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IND IA : A CULTURAL VOYAGE

India is a land of eternal resurgence. Writ ing history might or might not have been a vocation with .lent Indians. Creating history p '.gb -ceaseless process of ar ^/n, jowmg culture has definitely been a divine pastime. Cultural strides in India through more than thirty centuries is the theme of this book. It provides an insight to survey linkages of those strides lauded and aspired for by the mankind. The book is an ocean encased in a crystal bowl with inner appearances made to whisper In truer lights. The book traces the voyage of Indian culture through its excellences in the realms of religion, philosophy, aesthetics, languages and sciences with a lively and unique system of deciphering unity in diversity. The book is a re-incarnation of undying echo of the age/ess joy, of a great surrender to the bliss. In conformity with the general design, the book contains READINGS from Kddam-barl, Mahabharata, Gandhi, secular saints, and from flora and festivals. They resurrect glimpses of authenti­city in the inner landscape of India's presences-spiritual and material.

INDIA : A CULTURAL VOYAGE

INDIA : A CULTURAL VOYAGE A Cultural Survey of the Land of Eternal Resurgence

By

UDAI NARAIN TEWARI

Visiting Professor of Indology at the Humboldt University, Berlin (1962-64), and the University of Guyana, Georgetown (1975-78); Ex-Director,

Indian Cultural Centre, Paramaribo, Suriname

SELECTBOOK SERVICE SYNDICATE NEW DELHI-110048

INDIA

1

W

c ^^^aOL

INDIA : A CULTURAL VOYAGE

First Edition 1983

© Author

Cover design : Three A Corporation

Published by Selectbook Service Syndicate E-10, Kailash Colony New Delhi-110048 India

Printed by Lohia Composing Agency at Sunil Printers Naraina New Delhi-110028

to father who was also my teacher

Preface

Indian society, though in a melting pot situation, has never totally subjected itself to hedonistic destructiveness. What has perhaps sustained this wholesome attitude is the Indian aversion to absolute dogmatism. As science is coming to realise its limitations, culture is inching towards new frontiers. It would indeed be an interesting as well as an absorbing endeavour to trace this process and put it in perspective of time and content.

Shri Udai Narain Tewari's "India : A Cultural Voyage" is a commendable venture into the long and fascinating journey of a great civilization. It offers several insights into the mosaic of Indian culture, avoiding dogma and taking recourse to lucidity and sound logic. Not everyone would agree with everything that is said, but then, not everyone need necessarily do so.

My compliments.

New Delhi p.V. NARASIMHA RAO

24 August, 1982 Minister for External Affairs Government of India

Foreword

India is a vast land with a long history. To this land have come peoples from different parts of the globe as immigrants, wan­derers, merchants, conquerors, soldiers or refugees. They settled down peacefully and sometimes not so, but the variety of ethnic, linguistic, religious and national origins produced a remarkable cul­tural synthesis, while at the same time giving to Indian culture a rich variety. The Indian Constitution is secular and socialist in character. It guarantees to each section of the people the right to practise their own rehgion, culture and script. At the same time it enjoins upon all citizens to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. We have pledged to ourselves to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic, regional and sectional diver­sities.

Professor Udai Narain Tewari deserves to be congratulated for having attempted to provide in a short book a glimpse of this cultural kaleidoscope. I commend this book to the readers.

New Delhi S. NURUL HASAN 8 April, 1982 Vice-President

Council of Scientific & Industrial Research

Prelude

To delve into India's past, to discover the various elements that have come together to create the ground, the matrix of this country, is to undertake a voyage of discovery which has no limits. However deep one travels, the past for ever recedes.

India is in a state of flux. Challenges are at all levels of life. Ritual, art and function have generated enormous pressures and brought into the life of this country new tensions and demands. Myths, symbols that have taken centuries to mature, are under question. A technologi­cal culture, generating its own values, is threatening to destroy an ancient tradition. The mind of India has for centuries been able to receive and absorb the new without a violation of its roots or its directions. I congratulate Prof. Udai Narain Tewari's attempt through this book to seek to unravel India's cultural strands, to dis­cover its past and to set it in right perspective.

New Delhi PUPUL JAYAKAR September 14, 1982.

Prologue

The Indian culture shall live as long as sun rises in the sky. It shall always make hew paths more human. Creativity is the pivot of its longevity. Secular and co­operative is its nature. There is nothing fortuitous about its tread. An ordered energy, the six seasons assure its will by law of an all-pervading moral universe. It walks tenderly from peak to peak of excellence. Its gait resembles the rhythm of the milky-way in optimism and liberation. The foundation of Indian culture is not religion but dharma. Man in his full and concrete reality is ever active. Here the man is stranger to disease, is free from misfortune, is happy in his children and comely to look upon. Here a surer sense of reality of the unseen is carved out holding key to the destiny of man.

The great periods in Indian culture are marked by a widespread access of spiritual vitality derived from a greater process of assimilation. Participating in the supreme adventure of the ages, the Indian culture played a creative role in shaping the soul of man. It takes a rationalist view of religion. It tries to fathom human life in a scientific spirit with all the obvious facts, the triumphs and defeats of men slumber­ing in spiritual unconsciousness. It is not so much a revelation to be attained in faith. Rather it is an effort to unveil the deepest layers of man's being and get into an enduring contact with them. It is a transforming experience not a notion or condition.

The goal of the Indian culture has been to reach the suggested sense which is the ultimate sense. It is not a rationalistic self-rehance, a risk for the learned and the unlearned. None is deceived by the truth of naturalism. None is caught in the easy belief that the world he sees is all. The Katha Upanishad says, "As the self existent pierces the openings of the senses outward, one looks outward, not within himself. A certain thoughtful person, seeking immortality, turns the eye inward and sees the self". This process of self discovery is the constant commitment of Indian culture to attain human integrity. It is life itself, and not mere argument about it. Life which is full, where every aspect of being is raised to its highest

India : A Cultural Voyage xiv

meaning, where all the senses correlate, and the longing and love of soul are sur­

charged with deeper and higher spirits. The Indian culture is not a mere attribute to sentiment. It is not a derivation

of illumination from ignorance. It is a luminous entry into awareness of the real to sift human intuitions and not mistaking paradoxes for discoveries, metaphors for proofs. Never suspicious of the claims of intelligence, it has successfully avoided the pit of a self-satiated obscurantism. From darkness to light has ever been its voyage, not rejecting reason and going beyond. Here thinking becomes knowing. Philosophy and religion have been two wings of a total movement called Indian culture. With a ceaseless vigour it replenishes truth, love and karuna—thQ eternally contemporary sources on which human civilization subsists. Great upheavals are embraced as great moments of contacts in wider susceptibilities and deeper under­standings. Here the manifold universe is not an illusion. In its waxing and waning, growing and shrinking firmament, the Indian culture manifests itself as one which "dwells in the earth, is other than the earth".

The Indian culture never collapses, as it is not built on the sands of speculative doubt and moral impressionism. It is never disheartened in the face of fiercely confused enthusiasms of races and nations. It is not anti-social or anti-moral. It is directed to the good of mankind as a whole and not of a privileged few. Whatever is lasting and valuable in it enters into the new soul, the new world, ever struggling to be born. It is a continual dawning of a light with eager passions, a converging life-endeavour, a sovereign realization of the secret of oneness, an afiirmation in the belief that humanity is the most glorious vehicle to establish the kingdom of love on earth.

The Indian culture, bathed in the thousand waters of incomprehensible tejas^ is "still as a flame in a windless place". Its exaltation reflects heaven on earth. It is a holy, calm and deep sea at rest. When, however, it lapses back from this state into ordinary consciousness, it becomes the self as another transcendent majesty. It quakes and shivers, bleeds and moans with a longing gaze at eternity. In this mood It represents the supreme as the sovereign personality encompassing this whole world, working through the cosmos and itself for the realization of the universal kingdom It adopts the mode of bhakti to set free from all and regain pure dignity, t IS Vedic m content where rivers and valleys and mountains echo with noblest

t . e JL'Yn! 1 ' ' ""T'T ^''' " ' ^ ^"^"'"g^ ^"^ ^^^ "^^^ning^ always loom It is r / n l l J . '™ ' ' ' " " ' ^ ^'^^^^ ^^^ ^"^" ^^"' P"^g-to% and paradise. debt t f g o t l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ""^^^ ^^-^ ^ - " ' - b o r n as owing a debt to gods, to ri.^,^, to fathers and to men". It moulds the fire of sacrifice in

TnTfl i r^^^^^^^ of sacrifice in with ^^::"f^^^^^^^^^^ " t "'"^^ ^ ^ ^ " - ^ 'y ^'' ^^'^

Introduction xv

It is a modicum of nimbus. Here common sense is called in to become co-efficient in all branches of intellectual proposition. It is a co-pilgrimage where new universes in man's sensibility are propelled. Here golden caskets of resurrections emerge. They are swifter than the idea, and they hold the mirror of good and beauty to God and to man.

An earnest urge in excellence, a love unique at each moment, a saga of mouldings along deeper freedoms, the Indian culture is ever ready for consumation of each perfect experience. Here the sorrow of transience stops poisoning life. Life becomes art in morality and inheres only karuna. A culmination of the inner and the outer. A psycho-physical and palpable identity. A profound wide recognition. A golden temple in the smile of man. From pure being to becoming on each crucial moment.

These, and similar flowerings in thought sail along the composition of INDIA : A CULTURAL VOYAGE. The book is presented to the reader with deep humility and simple hope to share moments in Indian culture which do not permit tears in sorrow and exultations in joy. The book is a possibility due to the seed sown in me by my good friend and publisher Man Mohan Kapur. Manjul's intelligent and painstaking exercises in preparing the manuscript for the Press have been invaluable. I offer my sincerest thanks to Shri P.V. Narasimha Rao, India's Foreign Minister, to Prof. Nurul Hasan, the renowned historian, and to Smt. Pupul Jayakar, a great connoisseur, who have been gracious enough to write a few words of encouragement.

New Pelhi UDAI NARAIN TEWARI September 3, 1982

Contents

PAGE

vii

ix

xi

xiii 1

Preface Foreword Prelude Prologue Glossary Chapter

\. The Pivot of Indian Life : Rachana ki Archana 22 2. Exact Sciences : Rasa and Sura of Mind 34 3. The Tantra : Spiritual Ecology 44 4. Entertainments in India : An Aestlietic Art in Living 54

5. A Light from the Leap of a FJame 68

6. Indian Art: Process of Deciphering Unity 82

7. Dance and Music : Surrender to the Bliss 104 8. Language is Culture 120 9. Festivals : Accents on Truer Lights 134

10. The British Interlude : Dark and Clownish 144 11. The Bread and the Lotus 156

12. Rituraj: New India : The New Man

READINGS

13. An Admonition 14. The Enchanted Pool 15. Say it with Flowers

16. None is a Kafir, None is a Mlechcha 17. Hand Gestures : Alphabets of Dance 18. The Milky Way 198

19. A Selection of Festivals : A Journey through Joys of Lif. ^n! 20. Example As Well As Precept ^'^^ 204

Bibliography 216

Jnde% 221

225

168

178 185 190 194

Glossary

This GLOSSARY is an attempt to define concepts evolved during the last fifty centuries of Indian civilization through a cultural voyage which have been modulated by Indian languages, specially and most importantly by Sanskrit. The GLOSSARY may help readers to enjoy the grand mansion of Indian culture in its authentic and colourful context. For lovers of phonetic music a simple maxim is being presented here to pronounce the words with near accuracy. The maxim is: aa or //• are equal to the sign— viz., Achar=Aachaar; Annapurna=Annapuurnaa.

Ab/iang a technical name of a Tamil devotional poem. Abhaya non-fear. Abhinayan to act, acting. Abhyudaya rise in material and spiritual realms. Achar conduct. Advaita non-dualism, unity, a term applied to the vedanta philosophy. Advaitism the school of non-dualism. Adyd'Shakti original energy, one of goddess Durga's seven hundred

names. Agamic related to Agam, meaning knowledge, the Vedas; Shastras,

principle; future. Agratah Cliaturo "1

Vedan prist hat ah .« sa-sharam dhamih i Led by four Vedas, followed by bow with arrows on, the one idam Brahamam ^ being knowledge or the Brahman, the other valour, is protec-idam Chhatram \ tion from curse, from enemy's arrows. shdpadapi | sharddapi J

Achdrya a spiritual master, teacher, guru.

India : A Cultural Voyage

Ahimsa Ain-e-Akbari

Aitareya Brahaman

Akiiand Path

Akshara Akshat Alakha mandal Alankdr Alankdr Shdstra Alap

Allah Alldh-la-makan Amarkosh

Amdvasya

Aim it

Anal Haqq Anand Ananga Anantam Andhra-bhashd

Anishta Annapurnd Antahpur Anugrah Annushtubu Apabhramsha

Aparlgrah Apasard

Apourusheya Aql

Arahat dyatan

non-violence. , The Rule of Emperor Akbar, a famous book on polity during Akbar's reign, authored by Abul Fazal in Persian. the ritual commentary on the Veda by sage Atri. uninterrupted recitation, especially in the context of religious texts. word: one that does not die out, or mitigate itself. rice grain used in Hindu worship, virgin. the unseen universe, the universe. decoration. the authentic knowledge of decoration—physical and aesthetic. seven voices of Indian music, exercise in cultivating those voices. the Arabic name of God, used by Islam. God Vkfithout abode. a learned Sanskrit commentary on Panini's immortal treatise on Sanskrit Grammar. the darkest night in Hindu calendar when moon is totally invisible.

ambrosia, the food of the gods, which makes the partaker immortal, the nectar beheved to be found during the mytho­logical churning of the ocean. an Arabic term for abstract God used by Indian sufis. bliss, supreme pleasure, the god of sex, the bodiless, the endless. early name of Telugu, one of the regional languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh, South India, harmful, evil. the goddess of food, that which is never empty. the inner sanctum. godly mercy. a form of rhyme mostly used in Sanskrit verse. a distorted form of Sanskrit and the mother of several modern Indian languages. non-acquisitiveness. an angel; a physical presence of love, art and lust in the heaven. "^ that which is not attainable by man. intelligence. home of Jain mendicants.

Glossary

Ardha Ardhamagadhi Artha Arthashastra

Arti

Aryasamaj

Arydvrat Ashadha

Ashrama

Ashtabhuji Atman Avadhi Avalokiteshwar Avatar Ayam nijah paro

veti ganana laglnt chetasam tiddr charitanam tu vasudhaiva Kutumhakam

Ayodliya Mathurd ^ Maya Kashi Kdnchi Avantika, | Purf Dwdrdvati j geyd, saptayika mdkshddyikd J

Ayurveda

Bdbd Bdharnama

Bdbu

Bagalamukhi Bahisht

half. a dialect spoken in some parts of Bihar, India. meaning; wealth. the famous treatise on poYity by Kautilya, the guru and mentor of Emperor Chandra Gupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty. to welcome or worship man or deity with lamp of butter circulating round the front of the image. a reformative movement organised by Swami Dayanand based on Vedic tenets. an earlier name of India, the land notable for Aryan descent. a month of the rainy season in India, notable for dark clouds in abundance, and supposed to be a romantic time. home of a sage also catering for disciples eager to acquire knowledge with strict observance of a set code of conduct; the state in life for living in celibacy while learning; in married life, in preparation for renunciation; and finally renunciation. eight handed goddess Durga. soul; part and parcel of God. one of the several and very rich dialects in North India. the Buddha. incarnation.

This is mine, that is other's : is the calculation of the low mind. For the liberal soul entire world is a family.

names of seven ancient cities of India whose praises are to be sung to attain deliverance.

the Indian science of medicine; literally, the knowledge of life and its longivity. respectful address for a saint, a guru, also a grandfather. the autobiography of Emperor Babar, the founder of the Mughal dynasty. the class of clerks created by the British in India. Also, a loving word of address. a name of goddess Shakti. heaven, the world beyond, reserved for people of good' deeds.

India : A Cultural Voyage

Baisakhi

Baitarani Bali Bardhmihir

Barman Meld Basauli

Bhaclra Bhadro Blidgi Bhdgirath

Bhagwata

Bhagwata Purdna Bhai Bhai ek hain Bhairava Bhairavi Bhakti

Bhanddrak Bhdngra Bharata

Bhdratmdtd Bharat Ndtyam Bhdratavarsha Bhdrdwdj Bharirihari

Bhdva BhSg Brahmc hdrin

Brahma Vidya

a Hindu festival on full moon in March-April in comme­moration of the descent of the Ganga; also a Sikh religious festival. a mythical river dividing the earth from the heaven, a sacrifice in ritual worship. a famous man of letters, the author of Brihatsamhita, a scienti­fic treatise during the Gupta period, also a contemporary of another Hindu scientist named Arya Bhatta. a fair held during Sankranti in Hoshangabad district. a style of miniature painting in vogue during medieval India. elite, civilized, cultured. same as bhadra (in Bengali language).

sharer. the mythological king who penanced for the descent of the Ganga. a religious school in Hinduism deriving inspiration from Krishna as the incarnation of Vishnu, the mythico-literary history concerning Krishna, all are brothers, a name of Shiva. a note in classical Indian vocal music sung in early morning, devotion; a devotional movement embracing cultural spiritual and literary stirrings during medieval period, store keeper. a folk dance popular in Punjab. the original Sanskrit name of India, derived from the name of the mythical founder of the country; the name of the author of Natya Shastra, the famous Sanskrit treatise on dramatics and poetics, mother India, a form of classical dance, the original Sanskrit name of India, a rishi.

the famous poet-philosopher-king; author of immortal hundred verses each on beauty, polity and renunciation, feeling in literature, gesture in dance or acting, offering to God, enjoyment.

a religious student; unmarried, who lives with his spiritual guide; devoted to study and service. spiritual knowledge of the Brahman.

Glossary

Bhiita Bhuvaneshwari BhuvarWka Bindu Bindu sadhana

Boli Brahma Brahman Brahmanand Brahmin

Brdhmi Brahamrandhra

Braj Brahmo Samaj

Brihaddranyak Brihat Samhitd

Buddhi vivek Chddar

Chattanya Chaitya Chakravdk

Chakra\artin Chaksu Chand Chdnddl Chandi Chara-achara Charok Samhitd

Chdturmdsya

Chetand Chinnamastd

the element. the goddess of the universe; one of the many names of Shakti, the Universe beyond. a point, zero, centre point between the eye brows. a school of meditation by concentration on the centre point between the eye brows, taking it as the centre of the universe. dialect, slang. the creator, one of the Hindu Trinity. the ultimate reality. the supreme bliss. the priestly caste in Hinduism; Hterally, knower of the Brahman. an old Indian script. a hole in the middle of the head, the tantrik yogis are supposed to awaken it as their supreme achievement. the area near Mathura, the place of Lord Krishna's Lila. a reform movement organised by Raja Ram Mohan Roy among the Hindus of Bengal. one of the Upanishads. an immortal treatise on astronomy and other sciences by Barahmihir. intelligence and wisdom. a bed cover, a female garment to cover the upper body, a sheet of cloth offered to sufi's grave. the famous saint from Bengal; literally, consciousness. a Buddhist or Jain temple, place of meditation for monks. an Indian bird supposed to quench its thirst only from the rain water in a particular time of planets' conjugation called 'swati'; a metaphor for true love. a king of kings, a world-ruler; literally, a wheel turner. eye. moon. mean, of the lowest caste. a name for Shakti or Durga. animate and inanimate. the treatise on medicine by one of the foremost personalities in the field of ancient Indian medicine, namely Charak. meditative style of living at a place for four months at a stretch. consciousness. a name of Shakti; literally, 'the beheaded one'.

India : A Cultural Voyage

Chidanand Chowries

Chan Chidambaram Cliitram Daivata Dakhini Dakhinkosala Damaru

Dan

Dargah Darvesh Ddsa Dasyu Dellm

Deva Devabhdsha Devaddsi Devakul Devaloka Devamdld Devata Devata ayatan Devatdimd Devi

Dhammachakka Dhanurveda Dharam Shdstra

Dharmic Dholuk Dhoti

Dhruva Dhydn

eternal bliss. a kind of sea shells, also the lowest coin in vogue m the subcontinent till middle of the twentieth century.

a folk dance from Assam. eternal abode. picture, painting. godliness, 'godly shine'. southern, southerner. southern part of Kosal kingdom. a tabor or a small drum shaped like an hour-glass, the pet musical instrument of Lord Shiva. the act of giving alms, charity, donation, bestowal, grant, purification. a doorsill, threshold, a shrine, place of worship, tomb. a mendicant, a sufi saint. a slave, a servant, also of God, vassal. a robber, demon, non-Aryan. belonging to Delhi, the old as well as modern capital of India. a deity, god, demon, giant. honoured name of Sanskrit; literally, god's language, a dancing girl devoted to temple worship. pantheon. Eden. pantheon. deity, god, divinity. an abode of god. one whose soul is of god or deity. a goddess, consecrated queen, a suffix with female name denoting respect. a Pali version of 'Dharra Chakra', the Wheel of Law. knowledge of archery holy writ, code of law, Hindu jurisprudence authored by Manu. religious, legal, just, a small drum.

cloth worn round the waist, a national garment in India for both male and female. fixed, permanent, motionless, the pole.

Tmfo^^l?^' concentration, contemplation, reflection, thought, imagmation, attention, musing, reverie.

Glossary

Digambara

Dlksha

Dipaka-raga Dhvan Dravidian Drc ndcharya Duipa Durgd Durgd-puja

Dussehrd

Dvdpara

Dvija

Ekddashi Ek sat vipra

vahudhd vadanti Fakir Firangi raj

Gdtha Gauri Gdyatri

Gild

Godhumra Copuram

Goshthi Govinda Gralm ganita Granthi Granth Sahib Gridha

]

literally, the sky-clothed, one of the two Jain sects, an epithet of Shiva, naked. investiture, also of the sacred thread, religious observance, initiation of a sacred text or 'mantra'-training. a note in Indian classical music supposed to light a lamp. a book of poems in Persian or Urdu. the ancient race of India. the military preceptor of the Panduvas and the Kurus. an island, one of the seven mythical insular continents. incarnation of Shakti, primeval energy, a nine year old girl. a festival connected with goddess Durga, most popular in Bengal. the tenth day of the bright half of the month of Jyestha, the most popular festival connected with the victory of Lord Rama over Ravana. one of the four ages in Hindu calendar, the age of Lord Krishna. twice born, generally used for Brahmins, also for Kshatriya and Vaisya castes whose investiture with sacred thread makes up a second birth. the eleventh of the fortnight in Hindu calendar.

truth or God is one described variously by the learned.

a sufi mendicant, hermit, reciuse. rule of the British sword, a derisive epithet for British rule in India. a verse, praise, story, a kind of religious book of Parsees. maiden of fair complexion, another name for Parvati. the most sacred verse of the Rig-veda, a form of the Goddess Durga. the theological episode of the Mahabharata called Bhagawat Gita supposed to have had its origin in the words of Lord Krishna. wheat. the gate of a city or fort; heaven; architecturally, the frontage of ancient temples. an assembly, conversation, discourse. an epithet of Lord Krishna. knowledge of conjunction of planets. a knot, joint, illusion. the religious book of the Sikh compiled by Guru Nanak. a vulture.

8

Guru

Guru kripa Guru shishya Hat Hadis Hakim Haqlqat Haq Hari Harijan

Harishchondra

Harit

Harhamsha Hdsya Hazarat

Hidamba

Himdvat Hinayan

Hindi

Hon Ildhi Imam Imambdrd

Indrajal Indraloka

Inqilab Ira

Jagannath

Jahdn Ddst

India : A Cultural Voyage

a teacher, a religious mentor, preceptor, exalted, one who explains law and theology to his disciples. mercy of the teacher, of the spiritual mentor. teacher and disciple. shopping centre, market. the traditional sayings of Prophet Mohammad. master, officer, boss. reality. right, legality.

God, one of the thousand epithets of Lord Vishnu. God's man, devotee of God, currently applied for members of depressed classes of India.

a king of the solar race famous for his generosity and truthful­ness.

green, the horse of the sun god, emerald, an epithet of the sun.

a Purana describing the glorious family of the Yadavas. laughter, humour, mirth.

the Himalayas.

s l t > o l f the o , t \ ' ""•" ' "PP"^'^ ' ° ""-^ °f " - three Buddhist

accord d 'he " a M T f t " ' ' ' ' " ^ " ^ « " " ' ' " ' ' '^ - ' - ^ has been . """ ^"""^ of the national language.

an r i ' ? " " ' " ' ° ' ° " f""^ ' °f Hindus an Arabic term for God. muslim religious priest

Z ' ^ : , '"'-'^^ M - " - Of the Shia sect keep and bury n^agic, conjuring.

earth, cow, voico ... • , "on in the body a : ; o M l " \ " l : ; ' "'^ ^^^^-s ^urga, a gang-the God Vishnu uT } , Hathayoga. universe. "" ' " '^ '<'°' ^t Puri i„ OHssa. ..aster of the a friend of the universe.

Glossary

Janibu Dwipa

Jananmshtami

Jan mail gan

Japji

Jdtak Jdtrd Jai mangal

Jeevdtma

Jhiild

J'lva Jndna JdgJpwd Jogi Jyaislitha Jyotirlinga Kdbd

Kddambari

Kafi Kafir Kajarl

Kak

Kalash

Kali

Kalmd

Kalpa

Kalpa siitra

Kama

Kamald

Kdmadeva

one of the seven divisions of the world as described in the Puranas.

the birth day of Lord Krishna which is celebrated on a popular scale throughout India.

the first line and the refrain in the National Anthem of India; literally, the collective of people and their psyche. silent repetition of mantra, muttering of prayer. Buddhistic tales narrating incidents of Buddha's previous births,

journey, pilgrimage, victory and well-being, the individual soul, swing.

life, soul, spirit, existence, a creature, knowledge, perception, understanding, erudition, settlement for mendicants constructed by Emperor Akbar. saint, ascetic. elder; one of the summer months in Hindu calendar, an epithet of Lord Shiva.

the square shaped building at Mecca, the greatest Muslim pilgrimage. a great romance in highly exquisite Sanskrit prose by Vana-bhatta, the court poet of king Harsha; literally, the goddess Saraswati; wine; a female cuckoo, one of the ragas in Indian classical music, disbeliever, an infidel, an atheist. a style of folk song prevalent in North India, especially in rainy season, crow. a water pot, a pitcher, a dome, an ornament on top or summit of the dome; an auspicious omen.

incarnation of the goddess Durga or Parvati, the wife of Lord Shiva.

the statement, confession in Islam.

a world age, a day and night of Brahma consisting of 4300,000,000 years of mortals. the work written in the form of aphorisms in which religious rites and ceremonies are described in detail. desire, love, the aesthetic side of life, cupid, lust, carnal appetite. Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. the god of love, Cupid of Hindu mythology.

10

Kdmasiitra Kamandlu

Kammdr Kanyd Kaugrd

Kauker Kaimada

Karbald

Karim Karama Karund Karuna rasa Kathd Kaihak Kathdkali Kartdl Kaumdrya Kaustubha Kdvya Kdyd Kesar Keshava Khanjan Kharoshti Khayal

Khuda Khushroz

KTrtan

Kolattam Kripa Krishna-dtam Krodh Kshne kshne yat

navatam upaiti

India : A Cultural Voyage

the famous UeaUse on Kamab^ Valsv^'iJ^^-an earthen or wooden pot used by mendicants, a spout for keeping water, artisan, artist, sculptor, daughter, a virgin. a valley in Himachal region; also, associated with a fine style of miniature painting. a crystal of lime stone. one of the regional languages spoken in Karnatak state in India. the desolate spot in Arabia where Husain was killed; the place where Tazias are buried. an Arabic term for God, the merciful. work, applied also to the fruit of work. pity, compassion, mercy, tenderness of feeling. the feeling of pathos invoked in poetry and music. story, religious narration. a form of Indian classical dance. one of the classical dances originating from Orissa. a kind of small cymbal. a state of bachelorship or virginity. the jewel worn by Lord Vishnu on His breast. poetry, poem. body, appearance. the tendrils of a flower, saffron, the plant—Messus ferria. an epithet of Lord Vishnu, Krishna. a kind of wagtail. an ancient Indian script which was written from right to left. literally, thought; mind, attention, memory, fancy, vision, opinion, respect, fun, a kind of song. an Arabic term for God. literally, happy day; Emperor Akbar named a day in a week when secular markets were organised. singing in loud tone in praise of God, recitation accompanied by music.

a South Indian dance with small sticks. mercy, pity, grace, kindness, favour, humanity, pardon. a kind of folk dance in South India. anger.

"I that which appears new at every momem-Kalidas in Shakuntalam

Glossary n Kuchipudi Kumdri Kumbha mild

Kundalini

Kutumba Lakshmi Lalit Lalita

Ldlitya Ldsya Ldt Ldthimar Holt

Laukik Ldvani Laya

aid Lildvati

Linga

Lingam Lobha Ldka Ldk-ruchi Madan Madamtsav Mdgadhi Mdgh

Mahdbhdrata Mahddeva Mahdkdla Mahdkdli Mahdkosala MaUdparinirvana

a dance form prevalent in South India. a virgin, a maiden; a damsel, unmarried. a festival occurring every twelve years held at Hardwar, Allahabad, Ujjain and Nasik. one of the prominent ganglions in the body according to Hathayoga. family. the goddess of wealth, the wife of Lord Vishnu. fine, beautiful, lovely, delicate. a musical mode or ragini, one of the female companions of Radhika, Krishna's beloved. fineness, beauty, delicacy, sweetness, grace. dalliance in dance and music. a lofty pillar. a brisk form of the colour festival in which women folk in and around Braj use sticks to defeat menfolk in mirth. worldly. a folk form of singing most popular in Maharashtra. fusion, immersion, absorption, destruction, concentration, ardent affection, the annihilation of the world, cadence, con­cord, metre, melody, measure, modulation, sport, game, also of god. a well-known treatise on mathematics in Sanskrit written by Bhaskar. a sign, a mark, a token, the prime nature according to Sankhya, phallus, an idol of Shiva in the form of Phallus, same as linga. greed. world, universe, people, mankind, popular taste, people's taste, mythical god of Cupid, a festival of the god of Cupid, one of the folk languages of North India, one of the coldest months in winter in Hindu calendar; also the name of a famous Sanskrit poet, the greatest Hindu epic in Sanskrit composed by Vyas. another name of Lord Shiva, an epithet of Lord Shiva. the wife of Mahakala, a form of Durga in a terrible form, the ancient kingdom comprising of greater Kosals. the great deliverance, the deliverance of the Buddha.

12 India : A Cultural Voyage

Mahapralaya Maharishi Mabdyan

Maheshwari Mokara

Makarsankranti

Manasa Manas putra Manda Vahini Mawpuri Mantra Mami-smriti

Manvantara Mardthi Masna\ i

Mdtangi Mdtrd

Mdyd

Mdyd-Devi Mayiir Meenakshi Mehfil Mild Mithuna Mitra Mlechcha Mohan Mohini Atani MOksha

Mridangam Mudra Muharram

the great deluge, the end. a title for a great saint. literally, the great vehicle, a term applied to one of the three sects in Buddhism, the other two being Hinayan and Vajrayan. the wife of Lord Shiva. an alligator, a fish, the eleventh month of the Hindu calendar, the tenth sign of the Zodiac, Capricornus. time when the sun enters the mansion of Capricornus, a time for Hindu festival. desire, name of a goddess; pertaining to the mind, the son born, according to Puranas, by wish, not by coition, slow flowing. a dance form in Eastern India. a chant, a concentrated form of wordings related to revelition. the book on Hindu ethics and polity, the code of Hindu law promulgated by sage Manu. the forteenth part of a day of Brahma. one of the regional languages of India spoken in Mahrashtra. a collection of Persian or Urdu poetry with love as its theme. the nincth Mahavidya. quantity, magnitude, dose, the length of the time required to pronounce a short vowel, a vowel mark in Dcvanagari script, illusion, Lakshmi, delusion, fraud, conjuration, hypocrisy, magical power of a deity, Durga. the name of the mother of Gautam Buddha, peacock. literally, having eyes like those of a fish, goddess Lakshmi. a gathering of singers or poets or any cultured group, fair. a couple, the third sign of the Zodiac, Gemini, friend, a companion, the sun. untouchable, doer of wrong deeds, literally, attractive; a term for Lord Krishna, a form of Indian classical dance.

theoTogy.' " " ' " " " ' = ' • ' " ' ' " " '''^' ' " '""^ ^^ ' «fi"^d in Hindu

a form of musical instrument. gesture, currency.

the first momh of the Arabic year sacred to Muslims.

Glossary 13

Mujahideeu

Mukt'i

Midadlidra Midla Muni

Murti

Musalla Nad

Nadanta Nad vijndna Naga-bali Nilgara Ndgarik Nagar Vadhu Nilga Nalini

Nanuiz

Nand'i

Narsini/ia Nataraja Natha

Natya Ndtya Shdstra

Naukd viliar

Nautanki

Navrdtri

Neti, Neti Nihshriyas

Nirvana Nitya

Niviiti Marg

Nritta

Nritya

Nritam Naql

Nydya

a group of Muslim rebels.

same as Moksha.

one of the ganglions in the body according to Hathayoga. Muslim priest. a seer, a sage. a figure, an image, a statue, a picture, an idol. the sheet or carpet on which a Muslim prays. a sound, music. an end or culmination of a sound. science of sound, also acoustics. sacrifice of snake. pertaining to city, a cultivated person. a citizen, civil, civilized. a prostitute, a courtesan. snake, serpent a lotus, a lily, a fragrant substance, one of the streams of

Ganga.

Muslim prayer.

the benediction at the beginning of a drama, buJl, the ride of Lord Shiva. incarnation of god in the form of half lion half man. Lord Shiva; ViteraUyt 'sovereign of dance'. literally, master; a religious movement in Hinduism. dramatics, the act of dancing. dramaturgy; the famous treatise on dramaturgy in Sanskrit by Bharatmuni.

a pleasure trip by boat.

a folk ballet popular in East Uttar Pradesh, India, the first nine days of the bright half of Aswin or Chaitra devoted to the worship of goddess Durga. not this not this, total absence of pain, salvation. Buddhist version of salvation, literally, daily, eternal, the path of renunciation, dance.

same as Nritta.

same as Nritya or Nritta.

copy or to copy,

justice, one of the schools of Hindu Philosophy.

14 India : A Cultural Voyage

Odissi Onam Paduka Pagaree Pahari Pdjeb Paishdchi Pali Pamir Pancha-Kritya

Pantha Paramataman Param Brahman Parivrajaka Parva Parvati Pdtanjali Pans mela Pavddd Pinda Pingala

Pir Pongal Prabha-mandala Prahaldd

Prajdpali Prdkrit Prakriti Pratimd Pratipadd Praydg Prekshdgriha Puja Punya-shdla Purdna Puma Purush

a form of Indian classical dance originated in Orissa. a new year festival in Kerala. a sandal, literally 'protecting feet', a head dress made of long piece of cloth, a turban. connected to mountains, a school of miniature painting. an ornament which is worn on the ankles. an old form of Prakrit language, literally 'devilish'. an old Indian language adopted by Buddha for his preaching. a mountain. the five great sacraments which are enjoined by the yoga system. literally, path; Sikh religion. Hterally, absolute soul; God. same as Paramataman. a religious wanderer especially of Buddhist sect. religious festival. literally, of mountains; the name of the consort of Lord Shiva. a famous sage known for his treatise on yoga philosophy. a fair which is held in the month of December-January. a heroic folk song popular in Marathi language. a round object, embryo, offerings, given to manes. an epithet of Lakshmi, one of the three canals of the body which are principal passages of breath. a Muslim saint. a south Indian festival. hallow. a mythological prince, who was tortured by his father for his devotion to God Vishnu. the creator of the universe, Brahma. an ancient Indian language spoken by common people. nature, the original source of the universe. image, statue. the first day of each half of a lunar month. Allahabad. a theatre. ceremonial worship. a place for yajnana. Hindu mythical history. total, final, absolute.

opposite of prakriti, the soul, the sun, Vishnu.

Glossary

Purushartha

Purushsukta Qalandar Qissa Rachand Rfidim Raga

RdghiT Rdhu

Rdjan Raja Rajasuya

Rdjdharnia Rdj-rislii

Rakhi

Rdmalila

Rdmardjya

Rdmdyan

Ramazan

Rang-shdld Rasa

Rasdldp Rasdswadan Brahmswddati

RdslJld ]

15

labour, energy, valour, the object of a man's creation and existence. one of the hymns of the Rigveda. a fakir, a mendicant. a story, a fiction. creation. the beloved of Lord Krishna. literally, love; affection, desire, a scented ointment, colour, melody. modification of a musical mode. one of the nine principal planets, the mythical dragon's head which is supposed to devour the sun or moon during an eclipse. respectful address for kings. literally, one who pleases; the king. a sacrifice which onl} a universal monarch is entitled to perform. the duties of a sovereign or a king. a sage who previously belonged to a royal family or a king, and who becomes a sage. a Hindu festival which is celebrated to renew brother-sister affection and love. the saga of Lord Rama which is enacted every year all over India. literally, the reign of Lord Rama; an ideal political, social and moral system, the golden rule. epic on life and deeds of Lord Rama, written by Valmiki in Sanskrit, by TuHdas in Hindi and by Kamban in Tamil. the nineth month of the Arabic year in which Muslims observe fast from early morning to sun-set lasting for the whole month. a theatre. taste, savour, flavour, the number six, pith, justice, essence, extract, sap, relish, enjoyment, pleasure, passion, affeciion of mind, sentiment, sexual pleasure, interest, charm, quality, a fluid substance, water, syrup, quick silver, metal ^reduced to ashes, method, manner, fancy, of will, feeling. a loving conversation.

the taste of rasa is the taste of the supreme bliss.

the amorous or mystic pastime of Lord Krishna.

16 India : A Cultural Voyage

Roidyana Rashmi kaldp Rasa shdstra Rath Yatrd

Rati-majari Rati-rahasya Rati-raman Rati ratandipika Rati-shastra Raudri Rishi Riturdj Rozd Rupak Sabda dhvani Sabhd Sddhana Sddhu-bhdshd Sddhu

Sahaja Sahib Saldm Sdma

Samdj Samaskdr

Samhdra Samhita

Samrdt Samsdr

Samyak Sanatani

Sdndhya

an abode of rasa, chemical preparation. game of light, text or treatise on Rasa. the chariot festival of Jagannath observed on the second day of the bright half of the month Ashadha. a book on sexual science. another book on sexual science. cupid, coition. a book on sexual science. sexual science. goddess Durga. literally 'a seer beyond', a sage. king of seasons, spring. fasting by Muslims in the month of Ramazan. an allegory, a metaphor. sound of word. assembly, a society. devotion, meditation, accomplishment. literally, 'language of saints' generally used for Sanskrit. a religious or holy man, a saint, a gentleman; when used as an adjective, virtuous, righteous. literally, spontaneous; a devotional sect. a master, a lord, god, a word of respect. a form of salute with a meaning 'Peace be unto you'. one of the four Vedas, vedic prayers sung during sacrifices, sweet choice, conciliatory means used in politics. an assembly, a society as in the case of the Arya Samaj. correction, purification, refinement, influence of previous birth, consecration, sacrament, investiture with the sacred thread, impression. destruction. a treatise, a code, a collection, testament, collection of hymns of a single Veda. King of kings, a sovereign king, emperor. the mundane existence, the world, the earth, domestic life, ihe doctrine of transmigration or metempsychosis. entire, complete, thorough.

a follower of the traditional Hinduism; ancient, continual time-honoured, conservative. ' literally, evening; prayer, enjoined to be made by a twi born Hindu in the morning, noon and evening. ce-

Glossary 17

Sankrdnti

Sanyasi

Saraswati

Sarvam shakti mayam jagat

Sarvodya Sat-chit-dnaud

Satguru Saindmi Sattvik Satva Satydgrah

Satyam

Satyam Jndnam, andntam Brahma

Sd Vidyd yd ximuchyate

Sdvitri

Sent Shabda Shabda mala Shdbdikd Shaiva Shaiva Agam Shdkta Shakti

Shakti pitha

Shakti'Sddhana Shakuntald

]

] ]

a union, a planet's passage from one sign of the Zodiac to another. one who embraces the fourth stage of life, renunciator, a devotee.

the goddess of learning and knowledge.

the world is all energy.

upliftment of all. truth, eternity, supreme bliss are three eternal attributes of god. true teacher, God. a sect in Hinduism. related to truth, endowed with goodness, pious. essence, spirit, quintessence. civil disobedience, passive resistance, literally, 'insistence for truth*. truth.

truth is knowledge, god is infinite.

knowledge is that which causes deliverance or salvation.

same as.Saraswati, Brahma's wife, the daughter of Daksha, famous for her chastity; the river Yamuna or Saraswati; the woman whose husband is alive. category, series. word. garland of words. a book of grammar. a follower of Lord Shiva. a scientific exposition of Shaiva sect. a believer and follower of Shakti. energy, strength, authority, spring, push, potency, pith, stream, stress, capability, mien, calibre, prowess, dint, capacity, vigour, virtue, power, puissance, faculty, influence, means, might, nerve, ability, nature, force, epithet of Durga, Lakshmi or Gauri, a sword. an altar of Shakti. devotion of Shakti. the wife of Dusshyanta, the mother of Bharat, the daughter of the fairy Menaka, the heroin of the great drama of the same name by Kalidas.

18 Fiidia : A Cultural Voyage

Shakuntalam Sbali Shankh Shatiti parva

Shastra Sheel

Shikhar Shilpa shastra Shisya Shivardtri

Shraman Shravan

Shrishti Shuk

Shvetdmbara Shmya

Siddha

Sijda Singhasan Skand Smarta

Smriti Samyak Sainyak charitra Samyak darshan Sohani Soma Sruii Slambha Sthiti Stotra Stdpa Sudra Sufi

same as Shakuntala. rice. a conch shell. the last chapter in Mahabharata which also deals with the future. a religious text book, a code of law, a treatise, scripture. natural disposition, temper, character, nature, inclination, virtue, amiableness, propriety, kindness, modesty. Zenith, peak, summit. a text book on art and craft. disciple. a popular religious Hindu festival commemorated in memory of the marriage of lord Shiva with Parvati. a Buddhist recluse, a sage. the organ of hearing, a kind of devotion, the twenty second planet; the fifth month in Hindu calendar. creation. a parrot, the sage Sukhdeva. a Jain sect which allows its followers to wear white clothes. zero, vacant, void, naught, a school of Buddhist philosophy, nihilism, nonentity, nothingness, vacuity, non-belief in god. an arrived person, a saint, a divine personage, one who has acquired supernatural powers. a form of Muslim prayer, prostration. a throne, literally, 'a seat of lion'. an epithet of Kartikeya, the son of Lord Shiva. the rites enjoined by the code of law; one who is conversant with the law. literally, memory; code of Hindu law delivered by tradition. all, entire, complete, proper, thorough, total. proper character. proper and total philosophy. I am that. a plant (milk weed), the intoxicating drink of ancient India literally, hearing or faculty of hearing; oral tradition. column, pillar, chapter. state, situation, condition. hymn of praise, psalm, doxology, eulogism. a Buddhistic tope. the lowest caste in Hinduism. a mendicant in Islam with secular belief.

Glossary 19

Stlfi majar Suklian Suktimat Swmi Surd

Sitrnadi

Sushumnd

Susrut Samhita

Sutra

Suttee

Suvarn bhumi

Suvarn dvipa

Svadharma

Svaroopa

Svayambhu

S wades i

Swastika

Tilzia

Tal

Tamdshd

Tamil

Tdndava

Tantra

Tdrd

Tariquat

Tasheeh

Teej Tejas

Telugu Thdli

grave of Sufi saint. writing, diction, content. a belief based on Vedic hymn. one of the sects in Islam. wine, an intoxicating drink, spirituous liquor.

an epithet of the Ganga. one of the three principal nerves in the body according to Hathayoga. the famous treatise on Hindu medicine and pathology by Susrut. literally, a thread; a string, a rule or aphorism, applied to the doctrinal books of Hindu as well as Buddhist canon. literally, a faithful woman; a widow who burns herself on her husband's pyre. golden earth. golden island.

literally, self religion, one's own religion,

self image. self created, God. national, concerning the nation. an ancient Hindu mark denoting welfare, bliss and happiness. model of the tomb of Imam Husain which is hurried by Muslims under the earth in the Muharram festival. clapping of hands, chime, musical measure, time, tune, lens, ictus.

spectacle, sport, show, pageant, entertainment, pageantry.

an Indian regional language spoken in Tamilnadu.

Shiva's dance of total destruction.

rule, ritual, the title of a numerous class of magical works, devoted to Shakti. a planet, a star, the pupil of the eye, one of the itn maha-vidyas, the wife of Brihaspati.

the final stage of unity with the ultimate according to sufism. a rosary for counting prayers.

the third day of each half of a lunar month; a Hindu festival.

literally, energy; glory, odour, magnificence, effulgence, fire, bile, splendour, essence.

an Indian regional language spoken in Andhra Pradesh.

a metal plate used in Indian homes for domestic and religious purposes.

10

Thirtharikar

Tibbe

Tirobhava Tirtha Tithi Tosh Treta

Tripathaga Trishula Trimurti Triveni

Tukarami Tyohdr Upamd Upwds Urdu Urs

Vdchika Vairdgi

Vaishakha Vaishnava Vaishnavi

Vdjikarana Vajrayan

Vdk

Vdnar Send

Vardhi Varana Varnamdld

India : A Cultural Voyage

one who knows the crossing, a title for supreme god in Jainism.

a branch of Indian medical science supposed to have originated from ancient Greece.

concealment, disappearance.

a sacred place a holy place, a shrine, a place of pilgrimage. date, a lunar day. contentment.

oneoHhe four ages in the Hindu calendar, the age of Lord

an epithet of the Ganga.

a trident or three pronged lance associated with lord Shiva, trinity.

Z.\"fr.VJu^u '^''' '''''' ''"'- '^' Ga"ga' Yamuna and Saraswati at Allahabad or Prayag. pertaining to saint Tukaram. festival.

a simile, resemblance, likeness. a fast, starvation.

'camp language-, another name for Hindustani the ceremony performed on the dav nf ». ,• death. ^ °' " Muslim saint s

verbal, vocal, nuncupative, conveyed by words

hrp^r ardtvs"d:;ir"''''= "''°" '"'-''--''''" '' the second month of the Hindu calendar

matrikas. ^^ Vishnu. Durga, the Ganga, one of the

"'"ally. tTu"nder ^ w l ' 1T\^1 """""' °f aphrodisiacs. the other two being Hi^van^ , .f K""'"= "=^°°^' i" Buddhism

I *«<i, speech, langu ge ' ; ? '''""•'^'•'"''• Saraswati. *• ^^^' '^e organ of speech, the goddess '""ally, monkey armv ,K organised by Lord R r m L - 1 ! "^'•""'oeical army of monkies

a S r : " - - e r e ; n ' " » ; t . ^ ° ' P ^ °f children during oarshin, Nehru, later, the firs, „ " ' " ' * " " ' • '«d by Indira Priy''-T ° " ' ^ 'ight matr ka 7 "" '" ' ' " " '« Minister of India-

Glossary 21

Varna-saukar Varnashrama Varsha

Varuna Vas

Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam

Vatsalya Veda

Veda-mukha Vedanta

Veena Vidya Vihara Vijaya dashami Vishwa

Vrata Vrikshayurveda Vyakaran Yajna Yakshclngana Yaksa Yantra

Yavadvipa Yavana Ydga

Yogi Yoni

Yuga

Yuga dharma

1

a hybrid, a mixture of castes, of mixed generation or species. the caste to which a Hindu belongs, the caste system. a period of twelve months, an year, one of the seven continents according to Puranas. the deity of waters, the sun, the neptune of Hindus. residence, habitation, a house, odour, fragrance.

the world is a family.

affection, fondness, a parent's love towards progeny, literally, knowledge; the most sacred literature of India, pre­served by tradition and arranged in the present form bv Vyas. ^ Brahma, the creator. one of the six systems of Hindu philosophy particularly based on the Upanishads. a musical instrument of goddess Saraswati, Indian lute, lyre, learning, knowledge, science, lore, study, attainment, a Buddhist monastery, same as Dussehra. the world, universe, microcosm, system, the body, Vishnu entire. * an austerity, a religious vow, fasting, the medical science of flora, grammar. a religious sacrifice, an oblation, a supernatural being in female form, a kind of fairy, a masculine form of Yakshangana. an engine, a machine, an instrument, an apparatus, an imple­ment, musical instrument, an amulet, a talisman, a mystical diagram. ^ the island of Java. a resident of Greece or Europe.

one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, a union with the universal soul by contemplation; means of salvation the twenty-seventh part of a circle, convenience, a sum, an auspi­cious moment, recipe.

a practitioner of yoga, ascetic, an epithet of Lord Shiva Source, origin fountain, spring, vulva, the class into which animate beings are divided (which are considered to be eighty-four lakhs by Hindus).

a world age, four to the Mahayuga and four thousand to the kalpa; epoch, era, period, duty suited to a particular age.

India, ,t IS saui, ,s religious, philosophical, speculative, metaphy­sical, unconcerned with this world, and lost in dreams of the beyond hereafter So we are told, and perhaps those, who tell us so. would o thatthev i^ThT '"""^'t'" thought and entangled in speculation,

dered h S ^ r f h r'"''^'^'^ ^o^'d ^nd the fullness thereof, unhin-al his Vut: soS^^^^^ '"' ' f ^'^"' J' y °f '*• Yes, India h s been S o S c e o T c h i . r ' ' . ' ' ' r * ' ^ ' ^ - ^^'^^' known the innocence

the n ~ d : r o f m r r S r t ? o m e r f ' " ^ ,^'^"'^" °^ ''^''' "' and pleasure; and over ^nd OV.P . !'T '°"« ^Perience of pain and youth and age The tre^'n ^ •" ""'''"' ''"" ^ ' her childhood

weigLdherdowtdlgaSnTcustoman'?" f *'^'^^ ^"^ '= ^ ^ ^ ^ her, many a parasite h7c?i ^"''°'"/'"d evil practice have eaten into behind all thi's he he s t t n " i of" ' " ' -'^ked her blood, but wisdomofan ancient race P ^ * ^^ ' "" ^ ^ subconscious Ties whisper in our ears- vet Z'u^ f ^ ^ ' °'^' ^"^ trackless centu-again, though the memo'rv and Hri " r*" ^""^ *« '" gain our youth ys. It is not some secret doctrln^" f ^^°^^ P ' 8«s endure with kept India vital and goine thr^,„if "fu "°^^"^ knowledge that has humanity, a varied and tolerant culLl^^^^ ages, but a tender life and its mysterious ways "' ^"^ ^ ^ ep understanding of

J A W A H A R L A L NEHRy

1 The Pivot of INDIAN LIFE:

RACHANA KIARCHANA

The discovery of Indus civilization extended the knowledge of Indian history beyond the Vedic age both in material as well as spiritual realms. Indus civilization, commonly termed as pre-history, established antiquity and continuity of Indian culture in the field of spiritual progress. India has no parallel in eternally grappling with such issues. And in this civilized exercise not one race or one region, but the entire population spread over the land has been ever active. Geographically speaking, from Kashmir to Kanyakumari and from Gandhar to Kamrupa there have been endeavours to unveil the truth without disconnecting Theology from Philosophy. Singing of hymns and laudations by Vedic seers was always coupled with the speculation that at the bottom, they menifested one primal Being.

The rise of Jainism and Buddhism, though materially affected the religious urge, yet in the course of their philosophic speculation to raise Theological issues came to establish some form of religious cult. The Vedic cult of sacrifice invol­ving ceremonial cruelty invited protest which in turn gave birth to the'.e religions. The protest was joined by Brahminical thinkers who came forward with allegorical interpretations on Vedic rituals. But more significantly, the metaphysical mind of India opposed the Vedic ritual envolving cruelty, to which the world owes the mystic monism of the Upanishads. The gods retained, but a subordinate and colour­less form and Brahman emerged as a towering reality, as the impersonal Absolute, though sometimes viewed with personal attributes. Despite an advent of counter reformation in later periods, the Vedic age enabled monotheism a brush with the

24 India : A Cultural Voyage

Theory of Brahman. A monolatary amounting to monotheism was ushered in. Epics and Puranas testify to the process of groping of human mind for a reliable foundation of religious faith and social morality. Later on, when contact with foreign monotheistic creeds called for a reformation of her religious beliefs and practices, India found resurgence from within her rich spiritual heritage repleni­shing her moral fibre to reorientate her religious life towards establishing a more equitable social order.

There has been the most interesting inter-play between theology and metaphysics on Indian soil. Kashmir bestowed us the Trika philosophy in association with Shaivism. The Punjab gave us the Vedic hymns, as also superb Gandhar school of sculpture during Buddhist times. The heart of Aryavarta blessed us with the ritualistic literature, the earlier Upanishads, the epics, and some of the older Puranas. Mithila became known for spiritual excellence of Janaka and Yajnavalkya. Magadha gave birth to two of the greatest sons of human civilization Mahavira and Buddha. Bengal offered us Chaitanya as also the later Tantras. Assam has likewise given us pure Vaishnavism and earlier, the magico-religious cults of the Tantrikas. The medieval Siddhas came from the eastern regions. Nepal offered a synthesis of Brahminical and Buddhist religions; also the schools of painters and braziers who with Tibetans gave form and shape to the multitudinous gods and goddesses of the Mahayan Pantheon Orissa's magnificent contribution has been celebrated monuments of Buddha, Shakta Vaishnava and Saura religions. Orissa also excelled in its philosophical works suppor­ting the theism of the Chaitanya School, and continuing the Buddhist tradition in a veiled manner in religious and social practices.

The Dravidian area of India gave the foremost commentaries on the Brahma-Sutra providing a Philosophic basis of religious belief. The area echoed highest re igious lyricism both in Vaishnava and Shaiva branches of 6/mA:/i. The Vaishnava n^nr'n V '^^^ ^^^"'^ Nayauars and numerous writers of Samhitas and Ananias poured religion in the heart of all with an ultimate outcome in orthodoxy's recogni-dr. J o7^'"^ i^" ^"""^ ^ ' acceptable offerings to the deity. Mostly free from R o u s S o u T t T i T f^«"^^»'^« Political authority, the reli-Smoles ^nd , f " ; f ° 7 ^ ^ t h e whole country into a vast cathedral city with gorgeous r a e s The T ' ' ' ''''' ""^ '^' ^^'^°'^ y^^' i- to a round of festivals and pilgri-duce wa. tnn^H 7 " bitterness which panc/ivata and Agamic conflict tended to pro-a i r ; c e U t ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Th^ Lingayatcultin Karnataka evolved an minical creed andTus^om T ^ C ' ' "" '^ '"^ " " ' " ' ''"""" "^'''" ^ ' ' ^ ° ' ^ ° ' ®''^" Vaishnava lyricrsts in th J ^ ' ' " ' ' ^^ Karnataka vied with the Tamil Shaiva and T„va ^" jy''''!^^^ ^" their rapturous devotion to God. Maharashtra gave us Tukaram, Namdev and other<; u;i,« ^ .• i u -u • , soulswiththeirmysticlinhtT u l ^^^^^^^"^1 ''''''' have illumined countless Ravidas, Nanak, C a t i TuKH T ' ' ' ' ' ' '^'''''''' ""'"'^ India-Kabir, Dadu, affirmed that th ^ 2 v a ^ n t ' " ' ° ' ' " ' " ' " ' " ' ^ ^'^ ' '^" '^ '^'"^^' ^^^^ ^^^^ religion to mitigate r b o u n d a r i e r ' " / ' " ' ' ' ' ^ ' ' ^ ' '''''^ '""^^"^ '"^P*^^^ '^^ hierarchy in the spiritual field enr'°J ^'t'^^ "" convention and establish a new vatism,the redaction of the Shve ^ ^ ^ ^ waters of living faith. Early Bhaga-

the bhvetambara Jain canon and the consolidation of the

The Pivot of Indian Life : Rachana ki Archana 25

solar cult have been distinctions of Gujarat and Kathiawad while Digambara Jain literature was consolidated and extended in the South, in Karnataka. The patronage so lavishly bestowed by different dynasties and individual rulers in different parts of the country to further the cause of this or that religion throughout the centuries has been the most precious treasure of human memory. We should also remember that Dayanand, the founder of the Arya Samaj, hailed from Gujarat, and found the most receptive audience in the Punjab, where like the Sikhs, the Arya Samajis so liberalised Hinduism that the challenge of Islam was effectively met in that area. Sind has given us the great sufi thinkers of India.

Recent times have been most fertile in helping us to realise the cultural value of Rajasthan, Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Hyderabad, the tribal areas of Assam, and the South Bihar. The remnants of archaic religious beliefs in the regions pre-date the Dravidians and also the pre-historic peoples of the different stone ages whose religious life is being painfully reconstructed with fragment of cull objects. In Rajasthan sites belonging to the Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilizations are being discovered. Even the dark areas were at one time illuminated by religious traditions with hoary antiquities of their own. One should not exclude from this landscape Sri Lanka which gave us the Pali Tripitaka and immortal Buddhist monuments. India has always been religion.

In the saga of this gigantic evolution different racial colours are difficult to be separated from each other. The Indus valley, the Aryan, the Dravidian, the Austric, the Scythian, the Greek, the Huna, the Iranian, the Mongolian and even the Semitic (Islamic and Christian) races have all pooled together their currents of religious thought to build up the mighty stream of Indian culture. The greatest drama of coalescing by many races and cultures has been enacted on Indian soil. Her toleration gave shelter to all faiths. Her catholicity gave her an inner strength to absorb foreign elements with ease and extended her cultural hands of friendship to countries round about.

Latterly, she kept the foreigners out by stiffening the castes rules, and shut herself in by discontinuing religious missions to foreign land. The first restriction is being slowly removed now. But the second task of re-establishing cultural contacts abroad has yet to assume greater vigour. The bulk of the now tiny but highly intel­lectual, wealthy, enterprising charitable Parsi population of the world, following Zoroaster, has had its home in the western part of this country for over ten centu­ries. There is an ancient colony of Jews in Cochin. According to tradition St. Thomas, one of Christ's twelve Apostles, came and planted the seed of Christianity in South India shortly after the passing away of Jesus. Hindus, Jains and Sikhs, excepting a very small number of emigrants scattered in erstwhile British colonies, have no other home than India, which is the motherland of some hundred million Muslims (also including those of Pakistan). Needless to emphasise that India is the birth place of Buddhism and she contains all the first and earliest sacred places of that religion to which pilgrims have been coming year after year from all the Asian countries where Buddhism has spread. Laotzism, Confucianism and Shinto practically all merged into an amalgam with Buddhism in China and Japan. The gathering of all

26 ///r//fl : A Cultural Voyage

living religions in and around India has deepened and widened the horizons of her own culture.

The religiousity of India has been the eternal wonder for mankind, not only because of composition and compilation of sacred texts and the rise of sects all over the country. The element of wonder also lies in visible symbols of religious value. From Kashmir to Kanyakumari the whole landscape is studded with sacred streams, famous places of pilgrimage, magnificent temples and confluences of big seasonal religious-cultural gatherings. IfPrayag, Kashi and Kanchi are sacred to orthodox and heterodox sects, others like Hardwar and Rajgir are patronised by more than one sect; still others like Puri, Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain, Shriranga, Tirupathi, Pandharpura, Dvarika, Nasik, Kamakhya, Bodhi Gaya, Sarnath, Pavapuri and Navadvipa are patronised generally by a single religious community.

There are four cardinal points illumined by four Z)//fl/?;5—Badrikashrama, Puri, Rameshwar and Dvarika and in or near them the four seats of Shankaracharya, which every pious Hindu aspires to visit at least once in his life- The religious unity of India lies in elimination of all geographical distinctions and distribution of places of pilgrimage all over the country. The Shakta is proud of his fifty one places of pil­grimage strewn all over from Hinglaj (Baluchistan) to Kamakhya and from Kashmir to Sri Lanka. Similarly, a Shaiva has his mount Kailash and temple of Pashupatinath beyond Indian boundaries, and within them, those of Amarnath and Kedarnath in the north, Rameshwar in the south, Somanath in the west and Bhuvaneshwar in the east. The Vaishnava, too, can point to the seats of Badarinath in the north, Padmana-bhasvamin at Trivandrum in the south, Puri in the east and Dvarika in the west.

It has been unique fortune of cultural India to have had her kings as great patrons of religion in more than one sense. Though the religious headship really belonged to the Brahmins, Kings not only encouraged and inspired scholars and religious seers to compose noble literature. They also summoned councils to settle religious disputes and fix the canon. Sometimes they took part in religious discus­sion themselves. In the Upanishads, they even present themselves as teachers of highest wisdom—Brahmvidya. Brahamins, too, approached them for spiritual enlight­enment. The many copper plate grants bearing the royal insignia, often a religious symbol, found all over ^the country, testify to kings' and rulers' religious zeal and charitable disposition. Religious brotherhoods received liberal gifts from their hands. They built awe inspiring temples to house divine images and endowed them with suitable landgrants for maintenance and provision of scriptural instruction. Kings like Ashoka and Harsha had sincere faith in, and respect for, other religious creeds Ashoka patronised Buddhism and helped in its spread far and wide. Imperial Guptas, the Chalukyas and the Cholas were responsible for Brahminism Again the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Rashtrakuts of Malkhed extended princely sun' porttoJamisra. The Palas of Bengal and the Karas of Orissa supported Buddhism The Sens of Bengal, the Eastern Gangas of Orissa, and the Hoysalas in South TnH patronised the Brahminical faith. Harsha promoted Buddhism "^'^

Religion as culture survives in the hearts of men, but religion a. fPm.i . depends on patronage. In the heart of the country, both i ; North and South td^^^

The Pivot of Indian Life : Rachana hi Archana 27

every sect can point with pride to the innumerable caves and temples, images and statues, of unsurpassed splendour in religious architecture and sculpture, that bear testimony to the popular devotion to the gods, and to social and State support of religious institutions. There are huge and rich temples in South India, wonderful specimens of titanic architecture, each one of which can house and run a whole university of thousands of students. In the heyday of their glory, the income of temples went mainly to benefit people at large by way of promotion of education and help to the needy. Later, such practices gradually receded into the background mainly due to the descent of lineal succession in ownership of temples and places of religious worship.

Similarly, in the context of Sanskrit, the lesson was lost that language is spon­taneous expression of thought and emotion and that therefore mantras in an archaic tongue may acquire a mystic hallow, but are unintelligible to most of those who utter them. A belief in the magical efficacy of Vedic mantras becoming an article of faith with Brahmin literature and Purva-Mimamsa Philosophy, was an inevitability under such circumstances. In this the Aryans of India erred indeed in the goodly company of the Zoroastrian, the Roman Catholic and the Mohammedan, all of whom repeat prayers in Zend, Latin and Arabic respectively without often under­standing their meaning. The one purpose that this retention of old language really served was saving the Vedas from oblivion at a time when the human kind was the only tablet on which the Sruti was written. Classical Sanskrit, in later times, replac­ed the Vedic language. But when this Sanskrit became unintelligible to the masses, a similar indulgence was shown to the provincial languages as vehicles of religious expression except in heterodox systems like Jainism and Buddhism. But these systems, too, in later period tended toward Sanskrit. The mystic syllables and formulae of the esoteric Tantras, when divorced from their philosophical and religious setting, are a logical corollary to faith in force of the unintelligible spoken word, to which not only Brahminism, but also Jainism and Buddhism succumbed.

The rise of a sacredotal caste has not been an unmixed blessing either. The Jews and Zoroastrians too had their priestly class, but in India the system acquired a rigidity unknown elsewhere. Though originally all the three higher castes, regarded as twice bonn dvija^ possessed the right of access to the Vedas, in course of time the Brahmins monopolised this function in such a way that not only were the other two castes ousted from performing Vedic rites, but their attempt to regain their lost position, e.g., by Vishwamitra, was resented by the Brahmins. The Shudras were excluded altogether not only from religious field as ministrans, except for some insignificant functions but also from the study of philosophical disciplines which required, as a preliminary qualification, the study of the Vedas, which they were not entitled to undertake. Mixing of blood, however, could not be prevented altogether. But the caste of children born of miscogenation or intercaste union was higher or lower according to the mother's relation to a lower or higher caste than that of the father.

28 fndia : A Cultural Voyage

The medieval mystics of India, who inveighed against caste and religious customs alike, had ample justification for their bitter attack on religious practices of the day. The contribution towards a purer conception of the deity and a better social organisation cannot be over estimated. A Hving faith was brought to the door of the meanest by preachers often coming from submerged classes of Hindu society, and that too in the very citadel of orthodoxy, namely, Aryavarta, so highly extolled in the Manu Smriti. Islam brought not only a levelling but also a leavening influence in India, with its uncompromising monotheism and social equality of all adherents to the faith. Brahminism had to put its house in order against the danger of Islam, and sects like Sikhism owe their inspiration as much to Islam as to Hindu

sources. Orthodoxy, however, reacted characteristically to this new situation by tig en

ing social controls. But it ended in multiplicity of new religious vows only to turn whole year into a round of rites and festivals. This served to make the common peop^^ more superstitious and yet, at the same time, more religious in a way. A solid aciieve ment derived from this churning was an evolution of popular methods ' " ^ ^ ' JJ^ instruction which in turn brought contents of learned books to the knowledge o^ ^^ masses at large and certain high ideals of virtue constituting the P"^^^^^^ "^".^^.. ^j^^ India, such as, the dutifulness of Rama; the chastity of S^^^'^^^^ .^" V ^otjon brotherly love of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata heroes; the religious e ^ _ of Dhruva and Prahlada; the truthfulness of Yudhishthira; the ^^ '*' ^ ° , ^ Kama and Harishchandra; and the achievement of Vishvamitra irt fe-eslaDllsiiint principle of social eminence according to personal qualification.

No wonder, the Mahabharata came to be regarded as the fifth Veda: open to all alike; the puranas to be religiously recited; and in the South the popular devotional literature came to be known as the Tamil Veda. This evolution constantly reminds certain basic features in Indian culture which are of surpassing interest. In this land of religion, prophets never lacked an appreciative audience, nor freedom to express their views. The Parivrajakas (itinerant religious teachers) in Buddha's time often belonged to non-Brahaminic castes. In medieval times followers of Ramanand came from some of the lowest classes of society, even from outside the fold of Hinduism. Nevertheless, all classes of teachers got respectful hearing, though the message preached was aften radically opposed to the accepted code of orthodoxy and cut at the root of Brahminical superimacy. Again, being an ethnological rather than a prophetic faith, the religion of the masses was never stereotyped which gave the adherents the freedom to pick and choose.

Was this evolution conducive to the best interest of communal spirituality? The painfully achieved gain of the Upanishadic height of spirituality was lost to the popular demand for crude faith and comfortable virtue, and was replaced by the resurgence of rank polytheism, or else by bickerings over the name of the one supreme god. For over a dozen centuries, popular ideas about religion were widely held, and the eternal, universal, rational religion was deflected from the worshipful contemplation of the supreme universal self, embracing and including all individual selves, to the worship ofinnumerable trees, animals, and idols; and that wonderful

The Pivot of Indian Life : Rachana ki Archana '29

scheme of a universal society, based on the four Varnas (vocational classes) and four Ashramas (stages of life) was shifted from its true, scientific and psychological basis in the congenital vocational temperament and aptitude to the dubious but socially convenient one of rigid heredity.

The first glimpses of the Varna scheme we get in Rig-Vedic Purusha SuktQy where the whole society is regarded as a Universal or Social Man, of whom society is a reflex, and the various vocational groups his different limbs. The mouth, or head of this collective social man or human race, according to the Purusha Sukta (R.U. X90) was the Brahmin, his arms constituted the Kshatriya, his trunk was the Vaishya, his legs were represented by the Shudra. Such is the thousand headed, thousand eyed, thousand legged Social Man who spread over all the earth and ruled over all other living creature. This scheme was further elaborated in Manu Smiriti, the oldest Indian law book, whose injunctions are still followed by the Hindus, though in a very distorted form. The Manu Smiriti organises the whole human race, keeping in view the concept of the Purusha Sukta, into four natural psycho-physical types (varnas) of human beings, and four natural stages (ashramas) in each individual life.

In other words, the basic social components are: (a) the man of knowledge, of science, literature, thought and learning—Brahmin (b) the man of action, of valour— Kshatriya, (c) the man of desire, of acquisitive business enterprise—Vaishya, and (d)

.the man of little intelligence, uncducable beyond certain low limits, incapable of .dealing with abstract ideas, fit for only manual labour—Shudra. And the four stages are those of a student (brahmcharin), a householder (grihastha), a hermit (Vanprastha) and a monk (Sanyasin). Nietzsche, the famous philosopher and literateur, has declared of Manu Smiriti as follows, in his 'The Twilight of The Idols.'

"Such a law book as that of Manu sums up the experience, sagacity and experimental morals of long centuries, it comes to a final decision, it does not devise expedients any longer. At a certain point in the development of a nation, the book with the most penetrative insight pronounces that the experience according to which people are to live i.e. according to which they can live, has, at last, been decided upon. To draw up a law book like that of Manu means to permit a nation hence­forth to get the upper hand, to become perfect, to be ambitious of the highest art of living. . . . The arrangement of the castes, the highest cardinal law, is only the sanction of a natural order, natural legality of the highest rank, over which no arbitrariness, no 'modern idea' holds sway. In every healthy society, three mutually conditioning types, differently gravitating physiologically, separate themselves, each type having its own hygiene, its own domain of labour, own special sentiment of perfection, own special superiority. Nature, and not Manu, separates those mainly intellectual, those mainly endowed with muscular and temperamental strength, and those distinguished neither for the one nor the other, the mediocre third class one from the other, the latter being the great number, the former the select individuals."

