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AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS.

IN THE EAST,

K. CAMCRAV k Co,, Calcutta. CoMSKiDOE & Co., Iladrus. Ul<:iCINIiOTIIA.SI & Co., Moont ROIK), Uadru^. V. KALI'ATTARA^LA ITER & Co., Esplaunde, Madi-as. S. :JICBTFI7 & Co., Kiipaleo I'l'css, IfudraH. G, A. XATESAM & Co., Madras. I*. R, EiiiA ITAK & Co., 102, Esplanade, Mudi'os, RASHAB.ti AT1[AB.I.^[ SAcr>'', Bombay. E. SETMODK IIALI;, Bombny.

* T. K. ISiTABAMA AlTAE, Kutobakdnam. D. B. TASAPOBETALUL SOKB & Co., BomViay.

TEMPIB J CO., Georgetown, Madi-J«. THACKER k Co. (Limited), Bombaj*. TJIACKEB, SPJKK & Co., CRlcuttn,

THO:(F30^ Jt Co., SIndms,

IN ENGLAND.

£. A, ARNOLD, it and 43, Muldox Street, Bond Street, W„ Lundon. B. H. BLACSWELI, 60 and 51, Broad Street, Oitord. CoNSTAjjtE A Co., 10, Orango Street, Leicestor Square, W,C., London. DEIOEIOX, BELL & Co., Cambridge.

T. FianKR UxwiN, 1, Adelphi Terrace, W.C, London, GxiNDLAT &. Co., Ei, Piirliament Street, S.W., London. HEKRT S. KINQ & Co., 06, Comhill, E.C.. London. V, S. liiSG & Soir, 2 and 4, Gi-eat Smith Stfect, Westminster, S.W„ London. KuoAN PAUL, TBKNCU, TRUDSEB & Co., W, Gerrard Street, Soho, W,, London «. QBARITCH, 11, CruEton Street, Xew Bond Street, \V,, London, W. TuACKjiK & Co.. 2 Creed Lnne, E.C., LoiMon.

ON THE CONTINENT, fRiEDLABSBiL <& SoHV, 11, Curlstrussc, Berlin. Olio HARSABSOWIIZ, Leipzig. RruOLF HAUPT, Mal)e-a-S, Germany. KABL W . HIBHBEMANK, Leipxig.

BRNEST LEBOCX, 28, (tne Bonaparte, Purls. MARTIMUS NIJHOPP, The Hague, Holland.

* Agent (or tale o( the LefrislaUve Uepartmetit pablioationu.

MADRAS DISTRICT GAZETTEERS.

,**

G-ODAYAEI ^^^"'/v^'^p^

HY

IKDIAK CIVIL SERVICE^

31

"•-•>-«-

M A D R A S ; PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

1 9 0 7 .

5235

V. )

PREFACE.

THIS Gazetteer has been prepared on the plan prescribed hy Government according to which stati:5tic3 have been relegated as far as possible to a separate Appendix which is to be revised decennially. The original ' District ]\faiiaal' was written hy Mr, H. Morris of the Jiadi-as Civil Service in 1S78.

I have gratefully to return thank^j for lielp from many quarters. The account of the early history has been almost entirely based on information supplied by Rai Bahddur V. Yenkayya, M.A., the (Tovernraent Epigraphistj whose kindness in reading and correcting ray dratts and answering my questions I cannot too wai'nily acknowledge. The District officials have all given nie their ready and cordial assistance, and so liavo many non-official residents of the District. I wish particularly to express my obligations to tlie Eevs. J. H. Harper, J. Cain and A. Gangloff, to Messrs. E. B. Elwin, I.C.S,, H. Laflamrae, 0. Mildred, G. F. F. Fonlkes, M. G. K. AYaite, J. F. Marshall, M. Woodhouse, AT. J. M, Inkster, L. D. Buchanan, H. J. Allen*, F. Armitage, A. C, Pranatartihara Aiyar, R. Venkata Rao and V. Parthasaradhi Ohetti and to Capt. M. N". Chaudhuri, I,M.S. All these gentlemen have helped me with the records at their disposal or with their personal experience ; and they have supplied a large portion of the material found in this Gazetteer. I have also to thank Mr. J. A. Gumming, I.G.S., for reading through the proofs and for many valuable suggestions.

F, R. H.

PLAN OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I . I I .

I I I . I T . T .

Y l . YI I .

Y I I I . IX . X,

X I . X I I .

X I I I . XIV.

XV.

PHYSICAL DB6CKIPTION «. »

POLITICAl, IIlSTOBV

TUB PEOPLE

AORICULTUKB AND IliRlGATlON

FORESTS

OcCUn .'VIONS AND TflADE

] IbANS or COM.MUAIOATIOX . .

BAIMVALL AKD SEASONS

PUBLIC HEAITU

EDUCATION

LAND EEVENUE ADMIKISTEATIOK

SALT, AI3K4RI AND MISCELLAKEOI:8

ADMINISTB.\TION OF JUSTICE , .

L O C A L SiiLF-GovEHMrENT

GAZETTEER—

Amaldpuram Talak Cocanuda 'Inlok ' , . Nagiiruni Tnluk . . • . Peddapurnm Taluk . . Pithapnram Division Eajahmtiiidiy Taluk E^mathandinpuTain Tahik Tuni Divieiou

Ch^dararam Division Pfilavaram Division..

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BETEKTJB

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PAGES

1-16 . , i7-;J7

38-67 68-91

92-roi . . 102-123 . . 121-134 , . 135-li7 , . 148-152 . . 153-159 . . 160-180 . . 181-187 . . 188-19-5 . . 196-199

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. . 217-220

. . 221-226 . . 227-239 . . 240-248 . . 249-254 . . 255-257

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. . 278-283

. . 284-288

TABLE OF CONTMTS.

CHAPTER I.

PUV6ICAL OESCitlPTION. PAGF;

GKNKRAI, DKSCRII'TIOX {p*gc 1) —Cliief toHns (3) —I';f_vniolo;,'>'of the name — Natei!iMivirions (.1). Hu.i.s—Tlic filiAts. Hcvr»s(.i)—TUuGSdavari—Its Bnr.clily (t() —Its islanci« and ciiei'oacLmi>ntfi—'J'hi' season of its MoodH (7)— HH tnbiitaHeE--Tlio Vcl6rii. SOILS (8). Guor.o.iv—PiijRienl clianges now in progrusH (9). 'iWN'BHALs(lO)—Coul—The GauiicWvip^tn lir-ld—Bedadaiiditi —Gold (11)—Iron—Gr.ijihiti' — ilica—Building stone—Rock-crystals, garuots, sapphires. CMMATC—Kaiufall—Tcmi)6ra*,(ii't! (12)—^^iJ^d and w-eather. FLURA. FADN'A (13)—Cattle-BuH'aloes—Sheop and goats(U) —Cattle-brouding—Vending methods—Cat He diseases—Cattle fairs (15)— Game—FSHII—Native siwrtsmcn (10) l-l(i

CHAPTEE II,

POLITICAL HISTORY.

KARLT UTSTOUV {i)agc l7)~A86ba's conquest, 260 H.C—TIio Andlinis, rloivn to 200 A,D, (18)—Tho Pallavas, about iOO-UlS A,D.—Ihi' Chilukras— Their conquest of 7engi, about iJlo (18)—Supiiration of thn Eastern and Western CtiaUikyaw, about (J30—11 iuoii Tsiang's desciiption of the former (:!0)—Eastern Cbalukya rule, 030-939—Chiila conquest, POP—Knl6ttunga t;h6la I (21)—lie obtains the 'Jhola and Vungi thrones, 1070—Tfis vioeroje in Vongi—llis death in IIW and the depliiio of the Clifilas (22)—The V^lanaiidu chieltains, tivclftli century (23)—Tliu K<Sna ehiiifs of the delta — Local chiufs of EUoro, Nadondia, etc.—Tl»0 Kaltati'yas of Warangal conqner Kistna about 1200 (2t)—And Godurari about 1300—Pi-atapa Hudia's viceroj-s—Tomporary Musaluian conquest of the district, 1323 (23)—Tho Komkondii Iteddis, 1325-95—The Reddis of Kondavfd, 1344-1-122 —Tliu Raiuhuinndry KcdUis, 1422-50 (2o>—Tlie Gajapatis oi Orissa take tlie district, liaO—Bat cedo part of it to tho Blnhanimadaiia, l-l^O—The latter ousted, 1489 (27)—Conquest iiy Vijayanajar, 1515—Musalman conqnost of Kistna, 15-10—And of GodsvaH, 1371 (28), ^ UHAMM*u. f PEIUOD •-Weakness of tbeir rule—Auraugzeb etftablishos his authority, 1G87 (2S)—The Snljadav of the Dcccan becomes independent, 1724—Thu Northern Cii-cars ycdcd to tho French, 1753 (30)—Their difflcalties thei-e— Bussy at len^h obtains possession, 1757 (31)—Fordc'e eicpeditiou against the French, 1758—Uie victory at Condoro—The countiy cleared of thfl French (32)—Cession of the Northern Cirears to the English, 1765 (33), Jil.VBLiBii PKRIOD (3-t)—Early administration—Disturbances of tUo peaoe In 1785-80 (35)—In 1790-1600—flaJoter times Uioreaftur (36)—Subba Roddi'3 rebellion, 1858—Oatbroake in Rampu ... ^ 17-37

6

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CJHAPTER III.

TIIR PKOPLE.

PAue OBNKRIL CnJiR\CTKKi3Tn;« (jiiigi.' ;)8) -Doitsiiy of tha |)oi)ulutioii—UH ^rowtb

—Parcnt-touyue—Ecliijioiis. Tm; JAIXB (39). THK ML'SAI-MAXS. Tut:

CiiKiBTiAKs—Americati Evangulk-al Iiuthorati Mission— The Caitadiim BaiJtiet Mission (40)—Tlio Cliurcli MirjMonary Society (41)—Tho Ronwii Catholic Mission (42). TUB HIXDTIB-Villaf^ea—HOUBCS (4:{)—DI'CHH (44) —Pood (45)—AmHsementi'—Supefstitions (40) -Villaqo, caste, and fumily gods (47)—Marriage rules and ceremonies (49) -Funerals (5U), Pnis-ciPAL CAhTKS—TcluRu llrshiiians (51)—Kazus (53)—Komiitis (54j—Kapus (55)—Kttinmas-—Perikc<i (561—Tdigas (6?) - GnmiillttH—Kaj-naljaUiis (58) —Sanis—Malaa—WadigftB (CO)—K'iyae- Lfill Itoddis ((lU).,, ;{«-67

CH^PrBR. IV.

AGRICULTUKE A.ND IKRIGATION.

WBT CuLTiVA'iioK (page C8)—Paddy; ita seasons—lis variuties-Ruin-fed poddy (69)--.Sowing i>#raus transplantation —Methods of ruisiuK aocdliinja —-Proparation of fields ^70)—'I'ransplancation and o»re of the crop —Second-crop cultivation (71)—Third crope—Agriculturttl maxims—Wot crops other than paddy (72)—Rotations—Cultivation of sngar-canc—Jaggory-Biaking (74)—Kstooning—Varieties of sugar-cane—Eccent sngar-cniio diseaaoandnlie Sam'klkot experitnentat farm (75). DRY Cur,TiVATiox (7(J) —Seasons, etc.—Cultivation (77)—Cholam—Tobacco(78)—Improvement o( the leaf—Shifting cultivution in the Agency—Storage of grain (7U). iRRIOATIOK—Pixjtccted area. TltK UODAVARI ANICWI—Origin of the idea ((50)—First est imates-T!is site and deeiKu (81)—Progroaa of construotiou (<J2)—Suhsequeut difficulties 83)—-Alterations since effected (84)—Diatri. Iratary works (85)—The ^Gannavarani atjueiluct (86)—Completiou of distribataries (8?)—Financial results of the scheme—Possible e;iteDEioi)B oE it (WJ)—lis adminiEbration, t)TnKB iRiiiOAriox SOUKO^B (80)—Minor channels and tanks—Wells—Ai'tcslau ivells (90). ECONOMIC CONDI'IIOK UT Aamct) LTuKisTs 68-Bl

CHAPTER V.

FOKESTS.

EART/T UPXRATIONH ,p)ige 02)—Progress of reservation. SBTTLKMBXT (03)— Proprietary rights—Sasocptibilities of tho jungle tribes {94i) — P6dM eultiva. tion. AoMiNiariiAMioji (95)—In Rampa—In the reafc of the Agency (t>H) —Tl>9cr tranmt rnlos (97)—Fire-protoctlon—Artificial reproduction (98) • casuarina-Mangrevo—lntroduotion of exotics, etc. GEKISBAL CIIAUACTKR o^ TUB FoHEs-ra-On the coas ' . - In the r.planda ( S 9 ) - I n P61avaram and Yellavarain-In Kampa (lOO)-La Bhadr4chalam-Timbe. and the market tor It (101)—Minor forest produoe-Foi-eat revenue 03-101

/ TABLE OP CONTENTS, xi

CHAPTER n.

OCCL'PATfONS AND TRADE.

PAUE

Auts AM> iMn'sTKiHs (page 102)—3illi--weavi;i'9—Cotton-wcai-ei'iJ (103); tlietr numbers—1'heir iriet.lioda—Tftiie-wriftviag (104)~Giiimj'-weaving—Cotton-fljoing —Ctiiii(,z-siaiiipiri>j (105)—.Uatfl aad tattis—Mctal-worlr —Psiiitiug (106) —Pitli-worlc—Musical iiiatrnmcnta—Wood mid atono eni-ving—Hopes (11)7) —Oils-Tcniiiiig—Shous (103) -Biiskcts—Bangles-Pottery (109)— Country Bvigtti'—Mercury—Ltonflo-bailding 1110)—Pi-iiiting-prOKses—Eice-niilis—Imligo factories --Sjiip-buildinf,'- DowlMsliwemm workshopi— District Board workstiops at Cooanada (111) —Samalkot distillery and eaga,r>f;«rtory—Uummagddom kce (112). Tii.\nK - lift rki'ts—Grain dealing —Exports — Imports (11;))—^Truclc of Cofftnmla — The harbour—Pott-eouserTiincy ( l l i ) — Knro(>eaii Imstncss liouses at Oocunada (H5) — European Chamber o£ Comnierco — Stenmera visitiDg the port—Amount of t.ade—C'lrafter of trade (116). WEIGHTS .\Nn MKASURKB (U7l — Goldsmithii'woiglits—Commeroial weights—Moasni'os of eaiiacity (118) — WiscellaneouH oomniwoial notations (120) — Lineal measures — Land measures (121)-Measures of time (12:!)—Loeal monetary terms lOU-123

CHAPTBR VII.

MEANS OF OOMMUXICATION.

RoAOd (pago I2t)—Thoir length and ooudition -Quarries—MamteDattc*i, eatiiblisbniont and iillotmeiits (1^5)—Bridges—Ferries (12l)). WATER CASaiAGE (127)—The rivers—Upper Gddivari project (IKf)—Navigable canals (129); their history—Expenditure and trafflo (130)—Nature of traffic (lill)—Couliiotin'x interests of irrigation and navigution (132). MAWRAB RAILWAY, .ICCOMMODATLON FOB TKAVELLEKS (18*)-Bttugalows-ChattraiiiH 12i-134

CHAPTER Via .

RAINFALL AND SEASONS,

BAINFAI^I; ( P ^ O 135). FAIUHK; (136)—Tlie conditions existing—Famine in (791 (137)—The 'Guntiir famine' of 18.t3 (133) —Distress in 1835-38 (13l>) —Disastera of 1839-11 (IW)—Improvement resuUiug from the' aniout— Softroity in the Agencyi 1897. IvuKDATioxe BY THE SEA (lil)—About l70ti—In 1787 (li2)—Its extent and effects—The aoeompaoyiug hurricane (143)—The landholuors' losses—Inundation o£ 1839. CYCLONKS (lH). FLOODS—In 1014 (145)—In 1876, 1878, 1883, 1883 and lS84-Gi-eat hood of 188C—Floods of 1887 and 18B3 (14fl)-0f 1895-£)fJ—Of 1900 (14?) ... 136-147

OHAPTEai IX.

FUeUC HEALTH.

PB«VALKKT DISEASES (page 148)—Malaria; in the Agency—In the uplands (149)—In the delta—Cholera—Sinall-pos (ISO)-Other diseastja Sanita. tion. JltDiCAi- INSTITUTIONS (IBl)—Public hospitals and diBpenaarios — Mission Institutions—Institutions io Cooanada—Bajabraundry hoauital

'*^^' 148-152

Xn TABLE OF OOKTENTS.

CHAPTEfi X.

EDUCATION I'jidt

CF^sll< SrATjoTics (pa c 15^1 -By l iluks~By iLligiun- t.ftLtAlio^si. IVRTI-TUTjoss,—Jjiiih I>oi,imiliums ^schools now (>\.istiiit; ( n i ) ~ '^'*" ''^V' inmtjnt College, Rajahinniitli/—Tlii> tIo\ernuient rninms,' ' "liCffi', liai-ilimimJiv ( I .W)_ riitj Pithii[iiirani HHJ i \ iâWcfte (157) I6S-) .'>(•

CHAPTER XI.

[.AND ItRVFXtJE >4rjMINlS) RA I UlN

KAarv ITisHtB^ vP'o** '<JO)—The i itnindtJiH—Tlit ii udniiiiHtiation/IH)) l'l»i /tav(*ii Uiid —Citum ttC3 of Pucmr 1785-37 {lii2)—St ttloiiirnt wilti (In zArtntid-irR m 16i7U (1(J3)—Vtmlitujii iif llio C liioEs and ( mincils ]7'3+ Collectors oE Hie hitUi Uml. Tur ri-R\iANt\r fairrrJMiN-, iHl)&-li.) (161)—Its f,iiUirB(t65) —Its fffoc- oti t)io i jots ilOB) —Sjiocittl f'omniin Monor apitointefl, I8^^3 (167) lt\orw iir 3i i ILI îl-Ms Boforo 1«65-. Settlement of lS65-0fi (lOD) -Tti scope (170) Gioiitiin^ nf villages— CUiBSific^tioti oE loiK—StJUilaid ciops, gtttm outtutiis, coin mutation jn ucfi — Cultivation eipetiwt ami tuontiv tiiteR (171)—rmaiiti il K suits—Wiitct-i.ite in the (leUa (172)—Tlio existing sottliinaeut, us scoixs—liccJ.ifiîhca-tion oi delta soiU—U'atci-iate )>iobk*nii (l7.1)—Setth iiie*t of wild tiactn (17 0 "^'"'^"t'' '^' lO'iultn—lihadiachal.ini taluk—Piopriitaiy ritfl't*- (173) — FiMiiy ot Lhe pushk nh -Scttloiucnt nf ISItO in Bhiidtnchalrtin (17())— Agcnty tui(,t* and lentfil Yillafj;eB (177). Dlslllit i wu DlVisK ^'^l LIMITS (178) Viri \cn Ht.Tvnr iîniLMs—Re-orgamsed m 1866-Hi'viRet] in 1H85 (171),'. U\ ' is(lW>) . ir.0-18e

CHAPTER XIL

SSLT, A I I K A K I A N U 6I13CELl<ANEOCfa RBVF,NnF»

Sii i t (t>a}(e 181)— Che sjbtcmi* oF .idnimiatifttion—Ikthols of muniiU lyic (182)—M itkt,ts—bult loi Yan.iiii—Fish-cnuny jTidc (ISd)—Contiiibjinl salt-e.irtli ABKXRI AND UINOM- Air.tck—ItiaLk in tlu \Konuy (Iftl)— Totldy (18'i) - Totltly in the Ag i i i t j - ffoioign hiiooi—Opmm .itid )iom|i-diuga—InthoAgetiuy (18(;). CnsTOMs—Wnd-cu^t-nat,—Seft eu'*toiii>,(lS7\ iNtoMt-TAX STAMPS . , . 18L-J87

OHAPIER XIU.

ADilltCI'STIUTION OF JUSl'IOK

EABLV lLLTMODs()iage]t<8)—Undsi native rule—V'ndLi UieChieEsninl Ci-unoilB Tnh P»FabM t>\sn M (180)—In the plains.—In the Agency. CIVIL J i ^MLI. (191)—lixistiiie Couita—Amotmt o£ litigation—lleîBtiation, <JitiMi\\L JDHUCK—Jhi' vaTiimu Conits—Cnuie (192)—'llao Vduddla oi Nakkulub— Othoi oinnintlclaiiBoa(19j) POLICE (191)—Poi uior syaleniH—Tho ewbtin' fOlOC. J A . W (10S> ... ° JJjg^jg,

file:///Konuy

TABLE OF roNTENTS. XUl

t

CHAPTER XIV.

LOCAL SKLF-GOVERN'MEKT.

TMK LOCAL BOARDS (pat'o IM)- Tin- TlnioitB (137)—Vinaiu'cs of tlio Boards. Tnn Two MUN[C'IP\t!TiFs- Cocanad;i mtitnci|>aUty—Itajiiliiiinnrtry uir>iiici-jwlit-y {IPS) 1'llT-ltJy

OH AFTER XY.

GAZETTEKlt .

at AMAiiiPOUAM T A U ' K (|>a<,'c 200)—Amali'iinn-ftin (201)—Arnl)iijipi'ta~Ayinavnl)i

(202> — Handiirnlanlt.T — Heinlamrnlnnba — (lanDOTarnm — Ivisatiakiiri'ti (2U3)~Mniiaap.il)i—Muramalln—Palivola — P^niru (204) ~ Riili (20.1)— VstlapHlli—Vririapalli—VyH^'W-sv.iriipnvara (iOO). COI-ANADA TALUK (207)— libiiiiavai'atu—Cbollangi (20R)—Cfcaiinda—Cor;ti(,'a (210)—Golb[)al(iiyu)ii (213)—tnjaraiii—N'l'lapalU (2131—Samalkot (214)—Sarpavarnm—Talla. v( TU (2 l5 )~Yanf tm. NAfiABAM TAI.CK (217)—Antavvc"li—JaRaniiapi'ta fÎ8)—Kiidali (21!J)—Nneraviiin—Hajavilii—Sivakddii—Tutipakii (220). Pi:ETT>i;puRAii TALUK (221)—Annavaraiu— Dliarati>all;lpui>am—Jaifanim:i-pfita (222)—KAndrukotft—Knltipudi—KirlaininKli^Pofldapuratu-PratH* pftdu (22*)—Itugampfili (223) — Ransomp^ta — Ta)Tiirn — Tdtapalti — VimTnrani ('iiCi}—Vt»)i?svfir:ini. PriirXi'CnxM Divisiox (237)—Oliandiirti —KoHiipalli 23-2) • Mrttap^la —Pit hnpiiram (233)- I'onm'ida (2WW-U|>pridii, it.UAiiMUXnin TALin; (240)--Dowl!i;>.lnvt>r;ini~ (I'ikavoram (242) — tCoriikotida — Kottnpalli (213)—Rujaliroondry. lliMAcim.Muri'iiAii TALUK—DikVnv^la (2Ui;—Di-iiksiiarrinjam (250)—Gan<jtiTaram (2S2> — Ki'tipalli—Maii'di]>ak3 (2o3) —llBinaclmndriipiiraiii^Rtima^hnUalu—V6-guyauiumpSta, TL'XI DIVISION- (255)—Bei>d;»pi'idi—IIamisnvarum (256)— Ivottapall i—Tallnni—Titipaka-T^tuijonta—Tiii i i . llii.\DiiX<.'i1ALAM TALOK (258)—Bliadrttolialam (259)—Dumtna-î'idcu (202)—GimdAla—Kumara-avitiiip'i-.luUL—KHunavaraiii (2fJ3)—Pani38al:tr-K6kopallo—Sri Hamagiri (2tjr)). CHOUAVAHAJI DIVISION (26i>)—Ban<lnpa]li—Birampalli (267)— Biidiiliira—Bologonda—CKavaUi—Chidufûru—CliddtivnraEH (2C8)—Cliopa-konila—Daiirtangi^DorneliintDlapdlciii—Gc:id!idn^K&knru—IConilnmodalii (21JP)—Knndifda—JlHrrivi'ida—Winnnmiilli (-70)—-N(!ilunnrti—Nim nulla-pAloni—Paiom—PamnWiii—P<>t,i—Kainjta—SiripndoSapiidu (27(J)—Tada-prilli (277)—Timin'iiu—Vailapalli—Vchiffapalli—Va'itmrtra—Vt'mutukoiula. P()LAVABAM DLVISIOK (278)—Oiitigdlu—Gi'italn—Jaiigareddig(idem (279)—

Pfitji PatMsam—Pulavnmni (280)—TWnv8y;(28:iJ. YKLLAVAKAW Divjsrox (284)—Ad''ntigoI.^—Aiiig6ru (2S5)—Piitcharti— Gurtrdu (280)- -.ToddanifE —K^ta (287)—Mohnnapuram—Nellipi'idi—Pandiapdii'—RatnHvaitim (^88) —Viral i!i ad rapuraiu 200-388

\ UAZKTTblEU

OP THK

GODAVARI DISTRICT.

ll^«•flll'Tlo^

CHAPTER I.

I'tlYSlCAL liES(,'RIPTlON.

{Ji'Mlm, urtii'itli'TIiiv -Chief IOWHB—Ktviuolotfy of tKo natui''—Nmiirfil tliviwoiin, HiM.s-Tl io Glials. KivnH<j"'riit' Guiliivoii—Jt? sBiiprity—Us ishiiid.i (iiiii ciici'OncliinpntH—'I'lu'soaHon ol' its ilimd'*—Ite itiliutarie'^ -'I'lic Vi'k'i ii, Soir.s. (;rni.oG\ - Pliynicai cltaiigc:) iiuw in pro ti-esH. MINER u.s—Coal —Tlie UnuiirifvJ|)Mt:i tic'ld Hivlailiiriiii'u —(itilil— Iiori — tir.ipliilf .Mica—ISiiildin}^ otoiii) Roclt-cirystold, yuriirL=;, afipjiliin'^. ( f.iM \'ft Hsi\nl\iU—Ti')u(>oratui*t' —Wind UIKI weatlifr. Fi.ORv. F A I N V - CjitUo —BiitTiilims -Shei'jtaiul •fiiats— ('!itlli'-bi'ui><linf; -Ft'editij; mi'tlkoiln—' .itilo di-.ojisi^'.—Cuitlt^ faiiH —Osiinc — Fisli—N:<Hvi' B|)ortsmcji,

THK Goilitvari diutrift lies on the north-eftst t.>onst of the Mttdi*as OQAP. 1. Pcesidenc}, It lia;s an art a of ^)M'M square miles and extends OKSKBAL

from LiJ 20' to 18' i ' N . and from 80^ 52'to P:.* :W' B. Ii is bounded on tlie nortli-fast by Vizugapataju, on the novtli }ty tlie rianie district and the Bastar State of the Central Pro\inces, and on t]ie west and sonth-wvst bj tho (-foddTari livi-r, which separates it from thp Nizam'î Dominions and Kistna, Tlie district, liow-ever, extends across this nvm- at one ]X)int to inchide the P»'>la-vamm division. Ciodavari is rouffhly trisaji'nlnr in shape, its base bein f formed lj\ tlie line of thr? coast from tho western month of the (Irtdiivari river to the Vizag-apatam border, one side by tlie Godavari river itself, and the other by the irrejrubr frontier of Vizagapatam and the Central Provinces,

The distjict is made up of ten taluks and two depiitj- tahsil-dai's' di\ision,^; namely, the taluks of Najiaram,' Amalapuraui, lldniachaTidrapurani and Cooanada, ivhich make up the fertile delta

' Ntiâruhi tuLuk IB iilso cîiimOMly know o ti8 tLo 'JÂti]iak;i ;fn<[ (' coi)uti'\ ^\ fi-utu tiio viUnjû of tliiii miJiic wiiliiii it, iiii'l Amalijiuiunt l.ttiiL: m, the Komi tonu (' L\\* uinl country') .

GODAVAHt.

CHAP, I. GENERAL

DESCRIPTION.

Chiei towns.

Etymology oi the name.

o£ the Gfodilvad river; the uplarnl tuluk-! nF Hiijahmunilrv and J"'etldapnrain ;^ tin- hill) divisions oF Yi'llnvfirinii. ('hodii\iu-iiin and Polavaram ; the taluk of Bliinlnii'lmhmi ))(>\ond tln^ Ka-lcrn Ghats; and tlio two zamimlari (l<')infc_\ ta'ifiihlar.i' rlivi^sions of Pithapnj'aiii and Tiini in the nortli-oastcrn corner of tiKMlistrirt, the foiTTiev of which resembles in chariicti-r tlie iqiland tidnks and tin,* latter the three hill) divisions. Statistical ]Diirticulars oT each of these areas will he foiintl in tln^ sepiimte Aii^X'ndix to this volmucj and some account of each and o[ its chief towns and \illuj'('s IH g-iven in Chapter XV helow, yi-llavurnm, Chodavaram. P»')la-varam and Bliadnlchalaiii are tract-- covrTi'd with hill anil jnn}„'"le and inhatnted by uncivilized tribes to whoiu it is incxppdit'nt to apply the whole of ihe ordlnar) law oF the land. Under the Scheduled Districts Act of 1874, these have beu- fornied (see p. 190} into an Af^eiic) in which civil pistice is administered under special rnles and the Collector has s)»eeial powers in his capacit) of ' Goveriinient Agent.' They are consequently always known as ' the Agency ' or ' the Agency tracts. '

The capita! of the district is the busy seajwrt and municipality of Cocanada, and with the exception of Nagaram taluk and ITeUavaram division, the head-quarters of the various taluks and divisions are the towns or villages from which they are named. The hoad-qiiarters of Nagaram taluk is Riljavolii (Bazole); and of Yellavaram, Addatigela. Besides the tahsildars' stations, both Samalltot in the Cocanada taluk and Dowlaishworam near Rajah-mundry are towns of importance and interest.

Many places in the delta, such asCoHnga, Georgepet, NilaiialU, and Injarain in the 'Cocanada taluli and Bendamfirlanka in Amalapurani, were notable ports or settlements of the Kast,India Company at the beginning of the nineteenth century. All these have now sunk into iusignificance. The little village of Cliandurti in the Fithdpnram division has given its name, under the distorted form of Condore,- to the decisive battle by which the sovereignty of the whole of the Northern Circars was wrested by the British from the French. Yanam in the Cocanada talut is one of the few l-i rench SettlementB in India,

Godivari takes its name from the great river- wliieb form,^ its western boundary and the delta of which is its richest and most fertile portion. Rai Bahddnr V. Venkayya, U.A., the lloveniment Epigraphist, considers that the word means liter-

' Tho parts of l*cicanadtt and Pedddpuiuia talitks und ot tlin Pithi'ipurnm diviRion wliicli ure watered by the Yelfira river aro often Hpokeii of ;i=i Pnrlunadu, C/. Chapter XV, p, 221.

- .Sou below Chapter )I, p. 3] and Chapter XV, p. 227.

PHYSICAL DHSCKIPTION. 3

allv rithiT * strfiim.'j irivinjr wntcr ' (sonietimoi; in tild \vritin"-.s CII\P. I. a))l)n'viutcd to God:) or ' griviiig wdtc r ' ) or "-streams yiviuff (JC.NTBAL

k inc / Another Sanskrit authority ' interprets tlie word in 'a '"^"^'""'^'P-'^-

snincwhat similar iva_\ as moaniiijr * the hcst (fan) l_of those tha t j j,''ive water'5 and adds tho alternative ' the cliicJ'{"of those tha t ] ;rivc h<>aven ' with reference to tlie sanctifying ]>ower of the river. The local and popular etymoloj'y of the name says that it means ' tile expiation for killing a cow,' and a well-known story relates how the rislii Gantania brought the Godavari to the district- to expiate the s n of Itaving killed a cow in a moment of anger. K G win- in Yernagudeni taluk, Kistna district, the name of which is said to mean ' the village of the cow.* is jwinted oat as the place where the cow was slain and the water was lirst made to tlow.

The district consists of fonr very dissimilar natural divisions; Natural nauiely (heginning in the north-west), the undulating taluk of d«is'0"». Bhadrjiohaiam ahov'o the Eastern Ghats ; the hilly agency divisions whiclt really form a part of that r ange ; the upland taluks which divide the agency hills from the lowlands of the delta j and the delta of the (loddvari itself.

The delta presents a vast ox])an,-e of rire fields dotted with gardens of jilanlains, Itctel and <'oeoanut and witli innujuprahle |>almvras ; the uplands form a gentl; undnlating and fairly wooded plain ; the Agency consists of broken, forest-clad hills ; and the Bhadrachalan\ talnk ahove the gluUs resemhles the uplauds except tliat its undulations are sharper and its woods much inoro dense. I t is brohcn up hy the clusters of the Bodugiidem and liclcapalle hills, which arc not nnlike the ghi'its themselves.

' I heou ly hills in the district are the Eastern (-Ihsits, which HILL*.

ri.=;e l)v gentle gradations from the level of the coast. The scenery The Chits. of these mountains, particularly in the neighbourhood of the Godavari river, is exceedingly picturesque. Their sides arc elothcd with luxuriant forests, intersper.=ied vdih bamboo and a thieV undergrowth of forest shrubs. Their highest point is Dum-kondaj 4A18 feet, and another prominent peak stands to the south of the line gorge through which the GodAvari passes them, and is called Papikondaor Bison Kill. A hill in the rauge which runs from tha t peak across the river into the Polavaram division is locally known as Biraiya Konda, and is regarded as the haunt of a demon called BIraiya who is worshipped by the native navigators of the Q6dAvari.*

' Tin; .S<ibdiilialj>adrnniti b j Sir ItHJiili Riiillia Kttiilliii DSvii (Calcutta, 188C>. • See Wlow |). 5,

http://expan.se

GOUAVAlil.

PKAP, i,~ Amony Mic j^rout river-; of indm ih^ OodavKri t u b ' s r.irik ii*'xt '*'"'*"^- aftep- \ho Oan^«s an< l Imlu:?. ft runs titâi'h across tiji' pi'iiiastiU.

Tiie timt:'!- '•' couriio is UOO iiiilos ion^j:, ami it ffcciM-:? tl)i> <lrninnir" from *•"'• 115,000 stiimri' miii'Sj mi aivii ^rn-^t,.,. tliHti tliat ut IOn;:]iiiiil iin.l

Scotland ('n]Mliine<l. I t s iiiaxiniiim diriclmrjri^' is cali-ulatod to Ijf one imtl a lialf inillioa «itl)i<* fpct )ii'r second, nmri' tliiin 20(> tijiies Hi fit of tlio Tltames at Stainns and about tln-ec t imes Hiai of t)iR Nile at Cairo. '

I t rifip? at Triinl>ak, a villiiKt' alioui sc\-<.>nt\ niiifs n»irt)i-{'ast of Boiiiliay and onl^ fift\ mill's from tlic Araliian Sea. 'Die plac^ traditionally tv^nufliid as the son ret- of (he flv.-r is a reservoir on a hill Wdiind Hip \ iUacro. Tlii^ !•< appro.udn.-d In a lliji 'lit of (>90 !*tonp stpps, and t h " water trickles int<t it drop 1>\ d rop from tlic lips of a carvon iiuag-ej shroiidivl Ijv a canop)^ <>r';toiie.^ From tln^ncc the river Hows in a south-i-asteHy direction iinlil. after it. lias completed a coar-se of tioO mites, it rtfr'ei\us from tlio nortli a t Simnolia tli.^ waters of the Wardlui,. fhi- l'ainân;.(a and Hi'' Wainjfantra united in the sinfrje nohin stream of tli.- IVinhi ta . t ' rom Hiis point Hie ,-[ver has soju... 200 miles to run to tli-' Bay of Ben<,ra!. [t is soon join-vl l,j t l„ . r nd rava t i . also from tlio nortli, and Vfore long skirts tiie Bliadrarlialam hduk of this distriH. A U>w milc9 l>clow tlto Bhadniehalam l.order is the Dntnmaf,n'idpm anient, almost tiie •olo ivlic of the ^n-eat .scheme conceived b) Sir Arthur Cotton (s^.^/p. 80) for the miviâtion oC the upper waters of tlje rivei-. N.-xt tiie heaid-iful SaverJ (or tâbaii) tiows in from the north, skirtinj^ th- e<lfi'o of the Eoropt-clad Rekapalhi hills. From there the Jllastern Ghdts eome inô view, Hom. 2,.^0n r<, t, in averago heif^ht. bounding' the whole Momon and towering ahoxe Hie lesser and detache<I hill=^ t *"' Hank tlie river.

The G6davari has Ijy thi.^ f imp assnnied imposing proportions,

3 ^ \ " r ' " ' ' " "" ' ""'^ sometimes two and a half miles, roacf After ,ts junction with t h . Saveri. however, its bed is

^"ddenly contracted by spurs of Hie frh^ds till at length it forces a p a m ^ e between them, penetrating by an almost preeipUoas . o r j e t o the very heart of the range. The scenery of i^f moTnt? ^''""T!'''' '^« ^-^^ty. The «teep wooded slopes of the

>a" , ' r T '!i °^'"''""^ • ' ^l^l-^-]^ -'' « - Pl «< '> -'* '"' ^^^ form a . ' ' ''''^ ' «>' "o^stantl^ rocede and advaneo and aj'I>ar.ntlv '" '" , ' '^ beaatifnl little lakes from which there is

n«'«.itly no outlet. Here and there a faint lino of smoke 1«)B), 1^1. "^'""'•'«!f Tl'-o.i, ,;• a,e Uddiâvi [tdhi, by .Mr. 0, T. \Valoh (.MuUr.i«.

http://appro.udn.-d

file:///Valoh

PHYSICAL DKSClirPTION. 6

indiratt'* tin-cxi-jtonoo of a Ivi'iâ or !{«*itdi villny-f. hiil tlip liilli; ClIAf. I arc V(>r_v niMtxoK' iniialjiti'd. IJM'KK*.

In tloud ttiiif (hi' watiT Hows with t-Trifii- furf.*. • Tlinniyli ihc ' ôr^ô,' writo:; Dr. Kiii^-. • tin* pcnl-np wat.'rs ti-ar llicir way witli, I li!i\i* ln'i'n told, u s u r l n c eo ji* i'!nitri'l\ côtuMVi' on tlic erosfi st'Otton tlitit advfnturons Loutiufii ;itidi> iiloiiu- tlic Imttotn o[ a troiijili wliost' sidles vhr uy t o ' a yuod ln'iVId rtnd ))id< awai tii(^ iiiinn'diatr liiinks ; and out of this <, or(.'r n\vrt_\ towiinl?; the opon ('())intf\ of lln' (iodiivari dtsitrict tlic ri\i'r lia- sm-h n fall iliat ttl^' riunsation prodtK'fd on ()n> mind of lln- fra\f'l!i'r is said to ijc that of slidinff down an inclined planf\' ' Nati\<' lioafini>ii aro mnoli afraid of na\ ifratinir tho rivi>r at sucli tinn'S ; and nnni> of tlinm, of wii!ili->v<>r rrpfd, omit to lircak a numtn'rof coooaanN at tlii'' month Of tlic ^'orjô to a]>p( a!<e th<> <lanL:t'roiir. drimm Hiraiya alivady mentiont'd, wtio will flash on a roclc or drown in a whirlpool t)o> navi:rator who omit-s this lioma^rf. I o iri'cat i- ihf action of flu 'stn'am during'' Hoods that fho roclcv lici[ ha-; hvm atoiiriHl out to dpptlis po]inlarh supposed to In' imfatli.'niablej but which really varv norniallv from lOO to nearly 2U0 foot. IMylt Hoods riise qnite 50 feet abuve tin'' norma) level, ijo that the fiorye then encloses a torrent of waters from 150 lo 2oO tei-t in tlopth.=

An<?r jiassin^ this ))oint and ontecino' the open eoiintr\, thi^ r iwc widens out and flows by th" old zaniindart stroi\ii')iolds of I'olavaram and Gutilla and the pleturesipie antl saerod islands of iMahanandlsvaram and I'attisam.'^ At tlajahnuindry it is nearly two miles wide, and -somo five niih-s further down, at Dowlaishworam, at the head of the delta, it is errtssed liy the celelirated anient whicli rendei's its waters at last available for irrifratinii. At this point the river is nearly four miles broad, tlionffh nboid- a third of this width js taken np hy three islands, and the spot is move fnlly described in C'hapter JV. At Dowlaishworam the Godt'ivai-i divides into two main streams—the eastern or Gautftnii Grodavari Howing' jiast Injarani, the Little French settlement of Yanam, and Nitapalli, and ent-erinjif the sea ucar Point Codivari , and the western or Vasishta GodAvari llowinjr nearly due soutli and entering the sea at Point Narasapnr. A few inile-s above this latter moatli another larg-e branch, the Vainateyam, breaks off to the east of the Vasishta Q-oddvari {forming' the island of Napraram between itself and the latter river)

' Mi'nuiir.t, Qetil. Siiiv,, (ndia, xviii, )it, ;f, 5. - Mr. (i, 'I'. Wnlcli in The EnijiHreriiiti l)'orA,< o/ the Godivaji DtUa (Matlrai,

iaita)>p- '• ' See Ciitujtcr XV, |>. :i7P.

http://tJi.it

tiODWAKl.

