been both quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement in

4 22 Modern Education in Rajusthan

the field of higher education in Rajasthan during the post-independence period.

Although colleges have been started at some other places also in the State, Jaipur may claim the honour of having the highest number of colleges opened during the post-independence period. In this connection the efforts made by the Agarwal. Jain, Pareek Brahmin and Khandelwal communities have been commendable, for the colleges they have opened met a real need of higher education in the city. The Bharat Sewak Samaj opened the Lai Bahadur Shastri College. All these have been men's colleges, although there is no restriction on the admission of girls in them. But a number of exclusively women's colleges have also been opened in the city, fn this respect the credit of being the first women's college in the private sector goes to the Kanodia Manila Mahavidyalaya. It was opened by the Kanoria Charitable Trust in 1965. Initially it began in the building of the Podar Deaf, Dumb and Blind school, but later on shifted to its own building. It has at present 1200 girl students on roll.

The second women's college to come into existence is Sri Sathya Sai College for Women. It was opened with eight girls in 1974. It had also no building of its own in the beginning and was started in the Chomu Haveli near Zorawar Singh ka Darwaza. It began with meagre resources and admitted such girls who could not get admission in the two prestigious colleges in the city. Later on it also succeededjn acquiring land and shifted to its permanent building in Jawahar Nagar in October, 1978, Commerce is taught there since 1975. It is a college which has adopted job-oriented courses and looks to the needs of girls from mindle-class families who are interested in making a career for them.

The Jain community has opened two women's colleges-one in the heart of the city and the other in a remote colony The former is Shri Veer Balika Mahavidyalaya which originated as a primary school in 1925 and after half a century became a degree college for women, in August. 1974. Originally it started as an Arts college and ran for three years as a Coaching Institute on an experimental basis. Success emboldened its sponsors to give it a permanent shape. It was recognised by and affiliated to the

A Brief Sui vey of Modern Education in Rajasthan 4 23

Rajasthan University in 1977. Commerce was introduced in 1982-83 with 92 girls. It is now the only Women's Commerce College in Rajasthan where Statistics as a part of Economics and Typing and Shorthand are regularly taught. It has thus fulfilled a very real need of imparting Commerce education to women in the city. The other women's college started by the Jain community is Sant Jayacharya Mahila Mahavidyalaya which has been opened in Shastrinagar-a very remote and distant colony in the north-west part of Jaipur. For many kilometres roundabout this locality there was no women's college and such girls who desired to get higher education had to go to read in distantly-located women's colleges in the city. As such the opening of this college has served the interests and satisfied the higher educational hunger of a large number of girls in the remote areas.

Another women's college which has been opened in the very heart of the city is the Parcek Women's College. Initially it started as a separate women's section of the S. S. G. Pareek Degree College in Bani Park. But it was shifted this year to its present building on the Nahargarh road, Being very centrally located, it is of great use to girls in the city who find it more convenient to attend than the other two older colleges situated outside the city.

The most important and significant event, however, in women's higher education not only in Rajasthan but in the whole of India is the conversion of the Banasthali Vidyapith into a Women's University. This ceremony was performed only very recently on 1st November, 1983, by nobody else than the Prime Minister of India-Smt. Indira Gandhi herself. It is indeed a great milestone and a landmark in women's higher education in the country. Banasthali primarily and Rajasthan secondarily have thus earned the reputation of having the second Women's University in India, the first being the S. N. D. T. Women's University, Bombay. Rajasthan may now take pride in having 31 women's colleges in the State.

So far we have given an account of academic colleges-either men's or women's colleges-run on modern western lines. But a Vidyapith as a combination of the Eastern and Western systems


of education was started at Jaipur with the initiative and financial support of the Government of India. It is the Kciidriya Sanskrit Vidyapith opened in May 1983. It provides education to students for Shastri and Acharya courses as well as Shiksha Shastri (B. Ed.) course. The medium of instruction in the Vidyapith is Sanskrit. There is also provision for research in oriental subjects in the Vidyapith and it prepares candidates for the degree of Vidyavaridhi (Ph. D.). The Vidyapith started with 125 students and 9 Professors-including the Principal. A special feature of the institution is the moderate fees . charged from the candidates of the Shiksha Shastri course. It is the only Vidyapith in the whole of Rajasthan where facilities for research in Sanskrit exist.

In the medical field two Ayurveda Colleges of graduation level have been opencd-one at Sadulpur and the other at Sardar-shahar-with 60 seats in each college. An Ayurvedic Nurse Compounders' Coaching Centre has also been opened at Ajmer by the State Government. The Centre provides a three years' course of Ayurvedic nursing to one hundred candidates every year. It is the only institution of its kind in the whole of Rajasthan and is thus an important step taken in the field of the indigenous system of medicine.

Much progress in the field of technology, agriculture and forestry has also been made in the State in the post-independence period. Arts and culture too have been well looked after and proper provision has been made for their development and growth. The various Institutes, the departments of Archaeology, and Museum, Archives and Oriental Research etc. fully meet the cultural and aesthetic needs of the people of the State. The Ravindra Rang Manch with its open-air theatre cater to the recreational requirements of the people and make them lead a rich cultural life! Of late the State authorities have been paying due attention towards games, sports and physical side of human existence, For this purpose a separate Ministry of Games and Sports has been formed to which suitable financial grants have been made.

It will thus be seen that the progress of education at all

A Brief Survey of Modern Education in Rajastlmn 425

levels and of all grades in Rajasthan during the post-independence period has been quite conspicuous in spite of the limited resources and the various problems and difficulties which the State has to face This progress has been quite marked at the Collegiate and the University level which is apparent from the number of students, both boys and girls, reading in them. Of course, the progress of primary education has not been in proportion to,the large population of the State which had to inherit a legacy of appalling illiteracy. Naturally it would take a longer period to wipe away the stigma of centuries-old ignorance. The State has also made sincere efforts for the education of the weaker sections of society and its efforts in this regard have borne fruit, as is quite evident from the number of students of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes and girl students in general who are now flocking to the portals of educational institutions.

It may also be pointed out here that it is not only general education alone which the State has tried to foster and expand. The education of Arts and Culture has also attracted its attention and it has taken suitabls steps in this connection.

A sound mind in a sound body is an old maxim, the truth of which the State has fully realised. Consequently every effort is being made to accelerate games and sports in the province.

We have tried so far to give a resume of the growth and development of modern education in Rajasthan. In the next and the last chapter we shall attempt a critical appraisal of education in the State and give a few suggestions for its improvement.

17. Future of Education in Rajasthan : Problems and Remedies

In the preceding chapters the growth and development of modern education in Rajasthan has been traced. An attempt is now made in the following pages to analyse and appraise some of the educational problems facing the State along with suggestions for the consideration of the policy makers

The most incredible and spectacular achievement in the field of education since Independence has been the quantitative expansion of facilities at all levels of education in the State During the three decades (1950-1980) Primcry School enrolment increased from 3.30 lakhs to 28.38 lakhs (from 16.6 to 62.9%) of the age group 6-11, Upper Primery from 0 61 lakhs to 7.66 lakhs (from 5.4 to 30.6%) of the age group 11-14, Secondary and Higher Secondary from 0.J 8 lakhs to 4.17 lakhs (from 1.8 to 17.6%) of the age group 14-17. Higher education from 0 11 lakhs to 1.52 lakhs (from 0.1 to 4.5%) and the number of Colleges rose from 40 to 130 and Universities from 1 to 4 including a "Deemed" University.

Rajasthan, after its formation in 1949, made planned and sustained efforts to expand education at all levels. The late Mohan Lai Sukhadia, as the youngest Chief Minister of Rajasthan, himself took over in 1955 the portfolio of education and laid the foundation of a sound educational policy for improving the quality

Future of Education in Rajast.han : Problems & Remedies 427

of life of the people" of the State. Considerable progress in education was achieved under his stewardship. In spite of financial constraints, the State budget on education increased from 3.70 crores in 1950-51 to 18 95 creres in 1981-82, consuming more than 20 per cent of the total State budget. The State Education Department streamlined the administrative set-up, introduced work experience programme, formed school complexes, mobilised community resources for opening new schools and colleges, reformed the examination system and provided access to education to all children within one kilometre of their residence, Rajasthan also took the lead in preparing institutional and district educational Plans, establishing three-hour primary schools, setting up two autonomous schools (Vidya Bhawan, Udaipur and Banasthali Vidyapith), introducing panel inspections, working holidays, producing Text Books and establishing a forum for Head masters and teachers. The pay scales and service conditions of teachers of all categories have also been revised periodically. The State Council of Educational Research and Training has been playing an important role in organizing in-service training programmes for teachers, curriculum development, particularly in science and preparation of teaching-learning materials for untrained teachers.