Living through the four Varnas and four ashramas, the goal of life is achieved by adherance to four values: purushartha of dharma, artha, kama, and moksa. The

30 India : A Cultural Voyage

lTmZlTln1tZTT''"''''f'''''- The fim goal consists of three values. If

;i;.''TL'5e;x:arer. - ^ ^ ^ ^ as Sanalan Dharma-a v e r r p l t f c a l rei iJ ' ' " ' ° ^ * ' " ^ ""' ' ' '^ ^^"^ ^"°^" but also very much mundane ^ " ° ' °" '^ ' " ' ' " °ther-wordly sense,

m7uArS« / (Wg\e t l ' b l i s s7o f„ , t ' ' ' ' . / "'"''"''"y" (Prosperity) here, and Some say rf/L f a and ^ , 1 n '"'"^^'' deliverance from all fear) hereafter, is Manna.

the s e n s ' s T a T n l L S ^ ^ are best; others,/. . ,»«Ooy of is that abhymlaya consist in f 7 ""^^^ ^ ' ' ° " ' " "" ' ' « °">y- But the final truth happiness , 'e ; rd d S l y as l.rltt''-''''' "' ^" ">^ ' " - ' °«^"^-- ^""^'^'"^ a realisation nf ,h. "7 ",* "',"^^>^''-'> «"•'""«'.'"ofoa, mukli,elc. results from of ^ v l C wUh P I ^ ' " ' ° ' ""= '•"" ' '" '" '" ^^'f ^'"> the supreme universal self, s e l v e s ^ ^ ' ' " ' " ' "« '«°" . and therefore with all the countless individual

individual a"n1 sodaTl i rVeda-Vvl?cr l1 " ^ " " 1 °^ ^''^' '" " '^ ' " ° " ' " "^ =•" ' " ' ' " arms uplifted, but none hearthi i « L I ' H T ' " f "" ° ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ^ " ' ' "^ " ^ * ' * not followed"? (Mbh-xviii < fi,^ 4 '''"''"'esult from rfAorma. Why then is it Pandavas and the Yadvas all c a n i ^ H "°"^' '5tened and the Kauravas and the each far more destructive thn„ .h . A^ f ' '™'="°"- Two world wars, of recent origin, Grab, greed, hate a n 7 l t nrff i ^ . ^ ' ' ' ' " " ' ' ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^'""e '^*-no ne^d to b lieve in a o l d n r l n . " ' ' " ' ' ''"'<=' ' "^^- » " ' even those who feel some code of conduct 1 H ' ' " l'"'^'^"' ^"^ ">« '"^e 'S^ee that some laws, mav difler frnm t™. . . ' '"^ispensable for social life. Laws and coJc of conduct

vagaries and e w / ^ ' o ' r v ' ^^' '^ ' ° P'"^^' ^"^ ^'^'^°"^ '^^^ -"^b on human essence is the Sanatan(ller'^^^^^^^ f "^ ^"f '""" '^ ' ° ' ' ^ ^ "^" ' ' P°^''^^^- ^^'^ ' "

Now turni t • ^/wrma (way of life). cardinal tenet of H ' ^ ^ ^"' ^^"^^"^^^ ^^''^^' ' '*^^ ^ " °^ ^ ^ ' ' ^ a which has been a an intimate relatio ^ . '^'^"^' °"® "^^y ''^^ to agree with Confucian proposition that phenomena j u " V "^^^^^^ ^^ ® ' ^ ^^^"^^^"^''°^°'^'' happenings and social pense and retributin .?A ^^"""^ "" ^ ^ ' " invisible and impersonal law of recom-ultimate and e t e Z i J^ ' ° ' ^ ' ''''^" ' ° """'^ ^^ ""^^P-" '^^^ recognition of an recognising the faPf^P ^"^stratum of the world does not obviate the necessity of and destruction e v n i . " ' ' " ' " " ^ ' existence. Birth and death, day and night, creation re-ascent therefrom T M , ^""^ involution, descent of spirit, mind into matter, and and manner of Ihe " 1 ' " ^ " ' ' " ' ^ ' ^ ^^" ' " ^ " " ^ " ' ^ ''''''' form, method of rebirth or reincarnaUon " ^ d ' ' i ''''' ° ' T ' " ' ' ' '^" ^"^^"''^"^ P^^^lem soul. Once metaphv^io. a transmigration or metempsychosis of the ignorance and m o r S w it foil' u^' ^'^'^'^^ ''''' ''''' ^''''^ ^ ^"bject to not exhaust the whni« , r . ^^""^ one belief of a few years on this earth rn«

ness with the Eterna! f'^Tl^" "^ '^' '""' °' "'^'' ^"^ '^' ' ^^"^""o" of its one" ing to moral worth 'San„^„ n^^ repeated incarnations strictly determined accord-

Samian Dharma. Buddhism and Jainism all believe i„ the

The Pivot of Indian Life : Rachana ki Archana 31

law of Karma. Jataka tales describe some five hundred previous births of the Buddha.

Sanatan Dharma makes it plain, however, that the consequences of sin as well as of merit become exhausted sooner or later according to the nature of that sin or merit and then souls return to earth with sub and supra-conscious memories to profit by lessons of past birth and advance or recede in varying degrees on the path of evolution. The ultimate objective is always liberation or cessation of embodiment through a spiritual illumination about the independence of the soul and its freedom from the bondage of matter at all times. To the fact of rebirth necessarily attaches the third great truth that as there is this physical world corresponding to our five senses and waking state, there are other worlds corresponding to subtle senses and other states of consciousness. Through these our souls pass between death and rebirth in this world. When the soul comes to the human stage, the possibility of inquiry, as to the how and why of all we see around us, as to the meaning and purpose of life, arises.

But it is only after a soul has turned from descent to ascent, from extrovertness to introvcrtness that the urge for inquiry becomes stronger, until it becomes verily a matter of life and death to it to understand the how and why of all existence. In its anxious search, the soul passes through two stages and finds a solution of its harass­ing problems, and then attains peace in the third and last stage. In terms of knowledge these stages of inquiry constitute the three chief Darshana (views)—the Dvaita, Vishishtadvita and Advita. These three views correspond in Western phraseo­logy, to deism, personalistic theism of concrete monism and absolute monism.

A corollary to the exploration of the how and why of the world process is the great question. What is the goal, the end and aim of life? The final aim, cherished by every human heart, is the return to that original state of prefection from which we have strayed. It is to gain the realization that all world-process is but play, //7a, of oneself. Sooner or later this realization comes to every soul, after the experience of all sorts of joys and sorrows, sins and good deeds, and depths and hights of life, because all souls are identical in essence with the one supreme self. The outcome of this realisation is freedom from all bondage, fear and sorrow, for their is no other entity apart from and other than the self.

It has been a hard-won victory for the human mind to have conceived of a spiritual universe. Some call this world process as chance, some call it God, some call it fate. The Shvetashvetara Upanishad gives a similar list of primal principles. But the best, dearest and nearest name for this supreme came to be known as " I" , self, Atman and Parmaiaman in Hindu religious thought. All else may be doubted, but the fact of " I " can never be doubted by any one. And this "I am"—the universal principle of consciousness is eternal and infinite. As Devi Bhagavata says, "The cessation of this principle of consciousness has never been, nor can ever be, witnessed by any one. For, if it is seen, then that witness himself remains as embodi­ment of that continuous consciousness."

This leads to the essentials of the universality of religion. The Mahabharata pro­pounds the golden rule thus: "Do not do to others what ye do not wish done to your-

32 India : A Cultural Voyage

self; and wish for others too that ye desire and long for yourself. This is the whole or dharma, heed it well". Jesus Christ enjoins upon his followers the same role m the positive form, "whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so to them", and this he characterizes as "the whole of the law and the prophets". Some six hundred years later, Mohammed instructed his followers in these words, "Noblest religion this—that then shouldst like for others what thou likes for thyself. And what thou feelest painful for thyself, hold that as painful for all others too". Similar is the teachings given by Buddha, Mahavira and Confucious.

But why should a person act in accord with this golden rule ? The answer to this question is not clearly and expressly given in the extant scriptures of any other religion than the Vedanta which proclaims: "Because all other selves are your own self". As you do unto others, so shall it be done unto you. This is rationale of the law of Karma. The Sanatan Dharma has delineated three paths of Bakti, Jnan and Karma to reach the point of realisation. To the same end Christianity proposes the way of work, of knowledge and of devotion; Islam suggests shariat, tariqat and haqiqat; Buddhism preaches sheel, prajna and samadhi; and in Jainism samyak charitra, samyak jnan and smyak darshan are offered to reach the goal of realisation.

Again, a question arises. What do all these religious thoughts and expressions indicate ? These similarities of bslief and conduct serve to bring out into relief the basic identity of human equipment when at its best, the sameness of the religious urge all over the world, and the inherent desire to be at peace with one's surroun­dings and live up to the highest ideals. Ignorance, infatuation and greed may blind us to the realities of a higher life, but they are removable by discipline, they are only temporary fetters which keep the potentially infinite human soul in bondage and untruth. Even the most primitive religion is designed to ennoble life, and it is only the mistaken notion of what constitutes true nobility that drags the primitives down. Enlightenment of the soul darkened by passion, ill will and false view is, therefore, a paramount necessity in spiritual redemption.

A distinctive feature of Indian religious thought has been self-negating side of life, the Nivriti Marg. Perhaps the colour has been laid a little too thick on this aspect but that is because plenty could be obtained by merely scratching the soil, and life was not so hard as it was, for instance, in Iran or Arabia or Palestine, where men had to earn their bread by the sweat of their brow. Where nature is all attrac­tion and bounty, the danger of seduction is natural. Hence the constant warning to be alert and mindful of spiritual obligations.

The Semitic mind is preoccupied with the power aspect of God and hence the perpetual dread of offending Him and the need of intercession through prophets make peace with God play such a large part in the Semitic religious consciousne ^ The Indian mind was latterly turned more inward and was, so to say afraid of fvf blandishment of nature. It felt the greater need of self-discipline and indifferen the attractions of sense for realising the inner self. It is these that gave th /n ic? " tiye twist to the Indian religious mind resulting in the abnegation of the lower se f l " ' ; rehance on the higher self. Each man has been called upon to fight his l one rhLn t thesoI.c.tation of theflesh andtoconquer his lower self alm'ost una i^d ^ ^ ^ ^

The Pivot of Indian Life : Rachana ki Archaua 33

Jainism, Samkhya, Yoga—all exhort the individual to be self-reliant in his struggles, to avoid the bondage caused by evil action, and to resist the temptation of even a pleasurable heavenly existence, where the senses are regaled by aggreeable enjoy­ments. There is no spiritual advancement in heaven as held by many types of theism.

The boldness of this creed of self-help has proved baffling to those who have been brought up in the belief that at every step the helping hand of God is indispens­able for the attainment of spiritual heights. For, when the Indian mind swung over to the opposite side, it went beyond the personal aspect of the Divine and posited the impersonal Brahman that could be contemplated and realised, but not loved or revered in the ordinary sense of these terms. This concept is equally enigmatic to western minds brought up in the tradition of an intensely personal God who demands obedience, worship and love from his devotees. From this absolutistic position iha Indian mind has drawn the logical conclusion that every where the universal consci­ousness is present, images not excepted, and that, therefore, all the earth is equally sacred and all souls are identical in essence through their common identity with Brahman.

Man is composed of such vital elements as breath, deeds, thoughts, and the senses—all of them deriving their being from the Self. They have come out of the Self, and in the Self they ultimately dis­appear—even as the waters of a river disappear in the sea.

PRASHNA

Exact Sciences: Rasa and Sura of Mind

The purpose of exact sciences of India has been to protect man from inflictions of lack of rasa and sura. We shall include the following in the family of human awarenesses named Indian sciences to propound the thesis. These Indian sciences or this spectrum of Hindu knowledge authenticates stirrings in the human emotion to harmonise relationship between man and nature. To enumerate them for our purpose they arc as under:

Poetics, metrics, grammar, politics, economics and technical sciences. The poetics: To find the purport to enunciate the essence of all aesthetic

experiences, namely, the rasa, we approach Natya Shastra of Bharat, which dwells on basic psychological processes involved in the enjoyment of a drama or a piece of poetry. The theory, the purpose, the type, the style of poetry and the equipment of the poet are examined and wise rules of cognition are prescribed in the above monumental treatise. This exercise to incarnate alankar in life is considered a pious and grand activity of God. That is why the science of poetics is also known as Alankar-Shastra. The aesthetic side of alankar lies in dlivam (sound), not in form. Dlivani is the basis of, the soul of poetry also known as ra^a-rf/zva/n', the suggested sense. It leaves all other figures such as upama, rupak etc. to play a second fiddle, Abhinavagupta in his Dhvani-aloka, a work of extraordinary merit, thinks likewise. He adds that the suggested sense should become the ultimate sense. In short, the discipline, inherent in the theory, underlines the utter significance of the instrumenta­lity of the suggestive power of word and meaning.

The Metrics', A metre is music as rhythm in poetry, the eternal source of sura and rasa. The science of metrics comprises of three dilTerent kinds of music. These are svarasangita, Varnasangita and talasangita, meaning thereby: music of voice

•If:

India : A Cultural Voyage

modulation, sound variation and time regulation, respectively. In svarsangita, the human vo.ce is raised or lowered according to the aesthetic need of the communica-lon. Kflrm,-.»,g,,a derives its chief pleasure from fixed arrangement of short and

long sounds, and of the music, it produces. As against these two, however, the music m tala-sangua ^% produced neither by a skillful modulation, nor by the fixed Z t r : n K ™n 'TT °f ^'^"^'"S 'h« ^° i« o ' ^ound after the lapse of measured o r i Z l T t h a r h , . T ' ^ i ' J ' ' ' ' ' ^ ' ' ' ' ' ^ " " y " undoubtedly popular in the t h l h i L H > K '* • ' • ' ' ' ''^ ' • ' ' P ' ° P ' ' f ™ " "'" regularised movements of music ' " " " ' " * ' " " """"^^ "'•'"='' "^"^"y accompanies popular

h..,., J"*^ poetics and metrics viewed collectively are attempts to strike rhythm b ween man and h,s aspirations expressed in word, gesture or in sheer sound; in other words the rhythm between the inner and the ouler universe.

» n h J < , f """ ' . ' ' ' ^" ' """^" '^ ' ' ""^ ' •^ ' " fe of India is not only a number of X t ^ r„° , ' " ! ! "^ ^f """ '^""^ '^°'^^- I" ancient India, no inquiry was ever made fumiml of if""'^ ^ °' ' " " ' ' " " ^ ^™ « ^ higher realisation of truth and a greater discovervofa . h r ™ " ' ' ' ' ' ' " " ' ' ^ ' " ' • ^ Shabidika is a cal 5n,.,-ni.„;„ P c ^^'""'al discipline through the labyrinthine mass ofgrammati-This art iculX ''"" ' ° •""""""'. ' ' c°™f= a sublime region of bliss and joy. wreath f I tt " ^™bles the seeker to visualize Brahman in the vamamala, the ed var ,, '^""'^ ^'eakshara, immutable and indestructible. Patanjali describ-With a scien '? ^^ ^'""'"S sparks of Brahman illumining the sphere of existence, till. h»,v.„i., A ^"^'"5°"' ">' Shabdika record.^ the development of Indian mind in ^ou^oT^^^^^^^^ That is why it is called Veda.uukha, the religious upasana which lead! T^'u^" '"^ ^^'"^ discipline could be achieved by a kind of -poet , suggested that ^ ' ' ^ J ' ' ^ P"'"^ Light of God. Bhartrihari, the philosopher beautitude. b ammar is veritably the door leading to the final

The study of gramma i «al and assiduity put in ^Hxtlns'lorrfTv!^^'"^ ^^^'^ ' " '"^ian culture. The Traduion runs that Indra took up the studv nl 'P='='"ative study is unsurpassable, the first among the Indian g rammaTans l ' ' ' " " ' " " . " " """ Brihaspati. Pata^aH discipline. The utterance of sound i T ' v T " ^P'"'"alistic dimension to u ^ Upanishadas dwelt upon .he S r w j r j ; ; ' ' " ' : ' " " °' - " - i o " L s s ' nTl ° ; T'^- ^ " ^" '"^ "•«' -"eanings arTbut r ' " ' ' ™°"'''P °f brahman a one and the same thing- the Af„/,J„„^ „ ' " " ='PPa>-'=ntly different aspects of S", iThji """'"' "> -"' --: of°a, hi'rmr r " "'" p - ~ a i ties. It is the sumnmn genus. "^^ manifesting itself in d' •

This spiritual dimension is corollorv t . ^^^'^''

'"-•' r~"™x r:r.. '^rc r;:5- ?=• ;= :z ^^^^^Ashtaclhyai attracted

Exact Sciences : Rasa and Sura of Mind 37

Hindu, Jain and Buddhist scholars in successive generations to comment and to rearrange the relationship of word and meaning in diverse philosophic contexts. They all based themselves on the immortal treatise.

To augment and sustain the mantle of awareness imparted by notable gram­marians mentioned above, lexicography was co-developed to know the vocables. The status regarding words and their usage in space-time context can be comprehended only from this branch of Sanskrit discipline. Sanskrit lexical literature is vast. But we know very little about this treasure which is still in unpublished form. All we know are standard lexicons such as the Amarkosha by Amarasimha, the Abhidana-Chintamani and Anekartha-sangraha by Hemachandra and the Medini-Kosha by Medinikara.

Arthashastra'. Polity and political economy are interdependent to the ancient Indian mind. Society is an organic whole governed by the immutable law of dharma or its Vedic antecedent rita. The codes derived from dharma guide the individual, the king and his subjects. The summun bonum of life is moksha, which can be realised only by a rational pursuit of dharma, artha and kama. Sanskrit literature is replete with economic and political ideas vital for running the state and for deter­mining the relationship between the state and the individual.

The process of awareness in this field of life began with the very beginning. Cryptic references in the Vedas reveal conceptions relating to topics like origin of kingship, his status, duties, his responsibilities vis-a-vis various social classes; and other related matters. Sutras provide us a firmer ground in the sense that the norms and duties get a more collected form and composure. The earlier extant treatise on the science of polity in its widest sense is Arthashastra composed by Kautilya, an astute Brahmin politician, mainly responsible for the rise of Chandra-gupta Maurya. With interspersion of un-Paninian and archaic terms, the Sanskrit used in the great treatise on statecraft is simple but pregnant with deep significance. Arthashastra is an omnibus volume of instructions to the enlightened circle of students of polity. Its comprehensive character and eminent inductiveness is unsurpassable. Later periods could produce only annotations on it.

Like Kautilya, Manu is another bright star in the ancient firmament of Hindu budhi-viveka. The mutuality in Hindu budhi-viveka induces Arthashastra to admit the claims of the precedence of Manu's, Dharma-Shastra view in the event of a conflict in any fundamental matter. A treatise in anushtubh couplets, the Dharma-Shastra^ popularly known as Manu-smriti, is an all-round guide to the life and conduct of the people. Polity forms a legitimate part of the treatise seeking upon the ruler to follow raj-dharma, and uniting in it the qualities, duties, and principles of statecraft. Raj dharma includes ruler's responsibilities and covers diplomacy, inter-state relations, deployment of messengers and spies; organisation of the army forts, wars and military expeditions; treatment of a conquered people, internal administration, assessment and collection of revenue; and eradication of anti-social elements and their activities. It also discusses in depth, the administration of justice and propounds legal procedures including the laws of evidence in respect of civil and criminal matters. The Manu smriti lays special emphasis on dharma and asserts that its

38 India : A Cultural Voyage

sovereignity stands above the ruler. The ruler is its upholder. Manu, thus, breathes an element of spirituality into Indian polity.

Technical-Scientific knowledge: There is a reference in the Rig-Veda to an artificial thigh made of iron which was given to Vispala by the Asvins. The Iron Pillar, of Delhi, which is twenty-three feet high and nine tons in weight and which is beyond the reaches of damaging inflictions of rusting, is a striking wonder, especially for its birth in the fourth century A.D. Similarly, two other pillars found in Dhar and Mount Abu are no less striking. In the eleventh century, we come to hear King Bhoja speaking of some aerial cars. He tells us how to build the machine, and discusses problems connected with floating the car in the air against the force of gravity and the problem of driving it in the desired direction. He also talks of some kind of 'gas and propellers. Vajasaneyi Samhita and Mahabharata refer to a number of Yantras, the so-called mechanical devices.

The scientific literature in Sanskrit, extensive and elaborate as it is, deals with alchemy, chemistry, distillation; knowledge of anatomy, physiology, pathology, materia medica, therapeutics, paediatrics, hygiene, deitectics, the science of studying pulse; the veterinary science for elephants, horses, and cattle; zoology; orinthology; cosmetics and aromatics, the science of gems; cullinary art, the science of robbery; astronomy, mathematics; astrology; prognostication including gcomancy, cubomancy, omens and portents, dreams, palmistry, physiognomy, geography, agriculture, horticulture; the science of warfare, archery; sports and games; psychology; erotics. It is a breathless expanse in which the muse of Indian knowledge has deep and long flights.

In this wide genetics of knowledge Indian mind wandered leisurely. It was to be initiated to acquire the capacity to weigh, with scientific precision, the poise in each atom of life. A general standard of excellence in several walks, replenished by dharma, produced absolute symbols of virtues. Science became a taste—popular and national. The relics of this exquisite variety of intellectual taste are still to be seen moving around lanes and by-lanes of Indian villages and cities in the shape of multi­purpose-doctors with saffron pagarees on their heads. On what do these relics sut)sist, is another close book. An attempt in social ecology might unlock the secret.

Alchemy: Gold has been an eternal charm to mankind. Alberuni mentions K<inchanadeshwari~tr,ata tantra, a leading book on alchemy which informs of the science to convert not only base metals into gold. It spans a whole range of material and religious processes through which the technique grew into mystic creations. Literary sources reveal the existence of suitable knowledge of chemistry to support Char k ^ ^ ^ niedicine. Several responsible treatises on the subject by Patanjali,

ara and Sushrut recall a thorughgoing search based on scientific intuition ^rct;J17^J^5 ^^ ^^^ ^ J tile and inventive company of nature. 5o/?7« encouraged a lasting tradition of distilling.

Ayurveda * TU India is divided • °^^ flourishing literature in Sanskrit, the medical science of bhuta, kaumara'Ta/'^^^ main/cr/i/ra^ or vidyas. They are shatya, salakya, kaya, surgery; therapeutic H ''"*''^""" ^^^ ^«i'- They mean, respectively, major and minor

cs, demonology; paediatrics; texicology; elixirs, and aphrodisiacs.

39 Exact Sciences : Rasa and Sura of Mind

. . . . . e n , . . o , o . . a„d ^ f ^ ^ Z X l ^ ^ l ^ ^ ^ ^ i entire tieramala playing the role of physician in one ^^.^ ^ ^^ r r t w o r k on medicine is the « . 5 — ^ ^ ^ ,^,,, i„,Hed a a revised edition of an earher work by a d se^ <= °^ ^ = eontemporary, the Susrut series of learned and monumental <=°'"'" " f "".^,^j"° „,3ter of letters. Samhita was later revised by Nagarjuna, the » « * n a . ._ ^ ^^^_^g

The «,»r,W« did not exclude the car of " - ^"™;; ^; \^ , ^ „ . , ^ , | physiology inflictions on elephants, horses cows, ^"'^'''".'r^^Tc^^l^.i inquiry into secret helped people in their trade and commerce. Pathology slren„ ne p.avyaguna-de^eases. Chakarapani Datta wrote a popular ' " ^ ^ " ^ t " , - ribfd to be the samaha. Nagarjuna led in the field °f " ' " ^ P ^ " ' ; " . I'ZjTantra. In hygiene, author of a well-known work »" P'^^d'^''"" ;" ' ' . ' ' := , ' ' / " . ; ; ' "J ;^cle science of the India conquered both the realms-physical and spiritual. The miracle ^^^ pulse formed a significant part of «;<„rv«/a to be honoured as a separat ^ p^^^_^ ^^ known as nadi-vijnana. The entire thrust of all scientific efTor , ^ ' " ' " 1 ; ^ ^ ultimate ayuneda, was to see happiness reign over the countenance of humanity

in culture. „ , , •• i i,.,rHpn of prudish This world of happiness should not suffer from ^h^ ^luid burden^^^P^^ ^^^

mentality. The beauty-seeking Indian mind prepared a unique ''''''J .^^ of these aromatics. Varahamihira, in h\s Gandhayukti. '^^''^'• T Mfhe supreme accessory aids to physical charm and mental fragrance. Along with S^J . ^ ^ ^ _ ^ ^ . p^^jsed of decoration, the gem attracts Vedic attention. The Fire-Oo ^^^^,^^ evil planetary as the soul of gem. Later, it assumes an efficacious role^^m ^^^^^^^.^^ ^^^ health. influences, helping to cure deseases and bringing in ^^^ ^ ^ ^ existence, the Sage Agastya is credited with the mastery over the ^^^^^^J^^^^^ vvhich follow certain Indian mind ventured into the technique of theft andj ^^^^^^^ , believed to have principles in execution. Kartikeya, the C-in-C in initiated this knowledge. ^ ^ ^ ^tudy already in Vedic

Astronomy in India opens heavenly bodies lu ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Brahma shows times, and brings the cosmos to a happy neighbourho^ ^^^ Yajur-Vedas. Narada, acquaintance with Vedanga Jyotisha related to ^ ig ^^^^ j j jjcai sciences. In Parashar, and Garga are ancient masters who rcve ^ . ^ ^ ^^ astronomy, mathe-later ages, authors, often included in ^ ^ ^ ,7;';j^^„e gained through Greek and matics and astrology with sprinklings ot ^ ° " , ^.a—6th century-pioneered in Egyptian contacts. The noted astronomer, Aryaon ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ He discovered the assertion that the earth is a sphere ^^ich rota ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^.^^ ^^^,^^^ numerical notations. In the tenth century ^ - ^ , jj^j,^ has been a great genms in name who was met by Alberuni. Earlier, Varahj^m ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^,^3,ons the field. Brahmagupta, another l"^^f.^^'^'.^^rmathematics, and Grahagamta on of the day. Bhaskracharya wrote Ldavati on m astronomy. . .^ :_ this field is summed up in Macdonell s

Mathematics: Indian achievements in th.s he ^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^o,,d. The words, "The Indians invented t / ;: : ^ ^ ^ ^ influence of the decimal system of reckoning.

40 India : A Cultural Voyage

only helped mathematics to grow. It helped the progress of civilization in general".

During the eighth and ninth centuries Indians became teachers in arithmetics and algebra of Arabs, and through them of the world. The Vedic suha-sutra, which appears to be older than the Alexanderian geometry of Hero, might have kindled fire in Mahaviracharya to write Gamta-sara-sahgraha. Sridhar, in his Trishatiy dealt with quadratic equations of algebra. In the process of permutation and combination, the Hindu mind has excelled in marvels as early as four centuries before the birth of Christ.

The earliest use of the zero symbol is dated 200 B.C. In the words of Prof. Halsted the importance of the invention of the zero or sliimya can never be exaggerated. He says, "This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture, a symbol but helpful power, is the characteristic of the Hindu race from whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathe­matical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelligence and power." (Quoted inHogben's 'Mathematics for the Million', London, 1942). The west is generally found puzzled at the fact that the great mathematicians of Greece did not stumble on this shelf of knowledge. The long period of nearly five thousand years saw rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of art, literature, religion and philosophy. But in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practised by man was born on Indian soil.

What a luck for any civilization! Dantzig in his 'Number' writes: "Man used calculating devices for thousand of years without making a single worthwhile improve­ment in the instrument, without contributing a single important idea to the system.

Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who sometime in the first century of our era, discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event." It is no wonder that algebra, the corner-stone of modern mathematics, also, originated in India, and about the same time when positional numeration did. Such world events happened because of a whole social framework of custom thought. The Indian culture paid as much attention to the education of the mass of mankind as to the education of the exceptionally gifted people. Instead of being the momentary illumination of an erratic genius, much in advance of his time, these momentous inventions were essentially the product of the social milieu answering some insistent demand of the times. The adoption of zero and the decimal place-value system in India unlocked the gates of human mind to rapid progress.

Varahamihira deals with astrology in his Vrihat Samhita, setting examples to prepare hora or horoscopes. His elegant verses in Sanskrit cover almost all the sciences which, in ancient India, were associated with man's life on earth. Two samhitas by Bhrigu and Havana present prophesies on past, future and the present of each individual through a miraculous study of man's position under heaven full of planetary movements. This comprehension naturally leads to an understanding of dreams and their sequences. Indian physiognomy aims at predicting the nature, the

41 Exact Sciences : Rasa and Sura of Mind

general traits of character, and the fate of men and women, of the basis of certain necuiarities in their physique. Palmistry is an offshoot elevated to the pos.t.on of a C o discipline. Its popularity is underlined by the fact that the g.ps.es roaming Ground many parts of the earth inherited it from India which has been their ongmal

home in the hoary past. ., . .. ^ •» Geography: There are passages in Puranas which go to prove that the territory

in Vedic light acquired the sanctity of map. The Puranic terms ^w/>a and var.//a appear to be synonym to continents and countries evincing interest in the description of the troposphere and stratosphere. The aerial journey of Dushyanta described by Kalidas, in his immortal drama Shakuntalam, recollects references to these spheres. The geographical knowledge should lead to a larger comprehension of mountains rivers, valleys, and basins along with the flora and fauna to be found in their vast ecological lap. This acquaintance helped Indians to grow ^^^^^^^ l^f ^y/"J^^^;^^' ^ o ^ W a (wheat) is referred as the eat of god and goddesses, ^/za//(rice), later on acquired similar integrity in satisfying hunger. Rice offered to deit.es was named as akshat (imperishable). India's culture, in the main, owes its growth to the civili­zation carved out by the science of agriculture. Agni Purana deals with the treatment of plants. Surpala wrote Vrikshayurvecia in the eleventh century A.D. throwing light on horticulture.

Guru Vashistha wrote the science of warfare in his Dhanurveda regulating and extending the art of archery to the realm of science. A twelve century text, Narapati-jaya-carya, gives some idea about this field. Yukti-kalpataru written by Bhoja deals with the art of sword weilding. Sarangadhar, in his Lauha-pradipa, and Lauharava describes the art of sword fighting in a charming detail. Indians, by nature, were fond of sports and games. Hunting was popular. Other outdoor games were commonly enjoyed since Vedic days. The sovereign game of chess with inconceivable number of moves, as indoor entertainment, was invented by the Indian mind. In the philosophy of Yoga, different aspects of human psychology have been treated in great depth and detail.

Erotics'. Ancient India recognised Eros as one of the four ends of human life. Vedic seers had a realistic approach to the process of procreation. In the epics, as well we find ample erotic contexts. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Uddalaka is named as a teacher of the erotic art. Vatsyayana, the author of the famous Kama-sutra, mentions Shvetaketu as one of the authorities on erotics. There are many names to be attached to the long list, which points out to the fact, that the subject was never a taboo and has been thoroughly and scientifically dealt with by several predecessors of Vatsyayana. But of all the works available, his is the best. It is not a mere tract on sexology or eugenics, but a serious and scientific treatment of Kama in all its different social and individual connotations. Yashodhara wrote a commen­tary entitled Jayawangala on this third century treatise of universal interest. Later, Kokkoka or Koka wrote Rati-rahasyaA^^orci of sex) commented upon by several others Much later, mystic processes and a variety of potions came to be introduced. An idea of how ohaustively the science was dealt with in India, can be had from a series of known works on the subject. Some of them are: Kama-ratm by Nitya-

42 India : A Cultural Voyage

natha; Ananga-raiiga by Kalyanamaladeva; Kandarpra-Sudaniini by Virabhadra, Rati-manjari by Jayadeva; Raii-ratandipika by Devaraja; Rati-ramana by Siddhang-rarjuna; and Rati-shastra by Nagarjuna with a commentary by Ravanardhya. A section of ayurveda, too, deals with this science entitled vajikarana.

One never knows how many works in this branch of Indian science are still waiting for light in temples and monasteries and personal possessions in the vast multitude of Indians who should have been able to save more, than what is known, from natural calamities, foreign invasions and deteriorating state of social ecology caused by ignorant intrusion by the West.

These brief contours of Indian sciences find sharper images when we ultimately view various disciplines in the perspective of Shakti-sadliana. The intellectual psyche in India believed that the shakti is essence of all; the Shakti is residing in the cosmos which is unfathomable; and each atom stores the Shakti in its totality. Light, heat mag­net etc. are basically one and inseparable. Electricity is a physical power unseen by naked eyes. And it lights and heats. Electricity run on iron creates magnetic forces. All physical energies can be transferred into something else. In other words, electri­city, light, magnet, heat etc. are not diverse forces. They are one, and are reflections of each other. Nothing divides the physical force, the energy. And what is energy? What is its svaroopal What is its relationship with physical objects? Indian sciences answered these questions through their achievements.

According to Einstien, light is transferable into object. The same principle applies to other physical forces such as the magnet, electricity, heat and sound. If these forces are one, why not all the chara-achara on earth could be regarded as reflections of the basic energy which changes its pattern to become object. The chara-achara is made of the atom. It is in perpetual motion. The speed in the motion determines the form, liquid or mass, of the object, the atom manifests itself in. That is to say, the basic energy or Shakti is in the origin. It is undying, eternal, per­petual, liy^ and chaitanya. The basic energy is self-born, is known as Adyashakti in spiritual language. The basic energy is omnipresent. It is the cause of creation. So is Shakti or Adyashakti. Energy is dynamic, chaitanya. So is Shakti. Considering all attributes, both are the same but for their names. Einstien used to say, "There is no difference between science and religion. Both exist simultaneously."

The Hindu mind was scientific when it discovered Shakti in primeval energy. It was a discovery in deep and good faith; a discovery in the worship of the eternal consciousness. It developed karuna and vatsalya to comprehend it; to attain both physical and spiritual well being through knowing, doubting, realising various avenues of knowledge. India worshipped Shakti (always one with Shiva), and indulged in various sciences—from poetics to erotics to warfare; and helped her children to retain sura and rasa in them. India was conferred upon the right to authenticate each stir in human emotion, both material and spiritual aimed at harmony in man. This glorious saga of the rise of scientific temper in human civilization began with TT'fh" !,"^^"*^°"of the Indian mind. At the strength of this amazing intellectual teat the human civilization embarked upon the greatest adventure of man between the sky and the earth. Numbers reached infinity. And man's mind reached beyond

Exact Sciences : Rasa and Sura of Mind 43

infinity. The ages leaped in multi-dimensional fire of growth. And the sages responsible for the unprecedented invention warned the world:

Ayam nijah paro veti, ganana laghu chetasam Udar charitanam tu vasudhaiva kutumbakam

{This is mine, that is others' is the function of low mind. For a liberal souU the entire world is family).

The sages disclosed that the newly acquired capacity to count and to measure the infinity is not to divide, but to unite the universe as a family. Only then it would be possible for the children of God to retain the sura and rasa in them and in the world. The Indian scientific moorings were never in antagonism with spiritualism. Rather, they began their gospel action in living with the following motto:

Agratah chaturo Vedan, pristhatah sa-sharam dhanuh. Idam Brahamam idam ksatram shapadapi sharadapi.

(Led by four Vedas, followed by the bow with arrows on, the one being know­ledge or the Brahaman, the other valour, is protection from curse, from enemy's arrows).

Verily, whoever exists, he, in being born, is born as owing to a debt to the gods, to the Rishis, to the fathers, and to men.

For inasmuch as he is bound to sacrifice, for that reason he is born as owing a debt to the gods; hence, when he sacrifices to them, when he makes offerings to them, he does this in discharge of his debt to them.

And further, inasmuch as he is bound to study the Veda, for that reason he is born as owing a debt to the Rishis; hence it is to them that he does this; for one who has studied the Veda they call the Rishis treasure-warden.

And further, as he is bound to wish for offspring, for that reason he is born as owing a debt to the fathers: hence when there is provided by him a continued, uninterrupted hneage, it is for them that he does this.

And further, in asmuch as he is bound to practise hospitality, for that reason he is born as owing a debt to me: hence, when he harbours them, when he offers food to them, it is in discharge of his debt to them that he does so. Whoever does all these things, has discharged his duties; by him all is obtained, all is conquered.

SATPATHA BRAHMANA

3 The Tantra: Spiritual Ecology

There is hardly any kind other than the Tantrism in Indian literature that has met with so much abuse, particularly by those who never read or seriously studied a single line of it; or that has so much fascinated those who on the testimony of misinformed and uninformed people thought the Tantras to be most powerful and hence strictly guarded means for the gratification of purely biological urges. Only very few people tried to form an opinion of the Tantras by their own.

The fact remains that the Tantras contain a very sound and healthy view of life. But just as it is impossible to understand the function of the kidney, for instance, without regarding its place in the whole of the living organism, so also the Tantras cannot be understood without taking into account the rich display of human life. Thus, the Tantras are not at all speculative, but pre-eminently practical and up to the actual problems of the life.

The Tantras are a sovereign form of worship of the Shakti. The excavations in Mohanjo-daro unveiled seven layers of cities, the bottom layer being estimated to be four thousand years older than the Christian era. These excavations have also unveiled motifs connected with the linga, shakti^ swastika and nandi, which are unmistakable evidences of the Shakti worship in the period.

The Vedic Aryans were a patriarchical system. To strike a rhythm in their system the men held women in high esteem. The age-old suffix devi with female names symbolises the Shakti worship. Gods reside where women are revered, has been the general Indian consensus. Vedic sages addressed in their hymns the sun, moon, air, fire, dawn, water and knowledge as female. Likewise, the Dravidian races spreading from the Simla hills to Kathiyawad, worshipped the Shakti and Shiva. The relics of Dravidian civilization inform us of motifs of lotus blossoming

46 India : A Cultural Voyage

from the nsiysil of Shakti, of yoiii a.nd linga; and of Shiva in the posture of yoga. Where there is Shiva, there is Shakti.

The Puranas are regarded as the golden age of the iS/iaA;ri-worship, which found a respectful entry in each Indian home. The Upanishadas also helped in the increase of the glow. The Kenopanishad established Uma as the goddess teacher to impart sermons to the Vedic Lord Indra. Gayatri, Savitri, Sita and Radha symbolise Karuna and vatsalya, the other two dimensions of the Shakti, and the most out­standing inventions in human psychology.

Even the Buddhist consciousness could not escape the charm of the Shakti worship. Sekkodesha's commentary used words like varolii, brahmi and raudri etc. which connote the Hindu trinity rendered in female gender in devotion to the Shakti with her multi-image personality. One of the Buddhist schools, Vajrayan used mantras like Hindu tantrikas to please the goddess of power. Our familiar Chinese travellers enliven their accounts on India by reference to the worship of Tara as a form of the Shakti in Nalanda and Vikramashila, the two most prestigious places of learning. The ushering in of elements to the ^/la/://-worship in Buddhism is credited to Guheya Samaja Tantra, which issues instruc­tions to worship five Buddhas in meditation. The instructions are supported with ample praises of all the five forms of the Shakti. This cult exunies an assurance that nirvana can be sought through the material world. The tantra realm played a part in bringing Hinduism and Buddhism closer. The Shiva-Shakti in Hinduism became Tar and Tara in Buddhism. To begin with, this form of worship was against the spirit of Buddhism. But the life needed respite from the onslaught of penance; and it, perhaps, saw the salvation in this path.

Like the Buddhists, the Jainis too could not escape the unique allurement. Despite the fact that they belonged to a contrary philosophy, the Shakti worship induced in them conducts reflecting devotion to seek miracles in life. All the twenty-four Thirthankars got themselves seated in the august company of the Yakshini, named as Sashan Devi, the governing power. The Jain architecture extended its scope of excellence by carving out the entire Hindu devamala, in which female goddesses loom large. The magnificent bunch of Jain temples in Telwara, and the amazing number of similar temples in the vicinity, are studded with Shakti images in exquisite craftsmanship. A Jain siddha poet named Balachandra Suri acknowledges the efficiency of the 5'/;a^'//worship in the beginning of his famous work Vasanta Vilasa. Both the schools in Jainism; namely, Shvetambara and Digambara embraced the 5//a^// worship with a strong belief that on earth and in heaven are abodes of gods and goddesses with diiferent categories in power; and that they, once pleased, are bountiful.

In all ancient civilizations a belief was prevalant that at the time of pralaya only the mother-power survives. And it is at her cooperation that creation takes place. In physical life as well, love in a mother's heart is beyond death and destruction. Hence, mother-worship began with the beginning of human civiliza­tion, and with the passage of time it got enriched with all the attributes of primeval energy, the Shakti. Its traces are to be found in all the citadels of ancient civiliza-

The Tantra : Spiritual Ecology 47

tions. The Babylonians worshipped Ania, a reminder of the Hindu goddess Uma. It was also known as Tara or Ishfar, the symbol of Karima or piety and the sovereign of earth and heaven. The goddess is decorated with two horns of a cow on her head and is married to all the Babylonian gods.

Ancient Egyptians believed that the goddess of the sky was Nut who gave birth to stars and men and women from her feet. Later they found two goddesses with Lion's heads and swords in arms. But the most popular godly figure is Isis whom they worshipped as the giver of plenty and the initiator of the first human civilization. She was revered as the virgin mother, which was, later, adopted as Merry by the Christian faith.

The ancient Chinese belief has seen the sky-goddess in a lion's image. Their concept of yong and ying appears to be a version of Indian concept ofpurush and prakriti. According to Confucious, the sky is circular, is a path, a father, a gem, a mettle, an energy, snow, a horse and a fruit of tree. And the earth is wealth, cow and mother. When the Chinese embraced Buddhism, they transformed the Indian Avalokiteshwar into a female goddess! How similar is their goddess Chun-ti to the Indian Chandi, is another interesting episode.

The goddess Antony is a landmark in Greek sculpture. She was worshipped there as the GayaUi in India. She is a symbol of peace and prosperity. Athens was named after the goddess who was regarded as a favourite of men of letters. And the Greek capital really became the centre of greatest learning and scholarship. Another Greek goddess is Juno whose abode is on the peaks of the Olympian mountains. Like Parvati, the Greek edition is also supposed to be daughter of the mountain. Juno symbolises care, protection, courage, piety, and purity. Romans worshipped the goddess Minerva. Like Indian Vurga, the goddess kills demons with arms in hand. Otherwise she resembles Sarasvati who is the symbol of intelli­gence and learning and who also plays Veena.

Likewise, all inhabitants of ancient and not so ancient civilizations develop­ed norms of the Shakti worship. The universality of this form of worship is due to the human consciousness that each particle in the creation is in motion. The air, the sound, the touch, the fragrance, are all results of wavelengths produced by the motion. The sun, the moon, the stars are also products of the law of motion. The earth and its every creation is an outcome of the same law. Even matter is not immune from this discipline. Rather, it is also pregnant with the will of life which is chetana or the consciousness in man. And it governs everything. The entire cosmos is a harvest of this energy. Man's physical body is saturated with this energy. Who realises it, becomes omnipotent. Herein lies the secret of the Tantra. It guides men to realise the power, with a teaching that sarxam shakti mayam jagata.

The most popularly accepted image of the Shakti is that of goddess Kali described in Devi Bhagavata as follows: "Her complexion is like dark clouds. Moon resides on her forehead. She has three eyes. Her body is robed in red. Her hands offer bliss and abhaya. She stands on the pedestal of red lotus. In her front, dances the Mahakala drunk with flowers' wine. Devi smiles at Mahakala's

48 India : A Cultural Voyage

sthiti.*' Pictures, statues and tales depict the Devi in awesome colour which under­lines her grim and victorious role in demolishing the evil. Many sacrifices which came to be associated with the worship simply testify the urgency to kill the greatest devils residing inside man such as greed, anger, illusion, conceit and kama. The Shakti is the symbol of upHftment. Her first and foremost duty is to annihilate the ills. She is light. Millions of suns shine in each pore of her body. Her dazzle heralds the kingdom of God. Her devotee, the man, prays for a similar kingdom in his heart. She is the symbol of creativity. Like mother, she shapes life. Change is her basic instrument. She transforms the semen into child and blood into milk. Mother-power seeks change and symbolises unity. She is fond of lotus, the symbol of beauty in non-involvement. As mother of all creation she bestows her bliss not only on humans but also on animals, birds, mountains, woods and valleys. Her desire is : each one in her creation should be loved and respected. An interesting dimension of this worship lies in the fact that the Shakti is virgin. Hindu shastras sometime mention God as an Eternal virgin who is power, sidclhi, purity, and sheel. A virgin is incorruptible. There are several occasions in Hindu religiousity when virgins aged between two to ten are worshipped with great devotion.

The Shakti is one, but popular with many names. There is a story of her valour. After the annihilation of Raktaveeja, his other devil associates Shambu and Nishambhu appeared in the fight. Nishambhu was also killed. Then the lonely Shambhu pointing out to the Devi's seven assistants—Bhrahmani, Maheshwari, Kaumari, Vaishanavi, Varahi, Narsimhi and Andri addressed her with scorn, "You fight with other's help and thus announce your valour in vain". Devi withdrew the seven fighters within her self and replied to the adversary, "They are my reflections which were manifest at my will. Now, you will be annihilated by me alone". She is, therefore, known as Ashtabhuja—thQ one having eight arms; each assigned with a basic function. These eight arms or her seven images mentioned above symbolise creativity, annihilation, leadership, well-being, valour, peace, patience, and power.

The Shakti has been essentially popular in the nsime of Kali or Durga—a symbol of power in unity. The Markandeya Purana presents a fascinating story of the origin of Durga: "Once, the trinity of Gods—Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva— turned furious. Their faces began emitting vast dazzles of light. Indra and other gods behaved likewise. The entire dazzle became one. It burnt like a mountain, whose flames engulfed all the four directions. Then the dazzle of light, through which the entire creation was lit, turned into a woman. All the god's virtues contri­buted to her formation. She was presented with total wherewithals to protect the universe from evil and nurture the creation. Annihilation is emergency. Creation is eternal. The image of Mahakali standing on the breast of Shiva, the destroyer, is symbolic of her creative supremacy.

Sa vidya ya vimuchyate. Knowledge is that which gives deliverance. The tantra school carves out its own treasure through various forms of the Shakti. They are Kaliy Tara, Shodeshi, Bhuvaneshvari, Chinnamasta, Bhairvi, Dhumavati, Bagala-mukhi, Matangi and Kamala. They have their separate images and roles, the most

The Tantra : Spiritual Ecology 49

awe-inspiring being the Chinnamsta who is depicted in a tale equally fascinating: "Once the goddess went for bathing in the river Mandakini along with her two companions Jaya and Vijaya. After bath, the fire of kama erupted in her. She turned black. At the same moment her two female compatriots asked for food as they grew hungry. The goddess assured them to satisfy their hunger and asked them to have patience. But the fire of their hunger was unabating. They persisted in their desire. Then the goddess served her head. Blood flowed in three currents, two of them were offered to the compatriots and the third one was drunk by the goddess herself."

The colourful and hair-raising tale reveals an yogic act of deep meaning. There are three unseen ties known as granthis in yogic parlance. Till they are in a state of sleep or unconsciousness, the humans are seeped in misery and ignorance. When the tics arc awake, darkness disappears. The yogis place the discipline on the highest realm. They are fully aware that the human body contains all the mountains and rivers, all continents and oceans, all spheres and regions, all stars and planets, all temples and pilgrimages; and the sun, moon, sky, air and the earth with all its five elements. The yogis conquer the body to conquer the world. They are able to exercise the fullest control over ira, pingals, sushumna and kundalini—the basic channels of all energy; and thus they perform miracles.

But the gateway to the Tantra remains locked unless one finds a guru who dis­pels darkness and instils self-confidence in the disciple. A guru is Brahma, in the final state, is dbarnia—incarnate, and is indispensible especially in the Tantra-saclhna. What makes a guru? The Tantra-sara enumerates the qualities in the guru: "He should be peaceful; should have total control over his desires; should belong to a lineage of scholarship; should be humble; should command great social prestige; should be deeply meditative; should have full command over the knowledge of man­tra and tantra and should possess the power to penalise and bless." When Kabir rated the guru higher than the God, he was simply sharpening the edges of sensibi­lity in Indian tradition toward achievement of knowledge which leads to salvation. The guru is ennobling. Guru-kripa lights the path in the labyrinth of life to reach the destination. It also shortens the path. Hence the inevitability of diksha. Unless kundalini is awake, mantras and tantras are in vain. And this basic channel of awareness opens up only by the knock o^ diksha from the guru.

It is but natural on the part of every normal human being to aspire to seek for the guru like Vyas and Vashishtha. This noble aspiration in Indian tradition received encouragement from both sides. India developed a unique system to impart knowledge where the giver and the receiver both were required to possess quality and opportunity to examine each-other's capabilities. Hindu shastras laid down that guru and shishya must examine each other before diksha in order to avoid waste and fruitlessness. What are the qualities in the disciple then? Hindu shastras come out with the notion that a worthy disciple has a sharp memory to assimilate only true, evil-less, and beneficial information. He should turn his back to words said in his praise and in condemnation of others. He should be able to have control over his senses. Contentment, intelligence, and chastity should add their glow to his person.

^ 5 0 J India : A Cultural Voyage

Sickness, fickle mindedness, confusion and doubt should not succeed in defeating his powers of concentration. He should always be awake to greet the gods of virtue. What disqualifies a shisya for dikshal Sleep, drowsiness, immobility, laziness, and the habit of gambling are disqualifications. Meanness, lack of devotion, habit of speaking lies, and selfishness, moroseness and greed also deprive one from his or her rights to seek diksha. Jealousy, anger, and gluttony are described as prime enemies. "If I use the earth as paper, the flora as pen, the oceans as ink even then guru's excellences cannot be put in words," says Kabir.

Given a fair trial, diksha unlocks the doors of salvation, removes all obstruc­ting ties, gives birth to wisdom and conquers death. Iron is tempered into gold. It washes out all sins, offers meditative powers, unburdens from limitations, and puri­fies the heart and soul. Diksha glows from all sides with fire of dedication. The eternal flame living in the thousand petalled lotus illumines the inner universe. Tantrik knowledge is inconceivable without strict observance of the scientific tradi­tion enshrined in gurwshishya tradition. The science of the tantra believes in uproot­ing blemishes veiling the soul. The cataract is removed to revive sight to the eye. In tantrik terms it is transplanting the primeval energy—the symbol of all powers into the disciple which enables him to perform the extraordinary. The path of the Tantra is made of the edge of sword. The disciple must be an yogi to march on the severe path.

And in this path, a miracle takes place. There is a fall out or fall in of the Shakti in the disciple as a result of the unbounded sympathy bestowed by the guru. It is sheer spiritual process strengthened by quest and selfless service on the part of the disciple. "This process culminates", according to Jnaneshvar, "into oneness of the Jjva with the a/man or permor/»an—the repository of all powers. Krishna's embrace to Arjuna in the battlefield removed duality and transformed the warrior into his own image." Similarly, it is believed, Ramakrishan embraced an agnostic youth named Narendra and transformed him into divine Vivekanand. The doer in this fall-out must be devoid of all desires. This is an investment which does not lessen the original capital. It is a moral responsibility to replenish universal creativity.

The human body {pinda) is a tiny edition of the universal ibrahmand). The human body is made of all the five essential elements of the mother earth. All earthly powers, attributes and glories have their centres of balance in the north and south pole. These centres regulate the multifarious living activities of the earth. So are two centres of energy in the body. They are known as brahmrandhra~thQ thou­sand petalled lotus situated in the regions of mind; and sushumna or the kundalini or muladhara situated in the lower regions of the body. Both are conceived in the form of snakes, the first being the male, the latter female. It is their awakening and mutual embrace that kindles anand, empowering man to churn out the ocean of existence to produce the gem of life. Limitless are the powers of thought and action which lay respectively in the north and south poles in the body.

In the ra/;/rfl worship the pride of place is given to nad yoga. Radhaswami, Kabir, Raidas and Nanak, etc. concentrated their energies to this system. To be able

The Tantra : Spiritual Ecology 51

to discipher the system, one has to understand that shabda is brahman causing the creation; that shabda is stirring of an atom resounding the whole universe. Where there is stirring, there is shabda. Kabir describes it as "an echo of element in brahmand" This echo or the resounding is nad. Listening to it is to awaken the brahmarandhra and muladhar. The yogi enters into the chamber of his illumined innerself and begins to recognise his past, present and future; his power, glory and knowledge. The yogi does not rest there. He continues listening to the nad, and ascending to the higher lokas. Ultimately he transcends the shabda.

The inflow of nad has been described as a bridge rising from muladJiar and connecting, on its way, regions of all chakras and culminating in brahmarandhra, containing varna in its bosom like seed contains flower and fruit. Nad is a flow. It has been categorised in ten separate sounds. They are sounds of: pajeb for destruc­tion; sea waves for nurturing; mridangam for creation; shankh for thousand-petalled lotus; flute for chitanand; veena for sat-chit-anand, lion's roar for akhand ardha matra; and nightingale for alakh mandal.

The colliding point between the tiniest and the mightiest is also known as bindii whose fall is death and station is life. It is the third eye enabling the 'I ' to assimilate the universe in *me'. The bindii sadhana is a mutual reliance in colour-smell-awareness. Concentration at the central point between the two-eye-brows reveals the earth in atoms jingling and burning in many hues. They are unlimited extensions of earth's five elements which are always in action. The five elements are seen by the jo^/as invitations to know the inner J//M7/in men and object; 2, to set right any internal imbalance; 3, to bring order by helping the process of external balance; 4, to reach muladhar to know the motion of elements; 5, to conquer elements to treat, nurture and destroy the world at will. The shabda dhvani appears in bindu concentration as waves in five colours. Each colour has its significance: (1) Yellow symbolises mercy, gambhirata, fertility, stability, glory, strength, and sheel. (2) White symbolises search for rasa, tenderness, impressionability, tosh, coolness, beauty, growth, and love. (3) In red, heat, warmth, anger, jealousy, anishta, valour, capability, irritability, kamukata, influence, dazzle, and energy are symbolised. (4) In green, imagination, dream, weightlessness, grip, pain, elopement, cheating, dynamism, fun, progressiveness nurturing life and change are symbolised. (5) Blue, symbolises thoughtfulness, sharpness of the intellect, satvikata, inspiration, omni­presence, development, reformation, quenching and attraction. Thus, the Bindu sadhana balances spiritual ecology.

The rationalist, the non-veg world, which has turned its tommy into *a grave­yard of dead flesh', imputes a serious charge of senseless violence against the tantrik path which is alleged to perpetuate bali, the most important among the sixteen rituals in worship aimed at fulfilment of the desire. The language and practice of the tantra are symbolic. To translate them in unsymbolic and factual acts is sheer confusion. The concept oi ball demands annihilation of the self—the dearest and the most precious object in life. When nations and people act on this concept, they rise and construct their future as they will. The concept of bali in individual context inspires one to surmount all the five physical senses, the body is the blossom of.

52 India : A Cultural Voyage

The kamay krodha, lohha^ etc. are to be sacrificed. The Aiteraiya Brahman, at one place, imagines the earth as an animal which is but the animality in the human. This is not an invitation to kill the earth, but to control it. Purusli sukta imagi­nes "the god as an animal", and advises it to**be sacrificed in yajnas". The symboli-cism is made to speak against violence. The Mahabharta, in its shanti parva, prohi­bits 'killing of animals' declaring it as "not dharma'\

The lanira, as is clear from historical evidence, surges forward at a time when the nagar part of civilization begins feeling shaky at the onslaught of a foreign denomination in later middle ages. The aim of the resurgence is to uphold all that is essential in Indian culture. And the instrumentality to achieve the aim is sought in the rock-bottom of Indian society which has never been needfully reckoned or accounted for, except as caste-automations to produce well, to protect well, and to serve well. The present day crowds o( fakirs, yogis, jugglers, nagas, sooth-sayers roaming around Indian villages and cities are but relics of the untruncated sacred called the tantra, which got currency among the non-dvija forming the majority even in the middle ages. It awakened the muladhar in the Indian society: the second half of the basic energy in the lower part of the social body.

The tantra, as a spiritual resurgence, did not bow low before the blast of Arab-Islam invasion. Rather, "in a patient and deep disdain, it let the legions thunder past." Today, the tantra has become an object of a massive hunt by legions of the materialist West. Who knows if there are still living scenes of 'aloof and untroubled peace' in the Himalayas which have not been already transported to the darkly dazzling chambers of the Hollywood! But this can be said with certitude that like all the heroes in the ages of Ramayana and Mahabarata such as Rama and Hanu-man, Krishna and Arjuna who fought against wrong with excellent valour, the saints in the medieval period took up tantra in their own lights to uphold the Indian structure damaged by invasion and plundered by greed and mis-faith. The heroes of this period, who were legion, broke past barriers of castist arrogance in order to awaken the muladhar, the majority of the hetherto neglected people of India. The heroes of this spiritual uprising have been Kabir, Nanak, Jnaneshwar, Dadu Gorakhnath and a great multitude of yogis. They paved the way for a glorious drama ensued by the contact with the adversary. Most importantly, the undying influence of these saintly uprisings against violence of many denominations, afforded an early opportunity to Indian people to earn another resurgence called the struggle for freedom under the guidance of a frail Mahatma. Again, peace and victory of sanity were the motifs of this great event in human achievement. And, once again, India's heart seemed to sing in Vedic voice :

When night comes on, the goddess shines In many places with her eyes: All glorious she has decked herself.

The Tantra : Spiritual Ecology 53

Immortal goddess far and wide. She fills the valleys and the heights: Darkness she drives away with light.

The goddess now, as she comes on. Is turning out her sister Dawn: Far off the darkness hastes away.

So, goddess, come to-day to us: At thy approach we seek our homes. As birds their nests upon the trees.

The villagers have gone to rest And footed beasts and winged birds: The hungry hawk himself is still.

Ward off from us she-wolf and wolf. Ward off the robber, goddess Night: So take us safe across the gloom.

The darkness, thickly painting black. Has, palpably, come nigh to me: Like debts, O Dawn, clear it away.

I have brought up a hymn, like kine. For thee, as one who wins a fight: This, Heaven's daughter. Night accept.

RiG-VEDA, X, 127

Thou bearest truly, Prithivi, The burden of the mountains' weight; With might, o thou of many streams. Thou quickest, potent one, the soil. With flowers of speech our songs of praise Resound to thee, far-spreading one, Who sendest forth the swelling cloud, O bright one, like propelling; Who, steadfast, boldest with might, The forest-trees upon the ground, When from the lightning of thy cloud. The rain-floods of the sky pour down.

HYMN TO PRITHIVI (RIG. VEDA)

4 Entertainments in India:

An Aesthetic Art in Living

Ancient India is a vast concept. Its literature embraces several thousand years. The footsteps of its history—known and unknown—echoe through faiths and beliefs held by many races inhabiting the sub-continent. The entertaining capacity inherent in man and nature is most amply mirrored in India's poetry, drama and fiction; as well as. in classic commentaries. Sanskrit, Pali and other ancient languages throb with this aspect of creativity.

Aesthetic entertainment differs from the mere sensual. The latter is naked hunger. The former pre-supposes a mental discipline, a discerning code in sensibi­lity and wisdom. It does not necessarily oblige each and every individual or society. It does always require the will, glory and prosperity as preconditions to enjoy and to renounce. Its supreme need is people's strength to protect beauty and tender­ness. The people worthy of aesthetic entertainment are armed with a philosophy of life to discard the animal tendency, to reject outer glamour and to extend liberal frontiers of cultural traditions; and not to tolerate ugliness in any avoidable quarter of life.

There have been periods in cultural history of India when its people amply qualified themselves in the vocation; when their life was full of dynamism, chivalry and self-respect; when they could reject the evil and nurture the beautiful; and renounce the glory perhaps only to re-culture it. Those were the periods when its people conquered wide lands through commerce and religion and influenced the course of human civilization leading it to greater cultural peaks. The urbanity in the ancient Indian culture was matchless in creating, protecting and honouring the universe of

56 India : A Cultural Voyage

beauty, good and wellbeing. Each social creation was aimed to be atuned to the rhythm of life. The art of life was a glorious discovery, a perpetual festival, a way to anand.

India woke up after a long slumber in A.D. 220. An unknown Pataliputra prince named Chandragupta, who was married to a Lichchivi girl, rose with a sudden strength of a volcano and drove away foreigners from the north. Samudragupta, his worthy son, extended the crusade further. His still worthier son Chandragupta II, popularly known as Vikramaditya erased all traces of alien domination. His empire extended from Himalayas to Narmada and became source of a new national resurgence. Vigorous love and passion for knowledge, and unique revolution in state-craft, in religion and in literature aroused the Brahamins. Their powerful language Sanskrit stirred new life in people. Old habits and practices, which die hard, were discarded. Gandhar style in art patronised 6y Kushan kings was gainfully replaced by a native or swadeshi creation authenticating the new national upsurge. The caste and social systems underwent a transformation. The era heralded a golden direction in Indian thought processes.

The people looked at the victory of the Guptas with a classic devotion and love. This sentiment, even today, reigns supreme in the memory of Indian people. The stories about Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit dramatist-poet, and Vikramaditya, the miracle king have become popular tales. They keep amusing and entertaining Indian homes almost every evening. Puranas, Smritis, Shastras—iho authentic guides to Hindu code of conduct—are regarded as creation of this fertile age. The period gave us poetry in its most glorious form. Prose grew to newer hights.

This renaissance in social life, thought and creativity naturally gave birth to sound entertainments based on philosophic moorings, imaginative reflections, moral extensions and historical traditions. The period witnessed an upsurge in Shaivait worship wherein the Shakti—the creative desire of Lord Shiva—reigned supreme. It is TDclieved that when Lord Shiva is inactive during pralay, the Shakti reigns devouring the entire lila of creation. It is Shakti who brings creativity when Shiva feels the impulse of lila. She is Lalita. Creation is her game. She derives anand through it. The eternal Shiva is her beloved friend, the partner in lila. Lalita lives on ecstacy, and lives in the hearts of devotees. Lalita \s decorated with thousand adjectives. The eternal art, the love, the knower, all is She. La/Zm instigates man's soul to love beauty, to create beauty, to appreciate beauty. Lalita is the symbol of all creative inspirations.

Followers of Lord Shiva describe art as one of the five veils of the Shakti or maya, the other four being time, destiny, love and learning. Enveloped in these veils the eternal awarness called Shiva transforms itself in jeevatma and forgets the natural dharma of its being eternal, omnipresent, omniscient or omnipotent. It begins evincing joy in little sparklings of new creations. This is art. When man limits art to himself and makes it subjective, bondage ensues. When he transcends himself art becomes a source of liberation. The Indian awareness has always welcomed the latter.

Entertainments in India : An Aesthetic Art in Living 57

The enlightened or nagar was brought up under the discipline discussed above. He appreciated art. He practiced it. Physical pleasure was not the only aim. Mental and spiritual growth used to be his goal. A person had to prove his eligibility to seek entry m art-assemblies. And if some one was found eligible, his or her worldly status was no obstacle. According to an episode in Kadambari, a c/;am/fl/girl was permitted entry into the royal assembly the moment she established the fact that the parrot, named Vaishampayan, whom she held in her arms, knew Shastras; was well versed in politics, music, poetry and drama; was an expert in the art of oratory and poetic discourse; was a maestro of musical instruments; had attained excellence in dancing and painting; was unbeaten in the art of gambling and love; and knew all the characteristics of elephants, horses, men and women. Kadambari, the unequ­alled romance in world literature details a list of arts practiced by Chandrapid, the hero. The list includes grammar, mathematics, astronomy, singing, dancing, swim­ming, jumping and the knowledge of scripts and linguistics, poetry and drama, magic and carpentry and the art of goldsmith.

The ATcrwajMrra of Vatsyayan has depicted other realms in art-learning. Buddhist literature details eighty-four arts in the identical field, Jain literature counts it up to seventy-four. Round about the dawn of the Christian civilization, Vatsyayan comes forward with his Kamasutra to highten pleasures of life. The learned treatise reflects glimpses of existence of similar literature in preceding times. Such has been the saga of epic continuity. Kamasutra begins with a solemn declaration that the creator wrote a book comprising one lakh chapters on dharma, artha and kama. The Nandi, Lord Shiva's companion, composed a book on kama in one thousand chapters. Shvetketu condensed it by half. Panchal further reduced it, and presented it in hundred and fifty chapters. Vatsyayan came forward with a suramum-bonum.

About one third in kamasutra relates to literary styles. The rest is on art of sex and entertainment. Some of them are complimentary to daily needs of the initiated beings; such as singing, playing musical instrument, dancing, painting, decorating the lover's abode with flower, carving filigrees of coloured rice grains on moon-like faces of the spouses, arrangement to lighten the burden of hot summer by water-games, by varied uses of sandal, and by invoking magic, practising cullinary satiation, etc. They were essential disciplines for civilised people. In this august company of human excellences one can also find utility arts like architecture, testing ' of metals, metallurgy, colouring of valuable stones, batiks, knowledge of flora and fauna. Animal duels and cockfights were favourite entertainments. The householders domisticated colourful and intellegent birds. Teaching them to speak and compre­hend human language was a good pastime with the enlightened.

Almost the same age witnessed famous creation of Bharat's Natya Shastra, It presents a vivid and authentic description of vocal and instrumental music, poetry and ornamentation. The mastery of Bharat lies not only in guiding poets and drama­tists in their respective pursuits. He handles actors on the stage. He tells viewers how to acquire the requisite sensibility to appreciate art. Bharat's Natya Shastra is an undying torch to focus on the contours of culture in the past. This encyclopaedia indicates a long tradition of arts reaching the Buddhist period, even beyond.

58 India : A Cultural Voyage

Lalitvistar enumerated arts taught to Siddhartha. It also refers to sixty four art-styles connected with sex. Kalika is comparatively a newer addition to Puranas. It was written in the lOth-llth century A.D. It presents a fable illucidating the origin of art; also a peep in the tradition of Kama worship in Assam where Kalika is supposed to have been created. The fable is as follows: The Brahma at the onset, gave birth to Prajapati and some other rishis. Then came the turn of a girl called Sandhya (the evening). Last, but not the least, was the birth of Kama or Madan. The Brahma was delighted at his latest creation. He blessed Madan THAT NONE MAY SURVIVE HIS ARROWS. He also prayed that the all-conquering warrior assist him in the task of creation. Madan accepted the blessings with bowed head and began his first experiment on the Brahma and Sandhya. The result was a deepest pain of love in the hearts of the creator and the created. The pain of love blossomed in the form of the first spring of human race. Their conjugation gave rise to 44 bhavas in Brahma and 64 arts in Sandhya. Kalika puran associates the 64 arts with female attributes. Kamrup tradition is the bewildering outcome of the worship of the Shakti.

The continuous tradition of art-entertainment strongly suggests a ceaseless patronage which was fulsome, liberal and often without strings. The elite was taught in the rigors of the ashrama code that wealth had only two-fold uses—dan and bhog. If treated in this light, the wealth sprang power and prestige. The wealth was duly respected. But non-acquisitive life in meaningful penance commanded no less awe. The wealthy spent his wholesome leisure in putting his conduct at the service of arts by offering spacious patronage to artisans of all hues. The wealthy carried a gait of wisdom and courage in him. He rose before dawn. With sunrise, the whole atmosphere hummed with creative activity. An inborn civic discipline (achar) reple­nished with dharma, promoted the wealthy, and the social elite to contribute to the mass creativity of craftsmen, painters, musicians, dancers, poets and other men in the realm of cultural entrepreneurships. The creation of Jain temples in Rankanpur during the middle ages, was an act in ecstacy on the part of the people to contribute to this artistic glory. The marvellous valley, where the temple complex stands, was donated by a friend to the sponsor king who compensated craftsmen's labour with gold, who in turn extended the social limits of non-acquisitiveness by spending their savings to build an additional temple as a symbol of freedom from institutionalised rituals. The give-and-take process between loving and living in Indian creativity resolved duality and propelled resurgence.

India has always been urbane in more than one sense. The future adventures always waited for newer techniques in living which, in the main, consisted of mental and physical elan. The culture has been senstitive to arrangement of gadets conducive to this elan. The Indian should look beautiful and good in the shining mirror of Hindustan, the home of gracious mountains and rivers. The liberal graces of the enlightened were anticipated by an invigorating cosmetic industry based on ayurvedic wisdom and romance. The splendid use of sandal matched with the love of fragrance (the quietest eye of human memory) among the Indians. Middle country, i.e., Ganga-Yamuna basin led the world in cultivation of fragrant flowers. The self-

Entertainments in India : An Aesthetic Art in Living 59

confidence in creative ethos among Indians produced an innocent similitude with gods of identical joys. Betel leaf is the most vibrant representative of nature taking part in all Hindu worship. Co-sharing the bliss, the Hindu and, with the passage of time, Muslims and Christians as well, entertained themselves with betel leaf in the most luxuriant fashion. The betel leaf laced with a series of herbal ingre­dients symbolises welfare. Varahmihir, the great Indian intellectual, was a victim to the betel habit. He praised it skyhigh saying: "It brings shine in the complexion, pours melody in the voice, electrifies love and heralds auspicious luck".

The warmth and refinement of cultural ethos produced social dynamism to disallow destructive growth in caste system. The enlightened or the elite belonged to Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes. Shudras, too, sometimes emerged victo­rious. Once wealthy, the lowest would no more remain on the last ladder. The country was rich in trade. Buddhist periods carried this tradition forward. The pleasure-class formed the mass of elitists. Kings formed the apexes. The society found freedom to choose excellences no matter from which caste or social quarter they came. Dronacharya and Kripacharya were Brahmins. But they taught weapo-nary, the glory of Kshatriya valour. The Indian entertained his palate with an aroma in abundance manufactured v/ith the aid of innumerable spices and other gifts from nature. The cullinary culture of India traversed several centuries of experiments in racial contacts. It retained the gastrological viables adding newer dimensions to it. The fertility in the Indian soil encouraged abundance in quantity and quahty.

The inner sanctum in the Indian home symbolised the soul in body. The Indian elite built an inner sanctum—antahpur—, "Where", according to Kalidas, "there were no tears but of joy, no pain but of Jove". This place was invariably bordered with clean and fresh pools of water fragrant with enchanting flora and resonant fauna. The occupants tutored birds in lighter humour to entertain them­selves. Garden walks were a regular pastime with the enhghtened supported by excellent accompaniment of music, games, singing and dancing. These walks presen­ted opportunities for deeper acquaintance with nature. Barahmihir provides a list of birds whose viewing was considered auspicious. They are: shyama, shyen, shashaghnoy vaujui, mayur, shrikaran, chakravak, khanjan, shuk, kak, (all the three types of dove), bhardaaj, kutal, kukuh, khar, harit, gridh, purnakur and chatak. All the six seasons were greeted by special descents of the winged animal. A set of birds are special invitees of the rains, the other is of the summer and so on. Swan has always been depicted both in words and visuals, as the messenger of love. Veena and painting were the two elitist necessities to rouse anticipation, to entertain the sad, to support the dejected and to bring cheer to the lover. Veena was heard all the way from the temple of learning to the temple of Kamdev. Painting was equally popular a romance. Ripe mangoes painted on palaces duped crows as real ones. King Dushyant, also an accomplished painter, invoked response in Shakuntala through a masterly portrayal of her figure. Sanskrit dramas were never complete without scenes depiciting someone busy with his or her brush and canvas. This art enjoined the lovers, inspired the mature, decorated the household, blessed the temples, helped sanyasins in meditation and kept up the morale of the pilgrims.

60 India : A Cultural Voyage

India was in deep love with the veena. Markandeya says veena accompanied by dance represents the creation. Nrityam chitram param smritam. The pen was equally popular as the brush. Caligraphy was treated as a popular art. Stone engraving was utilised as a means of mass communication with an eye on permanence. Entire valleys and ridges resounded with classic writings on rocks. Many lost books have been resurrected with the help of such writings. Ashoka's edicts are the greatest landmarks in this medium. Books were also written in copper, silver, and gold. There was a time during Buddhist period when burying old books was considered a pious act. Huen-tsang witnessed a new copper, silver, and gold edition of Tripitak being buried under a stupa by Kaniska. 3 ^ 3 6 4 *

The female world lived in a transcendental glory. The male chauvinism culti­vated itself to restrain its ego by identifying the female with Shakti and Annapunia, the fountains of creation and bliss. The women played attractive and moving roles in love and war. Worship was the basic concern, and faith the basic instrument. During festivals, which have been and still are in profusion on Indian soil, decor was as an enlightened preoccupation of women and men alike. Valmiki paints a picture of Aycdhya^ "where none was without a crown, earrings, cleanliness and fragrance". The decor was practised in three forms—natural, spontaneous and exter­nal. Precious stones, pearls, gold, and silver were used in ornaments. Kautilya has determined a number of pearls used in different ornamental items such as 1008 pearls in Indrachad, 504 in Vijayachad, 100 in Devchad, 64 in Ardhhar, 54 in Raslimi-kalap, 32 in Guchak, 27 in Nakshatravak, 24 in Ardhguchak, 20 in Manvak, and 10 in Ardhmamak. Kalidas is not favourably inclined towards heavy items. Gold, in several pedigree, was produced for beautification. Chemical processes for treatment was common practice with goldsmiths. Indian jewellery was composed of hundreds of items which could be divided in four categories of uses i.e., by piercing in nose and ear, by tying on arms, by adjusting on head and the unrivalled pendants. The dress decor was also an elegance like jewellery. Flowers formed inevitable parts of the decor. Garlands were adored in profusion both during moments of spiritual as well as mundane ecstacies. Preference was given to fragrant flowers. Herbal oint­ments to lessen the cruelty and highten the congeniality of seasons were in vogue. The ointments were used before and after bath which was an elaborate affair. The great ayurvedic genius Charak recommends garland of fragrant flowers as 'harbinger of good luck, good health and peace in soul'. What else a human would desire! The art of hair-do was enriched by flowers in luxurious profusion. Generally long hair was the in-thing. The extravaganza in living centred round the inner sanctum where the woman was installed as the centre of attraction. In the Shakti-Tantra, Lord Shiva describes woman as the mother of universe. He says, "There is no comfort in the world superior to woman. There is no luck, no kingdom, no pilgrimage, no yoga, no worship, no mantra and no wealth which is superior to woman".