CHAP. J. and rcai'linri tlio sea ncur Bomlamii r lanbi . Tiif (.lifei> fiu-torios Kivi-Rfc. of tite oKI Jilast India Com|tau\ at InjapaiU; Bfndaiiiurlaiika ami - Aladajjolltiin nvi-o situaliHl m-ar Hit-ric tlinx. jifinfifial uionHi.-* of

thb G6davaj-i. Pa r t of i ladaptdlum vi!laj.'-<> lias b<>.>n swppt nr.-i\\

by llic river,

lt«<.aiKii(i'. Seven tradit ional inontlis an- r.^ro<,Miizfd as san'f'd by Hindus, The lio!y wators of tin' ttodi 'nari arc ^jaid tn liav.- ht^cn hrnufjlit, from tlip head of S i v a ' l)y the saint Gantania , and Mic SOVIMI

branches Ijy whicli it is traditionally !ûi>i)03ed to have reaelu'd the sf a are said to liavo bcon ina<It; b) sovcn f^rcat //sA/.v. The months of t.hcsc aro consid'Tcd (\speeially holy, and to ba the in the sea at any onp of them is considered an act of <rroAi reli.ijions officacv. Tt is eiistomai-y for thf> ^lioiis (osiDecially cJiiklloss persons d^^sirons of ollsprintf) to make a pilgriiAaj^t^ to rach in tnrn and batlie tliere, t lnis iierforniini;- the aapUi-mitjin'fi-yolrfi or '• pilf^riniaye of the seven conRuencos." T h e Vainatoyam is not one of these tradit ional moutli.^^, I<iit is siippascd to hav(> been ereated aftf^rwards by a rishi of that name w]io litolc a part .of the Vasishfa for tbp |-»ijr])0,sp.- Tlti» t radi t ional seven arc the Kasyapa or Tnlya ftlic Tnlya Bhaj^'a di-ain), the Ati-i ( the {lorin^â river), thf rJantanii, t h r Bharadvaja. tlie Visvaniitra or Kaiisika, th"^ .Taniadafrni. and the \"asishta. Tlie lihaMKlvîja. \ ' isvii-miti'a and . lamadairni no hinficr exist ; but pil^rrlnis bathp in the sea at tJte sjiots where they are sojiposed t'l liave been. ' fêveral other saered t>athin;i'-plaees in the delta are noticed in Chap te r XV. T h e most important of them i,-! Kotipalii in the E d m a -ehandra]mram talnk. Bnt a ba th in the river an) ivherc alonf? its eonrse has ^reat sanctiryin"^ vir tue. Kvery thir teenth vear this vtrtne is sii()|io«ed to be nmeh inereasefl, and the pm/>k/t>'(»» festival which then takes place is performed all along' the s t r eam in recOfJi'nition oi" the fact,

l u ihlainU Several i=;land« of a permanf^nt eharacter s tand in various

ûci-oach- ^^ '' ' " ' ' * '* ' '•'oddvari; hnt the river constantly- forms new montB.*'' temporary islands and modifies old ones. I s l ands liable to these

elianges are called Imilm. Tiiey are rendered extraordinari ly fertile by the silt deposited upon them hy the river, and tlie rich t^jhacco j^rown on them is known as I'mlcrr tobacco. Other physical changes are }>rodnced by the force oi. the stream. I t« encroach-

iVriotliLT a«i:ouiit Bays tlipy wi'if Ijroimlit frtun tlin <;ai|.ri.- Tlu* Kddiivari .« fro<,n..ntly Bjw.kcn <,( hy tliB n.,,),,- of th.i (hxngm ! r ancinnt writin^B

- Sco Cbaj)ti'r XV, \i. 20:i. " *•

" 'I'nt; traditioiial Bhavait-jaia muutlv m located at, TiVtalimonrli -, i, ,. w t

file:///speeially

MADKAB DISTBICT QAZETTEKMS.

I i

G;ODAVARI.

VOLVMS I

[I'BicH, 2 rvfti&:\ \p shiUiPfit.^

PHYSICAL ntSCPilPTtON. 7 I

luetits iipuii tile liunlis iuv notitwi))l<> In nion- tlian oot- pliici'. At CIIJI'. T. 'Wlliipi'ifti iiKoVf Itajalimiimlrv it piv'sô-. h-Ard ajrjtinsf flir> rijrlit l.'tvERs, bank, wliioli is in nniny i>lai-i'-i fnt down juvcipitoiisly liv flio action of the .->trcrtni, itnil NViltinn'idi ,uiil ittli.^r villn^ret;, wljich used to be sonii> didtanci' from tlie I'iviM-, nuw ,<taiid on it^ Inink, Jn 1079 the r'ncfOiichmcnts uf tlic r iwr at \ari isu | inr on tin- "N'asishta C-vodavari forci^d many nP tln> I' nj li ^h incfcliants ti) h'lWe tlieir lioiwcs.'

The jfi'euter portion of the uroa draim'd l'\ the Grodavari 'J'lu'sM-fnut reci'ives morp r.iin in tht-,<ontli-\V(ist thuii iii ttit* iioi'th-east mod- '*''"''"'"'-soon, and it is during'- the former, therefore, that tlie river I)ring-s down most water. Jt lipîiis Ui rise at nowlaiphwcram some ten days afti'r tin-soath-wi*st rains i-t in at lômliav —nsnalh aliout tlie middle of J'.ine—and it is almost ahvins lajrh till October. The season Poi' Hoods is then over : but diirinjf the nest two months or so occasional Eroshe:~ are caused by tlie north-east monsoon rains. When these have ceased the rivi-r jrets lower and lower, till about the mi<hUe of May (its lowest stajjê) its discharjfe is a t times as little as 1,500 cnbic feet per second.

The navig-ation on the river and ou the delta oanals is referred to in Chapter V I I ,

Two tributaries of the Oodiivtiri flow throa^h this district, lis n-ilmta-T h ^ S a v e r i rises in the hills in the Tizag-apatani Ayenc \ , and '"*"• afterwards rims in a south-westerly course, forming' for some distance the boundary between that tract and theBas ta r State. I t receives several tributaries on the waj , and, at the ixdnt where Bastar, Vizagapatani and Godavari meet, is joined 1J\ the Kileru nve r from the lulls of Jeypore, The latter forms for many miles the boundary between the "Rampa country of this district and the Jeypore zamindari. The united waters of these two livers are nivich used for floating timber from the Kekapalle hills, which are enclosed between the Saveri and the G-odavari.

* One or two insignificant streams run down from the north into Tho Yeleni the Goddvari, and from the Tuni hills into the sea ; but tLe only other notewortliy river in the district is the Yeleru. This is formed by the union of three streams winch take their rise in t)ie hills of E a m p a , Golgonda and Jaddanfji respectively and unite a little to the north-east of Yellavaram. I t flows througli Peddd-puram taluk to a point a little above Viravaram, where it again sepamtes into several streams. The westernmost of these continues its course, still under the name of tho parent stream, along the boundary of Pi thdpunuu division into Cocanada t a luk ; passes

' Joui'nBl nf tlie tour of the Agent of Fort tJc. CJccirge to Madopollaiu ia 1679.

OODAVARI.

C H A P . I .

y in i . s .

nndei-th(, 'SainalK'ot canal , wliidi cro,ssH>< it hv an aqiiednct near that, town, and Hnall) <li'o]is into the Hikkavohi drain and tlic Cocanada t idal crpck, and tso into the Cncanada ki\.\, ,\roan\viiil»j the two other branrlio^j hi\\r> hoth llowi^d into tiln' PiMuijinrani division, where, united a^âin under the name of tiip Gor ikanadi . they distrilnite thei r waters to nunienins works of irriiâtion, and finally reach tlie sea near Uppi'tda,

'I'lie following' table ^Îves tiie elassification of the soils in the ( jovernment land in the distriet excluding' the taluk of i ihadnicha lam, whieli has not _\et been settled h\ tlie Madnt-; Govornniont :—

(l(lOt,uOY,

Hi'i'ci'tit ;i|rt.' til iircii clii-iHifiort wliiuli in

- i - j ; -5

Tiiliil: or flivision.

1 Plaint

AtuaKptii'ii 111 ' Cocaiiadii

Najâi-aiu . Podda inuan i ..

Eaj;iluiiun<li\ ' Raiftnchari'Iiitjiiii

'J'otii),

nil

Pii linii

r,on *JS)4 ];i7 :>oi ;iso •2i)t}

. *J,0S7

O -^ l» ^-^ - -

I

r 3

7-a 235 ti(;-7S 81: sO'-ir, ... r,i*s

\-M (Wi-6't ao;i (i-19 ' O'li) ii-,-);! s m -rM 0-20 I ifS.i -ja-'M 171-21

lyj Hi-08 fl-o:i o-Zi i a-O'i

W83 ;t;)'i7

il

l;V22 (f21

;!ji':t.i

l,0f!6 oO-:>C, I (J-Ull •M

j J j f x e y (oxtludiii;^ Ulifuliti-I i - l iaUi i i i ' l .

Cliuduvai'iiiii .. PJ luvuium . , V i ' l l y v m ^ a i i i . . .

Totiil, A(;cac} 1

' OF:III<1 totiil . 1

715 . 564

. > J)30

. 2,2:!9

. 4.8)1)

2T,

i . l «0

... 1 .. 1 1 • • 1 1

... ' ... ^

4(!'1S I OeO 1

0-ltt i.-;t:{

UiU'OU ...

f.vfi?' ...

%-7- i ' ...

3.S-|« (!'7fi

I t will be seen tha t the delta tahiks are mainly covered witli alluvial soil, tlioug'h there are sandy areas alonfjf their coasts, while the uplands are chiefly made up of red fen-ufjfinoiis ear ths varied by small areas of the black regar .

T h e ultimate fonndation of the country altove t.lie jriiiits,^ as of moat of i)enini5ular Ind ia , is gneiss. Various othe.r kinds of rocJc of less but varyiiiff antiquity liave Ijeen supeianiô.^fed upon dilTei'ont

' Tho geologicnl foroiatioji of tin' coautri'y itbovo tiic g]iiit» is Unscribril in Homt di-tuil h>y Or. W. King in tlio Afcmoirn of tlio Cicol(if[ifal ijinvey of In iha . xviii. p t . 3, i»a(l t l ia t of tbo avea tiolow the hilU in Sfeinotrs, svi , p t , if.

PHYSICAL DrecRirTroN. !)

pai*ts of tlie district. The gnei-sj i-< usually uppermost tln-onglioiit CHAP. I Blmdfichalani, Ciiodavaraui and t!io eastern portion of Polavaraiu, GKOIOCT.

tind, in thu form of what i s calted Bezwada ji^neiss, throughout Yellavaraui and much of Tuni as wM as in the north of Raja)Imumiry and Pcddtlpuraiti taluks.

After the gneiss, the next most ancient formation is three f^raups of the Lower Gondw/ina mcks. The Talchir ^roup is found in very small and scattered tracts in tlie Nizam's Dominions and also near Duinma<ifi'idem, lietween Dumma^udem and Bhadra-t;hahim, and between Bhadr.ichalnm and Kclcajmlle; the Kiimthi group stretches alt along the rivt>r on the Hyderabad side, but only reaches into this district ul tlie south-western comer of the Polavaram division ; and the Bflnikar group occurs in small and scattered area's in two places in tlie district, namely Bcdadanurn in the south-west corner of Polavaram, and Gauridevipeta sixteen miles down tliu river from Bhadrachalum. This group is of particular interest, because eoal is found in it,'

Among still more recent gooiogical formations, a few small outcrops of the older Tirnpati wmdstones occur between the gneiss and tlie alluvium of Ptddupuram and Tuni. A broad belt of the Ouddalore sandstoae also stretches, like an island in tlie middle of tlie alluvium, fi-)m Rajahnmndry to Samalkot with a narrow strip of Deccan trKj tmd some isolated patches of gneiss on its north-wTstern odg<->. The whole of tlie rest of the district is formed of fluviatile aliuvium. This occupies nearly the whole of the delta, and abovtj the ghdts stretches in some places a long way from the river on either side.

At some remote period 1 he great plain whicli is now covered Pbysioal with alluvial soils must have been occupied by the sea, the ^'^^''SM ii(»n sandstone ' island' between Kajahmundry and Samalkot mvist have been an island in fact, and the salt water must have stretched to the edge of tlie northern hills. This plain was gradually raised above tidal level by the deltiiic deposits of the G6dAvari and the minor streams in the north-east of the district, and the process still continues. It is particularly noticeable in the constant extension of the shore round Point Godavari and the gradual silting up of Coringa bay. In f-'liny's time the village of Coringa, now miles inland, stood apparently upon a cape, and even within the memory of man great changes have taken place. The map o£ 1842 had to be much modified in 1891 and already needs further altemtion. A spit of land is extending to the north fi-om the old Point G6ddvari at an estimated rate of one mile in 20 years

' H«o belsvr p. lU.

in pTogrsBs,

10 GOnAVAUI.

CHAP. I.

Coal.

The Ganrw "Wvip^ta field.

fiedadandiii.

and is gradually enclosing tlie Coringa hay ; and f he ancliorage in the hay is said to be sluilluwin;^ at tliu mto nf a foot ovcji-y ten years. Hut a conipunsatin^f process of erosion ii taktnj^- plavy elsewhere. At IJppilda on tlie Pitlui]iurHi)i coast flic land lias been much encroached upon by the sea. Since 1000 over fifty yai*ds have been swept awny and t]je process must iiave been going on for many year^. A. ruin about lialT a niilo out at sea still catches the fishermen's nets, and children liunt the beach at spring tides fov coins which are occasionally washed up from what must be a submerged town.

As above remarked, there are two places in the district where the coal-bearing Barukar strata are found, v'y/.., near Itcdadan^iru in Polavarani division; and at Ganiidcvipeta in tlie Bhadrachalain taluk, ' • '

The Gauridevipcta field was first reported on in 1871 by Mr. W. T. Blanfordj who summarized the position as follows:' ' Jus t below Bhadrachalam the Godavari traverses a small Held of Barukar rocks about seven miles across from east to west and five miles, wliere broadest, from north to south. The whole area is about 2'!-square miles, tlio greater portion of which lies on the riglit bank of the river in the Ni/.am's tori-lt^ory. The l>ortion of this field on the north (left) bank of tlio river ha;* been thoroughly exploreil by boring and some coal has been found, but the quality is altogether inferior and the quantity small, tlie seams being thin and much mixed with slialo.' An attempt to work this field was made by the G(5davari Coal Company, Liimited, in 18f>l. ']'he operations wei*e not successful, as coal was not found in paying quantities, and soon after the cominenco-ment of the work a fault was eucountered which made it impossible to recover the seam. The seam, moreover, was of poor quality and contained a quantity of shale.- I t is thoujjht possible that better and more plentiful supplies might be found on the southern bank of the river.

The Bedadan^ru field ^ is the most southerly outcrop of Barakar rocks known lu the Madras Presidency. I t was once hoped that good coal would be found there, and oxtousive borings were undertaken under the superintendence of the* E.^tecutive Engineer at Uummagudem in 1874; but these resulted .only in the discovery of some thin seams of very poor coaly shales, and the exploration was abandoned. The field is about five and a

' llvcordi), fiooi, Sai'V., Jntitu,, iv, 5!> foil. '^ lul'onnation kindly Mnpijlitid by ilfoui's, Binny & Co.,

of tlie CoiiiiJany. * rfee Memoirs, fiool, Sui-v., India, xviii, pt. 3, 29, 46.

Madruu, t.lio ugunls

I'HISICAL DEStHIPTlOX. 11

qnarlor btpiaro miles iu extent and 13 sifnated near the Iiead wafers CIIAK i. of fi large feeder of t!io Ycri-a K/iKva wjtli the s.nmll village of MINLBILS.

Bcdadai\uru in its midst. Fiu'tlier prospceting was undertaken abont pix years ago. Some eight square miles near the village were tlioroaglily oxplorod by borings, but tlic only discovery was a one-i»clt semii.

T))e existence of gold in tlic bed of the Godiivari is mentioned Gold. in several work^ published about the beginning of the last century. Tho Gaseficp?' of the Cent ml Provinces ' says fcliat the metal nscd to be washed at. tho point whpre the Xinarsani river falls into Iho Godavari just below BhadrAclialani. Local enquiries at Bhadnlclialam vaguely.substantiate the former existence of the industry there.

Iron'is S.V.oltod from scattered oi-c in several villages in the Iron. Bhadnichnlam talutv.

Giaphite or plumbago is distributed in ^niall quantities among Graphite tho gneis=iic rocks in the north-west of tlio district, notably near Velagapalli and Yerrametta in the Chodavaram division and at GuUapndi in Polavaram. Tlio South Indian Export Company has been prospecting recently at tho last-named place. Tlic Goddvari Coal Company possesses a graphite mine at Pedakonda in Bliadi'-iehalam'talnk, and has prospected for (lie mineral in several parts of the surrounding country. Ontcmjis are said to he plcnf iful and tho sam]iles obtained to be oC fair quality Imt not so good as those from Ceylon. A good average quality fetelios from £13 to £15 per ton in the London market at present,'^

Mica is said to exist in parts of the Agency and is being Mica. prospected for near Polavarani by the Sontli Indian Kxport Company.

Good building stone is obtained from the different sandstone Building and trap groups in the alluvial plains of the G6dii\ari. A locality ^ '*°^' particularly mentioned by Dr. Kingis Peddapuram. A little cut-stone is also obtained in tho Ch6da\aram division.

Very pure rock-crystal, inferior garnets and some sapphires Rock-cryd-occur in the neighbourJiood of Bliadriehalam. The crystals arc '^*'S-i'n^ta) kept as curiosities or used in native medicines. Tlie garnets are said to bo found in the beds of the Godavari and Kinars^ni rivers, especially near Gaurid^vipeta.

Detailed statistics of the rainfall in Goddvari are given in CLIMAIL

Chaptor VII I below. The average annual fall for tlie district is Rainfall. 40*26 inches,

' Nn^pur, 1870, 500. * luloi'iuaLion fuLiiiiahed by Mobarti. Ciuuy it Co., MadiKM.

\2 G O D i T A l t t .

C U A l ' . I .

C L I M A T E .

Tempev-atu i 'e .

Wind and wea the r .

FLOKA,

The only station in tlio district at wtiicli sysfoinatio inofonro-logiral obsf^rvJitions (othor

Tt'iiipiirattiip.

Mont]i. n to.:

J a n u a r y F e b r u a r y Marcli ..,

' Apri l ... May Jtii io J u l y

I A u g u s t . . . Scptemlicv Ootgbe)-November

I December

\ T h e ycnr

SI'O 8.VS f>l'7 !

100-7

orr

80-2

8:JM 8 0 7 !

I -I -s-;i

S 2 S Sl'O 7n-;t 7S'3 78-1 7.';-8 70-.'t 6.5-7

7;t-2 77*7

:i]-8 8S-1 .S5-$ S-1.-I 83-7 81-!) 77'0 73'2

SO'4 I 71 f) 82-1 I

than tiio regiritrfition of rainfall) ;{rii mad<> is Cocanada. ""liere a daily record of flie feniperatiirc is kept, and tite results arc telof^raphed to the Motooroloflfical Ivcporlor at Madras. H'lio marg-inal sfato-mrnt g'ivos the avera;^c maxima anrt minima andthe iiK an for cafl) month in cln rrrf'.'! J<^alironl>oit ric'liifrd from thn fi-Tiiro^ of a scrie' .>f yr-Arf . I t ^ ill be seen that tlie weather is very liot from Ajiril to .1 nne and that the moan tcmprratiiro 'loes not fall below 80 defrrocs

till after October. Thoclimatn u.- Occomboi-anrl Jannary is cool, the average nnazimnm trmperabxre not exccMinjir 81 di^groes and tho average minimnin bein;i' as htvr as'35. Along the coast the effect of the heat is innch entiancoj. by the danipnc.-is of the air. The hill tmcts and tiic country f(.);ovc the ghiits are botli cooler and drier than Cocanada.

Light nortli-easterly breezes .'TI .Tannary anr] Fobmary, the driest months of the year, are followed in March and April by light south and south-east winds which blow daring the day but die down at snnset. This south breeze is called by tlio natives payiru(/d/i, or the * crop wind.' Hy May the wind, wliicli is still lightj has veered round to tlie sont)i-west, but north-westerly squalls frequently occur, generally in. the early part of the night, and sometimes blow with great vmLence. Tlie south-west monsoon arrives in Jane and contiDaes for some throe months. In September and October land and sea breezes alternate, and the weather become.s calm and sultry as the norfch-casb monsoon approaches. TJie latter sots in with light or moderate currents of air about the beginuing of Xovember, and brings bright and cool weather with it. Cyclones (see Chapter VIII ) are apt to occur in this month. In December the wind blows from the east during the day and from the north during the night. T"'lio latter is called the bill {kvmfa) wind.

The botany of (j6davari is intiM-esting from several points of view. The physical geogmphy of tho district permits the existence

fHTsiCAL unscRiniON. 13 V

oF several di^liiict lloras, wliile tlic iv^tdence nftlie great Jndian CHAP. I. botanist, Roxbni-fjh, at Samalkot 1ms caused tlie native plants to Pr,oR<. be more cfircfnlly studied than elsewhere. The irrijrated delta teems witli weeds of cnltivation, t)ie uplands jiotd the plants of the dry scrul) forest, "vhile the JiiLl tracts of Rampa present an entirely dilVorent. series. Tlie latter are mo<;t ea'iily studied where the Giidavari pierces the backbone of the Eastern GliatSj and tlie deop ravines near Bison Hill afford the nearest approach to a moist everffrccn forest to he met with in tjiii part of India, AiHon '- the i(iter*'stinfj' plants of the Gddavari jrorjifes may be noted the beautifnl bine Barknfl ftfntjosn, Ohieitlnndia mtdicovhs^ Savroptis qU'Vlycuffuhtns, Banhmia Vahlu, Enphoyhia I'h'yan^ and PrnjUandnts stihcro<,ti\. Rorderinfr the stream and in the rapids Eiqihurhlri^Ij iir-^ a.ppear's to be at home, while on the banks sneh exotic fornsasX'(//<-' cchinnh' and Mef'hifuspanrjlont maj he found. Jlany Godcivari plants are illu^^trated and described in the magnificent Coromioiik'l Phiits prepared by Itoxhnrgh while he wa^ Carnatic Bofani st to the Ifon. Hast India Company.'

t'ive kinds of c;itt[c arc locally recognized ; viz.. the dfsavdh KAVV*.

(or country), \\\f^parKmcii (westicrn), the ivrint (eastern), the Koya Cutlv. and the Sucf.ili. The (/'^'(t'(?// arc found both in the jilains and in the Agency; in the latter they are called also younnu (riverside) cattle and are generally stronger than in the plains. 'J'he western cattle are easily recognized by their pecnliar and plentiful branding and by the shortness of their horn^. Tlioy are not found in the Agency and are imported in "sinall numbers from NcUorc and

' Gnnti'ir. The cows give better milk than the country animals. The pastern cattle come from ^''izagapatam, bnt; aro aiiparently merely animals bought as calves from Guntnr and NeUorc and reared in that district. The K6) a cattle are inferior animals raised by the hill tribe of that name. The Sugali breed are brought by Hugalis (Ijambiidis) oT the Nizam's Dominionis to this district and aro (;specially common in the Bajahmundry and Eaiiiachandra-puram talnks. These SugAlis are wandering traders and use the cattle to transport forest produce from the npper reaches of the river and to carry grain for the ryots.

1 'oar kinds of buffaloes oMiir in the district. In the plains BnffalocF. ' country buflabes ' and ' eastern buffaloes ' fi-oiu| Vizagapatam district are tlio usual breed-:!. They are much alike in appearance. A larger kind, called the Bobbili or Gmauda buffalo, is less common. In Bhadrachalam a fine animal called the northern

' Tiii^iaijiyi-ai.!nv«ii niJtttmbj'.Mi' C .\. It.nlwi {l.li» (iovcirtimt'iit Botaiiul) _ fol lli« Impfrial Qaznitevi

14 GODIVABI.

CHAP. 1.

Sheep ana goatt).

Cattle-breed injr *

Feeding' methodi.

Cattle diseases.

{'litat'ddi) hiiiralo i'j usod. It gpnGrally )iag wjiify [)aff]ios on t)io foreliead and jt]<5t above tlio Itoofg.

There arc tlirco kinds of plicnji; namely, tlie connhy slieop, wJuch give miUc, nianiiro and mrat, biih br>ar no wool ; tlie hdcni slicop, wbich are valned for ilioir wool biit aro rare ; and tbe aiina (foreign) shcop, "which have long tail«;, give no wool, and seem only to occiii' in Tuni.

Of goats t1i( * larg-o ' or ' country * kind and tiie ' small ' or ^ Kdiichz'' hi'orH arc flistingtiisltod. I^he latter arc also railed the 'Ca l cu t t a ' brfcd. ^V\\^y yi'^k! rieher and more wiiolesomc milk and arc more jirolific than tlie former. Some rare i<5 taken abont the brcedin*,'' of both slicop and goats. Most- of t.ho males are sold for meat, and only one or two snjierior animals are kept for breerling purposf^.s.

Two local |iracticps are of considerable importance to the impro\e]ucnt of the cattle. In almost every village a really good bnU or two is 'Jet free \/a roam among the herds, and in the Agency tlte owners of cattle ofticn sot apart a superior animal, called the vittanoin (seed) hull, to be used exclusively for crossing purposes. I n many parts of the district, also, people castrate the inferior bulls,

Cattlr' are u^nally ferl on paddy straw in the plains and cliolam straw in X^io Atrency, In the central delta and tti Rajalimundry taluk tlioy are also given sunn licmp {Juntimu), whicli is mncli grown tliere. In Amala])nram, where grazing is especially scarce, (hoy are fed on rice husk, liorse-gram anri gingelly oil-cake. When the crops are on the ground and there is no particular work for the cattle, / . c , from August to December, they arc sent from t]io plains to graze in the forests in the Yellavarani and Ckodavaram hills, 1'he Pithapiiram ryots drive theirs to nVni. The Amaliipuiam and Nagaram ryots do not as a rule send their animals away owing to t]io trouble of getting them across the rivers. The BhadracLalam ryots drive theirs in the hot weather to Bastar and the Jeypore zaminrlari, where the grdzing is better. The Polavaram forests are resorted to by the cattle of the Kistna district.

Cattle mortality is said to be heavy in the delta (especially in the central delta and Ra'machandraparam), where fodder is scarce, the animals arc crowded and tbe ground is saturated with moisture. ' Thoy suffer from the absence of grazing and delicient food at one time and from feeding on rank, quickly-grown herbage at others.'^

' Mr. fitsuBou iu G.0„ H"o, 28, Rev,, dated l l t h Januaiy 1884, p. 15. Seo also p. 13 of the 6,siiao G,0.

PHYSICAL OESCltllTlOK. 15

'fiio chif^f diseases in tlio distciot are foot and month disonsc CHAP. L [y^'flht). iititliiMx [ilohiDiii). [•Liid(ii'pi c5t [iii'-Uhiji'uhjtun)^ foviT {kunoim) F.u-xt, and nufialirugai)) or malij^naiit j-ore tiirodt. firnptioas all over the Ijody, an occasional syiiiptDiii of r-iiderpeit, are callud by tho natives /, inhxt, tJattle aiv said to be not infrequently poiaonud by Mi'idigas, who t]n;n e-it their tEosh and take thi>ir hidc^^.

'Jenerally speaking', tho cattle are boivi'lit by mercliants and Caftle faii-s, ryotrf at tho large weekly fairs at Tnmmapala (in Vizag'apatiiiu district.), Pithapnram, DrAltshdr'imaiii (in i-laniaeliaridriipiiraiii), Anibajipeta (in Amalapurain) and Pu'laK'olIu in the Kisfna district, Aloreliants yo the raund of titoso niarkots with their herds until they ure all sold. The Pithapiiram and J)riik-sharaniiim -eaf lo fair.'i ai'e famous. Sometimes drovers take their cattle round the oountiy and sell them to the ryot<; in tlieir own villages. I 'his is v^hat is usually done by the Sugiilis, wlio seem never to frec^uent the markets,

Bijf game is plentiful in tho hills of the Ajjoncy and less so Game. in the uplands oE Tuni and Peddapuram. Ti»'ers and panthers are numerous; bears are fairlj common; bison (gaur) oceur ; nilg-ai have been shot in tho BhadrAclialani t a l n k ; sambur, spotted deer, jung-le shetjp, blaok-buek and pig are all common. Dlioles (wild dogs) a.re found in Blitidrachalain and Folavaraiu. Small game exists in great abundance. Good snipe-shooting is to be had in the neighbourhood of Rajahmnndry and in many other spots. AViid geese, duck and teal are common on the river and its lankas, and tlie two hdter swarm on many jliils and tanks and on the sea at tlio mouth of the creeks between Cocanada and Coringa, whence they fly inland to feed at night. Pai-ti-idge, peafowl, jungle-fowl and the smaller quail are all fairly common. The larger quail, florican and sand-grouse are more rarely met with. Other uncommon birds found in the district are the imperial pigeon, pied mina, and bkmardj. Hares and partridges are captnred in quantities by native shikaris, the former with nets, the latter with the help of decoy birds. tJroeodiles are found in the npper Goddvari in large numbers and people are afraid to enter the deep parts of the river even as far <lown as Rajahmandry.

Mahseer occur in the Goddvari, Saveri and Pannileru Fish. rivers. The large sable fish {ch-pea -palasah or hiisa) are net ted in very large quantities near the Dowlaishweram a-nicut, when they come up the river to spawn. Fine carp and labeo are caught near Polavaram and in the tanks, as the villagers will not allow the drinking-water ttiuks to be netted. The lishing in the tidal

16 G6DAVATII.

cnAP. J. water near Cocanada and Corin^a is said to bo particularly FAU.VA. good. A fine fish whicii the natives call ptindihuppa and which

runs up to 100 lb. corned up the creeks. The mango fisli and the mallet may also bo caught in large quantitiesi near the sea.

Native Yerakalas are the commonest shikuri caste. Idigas, Kfipus, 9|)ortsmon. Rdzus, Musaliuans and Jldlas aUo slioot. Nakkalas hunt jackals

and foxes for food. In Bhadruchalain and Polavjiram tlie K6)'as, Reddis and Mutrdchas are keen sportsmen. Some of the inetliods employed are interesting, if the accounts given by tiie natives are to be credited. Jackals and foxes aro killed \\'itli assegais of si)Ht bamboo ; antclopu are caught by sending out a tame buck with nooses on his horns which entangle the wild ones wliun the}' try to eject h i m ; some animals are shot rroiu hehind a tcuified <;ow which conceals the sportsman and ]jrovides a rest for his g u n ; and spiing guns are sometimes phiced in tlie tracks of game, Birds are caught in nooses placed uear the cage of a decoy ; and by limed twigs baited witli worms. Waterfowl are driven, by a man concealed hehind a trained cow, over a net spread under water^

POLITICAL HISTORY. 17

crrAPTER n.

POLITICAL IIlRTOUy. '

KAm.y IIlMTiHtv—A86k;i's (WmmoHt, 2-JO li.C,—TIIO Aiidliras, dmvn to 2{)0 A.D.—The Piill;ivas, aliout MO-lUS A.D.—Thu Cliiiukyas -T l id r eoim.iicht iif Voiigi, about <)I5—Sc[>'iMfion of tin; Kastorit ami IVostcni Clittlukyas, aliutit liltO—llineii Tiiaus's doscfiplion of the former—IC list era Clinlukyjv j'uk\630-!J99—Clidla conquest, M:) —'^uiottuiiga Cli Sla. I—Uo obtains t.hc CLola mid Voiigi thi'onoB, tO'O —Elis vioornyain Vongi — liiB death in 111!) iLnd tl^ydoc'j'io o£ tlio CIi(}!ft*—'t'lic VfiUnimlo ohtcttcims, twelfth coiiiurj'— TIiu Koo^ oliiuf of t,h.) dt'lta —f ootil chiefa of Ulloro, Nndondla, otc.—Tliu Krtkatiyys of Wiu-ansfal cotit[Ucr KULri:» uboiit 120i)—Atid G*Sdiv!ii'I iibont 1300—Pi'atS[)a U«rlra':j viccro/a—'roinporjry Mnsulman coittiuest of hhu difitvlcfc, 1323—Tilt! Korukonda llcddis, 13^5-05—Tim Itt^dilis of Koiubvfd, l;jlt-lJ:i2—'I'iio llaj;i)imniidi'y Ucdilia, li23-50—Tlio Giij.-vpatis of Orissa tako the lUstriot, 1450--lint ceik')Mi't of it to tlio Miihamowdaiis, 1170--Tlio latter oiisteii, MS!)-—fJoiuiuust by Vijuyanagac, 1515--3[usalmau cou- - ,

quost of Kistiia, 1510—Aud of Goilariin, irj/l. MIIII\MM.IDAX PEBIOO— Woakiiosa of thoh- rulo — Anraii^zob cstnblishoa liis authority, 10S7—Tlio Subadarof tbo Dcccati bccouies iudepuudcnt, 1724—Tho Xortlieru CIrcars codod to tho Kioiiuli, 1753—Tlioir dtflioultios thoro—Itusay at h>nf,'tli olitnina posaoisioii, 1757—Fordo's oxpodition against (.lio Froiioh, 1758 —Hi? victory at Condoro—Tliu country clt'arod of tho Frenoli—Cession nf tho Nortlicm Circfirs to tho English, 1765. ENULISII Pi:inoi)^Early iid minis (ration— Distiirbanoos of tho poaco—In l785-90^'ii 1790-1800—Quieter times thcroafter—Subba lloddi'8 rebollloii, 1858—Oatbreaks in Kampa.

T H E earliest historical mention of the Godavari district occnrs CUAP. II. in the inscriptions of Asoka, the Buddbist ruler of tho great ,KAI»I.Y

H I ' T^ > ELY

Mauryan empire, the capital of wliicli was at Pdtaliputraj the I modern Palna. In 260 B.C.' this monarch conquered the king- Asdka's dom ol Kalinga (a tract of varying extent which may bo taken ^|c'"*"' ' to Jiave comprised the couafcry between tho Mahdnadi rivor on the north aud the Godavuri on tho douth) aud ho claims also to have subdued the Andhras, a dynasty whose sway apparently extended as far nortli as the Godavari river. Asoka was the great apostle of the Baddhist religion, which ho extended far and wide ia India, and tke magaificeut Buddhist remains at Amaravati on the Kistaa river uro proof that tlie faith he espoused obtained a strong hold in country even further south than the Godavari. They contain an inscription in the Mauryan character.

• » Indian Antiiimm XX, Zil,

18 GOUAVAi:i.

CUAF. I I ,

EABLY

A.D,

Tiic Pftllavaq, aljoiit 2 0 0 -015 A.D.

But Lis conquest of the Andliras by no moans terminated flio existence of that dypaat/. For louf, after his reign tlioy retained, and probably increased, their power in tliiii district.

2v.uo''200^' '^^'"^ mentions them as a strong peoplo with '60 fortified cities, 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 olopliaiits. Their conquests extended far to the north, and even to the western coast of the peninsula, for ono of their earlier kiags, Simuka, covered the walls of a large cave at Namighat (50 miles nortti-•west of Poona) with inscriptions recording Jiis sacrifices; and l i s successors have left evidence by their coins aud in their inscriptions in the cave temples at Niisik, Karle and Kanlieri that they estondod their iiower to iVTalwa and the borders of Gujarat, Towards the south their dominions included parts of Mysore, Their capitil was at first at Srikdkulam ' i the Kistna, nineteen miles west of Masulipatatn, but was afterwards removed to Dharanikota, near Amaravati. From coins, inscriptions aud other material have boon ascertained the names and dates of kings of the lino who ruled from about 110 to 220 A.D.

Tlie next power to appear upon the scene were the Pallavas. This race, like otliers of the invaders of the south, perhaps passed into central India from the north-west daring tlio second coiitury A.D. In an iiHjripfcion, tlif? Anl'ij-i king Gohuni-pntra (172-203 A.D.) boasts that ho defeated tliom, but tliey slioi'tly afterwards subdued tho Andhras <xml extended their e]npire as far south as Cenjoeveram and tlio bordor.s of the Tanjore country, and as far to the north-east as tlie frontiers of Orissa. Records oC tliem are lew and far between; but the absence ot inscriptions of the Andhras after about the year 218 and the discovery at Mayidavolu and Kondamudi (in the Guntur district) of two Pallava records whicli on pahoographical grounds may be assigned to the end of the second century, go to sliow that their conquest of the Andliras occurred ahout that period. Moreover inscriiitious of two kings name I Afctiva.nnau and Prithiviinula, who were also apparently Pallav.t rulers, have been found in the Godavari district and sccin to holoug to a slightly later period. In tlie fourth century, the Allaliabad inscription mentioned on p. 233 refers to a chief of Pithapuram who was apparently a l*allava, Whetherthese Pallavas were independent monarcha or merely local feudatories of the main Pallava empire, the capital of whicli was at Gonjeevorara, cannot be stated with certainty.

Ahout the •beginning of the seventh century, the Chalukyas, who were also invaders from the north-west and who possessed a

Tlic CLalu-Uyufa.

POLITICAL HISTORY. 19

large empire iu central and western India the capital of wliicli was B^daiui in the Bombay Prcsideticy, came into prominence. An unusually distinct picture of thoin ia drawn by tlie Cliineso pil-jriin Hiuen T.-^iang, who visited India between the years 629 a a d G i t A.D. :

' Tho disposition of tlio peoplo is hotiost tini simple; they are tall of stature and of a stern, vindictive chiracter. To their benefactors they are gratofid, to tlioir onoiaids roleiitless. If tbey are insalted, tliey will risk their lives to avorigo tliemsolvos. If thoy are asked to help Olio in distroa i, they will forjjot themselves iu their haste to i-endor assist-mce. If tliey are going to sock revenge, they first give thoir onomy warning; thou, eacli being armoi, tUoy attack each other M'ith spoarj, Wlien one turns to floe, tho other pui-aues him, but tUey do iiCv U:" a man who submits. If a general loses a battlo, thoy do not mflict punishment, bat proiont him wirti woman's olotlio . and so he is driven to seek death for hiinsolf. Tho coiiutty provulrjs for a hand of clmmpione to tho number of several Luudrod. When about to engage in conflict thoy intoxicate themselves \vith wine, and then one man with bince in hand will meet ton thousand and challenge them to fight, If one of these champions meets a man and kills him, tho laws of tho country do not punish him. Every time thoy go forth thoy beat drums before them. Moreover they make drnnk nniny hundred head of cleph'ints ; and, taking them out to tight, and after thotnsolves drinking wine, thoy rush forward in mass and traniplo everything down so that no ouemy can stand before them. The king in consetiuence of his possessing these men and elephants treats liia neighbours with contecapt. Ho is of the Kehatriya caste Bud his name is PulakSsi."

Tho monarch hero referred to (Pulak^sin I I , 609-42) extended his conquests throughout the G6cldT'ari district and into Vizagapatam, drove the Pallavas to the walls of Conjeeveram Bud threatened the country of the Ch6las of Tanjoro,

His conquest of G<5davari is detailed in a stone inscription at A.ihole (in tho Bombay Presidency) in which he mentions the reduction of Pithapuram aud Ellore,^ I t took place aboiit 615 A.D.

During his absence on this campaign, Pulah^sin had made his younger brother Vishnuvardhana I his regent at his capital of •Bdd^mi, and on his return he deputed him to govern the country he had recently conquered. By 632 Yiahnnvardhaua had established himself in these new territories as an independent sovereign of the kingdom of ' Vengi,' the capital of wbioh was at Pedda Vegi near Ellore and which included the Gldddvarl distriet, and

• Dombaf/ QaxetUtT (1800), i, pt. 2, :i53, ' Indian Antipiarg, xx, Ot.

CHAP, 11. E.VELT

IIlSTORV.

Their nontinoet of VoDgi, about (J] 5.

Soparatian of tlia Eastorn aud Wee tern ChftlnlsyaSj ftbonteao.)

file:///vith

20 G6DAVARI,

CHAP, n , there ho founded tUo Eastern Cbtilukya dynasty, which held that EABLV ooantry for at least five centuries and remained throUf»lioiit

' distinct from, and iudepcndeut of, the Wostorn Ohalukyas. fî"^", Hiuen Tsianff visited this kiagdotn als'). JIo doscribca it us TBI an K 9 , , 1 1 ^ n n M • • .7 1 -I 1 1

(Jescviption bem^ nearly 1,000 miles mcirciut and ita capital aa some scvua of tbo . miles round, but the country was thinly populated—possibly

owing to its recent conquest. Tlie once nuineroiia Huddhist convents were in ruins and desû'ted, for, thougli the Andhraa and Pallavas had been. Buddhists or Jainsj the Itlaylern (Jli;ilukyas were Vaisbnavites by creed,

Eastern The genealogy and some of the ants of tho Ettstcrii Ohiilukyii CL/Llakya kingra o£ Venefi are eiveri with tfriat ohronoloifical distlnctiiL'SH in

the various grants of the dynasty that Iiave ooiuo do'::n to us.' I n the early part of tho eighth century Udayacbandra, tlie gonenil of the Pallava king Naudivannan, oljiiins that he aubdued tlio Eastern Chdlukya king Vishnuvardhana Til (709-10) ;^ but this rcconquest by the ancient ownci'S ot tho country seems to liavc been short-lived. Vijayaditya I I (799-8îi) bad to dcfr-nd liirnself against his neighbours on the M'ost, tlic KushtrakîtaB of Jhllklu'd (DO miles woat by south of Hyderabad), wlm had subdued and taken the place of the Western Cli;^!ukyfis. \V]i:d was the ro«idt of the fighting is not clear. Vijiiyadity.i f f rclat.'a Iiow ' during twelve years by day aud by iiiglit he foiiglit a linndrud and oiglit battles with the armiss of tlio Gangas (prob;iMy IIJC Mysore Granffas) and tlie Rattas ' {j.f., the UaslilrakuUs) ; !)ut bis KFISII-

trakuta contemporary, GoviDilal l l , boasts that lie ordered the king of Vcngi into bis presence and made him assist iu building and fortifying a city.