Some of the urgent problems now requiring immediate consideration by the policy makers are indicated below ;—

Universalisation of Elementary Education

The Directive Principles of State Policy as enshrined in Article 45 of the Indian Constitution enjoins upon the States to provide for free and compulsory education for all children in the age group 6-14. This goal was to be achieved by 1960 but "despite the best efforts in the preceding three decades, Rajasthan has not been able to provide universal elementary education to the children of this age-group.

This programme implies universal provision of facilities, universal enrolment, universal retention and improvement of standards. So far the State Government has been able to provide a primary school within walking distance from the home of most children in the age group 6-11 and a similar facility at the upper primary (middle) stage is available for about 30 per cent of the


children in the age group 11-14. At the present rate it would be possible to achieve the goal of universal provision of schooling facilities for the age group 6-11 only by 1985. The progress towards universal enrolment has been unsatisfactory as indicated below :—

Age-Group 6-11 : Classes I-V (In lakhs)

Year

1950-51

1960-61

1970-71

1979-80

1981-82

Boys

2.75 (20.05%)

8.99 (64%) 13.50

(70.9%) 20.59

(91.9%) 23-41

(100.69%)

Girls

0.55 (5-7%) 2.15

(16.3%) 3.81

(21 7%) 6.63

(31.45%) 7.85

(36.0%)

Total

3.30 (16 6%) 11.14

(40.9%) 17.39

(47.4%) 27.22

(63.33%) 31.26

(69.11%)

Age Group 11-14 : Classes VI-VIII (In lakhs)

Year

1950-51

1960-61

1970-71

' 1979-80

1981-82

Boys

0.52 (8.9%) 1.79

(24.1%) 3.54

(35.7%) 5.79

- (45-86%) 6.62

(51.27%)

Girls

0.09

(1-6%) 0.28

(4.1%) 0.69

(7.4%) 1.35

(1167%) 1.59 ,

(13.16%)

Total

0.61 (5-4%) 2.07

(14.4%) 4.22

(22.01%) 7.14

(29-31%) 8.21

(32.85)

These figures include false enrolment. If universal enrolment in the age group 6-14 is to be attained by 1985, 39 13 lakh children will have to be enrolled and the present rate of growth of enrolment of 1.58 lakhs per year will have to be increased to 7,83 lakhs per year as against an average of 1.22 lakhs a year achieved in the

Future of Education in Rajasthan : Problems & Remedies 429

past 30 years i. e. about seven times more intake every year as compared to the past performance. Thus the proposed average additional increase of 7.83 lakh children in the age group 6-14 through formal and non-formal education .is "a gigantic and seeming ly unsurmoiuitable task". It is< difficult to achieve the proposed target (85.2%) by 1985 because the hardcore of non-attending children consist mostly of girls and children belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes and the other weaker sections.

A major problem that has been plaguing the primary education of the State relates to the high rate of drop-outs at the elementary stage which is a stumbling block in ensuring universal retention of every child once enrolled in the school. During the Fifth Plan, the drop-out at the primary stage (Class I to V) in the State was 57% among the boys and 63% among the girls. Further expansion of elementary education, during the Sixth Plan in the State is likely to increase the drop-out rate unless herculean efforts are made to improve the holding power of the elementary schools. This problem of universal retention is, therefore, even more difficult to be solved.

Article 55 implies both a quantitative and a-qualitative target. A great weakness of elementary education is its poor standard because of irrelevant content and poor quality of education. Improvement of the quality of elementary education is perhaps the most difficult aspect of the task and will need the most intensive and sustained efforts.

Report of the High Power Committee

A High Power Committee on Education (Jan-July 1975) appointed by Rajasthan Government made an indepth study of the problem of Universalisation of elementary education. This Committee, inter alia, recommended the need for increased allocation to elementary education, recruitment of the right type of teachers, optimum utilisation of available resources, a multi-point entry, non-formal centre for drop-outs, part-time schooling in tribal and desert-districts, adoption of enrolment targets and retention-plan by every school/panchayat ,raw7//block/district, regular in-service training of teachers, effective supervision and collection of

430 Modern Education in Rajastlwn

education cess by the panchayat samiti and emphasis on environmental and science studies.1

In 1979, at the request oF the Union Ministry of Education and the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, a special study of administration of elementary education was undertaken in co-operation with the Government of Rajasthan. Some of its recommendations are given below.2

(1) To identify non-enrolled children and drop-outs of the age-group 6-14 children's census register should be maintained by each school;

(2) A Village Education Committee including the Headmaster, Gramsewak, Patwari. Sarpanch and community leaders should be constituted to supervise and guide the programme of universalisa-tion formal, nonformal and adult education centres.

. (3) Along with enrolment drive, each school/centre should have retention targets on the basis of which the performances of the Headmasters and teachers should be evaluated,;

(4) Planned efforts should be made to convert single-teacher schools into double-teacher schools;

(5) Children less than six years of age should be enrolled in Chiidrens, play centre;

(6) The instructional hours in the ungraded unit should be three hours a day;

(7) In desert areas where upper primary schools cannot be opened in each village, hostel facilities in selected schools be provided in a phased manner. Ashram schools should be opened in tribal belts;

(8) On the basis of a well-defined criteria, appropriate incentives itvthe form of free text-books, uniforms, attendance

1. Report of the High Power Committee on. Education in Rajasthan (RHPCER) 1975, TEACHER TODAY, Vol. 18 No. 1, July-Sept., pp. 1-118.

2. The Report of the Study of Administration of Elementary Education in relation to the programme of universalisation; ( I979) , pp. 1-108. (Mimeo).


scholarships, mid-day meals (in food packets) etc, should be provided to the nonenroiled children;

(9) The State Government/Panchayat Samiti should provide 100% financial assistance for school buildings;

(10) The scheme of school complex should be adopted universally so that all the schools are covered under it. Orientation courses for the heads of the centres/schools should be organised for improving school practices in teaching and testing :

(11) The Village Education Committee should be responsible for regular coordination of school functionaries with the village level personnel of other developmental agencies:

(12) A separate post of a Director of Elementary Education be created to concentrate exclusively on universalisation and a high power State level Coordination Committee should be set up under the Chairmanship of the Chief Secretary for effective implementa-lion of the massive programme of elementary education. A separate Cell in the State Secretariat headed by an Officer-on-Special Duty from the Eduction Department should be made responsible for planning, implementing, monilering, coordinating and evaluating the progress of universalisation of elementary education.

The goal of universalisation of elementary education in Rajasthan, one of the nine educationally backward States of India, could be achieved through the adoption of new strategies for enrolling non-school-going girls and children of Scheduled Castes and Tribes, promotion of non-formal education and adult education and streamlining the existing structure of the administration of elementary education in the State.

A major policy decision in the programme of universalisation of elementary education is the introduction of multiple-entry system and condensed part-time and non-formal courses for the age-group 9-14, for the left-outs or drop-outs. With Central support a special scheme of'Experimental Projects for non-formal Education' has been launched. The main feature of this scheme is to provide the primary and middle school curricula through condensed and/or graded courses so that the children with part-time schooling of a couple of hours daily can achieve the same


standard as in the formal channel. This innovative programme is directed towards girls and non-enrolled children from the weaker sections.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has set up non-formel education centres in Rajasthan with the support of teacher educators of the Regional College of Education, Ajmer. Instructional materials in the form of language primers and curriculum sets covering other subjects have been developed using local specifics. Training materials, teachers' guides and manuals and audio-visual materials also have been developed. The UNICEF has also launched a project named 'Comprehensive Access to Primary Education' (CAPE) involving

> student trainees of Teachers' Training Colleges in Rajasthan and providing education to children not only for life but also in life so as to maintain continuity between learning experiences acquired in the home and community and those provided in the school/ learning centre.

It has been observed that the reason for the failure in uni-versalisation of elementary education, which should have been achieved within ten years of the enforcement of Indian Constitution i.e., by 1960, are both social and educational. There has been a lack of political commitment despite the fact thai one political party has all along-excepting a brief interlude of three years (1977-1980)-framed the educational policies, but the programme has never received the desired priority and resources.

Secondary Education

There has been a very rapid and unplanned expansion of secondary education in Rajasthan without adequate attention to proper planning of locations, academic viability or unit cost. The adoption of the policy of open-door admissions in secondary schools has resulted in the growing number of poor quality institutions with guaranteed access to the child of the common man The rapid increase of such institutions has, to some extent, contributed to progressive deterioration in educational standards and to the growing number of educated unemployed.