The six seasons in India carry in their bosoms a shipload of festivals inciting the people to make any occasion a tremendous celebration. It is difficult to compre­hend the Indian environment and solve the puzzle: if nature plays the host to man or man to nature! Apart from temples where festivities were organised, prekshagrihas

Entertainments in India : An Aesthetic Art in Living 61

and rangshalas were common venues for festivities; the first being in natural surroundings, especially in valleys; the latter in cities and places provided with well-planned rangshalas. Both the venues presented architectural excellences incorporating the saga of styles in acting and dancing. The valleys exumed even greater skill and fore bearance. The venues of entertainment attracted the audience without any distinction. But the majority appeared to be well-versed in ras-shastra. Kalidas and Harsha refer to such audiences in their plays. It used to be a critical audience. To examine liberal passions folk life was used as the touch stone. Bharat built the classic mansion of his Natya comprising informed rules on artistic endeavours. Rigidity was constantly denied through inspirations from the folk wisdom or the lok-ruchi. The art-sage Bharat concludes his immortal treatise in the following words: "I have dwelt with everything under the sun. But the world does not end here. Who can account for the totality of this creation made of infinite organism and inorganism!" The drama gathered strength and energy from dharma, excellence, code of conduct and folk wisdom.

Soul is the light house of physical existence. Likewise the inner sanctum of the social mansion was family. It was a binding as well as a releasing force. The entire national activity was reflected in the mirror of the family tree. Abundant family festivities were in proportion to the welfare of the whole people. The king was the symbol of people's aesthetic yearnings and glories. Family festivities were likened with "sparkling garlands of pearls in the bejewelled oceans of royal festivi­ties". They were primarily woven round marriages and births which encompass the entire act of living. They used to be as elaborate. The human memory of poetry in dharma, arthy kam and moksh, was in a constant process of regeneration. It was here that the folk wisdom was primarily active in picking up the good and over­looking the non-good from culture treasure. Seasons' marvel at the bounty of nature gave Indians a unique sense of light. Several oil-seeds transformed in desired quantities provided source of light to festivities and to build angles' worlds with little lamps. The Indian sensitivity toward light created an entire pedigree of lamps in architectural, sculptural and musical realms.

Vatsyayan informs us of various sabhas and samajs catering for dancing, singing and for poetic rasalap. Mutual hospitalities were enjoyed in such gatherings adding ever new dimensions to this peculiarly loving style in Indian living. The idea of samaj is as ancient as the hills. Ashoka's edicts carry instructions to stop kamshastra samaja. Sabhas or goshtis were regular pattern in the tepestry of social existence. Either the enlightened folks or the nagarvadhus invited goshthis to replenish human desires to hear, view and feel the poetic, dramatic and sensual presences in life. Problem poise, extempore welling up of music in words, readings, linguistics, critical standards carried the poetic conversation on their tender wings. Sabhas, goshthis and samajs determined the civics of pleasure in an atmosphere of prosperity and creativity. Rajshekhar, in his famous treatise on poetry, tells of a distinguished form of goshthis. According to his Kavya Meemansa, the king invited sabha in a canopy erected on sixteen columns, with four exits. The platform, in the middle, studed with precious stones, was the King's seat. Poets of Sanskrit

^^ India : A Cultural Voyage

were seated in the north direction, in the front row, to be followed by scholars, physicians, astronomers, etc. The east was occupied by poets of Prakrit to be followed by dancers, singers, instrumentalists, orators and acrobats. The west side was occupied by poets of /7aZ7/2rfl/?75/2—and were followed by painters, calli-graphers, jewellers, goldsmiths, carpenters, ironsmiths, etc. In the south were seated poets of Pa/j//ac/2/followed by nagarvadhus and their friends, magicians, wrestlers, solidiers, etc. The four directions corresponded to a collective co-relative; each an eclectic agent to the other. It was a social tandav dedicated to no purpose, but to beauty stationed in salva. Sabhas were also correctives to the melodies of subjecti­vity. Spiritual, philosophic, hterary and artistic problems were duly examined in the open. The exercise was led by experts and concensus thus arrived among the enlightened was proclaimed universal.

Madanotsav heralded victory of the spring. King Harsh's accounts tell us that in this month-long festival entire city, drenched in joy, turned every afternoon into a gigantic vibration of happiness in social minglings. All roads and lanes were carpeted with Kesar. Such was the grandeur in the worship of Kamdeva, occasionally mightier than Lord Shiva. A thousand desires and a thousand prayers formed the cresendo. The colour festival of Holi is the ritualised version of this mass event in the act of mental and moral release. Sprinkling of water, collection of flowers, roasting and eating tender grains by people symbolised total abundance of the spring. The King's assembly consisted of seven sectors to entertain the crown. They belonged to the realm of scholarship, poetry, singing, performing, wit, history and Purana. The most surprising phenomenon about Indian living in foreign eyes has been a lack of discontent or revolt. But why surprise? The world is a pheno­menon balanced sagaciously between transmigration and Karma. The existence of pain is no cause of discontent. Man in the world is to taste the fruits of his Karma, bitter or sweet. The absence of discontent bred festivities, gaities and the bliss. The Indian mind did not grace festivities for tired relaxation. He embraced it as a fountain of wellbeing. Duly performed celebrations could erase scars of bad deeds in the past, and could produce good fruits for the future.

THE TRANSITION : A NEW LEAF IN THE TREE OF OLD WISDOM

This blissful state of affairs in ancient India tended to last for many centuries. Later, it drove the brave people to idolize the ephemeral. The 'hoplite' champions shinning in majority of human disciplines, unlearnt the skill and necessity of form­ing new phalanx. They failed in the military encounter in which the adversary was raised on the skill of a new phalanx. The formulation is clearer when the story of David and Goliath is retold in 'A Study of History' by Toynbee :

"Before the fatal day on which he challenged the armies of Israel, Goliath won such triumphant victories with his massive spear and impenetrable armour that he could no longer conceive of any alternative armament, and believed himself invinci­ble. He, therefore, challenged the enemy of the day to choose a companion to meet him in single combat, on the assumption that he too must be spearman armed

Entertainments in India : An Aesthetic Art in Living 63

cap-a-pic, and thought wildly about himself. . . So hard set was Goliath's mind in these two ideas (darita) that when he saw David running forward to meet him with no armour on his body and nothing in his hand that could catch the eye except a shaft, Goliath took umbrage, instead of taking alarm, at his adversary's apparent unpreparedness, and exclaimed. "Am I a dog, that thou comest me with starves?" Goliath did not suspect that his impertinence was not a piece of boyish folly; on the contrary, a carefully considered manoeuver (David having actually realized, quite clearly as Goliath himself, that Goliath's own accoutrements he could not hope to be Goliath's match, and having therefore rejected the panoply which soul has pressed upon him); nor did Goliath notice the sling in the hand which did not hold the shaft; nor wondered what mischief might be hidden in the shepherd's bag. And so this luckless philistine . . . stalked forward pompously to offer his unvizored forehead as a target for his sling-stone which was to slay him at one shot before ever his contemptible adversary comes within range of his hitherto lethal spear—the TRISHUL . . . The hoplite champion did not succumb to a single challenger, but a phalanx, and the essence of the phalanx did not consist in the equipment of the component men-at-arm, but rather in the discipline on unity."

The ancient India takes a turn to latter centuries and finds a picture of itself resting on the oars . . . History is full with multitude of accounts on HINDU-ARAB-ISLAM-cncounters. It points only to one observation. The Hindu, the 'hoplite' champion, excelling in philosophy, religion, ethics and military arts, falls victim to the ephemeral. The new phalanx of Arab-Islam combine gave two types of shocks—military and cultural.

Since we are not, at the moment, concerned with the military aspect, we focus our attention to the cultural shock. This was a violent contact between ancient India and modern Arab world electrified by Islam. This contact shook foundations of a thousand beliefs. The armour of spiritual freedom doned by the Hindu appeared hypocracy, weakness, sin and sickness to a unitary and perhaps, a more democratic phalanx, whose victory came to be known as a grand entry of Islam in India. The 'enemy' was fought back with valour to begin with. Then the antenna of Indian civilization began feeling points of human contact with the new­comer. The contours of sorrows and joys began unfolding in mental horizons. The Hindustani music sprang the first surprise. It laughed away the past sorrow and began singing of the new commonness of the soul or the spirit. Khusro, Tansen, Haridas took flights in many unexplored realms of the universal sound OM. A Bhakti renaissance came to be shared by sufi experiences and realizations. This was an act of sublime integration through Hindustani music. India's wise response to the newcomer began to take shape in the new and lelaxcd environment of universal brotherhood based on unity of the human soul.

Newer and richer scenes for aesthetic relaxation and entertainment began to be enacted. Like in ancient days, the King came to be worshipped as the instrument of God. The Indian civilization which was proud of Samrat Ashoka, Harsha, Chandragupta, Vikramaditya, etc. galantly added to the list of its illustrious

^^ India : A Cultural Voyage

sons, the name of Akbar the Great. The gem in the garland was considered to be most-precious as it was found after a tough and arduous journey of time. The newcomer breathed deepest in the eternally fragrant atmosphere of India, felt larger than life and found bahisht in the mirror of Indian soil. The newcomer settled down and an atmosphere of social and aesthetic relaxation blossomed forth which, in turn, conserved and germinated a new cultural elan symbolised in the reign of Akbar. The saga of secular integration inspired and promoted by Akbar was the old Indian recipe given new life hnd content. The following documentation from Ain-e-Akbarl is the guide in our assertion that the golden chain was not broken-rather a new gem was added to it. In Ain-e-Akbari—the most authentic signature in secular muse—Abul Fazal writes:

"Royalty is the light emanating from God . . . The King is continually attentive to the need of body politic . . . The people . . . may be divided into four classes. (I) The warrior is classified as flame directed by understanding. It consumes rubbish of strife and kindles the lamp of rest . . . (2) The artificers hold the place of air making God's gifts universal from labours. (3) The learned resemble rivers rising in the drought of the world imparting peculiar freshness to the Goddess of creation. (4) The husbandmen are compared to earth whose exertions bring the staple of life to perfection. Strength and happiness flow from their work. . . . "

Is Emperor Akbar reincarnating the great Manu? The new son of the Indian soil practised self-abnegation by fasting, by becoming vegetarian, by drinking only Ganga water both at home and on travels and by adding a new diversity in the eternal golden chain of unity. He is enjoying a new humour in the relaxed and exalted company of a composite culture.

The Ain of Akbar stipulates that all men of sense and understanding know that the best way of worshipping God consists in allaying the distress of the times, and in improving the condition of man . . . The intelligent management of the revenues and the public expenditure created conditions when people enjoyed pros­perity . . . The King's treasures were full . . . The Divine era brought even snow and ice to use. Cooling of water came to be the most pleasant discovery for the thirsty soul. Saltpetre in gunpower produced explosive heat. The same matter was used by the King for cooling water. This was the cultural entrepreneurship designed by the king and dictated by his democratic temper to make the relaxation, caused by coolness in water, a universal source of joy and well-being.

"His majesty is a great friend of order and prosperity in business. Through order the world becomes a meadow of truth and reality, and that which is external, receives through it, a spiritual meaning," writes Abul Fazal. Akbar's harem was Antahpur of the olden times where best order led towards the eminence of perfect freedom. Chastity of thought and action filled the inner mansion of the new kingdom with divine grace. One of the greatest joys dear to Akbar was massive introduction of flower culture. He sent commissioneries to all parts of the civilized world to search for fragrant flowers in order to enrich the flora of India which was damaged by preceding war and social lethargy.

Entertainments in India : An Aesthetic An in Living 65

The earlier cultural contacts through commerce were renewed to add more feathers to the glory. Iranian, European and Mongolian articles of wear came in abundance. Skillful masters and workmen were prompted to teach people an improved system of manufacture. The imperial workshops, the towns of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur, Ahmedabad, and Surat turned out many masterpieces of workman­ship, and the figures and patterns, knots and variety of fashions astonished experi­enced travellers. All kind of hair weaving and silk-spinning were brought to perfection. The ancient silk route branched out afresh in live contacts with newer horizons.

Form leads to the recognition of the body; the body leads to what we call a notion, an idea. The form of a letter is its recognition or that of the word which leads to the same idea. Same is true with the term picture, though it may or may not be synonym with reality. Letter or word embodies wisdom and is a tool to intellectual progress. During Akbar's time writing and calligraphy assumed the level of an important art as the source from where the confined lights beam forth a magical power. The letter or word is spiritual geometry emanating from the pen of invention, a heavenly writ from the hand of fate. His majesty's hfc-long endeavour was to let the art of writing blossom; to let realms of thought percolate wider foundations, to let the reader find heavenly entertainment in its wanted habitations, and to let the articulate voice rearrange sonic spaces in man's existence. The introduction of paper during this period of a new contact caused a revolution in the art and skill of learning.

Civilizations rest and thrive on poetic dialogues. The wise spends his time entertaining himself on the milk of contemplation and on the charms of God's world, only to welcome the sprout of a new leaf in the tree of old wisdom. The magnanimity to search for the superior finds its reward in wider comprehensions and deeper relaxations. Abul Fazal further writes, "In the light of his Majesty's uprightintensionsevery action of his life might be considered as an adoration of God . . . If the ruler spends his time in such a gainful manner, his subject, the people are bound to be happy and free and relaxed . . . His Majesty was accustomed to spend hours of the night in private audiences of eloquent philosophers and virtuous sufi's where the object of an ancient institution was disclosed, or new thoughts were hailed with delight. . . There were also present in these assemblies unprejudiced historians. About a watch before daybreak, musicians of all nations were introduced who recreated the assembly with music and song and religious strains . . . At dawn he retired to his private apartments, and launched forth into the ocean of contemplation . . . '

Whenever a lucky time arrives for a nation to learn how to worship truth, the people naturally look to their ruler as their spiritual leader, for a ruler is suDposed to possess, independent of men, the ray of Divine wisdom which banishes from his heart everything that is conflicting. A ruler, therefore observes the element of harmony in the multitude of things or something reversely a multitude ofthings in that which is apparently one. Akbar the n,onar<:h of the age. was thus equally removed from joy and sorrow-the highest quahty to \ ) . found among

66 India : A Cultural Voyage

all ancient Kings of great repute. Offering a vow to His Majesty was reciprocal to the opening of insight for sanyasins, jogis, qalamlars, hakims^ and sufis and thousands of such as followed vvordly pursuits like soldiers, trades people, mechanics and husbandmen.

Akbar forbade killing of animals on certain days. This order was extended to the whole realm, Capital,punishment was inflicted on those who flouted the command. Another order was given that the sun should be worshipped four times a day—morning, noon, evening and midnight. Akbar had one thousand and one Sanskrit names of the Sun, collected and read them daily. He built, outside the town, two places for feeding the poor Hindus and Muslims, one of them being called Khayr-pura and the other Dharampura. As an immense number of jogis also flocked to this establishment, a third place was built called Jogipura. He called some of the Jogis to give them private interviews at night enquiring into abstruse truths; their articles of faith; their occupation; the influence of pensivcncss; their several practices and usages; the power of being absent from the body; or into the alchemy, physiognomy; and the power of omnipresence of the soul. Akbar even learnt alchemy and shov»'cd in public some of the gold made by him. "Once a year during Sivah {Shivaratri) a great meeting was held of all jogis of the empire, when the Emperor ate and drank with principal jogis."

But as all ears are not lit to hear the voice of wisdom, Akbar held social meetings for general amusement. These meetings were laced with spectacles of organised animal fights. The Emperor paid much attention to training an equally stubborn and timid animal—the deer. The royal park comprised of 12000 deer. Akbar enquired into excellent customs of the past ages and took up those that were proper. When he was informed of the feasts of the Jamsheds and the festivals of the Parsi priests, he adopted them and used them as opportunities of confcring benefits. In these feasts people raised the strain of their inward joy, and coloured lamps reigned supreme for three nights. On the third feast day of every month a large assembly was held for enquiring into the many wonderful things found in the world. Articles of the age from all countries were centre of attraction for merchants and customers. They were known as Khushroz or the joyous day. These assemblies were intelligent designs to co-relate, to corres­pond and to co-prosper with weekly or fortnightly bazars held throughout the country.

The long-drawn years at ancient schools for learning only consonents and vowels used to eat away a great portion of adolescence. Akbar reduced it to an extent of relaxed learning aim.ed at unburdening the mind of the youth from waste­ful and unnecessary formalism in education. It was a revolution in basic communi­cation. With two days to learn letters, the student proceeded to write joined letters. After a week's practice the learner should memorise some prose and poetry, followed by verses in praise of God and morality. " . . . His Majesty prescribed curriculum making it obligatory for a student to read books on morals, arithmetic, agriculture, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, physiognomy, household matters, the rules of government, medicine, logic, the tibbe, rijazi and ilahi sciences, and

Entertainments in India : An Aesthetic Art in Living 67

history . . . In studying Sanskrit, students were expected to Jearn Vyakaran, Nyaya^ Vedant, and Patanjali. . . . "

While being in company with above accounts, one wonders if one is treading through the dreamland of ancient humour or is living the romance of wisdom symbolised in the nagar, the enlightened, of the Kadambari era! The era which, soared on the wings of an awareness crystalised through the combined alchemy of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist inspirations. Akbar made the game of chugan a source of popular amusement. He also saw to it that the game becomes a means to learn promptitude and decision, to test the value of man and to strengthen bonds of friendship. Externally the game added to the splendour of the court, but viewed minutely, it released concealed talents. Pigeon flying was popular as love-play producing harmony and friendship, ecstasy and transport peculiar to dervishes. "Presents of pigeons were received from Iran and Turan, apart from merchants' gifts comprising of excellent ones in large numbers . . . The chief of the Imperial pigeon was named as Mohan (one of the several names of Krishna) . . ." Akbar is famous as a collector of gems including those of men. Raja Ramchand was the third in the line of descendants of the rulers of Bhath (Bwattah) whose mention is to be found in Babarnama. He was the patron of the renowned musician and singer Tanscn. Akbar heard of the singer's fame and induced him to come to Agra. The first time Tansen performed in the court, the Emperor offered him a present of two lakhs of rupees. Most of the compositions by Tansen were written in Akbar's name. The melodies are repeated everywhere by Indian people even today. What an undying contribution to the human mechanism of pleasure, relaxation, entertainment and total welJ-beingI What a hcavQn]y foundation for the culture-mansion called Hindustan!

The great Moghul who received valour from Babar, his grandfather and learning from Humayun, the father, was the greatest genius of his time. Akbar befriended or tried to befriend sages and men of learning and honoured them with liberal magnanimity. Thus he re-enforced the worthy tradition of the past. In the lustrous company of men of letters, we find those who were capable of perceiving the mystries of the external and internal on the basis of their vast knowledge. The royal court gave shelter to thousands of poets and many of them were inspired to complete a diwan or a masnavi. Poetry was regarded as a light to strike out the path to the inaccessible realms of thought. Genius of poets was duly recognised and rewarded. Akbar maintained as a religious duty and divine praise to worship fire and light. It was firmament in an acute cultural sense.

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void: the darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.

And God said, let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.

And God said, let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so. And God called the firmament heaven. And the even­ing and the morning were the second day.

And God said, let the waters under the heaven be gathered unto one place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters He called Seas: and God saw that it was good.

THE CENTRAL ORIGIN MYTH OF JUDEO CHRISTIANITY

5 A Light from the Leap of a Flame

In between the occurance of the golden handshake discussed in the preceding chapter on Aesthetic Entertainment, much bloodied water flew in rivers of India. But that is wasteland of history, some knowable, some not-so-knowable. We are con­cerned with those responses with Indian ethos which sprang in the face of the contact with Islam variously termed as invasion, intrusion or advent. In India, from earliest times, religion acted as a pivot around its social life. All new­comers, Huns and Shaka, etc., after initial clashes, found congenial atmosphere to co-live and grow in this vast canvas. The canvas in turn added newer and deeper meanings to cultural existences of the neo-settlers.

The contact with Islam, howsoever uncomfortable at the outset, gave an occasion to Indian susceptibility to carve out new awareness towards a composite spirituality. This attempt blossomed in the form of bhaktiy sufi and sahaja mo\e-ments and they changed the character of pristine Islam in a profound manner. The Indian susceptibility bathed itself in thousand waters of change from the very beginning. At the time of the new contact, these movements bestowed a lyrical and devotional spirituality to the democratic and pungently brotherly content of Islam. The great flame from Arabian deserts was saved from falling into the bottomless pit of bigotry. BliaktU sufism and sahaja, instead, flowered into many a form of arts, nobility, sacrifice, forebearance and sense of enjoyment. These flames of human creative energy carved out the celestial rainbow under whose benign shadow medieval India had the golden handshake with the ancient. Akbar shook hand with Ashoka. A new, sovereign smile of eternity stopped beauty from turning its face against the emotional and socio-cultural edifice called India.

70 India : A Cultural Voyage

Coming to the original flame of Islam. In no time it engulfed the entire land of Nile, Tigris and Euphrates. With an astounding dynamism it thundered over many skies. Arabs, Mongols, Turks, Pathans, all came to stand by the side of the flame, more out of fear, less for love. The life in black Africa was already weary of Christian strife. It also came to seek shelter under the commanding heights of Islam. The secret of the triumph of the dazzle lay in the fact that Islam was constantly being replenished by wideranging intellectual curiosity, adventures in rationalist speculation and the spirit of scientific enquiry. As Islam advanced with new phalanx, the faith became unequalled in its conversion exercises. Having conquered large tracts of Asia, Africa and a bit of Europe, the flame turned to conquests in other fields. Empires consolidated, the new faith went out to fathom the world and its ways in philosophical and scientific depths. Safe heavens in Baghdad opened their wings to welcome thoughts of Plato and Aristotle, Ptolmey and Euclid through their disciples who were hounded out by Christianity. Old monasteries in Syria, Asia Minor, and Lavent were ransacked for learned manuscripts. Research and translation bureaus were established to unveil the treasure from Greek, Syriac, Zend, Latin and Sanskrit. Indian physicians, philosophers and mathematicians were invited to join the crusade of knowledge. The civilized world looked at the new flame with awe.

Pauranic waters shook in their roots due to the incoming thunder. At times, "Hindus", in Alberuni's words, "became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions and like tale of woe in the mouths of people. Their scattered remains cherished, of course, the most inveterate aversion towards all Moslems." The aloofness and the conceit of the contemporary Hindu mind got maddening drubbing. As a result the Indian mind surged forward to liquidate invidious distinctions in social and spiritual life which caused the basic weakness in the Hindu polity. The Hindu psyche, having lived through a vast experience of 'world as a family' since past many centuries, came forward to reveal itself in a new leap of flame whose outlines were later defined by Bhakti, Sufism and Sahaja movements. The new leap flowed like a stream whose two banks were Hindus and Muslims. But who to build the bridge linking the banks! The Hindu orthodoxism on the one hand and Mushm bigotry on the other were unfit for the noble task. It was left to free spirits and ardent lovers of humanity to perform. These spirits were to be found on both the banks. The Indian urge to build a composite sensibility in middle ages was in harmony with its glorious past. The three movements brought in new evenings and new mornings on the face of India. Human smile was saved from bitter mercies of Aurangzebi faith.

BHAKTI

The Indian mind took a vigorous voyage to search for the solution to the new crisis of contact. Kumaril, Sayan and other brilliant Hindus began an attempt to re-establish the Vedic way of life. Shankar and Ramanuja went deeper into the realms of jnana and bhakti. Tantriks of Bengal, various sects in Vaishnavism and Shaivism, the schools of Nathas and Yogis—all made earnest eff'orts to find out a

A Light Jrom the Leap of a Flame 71

way that would answer the call of the challenging flame. Ramanand rejected all that was untrue, ephemeral or rigid and accepted all that was true and permanent. He brought bhakti from the Dravid land to implant it in the North. Kabir spread it to 'the seven continents and nine divisions of the world'. This gentle flame removed cobwebs of inequality of all type and colour from the corridors of Indian mind.

Ramanand was born in a Brahmin family at Prayag. The great unifier had his first five followers from all castes and communities demolishing barriers of bigotry. Among his disciples, for example, Ravidas was a cobbler; Kabir, a Muslim weaver; Dhanna, a Jat peasant; Sena, a barber; Pipa, a Rajput. The lives of these selfless saints began a great process of assimilation. Ravidas illumined the hearts of the downtrodden by making it realisable that the Lord resides within the hearts of His devotees irrespective of birth, rites, and ceremonies. The central personality in the religious and cultural history of medieval India is Kabir whose composite genius has not left a significant moment of freedom without a stamp. Striking firmly and fearlessly at the root of caste distinction, idolatory, vows, fasts and all the external paraphernalia of religious life, Kabir taught to live the truth: the only natural way to live. He preached that truth resides within the heart and is revealed in love, in strength, in compassion. Conquer hatred, and extend your love to all mankind, for God resides in all. Kabir fought against mortification of the flesh. His most ideal follower was Dadu, who was born with a dream to unite all the divergent faiths in one bond of love and comradeship. Dadu believed not in scriptures but in self-realiza­tion. He requested his disciples to collect devotional writings of all the different sects in order to help men in their strivings towards God. The collection includes many sayings of Sufi saints like Kazi Kadam, Sheikh Farid, Kazi Mohamed, Sheikh Bahawad and Bakhna.

Dadu's disciple Rajjab sang: "It is dark all around, the only light is within our own hearts. Of what avail are renunciation and mortification? Will they bring us any nearer to the light? Let your worship find its fulfilment in temple and mosque of life . . . Be heroes, for it is only the hero who will attain the new vision." Rajjab further declared; "This universe is the Vedas, the creation is the Quran. The pundits and the kazis are indeed deceived when they think the whole world is encom­passed within the dry leaves of their dry books . . . From the heart of every devotee flows a Ganga of thought. If I can unite all the streams of thought in this world, such a confluence would indeed be the holiest of places . . . When all these hearts unite in the vast universe of man, there you will find all the Vedas and the Quran. This is living Vedas, living Quran . . . Why waste time over dead books."

Bhakta saints declared themselves as citizens of the city of God. Their thoughts reached beyond the barriers of language and territory. The gentle awareness in north India was equally reflected in other parts of the country. Determination to evolve a composite understanding of life reigned supreme. Nivrittinath and Jnanadeva founded the mystical school in Maharashtra. Later it developed and assumed different forms at the hands of Namadeva, Ekanatha and Tukaram. Samartha Ramdas collected a galaxy of eminent followers of bhaktas. Jnaneshvara worked many

72 India : A Cultural Voyage

miracles to convince the people of his great spiritual powers. He wrote Jnaneshvari an original commentary on Gita which deserves to be reckoned among the world's best compositions. His lyrical poems, known as abhangaSy comfort the weary heart and infuse hope in the disheartened. Ramdas wandered throughout India for twelve years. Earlier he practised penance of a similar duration. He established his monas­teries all over Maharashtra to serve as centres of spiritual and practical activities. In his monumental work, the Dasabodha, Ramdas combines vast knowledge of various sciences and arts with the synthesizing principle of spiritual life. Namadeva came from a Tailor's family and brought enlightenment among the people through his verses, some of which are included in the Granth Sahib. Ekanatha's life was an abject lesson in the reconciliation of the practical with the spiritual. He observed no distinction of caste and creed. His mystic experiences are expressed most explicitly in his abhangas. Tukaram was born in a farmer's family. He was initiated in a dream. His poems were thrown into the river Indrayani by an envious person. He observed a fast of thirteen days and his poems were restored to him by divine grace. He refused offers of rich presents made by Shivaji.

These sketches declare that the saints formed the most prominent characteristics of medieval dynamism in India. As has been pointed out earlier, the bhakti movement had its origin in the philosophy of Vedic and Upanishadic seers, and in thinkers like Shankar and Ramanuja whose illustrious disciple Ramanandu became the fountain-head of varied bhakti movements in North India as well as in Maharashtra. The essential grain in this movement ascertains the reality of sensuous experience, namely, objectivity, universality and necessity. A mystic sees God as reality as we see the phenomenal world, only with a difference that his knowledge of God is direct and intuitive, while ours is sensuous and discursive. A mystic, even after attaining the highest experience, is found to serve society and strive for its spiritual good. This tendency is to be found in the majority of the great mystics. In spite of the identity of their highest mystic experience we find various types among saints: some are dominated by reason, others by feeling and still others by activity. The most convenient method of reconciling the contradiction between man and his world is to regard both as identical with God. This was the message.

SUFISM

Sufism is atmaja, its eclecticism goes against dogmatism. Along with bhakti movement on the other bank of the India psyche, sufism searched for the essential unity of all religious transmigration and eternality of the soul, and the immanence of God. Rumi, the great and celebrated founder of the Vedantic type of sufism in Islam, introduced sama, a particular kind of devotional dance, akin to kirtan.

Mansur Hallaj, the greatest monist in Islam, was accused of blashphemy v/hen he said Anal Haqq, meaning I am the truth. He was executed on account of this heretic declaration.

A Light from the Leap of a Flame 73

Bayazid Bistami announced in Vedic parlance: "I am the unfathomable ocean, without beginning and without end. I am the throne of God."

Faridudin Attar, the famous author of the allegorical poem 'Logic of Birds', spread his belief: "I am God; there is no God but me."

Junayd said, "God spoke with mankind by the tongue of Junayd, though Junayd was no longer there, and men knew it not."

Ibrahim and Rabia—a woman from Basra—were amongst the earliest Sufis who, at times, disregarded even prophets and wanted to be in direct contact with God. Both lived in the 2nd century of the Hijra i.e. the eighth century A D.

Al-Ghazali pointed out that scholasticism was an excellent corrective against heresy, but it could not cure the desease of lack of religious certainty. His three principles—//a^/(tradition), aql (reason), and kashJ (illumination) could not be ignored even by the bigoted.

Si/fism in India underwent a considerable change. Soma Su/is got disgusted with the ruthless methods of Aurangzcb employed for the propagation of Islam, and were driven towards a sympathetic study of Hinduism. The VeJaita philosophy captured their minds. The bhakti movement influenced their ideas. In Punjab, the stronghold of incomers or neo-scttlers, Muslim mystics held the view that nothing was real except God, and everything else was illusion or maya including the throne. The doctrine of transmigration and re-incarnation was soon taken up and was later supplemented by the theory of karma. Mohammed, who remained the perfect model of man for sufis elsewhere, was not necessarily the ideal of their Indian counterparts. Intellectually advanced sufis, sometimes, ignored him, or reduced him to the rank of the prophets of other religions. He became a hero and a beloved like Krishna in the Bhagwata lore. The condemnation of idols was given up. Muslim sufis accepted idolatry as another way of worshipping God. Some sufis e\en abstained from eating meat (Emperor Akbar was on the same path—Jce the chapter on Entertainment), and picached the doctrine of ahimsa, of loving all life, animal and human. The Quran was also treated at par with other holy scriptures. Indian sufism bravely denounced religious bigotry and did not shirk from offering its head to fanatic rulers. The words of Rumi still ring the bell:

If He makes of me a cup, a cup am /; If He makes of me a dagger, a dagger I. If He makes me a fountain, I pour forth water; If He makes me fire, I give forth heat . . . If He makes me afiiend, I serve my friends. I am as the pen in the fingers of the writer. I am not in a position to obey or not, at will.

Sind has been a chosen place for sufism. Geographically, it is accessible from all sides, and on two sides the ocean opens it for all inroads of foreign culture. The invasion by Mohammed ibn-Qasim brought great rperj of religion and culture in

74 India : A Cultural Voyage

Buddhist influence. Tht v.aLthofTn'"u °'^'t^"''""'" «'"= already shattered by of Islam touched men's S to carve aba 5 ' ' " ^'"="'^'i"S f-" the new name democracy. Several plac" Tn 8 ^ / / ' """ '""''"'' ^^ ich we, today, call was a totJl absence o t c : : e ' "un r ^ ^ l i h . y ^^m Ih ' ""^"^ ''"""""'• ^'"= " " " where the influence of intellectual deve opn em 1 ° ^K ' T ' ' ' ^" "'"^Ses of Sind, onecanseeallover,adesiretODrefrnh r ° ' ' ' ' ' ° ' ' ' " ' ' ' '= '"^'"•'s i" '" bits,

hospitality, an ope;ness t ^ r X f a ' w i r e f ' I ; ? ' ? " " ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' "^^ "^" ' ' ^ with the geniality that makes them livinp rnH? r • "' ' " ^ ' " "^ ""-c observed and songs in kafi resound wi h the w 1 " nr'^^"' ' ° ""• '' °"' ^^h '- - Hoik lores for the Ultimate companionship and l o m e ^ ' P ' " ' " " ^^""^ 0 ° ^ . It is a longing

The religious and cultural heritaw r,f T„^;„ U • period, gradually develops in r^fnifcM u ^^'""'"^ ^""^ 'h« early Vedic different contributory factor' Just a T v e ^ c u h u r r H ' ' rough interaction of its "s centres. Or as Buddhism and Ja n sm o r e w ^ Tl"""^ "^'"'"^ ''""^'='' »^ composite a«areness of medieval I n d i r ^ ^ . f . " °"''" "'"""' ^° a' ° ""^ and sufi.„,. These two p i v j ^ s or 'du t dL ,"' sublime strength around bl.ak.i stagnauon and dissipation from her soul ' ' """ ' " ° ' ' " ' °' '""ia removing the

The two movements gave binh fA . banks oftheriverofrealisat ion.Zve a n y " r e r T n " ^^'"^^ "^ " " " ^ on both many fug,„ve families from the oppres n o f ^ K fbn"'!' ' '^ """^ '"'"'y''" ^ l - ' ^ - ^ " L ^ w ? T " ^ °^^"^ P^^'icular sect final v l ? , , " ' ' - " '• ' f^"h that God Ut^who holds the highest position a m o n ^ h e m v % - ' ' " " " ° " - ' ' '^ Shah poet and smger. His songs are sung by s m n i ? . ? " ' " " • " ^ ^^^^'he greatest

Q" tuba"sobe t ' T ' " " ^'^-^'y sung by SinHH ° " ' ' ° ^ " " '"A "y^tic poets congreg e 'a r fcen ' " 'n "• """= • • - ' " " " ' A t r s r ' ^ " " " - ^"^ P^^ts Rohal and tradition,a,imetesedn " ' " " "'^"^ ringing d e v o t ' " ? ' ""^ "'^ communities Delhi was in ,h omn. ' ' ' ' / ^^ ' ' • "" ' ' ^ ' • 'human re r u°"^ '- The j„„,../„V,>.« Bawri Saheb, a mystl!"; o " l ^ ^ ' " " ' ^ " - " " ^ " ^ 7 1 ] ; : ' ^ O " ' ' " - " J "^" - ' ^ ' Hindu, who again was /h! '" ^-^'hi. He was T ' "'"" binhs. It was from all sectarianism ' . ? 7 ° f ' ' ' ^ 8 r e a t my,icYn ^ .""'" "^ '^'™ Saheb, a dust Of the Buru'TClZV" P^^^^h that .1 eye " 'f'- ^'" ^^heb was free mentioned along with R,!,*"heollyrium. His oo.n! ' ' ' *"= P"'"^^^ with the

According t o Y a r i S a h V r . ? " " " Hari, are f„T, T ' ! " "hich the name of Al/a/i is Of love. - b , the creation is a paimIL o n t ' " " "^'^Physieal truths,

^ r e r e a t process of inMi " ' " e canvas of void with brush

- J > praised self-restraint, purity of

A Light from the Leap of a Flame 75

heart, compassion, service, right vision and conquest of ego as golden paths to God. Babalal's liberality and depth attracted the philosopher-prince Dara who, in turn, began working for the success of the great Indian process of assimilation. Dara 's friend and devotee was Sarmad who lost his life at the altar of bigotry on the steps of Jama Masjid in Delhi. Sarmad breathed soham till the last.

Perhaps the most significant act on the part of composite awareness in the medieval period was the use of the popular language of the country, even though Persian continued to occupy the official status in courts. The most versatile among the pioneers was Amir Khusrau, a Turk whose family had settled in the United Provinces for two or three generations and who lived in the fourteenth century spanning the reigns of several Afghan Sultans. Khusrau was a poet of the first rank in Persian, and he knew Sanskrit. He was a great musician and introduced many innovations in Indian music. He is also credited with the invention of the sitar. He wrote on many subjects, and in particular, in praise of India, enumerating various things in which India excelled. Among his many loves were religion, philosophy, logic, and Sanskrit grammar, music, mathematics, science and the mango fruit.

But the supreme test of his fame lies in his popular songs, written in the ordinary spoken dialect of Hindi and dealing with people's customs, ways of living and beauty of different seasons, interwoven with appropriate tunes. Khusrau depicted life in its various phases, of the coming of the bride, of separation from the beloved, of the rains when W^Q springs anew from the parched earth. Those songs are still widely sung and may be heard in any village or town in northern or central India. Especially when the rainy season descends and in every village big swings are hung from the branches of the mango or pcepul trees, and all the village girls and boys gather together to celebrate the occasion. Amir Khusrau was the author of innumer­able riddles and conundrums which are very popular with children as well as grown­ups. Even during his long life Khusrau's songs and riddles had made him famous. That reputation has continued and grown. There is no other instance anywhere of songs written six hundred years ago maintaining their popularity and their mass appeal and being still sung without any change in words. With Khusrau the concept of Indian 'territory' among Muslims assumed the soul of 'map' .

SAHAJA—THE THIRD DIMENSION

"And so far as love is concerned, I tell you that even this has its peaks which only one out of millions is able to climb." In these words a modern Russian echoes the inner sentiments of sahaja which is the third dimension of the medieval composite awareness, the other two being bhakti and sufism. Sahaja is the last achievement of all thought. It is a recognition of the identity of spirit and matter, subject and object; and this reunion is the marriage of Heavan and Hell, the reaching out of a contracted universe towards its freedom, in response to the love of Eternity for the production of lime. There is then no sacred or profane, spiritual or sensual. Everything that lives is pure and void. This very world of birth and death is also the great Abyss.

^^ fndia : A Cultural Voyage

There is nothing with which we can compare the 'mystic union' of the finite with its infinite ambient than the self-oblivion of earthly lovers locked in each other's arms, where 'each is both'. It is like an algebraic equation where the equation is the only truth, and the terms may stand for anything. The least intrusion of the ego, howeser, involves a return to the illusion of duaUty.

Sahaja is the vision wherein the beloved has no necessary relation to empirical reality. The eye of love perceives in the beloved a divine perfection and infinity. It is the highest station of spiritual evolution. It is universally acknowledged that this truth has been made the basis of the well-known allegories of Radha and Krishna, which are the dominant motif of medieval Hinduism. Here, illicit love becomes the very type of salvation. Here love involves a surrender of all that the world values and loves. It pervades the whole universe. Whe.i Krishna receives the milkmaids, he tells them that he owes them a debt that can never be paid, it is because they have come to him like the vairagi who has renounced his home. All this is an allegory—the reflection of reality in the mirror of illusion. The reality is inner life, where Krishna is the Lord, the milkmaids the souls of men and VrinJavan the field of consciousness. Sahaja is the cult related to this mystery-knowledge.

The doctrine of this cult seems to have originated with the later Tantrik Buddhists. Kanu Bhatta wrote sahaja love songs in the tenth century in Bengal. But the classic exponent is Chandidas who lived in the fourteenth century. He was called a madman—a term in Bengali which signifies a man of eccentric ideas, who neverthe­less endears himself to everyone. Chandidas was a Brahmin and a priest of a temple. One day he was walking on the river bank where women were washing clothes. By chance a young girl, named Rani, raised her eyes to his. There was a meeting of Dante and Beatrice. From this time on Chandidas was filled with love. Rani was very beautiful. But in Hindu society what can a washerwoman be to a Brahmin'^ She could only take the dust of his feet. He. however, openly avowed his love in his songs and neglected his priestly duties. He would fall into a dream whenever he was reminded of her. The love songs of Chandidas were more like hymns of devotion: J have taken refuge at your feet, my beloved. When 1 do not see you ;,iv mind has no .est. You are to me as a parent to a helpless child. You are the goddess herself-the garland about my neck, my very universe. All is darkness without you Yor^ are the meaning of my prayers. I cannot forget your grace and your charm-and vet there is no desire in my heart.'' »'iu ^ei

Chandidas, like Mira Bai, (though in a difl"erent setting and with a different companion was excommunicated. His brother used his good offices to allow him re-entry in the fold of the society on condition of renouncing Rani forever I u when she was told of this she went and stood before him at the place of the reunion Never before had she looked upon his face so publicly. Chandidas forgot everJ promise of reformation, and bowed before her with joined hands as a n ^ approaches his household goddess. It is said that a divine vision was vouchsafedTn certainoftheBrahminspresenttherc, for Rani was so transfigured that she A to be the Mother of the Universe herself, the Goddess. That is to say that forTh

A Light from the Leap of a Flame *J'J

As for Chandidas himself, the doors of perception were cleansed; and he too saw her as divine perfection. But the rest of them saw only the washerwoman, and Chandidas remained an outcast.

In sahaja, the lovers must refuse each other nothing, yet never fall. Chandidas explains in his songs that the secret love must find expression in secret. The woman must not yield to desire. She must not be shaken by pleasure or pain. Of the man, he says that to be true lover he must be able to make a frog dance in the mouth of a snake, or to bind an elephant with a spider's web. In other words, the man plays with the most dangerous passion, and he must not be carried away. In this restraint, or rather, in the temper that makes it possible, lies his salvation. Chandidas says, "Hear me, to attain salvation through the love of woman, make your body like a dry stick—for He that pervades the universe seen of none, can only be found by one who knows the secret of love.*' It is not surprising if he adds that one such is hardly to be found in a million. It is a faith in love of man transcending all barriers, including the faith itself. It is sheer Shakti.

In order to understand the practice of sahaja, we must define the significance of the desired salvation—the spiritual freedom, which is the ultimate purpose, the only true meaning of life, and by hypothesis the highest good and perfection of our nature. It is nioksha. In such a state, nothing that the lover does is praiseworthy or blameworthy. As the Mahabharata says, "He who considers himself a doer of good and evil knows not the truth:' Nothing that the freeman does will be 'selfish' for he has lost the illusion of the ego. Sahaja is the innocence of desire. One is free to do what he will. But first, as Nietzsche points out, he must be such as can will, or as Rumi expresses it, must have surrendered will. The most perfect love seeks nothing for itself, requiring nothing, and oflers nothing to the beloved, realising her infinite perfection which cannot be added to. But we do not know this except in moments of perfect experience. Surely, the love of woman is not the only way to approach this freedom. It is more likely, by far, the most dangerous way, and, perhaps, for many, an impossible way.

Sahaja was an introspection by the loving eternity in the troubled medieval. The acquaintance with Chandidas promotes our knowledge of life in an untutored way, and shows the path of reconciliation with pain and pleasure. It introduces a racial education in love which has nothing to do with the cult of pleasure. It is a doctrine akin to the Tao, a path of non-pursuit. All that is best for us comes of itself into our hands. But if we strive to overtake it, it perpetually eludes us. Sahaja was a passionless spontaneous relationship, an end in itself. Bigotry should melt before a sahaja fiame.

Thus bhakti, sufism and .<«/;«/« joined in the confluence of Indian people who have been accustomed to utilise music, dance, drama, katha, puja, kirtan, mela, jatra and a host of similar devotional skills to swim through the ocean of their socio-religious life. This meeting of a new /r/re/?/of composite and liberal spirituaHty made Hindus and Muslims partners in some of the most popular social activities, enjoying the same music and art; drawing their inspiration from the same literature and philosophy, and actively contributing to it; joining unreservedly in the same festivi-

78 India : A Cultural Voyage

ties and fairs; and not infrequently, participating in the same pujas and prayers. In spite of the diversities of race and religion and occasional conflicts based on nvaleries between royal dynasties, pleasing picture of social amity and co-operation among the people ensued along the new composite awareness.

In India the masses were always reached through festivities and enter­tainments based on religious books and characterised by creative fervour. Through these festivities the concentrated wisdom of ages easily permeated in the various strata of society, high and the low alike. Through the mythological plays called jatra, the teachings of the Puranas, the epics and the Shastras found their way even to the illiterate section. The new devotional movements gave a new elan, a new lyrical language to the masses of India spread over from Kashmir to Kanyakumari and from Sindh to Bengal. India found a new flexibility to arrange its existence in the harassed atmosphere impounded by a powerful thrust called Islam. Aryan invasion found the culture of the conquered Dravida as victorious. The medieval India witnessed not too dissimilar an event.

SYNTHESIS: THE HINDUSTANI WAY

A mellowness began setting in. Islam in its pristine mandate rejected separate priesthood. Indian Muslims developed unmistakable signs of fondness for ritual and elaborate ceremony. Islam in its origins was iconoclastic. Its Indian counter­part began displaying a veneration for saints and their tombs that reminds one of the worship of relics. Prophet Mohammed stressed the uniformity of natural law and laid hardly any store by miracles, but the Indian Muslim felt unhappy (ill he had built up a hallow of sanctity, if not divinity, round his religious heroes. Muslim practice in India, thus, tended to conform to Hindu religious customs. Such influences were not, perhaps cannot be, one-sided. There are reasons for suspecting Muslim influence in some of the citadels of Hinduism. Shankar, the greatest architect of modern Hinduism carries elements in his thought which betoken a spirit of revolt against all pluralism. His monism, his repudiation of the semblance of duality, his attempt to establish this monism on the authority of revealed scripture, and his tendency to regard his own activity as mere restoration of the purity of an original truth. All these elements, barring the doctrine of Maya, have strange parallels in Islam. Perhaps every one of these can by itself be derived from old Upanishadic sources. But do their synthesis into one body of compact thought, nature and temper not suggest the operation of some new catalytic agent?

Historical factors do not exclude the possibility of Shankar's acquaintance with element in Islamic thought. Some of the results that followed from Muslim settlements in India may be beneficially indicated here. The doors of India were re-opened to the West. Ancient India had its contacts with Rome, Greece and Pgypt. In the political vacuum that followed the collapse of the Gupta power, these contacts were lost. Arab contacts with India had, however, continued on a small scale even during this period. As has been already mentioned, after the conversion

A Light from the Leap of a Flame 79

of the Arabs to Islam, there was an efflorescence of the Arab spirit which expressed itself in almost every sphere of life. An immediate consequence was a great expan­sion in Arab merchantile and naval fleets. As a result of this expansive spirit, Arab groups came to settle near about Calicut and built up flourishing establishments. This paved the way not only for commercial contacts, but also for exchange of ideas, customs, traditions. Perhaps, it led to a quickening of contemporary local thought. Another consequence of the establishment of Muslim rule was the restoration of internal peace throughout northern India under one uniform administration. With the break up of the Gupta power, the grand unity of India was lost sight of behind local manifestations which were divergent. The unitary form of administration—first of the Delhi Sultanate and later of the Mughal Empire—helped to repromote the unity of Indian outlook. This was reinforced by a uniformity of social manners introduced by Muslims through dress, food, customs, and beliefs which could not escape the notice of their non-Muslim neighbour. Court etiquette largely influenced the conduct irrespective of community or creed of all who desired worldly advancement. As early as the time of Babar, this became perceptible. In his autobiography, the-Babar-namah, he defined it as the growth of the Hindustani way of life. Common revenue system and the gradual spread of common methods in peace and war further streng­thened this composite process. The consequences of this process are most manifest in the realm of art and letters. The achievements of Indo-Saracenic art were made possible by a combination of the Indian instinct for ornamentation with the Saracenic sense of form. The wonderful architecture of the period and also painting, weaving, metallurgy, and garden craft exemplify the gains. The exquisite miniatures, the inimitable workmanship in shawls and carpets, the delicately inlaid work in swords, the incomparable muslins and the glorious Mughal gardens, all reveal a balance between form and content that is as perfect as it is rare.

Even more significant was the evolution of a common language wherever Muslims settled among Hindus. Urdu, Hindi or Hindustani was evolved out of the material derived from ancient Indian sources as \\ ell as the innovations brought in by the new settlers. Along with this growth of a common language, there was the remarkable phenomenon of the blossom of literature in difi'erent Indian languages. Before Muslim advent, Sanskrit held the pride of place among the learned. It was dev-bhosha and it demanded all devotion and energy from those who had any pretensions to the culture of India as a whole. With the new socio-political situation, religious reformers—Brahmins and non-Brahmins, Hindus and non-Hindus—made their appeal in local dialects to be followed by an unprecedented outburst of literary activity in all the local languages. The efflorescence of literature was most marked where the affinity between Hindus and Muslims was greatest. This resulted in a common outlook softening the sharp formalism of Islam and simplifying the elaborate ritualism of Hindus.

Thereafter a common political and cultural pattern was bound to follow. The Pathan rulers of Bengal identified themselves completely with the people of the land. With local variations the Muslim courts in Bengal, Gujarat, Malabar, Punjab, Oudh and Kashmir, provided great patronage to the growth of regional or

80 India : A Cultural Voyage

local languages. By the end of the sixteenth century, a modus vivendi between different Indian communities had already been achieved in the North. At the top, aristocracy attained a composite norm of behaviour, mode of life and a general outlook irrespective of religious faith. At the other end of the scale, masses also had establishment mutual toleration and respect which enabled them to face their common problems and share common festivities.

The process of growth, among Hindus and Muslims spanning for almost nine centuries, was one of contact, assimilation and synthesis. It was a revolutionary achievement. Allama Iqbal, the philosopher poet, who was proud of his Kashmiri Brahmin origin, sums up the pride in his own brilliant words, "My body is a rose

Jrom Shiraz. Look at me, for in India you shall not find another son of Brahmin who knows the secrets of Tabriz and Rum." Javed Namah, The book of Eternity, is magnum opus of Iqbal. The theme of the poem is eternal conflict of the soul ending with the message of spiritual glory and peace for mankind, the freedom and immor­tality of the human soul. Embracing the quest for political freedom of India which was enslaved by the British, the long dramatic poem depicts the spiritual journey of the poet from earth to the outer spheres. On this way, in the sphere of the Moon, Iqbal encounters an Indian ascetic, known to the people as Jahan Dost, friend of the world. The hermit is none else than Vishwamitra who feels satisfied with a gift of nine precious sayings. Proceeding further in his celestial journey Iqbal comes across Bhartrihari, the Indian ministral, "the grace of whose gaze converts the dew to pearls". The poet received from him the wise words, ''This world you behold is not the handiwork (f God. The wheel is yours and the thread spun on your spindle. Prostrate yourself BEFORE THE LAW OF ACTION'S reward, for from action are born Hell, Purgatory and Paradise.'" It was Allama Iqbal who sang in his loftiest \oicQ—Sare jahan se achcha Hindostan hamara.

This was the medieval cultural design of a fresh and composite awareness. In this, India lost nothing but some of the remains from the chain of bigotry. And, with Abul Fazal, the high priest of Akbar's Din Ilahi and his most intimate friend, the ancient land breathed a secular temper so beautifully contained in the following verse :

O God,

In every temple I see those who see Thee

And in every tongue that is spoken Thou art praised.

Polytheism and Islam grope after Thee Each religion says: "Thou art One, without equaV\

Be it mosque, men murmur holy prayer. Or church, the bells ring for love of Thee.

Awhile I frequent the Christian cloister, anon the mosque;

A Light from the Leap of a Flame 81

But Thee only I seek from fane to fane Thine elect know nought of heresy or orthodoxy. Whereof neither stands behind the screen of the truth.

Heresy to the heretic dogma to the orthodox But the dust of the rose-petal belongs to the heart— Of the perfunieseller.

He who glows in the depths of your eyes— That is Brahman; that is the self of yourself. He is the Beautiful One, he is the Luminous One. In all the worlds, forever and ever, he shines!

CHANDOGYA

Indian Art: Process of Deciphering Unity

Ever sirce man struck fire fiom the flints and his patient fingeis coined lettered sound, he has been living with an urge to push on to light from darkness. His yearn­ing for love created art, his quest for knowledge bestowed an awareness of his uni­verse. His sympathy for living beings aflHorded him the ioy of life laughing, rolling, rocking and making for all the sunshine. Life is total, or at least its promise is total. Culture is total, continuous and universal, vertical and horizontal. Parts join to form a whole, the whole forms a unit to an integrated continuum of parts. Art is a contribution of all to all. It is composite, like particles of water the units adhere to one another and shape the fluid mass. Currents, considered alien hitherto, flow into and are lost in its waters beyond recognition. In the interlude, a reaction sharpens the impact inviting state of fusion and then shapes are formed after the genius of the currents.

The process goes on from unit to unit, one succeeding ever richer than one preceding. Art movements are global. Motifs and ideas travel across climes and seas as waves. The distant little world of pre-history Egypt bought her copper in the market of Sumeria and the Mohenjo-daro sold unique seals at Urand Kish. Caravans from Ararat and Tarsus journeyed across Sumeria to Jerusalem and Thebes, and those that set out from Antioch and Damuscus, wending their way through Susa and Ekbatana down the dales and along the spurs and up the summits of Hindu-kush, detoured to Patliputra and unbuckled at Ujjain.

The maderia of Spain was stored in the vaults of Shanghai and the black pepper of Kerala ransomed the eternal city of Rome from Alaric the Visigoth. The humped bull of Indus valley created the Apis bull of the Egyptians. It went round

84 India : A Cultural Voyage

through Babylonia and developed wings as the sentinels of the Assyrian palaces at Nineveh and grew a beard on its human headed chin on the columns of Anadnn and ended by topping pillars of Ashoka, thus completing the circle The nvramids with their hollowed vaults and the ziggura.s with their solid s t r c t e provided h s,upas wtth their chambered sanctum and commemorative pattern. The pT, emical epigraphs on the basihcas and columns of Egypt passed on to the Babylon ans and Assyrians and crossing through the Persepolitan pillars and ,h^ n.i,- , " ' ' "" ' ""^ »"" they created the Ashokan miracles. ^ "" ' ^^ ' ' ' """ ' monuments

The ceaseless journey to hght from darkness has been more nfi.n ,u leaps in future. Among several invaluable antiquities found n T i / „ ,^'" " ° ' ' of the first and foremost cradles of ancient cul e s - a " b"clc h. M."' "'^'-""^ figures of bearded men, female figures and animals in terra ott-,^!,^"^' ' ' " " ' ° " " of a cross-legged figure with kneeling worshippers right and i C i' T'''"''''°" speaks volumes as a futuristic anticfpation of'euddh s arf o he f "i ' " , ' ' " " ' • The remains alluded to above, as found in the hXlLT ' ° ' " ' ' " ' ' ' " ° ' ' -thethirdorfourthmillennium B.C.,a„dU,5 a t i t c l ! ^ ' \ , T ' " ' ^ ^° " ' ' * ' ° divides this early period from laier tin cs Til T "° '°'"P"='« '"=""^ probably dates between 1000 and 400 R C nn' 1 '''="">ins at Mohanjo-daro ties from various Indian sites, a r a t t ^ l T - I " ° ' . ^ ^ " ' " " ' ' " ' ' " ' " " ^ ' ' " ' ' ^ " ' • prehistoric sites go back at least to the fifth centurv n "r " " " ' ' ""'* '°""> ^dian

The study of Indo-Sumerian antiquities is siin • . that the civilization of which we have now ob a 1 r'"*^^'"'^' ' ' " ' ' ' ' P™b='ble in the Indus valley itself and was as dis in iv T ! " ' '''""''' "«^ '''veloped nation of the Pharoahs was distinctive of N l A H f - c ' '''"'"' "^ '^e civili-supposed, represent an intrusive element in M. ' V ^ ' ^ " ' " " ' ^ " ^ . ^^ is generally Clearly suggested or India proving uUna.elv^n 7 ° "'""'• ' " ' " ""= Possibility is «hich in turn lay at the root of Bab l o n t ? 1 *" " '" " ' " "« ^^ 'I'^'r civilisation, ' " 8<=neral. "".bylonian. Assy nan and Western Asiatic cultures

A MAIDEN INTEGRATION Irrespective of the cnnir„.

Western origin or nf H """""""sy on the origin of th„ i^

they came t o i : ; " ; T u T . r " " ' ^ ' " ^ ^ " ' <>" '""ian o ,) ' T " ' ^""^^'^" "' before the second n i l l '' P°Pulation thinly scnti! i ' ' ' ' " ° ' ' « " « ! " " ' « ' Amongst the e l ^ m t o T r ' •^- ^ h e i r p ^ . ^ o M ^ W ^ te " " ° " ' ' ° " ' ' " " ' ^ " ^ " mother goddess, Z ° 'y"5 f 'Si" are probably The / n " ' ' " " ° " ' ' " " ' h e Vedas.

Indeed if we s t a ; p T e D , ^ f ; ' ' « and other n a L e ' r ' ° ' " ' ' Phallus and of may well be arg'ued . h n r ^ ' ^ => ^""'hern race and I ' T" ""^"^ °''"^^ »''^-Phallus cult and mother goddes s r " " " ' ^^^P ' - " into orth^^''""' " " ° " " ^ ^ " - " pomorphic iconography ° , t r ' ' " ' ' ' ' • » shift from 1 ^ ' ° ' ' ° ' ' "''S'or^ "f the a final victory of The conaueoH ''"'°<' « ' theistic Tnd ! / , '^'"''°''^™ ' ° «"'h™-Dravidian element must havrn, "T "'« conqueror" u " ""^'^Pment, mark and office of image worship, t h a u r ! / " ^ '"''''' P^« i a 1 .hat"' '" '"^' '"^ P°P"""

is. of p,ya as distinet from v ''°'"'""' «he growth "•^ *"•'"•'• (Pu in Tamil means

Indian Art: Process of Deciphering Unity 85

flower whose offering gave birth to the word Pujd). The forms of architecture based on bamboo construction is a gift from the Dravidians. The Toda huts are a near analogue of the early barrel-voulted chaitya hall and the horse-shoe arch. Curved roofs, common in India and rare in the rest of the world, the stone slab construction of early temples, the crafts concerning the art of fishing, use of chank bangles and of the conch as a trumpet is ritual and it must have been borrowed from Dravidian sources before the epic period.

However obscure the early history of the Dravidians, described in Vedas as dasas or dasyus, it is fairly evident that their culture had already attained a high level, economic, martial and literary, in centuries preceding the Christian era. Already in the third century B.C. the great Andhra Empire stretched across the Dekkan from East to West. In the far south a powerful and prosperous Pandyan kingdom flourished before the beginning of the Christian era with a capital at Korkai. The first three centuries of the Christian era represent an Augustan period in the history of Tamil culture, and there is sufl^cient literary evidence for a high state of development of poetry, music, drama, sculpture and painting. At the same time there had grown up a flourishing trade with Rome on the one hand, with Farther or Greater India and Indonesia on the other, the principal articles of export being pepper, cinnamom, pearls and beryl.

The prehistoric antiquities also include remains of the Neolithic cultures such as stone weapons, pottery, dolmens, copper weapons, and most important silver ornaments. 1 here is no bronze age, neither iron is mentioned in early Vedic litera­ture. The existence of Munda languages, of Mon-Khmer aflinity, seems to show that the southward migration of Sino-Tibetan races which peopled the Irawadi, Menam and Mekong valleys and the Indonesian islands, had also entered India at some very early period. A pre-Dravidian element in southern India is probably Negrito or proto-Malay. The Aryans appear in India about the same time. The Indo-Iranian separation dates back about 2500 B.C. Aryan names are recognisable in the case of the Kassites, who ruled in Babylonia about 1746-1180 B.C. and those of Aryan deities were in use amongst the Mitani people at Boghaz-Koi in Cappadocia about 1400 B.C.

The Aryans appear to have entered India between 2000 and 1500 B.C. through Afghanistan and the Hindukush, settling at first in the upper Indus valley, later in the upper Ganga valley, later still reaching the sea, the Vindhyas and the Narbada, and still later penetrating to the Dekkan and the far south. The Vedic Aryans were proficient in carpentry, constructing houses and racing chariots of wood, and in metal work, making vessels of ayas, presumably copper for domestic and ritual use, and gold jewellery. They wove, knew sewing and tanning, and made pottery. In all probability, the early Aryan art was abstract and symbolic. They chose symbols that made the running waters gush from springs, plants sprout from the soil, winds blow the clouds, men come to birth; symbols that govern courses of the sun, moon and stars. These symbols emanate from Varuna which is a characteristic expression of ideas to be sought in a kind of landscape originating in philosophy of the universe based upon significance and form, not upon natural objects exactly reproduced.

gg India : A Cultural Voyage

Thus the Aryan art should include landscapes with the sun and clouds, the earth with its plants and herbs and the waters; river landscapes with formal trees; hunting scenes and symbolic geometrical arrangement of birds, animals and plants. The use of ornament, textile and decorative hangings, characteristic of nomad races, is also indicated. Needless to underline, these are the forerunners of mural decoration consisting of formal floral ornament encased in framed spaces, where the essential element is pattern rather than representation. Landscape of this type can be recognised on punch-marked coins in early Buddhist reliefs, Ajanta and Rajput paintings, and in types of folk art used in ritual decoration and in many

textiles. Indian art and culture are a joint creation of the Dravidian and Aryan genius,

a welding together of symbolic and representative, abstract and explicit, language and thought. Already at Bharhut and Sanchi the Aryan symbol is giving way to environment and passing into decoration; Kushan art, with the fact of imagery and its roots in bhaktiy is essentially Dravidian. But it should not lead to the conclusion that it is a one-way-traffic. Already in the Indra-Shanti figure at Bodhgaya it is evident that the Aryan is affecting Dravidian modes of expression anticipating qualities of all later sattvik images. The Gupta Buddha, Elephant Maheshwara, Pallava Lingams, and later Natarajas, are all products of the crossing of two spiritual natures. There is an originally realistic intention, but it accommodates to the terms of pure design. Every econ is thus at once a symbol and a representation. The worshipper, knowing that the deity takes the forms that are imagined by his devotees, is nevertheless persuaded that the form is like the deity. Just in the same way the ascetic and sen­sual, opposed in primitive thought, and all other pairs of opposites, arc theoretically reconciled in the post-Vedic art. This racial samskar may well have been determined before the use of metals was known.

The later Vedic literature shows that a knowledge of the metals has advanced. Tin, lead and silver arc mentioned as well as two varieties of ayas, usually regarded as copper and iron. Cotton, linen, silk and wooden garments were worn; a linen robe used in rajasuya ceremony was embroidered with representation of ritual vessels. Storeyed buildings (Rig Veda Samhita, 6,46,9), round and square huts, bricks, plates, cups and spoons of gold and silver; iron knives, needles, mirrors, elevated bedsteads' thrones and seats; musical instruments, millstones, cushions, turbans (used by the king in the rajasuya ceremony and by students after graduation); crowns, jewellery earthen-ware and a ship are mentioned in connection with the rituals. Writing in an early form of the Brahmi character, was known in the eighth century B C ' or even earlier. But mnemonic methods were preferred for handing down the s\crcd texts. The Jatakas describe the existence of guilds, eighteen in number which include woodworkers, smiths, leather-dressers, painters and the rest expert in various cmftQ The smiths or workers in any metal were already called kammara. a name bv vvh oh the higher craftsmen are still known in the South and in Sri Lanka

Further, cyclopean walls of old Rajagraha are undoubtedly very ancient A Vedic burial mound of the 7th or 8th century B.C. at Lauriya Nandanga h 1 ^s o^ excavation, revealed, amongst other objects, a small repousse gold plaque bc 'ri ^g

Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity 87

the figure of a nude female, probably the earth goddess of the burial hymn. Minor antiquities of undoubted pre-Mauryan date have been found at various sites of which the Bhir mound at Taxila is significant. The finds here include beads and lathe-turned polished hard stones, terracotta reliefs and polished sandstone discs. The antiquities found here and elsewhere prove that glass making had attained a high level in pre-Mauryan culture and that the cutting and polishing of hard stones in the fourth and fifth centuries B.C. had reached a level of technical accomplishment which was sustained in the Mauryan period, but never afterwards surpassed. Other terracottas of pre-Mauryan date have been found at Nagari, Bhita, Basarah and Pataliputra.

A motif is not necessarily invented or borrowed at the date of its first appearance in permanent material. Rather it signifies an earlier currency in some other material. No one should doubt the existence of a pre-Mauryan Indian art of sculpture and architecture in wood, in clay modelling, ivory carving, cutting of hard stone, glass, textiles and metal work. And this must have embraced an expansive ensemble of motifs ranging from lines and dots incised or painted on earthen pots and chank bangles to representation of the human figure. The themes and motifs of pre-Mauryan art is not dissimilar to that of Maurya and Shunga. Fantastic animals, palmettes, rosettes, and bulls arc common elements of craftsman's repertory under the Nandas as in the time of Ashoka.

India in the millennium B.C. was an itegral part of an Ancient East that extended from the Mediterranean to the Ganga Valley. In this ancient world there prevailed a common type of culture having a continuous history extending upwards from the stone age. Some of its most widely distributed decorative or symbolic motifs, such as the spiral and svastika with certain phases of its mythology connected with Sun and Fire reaches the remote past. In sum, while journeying to light from darkness, India earns a heritage of a common Asiatic art leaving its uttermost ripples on the shores of Hellas, the extreme West of Ireland, Etruria, Phoenicia, Egypt and China. All that belongs to this phase of art and its various farms occurring in India or elsewhere at various periods up to the present day should be regarded as cognates rather than as borrowings.

THE GREAT MODIFICATION

The' maiden integration makes room for the great modification during the reign of Ashoka, the Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, the passionate convert to Buddhism and the ruler of the whole northern India from east to west, from Afghanistan to Kashmir and the Dekkan. Ashoka, the king of kings, is credited with the erection of 80000 .yrw/ a and count less monasteries. His palace at Pataliputra formed a large and magnificent group of buildings. For this age abundant sources of all kinds are available. Specially the Jatakas and Sutras, the Artlicshastra of Kautiiysi, some reserves from the Epics and western sources, particularly Megasthenes throw ample light on the general picture of Indian civilization and culture of the age. A few capital cities were now acquiring increasing importance, amongst which Taxila, Ayodhya, Ujjain, Vidisha and Pataliputra are most prominent. But village is still

India : A Cultural Voyage

the typical centre of Aryan life. All the crafts were practised. Guilds (Scni) were thrmng. Villages formed communities of a particular craft. Pretentious house v i e

andfor sculpture in relief a n d " ' ; : r o ' l , t ' ' e l r r r « ^ ^ ^ work being the fine finish and polish of the s u r f e r ; / ""= ^shokan

the excavated monastic halls'Now deities t i t T r " " ' '''Z ' " ' " e case of persons, rather than as elemental powers V e d i e U „ ' ^'/"""T"^ "' "•"''^'Pf"' phies undergo great -difica.ions'^n Z p r o c ' o ^ X m ' ^ n t ' t o T T ''"'"'-resulting m a development of devotional theism and i h t r ' i """ ' ' " ' " " " ' ' ' ' ^ Aryan conceptions. ""' ' "'^ f^ 'on of Dravidian with

latter I e t a g t ' e T n d i n ' ' g s r , e firurr'Als"o''i'!;'w''H°r " " "' '"'^ ^"'°^ " « ' " '!"= in a magnificent manner exnr«„„„' , „ " J " ' ° ° ' ' ""= '"digenous art is conceived

volume and astounding physical entfy T h e r i l ' n : ZZf ' T '" ' " ' " ' "^ ^"^^^ or devotion. An art of mortal essence a l o s hn, P here of introspection spiritualised. But this is the materia T t a t Z i M !" ' " ''«l™'>'ion, not yet Passionate devotion (fc/,a/t„) to spiritual andrnJ ° " ^' ""^ ' ° '""'' " 'c ends of o rcosmic theory in te rmsofaneKae feoToJv^^P^^^ and for the exposition m the early Kushan Buddhas and surl ve 1 ' t 2"'' ' ""^V finds expression me oupta age. The official art of Ashoka'. r.;„' ""^ ™°'« "'' fined creations of mmc pMIars (5,««,W,„, /„,) „„ „ „ ; , , , . : .H 1 " ' " "'^ ^^"'"^"'ed by the mono-cxian examples, the finest is that of Sarnath .r^.^lT. !. ^"S'-aved. Of the numerous C « t . , the first turning of the Wheel of the Law ,h ' ^ ' " ' ^ ' " ° " ^ ' ^ite ofMamnm-sandstone circular in section and slighUy t pt in^.^t ' ' '" "^ '"^ P"«'" P°'i^hed which originally supported the W h , o f ' t h " t '' ' ' ' ' ' '"^""^'^'^ °ff<>"^''o"^.

below'whie'hir'r^'"'' '""^^- •'""and ion s j r a t T b ^ f " " ' "" '" ^"^"^"^ ^ - " " ^ been th?e« ^ '"^"'"<' '° '"s forming the h.M 1 ^ "' '""*" '"•""•"X'-d-akkas wUh e \ \ ' , t T r , r P " ^ - » " ' ' n d a c e u r a c v i n c ; , , r ' ''^'"''''^ "f ' ^^ art has c e wan ' flTfn " ' ""? " ° ^ ^ " ' ' " ' - T = a ^ J : ' - f «"" Polishing of the surface

a" .he inscriSon"s " n V c ^ f ^ L T ' ^ " ^'"^ ^ ^ ^ m ^ ^ t ^ r r , " " " ' ' " ° r th s time become a f v i " ' * ' ^ ' " indicates that „ • . ' ' " ° P^lmctte motifs,

A s h o k a T ; ! a t 1 i ; r r r ' ' ' ' " ° " ' P " ^ ' ' m e n , . ' ' ' " " " " « ^"'I -ading had by ficent than the palaces o A T . ^ """^ described by Me.,-,..^ of the fifth eentu y A D " r ' " " ^<^b^t,.na. It was stiH 1 ^ . ' " " ' ' ' ' " ° ' " ^ -""Sni-ofgenii. But When Huf, ; ; ' '^"F ' 'Hsien tells urthat . ! . '"^ " '"^e beginning had been burnt to the .ro„^;;" ' '"'"'^ '^e city 1^^= ' r v . M ' " ' ' " " = ' ' ' " 'he work have revealed t h e ^ ^ e ^ i r o T t ' ' ^ ' ' ' ^ » « - ^ I m o u ^ d R ' " " ^ '"^ "" '^ '^ been planned on the model r.? , . ^ ' ' " ' hall with stone nil. " " " ' excavations

kingsofPersepotis. A n Z K r ™ . ' ° ' h a t of the o i n ; : . " ^ . ' . «hich seems to have Shunga date are charac"ds<i " ' " " " " « ^culptur s o f ^='"^ ?'""= Achaemenid type of headress. consTs [ n l i "" ' °"'^ "^ 'h^^ marked ^ ^'"'^^^•' ° ' " rly crown. The material is polished b u 7 " . " " ^ °'' h le v1. r"J ' ' "^ ' "v . but by the

buff sandstone. No less ! „ « ^^ *'<='"h or mural 'Portant is a considerable

Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity 89

group of Maurya and Shunga terracottas in the form of moulded plaques and model­led heads and busts representing in most cases a standing female divinity with luxurious coiffure, dressed in tunic or nude to the waist, and with a dhoti or skirt of diaphanous muslin. Despite the garment, particular care is taken to reveal the mount of Venus in apparent nudity, a tendency almost equally characteristic of stone sculpture in the Shunga, Andhra and Kushan periods. In some cases, the figure stands on a lotus pedestal with shoulder wings, the arms are generally akimbo and there is often a symbol represented in the space at the sides of the plaque.

These types have a long history behind them. They may have been votive tablets or auspicious representations of mother-goddesses and bestowcrs of fertility and prototypes of Affl;'a-Z>m and Z^/cj/;/;//. Other plaques, often in high relief, re­present male and female couples like the Mithiina and Vma-Maheshwar groups of later arts. The uniqueness of these terracottas lies in their being made from moulds yet no duplicates are met with and there is a great variety of detail. In some cases the figure is endowed with real grace, anticipating the free and naturalistic development of the succeeding century. A much more refined type of terracotta found at Patali-putra, and in particular the smiling child from that site, on a careful comparison with the less individualised types, reveals an ethnic relation. The refinement and sensitiveness therein may be only the result of local conditions.