Ch6\», At the end of the tenth century, tho mighty Riijarfijii I , wlio OsU!*"' *'*' ^^^ ^'^^^ ^ " fomidationa of a groat Oholu empire with its capital

at Tanjore, conquered the Eastern Ohiilubyu country, lie seems to have appointed a prince of the fallen line (Saktivarmau, dO^~ 1011) as king (or perhaps loudatory) iu 7ongi.' ' Tliie man's brother and successor, Vimahiditya (10ll-;i^), ' ' tliough be had married a Chola princess, apparently attempted to throw off his allegiance, for Rajaraja's son Uajendra Chola (1011-11) again Invaded the Vengi country and sidvaiicei 1 nn bir as the hill called Mali^ndragiri in Ganjam, where ho planted a pillar of victory.

' Indian Antiquarii, xt, 93 ff. .antl 2GC Tf. Sctith Indian Iiiscrli>Uorn<, ii, 30i.

' Epfjraplua Ind\c(i, vi, 319. Tbero is aomo doubt about (he duratinn oi liis reiKu, for tlioiiyti tho fltitos

tit his and liis ancceeaor's acceasion arc given ^3 in Llio te.it, bi*> roi^n is i^woraWy repi-esented as having only lasted seven years,

roiiTicAi, nrsTOBT. 21

VimnldditjM was not deposed, Lowevor', and was succeeded by cnAr. l l . his son Eajanija (1022-02), wlio also jnari-icd a priocesa of tho KAUI.V

Oidla royal house. Tliis Icing fixed his capital at liajaliiuuiidry, HHTORV.

and it was durin<j Lis reign that the Uahabharata was translated into TolDgn.1

His son Kul6ttuoga was afterwards the famous Kulottanga KuUitiungj ChoIiL I, who, tliongh belonging on his father's side to the ancient ' '''"' ' ' line of Vengi, claimed J-o siiccood to the Chola throne at Tanjoro through his luotheT and hisgrandtnotlnjr, and nltimatoly founded a new Ohoia d3*nasty in the south- Wiiile heii*-apparent to the Vengi throne ho distinguislied himself by capturing elephants and defeatlug a king, bub when his father Raj;intja died ho was ousted fi-oiu the succession by his paternal uncle Tijayfiditja VII .

The latter's rule appenrs to have been disturbed by invasion, Tiie AVestorn Chahdtya kingdom had revived after tho fall of tho Kiisltti-akutas, and its groat monarch Vikramiiditya VI (whoso capital was at FCalyani, north-west of Hyderabad) was by this time harassing botli the Chdla aad the Vongi countries. He twice invaded thclattcr,- but was, however, defeated by the Chola king, who I'C-estahliehcd )iis authoi'ity in Vengi and restored Vijayaditya VII to ills throne tlicre.*' ' His elophants drank tho water of tho Goditvari, Ho crossed even Kulingnm, and boyoud it despatched for battle Jiis invincible army as far ^3 Oto farther end of Chak-rakotta. Ho reconquered the ^ood country ot Vengai and bestowed it on Vijayaditya, whoso broad Itands held weapons of war and wlio had taken rofugcnt Ids lotus feet.'"*

About lOfiO tho then Chola king died, and his son scoured the u<^ oiitaius throne with the help of tho Western Chdlukya king Vilcminaditya tiio Ciiob_ VI. The Kulottunga already mentioned claimed, however, to tiu'oncs, Bnececd as both gi-andson and adopted son of a former Chdla • ' * , ruter. Ho toolt up arms, slew tho now king, and entered on a fierce conflict witli Vikramdditya VI. TJic accountsi givon by the two mon.irchs of tlte events which followed are widely dili'orent ; but victory finally i-estod with Kuldttuuga, who made himself king of tiio Chdla country and overlord of Vongi, and ruled till 1118 with tho title of Kuldttunga Chdla I.

ije inagfnammously allowed his uncle Vijay^itya VII, who u\^ viceroy !\

iiftd before supplanted him, to continue iu charge of A 'engi, and '" ''""s ''-

• Xp, Itid., V, 31. lie 13 well ktiownto local tradition (o this day uuder tho iiamo Rajarfija Nar^ndra. C/. Jlackonzio MSS., Loout liecwda, ii, 231 ; xix, 55 J and Ix, 24.

' S. Ijid. Xuacr,, lit, 37. " Di-, ]1tilUacIi in S. Ind. Inscr., iii, 128. * His inflorijitioii quoLod in tUo GovOJ'niiiOut fipigi'apl list's report for IS?H^

22 adDivAHi.

CIIAI*. IT.

HISTORY.

His dcatli. in ] 119 and the deoliQO of tlic Cholsis-

appears to Lave treated him with cordiality. Wbcn this man died in 1077, Kulottmiira appointed his own second son, Uajar^ja I I , as viceroy of Veng-i. The latter seems to have been nncoin-fortable and insecure in Ms position. An inscriptioQ of this date says that finding ' a kingdom not such a pleasure as tlio worship of the iLlustriouiJ feet of tho elders, he returned to his parents, after having ruled over Vengi for one year.' ' He was replaced (1078) by his younger brothor Vii-a Clioda, ' the brave prince, the incarnation of valour, ' who ' joyfully put on tlio tiara of the world.' This prince was supei-rfeded in 1084 by KuloUunga's eldest son Rdjaraja Choda G-anga, but was reinstated in 1088-80 and continued to rule till at least 1002-9.3. l ie was then succeeded by another and bettor known brother, Vikrania Chola, who ruled the Vengi country tilt about 1118. Tji'e fea.qons for these constant changes are nowhere s tated; but it would appear that KulottuDga placed no groat reliance on his sons' loyalty to himself.

The only event of importance in tliis period is the conque.'^t of Kalinga which was achieved by ICulottunga some time bcf*ire 10D5-06. Kalinga was feudatory In Vctigi and had withlield tribute for two years. Vikrama Ohola also claims to have e/Fectcd this victory, and it was perhaps achieved during iiis viceroyalty. l i e governed tlie Vengi country Cor sonic 20 years, and in i 118 he was called to the south to become co-rcgcnt with, and shortly afterwards the snccossor of, Kulottnnga, who seems to have died in that or the following year. On his departure a certain Ch6da, the son of G-onka, was appointed as viceroy of Vengi, and was even lionoured with adoption into Kulottunga*a family. His descendants (see below) long played a prominent par t in the history of the district.

The Ch61a supremacy in Vengi was at this point disturbed for a few years by t!ie aged Western Chdlnkya king Vikramaditya VIj who took advantage of the dopfirture of Vikrama Cli61a and the death of his old enemy Kulottunga to invade this northern province of theirs. Their viceroy Choda submitted t o him, and from 1120 to 1124 Vikramaditya was undisputed king of Vengi. His rule cannot have lasted long, as inscriptions of Vikrama Chola, dated 1127 and 1135 respectively, occur in Kistna, After the latter of these years, however, neither h© nor his successors took an active part in tho government of Vengi. Occupied with their own trouljles in tlio south, tho Clwilas gradually lost their influence in that province, and, though they wero recogni7.od as

* B, Imt. Jiiscr,, i, CO.

POLITICAL HISTORY. 2Z

overlords by tlic various petty nilcrs wlio now dividod the uoimtry, VHXP. 11. even down to a time when their power in Tunjore was shafterod. KABLY

thoy had little, if any, real inlluenec ia Vungi after the death of "J^-^*-Vikraina Ch(Sla.

Of these petty nilors. Hie most important (and apparently the Tim Vfla-admittcd suzerains over the others) were llic Tulandndu family, «»"^"''l"* •'-to wliiohljelongcd tliat Clioda who was adopted into Kulottunga's teaiury. family and left as vieeroy of A 'cngi when Vikrama Ch(Sla went in 1118 to Join his fatlier in the south. A'c'lundndu is said ' to he ' an old name for the Uhandhavolu country ' {i.e., the wogtorn part \ of the Kistna delta), where the family appear to have been long est.ablisJicd and to liave ruled as feudatories of tlic Eastern Ohilukyas. Clioda's father, Gonka I, seems to have ruled ' the Andlira cOui/"y'under Kntottiinga I, and is mentioned in an inscription at (Jbebitilu in the iCtsfna district dated 1076. A cousin of his named Vcdiira was a minister of Eulottunga's son Vira Choda when viceroy of Vengi; and, in recognition of his services against ' a PAndyan king,' was given by his master tlio overlordship of the country between the Kistna and the Godavari. I t was however under Choda tliat the Velandnda family first attained the position of viceroys of the Vengi country. He and his successors wielded considerable power, Choda, as has been sera, bowed the neck to Vikramadifya VI, but his son Gonka II {^aliaa Kulottniiga Choda Gonka) elaitns to have ruled from KAlahasti in North Arcot to Ganjam. The queen of the latter's grandson, Gonka I I I (1137-5t)), covered virith gold the idol at SimhAcliahim near Vizagapatam, The family seems to have been suppressed by the Xakatiyas of AVarangal, in what is now tlie Nizam's Dominions, who forced their way into the country south of the G6ddvari at the beginning of tho thirteenth century. The last of tliem who is known to history was Prithisvara, the son of Gonka I I I , who ruled from 1163 to at least 118(3.

Meanwhile another family, the Haihiya chiefs of *tlicK6na Tho ic<iiia country,' were in power in the deltti of tho Godavari, The delta (),,!(,(, taluk of Amaldpuram is still known as the K6na country. These pooplo were apparently hereditary chieftains subordinate to the Vengi viceroys and tjie Velana'ndu family. Their inscriptions in this district range from 1128 to 1206.

Other local rolers were the chiefs of Nadendla in the Kistna Local cliicfB district, who seem to have recognized the authority of tiie y lkadTa V61anindu line and have left inscriptions ranging from U30 to etc.

' Ep. Ind., W, 33, and JUciiticI of He KUlna diktrkt, 21*. Tho VcliniLdii Suiartu Tcliiga Uralimanii liitvo a tiudition that V^luiiaudu i» a iiomo for (.he couDtr^ ncur Kondayid, Boo Chuplor l l l j l>. 63.

24 Q6DAVARI.

CHAP. II,

IIlSTORV,

tiyah of W:ii'a,i.g:it coiiiLuar Kifllna abou t 1200,

Aritl_ Godavar i aljijut 130(».

Prat i iKi liudra'H V LCL'l'UJ'S

1232; the chioftains oI EUorc, whoso records date from 1139—10 to 1211-12; a family whoso inscriijtions are found in sevend places in the delta, who claim dosccut from tho Eastern Ch/dukya king Amma T (918-25) and the best knowu of whom in; Muliapa I I I who socins to have rudod from 117-j to at least 1223 ; and Annala Reddi of Koralconda (iu Gajahmundiy taluk), wlio is iitated in one of the Mackenzie MSS. to have ruled over tlio greater part of the lowlands of tlic d is t r ic t ' for a long tiuio ' i ill he was ^succeeded'(i.e., ousted) by king Pratapa Hudra of tho Kdkatjya line of Warangal,

These Kiikatiya kings had by now begun to lay tlie foundations of thoir empire on the ruind of the Western Ghtiinkya kingdom, As early as HG2 tlieii* king Hudra Deva boasted ' tluit he liad <3onC[Uered tho whole country as far as Srisailani (-in ii-nrnool) iu the south, and up to tho salt sea on tlio east. The first indubitable inscription of tho dynasty found in the V"engi country is one of Kfudra Deva*s sou G.mapati at CUobi-olu (iu the Kistiia district) dated 1213-11 ; - and* that this king overcame tlie V^landndu chieftains is tndicatod by the existence of an inscription of his at Chaodhavoluj tlieir capital.

Wlien tho Kakatiyas first crossed the CJoddvari is doubtful. An inscription at Draksharamam mentions king Ganapati (1213-53), but it is fragmentary and undated, and Juay belong to the time of his successor; and the first recortl in this district which can be unhesitatingly ascribed to the dynasty is one of Pratdpa lUidra, dated 1317, at Palivcla iu the Amalapuram talnk, X^'crishta moreover speaks of the king of Rajahmundry as an independent prince in 1295.* I t would thus seem that tho Kdkatiyas did not cross the Goddvari till some time after their conquest of Vengi proper, and that this district did not fidl under their dominion until the end of the thiitcenth century.

One of the MaekeuKie MSS,'^ which (where it can be checked) agrees in its facts and dates with local in.scriptions and is thus presumably trustworthy, throws an interesting sidc-bglit on Pratdpa Kudrti^s rule of the district. His local viceroys were two brothers named Fedda Malla Kazu and Chinna Malla Rdzu, who held their court with great pomp and luxury at Uendapidi in the Tuni division. They were most oppressive in their rule, and a long list is given of the enormities they peii^cti-atod. Finally, in 132'<i-23, Prat^ipa Hudra had himself to interfere, since < the

' Iiid. A7iliij.i xi, 0 if, ' Ay. I,HI.\ V, US.

^ Scot.l'H VvrUhta, IiititniucLiou, j), xii, *• WilEOii's Ciitalotfie, i). 3i)e, 8j 3 .

rOUTICAL lUSIORV. aa cultivator^ i*efnsed to follow tlieir occupation and fled the country.' The MS. describes at teogfli the rales he then laid down for the revenue administration of the province. The two viceroys eventually fell foul of the ' Edja of Cuttack' (the Grauga king of Kalinga), Pedda Malla RdzQ having kidnapped the bride of one of that potentate's relatives as she WAS passing tlirougli the district. The Granga king sent au expedition to revenge the affront; and, after a long siege, Bendapiidi was taken and the two brotliers were captured and beheaded.

Tlic iVIuglial einiJeror of Delhi had long been jealous of the growing power of the Kakatiyas. In 1303 he had unsaccessfolly nttemptcdto crash their kingdom; in 1310 his general Malik ICafur captured Warangal, but PratApa Rudra soon recovered his independence, \^t in 1323 the Delhi lieir-apparciit, Muhamuiad Tnglilak, took tho town again and carried ofEits king to Delhi.

Muhammad Tnghlak seems to have penetrated as fai- as Kajdhmnndry itself, for an inscription, dated 1324, on a mosque there describes its erection by him in that year. The tide of Muhammadan invasion receded almost at once, but from this point the inHuence of the kings of Warangal in the Telugn country disappears, and Vengi was ruled by the Eeddi chiefs of Korn-k'onda, Kondavid and Rajahmundry.

A history of the Korukonda Reddis is given in tite Mackenzie MS. already qnoted. The founder of the line was Kona or Kuna Eeddi, ' a good Sudra,' who built the fort at Korukonda and ]nade the place into a big town. His son Mummidi Eeddi succeeded him, and (along with his two brothers) is said to have ruled as far as Tatipaka (either the village of that name in Naga-ram island or its namesake in Tuni division) and to have founded one of the Korukonda temples in 1363. Munimidi Reddi was followed by his son Kuna Eeddi, and he by his two brothers Anna Eeddi and Katama Heddi, one after the other. Their reigns are said toll ave lasted tO years. The latter -was succeeded by his son Mammidi Ndyak, by wliom another of the Korukonda temples was repaired in 1394-95-

The Keddis of Kondavid were Sddra cultivators; but the family seems to have been in the service of the kings of Warangal and no doubt derived the beginnings of its power from this circumstance. They apparently raled side by side with the Korukonda Eeddis, for the inscriptions of the two overlap. Tlieir earliest extant record is dated in 1344. Their original capital was at Addanki in Gnntdr, bat they subsequently moved to Kondavid. Tlie founder of tho dynasty was Veina, tho son

CHAP. n . EARLY

Touipoi-ary

conqoost of the diatrtcr, 1323.

The Ktfrn-kondtt Kcddio, 1325-95.

The Iteddis of Ronda^d, 1344-U22.

26 GOD.\YAI!I.

CDAP. I I .

EAEI.Y HlSTOBY.

The Hajuh-rnnndry RcddiB, 1422-50,

TtioGajapa. tia of Orissa take the district, 1450.

But cede part of it to the l luhanv madans, 1470.

of Prola, who hoasts tliat he conquered Raichi'ir and defoateil certain kings, calls himself ' thf lion fo the elephant wliich was the Pandyanking* (whatever that may nieau), and w.is a <ji*eat patron of Telugu and Tamil literatiiro. Of his successors, two are stated to have fouglit against the MusaUnans and three were men of letters. His grandson Kiiniaragiri placed iiis ministor ami brother-in-law, KAt^iya Veina, in charge of the easturn portion of ]iis dominions and made Eajalmmndry the capital thereot. Kdtaya Vdma's dates I'.mgo from 1385 to 11'22 and an inscrifition of his occurs in the Simhachahun temple in Vizagapatam.

On the death oE K;itaya Venia, one Allada the son of Dodda Eeddi obtained (it is not clear liow) tlie throne of Bajahmundry. and founded a new, though short-lived, dynasty. His inauriiition** appear as early as 1415-17 in the delta (at Ps)lakoUtt,"PiiUvola, and Draksharamam) and he U represented therein as being tlie friend or servant of Kataya Vcma, whose enemies )ie claims to have 'uprooted.'' His military operations were extensive. Tie says that he 'befriended* the Gajapati of Orissa and tlie king of Karndta (i.e., the t i n g of Vijayanagar, in the Bellary district) wlio was allied with tlto Gajapati, and defeated a Musalman general called Alpa Khan. He also claims to have defeated the Uettdis of Kondavid. His sons Allaya Vomn and-Virabhadra ruled jointly ; and members of the family are mentioned in the Drakshdrfimam inscriptions until as late as 14 17.

In 1434 the Gaj'apati dynasty of Ovissawasfonnded by Kapi-l^svara, the minister of the last Uanga king of tliat country-' KapUesvara had shortly before been in alliance with tlie Kajah-mundry Keddis and the Vijayanagar king against the Muham-madans, but he none the less obtained the assistance of tlie Bdhmani king of Kulbarga, then the most powerful Musalman chief in the Deccan, in establishing himself in his new position. By 1454 he was recognized as suzerain as far south as Kondavid, and a minister of his was ruling at Rajahmundryin 1458 ; so, though the details of the conquest are unknown, he bad apparently seized the whole of this district.

In 1470, however, his successor Pumsh6ttama applied to the Bihmani king of Kulbarga for help against a rival claimant, and was forced to cede to that ruler, as the price of liis assistance, the districts of Rajahmundry and Kondapalle in Kistna. The Hindu inhabitants of Kondapalle, liowever, soon afterwards revolted, murdered the Muhammadau governor, and called for help from PurQ8h6ttania, who accordingly came and besieged Rajah-

' Babn Man Mohan CLakravarti'e paper in J.A.S.B,, lidx, pt . 1, No, 2.

POLITICAL HJSTOEY, 2 7

mnnrtry, A Musahuanarniy relieved that place, and about 1478 CUiP. II. the Kulbarg-a king- Muhammad took terrible vengeance on the KAELV

Orissa country and forced JPiirushoftama to purchase his w-itlt- rsroBT. tlrawjl by a present of valuable elephants. Koudapalle was retaken, its temple destroj-ed (tlie Brahman priests being nias-sacrcd), and a mosque erected on the site, Tlie Kulbarga king remaineil three years at Eajahmundry, expelling or i-educing refmctory zamlndars and establishing military posts. He appointed one Malik Ahmed as his viceroy, and at the end o£ 1480 left the district to prosecute liis conquests in the south.

A few years afterwardsj however, the ICnlbarga kingdom was The latter dismembered by revolutions which resulted in tiio formation oJE ousted, iiao. the tlirec iluhammadan kingdoms of Bijapur, AJimadnagar and (Jolconda HL the years 1489, 1490 and 1512 respectively; and tlie kings of Orissa recovered this district.

In 1515, Krislma Deva, the greatest of the kings of the Hindu Conquest by empire of Vijayanagar, tiie capital of whicli was at Hampe in the islgf' '"' ''*' ' BcUary district, and which was now at the iienith of its power, marched nortliwards in great stvongtlt. He took the strong fort- of TJdayagiri in Nellore after a siege of a year and a lialt, and then invested Kondavid. TIic king of Orissa, PratApa Rudra, came south to relieve the latter place, and Krishna l)eva quitted the siege and advanced to meet him. The two armies came face t-o face a t ' a largo river of salt water crossed by a ford' (presumably the Kistna), and Krishna Deva offered to retire six miles so that his adversary might cross the river unmolested and they might then fight on equal terms. Receiving uo reply, 'he forded the river himself in tlie face of the Orissan army, losing lieavily in the operation; engaged the enemy on the other side; and won a complete victory. He took Kondapalle after a siege of tliree months, escaladed Kondavid (capturing tliere the wife and son of the Orissan king and many of his nobles) and then advanced as far north as Potndru in the ViJ5agapatam district, whore lie set np a pillar of victory, Fi-oni this place ho despatched several challenges to PratApa Endra, daring him to come and fight, and -when these met with no response lie eventually retui-ned south to his own capital. He subsequently sent hack Pratdjja Eadra's queen and married hia daughter.

Before many years had passed the Mnhammadans again Jlnsalman attacked the country. The invader this time was the first king •' ?'*^ |5iQ of the new dynasty of Q-oleonda, Qutb Shah (1512-43), and the canse of tiie war was the assistance given by the house of Orissa to a rebellious feudatory of Grolconda. The large forces of the Hindus were routed by the fanatical courage of the Musalmans,

iJ8 OODAVAIU.

CHAP. I I . EABI.T

HfSTOBV.

And «1 Q6d(i. van, 1571.

MtlHAMMAnAX PERIOD.

Weskness of tlieir rule.

who took Koudapallc and won a baUlo in tlie nciglihourliood of Kajahmundry. The king of Ori8«a sned for peace, and consented to surrender to Golconda the whole of tlic territory between the Kistna and Godavari rivers,

Meanwhile domestic revolutions liad weakened tlu^ kingdom of Orissa. Two sous of Pratdpa R-idra succeeded liini one after the other, and ruled for a yeai- or two til! tliey were botli murdered in 15l l - ' t2 hy a minister named Govinda Duva, who took the kingdom for himself.' I!o and his sons ruled Idl 15o9-60j wlien a Telugu named Hai-ichandana raii^ed a revolt, killed two of the sous of tlie usurjier, and liiinself ruled UU 1 ^ ' 1 J when tlie kingdom fell linally into tlio hands of t tie iMuhanimadim kings of Golconda. _

This conquest had not been olVucted witliont severe lighting. The Hindu Rdja of Kondavid attacked the Mnsahnan garrison of Eondapalle, and the cJiicf of EajahinnndrV; one Vidii'idri, who was apparently- a prince of the housft of Ortssa, laid siogf to liUorc, which wa;s also held by the MuharnniadanK. The latior "'i^^ signally defeated and fte<l fo Kajahmundry, The (iolconda troops laid waste the conntry round that town and were then called away (1664) to assist the (j(!ior Musalnian kings of tlio Deccau in the joint attack on Vijayanagar whicli resulted in the overthrow of that empire in the great battle of Talikota, norf)" of the.Kistna river, jn 1565. That decisive campaign won. Golconda's conquest of Gdddvari soon rccoinmonced. The for s of Pedddparam and Edjnnagaram (from which reinforcements and provisions were being sent to Eajahmundry) were first taken, the latter with difficulty because of tlie narrowness of the paths and the thickness of the jungles which Imd to bo traversed. Eajah-mondry was then attacked. The Uindns were defeated in ^ despei-ate battle outside the walls (though they broke the left wing of the invader's army) and the foii was then invested foi"

This took place in 1571-72. four months, when it surrendered. ^...^ ^^^^ ^.^^^

The Muhammadaus then marched north, reducing the Xortihcd places on the way, and finally conquered all the country of Onssa as far as Chicacole in Ganjam.

'nieir control of tlieir new possessions was appa- rdW * from firm, and disorders and outbreaks were continual. ^ ^ Reddisof the hills, for example, plundered Bllore and Nidada-T'6ln, and for some time kept np a desultory resistance against th

I m: Chaki-avafU-B paper alrtjady qnot^-d. , „ifth Gvanta fotitic^i Survey of the North^r.i Ou-ca,:., appended to the ^*J

Report on the «/«>« <^the En.i India Co. (1812), Mad ' QB rcpriat of 18S3, P - 1 * -

POLITICAL mSTOEY, 29 o

forces sent fo snpprosa them. When attacked, they dispersed, only c/lAi'. u to reassemble in dillicnlt passes and ravines, and it was with MDtu>[MAD.i"\ difficulty thit tranquillity was restored. A standing' militia I'f i'H'o. tvpiJeara to Iiave been maintained; but its etibrts to keep order were not always sttceossfnl, and its exactions from the inhabitants increased (ho ]iiiseries of t)ie eonntry.

Itwasdurinjr tlie Grolconda rule that the earliest Eng-lish settlements on this coast wore made. Masulipataia was first visited in lt>ll and the factory at Madapollam near NavasapiTr (also in Kistua) was founded about 1G78. Of the settlements in t)iis district, that at Infarani near Yanam was estabh'sod In 1708, and tlmt at Bcndamiirlanka in 1751. The Dntcli had several important outposts in tlie neijfhtourhood, but tlie only one in this ttistrict was Jan^anniithapurani, now a part o£ Cocanada, The l^Veuch started a factory at Yanam about 1750. None of those ontposts Itad at this time any influence worth mentioning on the history of the district, and it is sufficient for tlic present to chronicle tlie fact of their esistence,

Mea.nwhile, in 1680, Aurangzeb, emperor of Delhi, marclied to Auraug ob reduce the south of India to his authority. In tlie next year ho y '=' i!8''e3 overthrew (aiuoug otliersj the kmgdoni of Groicouda, and the i6s". country passed under the dii-ect rnle of Delhi, lie appointed to rule his now territories a viceroy who was kuowa as the Snbadar of the Dcccau (and later as tho Nizam of Il^'derabad) and resided first at Aurang-abad and afterwards at Hyderabad. Tho subadari consisted of 32 proviucc.=!, of wbicli Rajaiimuudvy and Chioacole wore two. With the provinces of Kondapalle, Kllore and Guntiir tlioy formed wliat were kuowa as ' tlie Northern Cir-cavs,' ft name whicli still survives. The system (or want, of system) of administration remained unchanged, and disordei-a continued as f rcelj" as before.

In 172J. the Snbadar of tlie Deecan (Niaaiu}j wlio liad long- Tliu Sabadar been virtually independent of Delhi, became so in fact, and f,[,^'^^/'"^" appointed his own nominees as Nawabs of the provinces under iud open dent, him. Eustum Khan was appointed to Eajahmundry and is .still ^ -** known to local tradition as Hdji llussain.

The country was in great disorder. Zamindavs, or farmers of the revenue, had generally availed themselves of the late polit. leal disturbances to usurp the lights and feeble authority of their Muhammadan superintendents. They defrauded tlie public treasury and squeezed with an iron hand tlie liusbandman and manufacturer. The new ruler set himself to suppress them. * Thoso who escaped the sword wei-o proclaimed as traitors ; and,

30 ' ouDAv,s.itr.

CH.\P. 11. a reward being offered for their own with their adherents' Uciids, rL•II.vM.MA a. • a Sufficient nninher WM-? scon collected to erect two .shocking

'!_'' pyramidical monuments, called kidh(-iidnd>\ ne:ii' oacJi of the provincitilciipitals.'^ Temporarj'«/j;fH.<( were for a tin\e uppointcd in place of the refractory /amindurs to colhx't the revenue ; bat the indolence and depravity of the ruling nation .soon made it ncces'âry to revert to tlie ancient system, and now zaminJars were appointed. Those quickly became ;ûilty of tiie same outrages ns their predecessors ; and in later years their desccndajits cansod constant disorders throughout the Northern Circars.

TtioNorthcvu Iiil7-lJ^ the Siibadar of tlie Deccan died ; and a great struggle totlieFrcnoh, foUowed for hia placid The ovcntg of this oonte.st relate leas to 1753. ^ the history of Godiivari than to that of the southornf'istricts, and

it is sufficient to note here that the French and Knglish (who were now powers of imporfcaucc) cacli took different sides, and thataf ter many vicis.situdes Saiabat Jangbecumo Subadar in 1751 through the iniluencc and aid of the former. In his gratitude for their help, Salabat J ang ceded the Kondavid country to tliem in 1752 aud four of tlic Northern Ciroars (not Guntur) iu 175:1. They Jiad already (in 1750) been granted Masulipatain ^nd the adjacent country ; aud BusMy, the French genciid, sent M. Moracin, the officer in charge at Masulipatîm, instructions to take over the newly ceded territory.

lU'uifdiffivuI- Jai'ar Ali, governor of Chieacolo, wa-> however iu no way disposed to surrender his position quietly to the hVoneh, and conspired with the Rajaof Vizianagram,tho mosbpowerlnl of tlie router-chiefs who had come into existence during the Musalman rule, to oppose M. Moracin's entry. The latter seduced the Raja from the compact by offering to lease him the JJajahnmndry iind Ohicacole circars at a rate mucli below their value, and Jafar Ali then called in the aid of the Marathas of Nagpore. who crossed the ghats with a large force, devastated both cii-cara from end to eud, and regained tlieir own country by way of Elloro with an immense booty.

In July 1754 Biissy went iu person to Masuli^mlam and Kajahmundry aud restored order there. Some of the troublesome zainindars were dismissed j efforts were made to ascertain tlie real revenue collections made by these renters aud on this datum to found an adequate assessment; and tliey were required to maintain a sibbandi, or militia, of 1- ,000 men to keep the public peace, collect the rents, and, when called upon, to repol invasion.

' Grant's Volitical Sttrvc;/, eft., I i3 .

ties thcie.

POLITICAL HISTOIIV. 31

Soon afterwards, lio*vever, relrtfcions behvecii Biissy and Hie CHAP. ir. Ni/;n« became strained, at last an opeu breach occni-red, and for McriAMMiMK six weeks in 1756 the former had to L>iitrencli himself nesr ^i^J^-Mydorabad against the latter's troops.

lie was oventiiaily relieved by reiiiforccniouts from Masali- Bussyat pafain :ind taken back into favour, and at the end of 1756 lie wont X'^fl' to IJajahmnndry wifb a strong force to re-e.stablish Itis fallen poest swon, authority in the Circars. Aided by tlio Ef;ija of Viziimagram, ' '^ ' ' iio soon reduced the country to obedience; and a force from liajahnumdry took the three J'jii^Hah factories at MadapoUain, Bendamurlaiika and Injarani. lllxeept for twenty luou at Hio last-named, tho:jo places had uo f(amson<, and resistunce was out of the question.

In January 1758 Bussy returned to Hyderabad, and in July Forde's lie was snunnoned by Lallv, tiic now Governor of Fondicherrr, to - P^ 't'o" proceed south, with all the troops that could be spared, to assist Fivnch, iT58. in the oiierations against Madms. His departure was a fatal blow to the fortnues of the French, who within ten months were driven out of the Circars.

Almost as soon as he had gone, tlie new KdjaotA^'izianagram, who was dissatisfied with the arrangements made by the French at the time of his predecessor's decease, seized Vjzagapataui, hoisted the hlnglish (lag there and made ovei*tures to the Engh'sh in Calcutta and Madras, offering to render them every assistance in his power if they would send an expedition to invade the NoHhern Circars.^ Clive^ who was then at Calcutta, determinetl, despite the unanimous opposition of his Council, to fall iu with tho Eaja's proposals ; an expedition was at once arranged ; and tho command of it was conferred on Colonel Forde. Mis force consisted of 500 Europeans, including artillerymen, 2,000 sepoys and I001aecfti*s. I t reached Vizagapatam in October 1758, inarched thence in Novemberj eft'ected a junction with the levies of tho Euja of Viziauagram, and then proceeded southwards into this district.

The Preneli Lad assembled in force at Rajahmundry and HisTiowry moved thence to Gollaprolu, a few miles north-east of Pitbipuram. * **" °' * Their force consisted of 500 Europeans, G,000 sepoys and a great many local troops, of whom 500 were cavalry. The whole was under the command of the Marquis de Conflans, Bussy's successor. The opposing forces came in sight of each other at Gollaprolu on December 3rd. Nearly a week elapsed before they joined

' Ormo's liiatory (MiwliaH, 1801), ii, 355.

32 GOD A VA III.

CHAP. II. Isattle ; but ut length on the 9tli a most decisive action was foiiglit JlLirAMMADAx near the little village oECondore (Cliaudurti) a few miles north

'.'f.\"°' of GroUaprolu, The result was a complete victory forthe Knghsh, the French losing all their baggage and ainnmuition and neavly all their artillery and retreating in confusion to Itiijahininidry, The battle is described in more detail in Chapter XV.

Forde at once sent forward a force of 1,500 sepoys to occupy Esijahinuudry; and the garrison tlirro, imagining tliat the whole of the Rnglish force was upon tliem, aI)andoned the fort on 10th December and retired to the soutli. I'orde again advanced on January 28th aud readied Ellore on Keijruary (jth. Tlieiico he detadied a force to occupy tho I'rench factory at Narasapnr, whieli was abandoned on its approach,'

Be Condans liad retired to Masnlipatam, and at his earnest request the Subadar of tlie Deccan, SaVibat Jang, marched to

. assist him down the valley of the Kistna. On the Gth March Forde appeared before Masnlipatam and, after a month's siege, carried that fort by a brilliant assault. On th(i H t h Sfny lloD he concluded a treaty with SaUbat J ang (who was so awed by liis successes and harassed by disputes with a brother that he made no attempt to assist the X'Vench) by which the country round Masulipatam and Niznmpatam wa.'3 ceded as ' inani ' to the English, and the Subadar promised to renounce all friendship with the French and prohibit them from ever again settling in tho Circars.i By this treaty the whole of the country north of the Godavari returned again to the dominions of the Subadar of the Deccan.

The district was not at once cleared of the French. A small forco of about 260 Europeans and 2,000 sepoj's had remained between Masnlipatam and Rajahmundry to cnt oil' the supplies of the English troops frojn that direction. This proceeded to liajahmundry, where only a very small garrison had been left, and compelled the place to surrender. Soon afterwards'^ however, it left the district with the object of joining Saldbat Jang.

M. Moracin, who had been sent fi'om the south with reinforcements for Masnlipatam before its fall was known, landed on November 11th at Cocanada (which was still in the possession of the Dutch) and endeavoured to foment disturbance by intriguing with Jagapati Rdzn, a cousin of the Vizianagram EAja, who had assisted tlie French in the recent cainoaitrn and was

The country clenrctl of the Frcuclt.

cam paign Aitchieon's Treaties, etc. (1892), vUi, 278,

I'OLITICAL HISTOfiY. 3 3

Still under arms. IJis efforts were imsuccessfiil, tiud he sooji c iuf . ii re-embarked and sailed for Pondicherry. M[Et.,jjM*0A»

lu December of the same year ii small I'reucli force of 50 ' ' ™ ' Jiiiropcans and 100 sepoys landed at Cocanada with tlie object of untei'iii|r into negotiations with this same Jagapati Kizn. By tliis time the English army at Masulipatam, now nnder the command of Captain Fjsciier, had commenced its return march. Learning on liis ariival at Eajabmundry of tlie presence of tlic Frencii at Cocanada, Fischer jiroceeded thitlier at once and found tJie enemy posted in a village two nriles fi-oin the Dntch fort. Thoy iled at once inside tlie fort and eventually surrendered, and thenceforth no French forces set foot in the district.

The cor"*''y north of the Goddvari was now nominally subject to the Nizam, but he was too busy with other alfairs to attend iu its administration, and tbe cousetjuenco was that ' for seven succeeding years, tlie conipletest anarcliy recorded iu tho history ' of [[industan prevailed over all the Northern Circars. The forms, nay even tlie remembniucej of civil government seemed to be wholly lost.'' The provinces had heen leased to one Uussain AH Khdn, but his authority was little more tlian nominal, and an Knglish force despatched to establish it was ijiterrupted by the invasion of the Carnatic by the Suhadar. A small body of 2(J0 sepoys and twelve artillerymen under Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Henry) Cosby did, however, reach Eajabmundry, was instrumental in saving Hussain Ali from a conspiracy formed hy a disappointed rival to seize the town, and remained there till the Northern Circars were eventually ceded to tlie English,

This event occurred in 1765. Lord Clive, who had returned Cccdon of to India, entered into negotiations regarding the cession, and on i!l*' K"ortlicrn August 12, 17G5. received a gi-ant of the Circars from the Eilgti^,iref^ emperor of Delhi. Tlic Madras Government hesitated to avail themselves at once of this grant of country whioh the Snbadar of the Deccan considered to be his own property, alleging that there was no immediate necessity for taking possession, since Hussain Ali Khdn had already collected the revenues and but little more could be obtained that year. In the following March, however, they published the emperor's firnian aud sent C4eneral Calliaud to take possession. The Nizam threatened to retaliate by invading the Carnatic ; and Calliaud was ordered to meet him at Hyderabad and negotiate a cession from him. The result was

1 Grant's PolHieal Survey, e(e., Ii6.

http://3ItIIAM.MAD.lN

34 OiSnAvABT.

CHAP. ir.

McrillMMADAX PERIOD,

ENGKttlll PERIOD,

Early admiuis-tration.

Dieturb-anoee of the peace,

a treaty dated November 12, 1766, whereby the whole of the Northern Circars with the exception of Guntur (wjiicli was not ceded till 1788) was handed over to the English. TUc latter on their side engaged to pay the Subadar a tribute of nine lakhs of rupees per annum, and to furnish him with military assistance whenever required. The treaty made no mention of the previous free grant of the country by the emperor,

Almost immediately afterwfirds the Subadar faithlessly joined Haidar Ali of Mysore against the British; but tlio success of the latter nation in the south and an invasion of his rountry from Bengal broaght liim to his senses; and, by a second treaty dated February 23, 1768 the tribute was reduced, aud the imperial grant was acknowledged. Tribute continued to be paid until as late as 1823, when it was capitalized by the payment of a lamp sum of KB. 1 ,66,66, ( )66, '

The country was not at once aduiinistered directly by tin; English, bat was leased out to native renters. The Godiivari district continued to be under Hussain Ali Khdn. His Icaso expired in 1769, and then the system of Provincial Chiefs and Councils described in Chapter XI was introduced, this district being placed under the Chief and Oouucil of Masulipatam,

I t only remains to refer to the various disturbances of the peace by the rebellions of zamindars or the outbreaks {fi^i'trts^ as they are locally called) of hill tribes which hitvc occurred since the English occupation. The powerful zamindars of Pithdpuram, P61avaram and PeddApuram occupied most of the centre and north of the district, while beyond them ruled the untamed mansabdars of Kampa^ TotapaUi and Jaddangi, At first, the latter recognized no authority whatever; while the former maintained large bodies of troops and did much as they liked. Constant attempts were made to reduce the power of both, but for a long time in vain. ' I t has been the object,' wrote the Board of Eevenue in 1794, ' of every new settlejuent with the zamindars to endeavour to reduce their military force, and a clause has been inserted in their cabooliats binding them to keep up only snch sibbendy (militia) as may be indispensably accessary for the purpose of collection and (in some situations near the hills) lor protection ; but a clause so vague and indefinite, it may easily be supposed, has never met the smallest attention from the zamindars. ' Considerable difficulty was consequently experienced in keeping the hiU men and the zamindars from breaking the peace.

' Aitohison's TreatiMy etc. (1892), -viii, 269,

. POLITIOAL HISTOBY. 3 5

The first disturbance appears to liave occurred in 1785, and CHAP. I I .

was due to disputes about the division and management of EXOLISH * tlie property belonging to three brothers who owned, respect- PEB^OR.

ively, the zamindaris of Gutdla, P61avaram and KottapalU. la 178S-90. A hill zamindar of N^gavaram took a part in the quarrel and opened hostilities by capturing G6tAla in 1785. Troop 3 had to be moved up to restore order, and some fighting took place. Somewhat similar disorders occurred in 1786, 1787 and 1790, and are described in more det^iil in tlie account of Polavaram in C'Jiapfer XV.

These troubles were really in the nature of a family quarrel, riil790-180a aud only incidentally involved resistance to Government, in 1794 Collectors replaced the Chiefs in Council, and since a famine had depopulated tlie country, the revenue duo by the zamindara bad been raised, and &overnment had resolved to be more stringent in the collection of its dues than hitherto, these new officers met with considerable opposition in the discharge of their duties. Uifficulties in Peddupuram and Pithdpuram were solved without bloodshed; but the renters of Mogalturru estate (near Narasapur in Kistna district) raised a serious outbreak.