The growth of enrolment at the secondary stage is given on the next page.

Fat nit: of Education iij Rajas than .-Problems & Remedies 433

Enrolment at Secondary/Higher Secondary Stage

Year

1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1979-80 1981-82 1980-85

• No. of Schools

175 537

1893 2168 2517

Enrolment in Boys

0.16 0.78 1.77 3.09 3.70 6.88

Girls

0.02 0.08 0.31 0.65 0.74 1.67

lakhs Total

0 18 0.86 2.08 3.74 4.44 8.55

% School Boys

3.1 11.5

20.0

28.1

-going Girls

0.5 1.6 3.8

6.8

Children Total

1.8 6.8

12.2

20.4

During the sixth plan (1980-85), the anticipated additional enrolment of 4-81 lakhs in secondary education might be achieved by expansion of correspondence course and efficient utilisation of existing capacity in secondary schools. It is necessary to regulate expansion of secondary education in view of high priority to be given to the expansion of elementary education. There should be emphasis on rationalisation and consolidation of the existing schools so that they reach an optimum size and become academically viable. In the context of the new pattern of 10+2 school education secondary education should be comprehensive and even terminal for those who do not want or cannot proceed for further education. It should also provide a strong academic base for higher studies for ihose who have an aptitude for the same. The quality of secondary education should be improved so that a student on leaving a school can enter life cither as a self-reliant and confident citizen or as a productive worker possessing the requisite knowledge, skills and attitudes. The initiative taken by the State Education Department in promoting institutional plans should be a condition for recognition and grant-in-aid for every private' school. The institutional plan should form the basis of periodical-inspection, and necessary, encouragement for creativity and innovations should be extended to the institutions by the Education-Department." Special emphasis' should be given to remedial classes for economically backward students and to coaching' talented students and updating of curricula. The- pioneering measure .to set up two autonomous schools with freedom to frame their- own curricula-one at' Vidya Bhawau, (Udaipur) and the


other at Banasthali Vidyapith-should be extended to other out; standing institutions.

Improvement of standards of secondary education is crucial to the entire educational system because this stage provides teachers for the elementary schools and students for the Colleges and Universities. Emphasis should, therefore, be on the improvement of the quality of education in secondary schools. There is need for improvement of facilities in terms of buildings, equipment, and faculty development as these are sub-standard in a majority of secondary schools at present. This will need substantial investment of funds.

It would be worthwhile to introduce a system of grading the secondary schools on the basis of physical facilities, academic progress, teaching methods, community service and student discipline which has been found reasonably successful in Maharashtra.

Vocationalization

Consequent to the implementation of 10+2 pattarn of education, the State Government has decided to vocationalise the existing system of Secondary education so as to make it terminal and job-oriented for a majorit ^of students. It is hoped that vocational education, which aims at laying the foundation for the world of work and training in a specific skill under a real production situation, would reduce pressure on higher education and growing educated unemployment.

At present vocational education is being imparted in two parts; (i) Work experience or socially useful productive work as recommended by Ishwar Bhai Committee upto the Secondary stage, and (ii) Vocational education at the Higher Secondary stage (10-f 2). Work experience or S. U. P. W. implies particpation in socially useful productive work in school, on a farm, in a factory or workshop. Though work experience has been spelled out in the "SHIKSHA KRAMA" published by the Rajasthan State Text Book Board, very little time is being devoted to this activity. It has been suggested by the High Power Committee (1975) that the allotment of time to work experience at the primary level should be raised from the existing 12% per cent to 25 per cent


of the wholetime. At the upper primary stage craft should be replaced by useful productive activities because of unhappy experience of craft teaching lacking in regular and systematic practic either due to the teachers' indifference and inefficiency or lack of sufficient time in the school calendar or due to paucity of material resources. Every student in upper primary stage (classes VI-VIII) should be exposed to production of goods, trade and commerce-based activities and programmes involving operational abilities and maintenance skills for which 15 percent of the school time should be allotted This scheme is being implemented in a phased manner along with "Earn while you learn" programme wherever possible.

Introduction of vocational courses at + 2 stage has posed many problems including the identification of its content, appointment of qualified part-time teachers, provision of necessary facilities such as farms, work-shops and equipment, apathy of students to opt for this type of courses and a phased programme for implementation. Immediate steps are needed for an intensive survey of the specific locality metropolitan, district, block, panchayat to identify the employment opportunities available in the immediate future in the context of development programmes in the area and also avenues for self-employment. It is necessary to design career-oriented sandwich courses, apprenticeship training facilities in consultation with the employers including part-time release of employees for practical training and vacation courses for those who seek employment even after class VIII or X. There should be adequate provision for students completing vocational course to enable them to proceed for College/University education, if and when required. We must learn from the experience of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Punjab, in organising vocational courses.

It has been asked who will go in for these vocational courses at the secondary stage and why ? It must be admitted that the experimental approach in which these courses are being implemented lack credibility in the job market. It may be mentioned here that the success of this experiment would largely depend upon the speed of development of the economy, the choice of technology, the availability of the jobs, the narrowing down of


the wage structure between the white and blue-collar workers, the motivation of the students and competence of the instructors, the extent of opportunities for further education and vertical mobility, the extent to which admission to the college becomes selective and giving up the present practice of appointing graduates for middle level jobs.

Adult Education

One of the most challenging tasks facing the State is the problem of adult education. The percentage of literacy in Rajasthan (24.5% in 1981) is one of the lowest in the country. The total number of illiterate adults in the age group 15-35 in the State at present is about 60 lakhs. Following the launching of the National Adult Education Programme on 2nd October 1978, about 3 lakh adults have been covered by 1980 through 3,400 centres under the State Plan, 2,100 centres in the Central Sector and 4,500 centres under voluntary organisations. The sixth Plan provides an outlay of Rs. 1,000 lakhs to cover 30.69 lakh illiterate adults by opening 21,800 additional centres

The programme of adult education should provide for acquisition of literacy skills relevant to the- immediate-felt needs of the learners and appropriate blending of the following components: development of vocational skills to improve earning capacity, General Education including health and family planning, citizenship education, knowledge of the development problems of the country and their possible solution, physical education, and participation in cultural activities.

This programme should also be extremely flexible with regard to duration, time, location, or teaching methodology and should be as diversified as the needs and capacities of the groups attending such programmes

It is indeed heartening that the State Government has already recognised the fact that lack of adult education is a serious impediment not only to the growth of the individual concerned but to the socio-economic development of the State. Hence, investment in adult education would yield quick returns in terms of socioeconomic progress. The setting up of a separate Directorate of


Adult Education was very essential but the complex issues which require attention relate to motivating adults, selection and training of workers, production of teaching and learning materials post-literacy follow-up programme and its implementation on the ground. In the light of the past experience, a massive campaign should be organized in small selected areas where conditions are favourable.

It has been suggested that 2.35 lakh students and 25,000 teachers (from Higher Secondary school upwards) in the existing formal system should be involved in adult education. The success of this programme would largely depend upon the degree of commitment of students, teachers, enlightened community leaders, educated citizens, panchayats, Nehru Yuvak Kendras, Mahila Mandals, Cooperative societies and voluntary organizations to this programme. There should be adequate incentives for educational institutions to participate in the programme by linking such participation'to developmental grants for libraries, class-rooms etc; and it should be possible for students interested in the programme to earn a part of their maintenance costs.

f

t The development of the programme in tribal and desert areas (Banner, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Banswara, Dungarpur, and Sawai-madhopur) and for women and economically weaker sections will need special approach, preparation of need-based learning materials with the support of the Colleges and Universities, training of workers, and,-also development of a proper system • of regular supervision, evaluation, monitering^nd follow-up programme.

'It is indeed high time for the State to evolve an effective system of coordination of Adult Education programmes run at the State level (e. g. Farmers Functional Literacy Programme, Non-Formal'Education Programme, Health and Nutrition Programme, Workers Literary Programme, Nehru Yuvak Kendras, National Service Scheme etc.) by various developmental agencies. The future of this programme will, however; depend largely upon a cadre of committed and sensitive workers possessing competence in -

- curricular construction and appropriate methods of teaching-learning and evaluation.


Girls' Education

Education of girls is of immense importance not only for improvement of homes and shaping the character of children but also for assisting greately in reducing the fertility rate. Tn spite of impressive progress in girls' education in Rajasthan during the preceding three decades, the proportion of girls at Primary stage in 1981-82 was less than one third to that of the boys (1:3) and the corresponding figures at the Uppar Primary stage less than one-fourth girls (1:4).