MAN AND NATURE—AN EDIFYING RELATIONSHIP

The post-Mauryan period is a complicated event with a series of kingdoms and dynasties, jutting along each other; the important among them being the Shungas, the Andhras, the Kanvas; the satraps of the Western Ghats, Mathura and Ujjain, the Indo-Greek and Indo-Parthian rulers in the Punjab, Afghanistan, and Bacteria.

The immediate successor of the Mauryan glory was Pushyamitra Shunga, a zealous Hindu with Magian tendencies. His dominions included Magadha and ex­tended southwards to the Narmada and northwards to Jalundhar in Punjab. Pushya­mitra repelled the Greek invader Menander (Milinda), but was defeated by Kharvela about 161 B.C. The Kanvas succeeded the Shungas. The dominant power in the Punjab and Mathura was Scythian. Meanwhile the Andhras, already a Dravidian power in Mauryan times, ruled the Dckkan possessing thirty walled towns in the Krishna Godawari delta.

They had extended their domains across the north as far as Nasik and Ujjain. Lasting for four and a half centuries, the Andhras were succeeded by the Pallavas in the East in the third century A.D. Most of the Andhra Kings seem to have been Brahminical Hindus, but they are best known by their benefactions to Buddhist communities. To them are due most of the cave temples and monasteries of the Western Ghats, the Ghantshala, Bhalliprolu, Guntupallea and Amarvati stupas and other structures in the east, and probably the Sanchi gateways.

In eastern India the Kalingas recovered the independence they had lost undei Ashoka. Other events were taking place in the North-West. About 250 B.C. Partha

India : A Cultural Voyage

and Bactria broke away from the Seleukid Empire and set up as independent Greek pnnc>pal,t,es. Yavana (Greek) prinees of tlie two Iiouses of Eutliydemus and Eucrati-des reigned mBactna Kabul and the Punjab. West of the Indus one of the leading

? e ' a ' ^ h i n e M a t h t ? . w " ' " ^ " i ' ' " ' " f ' ^ ° ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' " ' " • " « ' ^-C) who invaded India then^he s t r • M ' ' ^ "" f" " , (Nagari, Chitor) and perhaps PataHputra, I n d o S S arf, ^ ^ ' " " ' " ' by Buddhist tradition. These

The whole approach of the jumbled period, like that of early Indian art is rea-

only by death, and these are n . ^ ^ f a S e ^ l^ZT^y^^L'^T^ sensual quality of the plasticlanguage Theart r,f th,.» „ i r ^ ^^ inherently older than the great Enlightenm'nt.'The^e ar no. Pers<;^ L ' " ' " " " " f "tanner of Hindu theism but powers personified n n l v n T " <=°nce,ved in the sonified in the Vedichvmn.; P°"" f P"'°"'«'=<'only in the way that they are per-arise as variouretmenrarc I ~ f i'" "^^'''P'''^' '" ^ modern sense does not horizonpractieally o^t of t h e p i c t o e ™ T L ' ' " r ' ' i " ' "alf birds-eye-view, with the in lateral section, but forms an amhLn. "°;°^P''"<= '^ not supposed to be seen

rpicure. To one accustomed to%hTcon ^ . ^ ^ ^ X ^ ^ ^ ' ' " ' ^ ' " ^ and the whole obvious: there is no crowding, no overlaDninTn^'ni dimensional effect is more the parts are unmistakable. The ?orces of n a t l ' ' ""^ ' " ' '"" '"^ ' "=""i°"^ "^ their relation to human w e l f a t ^ a n T o v e / a I t , " i ! ^ " " ' " ""'^ i" the light of haunted forest, the power of he s t o Z i' K ^'"^' 'he dread of the tiger-through the air None of thu . ' '^ '^' " " • " " °^ 'he sun that journeys

Sanchl This U a^am'.fof'^ e X d ^ o f r n T i V ^ ^ ^ adapt to their ov-„ =di^.„g e n ^ ' u , e l h d j " tha^ , ' " ' ' ' " ' ''"'''""^t^ ' ' - ' ' ' °

°ni^i:^'rsrhfa:?:HT' --'-"--"" "^"'"'"'" °" reliefs successfully fulfil an e d S ; : ' ~ r u ! ^ ^ ^ ^ in theme, the storytelling not rehgious in the sense that Indian art at " 1 ? " " " " ' " " '^ ' their content is intrinsic quality of the early art is rej^istic anrt V '""°''' '' <=°"'«^ «ligious the

aristocratic phitsorhy Of t S ' r ^ T r ' " " ^ ^"^ far rem . V r ^ " ' ' " ' ' ' ""' real sense of the ancient c u l K r * " * """^ buddhism. ItTs ' t "" "^=" "^ * ' sense of the great Enl»ht "°"'"-8°<ldesses and '• r- ^^ '°" ' ' " "»«^^^^

•puritanical. o ^ j e c t ! o n s : o t r : S ' w ""^ " " " ° ' ' ' h t e C " ^ , ; " ' " ' ^ . . "ot in the Brahminical and Buddhist n h n „ , " * ''°"'^^ at this t i l ' ^rpnsed at the bodiment of spiritual W e a s ' „ t : r ? ; ^ " " - " o t yet T'"''^ li'tle earlier by (rasaswadan Brahmamadan) hJ ™' " 'heory of K <:onceived as an em-

make use of an. it was only as a "Jl'i "^l''"" '""agined WK "'^ ' ' P"""^" experience and history of its faith. The art of "s ' \ '"'^''^"> in w ^ i ' " "'^ Church began to

o' Sanchi is not, as ' ' ° "arrate the legends ""•'• crci ited or inspired by

Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity 91

Buddhism, but is early Indian art adapted to edifying ends, and retaining its own intrinsic qualities. A pure Buddhist content is far more apparent in the early architecture, and especially in the undecorated hemispherical stupa. The school of Mathura is more nearly related to Bharhut than to Sanchi, and is represented by some fragmentary sculptures which must go back to the middle of the second century B.C.

The main Jain establishment represented by the Kankali Tila site already existed in the second century B.C. Amongst the most interesting sculptures are the ayagapatas or votive tablets. They bear inscriptions in Brahmi which can scarcely be later than the beginning of the Kushan period. The caves in Orissa are mostly Jain monasteries (viharas). The pediment sculptures of the Ajanta include a standing Maya Devi with elephants. In the Buddhist art this would represent the nativity of Buddha, in Hindu art Gaja-Lakshmi, and in the Jain art it may be the nativity of Mahavira. Further south, in the Andhra, what appears to have been a more impor­tant early stupa existed at Jaggayapeta, some thirty miles from Amaravati. From this site a number of early reliefs of high interest have been recovered, amongst these may be especially mentioned a number of pilasters with bell capitals and winged animals in Bharhut style, one representing an elegant pimya shala with worshippers and another representing a king surrounded by emblems of royalty.

In the same area, at Gudimallam, near Renigunta, North Arcot, exists one of the most interesting and important monuments of pre-Kushan Brahminical art extant, the Shiva-Lingam known as Parashurameshwaram in Puja. This is a realistic phallic emblem, five feet in height, with a figure of Shiva carved on its lower side. The deity is two armed, holds as attributes a ram, battle-axe (parasu), and water vessel, and stands firmly on a crouching Yaksa of Bharhut pedestal type. This Yaksa is evidently the apasniara-purusha, which supports the figure of Nataraja in the later iconography. Perhaps this formula too reached Japan by sea. This sculpture is a document of great significance in the history of Indian art and reminds us that innumerable works and types of works must have existed, that are now lost.

MODICUM OF NIMBUS

From modification breathed in by Ashokan period, the Indian art reaches a stage where a modicum of nimbus assumes common sense in measured visual steps. This modulus proved co-efiicient in all branches of intellectual proposition including philosophy, theology, literature and art. The impact of earlier modifying forces (Ashoka discouraged samoj entertainments in sex) in fields of religion and society continued echoing in the co-journeys along all changes in the living organisms of Indian identity. This continuum transmitted the song of modification to the souls of succeeding eras in visual language that said that individual interests, may they belong to religions, theologies, societies or to empires, do not necessarily clash. Rather, they launch on co-pilgrimages, like tiny atoms, to build and propel new universes. In the present focus on the modicum of the nimbus we shall examine how far the promise is redeemed. But before acknowledging the viability of the

52 India : A Cultural Voyage

picture of the nimbus we should realise a rather gruesome fact that the period under discussion has been a witness to a storm of upheavals tending to uproot gigantic struc­tures of several dinominations. Nevertheless, the Ashokan breezes of fresh gravitations carrying universal love, peace and non-violence on their transcending wings resurrec­ted rivers of artistic creativity which sprang from high mountains and deep valleys of wars and strifes and fragmentations. The nimbus shapped up a code to bring in a change in the soul of the word. New vowels were coined to introduce new gestures in culture. The great modifying process (in Ashokan period) through man-nature relation­ships (in Shung-Bactia era) assumes the role of nimbus in this golden era which we call Kushan-Gupta period.

These beginnings (Hindu and Buddhist theistic art) owe their origins to Kushan, later Andhra and Gupta period. The elemental deities, found in the early Vedic texts, reveal a connection with certain animals. The horse was associated with sun and fire, the bull with Indra and Rudra. The animal avatars of Prajapati, later appropriated by Vishnu may also be cited. Material objects such as the mark of Chakra\artin changed into the disc of Vishnu and the Buddhist Wheel of Law. This disc of gold placed behind the fire altar to represent the sun may well be the origin of the later prabha-mandala. Radiance predicated of almost all the Devas, is indeed one of the root meanings of the work and most of them are connected in their origins with sun and fire. Just as the tree behind the empty altar or throne, representing Buddha in the early art, remains in the later art when the throne is occupied, so the sun-disc behind the fire-altar may well have remained there when the deity was first made visible.

An elemental conception of the powers of nature does not necessitate an icono­graphy. The most definite suggestion is that of Rv (4.24): "Who will buy my Indra". But just as the Bodhi tree and paduka at Bharhut are called "Buddha", so here a symbol may have been referred to as Indra. The ultimate tendency is to conceive the gods in more and more definitely anthropomorphic terms. To a very consider­able extent the development of theistic, devotional cults must represent an emergence of popular, non-Aryan tendencies, now recognised, absorbed and systematised in relation to Aryan philosophies. It must never be overlooked that in Vedas, and before the second century B.C., we possess only one-sided view of'Indian' religion and representing, qualitatively at least, the smaller part of it. The mass of the people worshipped not the abstract deities of priestly theology, but local genie {Yakshas and Nagas), and faminine divinities of opulence and mother goddesses.

The transition from elemental to personal conceptions of the deities is completed. Images and temples are referred to fairly frequently and as a matter of course. The words used for image are daivata, pratima. The//anvam^/w. somewhat later, refers to stone images, but no image of a Deva is certainly older than the first century B.C., the Maurya or possibly earlier figures representing either human beings or Yakshas. About the same time images are mentioned in several other connections Patanjah, commenting on Panini, refers to the exhibition and sale of images o^Shiva Skanda, Vishakha, etc. The moving about the images of bucolic deities is referred to

Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity 93

in Apastanibha, a work perhaps composed in the Andhra country. A Naga-bali, a five headed snake of wood or clay is to be made and worshipped for a year.

The special religious meanings possible for each symbol had their heridity in Vedic and epic reference to avatars and attributes. They were also related to later iconography in the company of the vocabulary which was equally available to all sects, Brahmins, Buddhists and Jains each employing them according to their own light of senses. Finally a heraldic significance, the secular usage by a city, a com­munity, or a king, comes into being. In this unifying event in diversities, the bull, of the Brihadrath dynasty of Magadha {Mahabharat\ acquaints itself with the tiger of a Kaveri-based-kingdom mentioned in the Pattinappalaiy and thus a step is taken towards uprooting violence between living beings. The commonest coin symbols in general use include human figures-singly or in threes, elephant, horse, bull, bull's, head, dog, cobra, fish, peacock, Chaitya Vriksha (Railed Tree) branch, flower, lotus; sun in circle rays, moon-cresent; mountain with flora, fauna and sun-moon, river (often with fish), tank; nannUpada, triratana, or trishula, svastika, double triangle, steel-yard and "Taxila" mark. It reminds us that Taxila symbolised suzerainty equivalent to the royalties.

In this devamala the man amuses himself to recognise his existence to be the commonest essential in all living beings, presidedover by the great and real environ­ment. The art in this varied period constructs permutations sanctifying freedoms of individualities in all forms and hues. Nothing done in art warrants mammonisra. The master is represented only by symbols like the tree, wheel and paduka implying a continuity on throne and in wood alike. The retention of old symbols as specific designations becomes a tradition. And, finally, the forms of all such images are codified in descriptive mnemonic texts {dhyan, mantra, sadhana included in Shilpa-shastra). These texts are a development and definition of the older Vedic and epic lauds, which should have been musts for all in the act of visualisation before the work of art is really begun.

Temple and shrines in epics are devata-ayatan. In inscriptions they are deva-kultty arahat-ayatan. The general meaning is sacred objects in honour of teachers or prophets. Trees {Chaitya-Vriksha) are perhaps the most commonly mentioned symbols. "Even a leaf from them is not to be destroyed for they are abodes of Devas, Yakshas, Nagas, Apasaras, Bhutas, etc.". Ramayana described a chaitya as a temple: "The horn of the trident bearer is high as heaven; and is spotless". On seeing which the mortal knows he has reached the city of Shiva. Theoretically, the Hindu shrine is the imitation of a building existing in another world (generally Indraloka), the form of which has been revealed or otherwise ascertained. The architects used Shilpi-Shastras believing in Shaiva Agamas as their origin which teaches that our temples are abodes in Kailash on the summit of Mahameru far beyond the strata of existence known as Bhuvar-loka and Svar-loka. The conception recurs many times in Indian literature, where the architect is inspired by Vishwakarmay or he visits the heaven of Ihdra to bring back with him the design of some palace or temple existing there. In the same way the other arts, such as dancing, are practised on earth after a divine model.

94 India : A Cultural Voyage

GOLDEN CASKET

The Yue-Chi tribe driven from N.W. China in about 165 B.C. entered the golden casket of India undergoing through transmigrations or resurrections in the form of Bactrian, Kushan, Gandhar yonis. The new composition was Kanishka whose winter capital was at Purushpur (Peshawar), and his summer capital at Kapisa in Afghanistan. The Kushans created ripples in the Indus which reached the Ganga touching the shores at Kashi and Pataliputra. Heliodora, the builder of Taxila was a self-acclaimed Vaishnava (Bhagvata) whose efforts are aimed at a resurgence in the realm of multidimensional and multi-dinominational knowledge paving way to go beyond. One of the pleasant outcomes of Taxilan endeavour of the Indian mind is Gandhar art which is a step forward at universaHsra. Stylistically Hellenistic, it followed Indian tradition—verbal or plastic—in all essentials of its iconography. The whole conception of the sealed Yogi and teacher in Gandhar art is Indian. Similarly, the mudra, abhay and dhyan is Indian perception. The Gandhar sculptor did not so much make an Appollo into a Buddha, as a Buddha into an Appolo. He may not have copied any Indian sculpture, but his Buddha type and that of Mathura arc equally based on a common literary and oral tradition.

The Indian influence in Gandhar was not exclusively Buddhist. It is illustrated by the occurrence of a Shiva image (Mahesha or a so-called Trimurti). The deity is three-headed, three eyed, and six armed. It stands before the bull nandi, holding the damaru, trishula and kamandalu. The style is that of the Indianised Gandhar art of the third century. Few sites in India are of greater interest than Mathura. The Kushan school in Mathura represents, in the main, a direct development of the older Indian art of Bharhut and still older art of Besnagar. The images carry all the characteristics, including expressions of enormous energy in gestures and features, which are products of the Indian School. It is evident from scrutiny that a type of Buddha image had been created at Mathura independently of any Hellenistic prototype; and this Mathura type was transported to many other sacred sites, for, at the very beginning of Kanishka's reign we find Mathura sending down images to the Gangetic plains, thus setting examples to the sculptors of Kashi and Gaya. These facts taken into consideration with the subsequent continuity of the tradition, and the obvious and natural relationship of Gupta to Kushan types, exclude the possibility of a Greek origin of the Buddha images in India. That in certain directions a Hellenistic element, plastic and iconographic, was absorbed into Indian art, and the presence of this factor, sometimes unmistakeabie, is all that can properly be assorted in this connection.

The great majority of figures are female of which the commonest and most characteristic type, indeed, is that of the nude or semi-nude female figure associated with trees, unmistakable descendants of the Yaksis and Vriksakas of Bharhut Bodhgaya and Sanchi, and ancestors of the Rameshwaram Verandah bracket at Elora, those of the Ka/j/j«aia cave at Badaim and many later derivatives. What is the meaning of these sensuous figures, whose connotation and implication are any­thing but Buddhist or Jain? They are certainly not, as they used to be called, dancing

Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity 95

girls. They are Yaksis, Devatas or Vriksbcis, nymphs and dryads, and to be regard­ed as auspicious emblems of vegetative fertility derived from popular belief. Trees are closely connected with fertility, and tree-marriages have survived to the present day, the twinning of the limbs of dryads as in Bodhgaya pillar, deliberately or unconsciously expresses the same idea. It is to be observed that there is scarcely a single female figure represented in early Indian art without erotic suggestion of some kind, implied, or explicitly expressed and emphasised, no where indeed, has the vegetative sexual motif been presented with greater frankness or transparency, though in certain later phases of Indian art, as at Khajuraho and Konark, more specifically. In the presence of these emblems of abundance we must not be misled by modern ideas; their meaning, if not Buddhist or Jain, is nevertheless religious and reveals an essential purity of spirit that has overtaken the West. The two polar themes of Indian experience are there presented side by side, though not in oppo­sition. In much later medieval Vaishnava art we find them united.

CLASSIC CASKEF

Then descends the Gupta period, the classic casket of the Indian art. It is the highest class and guide. It is a classic method, pertaining to and moulded by the Ihought of the ancient. It is adhering to a self-estabiishcd set of artistic and philosophic standards and methods. It is a classic example of a new basic, a fundamental freshly conceived. It is of an enduring interest, quality and style sometime alluding the style as content and design. The classical art Jives in a cul­tured period cheered by literary and astrological and scientific renown. The period is a classic haunt of famous poets, nearly every moment conversing with the art of plasticity. The art in the Gupta period is considered definitive in its field—something noteworthy and worth remembering in the great magical tradition of Vikramaditya, the rider on Simghasan Battise. The classic mind involved in the art of the period is somehow being interpreted as archaic which belonged, or attempted to belong, to the first or highest class in all excellences of human being horizontally as well as vertically.

The period was classic in the sense that the tree-power of creativity was deep rooted resulting in various sprouts welling up joyously. The sophisticated and en­during types of dance and music encouraged art. Both were well-ordered, so far the aesthetic entertainment is concerned. The golden casket in the period had its humour enlivened by the pleasaht absence of the drab creature of homophonic antiquity. A raja of Pataliputra, named Chandragupta I, founded Gupta era to commemorate his coronation after wining over the land as far as Prayag. It was followed by a succession of sheer brilliance and valour in Samudragupta. The legendry Vikrama­ditya joined the lost ends of Bharat in four directions with a sacred thread of unity. In the Gupta period the image has taken its place in architecture. This integration acquires delicacy and repose. At the same time technique is perfected and used as a language without conscious effort. It becomes a modicum of conscious and explicit statement of spiritual conceptions. Thi^ being equally true of sculpture, painting and the dance. The era establishes a new definition of beauty: kshne kshne yat

95 India : A Cultural Voyage

navatam upaiti {Kalidas in ShakwUalam). It is at once serene and energetic, spiri­tual and voluptuous. The formulae of Indian taste are now definitely crystallised and universally accepted. Sonographic types and compositions are now standardised in forms whose influence extended far beyond the Ganga Pradesh, and of which the influence was felt, not only through India and Sri Lanka, but far beyond the confines oT Aryavart.

The period is often introduced as one of the revival of Brahminism and of Sanskrit learning and literature. But actually there is no evidence of any preceding lack of continuity in the development of Brahminical culture. Certainly there never existed a Buddhist India that was not as much and at the same time and in the same areas a Hindu India. In any case, an age of high tened aesthetic consciousness of final reductions of the epics and puranas, and of codifications and systematisation in the arts must have been preceded by centuries, not of incrcativity, but of intense and creative dynamism. The period is one of culmination, or florescnce, rather than of renaissance. A close parallel exists between the development of art and literature. The same abundance pervades the Sanskrit Kavya literature, the Ajanta paintings and the decoration of the Gupta reliefs.

The rich decorative resources of Gupta art arc to be understood in terms of its inheritance: indigenous, early Asiatic, Persian and Hellenistic. The Gupta style is unified, national. Plastically, the style is derived from refinement and definition, tendencies destined, still later, in the natural course of events, to imply attenuation. The Gupta sculpture, less ponderous than the ancient types, is distinguished by its volume, its energy proceeding from within the form, and is static rather than kinetic. The Gupta art marks the zenith in a perfectly normal cycle of artistic evolution. Painting appears in all lists of the sixty-four kalas, the fine arts of accomplishments. Portrait paintings, usually from memory, and on wooden panels, is a device constantly employed in classical Sanskrit plays. The Kamasutra of Vatsya-•yana, a work essentially of the Gupta period, mentions the drawing panel, paints and brushes as parts of the ordinary furniture of a gentleman's (nagar) chamber, and taken in its context, this throws some light on the meaning of the term nagar as used to define a kind of painting. Quite evidently, painting was, in the Gupta period at least, not exclusively an ecclesiastical, but also a secular art practised by amateurs as well as by professional members of guilds. It was a social accomplish­ment.

In arts of the Gupta period, the specifically religious element is no loncer insistent, no longer anti-social.lt is manifested in life, and in an art that reveals life not in a inere opposition to spirituality, but as an intricate ritual filled to the consumation of every perfect experience. The sorrow of transience no longer poisons life Life has become an art in which mortality inheres only as karunlrasaTll ultimate meaning o life is not forgotten but a culmination and a erfe ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ obtained m which the inner and outer life are indivisible. It is the psycho n h v ! ^ identity that determines the universal quality of Gupta art. The profound m f ' ' in which this art was given wide recognition lies in its extension in Z h Asia and Far East. The stockless Bodhisattva from Funan is f lly the e ar ^ ^ ^ ^

Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unify 97

painting at Ajanta. Far-Eastern races have developed independently elements of culture no less important than those of India. But almost all, that belongs to the common spiritual consciousness of Asia, the ambient, in which its diversities are reconcilable, is of Indian origin in the Gupta Period.

But before we enter into eastern and far eastern horizons, we should like to have a glance at early medieval, medieval, Rajput, and later arts. To begin with the first. There is no sharp line of division between late Gupta art and that of the early medieval which mark the beginning of the famous seventh century India carry­ing two heroes on its north and south shoulders, Harshwardhan and Pulkeshin, the two great contemporaries and enemies. Husan Tsang, through his description of Nalanda portrays India in the seventh century. The Chinese pilgrim and scholar dwells upon the magnificence of famous monasteries and the Buddhist university :

"The whole establishment is surrounded by a brick wall. One gate opens into tlie great college, from which arc separated eight other halls standing in the middle. The richly adored towers and the angelic turrets which compare themselves with hill-peaks, are congregated together. The observatories seem to be lost in the vapours of the morning and the upper rooms tower above the clouds, as clouds also bowed low to the clime of Nalanda. From the windows new formations of winds and clouds were pleasantly visible, and above the soaring caves the conjunctions of the

sun and moon may be observed Below the deep translucent ponds were another delights with their surface laced with blue lotus intermingling with the Kie-in (Kanaka) flower of deep red colour, and at intervals the mangroves spread over all their shade. . . . AH the outside courts with priesls' and teachers' chambers are of four stages. The stages have dragon (makara) projections and coloured caves, the pearl-red pillars carved and ornamented, the richly adorned balustrades, and the roofs covered with tiles that reflect the light in a thousand shades—these things add to the beauty of the scene."

The glory of Nalanda as described by the Chinese pilgrim must have been due, in the main, to the benefactions of Purnavarman and other local rajjs of Magdha and perhaps, in part, to Harsha himself who erected costly temples for the service of his three family deities—Shiva, Sun and Buddha. When Harsha became master of Valabhi in 635, the town was already a great centre, in the west, of Buddhist learning comparable in importance with Nalanda. The city was, later, overthrown by the Arabs (770). Since then Anhilavad-Patan (Gujarat) became the leading city of Western India until in the 15th century, when it was succeeded by Ahemdabad. A rich temple, assigned to the reign of Harsha, named after Lakshraana at Sirpur, Raipur district, is one of the most beautiful in all India. It is unsurpassed in the richness and refinement of its ornament. Certainly falling in the reign of Harsha is the octagonal Mundeshvari temple near Bhabua in the Shahabad district. The early Chalukya, Rashtrakut and Pallava fulfill the canvas of the early medieval each with its relatively independent colours mainly of southern traditions.

From the early medieval, the journey is again too complex to be treated in detail here. The outstanding feature, in the north, is the rise of the Rajputs with

gg India : A Cultural Voyage

sprinklings of descents from earlier foreign invaders now completely Hinduised. The main bulk of this racial phenomenon could trace its heredity with plausibility of far earlier times. The most important kingdoms in this period included that of Kanauj of Panchal ruled by the earlier Raja Bhoj (Parihar), extending from Magadha to the Satluj, and including Kathiawad. The later Raja Bhoj (Parmar or Pawar) of Dhara was the legendary liberal patron of literature and art, himself the author of works on architecture. Chandeh of Bundelkhand and Palas of the lower Ganga Valley were some of the dynasties which could be described illustrious in their own domains. The great abundance of medieval Nagara shrines in Punjab, Rajputana, Western India, the Valley of Ganga, Central Provinces, and Orissa make a consecutive artistic treatment rather impossible in a work of present dimension. Likewise the presence of artistic creations illumine greatgopuras at Shrirangam, Chidambaram, Mumbakoram, Vijaynagar and Madurai. Herein, the treatment of the marble surpasses anything seen anywhere. The greatest resultant in a piece of marble has been the Nataraja type which is also the greatest creation of Indian art, a perfect visual image of becoming. It is an adequate complement and contrast to the Buddha type of pure being. The movement in the dancing figure of the Nataraja is so admirably balanced that while it fills all space, it seems nevertheless to be at rest, in the sense that a spinning top or a gyrostat is at rest; thus realising the unity and simultaneity of the Five Activities {Pancha-Kritya), namely, production, maintenance, destruction, embodiment and release.

PLUNGE IN HOMOPHONY

From medieval to Rajput it was but one step for the Indian art to plunge into a homophonic state. And, it was beyond its energy to avoid the pit. The Arab contact having gained maturity, introduced use of paper on a mass scale. The doddering political morale induced artistic sensibilities as prop to rouse creativity in order to hold the tattering moral structure of the golden casket. The easy availa­bility of the paper media fertilised the production of art, popularly and deservedly known as Rajput and Mughal painting which, in proportion to the earlier mass creative interests, helped sprout similar homophonic state of creativity throughout north-west India—the battered ground politically and socially. All the Kangara Pahari, Rajasthani and B tsauli schools fell a prey to the charming illness. The only man who anticipated the fall was Jahangir. While still a prince he expressed his agonised dismay in the following words, ''The old song weary my heart , the love story of Far had and Shirin has grown old and lost its savour jfwe 'read at all, let it be what we have seen and beheld oversclve^''. uthe too on being enthroned, lost a required energy to avoid the drowning; especially when the tail of paper consumerism began its lashes originating from burning ambitions of the European industrial renaissance. The Indian art was dupedTy thf in ruder the PAPER-and lost sight of that high pedestal where the mo'untaL' afd th wood w^ ^ companions m creativity. The Indian art lost its pedestal It s^ood Tn i? Tu air m an animated suspension. The Indian art forgot o V s S \ h e stlmina t^ »

99 Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity

:u u *iM -fc fircMovp The width and the depth of renewal in cons-vvith the environment hke its first love, ine wmui a i t- u^„:„„:„„ from the tant active relationship with the earlier ^'''S^^ °f f ™' '!°" '!>'« 1""^? r r i ed Vedic integrative footprints down to the Golden Casket, shpped " ° ™ ~ ^ ^ ^ ^ sentiments-subjcelive and siek-on paper whteh mv.tes only a """"^'f"'^"'^ 'fn

Here we should, after revealing a rather negleeted 1 ' " ; ; ; ^ ^ ^ / " " " "^ ' our medieval eulture, dwell upon the post-medieval seene of Indian art wh.eh.s but enchanting in its own right. The discussion under Rajput Vf^'^''"^Jl^^' explicit earlier, leads us to one more column of the mansion • e he Mughal pn tmg. They diner in the stylistic and thematic sense that wh.le the '' ' ' '^ . ' ?.^''*™'=',^;'„ matic, objective, and ecleetive, the earlier is essentially an »"^ '°"« l^ .f '^ j ;VJm t e appeal to all classes alike; it is static, lyrical, and .s an ""»";;'^^^"^J^^^^ life it reflects. The Rajput painting illustrates every P^'^ll^^'l^^Z^f^^Xt ature including Indian epics. Kris/.a Lila ' : ' - ' " - ; . ; „ " ^ X ' t W ^ b o t ^ o f p e r s ' ^ painting reflects an interest that ,s an exclusive ^o-^^in of subje" J and events. • ' i s essentially an art of poruaiture and c ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^,^^^,^ painters are personal, ^ec " - l l y and s ^ . ahy-,^ ^^^^^ discernible. One can say, in spirit, Mughal painung ^ _ •„„„ :„ view of the val. These differences become interestmg - ^ , ' " ' " ^ ."f ^ ^J ^R^p felments fact that a commerce of integration was on a "''^^.^ f ' ^ ^ ' ^ ' ^ ' ' ' ' 7 , ^ , ,heir presence were being adopted in true Mughal paintings; Hindu f ^'^.^^-"^'f.^'dHyderabad felt in the courts of Great Mughals like Akbar and J^hang r O dh nd Hyder began further fusion by Producing rnixed^pes; an V. t^;^,^-^^^^^^ , , _ half of the Mughal painters were native H ndus. ' ^ i ' ' ,„„„fi<,ial and at other, blanees between Rajput and Mughal paintings; sometime superhcial.

fundamental. ,^^i^„ i„,i„g j^Hng this period presented The tide and ebb m the gr excdlance. This skill, known as Indian

\.^ J . I rr^\A and silver, both n personal and ritual purposes, accoiup homes and temples. Gold ana siiver, uum i H A««I;^H H^mntion of anicd the exquisite taste ' " - - " - j / ; , "f^^ 3 ' w t ^ i C s' ' ' ;1d1 o t r Thi metal as - lay and overlay received '^^^^J^^^'J^^iy and variety, by all classes jewellery, made and worn in an unsurpa H ^ ^^^ ^.^^^

r e ^ r S t t t ' r ^ c ' c ^ e d ^ t ' a r ^ n t ' r : : ' I r m o u s ran^^e. Textiles deservedly

fa , u as artTcL; of eTport since Roman times, or P-^a^'V ^ ' - - ^ . t f o r ^ r the onlv orocess in the world by which the design is, so to speak, created before the me only process in ine * ° " •' ^ ^j,,!, source of extensive practice in colour weaving is begun. Tie-dyeing Decamc •>, •. printing. Embroidery offered a vivacious charm to Indian living.

SUBURBAN CENTRES

The suburban centres of Indian art include Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet. Chinese

jQQ India : A Cultural Voyage

Turkistan and the Far East. The splashes of ardent activities by the Indian muse throughout the ages were bound to attract attention of these neighbouring regions at their ecstatic" moments. Simultaneously they were also, most likely, to colour these moments adding their own inner-selves. Each of the above mentioned geogra­phical regions big or small-has been a partner in social and political upheavals emanating in or from the sub-continent since the days of Ashoka, if not earlier. In this partnership was engrained a common cultural tendency born out of the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain religions in co-existence. A pyramidal basement of five stages (a relationship which controls five senses!) is common to all migratory temple architecture from Nepal to Burma to Combodia, and up to Farther India.

The typical Brahminical temple in Kashmir (750-1250 A.D.) has a special character of its own, and is, in some cases, a curiously European aspect. The typi­cal Kashmiri roof is found only at Gop in Kathiawad. The isolated and rather inaccessible Himalayan valley of Nepal was occupied in prehistoric times by a people of Tibetan origin. In the 2nd century A.D. the Lichchivis from India founded a dynasty in Nepal taking with them their Vaishali civilization. Then came a time when the first king of Tibet who is supposed to be the maker of the Tibetan nation, married a Nepalese princes in the year 630. The young bride brought with her, her gods and priests. She converted her husband and after her death she was given a place in the Tibetan pantheon as an incarnation of the Goddess Tara. Tibet was from the beginning open to India and Nepal. Pilgrimages from one place to the other by scholars, missionaries, artists and traders were in great vogue. The Chinese Turkistan, according to Hsuan Tsang, was under partial occupation by Indian immigrants from the region of ancient Taxila. A Prakrit language was spoken in the oasis. Kharoshthi and Bralimi scripts were in use. A cult of Kiibera was wide­spread. Khotan was the centre, through which and also through the routes from the southern sea and Combodia, Indian influence extended to China, Korea and Japan.

In China, however, where an ancient civilization had long previously attained to a high stage of consciousness, and had found expression in a solemn and cultivated art dating back to the second millennium B.C., and where, despite the settlement of Indian traders and priests, especially at Loyang, there was never any question of Indian social or political domination, the situation was different than that of Farther India and Indonesia. The Indian element in the Far East is nevertheless a considerable one; for there was not merely the acceptance of an iconography and of formulae, but the assimilation of a mode of thought. The effects on both the counts have been a live subject for art historians since long. Japanese Buddhism on the ntuahstic side elaborated the cult of Amida and t h e k s t L ParLise T d on vl7T:l ^ ' f i ' ' " ' " ' • " ' "^^ ^^'^" ^^^^'^•^^ ^f China, which has be^nestab-hshed by the Indian monk Bodhirama, and derived in the last analysis fom t ^^^ India yo^a. The external influence of Indian thought created t h L Z v . n i f r art resembling those of India, the more fundamentally s U m J S ^ method, acting invariably, enabled the Japanese geni:sV;er:; ;^^^^

Indian An : Process of Deciphering Unity

of aesthelic appreciation of natural beauty and an art which bear no evident resemb­

lance of anything Indian.

FARTHER INDIA

The contact with the Indian art sailing on the many-splendoured wings of Hinduism and Buddhism added a new wave of laughter to the Farther tasi judded in several seas. It were higher waves of ""derstanding, not tribal, nor survlvalist. This part of the earth had good for^ne to be enthralled by the saga ot deciphering truer lights from Being to Becoming. The new awareness ^ " " ' ^ ' ' ' 3 'ho hun,an contact with Indianness and blossomed into '^^'''f°2'2d\Tl city architecture. It was an epic journey of Indianesque. Local ar °^"''""^'''^^^ ^ indents and purposes, a province of Indian art, ^<'" ' ' ' ' " ; f°''° ' t a s " "muN G"Ptas-, Cher time Pallavas'. Equally worthwhile aspect of ••« ^^a was a --nu^

'»"eous process of formulation and crystallisation °f.''» ° " " "J ' " "" j^^^^^f Indian ">o East, but always susceptive to the grand succession of newer gestures art. , In the fifty century A.D. Fa Hsien visited Sri ^-^^-^^^X^^^"':;::, "'Sobas as the earliest samples of surviving structures with ' " " ' ^ f ^^ ' f^ '^^ ;„ ta f*"" amethyst caskets. The frescoes of this century are ^^^^^^^^^,„X--'" ^'yie. representing celestial woman, with her attendant ^f''^^^^.^^, , ' ' « i n of flowers. These paintings combine a S^^-"'^''=«\"^ J , J , 7 , \ e largest Penetrating sensuality. The Jela.ana monastery "^"'"^./^.^^^"^TBuddha of brick, ""ddhist temple in Sri Lanka. It contains a gigantic standing B BWdhaghoshris said to have visited Tha.on a » " "em part of Bu^ma ^^ ^•^•' bringing along with him 'he books of the/•«/, anon, and from ^ ^^^^ ««rds Burma has been more exclusively a B"ddlnst country than was th o'her pan of Farther India. Nortliern Burmese ^^^2:^:!;;:;-^ ^ J . xhe aTantrik character at an early date and naa "rohitectural forms in this country are varied. They renec a con

•countries. The bullbous and cylendrical f ^ ^ V ^ ' i n are of the old S mhalese hemi-° f t h e Pala period. The Pebin Gyaung and Sapada are of the oW Simh^ _

spherical type The Mahabodhi with its high straight-edged ^/»Ator is mo

'he Older shrines at Bodhgaya. ^^^^^^ ,^^ ,4,^ ^„,„,y. Theances-Siam was by no means a " " " ' " J ^ " * Lao-Thais origins. Little is known of

« s Of modern Siam belong ' ° ^-no-Tib^-^ ^u J^ andyet ^^^^^^.^^_ ^^^^^ ^^ 'he beginnings of Indo-Thai art. Buried in the g y _ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

*ell exist some traces of - I" - « J ^P - / ^ ^ 7 , , 3 , , , , ,,elf. The Buddha Later, the classical Siamese (Thai) type erne g achievements of the heads referable to the classic Thai perK>d ^«- ' "^^ ' 'PJ^^ .^ . i , . Cochin, China Siamese genius. The groups of K.nSdoms •nclud g^^^^^^^^^.^._^^^ ^^ ^^^.^^ and Southern Siam is spoken of as i-unun ^ ^^^^ merchant vessel, Biahmin Kaundinya, who landed here '" °"'= „ s ^nd so he became married a princess who had, or received, the name 01

JQ2 india : A Cultural Voyage

master of the country. The story is again referred to in a Cam inscription of 659 A.D. where the princess is called a Nagini. The Kaundinya-Soma story is probably of Indian origin, where the Pallavas are derived from the union of a Chola king with a Nagini. Classic Khmer art is a uniHed style and fully developed when it appears for the first time in the sandstone buildings of the Parh Khan and Banteai Chhamar. The art rejects the characteristic Pallava motifs. However, mythology and cult remain Indian in all essentials, though not without special local developments. Shaivism at first dominates. Later on an increasing mixture of Tantrik Mahayan Buddhism takes over. But specific dedications are to be found in all reigns, and almost all deities of the Hindu and Mahayan pantheons are represented. Deification of royal ancestors was a practice in vogue. Even ancestors' images were set up in memorial temples. The same custom existed in Java. The last and the greatest of Khmer temples adheres to the already well known scheme of moat, outer wall, paved causeways, inner connective galleries forming a terraced pyramid, and central shrine surmounted by a high tower, with rich decorations of all the wall surfaces. This may have been the Ankor Wat. It is not unlikely that its architect was the powerful learned Diwakar, king Suryavarman'sguru, and master of the coronation ceremonies for his desciple king and for his own predecessors. With the Ankor Wat the history of Corabodian art almost comes to an end.

The ancient art of Campa is closely related to that of Combodia. The sacred city of Mi-son was founded by Bhadravarman I about 400 A.D., when the Bhadrcsh-wara lingamwas setup. The pyramidal roof consists of three diminishing stories and the summit crowned by a flame-like or lotus-bud finial. The sculptural style is unequal in quality, the finest pieces are marvels of powerful modelling or grace of conception. Scarcely anything survives of the ancient art of Sumatra, unless we define the art of the middle Java in the Shailendra period as such. Sumatra appears to have received Indian settlers at very early date, probably well before the beginning of the Christian era. The land of gold is referred to already in the Jafakas, and the Ramoyana as Suvarntivipa and Suvarnbhumi. Fa Hsien visited Sumatra about 414 A.D. and found few or no Buddhists. A few years later Gunavarman of the royal house of Kashmir landed in Yavadvipa. He converted the queen, and she in turn her son, to Mahayana Buddhism which thus became the official cult. The Shailendra dynasty introduced Sanskrit learning and built a high state of culture by the seventh century. The foundations of a great maritime empire was established. Islam was introduced into Sumatra by Indian missionaries and traders.

Early Indian settlements in Western Java date back to the beginning of the Christian era. Extensive evidences of Indian culture are found in Middle Java in the seventh century. The oldest inscription (732 A.D.) refers to the original home of the Hindu immigrants as Kunjara-Kunjadesha, evidently the Kunjara of Barahmihira s Bnhat Samhita in the far south of India, and probably the source of U.e cult of the sage Agastya, which is well developed in J L . The in Ji ^ ^ ^ ^ further refers to a miraculous radiam lingam brought over Kunjara Zn a Thl Dinaya inscription of 760 A.D. similarly speaks of a fiery PutTke L a a ci J H V connected with the ruling house. From these dates has been fnferred T^^^^^^^^^^

103 Indian Art : Process of Deciphering Unity

origin of the Devaraja cult of Combodia and Campa. Indo-Javanese ^j'il;^^''"" *"* by this time a harmonised unity. But while the olTicial cults were of '"dian ongin, the real basis of popular belief remained as it still remains, ''^''^f'J^'J^'^' nism of the Javanese courts was throughout predominantly, though " ° ' " ~ ^ ' Shaiva. No traces remain of any early Hinayan Buddhism m Java. T ie Matay na survives in its Tannic character. Later on, as in Nepal, m Combod.a and n Bal, a the present day. Buddhism and Shaiva Hinduism are inseparably ^""b ned^ In a probability BaM was originally and directly Hinduised. and only came under Javanese influence and rule after the twelfth century. Bu, this ' " " "^"" . . "^ f . ^ /^h i unique powering as to prevent the growth of a distinctive national - " ^ ^ ^ " / ^ ' ^ V , , ! , culture, as it survives to the present day, - - ' f - ; ; 7 r a " o : : corresponding miniature picture of ritual olTerings, f" ' . '™"' . '^7nf mixture of Hinduism and with the old. It is only in Bali that there f^ '^^^^'! ' ; ' ' ;" In costume, too, the Buddhism so evident in classic and post-classic art of this ^eS ^^ ,„ji^ nudity of the upper part of the body survives, which was charac and this region until the end of the classic ages.

From Sound (nada) comes Shruti (the interval): From Shruti comes Swara (the scale): From Swara comes Raga (the motif): From Raga comes Gita (the song): And the soul of Gita is Nada.

NATYA SHASTRA

7 Dance a n . M««e .• Surrender to ,he Bliss

^f^ation, Shiva lingers •"'''''='• f , ,bi iss . In this "'"•,'" ' f i n ,he union of !>"<! Whirls. He is all ^ " P ' - J . ' f ' n d e u r of sheer '''"'";"" 1, "nature of His He is free, divine. In the • " « « ' ' ° \ \ f ; „ d in love alone, » bears th ^^unter-aspirations, in ^°"^^'°"^X-''^''-. "«'• "^ " '^Knlmng Enjoying His ^'^ine being. He is an eternal negat on ^ ^ ^ ^ „ " '" ' l . domain of ecstasy, piously lived through, every moment m ht ^ . ^ .^^, . , do"'' » ^,,,„ds ^ance, choking in '^^ « ' ' " / ' " ' " „ " ' of will, alone and f f " . " ' co P ._ '»fo the unceasing change. In *^ P.^^^," verif;ing. divinely playns " '^ of W-mself. Ever-creating, ""-rradiatrng, a ' ^^ ,| .„ ^ e hear' a f n . t i on -W'eity of forms. He comprehends lumseU^H ^ ^ . ^ By a general CO fc^^ ^

'he world. He is all a wave o f;_lt°'",„braced. The ^P'"' ';, 'f .^e freewill. "'"'•"•Pralaya, the "niverse-j«'«^«; 'J di„i„e power--5A«A;'. ^eing, and He feels the unendmg de ^ ^ ^ . j I AM ^^^ j^ fie is all-daring. The universe resound^ w ^ ^ '" ° M s he drum, every-

Lord Shiva is Nataraja, Lord ol ^ ^.^^^^ when He bea s t ^ . ^ ^ ^ ^ «'s theatre. He Himself is actor and ,^,5 the ^ ^ ^ f^P^'^he beginning of all ?ody comes to witness the show «= ^° )„„ came into bemg at tn . (^xicated "His happiness. The belief is that dane "S ^ ^ ^ ,n fran' • , at

'hings. I, does not mean that all .'""l"; ghiva's dance. A great moW a ^"ergy. had the profound interpretation of Sh. ^ . ,^ , „ men_ W h t^ P ^>'"'bol in religion or art, naturally, becomes a ^^^ .^ ^^ , own hearts, wn *8e of time it yields to men such treasure as

106 India: A Cultural Voyage

the origins of Shiva's dance, it became in time the most transparent image of the actmty of God wh.chany art or religion can boast of. Indian da^es owe the origin to this great motif, to this great symbol.

The dance of Lord Shiva has thrpp ncnprfc ,„I,.-^K

the S/,;v. Pra^os„a StoUa. The fi" 1 aspecfis a^f : ,ow: " " ' " " " " " ' " " " ' " ^ ^ ' ° "Placing the Mother of the three worId<; nnon O^M ..

precious gems, Shiva dances on the heights of Kaibsh All t 1' T ' '",""'=' ™'" Him. Sarasvati plays on the vma Tnrtr7l ,K n ^ ° ' ' ' gather round marki„gc,,«6„/.'Jakshmib gin a'son V i l i p ' a v s o ' ' " J ' " ' ' ' " " ^ '"^ ' ' " -stand round about. Ca,u„Jas, ya^i:'^^^^ZaJZ'^^, ^ " f ^^ods

dwellmg ,n the three worlds assemble there to witness t l^^lTl! , , f ^° '"« ' the music of the divine choir at the hour o tw" eh " Th ^ ' " ' ' ' " " ^''•' sheer joy. Shaiva literature does not provide any ' o l i M ? ' ' " ' " ^ • ' '""" '^ ' '"^ aspect. i""viae any special mterpretation to this

The second aspect is Tandava. It belonss tn H,v , or Vira Bhadra. It is performed in cemeteries a„H K " " " " """"•" ^' B''"'''^" usually in ten-armed for„,, dance: : d f y ^ , Dew'" ' '"'"'"'• """"^ ^'"^' ' ' catcrmg imps. Ancient sculptures at Elora F l I , ' '"'™™P--'ni'--d by troops of comprise of this dance form. Tandava is svn,h!f. . ""' ' •^''"^••"•eslivara commonly «^'l- . ' symbol.sed as destruction of illusion and

The third aspect is the Nnrlnnt^ ^ the golden assembly of C h i d a m b t t ' S f ; " ' r ? ' ^ "' ^ ^ ' ^ " J - " ' ^ ' - • " i" fromtheKoyilPuranais worth summan' i^^!" ° ' " " ""'^"^'=- A legend coming

Once there was a forest nam.^ -r ^ ' were living. They were involved i r s e r ^ K H ' " ' - ' " " ' ' ' f"^"' =• ">""it"de of riMs accompanied by Vishnu. Both were ,n H ' ' . ' ^~"""- One day Shiva arrived the e the latter as adH„e.l,an. The p:rp:se of' he " ' ' '"^ " ' " '' => beautifurwoman and The „.;,« were in violent dispute amo„!^u ' " ' " " ' ° " ^"^ ' ° 'Confute the heretics

But smilLp/—^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Its skin and wrapped it about herself I'l. ^ ^ "^'^ °f the little finger strinnlH ^ sages renewed th^.v ; ^ " ^ " ^ ke a s Iken clnti, TT ^ *= '^"^er, stripped off

by gods and .«/,/.. Thet^Vilh' ' ° ' P^° ' ='"=- Shiva resumed ,h . '""• " ^"" '^ '1 the boon, once mo e to h.h 7 . "°"'' 'PP=d Shiva and pTavtH ' ' ' " " " ™""=^^=d behold the dance agatn ?„ ^he ! " i ' ""^"'^ dance s„ ivan """"^ "" '^^"Ss for , The "ItimatelnJhe i ' T t ' " " ' ' °^ 'h^ univmc r ? - ? ' " " " '^ ' ^^ 'hould having four hands w i h K f > '^"'•'"ja is accon n! T'^''"''""'"'™"'-" Whirling in the d t e . ' ^ L T a i ' ' " " ' '^J-^'ledTa r ' ^ r w h ^ l ' ' . ^ " ' " ^ ^ e of Shiva and a mermaid figure Of the G L r ' ' = ' ' ^ ° ' ^ ^ seen with a t ! - ' ° * " ^°'^'""'

Ganga, upon it rests the ere cLf """^ '°'"-«' " ^k"" "esoent moon which is crowned

Dance and Music: Surrender to the Bliss 107

^Jth a wreath of cassia leaves. The dancing image of Nataraja wears a man's ear­ring in his right ear and a woman's in the left. He is adorned with necklaces, and armlets, a bejewelled belt, anklets, bracelets, finger and toe rings. The main part of the costume consists of tightly fitting breeches, a fluttering scarf and a sacred thread. One right hand holds a drum, the other is uplifted in the sign of abhaya; one left hand holds fire, the other points down upon the demon Muvalaka, a dwarf holding a cobra; the left foot is raised. An encircling glory springs from a lotus pedestal frin­ged with flame and touched within by the hands holding the drum and fire.

The meaning inherent in the dance reveals that the Lord is the Dancer, who, I'KC the heat latent in firewood, diff'uses His power in mind and matter and makes them dance in their turn. The Nadanta dance represents Shiva's five activities, namely: shrishti—creation, evolution; j//////—preservation, support; samhara— destruction, evolution; iirob/iava—veiling, illusion, rest; anugra/ia—release, salva-^ " . grace. Separately looking, these are activities of Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Y^ahcshvara and Sadashiva. This cosmic activity is the central motif of Nadanta dance. Further, the drum causes creation, the hand protects, the fire destroys and ^ e foot held aloft gives release. The lifted foot is the refuge of the soul. Shiva is a

stroyer. He loves burning grounds. He does not only destory the heavens d earth at the close of a world-cycle. He also does away with the fetters that

md each soul. The burning ground is alluded to the hearts of His devotees or overs—the abode of ego and illusion is burnt away, and the ultimate state is

achieved; the state where lies total surrender to the hliss. To sum up, the essential Significance of Shiva's dance is: (a) it is the image of His rhythmic play as the source of all movement within the cosmos which is represented by the arch; (b) the purpose of his dance is to release the countless souls of men from the snare of illusion; (c) the place of the dance—Chidambaram or the centre of the universe, is within the heart.

The grandeur of this conception smiles in the synthesis of science, religion and art. With an amazing range of thought and sympathy the m/»"-artists conceived an image of reality, a key to the complex tissue of life, a theory of nature which satisfies not only a single cultural clique or race, but to the universal man who represents the philosopher, the lover, and the artist of all countries and all ages. That is why the dancing image of Nataraja radiated power and grace in supreme greatness to all those who strove in dance forms to give expression to their intuition of life, which saw no division or compartmentalisation. Rather it discovered a mode so expressive of fundamental rhythms and so profoundly significant and inevitable. A mode that is called the Indian dance, an evident fact exactly and wisely creating an image of that Energy which science postulates behind all phenomena. To recon­cile Time with Eternity is, and has been, the ultimate aim of the Indian dance which extends over vast regions of space and great tracts of time. Indian dancing IS a manifold phenomenon. It symbolises rising of divine rapture, sending through ^nert matter, pulsating waves of awakened sound, and appearing as a glory all around. Indian dance is fulness of time destroying all forms and names and giving

108 India: A Cultural Voyage

new repose. This is poetry as well as science. The figure of Nataraja is adorned as the prime source of Indian dances:

As a king to his subjects, as a guru to his disciples Even so the master-motif is lord of all other motifs.

endless creations of beauty, making ea^h c ^ U o ' : d ' t " t / e ^ r n r w r ' n ^ e' Indian muse surrenders to the bliss in a miiltitnH^^f^o r *"'u warm, itie and an unsurpassable world of emotions" ict ™ ^ ""P-cedented tual and universal being; holding mirror of illuminatLn o r u h ' V ' ? ' " " ' / ' " „ " bemg. The Indian muse is inspired by the primeval s , T nf N M , ' ' " ' ^ """ '"="' in dances hallowed by the grand varietv of r„H , ^^'"^'J^' " abounded

infinite stream of hope and asp^tfon^n " d e r ' . o ' " b u l T " ; e w " ' : ; ' ' " ' " ^ Tt''"' out of each moment in life. From Himalayas V„ the north to K . T ° ^ ' ' ' T south and from the land of five rivers in .1, . ? Kanyakumar n the east, the entire expanse of Indl"e toulds ^iThl " ' ' l " " °' ^^^'^ '^^^^ ' " 'he a unique universe of colour and gaietv and i^^I!" '"T ''""'^^ ''°™s creating zons. In the following pages is g L n a brie d t ^ ^ f ° ™ " ' " ° " ^ * " 5°'=ial hori-They carry with them the fragranc'e : ? : . o X r e X ^ ^ o 1 ' ^ ^ ^ ^ '"'''" ' ' - - • the mulfforms mherent in the eternal source of the d l L r ou- •"'"• ^''cy mirror

Bhara, Natyan,, historically speaking has h e l ^ , °^^ '^ ' ' ' -

' 1 ' ' ! : r . ' " r " "' °f ' " " i ' Who e pfi 'niles nd el """' ' ° "^-"°" " ^ " ° " ' " and codified about 1800 years ago in Bharat MunPs w 1 " ' ^ rea„es has been followed by practitioners o BZJ f ^ T ^'"'^'™- This ancient

and modes of presentation might have changed h Z L " " " ' ' ^°"^^ ^^P"'°'^= region, the bas.c principles and techniques of 1 ^ ^ K ° '™^- ^""^ ^""^ region to

found that Bharal Nalyam has been the L,u . "^'"'^ scrutiny, it may be systems of India. It has also been th ma n s o " « o'f ' • ° " ' ^ ' '='^^^'^-" " a n ' : o sculpture painting and icon-making ThouTh T, N " ' ' ' U ' ' ' ' ° " """^'he allied arts developed with system and purity in T ; „ , : , ^ ? I ^^' heen best preserved , 1 H regional art of a southern sLte ""' '''"'"' " '=^"-' "e <i'srniLTlT^Zt

Kathak school in north TnH-Great devotees of the arrd^.m ^^"^ ^^' *'""^^t expression to the H • likeBindadinMaharai . n . l - ^ r ' " ' ^ ^ " * ' ^ ^ ^^^ptures and i l . "'''""^ ^^"^^• ble for the PretvTtioTof'^ ^^Ct^ZZV' ''""''^ character and brilliant tePhn ^"^^ent art for giving to i / , ^^"'^^PO"si-Natyam with nn r/: "'-™'?''^-^''' ' ' ' 'fcisalsoas=,n.,-, ' " ' . ' '"'"=h of its lyrical Shaslra. Ka,hak\Ti!Z 1 f """""<= '°" 'ent detaUed » . " ' ' ^°"" "'^ -B''"™' Kalhak possesses a fund 1 ' ! ?. "". °' ^''"1 and drama. n " . : " l '^'"""^

in Aro/j; of subjects and lyrics gleaned from "'°^'°"^' expression, irom sacred legends and

109 Dance and Music: Surrender to the Bliss

f -.. .ince independence a rediscovery of mythology. With the great renaissance ot arts si. the dance in its various regional styles has taKen P • ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ j ^ j ^ ^ ^^r-

Kathakali is indigenous to Kerala. It '^ " " 2 ,^^ inexhaustible vel of perfection in Indian art. For themes &//.«A«/. ^^^ ^^^^^^^ „f the treasure-house of ancient Puranas <=';wn"' '"^'^'„d actresses transform themselves nn^c „„^ „ PT^Hinn mythology. Actors ana a ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^,gh.

vel of perfection in Indian art. ^ o r i n u . . - . - - j ^ ^ ^ ^ a„d conflicts o. i .-treasure-house of ancient Puranas <=';wn"' '"^'^'„d actresses transform themselves gods and supermen of Indian mythology. A ° « ^ " „ dutiful h"ome bigh-into malignant demon or benign god, ^ 0 ° ^ J ^ . t of the role. The tradmonal venu lighting in each case, the emotional eha«cter^tic ^^ ^^^ ^^^.,y mansom A

for this dance form has been the ' ; ° " ' J " ' ' J ; t of honour. A huge brass 0,1 amp .s wooden tripod •^^^^o.-.sX^^..o^^^^^^^^ r ^ C S t Z : : : ^

:tdr:v:s::^:rt;r"i;h;^ pa-jf-Paniment of Chenda and the Madalam-thc tyP'^a ,ongs while the actors mute

and cymbals, a pair of m"sie.ans sms h%'^.^ ^„d bring to life a dre m ^^^^^^ *ord, but eloquentof expression recreate the P .^ . ^ poet.c diet on, ar amo g

o f*ee r fantasy. The KathakaU songs^ o ^^^^,^^ ^''f'^AthZya

> : " r . . X r e s e n l in a - j f ^ . X n ^ d ntngtid'down in . . ^ ~ -<f dancing. The three fn^amentahonnd'a ^ . ^^^^^ ^°''":,fZaUl I'^'-'^^yJri.ta.Nritya.n^NatyaJom^l^ .,, four vanefes s ch a «J.^^^ be said to be the backbone °f ^ ^ j n a remarkable manner to brms^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^"^''ika, a/,arya and satvika a^e " ' ^^f oT».-,*«- ^ fact the nu.dras are emotions through the media o' se j . Kalhakali. devotional bets Of the language of gestures employ ^^^^^ ' ' ' ' \ . " L o the dei^e^- '"^ . Odissi, like other an-e" „ 'd,^^,„g f,om the invoca ion to the d _ ^ ^^,

f'lual. It consists of one long l l m „,y technical finae o 'P ^^ ,^^ Earth and the s"ru, and f."''.'"f J generally done in stages so as to b^ g

'"<e the B/,a™, i^«0""". 0 ' ' "%to3ture and the art " f ' n l ^ T ' ; ' d a n t s and their fullest its beautiful stances of P ° ' " ; ; ,he great ««r.«, 'he-r descendmife dance has been preserved not " " ^ f^Vtemples themselves have brought ^ P pupils the Maharis or Devadasis, b" ^^^ « '^P„ 3 prolific or.entationff 'b^J^ 'ity thousands of examples in sculpture ^hat^ ^^^ "^ ' ! 'T r^c fn tu ry A.D. lues Of the art. The institution o t h e ^ ^ ^^^^ ^,^„^ ,o 'he 2nd century worked in the service of religious centres 6 ^^^^^^ ^^^^ " ' ' " r T g e d and Wc know from inscriptions and re'ated ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ ' " ^ • ' ° the Vishnu Shiva temple of Bhuvaneshwar, these han ^^_^ , ,h, 3„e time he Vi

assisted to preserve the elass.c.al ^ " " ^ ^ _ ^^ , ^^p , , d,ncing n J ^ ^ ^ temple of Jaganna.h also introduced he ^ d social ^'atus^ Grr ^^t Maharis were held in great esteen^^ ^^^^ ^^_^pl ^^^^ ^s an honou

eood families including those of roy P^fession. . „,e wela. The recent excavations m A"

Kuchipudi is a W;fl5«'-'"« /"""'^ of dance since the times of the Satva Pradesh reveal rich traditions in the a

110 India: A Cultural Voyage

kings in the second century B.C. The sculptures inform us about two main schools of dance—DevWflj/ and Kelika. The sites of excavations are situated within a radius of 6 miles from Kuchipudi in the Krishna district. Hence the name of the dance form. The Vaishnava movement helped in the evolution of Kuchipudi and shaped it up as a bhagwata dance mela. The richness of the style of music, sentimental display and sway over the audience are special features of this dance form, which also allows place for lasya and tandava. Its forms are woven around realistic as well as conventional values.

Manipuri is a form of group dance wherein girls wear bright coloured satin ankle-deep skirts that are heavily embroidered and ornamented with sequins and tiny ventilating mirrors. The richness of the embroidery makes the garment stand out stiffly. Over this a transparent silver over-skirt is worn, reaching the knees This piece is also heavily and gracefully embroidered with mirror and silver work' A velvet jacket and a diapharous head-kcrchief covering the face and slightly raised on the top of the head by means of a conical head jewel does not complete' the costume. A waist belt of gilt and sequins and mirrors wFth a front piece endine in a square that is richly embroidered and sparkles with a myriad facets and rows of silver bracelets add a necklace add lusture to the costume! Sometime a gar a^d IS worn or flowers encircle the wrists. No dance bells are used. The boy dancer who generally plays the role of Krishna, wears a fine gold coloured waist clofhTh; alls to the ankles. Breast pieces crossed on the chest are worked w i r h l v ^ b ad

and tinsel. He uses a magnificent headdress topped with fan-shapped p ume of peacock features interspersed with red and tinsel BeiewelleH n^n^o . i add .he finishing touches. The . e n with the ^L^^^tlni^^^:',:^:^''^^

The lustrous costume s mirror to the mtnrai K.n, + ""P'c uresses. of Assanj where Ma..,.ri dance has i Z t L T l ^ ^ J : ^ : : ^ : : ^ ^

nVaSt-rwLtth^tn^rRir'a' d^ r "' ^--^^ was so much enamoured that "he exo ' ' H t T " ' """^•"g "^e Via.. Parvati readily agreed and with supreme oy accomoanied K l " ' ' ° f""" *'"• ^^"^ ^^o couple danced to the glory o f ' " h r u S e T r a H V ' \ ' " ' ' K ' " " ^ ' ' = ' '"^ ='^™^' dance-drama invoicing the go ds and prrdTnTpi^ersurrf^r t h ^ " " " " ^ ' " ^ ° " '"'^ Serailc'ta'forJ;";L:!';l;^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ " V . - n . Originated from certain fundamental traditions o^th LfcaT 1 H , ' ' ^ ' ^ ' ' ' ' " ' ' f°™ """"ows aspects of Shiva and Shakti. It is a d nee o r . . ? ' ^ : u' " ^^^^^^^^ to the twin ceremonial worship i„ the Shila t t m l f r ^ T , ' ' * ' = " ^ ™ ' " ' " a'hrcc-day Lighted by brilliant displays of torche ll„, 7^ "^ " ^rand procession these dances are done in solo, duet and drama ? o ™ % r • ""'"^ "'^''^""S ° " '"mps. h,story, legend and nature. The style is^rec s a ^ d W o " " ' " -^^^olo^y, sacred

n i . ' ^ r - ""'''= ' " "^ ' eliding w^kfand v a r ^ r • ^°'"P^i^'"g of intricate well thought out and impressive. '' " '°"'8=»'S- The choreography is

Mohini Atom is onp r.f •»•,« • Kerala, presenting l ^ ^ ^ X : X t Z t : t ^ ^ - " « ' - ^ ' ' o n of

lormancethat incorporates/a.j^a and

I l l

Dance and Music: Sunemler to the Bliss . , ,• ^,„(je which includes the

'aiulava styles. Us technique in based on '''^„^';';;5 " n , knees greatly bent, and peculiar manner of dancing with the f" ^^^ = ;„d piay of the drum, with utilising fme rhythmic syllable words m the re^' '»'^ ^t , "^^'"""' i"" '" ' ; ,rce perfect synchronisation of the dancer's e - Start = ^ ^ ^ . ^ ° f r ' m b i n increasing the speed gradually to reach a " 8 ^ , „ „ , grace and strength combm sequences blossom into a superb P ' ' " " " niovenienls and wudras. ing the dcsien of footwork, posture, var ed arm ^^^^^.^,^d ,h Knshn^

A'n-./,„; A,am, as the name f f f ^ ' . , , , td from Krishna Mam. Sometm.e » legends. It is believed that ^ " " f ' " ; ; ^ " o i„ king of Calicut named Ma^^^^ the middle of the Hth century A.D the Z o ^^ ^^^^ Krishna, composed ^g van. Who was a poet of distinction ''"^ " J " ' ' jes of Krishna shfe^ The p dramatic lyrical plays dealing ^v.t va « = J f „^ „,„ed as ^™ " " f ^nd iendid 'neorporated them into an ensemble wh^.^ ^^^^^^^^ ,„ stepping •ianees are solo performances with P°«ural stances. ^ , .^^ , , , „ a s of Tamil Nadu app ar to ^ . ___ . The Bhagavata Mela dance d j^^_.^y^„ Yati, author ^ •,";P°r,ance about 300 years ago. whe" ^„ j„ ,„ lo Tanjore district^ ._ ^ ^ ^"^ r„,.<,„g,v„- in Sanskrit, "^f" ^ J^ ; , , „ of dance drama » "P""^^'^ ,„„,d be ""= ^ V » « v l Mela tradition on e P t^ ^ . ^ ^„,, „„e devot^^'o Go _ ^ ^ ^ f r ^ ' " S W , ™ by Bharat Mum. It was t\.^ BUagaraiaF^^aja^ W,h these

:"^l'ieved when the great P.h''°^°P]', J /v«n'««"Jance and «*';;^^,„/„„,«,„ and :« drama with classical music and 5 ^ « , ^ , „ „ , ^"/ntr. io fs and among his 'deals before him, he eompo^ed severa ^.^^^^ ' " ^ " " ^ ' i S » " " ' " • ^"'"""" ^•'''"'angada After him, the art was ^^^l^^, ° ' ^ , , c , , a s t r i who brought f°»owerf f a s Gopala Krishna ha _. ^^^ ^ f T - ^ ^ S t e d a n c e drama com-'^'''y-"a,n,Dhrava^ndGaur,_Buti^ ^^^^^^^, " ^ " f d G o W t o ^ . were no. "•eart to its highest P^^^°^,,Zra t/^/w P""''"^""" ^" , „r oeople's life- They Positions like P ™ / ' « / « « ^ ^ ' ' t ' N u but they became a P ^ ^ ^ j j ^ ^ ,«.. °«'y enacted all over Tam'l Nad" f^^ti.al dedicated to God N . « ^ ^ _^^ . , ^ere performed annually a. he great < ^^^^ ^^^, and "d = ^^^^ ^ ^ . y«ft./,a„g««a originated from one ^^ Pakkunbi Som atl ._ ^ _ ^ ^ ^

d'-amas known as Bahu Nataka comp ^,_.„^.,,,„ episodes- Q^.,^ 250 and portrayed in several «•;•' ; " "ommon .o "f" ^ f J ^ d .hen four prineipal

'°ok the form of the J '^ '^^'f '^f ' l ' ' tater, developed into ' j ; ^"d t ^p "ally a solo performance, this fo'/l'l^/^ of a regular dance ehar.-,^,„„ A.„j..„iiv it assumed tne lu

-" lue lorm or ine .• u--_ -"ally a solo performance, this form, eharacters. Gradually it assumed "i themes from mythology and legena.

FOLK DANCES

H to be a subject for a defini.e^order,^^ If the classical dances in •"di^. '^dSystem of gesture lang"ase,^„^ .,„d are

recognised strict form, and a fomP eat ^^^^^^ , , , ^ ' " " H l I t^ona) expression-''odily movements and rhythm, the l . ^ ^ ^ artistic and emotion ereation of people's imagination anu

^^2 ^"^'^' ^ Cultural Voyage

Displaying no inclination toward a rigid form, the whole depiction of folk art is guided more by the subject of the songs that either glorify nature, express occu­pational traditions or ofi'er devotion to the deities. Seasonal and religious, they have a sense of freedom, with regional affinities and differences, embodying warmth and charm and beauty that are refreshing by their very untutored quality. In folk dances of India, the creative urge of the people is reflected throughout the ages by way of actual performance and resemblence of song and molvf. Through these dances, unsupported by the written word, and established by its tremendous sociological impact, customs and tradition have been established and people's aesthetics enriched. With national consciousness for the arts growing from day to day, many of these beautiful expressive dances are coming to urban audiences and are being received with the enthusiasm and success they deserve. Now, they are taking their rightful place along with the classical dances in the furtherance of our cultural heritage. The number of folk dances in India being legion, only a selective representation is being discussed below.

SOUTH INDIA

Kolattam is a dance by young girls with little lacquered sticks held in hands to celebrate the birthday of Rama. Originating from Tamil Nadu, this dance form is popular throughout India. Another variety of this dance is known as Pinnal Kolattam accompanied with song or chorus that speak of the trapping of the sticks in rhythm, of the twinning of the streamers, of happy youth and that of happy dance.

Vasanta Atani is a dance of spring. When the trees are in blossom and the air is crisp with the perfume of flowers, the peasants dance to celebrate the birth of nature. Palms coloured with turmeric and bodies dressed in orange saries with vivid contrasting borders, girls and young women foregather before the village deity and crown her with garlands. Little boys and girls bring mango buds and sing in chorus to the accompaniment of cymbals, hand claps and the dholuk. They sing and dance extolling mother goddess, the Earth.

Kummi dance usually takes place in Tamil Nadu during the Hindu New Year of the South which falls in January just after the Pongal festival. Groups of young girls dance with varying steps and clapping hands using their little mincing steps in circles upon circles. Kummi takes several forms in Tamil Nadu. There is also a flower dance to a song that extols the beauty of many blossoms.

One of the most picturesque and interesting performance is the Dummv n Dance play done in rural south India near the temple towards autumn V r T attired in colourful costumes, dancers stand in a fran'e of ahorse ^ r ' f ^ ' ' ^ cloth and light wood, brilliantly painted and draped. The d a l r . l r r ^ ' ' together on wooden legs to the rhythm of music and drums T h e e H ? ' ' depict mythological stories. ^"^^^ dance-plays

Ootam Tulal is a type of pantomine akin to Kathakali Tt • performed b> a smgle artiste ,,eompanied by a singer, a d r u l t anVl ^ T b i l

Dance and Music: Surrender to the Bliss 113

player. The pantomine interprets some of the choicest and select excerpts of Malayalam literature in an amazingly enchanting manner.

Kaikottikali is performed by young women and girls in Kerala. The chorus songs based on mythological stories build the cresendo of the dance in circles with slow and measured speed.

Tappattikkali is performed by young women and girls in Kerala during the festival of Lord Shiva. One of the elder women in the group commences the song and leads the dancer, the others repeating what she sings and following her move­ments. Circling round and round and clapping their hands to the rhythm of their steps and the music, the dance mirrors the rural simplicity and the vivaciousness.

NORTH INDIA

Kajri is an occasion when the peasants in north India propitiate the Vedic God Indra and pray for the nourishment of the earth and fire and a successful harvest. Done in rainy season, the dance movements follow the songs that are accompanied by the rhythmic beat of the dholuk and cymbals. There is the soft luUabye of a jliula that is moved in rhythm and is artistically decorated with flowers and coloured tassels. As no particular hand gestures are indicated, usually clapping and buoyant singing denote joy and eagerness.

Nautanki is one of the most popular folk dance dramas of Uttar Pradesh with songs recited in operatic style. Acting and dance movements interpret stories connected with mythology and also modern social problems.

Ras Lila is an equally popular dance form originating in Mathura and Vrinda-van in Uttar Pradesh, which are closely connected with the birth and play of Krishna. To the accompaniment of songs telling of the childhood, boyhood and early manhood of Lord Krishna, and the sound of drums and cymbals and the flute, the popular group dance is enacted during the days dedicated to the God. Fine movements, some of them being common with those of the Kathak, are most attractive. Playing parts of the Gopies and Radha, now imitating, now being shy and now lively, the expression of the dancers is full of freshness and charm.

Koran is a dance, originating in Shahabad, to worship the holy tree marking the happy period when the harvest is over. The dance festival commences with fasting during the day. The whole village takes part performing feats of strength and dancing. Women dressed in bright colours with marrigolds in their hair, and men in their best apparel stand in a row and commence singing and dancing to the beat of the drum.

Up in the lovely Himalayan resort of Ranikhet in the Kuraaon hills group dances are done in celebration of the autumn festival of Dussehra. Men, dressed in long white tunics, tight trousers and red sashes, form circles moving round and round facing one another at intervals. In these Kumaon dances, songs are sung in the glory of life and history. The music blares forth, and the rhythm is strong as the dancers move faster and faster, now facing one another and now circling.

^^^ India: A Cultural Voyage

Traditional yet spontaneous, these dances have come down through the ages to celebrate festivals and social events.