This property had been administered by G-overnment since 1787, and a petty insurrection occurred there in 1791. At the end of that year it had been resumed by G-overnment and leased out to renters. These people would not pay tlieir dues, and were imprisoned and sent to Conjeeveram. They escaped thence and made their way to Hyderabad territory, their families also flying from Mogalturru to Bliadrachalam. The zamindar of that place and the amildar at Kammamet in Hyderabad assisted the fugitives, who succeeded in collecting a force of 2,000 peons and making an incursion into' the district in July 1795. They marched by way of Yernagfidem to Mogalturru, The Collector was nearly surprised in his house; and was unable to attempt an armed reaiHtauce. The party, however, behaved with gi*eat moderation, committed no excesses whntever, and, on being assured by the Collector that a memorial of what they considered their wrongs would be forwarded to the Board of Eevenue, returned t^ Bhadrdchalam. Little further came of this disturbance; the memorial was dismiased, and the malcontents (who continued at Bhadr^chalam) made no further incursion. In September of the same year some of their peons attacked Chagallu, on the other Hide of the river facing Eajahmundry. but were easily dispersed. A petty disturbance was also created in 1798 by a revenue defaulter who had^fled the country along with the Mogalturru renters. He proceeded with gOO or 300 pikemen as far as Undi

36 GonAVARl,

CHAP, II. ENGLISH PESIOD,

Quieter times thereafter,

Sttbba. Beddi'i rcbelliou, 1868.

Outbreats in

(near Bhiinavaram), where he brutally murdered the ttiafihd^r; but be retreated into Hydembad territory on the an-ival of troops,

The most sei'ious outbreak of this peiiod occurred in the GrutaLi and P6lavaram eatates, find involved'something in tlie nature of a campaign. I t is de«;cribed in the account of Polavaram in Chapter XV.

After the permanent settlement, things quieted doi viij and there have been few important outbreaka since. The pressnro of that settlement and the enforcement of decrees against defaulting zamindars occasionally caused disturbances. I t is to these tliat Mnnro refers in his minute of 1822 quoted in Chapter XI . ' We are every day liable,' he wrote, ' to be dragjjed ijrito a petty warfare among unhealthy hills, where an enemy is hardly over seen, where numbers of valuable lives are lost by the climate, and where we often lose but never gain reputation.' He deplored the want of respect and loyalty to Government in the province, which he ascribed to the prevalence of the uamindari system. I t was no doubt largely due to the gradual downfall of that system that t]ie inci'eased peace and order of the country were due,

A petty disturbance took place in 1858 among the hilis nortli of Yernagftdem, which is of interest as having been indirer'tly connected with the Mutiny. I t originated in a private dispute among some hill chiefs about a woman; but tlie leader of the affair, Suhba Eeddi, pleaded that lie had heai-d that Ndna Sdhib was advancing with his victorious army and that < whoever did most against the English would be rewai-dod most.' At the head of a lai^e body of Koyas he killed the village magistrate of Bnttayag6dem, who kept as his mistress a ricli widow whom Subha Eeddi wanted to marry to his son, plundered some villages, and successfully resisted a body of 60 or 70 peons lod against liini by the Head Assistant Magistrate. Two companies of Sappers and Miners were sent to Yernagtidem and thence marched against the rebels. The onl j place where they made a stand was Jilu-gumilli (Polavaram taluk) hut their resistance was brief and they dispersed into the jungle. They were pursued by a force of armed peons embodied for the purpose, and Snbba Beddi and seven other ringleaders were ultimately captured and hanged.

The Eampa country was a continual source of trouble. The disturbances there were not generally in the nature of a revolt against supposed oppression, since no revenue was collected in the country tiU towards the end of the century. They were either plundering raids or internal feuds. Government became involved in the latter by championing the mansabdar against his mnttadars,

POLlTICit, HISTORY, 37

and it was his abase of this support which ultimately led to the CHiP, ii Kampa rebellion of 1879 and the removal of the mansabdar. The RNOLISH

chief diaturbanees which occurred were the luansabdar'a incur- PFHWD.

sion of 1813 into the plains; the troable conseqaent on his expulsion in 184t>^ the resistance to hiin in 1858 and I862j and the * Banipa rebellion * of 1879, These are briefij described in the account of Bampa in Ohapter^XV.

38 G6DiVARI.

CHAPTER i n .

THE PEOPLE.

CHAP. i n .

GESESAL ClURACTF.B-

ISTICa.

Denoitj of the popular tJon,

I t s growth.

Parent-

Beligionn.

GKNEBAL CjiAliACTRBisTrca—DonBity nf tho population—Its ffrowtli—Parent. tonguo—EoIigiOHB. TJIK JAIXB. Tin- MUSALMAXU. TII>: CiiRisTtAXsj— Aiucrican Evangclioal Liithfran Mission—The Cnnadian UajjUod Mission— The Church Miaaionary Society—Tlio Koman Catholic Miwaion. TIIK HINDUS —Villflgea—Houaea-Dt'cse-Food—Ainuaemcnts — Superstitions—Villngt', casto, and family gods Marr iage r u l o tiud coi-emonics—Funerals. PKIN-CIPAT/ CASTES—Telogu Brdlimana—Itdzus—KCiimtis—KfipnH—Kiimmtis— Porikoa—Idigaa—Garnallas—-Karnabrtttus*—3iini»—Mdlus —MitdiguH—Ktiyu--—Hill Roddis.

T H E G6ddvari district contained, in 1901, 1,445,961 inhabitantg, or 257 to the square mile. The density of tlie population in the various taluks and divisions varies greatly. In the Agency as a whole it averages only 51 persons to the square mile, while in the rest of the district it is as higli as 5 l6 . In the Cli6davarain and Tellavarain divisions of the Agency tlie figure is less than 35, but in P61avarain it i-ises to 103. Outside tlie Agency, the rich delta taluks of Nagaram, Cocanada and Bdiuachandrapuram are the most thickly populated, while Pedddpuram and I'uni come at the bottom of the list.

The population increased by ten per cent, in the decade 1891-1901, against an average of seven per cent, in the Presidency as a whole. Much of this was due to the extraordinary amount ot emigration from Vizagapatam which has occurred. The greatest proportional increase was in Cocanada, where it was as high as 16'5 per cent., in Bhadrfichalam, 15 per cent., and in Rajah- ' inundry, 14 per cent. The relative advance was smallest in Pithapurain, Turn and Pedddpuram.

The prevailing language of the district is Telugu, which is spoken by 96 per cent, of the people. Hindustani is the home-speech of 1*4 per cent, of them, and the small remainder talk Cfriya, Yerukala, Marathi> and K6ya, the vernacular of the hill tribe ol that name.

The large majority of the people (1,411,573) are Hindns or Animists. Only 24^046 of them ar^ Musalmans aiid only 5,497 Christians. There are hardly any Jains. Musalmans are found in tlie largest numbers in Bajahmundry, Cocanada and Amald-puram, and are fewest in Tuni and the Agency, Cliriatiana are commonest in Bajahmundry and Cocanada, the head-quarters of the chief missionary bodies.

THE PEOPLE- 39

Tilt Ml'SALMANB.

As ah-eadv noted in Chapter I I , the district tvas once ruled by CHAP. Hi. tlie Buddhist emperor Asoita and perhaps remained BuddJiist in THE JAI:<S.

religion until the middle of the seventh century. A nnmber of Buddhist or Jain remains survive in it. The village of Ariya-vattam in Cocanada taluk is somefimos called Jain-pa'du ( ' the Jain ru ins ' ) and contains several large but rude images of figures sittiug cross-legged in the traditional attitude of contemplation. These are not now worsliipped, but images of a similar nature in tlie streets of Pitliapuram are still worshipped hy Hindus tjierc under the name of sanydsi devuhi (' ascetic gods ' ) , and are honoured with a festival in times of drought. At N^duni^ru in the Anmlapuram taluk are other images of this kind which arc said to be the largest in the district, and yet other siuiilar relics are found ai Kazulum, Yendamnrii and Sila in Cocanada taluk, Jalltiru in Pithiipuram division, Atrej'apuram in Amalapuram, T€tfp4kain Nagaraiii, and Draksharamnm in Ea'machandrapnraui taluk. There are also many large revetted wells in the Nagavam and Amalapuram taluks whicli for some obscure reason are called ' Jniu wells.'

The relationti of the Musalmans witli tlioit* Hiudu neighbours are on the whole friendly; though petty disputes sometimes arise at festival times, when the processions or observances of the one offend tlio other, Followers of tlie faith are generally engaged in menial work or petty trade, and few of tliotu are wealthy. Tliey have no locV places of pilgrimage, though the Mtihammadans of Dr^kshfararJaiii i i Ramachandrapuram taluk say that the darga of their locpi saint was once regularly visited by the pious of the district. Afe.v of the mixed class called Dud^kus occur. Thoy are said to be ihe descendants of converts from Hinduism, and, though they profess the Muhammadan religion, most of tliem speak only Telugu, wear the Hindu cloth and not the trousers or the kilt (/unji) of the Muhammadans, and adopt Hindu names. They cannot intermarry witli other Musalmans and are looked down upon because t]»ey are musicians and cotton-cleaners.

Tliero are four Christian missions in the district; namely, the Roman Catholics and the Canadian Baptist Ifission with their head-quarters at Coeanadaj the American Evangelical Lutheran Mission ol Rajahmundry, and the Church Missiouaiy Society, which works a small ' district' from Dummagudem in Bhadra-chalam taluk,

The American EvangeUoal Lutheran Mission was founded by .imerican the North German Mission Society in 1844. The first missionary t S ^ i n ** sent out was the Eev, L. M. Valette. He selected Eajahmnndry Mwiion.

THE CimiSTIJlNB.

40 OODAVARI.

CHAP. I I I .

THE Cr( HIST UN'S,

The CanadiaQ Baptiet His-sioit,

as his head-quarters and took ap his residence there in 184^ Soon afterwards, in consequence of the unsettled condition of things in Gertnany and financial ombarra^ament in the cluircli, the North German Mission Society found itself unable to support the mission ; and in 1851 transferred tlic care of it to the Qonern! Synod of the American Lutheran Church, which was working^ in the Kistna district with head-quarters at Guntur.

Owing to the difficulties regarding both men and means occasioned by the American Civil AVar, the General K\nod found it impossible to carry on tlie work at aU its stations; and in 1870 the mission was transferred to tlie General Council of (he American Lutheran Church, by whom it is now managed.

Six European miasionaries and six ladies are now workinf^ in this district. The ' t icld' visited by tliem includes large portion-; of all the low conutry taluks except Nagaram, Cocanada and Tuni, and also the northern portion of Kistna, whence come the majority of the converts. Statistics of the work in this district alone arc not available, but altogether the mission has now some 250 congregations and a baptized membership of nearly 12,000, manages a number of schools and is educating some 5,800 boys in primary classes. Of its schools, the girls' and boys* central schools at Eajahmundry (the latter of which contains 150 pupils) are considerable institutions with substantial building.^, and the high schools at Eajahmundry and PeddApuram contain 350 and 540 boys respectively on tlieir roUs. The mission is .'•cPAerecting buildings for a new central boyg' school and s*ip>*'ary at Eajahmundry and a hostel for the accommodation of 2tlO ,^ys , t]ic estimated cost of which is Rs. 60,000, and has also decidt^ito put np new accommodation for the Pedddpuram liigh schooi; Tlio mission also supports a large dispensary ^ and a small hospital at Rajahinundry, and the erection of a new hospital building there, at a cost of Es . 60,0u0, Las been sanctioned by the American Board which controls its affairs. The mission has nine churches in the district, ten bungalows and 154 school houses. I t s totiil expenditure on education in 1904 was over Es . 20,000, and on medical institutions nearly Es . 5,00O. Tlie mission is in charge of the Eev. J, H . Harper, who has kindly furnished the above information.

The Canadian Baptist Mission owes its origin to the Revs. Thomas Gabriel and John McLaurin, D.D., who started work in Cocanada in 1869. The present mission pi*enuBes in that town were acquired in 187G. A station was established tit Tuni in 1878,

' See Chapter IX, p. 161,

THE PEOPLE, 41

a seminary for training st'liool-masters and preacheia at Samalkot CHAP. U I . in 1883, and stations at PeddajHirHin in 1891 iind K^machandra- THE puKini in I8P3. CURISTIAX..

The mission's ' Held' in tins district includes tlie whole of Cocanada aad Tnni divisions und parts of the Pithaparam

ision and the H;iniai;handriipurai)i, Itajahmundry and Pedda-piimm taluks. Sis Eiiri>pean staff includes-six missionaries, all of w)jom fire ordiiined and five of whoiu are assisted by their wiveSj and niiiu uniiianied la<ly mirisionurius. One of the missionaries possesses fnll n\edical qnatifirations and two of the ladies are traiiieil nurses. 'I'he jnission possesses 2,400 adherents and 24 cliiuvhes, five of the latter hoing- substantial buildings,

It a bo nnderlakes educational and philanthropic work. I t s edntatiunai institutions include Jiii day schools with an average attendance of 45(t boys and ^2;j yirls, 88 Sunday schools with 2,000 pupils, free primary boartting schools for boys at K^ma-cliiinttraptifftin and Tnni {preparatory for tlie kSanialkot seminary), a free lower secondary boardiag school for girls at Cocanada, the 'riiupany Keinoi'ial high scliyol at Cocanada and the Samalkot seuiinary. Tlie hig)i scliool was founded in lueniory of the Rev. A. V. Tinipany, who wtbs in ciiarge of the mission from 1^79 till 188"t, when he died of cholera, and receives European boys and girls (the latter as boarders) and a few native girls. The Samalkot seininaiy comprises a theological school, a training sohuol for primary +eacher.s, a lower secondary school and a primary scliool, and its pupils number about a hundred. The mission has also a small industrial school with some twenty pupils at Cocanada. The total expenditure of the mission on education in 1903, including the salaries of the missionaries engaged solely in that work, amounted to Es . 25,580.

The philanthropic institutions of the mission include the Kelloek Leper Home, the Phillips Memorial Home, and the Ijospitat iind dispensary at Bamachandrapuram; and a hospital is being built at Pitlifipuraiu- The two Homes are referred to in Chapter IX. The mission publishes a weekly newspaper in Telttgu and maintains a public reading room at Cocanada. The Eev. H . F . Ijaflamme has been good enough to furnish this information I'egarding its work.

The mission at Dummagfidem was started through the ThoChuroU •intlaeuce of Sir Arthur Cotton, and work was first begun tliere Miwionarj by his brother-in-law, the late Major-Gcneral Ha ig , R .E . , ' when '^^^' in charge of the Upper Grodavari navigation works (see p. 128j,

' Tlio buil(l<;r of the Gftnnavarttia atjueduct; «ee p. 8fi. 6

42 a6D A.V A KI.

HHAP. III. THE

CHBliTIANh.

Tbe Raman Catholic Uisaion.

THE HiKDus,

TilUgcB.

and at the cost of the engineers oi\ that project. 'Die mis-sioa i$ now under the Cliurch Misssioiiary Sl>côt.) No European missionanes resided rej^nhirly ;tt Binumajûdcm till 1871', bnt since thon, with an interval fiuin 18T!) tu 188!;3, tlio Rov. -I. Cain has been stationed there. I'lie field of thu nu:j;jion i.s practically confined to the Bhadrachalam taluk, and the work lies timinl/ among the Koyas and Maias. The converts number 900, and the mission maintains at Diiinruagudeui a dispensary, a tower secondary boys' school, a girls' day school and hoy^' and girls' boarding schools, besides se\'enteeii day schools in other p:trts of the district. The lace-work done by the fonveHs at Duniiaa-g6dejn is referred to in Chapter VI.

The Eoman (Jatbolic Mission was started ;iljout oO yeitrs agu by E'rencb priests of Savoy belonging to the niission of St. Erancis of Sales I t is included in the Diocese of Viâgapi^* tam. The convent in Yanain was bniitby Bialiop Neyrct iu 1850, the charoh at Goeanada in 18;)t hy Bislmp Tlssot, and t]iechnrt;li a t Tanani in IHÛ. Chapels liavo Ueo.n crutdcd at iSanialkot, Bowlaishweram Jind Rajahnmndry. 'L\vo liuropean priests are working in the district at Cocanada and Uajahniundvy. " ''' Roman Catholic congregation nambers soin« UOO, of wliom Aho^' one-third are Europeans and Eurasians and most of tlie other^^ Tamila. Want of funds has hampered attempts to convert the TeluguB.

ITie mission owns a handsome convent at Cocanada whic in charge of seven European Sisters, is used as a lower secondary school, and gives instruction to some eiglity or ninety i "* !' ,!* and Eurasian girls, about half of whom are boarder.s. û convent at Yanam is used as a Hindu girls' .school and teaches some 150 pupils; and the mission mana-es a hoys' lower pru»»^T school at Cocanada and a small dispensary at the same town.

The very large majority of the population of the district ai Hmdusor Animists, and these require more lengthy treatm^'^J The Ammista, those who reverence aniiuistic deities and not tli gods of the Hindu pantheon, are almost all found in the Agen^^/j An a tkmpt wiU first be made to describe the salient features the rebgious and social life-of the Hindus of the low COHQ ' / customs in the Agency are referred to in the accounts beloW

the i T " " f ' ' ^^*^'î^) ^ ' " tl'eu to give son.e descript.on n u a u ? ' . ' ' ^ ' ' ' ' ^ "•'' «l'î'actenstic of the district or occur .n

"" "lusual numbers.

«eMom fo ! ! ^ ' ? "* '^'^ *i' *«*i« '' "^^like those in the Ueccan, ^J^^ Sortxeed, and consequently (except in the delta) the hou

THE PEOPLE. 43

are not closely crowded together, but are built with plenty of CHAP. III. room iietweeu them, like those in soutliern villages. The lowest Tut HiM>t)s. castes are required to live in separate quarters; but the Brahiuans, unlike those of tlie south, do not mind dwelling side by side witli SAdras and do not always have their own distinct streets.

The houi>es seldom liave terraced roofs, and a'-e generally iiouscn thatelii'd with palmyra leaves. Tiles are common in towns, but much less so outside them. Under the roof a terrace or ceiling of mud is ofteu juade with the double object o£ serving as a lol't or store-house, and of protecting the liousu itself if the roof gets on fire. The walls of houses are geuerally of umd. Brick jind stone are comparatively rare. Jn the igency the walls are generally of split bamboo, sometimeij smeared with mud. Outside the big towns, houses of two storeys a TO lare.

Aiuoiig iill but the lowest classes, houses are very ubually built on one of two type plans, called respectively the vhdvadi illn or * Imll house,' and the mandurti illit or •' courtyard house,' al'so called tlie *fourroom plan.' The two ligures below will give an idea of how each is arranged ;—

i l / i l t ' i t t l to hOll^l'.

BttokfEii'd.

U

Pial.

lloom. lioum,

I I I I i [

Openiug to sky. 1

I Cmii't-

1 jurd.

i 1

Rouin.

I fall,

Pial.

'S _ «

a — i

1 )

Olicii-aiii /roi(*e.

Iluckyiird uiiil cut tle^sland,

e: a a

>

1 1 p 1

^ 1 M 1

-

Pial. j

Both have nan*ow pials in fi-out. Tlie essential difference is that in the ckdvadi iUu the door leads into along broad hall (did-vadi) which stretches from the front of the hou- e to tlie hack, with rooms at the sides; whereas in the other the hall is it narrow passage running from oue side of the house to the other, from whioli a door leads into a courtyard, open in the centre but

44

CHAP. III. aurrouuded by veraiidsilia out el' which th* rooms <»peu. Tho THE HINDI;!;, latter kind is most coimiiouly used h_y thr higher or riOu'i' chiBsus.

and resembles tlie typicid liouse of Hie rionthern cowntr> in hiiving an opening {;/i«)(rfu««) in the middle of the coiirtyacd to k-t in light. The kitchen i» usually loctitftl it* yo-=sible in tho wpstern part of t t e house, but eveu if it is not, it is still calh-d tlio * west room' {padamati iUu). The front steps of thi' honsoH are usually decorated witJi lines of powdered cl]nn:ini, the lower part^ of the doorposts with the nsnyl salfron and knnkujniim in Jiontnir of Lakshmi, and the sides of the pials and walls with wJiiie s})0*-'S made with chunam and water,

'•*""''' The dress of the Kindus prcst^nts no very speciii! pi^culiariHos.

Little boy3 of the higher castes usunlly wear short broeches or drawers aa their only g:irnients, and those of the jioorer uhisses notbing but the languti or piece-cloth. Litth- girls of the two classes wear re.spectivply a petticoat and bodiee, and a bii. "f cloth wound round their waists. Orthodox married Hrahtnaii men tie their waist-cloths in the nsual compliciited manner called fanehakachchnm. Others of the upper classes tie them, as elsewhere, once or twice round the waist and then pass tho upper front fold between their le<, s aud tnek it in al the back. 'I'l>« favourite colour for the clotli is red. M.iiaS and Madigas ordinarily wear only a languti. 'I'he women usually dress in white cloths. "Dancing-girls wear petticoats and bodices, snid bodices are common innoug other oastes also. "I'ln^ women's cloths are nearly always of cotton; silk is a rarity. Bnihrnan women, as elsewhere, pass between their legs the outer front fold of the part which goes ronnd their waists.^'anfl tuck it into thfif waists behind. Women working hi the fields tuck theii* garments between their legs and then pull them up as higli as they can. The women of most subdivisions of the Bnihnians, and also those of the Komatis, Kamsalae and Perikes, wear the cloth over the left shonlder instead of the right.

The men do not usually share the whole of their heads except one top-knot, as in the sonth, but olten cut their hair like Europeans. Telugu brahmans differ from their Tamil caste-fellows in frequently wearing moustaches.

Tattooing is very common as an adornment among the women, and two or three straight line« are sometimes tattooed across pamful swellings, to act rvs a bli.ter. The ponna chethi ind R i m S ? T f . f ' " ! ' " ' ? " " l I*"*"'- - - ^ " - n t a l pattern,

THE PEOPLE. 4 5

Tlio ordioftiT food-graiu of tlie district is rice. Even ontsid^ CHAP. ril. the delta, in tnch iiplnud parts as Tuni and Pithiipiimm, rico is TH^ HINDI'S.

coiumojily eaten, thongh it is often mixed with cam bit {ganti) ,,, , and i*agi {tsmii). In the Agency, choiam (jonm) U the couimou-cst food. Jirahniituri, Kaiusula'^, and tlio Cravara and Liugttdliari Komiitis Jiro apparently the only castes which do not eiit meat. Mala» and iladigaa will eat beef and Cdrriou, aud Nakkalas arc fond of jaclfftl. A g'ood many castes will cat Imre, which olscwhcre is oftea cousidered tinclean,

The labouring clasi-es have three meids a da>, at S A.M., midday, and 8 P.M. ; orthodox Bi-ahmaa* two meals, at about 11 A-M., and 8 I'.si,; while officials and the richer people eat at 10 A.M., 3 I'.M., and 8 i-.si.. and often have early cofl'ee as well a*i about 7 A.M. But coll'ee is imicli [ess driink in this diatriut than in the south. Smoking, on the contrary, is a liabit with all ^ except the orthodox Brahmans, Even the women of many castes smoke, and little boys und girls may also ofteu be seen with cheroots in their mouths, Opium is freely eaten by must olabses, especially, it is said, as a prophylactic against fever. It is also considered an excellent tonic for children and the aged.'

The boys of the district phiy mnch the same kinds ot games Amufoiuent*. as in tlio sontli. 'I'hcy tiy kites and play at marbles, tipcsit {tjonibilh), a. Ivind of ronuders {OfOii/tidti), a sort of blind man'« buff and many other games. Grirls and women of (he liighor castes have quieter indoor pastimes, such as tossing up and catching tamarind seeds, and various games with cowries on a boai-d. Men Jiave no outdoor sports, but play cards and chess. A popuhir local card-game is called dasdmtdri. This is played with a pack ol l^U cards, containing ten suits of twelve cards each. Kaoh suit consists of a king, a vizier and ten plain cards and is called after, and marked with the image of, one of the ten incarnations (nvo/dr^) of Vishnu. In half the suits the higher plain cards take the lower, as In English cards, and in the other balf the opposite is the case. A trump card is turned np and the tricks are won in much the name way as at Bridge. All except the higher classes are devoted to cock-fight-iug. iJoiitmen going down Mio river often take their cock si\'ith tliem to pit them against the birds of the villages ou the way. Puppet shows are very common. The puppets are concealed froin the audience by a sheet on to which their shadows are thrown by a light behind them.

* Tlio two eommoii madicines nC tlio di«t net (ire nalla muttdu ( 'black medioiuo,'t.i),, opium) and totlit•mand/i ('(vhite modioine,' i.e., a pvepwationof murcnvy). Tlioso aro ovary who ro known «ud 1 kequoiitly usetl. The la t torw* luiativv. The foi'mer ban a coiilvary eflcct.

46 G6DiVAEl.

CHAP. ]IL The supcr.stitionti of tlio people am Ipgion. A few typical THE EiNRL'b. eiauopJes maj be given. If an owl pyrchos on a lionsc, it ])riu|;s Stiperititioii. i ' l i i ck to the inmates. A crow cawing on tlie rouf ntii house indi

cates the ai-rival ot a gnest. i3ad omens inolucie beiu*;' ((iiostioncd regarding liusiness on which one is setting oot, or, dirot;tly luiff leaving the house, catching sight of one iirftinnan, two SndrJis, a widow, oil, a snake, a shikilri, or a sanyasi. Good onions are hearing a bell ring, a cannon go off, the braying of an a g, tlio cry of a Brahmani kite, 01% on first leaving tlie lnniso, seomg n, Tnarried woman, a corpse, Hower;,, water or a toddy pot. Talismans are commonly worn. A usual kind is a flat piece or metal with a figure of Hanumon 011 it. Anotlier, made of leather witli the skin of a lizard got from a Madiga stitched into it, is hnng round the shoulders of weak and sickly children. Women and houses are supposed often to be possessed of devils, whom only ;<• professional sorcerer can eiercise. Yerakala women are in great request as exorcists. In cases of illue.ss supposed to be due to the ill will of a god or spirit, three handfuls of rice arc earned round the invalid, and are then placed in a winnowing fan, which is held by both the patient and the sofceress. The latter then scans the former's face, professes to be able to read-there the name of the offended spirit, and ad vises as to tlio propitiation to be made. In the Agency, belief in witchcraft is exceptionally strong, and almost every ill is thought to be duo to the person's being bewitched. The old rdja of Oherla, jnst across the border, was especially afraid of witches and wizards, antt before the British occupation of the taluk an easy method 01 ridding oneself of an enemy there was to accase him of practising the black art. The rfija immediately seiaed and hanged him.

Childbirth is surrounded by a number of superstitions. A pregnant woman should not see an eclipse, or her child will be bora deformed. The pains of childbirth are relieved by turning the face of the bull god in a Saivite temple away from the emblem of Siva, or by the woman's touching a ring inade of a mixture of gold, silver, copper, lead and iron by a fasting blacksmiiih on the day of an eclipse. A child whose first tooth comes in the upper jaw is supposed to foreshadow evil to its maternal uncle ; and may not be seen by that relative till he has nouti-aliiied the omen by seeing the rellection of the cliild in a bowl of oil and broken a cocoannt. Similarly, »s slaewherc, a girl who has attained maturity in an inauspicious liour may not be looked at by her busband until they have seen each others' reUecttoos in a

* U^M. M.V. Cain iu the Indian Antiquary, -y, 303,

TEE PEOPLE. 47

hoTvl of oil. Some dreams are supposed to foretell events. Thus CHAP, m . i t is ft good tiling to drefim of being bUteii by fi cobra, especially Tiit HINDOS.

if tlie bito drew blood.

I t is believed tlmt a barren free will bear if a naked man cuts a piece olV it on fcbe day of an eclipse; tliat tbe nesting of a clfty-hntldin{f fly in a house foretells the birth of a child ; that the appearance of a swarm of ants or a blood-,-;iieker in tlie liouse foreshadows some benefit; that a child which sneezes on a winnowing fan or on the door-frame will meet with misfortune unless balls of boiled rice-llonr are (lirown over it : and that a inan who sneezes dnring his meals, especially at night, will also be unhieky nnlesa water is sprinkled over his face and he is made to pronounce his own name and tbat af his birth-place and his patron deily. People who liave lost two children and e^ipe(;t to have a thirt( generally beg .- inaU pieces of gold ^ from tlieir neighbours wit,h wliich they make a gold ornament to put in the nose of the new-born baby, TIte child is called, if a boy, Piillayya or Pentayya, and if a girl, eithtir PuUamma or Pontamma, meaning respectively ' used up leaf-plate,s ' or ' refuse,' The idea is to propitiate by due humility the nemesis of the power whose enmity has caused the death of the previous children, and is common in other districts,

Scarcity of rain is dealt with in various ways. If. i^ considered very efficacious if the BrAhmans take in procession round tlie village an imago of Varnna (the god of rain) made of mud from the bank of a river or tank. Another method is fo pour 1,000 pots of water over the lingam in the Siva temple. MSlas tie a live frog to a mortar and put on the fop of the latter a mnd ligure representing Gontiydlamma, the mother of the Pandava brothers. They then take these objects in procession, singing ' M o t h e r frog, playing in wafer, pour rain by pots fu l l ' The villagers of other castes then come and pour water over the Mil las.

besides the orthodox gods of the Hindu pantheon, three Village, other classes of supernatural beings are commonly worshipped, ''"s*?! ""il These are the village goddesses referred to below, who are *"" ye"** essentially local in character; the caste deities, who are objects of special reverence among special castes ; and the family deities, namely the virudii, or soul of some dead bachelor of the family, and the peivntam^ or spirit of some woman outlived by her husband, wlio have been accorded apotheosis because they appeared in a dream to some member of the family and announced tha t they had been made immortal,

48 GCSDAVAKI.

CUA.P. III. The village deities iive always female, and nsn'\Uy can only he THE HixDHS. propitiatetl by tho shedding of bloorl. Thev are not, however,

merely raalevolent. but will confer beuofita on tlios'^ whom, they Eavonr. Some of tlie most coinnum of them arc NukiUartimn, Paradesamma, Neralamma, Sfallamimi, Polemmmii, Wnthyiil-amma, Peddintamma, Soiiialainnm. BangArannna. \riivnllftmmLi, find Taliipulainnin. AVherever one of (lie]n if; estnlilislniil, her brother, who always goes by the name of Potunizii, is albo worshipped. tSome of them Imve a reputation far beyoint the local lihiit^ of their villages, an<l are visited by j)itgiinis from distant places. Nukdlamma of Kaiidrakdta in Pedihfpuram taluk, Mdvullamma of Mnr«<lip;tka in Hamacliaiidnipui'am and Somalamina of Raiahmnndry are fjimous almost throu-jliout tho district. These village goddesses an* urdinai'ily wor-;!iippe<l only on th« occasion of their annusil ft'stival. A lmffal(» aitd a number of sheep and fowU are tlien sacrificed to tlteni. The fowls are killed at the four corners of the village ; (lie buffalo U ftlain at about midnight on tlie List day of the festival, it?; bloud is collected in a pot, anci grain of various Idnd;; is put into it. The blood is left in the tem])le in front of the goddess, and a day or two later the pTOS|iects of the liarvost are foretold from the degree to which thi3 various kinds of grain have (sprouted.

Among the deities who are worshipped by special castes are Kanyakamma, the goddess of the Eoraatis, referred to later, the K^ttumai (who is also sometimes called KAttamdhesvarudu) of the Gamallas and Idigas, the (lontiyfihimnui (the mother of the Pandava brothers) of the Malas, the Kamsalas' KdinAkshi-amma, the Karnabattus' Somesvam, and the Madigas' Mdtangiralu. Brdliman families also often have some favourite deity whom they worship in preference to all others.

Maridanima, who in many respects (Jorresponds to tlie riamma of the south, is purely malevolent in character and is

not in the habit of conferring benefits. She brings disease upon the villages, but can be induced by becoming worship to hold her hand. She is offered animal sacrifices whenever serions sickness visits a village. Sometimes a small car is made to which pigs and fowls are tied and which is then dragged through the village. Every household ponra offerings of vice, etc. upon it and it is at last left outside the village limits to symbolise the (lepartnru of the goddess. The animals are taken away by the

a n d M d d i g a s . '

' A somewhat eimilav coremoiiy is mentioucd Ja tho Bellarn QazeiiUQr, «0,

file:///riivnllftmmLi

THE PEOPLE. - 49

Before proceeding to refer to the principal castes of the CHAP, HI ,

district it will be convenient to refer to some general aspects of THE HISDVB,

the rules and ceremonies wliich prevail at marriages and funerals jfanw^ among the non-Bi'dhman castes of the low country. rulea and

Most of these castes are split into endogamous subdivisions, '= ' '"o"'''*' marriage outside of which is forbidden, and some have also exogamous sections of these subdivisions, marriage outside which is compulsoiy. The latter are known as inti penthi, or ' hounn-names.* The most suitable bride for a man is usually thought to he his maternal uncle's daughter, and in some castes he ia compelled to marry her unless she be deformed or mentally deficient. This rule is called menarikaiit. Divorce and the remarriage of widows and divorcees ate not allowed by Br&hmans or the castes wliich copy Brahman ways. The same may be said of the practice of paying a bride-price-

Tliere are three stages in' the ordinary marriage. First a formal betrothal, secondly tlie wedding which malcos the couple man and vvife, and lastly a nuptial ceremony when they begin to live together.

The betrotiial usually takes place in the bride's house, and is a formal ceremony at which pdnsupdri is exchanged, the bridegroom is given new clothing (sdpu), or some other token of the undertaking is granted.

The wedding sometimes takes place in the bride's house and sometimes in the bridegroom's. It generally occurs after dark and usually occupies only one day, but among the Brahmans and some higher castes it lasts for three or five days. In the latter cases the marriage-badge {tali or satamdnam) referred to below is tied round the bride's neck on the first day, and the saffron threads removed from the wrists of the happy pair on the last. On tlie day previotis to the wedding the bridegroom's party goes to the bride's house with presents of fruit, etc., and a new cloth for her. Some married woman of the party then ties a safiron-ooloured thread (bondu) round the neck of the bride, the 'lerejnony being called praddnam. Sometimes this is done on the night of the wedding. On this night the couple are seated side by side, their toe-nails are solemnly cut by a barber man and woman, the bridegroom's front hair is clipped, and they both put on new clothes. Next the bride worships a rice mortar representing Gauri, the wife of Siva, and her parents make obeisance to the bridegroom. The pair then tie saffron threads ikankamm) round each others' wrists, put a little cummin on each others' heads, and do reverence to the (dh', which the bridegroom ties round the bride's neck. TJiey next pour rice mixed with

7

50 G6DAVAEI.

CHAP. III. ghee and milk on eaoh others* heads (a ceremony called tahmhrdh THE HINDI'S, and signifying a solemn vow of fidelity) and the bridegroom

places his foot on the biide's. This and the tying of the hankanan are the binding parts of the ceremony. The star Arondliati (popularly called Aranjoti) is pointed out to the bnde as typical of chastity, and tlie couple do worship to some coloured pots {asiredi) representing the gods. The relatives give presents of Juoney {htitnam) to the bride, which are not supposed to be retained, but are returned to the givers on the first convenient occasion. The final rites are performed next morning, or in some castes on the third or fifth day. The bridegroom ties £1 string of black glass beads round the bride's neck, and the saffron threads are removed fvom the couple's wrists. They then are given a pot of v(rater coloured with chunam and saffron in which a nng and some other ornaments have been placed, and they scramble for the ornaments, like children hunting in a bran pie.

The nuptial rites^ which are simple, are performed on a separate occasion, since days auspicious for weddings are not suitable for them.

The ceremonies at the re-marri;igc of a widow are, as elsewhere, much sliorter. The bridegroom merely goes to her house, ties the tdU, and takes her to his house the same night.

The dead are usually burnt, but children are buried and some simple rite is performed, such as the pouring ot milk, either alone or mixed with rice or oil and ghee, on the grave. The ceremonies at the funerals of adults are mucli the same in all uon-6rahman castes. The body is bathed and is borne to the burning-ground on a bier. The M^las and MAdigas carry it in their arms in a sitting posture. The corpse is set down three times on the road while rice is placed at the four corners of the bier. When it has been placed on the pyre, the son of the deceased walks thrice round it with a pot of water in vfhich three holes have been made, and lights the pyre with face averted. The relatives then go home and worship a lamp. Further ceremonies ure performed on the eleventh day afterwards (called the pedda dina.m or ' great day ') and on some day between the second and fifth after it, which is called the chinna dinam or ' small day.' On the latter the bones and ashes are collected and are offered a ball o£ cooked rice. The party then returns home and feasts.

Statistics of the numerous castes which occur in the G6ddvari district will be found in the separate Appendix to this volume. Space prevents reference to the whole of them, and most of them,

Puiicralf.

PHIKOPAI. CiSTI s ,

THE PEOPLE. 51

PRIKCirAL C.VtTEB.

indeed, arc comraon to the whole of the Telugu country and their CHAP, u i . ways do not differ iu this district from those of their caste-fellows elsewhere.

The sis most numerous commuuities (taking tbcm in the order of their strength) are the Kdpus, the landowning class ; the Milas, oof caste agriculturallabourers ; the Idigas, who draw toddy ; the MddigaSj outcaste workers in leather; the Kammas, who are closely connected witti the Kdpus and resemble them in^their social customs ; and the Telugu-speaking Brahmans.

All these are shortly referred to below, and, in addition, some notes are given regarding a few communities which occur in greater strength in this district than in any other; uamoly^ the K&zUB, who claim to be Kshatriyas ; the K6matis, traders and money-lenders; the Perikes, who are cultivators; the Ganiallas, an olVshoot from the Idigas ; the Karnahattu, weavers ; the Sanis, many of whose women are dancing-girls ; and the two hill tribes of the Koyas and the hill Keddis.

Of all of these castes the Br&hinans take the highest social position, and they may be first referred to.

Telugn-speaking Brahmans are unusually numerous in Goda-vari. Some of them, though tlieir home-speech is Telugu, appear to have a Tamil or Canai'esc origin. Among tlie former are the K6nasima Brdhmans of Amallpur-am talukj who have a tradition (see p. 204) that they came from near ICumbakonam in Tanjore district; the Aramas, who are few and scattered; and the Divilis, who are to be found chiefly in Pithdpnram taluk. I'ho Telugu Brahmans proper, also called Andhras, arc a linguistic division of the Drividas, one of the two great classes (Drfivida and Gauda) into which all Brahmans in this Presidency are divided. They are popularly subdivided into the following sectarian, territorial and occupational groups :—

f Tengalaie. f Vaishuavites. J Nambis.

1 Golconda VyiiiiririEi, fViiidiki

Velinadn

Bt'QblllQUd

Andhra Brdbmans <

LSmirtae.

Teginadn. Telngaiiya Kaeil^^a, Mnrikm^dn. K^knmdna. Kali 11 ga. Tambnia Pujari. Karntikauima.

^Fratham as akha.

Niydgi or Arn-v^la Miy6gi.

Pii]ari.

Vaidiki. Niy6gi.

f YjAiiari, I Vaidiki.

53 GODlvARt.

CHAP. 111. PWNCIPAi

CASTES.

It will be seen that tlio primary division is scctariaHj into Vaishnavites and >Sm^rtas. Among the former tliore are none of the VadagalaiSj the rival sect to the Tcngalais; Nambis are priests in tlie temples; and the origin of the name Grolconda Vy&p^ris [' traders ') is not clear.

Among the Smartas, the Velinddus say tlicy came from ' tho Vidarbha country near Kondavido '; tho Vdginadus claim to have come from the Vengi country in tlie neighbourhood of Ellore; the Telagdnyas gfive their original homo as tho TriJing-am country, vi hich they locate between Srieailam in Kurnool, KAlahasti in North Arcot, and Drakshardmam in tins diafcriot; the Kdeil^yas state that they belong to tho E!6!3ala country, or Orissa; the Marikiaddus say that they come from * the M Aladamo country in the north'; the Kdkumanus are perhaps connected with the village of that name in the Kistna district; and the Kalinga3 are evidently connected with the ancient coantry of that name referred to in the last chapter. The Tambala Pujaris are an occupational subdivision, who officiate as priests in tlie Saivite tbinples and correspond to the Tamil Surukkals. Tlic Kamakammas say their real name is Kama Eukkumns and is derived from their adherence to tho Rig Veda, The Prathama-a^khas (' people of the first division') profess to owe their name to the fact that they follow that division of the Yajar Veda. They also go by the name of the ' mid-day Paraiyans,' the story being that they labour under a curse which makes them Paraiyans for an hour at midday. The Velin&dua and Telagdnyas are further subdivided into the well-known occupational groups of Vaidikis (oT priests) and Niyogis (or secularists), and the former have also a third group, namely, the Pujaris. Kamakammas are split into Vaidikis and Vydpdi-ia, or traders. The name Aruv<51a Niy6gi by which the Velia^du Niy6gis are known is said to be due to the fact that this section numbered just 6,000 persous when it split off from the Vaidikis. Its members have three sectarian subdivisions; namely Smartas, Lingadharis (who favour Lingdyat practices) and Golconda Vydparis, who have gone over to the Vaishnavite creed. Some of these Smartas have taken to Vaidiki occupations, though Niyogis by descent, and are called Paddatis. With a few unimportant exceptions these nnmeroua subdivisions of the Telugu Br£hmans will eat together but will not intermarry.