It is significant that the rate of expansion of education of girls is much faster than that of the boys so that the gap between them is steadily narrowing But there is still considerable resistence from the parents to get their daughters enrolled at the Secondary stage. The disparity between urban and rural areas in girl's enrolments is four times. The percentage of school going girls in rural areas is the lowest. The literacy rate among women is only 11.32% (1981). In the case of girls belonging to Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes, the present situation is alarming indeed. Only 15% Scheduled Caste girls and 11% Scheduled Tribes girls in the age group 6-11 are in Primary Schools as compared to 2% Scheduled Caste and' 1% Scheduled Tribes girls enrolled at the Upper Primary stage.

Thus a major impediment in universal elementary education is that of girls'education. Various factors are responsible for the low enrolment of girls at the elementary stage such as work at home or in the fields, parents' lack of interest in educating girls, orthodox social attitudes towards sex segregation and possibly, lack of motivation among many girls to study, poverty of the families and inability to meet the indirect cost of education.

To overcome the traditional prejudices against girls' education various steps have been taken such as employment of large number of women teachers, popularisation of co-education upto the Upper Primary stage, incentives in the form of freebooks, stationary etc, opening of play centres and part-time schooling facilities.

It is necessary to extend the pre-school education in rural areas where the primary teachers can run, as part of their duty,

Future of Education in Rajas than : Problems & Remedies 439

children's play centres attached to primary schools with only a marginal cost. The Tamilnadu experiment of using locally available educated women to run pre-school reduces the cost per child and deserves consideration. To spread education among girls from poor families successful experimants have been tried by attaching creches or pre-school to primary schools wherein girls were permitted to bring young children with them. This idea can be adopted in selected areas. A bold and vigorous effort should be made to close the existing gap between the education of boys and girls as early as possible and additional funds should be provided on a priority basis. A special cell may be created in the Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education to monitor the progress of girls' education.

Education of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Education of children from the weaker sections of society, particularly Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, has not expanded to the desired levels despite provision of scholarships and a number of incentives. The enrolment of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes children in 1979-80 is indicated below:—

Estimated population Enrolment Percentage of in lakhs in lakhs enrolment

Age Gruop-6-11 1M4 641 F M 4 (Til 1~M4 SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST

Boys 3.57 2.74 2.00 1.54 3.07 2.10 0-57 0.40 85.9 76.29 33.7 26.3 Girls 3.33 2.56 1.83 1.40 0.510.27 0.04 0.02 15.29 10.93 2.1 1.1

Total 9.90 5.30 3.83 2.94 3,58 2.37 0.61 0.42 51.8 44.7% 18.6 14.3

In view of the growing wastage and stagnation of children from these sections of society, it would be worthwhile to make a determined effort to cover these children through increasing the number of non-formal education centres in areas of their concentration. The experience of Orissa to provide special grants to the parents for regular attendance of Schedule Caste and Scheduled Tribe dhildren may be useful in increasing their enrolment at the elementary level. The Sixth Plan provides for special incentives in

440 Modem Education m Rajasthan

the form of free uniforms, stationery, and mid-day meals particularly to the children of the disadvantaged sections of society. The component plan for Scheduled Caste and Tribes and sub-plan for Scheduled Tribes provides for special measures for development of education. So far there are "Ashram Schools" only in six out of 23 panchayats in Tribal areas and hostel facilities are lacking in most places, In very sparsely populated areas, Ashram Schools will have to be opened in large numbers. The school hours should be fixed to suit the work the children are required to do for their families. More emphasis should be given to environmental education along with the introduction of socially useful productive work and education. Tribal dances, archery, music and games should be organised as extra-curricular activities, Special coaching should be provided to children of the weaker sections and disbursement of scholarships to these children should be decentralised for timely payment.

Higher Education

It is a truism that the impressive development of higher education in the State has contributed to a large stock of high level skilled and trained manpower and to selective research particularly in medicine, agriculture and engineering. The opening of the five Medical Colleges has extended modern health services to the common man. The three Universities- Rajasthan, Udaipur and Jodhpur- and one "Deemed" University (Birla Institute of Technology, Pilani) have promoted higher education, research and extension considerably. At present the facility for first Degree education has expanded to all the districts of the State. The State Government had appointed two Committees-headed by Dr. K. L. Shrimali and Professor M. V. Mathur- for reorganisation of higher education in Rajasthan in 1975 and 1980 respectively. A large majority of affiliating colleges providing general education are academically non-viable and financially dependent on the State grants. The open-door admission policy, the irrelevant and out-dated courses, the lecture method of teaching without accountability, the confidential external examination system, the poor teacher-student ratio, lack of leadership in the Heads of institutions, periodic agitations of students, teachers and Karma-charis, want of student motivation in learning due to uncertain

Future of Education in RajuUhan : Problems & Remedies 441

future, the falling standards of discipline in public life, the increasing official and political interference-all have contributed to the decline of academic standards.

To arrest futher deterioration in educational standards, the introduction of selective admissions with necessary reservation for the students belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, effective changes in the techniques of teaching and evaluation, granting of autonomous status to outstanding educational institutions with freedom to frame their own rules of admissions and courses of study and to evaluate the performance of the students under the general supervision of the parent University, increased teacher-student contact, the creation of a climate of dedicated hard work in the institutions, the adoption of measures which would eventually delink jobs from degrees are some of the steps which are to be taken. The introduction of intensive Orientation Programmes for Principals and teachers in modern educational management to cope with the changing social demands, adoption of well-planned programmes of mutual service and support between the College and the Community and appropriate linkages in general education with other social sub-systems such as health, agriculture and industry and diversification of institutional models of higher education to suit the emerging needs of society are some of the other measures which should be adopted to improve the quality of higher education. Finally, post-graduate teaching should be improved and both fundamental and applied research should be promoted. For this purpose all possible efforts should be made to mobilise community resources.

With the introduction of 10+2 course in the school system, the undergraduate courses in colleges should receive attention on a priority basis To accelerate the pace of social changes and national development, the existing under-graduate curriculum based exclusively on academic approach to various disciplines should be restructured to meet the diversity of student needs. It is necessary that every under-graduate should undergo four types of courses indicated below as recommended by the University Grants Commission:-

1. A set of foundation courses which will expose the student to such areas as history of freedom struggle in India and other


parts of the world, concepts and processes of development; the problems and challenges facing the country and approaches to their tentative solutions; role of Science and Technology in development;-vGandhian thought and alternatives in development.

2. A set of Core Courses which will give the student an opportunity of acquiring abroad familiarity with some chosen discipline including a depth-study of one or more of them.

3. Some applied studies I field activity which will form an integral part of his course and will be continued in the final year: and

4. Involvement in a programme of national or social service for the first two years under the supervision of a teacher.

A judicious blending of the above components • would enrich the minds of students and inculcate in them the right attitudes towards the service of the nation. Teaching-learning should be self-learning by the students or dialogic-learning through seminars, discussions, group-approach and team work.

Medical Education

The State has made impressive progress in expanding medical deucation, both Western and Indigenous. In the preceding three decades, medical graduates have increased five-fold along with extension in hospital facilities. The traditional Ayurvedic system has been organised' by establishing an Ayurvedic College, hospitals (2500), mobile dispensaries (5), Pharmacies (4), Training Centres for para-medical staff and a National Institute of Ayurveda.

In view of the increasing investment in Medical Colleges with an annual turnover of 550 doctors and provision for new specialisation like Cardiology, Nephrology, Neurology and Nuclear medicines etc. vigorous efforts should be made in improving the quality of research eliminating all possible duplications. The expansion of medical education should be related to manpower needs. Adequate incentives should be provided to the doctors for serving in the rural areas including additional allowances, residential, recreational and educational facilities. A major problem facing the State is the growing trend of brain drain

Future of Education in Rajas<han : Problems & Remedies 443

of doctors which needs a serious consideration at the national level.

The standard of Ayurvedic education needs improvement so that the benefit of cheap and well-organised health service may be available to the common man, particularly the rural poor. It would also promote family planning, child care and nutrition programmes launched by the State. Immediate attention should be given to coordination of expansion of medical facilities between the Allopathic and Ayuivedic Departments of the State.

Technical and Engineering Education

Rajasthan is one of the few States of India which have given adequate impetus to Technical and Engineering education after Independence. At present there are 5 Engineering Colleges with an intake of 650 engineers, 8 polytechnics (including one Women's Polytechnics at Jaipur) enrolling 1101 students (including 53 women students) and 23 Industrial Training Institutes covering 4000 students-a total of nearly 6000 technically trained personnel. The enrolment at the Women's Polytechnics at Jaipur is 45.