Unlike the Kumaon dance proper, which is done entirely by men, the Jhora is a community dance and is done by both men and women, all castes joining in the celebration. Dancing to a count of four or eight beats, they stand and bend, sit down, and then prance around in a merry alternation of movement and counter movement. Life and joy seem to spring from this lively performance and draw the whole crowd into the spirit of joyousness.

C/2ap/;e//is one of the romantic dances of the Kumaon hills which is often performed at weddmgs and spring time. Depicting as it does the spirit of romance, dancers penorm in twos, holding a mirror in one hand and a coloured handkerchief m the other which they gracefully wave, as they advance forwards and backwards m rhythmic stepping. Lively, gentle and romantic, the dance is accompanied by songs on dholuk.

Himachal dances are as charming as the nature in this part of Himalayas. There are many folk dances in the region each as enchanting as the other. The Thali ^««ce, done entirely by Jaunsar women, is an embodiment of grace. Holding brass trays, forming circles, moving forward and backward, the dancers move with slow of chiXTh^m:^^^^^^^^^^ b ' ; "^'^^ -'^"^^ ^ ^ commemora t ro i he ancient days ot chivalry when men danced before going into battle. The dance is very forceful, full of firm stepping and as men brandish swords, they move L t L lo t^^ paniraent of the nagara drums and curling trumpets

n.c. "i ^ " ' ' ' ^ ' Tl^^' ^'^"^^^"^ P^'^ °^ Himachal Pradesh, there is the charming pastoral dance of the Goddi women or shephardesses. TZ peasant dances of

^ ^ v h k r ' T ' '' '^' ""^^^ ^^^°^ ^^^-^^ - ^ - - d with me i r red steps and also dance but th'' ^"""l" ^ " ' '^^'^"^ accompanied by chorus songs. The men muchfa: ^^^ " ^ ' ^ ^ ^^°^^ °f ^ h - - - - d their style is L . a v a with

and ^^:^^Z''J^Z:^^^^ 'Tl - , P - - - - - ^ - - g weekly fairs

^^tr-- Thet Sst :--- - — s z =^^^ s e a s o f ^ - g - r ; ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ - n g harvesting

^ - - - r ^ t e a heavenly ^ i i r m l n r d ^ g M ^'"^ " " ' -^^^s and animation, the HifciH is another dance nf i„ • . . .

express sheer joy and exuberance T ^ r h '"H T M ' ™ " ' " "^ ^'""'^ 8''>^ ""d boys in fast eircles. This is a feat L i t ? ' . ^ , " ° ' ™ ' ' ' ' P " * ' " of dancers spin movement of the feet. " ™ ^ ^°°'^ ' ' " " ' °^^ ' P"fect timing and precile

ail f e s ^ t ' T a ^ L n " : T t t " s T ^ o i i r o r ^' ^"°™" <'^"- " ^ ' " - i ^ " . P^^ormed on With the nature of people livfn" 'VhL p a r t T f l n d T ' . ' " ^ ' ^ ^^""^"^ ^^-^'^'^-1

s m inis part of India. Forming into usually large

Dance and Music: Surrender to the Bliss 11*

circles, dancers start going round with as many new entrants as the time or occasion demands. The drummer is in the centre giving fillip to dancers' speed and move­ment. Three dancers standing just behind the drummers lead the movements. As the performance unfolds, lively movements of whirling round, beating of feet, clapping of hands or sticks take on. As the dancers get into the spirit of the dance, they produce a rhythmic cry of 'Hoi Hoi' (Up Up), to raise the excitement and fun. They also leap into the air. At intervals, a short pause in the dancing is filled by a boli or dholla, recited in fine rhythm. Following this traditional folk song the dance is resumed. Baisakhi is the usual season for Bhangara. It is done only by men. Its performance at full moon in open fields reflects the dynamism of the folk life. A similar type of Bhangara is prevalent in the Dogra community of Jammu. It is essentially a marital dance popular with warrior community.

Rajasthan is a treasure house of folk dances. Even a brief mention of all the folk dances will require a separate volume. Ginad is one, of the most popular items which is danced by people of all castes. This dance is performed before the spring festival of Holi. Gay and joyous with the spirit of friendship, this dance can be seen in every group of people to welcome the onset of the carnival of colours.

Gangore is a picturesque dance form peculiar to Rajasthan. This is a dedi­cation to Parvati also known as Gauri. Marking the beginning of the Hindu New Year in Rajasthan, women, dressed and ornamented gorgeously, form a circle and dance round the deity, moving rhythmically in a one-step pattern, holding hands and going round and round while singing in chorus.

Khayal is a folk dance drama popular in rural Rajasthan. Love and legend form the theme of this old art which originated in the 10th century A.D. Inspired by charm­ing love stories like that of Dhola and Maru, these dance dramas have a rich repertoire. Powerful movements, mime and chanting characterise these performances which are done to the accompaniment of drums, stringed instruments and cymbals. Colourful costumes, a strong point among the people of this region, and decorative effects add attraction to these old world dances.

WESTERN INDIA

Dhandya Ras is the most popular group dance of Gujarat. Singing in chorus, the dancers form an intricate series of movements, first with a rhythmic six-step-pmg, holding hands and moving round in a circle. Then increasing the speed, they beat their sticks and each dancer makes a swift piroutte; after this, they beat one another's sticks and wave them with supple wrists over and over; change places and move in a complete circle; and finally from into an inner and an outer circle. The dance is vigorous, the timing akin to a pair of drums. The catchy, lithe and lilting syncoption adds a tune to drum beats and enhances the poetic metre of the songs.

Garba dance is believed to be a gift to Saurashtra from the Assamese princess Usha, the grand daughter-in-law of Lord Krishna. Village dancers carrying decorated pitchers and pots of clay dance round houses ushering in the festival of Dussehra invoking fertility and prosperity. Dance stepping is simple and is done by groups

116 India: A Cultural Voyage

bending to the right and left and forwards. Songs accompanying dances are light and gay. The popular dance has now been introduced to the urban scene with their themes more sophisticated. It is a favourite item at Gujarati gatherings and stage performances.

Tamasha is an operatic folk dance from Maharashtra with a certain amount of dancing in it. The players sing and narrate stories with mime interwoven by dancers. Men do forceful marital movements and women sing in high tones with their dancing steps that are quick, concise and staccato accentuating the gusto by rhythmic pauses. Chorus and solo, alternately high pitched and low voiced, vivid mime and brilliant costume give it a character of uniqueness.

No survey of folk dances will be considered complete without the mention of tribal contribution. Tribal dances too are full of spontaneity, freedom and natural grace. Born in natural surroundings they are vivid, temperamental, strong, often primeval and are filled with the zest of living. Costumed in colourful apparel, these are the oldest yearnings in artistic expression adding to the rich heritage. These dances carry songs that are pregnant with a music which mirrors the sociological, psychological and historical moorings of the tribal people. As tribal population is to be found in every direction of India's map, so are their dance forms. North, South, East or West, everywhere the tribal existence is inevitably accompanied by this creativity.

SORROWS WITHOUT TEARS, JOYS WITHOUT EXULTATION

Language is dumb before music. That has been perhaps the reason why there came occasions when violent polemics rose against the greatest joy of the world. For example, Pali Buddhism whose enthusiasm for the truth surpassed even that of the Upanishads, declared beauty and love, the eternal companions of music not merely evanescent, but snares to be avoided at all costs. It was also declared that living beings on account of their love and devotion to the sensations excited by forms and other objects of sense, misplace high honour to painters, musicians, performers, cooks, elixir-prescribing physicians and other like persons who furnish us with objects of sense. Similar disdain against this aspect of human sensibility is to be found in Manu who forbids the householder to dance or sing or play on musical instruments. Manu reckons architects, actors and singers among the unworthy men who should not be invited to the ceremony of offering to the dead. Even Chanakya, though he tolerates musicians and actors, classes them with courtesans.

Despite such hedonistic digression in Indian culture, the music remained at the supreme pedestal of man's spiritual comprehension. Music was put at par with the highest of human achievements. Sam, the embodiment of music, is one of the four Vedas. The chant has been an essential element of Vedic ritual. The references in later Vedic, Buddhist and Brahminical literature indicate that it was already hiehlv developed as a secular art in centuries preceding the beginning of the Christian era The Indian music reached its zenith during the imperial age of the Guptas—from

Dance and Music: Surrender to the Bliss H'^

the fourth to the sixth century A.D. This was the classic period of Sanskrit literature, climaxing in the dramas of Kalidas. Same is the time when Bharat Mum wrote his mommental treatise on the theory of music and drama entitled iVa/ya Shastra.

The music of the present day in India is direct descendant of the ancient schools whose traditions have been handed down with comment and expansion in the guilds of the heriditary musicians. Not only the Indian, but the oriental music as a whole, extending all the way from Morocco to Malay Archipelago, spanning five thousand years from the remotest antiquity to the present day, has, despite its differences in space and time, a common stock of features sharply distinct from primitive music and also from western and northern music. What distinguishes oriental music more than anything else is its surprising stability, tenacity and inertia. Oriental music has on the whole been stationary; it has changed only at a rate which seems negligible when measured against the amazing speed of western developments in the last one thousand years from parallel organa down to Beethoven and the styles of Schoenberg and Stravinsky.

When we look at the Chinese music, we find many traits of the classical age, namely, of times two thousand years ago. The principal instruments of China's national music, mentioned as early as 1000 B.C., are the same chimes of bells or stones. India has been in similar position. In all the fourteen or more centuries gone by since Bharat wrote his Sanskrit treatise, the country has faithfully kepi her complicated system of srutis, or microtones, as the component parts of her tones and semitones; she has kept all the intricacies of ragas and talas, or the pattern of melody and rhythm. No matter how many instruments—lutes, riddles, aboes and drums—reached the country through the Indus valley in the north-west during the centuries after Bharat, they were never able to change the age-old spirit of Indian music. As in other arts and in life, so here in music also, India presents to the world a wonderful spectacle of the survival of ancient consciousness with a range of emotional experience rarely accessible to those who are pre-occupied by the econo­mic insecurity of a social order based on blind competitiveness.

Under the umbrella of benign patronage Indian music has developed its own intimate environment corresponding to all that is most classical in the European tradition. It grew as a chamber music of aristocracy or divinity. The public concert was unknown till very recently. The musician is protected not by temptation but by devotion that he is nothing but a musician. His education begins in infancy and his art remains a vocation. Indian music is like the outward poverty of God, where­by His glory is nakedly revealed. Indian music is not written, so, it cannot be learnt from books, except in theory. It is an inner spirit with a psychic sensitivity to microtonal inflections. The sruti is the microtonal interval. The Indian music is based on raga or ragini, which may be best defined as a melody, mould or the ground plan of a song. The possible number of ragas is very large, but the majority of systems recognise thirty-six, i.e. six ragas, and each with five raginis. The origin of the ragas varies. Some, like Pahari, are derived from local folk songs; others, like Jog, from the songs of wandering ascetics; and still others are the creation of great musicians by whose names they are known. A Sanskrit-Tibetan vocabulary of

2 23 India: A Cultural Voyage

the seventh century mentions more than sixty ragas with names such as 'With-a-voice V\ke-a thunder-c\oud', 'like-the god-lndra' and 'Delighting-the-heart'.

The psyche involved in raga is pregnant with colour or passion or mood as the ancient Greeks understood from the word ethos. The raga does not concern itself with the confusion of life. It is dedicated to depict and arouse a particular passion of body and soul in man and nature. Each raga is intimately related with the hour of the day or night and also with a particular season. The raga is believed to possess definite magic effects. The well-known story of the musician who sang Dipak Raga, under royal command, and burst into flames confirms the magic myth. It is said that the flames which enveloped the musician could not be extinguished even though he sprang into the waters of the Yamuna. The element of magic and the rhythmic ritual of daily and seasonal life associated with ragas carve out clear outlines which must not be blurred by modulation. Ragas are personified as musical geni. The story of Narada is a case in point. While still a learner, Narada thought that he had mastered the art of music. A sense of pride entered in his mind. Then came Vishnu who revealed to him a world of gods, a spacious building with men and women weeping over their broken limbs and legs. They were none else than the ragas and raginis. They complained to Vishnu that a certain sage named Narada, ignorant of music and unskillful in performance, had sung them amiss, with the result that their features were distorted and limbs multilated, and the only miracu­lous cure for their misery was that they be sung truly. Hearing and seeing all this Narada was humbled. Kneeling before Vishnu the sage prayed to be taught the art of music more perfectly, and in due course he became the great musician priest of the Gods.

Purely melodic in spirit, Indian music is devoid of any harmonised accom­paniment except a drone. It is intonation in its divine purity forgetting all implied harmonies. It is an elaborate grace unlike European or Western music wherein grace is an unnecessary elaboration, not a structural factor. In Indian music the grace is microtonal., i.e, it fulfils the function of adding light and shade which, in harmonised music, is attained by the variance of assonance. It is the interval rather than the note that is sung or played and a continuity of sound is arranged. Strict rhythm, which are founded on contrasts of long and short duration, bind all songs except alaps. The frequent use of cross rhythms also complicates the form, Besides being melodic, as is afirmed earlier, Indian music at times is modal as well. The best way to approach the Indian rhythm is to pay attention to the phrasing and ignore pulsation. Here the words are merely a vehicle of the music. They are brief just voicing a mood rather than telling any story. The words loose their own logic and are used to support the music. In alap, an improvisation on the raga theme this preponderance of the music is carried so far that only meaningless syllables are used. The voice is more than the musical instrument, the song more than the word. The voice has a higher status, reminding its precious afiinity with the first sound OM Rabindranath Tagore has said: ^^'

Dance and Music: Surrender to the Bliss 119

*'How does that unknown bird go to and away from the cage Could I but catch it, I would set the chain of my mind about its feet!'*

Essentially impersonal, Indian music reflects the rainbow of emotions and experiences that are deeper and wider and higher and older than the emotion or experience of any single individual. Its sorrow is without tears, its joys without exultation. It is all human. Its inspiration emanates from Sam Veda which is supposed to be eternal. The singer is to see and hear Saraswati, the goddess of speech and hearing, performing, and not he. He finds Narada, the musician priest of gods, disseminating occult knowledge in the sound of the strings. He also sees Krishna— the lover and the yogi—calling through his flute to leave the duties of the world and follow Him.

It is these, rather than any human individual, who speak through the singer's voice and are seen in the movements of the dancer. Indian music is an intimation of the music of the heaven, the cosmos. It is nad reaching out the extremities anahad. Indian musician is a pupil of god. While learning, he visits the heaven-world to ascertain the perfection in his skill with the music of the spheres. The waking con­sciousness is empirically activated and the knowledge of music springs from a course far away from the surface.

While expounding the heart of the drama to Bharat Muni—the well-known creator of Natya Shastra—Lord Shiva proposes that human art must be subject to law, as in men the inner and outer are still in conflict. . . The harmony of art rises above good and evil. Indian music reflects the affection of the inner life. In it, the perfect spontaneity—the identity of intuition and expressions—builds the king­dom of heaven upon the earth, in the heart. It is an art that is nearer life than any fact can be. It is life itself. The transience and partiality in experience disappear only for the inner reality to ascend. Here all songs are a part of Him who wears a form of sound. 'Sing here, sing God;' says Shankar. It is a negation of meaningless episodes in life, the meaninglessness of countless pitfalls of burning hearths separated by the limited self; and it takes on through ragas—t\\Q essential elements of rawyan—like a dance of victory unlimited; and in perpetual readiness to adopt oneness with the self as its basic soul note. Indian music is a state of beauty— as part of Him, crystal and transcendental. A monumental articulation of elements, the Indian music is a perfect form of unity between the masculine and the feminine, a glow in the timeless Absolute, in the Nature with endless variety of colour and energy. Indian music is redemption afforded by the ecstasies of love and art. It is a katharsis of the Greeks which is aptly captured by Goethe when he muses on modern Europe:

For beauty they have sought in every age He who perceives it is from himself set free

Indian music is reason of time that the Paradise is reality without hindering the next contact. Here the hearer has to surrender to the bliss without a place for curiosity or admiration at will.

Wilt thou the bloom of the spring and the fruits that are later in season? Wilt thou have charms and delights, wilt thou have strength and support? Wilt thou with one short word encompass the earth and the heaven? All is said if I name only, Shakuntala, thee.

GOETHE

8 Language is Culture

LANGUAGE is literature. It is man's first major poetry on earth. It is worshipped by all, literate or illiterate, wise or fool, brave or coward. Each letter of the language is capable of washing off all the sins; also keeping off* all the curses. The sages adored the language and created oceanful of gems with enchanting energy and wisdom. When Vyas wrote, the Mahabharata, he only evoked the Goddess of language. Puranas wove the alap of the language with a riverine flow and expancc. Valmiki's Ramayana assumed the status of the epic of all epics only as an evocation to the language. Kalidas remembers the beauty of the vak and produces Shakuntala, the soul of love. Bhavabhuti acted like a creator and dug out a new ocean of karunOy a new dimension in human sensibility as a glorious bliss of the language. All wise men dream to walk under its merciful shadow. They are in eager wait for even a drop from the nectar. Shankar, the great revolutionary; Ramanuj, the great unifier; Kabir the greatest of the contemporary guides to sane living; Tulsi, the soul of Hindu wisdom and religiosity; all embraced the language as they would embrace God. As a result, some was transformed from hunter into a sage, some from fool into a wise. Upanishadas are the maturest worship of the language. Ethics, philosophy, law, justice, mathematics and sciences find their godly abode in the language.

All learned treatises, commentaries and variations on Vedas, Shastras, Puranas are glorious, incisive, logical blossomings of the language. It is an unprecedented event—be it the Shukraniti or Kamasutra; the Natya Shastra or Artha Shastra. Language is always retaining the continuity. It is politics. It is tantra. It is mantra. It is gold, It is high peak of mountain and flame of fire. Rejecting the path of this

J22 ^"dia: A Cultural Voyage

fire man is dumb, he falls in the bottomless pit of death. Language is astronomy and ayurveda. It is entire code of human conduct.

Man's unsurpassed poems and other immortal creations in culture are direct outcome of the penance of growth undertaken by the language, for the sake of language. Brahma, the Creator, fell at the lotus feet of the Goddess Saraswati only to understand the blinding glory of his creation. Language blessed Him with total realization. Vishwamitra was in deep love with life when he attempted to erect another earth and heaven to accommodate a new version of human sensibility born out of his language. Bhagirath was fabulously fortunate in seeing his language of selfless desire flow in the shape of the Ganga, the peace-giver. All the glories, powers and penance reside in it. Language is Par am Brahman manifesting in the form of sound and sight in human beings. It is an embodiment of all achievements —material and spiritual. It is godliness incarnate. It is knowledge whose veil could be appreciated not by assimilating history, but by collective conception of the dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Language never ends, neither it beings. It is ever lasting as human psyche is. It helps to tell the tree from the wood. It distinguishes friend from the foe, and extends the power of love, compassion and sympathy beyond known frontiers. It is surrender. It is victory. It is sublimation. It cannot be spied against. It is direct, in person, and always face to face. It is tal and laya and chand of life, of consciousness. It is its own evidence. Language is total confi­dence of man, demolishing all self-dillusion. Its study, assimilation and worship is to realise, to arrive, to be in the state of bliss. It is the ramlila of man's intellect. Language is invited to descend at every great occasion, be it the re-incarnation of God or the appearance of prophets, saints and martyrs. It is the carrier of all great ecstacies. It is a perpetual festival of awareness.

Language is theism, the belief of the creator of the universe totally encompas­sing the power of revelation. When it is inspired in man it is like the roar of the lion in a deep valley. Its face afire, it is the ornament of the earth. It is like roaming mighty air in the skies capable of mutilating mountains. Its leap covers many a limitless horizons encircling the universe a thousand times. It is a simple straight line. It stirs oceans and drowns rivers and mountains with its waves. It is all flora and fauna in its dance of joy. It touches the dawn before its rays reach the earth. It has the courage to outreach all planets ceaselessly moving in the cosmos with the speed of light. Even oceans and earths are not suflicient to auenrh Its thirst. Its flight is embroidered by all the flowers and trees on earth Wh^„ people Witness its vertical ascent, they get caught in frenzy of revolutions A. it. vertical ascent is vaster than the vastest of mountains, it covers heaven, nn^ I and moves beyond formations only to create new ones. It is like i;„lt! T^^ clouds carving out a new face. clouds carving out a new face of earth at every new appearance Th .K , of OUM are its three steps comprehending all mysteries of L ' ' ' ° " ' " cup of nectar from the hand of the L a t o r causing pi as" ' 1 " " " ' " ' • " ' ' " " ever new leaps are always based on its inner ^ i v J . l r . t P " ' " eternally. Its

hood with ,h, animate and the Inarmate A , Jivt ^efr " " ' ' " ^ ' ^ """'''"' 51 vc meir power and speed to its

Language is Culture 123

leaps—lions roaming in mountain velleys, birds flocking in woods and fountains dancing on heights.

When the language takes a leap, haughty souls intoxicated by their homophony disappear from the scene out of fear. Walls of dead establishments crumble under its weight. Language is concentration to mirror the victory over unsurmountable odds. All eyes eagerly await its descent. The thud of the leap makes mountains and rivers and men resound with music of strength. The take-off is always from a vast circumference which includes life, and the beyond. It creates its own solar systems. The touch of its leap forms tides in human affairs. All beings capable of speech follow its course. It cuts off the wings of flying mountains with Indra's thunder, if they come in its way. The sun and the moon and the stars decorate its path, which is illumined by patience, understanding, intellect and skill. On culmination, it assumes the tender form of a mother's love unbounded. Its wise counsel stops even Ravana from slaying Sita. At the sight of its anger, the earth trembles, the moun­tains whimper, the rivers bleed and the sky roars. Even the unbeatable energy gets fear-stricken. Its anger is like the fire causing the deluge. It is an anger to kill all anger. It is sublimation of the highest order. It is self-knowledge capable of presenting every armour at the right hour. It is sun residing in each heart. It is capable of enhancing bliss and happiness and strength both material and spiritual. In it resides all tejas giving birth to gods and goddesses, fires and seasons.

Language is all pervasive. It nurtures, it enlightens. It contains the seed of the universe of Brahman. It removes darkness of all description. In all directions are flying its colourful flags. It is decorated with thousands of golden rays. It churns out oceans of darkness to produce the goddess of wealth and well-being. It keeps fire in its womb. Its aim reaches beyond the Vedas. It plays hot and cold to sustain spheres of existence. It is the seer, the poet seeing beyond all revolutions, past, present and future. It is the protector of the universe and destroyer of all ungratefulnesses. It is the living witness of the creation at every stage and at all the time. It resides in every being and is in ever vigil. It removes all fetters, all pangs of birth, old age and death. It is freedom. It is dedication. It is above and beyond the narrow confines of caste, creed, colour. It symbolises all sublime aspirations of mankind. It is the lighthouse. Its smiles at nations' fortune is the reward for their good deeds and thinking. It contains in its bosom all the pilgrimages.

Language is valour in truth. It promotes mercy like the earth itself. It is grateful, restrained, unfickle. It seeks indulgence from the king and the commoner alike. When calamity befalls man, it is all condolence. At festivities, it is all music and pleasure. Its living organism is beyond corruption. Its anger and happiness are never in vain. It commands law to punish the guilty and reward innocence. It is an eternal quest, a great penance, a unique achievement. It has innumerable shades and colours as the abode of love. But the path leading to it is unfathomable like the edge of a sword. It is also paradoxical, at least to the naked eye. In it, the recog­nition of beauty as such implies the idea of ugliness, and of good implies the idea of evil. In matter of creation it carries a mutuality between existence and no-existence; between dilficulty and ease in the matter of accomplishment; between long

124 India: A Cultural Voyage

and short in the matter of form; between high and low in the matter of elevation; between treble and bass in the matter of musical pitch; between before and after in the matter of priority. Language is space between heaven and earth. It is a bellows, empty, yet inexhaustible. When put in motion, more and more come out from it. It is long-lasting as it lives not for itself; and thus is able to endure. The utility of the cart depends on the hollow centre in which the axle turns. Clay is moulded into a vessel; the utility of the vessel depends on the hollow interior. Doors and windows are cut out in order to make a house; the utility of the house depends on the empty spaces. As the non-existence of things make them serviceable, so is the serviceability of the language. When it casts off benevolence, righteousness, shrewd­ness and sagacity; when it is itself, it blossoms hundred-fold.

Language is the dawn of intelligence. It knows to expand in order to contract It is strong in order to be tender. It must first give in order to achieve. Its reso­nances are never outworn It seems to be lacking as it is most perfect. It looks vacant as it is the fullest. Its uses are inexhaustible. It knows that extreme straight-ness IS as bad as crookedness; extreme cleverness is as bad as folly; extreme fluency is as bad as stammering. It is like the one who knows, yet does not speak In order to be free from distress it abandons learning as it knows fully well that success is the lurkmg-place of failure. Who can tell when the turning point comes? Language hkeman, plants and trees is tender at the time of birth and is rigid at the time of death. Tenderness in language is concomitant of life. It is like water, which has no parallels in softness, yet for attacking things that are hard and strong there is nothing that surpasses it, nothing that can take its place. The soft overcomes the hard; the weak overcomes the strong. That is why pen is mightier than the sword Language is wise and like sages it does not hoard.

f^„n7!!^^ ' ' " ' " ' ' ' ' J^^^" '^ '^^ '^ '^ '^^ '"•"S '^^^^^^^^^^here the mind is pro­found, where an a.r of charity re.gns. where truthfulness determines speech where unity of soul is embraced, where animal instincts are subordinated to r k s o n n order to escape dissolution. Language strives M^ „tn.r.et r. ! ^ becomes like i littlp rhJM Tt ott A 7 \ ^"'^^^ ' ^ Utmost after tenderness and becomes like a little child It attends to the innermost and not to the outer It puts away the objective and holds to the universe. It sees itself in order to be c L of sight. Its might lies in conquering itself. It does not stand on it tiotoe Tfc is the ruler of the world's unrest. It is like the wise princess, who in h r dai c o T ^ ' never departs from gravity and repose. Though she possesses anrl ^ " ' • ' ' ' she dwells there in with calm indifference. How shfu d T l a d y o f T r r r . " ^ ^ ' ° ^ conduct herself with levity in the empire? Levity loses the heart n ^ " ^ '^^^'^^ throne Language is like the skillful traveller who leaves T o t r^^ ' r^ ' ^^^ '''' skillful speaker who makes no blunders; or like the skill T ' * ^' '' ^^' ^ uses no allies. Among men it rejects none; among thing it r ^ l ''^^^"^^ ^^o IS why It IS known as comprehensive intelligence. As u Z o 2 "^' '^'"S. That up and made into serviceable vessels, so does language t !nf^"^^^^^ '^ l ' ^evided and thereby becomes the ruler of rulers. Language avoM ''"^"^^'"'^ to account grandeur because of the course of things is such thlt u ' ' ^ ' ' ' ^ ' extravagance and What was hot is now cold; what was sUon " t T ^ ^ ^ / " '^^"^ ^ " - " ^ ^ ^ ' ^

weak, what was complete is now

Language is Culture

in ruin Language knows when is enough, and thus is never put to shame. Language has no hard and fast ideas, but it shares the ideas of the people and makes them its own The people fix their eyes and ears upon it. It looks upon all as its children. Language possesses the secret of life. While in flights, it does not flee from rhino­ceros or tiger; when entering a hostile camp it does not equip itself with sword or buckler. The enemies do not find a spot to attack, because it has no spot where

dep.th can enter. Language knows how to plant itself so as to be never uprooted. Language is

knowledge in harmony, and is constant. And constant knowledge is wisdom, increase of life felicity. When language directs the mind, pure strength comes out. It is upright without being punctilious. It never affects to do anything great, and therefore it is able to achieve great results. The tree which needs two arms to span its girth springs from the tiniest shoot. A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. Language begins with a word. But like great principles, it cannot be divided. To know, but to be as though not knowing, is the height of wisdom. Not to know, and yet to affect knowledge, is vice. Language escapes this vice. It uses the light that is in it to revert to its natural clearness of sight. Each word in it has a clue, has an underlying principle. Those who know it are few, and on that account its honour is the greater. It carries a jewel in its bosom. Language is the way to heaven, which benefits and injures not. The life-fires wake in the dwelling called language.

This perceptive definition relates to the language in the context of Indian culture which is known as Sanskrit, the mother of an organic unity. Its unfailing vitality brought about religious and philosophic unity. It shaped literary and artistic personality of India. The most powerful formative agency, Sanskrit built up the edifice of Indian awareness. The vast literature of Vedic exegesis, the Brahmans, the Aranyakas and the Vpanishadas unmistakably indicate the story of the continuous and gradual evolution of Vedic Sanskrit into its classical dimen­sions. Panini, the unequalled genius, gave Sanskrit the serious formulation which, transformed the fluidity into a great linguistic revolution. The great stirring created by the immortal grammarian opened widest vistas of the life-fires in Sanskrit to produce Mahabharata, Ramayana, the Puranas, Dharma-Shastras and other works which acquired the sanctity of the Vedas. Sanskrit began with the Vedas, the result of apaunishey endeavours and continued the dynamism expanding, absorbing and directing most of the cultural advancements in the following centuries. In this great context of Vedic life Sayana wrote titanic commentaries on Vedic sutras to dicipher images clothed in intricately woven texture of hymnology. He was the sentenial, like later day excellences. Manu and Bharat kept a vigil in the chambers of India's incisive awarenesses.

The excellence, the profoundity, the charity, the comprehension of Sanskrit attended to the innermost life-processes to create an efllorescence in the golden age of the Guptas. Poems, romantic epics, dramas, prose romances reached their climaxes, ^^anini's undying act of establishing the language on a firm and glorious pedestal save it an energy which assiduously cultivated astronomy, mathematics, medicines

126 India: A Cultural Voyage

and other sciences. Later, the universal mother, Sanskrit, bestowed highest level of artistic expression to Indian architecture, sculpture and painting. It was not the age of written words. Sanskrit was the active agent to fertilize the workshop of memory in an unprecedented richness. The oral tradition gave a precision to creativity, which carried the epics to divine popularity and acceptance. The Indian people sing of the glorious origin of the Mahabharata that it was penned by the elephant-headed deity Ganesh and dictated by sage Vyas. Or the Ramayana, the epic of epics, was uttered by a hunter, turned sage. This memory-method was a new skill, a new industry of human mind unsurpassed till today. From the Vedas onward, the oral tradition went on weaving every conceivable yearning and aspiration of man into a pattern of civilization which sought this universe as a common abode. This was an yoglc exercise on a gigantic sacle aimed at cultivating man's mind to grasp and develop an eternally contemporaneous sensibility.

The beauty-procession of Sanskrit reached beyond the boundaries of India and found new homes in Central Asia, Tibet, Indo-China, Indonesia, China, Korea and Japan. A Sanskrit knowing man was a guest of honour in homes beginning from Central Asia to Java and Bali. In other words, the entire civilized world during the golden period of the classical Sanskrit was embraced as a kutumba. The enchanting purity, clearness, simplicity, the exquisite brushes of deep and true poetic feelings, the graphic descriptions of heroic and tender incidents, the grandest scenes in nature, the intimate acquaintance with conflicting and most refined human emotions were the gems collected by the language in its bosom. The world was bound to be attracted to.

The superhuman flashes of Sanskrit do not blind or bewilder. They invoke deepest human sympathy and make tiniest as significant as the gigantic. At each moment in creativity the mutuality grows and produces something new and signifi­cant and everlasting. When we step out from epic premises, we land in the enchant­ing world of sheer descrption in Puranas. The diction is new, the feeling is fresh, but the motif is eternal. The saga is designed in accordance with the new millieu; and with every birth life becomes tenderly mellifluous. In this creative mutuality none is a borrower. Each one is an extension to reach beyond the existing, and at the same time a renewal and a reaffirmation of the old with reverence. Each part in the chain of continuity adds to the other's glory. Even paintings, architecture and sculpture carry motifs from epics to the zenith in their respective elans.

Language being an abode of love, the classical Sanskrit proceeds, through Puranas, to depict the historic evolution of the human destiny in an unfolding of time. The four yugas, the ages of the world, namely satya, treta, cluapara and kali-the niaha ugas or the manvantaras and the kalpas are all portrayed to illustrate the eternal cycle of creation, destruction and re-creation. This constitutes a fundamen­tal in all Puranas underlying an all pervasive intellectual accountability based on a mission to inculcate and affirm moral and ethical principles. The illustrative value and impressive actuality enshrined in Puranas have been strengthening Indian ideals in religious harmony and understanding. Besides, they aff"ord us far insight into integration. They act as super-history which does not fragment, but

127 Language is Culture

unites. The sublime tradition of hymnology in the Vedas finds an enchanting renewal in stotras glittering throughout the Puranas. With a deep mtensity of devout feeling the stotras elevate the prayer to the status of divine worship. Like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, the Puranas appear as refreshing sources for poets and dramatists to pick up themes for artistic creation. Thus, the Ganga of Indian continuity flows on majestically through Sanskrit, the mother of Indian languages and literature.

Languageis will of people. Sanskrit gave birth to Manu who organised the tenets of Indian life in a manner that it not only survived onslaughts. It surged forward to accept new challeges. With an epic vigour, Manu presented regulations in behaviour for society and individual to develop powers and potentialities. His teachings in pursuit of wealth and pleasure aptly reconciled with the great purpose of dharma. He uniquely combined 'nature' and 'nurture' in his theory of varna and ashrama based on bio-psyche of mankind. Varanashrama of Manu is the svadharma writ large. Along with Manu, a succession of great minds in the huge experiment of social organisation appears on the scene. Bhrigu, Yajnavalkya, Brihaspati and Katyayana modulated the language to enlarge man's external and internal existence to sustain rhythmic advance towards great ideals of Indian culture. As Panini gave a lasting structure to Sanskrit by his treatise named Aslitad/iyai, Bharat wrote Natya Sliastra and evolved an everlasting guide on lalit arts. The deep insight and vast comprehension uplift his book to a level where the inquisitive mind finds all answers to its creative problems. For the sake of religious understanding, the Sanskrit literature excluding the Vedas, the Upanishadas and Dharmashastras, has been classified as Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta by academic souls. But these diverse and great attempts represent an under-current of unity. There is no clash, but a liberal accommodation in the texture of Indian secularism. All the three schools sing in one voice: ek sat vipra bahudha vadanti.

The advent of Jainism and Buddhism gave a temporary setback to Sanskrit. Mahavira and Buddha perferred Ardha-Magadhi and Pali respectively for their sermons. The canons of these two religions began to be composed with massive appeal in the above languages. Some of the commentaries became landmarks in literary creations. It is also probable that early secular literature comprising drama, epics, lyrical poetry was originally in Pr«A;n7. The so-called ga/Zia literature of the Buddhists is an excellent specimen of an admixture with the parent Sanskrit. In drama, elitist characters used Sanskrit, whereas Prakrit was used by those of common stock. By about the fifth century A.D. Sanskrit and Prakrit were equally stereotyped as literary forms of expression. That was the time when an effort was made to raise the then popular speech to a literary stage. This mantle fell on Apabhramsha. One of the early Apabhramsha poets is Chaturmukh who has been praised for his choice of words. Another poet of significance has been Svayambhu, 8th century, who brought to completion his father's epic on Rama and Bharat legends. The most important Apabhramsha poet has been Pushpadant who, to begin with, was a wanderer. He wrote the Mahapuranu, Jasaharacarin and

128 India: A Cultural Voyage

Naukumaracarin. All that was best in Sanskrit and Prakrit poetry has been well expressed by Pushpadanta. The society depicted in Prakrit^ Pali and Apabramsha literatures is more popular than the aristocratic. Eminent monks and outstanding poets contributed to this treasure. These languages and the literature created by them, go a long way to add important and significant colour-schemes to the canvas of Indian culture.

Contrary to a general notion that Sanskrit was shunned during this period, the situation was a positive nod to a fresh breeze blown by two self-abnegating Princes. They wanted to have a direct contact with the masses—a some-what neglected entity, and relegated to narrower lanes of social-intellectual existence by the aristocracy of the Indian mind. They were a creation of Sanskrit. They raised finer questions, regarding ahimsa in the common language. As language is always vatsalya, it listened to the earnest quest of her children and provided answers to promote unburdening. The well-known story of the birth and rise of the new paths to social and spiritual salvation acted only to restructure the process of change in conscious­ness. The new contact with Indian society at mass level electrified a multitude of germinals in poetry, in art and in architecture. This blooming growth in Indian culture was a most meaningful accent in the glorious continuity of which we have covered only a part.

SPRING SUN

The other part is the spring time sun of Indian awarness. It comes after the dust, raised by the saga of contact between Hinduism and the two Princes, dies down: when sheel is added to the grand armory of individual and national suscepti­bility. Kalidas descends as the spring sun of all that is old. He reassures: "Neither everything old is bad. Nor everything new is good." A new sheel in poetic sensibi­lity arises. On the one hand, it is blessed by old glory. On the other, it bestows smile to future centuries housed by man and woman in love and war. Kalidas remembers vak and arth, Shiva and Parvati, and the six seasons in an organised wi 1. He was a new melody of Sanskrit. It has always appealed me to compare the Sakya Prince with Kalidas, and the Magadh Prince with Bhavabhuti. The latter gives a new glance of karuna to the vivacious view of India. He rearranges the image of Rama and paints the space between the earth and sky with a new personality f valour in the most earnest existence. The Indian culture, in Bhavabhuti fi H benign fellow-traveller in the long journey of man and woman With h • ^ delicacies of human emotions being active in his poetic universe he spr lrc °'^^^^ perhaps a new one, from the eternal relationship of the two' mZ \^V'^^'' consciousness: If Sita was sinned against than sinning? Rhnvluu ° ^^™^ distinct from Ram's traditional ocean of kripa. It is rare fn "?. ' '"""' ' '^ two pairs ofbright stars, the Buddha and Mahavira K.]\A' ^^^ J^^^""^'^^ to find and the same horizon. Avoiding historicity, when one lonW f "^^^^^vabhuti in one comes across intellectual frolics also, such as- ^ * ^ ^ge, one often

Language is Culture 129

Upama Kalidasasaya Bharver artli-gauravam Dandinah pad-laliyatam Maghe santi trayogunah

It was a form of tiagar consciousness to poetic accountability. It was a concensus of mass susceptibility. The inner soul of the peoples' mansion received lalitya—the extreme ends in beauty by Dandi. Magh added fragrance in the fertile soil of diction. Shudrak shook dark corners of social conceit to illumine humour, divine and earthly. Bhas, Shriharsha, Banbhatta, Sivaswamin and all the rest added new stirrings in the realm of aesthetics. The Sanskrit aesthetics gave to India places like Sanchi and many other heavenly pilgrimages carved out in the smiles of the Vedas, Puranas, epics, and canons of all social consciousness described as Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. It was the age of supremacy of the Natya Shastra with all its positivities. Indian culture received erudition with early fruits in all branches. Geographically, the various points of contact in Hindu susceptibility burst out into songs in South, North, East and West of India. Bharat's Shastra developed into multifarious forms from divine to absurd. Tao awakening in the aristocracy, and a wild flower growth in the popular sensibility were creati­vely most interesting and factually most compensating styles of national life. The Veena of Samudragupta reigned supreme over the soul of the Greater and Farther India. From Indrajal to Shakuntalam it was a grand lila of truth, beauty and well-being woven in shabdmala. It invited all hunger of the mother earth from Kamasutra to Gita to re-enact its role of annapurna. None is punished for freedom. Each is rewarded.

Except, perhaps, Charvak! He was denied a discursive place in the intellec­tual memory of India. Was it because he disbelieved the existence of God and soul? Was this exceptional behaviour due to any forebodings in Indian mind? The for-bodings of later-day contacts with Arab-Mongol-Pathan monotheism? Fore­bodings of calamities in decisive realms of the status? The answer to the question may lead to further avenues of freedom. The denial of freedom to Charvak was an incursion, a harmful inroad, which at the middle of the journey, let in the monotheism of a violent faith. But since India is a land of eternal resurgence, the Apabhramsha culture, supported by Prakrit, Pali, Magadhi and many other dialects throbbing with warm sensibilities, raised its voice in multi­channels, which were, later, known as modern Indian languages. In this a new temple of culture took birth, which was lit by the light of bhakti with several sonic textures. Reflections of this light embraced vast and strange surroundings and provided for a newly shaped social ecology.

Islam began appreciating painting and music, the exquisite ornaments of human soul. India, once again, regained its poise with an elegance and architectured elan. Indian languages understood in modern terms are milestones in national integration through the travails of the journey called medieval renaissance. Magadhi Apabhramsha provided source to the flow of Bengali, Oriya, and Assamese in the eastern most group of the new Indo-Aryan speeches. The Vaishnava renaissance

130 ^w 'fl- ^ Cultural Voyage

bloomed in Assamese. The poets Mankara, Durgavara and Pitambara created a sequence of lyricism, which paved a way to absorbe and assimilate Bhagavatism mirrored in all earlier epics and gathas. A new serpent goddess Mansa was born to provide a cult to saints and a hope of faith to the masses. The entire creative adventures of earlier times got translated into a literary upsurge. Scriptures and Puranas came to be reconstructed with a new confidence in social dedication.

The Apabramsha was greeted as laukika in Bengali. Through successive stages Bengali came to be recognised on Indian horizon as sad/iu-bhasha, receiving energy from all that is simple, sonorous and sahaj. From Tantric esotericism of Mahayana to Bhagavatism of Gitagovinda by Jayadev, all creative floodgates touched the shores of Bengali sensibility. Religious narratives in poetry prepared a most fertile ground for the emergence of a unique religious awakening symbolised in Chaitanya. He combined his love for Jayadev, Vidyapati and Chandidas to create a new impulse in India's personality, an impulse which induced motion, and a progressive wave of excitation emerging in the form of Murari, Vasudeva, Narahari, Jnan Das, Balaram Das, Govindadas, etc. whose lyrical sensitivity could be surpassed only by Tagore.

The anglicised words Oriya and Orissa are derived from Odia and Odisa reminding us of a tribal ancestry. Anyway, Orissa, whose language is Oriya, is the land of Lord Jagannath. Oriya power of assimilation and absorption is magnificen­tly reflected not only in its architecture, but also in its literature. Oriya is almost an ode to military conquest and imperial grandeur written and sung in a grand manner. It is the only Indian language which was crowned with an unparal­leled prose already during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Yogic, Tantric and Vedantic moorings transformed military contacts, that came to touch this region since Kalinga, into a literary episode as charming as Banabhatta's Kadambari.

Gujarat adopted Apabhramsha almost as a spoken vernacular under the Jain shramanas covering a wide area of human knowledge. It ranged from narrative, romantic, moral and didactic themes to grammatical, philosophical and technical subjects. Jain monks were also pioneers in composing their ethical cedes in elegant prose through simple stories acceptable to the youth. Later bhakti brought in devotion to Krishna which acted as a fore-knowledge to desegregation. It was Narasi Mehta who renamed shudras as harijanSy 'the men of God', later made famous by Mahatma Gandhi. A student of Advaitism, Narasi Mehta's is a charm­ing and passionate poetry with powerful lyricism. The great trio: Akho, Premanand and Samala raised the language at one bound to great heights and removed the stigma of plebianism.

At the knock of the new contact the heartland of India throbbed the pro-foundest in more than once sense. First, the contact proved so fertile that it pro­duced twin voices of assimilation, the Hindi and Urdu. Secondly, the throb created a ripple that smiled throughout the major part of the country with a universal response of understanding. Tulsi and Sur crystallised the best in Vaishnava devotional sensibility. Kabir raised a golden banner of composite dissent. Jayasi created a serene voice out of sufi reflections with an undying signature of inner welcome

Language is Culture 131

They used Avadhi and Braj, in other words, the extensions o^ Apabhramsha io inspire a great Indian of Turkish descent to found a language which was destined to be the national language of modern India. Amir Khusro, the father of Hindi (or Urdu) has left quite a precious treasure in riddle poetry beaming with a classical authenticity. Bhartendu of Kashi gave it the modern dynamism.

Contrary to the general mis-belief, which is unfortunately equally shared by the literate mass, that Urdu is a vehicle of Islamic culture, the genesis, growth and the essential fragrance of this language underlines the fact that the heart of India, which throbbed the profoundest at the knock of the Arabic-Persian contact, sang its agony in a language that attempted to capture new elements brought in afresh. This language, with a difference in communicative instrumentality, came to be loved in the name of Urdu. It is interesting to note that in its wide journey to different corners of the country, this new instrument of communication was variously known as Gujari, Dakhini, Dehhvi, etc. The elan of sufism made Urdu a sparkling gem of Indian languages. Ghalib personifies a miraculous adventure by creating a contemporary and authentic human sensibility out of an articulated embrace of advait and sufism.

Once a focul point in the orbit of Sanskrit, Kashmiri, in the north-most part of India, turned out to be a dreamland of beauty and pathos under the canopy of Apabhramsha richly overlaid with the Dardic nuance of Indo-Iranian family of languages. Zain-ul'Abidin (1420-70), an enlightened monarch gathered a number of poets around him. They included also a trio of poets, namely, Utthasoma, Yodhabhatta and Bhattavatar, who created rennaissance in Kashmiri under Zain's patronage. A few remarkable poetesses like Hubb Khotun enriched the literature at the threshold of a new era.

Taking the round, we reach the land of five rivers and find a golden mean being struck by Guru Nanak to mould the psyche of contact in a fervour known as Panth. Japji became the epitome of the Punjabi language. Other sufi poets added a significant note. Janam-sakhis, Sukhans, Qissa and Nama acquired excellence through Persian contact. Hir-Ranjha came into being as a popular masterpiece in love lyricism. A millennium covered by movements, invasions and settling forces acted on a people full of life and vigour, only to create Punjabi language. Baba Farid, Shah Hussain, Bulle Shah, Damodar and Waris Shah enriched the linguistic culture through their mystic experiences of universal dimension and a pervasive honesty.

Descending from Apabhramsha, Sindhi was adopted by sufi saints as a means to spread their message of universal love among the broad masses of the people beyond the Indus. Sufism in this part of the country carries a unique flavour of synthesis between Indian and Iranian mysticism. Latif, Jami, Attar and Rumi on the one hand, and Kabir, Nanak, Suradas, Tulsidas and Mirabai on the other, left a great mark on Sindhi culture. Dadu, the prominent saint poet of Hindi also wrote m Sindhi. As a result of the political partition of the country into two sovereign states, Sindh, the birth place of the language was included in Pakistan. But Sindhi remains a bright spot in the linguistic map of India.

One of the sprouts from Apabhramsha has blossomed into an agency uniting

India: A Cultural Voyage

various elements of Hinduism, and is called Marathi. Juaeshwara gave this language an aroma of Vedantic sensibility coupled with the noble awareness usually termed as bhakti Marathi was further enriched by similar great saints such as Namadeva etc Tukaram's abhangas assumed the role of the Bible for the Marathi people. Like various styles of ballads in different Indian languages, Marathi coined its own form termed as/^flva^a to sing of the heroic valour. The lavani is another form of song, centred round earthly love. Marathi prose also developed as a fine specimen of sustained composition. Marathi has proved to be a great experience in the unique process of Indian integration.

When we shift our attention towards the South, we come by four languages which belong to Dravidian stock in theory, and form a part of the grand process of assimilation called Indian culture. Kannada is one of them. A Rashtrakuta king named Nripatunga attempted to put Dandin's Kavyadarsh into Kannad as early as in A.D. 850; and named his work as Kavirajamarga. This work on poetics mentions many earlier poets. This fact goes to prove that the language was fairly developed a thousand years ago. Pampa-Bharata, an old Kannada version of Vyas' great Mahahharata, was one of the earliest literary attempts to form a composite image of India. Besides Pampa, the other two poets, Ponna and Ranna are the main architects of the literary culture in Kannada. The bhakti movements stirred the soul of this region and produced many saints with lovingly divine sensibilities. Allama Prabhu sang in a language which was radiant with profound imagery.

The other member we turn to is Malayalam. It is a resurgence later than others in the Dravidian family. Closely connected with Tamil, this avenue of India's communicability has a link with Sanskrit which resulted in the blossom of a peculiar literary style called manipravalam, a necklace strung with jewel. Ezhut-tachan put Malayalam on its feet. He composed Adhyatma Ramayana and Bharatam and evolved a new pattern of expression simple yet ^rofoun^. Sandesh Kavyas dind Attakhathas assumed popular designs to express innermost emotions. The great process of unity is evident in Malayalam. It is one of the most verile languages in India.

Tamil is not only an important member in the family of Dravidian languages. It enjoys a place of honour in the company of world languages simply because it has a continuous literary history reaching back two millennia; and has been and is a spoken langunge. A fine language to think and speak, Tamil has maintained its vigour throughout the past ages. Sangam forms the peak of Tamil literature in early days. The oldest extant Tamil grammar (500 B.C.) entitled TolkapDivam became the ancient book'and the 'preserver of ancient institutions' The del in ek tion of the early Tamil society is remarkably clear in Sangam literature Adn.Tnk tration, commerce, arts, music, dance, courtship, manners, customs «nH Vv,.^ •, life emerge out through 5angam works. The concept of un tyTn exilte "^^^ u ' the recurring theme. Fost-Sangam period is equally rich .nH ^ ^ ' ^ ' ' ^ mainly influenced by Alvers and Nay'anars. L T r a rio of 0 0 ^ ^ ^ ' ' ^ ' ' ; " ' . ^ ' " ' '' OttakkuttanandPugazhendi built up the Srand m a r n ^ r T T m i r S ^ f e ^ e r ^ ^ ^

Language is Culture 133

in cascades of poetic imagery, fountains of similies, briskness and drama shone in brilliant sequences.

The last but not the least member of the Dravidian stock is TeJugu. It is also known as Andhra-bhasha or the language of the Andhras. The word 'telugu' is supposed to have derived from the Sanskrit words like trilinga, trikalinga or tringa meaning, respectively, country of the three lingas, of three kalingas, or of three mountains. Classical Telugu is marked by the creation of Mahabbarataimi by Nannaya as an important epoch. He is considered to be the first poet. Chaste, sublime and faultless, the epic laid the glorious foundation of Teh'gu culture as a part of vaster picture named India. Tikkanna heralded a new era by synthesising the classical with the folk. In so doing he was actully uniting Shaiva and non-Shaiva elements in Telugu life to promote a greater originality in content and appeal. The impact of Sanskrit on Telugu has been a reason to eulogise the earlier as the mother of the latter.

The brief acquaintance with the galiaxy of Indian languages remains incom­plete unless we pause to listen to the silent speech of the muse reigning over the silver domes of Indian dialects which are legion. It is an old Indian folk belief that boli like taste of water changes with each river. The expanse of dialects in India could be adequately appreciated only in proportion to the multitude of rivers which dance through all the lanes and by-lanes of the large body of India. These dialects maintain an unseen but a lasting relationship with Sanskrit, as they keep alive the flames of their worships, rituals, kirtans, arties, festivals, pilgrimages, fasts, social customs and rites etc., only through a knowledge bestowed by the glorious heritage of Sanskrit. In other words the charmingly gigantic family of Indian dialects form the substrata on which the constitutionally recognised modern Indian languages keep their flow on. Both the channels receive their will to blossom from the same origin—Sanskrit. Both have a common fragrance of wisdom and valour. A perceptive study of these racio-linguistic blossoms, which have flourished in India from time immemorial reveals a modicum of folk literature—songs, tales, legends and tradi­tions—with identical religious, philosophic and iantric connotations as are to be seen in modern Indian languages.

We have four such linguistic groups in India: Sino-Tibetan (Mongoloid), Austric, Dravidian and Aryan. These dialects (or the tribal languages) are divided in the above groupings for the sake of understanding. Otherwise the overlapping is amazingly intricate; and it could be appreciated only by grasping the similar intricacy to be found in the general process of Indian integration. Here inward feelings work; and greatest victories are won without strife. These vast linguistic channels of human reaffirmation are lighted beams of the Indian psyche. At places, they are even fore-runners of ancient linguistic susceptibility, as they find their references even in the olden Sanskrit literature.

So did Krishna sing and sigh By the river bank; and I, Jayadev of Kinduvilva, Resting—as the moon of silver Sits upon the solemn ocean— On full faith, in deep devotion: Tell it that ye may perceive How the heart must fret and grieve; How the soul doth tire of earth, When the love from Heaven hath birth.

JAYADEV

9 Festivals : Accents on Truer Lights

Indian concept of the festival is to acknowledge truth we keep neglecting in our day-to-day life. Festival is reunion. No one celebrates a festival all by himself. Things in the universe, taken apart from each other, obscure truth. Fragmentation is infliction on joys, on freedoms, on contentments, on rhythms. The moment we enjoin fragments, the greatest opportunity to embrace truth arises. That is the moment when the moral existence relaxes in the fearless arm of the eternal. Festival, the truth in reunion, is total celebration. It is not merely science. It is anand, it is rasa, it is love. It is impartial. It does not only satisfy the intellect. It also fulfils the heart.

The strength in the union and the invincible truth in love are to be found at each step on this earth. If on earth, there exists a force which can overpower fear, can ignore calamity, can conquer death, it is nothing but love. The human race

news that selfishness is a cruel reality. Love dismembers selfishness. The people of nation are unfortunate who are not united in the face of the rise or fall of their . '"^'^^^cy loose everything as they loose the greatest truth of the world i.e., * y* Ihose, who cannot sacrifice, cannot gain. Who cannot offer their heads,

canno live with honour. We have to pay the price for acquiring the truth in life. we are not able to realise the truth of the universal existence enveloped in water

and earth all around us, we cannot be its worthy inheritors. The truth blossoms when it appers as love in souls. That is the moment when we get salvation from the nidecision of mind, from pain of death, and from fear of loss.

In the daily humdrum of life, a man invites all men to festivals to share the moment of bliss described above. On this occasion his behaviour is unusual. His

India: A Cultural Voyage

home is no more a limited, narrow entity, but assumes universality He spends his money and wealth on others On such a day the wealthy honours the poor, the

bound b y ° f o v r ' "'• " " ' ' ' ^ '^ '"^^ ° " " > " "'' ^^^ and.hin^are

The objective realisation of this truth is absolute bliss. Salyam Jnanm Anamam B^Aman The Brahman .s truth, is knowledge, is infinite. But in w h r f r o m th^

0° : ; ^ °a„d"°:^ r - ^ t r " • " ' " " ' ' ^ ' " °" ° " ^^"^ ' • appears i „ r f o r n : L His,::! T r otauTy": .rtruth'i f o r ? " ' ; "' '-"""'• »' higher the love. A blade of U s t r a l L ^ ^ o T Z t y ^ ^ L \ t r ^ ^ biologist, It is a treasure of knowledge To a <;n;r.tnoi u • '"'"'^'^y."^^"^'- «'Jt to a ofgrass reflects the total light of he u n L s e ' C B ^ d d T ' ' ' " ' " ; ; " '"^ """"^ He sacrificed his kingdom to help that h^ht bbs^om Th A ^"T"'^ " « ' " ' " "'^"• ofanand. Hence, untill. this world doTs n t l " i f e I ' L : i f i "Th 'r ' " ? ' ' ° " ^ and love before our eyes, it does not manifest itTe f in , h f the form of anand world without this truth has no meani™ """ "^"^ ° '^ '°"" "•""'• The

How does anand or bliss manifest itcr-if? TU i . through beauty7 There is no poveny t h 11 I t „T!S ' ' " " " ' " " • "'™"Sh glory, light from millions of stars descends on ca h i ? ! " " " ' " ' • '^''^ ' ' ° " " " ' ' " °^ creatures, colour, warmth, life This is the h H """^ *°"'^'' ^^^l^^ns, in earthly that is, in spring time, each knot of the cre".!!^'^ "f ' ' " ' ' • '^ ceaseless process, and in a sudden blossom on trees with frui.r J T ' ° '""''> ^o"""^' '«aves, dawn and dusk a thousand maddenine chanoL. fragrance all around. During place. It is abundance of th"bl^s T . i f ^ " " ° " ' ' °f 'he sky and earth take

On the day of a festiva ,h " " f ^" '"°"s. ""miser, truth, which is nothing else than 'aZd^t^^ \ °^ P ' °P ' ' ^^'^ers in the name of a and all purpose. There are innumlabt d t ° ' Tr"' " ' " ' " ' ' " ''«"^«<="ds mutuality, . s t h e d a y o f g l o r y . o f b e a u t y " ™ f t o enh» '" T'^'" P"™''^ '^'S"^- F^^'iva the language of love, of amUy and fVendS^TH-' ' '^ ""'""'"^ °f "f - "> e " ' ' * We decorate the day of the festival with f e t e" a H n " " ' ^ '^ "'^ ''^^'^ o(feu\.^X. lamps, and make it melodious with musil %„ r " ' ' ^' 8" '^"^ it with beauty, we crown the day of the fesTiva IL "^ ' " """y- abundance and .mmortahty in the universe. And th s ach e v e m e r j " « ' " " < " n a r y . symbolisi"g m Its entirety only to unveil the glory of 10^!. T * ? " " " '"e poverty of existencf day the man realises that he is notsLiu H " " ^ ' " ' '"'^^- O" a S a l universe is his abode truth h i / "O'small, he is not dismembered-»n^ .•. and sacrifice are natirll l . t^f ' T " " " ' " " ' " " " «^"y "ody beTonof;. , " " " ' ">^

Needless to emphtue the' " ' "'^"^ ''"^^ " ° ' exist for h ^ ' " " ' P^ '' achievement is. When .1?^^ '^"""" ' 'O" °f 'he festival is n"!". . - ^ only then the h o r t o l u ' ' " " P ' " " ' ' " '<""^ of the fest val ^ ' ^ ' " " - « " ' "» of ecstasy? How to 3, f t ^ ' ' ° " " ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' " ^ e n d s . B u U o w . o ' " : ' ' ' " " ^'°°"^. functionism. h y p t a j y , H , r r ' " ' "' " ' " ° " ° " t i d ' ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ this state ncarnatethe infinite waveHf 1 ^ ' ° " » " ' ^om mean L r L v'^°™^' '"es.

lamps glimmering i„ t Z ^ ''f^'' «'S"ing supreme in .K ™'^'°^'"«? How to g the corners of our home and Sean' Hot ."" '"^^^^ ' ' " earthen

• «ow to unite the infinite

Festivals: Accents on Truer Lights 137

with the finite? In other words, how to enthrone life on the pedestal of beauty whose each day seems to be devoid of beauty? He, whose each day in life is dedi­cated to truth and beauty, is the rightful owner of the day of the festival. Only his ship of life shall rightfully anchor at the golden harbour of the great music. Where there is ego, disputation, contradiction and competition for fame and name, the festival god does not descend; the sun does not rise there. It is an act to fulfil the innerself with anand. Devoid of fear, doubt and inferiority, the soul awakens at the dawn of bliss and dedicates itself to it. That is festival. A rejoicing on ever greater magnitude.

Man is born and word is given to eternity to fathom truer lights and to echo saner responses to futurity. Festivals of India, likewise, took birth with a promise of spiritual strength not to relapse to the past, when face to face with death; rather to look forward with an undying freedom replenished with the sanctity of each moment in life. The Indian culture acknowledges its festivals as a means of enrich­ment. Monier Williams in his none-too-sympathetic observation says, "There is not an object in heaven and earth which a Hindu is not prepared to worship—sun, moon and stars; rocks, stocks and stones; trees, shrubs and grass; seas, pools and rivers; nis own implements of trade; the animals he finds most useful; the noxious reptiles

f 'ears; men remarkable for extraordinary qualities, viz. great valour, sanctity, Virtue, or even vice; good and evil demons; ghosts and goblins, the spirits of depar­ted ancestors; an infinite number of semi-human and semi-divine existences; inhabitants of the seven upper and seven lower worlds—each and all come in for a share of divine honour or a tribute or more or Jess adoration." Brahminism and Hinduism.

Behind this worshipful attitude lies the faith in sanctity of moments, and periods of time when notable psychic experiences are linked with the cardinal Hindu tenet that one divine Intelligence pervades all and filiations join all forms of life, past and present. The festivals in India manifest the living force pulsating in Its culture. The Indian mind carved out three categories of festivals. They are vrata,parm^ndtyohar;xhi, first being essentially an occasion to fast for purifi­cation; the second being commemoration of the sanctity of notable events; the third as sheer celebration. But this categorisation has a unique and underlined similarity. Pur i fvT 1^'"' ' ' ^ ' °^^ ' ' ' dedicated to gain spiritual or mental prowess, to environmem" ^° ^^^^ogthen the will-power, to deepen faith in God. to cleanse the vigour. Mah t^ ^^^^^^^ °°^'^ ^ ^ ° thought processes and to enhance health and categories as V ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^ divided these over lappings of Indian festivals in two having no desirrb'^ ^"^'"^^'''" ^^^ ^"^ pre-supposing special desire and the latter ofhumansensibilit"v ^°^^ and devotion. He placed the latter on a higher pedestal

with w/Jiwj—mean' ^"^^^^°"^s to higher affirmation and renewal essentially begin existence Experie '"^ ^^°'^ing the bad and arranging a new living for the spiritual and injurious tend"^^ - ^ ^ ^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^° ' ^ ^ barriers against uncharitable, cruel least a dozen fa«5t«! ° ^ " ^^^ ' "^ '^n culture, having lived for centuries with at

in a month all round the year, has beautifully demonstrated the

138 India: A Cultural Voyage

creative process of ennobling and purifying the soul. There are innumerable stories in Indian folklore confirming a wide acceptance of social engineering performed by fasts. All seers and poets of epic dimensions are believed to have kept fast on the day they began writing or giving immortal surmons. These attempts at creating a new inner living have not only been motivated to ensure peace, comfort, longi-vity, prosperity and bliss for oneself and one's family. They are, as well, aimed at the well-being of the collective human existence i.e. for the people of the nation and for the whole universe. The festivals, in all the three forms, demolish segre­gation of all type. The high and low are equally accorded welcome. Women, old and young, children and grown-ups, people belonging to all castes, including untouchables, are given equal place in this human exercise. Indian festivals have acted as entente-cordiale enthralling culture and living.

In the contexts of Indian festivals are revealed excellent metaphors in the form of gods and goddesses which link up social unity in all castes and creeds. Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu, Surya, Agni, Chandrama, Yamraj, Dharmraj, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Parvati, Ganga, Yamuna, etc., have been woven in splendid and useful designs to invite no division on account of the multitude of diversities in form of colour, cullinary experiences, speech or dressing etiquettes. The ageless unity mani­fests itself with ever newer content through these metaphors called Indian festivals. No divisive ego, racial or psychic, survives the impact of the most conscious act of harmony being perpetuated since time immemorial. The devotees carrying Ganga water—lifted from the source Gangotri to Rameshwarm—is a phenomenon as old as hills. Unsurmountable valleys, rivers and forests in the past, and road and rail transports in the present, hardly make any difference to criss-crossing of the Indian peninsula by its people from north to south and west to east in their effort to assimilate the rich aroma of religious and cultural unity. Festivals of India provide various religious and ethnic groups the freedom to be themselves, and at the same time to acquire accents of universality. In the august company of twenty four incarnations of Lord Vishnu, Mahavira and Buddha are also accorded dignified positions. The highly honoured tradition of Chaturmasya in Jain and Buddhist creeds has been a source of inspiration to sanatan values. During these four months of the rainy season, fall most of Hindu festivals.

The new year of the Hindu calendar running from about the middle of April begins the business year with suitable auspicating rites. The commencement of the four mythical archaic 2Lgt%—satya, treta, dvapara and kali—ii also commemorated on full moon days in successive four months, thus making the eternity live and re-live time and again. Festivals of India whether magical or traceable to nature or vege­tation myths, are religious in character and significance. There are many which though traceable to archaic prototypes, have suffered a change barring recognition of the old in the new. But all alike bear witness to the wide-spread popular faith andmterest m the exercise of piety and devotion in fasting in visik in wnrci,-in ablution, in offerings to the manes, in gifts to holy persons,' a n r t \ h e p ^clic' of austerities and physical hardships as benefiting the spirit within. They also exhibit

Festivals: Accents on Truer Lights 139

how festivities add joy and zest and variety to life's monotonous routine. Festivals of India are nothing if not beautiful. That is why, perhaps, of the

two heavenly bodies, sun and moon revolving round the earth, the moon has been chosen to afford convenient periods for timing festivities. The Vishnu Puran (1.22) says, "Brahma appointed the moon to be the monarch of planets, sacrifices and penances." The full moon has always been the prototype of all sacrifices prevalent in India. In Sanskrit plays, kings are represented as making an offering to the full moon as it rises gloriously in the east. Remaining all the fifteen phases of the moon called tithis (lunar days) are distinguished as occasions for particular ceremonies. What can be a better working arrangement with the space than having a human relationship with each phase of the moon. The first phase of the new moon (in Kartika) is known as the gamblers' pratipadu when streets are full with knots of people gathered round dice-boxes in public places trying their luck. The second phase in the same month is bhratri divitiya—a symbol of affection between the brother and sister. On this day sisters invite their brothers home, feast them and present gifts to them. But the greatest festival on this day in Ashadha is rath-yatra, when the car-journey of Jagannath attracts a hundred thousand or more pilgrims to the small town of Puri. The third phase in Vaishakha is considered a pre-eminently sacred day in the year when traders begin their year's business in Bengal. The fourth day in Bhadra belongs to Ganesha; is celebrated as Ganesh-Chaturthi on a popular plane in Maharashtra. On the fifth, Saraswati, the goddess of learning is invoked. The same day in another month (Ashadha) is marked out for the worship of the serpent goddess Manasa and the eight nagas. The bright sixth is sacred to the mother of the divine warrior—Skand. As the protectress of children, the mother is adored with particular devotion. The seventh day is fixed for the worship of the sun in the form of mitra, the friend. The sun is the ever lasting friend of the moon. The eighth is Shakti's own day, as also the ninth. The tenth day is symbol of victory with Vijaya dashmi and Durga puia heralding peace on earth and goodwill among men; reunion and reconciliation; obeisance to superiors; embrace of love to equals and blessings to juniors. On the same tithi in Jyaishtha the Ganga is worshipped with purificatory immersion all along its sacred banks by masses of people. On the eleventh waxing in Ashadha begins Vishnu's sleep, shayan ekadashi. In Kartika his rise, utthan ekadashi is celebrated. The ekadashi, in every month, otherwise is the golden day for fasting. The thirteenth and fourteenth phases in waxing moon augur joyous preparation for celebrations of the full moon day.

The royal accompaniment of festivals in India with waxing phases of the moon does not mean that the dark nights or the sun are left out. The festival of light {diwali) is celebrated with abundant gaiety on the darkest of the moon phase i.e. on amavasya in Kartika month. The festival of light can be compared with Durga Puja in Bengal and Dussehra in the north and south in terms of wide popular fervour and festal mirth. Likewise Holt, the festival of colours in the north and Pongal in the south, with all people out to search for release, both spiritual and material are the two brightest jewels in the crown of Indian festivals. Solar worship is not in the least neglected. Along with men and women of India, their rivers

^ Q India: A Cultural Voyage

also flow in festivities. Venues of ceremonial bathing along banks of sacred rivers, namely. Ganga, Yamuna, Krishna, Godavari, Narmada, Sindhu, Brahmputra, Kaveri, Gandak, Saryu and Tungabhadra (Ganga of the South) are reminders of the ceaseless continuity of man as a co-traveller with nature. The Sankranti or the day of solar transition from one sign of the zodiac to another is a day of bathing. So also a solar or lunar eclipse. The Ganga-Dussehra, the bright tenth in Jyai-shtha on which the sacred river is worshipped is said to purge ten kinds of sins committed by body, speech and mind. For the whole month of Magh, hundreds of thousands of pilgrims gather at the confluence at Prayag. They put up in huts and thatched cottages and bathe thrice a day. Holy men and ascetics flock from all parts of the country. Austerities are practised and scriptures are read and explained. At Makar sankranti {winter solstice) a bath in the Ganga with the offer of radishes prevails in Bengal. In the south, bathing in the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Godavari is accompanied by the offering of coconuts. Similarly, in the Mahanadi and Brahmputra bathing is prescribed on special days.

The most imposing bathing festivals are Kumbha-melas which are attended by millions of people including holy men of different sects from all parts of India. According to Puranas, the kumbha or the jar of nectar rose at the churning of the oceans in the beginning of creation. In the scramble between the gods in pursuit and the demons in flight, seme of its contents splashed out of the jar held by Dhanvantari, the patron of the healing art, and fell on four spots, namely, at Hardwar, Prayag, Ujjayini and Nasika. By rotation the Kumbha-mela is held at these places. The functions on the 12th year at each place are called the puma kumbh, and the intermediate ones, six years after the full ones, the ard/ia kumbha. At these festivals one visualizes the soul of India, and the glory of the ascetic life and the living faith the people have in religious and cultural obervances. There are processions of sadhus, seated in decorated palanquins, on richly caparisoned elephants. Ascetics march in endless files, some naked and ash covered, some with matted hair coiled into a high peak, blowing enormous copper-horns. Munificent gifts are made by the rich, and food, cloth and blankets are given away on a lavish scale. It was at kumbha in Prayag that king Harsha spent all his treasure mcluding jewels in his crown and throne, in organising scholarly assemblies, in donation to pure men of higher purposes and in offering to the poor. The king used to return to his capital in yellow garment only to see that his empty treasure is replenished with rapid certainty.

Modern India has added up to the enthralling list of festivals in the form of days commemorating spiritual leaders. The birth davs of Kro««i. - • -

m

Festivals: Accents on Truer Lights 141

nation's calendar. Recent additions to the hagiology are Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand, Shri Ram Krishana, Swami Vivekanand, Tamil Shaiva Saint Ramalinga, Swami Ram Tirtha, Shri Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi, Shri Raman Maharshi and others.

The festivals of India have counterparts and complements in communities living in or out of the country known as Greater India professing any of the reli­gions that originated from here. The people having faith in Jainism and Buddhism, no matter where they live, draw near and mingle while in celebrations. In festivals of Nepal or Siam, the features of public and state ceremonies are more in evidence— the features that were the characteristics of the festive occasions of India in her days of past glory and regal power. The three most notable events in Buddha's life, viz. his birth, enlightenment and mahaparinirvana occurred at full moon in Vaishaka and his promulgation of the Wheel of Dharma at full moon in Magha. He renounced his home at the new moon in Kartika. All these days are honoured by Hmdus who revere Buddha as one of the incarnations of Vishnu. The homo-ginius minghng of these two faiths is interestingly manifested in Nepalese observances Where buildmgofcar, making masks, painting and dancing carry influences from tVn? '^l!^'''''^ quarters. Among Jain observances the wy//^^„« is the most impor-n^u.n I °" ' ' "^T^ ^""^ ^"^'"^y "'Shts of the rainy season have elapsed, the Pmtsana begins and is observed as a prolonged period of fast. The last three days are most sacred. At the end the manuscript of the Kalpa-Sutra is taken out in an eiepnant trolley. The procession comprises of red and blue flags, a Brahmin hold-r ^ l M fu "" "" fol'owed by boys with silver sticks and a little girl on a horse carrymg the sacred book wrapped in brocade followed by boys with arati lamps

festivfroHhc^H ht"^'"^ ' ^ ° " ' ^ " ' '^^^ ^""^ of liberation of Mahavira is Diwali, the While composing his famous passage, quoted earlier, on all pervasive attitude

l e o n h e r ' f i ' ' \ ' f ? " " / " ' ' ' ^ ° " ^ " ^ ' ° " ^^^ '^''^' H - d u embrace to mil on of T n t r li ' " " i ' ' ^ ^ ^ ^ " ' ' ° " ^ ' ""^^'^^^"^ hi^ -i^ionto capture T r r t ? f • T^ ^'''' " ' '^'' ^ ' "^°"^ Muharram. It is an attempt to A^rther extend frontiers of a composite Indian culture that c W a r . are offered by Hindus and Muslims at sufi mo/ar. all over the country. The famous celebrations m the august memory of NizamuddinAulia at his dargah m Delhi are the proud privilege of the new brotherhood shared by Hindus and Muslims. The yearly pilgrimage to Ajmer Sharif in millions by followers of both the religions is another garland to the beautiful concept of a composite Indian way of living. It is the highest water mark of a collective happiness shared by both the communit ies

A survey of festivals observed by Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs in all parts of the country from Kashmir to Cape Comorin, from Gujarat to Manipur, and across the border in outlying countries, in Nepal, in Tibet and in distant Siam would require a considerable volume. To include all those peoples and tribes that profess any of the religions which originated in India would take up ampler space still. But there are affinities and points of contact which prove the kinship of communities, a common ethos and a mental atmosphere shared by them.