Though in the study of the V<Sdas and the observance of the more important ceremonies of the caste tho Tolugu Br&hmans are not inferior to their castemen in the southern districts, they are less scrupulous in several minor matters. They will smoke, for example, and eat opium. They perhaps, also, have less

THE PEOPLE. 53

luducnco in religious and social matters orer other castes than in CUAP. ill. the soutli. The lower classes do not make thsiii the ready TRINCIPAL

namashdram obeisance winch is usual in Tanjore, for example, CAtrKs, nor is there the same anxiety to follow their social and domestic ceremonies. Nor do tlie Telugn Brahmans hold tliemselves as severely aloof from the upper non-Brahman castes as in the south. I t has already been mentioned fliat tliey seldom live in separate quarters in the villages, and they will give a respectable noa-Brihman food in any part of their houses except the kitchen, a piece of latitude which would bo most unasual in Tanjore.

Attached to the caste is tJie beggar community called Vipravinodis ('amusers of Brahmans*), who are professional sorcerers and jugglers who decline to perform unless some Brahman is present, and subsist cliicfly on alms begged from the members of that caste. Sevei-al unconvincing tales are told to account for this odd connection between two sucli widely differing classes but, as will be seen immediately, ecvcral other castes in thi8 district have beggar communities attached particularly to them and in some cases these are declared to consist of their Ulegitimate descendants.

Tlie Ba^us also" stand high in the social scale. They are HSZUB.

numerous in the Amalapuram and Itamachandrapuram taluks, aud tliere is a large colony of them in Tani town. They say they are Kshatriyas, weai the sacred thread, keep their women-kind strictly gosha, liave Erdhmanical gotras, decline to eat with other mon-Br^bmans, and are divided into the three clans of Sfirya (sun), Chandra (moon), and Maclii (fish) Razus, of whom the first claim to be descended from the kings of Oudh, of the same lineage as Eama; the second, from the kings of Hastindpm'a, of the same line as the Pandavas; and the third from Hanumdn and a mermaid. These subdivisions may cat together, and among the zamindars the first two intermariy. The solar line is tho commonest in this district. Written contracts of marriage are exchanged; the wedding is performed in the bride's house; at i\ie piaddnain ceremony no bondu (saffron thread) is tied round the bride's neck; the bridegroom has to wear a sword throughout the marriage ceremonies, and he is paraded round the village with it before they begin; and the saffron thread {hankanam) which is tied round the wrists of the couple is of wool and cotton instead of cotton alone.

The Razus are chiefly employed in cultivation. Their tnrbans are made to bunch out at the left side above tho ear, and one eud of them hangs down behind. They do not shave any part of their head* and allow long locks to hang down in front of their ears.

54 dduXvABt.

CHAP. Il l PRtttCtPlL

CASTEe.

K^matif),

The beggar community attached to them arc tlic Bhatrnzus, who were originaUy their court bards and panegyristSj but now beg from other castes as well and have less special claim upon them than formerly. These people arc notorious for thoir importunity and their gift for lampooning those who refuse tlicni alms, and they trade upon the fact.

The Komatis are the great trading and money-lending caste of the Telugu country, and are not popular. They call themselves Vaisyas, wear the sacred thread, claim to have 102 * gotras, * and of late years some of them Jiave adopted Vudic rites at their marriages and funerals in pkcc of the l^uranic rites which are traditional with them. But oo tho other hand their gotras are not Brahmanical and they follow the Dravidian rule of inenarikam in their marriages. In this district they are subdivided into the Gavaras, Kalingas, and Traivarnikas (' tliird-caste-men')j who neither intermarry nor dine together, and the last of whom differ from the others in the strictness of tlieir observance of Brahmanical ways. The Gavaras are by far the most numerous.

Their caste goddess, Kanyakamma or Kanyakd Param<5svavi already mentioned, is said to be a deification of a beautiful Komati girl named Vasavamma who belonged to Pcnugonda in Kistna. The Eastern Clialukya king Vishnuvardhana wanted t;0 marry her, her caste-people objected and were pcrftccnted accordingly, and at last she burnt liersolf alive to end the trouble, The headmen of 102 families, the ancestors of the present 'go t ras / sacrificed tliemselves with her. Slic has many temples, but the chief is at her native village of Penugonda, TJie fines collected at caste panchayats are even now gent to this.

Of the 102 ' gotras ' some at least are totemistic, which is another argument against the twice-born origin of the caste. They are derived from the names of plants, and to this day the members of these gotras may not touch their eponymous plants, and even involuntary contact with them involves ceremonial pollation which must be removed by a bath. Some of these are given in the report on the Madras census of 1901, p. 162. The same volume gives authorities for the custom among Komatis (which is strenuously denied by them) requiring them to give betel and nut to a Madiga before a wedding' is performed in the casto. The practice is said to bo dying out or to bo usually veiled by the Komati giving the Madiga some cobbling work to do and handing him the betel and nut with the amount of his bill. Members of the caste who admit an obscure connection

THE PEOPLE. 55

CHAP. III.

CASTF--.

with these Madigas explain it by saying that the latter protected them duriiifj tlieii- trouhle with Vishauvaidhana. Some of the Velamas somewhat similarly arrange that a Mala couple shall he married just hefore a wedding in their own houses, and even fimi the funds. TJie Eev. J. Cain says that with tlie filiadrdchalam Velamas it is a Palli couple that is thus first married. Velamas explain tlie story by saying that a Mala once allowed a Yelamato sacrifice liim to propitiate the goddess who guards hidden treasure, find that the custom is kept up out of gratitude for the discovery of tlie treasure which resulted. Among some classes of Koiuatis the women do the cooking while in a state of nudity. Those who admit tlie practice say tliat it is done for cleanliness' sake, lest the toucli of an impure garment should defile the food.

Attae]ied to the Kojnatis are two begging castes called Viramushtis and Mailaris. Tliey are said by the Kdmatis to have been the messengers in tlieir dealings with Vishnuvai-dhana, and, at the lastj to have delayed the actvent of tlie king till tlio holocaust was over. The Tirauiaslitis are wrestlers and bards, and the Mailaiis carry round an image of Kanyakamma and siug songs in her praise.

The Kdf us or Heddis, by far the most numerous of the castes Kipnt. of tlie district, are landowners by occupation and ai-e among the most respected of the non-Bnihman bodies. Closely connected with them are the Velamas, the Telagas, the Vantarlu and the Kammas referred to below; and all four of these are probably ofishoots of the great Kdpu clan. They will usually eat \vith Kdpus oven now, but they do not intermarry with them or with one another, and in several instances peculiarities of dress or customs liave arisen. The Vantarlus, for example, arrange their top-knot further forward, and more to the left, than the others ; tie their cloths differently ; dress their women in petticoats and keep them gosh a.

I t is said that in some districts the Kapus have tot-omistic Etiwmai subdivisions, but these do not appear to exist in Goda-yari. Their marriages are usually celebrated in the bride's house; the women of the bridegroom's family do not attend ; and on the last day of tlie ceremony the couple pretend to plough and sow, a custom which exists among some of the Telugn castes who liave emigrated to the Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts.

The Kamraas are a cultivating caste closely akin to, and probably a subdivision of, the Kdpus. Some of theni say they were originally Kshatriyas, but were persecuted by a king because ono of thorn called him a bastard, and therefore sought refuge with tjie Kdpus and adopted the customs of their

file:///vith

66 G6l>AVjLItI.

CHAP. III. PRINCIPAL CASTES.

Perikea.

protectors. Others of theui say that they aro descended from the same ancestor as the V^elamas and some of the Kapus and that the subdivisions io these castes are the same as iu theiv own. Like the Kdpus, tliey aro generally cultivators, and tlieir social position and characteristics are similar,

In this districtj Kammas are subdivided into the Kdvitis, Eredis, Gampas or Gudas, Uggamg and Eachas, who eat in each others' houses and intermarry. The names have a totemistio flavour, hut according to local accounts are derived from curious household customs^ generally from traditional methods of carrying water. Thus the Kdvitis ordinarily will not carry water except in pots on a kdvt'di; the Eredis except on a pack-bnllock ; the \Jggams except in pots held in the band and not bornt; on their hips or heads ; and the Bdchas except in a pot carried by two persons. The Gampa women, when they first go to tlieir husbands' houses, take the customary presents in baskets, gampct or gtida. I t is said that these practices are generally observed to the present day. The K4viti and Uggam women are said to wear their cloths over the right shoulder and the Er^di and Gampa women over the left. The Eredi and Uggam women are said to be strictly g6sha. The Kammas support a special beggar caste, namely tlie Pichchignntas. These beg only of Kammas, Velamas and certain Kdpus.

The Perikes are a small cultivating caste who are particularly numerous in G6dAvari, The name moans a gunny-bag, and the caste were originally gunny-bag weavers. Those in tliis district are now mostly cultivators (the Pisu Perikes, who still weave gunny, are said not to belong to the caste proper, who call themselves Racha Perikes) but the gunny-bag plays a part in their traditions and ceremonies. They are perhaps commonest in the Prattipidu subdiviaiun o£ Peddipuriim taluk and tlie southern villages of Tuni. Their social position is similar to that of the Kdpus and Kammas, whom they resemble generally in character and customs. Like some of the Kammas, they claim to be of Kshatriya stock, and say they are of the lineage of Paraau Rdma bat were driven out by him for kidnapping his sister while pretending to be gunny-weavers. They say they were brought into this country by the king Nala mentioned in the MahSbh&rata in gratitude for their having taken care of his wife Damayanti when he quitted her during his misfortunes. Perikes support the begging caste of the Varugu Bhattaa, who, they say, helped them in their exile, and to whom they gave a mtiad authorizing them to demand alms. These people go rouud the Ferike houses for their dues eveiy year,

file:///Jggams

THE PEOrr.R. cy

fio Periko mavrfago feremonieg are peculiar. On t)ie day of CHAP. I I I . PRIN-CIPAL n .vedding the bride and groom are made to fast, as are three

Lie relatives w]]03u they call s^inb/taJifaf. At the marriage ^• '"" ' ^ couple sit on n ffwnny-bag, and anotJier ganny, on which a ^presentation of the god Mailar is drawn or painted, is spread

wefore them. A figure of the same god is drawn on two pots, and these, and also a third pot, are filled with rice and dholl w'hich are then cooked by two married women of the party. The food is then offered to Mailar. Nest the three sunbhalifas take 101 cotton tlireads, fasten them togetlier, and tie seven knots in them. Bride and bi-idegroom are then given cloths which bave been partly immersed in water coloured with saffron and chunatu, and they and the siiribhaHas are fed with the rice and dholl cooked in the three pots. The couple are then taken round the viUajfe in procession, and on tlieir i-oturn the l -notted cotton threads are tied round the bride's neck instead of a idli,

The fdigas or f ndras are veiy numerous in GodAvari Thev T are the Telugu toddy-drawing caste. They are common^ cflUed Chettis (CheliigdvdhC) in this district, but the name f ndra is used in the north-east divisions and f diga in the central delta They claim to be descended from Vydsa, the traditional compUer of the Mahdbhdrata. They are stUl largely employed in toddy-drawing (though some are cultivators) and consequently occupy a low position in tlie social scale. In some districts, it is said they bury their dead, prohibit the consumption of alcohol and have endogamous subdivisions, but these things arc not so in this district. Some are Saivites and some Vaishnavites, but these are allowed to intermarry.

Two of their marriage ceremonies are peculiar. The couple walk three times round four upright sticks placed so as to make a small square and connected with each other by cotton threads and then the bridegroom cuts the cotton with a knife. They also make two cakes of rice flour, ghee and sugar, one of wliich is eaten by themselves and tlie other by their relatives.

The fdigas' special god is Kdttumai, to whom they annually eacrifiee fowls on New Year's Day, and daily offer a few drops of toddy from the first pot taken from the tree.

The Gamallaa are ordinarily supposed to be fdigas who have bettered themsglves and separated from that caste. The more '^ *"** wealthy of them are toddy and arrack shop-keepers, but tho poorer members of the caste draw toddy like the fdigas. Both classes worship the Idiga deity Kattumai. Tliey support a beffffine (iaste called Yeniitis or Gavuda Jottis. ^

58 G6DAVAIII,

Tli6 Kamabattus are almost entirely confined to the 66ai tlie district, and are weavers by occupation. Tliey forbidtlmt re-man-iage of widows, but eat even pork. Tliey bnry tlieir dvn.

KarnabattM. in a sitting posture. Tbeir caste lieadnian is caUed S/>M(? ,;I1

CHAP, n i , pRINCIPJtl.

-CASTES,

wlic,

S&nJB.

M»fie,.

' leader of an. array.' Tlieir special deity is Sointisvara, -r.^^^ they unite to worship on tlie new-moon day of Pushyam (Januarj February). The god is represented by a mud idol made for tlie occasion. The ^w/an*throws flowers over it in token of adoration and then sits before it with his liauds outstretched and his mouth closed until one of the flowers falls into liis liands.

The S^nis are a small caste of dancing-girls and prostitutes. In this district this class o£ women is made up of six perfectly distinct castes which are in danger of being confused; namely, the Sanis proper, the BogamSj the Dommara Sanis, the Turaka Sinis, the Mangala Bogams, and the Mddiga Bogams. Of these, the Bogams claim to be supeiior and wiU not dance in tlie presence of, or after a performance by, any of tlie others. The Sinis do not admit this claim, bat they do not mind daiicing after the Bogams or in their presence. All the other classes are admittedly inferior to the Sdnis and the Bogams. The M^diga Bogams only dance before, and consort with, Mddigas and M^las. The Dommara SInLs, Tui-aka Sanis and Mangala Bogams will consort with any of the non-polluting castes.

ThcSani women are not exclusively devoted to their tjradi-tionaJ profession. Some of tbem marry the men of the caste and live respectably at home with them. The men moreover do not, as in the dancing castes of the south, assist in the dancing (as by playing the accompaniments or forming a chorus), bat are cultivators and petty traders, Bogam men, however, follow the southern custom. The Sanis, like the dancing-girl castes of the south, keep op their numbers by the adoption and even purchase of girls of other castes, such as K^pus, Kammas and fdigas. They do service in the temples, but they are not required to be formally dedicated or man-ied to the god, as in the Tamil country. Those of them who are to become prostitutes are usually married to a sword on attaining maturity.

The Malas are the great agricultural labourer class and are very numerous in the district. They are split into four endoga-mous subdivisions, the Kantes, the Boyas or Sodur E6yas, the Pdyikis and the Mdla B^saris. Kupe, Arava (Tamil) and Bruda (' marsh') ate also given as subdivisions. The Mala Dasaris are the caste priests and the Pdyikis are sweepers by occupation. The former are admittedly superior to the rest of the caste and the

THE PEOPLE. 59

pyre generally regarded as inferior. None of the subdivisions t}y(eriarry or eat in each otliers* houses. Malas eat beef and rj(^ Cinsequently almost at the bottom of the social scale. They tjrejot allowed to enter the Hindu temples; no other caste (not j.JVn excluding the Madigas) MTU eat in their houses; and they

jf»:rllute all Siidra castes by touching them or entering their houses, and a Brahman by even approaching him. Even the iladigas pretend to bo polluted if a Mala enters their houses; but the Mdlas return the compliment. The ordinary barbers will not work for liiilaa and thoy either shave each otlier or have their own barbers. The ordioary washermen will wash their clothes if these have first been given a preliminary soaking. A peculiar ceremony at their weddings (which is also observed by the Madigaa) consists in burying handf uls of different kinds of grain, and sacrificing a fowl over the spot,

They have their own beggar castes, namely the Mashtigas, who are gymnasts, the Pambalas, who aro musicians, and the Katikapus, who are jugglers. Round Timi the jungle tribe there called ChentzQs are also included among the Mala beggars.

Their special caste deity is Gontiyalamma, the mother of the five Pandava bretlircn. They say (it 19 not an edifying story) that Bhima, one of the five, threatened to kill his mother, who accordingly took refuge under an aviredi pot (the painted pot used at weddings) in a Jlala house. For this, she was solemnly cursed by lier sons, who said she should remain a Mala woman for ever, In commemoration of this story, a handful of growing paddy is palled up every year at the Dasara, and eight days later the eartb adhering to its roots is mixed with saffron and milk, made into an image of the goddess, and hidden under an aviredi pot. Eor the next six months this image is worshipped every Sunday by all the villagers in turn, and on the Sivaratri night it is taken in procession round the village, accompanied by all the Mains bearing pots of rice and other food carried in a Mvidt, and ia finally thrown with much ceremony into a river or tank. This rite is supposed to mean that the goddess is the daughter of the caste, that she has lived with them six months, and that they aije now solemnly sending her back with suitable gifts (the ricexouch to her husband. A common form of religious voiv amon' ia to promise to send a cloth and a cow with the godd'f"''^^'*'^" , . , » , . , . . . . ci J ri^Uan College last day of the rite, the gifts being afterwards pre^g^^ Reports of married daughter. The part played by the imagenyior's Catalogue lamnia in the Mdlas' rain-making ceremonies has ptislojj'a Aboriginal been described. Both MiUas and Madigas holr" of their ancestors at Pongal—an uncommon r

CHAP. lit. pRINTIPitl.

CibTFS.

60 GODAVAEt.

tJHAP. Ill, The Mddigaa are a numerous caste whose traditioLôoi the PEiKciPAt, pations are tanning and shoe-making. Some of them s.^dthat

CASTES. are the descendants of a saint or demi-god called JinihlK|;dvn. Jladigae. and a woman called Puramasi wlio disturbed tlie saint .-^^^1

contemplation and became his wife. a ^t They are subdivided into tlie occupational classes of Mdoiga

Dasaris (priests), Mddiga Pajikis (sweepers), the Kommalas (who blow horns) aud the ordinary JIadigas who follow the traditional callings of tanaing and shoe-making. These will not dine together or intermarry. The last of tliera is by far the most namerows. The Dasaris are considered socially the highest, and the Payikis the lowest, of the subdivisions.

M^digas are much despised by other castes because they are leather-workers and eat beef and even carrion, and they take much the same low social position as the Malas. Their cunous connection with the Komatis has been mentioned in the account of that caste above. Their marriage and other cereinonies are very similar to those of the Malas. Their special caste goddess is Matangi, who they say was defeated by Parasu Uama and concealed herself from him under the' taunftig-pot in a Mddiga's house. At Pongal they worship tlicir tanning-pots^ as representing the goddess, with offerings of fowls aud liquor.

The begging castes specially attached to the i ladigas are the Dekkalas, Mastidis aad Tappitas or Bagavatag. Of these the Dekkalas are musicians who sing the praises of their patrons ancestors, the Mastidis are gymnasts, and the Tappitas are the same as the Mddiga Bogams, and are the dancers and prostitutes of the caste.

K(S/aB. The K6yas are a caste of jungle men found in the count ry on either side of tlie Q^divari from the point where the Indravati joins it down to the apex of the delta. They occur as far soutli as Kammamet in the Nizam's Dominions, and on tlie north they stretch far into the Bastar State. The Rev. .J. Cainof Dumma-g6dem, who has lived among them for tliirty years and published sevenil accounts of their ways, and who has been kiud enough to tonply information embodied below, estimates that they form one-

rj li of the inhabitants of Bhadrichalam taluk, but only a small very nuin *ê population of Chodavaram. They are also common mous subd?^^ the Malkanagiri taluk of Viaafrapatam. In the P4yiki3 aadibe spread over such a large extent of such vi-ad (marsh') areUfficttlt to be sure that statements reaardini? customs the caste pnesW applicable. What follows applies primarily *<> former are adm.twaram and Bhadrdchalam tûks and the south

Mataa

THE PEOPLE. 61

C A.ST IS .

% <v State.i It has been stated' that tlie Koyas are a section CHAP. ill. th a'rt'great Gond tribo, but in tliis district tliejr Lave no theory PRINCIPAL

if^ eir origin except that they are descended from Bhima, one of t,iceave PAndava brothers. By tlie people of the plains they are r-V(ed K6ya Doralu, or ' Koya lords.' Their language, called

. ^ y a , is Dravidian and bears analogies to Tamil and Telugu. Most of the men, however, can speak Teluj2;u, thoiigli the women know little but their own vernacular. The highland, or kiUtat Koyas, who live in the uplands of Bastar, arc distinct from tho riverside, or gommii, Koyas with whom vce are concerned. The latter say they were driven down from the Bastai* platean some two hundred years ago by tlie former. 'J'hcy are rather despised by the higlilandors, who call tliem rascals (nidr/aiotihi) and they acknowledge tlieir inferiority by sending the kutia Koyas gifts on festal occasions. The tribe is also split up into occupational ondogamous subdivisions, among whom are the Kammaras (blacksmitlis), Musaras (brass-workers), Dolis (professional beggars), Pattidis (cultivators and beggars), Oddia (superior priests), the K6ka and the Matta Koyas, and the Hdcha or Dora Koyas. These last are by far the most numerous subdivision and consider themselves suiDerior to a ^'Zie others except the Oddis. Some of tho others are apparent" "i ^ t r a e Koyas at all. The Ii61is are MAlas from the plains, atf the reception into the tribe, many ^

(who were Kdpus) and the Mattas ^dro Gollas) have been published by Mr, Cain, A contrary process is exemplified by the Bdsa Gollas, who were once Kojas.

Exogamons divisions called gattas occur in the tribe. Among them are M6d6 (' tliird'), NAlo (' fourth ') or Paredi, Aido (' fifth') or Rdyibanda, AriS ('sixth ^), Nutamuppayo ( 'ISOtk'j , and Peramboya. In some places the members of the Mtiduj Ndlo, and Aido gattas ai'e suid to be recognizable by the dilTerenco in the marks they occasionally wear on their foieheads, a spot, a horizontal line and a perpendicular Hue respectively being used by tliem. The Aro gaita, however, also uses the perpendicular line.

The Koyas are looked upon with a certain respect by the Hindus of the plains, but are held to pollute a Brahman, by touch

1 Information regarding tUe oastc will bo found in tho Roif. J. Cain's articles in Indium ^nftjwary, v, ^01, 357 ; ^iii, 33, 219; and i , 259 ; tlie Chrhtimi College iiagaHno, v (old terics), 352-9 and vi (old series), 37i-80: tho Census Reports of 1871 and ISIH (pnragraph 40G and piiffo 227 respootivcl/); Taylor's Catalogwt Htfisoww of Oriental MSS., HI, -KJl ; and thu Uov. Stephuii HiBlop's Aboriginal Tribes o/the Central Provinces (KuKpwe, ISlSCJj '!•

' Alorijinttl Tribes of tht Central Province*, ^•

*".j traditions regarding {^ s ago, of the Kakas

62 GOCAVARl.

C;isTEi>.

CHAP, in . and the better non-BrdhmaiiB by entering their kitchens. .;^^^ ^.j^^ PRINCIPAL Koyas, like other bai tribes, have no respect at all for Br. ^ ^ ^

or other Hindus merely on account of their caste.

The Koyaa proper are chiefly engaged in agricultare. % character is a curioua medley. They excite admiration by tliîT truthfolness; iiity by their love of strong drink, listlessness anair, -want of thrift ; surprise by their simplicity, and their combination of timidity and self-importance; and aversion by their uncanny supei*stitions. Their trutlifulness is proverbial, though it is said to be less chamcterisfcic than of yore, and they never break tlieir word. Their intemperate ways are largely due to the commonness of the ijypa {Bosnia latifoUa) tree, from the flowers of which strong spirit is easily distilled, and are most noticeable when this is in blossom. Their listlessness has often been remarked. ' To the officer enquiring after Idmbo}' of game the reply is invariably Udu (' notliing '} ; wliile if approached on the subject of the utilization of tlieir labour, they passively obstruct all progress by their exasperating- reply of repv, (* to-morrow *). * Their reckless and primitive modes of agriculture will be described in Chapters IV aud V. Their i' oorance and simplicity are attested by numerous stories. Onath ouched for by Mr. Cain, relates how some of them, being ftg^jjatched with a basket of fruit and a note describing its contg j.-] , and being- warned that the note would betray any pilfer^jj^^^ ^-st buried the note ' so that it could not see,' then abstracted some of the fruit, afterwards disinterred the note and deUvered it and the basket, and were quite at a loss, when charged witli the theft, to know how tlie note could have learnt about it. They are terribly victimised by traders and money-lenders from the low country, who take advanta-o ofthoir gudcleesness to cheat them in every conceivable way. Their timidity has on occasion driven them to seek refuge in the jungle on the appearance of a stranger in clean clothes, but, on the other hand they expect (and receive) a considerable measure of respect that hli T H ' ' < t ' ^ ^ ?^'^ '^*^'^""*^^- '^^''y -^« Perfectly aware Rhen l f ?r[ "^r' '^''^' ^-^ '^^y i'î^t on being

S W h i t L " ' V . ^ ' " ' ^ ^ ' ^ "°t like being caUcd W havTl cu ? ' I ^ r '""V'^'' '^'^^'^-^ ^-^Pl-d ' whose 'sU<^' r < c a t tL^h^^ ' f '^ '^w. '""^*^ % « , which means to are capaê o' mlth 1 ^^'^ '^'''''^ ^ ^^t'-emes they becomi u n c o t r n in E T ; .^''f ^'""^^ ^ ^ ' only recently greatly b the B a ' a r s ^ t f """^^^ "" '^ 1876 flourished

THE PEOPLE. 0 3

Of t" • J Hindu religion the K6ya5 know nothing. They CHAp.iil.

. ' ^ )eities of their own. Some of thein liave adopted the PBIXCIPAL.

™1*"^ ddosses of the plains, such as Kondalarama and Bai- CASTBS.

ramp/ 'jjgj^j. Volavaram), ITaisamma and Poleramnia fnear '"^^'elialam) and iluthydlamina and her brother Potur^zu. "^^lain says that Muthydlainma is specially reverenced as the

^**f.ss of disease, and as equivalent to tlie Maridflinnia of the pKp u . Otlier Koyas adhere to the worsliip of the animistic deities of the Mils and forests, the koitda devaiuhi. Pahinmni, Nilamuni and Eorrarazu,t]ie god of tigers, ai'e three of these. Mr. Cain also mentions Kommalainma and a fearsome female devil called Pida, who is propitiated in December with curions rites. The Pundava Lrptbcrs (especially Bhima), and the wild-dogs who are supposed to be their messengers, are also wor^ihipped. Human sacrifices, made sometimes to a dread deity called Mamili, were not un* known in former days. "Writing in 187G, Mr. Cain said that there was strong reason to believe tliat two men had been sacrificed tiiat year not far from Dummagudem, and tliat there was no doubt that in Bastar strangers were kidnapped and secretly offered up every year. Daring the Rampa outbreak of 1879-80 several constables and otliers were openly sacrificed by the rebels,' Mr. Cain says that a Jangtir (winto-faced monkey) was ordinarily substituted for the human' victim, under the name of kurom-mapotii (' a male with small breasts ' ) , as an offering to appease the deity,

Most peculiar objects of reverence are the velfius, a name which Mr. Cain says is the Koya for 'god.' Tliey consist of small pieces of metal, generally iron and less than a foot in length, which are kept in a hollow bamboo deposited in some wild and unfrequented spot. They are guarded with great secrecy .by; those in charge of them and are only shown to the principal worsliippera on the rare occasions whea they are taken out to be adored. The Koyas are very reticent about them. Mr. Cain says there is one supreme velpu, which is recognized as the highest by the whole Koya tribe and kept liidden in the depths of Bastar. There are also velpus for each gatia and for each family. The former are considered superior to the latter and are less frequently brought out of their retreats. One of them called Lakkala (or Lakka) Bamu, which belongs either to the Aro or Peramhoya gatta, is considered inore potent than the "others. I t is oma-]nented with eyes of gold and silver and is kept in a cave near Sit^nagftram, not far from Parnasdla in Bhadrdchalam taluk,

' ForadOBcription by un eye-witness, see G.O,, No. 2275, Judicial, dated 4th September 1879,

\

64 GODAVAn.

CHAP. III. PKI^CIPAC

CASTES.'

5;iie others are deposited in different places in the '^-^^^ ^ ] _ They all liave ^names of their own, "hot are also Itno'fcf. " generic term Adaina Razo. <

Both the ffatta and family tvljms are worshipped." |^7^ members of the sept or famUy to which they appertain--^^^^^^ are taken round the country at intervals to receive the re\. and gifts of their adherents. The former are brought o\^^^^. in every three or foar years, especially during wide-?i}Vead sickness, failure of crops or cattle-disease. The velpii is washed, and a flag is then planted beside it. An animal (generally ti young bullock) is stabbed under the left shoul<lor, the blood is sprinkled ovrc tbe deity, and the animal is next killed, audi t s liver is cut out and offered to the deity. A fi^ast, which sometimes lasts for two days, takes place and the relpM is then put back in its hiding-place. The flag is taken round tlie villages where members of the gatta or family reside, and these make a feast and offer gifts. The Sag of a family veljm is a large three-cornered red cloth on whicli are stitched a number of figures roughly cut out of bits of cloth of other colours to represent various ancestors. Whenever any important male member of the family dies, a new figure is added to commemorate his services.

Like other hill tribes, the Koyas are firm believers in the black art and the power of wizards. In some parts whenever any one falls ill the professional sorcerer {vezzugdibi) is consulted, and lie reads both the cause and the remedy in a leaf-platter of rice which he carries thrice round the invalid. Whenever a man dies he is supposed to have been the victim of some sorcerer instigated by an enemy. An oaquiry is then held as to who is guilty. Some male member of the family, generally the nephew of tlie deceased, throws coloured rice over the corpse as it lies stretched on the bed, pronouncing as he does 30 the names of all the known sorcerers who live i n the neighbourhood. I t is even now solemnly asserted that when the name of the wizard responsible is pronounced the bed gets up and moves to^\'ards the house or village where he resides. Suspected wizards have to clear themselves by undergoing the ordeal of dipping their hands in boiliag oil or water. Sometimes they flee in terror rather than attempt this. Kepnted wizards and witches are held in the greatest abhorrence ; and one of the old complaints against British rule was that it prevented these people from being put to death. Mr. Cain mentions

woman on„B family because she was thought to be a witch ine HOyas appear to have few festivals now w^ 1 \ i . „

who hved near DammagMem used to c e l e b r 2 ' T " ^ ^ ^-^leorate one whenever any

THlf PEOPLE. 65

crop was ripening. They still keep a feast for/oH«rtr /cofia, * the new cliolam' harvest. The rites seem to vary, Mr. Cnin says that a fowl is killed and its hlood siiriokled on a stone. In some places the victiiu is a sheep, and it and the first fruits are offered to the local pjods and to ancestors. The tmnffo koffa and sdmai I'otia are also important. Once a year is celebrated a feast similai- to the well-known Chaitra Saturnalia in tlie Yizagapatam Agency, whereat all the men go oat and beat for game and those who return empty-handed are pelted with mud and filth by the women and not allowed to enter the village that night. This is called the Bh6d^vi Paadigai, or festival of the earth goddess. In times of drought a festival to Bhima, which lasts five days, is held. When rain appeara, the Koyas sacrifice a cow or pig- to their patron. Dancing plays an important pai-t at all these feasts and also at marriages. The men put on head-dresses of straw into which buff.iIo-horns are stuck, and accompany themselves with a kind of chant.

In Polavai-am and Bhadrdclialam, Koya villages are divided into groups, sometimes called samutih, over each of which is an hereditary head called the sainutit doni or yeihnani.

If a Koya youth is refused by the tuaidea of his choice he generally carries her olT by force. JBut a boy cnii reserve a girl baby for himself by giving the luothor a pot and a cloth for the baby to lie upon, and tlien she m'vy not be cai'ried off. Widows and divorced women may remarry. The wedding takes place in the bridegroom's house and lasts five days. A tdli and a saffron-coloured thread are tied round the neck of tile girl. If the marriage was effected by capture, matters are much simplified. The girl is made to kneel, the boy stoops over her, and water is poured over both of them. The boy then ties a saffron-coloured thread ronnd her neck and the ceremony is over. Girls who consort with a man of low casto are parified by having their tongues branded witli a hot golden needle and by being made to pass through seven arches of palmyra leaves, which are afterwards burnt,

The K6yas generally bnra their dead, bat infants are bm-ied. Mr. Cain says babies less than a month old are buried close to the house, so that the rain dropping from the eaves may fall upon the

- grave and cause fertUity in the parents. When a Koya dies, a cow or bullock is slaughtered and the tail is cut off aoid put in the dead person's hand. Ti.e Uver ia said to be sometimes put in his mouth. His widow's idli is always placed there, and when a married woman dies hor idliis pat in her month. The pyre of a man is lighted by his nephew, and of a woman b / h e r son. After

CHAP. m . PHIXCIPAL

CASTFS.

66 Q6DAVAIII.

PBINCIPAL

CHAP. III. the body 13 burnt, the ashes are made into balls and deposited in a hole at the side of the road, which is cpvered with a slab. Many Koyas place a perpendicular stone about three feet high, like the bead-stone o£ a tomb, over the slab. No pollution ig observed by those attending the funeral. The beef of the animal slain at the beginning of the rites provides a feast, and the whole party returns home and makes merry. On the eighth day a pot fall of water is placed in the dead man's house for him to drinjt, and is watched by Us nephew. Next morning another cow is slaughtered and the tail and a ball of cooked rice are offered to the soul at the burning-grouad. Mr. Cain says that wlien a man passes an old friend's tombstone he will often place a little tobacco on it, remarting that the deceased liked the berb wLen alive and will probably be glad of it now.

The samo authority states that tlie only conception of a future state among the Koyas is that the dead wander about the janglo in the form of pisdchas or ghosts. The Kev. F. W. N. Ale.'cander however says that ijome of them believe that tliereia a heaven, a great fort full of good things to eat, and a hell in which an iron crow continually gnaws the flesh of the wicked. People who are neither good enough for lieaven nor bad euougli for hell are born again in their former family. Children with hare-lips, moles, etc., are often identified as Teinoaruations of deceased relations.

K6ya villages are small and are usually inhabited solely by people of the tribe. Any outsiders live in a sei>aratc quarter. The houses are made of bamboo with a thatch of grass or palmyra. The *IC6yas are very restless; and families change frequently from one village to another. Before luoving, they consult the omens to see whether the change will be auspicious or not. Sometimes the hatching of a clutch of eggs provides the answer; or four grains of four kinds of seed (representing the prosperity of men, cattle, sheep and land) are put on a heap of ashes under a man's bed, any movement among them duriog the night being a bad omen.

Tattooing is common. I t is considered very important for the soul in the next world that the body should liave been adequately tattooed.

The hill Eeddis (orKonda Reddis) are a caste of jungle men having some characteristics in common with the Koyas. I^hey appear to be found only in the Rekapalle countiy, the hnis ii " f V^*^'-*"* the P61avarain division and in Eanipa, and stiU iurther north. They usually talk a rough Telugu, clipping their woras so that it is often difficult to understand them; but it ^^

>ri)l Beddis.

THE PEOPLE. 67

said that some of them speak Koya. They are of slighter bnild than the Koyas and tbeJr villaijes are even smaller. Tliey will not eat in the house of a K6ya.

TJiey call fcheinselves by various hig-]i-soonding titles, sncL as Pandava Reddis, Raja Reddis and Eeddis of the solar race {sih'i/a vamsa), and do not like the simple name Konda Ecddi. They recognize no ondogamoiis subdivisions, but have exogamous eepts. In character they resemble tlie Koyas, but are less simplo and stupid and in former years were much gi^en to crime. They live by shifting (podu) cultivation. They do not eat beef, but will partake of port,

They profess to be both Saivites and Vaishuavites and occasionally employ Brahman priests at their funerals; and yet they worship the Pdndavas, the spirits of the hills (or, as they call them, ' tho sons of Eacha'), their ancestors (includiug women who have died before their husbands) and the deities Af uthyalamma and her brother Pitnrazu, S^ralamma and Unamalamnia. The last three are found in almost every village. Other deities are Doddiganga, who is tho protector of cattle and is worshipped when the herds are driven into the forests to graze, and Desaganga (or Paraganga), who takes the place of the ITartdamuia of the plains and tho Muthyalannna of the Koyas as goddess of cholera and small-pox. The shrine of Saralamma of Pedakonda (eight miles east of Tt^kapalle) is a place of pilgrimage, and so is Bison Hill (Papikonda), where an imi^ortaut Eeddi festival is held every seven or eight years in honour of the Pandava brothers, and a bage pig fattened for the occasion is kiUed and eaten. The Eeddis, like the Koyas, also observe the harvest festivals, They are very superstitious, believing firmly in sorcery and calling in wizards in time of illness. T''heir villages are formed into groups like those of the Koyas and the hereditary lieadmen over these are CEiUed by different names, such as dora, miHiaddr, vat'napedda and ktilapdiradit. Headmen of villages ai'o knowTi as petiamddrs. They recognize, though they do not frequently pi-actise, marriage by capture. If a parent wishes to show his dislike for a match, he absents himself when the suitor's party calls and sends a bundle of cold rice after them when they have departed.

Children are buried, Vaishnavite Eeddis burn their adult dead, while the Saivites bury them- Satanis oESciate as priests to tiie former and Jangams to the latter. The pyre is kindled by the eldest male of the family and a feast is held on the fifth day aftor the funeral. Tho dead are believed to be born again into their former families.

CHAP. UI. PRIKC\PAL

ClSTES.

68 GODATARI.

CHAPTER IV.

AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION.

CHAP. IV. WET

CCLTIVATION,

Paddy; its seasons,

lU TarieticH,

W«T CuLTiVATio.x—Paddy; jtB woftsons—Its vavietios—lluiii-fod i»a<ldy— Sowing versus trarisplancation—llotliods o£ raisitijf seedlings—Preparation o£ fields—Trausplatitatiou aud ciu'o i>f thu crop—tiecouil-cron cQltivaUon— Third crops—Agriciiltural masiitis-Wet crops oilier than paddy—lloLations —Cultivation of BugfiP-canu—'Iagjjcry-iiiakitig-KiitooniiiS'—Varieties ol sugar-cane —ReCQut BugUir-eaoo dtsoaso mid tho Satimlkot uxiiurltiiuntiil farm. Dnv CULTIVATION — Seasons, etc.—Cultivation—Cliolam—Tobauco-— ImproTeiriBnt oi' tlio lc:>f—Shifting caltivation in the Agenoy—Storage of grain. IRRIGATION—Protected area. THE GîtivAin AXICUT—Origin of the ide§—Fii-st estimates—Tlie site and design-Progress of construction —Sabsequeiit diHicul ties Alterations since effected—Distriljiitary works— The Gannavaram aqueduct-Completionof distributaries—Financial results of the Bohenio —Possible oxtonsions of it—Jts administration. OTIIKR IKRIGATIOX SgCiiCK;!—Jlinor chaiiuela aud tauka—Wells—Artesian wells. EfOKo.viic CoxDmox OL' AGRICULTURISTS.

T H E itninense area irrigated from the Godavari anicut has naturally resulted in paddy being the most important crop in the district. The seasons for growing it in Bhadrachalam (whore, however, very little is raised) differ from those elscwliere. In Bhadrachalam a short crop (pinna vari) is raised between May and August and a longer one (pedda vari) between August and January; while in the rest of the district the first (and chief) crop is grown between June and December and the second (if any) between January or February and April or May. The first crop season is called either the sdrava (' white') season, from the fact that white paddy is grown in it, or the tolakari (' early ') season ; and the second is known as the ddhva ('black') season, because black paddy is grown then, the sitakaiiu (' cold ') season, since the crop is sown in January, or the vamngi (' hot ' ) season, because it % reaped in May.

Except in the delta and Bhadr^chaLim, two wet crops are seldom raised on the same land, but a dry crop is raised when the paddy has been harvested. This dry crop season is called the Voyiru or apardhi season.

Many varieties of paddy are grown in the district. The ryots iviae them according to two main principles of classification ;

^^M\' ^"""^ ^ ^^""^^^y ^^^'^^ ô mature—whether it is long {J>eaaa) or short, (înna or pundm)-.s,ad its colonr-whether

AORICULTDBE AND IRRIGATION. 69

'whito ' or 'black. ' The varieties raised in the delta taluks, CHAP. iv. with their unfailing irrigation, naturally differ from those grown WET in the nplands of Peddapuram and Tuni, and both differ again C ' -"^ 'o«-from the favourite species in the different climate of Bhadrachalam. Apparently none of the white kinds are ever grown -without irrigation; but on the other hand many varieties of black paddy are raised on wet lands. The most valuable and most popular species ot all arc called atntkadalu and aH-uUu, both of which are long wliite varieties. Tliey are grown all over the district and have several sub-species. They require more water than the rest, btit resist floods better. Tlie kind known as prai/d^a (again long and white) is also very hardy, resisting droughts and floods equally well. Tlie least valuable is tlie short white rasujtgi paddy, ivhich is worth Es. 10 less per garce than the atraltiidaJu and itkkuUtt. Though most prolific, it is very indigestible. A kind oJt intoxicating liquor is extracted from it.