In the light of the past experience, every possible care should be taken to regulate further expansion of technical education in the State so that surplus production may be avoided. The difference in educational standard in engineering education between Malviya Regional Engineering College, the Faculty of Engineering in the Jodhpur University and the Birla Institute of Science and Technology should be reduced to the extent possible. There are great variations in the total cost per student at the first Degree level in engineering between different types of Institutions which need consideration. There is little evidence of attempts to design and manufacture equipments needed by educational institutions. Special grants should be provided for importing substitutions of equipments. Engineering research should be directed towards the problem of industry.

Immediate steps are needed to eliminate wastages, to introduce job oriented courses, to revise and update the courses offered and to increase practical experience in industries in Polytechnics and Industrial Training Institutes. Facilites for part-time, on the


job and vocational training for those who are already employed should be expanded. The Directorate of Technical Education should maintain continuing contact with planning and manpower mechanism at the district level and rural development agencies.

Agricultural Education

The impact of agricultural education, animal husbandry and forestry on the development of the State has been rather limited since the application of science and technology to the problem of agricultural production or improvement of animal stock remained confined to rjch farmers and urban upper classes. One of the neglected areas which need immediate attention is the estimate of the manpower , needs for the development of agriculture and agro industries. There is need for doubling the number of agriculture,graduates by opening a separate University, promoting research and technological information to the fanners. It has been suggested that before awarding a degree in agriculture, every student should perform one years' internship on State/ University managed farms. It is necessary to provide part-time agaicultural education to drop-outs of schools and to those who have adopted agriculture as a vocation in effective liason with successful farmers. The number of demonstration farms within easy access of farmers should be increased so that application of improved seeds, fertilizers and pesticides may be shown to the practising farmers. Lessons from the experiences of Pantnagar and Ludhiana Agricultural Universities should be carefully studied and applied to similar environment in the State. The recent take over of research from the agricultural Department of the Government at Durgapura (Jaipur) by Udaipur University is a step in the right direction. Effective mechanism for coordination between tbe State Agriculture Department and the University should be set up at the earlist.

Arts and Culture

Rajasthan is very rich in her arts and culture. She has an uninterrupted heritage of dance, drama and music. The State Government is quite conscious of this precious cultural tradition to develop which she has provided a sum of Rs. 203.18 lakhs for


1980-85. The Rajasthan School of Arts and the Sangeet Sansthan are to be upgraded to the level of a College for which purpose suitable provision has been made in the Plan. The State Government has already set up a Katthak Kendra at Jaipur to propagate this style of dance of Jaipur Gharana. The Goverment of India is also contemplating the establishment of a National School of Hindustani Music in'Northern India which is likely to be set up in Rajasthan.

Finance

The development of education in Rajasthan since independence has been mostly in the public sector. The allocation of funds in the State budget for education has been steadily rising. From about 13 per cent in 1950-51, the education budget has reached 24 per cent of the total State budget'in 1980-81. In view" of the current inflationary trend and rising price-index, the funds in terms of percentage should be at least doubled if the educational goals are to be achieved in the foreseeable future.

Every effort should be made to reduce unit costs and to ensure that every available rupee is made to go the longest way. It must be recognised that money alone cannot improve the quality of education and the need for non-monetary inputs is equally important for developing education. Effective utilization of available funds with a view to reduce the unit cost of education shold be given top priority.

A critical review of Educational System

It would be pertinent to point out the main deficiencies of our educational system as formulated by the University Grants Commission in its policy frame. The system, in the Commission's view,'still continues to be dominated by models and value system adopted during the colonial regime For instance, it lays greater emphasis on narrow individualism, unhealthy competition to the neglet of social good, verbal fluency especially in English, and mere acquisition of information, ' while it neglects social objectives, cooperation, manual work, training in skill and building up of character. ' It places almost exclusive emphssis on the formal school, neglects both non-formal and recurrent education,

446 Modern Education in Rajaslhan

functions in isolation from the community and from other schools. The system is a gigantic monolith, very difficult to move or change and has proved to be inadequate to meet our national needs and aspirations. It was established to train a limited body of clerks for the British Government and we took it over unchanged and tried to use it as the instrument for mass education, on which it has broken down.

The system maintained a set of double standards. A small minority of educational institutions at all levels is of good quality but access to them is selective and is mostly availed of by top social groups either because they can afford the costs involved or because they show merit which shows a high co-relation with social status. But this core of good institutions is surrounded by a large number of institutions with open door and poor standards and it is in these institutions that the large majority, including the weaker sections, receive their education. This dualism leads to undesirable social segregation and to a perpetuation and strengthening of egalitarian trends in our society.

Even in quantitative terms, it is mainly the upper and middle classes that are the beneficiaries of the system. Thus about 70% of the seats in secondary schools and 80% in higher education are taken by the top 30% of income groups. The Education Commission (1964-66) found that 80% of school and college completers come from the top 20% of our society. In other words, 80% of tax revenue is derived from indirect taxes paid by the poor majority and thus education is a means of transferring resources from the poor to the rich.

The most disturbing factor in our educational system is the high rate of drop-outs and push-outs, in addition to the left-outs, who are still to be even enrolled although the total enrolment appears to be very impressive. Besides, girls' enrolment is less than one third of that of boys at the primary level and in higher education it is less than one-sixth. Inter district educational imbalances also need serious attention. A study of the financing of our educational system has revealed that the social costs are rising and social benefits are falling steeply in case of Arts students receiving secondary and undergraduate education, many of which have


become diseased or even dead; failure to orient the educational system to the needs and interests of the common man and neglect of elementary and adult education; over emphasis on secondary and higher education and on the educational needs and demands of the upper and middle classes; failure to take the hard decisions, both political and academic, without which a radical reform of secondary and higher education is not possible; failure to generate a strong and nation-wide movement for educational reform and to sustain it over the years, both within and without the educational system, and failure to develop the social and political forces that can help the people to come into their own; and failure to launch a programme of simultaneous and complementary social and educational transformation.

The new strategy for bringing about the desirable educational changes calls for an intensive popular movement for needed transformation simultaneously within and without the educational system. There should be a great stress on the institutional level, on the creation of living educational cells in the local communities Without committed individuals, it would be difficult to achieve our educational goals in the foresseable future.

Jn the preceding pages we have made several suggestions and none of them is altogether new. It is, however, pertinent to ask; why these suggestions were not implemented in the past ? What strategy can be adopted to implement these in the future? It has been rightly pointed out that we are excellent planners but not equally good implementers. There is no denying the fact that we have so far failed to implement radical plans of educational reforms for which each one of these agencies - the Central Government, the State Government, public, teachers, students and bureaucracy - is responsible, although lack of adequate resources, low priority to education in Five Year Plans compared to agriculture, power, industry, irrigation and family planning and poor educational administration have also contributed to our unsatisfactory progress. But the basic causes of our failure seem to be:—

the failure to transform the existing structure of formal education so as to make it elastic, dynamic, and supportive of the maximum possible freedom to schools, teachers and students to


expriment and innovate; the failure to develop large-scale and effective programmes of non-formal education at ail stages, and neglect of micro-level living cells of education.

A question has been raised; who will provide the leadership to initiate the aforesaid educational reforms? It is difficult to answer this question, but one view is ihal this leadership will arise within the educational system. The traditional view maintains that bureaucracy comprising of the Education Secretaries, the Directors of Education, District Education Oncers and other administrators with necessary in-service training would bring about the desired educational changes. It has also been suggested that leadership will come from the teachers' organizations or from the University dons or students intereted in promoting radical changes in education.

It seems that dynamic leadership required for radical reforms may not arise within the educational system because the existing trend is towards a social Status quo. It must be recognised that no educational reforms can be successful without the support of the universities, teachers, students and educational administrators. We will have to intensify our efforts to build an effective team of progressive elements through the creation of a de-centralised, elastic and dynamic structure.

In the final analysis, the basic educational issues are essentially political and the leadership for implementing educational reforms can be achieved by the State. The State has so far supported the educational interests ot the upper and middle classes and its concern for promotion of educational interests of the weaker sections has been given a very low priority. It is, therefore, necessary to educate public opinion to bring pressure on the State to create conditions for the implementation of educational reforms.