142 India: A Cultural Voyage

A connected vision of these festivals underlines an ethnological significance furnish­ing glimpses of unity in diversity. When the exploration for scientific ends were rare these festivals brought into prominence the beauty spots, the inaccessible extremities of the Indian subcontinent. The festivals of India enshrine and keep alive men and ideals that have left their impress on the history of the race. For three days honorific off'ering to Agastya, who aryanised the south and whose statue has been found in distant Java, is still made. In observance of these festivals India pays her homage to the makers of the nation in the past and draws periodical inspiration from recital of their achievements in the realm of the spirit.

The cultural genius of India has never failed to utilize every place of fascinat­ing beauty and grandeur as a perennial source of inspiration, affording supreme peace and consolation to the care-worn hearts. Cape Comorin, the beauty spot at the southern most end of India, where the land merges with the vast, infinite ocean, has become the favourite seat of the devine maiden, Kanya Kumari. The beauty of a place is, to Indian mind, a call to the soul from God. Indians have to their credit the largest number of holy places. From Himalayas to Cape Comorin and from Dwarka to Assam, there are thousand (or innumerable?) places that are considered sacred without distinction of caste or creed. As a general rule every such place has grown out of countless legends and traditions having served as an incen­tive to religious and cultural feelings. The Himalayas have been described by Kalidas as devalatma, divinity ensouled. The Ganga has been depicted as surnadi, the divine river. Attracted by the inspiring grandeur of the Himalayas, a network of prominent places of pilgrimage has sprung in the region already in the ancient times. Seekers of truths have been resorting to caves and forest-retreats housed in the Himalayas. Innumerable saints and sages have perf9rmed austerities on the banks of the Ganga and attained realisation. The Ganga has the largest number of tirthas on her banks. The ancient ashramas (hermitages), the epitome of spiritual culture have become places of pilgrimage to a wide circle of people. Similarly, all places associated with the life and activities of Rama, Krishna and other mighty souls became sacred.

As Hinduism began to spread through its cultural conquest or its assimilation of aboriginal tribes, the number of sects increased and every sect began to regard places connected with its founders as holy. In course of time they became places of pilgrimage, attracting reverence for other sects on account of innate Catho­licism of India. There are many places with holy traditions equally respected and worshipped by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists alike. Being the chosen home of diver­sity, India, from the early days, invited migrations and became the home of many races, cults and cultures living in accord. There is an opinion that Hinduism derived the idea of pilgrimage from Buddhist ^/irama/w who used to roam this country But the germ of the idea can be traced to a much earlier period. In Aitareya Brahaman (Vii 33.3) there is a passage encouraging the idea of pilgrimage, "There is no happi ness for him who does not travel; living in the society of men, the best men often turn sinner: Indra is a traveller. Therefore wander." In the Mahabharata finds description of a large number of tirthas which Yudhishthira visited Th"^

Festivals: Accents on Truer Lights 143

cover an area extending from Himalayas to the south beyond Vindhyas. According to E.B. Havell, temples dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva existed in India even before the Mahayan school of Buddhism gave an impetus to image worship. Irrespective of the origin and history, the tirthas have been drawing huge crowds since long. Gaya is visited by a lakh of people every year. Puri and Varanasi pay host to pilgrims three times more. At Pandharpur in Maharashtra the temple of Vithal attracts one and half lakhs of pilgrims on special occasions.

Neither idle curiosity, nor blind faith can account for the unique phenomenon, for most of the pilgrims have to undertake long journeys involving physical dis­comfort and heavy expenses. It is the cultural-religious moorings of the people responsible for the great mobility. Pilgrimage has contributed to the catholicity of Indian culture. Varanasi, the highest point in pilgrimage, with its two thousand sanctuaries and half a million images, is a standing parliament of religious sects of ancient and modern India. At Puri the rigour of orthodoxy is completely loosened. Hindus dine together forgetting all distinctions of castes. Pilgrimage, as an important factor of education, affords people to know India in its totality with its different manners and customs. Even commercial enterprises grow around these places giving impetus to various arts and crafts. Indian architecture, sculpture and painting received ample encouragement. Temples represent cultural philosophy in brick and stone. Worship in temples was in a way responsible for the astonishing development of all fine arts.

Pilgrimage has been the fore-runner of national unity, transforming the country into a vivid and visible reality with all its parts deemed equally sacred and lovable. Even in Vedic ages there has been a conscious and consolidated attempt to keep the people united through a bond of common culture. The important rivers of the north and the south are invoked on sacred occasions, "O Ye Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarswati, Narmada, Sindhu and Kaveri, come and abide in this water offered by me." In the Mahabharata, are named seven mountains held to be sacred, viz., Raivataka, Vindhya, Sahya, Kumara, Malaya, Shri-Parbata and Pariyatra; they are spread practically over the whole of India. Similarly seven places of great cultural antecedents situated in the North and the South are looked upon as possessing power to grant salvation to one who visits them :

Ayodltya, Mathura, Maya, Kashi, Kanchi, Ava?Uika, Puri^ Dwaravati geya, saptayika moksh dayika.

Again, the twelve Jyotrilingas and fifty-one Shakti Pithas are located in different parts of the country. Shankaracharya established four sacred monasteries in the four extreme cardinal points of India, viz., Badrinarayana in the north, Shringeri in the south, Puri in the east and Dwarika in the west as everlasting contours of common cultural consciousness.

As somebody may cut or strike a blind man, as somebody may cut or strike the foot, the ankle, the knee, the thigh, the hip, the navel, the belly, the flank, the back, the bosom, the heart, the breast, the neck, the arm, the finger, the nail, the eye, the brow, the forehead, the head. As some kill openly, as some extricate secretly, thus the earth-bodies are struck, cut and killed though their feeling is not menifest.

He who injures these earth-bodies does not comprehend and renounce the sinful acts. Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards earth, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to earth, is called a reward-knowing sage. Thus I say.

THE ACHARANGA SUTRA

10 The British Interlude ; Dark and Clownish

Then there was an interlude. It sailed on its dark wings of strangeness steeped in cruelity. It was the raving contact in the history of human civilization. The composition played, therein, was not connected with love and sympathy. It was a blind note in treachery and violence. It was a grim acting of a tramp and a vagarant. It was the British interlude against continuum of Indian civilization.

The evolution of human civilization has been conditioned by difficulties in the invironment and the manner of over-coming them. The Scythians, in the early Asiatic history, organised their men, women and children into bands of robbers to fight against the scarcity in their natural resources. This fight, in the 17-18th centuries, was organised by a British people as a clownish commerce which ended in a brutal conquest. They took recourse to the earliest path of material success. But it was not the true path. The Indian mind was stoned to a stuper, as It was aghast at the sight of the poor trader-guests trampling all venerable norms of f//iar/M/c behaviour. The Indian mind sunk at the sight of the interlude turned intrusion, an awful behaviour, which followed the path of hungry wolves in fury of success. Europeans'discovered'India during a prosperous and peaceful period of Mughal rule to spread their cultural epidemics of national greed in form of intercine wars in the names of all possible and noble, religious and racial faiths. The interlude assumed a more dangerous posture by the strength it received from the scientific advances. Its shadow darkened almost the entire earth. Practically eacli home on the shrinking earth dreaded the clap of thunder from the BRITISH RAJ.

India was 'discovered' by a tribe of Clives who formed an East India Com-

J46 India: A Cultural Voyage

pany. They secured their position through instrumentality of all ravanic vices. They became conquerors. They began to extract the wealth of India on a grand scale. Booty, bribery, and trade embalanced by violence, enriched the tribe. It is note­worthy that the word *'loot" is an Indian word which entered into the English language at the time of the interlude. It holds a mirror to their unjust and uncivi­lized state of existence. The ease with which wealth could be acquired by the ambitious and not too scrupulous an Englishman, drew all sorts of adventurers to India.

Who was this Englishman?

He was not the representative of the European renaissance. He was not the epitom of the victory of rationalism. He was Clive, the prototype of those rambunc­tious and untutored young Englishmen whose tempetuous temperament would most likely have led them to some lock-up in London; but who were, instead, shipped off to the colonies to win fame and fortune. A malcontent, an outsider, a brooding bully who would blow out his own brains for gains be they petty or big, Clive represented, most strongly, the core of the English race which 'conquered' India.

And it broke India's music of continual social arrangement in co-operation since past fifty centuries. The land of the Ganga and Godawari was ransacked and despoiled by fights, intrigues and deceptions. The devastation did not leave any realm of our social life untouched. India's farms and factories, her temples of worship and learning, her self-government in villages, her simple laws and peaceful administration, all was poisoned, destroyed, disabled. '

Those, who would have been locked up in London jails for their behaviour, came and looted the land which respected atithi as God, and locked in their hosts. The interlude showed its face in other disgusting lights. The European renaissance sharpened the appetite of quest. Not unlike white men in uniforms, the hordes of academics invaded India's treasures in arts and sciences, mostly hidden. Academies all over Europe dispatched their teams to 'unearth' the ancient land of India. The result was not dissimilar to invasions in fields such as commercial, political, diplo­matic and military. A loss of identity on India's part was declared as the sole finding of all discoveries in Indian learning. India lost her identity as per British lesearches especially.

The British or European researchers did not shiver at the millions; and at the immensities and secrecies of India. They did not bother to pause and appreciate the glad consciousness lighted by love and lived by India even at times of death and destruction. The clownish stance at greatness burdened the whiteman's view with jaundiced glory and unreal power. The British interlude occasionally appeared in the garb of teacher and leader. And to maintain its sovereignty over the large heart of India it could collect only the weaklings known as the class of babus who adored the new master by total slavery moral and mental. The babu class was the varm sankar of Indian society playing Quizling's roles in life,

The British Interhide: Dark and Clownish 147

The British interlude was a dance of destruction to Indian civility. The British glorified themselves by erecting some cities with most appalling architecture in either hemisphere. Whatever buildings they got constructed as lodges for viceroys, governors, or trading partners in the state capitals belonged to the darkest period of all architectural history of man. Needless to remind, the same cities dragged along with them the tentacles of squalor. The cities in India built by the British, represented the sordid fringes of Europeanism—slum, poverty, crime and class hatread. The British interlude brought famine and unemployment on parasitic shoulders of the babu class which was devoid of any intrinsic value. Under a con­dition of semi-starvation, created by the introduction of a cruel tax system and destruction of village-sufiiciency, the British made it cheaper to have their waggon of empire pulled by men than beasts. The feudal and barbaric elements that came from England to rule India viewed this land as a vast estate belonging to the East India Company. This view continued ever after the Company handed over its estate of India to the British crown, and was paid very handsome compensations at Indians' cost. This was done on the basis of a Christian honesty unknown in the history of mankind. Indian hospitality was taxed with a compound interest.

The interlude was an intrusion of imperialist culture determined to snap all ties and threads of universal brotherhood and civilized equality. A culture which left the basic source of human strength, called love and honesty, to wither away and to die or to fight the battle unaided. The psychology of the primitive fighting elements, rather than of humanity seeking its completeness through the union, was enacted by this foreign culture with all the fury and fan-fare at its command. A wealth-producing mechanism grew into a vast stature, wherein 'the sun never set'. A mechanism out of proportion to all other needs of mankind.

The result was that the full reality of man was more and more crushed under its weight. This was a culture which brought in an interminable economic war. A culture which bred jealousy and suspician among the people and races and religions of the world. The evil days for humanity, the dreaded nuclear end lurking in the horizons of the present, were sowed by the organisation of British politics and com­merce, which was pompously named as Raj. This bitter sowing was attempted first and foremost on the Indian soil. Clives and Hastings did things in India which Shakespeares and Miltons would be ashamed to do. Further, during the perfect organisation of power named British imperialism, there remained few crimes it was unable to perpetrate. The Englishman, through this vast organisation, turned out to be a phantom left with no twinge of moral responsibility.

The British rule in India was an interlude in tinned advertising of an abstract being with lethal motives. The rulers or governors, totally ignorant of India's multi-lingual communicative powers, hindered her thousand aspirations from a disdainful distance. They pierced into the very care of our life through their bloodless policies threatening the whole future of Indian people with a perpetual helplessness of emasculation. Such wholesale act of fearful colonisation was conceived through an octopus of abstractions, stretching out its wriggling arms in all directions of human life, and fixing its innumerable suckers into all vitals of existence and

148 India: A Cultural Voyage

reaching out even the far-away future. In this reign of terror the governed were pursued by suspicions, resulting in punishments without" crimes, which left trails of miseries across large bleeding tracts of India's heart. The least human and spiritual, this organised self-interest called British Raj, aided and abetted by the progress in science, assumed gigantic proportion and power. It caused total imbalance in Man's moral responsibilities.

India felt the iron grip at the root of her life. The grip that was relentlessly lifeless and monotonous; and that allowed miserly doles from the renaissance in the West to regulate the Indian vitality at zero-point. The portion of education allotted to India could outrage the sense of decency in the great renaissance of the West. The entire land system, which was basically responsible for the glories of Indian civilization, was ruined and a counterfeit was forged to destroy all her art and craft, science and technique. The zamindari system intro­duced by the British imposed an alien relationship breathing venom and exploita­tion. The two centuries of the British tutelage represents a longest blind alley in India's life, leaving narrow paths to progress for the most vibrant and the vast landmass of India. The 'slavery' that the British tutelage imposed.on India unconsciously drained out the love of freedom born out of the Western renaissance dry. It ruled over the greater part of the earth and denuded it of its self-sustaining life. The result was a day came when the same tutelage became the most terrible of all its burdens, ready to drag it down into the bottom of destruction. When the Raj removed all checks from its paths to make its career easy, it triumphantly rode into its ultimate crash of death.

With every passing day the Raj's moral brake became slacker, its slippery path of ease and success led to its final doom. But before that happened, the ancient land of India was chained with a rule of law where the education was nearly dry; and military, magisterial, police and spying systems attained an abnormal girth in their waists. The Raj was at India's service like the tight shoe. It regulated our steps with a closed and coiled system, within which our feet had no liberty to make their own adjustments. When the West marched under its banner of freedom the Raj forged its iron chains of cruel power that were most relentless and unbreakable that have been manufactured in the whole history of man. The Raj negated the hope of the unexpected, of the freer play of imagination. It was the continual and stupendous dead p|-essure of this inhuman Raj under which India groaned Th goblin-dread, which engulfed the whole world, commenced with its dark si d ^ over India. The soul of man trembled at its secret malevolence. ^ ° ^

People lived in a perpetual distrust of Raj's back where it had no eyes The terror that was the parent of all that bad been base in man's nature and that later rose in its new and more heinous forms called fascism traded on the feebleness of world with all its paraphernalia of power and prosperity, its flags and pious hymns, its blasphemous prayers in churches and mock thunders of its civilized bragging. The terror acted against all the precautions of European renaissance, and sent forth its poisonous fluid into the vitals of the rich pastures of Asia-rich in ancient wisdom

The British Interhide: Dark and Clownish 149

and social ethics, discipline of industry and self-control. And for all this, the terror, called the Raj, pompously claimed the gratitude of history and all eternity for its exploitation. The machines of war and transportation, under the Raj terror, came into an agreement, for imperial profits, based upon a conspiracy of fear. A global federation of steam-boilers claimed to supply a new soul and a new conscience to man and humanity! This was a great farce enacted in the name of the whiteman's burden. An endless bull fight of politics ensued. A dead rhythm of the imperial culture—killing the medieval European simplicity and naturalness of man, forget­ting lessons in turbulent conflicts for reconciliation between the flesh and the spirit, and trampling upon the mouldings of completeness in moral personality—was the interlude.

The contact between India and England was in reality a clash between two entirely difTerent sets of ideals, cultures and civilizations. The England of Clives and Hastings at first contact with India was, in the words of William Draper, like a den of highway men. He Says:

"The peasant's cabin was made of reeds or sticks plastered over with mud. His fire was chimneyless—often made of peat. In the objects and manner of his existence, he was but a step above the industrious beaver who was building his dam in the adjacent stream. There were highway men on the roads, pirates on the rivers, vermin in abundance in the clothing and beds. The common food was peas, vetches, fern roots and even the bark of trees. There was no commerce to put off famine. Man was altogether at the mercy of season. The population—sparse as it was—was perpetually thinned by pestilense and want. Nor was the state of the townsmen better than that of his pillow. If he was in easy circumstances, his clothing was of leather; if poor, a wisp of straw wrapped round his limbs kept off the cold . . . As to mechanic, how was it possible that he could exist where there were no windows of glass, not even of oiled paper, no workshop warmed by a fire! For the poor there was no physician . . . Sanitary provisions there were none!"

On moral conditions of the people in the England of Clives and Hastings, Draper continues:

"The rapidity of its (syphilis) spread, all over England, is a significant illus­tration of the fearful immorality of the times. If contemporary authors are to be trusted, there was not a class, married or unmarried, clergy or laity, from the Holy Father, Leox, to the beggar by the wayside, free from it . . . Its (England's) popula­tion hardly reached five million . . . It was a system of organised labour . . . But now commerce was beginning to disturb the foundation . . . Men were unsettled by the ruiTiours or realities of immense iortuncs Tiipidly i'Uined in foreii'ii adventure . . . A nation so illiterate that many of its peers in Parliament could neither read nor write . . . To so great an extent had these immoralities gone, that it was openly asserted that there were one hundred thousand women in England made dissolute by the clergy . . . The vilest crime in an ecclesiastic might be commuted for money. . . . London was dirty, illbuilt, without sanitary provisions . . .

"Wild animals roamed here and there . . . During rains the roads were impass­able . . . Between places of considerable importance roads were sometimes very

^^^ Jndia: A Cultural Voyage

little known . . . The principal mode of transport was by pack horses of which passengers often took advantage, shoving themselves always between the packs . Social discipline was far from what we call moral . . . The husband whipped his wife . . . A culprit was set in the pellory to be pelted with brickbats . . . Women were fastened by the legs in the stocks at the market-place . . . Hardly any person­age died who was not popularly suspected to have been made away with by poison an indication of the morality generally supposed to prevail among the higher classes . . . "

The trinity of vice shall be complete when we hear Draper on intellectual conditions:

"The University of Oxford had ordered the political works of Buchanan, Miltond and Baxter to be publicly burnt in the court of the schools . . . In adminis­tering the law, whether in relation to political or religious offences, there was an incredible atrocity. In London, the crazy old bridge over the Thames was decora­ted with grinning and mouldering heads of criminals, under an idea that these ghastly spectacles would fortify the common people in their resolve to act accordin*^ to law. The Parliament (May 8, 1885) passed that whoever preached or heard in a conventicle should be punished with death and the confiscation of his goods Shrieking Scottish convenanters were submitted to tortures by crushing their knees flat under the boot; women were tied to stakes on the sea-sands and drowned by the slowly advancing tide because they would not attend Episcopal worship, or branded on their cheeks and then shipped to America . . . The court ladies, even the Queen of England herself, were so utterly forgetful of womanly mercy and common humanity as to join in this infernal traffic."

The above three quotes from the English historian on social, economic moral and intellectual debasement of the British race provide all justification or kt least reasoning of the way the British disrupted Indian life. They were bound by their civihzational habits to play havoc on the host's sensibilities. When traders first arrived m the 16th century, they sought India's textiles. The addit on to the English language of terms such as calice. madras, muslin, chintz and khaki is evidence in itself of the importance of this trade. In return, Europe offered nothine Indians wanted except gold and silver. Had it not been fo; the flood of p S metal coming from Americas, the drain on Europe's treasure would have hZ serious economic consequence. This early trade was economically beneficial to InH But under the shadow of industrial revolution in the 18th century the fi v l " manufactures, through their cunning agents in the East India ComDanv f ^ colonies as ready markets for their goods. For this a virtual war on Indin. T especially on textiles, was waged in which, along with Dacca and u ? 'ut^'Tl' thousand of textile villages and lakhs of working hands were r^in'n 1 ' dust. Millions of Indian weavers, metal workers and glass blower, t^ „o ' " , a few of the crafts effected, were uprooted and forced back to the land w ^ . h " ' more or less usurped by the newly established zamindary s y s t e ' j n l w ^ ^ virtually required to buy British product and to raise cash m 1^^"^^''"

The British Interlude: Dark and Clownish 151

cotton, jute, nuts, tea and pepper to pay for the imports. The economic progress of India was halted and reversed during the interlude.

India, in the eighteenth century, was a great manufacturing as well as a great agricultural country. The produce of the Indian loom supplied the markets of Asia and of Europe. The East India Company and the British Parliament, following the selfish commercial policy, discouraged Indian manufacturers in the early years of British rule in order to promote rising manufacturers of England. Their fixed policy, pursued during the last decades of the 19th century was to make India subservient to the industries of Great Britain, and to make the Indian people grow raw produce only, in order to supply material for the looms and factories of Great Britain. This policy was pursued with unwavering resolution and with fatal success; orders were sent out to force Indian artisans to work in the company's factories; commercial residents were legally vested with extensive powers over villages and communities of Indian weavers; prohibitive tariffs excluded Indian silk and cotton goods from England; English goods were admitted into India free of duty or on payment of a nominal duty.

To add insult to injury, a half backed colonial education was imposed on India to erase the memory of her past awarenesses in arts and in social living. The British administration, coarsely geared to the enrichment of the Crown and its white subjects, wiped out all traces of goodwill, co-operation, sympathy, aparigrah, honesty and efficiency from the physical realms of India. In legal and judicial realms, the Christian mind, inherited by the British, rekindled its energy to per­secute—an energy richly experienced thruijigh persecuting the Jews since ages—the owner of the land that is the people of India. The Christian missioneries were flooded into the vast rural side to prey upon the lush pastures of faith and riches in antiquities. But, except for the unaccounted plunder of the gold in the form of Indian art, the Christian mind drew blank on the vast social texture which was too complex to be descerned and attacked by the mind sinning and praying alternatively. India could not be converted into rail roads of Christianity.

In short, the British interlude was a cruel celebration of the culmination of an intrusion stinking with treacherous violence. It was an anti-body in the realm of civilization, which was formed on a historical pattern of rejection of human efforts to good, faithful, and beautiful living in the kingdom of God. The British people had previously threw three golden occasions, to be civilized, to winds. These occa­sions are as under : (I) At the time of Christ's birth preachers of Mithraism from Iran who were the first to introduce the idea of morals to the Romans reached the British Isles to instil in its habitants, who led a life of stark backwardness, the difference of good and evil, right and wrong. The Mithra-followers erected temples in various parts of England, whose remnants are to be seen in the British museum. But the low state of mental growth made them unworthy of this healthy civilizing efforts. Needless to mention, Mithraism in Iran owed its origin to the great Vedic conceptual God Mitra. (II) Next came Romans to civilize England. But the only utility they could divine from this distant border of their empire was to ship thousand English boys and girls every year to be sold as slaves in Roman markets. (Ill) The

152 India: A Cultural Voyage

third wave of civilization which touched the shores of England in vain was the preaching of Christianity in or about the 7th century A.D. But the container was too small to accommodate Christ's unbounded catholicity. Sticking to the prevail­ing pratice of idol-worship, a few superstitious beliefs, and useless sectarian con­flicts, the inhabitants of the British Isles learnt little from the noble Jesus.

England was singularly unfortunate in not being profited by the Arab civili­zing influence during their domination over Europe from the Black sea to the Atlantic. Europe had never seen better days in the advancement of science, medicine, education, arts and industry. The centres of education throughout Europe were, at that time, vibrant with Arab learning. It was a quirk of destiny that the British Isles remained plunged into 'darkness' for five long centuries. In other words, ideas of good and evil, of right and wrong, namely, the ideals of morality, which had been rooted in India for thousand of years, due to Vedic, Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain heritages, attracted natural enmity in the British mind when it came into contact with those ideals on Indian soil. The British advent was the invasion of avarice and foul ambition, perjury and forgery. Willian Howitt talks of the invasion shrouded in the barbarous system of territorial acquisition in the following words :

"The mode by which the East India Company has possessed itself of Hindustan, is the most revolting and unchristian that can possibly be conceived. . . Whenever we talk of British faith and integrity, the other nations may well point to India in derisive scorn. . . The system, which for more than a century was steadly at work to strip the native princes of their dominions and that too under the most sacred pleas of right and expediency, is a system of torture more exquisite than regal and spiritual tyranny ever before discovered, such as the world has nothing similar to show."

The British philosopher, Herbert Spencer didciphered the moral standing of the Raj in India five or six years before the first war of Indian independence in 1857, and reached a conclusion worth recording :

"The Anglo-Indians of the last century whom Burke described as 'birds of prey and passage to India' showed themselves only a shade less cruel than their prototypes of Peru and Mexico. Imagine, how black must have been their deeds when even the Directors of the Company admitted that the vast fortunes acquired in the inland trade must have been obtained by the most tyrannical and oppressive conduct that was ever known in any age or country. . . The English compelled the natives to buy or sell, at just what rates they pleased, on pain of flogging or confine­ment. Describing a journey of his, Warren Hastings says: Most of the petty towns and serais were deserted at our approach. . . Always some muddled stream was at hand as a pretext for official wolves. . . Down to our own days (1851), are continu­ed the grievous salt monopoly and the pitiless taxation that wring from the poor ryots nearly half the produce of the soil. Down to our own day, the police authori­ties in league with wealthy scamps, allow the machinery of the law to be used for the purposes of taxation. And down to our own day, it is common with the people in the interior to run into the woods at the sight of a European."

The British Interlude: Dark and Clownish 153

The British Raj in India was trained, from the very start, in mighty vices. The great aim and object of the servants of the Company and the Crown, from the high civil and military functionaries downwards, was to squeeze as large as possible a fortune out of India as quickly as might be, and turn their back upon it for ever, so soon as that object had been achieved. In perfect truth had it been said that the sub­jugate race found the little finger of the Raj thicker than lions of the worst and most dissolute of their native kings and princes. The British Raj symbolised absolute power far outgrowing its moral strength and appeared like an exaggerated giraffe whose head was suddenly placed miles away from the rest of its body. To borrow poet Tagore's visualisation, "this greedy head with its huge dental organisation, had been munching all the topmost foliage of the world." But the nourishment was too late in reaching its digestive organs; and its heart, if it had any, suffered from want of blood. The enormity of its material success diverted all its attention toward self-congratulation on its false bulk. Its optimism went on basing the calculations of its imperial fortune upon the indefinite lengthening of its railways to conquer and subjugate. It had no fear of the chasm, which grew wider between its riches and the hungry humanity. The logic of the British Raj never knew that under the bottom of its endless wealth and pleasure, a thing called nature was hatching earthquakes to restore the balance of the moral world. Equally, it never knew that a day will come wheh the gaping gulf will draw into its bottom the structure of global lust and power. With dead will and numb thoughts, and automatic movements the British Raj alighted in India as an abstraction of destructive forces, brutal and mechanical, having no relation to human truth. It dehumanised commerce and politics of India. Knowledge and skill that were once servants of man, became man himself, causing an aesthetic revulsion in Indian social order with virulent self-seeking, and several other moral perversions as deadly after-effects. The British raj was a prolonged infliction of barrenness of moral insensibility upon a large tract of India's living nature. It was an antibody in the womb of Indian civilization.

The British Raj in India was 'unbelievably evil'. The vast panorama of fertility and creativity ignited man's energy in the 'invading' Aryans to produce a glorious culture in assimilation. Mention is made about two other invasions before Alexander knocked at our door. A courageous Assyrian Empress Semiranis crossed Baluchistan in 800 B.C. to conquer India. But she had to run back for her life from the Sindhu river with twenty survivors. The second invasion was by Kuru (Cyrus) of Iran who is placed among the greatest conquerors of Asia. The builder of vast Iranian empire, Kuru had to flee back, again from the Sindhu river, left with seven survivors. The fate of the matchless conqueror Alexander is well known. The assaults of Shakas and Huns resulted either in their settling down as friends of assimilative spirit of India, or in their fleeing back as enemies. The Huns, whose terror trampled Europe and caused the Chinese emperors to erect 2000 mile long wall to avert their wrath, were driven out by Rajyavardhan without much effort.

But in British intrusion was hidden an invisible invasion. They came as vendors and settled down as conquerors. The trust and faith in India's nature presented a suitable condition for the British to intrigue and as?>wnie the fofm of an empire. It

J54 India: A Cultural Voyage

were the uncivilized Gauls and the Vandals who shattered the highly civilized Romans to pieces, and for ever. The Tatars and the Mughals devastated the glory of Baghdad and Iran. The most prosperous and articulate Greeks were destroyed by semi-nomads of Central Asia. The camouflaging of political intrigues and objec­tives under the cover of trade was never practised by India throughout her long exis­tence. Trade in India has always been synonym of goodwill. This conquest by com­merce was the 'unbelievable evil'. Never before India had any reason to distrust the pledged word of any foreigner. Here, treaties and royal proclamations always carried sanctity. And Asiatic monarchs who came in contact with India always reciprocated the virtue. But it was not so with the British. While impeaching Warren Hastings, before the British Parliament, Edmund Burke declared, "There is not a single treaty entered into by the British with any one in India, which they (the British) did not subsequently violate."

The British Raj in India was violation of all human values on an unprecedented scale. From the beginning it sought to nip at the vitals. At the time of the contact, India was not only self-sufficient. The vast majority of goods displayed and offered for sale in the world arena belonged to Indian origin. Till the onset of the 19th century, Indian ships were found to be more beautiful, stronger and more durable. Earlier in Mughal days, majority of the ships that plied between China and Japan on one side and South Africa on the other used to be built in Indian harbours, particularly in Gujarat. From Mexico in the far west to England in the west Indian manufacture sailing on Indian ships was exported to all the then civilized part of the earth. Countries as widely placed as Iran, Turkey, Syria, Arabia, Ethiopia and many others eagerly awaited the welcome arrival of the fabulous silk from Gujarat. Travellers of the period furnish evidence to the fact that the consumption of cloth in India was extraordinarily high. Almost all the people of upper and middle strata used to put on silk.

According to Abul Fazl, Emperor Akbar sent for silk artisans from distant China and some other countries. And with their help the Emperor established big silk centres financed by the throne at Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur, Ahmedabad and other places. The prosperity of India at the time of the British intrusion is attested by the most impressive presences of cities like Agra, Kannauj, Patna, Ujjain Ahmedabad, Ajmer, Surat, Vijaynagar, Golkunda, Bijapur, Multan, Dacca Murshidabad, Lahore, Delhi and Allahabad—all of them densely populated and beautiful, all of them bigger and wealthier than contemporary London or Paris In urban awareness India was miles ahead. Regular and periodical census operaf ' was unknown in Europe of those days. India had already introduced gathering estimate ofthe population through counting houses and their inhahltanfc T r> the then capital of Bengal, there lived 1,200,000 people-a n, J h l t - u ' much less than that of London in 1930. From Surat n j T . ' ' " ° ^ the European travellers found amazing density of v i lLe . . H ° ? " T ^° ^ ' ' ' ' prosperous. Till the onset of the 19th centurv renref . . T l ' ^ '^^^ ""^ Company wrote, time and again, to their mast 's n v T T l °^ '^' ^''' '"^ '^

uicir masters in England that "textiles made

The British luterhide: Dark and Clownish 155

in England could find no market in India as they could not compare with those made in India."

Before the British advent in this country contacts with other civilizations, through trade and commerce and religion, proved to be rich exercises in cultural extensions for partners. This time India trembled under the impact of dark and clownish interlude. But ruinous as it was, the British Raj provoked the divine resilience in satyagraha. The regimentation of commercial Christian power was broken through a profoundly modest subtility called non-violence and truth. The Whiteman was soon found out that he was burdened with evil, and not with the good "whose sky is clear, which is devoid of heat, which hides a sun in its bosom, protects the thirsty, keeps wells of cool waters replenished, and invites men and women to fill their jars with life."

This was in Asia where these tender sympathies were blossoming into Christia­nity. This was Asia which produced Gandhi, the fore-runner of the great awakening. He was preceded by a succession of waves of sanity against the dark interlude in the person of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna, Tilak, Vivekanand and Daya-nand. Non-violence was reborn with a vigour unknown hetherto. Once more in India "the heaven was brought on earth and the earth was transformed into heaven." A religious ferver, seeped in freedom of body and soul, shook a resurgent India. She announced a peerless opposition to the chaos hatched by British intellect. Her ferver saw beyond galloping frontiers of science and created several workshops to process the union of matter and mind in order to enable life to exist in dignity. Brhamo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission, Namdhori, Satnamiy Mujahidten^ Raidasiy Tukarami, and a host of other forces joined in the great experiment of freedom. The dominant Christian drive for conversion armed with the power and authority of the Crown collapsed at the gate of non-co-operation erected by aparigraha. Simultaneously, a thunder was awake in 1857. There was to be the unity between the 'Bread' and the 'Lotus',

Thus speaks royal Piyadasi, Of the gods beloved, To his many subject nations. Peoples he has loved : I have carved on rocks and pillars Rules my men obey. And my Dhamma malamatras Point to them the way. Royal highways in my empire Are by mangoes shaded, Wells and inns refresh and cheer The thirsty and the jaded. But a mission greater, holier— To refresh the soul To relieve the thirsty heart. And comfort bring to all !

FROM THE EIGHT PILLAR EDICT.

11 The Bread and the Lotus

The 1857 revolt aptly defined as the FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE against the British domination adopted the Bread and the Lotus as its symbol. This was a new birth of unity in Indian diversity to fight for the most cherished ideal of the ancient land. In this, the matter and spirit fused into a militant union proclaiming the twin facts of life that, (a) India does not live by spirituality alone, and (b) India loves to live the glory of 5uW//flr//7rt even in the face of death. The Bread and the Lotus combined strength and dedication to defend India's freedom from the parasitic invasion of the British mercantile civilization. The defeat of the 1857 revolt does not eliminate the basic fact that it was the first upsurge in the thunder by Indian's self-respect. In it, a sleeping volcano was awake. The apparent zig-zag in the Indian diversity assumed the form of a vertical torrent composed of Indian pride. It hammered ihtfirangi r«/the hardest. The flame of 1857 carved out the basic unity of Indian mind in the sharpest relief, as it licked the entire land from Kashmir to Peshawar with a new fire of burning love for the land. Its long leap drew a gold-Iming in the kingdom of darkness. Freedom is not negotiable was the cry of the Bread and the Lotus. And in no time, India found a leader, a flag and an aim to defend her freedom. It was the proud anxiety for freedom that burst forth like a lightening in Calcutta and Meerut, Kanpur and Lucknow, Allahabad and Jhansi. As the flame grew in its defiance, its spirit of unity and self-sacrifice got increasingly blessed by religious and military loyalties. Hindus and Muslims, princes and commoners declared Bahadur Shah to be the Emperor of India. In other words, it was a declaration that India is one in its composite awareness, and shall keep the promise to defend the ancient unity no matter how big the sacrifice.

158 - " '" • ^ Cultural Voyage

It was on November 1, 1859, after the suppression of the 1857 revolt, that the reigns of India passed from the hands of Emperor Bahadur Shah to that of Victoria to be known as the "Empress of India". This change in power was a coup d'etat by foreign group against the acknowledged suzerain. After full eighty-eight years of this domination, India regained her Independence in 1947. Eighty-eight years (or even one hundred and eighty-eight years, if we count from the Battle of Plassey), are hardly a long period, specially in the history of a country of hoary antiquity such as India. Imperialism and the domination of one people over another is bad, and so is racia­lism. But when they unite, they can only lead to horror and ultimately to a degrada­tion of all concerned. The future historians of England will have to consider how far England's decline from her proud eminence was due to her imperialism and racialism which corrupted her public life and made her forget the lessons of her own history and literature.

But India was not to forget lessons of her own history to live in peace and with honour. Despite the defeat in 1857, India did not let her banner of revolt against the British imperialism perish. Only thirteen years after Queen Victoria declared herself to be the 'Empress of India', there occurred the great Kuka rebellion in Punjab under the leadership of Guru Ram Singh, the spiritual leader of the Namdhari Sikhs. In this rebellion thousands of men were arrested, packed in especial railway trains and deported to Bengal for the crime of patriotism. Their suspected mass murder and burial in Sunderbans or drowning in the Bay of Bengal, later on, bloomed in the golden birth of heroic revolutionaries of Bengal. The leader of the Namdharis, Guru Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon who breathed his last in the same house which, a few years earlier, witnessed the hapless end of the last Mughal Emperor. Guru Ram Singh's assertion to freedom was a non-violent movement, a satyagrah. He preached the boycott of British education, courts, services, even railways and postal communi­cations. The Namdhari freedom fighters utilised non-British means of transportation and conveyance to spread their message of freedom from place to place.

The Kuka rebellion was mercilessly crushed. On its ashes was born the move­ment of Mujahideens in parts oflJ.P. and Bihar under the leadership of famous muslim divines. Shah Waliullah and Shah Azizullah of Delhi. Year after year thous­ands of freedom fighters journeyed through villages from north to north-west to spread their message of freedom and honour. Against the brute force of imperialist terror, the movement received sustinence from its deep faith in righteousness and ultimate victory of the cause. The last of the Mujahideens, a Maulvi of Bareilly was hanged in 1880. And only five years later was founded the Indian National Congress, a common platform of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Parsees and all others. This unity of incipient vastness in freedom struggle was countered by the British through a cunning in fomenting communal dissensions. The British Raj partitioned Bengal in 1905 India checked this nefarious move by advancing the leadership of Tilak who roused the whole country, politically and culturally, as no movement had done since 1857 The sixteenth of October 1905 was the day on which Bengal was partitioned. On every October 16, after that, hundred of thousands of Hindus and Muslims tied Rakhis with the eternal Indian faith that bhai thai ek hain; and that they cannot be parti

The Bread and the Lotus 159

tioned. The partition of Bengal had to be annulled in 1911. The British had to retrace their enemical design.

In this act of annulment the reawakening of Bengal played no less a significant role. Bengal was the first to be inflicted by agrarian, technical, educational and intellectual changes designed to further the objectives of British dominance over India. From this background there arose many a remarkable men in Bengal who led the rest of India in her cultural renaissance, the fountain of freedom struggle. Bengal had already experienced the glory of Hindu reform movement such as those enlightened by Chaitanya. In the second half of the nineteenth century Bengal once again witnessed the tradition of loving faith and service to humanity strengthened by the most remarkable man of saintly character, Ramakrishna. Still earlier in the eighteenth century, another towering personality had risen there. He was Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a new type, combining in himself the old learning and the new aware­ness. Deeply versed in the Indian thought and philosophy, a scholar in Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic, he was a product of the composite culture. In order to fathom the West, Ram Mohan Roy learnt English, Greek, Latin and Hebrew. He was also attracted by the scientific aspect of western civilization. More than a scholar and an investigator, he was a reformer. He tried to reform Hinduism by motivating people to get rid of abuses and evil practices that had crept in her ancient way of life. It was largely due to his agitation that the evil tradition of suttee was abolished—a tradition which was, in all probability, inherited from Scytho-Tartars whose vassals and liegemen were accustomed to killing themselves on the death of their lord. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the founders of the Indian press which served the cause of freedom through the fire of hell.

This period of incipient renaissance advised us not to ignore constructive thinking since our social and spiritual ideals built during the past several thousand years needed replenishment. We became acutely conscious of our social inadequacies. We intended to cry halt to our total dependence on our ancestors who were presumed to be in possession of superhuman vision of all eternity and supernatural power for making infinite provision for future ages. For our miseries and shortcomings we stopped holding responsible the historical surprises that burst upon us from outside. We became clear in our vision that no political miracle of freedom can be built upon the quicksand of social slavery. We became conscious not to dam up the true course of our own historical stream by borrowing power from the sources of other people's history and culture. We got involved in the process of liberating ourselves from delusion that mere political freedom would make us free. We began loosing our faith m this gospel truth of the West. We started coming out of the shadow of intertia which led us to our idolatory of dead forms in social institutions. We came to stand on a new pedestal where we learnt afresh to mingle our blood for common freedom. We prepared ourselves to do away with all those social restrictions which carried tyranni­cal stink and made life a senseless burden. We resolved to carry our head high with total sensibility to others' freedom and social needs. We began making our social structure mobile and living. We decided to defeat the infamous memo of Macaulay to create "a new class which was to be Indian in blood and colour^^^ English in

160 India: A Cultural Voyage

taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect". This was the awakening to be further fortified by Bankim and many others with titan-like intellect and appealing creativity.

India began recovering from after-effects of the revolt of 1857. Despite British policy, powerful forces were at work changing India. A new social consciousness began arising. The political unity of India, contact with the West, technological advances, and even the misfortune of common subjection led to new currents of thought, the slow development of industry and the rise of new movement for national freedom. This awakening was two fold : India looked at herself and her own past and, at the same time, she looked to the West. Politically, India seemed to take up a historic stand in organising the Indian National Congress in 1885. In the realm of ideas there was shock and change, a widening of the horizon. The Brahmo Samaj influenced the rising bhadro class of Bengal, which, though ardently interested in social and religious reform, tended to go back to the ancient Indian philosophic ideals o^ \\iQ Vedanta. Elsewhere in India similar tendencies were at work. One of the most notable reform movements was started in the second half of the nineteenth century by a Gujarati, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, which took its roots among the Hindus of the Punjab. It developed with its slogan 'back to the Vedas'. It was a crusading and reforming movement from within. The British government considered it as a politi­cally revolutionary movement. It did good work in spreading education both among boys and girls, in improving the condition of women, and raising the status and standard of depressed classes.

This resurgence of India witnessed, at about the same time, a different type of person who lived in Bengal. He was Shri Rama Krishna Paramhansa, a simple man of faith in a direct line with Chaitanya and other Indian saints. Stressing the essen­tials of religious faith, he emphasized that all religious roads lead to truth. A man with a touch of the divine fire about him, Shri Ramakrishna's personality impressed itself on all who saw him or only learnt the story of his life. The French philosopher-writer Roraain Rolland was one of his disciples. The mantle of Ramakrishna came to fall on Swami Vivekananda. A powerful orator and a graceful writer, a fine figure of a man, imposing, full of poise and dignity, sure of himself and his mission and also full of dynamic and fiery energy and passion to push India forward, Sv.'ami Viveka­nanda came as a tonic to the depressed and demoralised Hindu mind and gave it self-reliance and some roots in the past. He attended the parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893, spent one year in the U.S.A , travelled across Europe, China, and Japan. Wherever he went, he created a minor sensation not only by his presence but a/so by his eloquence and wisdom. The 'cyclonic Hindu' preached the monism of the advaita phWoi^ophy and was convinced that only this could be the future religion of thinking hum-dniiy. He used to say : 'This universe has not been created by any cxtra-

.nnrCind nor is liic work of any outside gcnm, It is self-creating, self-dissolving,

lisj III lll)''^/ '^ \ .:.•., /lu./wi vcnnHlion o l l l l^ '" ^

pi'" •

The Bread and the Lotus 161

well-being. Where it does not exist, the man, the race, the nation must go . . . The only hope of India is from the masses. The upper classes are physically and morally dead". He wanted to combine the western progress with India's spiritual identity—a combination of the Bread with the Lotus. He was a contemporary internationalist with his roots in the Upanishadic belief : vasudhaiva kutunibakam. He said, "There cannot be any progress without the whole world following in the wake, and it is becoming everyday clearer that the solution of any problem can never be attained on racial, or national, or narrow grounds. Every idea has to become broad till it covers the whole of this world, every aspiration must go on increasing till it has engulfed the whole of humanity, nay, the whole of life, within its scope". One of the constant refrains of his speech and writing was abhaya, fearlessness, strength, as, for him, man was no miser­able sinner but a part of divinity. Vivckanand thundered from Cape Comorin on (he southern tip of India to the Himalayas, and he wore himself out in the process, dying in 1902 when he was only thirty-nine.

A contemporary of Vivekanand, and yet belonging much more to a later genera­tion, was Rabindranath Tagore. His family consisted of men of spiritual stature and fine writers and artists who played a leading part in various reform movements in Bengal during the nineteenth century. But Rabindranath towered above them all, and indeed all over India. His position gradually became one of an unchallenged supere-macy. His long life of creative activity covered two generations. He played a promi­nent part in the Swadeshi movement that swept Bengal in the first decade of the twentieth century, and again when he gave up his knighthood at the time of the Amritsar massacre. His quiet and constructive work in the field of education blossom­ed into Shantiniketan, one of the focal points of Indian culture. His influence over the minds of Indians, specially of succeeding generations, has been tremendous. All modern languages, including Bengali, in which he wrote, have been moulded by his writings. He has been India's internationalist par excellence with his feet firmly plant­ed on India's soil and his mind saturated v/ith the wisdom of the Upanishads. Strong individualist as he was, with his age advancing he became more radical in his outlook and view and became a great admirer of the great achievements of the Soviet Revolu­tion, especially in the spread of education, culture, health, and the spirit of equality. Tagore's influence on Indian mind was the most pleasing light, as if, from the full moon inspiring people to come out of their narrow grooves of thought and to enjoy broader issues aftecting wider horizons of humanity.

Tagore and Gandhi brought us to our present age. These two outstanding and dominating figures make the twentieth century more meaningful not only for India, but for the world. No two persons could be dilTcrcnt from one another in their tem­perament and make up. Tagore, the aristocratic artist, turned democrat with prole­tarian sympathies, symbolised essentially the cultural tradition in its entire fulness. Gandhi, more a man of masses, an embodiment of the Indian peasant, symbolised another ancient tradition of India, that of renunciation and asceticism. Tagore primarily a man of thought and Gandhi of ceaseless activity, both were inspired by the lofty world outlook and both were wholly Indian. They complemented each other in the play of dynamic harrnony between the Lotus and the Bread.

J 2 India: A Cultural Voyage

In the face of western thrust of material-induslrial culture, India evoked her past and received laudable sustenance by a renewed study of ancient literature and history. Some Westerners like Annie Besant added confidence to Hindu middle class in their spiritual and national heritage. There was a spiritual and religious element about all this, and yet there was a strong political and cultural background to it. India was stirred to utilize the memory of her past greatness with a common heritage of all the Indian people, Hindu, Muslim, Christian and others whose ancestors had helped to build the mansion. The fact of subsequent conversion to other faiths, though marginally, did not deprive them of this heritage. Just as the Greek did not lose their pride in the mighty achievements of their ancestors after their conversion to Christianity, or the Italians in the great days of the Roman Republic and early empire. Much of this was common to the Muslim masses who were well acquainted with these traditions. But the upper classes in them did not like to associate them­selves with these religious-cultural traditions believing that such an association would go against the spirit of Islam. They began searching for the national roots in the Afghan and Mughal periods of India, but this could not fill the vacuum. It is signi­ficant to note that Akbar, whom the Hindu especially admired, has not been appro­ved of by the Mushm upper classes. Some years later when, the 400th anniversary of his birth was celebrated in India, all classes of people, including many Muslims joined, but the Muslim League kept aloof because Akbar symbolised unity of India.

The hesitation of this section of the Indian Muslim about choosing the Indian path of unity symbolised in Ashok and Akbar, led them to grope in the history of the Islamic past made of conquests and creativity. For this they looked towards Baghdad, Spain, Constaintinople, Central Asia and elsewhere. But these places by then were already pushed to the oblivion leaving no trace of inspiration for the faith­ful. Even the Khalifa tradition stood fragmented. The Mughal Emperors in India recognised no Khalifa or spiritual superiors outside India. It was after the collapse of the Mughal power early in the nineteenth century that the name of the Turkish Sultan began to be mentioned in Indian mosques. This practice was confirmed after the mutiny and reflected the lack of confidence in Muslim psyche The British gradually recognised a cruel potency in defeatism prevailing in the Muslim upper classes, and, in due course they utilized it to foment senaratism in which they succeeded and left a stinking memory of their policv of M" 'H and rule'. ^ uivide

This class among Indian Muslims threw a leadership in shane ^^ ^' ^ A Ahmed Khan. He was an ardem reformer and a rationalist i n t e ' L f r r , ' scripture He founded the Aligarh College which, later, d e v o S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ and declared as one of its objects to make the Mussalmans of T ^ ' " ' ' ' ' ' y ' useful subjects of the British crown. Needless to point out that 1 ^ T ' ^ ^ ' " ^ was already sowed here though unseen and unchallenged h v ! . " °^ P^'*^^^''" especially the Muslim masses. Sir Sycdgotthe Muslim n ^ i,^ People of India, the carriage of world awakening, stuffed^lh dry h e t ^ o / t ' ^ ^' the back of age moved faster, the traveller on ^he mmsy seat g T t h t : ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

The Bread and the Lotus 163

the trap of alien protection, known in contemporary context as imperialism of the British variety. But Sir Syed was not the sole interpreter of Islamic tradition. Abul Kalam Azad, an attractive mixture of medieval scholasticism, eighteenth century rationalism, and the modern outlook, spoke in a new language to Islamic intelli­gentsia. Tense and virile, Azad's new phrases for new ideas did not sound favourable to the older and the conservative millieu. And the Muslim dynamism in India, even today, seems to swing as a pendulum between Sir Syed and Maulana Azad with their distinct and different cultural vibrations.

In the formation of the Indian National Congress (1885), the country found an organisation through which she gave vent to her national pride and aspiration. India began remoulding her soul in the slow but steady fire of patriotism commonly known as Congress or freedom struggle. The Indian National Congress which began as a fragile revulet gathered momentum to become a gentle colosus in the near future. A new army of political activists, thinkers, poets, revolutionaries, orators, artists, and organisers, all dedicated to selfless sacrifices for India's freedom began trickling down the gentle course of the rivulet. The attitude on the part of the British led the fighting segment of the Congress to form a militant faction which under the leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) transformed the organisation from a gentlmen's pressure group into the spearhead of an active and forceful independent movement. It was under Tilak's leadership that the concept of Piiran Swarajya was declared as an immediate objective of Indian nationalism. Tilak was the seasoned impulse of India's past and present.

From this seasoned impulse to a revealed one was India's climb up from Tilak to Gandhi. The emergence of Gandhi in the Indian firmament was the greatest event of its time. It was time of World War I. It was time of British counterpoise and balance and suppression. It was time when, 'in Assam tea, the sweat, hunger, and dispair of a million Indians entered year by year'. (Report of the British Trade Union Congress, 1928). It was the time of repressive legislation, martial law in Punjab and a national humiliation. And this was the time when Gandhi came like a powerful current of fresh breeze, like a beam of light, like a whirlwind. He seemed to emerge from the millions of Indians, speaking their language and telling all the rest in the world to get off the back of these peasants and workers, to get rid of the system that produces poverty and misery. With Gandhi's human touch the issue of political freedom took a democratic shape and spiritual content. He taught fearlessness which comes out ©faction based on truth. India was no doubt in the grip of fear, fear of the army, the police, the secret services; the fear of the moneylender, unemployment and starvation. It was against all pervasive fear that Gandhi stood like the Himalayas. He raised his quiet and determined voice : Be not afraid.

Gandhi fulfilled the function of a leader defined by Janaka and Yajnavalka at the dawn of our civilization to make people fearless. He gave the country a political culture totally in tune with our ancient moorings and present aspirations. It was satyagraha based on ahimsa. He taught us afresh to realise the soul force which proved stronger than all the might of the British empire. His teaching permeated every pore of our national struggle and emanated with every breath of mass move-

164 - " ' ^ ^ Cultural Voyage

ments launched against the alien domination. Buddha fearlessly carried the war into the enemy's camp and brought down on its knees an arrogant priesthood. Christ drove out the money changers from the temple of Jerusalem and drew down curses from Heaven upon the hypocrites and the Pharisees. And both of them showed unmistakable gentleness and love behind every act of theirs. Similarly, Gandhi, follow-wing the footsteps of great teachers, raised resistance of non-violent character and began pulling down the satanic conceit of the British empire, bor him life was an inspiration. Never lowering the ideal, he hooked the country's fortunes to ahimsa the law of love. It resulted in daily lessening of the circle of destruction. He warned Indian people not to drown in the well of the shastras but to dive in their broad ocean and bring out pearls. The road leading up to God is for the brave, never for the cowardly. Gandhi's ahimsa presupposed ability to strike. It was a conscious, deliberate restraint put upon one's desire for vengeance, as vengeance is weakness. A man who fears no one on earth would consider it troublesome even to summon up anger against one who is vainly trying to injure him.

Gandhi was a startling phenomenon for the majority of the mankind reeling under the spell of the doctiinc of the sword. The enigmatic leader in him raged stormy controversy throughout the world. To some he was a 'supreme humbug', a 'mad man', a 'half-naked fakir', a 'self deluded visionary'. To others he appeared to be the holy one. In Tagore's view, (who by no means agreed with all his teachings), he was not only the greatest man in India, but the greatest on earth. Gandhi raised the voice of the poor, the down-trodden, the humble and the crushed in a manner of truth that sent ripples in the vast multitudes living not only in India, but in all parts of the world, especially Asia, Africa and Latin America—the parts of the earth which groaned under the heels of Western imperialism. Gandhi's creed of ahimsa electrified Indian people with an extremely active force. The national stigma of helplessness before the brute might was being washed away by the successive waves of non-co­operation movements led by Gandhi. British jails remained no more the symbol of coersion and fear. They became destinations of supreme sacrifices for freedom. A super-human or a god or demon of energy and action, Gandhi raised a cultural army of dedicated satycgrahis who embraced Indian villages with their fearless hearts. The country-side hummed with the new gospel of action. These pilgrimages to the quies­cent rural universe engineered by Gandhi proved to be a unique drill. A daily in­creasing army of freedom fighters began giving this universe authentic lessons in Indian economics, justice, ethics, politics and culture. The Indian villages in turn woke up out of their stupor and static condition. This was the freedom strueale whirh also set about to restore the spiritual unity of the people and to break the b between the small westernised group at the top and the large masses Thi. T ,^^\ about to discover the living elements in the old roots and to build unon i "f'^ ^ ^ cept of Ramrajya wherein none may live in fear of any kind ThJc .1 . ^^"" an identification with the masses-a vast and varied mul ifn^! f j ' " ' ^ ' ' ^ ' • ' ^ ^ ^ strength, the like of which is not to be seen in the entire h t T ^" ^"^^^»"8 ments. ""^^ * ' tory of modern move-

Gandhi gave a new political religion to the Indian and to the mankind. Essenti-

The Bread and the Lotus 165

ally a Hindu to the inner most depths of his being and sanatani, Gandhi's conception of religion had nothing to do with any dogma or custom or ritual. While speaking to the federation of International Fellowship in January, 1928, he said, ''After long study and experience I have come to these conchtsions that: (a) all religions are true, {b) all religions have some error in them, (c) all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism. j\fy venerations for other faiths is the same as for my own faith. Consequently the thought of conversion is impossible. . . Our prayer for others ought never to be "God give them light thou has given to me'\ But. "Give them all the light and truth they need for their highest development^ Even religion, as everything else, took second place in his passion to raise the dispossessed and the submerged. He used to say, "A semistarved nation can have neither religion, nor art, nor organisation. Whatever can be useful to starving millions is beautiful to my mind. Let us give today first the vital things of life, and all the graces and ornaments of life will follow ... I want art and literature that can speak to millions. For millions it is an eternal vigil or an eternal trance. My ambition is to wipe every tear from every eye'\ Gandhi synthesised the power ot the Bread and the Lotus in the mighty freedom struggle led by him in the ancient amphi­theater called India. A freedom struggle which taught us to learrange priorities of out

civilization. . , . Gandhi attempted to inject the moral strength embodied in non-violence into

the heart and head of the Indian masses which was hitherto supposed to be the exclu­sive and superhuman quality of saints and m/;/.. The m/;/., who discovered the law of non-violence in the midst of violence, were greater gemuses than Newton^ They were themselves greater warriors than Alexander. Having known the use of arms they r e Z d their uselessness a weary world that its salvation lay not thrLL^rviolcnce but through non-violence. Gandhi roused the people of India to mrougli violence Dui ' " ' f , . ,£ foj. freedom. The freedom struggle of practice th s moral principle in their struggle lor n^^ civiliza-

never lost her inteerity and there was always an organic completeness about tne e o i ; 1 a " o a ously named as Champaran, Dandi March, Non-cooperafon and Quit India, etc. Even in her apparent failure during th,s struggle Ind.a grew m

" " " ? s u s Christ Daniel and Socrates symbolised the purest form of passive resis-Jesus tnrist, uaniei duu briehtest modern exponent of the

tancc or soul-force. Tolstoy was th ^^st and he b"g ^^ ^^_^^ _ . ^ ^ ^ doetnne. Gandhi was «h« S^^-'V' mankind in L i a which is larger than life. This human principle to the pract.ee of the mankmd _ ^^^ ^.^^^^^^^ .^ ^^^

was India's genius that a good ^'^°''"\^'^',,^„oL. social and cultural life of the rnassive exercise of unchaining tne ponu^" , _^^ .^^_ T..A:^ .trove to rebuild a country. On the strength of this ^^'^'f^?^^^^^^^ psychic system in which, according to uanu ^^ . ^ J^.^^. .^ ^^^^^ all communities their country, in whose making they h^ve/i" _ ^^ ^^ . ^ ^ . ^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^at ^hall live in perfect harmony.' It was f ^ ^he nrst . ^ ^.^^.^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ y^^^ f ^ the poor was made equal partner on such a scale as

j , g India: A Cultural Voyage

nation. The movement for Indian independence desired to have no room for the curse ofuntouchability. It desired a world of its own, with its roots in the past, where women would enjoy the same right as men. This is the India of Gandhi's revolutionary dreams. Proud of his Hindu inheritance as he was, Gandhi's gigantic effort was to bestow India a kind of universal attire textured with all sparkles of truths from all religions. Refusing to narrow India's cultural inheritance, Gandhi emphasised, 'Indian culture is neither Hindu, Islamic, nor any other, wholly. It is a fusion of all. I want the culture of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet by any. I refuse to live in other people's houses as an interloper, a beggar or a slave.'

It was no surprise, therefore, that GandHi fascinated the masses of India and attracted them like a magnet. He seemed to them through the mirror of mass satyagrah to have linked up the past with the future by the golden chain of practising truth and non-violence. The present appeared, through the mirror, as the stepping stone to that future of hope. He gave the country the Congress culture—a vital and active political energy—full of self-confidence and rebellious maturity. The Congress culture symbolised India's independence and her unyielding opposition to slavery of all hue; a magnet to gather all people to build the grand edifice of India's future. Under this dynamic Congress culture, the public life of freedom fighters was, in the main, composed of able, earnest and patriotic men and women. This life reached beyond constitutionality. The Congress culture breathed revolutionary action, an action not connected with violence, secret intrigue and conspiracy—the easier indul­gences in short spurts of courage. Rather, this action involved cold-blooded courage and endurance of a high order demanding to give up, under the sole compulsion of one's own mind, almost every thing that life offers. Such an action was carried on in this way day after day, month after month and year after year. That was a test that few can survive any where in the world. It is to the credit of some basic flashes of Indian culture blown afresh during freedom struggle by Gandhi, that India, along with the vast army of 5a/;'flgra/n'5 stood the historic test heroically and successfullv Gandhi and the Congress became synonyms of a great human courage, self-sacrifice fortitute and wisdom. In Kabir's sensibility pregnant with contemporary understand­ing, India's people saw Gandhi and the freedom struggle, also termed as the Congress in the role of the guru and the govind, and wondered whom to give precedence! The Indian people shattered the insensitivity embodied in the twentieth centurv imn^Hn lism with a fresh knock of human destiny. ^

The mission of India's freedom struggle was not limited to the four wall, r f th . country. The patriotism taught by and practised under the leadershin of 0 . 1 1 not an exclusive affair. It was all embracing and consistent with the broa^e.? 7 ' r humanity at arge. Gandhi instilled a belief in the Indian people that dn. T f. to the family, to the country and to the world are interdependLnr u ''^^' country'sfreedomismeaninglessifit does not help promote t h ! r u ^ " ° ' ^ ' ' - ^ world combining greatest love with greatest opposiUon to wronf T r ' ' " ' "^ '^' tion engrained m our freedom struggle was neither with the W 1?'" '" ' '". ' '^ ' '^ ' West; It was with the system symptomatic to imperialist iZ^Z '''f' " ° ' ^'^^ '^^

1 iii>i tnought and action; it was

The Bread and the Lotus 167

with the material civilization and its attendant greed and exploitation of the weak both at home and abroad. India and its freedom, according to Gandhi, could be kept intact only if she had goodwill towards the whole of human family. India's freedom struggle was, from inception, dedicated to universal peace. It moulded the resurgent Indian mind in similar temper. In order to attain permanent peace on earth the engines of destruction have to be wholly renounced.

In ancient Indian vein and with massive inner force at his command, Gandhi made Indian people feel through the ordeal of freedom struggle that the ultimate end of universal peace lies with the spiritual growth of mankind. And, according to him, this was possible only when the soul-destroying competition between nations was also renounced. Indian freedom movement did not draw a sharp line between economics and ethics. The economics based on competition permit one country to prey upon another. It is immoral. It hides in its bosom the cause of the 20th century chaos, the system of exploitation 'of sister nations by sister nations'. Gandhi said : "I would destroy that system today, if I had the power". The Indian freedom struggle grew on negation to the 'craze' for machinery due to its deeply felt concern to the saddest fact that the machine tends to make atrophied the limbs of man; that it tends to help a few to ride on the burdened back of the millions. The famous British economist, G.D.H. Cole, while defining Gandhi, actually defines India's struggle for freedom when he says : 'Gandhi's compaign for the development of the home-made cloth industry is no more a fad of a romantic eager to revive the past, but a practical attempt to relieve the poverty and uplift the standard of the village.'This was the greatest cultural contribution by any Indian born on the Indian soil, except perhaps raj rishi Vishwaniitra, who is said to have undergone an unprecedented penance to create a new srishti for the underprivileged during an early staqe of human develop­ment. The freedom struggle of India forced every one to think of the poor in human terms, to realise that behind the glitter of a few cities lay the morass of misery and poverty, to grasp thQ fundamental fact that the true test of progress and freedom did not lie in the creation of a number of millionaires or prosperous professionals, or in the setting up of councils and assemblies, but in the change in the status and condi­tions of life of the poor. The British had created a new caste in India, the EngHsh-educated class, which lived in a vvorld of its own, cut off from the mainstream of the vast population and looked always, even when protesting, towards its rulers. The freedom struggle was a massive attempt to bridge the gap and force the new caste to turn its head and look towards its own people.

The philosophy of ihQ Bread and the Lotus translated into gospel action by Gandhi during'freedom struggle resulted in a spring of liberation from the British interlude sending its refreshing breezes to other parts of As.a, A r.ca and Latin Ary. ' ^ "' fa . jUg tract where she could'hold her head America. India was once again put on int iraci wuc high'.

**I will keep fresh the grassy paths, Where you walk in the morning, Where your feet will be greeted with praise at every step by the flowers eager for death. I will swing you in a swing among the branches of the saptaparna, Where the early evening moon will struggle to kiss your skirt through the leaves. I will replenish with scented oil the lamp That burns by your bedside, And decorate your footstoolVith Sandal and saffron paste in wondrous designs." "Your prayers are granted, my servant. You will be the gardener of my flower garden."

RABINDRANATH TAGORE

12 Rituraj : New India : The New Man

That was the rare moment when India stepped out from the old to the new. It was the midnight of the fifteenth of August 1947, when the victory of the Bread and the Lotus was proclaimed. It were similar moments when, long long ago, the Ganga descended on this earth, or when the ocean was churned to produce amrit. When the midnight ticked into the dawn, it was a rituraj in the great bosom of India where recent battles were fought and every blade of grass had a story to tell, often in blood and tears. The rituraj wiped out the blood and changed the tears into a new smile. It was India's independence. On that occasion it was gaiety all around. Like musicians sculpted in a Khajuraho or Konark frieze, the entire Indian people were exultant on their independence. The birds of new hopes flew over the lofty ranges and deep valleys, spralling cities and huddled villages. The birds of new hope wheeled over singing inqilab, solo and in chorus. It was a mass rejoicing. That day the cobbler and the tailor left awl and needle to join the great song of freedom. It was the day when all distinctions of caste, creed, religion and language melted into a glorious pride and self-respect. India once again regained her youth. Jan gan man proclaimed equality from the voice of the multitude. The mighty looked kindly at the man on the street. Independence became the best link language of the people. The grass looked greener. The whole people partook in the celebration, and dusted their lenses of racial memory; and they remembered feats performed by the heroes of yore. Grandfather, wiping the betel stain from the corner of his mouth declaimed on Gandhi, the father of Indian independence wondering at the grand succession of victories! On that day all the old people recognised the merit of the present. All young people rejoiced the past glittering with heroes and martyrs. A universal joy journeyed through the length and breadth of India announcing the message of 'a

j-yg India: A Cultural Voyage

tender humanity, a varied and tolerant culture, and a deep understanding of life and its mysterious ways.' That was the independence of India.

It was a new rituraj. The youth of India was regained once again. It was personification of all understanding and strength enshrined in India's moral and material achievements. It was the present with a glow to project itself in the future. The present was now no more caged and circumscribed. It was not to be any more an odd mixture of medievalism, appalling poverty and misery and superficial modernism. It was a new milestone in the great drive toward the masses in India, which commen­ced during the freedom struggle, and which culminated on that day into a great and real voyage of discovery. The victory showed more than was expected. Even after the battering of the past two hundred years the towns and villages of India reaffirmed that they were seats and centres of civilization where great revolts—material and spiritual—blazed up against tyranny and falsehood. There was a new elan of indepen-.dence on faces of sturdy and proud peasant; deft and skillful artisan and cottage worker; the Hindu and the Muslim. There was smile on the faces of wide spaces and high mountains and deep forests. India surged forward on a new horizon The' most powerful wave of unity in diversity was the dream born afresh

On the day of India's independence, all her children with infinite varietv smiled with the spirit of common outlook on life. Rising above trumpery m a t t o ' l r p ; ^ ^ dent India embraced her destiny to build the mansion of her new future the utu'e of a strong and a secular and a beautiful nation. The day of independence was 1 1 ^ 1 roar of \^elcome to Bliarat Mata, the good old earth with which her were wedded to since time immemorial. August fifteen 1047 ^ vigorous people Jawaharlal Nehru, whom Tagore described as'the Riturai . , ' ) ^ ^ , ^ ' ^ ^^y, when was no stranger. He was the man who had already been l ^°°^ °^^^' ^ ^ India through all the past travails. He was the man who ' "'"^^_^^ '* ^^^ heart of Mahatma Gandhi, certified as early as in 1929 : "In bra , . ^^^^er of the nation, Who can excel him in the love of the countrv *> A^7-f ' " ° ' ^ ° ^^ ^"^P^^^^^' rashness of a warrior, he has also the prudence of f ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ *^^ extremist, thinking far ahead of his surroundiV ^^R"^^" ' ^^ ^^ undoubtedly an practical enough not to force the pace to the breaki'rf • ^^ ' humble enough and is truthful beyond suspicion. He is a knight JA/IV nJ!,! ^°*"^* ^^ ^ P^re as crystal, he safe in his hands." It is like the universe b e i n / i n ' r " r''^'^"''"- ^he nation is will of the rose. " " ' " ' ' ' ' ^' '"S '" the safe lap of the spring, in the

India, on that day under the H to safeguard the inalienable right of her nennl^'^^'!l''^.°^^^''^^^''^' Nehru, pledged enjoy the M t s of their toil w L fulle onnf^^ to have freedom, to and spiritually. India, in her hard won Wdnr!!' ' i^^° T^ economically, culturally sons and daughters who suR-ered and s a c r i f i r p / . f °'^"'^' '^ grateful of all her of hundreds of brave youths who laid their i'"' ^ "'°^^^'"'^"d may be free; martyrs of Peshawar and the whole Frontier p . ^ the altar of freedom; of the Bombay; of scores of thousands who faced barbarn"'''"''^' ^^^^^P^r, Midnapur, and the enemy; of the men of the Garhwali Reoiment a i ""j^P'^'^'ons from the forces of and the police ranks, who refused, at the peril of'thrs? °!^^'" ^"^»a"s in the military

01 tn^ir own lives, to fire or take action

Rituraj : New India : The New Man ^^^

against their own countrymen. On her independence, India pledged to remain grateful of the indomitable peasants of Gujarat, who faced without flinching and turning back all manner of acts of terrorism, and of the brave and long suffering peasantry of the other parts of India, which took full part in the struggle; of the merchants' world, which helped at great loss to itself, especially in the boycotts of foreign cloth and British goods; of the one hundred thousand men and women who made voyages to cruel goals with songs of freedom on their lips; and especially of the ordinary volun­teer who, Hke a true soldier of India without care of fame or reward, thinking only of the great cause he loved, laboured unceasingly and peacefully through suffering and hardship. The new India pledged her deep admiration and homage to the awakened womanhood, who, in hour of peril for the motherland, forsook the shelter of home and, with unfailing courage and endurance, stood shoulder to shoulder with menfolk in the front line of the battle; and to the Vanar Sena whom even their tender age could not prevent from participating in the struggle and offering martyrs for the cause. Free India recorded her grateful appreciation of the fact that all major and minor communitiesand-classes joined together and gave best to the cause; of, particularly, the minority communtites—the Muslims, Sikhs, Parsis, Christians and others who by their valour and loyal devotion to common motherhood helped in building up an indissoluble nation, certain of victory.

On 15 August, 1947, India resolved to maintain her independence and to use this new freedom to remove the shackles of inequalities among all classes, and thus also to serve the larger cause of humanity. It was the victory of the Congress culture symbo­lised in Jawaharlal Nehru. It was a pledge against futile dogmas and rituals. It was a whisper o^racliana with deeper faith in man. It was a festival to accentuate truer lights in non-acquisitiveness, in non-violence, and in universal peace. There was a leap from the light of independence pregnant with promises to add new dimensions to art and architecture, to exact sciences, to literature in order to reach newer heights. It was a pledge to a new life, a life which is not moribund and is not locked in listless ponds of idle speculations. It was a new life in blooming youth with uncommon strength and determination not to succumb to indecencies like war and exploitation; a life which shall not be a mirage of pleasure and satiety, a life which shall be a great consumation of the Bread and the Lotus.

Nehru and the new man of free India are synonym. What this new man is supposed to be? It is definitely not to be the sectarian asbramite. Is he then 'ideal type* in the Weberian sense whose characteristics include performance of customary functions and duties fixed at birth, their working out through the four defined stages to a possible state of complete non-attachment and the resultant developne it of per­sonality in the pursuit oi'dharmal A potentially religious person with a greater amount of integration of personality, more poise and peace than are gi\e:i to the modern man? But this 'ideal type' is not possible due to drastic changes in modes and expansions of production, a typicahty of the present times. Then, is the n^w man the prototype of the outcome of Hindu-Muslim culture whose ideologies and ways of life are not materially different from those of the pre-Muslims period? The new man may not fit in the framework of anti-muslim or anti-foreign rebels symbolised in Rana

172 India: A Cultural Voyage

Pratap or Shivaji, as it is debatable if they could be identified with the ideal heroes like Bhishma, Arjun, oi Karan. Is then the new man going to be a replica of bhakti centred in the perfect man-god Krishna or his avatarl Here again the approximation of the idealtype connotes a merging, an immersion, in other words, renunciation.