Rain-fed paddy is raised on lankas, superior dry land or high- Eniii-fedl level wet land. Only certain kinds of paddy will flourish in this *" ^' way, and the outturn is naturally smaller than on irrigated land. The seed is sown broadcast without preliminary soaking when the

' early showers fall in June. Weeds are removed twice with a weedcr {tuHika) some two or three weeks after sowing and again a fortnight or a month later. In the upland taluks the ryots weed witli what is called a (forru, a log of wood provided with iron or wooden teeth and drawn by cattle. The crop is ordinarily harvested in September or October, but the shorter Bhadrachalam

' crop is reaped in August. Except in tlie case of tliis rain-fed crop, paddy is seldom sown Sowing

broadcast, but is transplanted from seed-beds. In Eajahmundry, t^plant*. Polavaram, Pithapuram and Tuni sowing is of necessity resorted tion. to in tbe case of the very deep wet fields in which, owing to their low level, it is impossible to control the depth of the water in the manner necessary with transplanted seedlings. In these fields a special kiud of paddy, cdled kdsari, is sown (uusoaked) in May before the rains or floods are received, the fleld having been ploughed when dry. This variety does not mind being sub-merged. Broadcast sowing is also sometimes adopted by ryots who cannot aford the expense of transplantation, but this is generally looked upott as bad farming.

There appear to be four recognized methods of raising paddy Methods o£ in seed-beds, which are known as kareddku, mettapadunu, mokkdku ^Xnga. and dukdku. In the case of the two former, tlie beds are ploughed when quite dry, before water cornea down the channola;

70 <J6DAVARI,

CHAP. IV. Vfei

CVLTtYATlOS.

Preparation. of fields.

TrAnsplanta-tion and care of the crop.

while with the two latter they are not cultivated until tliey have been well soaked. The two former metliods are very similar, the only noteworthy difference between tliem apparently being that in the hn-eddku system an inch of water 13 let in dii'octly the grain is sown and is drained off an hour later, while in the vteitapadimu method the seed is sown after rain and the land allowed to get quite dry again before any water is let on to it. Similarly the mokkdku and dukdku systems closely resemble one another except that with the former the seed is soaked ajid allowed to sprout before being sown. The cultivation of the seed-beda when dry is far more popular than the'rival method, and the dtikdku system seems to be confined to Cocanada taluk and the mokkdku chiefly to Nagaram and Amal^puram.

The fields are first levelled with a crowbiir {geddapdm) or a pickaxe (guddali), various kinds of manure (chiefly tho dung of sheep and cattle penned on the field, village sweepings, ashes, and oil-cake—green manurin.ic is rare) are next applied, and thea the field is irrigated and ploughed. On heavy soils (as near E^machandrapnram) the ploughing is done after rain and before flooding, lest the plough-cattle should sink too deeply into the soil. Ploughing is always done at intervals, so that the soil gets thoroughly aerated, but as it does not begin until floods come down the river, tho intervals are short. The parts of the fields near the ridges, which the plough cannot get at properly, are dug up with tnamuttia. The field is levelled with a plank called the patti, drawn by hand or by bullocks. In Bhadr^chalam a log of wood with iron teeth {btiruda gorru) is used.

The seedlings are transplanted in July or August. The ua-ual rule governing the irrigation of them is to give them a span's depth of water until tho ears are formed and then to allow the field to dry up. The water is changed periodically in order to obtain a fresh supply of silt and to wash away alkaline matter, In AmaMpuram, however, as much as a foot of water is lot in after the first fortnight, while in the middle of September the field is drained and left dry for the fortnight known as the uttara kdrlt because it is believed that worms which eat the stalks are generated in the water during that period.

Weeding is done one or two months after transplantation. In AmaMpuram talnk manures of various kinds, such as gingslly, cocoannt and castor cake and a kind of fish called c/tenr/ut/i royiji are powdered and thrown broadcast over the fields three weeks

yi"—^^et transplantation.

AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION. 71

The second wet crop does not follow as close on the first as CHAP. IT. in Tanjore. In the latter district the ryots get seedlings ready WET for transplantation ia ttie seed-bed hefore the harvest of tlie first CULTIVATION.

crop is over, whereas in Godavari it is believed that seedlings seoonJ cro will not thrive until the warm 'corn wind' (;>aj fVit ^rf/(),iwliieb cultivation.'' is expected in December, sets in from the south. The first crop is Lai'vested in November or December, and seedlings for the second crop are sown in December or Jannaiy and are ready for transplantation in February and March, The preparation of the field for the second crop is a somewhat perfunctory operation. Levelling is generally omitted; and, in Amalapuraiii, manoring is generally omitted also. The kinds of paddy most commonly used (outside Bhadrdchalam) are called garika sa)nia,m and Mlava.

Where the second crop is a dry crop, it is generally green, black, Bengal, or Lorse-gram, gingelly, or sunn hemp. Beans (auumiilu.), ragi and onions are also raised. Except Bengal graro, giagelly, ragi and onions, tliese are generally sown a week before the harvest of the wet crop and left to take care of themselves. For Bengal gram and gingelly, the field is ploughed and tlie seed is covered by dragging a green, leafy branch (kampa) across it or, in sandy soil by ploughing it in. Ragi and onions are tmns-planted into plots about two yards square, made after the Held has been jjloughed without water iive or six times in the course of a week, and are watered a week after transplanting and thereafter once a month.

Both cambu and gingelW are not infrecjuently grown as a Third crops, 'third crop, sometimes called the fiundsa crop. In Tutii (perhaps elsewhere also) they are pnt, dotvn at tlie beginning of tlio first wet-crop season on the chance of tbo rains being late of insufficient and it being fclierefore impossible to grow a wet crop at the proper time, if at all. If the rains come while the crop is ou the* ground, it is either ploughed up to make room tor the paddy, or, if nearly ripe, is left to mature, the paddy transplantation being delayed accordingly.

In Kajalimundry and Rdmachandi-apuram third crops are sometimes secured by growing a short wet crop between June and September, followed by a dry crop harvested by January, anti then by a short paddy crop of the ffdrika samiam, ddlam or rdjahhogaJ t \'&vmi\Bi, which is harvested in May.

The Godavari ryots divide the six mouth? from Tune to Agricultural December into twelve kdriis of about a fortnight each, called «»a''™8' by the names o£ various stars. To each of theso jieriods somo agricultural operation or other is considered particular'-* '*!

72 GODiTABI,

CHAP. IV. WET

CutTJTATION,

Wet oropa other than paddy.

Eota-tions.

Cttltivation of aagai-cane,

appropnate. Even the Koyas and hill Reddis, for example, believe that the best time for sowing paddy is the nmgasira JtaVi?', which begins about the end of the first week in June ; the amii-ddhd Jidrti (the latter part of December) h a narae oi liappy augury, suggesting the harvest and tho fuKilment of the ryoW hopes J thnnder on the fir^t day of tlio mayha kdrti is tho happiest possible omen for the future, and ' will make even a pole on a fort wall grow'; and so on. Uu the day before harvest tlie ryots run round their fields thrice repeating the name of the village goddess and crying out that she has given them a good crop. They theu cat three handfuls of ears to represent the goddess and sacrifice fowls to them. When measuring tho fir^t heap of paddy of the first harvest of the year, they pouf boiled rice-floar over it to propitiate the belly-god.

Next to paddy, the irrigated crops chiefly grown are sugarcane, betel, turmeric and plantains. Coeoanut and areca palms are also largely raised in Aiualapuram and Nagaraiii taluks, and are occasionally irrigated. Sugar-cane is grown everywhere except in tho Agency and the Tuni divisioUj but is commonest in Peddapuram, Kamachandrapnram, Cooanada, Kagaram and Rajabmundry taluks. Betel on wet lands appears to bo almost confined to BamachandrapuramandNagaram taluks and turmeric to Peddapuram, Rajahmundry and Amalapuram, in which last it is raised without irrigation. Plantains are found chiefiy in Kiitoa chandrapurain, Amalapuram and Nagarain. In Kajahmnndry and elsewhere a kind of sweet potato {mddapalam dumpa) is much cultivated.

As elsewhere, paddy is frequently grown year after year on the same land. "WTien other crops are cultivated, a definite rotation is observed, but this differs widely in different parts The ryots of Peddapuram and Pithapuram, for example, consider that an interval of two years is sufficient between two crops of sugar-cane, while those of Cocanada, Rajahmundry and AmaHpuram say that four years is necessary, and those of R^machandrapuram and Nagaram from six to eight years-

In the cultivation of sogar-cane, the ground is sometimes broken up with a plough and sometimes with a crowbar. When a plough is used, the field is first well manured (in December or January) and then ploughed (without being flooded) from five to ton limes. Tho ryota say the soil sliould Ito broiiglit into such a fcoft and ipowdcry condition tliat the footprints of the birds should be ea«Uy seen in it, and that a chatty full of water should neither spiU nor break when dropped on to it. The field, still

CoipTiVi-nox.

AGHICBLTUKE AUD IBBIQATION. 73

nnirrigftted, is next divided into amall plots (spaces being left for CHAP. iv. the ohannels which are to be dug later on) either with a hoe or ^ WET a plough.

The crowbar method of preparing the ground is partly adopted for the sake of economy, and so ia this system masaring is also generally dispensed with. The jaggery which results is inferior, but the difference in the cost of cultivation is said to more than counterbalance this di-awback. The land is dug up with the crowbar ia January, and the clods are left to weather for ten days, when they are broken up and roaghly powdered. The soil is not rendered sufficiently fine to be formed into plots mthout water, and the field has to be flooded.

Before planting the cuttiinfs of sugar-cane the field is watered till it attains ' the consistency of cooked ragi ' {ambali padunu) and then (in February or March) the cuttings are thrown on the ground and one end of them is pressed gently in with the foot. The tops are usually considered to make the best cuttings, but the rest of the cane is often used. The cuttings are kept in the shade for a fortnight before planting.

Regarding the irrigation of tlie crop, practice varies. In Pedddpuram, for example, the field is flooded once a foHnight and then drained immediately. In Rymachandrapurain and Cocanada it is watered once a week, without draining off the water, for six months; and then allowed to dry up as tlie rainy season approaches. The Pedd^puram system is the better, since stagnant water injures the' roots of the caue.' Two months after being planted, the crop is manured round the roots with castor cake, green gram husk, bats' dung, or mud from the village site.~

-In some places green gram is sown iu the field and dug in as a green manure. Three weedings are made witlj a hoe (foiika) at intervals of a fortnight. When the crop has been about two months on tlie ground the plots are broken up and the irrig' ^ h trenche' -«-r^_dug, the soil from them being thrown ror (^he, roots of the —le. About four months after planting, the^'leaves are twisted i-onnd the canes to prevent them from cracking or being dried up by the son, and to cheek the growth of weakening lateral shoots. In the fifth month the canes are supported by bamboos. The crop is cut in February with a hill-hook {pSta kaiti) and made into jaggery the same day.

' Pftpei-s printed with G.O., No. 1193, Revenue, dftted 30th December 1901 p. 24, Of. CO., No, 1020, Ecvenuo, doted Uth Hoptember 1904, p, 81.

' The ' saltpetve oafth' c£ Mr. Bouson's report, G.O., No. 28, Reve«ae dated 11th Janiiai'y 18B4, pp. 7,14, '

10

74 a6DAVARI.

CHAP.IY. "WfcT

Jaggery-maMng.

Batootiing.

Tarietiea of Bngar-caiie.'

The canes axe crushed m^ivon mills, and tlio juice is toiled for jiAiOutt-wo and a lia\l or three hours with chunam (a piece o£ chunani the liixe ot a tennis "haW is addftd to every pan o£ eight pots, or 168 seers, o£ juice), until it reaches such a consistency that it will no lonf^er drip from ths finger. I t is then put into a pot and well stirred, and afterwards poured on to a hamhoo mat to set. Some o£ the ryots say that an acre of land generally yields lo candies of jaggeiy worth Es . 300, and that the cultivator makes a clear profit of Rs. 100,

Eatooning is usaal. The ratooned crop is ready to cut in ten months. I t is inferior to the first, but tlie saving in the cost of cultivation is considerahle.^ Sometimes a third crop is cut.

Previous to the building of the Dowlaishweram anient the cane grovoi in G<Sddvavi was a thin, white, reed-like variety, similar to, if not identical with, the canes of Ganjam, South Arcot, Trichinopoly and other districts, which was called the dHavdU or ' country ' cane. Its hard rind enabled it to resist the attacks of jackals, so that it was possible to grow it at a distance from the villages; it did not require much water; and the jaggery it gave was small in quantity, though very sweet and white. When the anicut was made, softer, larger and more juicy canes were introduced. TJie sima variety, a stout darlt kind sometimes called the Mauritius cane, was introduced about 1870 by Mess]^. Cotton and Kundall for their factory near Kdjavolu (Eazole), but the history of the other species is obscure.

At the present time the kinds grovrn are desavdli or ' country,' bonthaiiarri or Bombay, erra or mnnakarri^ keli, bontha or boniha ndmalu, ndmalu or sdra, mogili vrndi pdhihontha (which seem to be only found in Rdmachandrapuram taluk), and vdlu, confined to Peddipuram. The Bombay or bonthakarri is very similar to, and possibly identical with, the shna-, its JElggeiy is poor and of a purple colour. The erra, or sannakarri variety is a thin, dark cane producing similar jaggery. The heti is a white cane with a cracked bark giving watery juice which wants ]nore boiling than usual. The hontha or bmtka ndmah is a stout, striped cane, but the jaggery it gives is said to he very inferior. The ndmalu is a thin, striped variety, also producing a bad jaggery. The moyili is a very thick kind with knots at short intervals; its

1 Tho advaiitagoB of ratootiing aro sliU tho subject of cfsrefQl oxiiofimont ;it the Samalkot experimental fanii. G.O., No. 1030, Itevenue, dated 14tli SeptemVier 1904, jj, 29.

° Miicli of wlial follawB lias bee& taken from the report of Mr. C, A. Harbor, thoGojornment Bottmiet, ia G.O., No. 1193, Bevenue, dated 30tL pecombei' 1901. Ppt jJl lo l l ,

Siiut&lkot cipcrimenta.

AORICULTDRE AND IRRIGATION. 75

jaggery is again like that of the Bombay cane, bat it gives much CBAP. iv. juice and has hitherto shoT\Ti a considerable immwiity from WET disease. The pdMoniha is a soft cane Miich is sold tor c\e-wmg. ^ 'I-TIVATU>>: The vaju is Uke the ' country' cane, "but a little thinner^ and the juice is a little more watery and requires longer "boiling. The mogiii, 'coontry' and pdlaboniha canes grow only about six or seven feet higli. The rest run up to nine feet.

About the end of the last century an obscure disease decimated Kocont the sugar-cane in the district. In March 1900 Government difeTs '"^ introduced cuttings from Hospefc in Bellary, where disease was ami the rare, but this did little good. Tlie Government Botanist, Mr C. A. Barber, was accordingly deputed to make a thorough investi- farm gation of tlie crops and the disease, and his report, dated i>4th April 1901, threw much tight on the subject and suggested the starting of a Government agricultural station at which the matter might be further studied. The station was opened in 1902 at Saiualkot. It has been recently decided that it shall be a permanent institution.

The diseases of the sugar-cane in the district are described in Mr. barber's first re^wrt. The moth borer, the ravages of which do sncli an infinity of harm in the West Indies and no small damage in Ganjam, is responsible for very little of the evil; perhaps owing to the scattered cultivation of tlie cane, or the system of tying tlie leaves round tlie stem, or tlie existence of its antagonist the Jsaria Barberi fungus. The 'suiaU borer,* or scolytid beetle, and the 'red smut,' or Colhtotriclnwi fakatum fungus, are t)ie greatest enemies of the Godavari canes. These two pests go hand in hand, and it cannot as yet be said which prepares the cane for the ravages of the other. The fungus manifests itself inside the cane in * well marked blotches with a characteristic white centre.' I t can attach itself to any abrasion on the surface of t]ie cane, even to tlie scar left by a fallen leaf, and thence makes its entry into the tissues of the plant. It is very slow in its progress. The com'ih'a of the fungus are found at the base of the black tufts of hair in the holes left by old dead roots, and as an incrustation on the surface of tlie dead and dried up canes below the origin of the leaf. If a cane infested with the * small borer' is opened, the surface is found to be covei*ed with a mass of small dark beetles about one twelfth of an inch in length, which are seen busily emerging from and re-entering their small burrows. A strong vinous odour of fermented juice fills the air, and the infested canes are entirely useless for sugar. I'lie evil acts very quickly. In the West Indian islands whole fields have been completely destroyed by it.

76 Q(SDiVARl.

CHAP. 17. W E T

"ctTlVATIOK

CULTIVATION.

SeacoDB, etc.

The infection of the fungas can be carried by the air; but it seems likely that water, either flowing from infected fields or into which diseased canes and refuse have been thrown, is tbe chief agent for its diffusion. The water-logged condition of the ground, the lack of rotation, and the consequent exhaustion of the soil, are among other contributing causes.

A number of interesting results bearing upon defects in the present metliods of sugar-cane cultivation have been obtained at the Samalkot farm by employing different manures, growing different varieties and raising selected canes under different systems. These are detailed in G.O., No. 1020, Bevenue, dated 14th September 1904, pp. 20 ff. The chief conclusions arrived at are briefly : (1) that it is important to tread in the cuttings properly, (iJ) that they should be planted in rows so as to fncilitate weeding, supervision and irrigation, (3) that they are best put out in trenches, (4) that the use of a rake to supplement two thorough weedinga with tlie tolika would be easier and much less expensive than the use of the tolika throughout, (5) that green dressing is good, but that the plants usually employed by the ryots are leguminous and suffer from insect and other pests, and (6) that the use of cane trash as ti mulch in the first instance and its burial in the fields after the canals are reopened has several advantages.

Other matters are under investigation; among them the best number of cuttings i)er acre, the quantity of water required, the abolition of the expensive bamboo supports, the advantages of ratoouing, and the improvement of the methods of making jaggery.

The commonest dry crops are gingeUy {niiciu or nuwu), cholam (Jonna), horse-gram (u2ava), ragi (isodt), green gram (pesara), sunn hemp (Janutmi), castor {dmuda), cambu (gante)^, black gram {miHumu), tobacco (pogdku) and Bengal gram {salaga or safiaga), Gingelly, horse-grain and ragi are most widely grown in Peddapuram and Rajahmundry. Cholam is cliefly raised in Bhadr^chalam in the Agency, in all the upland taluks and in Amalapurain in the delta. Castor is popular in Polavaram j cambu in Peddapuram; Bengal gram in Amalapuram, Pedda-pitram and E^machandrapuram ; and sunn hemp in Amalapuram, Nagaram and Cocanada. Tobacco grows best in the G6davari lanVas and in Yellavaram.

The two seasons of dry cultivation are known respectively as the tolakari or puudsa panta&ad the dtakuttu or payiru pania. The former begins any time between May and July inclusive

AOBICTJLTURE AND IRBIGAIION. 77

and the latter between the beginning of September and the CBAP. 17. middle of December. With local exceptions, ragi, gingelly and "C^v^^^ . camba are grown in the first Reason ; atid )iorse-gram, cliolam, castor, and black, green and Bengal gram in the second. No regular rotations are observed. In Bhadraclialam the ryots say vaguely that they vary the crop when it begins to fail for want of a change. In Peddaparam, Turn, Amaldpuram and Pola-varani tlioy profess to change the crop every ye.'ir and say that castor and'Bengal gi^m r'eqoireMntervals of three and seven years rL>spectively before they are lepeated on tlie same land.

The place of rotation is to some extent taken by mixing the crops, a syste'n which is usual everywhere. Typical .nd common combinations are horse-gram or black gram with ragi; dhaU with ragi, sdmai or gingelly; black gram and beans ( a « W « with cholam; and cambn with sama. or korra. The prmcipa _ Hdvant.ge of the system is that it economises space, a small or slow g r o - n g crop being raised in the intervals between spreading or quickly-maturing plants.

In the delt . and the Agency, manuring is rare; Ut it is 0 ^ ^ . f r . r .n te lsewhere . Kagi, tobacco and gingeUy are thought to

four to sU times, but twice is considered enough or horse-gram. Tobacco and onions seem to be always transplanWd a-d âmbn iobacco au seedlings are laid lu a furrow and

" " ' " I V r r a K J r , torf^ .bngslde t i e first. Most covered by ploagumg » Krriadcaat but castor and Bengal

of tl = » * " ' ^ r j i r . Z t . ! a t : - d m place, a driU i,

r^ffleld or ploughing again. (Veeding o£ an , tod appear, to

be the exception. . , . ,. ^ • * 1 £ \r;-nA<t of cholam in this district, Cholam.

T , . r e ^VP-^^^^^^^J-;,^^^^^^^^ of yellow i,.cHa) namely two varieties (fl'^^^^^^^l manjonna), and < hiU cholam' cholam, white cho am (/f f' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Bhadrachalam

generally sown ^-^'^J^^J^^ , |erwards the field is lightly - ^^"^^^ ^ W b ° ; h ^ e ^ ^ t o strengthen the young plants ploughed, which is belies ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^1^^ ^^jj

In p W a r a m the ryots ^''U'^^^^ ^.-^^ [ô^ or wooden teeth, mthir</orfu,^ôgoiyfooaj> ,. ^ ^ ^ ^^ October or which is drawn by buUocJis. ^^^ months. November and is on the ground toi

is- Q6DXVARI.

CHAP. IT ,

DBY CUDIIVATION.

Tobacco.

Improvement of the leaf,

Sliifting ca-i tivartion in the Agency

There are two varieties of. tobacco—lanka and pati. The former, which is much the superior, is grown on tlie allavial soils of the lankas and banks of the Goddvari, -which reqaire no manure owing- to their being covered with silt hy the river every year. The latter is raised ID Selds near the villages, 'J'he crop is always transplaated. The seed is sovvn in seed*beds in the pubbii Mrii (first half of September) and transplantation takes place after the uttara Mt-ii (at the end of that month), when the floods in the river have subsided, and sometimes as late as Deceniber. Great care is taken in the preparation of the seedbeds, the laud being ploughed many times and plentifully manured with cattle-dung and asbes. Sheep-dung is uauiilly considered hot and injurious, but is employed in Nogamm, Before sowing, the seed is mixed in the proportion of one to sixteen with sand, BO as to enable it to be thinly scattered," I t is sometimes soaked and kept for four or five days (like paddy) in a damp place until it germinates. The seed-bed is kept moist by daily (or even moro frequent) sprinklings of water, and is also weeded almost daily. When the seedlings are from one and a half to two and a half months old they arc transplanted at intervals from half a yard to ft yavd apart. They are frequently watered for three or four weeks, ba t not after that. The plants blossom in some eix or eight weeks, aud then their buds and tops are cut off to strengthen the eight or ten leaves which remain. All lateral shoots are also cut off from time to tijue and so, at length, are the bottom two or three of the eight or ten leavea.

The crop is on the ground for five and a half months from the time it is so-wn. I t is harvested at midday ; and the leaves ore left in the sun for two hours and then hung from strings in the shade for a fortnight. They are next pressed under weights for a month, after which water is sprinkled on them and they are fit for use.

Attempts are being made to improve the quaUty of the tobacco grown in the district. Messrs. T. H . Barry and Co. of Gocanadft have established a tobacco factory in that town and foreign seed has been imported by Government for experimental cultivation in the lankas leased to Mr. T. H . Barry. The chief defect of the existing tobacco is the excessive thickness and dark colour of the leaf. I t is sold in other parts of India and Burma and, to a limited extent, in Mauritius, Bourbon and London,

The majority o£ the hill lieddis and the Koyas in the Agency carry on aliUting cnltivation, called podu, by burning cleariairs in the forests. The conilict between their interests and those o£ forest reservation are referred to in Chapter V. Two methods

SET. CO

GODAVARI DELTA

Scale 1 Inch = 6 Miles

^ B«Bchiunlr>ptiniiii S i t p l "

AOKICULTDRE AND IBKIGATION. 79 * ,

. prevail: the ordinary (or chaMa) podu, and the^ hill (or konda) CHAP. 17, podu. The former consists ia cultivating certiiin recognized DRY clearings for a year or t(vo at a time, allowing the forest to grow ^°''^"'*^'?''-again for a few years, and tben again burning and cultivating them ; whilo under the latter tlio clearing is not returned to for a much longer period and is sometimes deserted for ever. 'J'lie '* latter is in fashion in the anore hilly and wilder parts, while the former is a step towards civilization. '

In February or March the jungle trees and bushes are cut r. down and spread evenly over the portion to be cultivated ; and,

' when the hot weatber comes oil, they are burnt. The ashes act -•" as a^manure, and the cultivators also think that the mere heat * *J of the burning makes the ground productive. The land is ' '

f ploughed ouce or twice in chaJaka fodus before and after sowing, i but not at all in konda podm. The seed is sown in June in the '' nin'ffasirakdrfi. Hill cholam and sdmai are the commonest crops. \i

The former ia dibbled into the ground. i Grain is usually stored in regular granaries {kotUi} or in Storage c/

f ' thatched bamboo receptacles built on a raised foundation and ^^"*-called ffddi. These are not found in Bhadrichalam or the central ,,

t delta, where the ;)»r( (a high, round recepUide made of twisted , istraw) is used. Grain ia also stored, as elsewhere, in pits.

The chief irrigatiou source of the district is the Gro ldvari, the JRBIGATION. " ¥• channels from which protect 240,800 acres in all seasons. Some Proteotoa •ff 4 600 acres of this are in Rajahmuudry, and the vest in the delta "'^''' i taluks of B^machandraparam, Cocanada, AmaUpuram and Naga-

ram. Tanks and channels from smaller rivers safeguard 31,800 . acres in aU seasons and 53,800 acres in ordinary seasons. Wells

irriffate a very small area. Only in Amalapuram taluk does the extent protected by them rise above 100 acres.

The Gtod^vari water is rendered available by the great anient ,THN ' at Dowlaishweram and the immense system of canals and chan- ANICIIT.

' nels leading off from it. Those in this district are shown in the ' accompanying map, and there are yet others in Kistrsa. " This anient was the first of any real magnitude to bo built by

Europeans in this Presidency (the Canvery system was an elabo-' ' ration of native enterprize) and is one of the greatest trinmphs of ' engineering skill iu aU India. Its history is of the greatest * interest. Not only were the physical difficulties encountered in '* damming up so huge a river enormous, but the opposition of

those who doubted the possibility and financial prospects of '<• the wort bad to be overcome. Both were met by the engineers

in charge of the project with indomitable perseverance and fortitude.

80 o6DAvxiti.

CHAP, l y , TlIK

Q6D£VARI AN'muT.

OH^n of the ide%.

First eatinaB'tea.

ThQ proiect consists of a dam across the G6daVari at Dow-imWm {yf)W0 m Wvor U ^earij fom miles wide) and a net work of canals covering almost every part of tlie delta.' Some of these canals are navigfable, and the traffic alon^ tliem is referred to in Chapter VII . The conception of the scheme was due to the genius of Sir Arthur Cotton. The idea of an anient across the river originated ^ as far back as 17S9 with Mr. Topping, an astronomer in the service of the Madras Government who was appointed to survey the coast of the district in tliat year. I t was revived in 1844 by Sir Henry flJontgomery,"' who bad been appointed (" ec p. 167) Special Commissioner to report ou the best means of improving the then unhappy condition of tLo district-As a result of his recommendations, Sir Arthur (then Capfain) Cotton of the Madras Engineers was ordered in 184-5 to report professionally nn the possibility of building an anicut ou tlie river. He pronounced in favour of the idea; his representations were earnestly backed by the then Governor of Madras, tJie Marquis of Tweeddale \ and tho Court of Dii-ectors, in a despatch dated December 23rd, 1846, sanctioned the project.

Sir Arthur Cotton's first idea had been to build a dam above liajahmnndry similar to the two anicuts on the Coleroon which had been recently constructed under his supervision. But he eventually recommended that the work should be constructed just below Dowlaishweram, at the head of the delta. The breadth of the riv«r was much greater there than above Rajahmundry, but a great portion of the width was occupied by islands, and the site had the great advantage of being close to a hill of coarse, strong sandstone ' of a degree of hardness exactly suited to the case J neither too hard to be expensive in working nor yet soft enongh to be unfit for the purpose.' Round this hill, also, lay several Imndred thousand tons of broken stone, the accumulations of years of native quarryings, which would be of great value for nibble work. The cost of constructing the anicut itself Sir Arthur estimated at only 4 | lakhs, and that of the subsidiary works as 1^ lakhs, or only twelve lakhs in all. At the same time he indulged in the most sanguine hopes of increased irrigation and revenue, and of a rich return upon this ' absurdly small ' sum. I t will be seen immediately that he very greatly under-estimated the cost of botli dam and project.

' Tlie ruUoTviiitJ brief sketcli has been for tlie rcost purt tibstractod from the jjiiiiiliio iicetjiint, in 'Vhe Eftpificf ciw j works of the Qiddvau delta, by Mr. Qt.T. Walch, bito Clii*t£ Engiuci;>' for Irngution, Madrns, [jublisihcil by the d'oruriiiHciic FresB in 1S9C.

* First report of the Publio Works Commiaeion at Madras, 1852, p. 100. * Eis report dated ISth March 1844, para, 40,

Axil "T.

D(m'lai..>li\vi'i*;uii Ijraiicli ItAli Itraric-li MufMi'ir brjtDcli . . Vij^svuroiu braiitili

Yiiiils. . . . l , i J W

953 516 8(1R

ARKlOTLTirBK ANH IRIlIfiATIOX. 8 1

The hrea<ttli of the GodAvari fit the point selceted for tiie rtam fH.\.l\ IV is rftthor over -i'l inilos ; bnt of this more tlian a third is occupied „,TIIE

Ijy three islands and tlie head of the central delta, which separate the I'ivoi- into foiic channels. About a mile fron\ the I)o\Ylnisii-werani (or eastern) liank of the river is the ishmd linown as the ;,ndde8lifu I'ichika-lanka, nearly 800 \ard3 T>road, t]»e branches tiowing on either side of wjiicli are known as the Dowlnislnverain and Rtili l>ranclies respectively. Next Ijeyond tlie Itn'li branch comes ilie lieail of tlie central delta, known as the Bolibarlanka. which is aljout i70 j a rds wide. Then comes a narrow channel called the Maddur branch ; next the Maddi'ir hinka, about 030 yards bi-oad ; anil, lastly, the fourth,, or Vijesvarain, branch of the river. The lenjfthfi uf the sections uf tlu' iljvjii ovei' each of the four branches, exclusive of iinder-sluices and wings, were as given

in the majgin. It will be seen that the total lengtli of the work was about 4,000 yards, i t was intended to be 1: feet higliand connected with embankments on the different islandu 2,455 yards in length.

Tlia j'ivei' bod was of pare sand and the islands were thin alluvial deposits thereon, while floods upwards of 25 feet in depth swept one and a half millions of cabio feet of water past the place every second. The problem how to bring the river under the necessary control at such a site was thus no easy one,

Tlic actual design of the tlam was modified more than onee ; and none of the sections across tlie various branches is precisely similar to any other. The original plans provided for a narrow crest with a vertical drop for the water on to a cat-stone floor behind, the section being very similar to that of the Upper Ani-cut on the Coleroon. Before work began, however. Sir Ai-tUar adopted a very rlitVerent design with a broad crest and a long sloping apron behind it of rubble masonry covered with cut-stone. The great advantage of this was that it required much less cut-st^ne work, for skilled masons were exceedingly scarce. I t was not adliered to universally, different modifications being introduced in each of tJiefour sections, Tout the general pnnciple of a long rough-stone apron was retained in all. This had a very-serious drawback, the full effect of which its designer did not Srst appreciate. Water rushing down such a sloping apvon sets up reverse under-eurrents which tend to scour holes in the river bed and so undermine the fovindation of the work. I t was soon found that a further oxtonsion of the apron by a long rough-stone

U

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82 OOD.WARI.

CHAP. IV. THE

G6P£\'ARI ANICL'T,

Progress of ooiietrnction.

taloa was necessat-y, and at tlie prest^nt time it i"* from thrtje lo six- times as wide as it oi'i.sriiiall^ wa^, and its tliickness lias lieeti jfreatly increased by t.lic enoniioii.s qnantitics of stonr! tliruwn in to make good tbe sinkage wliich has trom time to time taken place. In. the first twenty years oX the anicut's existence over 500,000 t^ns of etone wore used for this piirposo, and vast f)nan-tities more liavc been Uhcd since. NowatUiys verj little i<! required, and tliat only at certainlplacos.

Anotlier considerable cliaiiffe in tliw orif>inal desij^n wns the adoption of the plan uf funnding the unient on the sand eonfiued between its face wall and the retaining wall at tho toe of t.lio apron, instead of apon a ma&s of loosely deposited satone. The R41i Lrdiich alone was constructed on the latter niet.luxl aud its foundations were the only ones which gave any tronhlc H ln-'y allowed the water to pass through in great qnautitieB.

Three sets of undor-sluices of fifteen vents eticli were built, one near the head-sluice of each of the main canals of the three sections of the delta. H'hrec locks were aUo bnilt, one at the liead of each of tliost; canals. Three bead-sluices were also ultimately necessary.

The sanction of the Court of Directors to the execution of tlie work was received early in 1817. In April of that year operations were vigorously commenced, A. detacliment of Sappers and Miners was posted to Dowlaiahweram, and a Snb-CoUector (Mr. H. Forbes) was appointed to superintend the recruitment and payment of labourers and to procure the necessary supplit'.-. IJis exertions (it may hei-c be noted) were more than once acknowledged to hnve contributed largely to the success of the work (Sir Arthur said ' Ids vigorous and active measures have roused tins district to a degree that could not have been expected') and he was specially thanked in the Government order reviewing the completion of the project. Before July bad arrived, as many as 10,200 labourers, 500 carpenters and the same nundjer of smiths had been collected to put in hand preliminary preparations. Boats were built, railway wagg-ons constructed, the quarry opened and two double lines of rail ran from it to different points on the river banks, and the embankments on the islands put in liand.

In tbe working season of 1848 the actual construction of the dam was begun, and thr> Dowlaishweram aud Madder sections were both built to t.lie height of nine fcefr, and a good deal of work was also done to the Dowlaishweraiu and Vijesvaram sluices. In the middle of 1848 Sir Arthur Cotton had to go Home on leave ' exhausted by unremitting work and anxiety ' ; and for the next two years his place was taken by Captain (afterwards Grencral)

At;KICULTrl!>: AND IBlt)(*AT10N, S'3

C. A. Oi'f. W.E., who bad IVom tho Hrst been his most i^iirocssfnl CHAI*. iv, H<^iitonauf and to whom much of tlic credit for the completion of TMK tlie imdertatiinff is due. AXICI'T.

Next year (1849) the wlmlo of the Vijtjiivaram section was built to a lieight of nine t'cct under oiremnstances of ^rcat (lidiculty. T]io work could not bo l)egun uufil February lOth owinif to want of fund;;. JDuring it^ progre.-s a sudden rlso in , the river breached it, and extensive temporary dams had to bo erecfod to turn the river away from il. I t w.is comjijeted by tho end of May. The fieason'.-^ operatinn!i also iiiclndcd tht; repair ot 80 J ards of the Maddur section, the raising of the whole section by one aud a half feet, the completion of the head and under-.'^hiicos aud lockb both at Eowlaisliweram aud Vijesvaram, of tho nnder-sltitce and wing v,'n\U of the KAli section and of about 50 yards at each end of this section, and tho lengthening of tho Uowlaishweram socfciou by some * 50 yard?.

At the beginning of the following year (It^SO) tho ouly outlet for tlie whole .-stream of the Godavari was down the Eali branch, thu .section acro^^s which alone remaiuod to be completed. A temporary daui of loose stone had been made across this iu 1848 and htrcngthoned in 1849 to prevent the stream from cutting too doop a chaunel in tho bed of the river; but the water escaped both tliroiigli and over this, and it became necessary to make it water-tight aud high cnongh to turn the stream down the Dowlaishworam and Vijesvaram branches, and througli the head and under-slniccs in them. This w-ould have been no easy matter at tfhy time, but now considerably more wat-cr than usual was passing down o^ving to heavy rain in Hyderabad and Nagporo.

Ail exeiting struggle with the river ensued. In February about 50 yai-ds of the temi>orary dam was swept away, and no sooner was the damage repaired than 80 yards more was washed down stream. This branch was nearly closed when the river asserted itself and widened it to 80 yards again, surging throngli tlie nari-ow opening between 20 and 30 feet deep. A\''ith imiucnse difficulty this breach was at length closed and the river turned aside on the 23rd April, and before the end oXthe next mont.i- the Kali section was completed to a height of 10^ feet. The head-sluice and lock on tins section were built the same year, aud the great anient was thus at last an accomplished fact.

Though the battle was now won, the difficulties were fax- from Snbsequout over. On the 9hh June 1850 the river began to rise steadily. I t ^'lioulties. was passed through the ]Jowlaishwerani and Eali nnder-sluices ba t the apron behind tho latter was only 25 feet wide, and on the 17th June it began to sink. The sluices were closed aud an attempt

84 CtioXtAEl.

AM<.ni.

AltCt*Atiu11!)

CHAP. IV, 'n-as made to replace the apron'; wlien suddenly tlir ;Lfreii1 lieaci of THE water forced the sand from boneatli the founftatiim of tlir sluiees

into the hollow focnird hy the sinkinjr of th(> apron, and a portion of the shiices fell in. Seven out of fourteen piers collapsed; but fortunately the massive masonry formed a dam preventing'any great rnsli of water and g-avc time for measures to ho iaken to check the extension of tlic damsij^e.

In tlic worlting season of 1^51 and the earlj par) of 1833 tliese undor-shnce.s were rebuilt and tlic finishinff touches were put to the anient and head-works. Tlicir virtual eompleti<in may be considered to have been achieved by Alarch 31st ISrfS,

Larfjo repairs and altei-ations in tln' dam have been carrieit Bincceffecte-l, ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ f^^^^ Construction, The constant additions to the

roujfh-stono aprons have already been alluded to, and another important improvement has been tlie raising of the crest of the work. Even before it was finislicd in I852;its height was fonnd insufficient to secure an adequate supply of water to tlic canaN at all seasons; and cast-inm grooved po^ts, fitted with horizontal planks to hold up when nee«^ssary an additional two feet of water, were fixed along its crcat. This was still insafticient ; and between 1802 and 1807 tlie masonry itself was raised two feet at a cost of nearly throe lakhs, and the iron posts and planks were replaced on the top of the new work. Jn ]807-U9tho crest was raised an additional nine inchc's with Portland cement concrete, and on this were fitted self-acting casi-irou shutters, two feet high, which fall autoni,-)tically when the water rises to six indies above their tops.

The ouly serious accident to the anient itself Jiappoaed m 1857. On the 14th Noven\her of that year, when the season for floods was over and the wat,er -was com]>arat.ively low, the eastern end of the Maddur liranch suddenly subsided into a deep scour-liolebelow it, and a breaeli was formed througli wlncli the river poured mth such depth and volume that it was impossible to stop it. The disaster was met by damming up tlie river (with great difficulty) soine way above the anient and tlien rebuilding tlie fallen portion. The operation cost half a lakh,

l l ie three sots of head-locks, head-sluices and under-sluicef, have all been altered ot replaced at various times, aud of the original constinictions only one head-sluice and the three seta of nnder-sluices now survive. The original Vijesvarara head-lock was dostroyod in tho Hoods o£ 1852. It was velnnlt next year, hut was eventually converted into shiiees ; aud tho present head-lock was ImiU in 1801. The original Vijosvarain hcud-shiices fell in 18. 3 ; were rebuilt in 1854; and are still in use. The central delta head-sluice& fell in 1878 in a high flood, tind great

AGRICL'LTUKZ AND lifKIGATION, 8 5

fl])lirr}lLj' ^w;ib fxperifucufl in pmontitiy ciniuiigo lo flio raiial rijAl'. jv. below. Tin* hoatl-lock bc- idc tliem Vcamc sn slmky iliat iti l88iM)() it was rcpIjKwl hy a now one. Of H.o ou>=;tcrii fl*-l(i, nrfr,/'i-,,B, worU, the hoad-lock topiilcd ovoi-iu ]b8(>, l^hen tbcrc ivaa 1 (.; - ^ - ^ T .

foot tif water on the anient. If carried tlic look jrafe* wifii it am) loft a gap into tiic otinal fiftoL-n feet wide, (liroiig-li wliieb the. water pottrcd. Tlie river continued to riM'. and in two davs readied MJC tlieii nn]irceedentcd Jieipflit of 17 feet .ibovo tjie anient, so tliat the hreaeli was only .- topped with great diffit'idty. A now lock in a ratlier befter po.' itioii was bnilt next year and opened on Jubilee day.