We have indicated that implementation of educational reforms, particularly the universalisation of elementary education, adult education, vocationalisation o f + 2 , promotion of research and support for extension, qualitative improvement of educational standards at all, levels, expansion of agriculture, engineering,


technical and medical education would certainly need a large investment of funds. It should, however, be emphasized that, while educational development need money, it cannot be achieved by money alone. The non-monetary inputs, such as good planning, greater human effort in creating a climate of hard work or improving the motivation of teachers and students in teaching-learing process are equally important. We must also lay stress on more effective use of investment in education partly because additional funds are not easily available but mainly because there is much waste in the operation of the education system which can be reduced if it cannot be eliminated.

In the years ahead every effort should be made by every one involed in the educational system to ensure that the unit costs go down without impairing quality through institutional planning and self-evaluation. The entire ethos of the system needs to be radically transformed to create a climate of sustained hard work and dedication.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

This book is based primarily on the unpublished archival sources in the National Archives of India, New Delhi, and the education files of the various former States of Rajputana now preserved in the Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner. The material used in this book may, therefore, be classified in the following two heads :

1. Unpublished Records

2. Published Material

1. UNPUBLISHED RECORDS

(a) Archival Records in the National Archives of India, New Delhi. There was no separate Department of Education during the period of the East India Company's rule in India upto 1858. Education was then dealt with mainly by the Home Department and also by Foreign Political Department in the pre-Mutiny period when two types of documents known as 'Consultations' and 'Proceedings' were in vogue. The Revenue and Agriculture Department also casually dealt with the subject of education when it fell within its purview It was only in the post-mutiny period that a separate Department of Education was established. Thus most of the documents used in this book belong to the following Departments :-

Home (Public) ) Consultations and Home (Education ) Proceedings Foreign Political Revenue & Agriculture ' ,, Education Proceedings and Files

Proper references to the documents used have been given at the appropriate places in the footnotes.

(fa) Education Files in the Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner.

As in the Government of India, so in most of the States of

Bibliography 451

Rajputana also there was no separate department of education, which subject was dealt with in the other departments-particularly the Home Department-during the nineteenth and in the first quarter of the present century. Some of the major States had, however, an independent Department of Education during that period. It was only after the thirties of the present century that education was given an independent status when the Department of Education was establish ed in many other States. All these files and the files of Ajmer-Merwara dealing with education have now been transferred to the Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner. A careful and critical study of this archival material at Bikaner has, therefore, been made while preparing this monograph. These files originated either in the Home or Revenue Department or in the Education Department where such a department existed. In some other States the subject was dealt with directly by the Mahakma Khas, that is, the State Council. The numbers of all such files which have been studied and used have been given in the footnotes.

2. PUBLISHED MATERIAL

The published material used here consists of the following categories :

(a) Books on history relating to Rajputana and its States

1. Benn, R.A.E. Notes on Jaipur 2. Bikaner. Four Decades of Progress m Bikaner (A

Government of Bikaner Publication) 1937. 3. Champawat, F.S. A brief History of Jeypore (1899) 4. Gehlot, J. S. Rajpntcme ka Itihas, vols. I & II (1973). 5. Hendley, T H. Notes an Jaipur 6. Jain, J. L. New Order in Jaipur 7. Ojha, G. H. History of Rajputana (Several volumes

dealing with History of Rajputana States separately)

8. Payne. S. Survey of Jaipur State 9. Rajasthan and its Traditions : (A brochure published by the

Director of Archaeology, Rajasthan, Jaipur) (1951)

10 Reu, B. N. Marwar ka Itihas Vols. I & II (1938)

452 Bibliography

11. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Sarda, H. B Sen, S. C.

Sharma, M. L. Sharrna, M. L. Showers, H. L. Shymal Das. Sinh, Raghubir. Stratton, J. P. Stratton, J. P.

Ajmer : Historical and Descriptive (1941) A short history of H. H. the Maharaja of Jaipur and his Country. (1902) Kota Rajya ka Itihas, Vols. I & II (1938) History of the Jaipur State (1969) Notes on Jaipur (1909) Vir Vinod(IS75) Purva Adhunik Rajasthan (1951) Jaipur-Amber Family and the State (1899) Kotah and the Haras. (1899)

20. Tod, James. Col. Annals & Antiquities of Rajasthan (Crooke''s edition)-1919.

(b) Reports, pamphlets and other publications on education

1. Administration, Educational—in Rajasthan : A survey report of-(National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration) 1980

2. Administration of Elementary Education in Rajasthan in relation to the Programme of Universalisation. A report of the study of—(Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education, Rajasthan, Bikaner, (1979)

3. Banasthali Vidyapith : Annual reports and Brochure of— (1936 onwards)

4. Bengal Presidency : General Report on Public Instruction in the—(1842-43 onwards)

5. Bengal Presidency : General Report on Public Instruction in the N.W.P. of the—(1845-46 onwards)

6. Bhatji, K.M. Report on the Expansion of Primary Education in Marwar (1920)

7. Birla Education Trust. Pilani. Diamond Jubilee Souvenir. (1961)

8. Buch : Report on the Village Schools in Ajmer (1855) 9. Calcutta University Commission Report (1917-19)

10. Education at a Glance (1979-80). Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education, Rajasthan, Bikaner. (1980)

11. Hartog. Auxiliary Committee Report (1929). 12. Higher Education in Rajasthan at a Glance—Educational

Statistics (1975 to 1979) Directorate of College Education Rajasthan, Jaipur.

Bibliography 453

13. High Power Committee on Education in Rajasthan. Report of—1975.

14. Hunter Commission Report (1882) 15. Indian Universities Commission. Report of—(1902) 16. Jaipur State. Report on Public Instruction in—From 1873

onwards) 17 Jodhpur> The Golden Jubilee Book of the Jaswant College—

(1946) 18. Knowlton, H.T, Report on the condition of Education in the

Jodhpur Stale. (1914) 19. Maharaja's College, Jaipur. Report on the—and Institutions

subordinate to it. (1883 onwards) 20. Mayo College, Ajmer. Annual reports of— 21. N.W.P. and Oudh. Report on Public Instruction in—(1850

onwards) 22. Pay and Reorganisation of Services Committee appointed by

Matsya Union. Report of—(1948) 23. Primary Education Committee. Report of—(1929) 24. Progress of Education in Rajasthan. (1950-51 to 1963-64)

1964 —A Government of Rajasthan publication. (1964) 25. Rajasthan University. Annual Reports of—(From 1948

onwards) 26. Reid, F. L. Report on the state of Education in the Native

States of Rajputana. (1905) 27. Reid, H. S. Report on Indigenous Education and Vernacular

Schools. (1850-51) 28. Reid, H. S. Report on the state of Popular Education in the

N.W.P. and Oudh (From 1842 onwards) 29. Reorganisation Committee for Education in the United State

of Rajasthan.-Report of the -(1949) 30. Review of Education in India: Rajasthan (1947-1961) NCERT.

(1961) 31. Richey, J A. Selection from Education Records Pt. II (1922) 32. Secondary Education Commission. Report of-( 1952-53) 33 Sharma, S.S. A memorandum on Primary Education in Jaipur

State. (Manuscript)-1947. 34. Sharp, IH. Selections from Education Records Pt.I. (1920) 35. Shiksha Prativedan (Education Report)-in Hindi. Annual

Reports on Education: Issued by the Government of Rajasthan. (1950 onwards).

454 Bibliography

36. Statistics. Basic Educational-(Director of Education, Rajas-than, Bikaner publicauon)1962.

37. Twenty Five Years of Education-Rajasthau (1950-1974) Directorate of Primary & Secondary Education. Rajasthan, Bikaner. (1975)

38. United Presbyterian Mission. Annual Reports of the-(from 1862 onwards)

39. University Education Commission. Reports of the-(1949) 40. Wardha Education Committee. Report of the-( 1939).

(c) Administration and Census Reports

The Government of India introduced the system of publishing a report on the political abministration of Rajputana States m the decade immediately following the Mutiny. The first such report was issued in 1865. Since then it became a loutine procedure to issue a report every year containing, besides other items, a brief account of the progress of education in each State. A separate report for Ajmer-Merwara was also published every year. Subsequently the States started publishing their own reports on the lines laid down by the Government of India. These annual reports are the principal source of information for education in the post-mutiny period in the States of Rajputana and Ajmer-Merwara and have been thoroughly studied and utilised in the preparation of this book.

The system of taking down census of urban and rural areas in the country was introduced in the last century. After every ten years a detailed cansus was taken in the first yenr cf every dacade when statistical date on education was also collected. These reports have been carefully studied and used with advantage in this book.

(d) Medico-Topographical Account

Medico-topographical account is another important source material which throws significant light on the growth of education in Rajputana during the nineteenth century The following publications were found very useful and have been consulted and utilised in this book.