The new man born out of the independence of India is sum and substance of the passion and power of youth having bathed in all fires of reform movements. The new man belongs to the Congress culture pivoted round Gandhi and Tagore and Nehru; and committed to restructure the new society. The new man, in essence, is invigoration of rural roots in order to self-grow to embrace all communities in India, and the world. He is faced with the colossal problem to digest science and technology, secularism and democracy in order to carve out a higher sociological order so that India's villages turn out to be growthcones. He is faced with the challenge how to absorb new social, moral and material forces born out of the contact with the West, which are in essence power of large scale production uncontrol­led by social sense and morality. Is the path ahead easy and simple for the new man? Will the ideals not become cloaks for social content? Will not the outline be blurred? Will he be a moral man ready to sacrifice his all for truth and non-violence? A simple and direct man pulsating with the lowliest of the low? Will the new man believe in renunciation as a means of higher enjoyment, as the Upanishad has it? Will satyaniy advaitam and anantam remain his'eternal values?

The new man of independent India under the inspiration of Jawaharlal Nehru is adynamic synthesis of two concepts of praxis, the facts of Indian life, and the truth which is almost personal, and human; and hence is equivalent to God. The new man, according to Buddha's precept, will not carry the log after crossing the river. He is uplifted and occasionally transmuted by moral fervour of open movement. With the moral genius and an acute sense of history, the new man will not live in an exiled nos­talgia of Ramarajya. Rather, he is realistically conscious of global business cycles, fluctuations of employment, war contracts, economic exploitation of man by manl dependence on and craze for foreign imports, sharp contrasts of wealth, belching factories and stinking slums which were not known in Ayodhya. The new man seeks an intellectual system in the new society with full knowledge that the world is not exhausted by India; that India must make strides towards the future; that science and technology have to be mastered for universal peace and prosperity; that culture is man-made and history halts unless it is pushed; that there is no marching back like frogs to the well; that blind or neutral forces of nature, and of social systems have to be harnessed; and that the universe has to be faced openly and squarely, without fear or favour. The new man may not belong to a 'Party'. But he does belong to a com munity of awakened intelligence skilled in social engineering and working towards a planned society of mutual cooperation.

It is an achievement of the highest order-this transference of allegiance from Ramarajya to a planned social order, this shifting of the axis of morality from sacrifice to planned endeavour. The new man has more knowledge, more technical abiUtv more historical sense. The new man means both a change of the axis of the ideal tvD as well as a change of gear, with total humanism and rationality of outlook'

Rituraj: New India : The New Man 173

He is technocrat with imagination and sympathy, a bureaucrat with democratic temper and flexibility. The new man as a social engineer attracts voluntary rural workers to be his awakened instrumentality. He is full than his predecesors both in secular dignity and religious ethics. The cult of science neither causes aesthetic poverty, nor faith suffers from misturst of knowledge. He does not allow himself to be cramped by modernity, from darker passions of the aggregate. The new man will lift up humanism and aesthetics, till now considered to be the exclusive treasure of cottage industries and decentralised economy, and spread the beauteous elan to large-scale state or private enterprise in order to erase the vulgarity which has come to stay as a natural corollary of industrialisation. The river valley projects, the science laboratories, the state factories and services, the norms of economic pattern and knowledge draw the new man in one mighty embrace reaching newer peaks of self confidence and deep human love. He is a process of a changed axis, which in turn changes the pattern of habits and inspires generations of men to face the unknown with courage of con­viction.

The new man in indepedent India is product of a civilization which has been and is a movement, not a condition: a voyage, not a harbour. The new man means growth, development and progress propelled by changes in the structure of relations, propor­tions, functions; and yet free from the procrustean bed of syllogisms. He is logic of a process which is neither food, nor devaluation, neither Pakistan, nor the reported rise or fall of productivity. He may demand sacrifices of precision, even of economic theory, as precision has often proved to be imprecise because of its unreality and indetermination. He is full conscious of the fact that life is short, and art is long. And, hence, he shall not start with abstraction, proceed by approximation and die *in the long run' without bringing the abstraction down to earth.

For him model is not the reality, but impulse is, the impulse based on reahty in the structure of relations. He is a fine, sea-green, incorruptible new man who loves his country deeply, is flexible and human, is rooted in the Indian tradition, is efficient and intelligent and he shatters an environment which breeds the poison of flattery, wasteful routine, and piffle leaving no time for work and leisure, the two main pillars of human living. The new man conceived by Nehru resides in the practical realm of probable reality where bureaucracy does not breed intrigue and sycophancy, where the social administrative system is not dominated by closed minds and mean hearts, where patriotism is not limited to caste. The new man does not feed on himself, grow by himself and thereby remove himself from reality the more he wants to come closer to actualities. He does not live in Kaa"ka's Castle, and does not remind of the love-making of porcupines who throw quiUs at each other at the time of their congress.

The new man transcending India's past and living in Nehru's dreams and seeped in universal education, is competent, scrupulously honest and industrious. He DC ongs to the Indian soil and is the active agent of mighty social forces with histori-^ al urgency. While planning and building he is unlike sorceres's apprentice who is unable to get rid of the spirit he has raised. The planned endeavour is the datum for

»m. He IS social adventure, an earnest of the new order. This is neither the social

j-74 India: A Cultural Voyage

order of the Brahmins, nor of the sarvodya. It does not say there was history and there is none now. His eyes look ahead and he mutters the runes of the new, positing a partial historicity, and calling the new society to make it full. The new man is the momentum of the planned endeavour, unfolding the nature of growth, generating historical dynamism, and human deliberation. He knows that today's problem is not disinterestedness, but deep involvement. The new man is independent. He is secular.

Steeled in the Indian traditions, values, and techniques to evolve newer values, he uses satyagrah and non-violence to fight exploitation of all hue. He knows how to utilise Indian mores, folk ways, myths and symbols to promote life in love. The new man is the spiritual essence of Hinduism, Jainism, Islam and Chritianity. He is possessed with a will power drilled in deepest pain and highest pleasure to broadbase movements of growth with contemporary and creative urges. He is the Vedic pagan, the Upanishadic meditator, the Buddhist ihraman, the Jain muni and the sufi fakir simultaneously. He is the whisper of the subconscious wisdom derived from move­ments in human civilization which have never degenerated into a pre-condition.

^ A nucleus of constructive endeavour and informed sagacity, the new man is based on r//fl, which is wound up with dharma and achar^ and whose content is enriched by effective equality, the fundamental thrust of India's independence. Thus the new man's rita duly recognises, respects and allows freedom to the larger segments of human living. He is free as he recognises social necessity. He is able to fathom the significance of the toils of the millions, for whom freedom dawned on this earth. He is the catalytic agent of the changed attitude bringing forth measures like nationa­lisation which are newer forms of rearranging the free society. He is the quintessence of the conscious and subconscious will of the millions, whose ideal is personification, and not merely a representation. India is peasant, and the new man knows his India well and reacts to her lightest tremors. He is the better type of the modern mind. He is practical and pragmatic, ethical and social, altruistic and humanitarian. He represents the spirit of the age, \,\\Qyugadhrama. Humanity is his god and social service his religion. He is of the vital stuff outof which all relevant human advance is born. Functioning in line with highest ideals of the age, he seeks to mould them in accordance with his national genius. His mind and heart live in the harmony of the scientific spirit and humanism. For him, the earnest scientist of the present is the reincarnation of the philosopher and the rishi of the past. He firmly believes in Albert Einstein's dictum : "In this, materialistic age the serious seientific workers are the only profoundly religious people."

This new man in independent India is the manas putra of Jawaharlal Nehru as the Ganga belongs to King Bhagirath. Jawaharlal Nehru gave all his life's strength to the first cause of the world : the liberation of mankind He and his new man in free India are sentinel of peace on earth, the affirmation of human love and sympathy and non-violence. The new man is the noble pilgrim to the one world of tomorrow As soon as India became free, she, under Nehru's guidance, moved towards the goal of a peaceful world. She was alone in the beginning. But as she marched on the caravan of peace got enriched and strengthened. The humanity at large weary of

Rituraj: New India \ The New Man 1^5

power blocks, of their hostile competitions and violent conducts, welcomed with heart and soul India's march towards universal peace. The pilgrims of peace the world over led by Jawaharlal Nehru came to be known as non-aligned, away and opposed to war and exploitation, near and friendly to creativity in human cooperation. This carvan seeks only wisdom and knowledge, friendship and comradeship in its peace­ful approach to the one-world ot tomorrow. The new man in free India, being true to great values symbolised in Jawarharlal Nehru, may make mistakes. But he is made of the spiritual stuff that saves him from triviality, inner shame and cowardice. His dearest passion in life, in Kalidas' words, "springs beauty at each moment". Free India, under her maker and builder Jawaharlal Nehru, set out to play her part in an internationalism with her head held high. She, thus, reminds the world of her old ways of valuing the entire mankind as her own family. It is an Ashokan drama of universal peace being enacted in a bigger theatre, with larger participation, and perhaps, also with deeper concerns. The role of peace in the world is the role of the union of mind with nature. In Spinoza's words this union is "the greatest good" that man can offer to humanity. Jawaharlal Nehru's role is the greatest offering to the greatest number of human beings in the world. The new man in free India is proud of this glorious heritage. His creative energies are silently busy in perform­ing the greatest good through his industry in all fields of human activity ranging from atomic energy for peaceful uses to art and poetry for aesthetic pursuits.

Free India, under the wise leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, adopted a constitu­tion based on individual freedom and universal, adult franchise offering opportunity for all to grow in an atmosphere of equality. The Indian genius, today, practises common good through universal sufferage and holds the promise to maintain demo­cracy with peace and secularism. As a cultural pledge, free India, under her demo­cratic framework, has to discover a balance between the body and the spirit, between man as part of nature and man as part of society. In the words of Tagore, 'for our perfection, we have to be vitally savage and mentally civilized.' The new man is cultured to increase his number in order to he able to hold the mirror of life firmlv, in order to beautify and energise life. In the new man, Gandhi's humility is suppli-mented by aesthetics of Kalidas. The new n/wro/of India is the contemporary per­sonality of the Indian mind, which flows like an ancient stream singing, extending, rebuilding through hurdles. Indian mind is the Ganga pulsating through the large heart of 5/2orar Afa/a, always revealing, renewing, rediscovering. The Indian mind begins with fulfilling a tall demand from life not to exult in joy, and not to shed tears in sorrow. The brief sketch of the new man is uniquely itself, scriptural, philosophic, Illustrative, and always sharp to rejoin basics, always insisting on relevance of each to the other, no either or. The Indian mind has been a perspective, an anticipation, a load of stimulating ideas, a train of logic and analysis, all eager to stress on beauty, on energy. In its chamber of awareness play all the mental processes by which the Idea IS reached. And in it reside august presences of detachment from resuhs, from surroundings, grand bestowls of new moments; legendry loves and innocences; new equaUties and new freshnesses. Indian mind has been India's six seasons and six

176 India : A Cultural Voyage

hundred languages, and a multiple narcissism. Journeying through these climes of deepest sensitivities, the new man wants to update all human discoveries.

Is this theory of the new man working out? Yes. A simple equation is at work in that all are free to choose; all are equal to choose; and the endeavour is planned for all. The secular culture working on the wings of awareness that science is destructive, and culture shall construct it to be creative, has come forward to upgrade human dignity, the prime channel to infinite resources. The new secular man is stimulus, the appropriation. He is ignition of beauty, and of life, and of well-being. Like hero's mind it is his individuality being drilled in the great tradition of democratic system, where excellence and expertise are being worked out to live in peace, and not for war; where good is being revered. The life of new man conceived and loved and lived by Jawaharlal Nehru is committed 'not to allow coarseness' to creep in various realms of life. The life of the new man is synonym of cleanliness both inner and outer. It is destined to uphold the cosmic ecology. And the voice of the new man is being listened to in the creative assemblies of the non-aligned, in universal planning for peace and prosperity, in sowing songs of endeavours for the welfare of the weak and the dispossessed. The working out of India's freedom under the leader ship of the new, secular man is least rigged compared to the so-called develooed societies. Even her failures induce in her a strength not to let him fall a prey to cultural sulks of greed and war. Having learnt afresh its texts ranging from thousand ways of making love to infinitely subtle ways of running a state, the n e r m a n sha move on to maturer triumphs, applique with new awareness. Without frowned wrink les of will on the face his sense of accommodation is his most form.VJ^hi. . ^ His strength lies in ever exploring and never leaving room f o r ^ i o n H f " ' ^

^s:^oS't r::rr" -^"- co sdinS;;^ the ^ ^ T Z : : ^ Z r ^ ^ ^ ^ - - ^ - - ^ ^ . on exploration of the anatomy \ f ^ " v " 0 ^ ' " T^^ energy from uranium man has alreaX L r . ^ 7 ° P^^^'"'- ^" ^'berating a symbolic scale the process th^^creatd our e ' ^ ^ n ' ^ ' ^""^^ ^^P^^^'"g on years ago. This is an act in I r ^ ^ . s ^ ^ ^ , ^ V " ^ " " " " ^^° ^'^'on sun of hope rekindle its luminosUy Z r Z Z In " ' 1 ' ^ ^ '^^^ ^ -age the new man is nothing if not earnest is dead if t t ' M^ " ^^"^arkable ness, the new man is like the bee collecting L ar w'thn / ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^" ^^^"est-colour or scent. In earnestness the new ^ L ? ^ '"J"""S the flower its full of colour, but without ^^e^.^'^h^e^Dhr^^^^^^^ - r d s 2'^, ar no travel against the wind, nor that of sanZvood orTf't ' ' ' "^ of flowers does but the odour of earnestness travels even a l l nstthVwH^^^^ ""^ ^^"ika flowers every place.''The new man greets and revee" ^ ^ ^ ^ earnest man pervade; m hfe, beauty, happiness and power. Him one calls t h ^ ' ' ""^^ ^" ^ain an increase fetters, who never trembles, is i n d e p e n d i r a n d l s h L V ? ' ^ ' " ^ ^ " ^^^ cut al offence yet endures reproach; who has endu an"' or h r ' ^ ' " ^^^ ^^'^"^'«ed no ar .y , Who takes nothing in the world that ^ - 0 ^ J ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

RitwoJ: A^ew India : The New Man 177

impassible, accomplished, awakened. The new man of independent India would rather save his soul and not conquer the world. And if he will 'conquei' the world, it will be like the past when India's excellences won universal hearts and minds. Independent India under the new secular man is on march. India is, under peaceable motives, cfTectivcly mobilising the newly gained strengths and assets to meet challenges. India is moving forward to discharge accumulated liabilities; striking a growth in mass education; bringing forward an assertive, confident and ambitious generation of youth; building a large trained scientific and technological man-power; generating her pro­ductive capacity, so that India may embolden the ushering in of the new in this world. India is synonym to annapurna, to shanti, to blossoms in thousand forms. India in the company of her new man dreams of a world where children walk only through gardens of goodwill, dancing, singing, playing. India in the company of her new man is en­lightened, united, industrially well-developed, educationally progressive, and militarily strong to tackle emergencies.

The new man of independent India, through an unprecedented process of demo­cratic reconstruction, is involved to carve out a sustained belief that he needs mother India more than mother India needs him. Avoiding wilder mental extravagances and relating the mind directly to immediate circumstances, the new man is busy shaping universal human responses based on equality, freedom and happiness. He does not waste time in apologies to outdated sovereignties while building newer material and moral susceptibility in human contacts and relationships. He is determined not to repeat mistakes which are but foul smell in failures. The new man is the focal point of today in the eternal resurgence of India. He is not a grim commodity. The charm of youth resides in him; beauty, strength and happiness find hopeful habi­tat in his self-discipline. He will never falter. The story of the new man is an unending march forward in the rcligiosities to enable the social order grow on the great pillar of Indian 5/2ce/which has been, time and again, tested and worked out by great builders of civilization like Buddha and Gandhi. The new man in independent India has ceased taking pride in isolation. The touch in his peaceful contact has lifted rest­less waves of joy to subdue violence and tedium in human life. Untouched by langour and unsoilcd by weakness, the new man is drawing to himself the splendour of the universe affecting the union of form with the formless, action with the ideal. In his voice echoes the victory of the infinite. In his soul spring songs to fling open all the prison-gates. The perfection flowing through the ages in thought, knowledge and

^ n las bestowed a new birth-right to him and through him to the humanity at ^arge to acquire good fortune for all. Present India under the dynamic leadership of

T^ andhi IS marching on in accordance with the demands of the times and the nee of the society to strengthen the evolution of the new man. Abhaya is the name

le new man, the every body, who embraces contemporaneity looking straight in le eye of the storm. Bitter winds sharpen the blossom in the face of the new man.

13 An Admonition

The pivot of Indian life throughout the ages has been her dharma which was synonym of an articulation in self-discipline to be widely embraced by kings and commoners alike. This made ancient India strong, prosperous and viable The reading below confirms how great was the moral concern on the part of Indian consciousness to erect the edifice of self-discipline. The extract is an English rendering from Kadambari, the most exquisite romance in Sanskrit by Banabhatta who was also the biographer of Emperor Harsha. The piece goes along with The Pivot of Life—Rachana ki Archana".

With the passage of time, the noble and aging king Shudraka desirous of declar­ing prince Chandrapida as the heir-apparent, ordered his attendants to collect all materials required for the Installation ceremony. To prince Chandrapida who was shortly going to be crowned as the heir-apparent and had gone once to pay his res­pects to Shukanasa, the latter addressed in detail, as follows, with a view to training him further by sounding a note of caution though he had enough of education to his credit:

Dear Chandrapida! there is very little to be told to you by way of instruction, as you have studied all the sciences and have known what ought to be known. Nevertheless, the darkness which arises from youth is, by its very nature, too dense to be dispelled by the sun, to be scared by the luster of gems and to be removed by the light of the lamp. The intoxication caused by riches is very great and does not subside with lapse of time. Blindness caused by glucoma of opulance is alas incao able of bemg cured by the use of collyrium. The heat due to fever of conceit is inteu-

An Admonation ^ ' "

sely terrible and incapable of being abated by the use of refrigerents. Silliness resulting from toxicity of sensual pleasures is too heavy to be cured by roots of. medicinal efficacy or by incantations. So thick and permanent is the paste of passion that it cannot be removed by any number of ablutions. The slumber due to disturbance of humours caused by pleasures of regality is so deep and enduring that it knows no waking even at the end of night. For these reasons, my dear child, you are being addressed thus at length.

To be rich by birth, to step in blooming youth, to be possessed of an uncommon comeliness, and to be endowed with superhuman strength is, indeed, a series of evils. Each one of them is a home of all immodesties, then what to speak of their congrega­tion! With the advent of adolescence, the intellect of a person, even though lustrated by a douche of scientific knowledge, becomes generally turbid. The vision of the youth, even without loss of brightness, becomes reddend with passion. Just as the whirlwind takes away a withered leaf at its will and produces a blinding column of dust, so does the disposition of man in his youth drive him afar at its free will reeling-him with passion. The mirage of pleasure dragging the fawns of senses knows no point of satiety.

The self-same objects of pleasures, even though repeatedly enjoyed, become sweeter and sweeter, and appeal to the mind of one whose taste is made astringent by the bloom of youth. Extreme attachment to the sensual pleasures leads man astray like the loss of direction and then ruins him. That is why persons like you deserve to be instructed well. For, in a mind free from filth, virtues of admonition easily make room as do the moon-beams reflect in a piece of crystal. Like drops of water the dictates of a teacher, however pure, terribly ache the ears of an unfortunate villain. But in case of the other one, the same add to the beauty of his face like an ornament of conches does to the temples of an elephant. Like the evening moon it removes the dismal veil of darkness cast by the night of human weaknesses.

The advice of the teacher is a source of tranquillity. It turns those weaknesses into merits by purifying them like an old age lending the withered hair a respectable hoary" form. This is the time for you to receive instruction till you have had taste of worldly pleasure. For the instruction drops out like water from the heart of one which is perforated by the missiles of Cupid. Even high birth or education does not lend modesty to a wicked person. For, does fire not burn, if it is set up in the sandalwood; or does the submarine fire not become more fierce by the association of water, which in fact, is its extinguisher? Verily, the admonition of a guru for man is a waterless bath capable of washing off" all evils. It contributes elderliness without advancement of age and without deformity of greyness and the like. It gives weight without adding the bulk of fat. It serves as an ear-ornament without use of gold and without giving a look of vulgarity. The advice of a guru IS a light without lamp, and a vigil without uneasiness. It is especially so in case of kings; for, rare are those who dare advise them. The people out of fear simply act on the words of the kings. Kings do not listen even if advised as those sockets of ears are bridged over by swelling of self-conceit. Even if per chance, they listen they over­look It like an elephant closing his ears; and thus grieve their teacher who offers them a

ISO India : A Cultural Voyage

salutary piece of advice. The disposition of a king is ahays perturbed falling faint in a fever of conce.l Rtches gtre an entpty pride to then; and the royal splendour lends them stupor by administration of the venon of States. '^i" itnu^

Dear noble one (Lit. interested in progressV You mav fir t ovo«,- *t wealth herself. She . a bee resting'^in ^.he ^ g ^ 0 7 ^ 0 ^ 1 ^ r ^ I l r s : swords and daggers. While coming out of Milk ocean she carried Ji.h v, f tokens as keepsakes from their company. To wit, she brough r e d ^ s of na . J "% sprouts of/>«ryam, constant crookedness from the lunar s t e a k f l ? ' ^ . " ' ^ ' ° " steed ucchaishrava. the stupefying element from the v e n X in I u^tion f""' ^ " " ' ' ' stiffnessfromthegemW„6/..No,hingelseissocallo:sinrs^X^^^^^^ ched vile one ,s. Even if gained, she is retained with great difficulvP r , " ' by the strong strings of virtues she slips away Even ff re . r f ? 'u " ' " '^ '"=''''°™" blade of thousands of self-esteemed warrros: she e s c a l f s h ^ "'^ " ^^ °f held up by a compact herd of elephants s p r e a L T Z / ^ " ' ' ' " ' ' ^ ' " ' " ' ' ' ° " 8 h streams of rut. She never cares for long assodation , h . 1 " ' ° ' ' " ' " ' ' "'™"eh birth. She has no regard for beauty. Sl e dofs „„t ™ . " "°u * ° " ^ ' ' ' ' ° " ' " ° " ^ ' ^ She takes no account of skill. She does not reTnnnH T '" ^"'^'^^'V relations, righteousness. She does not respect muifictnce s h r r ' ' ' • ^ ^ / ° - - ' 8° by attamments. She does not follow rules of good conduct <!, . "»'f«™ur specialised She does not prove the efficacy of auspicious signs " " " ' ""^'"^ '^"'h.

Like the sketch of the Gandarva Pun' nho /n^i' .gilant persons. Site .ants, oJly^anZt^^^Z:^JT ''^"'' "" " " ^ "^ effects produced by whirls of churning done * / I w l X f ' ' " " " ' " ' " ^ ' ' ' ^ '-'"'"^ sets a f,rm foot as if it is pricked by the br t of r n f '"""• ^''= ""'"''^"^

treading over the bed of lilies. Even though heW fa . , . ' ° " ' ' ' ° ' ' " ' °^ '' ' h^Wtual from the homes of Great Masters a, 7 he t c " "n.^^P^'f' •'• e, she slips away maddenmgichor. oozing from temples of a host of ! ' " "'""'^^ *!" ' a draught of the edge ofswords perhaps to learn harshness She '".' ' "P"^" '^- S"<> " " ' " ^ ' " perhaps only to imbibe an all envelonin, fo ' 1 - Z" ' " " ' "'"^ Narayana forsakes a king who has ample resource J , ' 'f^^^king in confidence; she splendour forsakes a lotus plant rsunsTt even I h o T ' " ' ' ""'"^ "'^"Sth j u t as of Its roots, stalks and the buds Like . iT ^""^ '^ ' ' ' ^ ' " ' ' ^ f"" form, possessed rakes. Like Ganga. the mother of Bh^ ma L a k s h m H ; ' ' ' " ^ " " " ' ' ^ ^ ' ^ " ' ^ ' ""of mconstant as bubbles in water She has ' , 1 " ' ' "" ' ' ° " " °f all riches, is a Sun that associates with various signs of . h r T " ' . ' ' ' ° ' ' ' " ' ' ° " ^ "^^ 'hecours; of ,h! inertia, like caverns of nether r l l on She i ^ k" » " , ' ' ' " • " " ^ ' ' f"" of darkne ! by the adventures of Rh.o.o ,. ^'°"'^- ^"^ is hke Hidamba who can K. "'irKness

temporary flaTo" t h T n J n f s ^ T ' ^ ' ^ . r " - ^"^^'^ "'"= ">e ra n ' L T ' " ° ?

^oes not approach the

An Admonition 181

generous as a bad dream. She does not think of the modest as a sinner. She ridicules the wise as a lunatic. In this world, she displays her conduct full of opposites like the feats of jugglery. To wit, while causing heat of arrogance she turns cold of sluggish­ness. Though she makes for rise she pulls down the soul of men. Though springing from the ocean she promotes thirst. Though assuming lordship she severs one from lordliness and makes one unholy. Though contributing the weight of strength, she gives levity of mind. Even as an agnate of nectar she leaves a bitter taste. She is not visible even though she has a bodily form full of bellicosity. Though devoted to the best of the men (Vishnu), she is fond of villains. Like one full of filth, she soils even a clean person. More and more she flashes like a lightening she produces only black deeds like the wick of the lamp^which produces more and more of soot as it burns.

Moreover, she acts as a stream of water to grow the upas plants of greed; as the deities of huntsmen to allure fawns of passion; as the smoke to smother the portraits of good conduct; and serves as cosy couch to court a long slumber of infatuation. She provides a standing roof to shelter the ghouls of pride of wealth. She is a blinding opacity to obscure the vision of Shastras* She is a banner that leads the march of all impudence. She is a river that lays the impassioned feelings of wrath. She is the bar which serves the pegs of sensual drinks. She is a theater, the concert hall for the shows of flirting brows. She is the cavern wherein live the pythons of sins. She is the stafi" that scares gentlemanly habits. She acts like the rains out of season to flee the flamingoes of virtues. She serves as the surface where spread the pimples of scandal. She is the ground that scatters the bombs of scandles. She preludes the drama of fraud and makes for a bower of plantains where roams the elephant of passion. She is an abattoir for goodness, and the tongue of JRaliu for the disc of piety. I have known no person who did not cling fast to this unknown mistress and was not duped. For sooth, she moves even in picture, practises sorcery even in books, deceives even if inscribed, cheats even if heard and betrays even if thought of.

All the same, when the kings become fatefully possessed by this vicious dame of given description, they lose themselves and turn into museums of all immodesties. To be sure, with the coronation itself their complacence is washed off by the waters of ceremonial jars, their heart is smudged by the smoke of sacrificial fire; truthfulness is swept away by the wave of chowries, virtues are scared by the sceptre and the voices of the good are drowned in the din of victorious acclamations. Their glory is wiped ofl" by the streamers of the banner cloth. For, some of the kings are tempted by the riches which are as flickering as the beaks of the weary birds and bear a momentary flash like that of a glow-worm, for which reason they are despised by the wise. Such of them forget their mortal birth in the empty pride of possessing pelf and are overpowered by the onrush of passion like a blood-pressure caused by the disturbance of humours. They are tormented by merely five senses assuming the strength of a hundred thousand by virtue of the extension granted to its scope by natural flickleness. They appear as though influenced wholly by stars, possessed by demons, won over by enchantments, held by satans, tossed by the wind, and eclipsed by ogres. As if hit at the very vitals by the shafts of love they display a thousand

J 82 India : A Cultural Voyage

forms of faces. They behave as though they were scorched by the heat of opulance, and as if beaten by the blows they become unable to hold themselves. They move crooked like crabs. They are always guided by others like crippled ones whose capa­city to move forth is lost by impiety. They speak but little and with difficulty as though their tongue were blistered by sins of uttering falsehood.

They cause a chagrin to all who are around them as do the aspen trees by their flowers and their pollen. They recognise no kith or kin like those who are under the grip of death. They dare not look at the brilliant ones like those whose sight is purblind. They are not aroused by the incantations of best advice like those who arc doomed. They cannot put up with heat of arguments like the ornaments of lac. Like the elephants tied fast to the posts of self conceit, they are not able to grasp any teachings. They become silly by the potion of avarice and see everything as it were golden. Like arrows sharpened by whetstone they become directed by others to destruction, their callousness being increased by excess of drinks. Like fruits, while remaining at a distance they ruin big families by the force of rot. Like untimely blossoms they appear beautiful and become the source of calamity to the people even though they look fair outwardly. Frightful are their riches like the ashes of the fires in the burning ground. They lack in far-sight like those who suffer from myopia. Their homes are infested by the debased wrenches as those of the hetarae. Even when heard, they ache the ears like muflled drums; and when thought of, they bring about a disaster like the evil resolve. They swell in size everyday as thoughfilled with a volume of sin and even in that plight they outcry friendship with a hundred vices and do not realise themselves fallen like drops of water hanging on the tips of the glass-blades growing on an ant-hill.

There are othprs who are deluded by false praise fit for only celestial beings by shrewd persons who are passmasters in cheating others and who laugh within their sleeves while doing so. Such persons are bent upon serving their own ends and are greedy like vultures in pouncing upon the flash-balls of wealth. They haunt upon the palaces, as cranes hover round lotus plants. They represent gambling as recreation, mating with others' spouses as skill, hunting as an exercise and drinking as pleasure. They call carelessness as one's prowess, divorcing one's wife as want of addiction to sensual pleasures, and disregard to the dictates of the guru as freedom of action. They declare lack of discipline among servants as feature of good temper and dalliance with concubines as a token of good taste. They call forbearence of heinous felonies as maiestic mein, capacity to put up with insults as a feat of tolererance and lawlessness as a feature of sovereignty. They show that the contempt of gods is characteristic of high spirits, and the panegyrics of bards as the great glory, fickleness as the arduous zeal and want of discrimination as absence of partiality.

' Thus the rogues superimpose virtues over vices and deceive the princess who have their minds infatuated with riches and unconsciously assume airs without justi­fication Though subjected to infirmities of flesh and blood, they feel themselves descended from heaven with divine qualites. They look upon themselves above men as though they were animated with divinity and pose such pomp in their activities as niay befit them who belong to the celestial race. They, thus, become the laughing

An Admonition ^^3

stock of all others and tend to welcome the attitude of those servants who try to fall in suit with them. With this delusion of divinity settled in their minds and labouring upon false notions, they conceive the presence of a pair of additional arms concealed in the visible twain. They suspect the presence of a third eye hidden within the skin of their forehead. They deem it a grant of favour if they allow their sight toothers, they cast a glance upon others they seem to oblige them. They include their conversation in the category of sharing their majesty, and treat their behests as conferment of a boon, and their touch as a lustrating agent. Filled with vain notions of self-esteem they refuse to bow to gods, to adore the Brahmins, to regard to worthy personages, to venerate the venerables, to salute the deserving ones, and to rise to greet their precep­tors. They redicule scholars as those doting in vain upon learning at the expense of blissful joys. They look upon admonitions of the elders as prattlings promoted by senility, scorn the counsel of ministers as an insult to their intelligence and cross swords with one who tells them of their own welfare. Him they wholly greet, they talk, they play by their side, they promote, they fell happy with, advance and make friends with; they listen to, shower favour upon and esteem highly and take into confi­dence, who has no other business but to sing liymns of their praise and to wait upon them at all hours with hands folded as it were unto a great deity, and always exalt their greatness. What could be deemed worthy in them whose greatest authority is the science of deceit, cruel in preaching wicked practices; whose preceptors are the pitiless priests skilled in the homicidal crafts; whose advisers are the ministers professing in over-reaching others, whose hearts are set on the strumpet wealth enjoyed and for­saken by a host of other kings; whose deep interest lies in those shastras that treat with the art of killing, and for whom their own brothers filled with sponteneous affection are the only persons worthy of being annihilated!

For these reasons, O Prince! in regard to the statecraft which is so intricate on account of a thousand crooked and complicated modes of action as described above; you should, while swayed over by this infatuating youth, behave in a manner that you could not be rediculed by the people, not slighted by your gurus, nor taunted by your friends nor grieved over by the wise. You should so act that you may not be exposed by rakes, nor taken in by fools, nor preyed upon by villains, nor misguided by your own wolvish attendants. You should spare yourself from deceitful practices of the rogues and also from the wiles of women. You should not fall victim to the coquetry

wealth, nor be made to dance by pride. You should not be maddened by passion, carried away by your senses, taken away by desire, nor misled by pleasures. Oranted that you are extremely steadfast by nature and that you are well trained by your father, and also that the riches madden only the fickle-minded lacking in en tghtenment; all the same it is my feeling of great satisfaction at your accomplish­ments that has prompted me to address you thus at length and without reserve. Only this much I have to tell you on and again that the immodest wench of wealth arroga-

^^s^ person, however learned, cautious, magnanimous, noble steadfast and careful he may be.

With this caveat I wish all success to attend on you along with the pleasure of being installed by your father as the heir-apparent. Bear now the yoke borne by your

184 India: A Cultural Voyage

ancestors which is descending upon you by heredity. Pull down the heads of your foes, and rise the host of your friends. No sooner than you are installed, you should proceed on an expedition of conquest, and in the course of your excursion declare your sway over this Earth adorned with seven islands once again though sub­dued by your father. This is the time for you to establish your powers all over the world; for a king who has attained glory commands efifeclive speech like a sage who commands the view of all the three worlds! With these words Shukanasa concluded.

Shukanasa having thus ended his speech, by his advice so neat and pure, Chamlrapidafelt as if he were given a wash and awakened, were purified, polished, and bathed, were dressed and decorated, lustrated and made radiant. He was exceedingly glad at heart', and after a brief stay with Shukanasa he returned to his own palace.

Thus ends the Admonition of Shukanasa extracted from Kadambari, the work of the great poet Banabhatta.

14 The Enchanted Pool

Should one first quench his mortal thirst or attempt to answer questions coming from nowhere ? Below is given a tiny episode from the Mahabharata to resolve the dilemma which goes along with The Tantra : Spiritual Ecology.

The stipulated period of twelve years of exile for the Pandavas was drawing to a close.

One day a deer was rubbing itself against a poor Brahmin's fire-kindling mortar and as it turned to go, the mortar got entangled in its horns and the affrighted animal fled wildly with it into the forest. In those days matches were unknown and fire was kindled with pieces of wood by mechanical friction.

•Alas ! The deer is running away with my fire-kindler. How can I perform the fire sacrifice ?' shouted the Brahmin and rushed towards the Pandavas for help in his exremity.

The Pandavas pursued the animal but it was a magic deer which sped in great leaps and bounds, decoying the Pandavas far into the forest and then disappeared. Worn out by the futile chase, the Pandavas sat in great dejection under a banyan tree. Nakula sighed. 'We cannot render even this trifling service to the Brahmin. How we have degenerated !' said he sadly.

Bhima said : 'Quite so. When Draupadi was dragged into the assembly, we should have killed those wretches. Is it not because we did not do so that we have had to suffer all these sorrows ?' and he looked at Arjuna sadly.

Arjuna agreed, 'I bore in silence the vulgar and insulting brag of that son of the charioteer, doing nothing So we have deservedly fallen into this pitiable state.'

Yudhishthira noticed with sorrow that all of them had lost their cheerfulness and courage. He thought they would be more cheerful with something to do. He was tormented with thirst and so he said to Nakula : 'Brother, climb that tree and see whether there is any pool or river nearby.'

Nakula climbed the tree, looked around and said : 'At a little distance I see Water plants and cranes. There must certainly be water there.'

Yudhishthira sent him to fetch some to drink. Nakula was glad when he got to the place and saw thpre w^s ^ pool. He was

jgg India : A Cultural Voyage

very thirsty himself and so thought of quenching his thirst before taking water in his quiver for his brother; but no sooner did he dip his hand in the transparent water than he heard a voice which said :

*Do not be rash. This pool belongs to me. O Son of Madri, answer my questions and then drink the water.'

"Nakula was surprised, but carried away by his intense thirst, and heedless of the warning, he drank the water. At once overcome by irresistible drowsiness, he fell down, to all appearance dead.

Surprised that Nakula had not returned, Yudhishthira sent Sahadeva to see what the matter was. When Sahadeva reached the pool and saw his brother lying on the ground, he wondered whether any harm had come to him, but before looking into the matter further, rushed irresistibly to the water to quench his burning thirst.

The voice was heard again : *0 Sahadeva, this is my pool. Answer my questions and then only may you quench your thirst.'

Like Nakula, Sahadeva also did not heed the warning He drank the water and at once dropped down.

Puzzled and worried that Sahadeva also did not return, Yudhishthira sent Arjuna to see whether the brothers had met with any danger, 'And bring water,' he added, for he was very thirsty.

Arjuna went swiftly. He saw both his brothers lying dead near the pool. He was shocked at the sight and felt that they must have been killed by some lurking foe. Though heartbroken with grief and burning with the desire for revenge, he felt all feelings else submerged in a monstrous thirst which irresistibly impelled him to the fatal pool. Again, a voice was heard : 'Answer my questions before you drink the water. This pool is mine. If you disobey me, you will follow your brothers.'

Arjuna's anger knew no bounds. He cried : "Who are you ? Come and stand up to me, and I will kill you,' and he shot keen-edged arrows in the direction of the voice. The invisible being laughed in scorn : 'Your arrows do but wound the air. Answer my questions and then you can satisfy your thirst. If you drink the water without doing so, you will die.'

Greatly vexed, Arjuna made up his miid to seek out and grapple with this elusive foe, but first he must quench his terrible thirst. Yes, thirst was the enemy he must kill first. So he drank the water and also fell down dead.

After anxious waiting Yudhishthira turned to Bhima : 'Dear brother, Ariuna the great hero, has also not yet returned. Something terrible must have happened to our brothers, for our stars are bad. Please seek them out and be quick about it Ako bring water, for I die of thirst.' Bhima, racked with anxiety, hurried away without a

His grief and rage can be imagined when he saw his thrPP Kr *u i • dead. He thought-.'This is certainly the work of t fe Y ^ s t , ^^^^^^^ down and kill them. But O ! I am so thirsty I shaU fir.t H t ^'^^ ^"" ' ' ^ ' " ' fight them'. And then he descended into the poil '"^ ''^'"'" '^^ ^'''^' ^^

The voice shouted : 'Bhimscna, beware You mav H • i. my questions. You will die if you disregard mv word. ' ^^^ ^^^^' answering

The Enchanted Pool 187

'Who are you to dictate to me?' cried Bhima, and he drank the water avidly, glaring around in defiance. And as he did so, his great strength seemed to slip from him like a garment, and he also fell dead among his brothers.

Lone, Yudhishthira wailed in a hell of anxiety and thirst. 'Have they been subjected to a curse or are they wandering about in the forest in vain search for water or have they fainted or died of thirst?' Unable to bear these thoughts, and driven desperate by an overpowering thirst, he started out to look for his brothers and the pool.

Yudhishthira proceeded in the direction his brothers had taken through tracts infested with wild boars and abounding in spotted deer and huge forest birds, and presently came upon a beautiful green medow, girdling a pool of pellucid water, nectar to his eyes. But when he saw his brothers lying there like sacred flagpoles thrown pell-mell after a festival, unable to restrain his grief, he lifted his voice and wept.

He stroked the faces of Bhima and Arjuna as they lay so still and silent and he mourned: 'Was this to be the end of all our vows? Just when our exile is about to end, you have been snatched away. Even the gods have forsaken me in my misfortune 1'

As he looked at their mighty limbs, now so helpless, he sadly wondered who could have been powerful enough to kill them. Brokenly, he reflected: 'Surely my heart must be made of steel not to break even after seeing Nakula and Sahadeva lie dead. For what purpose should I continue to live in this world?" Even a sense of mystery overcame him, for this could be no ordinary occurrence. The world held no warriors who could overcome his brothers; besides, there were no wounds on their bodies which could have let out life and their faces v/ere faces of men who slept in peace and not of those who died in wrath. There was also no trace of the footprints of an enemy. There was surely some magic about it. Or, could it be a trick played by Duryodhana? Might he not have poisoned the water? Then Yudhishthira also descended into the pool, in turn drawn to the water by a consuming thirst. At once the voice without form warned as before:

'Your brothers died because they did not heed my words. Do not follow them. Answer my questions first and then quench your thirst. This pool is mine.'

Yudhishthira knew that these could be none other than the words of a Yaksa and guessed what had happened to his brothers. He saw a possible way of redeeming

e situation. He said to the bodiless voice: 'Please ask your questions.*

The voice put questions one after another. It asked: 'what makes sun shine every day ?' Yudhishthira replied: 'The power of Brahman.' •What rescues man in danger ?' 'Courage is man's salvation in danger.' 'By the study of which science does man become wise ?' Not by studying any Shastra does man become wise. It is by association with

the great in wisdom that he gets wisdom.'

^gg India : A Cultural Voyage

The Yaksha asked: *What is more nobly sustaining than the earth ? Yudhishthira replied: 'The mother who brings up the children she has borne is nobler and more sustaining than the earth.' 'What is higher than the sky ?' 'The father.' 'What is fleeter than wind ?' 'Mind' 'What is more blighted than withered straw ?' *A sorrow-stricken heart.' 'What befriends a traveller ?' 'Learning.' *Who is the friend of one who stays at home ?' 'The wife' 'Who accompanies a man in death ?' 'Dharma. That alone accompanies the soul in its solitary journey after death.' 'Which is the biggest vessel ?' 'The earth, which contains all within itself, is the greatest vessel.' 'What is happiness ?' •Happiness is the result of good conduct.' 'What is that, abandoning which man becomes loved by all ?' 'Pride—for abandoning that, man will be loved by all.' 'What is the loss which yields joy and not sorrow ?' 'Desire. Getting rid of it, man becomes wealthy.' 'What makes one a real Brahmin? It is birth, good conduct or learning ? Answer decisively,' 'Birth and learning do not make one a Brahmin. Good conduct alone does. However learned a person may be he will not be a Brahmin if he is a sla\e to bad habits. Even though he may be learned in the four Vedas, a man, of bad conduct falls to a lower class.' 'What is the greatest wonder in the world ?' 'Every day man sees creatures depart to Yaraa's abode and yet, those who remain, seek to live for ever. This verily is the greatest wonder.'

Thus, the Yaksha posed many questions and Yudhishthira answered them all.

In the end the Yaksha asked, 'O King, one of your dead brothers can now be revived. Whom do you want revived? He shall come back to life.'

Yudhishtira thought for a moment and then replied: 'May the cloud-comloe xioned, lotus-eyed, broad-chested and long-armed Nakula, lying like a fallen eb tree, arise.' "^

The Yaksha was pleased at this and asked Yudhishthira, 'Why did vou chon.P Nakula in preference to Bhima who has the strength of sixteen thousand elephants ?

The Enchanted Pool 189

I have heard that Bhima is most dear to you. And why not Arjuna, whose prowess in arms is your piotection ? Tell me why you chose Nakula rather than either of these two?'

Yudhishthira replied, 'O Yaksha, dharma is the only shield of man and not Bhima and Arjuna. If dharma is set at naught, man will be ruined. Kunti and Madri were the two wives of my father. I am surviving, a son of Kunti, and so, she is not completely bereaved. In order that the scale of justice may be even, I ask that Madri's son Nakula may revive'.

The Yaksha was pleased with Yudhishthira's impartiality and granted that all his brothers would come back to life.

It was Yama, the Lord of Death, who had taken the form of the deer and the yaksha so that he might see his son Yudhishthira and test him. He embraced Yudhishthira and blessed him

Yama said: .'Only a few days remain to complete the stipulated period of your exile in the forest. The thirteenth year will also pass by. None of your enemies will be able to discover you. You will successfully fulfil your undertaking,' and saying this he disappeared.

The Pandavas had, no doubt, to pass through all sorts of troubles during exile, but the gains too were not inconsiderable. It was a period of hard discipline and searching probation through which they emerged stronger and nobler men. Arjuna returned from tapas with divine weapons and strengthened by contact with Indra. Bhima also met his elder brother Hanumana near the lake where the Saugandhika flowers bloomed and got tenfold strength from his embrace. Having met at the enchanted pool his father Yama, the Lord of Dharma, Yudhishthira shone with tenfold lustre.

'The minds of those who listen to the sacred story of Yudhishthira's meeting with his father, will never go after evil. They will never seek to create quarrels among friends or covet the wealth of others. They will never fall victims to lust. They will never be unduly attached to transitory things'. Thus said Vaishampayana to Janamejaya as he related this story of the Yaksha. May the same good attend the readers of this story as retold by us.

15 Say it with Flowers

Nature created flower. Indians placed the flower at the pedestal of God, and discovered in its fragrance the vision of time and eternity. Even the God of Cupid was bestowed v ith the all-powerful weapon in the form of arrows made of flowers. A central theme in all human activity of deepest significance, the flower has been a constant friend, philosopher and guide in aesthetic entertainment enjoyed by Indians throughout the ages. The bounty of nature in creating flowers on Indian soil is infinite. A tiny list, however, may add to the fragrance implied in the chapter on Entertainments in India-An Aesthetic Art in Living.

The Sewti resembles the Gul-i-Surkh, but is smaller. It has in the middle golden stems and from four to six petals. Habitat: Gujarat and the Dekan.

Of/Ae CAamfce/i there are two kinds. The Ray Chambeli has from five to six petals, outside red. The Chambeli proper is smaller, and has on the top a white stripe. Its stems are one and a half or two yards high, and trail over the ground. It has many long broad branches. It flowers from the first year.

The Ray-hel resembles the jasmine. There are various kinds: single and double, etc. A quintuple is very common, so that each petal might be separated from the first one. Its stem grows a yard high. The leaves of the tree resemble those of the lime tree; but they are smaller and softer.

The Mungra resembels the Ray-bel. It is larger, but inferior in perfume. It has more than a hundred petals; the plant grows to a large tree.

The Champa flower has a conical shape, of a size of a finger, and consists of ten petals or more, lying in the fold, one above the other. It has several stamens. It looks graceful. It flowers after seven years.

The Ketki has a form of spindle of the size of the quarter of the yard with twelve or more petals. Its smell is delicate and fragrant. It bears flowers in six or seven years.

Say it with Flowers ^"*

The Kewara resembles the preceding, but is more than twice as big. The petals have thorns. As they grow on different places, they are not all equal. In the midst of the flower, there is a small branch with honey coloured threads, not without smell. The flower smeHs even after it has withered. Hence people put it into clothes to conserve the perfume for a long time. The stem of the tree is about four yards high; the leaves are like those of the maize only longer and triangular, with three thorns in each corner. It flowers from the fourth year. Every year they put new earth round about the roots. The plant is chiefly found in Dek-an, Gujarat, Malwah and Bihar.

The Chalta resembles a large tulip. It consists of eighteen petals six green ones above, and six others; some red, some green, some greyish yellow, and six white. In the midst of the flower are nearly two hundred little yellow leaves, with a red gloubule in the centre. The flower remains quite fresh for five or six days after being plucked. It smells like a violet. When withered, the flower is cooked and eaten. The tree resembles the pomegranate tree; and its leaves look like those of the lime tree. It blooms in the seventh year.

The Tabih gulal has fine smell. The petals have a form of a dagger. The stem of the plant is two yards high. It flowers after four years. Rosaries are made of the flower, which remains fresh for a week.

The Bhohari is smaller than jasmine; its petals are indented. When dry, the flower smells better. The tree resembles the walnut tree. It flowers in the tenth year.

The Singarhar is shaped like a clove, and has an orange-coloured stalk. The stamens look like a poppy seed. The tree resembles the pomegranate tree and the leaves those of a peach tree. It flowers in five years.

The Kttza looks like a Gul-e-surkh; but the plant and the leaves are larger. It has five or a hundred petals and golden coloured stamens in the middle.

The Padal have five or six long petals. It gives water an agreeable flavour and smell. It is on this account that people preserve the flower mixed with clay, for such times when the flower is out of season. The leaves and the stem are like those of the nut tree. It flowers in the twelfth year.

The Juhi has small leaves. This creeper winds itself round about trees and flowers in the third year.

The Niwari looks like a simple Ray-bcl, but has larger petals. The flowers are so numerous as to conceal the leaves and the branches of the plant. It flowers in the first years.

The Kapurhel has five petals, ai d resembles the safl'ron flower. This flower was brought during Akbar's reign from Europe.

The Zafaran {saffron): The flower appears in the middle of Aban. The plant is about a quarter of a yard long. But according to the difi'erence of the soil in which it stands, there are sometimes two thirds of it above, and sometimes two-thirds below the ground. The flower stands on the top of the stalk, and consists of six petals and six stamens. Three of the six petals have a fresh lilac colour, and stand round about the remaining three petals The stamens arc similarly placed, three of a yellow colour standing round about the other three, which are red. The latter yields the saff ron, ^ei.ow stamens are often cunningly intermixed.

192 ^"^'fl • ^ Cultural Voyage

The Aftabi (sun-flower) is round, broad and large, has a large number of petals, and turns continuously to the sun. Its stem reaches three yards high.

The Kanwal: There are two kinds. One opens with the dawn. It turns wher­ever the sun goes, and it closes at night. Its petals which are never less than six in number, enclose yellow stamens, in the midst of which there is an excrescence of the form of the cone with the base upwards, which is the fruit and contains the seeds. The other kind has four white petals. It opens at night, and turns itself according to the moon, but does not close.

The Jafari is a pretty, round flower, and grows large. One kind has five, another a hundred petals. The latter remains fresh for two months and upwards. The plant is of the size of the man and the leaves resemble those of the willow, but are indented. It flowers in two months.

The Gudhal resembles the jughasu tulip, and has a great number of petals. Its stem reaches a height of two yards and upwards; the leaves look like mulberry leaves.

The Ratanmanjani has four petals, resembling the Ray-bcl. It is smaller than jasmine. It flowers in two years.

The Tesu has five petals resembling a tigers claw. In their midst is a yellow stamen of the shape of the tongue. The plant is very large and is found on every meadow. When it flowers, it is as if a beautiful fire surrounded by a scenery.

The Kaner remains for a long time in bloom. It looks well, but it is poisonous. It has mostly five petals. The branches are full of flowers; the plant itself grows to the height of two yards. It flowers in the first year.

The Nag Kesar, like the Gul-i-surkh, has five petals and is full of fine stamens. It resembles the walnut tree in the leaves and the stem; and flowers in seven years.

The Surpan resembles the sesame flower, and has yellow stamens in the middle. The stem resembles the Hinna plant, and the leaves those of the willow.

The Hinna has four petals, and resembles the flower called Nafarman. Different plants have often flowers of a different colour.

The Dupahariya is round and small, and looks like a flower called//amej//a Bahar. It opens at noon. The stem is about two yards high.

The Bhum Champa resembles the Nilufar, and has five petals. The stem is about a span long. It grows on such places as are periodically under water. Occasionally a plant is found above the water.

The Sudarsan resembles the Ray-bel, and has yellow threads inside. The stem looks like that of the Susan flower.

The Senbal has five petals, each ten fingers long, and three finges broad The Ratanmala is T0un6 and smaW. Its juice boiled and mixed with vitriol and

asfar, furnishes a fast dye for stuffs. Butter, scasame oil are also boiled together with the root of the plant, when the mixture becomes a purple dye.

The Sunzard resembles the jasmine, but is a little larger, and has from five to six petals. The stem is like that of the Chambeli. Its flowers have little stamens which look like poppyseed, Jt flowers in about two years.

The Main is like the Chambeli, but smaller. In the middle, there are little stamens looking like poppyseed. It flowers in about two years.

Say it with Flowers 193

The Karil has three small petals. It flowers luxuriantly and looks very well. The flower is also boiled and eaten. Pickles are also made out of it.

Tlw Jait grows to a large tree; its leaves look like Tamarind leaves. The Chanpala is like a nosegay. The leaves of the plant are like walnut leaves.

It flowers in two years. The bark of the plant, when boiled in water, makes the water red. It grows chiefly on hills. Its wood burns bright like a candle.

The Lahi has a stem one and a half yards high. The branches, before the flowers appear, are cooked into a dish. It is eaten with bread. When camels feed on this plant they get fat and unruly.

The Karaimda resembles the Juhi flower. The Phanantar resembles the Nilufar, and looks very well. It is a creeper. The Siras flower consists of silk-like threads, and resembles a tumagha. It sends

its fragrance to a great distance. It is the king of the trees, although the Hindus worship the Pipal and Bar trees. Siras tree grows very large; its vt'ood is used in building. Within the stem the wood is black, and resists the stroke of the axe.

The Kangla has five petals, each four fingers long, and looks very beautiful. Each branch produces only one flower.

The San (hemp) looks like a nosegay. The leaves of the plant resemble those of the Chinar. Of the bark of the plant strong ropes are made. One kind of this plant bears a flower like the cotton tree and is called pat-san. It makes a very soft rope.

16 None is a Kafir^ None is a Mlechcha

The advent of Islam in India was a leap of a flame. It had its own shafts of light. The saints with composite awareness created gems out of the flame. Some of the gems are being placed below as Readings from Kabir, Nanak, Dadu, Malukadas, Paltoodas, also Tukaram. Also, a few commandments from other currents. These are related to A Light from the Leap of a Flame.

Kabir

Expressing his anguish at artificial differences between Hinduism and Islam, and advocating for common essential truths Kabir upholds one universal religion for all. He says :

O brother! How can there be two Gods, one of the Hindu and the other of the Muslim? Who has led you astray?

Allah and Rama, Karim and Kesliev, Hari and Hazarat are only separate names of the One Supreme Being.

These separate names are but separate ornaments made from one and the same pure gold. There is no duality in them.

Only for making oneself understood, they have coined different words, one calls it Namaz, other calls it Puja. The thing is the same.

Mahadeo and Mohammed avQ not two, Brahm^i and Adam both mean exactly the same thing.

Who is a Hindu and who is a Musalman? Both live upon the same earth One reads the Vedas, the other recites the Quran; one is Maulana, the other is called Pundit. These are only separate names. In reality they are all separate objects made out of the same clay. In their delusion of separateness, they have both strayed from the reality. None of the two could realise the truth that the God belongs to of all One slaughters the goat, the other the cow, both ruin th^ir lives in complete disregard of the unity of all life. *

None is a Kafir, None is a Mlechcha 195

I am neither a Hindu nor a Muslim. My body is made of the five elements like the body of anyone else and the universal spirit plays and acts within it as in the body of anyone else. Where is the difference?

When you were born in this world, everybody else was laughing with joy, but you were weeping and crying. Now you should behave in this world in such a way that when you depart, you should go smiling and other should be weeping and crying.

The above couplet of Kabir is identical in spirit with a famous verse by Sheikh Saddi:

Do you remember when you were born, you were weeping and crying while all others were laughing with joy ? Now you should lead your life in such a way that after your death you should go smiling, while all others may be weeping and crying.

The Hindus say that Hari lives in the East. The Muslims consider the west as the abode of Allah. But Kabir says that God lives in every heart-and every man should search for him in his own heart. The same one God is Karim as well as Rama.

All men and women are born in the image of God. Kabir is the child of Him, who is both Allah and Rama. Both are his names. That one God is my 'GuriC as well as my 'P/r'.

Both Hindus and Muslims have to traverse the same path for their salvation. The true teacher, that is the 'SatgunC has shown me that path. Kabir says, hear O saints! Rama and Kliiida are both names of the same nameless one.

The Hindus say that their beloved is Rama. The Muslims say that their beloved is Rahini. Both fight with each other over names and injure themselves. None of them understands the truth.

Nanak

Nanak declared that Hinduism and Islam were not two separate religions and he said in utter simplicity :

HindusandMushmsarebothchildrenof the same one God. Lacking in tru faith they fight with each other; one in the name of Rama and the other in the name of Prophet Mohammed. We are neither Hindus nor Muslims. The Satan of disunity separates the two. We are all one. Our God, the God of all, the one pure being is one. Hear, O Abdul Rahaman, you will be able to realise the true God only when you give up your pride of separateness or superiority. The Hindus repeat Rama and the Muslims call him Khuda. But if we look closely into our hearts, we will find that Rama and Rahim are names of the same God.

Neither the Hindus nor the Muslims have found the true way, both have gone astray, driven by the demon of separateness.

^} ^^^ ^^^^ "^^"y a Mohammed, many a Brahma, many a Vishnu, many a Mahesh and many a Rama stand praying and singing of His great and unique qualities in their respective ways.

jgg India : A Cultural Voyage

six schools of Hindu philosophy. We are only the devotees of one God, who is All-merciful.

The Hindus go to their temples. The Muslims go to their mosques. We go to neither. We worship only the One residing in us.

Because of hollow pride, Hindus and Muslims fight each other. It is like two elephants run amock That is why they are unable to drink deep from the sweet river of life which is flowing within all of us.

Malookdas

He was born during Akbar's reign and died when Aurangzeb was ruling over India. Malookdas lived for one hundred and eight years. His followers spread as far as Nepal in the east and Afganistan in the west having established their regular monasteries in both the places. Upholding the great composite tradition of Kabir and Dadu, Malookdas wondered :

What is the use of the Hindu mala or of the Muslim tasbeehl Awake now O Malookdas, and do not depend upon these separate rosaries.

No one is kafir and no one is a mlechcha. Sandhya and namaz are not two separate things. Their timings are immaterial. God requires the aid neither of any Yamraj nor of any Gabriel.

God is Himself quite able to keep the record of the good and bad deeds of every sou! and to distribute rewards and punishments accordingly.

Twelve Commandments of Satnamis

In the Adi-Updesh, the Bible of the Satnamis, are given 12 commandments which may be summarised as follows :

1. Believe only in one God and do not worship any image made of clay, stone wood or any other material.

2. Lead a life of humility. 3. Never tell a lie, never talk ill of anybody, never steal or cast a greedy look at

another's property. 4. Never listen to anything evil and do not sing anything except hymns in hono

of God. 5. Have faith and trust in God. 6. Do not observe the caste-system and do not enter into a rnnf.^

anyone on that subject. controversy with 7. Keep your clothes clean, do not put any mark on vour f^r t .

rosary round your neck. »ore-Head nor any 8. Avoid tobacco and all intoxicants. 9. Do not kill any living being, nor inflict sufl-ering on anv^.,

10. There should be only one wife for one man and n one wife. ^ " ' ^"^ ^n'y one husband for

Nojw is a Kafir, None is a Mlechcha ^^'^

11. The only place of pilgrimage is the company of good and saintly persons. 12. Do not believe in any superstition nor in astrology nor in any omens.

Undoubtedly these commandments were based on a harmonious blending of the best in both Hinduism and Islam.

Paltoo Das

Describing God as Allah-la makan, i.e., Allah beyond space, Paltoo Das addresses God by the name of: Haq, i.e., truth. One of the verses of this saint-poet can be rendered as follows :

If Ram resides in the East and Allah in the West. Who then resides in the north and the south? Where does the Lord live and where does he not live? The Hindus and the Muslims are raising a storm for nothing. And arraying both religions against each other. Paltoo says the Sahib lives in the heart of everyone. He is not hidden from anyone. This is the truth.

Buddhist Literature

The Buddhist poetic literature of the period reveals some rather strange facts, namely, many Muslims who settled in Bengal in middle ages refrained from meat eating. At one place it is recorded :

The Musalmans are praying to God facing towards the West. Some are praying to Allah, others adore All, and yet others sing praises of Mohammed. The Musalman does not kill any living being and does not eat any animal. He is cooking his vegetarian food on a slow fire. Caste distinctions will now gradually disappear for, look, there is a Musalman member in a Hindu family.

Tukaram

Tukaram had been the most famous and universally respected saint in India. Like Kabir, he was strongly opposed to the caste-system, idol-worship, sacrifices of animals and other rituals. Tukaram's chief mission was unification of Hinduism and Islam. In one of his verses he says :

O my dear baba, whatever God wills, that alone happens. God is the creator of us all. He is the king of us all. Our cattle and our friends, our gardens and all our wealth have only a fleeting existence. O my friend, my heart is set upon my Sahib. He is my Creator, I am riding my mind as one rides a horse. The real rider is the self. O baba, always talk of God. All forms are His forms. He has created all in His own image. Tukaram says that he who understands this truth alone deserves to be called a darvesh.

17 Hand Gestures : Alphabets of Dance

Hand gestures open a window to fathom the mansion of Indian dance. They provide clues to understanding and appreciating the otherwise intricate and highly complex texture of the mansion. They are being briefly introduced to acquaint the reader with the dance speech. The Reading on hand gestures will reveal nuances in Dance and Music : Surrender to the Bliss.

P/4ry4/r.4 (The Flag): The open palm is held facing upwards, the four fingers and thumb held all close together. It is used at the beginning of a dance, and to denote clouds, a forest, things, bosom, might, peace, a river, heaven, prowess, moonlight, strength, sunlight, wave, entry, silence, an oath, the sea, sword and a palm leaf.

TRI-PA TAKA (Three Parts of the Flag) : The palm faces outwards. The thumb and first, second and little fingers are kept straight. The third finger is bent into the palm. It is used to express the holding of a trident, turning round, crown, tree, flower, light, arrow, invocation, book, stroking the hair, lamp, etc.

ARDHA-PATAKA (Half Flag) : the hand is rested with the palm facing outwards. The thumb, first and second fingers are extented straight, the third and little fingers are bent into the palm. It is used to express two or both, knife, a horn, a tower, etc.

KATARIMUKHA (FacG of the Arrow Shaft) : The hand is raised with the palm facing outwards. The first and second fingers are extended straight up, the third finger is bent into the palm and the thumb is placed to touch the tip of the finger. It is used to express opposition, disagreement, falling, separation (of lovers), a creeper, yearning, buff'alo, deer, fly, hill-top and elephant.

MA YURA (Peacock) : The hand is raised with the palm upwards. The first, second and little fingers are extended straight, the third finger is bent to touch it at the tip. It is used to expiess the peacock's beak, wiping away something, wiping away tears, stroking the hair, the forehead mark, etc.

ARDHA-CHANDRA (Half Moon): The palm faces upwards slightly. The four

Hand Gestures : Alphabets of Dance ^ 99

fingers are stretched together and the thumb is stretched to its fullest away from the rest of the fingers. It is used to express the moon (on the eighth day), anxiety, prayer, greeting, meditation, bangle, wrist, mirror, ear of an elephant and bow.

ARALA (Bent): The palm is raised to face outwards. The second, third and little fingers are stretched straight, the finger crooked or curved and the thumb a little bent beside it and almost touching the tip of the finger. It is used to express nectar, drinking poison, benediction, dressing the hair, decorating the face, etc.

SUKUTANDA (Parrots's beak): The palm is raised facing outwards. The second and little fingers are stretched, and the third and the first fingers are curved forward, while the thumb is bent a little beside them. It is used to express the sense of shooting an arrow, mystery, anger, Brahma—the Creator, fighting, bow, abandon­ment and refusal.

MUSHTI{Fist): It depicts the four fingers bent into the palm and the thumb set on them. It is used to express steadfastness, holding or grasping things, stronghold, holding a book, holding a shield or spear, order imprisonment, Yama (the God of Death), etc.

SI KHAR A (Spire): The palm is raised outwards. The four fingers arc bent into the palm, and thumb is extended straight out. It is used to express silence, question­ing, sound of a bell, pillar, husband, saying no, embrace, steadfastness, hero, friend, sapphire and intensity.

KAPITHA (Elephant Apple): The palm is raised outwards. The second, third, and the little fingers are bent into the palm and the first fingers is bent forward; the thumb is bent to touch the tip of the first finger. It is used to express the holding of cymbals, holding flower, holding a rope, offering lights, Lakshnii, Saraswati, milk, showing a dance, pounding seed and winding.

KATAKA MUKHA {Opsning in a Link): The palm is raised outwards. The third and little fingers are extended and bent very slightly, the first finger and thumb curved forward to touch at the tips, and the second finger bent to touch the base of the thumb. It is used to express the picking of the flowers, holding a pearl necklace, holding a garland, flowers, giving betel leaves, applying scent, drawing a bow slowly', glancing, holding a mirror, breaking a twig, holding a fan, etc.

SC/C///(Needle): The palm is raised outwards. The third and little fingers are extended and bent very slightly, the first finger stretched straight, and the second linger bent to the tip of the thumb and the thumb bent a little forwards. It is used to express the saying of 'this or that', threatening, astonishment, explaining, rod, braid ot hair, umbrella, beating the drum, life, solitude, lotus stalk, etc. Th ^"^^^^"^ ^"^LA (Digit of the Moon) : The palm is raised facing outwards 1 he second, third and the little fingers are bent forward parallel to the palm and the hrst hnger and the thumb are stretched apart and extented straight. It is used to express the crescent moon, the face and the crown of Lord Shiva.

PADMAKOSA (Lotus Bud) : The palm is hollowed and faced outwards. The tour fingers are bent apart a little, and the thumb moved in towards the bent fingers It IS used to express the idea of frisking about, fruit, mango flower, lotus bud water

200 India : A CuUural Voyage

lily, curve, bud, cluster of flowers, bellshaped, brilliance, charm, coconut and blos­soming of a bud.

SARPA SIRSA (Snake Head): The palm is hollowed, slightly raised and faced outwards. The fingers and the thumb are closed together, extended and bent a little at the top. It is used to express a snake, sandal paste, sprinkling, cherishing, giving water to the Gods, washing the face; short man, shoulders, image, water and very true.

MRIGA S/RSA (Deer Head): The palm is raised facing outwards. The little finger is extended straight, the three other fingers are bent parallel to the base of the palm, and the thumb tip touches the centre of the first finger. It is used to express fear, the face of a deer, discussion, drawing lines on the brow, cheek, patterns on the ground, calling the beloved, applying sandal paste and order.

SIMM A MUKHA (Lion Head): The face is raised facing outwards. The first and the little fingers are straight; the second and the third fingers are bent parallel to the palm, and the thumb touches the tips. It is used to express a lion's head, a lotus garland, stroking the hair, fragrance, appeal, hare and elephant.

LANGULA (Tail): The palm is raised facing outwards, extended straight. The first and second fingers are bent parallel to the palm, and the thumb is bent to touch the first joints of these fingers; and the little finger is bent to touch the first joint of thumb. It is used to express water, water lily, little bells, partridge, grapes, seed, blue lotus, coral and anything small.

SOLA PADMA (Full-blown Lotus): The palm is faced upward and hollowed. All the fingers and the thumb are spread out and bent to form a petalled circle. It is used to express the idea of a full-blown lotus, the hair-knot, anger, praise, full moon, a round face, a ball, beauty, etc.

C/4rt//?/I (Semi-circle) : The palm is faced outwards and hollowed. The first second and third fingers and the thumb are bent like a hooded snake, and the little finger is extended straight. It is used to express the sense of sorrow, playful, converse, copper, sweetness, face, breaking, etc.

BHRAMARA (The Bee) : The palm is very slightly hollowed, and the third and little fingers are separated and bent a little. The second finger is bent parallel to the base of the palm, and the thumb bent to touch the tip of the second finger. The first fingcrisbent to touch the first joint of the thumb. It is used to express the bee parrot, cuckoo and wing.

HAMSASYA (Swan Face) : The palm is raised facing outwards and very slightly hollowed. The little finger is extended straight. The third finger is also extend­ed but bent very slightly, and the first and the second fingers are bent forward to touch the thumb at the tips. It is used to express swan's beak, tying the marriage thread, certainty, drop of water, carrying garlands and a jasmine.

HAMS A PAKSHA (Swan Feather) : The palm is raised facing outwards and very slightly hollowed. The little finger is extended straight, and the other three fingers are bent a little forward, while the thumb bends over to touch the centre of th second finger underneath. It is used to express the number s x, arranging things I covering and feathers. " '

Hand Gestures : Alphabets of Dance 201

SAMDAMSA (Grasping): The palm is raised facing outwards. The first finger is bent down to touch the thumb at the tip, and the other three fingers are extended forward and very slightly bent at the joints. It is used to express generosity, sacrificial offerings, worship, the number five, small bud, gentle dance, sprout, blades of grass, eclipse, fly, garland, pointing, snow, etc.

MUKULA (Bud): The palm is raised facing outwards. The four fingers are bent forward together, and the thumb is bent to touch the tips of the fingers. It is used to express water lily, eating, banana flower, prayer, lotus bud, life, self, worship and fruit.

TAMRA CUD A (Cock): The palm is raised facing outwards. The third and the little fingers are bent into the palm. The first finger is bent and touches its own base, the second finger is bent forward, and the thumb goes to touch it at the first joint. It is used to express a cock, writing or drawing, camel, calf, the number three, Vcdas, a leaf, etc,

TRISULA (Trideni) : The palm is raised facing outwards. The first,'second and third fingers are extended straight, and the little finger is bent into the palm, with the thumb folded into the edge of the palm, and straight against the first finger. It is used to express the trident, three together, wood-apple, a leaf, etc.

URNABHA (Spider): The palm is raised facing downwards and hollowed. All the fingers are spread out and bent and the thumb is bent also. It is used to express scratching the head, head of a lion, tortoise, desperation and a spider.

BANA (Arrow) : The palm faces upwards and is slightly hollowed. The little finger is extended; the three other fingers are bent to touch the thumb at finger tips. It is used to express the number six, contentment and perseverance.

^/?D//^-5(/C///(Half-needle): The palm is raised outwards. The second, third and the little fingers are bent into the palm. The first finger is extended and the thumb is held close to the edge of the palm, up to the first finger. It is used to express the idea of something coming up, sprouting, a bird, a blade of grass, a-nd a stalk of corn.

The dance, after studying the single hand gestures, goes on to the study of the combinations of these, wherein both the hands are used. There are twenty-seven such combinations as taken from the Sanskrit treatises. No doubt, some schools of dance have further elaborated on these fundamental combinations and permutations to make the language of signs even more comprehensive.

18 The Milky Way

Language is culture. So is river, especially the Ganga. She is intricately woven in the life pattern called India. The Reading on the descent of the celestial river resembles the flow of Indian langu­ages which mirror our culture.

The Puranic list of important mountains of Bharat follows a simple but natural pattern. These ranges are nothing but watersheds binding wholly or partially the catchment areas of important rivers of Bharatavarsh. For instance, the catchment areas of the Ganga, the Sindhu and the Lohita {Brahmaputra) are associated with the Himavai; those of the Narmada (Vishnu Purana) and the Baitarani with the Vindhyas. The only important river whose catchment area is not covered by the Himavat, the Sahya, the Mahendra, the Malaya, the Riksavat and the Vindhya is the Mahanadi, a considerable river system.

The Ganga is a celestial river which has been very picturesquely compared in the Puranas to the Milky Way. The first part of the statement, therefore, refers to the 'Starry River' in the heavens, which one sees revolving round the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere, as though it were attached to the pole by an invisible bond. The abode of this celestial river on earth is extensively snow-bound and glacier-mantled. High plateau of the Pamirs (the Meru) on which the Ganga 'desends* from the sky, obviously is in the form of snow.

The Ganga, thus, remains suspended on this mountainous region above the snow-line or in Puranic language, rests on the head and tresses of gods and deities. Not only does the heavenly river rests on this plateau but also in the high ranges which surround and radiate from the region. Thus the river runs further as a glacier. At this stage, namely before melting, the Ganga rests or remains suspended on the high mountain peaks. When the glacier melts and water accumulates in lakes at the foot of the mountain, and flows from there the Ganga transforms itself into water channels, i.e., rivers in the real sense. The Puranas mention four main lakes and four main rivers originating as such and flowing to the four cardinal points of Jambu Dvipa.

The Milky Way 203

The Puranas intend to bring out three stages in the evolution of the Ganga:

1. They connect it with the heavens by comparing and identifying it with the Milky Way. This is the celestial stage.

2. As the snow falls on the high mountains they identify it with the snow cap in the High Asia which covers its high ranges and its central knot, the Pamirs. The Ganga is just a cover or a belt of snow and ice at this stage. This is the Ganga at the snowy stage.

3. From this common source, namely the Pamirs, the snowy Ganga melts and divdes inself into four main rivers of Asia which branch off in different directions. The Ganga at this stage becomes a stream, or, rather four streams of water. The Puranas have thus rolled the accounts of the glaciers of Asia, the rivers of Asia and their origin into one. It is a simple but colourful statement, and it is repeated practically in all the Puranas.