A gradually inereastng shoal which lins been forming on the left side of tho Gudavan river above the Dow!ai.>?liweram braneh of tin- ani<Mit ha-* been for Bonie time past a sonroe oi' anxiety and of ineoDvenienee to uuvigration. 'J'hc old iJowlais-hweram ntulor-slnices not being .safficicntiy ]wwerfii] to arre.-sf the progres. ? of tliiii shoai towards tlio head-slniee, it was eonpidernd noeessarv to build more powerful snb.<!titutns for them. An estimate was sanctioned in 19011 and tlie work is now in progress. The new jjndcr-shiiees are to consist of ten vents 20 feet wide and 10 feet high, regulated by iron lift slnitters and with their sili four feet below [hat of the head-slnioo. The shutters are to be in two tiers — the upper mea.siiring ^0 fcef by G feet and the lowt-r 20 fcL'ti by -1 feet — art; to be consfraetcd of half ineli plates still'ened witli rolled steel beams 12 feet b\ 6 feet, and are to be worked h} elmin gearing arrangements,

Siniultaneously witJi the con.Mruction of the head-works, Distiibntaiy arrangements were made for carrying lo the various parts of the ^ '"•i'*"-delta the wetter tliey rendered available. Kven before the building of the anient, certain portions of the delta had been irrigated. Sir llonry Montgomery's report of I84-(> already mentioned deplored the neglect with which the then existing channels had been treated, and Sir Arthur Cotton described theJn as pajtral-works of small extent not kept in an effective state. They were merely inundation channels, the heads of which were l2or J5 feet above the deep bed of the river, and they rt-ceiVed a supply only dnring floods, or for about ;">0 days in the year. Home of them ia)' On the western ^idc of the river in tlie present Kistm. district; the central delta contained none worth mention ; but on the eastern side of the river four considerable channels were lu existence-One of these, called the I'nlya Bhaga, led olf fi'om near the site of tho anient and ran in a fairly straight line to Cocanada, terminating in the salt creek theie. lu 1840 a branch was taken Ti-om it to Sanmlkot from jieaJ'-i)ow-laishweram. These two channels were connected with the head-works of tho eastern delta.

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86 GOD.UWRl.

CHAP. IV. At tlic end of 18J-9 a start wjisi nmdc witli the now distributary Tm; works, sanf^tion being ohtaiiipd to the f nttinjj of tlie main canals

f!.i)AV.\Ei ji jjg eastern and rcDtral iloltup, tlic tirsi of whicli (pcc the man) leads alonfj the river bank nearly a?- fnr as Yanam and the second rnus past Rali. In April 1851 the western delta main canal (now in the Kistiia district) was -sanctioned, and in Pobriiary 1(502 con sid era bin extensions of OIL- eastern main eantd ami larjfc distributary works in tlic central delta, inchidinfc the j^roat Gannavaram aquednct, were iijrreed to,

Tliij (i:iniia. Tins aquednet carries a large canal across a branch of Llie Godii-L' uulluci. ^''^^^ '" '"^ NiJrganiiH island; wliicb is Mirronndcd by the sea and

two iirjns uf the river and to which water can oaly bo taken in this way. The aqueduct niaj be ron*jhly described as an arclicd bridge of brick thrown across the branch of the river, npoiL-which, in the place where the roadway of an ordinary bridge is laid, runs a channel from ^2 to 2-1 Ceet broad and some four feet deep. Us total lengtli between abninients is 2,'i48 feet, and it consists of 49 arches with 40 feet waterway and '18 piers (J I'ect thick. Ordinarily, the water of the branch of the river across which it is thrown Hows through the arches of the aquednct, bnt in times ol' high flood it completely submerges the whole work and pours over tlie top of it. I t was impossible to ufiako the a(juodiict higher, because of the expense and danger invulveH in raising the embankments of tlie channels connected with it to a correBponding hoiglit above the level of the surrounding country. The work bad therefore to be made of sufficient strength to resist Hoods sweeping over it.

The most notewortliy fact about the work is Uie wonderfully short period within whicb it was bnilt. The estimate was submitted by Sir Arthur Cotton in August 1S51 but was not sanctioned till February I'lth ltT52, I t was considered of paramount importance to finish the wOrk before the floods of that year came down, and, to eiicct tliis, extraordinary efforts were necessary. Between the first preparation of the materials for the work and the completion of all its 49 arches only four months elapsed, and in another lour it was ready for its work. ' In any part of the world,' says Mr, Walch in his book already citedj ' this would have been a noteworthy achievement; in an ou(.-of

^ tlie-way part of the Madras Presidency, where machinery was aUnost unoljtaiiiablc and most of the skilled labour had to bo trained as the work went on, it was an extraordinary Teat.' The construction was under the charge of Lieutenant (afterwards Genera)) G. T. Haig, K.E.,and hi.' energy and skill are comnieuded

A0TitC01.Tl!TlF AND IKUmATrON. 8 7

in the )iit^)ie?!t terms In- Sir ^Artliiir Cotton: ' Tliat a i^ingle officer rriAP. iv. witii two 01' tiircc overseers sjioiild have managetl about 5,000 TIJK

vvorlvinen, anr] M'itli tlie help of only one or two cilieicut workmen, XMCUF"

is one of the most snrprisinjr tlriiigs I liare met witli, Kverj time I visited the work I was astonished at the energy and admirable arrnngement of this young officer, I cannot say less tliaii that I think liim tlte most efVeetive officer 1 have over hati aftat'hed to inc. J have never yet seen such eiierj/y displayed by any other m a n / Jt is, in truth, difficult lo realize, as one views fliis imposing work, that it wa,-; aetnally completed in one working season.

Moacy for ftirther extensions of tlie tlistrilmtary works was at Ccinji.iprion first grudged by Government, who wore sce\)tic«l of the prospects "g,.^^"""'''"' of tlie scheme and aghast at the tiiiormous excess ovor the original estimates of expeuditure which had been incurred, • The records teem witli remonstrances from Colonel Cottou aud with ' minutew,' ' no tes ' and letters hj* Groveriiors, Memburs of Council, Boards and Secretaries, now wrathful and now penned more in sorrow than in anger, on the subject of the surprises which Colonel Cotton was springinj^ on tbeni in his demands for wJiat thev considered unexpected flevelopnients of the origiual si^htme, or to cover expenditure incurred on work wliich had not been sanctioned or liad been much altered or largely exceeded in execution, . . On the one hand was the entluisiast whose geuina and special knowledge enabled him to see clearly that wjiat he pro}X»sed to do was in the best interests of Government as well as of the people, and wlio was impatient of dehiy ; on the other liami were the controlling powers who held the pnrso strings and whose duty it was to check too hurried an advance along a path the issue from wliieh to them was obscure / ' It was not till 1853 that the success of the project became so apparent that funds were granted readily tor its dcrelopment. Kroiii that time onwards the camils aiul channels wei-e rapidly pushed forward. At the present time there are in the Godivari ilistrict (not counting the works in Ifistna, on the western bank of the river) 987 mUes of canal (nearly all of which are navigable) and 1,0-J7 miles of distributaries.

The total capital outlay on tlie whole scheme up to the end Finnncial of 1904-05 is returned as Es . ],3lj,9:!,000, the gross receipts of '*''»'t9or t'le that yoar at Es . 35,58,000, the annual ivorking expenses at *""' '"'~' Es . 9,10,000, and the net revenue at Es . 2f),4S,000 or 19'34 per cent, on the capital outlay. The benefits and increase of wealth

' Mr, W'alfli, 0^, eit„ y, 89,

88 RODAVAKl.

CHAP. IV. TlIK

G(Jl)iVABf A N I C O T .

Poasihlc oxteiiBions of it.

lis ortinia-

which tile project has r(mfei-fe<l upon tlie people nf the rlistrict are iuodlculable. The misery it has prev(;ntefl mt\y he ^iiugpA from a. ppnisal of (;iiaptcr-Aai F l)elow,where the ghastly PnlfwHnjf.s from faiuinc which the peopli- (.-ndnretl bofure its cdn^truction are faintly indicated,

Mr. Walch considers that ' it may be assumed that there is land available for an exti^nsion of ii-rii cution oT at least 100,000 acres; exclusive of the considemble area.s in the Corinj^a and Polaram islands, to both of wliich anient water conld bo taken without any very serious engineerint^ difficulty- to the foraior by a ttmtiel or ai-tieulated pipes and to the latter by an aqnoduct across the Vriddha Gantami.' Whether, however, sufficient water can be rendered available for any such extension m another matter. For some three montlis in cveiy year vastly more water comes down the river than is recinired for the area at present iriigated, and this escess pours uselessly over the anient amt down to the sea. But in almost evory seas(jn the period of superabundance is followed by one of scarcity, the water barely sufficing for the present area of wet crops. Iilither therefore tlie ' doty ' of the water must be increased (no easy matter) or some method of storage must ha resorted to. It lias been suggested * that reservoirs might perhaps be formed on tlie Saveri or ono of-its larger tributaries.

The administration of the irrigation works of the central and eastern deltas in this district involves the maintenance of a large establishment. An Executive Engineer and two Assistant Engineers are in charge of them exclusively, the rest of the district being administered by another Executive Engineer with an Assistant Engineer snbordinatie to h im; and under their orders are tlie anient supeiintendent and sub-overseers, who supervise the distribution of the water, the conservancy establishment in charge of the locks and river embankments, and the navigation establishment referred to in Chapter Y I I . A new division for the conservancy of the river bed is being organized.

The embankments give much trouble in times of high freshes, and the country is not yet adecpiately protected from the effects of abnormal floods. In 1886, 1892 and 1900 the emlianlauents breached and serious inundations were caused. Most of them have been raised since 1900. Di'ainage, tbougb not so burning a c\uestion us in the Tanjore dwlta, is a matter of jj-reat difficulty near the coivst, where the fall of t.he land is very gradual. Larijb

Ml'. It. C, cioiii'ti I'feHyAhi'fru Beport (or the J. i (1902), 3,50. i)'iy''fiim Co'iliiiissiort

i

* • _ AQKICULTDIIE AKD IRBIGATION. 8 9

tracts there arc liable to be iloodod by a heavy nortli-east CHAP. IV. monsoon. , OTIIBB

As above remarked, the district contains 31,800 acres pro- SODHCES.

tected in all seasons by minor cliannels and tanksj and 53,fc00 Minor .acres safeguarded in ordinary seasons. Of this extent, the ciiojiiiei* and gi-eater part lies in Rajahmundry (20,300 and 27,300 acres respectively) and Peddiipuram (ISj'lOO acres in ordinary seasons). In , P61avaram, Cocanada and Bliadraehalam only 3,800 acres, 1,300 acres and 100 acres respectively arc protected by tliese sources in all seasons, and in ordinary seasons 2,?00 acres in Yellavaram, 100 acres in Cliodavaram and an additional l,7oO acres in Polavarani. Tanks occur in all these tracts. The largest in the district is at Lingamparli in Peddapuram fcaliit, wliich irrigates 4,686 acres. Other considerable reservoirs are the Kottapalli tank (970 acres), the Kapavaram tank (8*23 acres), and the Ganapavarain tank (686 acres), all in Kajahmundry, The only considerable minor channels are those from the Yeleru, which irrigate some 8,000 ^^cres in Peddapuram taluk and a further extent in the Pithapurara zamindari, A small area in PeddApuram Is also irrigated iiom the Ravutulapudi stream.

Irrigation from wells is very rare in the uplands and the WglU. Agency, and tlie only taluk in the district in which over 100 acres is so watered is Anialapuram. Cheap temporary wells arc sunk in ainall numbers in parts of Pcddapuram, Tuni, Cocanada and EAmachandrapuvam. In 'he two latter they are only used for about two months in each year, average 12 feet in depth, and hold some six feet of water. In Cocanada they are called donuvu wells. In Tnni they last much longer and more labour is expended on them. On the Talesvaram river slialiow wells are dug which last lor five or six years. It is only in Nagaram and Amal&puram taluks that jjormanent revetted welfe are found, They are very large, from 18 to 24 feet deep, hold from six to twelve feet of water, are revetted with bricks and are said to bo very ancient. They are sometimes cal led 'Ja in" welts, and arc supposed to date from the days when the J^in faitli prevailed in the country ; ^ in Amalapai-am they are sometimes called ' Reddis' wells,' They are largely used for the irrigation of areca and cocoanut palm plantations, and the supply in them is said to be practically perennial. The ordinary water-lift employed in the central delta is the hipi'la or mo^« worked by bullocks, but the picottah (called iohkudii yeiham) is usual elsewhere.

^ SCO Cbaiitct III, p. 30,

12

90 QODAVARI.

CHAP, IV, A peculiarity of the district is its artesian wells. The OTKFE existence o£an artesian supply was accidentally discovered while

iRRiKATioN digging an ordinary well in the railway-station coinpouud at " I ! ! " ' Saraaltot in 1892-93, the water being encountered at a depth

' *^ '* ' ' of about eighty feet. Riuee then several other artesian wella have been s nnk j namel/j a second in t)ie station compound, two in 1904 in the sugar refinery !it the sain*^ place (wafer being reached at some 110 feet), and a fifth in llio railway-station yard at Cocanada Fort, where the water was'nearly 300 feet below ground Icvri. Artesian water has also been found on tlie Polavaram and Ycrna;f6dcni builder during the recent explorations for coal in that neighbourhood but borings at Pithdpuram have been unsuccessful.

ECONOMIC IU the zamindaris the ryots have usually no admitted occu-CoNDiTioN OF pancy right, 'i'hcy pay mouey rents fixed each year. In the

" Kim . "' Agency, the tenants of the inuttadars are apparently protected from raclt-renting and eviction by the scarcity of cultivators and the consequent desire of each landholder to keep those lio has.

In Government land, fields are frequently sub-let by the pattadai'S, the consideration being either a share of the actual crop (samgoru) or, much moro commonly, a fixed payment in money or grain called sist.

The sharing system seems to bo chiefly restricted to Interior wet land, and under it the crop is everywhere divided equally between the landholder and the tenant. The latter usaally finds the seed, the cattle and the labour, but in Bliadraehalam a land-Koldcr will often let his permanent farm-servants cultivate a piece of his land with his cattle and seed on condition of receiving half the crop I'osnlting.

Fixed rents are only paid in grain in the case of wet land. Grrain rents are usually rather lower than money rents, as there is less chance of evading payment of them. The tenant, as before, finds seed, cattle and labour; but in Pith^puram a variant called the backyard (jpeivda) system prevails under whicli tlie landholder lends the cattle. Agricultural labourers are either farm-servants engaged by the year (f>dlikdpu) or coolies hired by the day or job. The former usually engage themselves for tbe wbole year to some landholder, who then Has the exclusive right to ihoii'services. Accounts are settled, and fresh engagements made, on tlic eleventh day of the bright fortnight of the month Asbada (Jnly-Augupt), which is well known throughout the district under the name of ' t h e initial dkidasi ' (ioH ^kddu^i) ihen, as the ptovorb significantly says, ' the pdUMptw are

AGBICULTUHK AND IHItlUATlOS- 91

companions to their master's sons-in-law ,' thcv remind him of his CHAP. iv. petty tyrannies during the past year and hnggle over tlie renewal ECOXOMIC

of their agreements. ''ni^'oZr^I The rates of wages for pdlikdpus, which arc always fixed by RISTS.

the year and (except in Bhadrichalam) in paddy, vary, when commuted into money at the usual rate of 10 kunchams per rupee, from Rs. 24 (or one anna a day) in P61avaraiii to Ks, 60 (two annas, eight pies a day) in Pcdddpuram, PitliEipuram, Kajalmiundry and Ramachandrapuram. Tliose labourers are also given a small varying quantity of straiw and unthreshed paddy at the end of the year, a new cloth, some tobacco and a palmyra tree, or, if tlie master has no palmyras, a gift of one rupee. They also get advances of their wages free of interest. In Amaldpiiram various

•diiferent customs prevail. Tliese rates of wages are said to have increased by one-third or one-half in the last ten or fifteen years. Payjuenr is usually made at the end (»f the year.

The day labourer is paid from two to four annas a day, women getting half these rates, Tho rates of wages were ouly about half tliese sums a few years ago. Labour, however, is not really scarce. The great immigration from A-^izagapatani (p. 38) has done much to supplement it, and there is no ' labour problem * as iu some places, the Tanjore delta, for example. The rates of interest on loans are much the same as usual, li to 24 per cent, being common. Loans are often made on the security of standing crops on tho condition that they shall be sold to the aowcar at less than the market price, an arrangement which is known as the jtdti system,

92 GODAVABI .

CHAPTER V.

FORESTS.

CHAP. V, EAKtY

0PEEATI0N3.

Progress of i-eaervation.

EARLY OPKRATIPKS—Progress otrosotTatioti. SriTLKMrNT—rmpriftavy r i g h l s -

SnecejitiliiUtioB of the j'lnglc tribes—P«lit cultivatiini. Ar)MiN[f>TH.\TiuN— In Rampa—In the n'str of the Agcn.-y—River transit rnica -Fire-jii-otco-tion—Artificial rejji'otluctiou iCimtiavina—^lftngrovu—InU'inluction ot i-xotiett, etc. Gr.SBRAi, Cii.MiA<Tr.ft OFTIIB Fonr!>TS—On tUo coast—In the «]>ljin<lB— In Ptflavar^Tii arvd YcllaTai-atii—In Bampa—In Bliadrilotialdn;—Timber and the market for it—Minor forest produco—Vorest revenue.

T H E best forests in the district are those in the Afjency, and trade in their timber, facilitated as it is by the waterway provided by the Godavavi river, ha3 flourished from the earliest times, The Committee of Circuit (see p. 102") refer to it sis far bacli as 1786 and it was still in existence when the Ooverninent recently began forest conservancy, Tlio Bliadrachalam and liekapallc country was the chief centre. Dealers from the plains employed the Koyas and MU Eeddis to cut timber at so much a log, or bamboos at so much a thonsand, and to drag- them to the riverside, where they were made into raffs and floated down stream ' to the markets nearer the coast,

Forest conservancy was first begun in the Bhadr^ehalam talnlc, which was transierred to the district from the Central Provinces in 1874. Soon after the transfer, the Madras Government threw open its forests to exploitation on tlie permit Rystem, and annually netted a very fair revenue from'them.^ In 1870-77 reserves amounting to 13« square miles (subsequently reduced to 68 square miles) were selected in the taluk by Mr. JBoileau, the Deputy Conservator of Forests who had been sent to tlie dish-iet for the purpose; but the hill tribes were permitted to cut what-ever wood they chose for their own use, and complaints were frequently made that they sold timber and other produce to outside dealers. Although only four guards were sanctioned for the protection of these reserves, yet the avenige annual revenue between 1874 and 18S3 was Rs. 21,000, while the expenditure averaged only Rs. ^,80ft. In the latter of these two years Mr. Boilean reported very unfavourably on the condition of the forests ; and Dr. afterwards Sir Dietrich) Braudis, who was then

' B.P.,l lo. 1993 (Forest No. 372), dated 7tU July 1885 n U ' B.P,, Foreat No. 222, dated 30th July 1903. "

http://th.it

FOUKSTS. 93

in Madras advisin",^ tlie Government regarding its fntin-e forest policy, recommended that conservancy in this talnk slionld be abandoned unless Government was prepared to introduce the Forest Act and to sanction the reservation of large compaqt blocks, capable of subsequent extension, and stated that it was tiie nnanimous opinion of, the local officers that grazing, fires, indiscriminate cutting and the clearings made by the hill men for tlieir slnftinju^ cultivation were mining tlie forests.

'J'lie Governmeat accordingly directed Jfr. J. S. Gamble, the Conservator of the Northern Division, to inspect the taluk and report on Sir Bitstricli Brandis' proposals, and his detailed account of the forests * finally dispelled any doubt as to their importance. Mr. Gamble rearranged Mr, Boileiiu's reserves and proposed new ones which brought up the forest area to 530 squai-c miles. JCost of this tract was notified under the Forest Act between 1889 and 1891; but tlie large Eekapalle hills reserve of 93,500 acres was not notified tiU 1890.

Ecaervation was soon begun in other taluks also. By 1893 large areas had been notified in the Peddapui-am taluk and Yellavaram division, but the major portion of the large i*61avarnm forests were not reserved till ! 809, and it wus not until IJ OI that

CRAP. V. EitBLV

O P E RATIONS.

the forests of the proportions,

The

district as a whole attained their present

marginal figu res si

A main pn ram Hliadiuclialain Cg;an!i<la ... PeddFipuram Pfilavnrnm llajalimamliy Yclliivornin

GtJdav.'n-idiati' ict

low

13 •JGO

80 72

111 •u

ill square miles the area of the reserves and reserved land in each talnk or division and in the district as a wliole. They do not include lEainpa, whicli, though containing large arena of jungle, lias for political rea-

sons been excluded from the operations, and yet it will be

noticed tluit 737 square miles of tlie total of 942 sqnare miles is situated in the agency divisioons.

The rights of Govermuent over the forests in the Agency iave been established in different ways in diil'erent tracts. In Ranipa, the muttadars at one time claimed the right to lease out '6^*^ the forests, and large quantities of timber wove removed by tbe lessees they appointed. But it was eventually ruled that Government stood in the exact place of the former mansabdar of Kampa and that consequently neither the muttadars nor the inokliAsadars had any right to lease out the jungle or fell timber for sale, and

» Printed m B,P„ No. 1092 (PoreHt No. 372), dated 7tl» July 1885.

;:ETTLP,J(EST

Proprietary

94 aODAVARI.

CflAP. V. SETTLEMENT,

Saaccpti-Iiilitica of tho jungle tribes.

Peiu cultiva-

that the Rarapa forests were tlio property of tlic State.' A.S however these subordinate proprietors had hitlicrto been enjoying a considerable forest revenue of which it seemed harsh to deprive them absolutely, it was resolved in December lb!*2 to pay them an annual allowance amountiog to haU the net average of this revenue during the previous three years, on the understanding that they would assist Groverninent in the future administration of the forest. In the Yellavaram and Polavai'iim divisions, no such difficulty occun-ed i'l settling the rights o( ])roprietors.

In the Bhadraehalam taluk the Government of tliu Central Provinces had adopted, in their permanent settlement with the zamindars, a policy regarding forests which differs from that traditional in this Presidency. The forests and ^vaste lands in zamindari estates were not handed over to the zamindars, but, after a liberal deduction from thcni (ctdled the ihipaii land) had been made round each \ilUige to allow for the possible extension of cultivation, were declared to be State property,-

Reservation was complicated not only by claims to the proprietary ownership of the forests, but also by tlie iinnsuil habits and susceptibilities of tho hill tribes who dwelt among theiu. These peoplu, though possessing few sustainable riglits over the jungle, had from time immemorial enjoyed and abused a general freedom to fell or burn whatever growth they chose. The Koyas and liill Reddis lived in villages situated on the borders of, and even within, the proposed reserves, and for political reasons great care was considered necessary in dealing with them.- Dissatisfaction with the new forest rules in Rckajialle was apimrently the reason which had led the Koyas of that taluk to join in the litinipa rebellion of 1879.

Both the Koyas and the Reddis lived by the shifting ( ^w/a) cultivation described in the last iihapter (p. 78), making clearings in the heart of the forest by felling and burning the trees, cultivating them for a year or two until their first fertility w-as exhausted, and then moving on to new trnnuid. Not only were acres of valuable forest thus felled, Init the fires lit for burning these patches spread over enormous areas. On the other hand, reservation, to be thornugh, necessitated the exclusion of this class of cultivation frum the reserved blocks and meant, it considerable cnrtaibneut, of the old privileges of the hill men, wlio had been accnstonieii to wander and burn wherever they liked.

' See B.P., Po,.e3i ^^^ 128, dated GtL Mai'cU I8OO and G.O., No. 1230, Rowimc, dated 21st December 1892.

' See Chapter XI, p. 176,

file:///ilUige

FORESTS. 95

111 tlie earlier stages of tlie forest settlement in Polavamm CUAP. V. and "^'ellavaram tlio oHirers in charge of the Agency held that St:TTLi,MK>T. resorvation had Ijeon too wholesale and that tlie allowance of jnngrlo left in the noiglibonrhood of viLlages to provide for tlie extension or rotation of cultivation and for the supply of tiinborfor implonients and other domestic purposes was inatle-qnatc. Mr. (now Sir A. T.) Arundel, tlion a Afeniber of the Eoaiil ui' Kcveniic, consoi|ncatly visited the district Jn October 1803 ami enquired inti) the inatter on the spot.. Uo came to the conclusion that the habits of tlie liill men had not received arlofpiatc consideration, and it was aecordinyly ordered tlmt the Assistant. Agent and the District. Forest Officer should personally investigate the complaints and sec that equitable claims were satisfied. Without laying down hard-and-fast roles it was indicated that [tnAns which had long been abandoned and were covered witli jungle need not necessarily be excluded from reservation, but that woll-recognized jUKfits should be excluded and handed over to the cultivators ; and that for the rotation and extension of cultivation a sufficient extent (eight times the existing area annually under cultivation as a maximum) should be set aside,

lu BhadrAcbalam the settlement was completed without controversy. 'I'he hill men of that taluk had long been accustomed to the idea of reservation, and considerable leniency was shown in the provision of areas for cultivation. I t is however only in the last few years that ;>orfw cultivation in the reserves there has been completely stopped. t

In Bam^ja, the scene of a violent rebellion as recently as 1870, it was considered better not to run any risk of arousing discontent by attempts at reservation, and the forests there were never demarcated at all. 'I'hey are still administered on A system different from that followed in the rest of the district.

The susccptibiUtics of tho liill men led to cautious systems Anuxis. of forest administration throughout the Agency, all orders being TBA-nou. issued through the Agent or his Special Assistant, but in Eampa ^° *™P»-the methods adopted were quite distinct. The country was eieiupted from the operation of all but section 20 of Chapter I I I , and Chapters V, VI I , I X and X, of the Forest Act. These rendered it possible to regulato tho cutting and transit of timber and special roles were drawn up regarding tlioso matters. The people were allowed to cut timber for their own use except tamarind, jack, jppa, soap-nut, gaU-nut and mango trees * but

96 GOnAVARI.

CHAP. V. ADJIIWIS-TBATION,

In Uie retit of the Agencj.

any one desirous of exporting any wood hud to take out a permit before doing so, to pay certain fees, aad to cart it by one or other of certain prescnbed routes, along wliicli inspection tdnahs under the management of tlie Forest department were placed to check the exports with tlic permits. Tlicsc regulations still remain iu force,

Minor forest produce for tlieir own use may be collected by the Rampa i>eople free of all cliarge; buf on any wliich is exported, seigniorage is levied, generally at the weekly markets outside Rampa where the produce is brought for sale^ and from the traders aud not from tlie hill men. The same procedure is adopted in the case of minor produce brought out of the Yellavaram division.

The Eampa people are also allowed to graze their own cattle in tlie forests fcree. But owners of foreign cattle driven io Rampa to graze have to take out permits and pay Fees,' and the cattle have to be produced for clicck at the t^tnah specified iu the permit. In 1900-01 the forest revenue from all these sources amounted to Es. 5,500; in 1901-02 to Es . 9,400; in 1902-03 to Es. 10,800; and in 1903-04 to Es, 6,700.

In the Agency outside the Rampa country the forests are either wholly or pai*tially reserved. In tlie latter, timber, as in Eampa, may be felled for agricultural aud domestic purposes free, except that certain trees must not be touched. I n Pola-varam nineteen species have been thus excepted, iu Yellavaram fifteen, and in Bhadrdchalam nine ; while in this last taluk KfSyas and hill Eeddia are allowed to fell any trees except teak and Diospr/ros mehnoxylm. In unsurveyed villages any trees may be felled to prepare land for permanent cultivation and any except certam species (specified in each diviaionj to clear it for podu. In surveyed villages the rales usual elsewhere are in. loree.

Minor produce (except rela and tangedu bark, for which permits are required) may be gathered free for domestic use in this class of forests iu Yellavaram, and in BhadrdoJmlam by Koyas and hill Eeddia. Seigniorage is collected, as in Eampa, at the weekly markets from the traders on any which is collected tor export. In Polavaram the revenue is collected on the norinit syatem m both classes of forest.

enco-X? Vr^r^ ""l"I \ " " ff "**'^""'' "' ' '•' y- «- *hc correspond-189» FZI. T "" ^-»^'^28thJ.ly l«y7 and 2(54 daled 32nd .hme. iaMarrm:.^r,^,7;^^^^^^^^^^^ *'^^*-« « < «-P«.. For.«t Nos. 89 dated

ronRsTs. 97

The grazing rales differ in the different divisiona of the CHAP. v. Agency; bnt in all of them Koyas and Keddis are allowed to ADMIMS-

graze their cattle free, and in all of them except BhadrAchaljim ^^*"'"'' (wliithor cattlo are seldom driven on account of its remoteness) foreign cattle are charged full rates. People other thau Kdyas and Eeddis are charged one-quarter the full rates in Bhadrdcha-lam, one-half in Polavaram and one anna a head in YeUavarain.

The game rules are in force in the Pdpikonda hill (Bison hill) reserve of the Polavarnm division, in order to protect the bison there, which are rapidly disappearing. It is in contemplation to extend tha rules in course of time to the adjoining Kopalli and Kovvada blocks.

The GodAvari (and, in a lesser degree, the Saven) are River transit important waterways for iloating timber from forests belonging '' ' *''' to other administrations, Native States, zamindars, and private individuals ontsiije this district. Bat they also flow for many miles through the forests of this Collectorate, and this renders much care necessary to prevent them from being used for the illicit removal of timber from the forests of this district under the pretence that it comes from elsewhere. Inspection t&nahs liave accordingly been established at which all timber floated down these rivers is checked. Timber brought from forests other than those in this district belonging to Government has to be covered by vouchers signed by the owners of the forests or responsible authorities, and the wood is checked with these.

Fire-protection, always a difficult problem, is rendered doubly Fire troublesome in the Agency owing to the prevalence of the habit T*oteotion. of smoking and the existence oipodtt cultivation close alongside the reserves. Formerly patrols used to b© employed during the fire-seiison, but daring the past two years the money allotted for fire-protection has been spent in inducing the hill folk themselves to co-operate in cheeking fires, annual rewards being granted to the people of villages the reserves next which escaped damage from this cause. Villages are allotted certain limits within which they are expected to check fires by catting lines,

' appointing patrols, and observing and enforcing prohibitions against hucmng podtls within 100 yards of any forest boundary line, bnrning the grass under ippa trees to facilitate the collection of the flowers when they fall, and throwing down live cheroot-ends. If within the limits thus hxed a fire occurs, the viil&oera concerned lose their reward. The plan has met with a fail measure of saooess,

13

98 adDlvABi.

CHAP. V. ADMIN 10'

M ATI ox.

Artificial re< prod action ; OBsnariDa.

Mui^OT«.

Introdttction of exotica, etc.

QENES&L CHAEACTEK

OF TBI FORESTS.

On th« coatti

The only artificial reproduction of forests which haa been attempted is in the casuarina plantations near the coast. Two large blocks of this tree exist, in which over 85 acres are annnaUy planted up. In the Kandikuppa block, in which the rotation has been fixed at fifteen years, the planting is at intervals of six feet by six, the object being to produce long, straight poles for the river protection works of the Public Works department. I n the Bendam6rlanka block, where the rotation is ten years, the seedlings are put out at an interval of nine feet by nine, fn both areas thinnings are made after tlie fifth year to admit light to induce increase in g i r th ; and in both of them tlio method of reproduction ereployed is clear felling and replanting,

The artificial regeneration of the mangrove has been undertaken during the past three years in the Coringa reserve, a valuable swamp forest about twelve miles from the important firewood market at Cocanada. Natural reproduction is liindered by the unsuitabiUty of the ground under the trees, which, being raised year after year by silt, becomes hard and dry during the season (the north-east monsoon) when the seed falls, and allows the seed to be carried away by the tide before it can take root The higher and drier portions give very little hope of ever being re-stocked with anything except inferior species of tiUa (ICxc(ecari<i Agalhcka) which coppices freely. The mangrove itself gives poor restUts from coppicing, and consequently, in the lower and softer portions of the swamp, sowing and dibbling have been largely resorted to. The seed is sown broadcast wherever the sea recedes enough to leave the ground bare and the latter is soft enough for the seed to sink in ; whUe where the surface is hard or permanently covered by water, the slower and more costly method of dibbling in the seed is followed. About 600 acres have been sown in three years at an average cost of twelve and a half annas per acre-

Experiments made with exotics and foreign varieties have not given satisfactory results. Log-wood plants raised from seed imported from Jamaica have been put down in the Coringa swamp forests in different localities, but without success. Attempts have also been made to re-stock elevated parts of the same marsh with dry-lanis pecies, but owing to want of rain the result was very disheartening. In the Pegba reserve in Bhadrdchalam taluk some 25 acres were sown with teak seed from CJoimbatore in August 1903, but a year later only 500 seedlings were to be found.

The character of the forests of the district naturally differs widely in different localities. Along the tidal creeks of the &6divari river near the coast runs a mangrove iungle which extends southwards from Coringa for a distance of abont 36

FORESTS. ee

miles with an average width of five miles. Ahont one-third of this area belongs to zamindars and the rest to Government. The zatttindari portion is mere scrub jangle.baring been repeatedly cut over, and much of it la a waste plain containing no growth whatever. The Grovernment portion is the main source of the fuel-supply of Cocanada. The species found in this forest consist chiefly of four varieties of Avicennias, and of RhizopkorWf JEgiaras, XtmnnitzeraSf Cen'ops, and other inferior trees, Certops Candolkana yields a bark {'(jferfrtro bark ' ) which the villagers use for coloaring fishing-nets. The barks of the other mangrove species, although said to be good tanning materials, are not used as such, probably because they contain a large percentage of colouring matter. The forest ia useful only for the fuel it yields.

Maugrove wood is inferior as fuel to the ordinary upland _iungle species, but Lmnnitzera raceinosa (tliough scarce) is extremely hard and burns excellently, and the Cen'ops shrub burns even when green if the bark is removed. "Sonnerafia apetala {kalinffi) is a soft wood which is useful in brick-kilns when newly cut, 'but rapidly rots. I'he worst fuel of all is the iilh, a pithy wood full of an acrid juice which smokes more tlian it burns.

Besides these natural jungles, the coast forests comprise the two large plantations of casuarina already mentioned, which yield firewood and poles or piles for the river-protectlou works of the Public Works department. TheEiandikuppa plantution (532 acres in extent and only partially planted at present) lies on the coast about 30 miles from Cocanada and has direct water communication with tliat town. The Bendamurtaiika block (470 acres in extent) is 30 miles further down the coast, and is nearly planted up, but has only indirect and tortuous water communication witli Cocanada.

Proceeding northward from the coast, scattered blocks ot forest are met with in the Rajahmundry and Pedd^pui'am ranges. These chiefly contain wood fit only for fuel, though stunted specimens of timber-yielding trees are scattered here ana there and provide small timber for building huts and so forth. Among these latter are TerminaUa tommfosa, Biospyroi mehmxylony Pterocarpus Marsupium, Anogeissits latifolta, Lagentrmma parvi' •flora, Adina corcUfolta, Chloroxyhn Stvietenia, Lebedieropsis orhicu-hria^ Soyniida/ebrifviga, and a sprinkling of young Xylio, dolabri-/ormis and some patches of bamboo.

The forests of Polavaram and Tellavaraui aro of a better character. In Yollavamm there are 47 square miles'of good foiest in which fairly large ' timber (three to five feet in girth)

CHAP. 7,

GEN£BJIL

OF THE Fo RESTS,

In the npl&nds.

In PtflaTEUTftn) atid Yella-v&rftm.

100 G6DXVAKI.

CHAP. V. OKNEBAL

CHAEtMTEft OP r o E

FOBBRTS.

In Bftmpft.

l a Bhadi'ft' Oihalam.

is found, and some 96 square mile3 containing trees (one and lialf-to three feet in girth) providing timber of a smaller kind. The principal timber species are tlie XijUa, Tentiivalia, Ptero-carpus, Ano(/ei-^sus, Clttoroxrjlon^ Lager sir ceniia and Adina already mentioned as occurring further south. In the Polavaram division, besidos the above, teak (which never oocur.>3 in Yellavaram) is also met with. I t may be said generally, however, that although these forests contain large tiniher treea, tliese arc usually either unsouud or situated in inaccessible places. Tlie bulk of the crop consists of small growth whichj owing to its distance from a market, is valueless either aa fuel or timber,

The chief fruit-trees are the tamarind, gall-nut and ()?//«, and these forests also contain a quantity of the thin kind of bamboo {Dendrocala>nus stricius) which is largely used for sugar-cane props.

The Rampa forests, being unreserved, have been less studied than the others. They are in a worse condition than those of Yellavaram and P61avaram, since unrestricted fellings are permitted for podu cultivation, and their remoteness renders tho extraction of any timber both difficult and costly. Small quantities are removed on permits by consumers on their borders, and the bamboos in them, which include quantities of both Bamfmio, and Dendrocalaniuny are also utilized similarly,

The forests in Bhadrachalam may bo divided into (1) the Rekapalle or Xylia i-ange, (3) the Marrigudera or teak range, and (6) the Bhadrachalam range, of which three-quarters consists mainly of teak and one-qnarter of Ilardwickia, bmaia. Besides these predominant and more valuable apecies, large quantities of other timber trees are found, among which are the Terunnalia, Pteroc.ofpuSi Adina^ Aiiogeissus and Lauerstrixmia aireatiy mentioned above, and hkewise Dalbergixi lati/'olia and Terminalia Arjuna. In the Bhadrachalam and Marrigidem ranges, the teak, Xylia and Sardwichia are either comparatively young or unsound, the best trees having been felled in past years. The same is true of the less valuable species.

'Ihe best forest left is that in the inaccessible Uekapalle •hills. For this a working plan^ has been recently framed. The examination of the growth made in connection with this showed that over a iitth (sometimes nearly one-half) of the crop consisted of Xytia, that Mardwickia was very rare, that among tha inferior timber trees Lebedieropais orbicularis was prominent, •nd that the rest of the forest was mainly made up of the trees

' Sae B J . , Forest No. 222, dated 30th July 1602.

TDBEST9. 101

already mentioned as prevalent in tbis part of the district, CHAP. v. together with Alitksia odoratimma and A, prorera. GENERAI,

The finest stock is found on the plateaus and in elevated '^'^'^P^YHV

situations generally, and the size of the trees increases as one FOBB?T?.

g'oes northwards; but the growth along the western edge and near enclosures has greatly deteriorated from having been subjected to excessive pvclu cuitivatiou. Great difficulty is experienced in puttiug the working plan into practice, owing to the difficulty in extracting the produce from the more remote parts of these hills.

At preBent the lihadrachalara forests give no large timber. Timber and TeaV is rarely obtained in lo*js more than 30 inches in grirth and Jor ;™*' ''''' 26 feet long, and even then is crooked, unsound, knotty and 6brons, and, except for boat-building, is unable to compete in the markets with Burma teat. That from Marrig6dem, however, is prettily grained and suitable for furniture. TennitiaHa iomeniosa {nall(t maddi) is procurable in about the same sizes and is useful for building; Dalberi/ia latifoiia [iragwkichai-a) is usually in shorter logs and is poor, unsound in the centre, and ohiefiy employed for furniture; and Pterocarpm Marsvphim {yegisi) is procurable from 10 to 15 feet in length and from 4 to 5 feet in gii-tli and is much used for planking, ceiltug-boai'da and the like.

Tlie chief markets for timber are Uajahuiundry and Cocanada. Of these, the first is much the more importantj and the timber is taken thence to Cocanada, Bezwada, Alasulipatam and Ellore, as well as to smaller dep8ts at Narasapur, Amaldparam and Edma-chandrapuram.

The bulk of the marketable minor forest produce comes from Minor for«et the Rampa and YeUavaram forests, Bbadrdchalam and Polava- ""' "°*'' ram producing very little. Tamai'ind, gall-nuts, uw. voitticai honey, wax, soap-nut, iikdy, platter leaves and skins and hoins are the chief items, and the hulk of the revenue under this head is derived from tamarind and gall-nuts. The chief markets are again at Kajahmundry and Cocanada, whence the produce is distributed to many parts of India, Ceylon and Europe. Large quantities of nux vomica and gall-nuts are sent to London and Hamburg; was goes to London, Colombo, Calcutta and Bombay; horns to London and France^ skins to Madras; and sikdy to Madras, Cuddalore and Tutioorin. Most of the other produce is consumed locally.

The total revenue from the forests of the district amounted in Forest 1904-05 to nearly two lakhs, of which Es . 5(>,000 were derived "''''^°'^^-from the sale of bamboos, Rs, 43,000 from minor forest produce Rs. 35,000 from timber, Es . 27,000 from firewood and charcoal and Ea. 16,000 from grazing-fees and the sale of grass for fodder,

102 O^DiVABI.

CHAPTER VI.

OCCUPATIONS AND TRADE.

AET8 AND iNDWTStEa-Bilk-weavera—Cotton-weavers i their nunibors—Thoir methods—Tape-weaviufT—Giinuy-weaving;—Cotton-dyeing—Chiiitx-stanipmg —Mataand tiUiis—Metal-work—Pointing—Pith-work—Jlusicul inBtruniontB —Wood and stono c.ii-viag—KopCH—Oila—Tmtnmg—Shoes—Ba-^kote— Bangles—Pottery—Country eiigftr—Mercury-nousc-bnihlinij—Prmtmg-preeoes — Rico-imlls — Itidigo faowrics — Ship-building — Dowlaiuhwerain workehops—DiBlrict Buai-d workehope ut Cocanuda—Saniulkot distillery nmX engar-fiictory ~ Dumma^don lace. TBAUK — Marketi — Uvuin-dealing— Bsporta—Imports—Trade ol Cocatmda—The harbouv—Port coneorvancy— European biisinesa honses at Cocanada—European Chamber of Commerco— Steamers visiting the jjort ~ Amount of tratlo — Charaotor of trade. WEIGHTS ASD MKASUKES — GoldscoiUiB' vreights — Commercial weights — Mcaauree of capacity—Miscellaneona commercial notations—Lineal measures —Land meaaures—Measures of time—Local monetary terniH.