Medico-topographical account of:

Bibliography 455

Ajmer by Irwine, R.H. (1841) Ajmer by Durell, P. (1900) Bikaner by Neiison, W.H. (1898) Jaipur by Hendley, T.H. Marwar, Sirohi and Jaisalmer by Adams (1853) Meywar by Shore, R. (1909) Ulwur by Neiison, W.H. (1897)

(e) Gazetteers

Gazetteers are the most important official source of information next only to the annual administration reports and throw a flood of light on all aspects of human activity. Education has found ample coverage in the pages of these Gazetteers which have been thoroughly studied and adequately used in this book. The following Gazetteers were utilized:-

Erskine, K. D. Rajputana Gazetteers (of different States) 1908-09 La'Touche, J.D. Gazetteer of Ajmer-Merwara in Rajputana (1875) Powlett, P.W. Gazetteer of the Bikaner State (1874) Powlett, P.W. Gazetteer of Ulwur (1878) Thornton, A.P. Gazetteer of the Territories under the Government of the East India Company and of Native States (1854) Walter, C.KM. Gazetteers of Marwar, Mallani and Jeysul-mere(1877) Watson, C.C. Rajputana District Gazetteers: Ajmer-Merwara Imperial Gazetteer: Rajputana. (1904)

(f) Sources for the Missionary Educational Enterprise in Rajasthan

The prime source of information fpr the Missionary educational enterprise in Rajasthan is undoubtedly the annual reports of the various Missions which worked here. In this connection the pride of place goes to the Scottish Presbyterian Mission, although the Roman Catholics later on outstripped them in the field. In addition to their reports, a study of the following books was found very necessary to understand properly the history, nature and extent of the missionary activity and IO write the two chapters included in this book :—

456 Bibliography

1. Anderson, G and Whitehead, H : Christian Education in India (1932)

2. Carstairs, G. Shepherd of Udaipur (1926) 3. Chatterton, Eyre : A History of the Church of England in India

(1924) A. Flemming, R : Schools with a Message in India (1921) 5. Hocking, William : Re—thinking Missions (1932) 6. Hough, Rev. J : The History o) Christianity in India Vols. I-IV

(1839-40) 7. Kaye, J. W : Christianity In India (1859) 8. Lindsay Commission : Report of the—on Christian Higher

Education in India (1931) 9. Manshardt, Clifford : Christianity in a Changing India (1933)

10. Mathews, Basil : The Church takes root in India (1938) 11. Mayhew, A : Christianity and the Government of India (1928) 12. Paton, William : Studies in Evangelism {1938) ' 13. Richter, J : History of Missions in India (1908) 14. Sherring, M. A : The History of Protestant Missions in India

(1884) 15. Stock, E : History of the Church Missionary Society (1899) 16. Van, Doren A. B : Christian Education in the Villages of India

(1931) 17. Van Doren, A. B : Christian High Schools in India 18. Van Doren, A. B : Fourteen Experiments in Rural Education

(1929) 19. Van Doren, A. B : Projects in Indian Education 20. Wilder, R. G : Mission Schools in India

(g) General books on Education

A study of the following books proved very useful in developing a proper perspective and gaining a sound knowledge of the problems of education at all levels :—

1. Adams, William : Report on the State of Education in Bengal (Ed. A. N. Basu) (1941)

2. Altekar, A. S : Education in Ancient India (1948) 3. Basu, A. N : Education in Modern India (1947) 4. Basu, A. N : Indian Education in Parliamentary Papers (1952) 5. Basu, A. N : Primary Education in India (1946)

Bibliography 457

6. Basu, A. N : University Education in India-Past and Present (1944)

7. Basu, B. D : Education under the East India Company. 8. Behrarn, Boman : Educational Controversies in India (1943) 9. Chib, S. N : Language, Universities and Nationalism in India • (1936)

10. Desai, Dinkar : Primary Education in India (J950) 11. Dayal, Bhagwan : Development of Modern Education in

British India (1955) 12. Desai, A. R : The Social Background of Indian Nationalism

(1976) 13. Garrett: History of the Growth & Development of Western

Education in Punjab 14. Hartog, P. : Some Aspects of Indian Education—Past and

Present (1939) 15. Hussain, Zakir : Educational Reconstruction 16. Hampton, H. V : Biographical Studies in Modern Indian

Education (1946) 17. Ha veil, E. V : Essays on Indian Art, Industry and Education 18. Jaffar, S. M : Education ID Muslim India (1936) 19. James, H. R : Education and Leadership 20. James, H. R : Education and Statesmanship in India (1917) 21. Johri, B. P : and Pathak, P. D : An Outline of Indian Educa

tion (1963) 22. Kabir, Humayun : Education in New India 23. Keay, F. E : Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times

(1942) 24. Kripalani, J. B : The Latest Fad (1946) 25. Law, N. N : Promotion of Learning in India by Early Euro

pean Settlers (1915) 26. Leitner, G W : History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab

(1882) 27. Meston, William : Indian Educational Policy (1936) 28. Mayhew, Arthur : The Education of India (1928) 29. Monk : The Educational Policy in India—A neglected Aspect

(1934) 30. Monroe, P : A Text-book in the History of Education (1956) 31. Mahmud, Syed : A History of English Education in India

(1895)

458 Bibliography

32. Mookerji, R. K : Ancient Education in India 33. Moomaw, I W : Education End Village Improvement (1947) 34. Mukerji, S. N : Administration of Education in India (1962) 35. Mukerji, S. N : An Introduction to Indian Education (1958) 36. Mukerji, S. N : Education in India in the XX Century (1945) 37. Mukerji, S. N : Education in India—Today and Tomorrow

(1964) 38. Mukerji, S N : Higder Education and Rural India (1956) 39. Mukerji, S. N : History of Education in India (Modern Period)

(1966) 40. Naik, J. P. (Ed) : A Review of Education in Bombay State

(1855-1955)—1956 41. Naik J. P : Policy and Performance in Indian Education

[1957-74)—1975 42. Naik J. P. A Review of Modern Education in India (1943) 43. Naik J. P : Studies in Primary Education (1942) 44.. Naik, Dr. (Miss) Chitfa : Health Education-the Basic Approach

(1950) 45. Nurullah & Naik : A History of Education in India (British

Period) 1951. 46. Olcott, Mason : Better Village Schools (1943) 47. Paranj^e, M. R : A Source-book of Modern Indian Education

(193%) 48r Parulekar, R. V : Literacy in India inPre-British Days (1940) 49. Parulekar, R. V : A Survey of Indigenous Education in Bombay

(1951) 50. Parulekar, R. V : Mass Education in India (1933) 51. Parulekar & Bakhshi : Selection from Educational Records 52. Rai, Lajpat : The Problem of National Education in India(1920) 53. Ranga : Adult Education Movement, 54. Rawat, P. L : History of Indian Education(Ancient and Modern) 55. Saiyidain, K. G : Problems of Educational Reconstruction 56. Saiyidain, K. G : Education, Culture and Social Order 57. Saiyidain, Naik and Hussain : Compulsory Education in India 58- Sahai.Bhagwati : History of Education in Bihar 59. Satthianandan, S : History of Education tn the Madras Presi

dency (1%94) 60. Sen. J. M : History of Elementary Education in India (1944) 61. Shah, Lalit Kumar : Education and National Consciousness

Bibliography 459

62. Sherring, M. A : Mayo College Vols. I & II. (1&97) 63. Shrimali, K. L : Adventures in Education (1946) 64. Shrimali, K. L : The Wardha Scheme (1949) 65. Shrivastava, K. N : Education in Free India (1951) 66. Shukla, D. N : Indian Educational Policy upto 1904 67. Siqueira, T. N : The Education of India (1943) 68. Stow, V. A. S : A Short History of the Mayo College (1943) 69. Taneja, V. R : History of Educational Thought (1955) 70. Thomas, F. W : History and Prospects of British Education in

India (mi) 71. Thakore, C. M : Philosophical Trends in Indian Education 72. Trevelyan, C.E ; On the Education of the People of I?idia(1838) 73. Vakil, K. S : Education in India (1948) 74. Varkey, C. J : The Wardha Scheme (194%) 75. Vyas. K.C : Development of National Education in India (1954) 76. Whitehead, H : Indian Problems in Religion, Education and

Politics 77. Woodrow H : Macaulay's Minutes on Education (1862) 78. Zellner & Aubrey : Education in India (1951)

< h) General Books on History

The history of education in Rajasthan cannot be studied in isolation. It is intimately linked with the political, social and administrative history of Rajasthan in particular and of India in general. As such a few books dealing with the history and culture of Rajasthan have been listed in section (a) above. In section (g) have been included a few other books which deal with the social and cultural aspects of our history. We now give below a list of some selected representative books on Indian History, a careful study of which may create a proper background to understand fully the history of education ;—

1. Cambridge History of India vols. V & VI (relevant chapters; 2. Farquhar, J. N : Modern Religious Movements in India 3. Griffiths, P. J : The British Impact on India 4. Lee Warner : The Protected Princes of India 5. Majumbar, R.C : i The History and Culture of the Indian People

Majumbar, A.K : I VolIXPt. I Ch. XXX Sec. (IV),Vol.XPt.II Ghosh, D. K : (Ch. II(XL).