Seven regions of the Ganga'. Vindu Sarovar

At the foot of the Kailash mountain, there is extremely sacred and excellent sand of gold. And there is also a beautiful lake named 'VindW.HQic came Bhagirath, for the sake of the Ganga. Here he lived for a number of years. The goddess Tripathaga or the Ganga was first initiated. Emerging from the foot of the Soma mountain, the river divides itself into seven springs. There are to be found 'Yupa', diamonds, golds, etc. on all the way. In the clear sky, the innumer­able stars of the Milky Way which look very close to each other and shine brightly in the night, are nothing but the flow of Goddess Tripathaga or the Ganga. The Tripathaga, having flown in the sky, comes do\\n upon the earth; and being checked by Lord Shiva's Yoga, falls upon his head.

The few drops which fall upon the earth as a result of the anger of Lord Shiva create a lake called 'Vindu'. It is, therefore, known as 'Vindu Sarovar'.

Thus, having been checked by the Lord, the Tripathaga begins to brood over her imprisonment. She feels like piercing the lower regions of earth to reappear on the surface and circumvent the Lord. Having come to know the evil design of Devi Ganga, Lord Shiva lifts his eyes and keeps the entire mighty river over his head. He, then, angrily throws her down with great force upon the earth.

At the same time Lord Shiva saw King Bhagiratha had grown pale and thin due to, hunger and thirst. So intense is his love for this river. Pleased with the King, Lord Shiva took pity on him and changed his anger in to a boon. Having realised the strong desire of King Bhagiratha, the Tripatliaga started flowing on. And the spring of the river divides itself into seven streams. Three of these flow towards the east and three towards the west. In her majestic course the Ganga divides itself into seven parts Naliniy Haradini, and Pavani gushes towards the east. Sita Chaksu and Sindhu towards the west. The seventh current towards the south under the name Bhagirathi. The Bhagirthi enters the Lavana sea, offering devotion to Himadri Varsha.

19 A Selection of Festivals :

A Journey Through Joys of Life

The Indian calendar is a long and colourful procession of festivals. A spectacle always awaits. Something new is always anticipated. The air always cups its hands to hold a voice singing that the harvest is golden, two lovers are dead and are immortal, a great prophet lives on... A selected list of Indian festivals helps in measuring the joys of life and goes along the Accent on Truer Lights.

PONGAL/SANKRANTI January

Tiruchirapalli and Maditrai in Tamil Nadu, And/ira Pradesh and Karnataka

This is a three-day harvest festival and one of the most colourful events in south India. In Tamil Nadu where it is called Pongal, on the first day of the festival, the Sun is worshipped—signifying its movements from cancer to capricon. On the next day, Mattu Pongal, cows and bullocks, so essential to the rural world, become a part of a thanks giving ceremony. They are fed on freshly harvested rice. In Karna­taka, the festival is called Sankranti. Cows and bullocks are painted and decorated and fed on 'Pongal'—a sweet preparation of rice. In the evening, the cattle in each village are led out in procession to the beat of drums and music. In some towns in the South, the festival is climaxed by a kind of bull-fight in which young men try to wrest bundles of currency notes from the horns of a ferocious bull. In Andhra Pradesh every houshold displays its collection of dolls for three days.

REPUBLIC DA Y January 26

Delhi and all state capitals

Republic Day is India's greatest national festival, observed throughout the coun­try on 26 January. The festival in the capital culminates in a magnificent parade at

A Selection of Festivals 205

which the President of India takes the salute. Watched by a vast concourse, the parade wends a glittering route through the heart of the city. The colour and excitement of well ordered marching columns representing the armed forces are followed by rum­bling armoured vehicles, richly caparisoned mounts which include elephants and camels, tableaux and floats. The parade ends with a fly past when zooming jets deco­rate the sky with the colours of the national flag. This is followed by a colourful folk dance festival in Delhi on 27 and 28 January. In the state capitals military parades are held at which the governors take the salute.

B AS ANT PANCHAMI January J February

Throughout India

This Hindu festival is celebrated in honour of Saraswati, the charming and sophisticated goddess of learning and knowledge, who is also reputed to have inven­ted the musical instrument, veena. Quietly worshipped by her devotees in their homes, the celebration is more extensive in Bengal and Bihar where her images are taken in musical processions and immersed in the rivers. Books, pens, paints, brushes and musical instruments are kept at her shrine. In the North, it is a spring festival when people wear yellow garments and fly kites.

NA UK A- VIHA R January! February

Madurai

The birth anniversary of Tirumalai Nayak, the 17th century ruler of Madurai, is observed as Nauka Vihar, the great Moating Festival at Madurai which is the most famous temple town of south India. Temple deities, clothed in silk and decked with jewels and flowers, arc taken in a grand procession to a large pool known as Maria-mman Teppakulam. The deities are placed in a gaily decorated float illuminated by hundreds of lamps. Music and chanting of hymns accompany the sacred barge.

SHIVRATRI February!March

All over India

Celebrated by the Hindus all over India, Shivratri is a solemn festival devoted to the worship of the most powerful deity of the Hindu pantheon, Lord Shiva. It is purely religious festival in which devotees spend the whole night singing Shiva's praise. Special celebrations are organised at all important Shiva temples at Chidambram, Kalashti, Khajuraho and Varanasi, besides each village in India keeps fast and holds mela on Shivratri Day.

206 India : A Cultural Voyage

HOLI February!March

All over India : Specially in the North

Celebrating the advent of spring men, women, and children revel in throwing coloured water and powder on their friends. The most interesting Holi celebration is the Lathmar Holi at Barsana near Mathura, the legendry hometown of Radha, consort of Lord Krishna. The women of Barsana challenge men of Nandgaon, home of Krishna, to throw colour on them.

The men reply the next day. It is a form of moral and physical challenge played by women and men whose Goddess Radha and God Krishna were lovers of great merit. The style speaks of a raw strength of the people. In the Punjab, particularly at Anandpur Sahib, a sect of the sikh community observes Holla Mohalla, a day after Holi, and stages mock battles with ancient weapons.

JAMSHED NAVROZ March

Maharashtra, Gujarat

New Year's day for the Parsi followers of the Fasli calendar. The celebrations, which include donning fine clothes, prayers at temples, greetings, alms-giving and feasting at home, date back to Jamshed, the legendary king of Persia.

GANGAUR March/April

Rajasthan

The festival is held about a fortnight after Holi in honour of Parvati, the consort of Lord Shiva. Gaily attired young girls, gracefully balancing brass pitchers on their heads, wend their way to the temple of Gauri (Parvati) for the ceremonial bath of the deity who is then beddecked with flowers. In their invocation to Gauri, they ask for husbands such as the one Parvati was blessed with. The festival ends in rejoicing, with the arrival of Shiva to escort his bride Gauri home, accompanied by caparisoned horses and elephants. In Bengal, more particularly in Nabadwip and Santipur, and in Orissa, a similar ritual, called Doljatra, is observed by followers of the Vishnu cult.

MAHAVIR JAYANTI March/April

All over India

This festival is dedicated to Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains, who has a large following in Gujarat and other parts of India.

A Selection of Festivals ^^'

EASTER MarchjApril

All over India

Good Friday and Easter Sunday conform to the same pattern of alternate reverence and gaiety that exist in the West.

ID-UL-Zuha {BAKRID) April/May

Throughout India

Bakr-Id commemorates the sacrifice of Abraham. Prayers are offered at mosques during the day. Celebrants wear new clothes and there is feasting and rejoicing.

SPRING FESTIVAL April/May

Kashmir

In Srinagar, capital of Kashmir, the spring festival actually starts in March,' when the first almond blossoms appear. People flock to the almond orchards near the picturesque Dal Lake. They take with them Kashmiri vessels like samovars and make tea under blooming almond. The pink and white almond blossoms add colour to the gay spectacle. There is much happy singing of folk songs. On 13th April, the Baishakhi festi\a\ is celebrated in the Mughal gardens of Kashmir.

BAISHAKHI April/May

North India

This is the Hindu solar new year observed virtually all over northern India and in Tamil Nadu. It is a religious festival when people bathe in rivers and go to temples to worship. The river Ganga is believed to have descended on earth on this day. For the Sikh community, Baishakhi is of special significance. On this day in 1689, Guru Gobind Singh organised the Sikhs into the Khalsa or the pure one. In Punjab, farmers start harvesting with great jubilation. The vigorous Bhangra dance is a common sight in the villages.

POORAM April/May

Kerala

The most spectacular temple festival in Kerala begins as twilight descends on the temple of Vadakkunathan atop a hillock near Trichur. Thirty richly capari-

208 India : A Cultural Voyage

soned elepnants carrying ceremonial umbrellas and fanned by whisks stride out through the gopurani (temple gate). The elephant in the centre carries the processional image of the temple deity, Vadakkwmthan. To the sound of trumpets and pipes, the elephants go round the temple. A spectacular display of fire works, soon after the mid-night, continues till the break of dawn.

ID-UL-FITR (RAMZAN-ID) April/May

All over India

Celebrated to mark the end of Ramazan, the Muslim month of fasting. Idul-Fitr is an occasion for feasting and rejoicing. The faithfuls gather in mosques to pray, and friends and relatives meet to exchange greetings.

MEENAKSHI KALYANAM April!May

Macturai

The annual solemnization of the marriage of Meenakshi with Lord Shiva is one of the most spectacular temple festivals at Madurai's famous Meenakshi temple in Tamil Nadu. This mythical wedding is the culmination of a ten-day festival in the month of Chaitra (April/May). The deities are taken out in a resplendent chariot to the accompaniment of traditional devotional music.

RATH YATRA July

Varanasi, Serampore and Puri

Of the great temple festivals of India, the one held in Puri in Orissa is the most spectacular. The festival, held in honour of Jagannath (Lord of the Universe), attracts thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the country. The most impressive part of the festival is the chariot procession. Three profusely decorated temple cars, resembling a temple structure, are drawn by thousands of pilgrims along Puri's streets. In each car is seated a different deity—Jagannath, his brother Balabhadra and sister Subhadra. Similar celebrations, on much smaller scale, are held at Ramnagar (near Varanasi), Serampore (near Calcutta) and Jaganathpur (near Ranchi)

NAAG RANCH AMI July} August

Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and North India

Reverence for the cobra (Naag)is shown by people all over the country durinp

A Selection of Festivals 209

Naag Panchami, usually in late July or early August. This day is dedicated to the great thousand-headed mythical serpent called Sesha or Anant meaning 'infinite'. Vishnu, the Hindu God of preservation reclined on him in contemplation during the interval between the dissolution of one aeon and the creation of another, At Jodhpur in Rajasthan, huge cloth effigies of the mythical serpent are displayed at a colourful fair.

TEE J July I August

Rajasthan, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, North India

Teej is an important festival in Rajasthan. It welcomes the monsoon and is essentially a women's festival. The presiding deity is the goddess Parvati who, in the form of a bride, leaves her parents' home for her husband's. Women of all ages attired in bright green costumes flock to the swing which are hung from trees. Villagers from the surrounding region turn up to see the procession of the goddess Parvati with the retinue of elephants, camels and dancers.

RAKSHA BANDHAN July/August

Throughout northern and western India

In the days when Indra, the mythical king of the heavens, warred with demons, his consort tied a Rakhi or a silken amulet, around his wrist. This, it is said, helped him win his celestial abode.

On this day a man considers his privilege to be chosen as brother by a girl who ties a Rakhi on his wrist. He, in return, pledges to give her protection. Celebrated mainly in northern and western India, colourful stalls spring up everywhere offering an astonishing variety of glittering amulets for sale.

AMARNATH YATRA July!August

Kashmir

Each year, in the month of Shravan (July/August), when the moon is full, thousands of devout Hindus gather at the Amarnath cave in the Lidder Valley in Kashmir to offer their prayers to Lord Shiva. The cave can be reached from Srinagar via Pahalgam by a picturesque road. The cave is at the height of 3880 metres in the Himalayas. It enshrines a naturally formed ice///jgam which waxes and wanes with the moon. This is where, Hindus believe. Lord Shiva explained the secret of salva­tion to his cbnsort Parvati.

210 ///<//a : A Cultural Voyage

ONAM August}September

Kerala

Kerala's greatest festival is Onam, celebrated with tremendous enthusiasm. It is primarily a harvest festival observed not only in home but also in the open against the background of lush green tropical vegitation in which the region abounds. The most exciting features of the festival are the snake boat races held at several places in palm fringed lagoons. Various kinds of boats, beak shaped, take part in these thrilling contests.

JANMASHTAMI August}September

Throughout India

The birth anniversary of Lord Krishna, believed to be the reincarnation of Vishnu and the author of the Bhagavat Gita, is observed all over India. It is cele­brated with special enthusiasm at Mathura and Vrindaban where Lord Krishna spent his childhood. Night long prayers are held and religious hymns are sung in temples. In Bombay, Delhi, Mathura and Agra, children enact scenes from his early life.

GANESH CHATURTHI August]September

Maharashtra

Ganesh, the deity with an elephant's head, is the god of good omen and is worshipped by most Hindus, In Maharashtra, particularly in and around Bombay, the festival of Ganesh is celebrated with tremendous enthusiasm. Clay models of the deity are worshipped and taken out in grand procession accompanied by the sound of cymbals and drums. The images, sometimes as much as eight metres high, are finally immersed in a sea or a lake.

DUSSEHRA, RAMLILA, DURGA PUJA September}October

All over India

The most popular of India's festivals is Dussehra. Every region observes this festival lasting for ten days. It is celebrated in a special way. In north India, it is Ram Lila and consists of plays, recitations and music which recall the life of legendry hero, Rama. All over, amateur troupes perform plays based on the epic story of Rama. On the tenth day, an elaborate procession is taken to Ram Lila grounds where immense effigies of the demon R^vana, his brother and son, explode to th^

A Selection of Festivals ^^^

cheers of thousands of spectators. In Kulu the celebrations have a different flavor. Against the backdrop of snow-covered mountains, villagers dressed in their colourful best assemble to take out procession of local deities while pipes and drums make music.

In Bengal and other parts of eastern India, Dussehra is celebrated asDurga Puja. Devotees don new clothes and entertain themselves with music, dance and drama. On the last day, images of the warrior goddess Durga are taken out in procession and immersed in a sea or a river.

In Mysore, Dussehra is celebrated with pomp and pageantry reminiscent of grandeur of medieval India. In other parts of south India, the festival is celebrated as Navaratri. Dolls and trinkets are artistically arranged in tiers by young girls. Friends and relatives visit each other's home to exchange greetings.

DIWALl October/November

All over India

The gayest of all Indian festivals, Diwali is an occasion for great excitement and rejoicing. In some parts, Diwali marks the start as the Hindu New Year. Every city, town and village is turned into a fairyland with thousands of flickering oil lamps and electric Ught illuminating homes and public buildings.

On this night, a great part of India worships Lakshmi, the goddess symbolis­ing prosperity. In eastern India, particularly in Bengal, is worshipped Kali, the goddess symbolising strength. Spectacular images of Kali are installed and worshipped before immersion in holy water.

GURPURA V October!November

Mainly in north India

The birth anniversaries of the ten gurus, spiritual teachers or preceptors of Sikhism are observed as holy days; but those of Nanak and Govind Singh, the first and the last Gurus, are celebrated as festivals. Guru Nanak's Birth day falls in Kartik (October/November) and Guru Govind Singh's birth day falls in December/January. The main celebrations are Akliand Path, the recitation of the Guru's verses and pro­cessions carrying the Guru Granth Sahib, the Holy Book of the Sikhs.

MUHARRAM November

All over India

Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hussain, the grand son of pro­phet Mohammed. In all cities and towns in India there are impressive processions of

2J2 ^"^'« • ^ Cultural Voyage

colourfully decorated tazias which are made of paper and bamboo and are replicas of martyr's tomb at Karbala.

The processions are specially impressive at Lucknow where the Imam Baras (mausolea) are illuminated. In many parts of south India, tiger-dancers (men painted all over with stripes and wearing tiger masks) lead the procession.

CHRISTMAS December 25

Bombay, Goa, Delhi, Calcutta

A fine and exhilarating distillation of traditional and local influences, Christm.as is observed in much splendour at services in churches and cathedrals. Carol singing, dancing and balls are the high water-marks. Among the most joyous and colourful celebrations are the festivities at Goa which retain the pageantry of the Latin temper brought to a brilliant culmination under an Indian sun.

In Bombay, a pontifical High Mass is held at midnight in the open air at Cooperage Grounds. In Delhi, in addition to the Mid-Night Mass, services are held at the Sacred Heart Cathedral. In Tamil Nadu, Christmas is also the time for music and dance.

FAIRS GOA CARNIVAL February

Goa

In the south-west of India, in February, as the rigours and fasting of Lent approach, the residents of Goa, specially of Panaji, give vent to an exuberance and zest for life in a carnival that lasts for a week. Goa with its sandy beaches, clear blue skies, and perfect weather is an ideal backdrop for the carnival.

In keeping with the festive spirit comes the music which Goans love most. Its rhythms are woven into the nights and days of the carnival as hundred of guitars are strummed.

This carnival rivals the best in the world. Bright colourful costumes, masks and flitrations favour the revellers. Processions follow processions. Genious'ly made floats ply down the picturesque roads. And for an unforgettable week exuberance and joy find a home amids the sandy beaches and beauty of Goa.

URS April/May

Ajmer Sharif

New clothes and feasts at home for friends, acquaintances and strangers. At the

A Selection of Festivals ^^^

fair, the wonderland of saints, fakirs and pilgrims. The endless voices in qawalising the praise of Hazrat Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti, helper of the poor. Such an environ­ment welcomes visitors at the Urs of Ajmer Sharif.

Ajmer, for six days, turns in a fairy land, a great centre for religious, cultural and commercial activity for people from all over India and the world.

The shops in the fair are rented by merchants from Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Ahmedabad and, of course, Ajmer. The fair, like all fairs in India, is just not a commercial venture. It is a great out-pouring of culture. All night-long, qawals, regardless of religion, sing in the mehfil, and poets sprout amids the shop, above the hubbub in the streets. Strands of poetry and art, trade and religion are interwoven for days to make Ajmer fair one of the most unusual and unforgettable in India.

KULU MELA September/October

Himachal Pradesh

To the north, Dussehra, brings with it, a fair in Kulu valley. It is time for gods and goddesses to forsake their temples and adore the fields amidst the sun. Each village has its god. They are led in a noisy procession by musicians and minstrels from their various high perches in the hills to the fields of Kulu below. There they shall be one of the main attractions of the week long fair. Their final processions on the seventh day marks the end of the fair as well. A plethora of stalls, a riotous throng, and the laughter and excitement of children marks the Kulu affair. During the high point of the fair a buffalo is sacrificed in front of the jostling crowd. At the end of the Mela^ the long ascent of the god begins to reign over their particular shrine till the next Kulu mela, yet a year off.

PUSHKAR MELA October I November

Rajasthan

The journey to the banks of lake Pushkar begins days in advance through the sandy wastes of Rajasthan. The vehicles are as myriad as the participants themselves— horses, bullock carts, camels, cars and jeeps in their thousands.

For men, it is time to buy and sell cattle, camels and horses, etc., Leather predominates in embroidered animal covers.

For ladies, it is a chance to wonder at the bangles, the clothes, the pots and pans and other utensils of brass. Necklaces of glass beads from Nagpur, ivory work i'rom Morta, printed cloth from Jodhpur and Ajmer, prized goods from far and near.

The participants in this fair are Rajputs, proud legatees of a history of chivalry and valour. The fair thrives once again at the high point of the horse and camel races.

An important function of the fair is the trading of the cattle. Spirited bidding accompanies the auction. And the Pushkar ends as it begins, in an endless stream of bullock carts, camels and jeeps, wending a weary, but well satisfied way, homewards.

214 India : A Cultural Voyage

SONEPUR FAIR November

Bihar

The largest cattle fair in the world takes place on the banks of the Ganga near Patna. The fair lasts for a month and cattle brought from all over the country are bought and sold. The blowing of counch shells, the sonorous trumpeting of elephants as they wade into the river, and the constant moving of bulls and cows, alongwith their tinkling bells, is an enthralling backdrop for this fair. The cattle are decorated and painted in crimson, orange, pink and purple to facilitate identification. Some have horns gilded with silver. Their regal dignity seems to proclaim that they know they are the greatest draw at the fair.

KUMBHA MELA January-February

Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh

Further to the east and south, in the heart of India, KUMBH, the greatest and the most important of the Indian fairs, takes place once every three year, at one of the four places: Nasik in Maharashtra, Ujjaini in Madhya Pradesh, Prayag (Allahabad) and Hardwar in Uttar Pradesh. Hindus from all over the country come in their millions for a holy dip. Sadhus of every sect, pilgrims in search of salvation, showmen of every sort, magicians, fakirs and teachers descend in huge hordes to these holy places, in an unprecedented exhibition of religious and commercial fervour.

Originally the fair served the purpose of meeting of religious heads of various sects in Hinduism, and gave an opportunity for theological debate and discourse on the grandest scale. For close unto a fortnight, while the fair lasts, it is time of frolic and spirited bargaining. A time for dharma and a time for fun.

In addition to these major fairs there are many other fairs that are as colourful and exuberant. The Barman Mela in Hoshangabad district takes place in January, climaxed by Til Sankranti. The Charak Mela on the last day of Chaitya (usually in April), is a festival of rural Bengal. The Paus Mela (December) held at Shantiniketan, founded by the poet Rabindranath Tagore, is also another widely attended fastival where song and dance prevail. The Kansa Mela, specially celebrated in Mathura and Fatehpur Sikri recalls the destruction of Kansa, the cruel ruler, who trifed to destroy Lord Krishna. In Bandra, a suburb of Bombay, there is a yearly fair in early September in honour of Virgin Mary. There are occasional fair as well that take place at intervals. The solar eclipse is an occassion for Hindus to bathe in rivers preferably at Kurushetra, Allahabad, Varanasi or Hardwar. Little known local cus­toms have their own charm. In Agra, just before Diwali, children in their best finery carry a clay image of Tisu Maharaj. (probably a local hero) from place to place. People, on the way, give them sweets or money.

A common feature of Indian rural life is the bazar day or the hat as it is called in north India, or shandy in the south. In the villages, this is not only a social but an

A Selection of Festivals 215

economic necessity sometimes having a religious slant. People from adjoining villages assemble in one place to buy what they need and ^ell what they produce. Usually, the fair breaks after the barter, but sometimes when an important festival comes, other attractions add to the importance of the meeting.

Some of the larger ones arrange a giant wheel, a merry-go-round or even a visit from a travelling circus, apart from all the traditional characters like the medicine­men with their colourful patter, who are to be found at all fairs. These occasions, apart from being diversions in their own way, are also an insight into Indian rural value system.

20 Example As Well As Precept

Mahatma Gandhi was an example as well as a precept. He symbo­lised the unity of mind and matter. His power blossomed through self-discipline which was practised by the Indian national movement nurtured and led by him. His words on the theme are truer today, and make a relevant Reading along with The Bread And The Lotus.

Civilization, in the real sense of the term, consists not in multiplication but in the deliberate and voluntary restriction of wants. This alone promotes real happiness and contentment, and increases the capacity of service.

A certain degree of physical harmony and comfort is necessary, but above that level, it becomes a hindrance instead of help. Therefore the ideal of creating an un-Hmited number of wants and satisfying them seems to be a delusion and snare. The satisfaction of one's physical needs, even the intellectual needs of one's narrow self, must meet, at a point, a dead stop before it degenerates into physical and intellectual voluptuousness. A man must arrange his physical and cultural circumstances so that they may not hinder him in his service of huminity, on which all his energies should be concentrated.

The relation between the body and the mind is so intimate that, if either of them go out of order, the whole system would suffer. Hence, it follows that a pure charac­ter is the foundation of health in the real sense of the term; and we may say that all evil thoughts and evil passions are but different forms of desease.

Perfect health can be attained only by living in obedience to the laws of God and defying the power of Satan. True happiness is impossible without true health and true health is impossible without a rigid control of palate. All the other senses will automatically come under control when the palate is brought under control. And he who has conquered his senses has really conquered the whole world. He becomes a part of God.

X X X

I have taken up journalism not for its sake but merely as an aid to what I have

Example As Well As Precept 217

conceived to be mission in life. My mission is to teach by example and precept under severe restraint tha use of the matchless weapon of satyagraha which is a direct corollary to demonstrate that there is no remedy for the many ills of life save that of non-violence. It is a solvent strong enough to melt the stoniest heart. To be true to my faith, therefore, 1 may not write in anger or malice. I may not write idly. I may not write to excite passion. The reader can have no idea of the restraint. I have to exercise from week to week in tliQ cho'icQ of topics and my vocabulary. It is a training for me. It enables me to peep into myself and to make discoveries of weaknesses. Often my vanity dictates a smart expression or my anger a harsh adjec­tive. It is terrible ordeal but a fine exercise to remove these weeds. The reader sees the pages of the Young India fairly well-dressed up and sometimes, with Romain Rolland, he is inclined to say 'what a fine old man this must be'. Well, let the world understand that the finenss is carefully cultivated. And if it has proved acceptable to some whose opinion I cherish, let the reader understand that when the fineness has become perfectly natural, i.e. when I have become incapable of evil and when nothing harsh or haughty occupies, be it momentarily, my thought-world, then and not till then, my non-viohnce will move all the hearts of the world. I have placed before me and the reader no impossible ideal or ordeal. It is man's prerogative and birth-right. We have lost the paradise only to regain it.

X X X

I have learnt through bitter experience the one supreme lesson to conserve my anger, and as heat conserved is transmuted energy, even so our anger controlled can be transmuted into a power which can move the world.

X X X

It is not that I do not get angry. I do not give vent to anger. I cultivate the quality of patience as angcrlessness, and generally I succeed. But 1 only control my anger when it comes. How I find it possible to control it would be a useless question. It is a habit that everyone must cultivate and must succeed in forming by constant practice.

X X X

It is wrong and immoral .to seek to escape the consequence of one's acts. It is good for a person, who over-eats, to have an ache and fast. It is bad for him to indulge in his appetite and then escape the consequences by taking tonics or other medicines. It is still worse for a person to indulge in his animal passions and escape the consequences of his acts. Nature is relentless and will have full revenge for any such violation of her laws. Moral results can only be produced by moral restraints. All other restraints defeat the very purpose for which they are intended.

.X X X

It is not for us to find fault with anyone and sit in judgment over him. We should be exhausted judging ourselves only, and so long as w? notice ^ single fault

218 I'^dia : A Cultural Voyage

in ourselves and wish our friends and relations not to forsake us in spite of such fault, we have no right to poke our nose into other people's conduct. If in spite of ourselves we notice another's fault, we should ask him himself if we have the power and think it proper to do so, but we have no right to ask anybody else.

X X X

You will wish to know what the marks of a man are who wants to realise truth which is God. He must be completely free from anger and lust, greed and attachement, pride and fear. He must reduce himself to zero and have perfect control over all his senses—beginning with the palate or tongue. Tongue is the organ of speech as well as of taste. It is with the tongue that we indulge in exaggeration, untruth and speecli that hurts. The craving for taste makes us slave to the palate so that like animals we live to eat. But with proper discipline, we can make ourselves into beings only a 'little below the angels'. He, who has mastered his senses, is first and foremost among men. All virtues reside in him. God manifests himself through him. Such is the power of self-discipline.

X . X X

All universal rules of conduct known as God's commandments are simple and easy to understand and to carry out, if the will is there. They only appear to be diffi­cult because of the inertia which governs mankind. There is nothing standstill in nature. Only God is motionless. He was, is, and will be the same yesterday, today, and tomorrow, and yet is ever moving. Hence I hold that if mankind is to live, it has to come increasingly under sway of truth and non-violence.

X X X

Experience has taught me that silence is a part of the spiritual discipline of a votary of truth. Proneness to exaggerate, to suppress or modify the truth, wittingly or unwittingly, is a natural weakness of man, and silence is necessary in order to surmount it. A man of few words will rarely be thoughtless in his speech; he will measure every word.

X X X

Silence has now become both a physical and spiritual necessity for me. Origin­ally, it was taken to relieve the sense of pressure. Then 1 wanted time for writing. After, however, I had practised it for sometime, 1 saw the spiritual value of it. It suddenly flashed across my mind that that was the time when I could best hold communion with God. And now I feel as though I was naturally built for silence.

Silence of the sewn-up lips is no silence. One may achieve the same result by chopping off" one's tongue, but that too would not be silence. He is silent who, having capacity to speak, utters no idle word.

X X X

All power comes from the preservation and sublimation of the vitality th •

Example As Well As Precept 219

responsible for the creation of life. This vitality is consciously and even uncons­ciously dissipated by evil or rambling, disorderly, unwanted thoughts. And since thought is the root of all speech and action, the quality of the latter corresponds to that of the former. Hence perfectly controlled thought is itself power of the highest potency and becomes self-acting. . . If man is after the image of God, he has but to will a thing in the limited sphere allotted to him and it becomes. Such power is impossible in one who dissipates his energy in any way whatsoever.

X X X

It is better to enjoy through the body than to be enjoying the thought of it. It is good to disapprove of sensual desires as soon as they arise in the mind and try to keep them down; but if, for want of physical enjoyment, the mind wallows in thoughts of enjoyment, then it is legitimate to satisfy the hunger of the body. About this I have no doubt.

X X X

Sex urge is fine and noble thing. There is nothing to be ashamed of in it. But it is meant only for the act of creation. Any other use of it is a sin against God and humanity.

X X X

I know from my own experience, that as long as I looked upon my wife carnally we had no real understanding. Our love did not reach a high plane. There was affection between us always, but as we came closer and closer the more we, or rather I, became restrained. There never was any want of restraint on the part of my wife. Very often she would show restraint, but she rarely resisted me although she showed disinclination very often. All the time I wanted carnal pleasure I could not serve her. The moment I bade goodbye to a life of carnal pleasure, our whole relationship became spiritual. Lust died and love reigned instead.

For 20 years I was in closest touch with the West in South Africa. I have known the writings on sex by eminent writers like Havelock Ellis, Bertrand Russel, and their theories. They are all thinkers of eminence, integrity and experience. They have suffered for their convictions and for giving expression to the same. While totally repudiating institutions like marraige, etc., and the current code of morals—and there I disagree with them—they are firm believers in the possibility and desirability of purity in life independently of those institutions and usages. I have come across men and women in the West who lead a pure life although they do not accept or observe the current usages and social conventions. My research runs somewhat in that direction. If you admit the necessity and desirability of reform, of discarding the old, wherever necessary, and building a new system of ethics and morals suited to the present age, then the question of seeking the permission of others or convincing them does not arise. A reformer cannot afford to wait till others arc converted; he must take the lead and venture forth alone even in the teeth of universal opposition.

X X X The whole train of thought which underlines birth control is erroneous and

220 India : A Cultural Voyage

dangerous. Its supporters claim that a man has not only the right, but it is his duty to satisfy the animal instinct, and that his development would be arrested if he did not discharge this duty. I think this claim is false. It is idle to expect self-restraint from one who takes to artificial methods. In fact birth control is advocated on the ground that restraint of animal passion is an impossibility. To say that such restraint is impossible or unnecessary or harmful is the negation of all religion. For, the whole superstructure of religion rests on the foundations of self-control.

X X X

It is wrong to call me an ascetic. The ideals that regulate my life are presented for acceptance by mankind in general. I have arrived at them by gradual evolution. Every step was thought out, well-considered and taken with the greatest deliberation. Both my continence and non-violence were derived from personal experience and became necessary in response to the calls of public duty. The isolated life I had to lead in South Africa whether as a householder, legal practitioner, social reformer or politician, required, for the due fulfilment of these duties, the strictest regulation of sexual life and a rigid practice of non-violence and truth in human relations, whether with my own countrymen or with the Europeans. I claim to be no more than an average man with less than average ability. Nor can I claim any special merit for such non-violence or continence as I have been able to reach with laborious research.

X X X

My mind is made up. On the lonesome way of God on which I have set out, I need no earthly compassion. Let those who will, therefore, denounce me, if I am the imposter they imagine me to be, though they may not say so in so many words. It might disillusion millions who persist in regarding me as a Mahatma. I must confess, the prospect of being so debunked greatly pleases me.

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222 India : A Cultural Voyage

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Index

Abhldhana-Chintamani, 37 Abhinavagupta, 35 Abhinaya Darpana. 109 Abul Fazal, (Quoted) 64,65, 80, 154 Abul Kalam Azad, 163 Achaemcnid, 88 Adhyatma Ramayana, 132 Adi-Upadesh, 196 Advaita. 130, 160 Afghan, 75.162 Afghanistan, 85, 87, 89, 94. 196 Africa. 70, 164.167 Agastya, 39, 102, 142 Agni Parana, 41 Agra, 65, 67,154 Ahemdabad, 65, 97. 154 Ain-c-Akbari, 64 Aiteraiya Brahman, 52 Ajanta, 86,91,96, 97, 101 Ajmer, 154 Ajmcr Sharif, 141 Akbar, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69,73,80,99, 154, 162,

196 Akho, 130 Alankar-Shastra, 35 Alaric, 83 Albert Einstein, (Quoted) 174 Alberuni, 38, 39, (Quoted) 70 Alexander, 40,153, 165 Al-Ghazali, 73 Aligarh, 162 Allahabad, 154, 157 Allama Iqbal, (Quoted) 80 Allama Prabhu, 132 AWer, 13^

Amarasmha, 37 Amaravati, 89, 91 Amarkosha, 37 Amarnath, 26 Amarnath Yatra, 209 Ama, 47 Amavasya, 139 America. ISO Amir Khusrail, 75, 131 Amida, 100 Amritsar, 161 Anal Haqq, 72 Ananga-ranga, 41 Andhra, 85. 89, 91.92,93, 111, 133 Andhra Pradesh, 109, 204 Anekartha-Sangraha, 37 Anglo-Indian, 152 Ankorwat, 102 Annapurna, 60, 129, 177 Annie Besant, 162 Annilavad, 97 Antahpur, 64 Antioch, 83 Antony, 47 Apabhramsh, 62, 127, 128,129, 130, 131 Apadan,84 Apastambha, 93 Apis Bull, 83 Apostle, 25 Appollo, 94 April, 138 Arab, 40, 52. 63, 70. 78, 79, 97, 98, 129,152 Arabia, 32. 69, 154 Arabic, 27, 131. 159 Aranyakas, 125

226 India : A Cultural ^Voyage

Ararat, 83 Ardha Magadhi, 127 Ardhguchak, 60 Ardhabar, 60 Ardhinanvak, 60 Aristotle, 70 Arjuna. 50, 52,172, 185, 186, 187, 189, Arthashastra, 37, 87, 121 Aryabhatta, 39 Aryan, 25, 27, 78, 84. 85, 86, 88, 92,133,153 Arya Samaj, 25,155 Aryavarta, 24, 28, 96 Ashadha,139 Ashoka, 26, 60, 61, 63, 69, 84, 87. 88, 89. 91, 92,

100,162,175 Ashtabhuja, 48 Ashtadhyai, 127 Asia, 70, 96, 97, 145, 151, 153, 154, 164, 167, 203 Asia Minor, 70 Asian, 25 Assam, 24, 25, 58, 110,140, 142, 163 Assamese, 115,129, 130 Assyrian, 84, 153 Asvin, 38 Athens, 47 Atlantic, 152 Atreya, 39 Attakhathas, 132 Attar, 131 Augustan, 85 Aurangzeb, 70, 73, 196 Aurobindo, 141 Austric, 25, 133 Avadbi, 131 Avalokiteshwar, 47 Avantika, 143 Ayodhya, 26, 60, 87, 143, 172 Ayurveda, 38, 39, 42, 58, 60,122

Baba Farid, 131 Babalal. 74, 75 Babar, 67, 79 Babarnama, 67, 79 Babylonian, 47, 84, 85 Bactria, 89, 90, 94 Badaim, 94 Badrlkashrama, 26 Badrinath, 26 Bagalamukhi, 48 Baghdad, 70,154, 162 Bahadur Shah. 157, 158 Bahu Natak, 111 Baisakhf, 115, 207

Bakhna, 71 Balachandra Suri, 46 BalaramDas, 130 Balgangadhar Tilak, 155, 158, 163 Bali, 51,103, 126 Baluchistan, 153 Banabhatta, 129, 130, 178, 184 Bankim, 160 Banteai Chhammar, 102 Bareilly, 158 Basant Panchami, 205 Basra, 73 Basarah, 84, 87 Basauli, 98 Bawri Saheb, 74 Baxter, 150 Bayazid Bistami, (Quoted) 73 Bay of Bengal, 158 Bedil, 74 Bekas, 74 Bengal, 24, 26, 70, 76, 78, 79, 139, 140, 154, 158,

159,160.161,197,205,206 Bengali, 76,129,130,161 Bertrand Russel, 219 Besnagar, 94 Bhabua, 97 Bhadra, 139, 160 Bhardravarman, 102 Bhadreshwara, 102 Bhagavata Parana, 111 Bhagawata, 24, 73, 109, 110, 111 Bhagirath, 122,174, 203 Bhafrava, 106 Bhairavi, 48 Bhakti, 24, 63, 69,70, 71,72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 84,

86, 108, 129, 130, 132, 133, 172 Bhalliprolu, 89 Bhangra, 114,115, 207 BharatMuni, 35, 57, 61,108, 111, 117, 119 i-)5

127,129 ' ' • ' Bharat Natyam, 108,109 Bhardaaj, 59 Bharhut, 86, 90,91,92, 94 Bhartendu, 131 Bhartrihari, 36, 80 Bhas, 129 Bhaskracharya, 39 Bhath, 67 Bhattavatar, 131 Bhavabhuti, I21,128

Bhima, 180,185, 186, 187, 188 Bhir mound, 87

Index 227

Bhisma, 172, 180 Bhita, 87 Bhoja, 38, 41,98 Bhrigu, 40,127 Bhuvaneshvara, 26, 106, 109 Bhuvaneshvari, 48 Bhuvar Loka, 93 Bihar,25, 110,158, 205 Bijapur, 154 Bindadin Maharaj, 108 Biru Saheb, 74 Bodh Gaya, 26, 86, 94, 95, 101 Bodhisattva, 96 Bodhi tree, 92 Boghaz-koi, 85 Bombay, 140, 170 Brahmagupta, 39 Brahma, 33, 36, 39, 48, 49, 51, 58, 106, 107, 122,

138,139,143,187,194, 195 Brahman, 125, 136, 160 Brahmi, 86, 91, 100 BrahmiD,23, 24, 29, 56, 59, 71, 76, 79, 93, 141,

174, 183, 185,188 Brahminical, 23, 24, 27, 28, 74, 90, 96, 100, 103,

116 Brahmo Samaj, 155, 160 Braj, 131 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 41 Brihadrath, 93 Brihaspati, 36, 127 Brihat Samhita, 102 Britain, 151 British, 80,145, 146.147, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154,

155,157,158, 159, 160, lb2, 163, 164, 166, 167, 171

British colonies, 25 British Isles, 151, 152 British raj, 145, 148, 153, 154, 158 Brahamputra, 140, 202 Brahmrandhra, 50, 51 Buchanan,150 Buddha, 24, 28, 31, 32, 46, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 101,

127,128,136,138, 164, 172,177 Buddha Ghosha, 101 Buddhist. 23, 24, 25, 26. 27, 30, 32, 37, 39, 46, 47,

57, 59, 60, 67,1& 76, 84, 86, 87. 88. 90, 91, 92, 93,94,96,100.101, 103, 116, 127, 129, 138, 141,142,143,152,174,197

Bulle Shah, 131 Bundel Khand, 98 Burke, 152 Burma, 100,101

Calcutta, 157 Calicut, 79, 111 Cam, 102 CapeComorin, 141, 142,161 Cappadocia. 85 Central Asia, 126, 154, 162 Chaitanya, 24, 130,140, 159, 160 Chakarapani Datta, 39 Chakravak, 59 Chakravartin. 92 Chalukya, 26, 97 Chamba, 114 Champaran, 165 Ch 'an, 100 Chandal, 57 Chandel, 98 Chanakya, 116 Chandi, 47-Chandidas, 76, 77, 130 Chandragupta, 56, 63, 95 Chandragupta II, 56 Chandragupta Maurya, 37, 87 Chandrapid, 57,178, 184 Charak, 38, 60 Charak Samhita, 39 Charvak, 129 Chatak, 59 Chaturmukh, 127 Chappeli, 114 Chau, 110 Chicago, leo Chidambaram. 98, 106, 107, 205 China, 25, 87, 100, 101, 117, 154, 160 Chinese, 46, 47, 99,100,117,153 Chinnamasta, 48, 49 Christ, 25, 32, 40, 151. 152, 164,165 Christian. 25, 32. 45, 47, 57. 59, 70, 85, 102, 116,

147, 151, 152, 155, 158, 162, 171, 174 Christmas, 212 Chola, 26,102 Chugan, 67 Chun-ti, 47 Clive, 145, 146, 147,149 Cochin, 25, 101 Cole, G.D.H., (Quoted) 167

Combodia, 100, 101, 102, 103 Confucious, 32,47 Confuciansim, 25, 30

Congress, 166,171,172 Constantinople, 162 Cyrus, 153

228 India : A Cultural Voyage

Dacca, 150,154 Dadu, 24, 52,71,131, 140, 196 Dakhini, 131 Damodar. 131 Damuscus, 83 Dandimarch, 165 Dantig, (Quoted) 40 Dara, 75 Dasabodha, 72 Dasyu', 85 David and Goliath, 62 Dayanand Saraswati. 25, 141, !55,160 Dihiavi, 131 Dekkhan. 85, 87, 89 Delhi. 38. 74, 75. 141, 154, 158. 205 Delhi Sultanate. 78 Devamala, 93 Devaraja, 42,103 Devchad, 60 D:vi Bhagavata, (Quoted) 31, 47 Dhamma-chakka, 83 Dhammapada, 176 Dhanurveda, 41 Dhanvantari, 140 Dhara. 38. 98 Dharampura, 66 Dharraa Shastra, 37, 125 Dhandyaras, 115 Dhanna, 71 DholJa, 115 Dhruva, 28, III Dhumavati, 48 Dhvani-aloka, 35 Digambara, 25,46 Dipak raga, 118 D.wakar, 102 Diwali, 139,141,211 Diwan, 67 Doljatra, 206 Draupadi, 185 Dravidian,24, 25, 45, 71,78, 84. 85, 86, 88, 89

132, 133, Dravyaguna Sangraha, 39 Dronacharya, 59 Darga. 47, 48 Durgapiija, 139 Djrgavara. 130.210 Djryodhanna, 187 Dummy Horse Dance Play, 112 Dushyanta. 41, 59 Dussehra, 113.114, 115, 139,210 DAarika.26, 142,143

East India Company, 142, 147, 150, 151, 152, Easter, 154,207 Ecbatana, 88 Edmund Burke, (Quoted) 154 Egypt, 78, 83, 84, 87 Egyptian, 39. 47. 83 Emstien. 42 Ekantha, 71,72 Ekabatana, 83 Elephant Maheshwara, 86 Elephanta, 106 Elora. 94. 106 England. 149, 151, 152, 154.155, 158 English, 146, 150, 151, 152. 159,167 Englishman, 146 Epic, 24, 87, 93. 96, 99. 126. 129, 130 Episcopal, 150 Ethiopia, 154 Etruia, 87 Euclid, 70 Eucratides, 90 Euphrates, 70 Europe,65,70,146, 147, 149, 150. 151, 152, 153,

154,160 Euthydemus, 90 Ezhuttachan, 132

FaHsien, 88, lOl, 102 Farhad, 98 Fariduddin Attar, (Quoted). 73 Fatehpur, 65, 154 Frontier Province, 170 Funan, 96, 101

Gaja-Lakshmi, 91 Gandak, 140 Gandhar, 23, 24, 56,94 Gandharva, 106 Gandharvapuri, 180 Gandhayukti, 39 Ganesh, 126, 139 Ganesh Chaturthi, 139, 210 Ganga, 64, 71, 85, 87, 94. 98, 106, 122 127 138

139, 140, 142, 143. 146, 169. 174. 175, 180, 202* 203

Ganga-Yamuna, 58 Gangaur, 206 Gangore, 115 Gangotri. 138 Ganita-sar-sangraha, 40 Garba dance. 115 Garga, 39

Index 229

Garhwali Regiment, 170 Gauls, 154 Gaur, 154 Gauri . l l l , 115 Gaya, 94,143 Gayatri, 46, 47 Geeta Govinda, 130 Ghalib, 131 Ghantshala, 89 Ginad, 115 Gita, 72, 129 Goa Carnival, 212 Godawari, 140. 143, 146 Goethe, (Quoted) 119 Goliath. 63 Golkunda, 154 GolkundaGollabhama, 111 Gop, 100 Gopala Krishna Shastn, 111 Gorakhnath, 52 Govindas, 130 Govinda Singh, 140, 207 Grahaganita, 39 Granth Sahib, 72 Greece, 78 Greek. 25. 39, 47, 70, 89. 90, 94, 118, 119, 154,

159. 162 Gridh, 59 Guchak, 60 Guheya Samaja Tantra, 46 Gujarat, 25. 26. 79, 115, 130,141. 154, 171, 206 Gujarat i, 116,160 Gujari, 131 Gunlupallea, 89,91 Gupta, 26, 56, 78, 79, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97,101,

116, 125 Gupta Buddha, 86 Gurpurav, 211 Guru Nanak, 74, 131, 140 Guru Ram Singh, 158 Guru Vashislha, 41

Halsted, (Quoted) 40 Hanuman, 189 Harappa, 25 Hardwar, 26,140 Haridas, 63 Harishchandra, 28, 111 Harit, 59 Harivamsha, 92 Harsha, 26,61.62,63,97, 140, 178 Hastalakshana Deepika, 109 Hasting, 147 149

Havell E.B., 143 Havellock Ellis, 219 Hebrew, 159 Heliodora, 94 Hellas, 87 Hellenistic, 94, 96 Hemachandra, 37 Herbert Spencer, (Quoted), 152 Hikat Dance, 114 Himachal, 114 Himalayas. 52, 56.100, 108, 113, 114, 142, 143,

161. 163 Himavat, 202 Hinayana, 103 Hindi, 75, 79, 130. 131 Hindu. 25, 26. 28, 29, 35, 37, 40, 42. 47, 48, 49,

56, 59, 63. 66. 67. 70. 74, 76, 77. 78. 79, EO, 89, 90, 92. 93, 96, 99, 100, 102,112, 115, 121, 129, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 157,158 159, 160, 162,165, 166,170, 171,195,196, 205

Hinduism, 25, 28, 30, 46, 67, 73, 76,78,101, 128, 129,132,142,159,174,194,197

Hindukush, 83, 85 Hindustan, 58, 63, 79, 152 Hinglaj, 26 Hir-Ranjha, 131 Holi, 62. 115, 139.206 Hollywood. 52 Hoyasales. 26 Hieun Tsang, 60, 88 Hubbkhatun, 131 Huna, 25, 69,153 Humanyun, 67 Hyderabad, 25, 99

Ibrahim, 73 Id-ul-Fitr, 208 Ilahi, 66 Indian National Congress, 158,160,163 Indira Gandhi, 177 Indo-Saracenic, 79 Indo-Sumerian, 84 Indonesia, 85,100,126 Indo-Iranian, 85,131 Indo-Greek, 89,90 Indo-Parthian, 89 Indo-Thai, 101 Indra, 36, 46, 48, 92, 93, 106,113, 118, 123, 142,

189 Indra Shanti, 86 Indrachad, 60 Indrayani, 72 Indus valley, 23. 25, 83, 84. 85, 90, 94,117, l31

230

Iqbal, 80 Ira, 49 Iran, 25, 32, 65, 67, 131,151, 153,154 Irawadi, 85 Ireland, 87 Ishtar, 47 Jsis, 47 Islam, 25, 28, 32, 63, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 78, 79,

102, 129,131, 141, 162, 163,166, 174,194 Israel, 62 Italian, 162

Jain, 25, 37, 46. 57. 58, 67, 91, 93. 94, 95, 100, 130. 138, 141,142. 152, 174

Jainism, 23. 26. 27. 30, 32. 33, 74. 127, 129, 141, 174

Jagannath, 109,130, 139 Jaggayareta, 91 Jahangir, 98, 99 Jalundhar, 89 Jama Masjid, 75 Jami, 131 Jammu, 114, 115 Jemshed, 66, 206 Janaka, 24, 163 Janmashtami, 210 Janamejaya, 189 Japan, 25. 91,100,126, 154,160 Japji, 131 Jasaharacarin, 127 Jataka, 31, 86, 87, 102 Java, 49,102, 103,126, 141 Javed Namah, 80 Jawaharlal Nehru, 170. 171, 172, 173, 174, 175,

176 Jayadeva, 42,130 Jayamangala, 41 Jayasi, 130 Jerusalem, 83, 164 Jetavana, 101 Jews, 25, 27, 151 Jhansi, 157 Jhora, 114 Jhula, 113 Jogipura, 66 Jnanadeva, 71 Jnaneshvara, (Quoted) 50, 52, 71,132 Jnaneshvari, 72 Jnandas, 130 Junayd, 73 Juno, 47 Jyaishtha, 139, 140 Kabir,24,49, (Quoted)50, 51, 52, 71, 74, 121

130,131,140,166,194. 195, 196

India : A Cultural Voyage

Kabul, 90 Kadambari, 57. 67, 130,178,184 Kaffka 'castle', 173 Kaikottikali, 113 Kailash, 26, 93,106, 203 Kajri, 113 Kak, 59 Kalashti, 205 Kalbora kings, 74 Kali,47,48, 126.138 Kalidas, 41, 56, 59, 60, 61 (Quoted) 96, 117, 121,

128,142,175 Kalika, 58 Kalikapuran, 58 Kalinga, 89,130, 133 Kalka Prasad Maharaj, 108 Kalpa-sutra, 141 Kalyanamaladeva, 42 Kamakhya, 26 Kamala, 48 Kamaratna, 41 Kamasutra, 41, 57, 61, 96, 121, 129 Kamban, 132 Kamdev, 59, 62 Kammara, 86 Kamrupa, 23, 58 Kanchanadeshwari-mata Tantra, 38 Kancheepuram, 140 Kanchi, 26, 143 Kandarpra-Sudamini, 42 Kangara, 98 Kaniska, 60. 94 Kanakali Tila, 91 Kannad, 132, 140 Kannauj, 98, 154 Kanpur, 157 Kanu Bhatta, 76 Nanvas, 89 Kanyakumari, 23,26, 78,108,142 Kapisa, 94 Karma, 30, 31,32. 62 Karan, 113, 172 Karas, 26 Kama, 28 Karnataka, 24,25, 204 Kartika, 139, 141 Kartikeya, 39 Karunaras, 96 Kashi,26, 94, 131,143 Kashmir, 23. 24. 26. 78. 79, 87, 99, 100. 102, 131

141,157,207 Kassites, 85 Kathak, 108,113

Index 231

Kathakali, 109, 111,112 Kathiyawad, 25, 45, 98, 100 Katyayana, 127 Kaurava, 30 Kautilya, 37, 60, 87 Kaveri, 93.140, 143 Kavirajamarga, 132 Kavyadarsh, 132 Kavya Mcemansa, 61 Kazi Kadam, 71 Kazi Mohamed, 71 Kedarnath, 26 Keith, (Quoted) 36 Kerala, 83, 109, 110, 113. 207 Kesar, 62 Khalifa, 162 Khalsa, 207 Khajuraho, 95, 169, 205 Khanjan, 59 Khar, 59 Kharoshti, 100 Kharvcla, 89 Khayal, 115 Khayrputra, 66 Khmer, 102 Khotan, 100 Khusro, 63, 66 Kirtan, 72 Kish, 83 Kokkoka,4I Kolattam, 112 Konark, 95, 169 Korkai, 85 Korea, 100,126 Koyil Parana, (Quoted) 106 Kripacharya, 59 Krishna, 50, 52, 73. 76.110. I l l , 113, l l5 , 119,

130, 140,142, 172, 206 Krishna Atam, 111 Krishna Godawari, 89 Krishna Lila, 99 Krishna Lila Tarangini, 111 Kshatriya, 29, 59 Kuchipudi, 109,110 Kuka, 158 Kukuh, 59 Kulu, 114,213 Kumaon, 113, 114 Kumara, 143 Kumara-Tantra, 39 Kumaril, 70 Kumbha, 140, 214

Kummi, 112 Kundalini, 49, 50 Kunjara, 102 Kunjara-kunja-desha, 102 Kunti, 189 Kuru, 153 Kushan, 56, 86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94 Kushan art, 91 Kutal, 59

Lahore, 65,154 Lakshmana, 97 Lakshmi, 89,106, 138,180 Laotzism, 25 Latif. 131 Latin, 27, 70, 159 Latin America, 164, 167 Lauha-Pradip, 41 Lauharava, 41 Laukatilaka, 101 Lauriya Nandangarh, 86 Lavent, 70 Leox,149 Lichchivi, 56, 100 Lilavati, 39 Lingayat cult, 24 London, 146, 149, 150,154 Loyang, 100 Lucknow, 157

Macaulay, (Quoted) 39, 159 Madalam, 109 Madanotsav, 62 Madhava, 140 Madhyamika, 90 Madri, 186, 189 Madura!, 98, 204. 205. 209 Madhya Pradesh, 25 Magadha, 24, 89, 93, 97, 98 Magadhi, 129 Magasthenese, 87 Magha, 129,140,141 Mahabhrata, 28, 30, 31, 38, 52, 77,121,125,126,

127,132,142,143,185 Mahabhodhi, 101 Mahakala, 47 Mahakali, 48 Mahameru, 93 Mahanadi, 140, 202 Mahapuranu, 127 Maharashtra, 24, 71, 72,116,139,143, 206

232

Maharis, 109 Mahatma Gandhi, 52, 130, 137. 141, 155, 161

163, 164. 165.166, 167, 169, 170, n i ' 175* 177 216 *

Mahayan, 24,102, 103, 130, 143 MaHavira, 24. 32, 91, 127, 128, 138, 141, 206 Mahavir Jayanti, 206 Mahaviracharya, 40 Mahendra, 202 Mahesha, 94 Maheshwara, 107 Makar Sankranti, 140 Malabar, 79 Malaya, 143. 202 Malay Archipelago. 117 Malayalam, 109.113, 132 Malkhed. 26 Malukdas, 194, 196 Malwa. 74 Manasa, 139 Mandakini. 49 Manipur. 141 Manipuri. 110 Manipravalam, 132 Mankara. 130 Mansa, 130 Mansur Hallaj, 72 Manu, 29, (Quoted) 30, 37, 38. 64, 116, 125, 127 Manu Smriti. 28, 29, 37 Manvak, 60 Marathi, 132 Markandeya, 60 Markandeya Purana, 48 Maru, 115 Masnavi, 67 Matangi, 48 Mathura. 26, 80, 89, 91, 94, 113, 143, 203 Maurya, 87, 88, 89, 92 Maya, 78,143 Maya Devi, 89, 91 Mayur, 59 Meenakshi Kalyanam, 208 Medinikara, 37 Medini Kosha, 37 Mediterranean, 87 Meerut, 157 Mekong valley. 85 Menam valley, 85 Menander, 80, 89 Mesopotamia, 84 Maxico, 152,154 Midnapur, 170

India : A Cultural Voyage

Milton, 147, 150 Minerva, 47 Mirabai, 24,76,131 Mi 'son, 102 Mitani. 85 Mithila, 24 Miihraism, 151 Mithuna, 89 Mohammed, 32, 73, 78, 194, 195, 197 Mohammedan, 27 Mohammed ibn-Qasim, 73 Mohan, 67 Mohenjo-daro, 25, 45. 83, 84 Mohini Atam, 110 Mongol. 70, 129 Mongolia, 25, 65 Monrer Williams. (Quoted) 137. 141 Mon-khmer, 85 Morocco, 117 Mount Abu. 38 Mughal, 79. 99.145. 154, 158. 162 Muharram, 211 Mujahideen. 155, 158 Muladhara, 50, 51,52 Multan, 154 Mumbakoram, 98 Munda, 85 Mundeshwari, 97 Murari, 130 Murshidabad, 150, 154 Muslim, 25, 59, 66, 70, 73, 74. 75, 77. 78, 79, 80,

141.157, 158. 162, 170. 171, 195. 196, 197

Naag Panchami, 209 Nabadwip, 206 Nadanta, 106. 107 Nadi Vijnana. 39 Napa. 52. 139 Nagini, 102 Nagar, 129 Nagara. 98, 114 Nagari, 87, 90 Nagarjuna, 39, 42 Nakshatravak, 60 Nakula, 185,186, 187, 188, 189 Nalanda, 46, 97 Namadeva, 24, 71,72, 132 Namdhari, 155,158 Namdhari Sikhs, 158

Nanak,24,50, 52,131,194, 195 Nanda, 87 Nandgaon, 206

Index 233

Nandi, 57, 94 Nannaya, 133 Narada, 39,118. 119 NaraharJ, 130 Narapati-jaya-carya, 41 Narasi Mehta, 130 Narendra, 50 Narmada, 56, 85, 89, 140. 143, 202 Nasik, 26, 140 Nataraja, 86, 91, 98, 105. 106, 107, 108 Natha, 70 Nathdwara, 140 Natya, 109 Natya shastra, 35, 57, 61, 108, 109, 111,

119, 121,127, 129 Nauka Vihar, 205 Naukumaracarin, 127 Nautanki, 113 NavaDvipa, 26 Nayamars, 132 Neolithic, 85 Nepal, 24, 99, 100,101,103, 141,196 Nepalese, 100,141 Newton, 165 Nietzsche, (Quoted) 29, 77 Nile, 70, 84 Nineveh, 84 Nishambhu, 48 Nityanatha, 41 Nivrittinath, 71 Nizamuddin Aulia, 141 Non-Cooperation Movement, 165 North Arcot, 91 Nripatunga, 132 Nritta, 109 Nritya, 109

Odia. 130 Odisa, 130 Odissi, 109 Olympian, 47 Onam, 210 OotamTulal, 112 Ottakkuttan, 132 Orissa. 24, 26, 91, 98,110,130, 206 Oriya, 129,130 Oudh, 79, 99 Oxford, 150

Padmanabhasvamin, 26

Mm Jim Pajeb, 51

Pajjusana, 141 Pakistan, 25, 131,173 Pakkuribi Somnatha, 111 Pala, 26, 98, 101 Palestine, 32 Pali, 25, 55, 101, 116, 127, 128, 129 Pallava, 97, 101,102 Pallava Lingams, 86 Paltoo Das, 194, 197 Pamir, 202, 203 Pampa-Bharat, 132 Panchal, 57, 98 Pandava,30, 185, 189

117, Pandharpura, 26,143 Pandyan, 85 Panini, 36, 37, 92, 125, 127 Panth, 74 Parashar, 39 Parashurameshwaram, 91 Parijatahamam, 111 Paris, 154, 171 Pariyatra, 143 Parsi, 25, 66, 158, 206 Partha, 89 Parvati,47, 110,115,138,206 Pashupatinath, 26 Pataliputra, 56, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 94, 95 Patanjali, 36. 38, 67, 92 Pathan, 70, 79, 129 Patna, 154 Pattinappalai, 93 Pavapuri, 26 Pebin Gyaung, 101 Persepolitan, 84 Persepotis, 88 Persian, 75,96,131, 159 Peru, 152 Peshawar, 157,170 Phallm, 84 Pharoahs, 84 Phoenicia, 87 Pingala, 49 Pinnalkolattam, 112 Pipa,71 Pitambara, 130 Plassey, 158 Plato, 70

Pongal, 112, 139,204 Ponna,132 Pooram, 207

Prabfta-Manc/afa, 92 Prahalad, 28, 111

234 India : A Cultural Voyage

Prajapathi, 58, 92 Prakrit, 62,100,127,128, 129 Prayag.26, 71,95, 140 Premanand, 130 Ptolmey, 70 Pulkeshin, 97 Pungazhendi, 132 Punjab, 24, 25, 73, 74, 79, 89, 90, 98, 114, 158

160, 163,207 Punjabi, 131 Purana, 24, 28, 41, 46, 56, 58, 62, 70, 78,96, 109,

121,125,126,127, 129,130, 140, 202, 203 Puri, 26,139, 143 Purnakur, 59 Purnavaraman, 97 Purushpur, 94 Purush Sukta, 29, 52 Pushkar Mela, 213 Pushpadanta, 127, 128 Pushyaraitra Shunga, 89 Putikeshwara, 102

Quit India movement, 165 Quizling, 146 Quran, 71, 73, 194 Qutub, 74

Rabia, 73 Rabindranath Tagorc, (Quoted) 118, 130, 153,

161,164.170.171,175 Radha,46,76, 110, 113, 206 Radhaswami, 50 Raidas, 50 Raidas), 155 Kaipur, 97 Raivataka, 143 Rajagraha, 86 Rajasthan, 25, 98, 115 Raj, 149 Rajput, 86, 97, 98, 99 Rajputana, 98 Rajgir, 26 Raja Ramchand, 67 Raja Rammohan Roy, 141,155,159 Rajjab, 71 Rajshekhar, 61 Rajyavardhan, 153 Raksha Bandhan, 209 Raktaveeja, 48

Rama, 28, 52, 74, 112, 127, J28. H2, 194 Ramakrishna, 141 Ramakrisbna Mission, 155

Ramakrishna Paramhansa, 50,155, 159, 160 Ramalinga, 141 Ramanand, 28, 71, 72,140 Raman Maharshi, 141 Ramanuja, 70, 72, 121, 140 Ramayana, 28, 52,93,102,121, 125, 126,127 Ramadas, 72, 140 RamLila, 210 Rameshwar, 26 Ramcshwaram, 94,138 Rana Pratap, 171 Rangoon, 158 Rani, 76 Ranikhet, 113 Rankanpur, 58 Rasa-Dhavni, 35 Rashmikalap, 60 Rashtrakut, 26,97, 132 RasLila, 110,113 Ratimanjari, 42 Ratfratandipika, 42 Ratirahasya, 41 Ratiramana, 42 Ratishastra, 42 Rathyatra, 129,209 Rauf dance, 114 Ravana, 39, 40,123, 146 Ravanaradhya, 42 Ravidas, 24, 71 Republic Day, 204 Rigveda, 29, 38, 39 Rig Veda Samhita, 86 Rijazi, 66 Riksavat, 202 Rohal, 74 Remain RoUand, 160, 217 Roman, 27, 47, 99, 151, 154, 162 Rome, 78, 83, 85 Rudra. 92, 107 Rukmangada, 111 Rukmani Kalayanam, 111 Rum, 80 Rumi, 72. (Quoted) 73, 77, 131 Russian, 75

Subha, 61,62 Sahadev, 186,187 Sahaja, 69. 70, 75, 76. 77, ISO Sahya, 143, 202 Saket, 90 Samala, 130 Samartha Ramdas, 7i

Index 235

Samkhya, 33 Samudragupta, 56, 95, 126 Sam Veda, 118 Sanatan dharma, 30, 31, 32 Sanchi, 86, 89, 90, 91, 94,129 Sandhya,58 Sangam, 132 Sankranti, 140, 204 Sanskrit. 24, 27, 36, 37, 38, 40, 55, 56, 59. 61, 66,

67, 70, 75. 79, 96, 102, 111. 117. 125,126, 127, 128,129, 131, 132, 133, 139, 159, 178

Santipur, 206 Sapada, 101 Sarangadhar, 41 Saraswali, 47, 106. 119. 122, 138, 139, 143, 205 Sarmad, 74 Sarnath26, 88,101 Saryu, 140 Sarvodya, 174 Satvahana, 109 Satluj, 98 Satnami, 155,196 Satrap, 89 Saura, 24 Saurashtra, 115 Savitri, 28, 46 Sayam, 70, 125 Schoenberg, 117 Scythian, 25. 145,159 Sekkodesha, 46 Selcukid. 90 Scmiramis, 153 Semitic, 25, 32 Sen, 26 Sena, 71 Seraikela, 110 Shahabad,97, 113 Shah Inayat, 74 Shah Latif, 74 Sb^abdika, 36 Shah Azizullah, 158 Shah WaliuUah, 158 Shaikh Bahawad, 71 Shaikh Sadd, (Quoted) 195 Shaikh Farid, 71 Shailendra, 102 Shaivait, 56 ShahHussain, 131 Shaka, 69,153 Shakespeare, 147 Shakta, 24. 26, 127 Shakti, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50. 56, 58, 60. 77, 105,

110, 139

Shakti-sadhana, 42 Shakuntala. 41, 59, 96, 121, 129 Shambu, 48 Shanghai, 83 Shankar, 70. 72, 78, 119, 121, 140 Shankaracharya, 26,140,113 Shantinikctan, 161 Shashaghna, 59 Shaivism, 24, 26, 70, 102 Shayan Ekadashi, 139 Shinto, 25 Shiva, 46, 48, 56, 57, 60,62,91,92,93,94,97,

105,106,107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 119, 138, 143, 203, 205, 206

Shivaji, 72, 172 Shivaratri, 66, 205 Shodeshi, 48 Sholapur, 170 Shrieking Scottish convenanters, 150 Shriharsha, 129 Shrikaran, 59 Shringeri. 143 Shriparhata, 143 Shriranga, 26 Sbrirangam, 98, 140 Shudra, 29, 59, 130 Shudrak, 129, 178 Shukanasa, 178, 184 Shuk,59 Shukraniti, 121 Shunga, 87, 88. 89, 90, 92 Shvetambara, 24, 46 Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 31 Shvetkelu, 41, 57 Shyama, 59 Shyen,59 Slam, 101,141 Sibi, 28 Siddhangraijuna, 42 S;ddJ)aniia, 58 aiV\ \ , 7.^, V \ l , t-;^ 171 , "507

Sikhism, 28, 74 Simla. 45 Sindh, 25. 74, 78 Sindhi, 74, 131 Sindhu, 140, 143, 153, 202 Smo-Tibetan, 85, 101, 133 Sir pur, 97 Sita, 28, 46, 123, 128 Sita Kalayanam, 111 Sivasvvamin, 129 Skand,92,139 Socrates, 165

236 India : A\Cullural Voyage

Somnath, 26 Sonepur Mela, 214 South Africa, 154, 219, 220 Soviet Revolution, 161, Spain, 83, 162 Spinoza, (Quoted) 175 Spring Festival, 207 Sridhar, 40 Sri Lanka, 25, 26, 86, 96, 101 Stravinsky, 117 St Thomas, 25 Sufi. 69, 73, 130, 131. 174 Sufimajar, 141 Sufism, 70. 72, 73, 74. 75, 77 Sumatra, 102 Sumeria, 83, 84 Sun.66, 97, 123. 128,204 Sundarbans, 158 Surdas,27,130, 131 Surat, 65, 154 Surpala, 41, Surya, 138 Susa, 83, 88 Sushrut, 38 Sushrut Samhita, 39 Sushumna, 49, 50 Sutra, 37. 87 Suvaran bhumi, 102 Suvam dipa. 102 Svarasang\ta, 35. 36 Svarloka, 93 Syed Ahmed Khan, 162,163 Syria. 70.154 Swadeshi, 56, 161 Swami Dayananda Saraswati, 141 Swami Ram Tirth, 141

Taragam, 106 Tatar, 154,159 Tarsus, 83 Taxila, 84, 87, 93, 94, 100 Teej, 209 Telugu, 133 Telwara, 46 Thai, 101, U4 Thames, 150 Thaton, 101

Thebes, 83 Thirth: nker, 46 Tibbe, 66 Tibet, 24, 99, 100,126, 141 Tigris, 70 Tikkanna,133 Tirth Narayan Yati, 111 Tirupathi, 26 Toda. 85 Tolstoy, 165 Toynbce, (Quoted) 62 Treta, 126 Trika, 24 Trimurti, 94 Trfshati, 40 Trjshul, 63 Tripathaga, 203 Tripitak, 60 Trivandrum. 26 Tukaram, 24, 71, 72, 132, 140, 194, 197 Tukarami, 155 Tulsidas,24, 121, 130. 131, 140 Tungabhadra, 140 Turan, 67 Turk, 70, 75, 100. 131. 162 Turkey, 154

Tabriz, 80 Talasangita, 35, 36 Tamasha dance, 116 Tamil, 28, 85, 132 Tamilnadu, 108, 111, 112, 204 Tamil Shaiva, 24 Tandava, 62, 106,109, H I , 114 Tanjore, 111 Tanscn, 63, 67 Tanira, 24, 38, 45, 46.47,49,50,51,52,70 76

101,130,133,185 Tappattikkali,113 Tar, 46 Tara, 46,47,48,100

Udaipur, 140 Uddalaka, 41 Udipi, J40 Ujjain, 26, 83, 87, 89, 140, 154 Uma, 46, 47 Umamaheshwar, 89 United Provinces, 75 United States of America, 160

Upanishadas 23. 24 26, 28. 36. 46. 72, 78. 88. 90. 116.121,125.152,161,172,174

Urdu, 79. 130, 131 Urs, 212 Usha Parinayam, i l l Uttasoma, 131

Index 231

Uttam Ekadashi, 139 Uttar Pradesh, 113,158

Vadakkunathan, 207, 208 Vaishakha, 139, 141 Vaishali, 100 Vaishampayan, 57, 189 Vaishnava, 24, 27, 94, 95. 110, 127, 129, 130 Vaishnavism, 24, 70 Vaishya. 29, 59 Vajasaneyi Samhita, 38 Vajikarana. 42 Vajrayan, 46 Valmiki. 60, 121 Vallabha, 140 Valabhi, 97 Vandal, 154 Varahmihir. 39, 40, 59 Varanasi. 143. 205 Varna, 29, 51 Varnasangita, 35, 36 Varna Sankar, 146 Varnashrama, 127 Vasnnta Atam, 112 Vasanta Vilasa, 46 Vashishtha, 49 Vasudeva, 130 Valsyayana, 41, 57, 61, 96 Vaujul, 59 Vcdamukha, 36 Vedanga Jyotisha, 39 Vedanta, 32, 72. 73, 130,132, 160 Veda Vyas, 30 Vedas, 23, 24, 27, 28, 37. 39. 40, 41, 45. 46, 70, 71,

72, 73, 74, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 93, 99, 113, 116,121, 123,125,127. 129,143.151,152, 160, 174, 188,194

Veena, 47, 51, 59, 60, 85, 106, 129, 205 VenkataramaShastri, 111 Venus, 89 Victoria, 158 Vidisl a, 87 Vidyapati, 130 Vijaya, 49 Vijaychad, 60 Vijay Dashami, 139 Vijaynagar, 98, 154 Vikramaditya, 56. 63, 95 Vikramashila, 46

Vindhya, 85, 143, 202 Vindhya Pradesh, 25 Virabhadra, 42,106 Vishakha, 92 Vishnu. 48, 92, 306, 107, 109, 118, 138, 139, 141,

181,195 Vishnu Purana, 139, 202 Vishwamilra, 27, 28, 80, 122, 167 Vishwakrama, 93 Visigoth. 83 Vispala, 38 Vithal. 143 Vivekanand. 50,141,155.160,161 Vrindavan, 113 Vrihat Samhita, 40 Vrikshayurveda, 41 Vrindavan, 76 Vyas, 49, 121,126,132

Waris Shah, 131 Wanen Hastings, (Quoted) 152, 154 William Draper, (Quoted) 149,150 William Howitt, (Quoted) 152 World War I. 163

Yadava, 30 Yajnavalkya, 24,127, 163 Yajur-Veda, 39 Yakshangana,111 Yamraj, 138, 188,189, 196 Yamuna, 118,138,140, 143 Yari Saheb, 74 Yavadipa, 102 Yavana, 90 Ying, 47 Yodhabhatta, 131 Yoga, 33, 41,46, 49. 102,203 Yogi, 49, 51, 52, 70, 94. 119,126,130 Yong, 47 Yoshadhara, 41 Yudhishthira, 28,142,185,186,187,188,189 Yukti Kalpataru, 41 Yue-chI, 94

Zain-ul-Abidin, 131 Zamindar, 148, 150 Zamorin, 111 Zend, 27, 70 Zoroster, 25, 27

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