J Vol. XI, Ch. XL Sec. I to XII

460 Bibliography

6. Mehta, M. 5 : Lord Hastings and the Indian Sta1es(l930) 7. Memoirs of Lord Hastings 8. Muir, William : James Thomason

10. O'Malley, L.S.S : Modern India and the West 11. Rawlinson, H. R : The British Achievement in India 12. Roberts, P. E : India Under Wellesley 13. Strachey, Sir John : India-Its Administration and Progress 14. Zacharias, H. C. E : Renascent India

(i) Newspapers, journals and periodicals

The following newspapers, journals and periodicals were studied and found useful in the preparation of this book :—

1. Educational .Review, 2. Englishman (1897), 3. Hindustan Times, 4. Indian Express, 5. Leader, the 6. National Call, the, 7. N. W. P. & Oudh Education Magazine (1899), 8. Statesman, the and 9. Times of India, the.

INDEX

Aboriginals, education of—261-62

Academies 369-372 Adult education 351, 354, 436-

37 Agricultural education 292-93,

395-97, 444 Arts. School of-, Jaipur. 286-87 Arya Samaj Education Society,

Ajmer 304-05 Ashapura. Christian education at-

80-81

Banasthali Vidyapith 314-15 Bengalis. Contribution of— to

the education of Rajputana. 335-36

Birla Education, Trust, Pilani,

educational work of— 305-309, 388-89

Boards of education 374-75 Board of Secondary Education,

Rajasthan, Ajmer 150-52, 420-21

Catholic Mission, Roman— (See under Missionary Education)

Chiristian education (See under Missionary Education)

Church Missionary Society 98 Church of England 98 Colleges in Rajasthan (established

during the nineteenth century) Ajmer, Government College, 209-13

Ajmer, Mayo College, 114-

23 Jaipur, Maharaja's College, 213-18 Jodhpur, Jaswant College,

218-21 Colleges, Other, (established

during the present century) 221-31,422-23, 309-10

Collegiate education (See under Higher education)

Commercial education 296-97, 398-99

Directorate of education 363-69

Education, Administrative structure of— 332-35

Education, Agencies of— 414-15 Education, Organisational set-up

of— 362-67

Education in Ajmer-Merwara 37-46, 60-74,137-52,241-43, 256, 264, 266 in Alwar 47, 85-87, 171-77, 248, 343-46 in Ashapura 80-83 in Beawar 58-64, 268-69 in Bharatpur 47-48,177-83, 247, 346-47 in Bikaner 200-05,249-51, 349-52 in Bundi 197-98,349 in Deoli 82-83

462

in Harauti 52-53,196-200, 251-53 in Jaipur 48-51, 76-80, 153-70, 243-46, 266-67, 352-56. inJhalawar 199-200 inJodhpur 87-88,189-96, 248-49, 270, 347-48

Education in Kota 88-89,198-99, 348-49 in Nasirabad 65-69 in Piploda (Kota) 89 in Sirohi 53 in Todgarh 74-76 in Tonk 205-07 in Udaipur 51-52,83-85, 183-89,246-47

Education of aboriginals and Hill tribes 262 of deaf, dumb and blind

355 of Depressed classes 257-

61 of Europeans and Anglo-

India s 253-57 of girls and women 63-64,

67-69,71-73,78-79,84, 87, 90, 92-93, 239-53, 330-31, 351, 354, 403-409, 422-23, 438-39

of Muslims 262-272, 438-39 of Nobility 123-36, 331 of Princes 105-123 of Scheduled Castes and

Tribes 439-40 Educational development Salient

Features of 416-17 Educational system A critical

review of—445-449

Forestry education 295-96,397

High Power Committee Report of—429-32

Higher Education . Collegiate education under—328-330, 349,352-53, 384-87,421, 440-42 University Education. Early efforts for—231-38 384-87

Indigenous Education Characteristic features of—34 Critical review of 36 Elementary schools of—19 Equipments in —33 Extent of—in Rajasthan 34 Scanty source material for— 15 Schools of higher learning under—29 Schools of Muslim education

under—30 Growth of—in Jaipur State 157-160,322-24

Industrial Education 62, 64, 81 , 286-91

Institutes 372-74

Legal Education 297-99, 399-401

Mahifa Mandal, Udaipur 317 Manila Shiksha Sadan, Hatundi

317-18 Marwari Relief Society, Calcutta

312 Medical Education 273-285,

390-95, 442-43 Allopathic 273-82, 390-92 Ayurvedic 282-84,392-94,

424 Homoeopathic 285-86, 394-

95 Unani—Tibbi 284-85, 394

Missionary Education Early activities 56-57 Establishment of the United

463

Presbyterian Mission 57 Its educational work 58-89 Roman Catholic Mission : Its educational worki' 90-96 The Methodist Episcopal Mission ' Its educational work 96-98

[ Other Missions 98 J1 Appraisal of—98-103 Modern Education : Broad featu

res of 338 '' /iodern Education : Reasons for

the use of the term 37-38

olitical Agent. Responsibilities ; of 12

resbyterian Mission; See under Missionary Education

rimary Education 138-48, 153-• 57. 161, 322-24, 350-51,

354,377-79 ' rivate Agencies : Role of—of

education 336-43 Private Educational Enter-

'•* prise : Evaluation of—318-19

jasthan Mahila Vidyalaya, Udaipur 317. 138-48, 192-96

jasthan Shiksha Mandal, Bombay, 311-12

jasthan Vidyapith, Udaipur 315-17

Reorganisation of Education 138-48,192-96,358-361

Review of Education after Independence 361-77

Sanskrit Education 352, 355, 409-413,424

School for deaf, dumb and blind 355

Schools, Tehsili 143-45 Schools, First—on modern lines

opened in Rajasthan 14 Secondary Education : Growth

of 324-28, 350, 353, 380-84, 432-34

Secondary Education : Vocatio-nalisation of—434-36

Teachers' -Training. Education for—299-302, 328, 401-403

Universalisation of Elementary Education 427-29

University Education : Early efforts for—231 -38, 384-87

Veterinary Education 293-95, ' 397

Vidyabhawan Society, Udaipur 312-14 ^

Vocationalisation of Secondary Education 434-36.

464

OPINIONS (Extracts from the reports of the external examiners of the thesis)'

"The task undertaken by Sri Verma was indeed a very difficult and complicated one because it involved 20 'different states.-̂ some big and some small at varying stages of development anc under different administrations. He has, therefore, employed, combination of three types of approaches, viz, the chronological the topical and the unitwise. Sri Verma has made use of manjj unpublished documents in the National Archivesi at Delhi, thf Rajasthan Archives and the files of the Educaticn Department oj Rajasthan. Many records maintained by Christian jMissions havf also been made use of. \

"In the third and fourth chapters he has given a detailed anj critical account of Christian educational enterprise and thJ education of the Princes and Nobles. The section dealing with tb| famous Mayo College at Ajmer is particularly interesting.

"The appraisal of these endeavours by Sri Verma is very faij objective and free from religious or ultra-national prejudices.

"Documentation is very good and useful maps and diagram! have been inserted here, and there- The bibliography', is exhaustnj and the language of the thesis is good and correct. I have no hesI tation in stating that Sri Verma's thesis is a significant and vahj able contribution to educational literature in India..1. "

A. C. Deva Gowd] Professor and Head of the Department of Educatiol

Biangaloae—f "The thesis is well planned and well written. It! is a descril

tive survey of education in the different areas which constitul present Rajasthan through the years upto.1949. The meterialjj drawn from authentic sources and critically examined. Gener,, sations or remarks made are well borne out by facts., The prese tation is in good English and readable. The bibliography is re j vant and exhaustive.... I consider the thesis worthy of publication!

"In the handling of the material used, the candidate hi] shown good evidence of his ability for historical criticism."

Dr. N. P. Pillail Professor and Head of the Department, Trivandrum—14.

Kerala, South India.

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