CHAP. VI. As in ot ter districts, agriculture and the tending of (locks and ARTS >ND herds employ the very large majority o£ the populatiou. This is

' especially the case in the Agency. Precise statistics are not available for the district as it stands at present, as the census of (901 was taken before its limits were altered. Agricultural methods have been referred to iu Chapter I V abovOj aud the breeds of cattle and slieep in Chapter I . Of the arts and industries, weaving employs a larger number of hands than any other.

eillf weavers, The weaving of silk is dono on only the smallest acalo. Silk bordftrs are often given to cotton cloths, but the puro silk cloths worn in the district are imported. The best come from Benares and Calcutta, but commoner kinds are brought from Glanjain and elsewhere by local merchants and pedlars. Silk is rarely employed for ordinary wear, Imt is very commonly nsed by the higher castes for what are called madi cloths, tha t is, the ceremonially pure garments which are worn at home at lueal times. The only silk fabrics made locally are the turbans and kerchiefs made by a few D^vdngas and Karnabattus at Peddapuram. These seldom sell for more tlian Us. 10. The silk is obtaiued from Calcutta and Bombay and is dyed locally with violet red green and yellow aniline dyes. These colours are popular /and*, since the cloths are not often washed, the fugitive character of the aniline pigment does not matter. This industry is a small one, and does not appear to be increEming.

OCCUPATION'S AMD TRADE, 103

Though silk-weaving is rnre, the manufftcture of cotton CHAP. VI.

-cloths is largely cnrried on. Almost every other village in the ARTS ANO

plains contains a few weavers, and a fair nninber of them possess ''^'•''''^""' a large contins^ent. In Eajnhnmndry some 400 hou^jeholds are Cotton-so employed, in Jagamiap^tn (Nngaram taluk) 300, and iti Tuni, J^^-p""' Pedd^puram, Bandarulanka (Amaldpuram), Uppada and Kotta- uumbcri. palli (Pithipnram division) about 200 households. Four other villages each contain 100 weavers; and in about twenty other places the number of the craft is considerable. In the days of the East India Company, the exportation of clotli from tlio district was very largo. Some seven lakhs of rupees were paid annually by the Company for local fabrics, and in some years the figure rose above ten lakhs, and in one year touched fourteen. The abolition of the Company's cloth trade had a most prejudical effect on the weaving industry, and so on the prosperity of the district as a whole. 'I he value of the piece-goods exported in 1825-26 was over fourteen lakhs ; in 1842-43 it was less than_ two. In the import of cotton fabrics from Europe which followed, G6d^vari shared to a much less extent than some other districts. English calicoes and longcloths are not now more popular there than the tjonntiy fabrics, nor cheuper, and the use of them is very limited.

Most of the locally-wovon cloths are white, and a visitor from Theiv the south cannot fail to be strock witli the rarity of colour in the »ethodi. dress of the women. The men's cloths are often red, but the dye is applied after, and not before, the weaving. Of recent years the manufacture of coloured cotton tartans (hmtjis) for Muhamma-dans hag been taken up by so^ne of the weavers in a few centres. The white cloths Worn by the women sometimes have coloured borders, but those are generally of the simplest kinds. They are very rarely of silk, but not uncommonly of ' l ace , ' that is, gold or silver thread; and the borders at the ends are sometimes embroidered with simple patterns in lace. This class of work ie diine at (Tppfida, Kottapalli and Mulapeta in Pith^puram, at Totaramudi in Amalipuram and by a few woavers in Tuni and Rajahmnndry.

The texture of the local work is often exceedingly fine. In Kottapalli and M6kpeta the weavers use counts as high as SOOs, and lOOs, I30s and loOs are employed in a, good many places. The Kottapalli and Mfilap^ta fabrics are locally called Uppada cloths, and under that name aro well known as far south as Tanjore, and are said to be sent oven to Calcutta and Bombay, Their prioes run up to Es. 10,

OCCUPATIONS AND TEADE, 105

The same castes which do this dyeing also engage in the stamp- CHAP. VI. ing of chintzes. Only two coloarsj red and dark "blue, are oaed. ARTS AXD

The former is made with imported dyes and the latter sometimes * from iron or from copper sulphate. The processes are again the Chinti-same as elsewhere. The pattern desired is stamped with a pattern- " '^'"P"'S' block which is pressed on a pad soaked in a mixture of alum and gnra. Tlie fabric is afterwards immersed in boiling dye and then washed in clean water. The dye only takes where the alum mordant has affected the cloth, and washes out of the other parts. Sometimes the whole cloth is soaked in the mordant and then stamped with the dye itself. White spots on a coloured ground are produced as follows : Tlie spots are stamped on the cloth with a pattern-block dipped in hot was, and the whole cloth is then dipped into the dye-tub. The dye does not act where the cloth is protected by the wax spots, and the parts under these latter come out white. The wax is then removed by boiling the cloth.

Mats of grass are seldom made, the small demand being Uataaud supplied from Madras and Bastar State. Plaited mats of palmyra, **'*'** date and cocoanut leaves, and of split bamboo, are largely manufactured. Those of cocoanut leaves are chiefly made in the central delta, and the others everj^rhere in the plains. The date mats are' generally used for packing, the cocoanut mats for tattis, and the palmyra mats for covering floors or, by the lower classes, for sleeping on. The first are made by Idigas and Terukalas; the second by M^las ; and the last by MSdigas and (more rarely) by fdigas ; split bamboo work is done by M^daras.

Some 25 Mdlas weave kas-kas tattis at Samalkot. These are made of a scented grass called vetU viru, found in some of the tank beds, and supply the local demand at Eajahmundry and Cocanada.

Metal vessels for household use are only manufactured on a Metal-wort, very small scale. Kamsalas have a monopoly of the industry, which is stagnant, if not declining. Brass or beU-metai vessels are made by a few families in Cocanada, Gollamamid^da (in Cocanada taluk), Tuni, Edgampeta (in Pedd^puram talok), Pith^puram, Dowlaishweram, Eajahmundry and PeddSipuram. At Marrip^di in the Pedd^puram taluk ten or twelve men make bells of bell-metal. Copper is worked only by the Kamsalas of Cocanada. Vessels of lead and silver are made in that town, and AmaUpuram j and lead vessels by a few men in Eajahmundry and Pedddpuram. Metal-work of all sorts is imported in large quantities from the Vizagapatam district, especially from Anakd-palle and Tellamanchili, and hawked for sale at all the important festivals.

14

104 GdoirABi.

rjHAP. VI. There is hardly anything worthy of mention in tho methods A«Ts AND of the local weavers. These are extrftordinarily simple every-

' ^'^^' where, and form a remarkable contrast to the coinpHcatioiiB entailed by the more claboi-ate work done in tho groat weaving centres of the south. Where special patterns are embroidered on the loom, the warp is given the necessary changes by tho laborious method of picking out with the hand, at each passing of the shuttle, the threads which have to be lowered or raised. The great majority of the weavers are Dev^nga*j by caste. In Kottapalliaiid Mtilapeta Fattu Sales monopolize t!ie work ; while there are a few Padina Sales in Cocanada talak, some Sales iu Saraalkot and Peddapuram, and some Karnabattus in the last-named place.

Tftpe- Tapo for t!jo cots so iimversaily used in the district is largely Mfrnvmsr, rnfinufactured, both in a number of scattered villages and in the

Eajahnuuidry jail. I t is woven from white cotton, and is of from half an inch to three inches in breadth. Tho work is usually done by Devdngas, but in the central delta Bogams (the dancing-girl caste), and elsewhere a few men of the Singam sub-caste of the Sales are also engaged in it.

Gnnny- Gunny-hags are woven from liemp by a few Perikes in wearing. FangalapAdj and Singavaram in the Rajahmundry taluk. Cotton* The dyed cloths for men already mentioned are sold in dyeing quantities in the district and are also exported by the Cocanada

merchants to Bombay, Calcutta and Rangoon. The places best known for this dyeing industry are Gollapdlaiyam (in Cocanada talak), where some 70 men are employed, and Cocanada and Samalkot, where the number of workers is about 30. Most of them are Kdpus, and the next m o ^ largely represented caste are^ the Tsakalas, ox washermen, A few Eangdris and Velamas also assist. None of them weave the cloths themselves,

The most popular colours are red, dark hlae, and pink, or ' rose ' as it is called. There are three shades of red, two of blaei and several of pink. Aniline and alizarine dyes, bought iu packets or casks, are always used. In Cocanada chay-root {sirivem) ^^^ employed until recently for red, hut was abandoned because ^ involved more trouble and expense than the imported dyes-Black is stiU made sometimes with iron filings.

The methods of dyeing are much the same as elsewhere, the cloth being treated with oil emulsified with the ashes of certaii^ pungent plants, soaked in a mordant (generally a solution of g*^^' ' nuts or alam) and then boiled in a pot of dye to which the dried leaves of sundry jungle shrubs, believed to brighten the colour, have been added.

loa adDATARI.

CHAP. VL ABTB Asa

Painting.

Pith-work.

iDatnimeutB.

Wood and atone carving.

Of the local uianolactares, the brass-work of Pedddimram and the beU-metal work of Pithapuratn and Eajahmundry are of good qnality and well known. The bell-inetal vessels are always cast, but the brass ones are made of three or more pieces soldered together. The lead-worlt is cast at Rajahmandry, bat everywhere else both lead and silver vessels are hammered out of one piece.

Besides the manufacture of household vessels, a little ornamental metal-work is done at Rajahmundry, Cocanadaj and Pedddpuram. At the two former places brass and copper arjnour and canopies are made for idols, and at Peddivpuram and Dowlaishweram idols of copper are made. In bot)i oases the work is first cast, and then finished with the chisel.

A little painting of a rude kind is done in the district. At Gollap^laiyam (eight miles south-south-west of Cocanadaj a family of Rdpus paint Hindu gods on curtains and punkah frills witli a good deal of skill. Their only tool is a short sharp stick with a piece of cloth tied near the end-; the point is used for drawing the outlines and the cloth for applying the colours, which are imported from Europe. Their work was considered worthy of being sent to the Delhi Durbar Exhibition, and they say that it is in demand in China, whither it is exported from Tanam. Two Miichis execute frescoes on walls at itajahmundry, and one of them paints on. cloth. A iluchi of Antarvedi in Nagaram taluk also paints figures on cloth gummed on to wood.

A little inferior pith-work* is done by a few Muhammadans at Nagaram and Jagannap^ta, They make flowers and images out of sola pith.

Tamburas and vinas are made (by one Kamsala at each place) at Pithlipuram and Rajahmundry, and also at R£jav61u, Sivak6dn andTdtipakain Nagaram taluk. The sounding-boards are carved out of solid blocks of wood. Teak and jack are used, but preferably the latter. The work done at Sivak<idu is good.

Wood-carving of- excellent quality is done in a number of places. In almost all considerable villages there are a few Muohis or Kamsalas who can carve furniture and door-frames, and make the vdkanams, or car\'ed platforms on which gods are carried. The work at Oocanada, Drakshdramam, Rajahmundry, Dowlaishweram and Sivak6du is especially noteworthy.

A few stone-carverS are to be found at Rajahmundry, J^gnru-p£da in the same taluk, Venkatayyap^laiyam in Bdmachandra-puram, and V^balanka in Amaldpnram. They chiefly make

OCCDPATIOKS AKD TBADE. 107

images of tlie gods. The Jegumpdda wort is well known in CHAP, VI. m_ost parts of the district. AXTS AXD

Eopes are made from the fibre of the coooanut and palmyra palms and the sunn hemp and ' ju te ' {gogii) plants. The coir Eop s-ropes are mostly made in the central delta, especially at Benda-mfirlanka, AmbdjipiJta and Perdru. Large amounts ol hemp, palmyra and date fibre are also sent to Europe from Cocanada,

Very large quantities of gingelly, castor and cocoannt oils are Oils. manofactured. The castor oil is generally made in iron mills in regular factories. There are twelve or thirteen of such factories at Oocanada, foar or five at Eajahmundry and Pedddpuram, and others at Pithdpuram, Tnni and Dowlaishweram. Gingelly oil is made in a factory at Tuni; but everj'where else both* it and cocoannt oil are made in tlie ordinary wooden mills. These are much smaller than tliose of the southern districts, are put up in the back-yards of lionsesj and are worked by a single bnUock which is usually blindfolded to prevent its getting giddy from • going roand in such a small circle. Cocoanut oil is made ia large quantities at Amb^jipeta, Bodasakurru, Periiru and Munja-varapokotta in the Amaldpuram taluk. The oil-making castes are the Teluknlas (wlio correspond to the Yiiniyans of the south), K^pus and Idigas. Gingelly oil is commonly used for cooking and oil baths, cocoanut oil for the same purposes (especially in the central delta) and as a hair-oil, and castor oil for lighting. This last is being ousted by kerosine, and considerable quantities of it are exported. Castor and cocoanut cake are used as manures, especially for sugar-cane, and the foi*mer is exported to Cochin and Colombo for use on tea and coffee estates. Gringelly cake is given to cattle and is also used in curries. Curry made with it is a favonrific dish with both rich and jwor and is even offered to the village goddesses.

Ooarse leather for the manufacture of country shoes is made T&using. by the Mddigas all over the low country. Their method of tanning it is very elementary. The hides and skins are soaked in a solution of chunam to remove the hair, then in clean water for a dcB^y, next for ten days in a decoction of the bark of the babul {Acacia arabica) tree, and- finally they are stitched into ' bags, which are filled with babul bark and soaked for a week in water.

In Rajahmundry three tanneries, owned by Labbaia from the TamU country, work in a less primitive fashion. The hides and skins are first soaked in clean water for a night, then in chunam and water for twelve days so that the hair may be easily scraped

108 G6DXVABI.

CHAP. n . ABTB AND

iNDCSTBItis.

Shoes.

Baskets,

Bangles,

off, next in clean water for two days, then for two more days in chonam and water, next in a decoction of tangedu (Cassia auri-cttlaia) bark for a fortnight, and finally in a solution of g-all-nut for three days. They are then rubbed with gingelly oil and are smoothened by being scraped with a blunt copper tool. Most of the leather thus produced is exported to Madras.

Eongh shoes of home-tanned leather are made by Mddigas in almost all the low-country villages. Those produced in Siripalli in the AmaHpuram taluk are well known. SanapaUi-lanta in the same taluk had formerly a name for this industry. G-ood boots and slippers, excellent native shoes and Muhammadan slippers (saddvu) are manufactured in several centres. The common work is done by Mddigas. and the better class by Miohis, who ornament the Muhamraadan slippers with elaborate designs in silk and bits of metal. The handiwork of the latter is exported to Hyderabad and Eangoon through the local Muham-madan merchants. Cocanada and Rajahmundry are the chief centres of the industry, but the work at Pedddpuram is good, and some is done at Samalkof>, Tuni, Pithdpuram and Dowlaishweram. Good boots and slippers are also made at the Eajahmundry jail.

Baskets are made from date fibre, palmyra leaves and split bamboo by Yernkalas, Mddigas and Mddaras respectively, and from rattan by Yerokalas in parts of Pithdpuram taluk,

B lack 'g l a s s ' bangles are made in several villages, notably by a few Linga Balijas in Sitardmparam and Hamsavaram in the Tuni division and at "Eldgamp^ta in Peddapuram, and by some K&pns in Duppalapfidi in Eajahmandry. At Bigamp^ta the Linga Balijas also blow simple flasks or retorts of t h ^ 'g lass , ' which are used in making sublimate of mercury (see below) in the neighbouring village of Jagammapeta. The 'g lass ' is imported from Nellore or Madras, and is manofaotured by lixiviating alkaline earth, allowing the salts to crystallize out in the sun, and heating them in a crucible for some hours with flint and bits of broken bangles. The ^'itreolis mass so produced is melted in this district in circular furnaces and the bangles are made by taking a small quantity of the molten * glass ' on the point of an iron rod, which is then twirled rapidly round antU the glass assumes a roughly annular shape. This ring is transferred^ while still glowing, to a heated conical clay mould, which tho workman twists rapidly round with one hand while with tho other he shapes the ring into a bangle with a tool resembling an ordinary awl. The finished article is often decorated with a

OCCDPATIOKS AKD TBADE. 109

coating of lac, and into t t is are sometimes stuck bits of tinsel or CHAP. TI. looking-glass. Better class bangles are all imported, many of A^'^ ^^^ them from Bombay.

Ordinary earthen pots are made everywhere, and a few potters Pottory. at Eajalimundry make good water-bottles {(jiijfns) out of a mixture of white alkaline earth {svLddamannu) and ordinary potter's clay. The eartli is said to be brouglit by Gollas from a village called Punyakshctram in the same taluk.

At Rajahmundry a few families of Devdngas make sugar- Conntry candy and soft sugar. White crystallized sugar is made in the sugn*"-Deccan Sugar and Abkdri Company's factory at Samalkot referred to below. Natives of the district are said to have some prejudice against tliis sugar because it is clarified with bone cliarcoal, but the prejudice disappears if it is converted into sugar-candy or soft sugar (Awrfl). The ' factory sugar' is therefore boiled in water, with the addition of a little milk, until it attains a treacly consistency, and is then poured into shallow plates, wliere it is left for ten days. I t crystallizes in these into sugar-candy, and the liquid which remains among the crystals is again boiled with the addition of a little water, and is then well stirred with a wooden instrument nntil it turns into soft sugar. A precisely similar industry exists at Hindupur in Anantapur district, and no doubt elsewhere.

Some five or sis persons, mostly Devdngas, make whito suhH- Mercury-mate of mercury at Jagammape'ta in the Pedddpuram taluk. Four varieties are made, namely basmam (a white crust), a whit« solid substance called Mrfur^m^ and a red powder of two kinds, one called sindtiram and the other sliadgnnam. The basmam is • made by heating salt and quicksilver in the proportion of one to five for fifteen or sixteen hours, with a pot inverted over the mixture. The fames form a crust on tlie inverted pot, which is the basmam. This is then put in retorts of bangle ' glass ' which are coated with mudj and. heated for the same period, wlien it turns into Mrpwam. Sinddram is obtained by mixing quicksilver^ sulphur, and curdhalam (mineral arsenic) in the proportion of one, one-half, and one thirty-second, and heating them for one and a half hours. The resultant matter is pounded iu a mortar, and then heated in a i-etort like the basmam. I 'or shadgunam^ quicksilver and sulphur are taken in tlie proportion of two to one and are pounded in a mortar; the mixture is then heated in a retort like the lasmam^ only for a longer period. The quicksilver is got from Bombay and Calcutta. The existence of a large supply of cheap wood fuel in the neighhourhood is a

116 G6DXTARI.

CHAP. TI. ARTS ANO

iKDnsTBlES.

Honee-bnildtng.

Printuig*

Bioe-mlltBf

Indigo factories.

Ship' building.

I>owlftUh< weram workshops,

great advantage in this industry, and is not improhably the cause of its existence here,

The art of house-huEding is much studied in the district. In every large town there are professional architects. Those of Kajahmundry and Dowlaishweram are well known and are employed in all the low-country taluks.

There are five printing-presses at Cocanada and the same nnmher at Eajahmundry. Except two of those at Cocanada, namely the Sujana JRanjani press and Messrs. Hall, Wilson and Co.'s press, hoth of which employ ahout 25 men, these are very small affairs. In. the former of the two, vernacular books and two Telugu periodicals, one weekly and one monthly, are priated; and the latter carries on a general business. Anotlier monthly Telugu newspaper is printed at another press at Cocanada, and two more at Rajahmundry. At the latter town a weekly and a fortnightly paper are printed in English.

Several large rice-husking mills are at work in the district. The most important is that owned hy the Coringa Rice Mills Company at Georgepet near Coringa, which employs a hundred men. There are also three more in Cocanada and four in Rajahmundry, two of which are not now working. Another at Amalfipuram has also stopped work for the present. The mills buy the paddy outright and export the husked rice, and do not husk paddy for payment, as is sometimes done.

There are several indigo factories in the Amal^puram taluk, of which seven employ 30 men or more in the season. Those at Y^lanakapalli and Ayinavalli employ 75 and 150 hands respectively,

At one time a large ship-building industry was carried on in Tallarevu on tbs Coringa river. Some two generations ago, it is said, about a hundred big ships used to be built, and four times that number repaired, every year ; and boats came for repairs even from Negapatam and Chittagong. What with the increasing use of steam, and the silting up of the Coringa river, the industry is now almost dead. As recently as 25 years ago, it is said, ten or fifteen sea-going boats were built every year and some fifty repaired, but in 1903 only five were built, in 1904 only one, and in 1905 none at all, while only two ships were repaired in 1903 and in 1904. The boats built and repaired were native brigs of » hundred tons or so.

Of the enterprises managed by Eui-opean capital, the most important are the Public Works workshops at Dowlaishweracn, which comprise a foundry, and carpenters', fitters' and smiths' shops. They employ a daily average of 145 men, and daring the

OCCUPATIOKS AND TRADE. I l l

calendar year 1904 turned out -work to the value of Rs. 1,63,600. CHAP. vi. The output consists chiefly of wood and iron-work and furniture AHTB AKD

for buildings constructed by tlio department; wooden and iron ^ ^ " " ' ^ ^ punts and staff boats for use on the canals; repairs to steamers and other floating plant; lock gates, sluice shutters and gearings; and repairs to engine boilers and machinery belonging to the department. The shops also undertake work for other departments, municipalities, and private persons. These are charged ten per cent, on the cost of the raw materials >?i(s fifteen per cent, on the total cost of the work.

The District Board also has workshops of its own. These Distriot are at Cocanada, and the work done in thou consists of such ^o*"^ work-items as the construction of iron and wooden ferry boats and coonnada. ballacuts, small iron bridges, doors and windows, office furniture and iron sheds for markets (of which latter a large number have been made), and of repairs to tools and plant, including the steam road-roUers and the two steam ferry-steamers owned by the District Board. The shops are in charge of au overseer, subject to the control of the District Board Engineer, and aU the hands are temporary men ou daily wages. The value of the wort turned out in 1903-04 was approximately Es, 30,000, inclusive of materials.

An important industrial undertaking exists at Samalkot in Samalkot the works of the Deccan Sugar and Abkdri Company, Limited, "iiHttiiery and established in 1897 and at present under the management of ' * Messrs. Parry & Co., Madras. Excellent plant and buildings liape been erected about half a mile south-west of the railway-station, and the capital of the company is ten lakhs. The manufacture of both refined sugar and spirit is carried on, and about 400 men are employed daily. Sugar is extracted from jaggery by the usual process, and the final residue molasses form the staple material of the distillery. Both palinyra and cane jaggery are used, the bulk of them being obtained in this and the surrounding districts. Three kinds of sugar are manufactured; namely, a white granulated, a soft, and a brown sugar, and the total output in 1903 was 8,600 tons. In the distillery two stiUs and a rectificator are in use, and the usual method of spirit manofactore is employed. During 1903, 198,000 gallons of proof spirit were manufactured. Arrack is supplied from the distillery to this district and Kistna, NeUore and Cuddapah, for the supply of which the company hold the contract. Two artesian wells hftve been recently sunk in the company's compound.

' See Chapter IV, p. 90.

113 OODAVARI.

CHAP. VI, ARTS AND

IX DUST RIBS.

Dam ma-

TRADE,

Market's.

dealin^.

Exports.

The wife of the Eev. J , Cain, the missionary at DnmmsLgidem, has started a lace-work industry at that station which is known even outside India. Lace-making was originally taught at the Church Missionary Society's hoarding-school for girls; and during the famine of 1896-97 Mrs. Cain encouraged the young women who had learnt the art in the scliool to take it up as a means of livelihood. From that time forth, the industry spread among the wives of the natives round, and there are now 110 workers, most of whom are Christians. Mrs. Cain pays them for their work (Rs. 70 or Es . 80 a week are expended in wages) and sells it in India, ILngland and Australia. The lace is not the ' pillow lace ' made elsewhere in South India, but what is called ' darned net work,' which somewhat resemhies Xamerick lace in appearance,

Fairs or markets are common in G6dd.vari. There are aa many as 40 under the control of the taluk boards, and the right of collecting the usual fees at thejn sold in 1904-05 for over Es . 21,600. Those which fetched the highest bids were the great cattle-markets at Drdkshdr£mam and Pithd-puram, which were leased for Rs. 3jXt35 and Rs, 2,600 respectively ; the Tuni market, which fetched Rs. 2,'UO; and the Ambdjip^fca cattle-market, which sold for Rs. 1,625. The markets which chiefly serve the Agency are those of Yel^svaram in PeddiLpuram taluk and Q6ka-varam in Bajahmundry, To these resort the petty traders who have direct dealings with the hill men in the interior, and, to some extent, the hill men themselves,

There are one or two centres in each taluk in which live the local merchants who collect grain from the ryots and either export it themselves or sell it to other and larger merchants. The money-le'nders are generally also grain-dealers, as their loans are often paid in kind. A common system, known as j'atii, is that by which a ryot borrows money on the security of his crops and undertakes to sell these when harvested to the moneylender at less than the market price. Another usual arrangement, called the vdralcani or pattubadi system, is for a ryot to keep a sort of ruiming account with the money-lender, getting small loans from time to time and clearing off the debt, principal and interest, at harvest. Here, again, the grain is sold at less than the market price, the difference being about ten rupees per ^arce. The ryot is also expected to graze his creditor's cattle and to Btipply him with vegetables when called upon,

Almost the only noteworthy article of export from G6d^vari is its surplus agricultural produce, but a fair quantity of the locally woven, dyed, or stamped cotton goods are sold outside the district,

OCCrPATIOKS AKD TBinE. 11"

and 30 are the hides and skins from the tanneries of Eajalnnundry, CHAP. vi, The distillery and sugar-factory at Samalkot also sends large TRADE,

quantities of its sugar and arrack to other parts of India. Of the ajjricaltural products exported, rico is the largest item. Pulses, oils, fibres of various kinds and hemp are also shipped in great qQantities.

The chief imports into tliP district inclndo inetal vessels, jmports. kerosine oil, iron, Etiropeau and otlier piet.e-goods, leather and cattle.

The only considerable seaport in God a van is the flourishing Ti-adeof town of Cocanada, wliich serves not only the disstnct itself, hut its neighbours to the nortli and south and ad extensive hinterland which includes parts of the Nizam'a Dominions,

The port of Cocanada is situated in the south-west corner of TUe iwriMoi. Coriuga bay, a large but shallow sheet of water, five uiiles by five in extent, lying at the northernmost angle of the doltiK The bay is something the shape of a horse-shot: and is only open froin the north-east. The most northerly month of the Gddavari flows into it on the south, where it id gradually silting it up, and the ei^er-lengtheninj? arm of Cape (iodiivari, which is estimated to be advancing seawards at the rate of a mile ia 20 year?}, encloses it on the east- The rapid shallowing of the hay has reudered it necessary for large ships to anchor five miles fi*om the shore to the north-east of Cocanada town, liut the anchorage is well-protected and exceptionally safe.

Goods have to be landed in cargo boats, hut the channel leading from the anchorage to the harbour itself is deep enough to allow boats of 100 tons burden, and drawing as much as five feet of water, to reach Cocanada at certaia states of the tide, The harboLii* consists of a tidal creek which receives the surplus oFthe Cocanada and Samalkot canal.i and tJie discharge of the Bikkavolu drain and the Yclern river, whicli together enter the Samalkot branch of the creek just b'elow the last lock of the Samalkot canal. The harbour shows a tendency to silt owing to deposits brought from above; and its mouth is also with difficulty kept clear of the sand and mud which is swept into the Coringa bay from the Godavari on the soutli, from a drainage creek entering the bay just to the noi'th of the harbour, and_ in stormy weather, from the open sen on the north-east Two dredgers are therefore ke^jt constantly at work, and it h^s also been found necessary to extend the month of the harbour by long groins. Tiie harbouris revetted from the bridge leading to Jagannathapuram, and the revetment is continued along the groins, ita total length

lb

lU GOPAVATII.

CHAP. VI. TKADE.

Port uouaerranoy.

being 3,680 yards on the north and 3,780 yards on tlie aouth aide. Of this extent 2,700 yjii-ds of revetment and 87 yards of groin on the north and 2,.')00 Jind 260 j'ards of revetment and groin respectively on the south had been erected as early as 1855 ; and the groins were exteaded considerably in 1887 and very largely about 1893. The chief difficulty ia experienced from the mud creek which, as just mentioned, flows into the bay just noi-tli of the harbour mouth. Its course and mouth have altered witli the foreshore, going further ami further towarda the east. Tliis is the result of its own action coinbined witli the construction of tlie groins. The northern wall crosses its mouth, with the result that the silt it brings dowu has fonned a solid sand bauk along the groin. This bank has extended with each extension of the groin and now thi*ertten3 to choke the harbour's mouth. The groins have been given a turn to the north to endeavour to counteract this tendency, but without success. Further means of dealing witb the difficulty are now being considered.

The port had originally four Hglit-houses and two port Hghta. The latter still stand on the ends of tlie two groins, but two of the former are no longer in use. The light-house at Coeauada itself has not been used since 1877 (though it has been left standing as a landmark) and the Hope Island light-house, on what was once the most north-easterly extremity of the delta, was abandoned in 1902, There are now revolving lights at Vakalapiidi, some five miles to the north of Cocanada, a r d on the Sacramento shoal, over^twenty miles south of the present Point Qoddvari, to warn vessels off the point and shoal.

Cocanada possesses a Port Officer, and he and his establishment are paid in the usual way from port funds chiefly derived Xroiu dues on vessels visiting the place. ' Ijanding and shipping dues * are also collected from the local merchants at certain fixed rates on all cargo landed and shipped ; and this money, with the rent of certain ground within port limits, is devoted, as elsewhere, to meeting all expenditure involved in the improvement of the yort, such as the maintenance of dredger.s, groins and the foresliore. The fund so constituted is adminiatered primarily by the Cocanada Port Conservancy Board, of which the cliairman is the Collector and the vice-chairman one of the members of the European Chamber of Commerce. This body fi xes the rates of dues to be paid, looks alter tho ordinary measures of port conservancy, and initiates measures for the improvement of tho port. Its expenditure is, as usual, under the control of the Presidency Port Officer and ultimately of Government,

OUCUPATtONS AND TRADE, 115

Several of the leading mcrcautile houses in tbe Presidency CHAP. VI. liave ageuts in Cocanada (aiuong- them Messrs. iEalli Bros., Messrs. TBADF-,

Gordon, VVoodroffe & Co., Messrs, Volkart Bros,, Messrs. Wilson Eiiropeaa & Co., Messrs. Kipley & Co. and Messrs. Best & Co.) and in addi- bui>ine«s tion the place is the head-quarters of several other substantini Co"ann a European firms, who are ongnged in general trade and own local undertakings of various kinds. Messrs, Simson & Co, own a rice-mill and act as agents for tho Asiatic Steam Navigation Company; Messrs. Hall, Wilson & Co. are agents for the British India line and vvere part-owners and local managers of the Oriental Salt Company, which until recently was working the salt-factory at Jaganaathapuram ; Messrs. Innes & Co. are umaagers of the Coringa Bice Mills Company ; and Messrs Barry & Co, have a cheroot-factory where cheroots are made for export to Burma. There are also a great number of native merchants in the town. Indeed the mercantile importance of the place is so considei-able that tlie Bank of Madras lias a branch there nnder a European Agent, and botli native and European Chambers of Commerce have been constituted.

The Kuropean chamber at Cocanada was established as long European ago as 18(i8. Eepresontativea of the leading European firms and Chamber of the local Agent of the Bank of Madras are members. Its objects ™ are ' to watch over and protect the interests of trade, to coUect information on matters bearing thereon, to communicate with authorities and individuals upon the removal of grievances and abuses, to decide on matters of customs and usage . . . and to form a code of practice whereby tlie transaction of business may be fucihtatedj' and it has displayed much activity in all these directions. The practice of annually printing its chief proceedings, which was inaugnraticd in 1903, is to be continued. Tho native Chamber of Commerce is theoretically quite independent of the other; but generally the two bodies work hand in hand.

The port is visited by the British India steamers, as many as stoiiinori six or seven of which often call in a week ; by the Asiatic Steam visiting tl« Navigatioa Company's boata, two of which call every fortnight; ^°^ * and by the Clan Line steamers, thi-ee. or four of which come every month. Tlie Austrian Lloyd steamers and those of a Venetian company call occasionally.

In 1902-Oa (see the figures in the separate Appendix to this Amount of volume) tho total value of tlie export trade of Cucauada amounted, '•• 'ado. ill round figures, to Ks. 1,32,80,000 and that of the imports to Rs. 25,10,000, making «p a total trade o£ Ks, 1,47,90,000 or

116 GODAVAltl,

CHAP. \ i . TRALE,

Character of trade.

£080,000. In the statistics of that year the port tsikos the fifth place among those of tins Presideacy—bein;; passed only by Madi-as (total trade 1,406 laklis), Taticorin {;iH8 laklis), Cochin (v20 lakhs) and Calicut (192 lakhs) —nnd tUe twelfth place among the ports of British India. ' The trade has natiiniliy varied considerably iti different years; but in only tliree out of tlio 27 immediately preceding 1902-03 did it rise abovo 200 lakhs in total value. The^^c were 18S9-00 (201 laklis), 1806-97 (216 lakhs) and 1892-93 (2o9 laklis). tn 1878-79 it fell below 75 lakhs, bnt in no otlior ^ear was the figure less than 100 laklis. In 1903-04 thr imjiorts wcro valued at Es . 38,73,000 and the exports at Us. 1,67,31,OUO, making a total of Ks. 2,06,04,000. The exports have always been largely in excess of the imports. The proportion in 1903-04 is fairly typical of other years.

I n that yeiir, out of a total export trade of 1671akhS) goods to the value of 84 lakhs were sent to ports outside India (including Burma) and the rest to Indian ports ; of tlie latter, 11 lakhs went to the ports of this Presidency. l)]ie foreign export ti*ade has generally been eiiual to or larger than the Indian export trade, and often much larger. The trade witli the rest of the Presidency has always been small, and it lias very largely decreased in the last seven ycirs, probably owing to the competition of the railway.

In 1903-04 the foreign imports made up rather more than Jialf of the total import t rade ; but the figures of that year are rather exceptional, as the imports from abroad are usually nothing like so large as those from India and Burma. In former years the imports from other ports in this Presidency were considerable and averaged in value about one quarter of the total imports ; but,"tike the exports t^ other places in the Presidency, they have much decreased in the last six years.

Of a total foreign export trade in 1903-04 of Rs. 84,04,000, the export^ of cotton were valued at Es. 33,93,000; of rice and paddy (chiefly tlie latter) at Es. 29,90,000; and of oil-seeds (castor and gingelly) at Ks. 0,;\5,000. Thus these commodities made up 73 out of the total of 84 lakhs. Food-grains accounted for Rs. 2,05,000, oiUcake for Es. 1,60,000, fibre ^ for brushes for Es. 1,56,000, and castor oil for Rs, 97,000. The cotton is chiefly sent t^ Franco (Rs. 9,00,000), Holland (Rs. 6,42,000) and Britain (Rs, 3,32,000), as well as io several other European countries and

' Tho lar>,'or pofLT ouLhWij (.Ilia PrcHtdeiicy woi-o IJoniUay (11,173 lakliB), Calcutta (10,361 Ijkhs), Ituugooti (2,863 luklia), Karaclit {l,y2» lakhi>), Moul-mcin (-iiO Ukhe), Cljittngong (281* bklis) :iii:! AMynh (240 liikks).

' CUieHy palmyra fibre ex*-i'actcd fmiii tlie thick Stein of tlie loaf. ThiH i tera has arnch increatod in the last year or two.

OCCUrATIOMS ASU TRiDE. 117

-Tapan. Eiceand paddy is chiefly taken by Ceylon (Es. 8,67,000), c rup . \'l. Ec'tiinon(Gs. 6,63,000), the Straits Settlements (Es. 6,33,000), TRADF.

llanrltins (lt.s 1,8^,000) and Japan (Es. 2,76,000j. GUngelly oil ijocs chiefly to Ceylon and Frtmoo, and castor oil to Britain and llossia. The fibres and tlie oil-cake go almost entirely to Ceylon. An important item is tobacco, which is sent unmanufat;tnrcd in tarf»'o qnantities to Burma to be made up into cheroots,

Nearly the wliole ol' the foreign import trade of 1U03-01 was made up of iinrcfineti sugar (Eg. 9,69,000), kcrosine oil (Es, 7,-17,000) and various kinds of metalandmetalwaro (Its. 1,')0,000). Tlic sugar all came froni Tava, and the kerosinc oil from Rnssia (Es. 3,32,000), the United States (Rs. 2,01,000) and Smuatra (Es, 1,53,000). The metalwarc was chiefly from tlio United Kingdom.

The coastwise import trade is small. The largest items were guitny-bags from Calcutta (nearly five takbs), cotton twist and yarn principally from Bombay (some throe lakhs), kcrosine oil cliiefly from Rangoon (two and a half lakhs), ground-nut oil from Madi-as \x>r\s and cotton piece-goods from Bombay (each about a lakh), and cocoannt oil, also from Madras ports, Us. 8t,000.

The coasftviaQ exirort trade inelude<l ^ 6 lakhs' worth of grain and pulse of various sorts, of which fi ve-sixtlis was rice and the great-or part was sent to Bombay, Nearly aiiteen lakhs* worth of tobacco leaf was sent to Burma, and gingelly worth nine lakhs (of which two-thirds went to Bnrma) and castor seeds worth two lakhs (nearly all of which went to Calcutta) were other considerable items. ^

Outside the remoter parts of the Agency, where regular tables WKIGHIS AN»

aro little used, the following are the ordinary weights and measures 5l«AHnEEs. in the district. The table employed by goldsmiths is generally ;— Goldeniitlis

•i wsrtDis (grains of jrncMy) ., ^ = 1 ji;(r/!/X(7. * ' 2 pdtihas . • . . ., =: 1 addiga, 3 addJffns ,. . . . . = 1 chhtnam,

30 fA/»>ii)HS .• . . . , 1= 1 tola (ISO grains). The ordinary table of commei*cfal weights is as follows :— Commercial

,. I 't t weights. '2 pampitx . . .. •, — I ycOHkiJii. 2 ijehuhms . . .. . . = 1 fio-dalam. 2 padahms . . . . . . = 1 vies (= 5 seers, or 120

tolas). 2 visses , . , . . . =: 1 yeitedu, 4 }/i'Ucdus . . . . . , = 1 maund (of 25 lb.).

20 mauiula , . , . ., = 1 i'^Jtt (av atn<\y). jn Polavaram, hctween the maund and the putti, come tho

ijedwnu of 5 mauuds, and the pandtiinu of 10 maunds. These

MKAtKRKt.

118 G6DIVAKI.

CHAP. VI, words jire respectively corruptious of ai'dit hunttlu, ^ five turns ^ WEiouTi AKD a,nd padi tumulu,' ten turns.' Wholesale raerchaats also buy and

sell in terms of bags {basthas) supposed to weigh 1 -6 lb. Oil and ghee are sold retail by weight in the sbopa, and

wholesale or retail by measure by the Telukolas and Gollas ; milk and cards always by measure ; long chilUed by weiglit, and short ones by measure, though at Bajalimuudry and Polavaram both kinds are said to be sold by weight. Jaggery and tamarind are described in kantlams in addition to the above weights; one kantlam being equivalent to nine maunds everywhere in the district except at Peddapuram, where it is ten and a half niatinds. Tape is sold by weight in terms of ye^^us and its submultiplos (half, quarter, etc.). Fuel in large towns is sold by the following table:—

5 maiinds . . . . = 1 hdmSl, ycdumu or paittu

4 kdmdia ., , . = 1 puiii.

Weights below ^pattu are described in subiaultiplcs oi that tveight.

The table used m Bliadrachalam is quite different. That talnk is situated above the Ghats, and no doubt the influence of the Nizam's Dominions and the Central Provinces predominates.

pdvu sir, ardha str ( = 4 Heor). eoer ( = 24 tolas). VIBB.

mauad. ptitti.

Peculiar to this talok is the selling of oil I'otail by weight, At P61avai'am a balance resembling the Danish stoel-yard is need. One end of a longish stick is marked with notches denoting different weights. The article to be weighed is hung from this end of it, and the stick and article are lifted by a string loop which fits into the notches and is tried in one after the other of them until the stick hangs horizontally. The notch in which the loop then lies indicites the weight of the article.

M*n* tT* " The following table of measures is recognized, with one or two exceptions, in all the taluks outside the Agency :—

5 tolas weight of rice = 1 gidda. 4 giddqs . . . . = 1 s6ta. 2 s6lat . , . . ^ 1 tavm. 2 tavvas , . . , = 1 nidnika or seer (holda 80

tolas weight of rice),

The weights are :— 2 ohaidks ., 2 pdmt sirs,, 2 ard/ia eCrs,, 6 eeers . . 8 visses ,*

20 maande . .

• » • *

• * * * « •

:^ —

=^ ^ = Z^

1 1 1 1 1 1

oapa^ty.

OCCUPATIONS AND TR4.DE. i i y

kun-

300

2 mdnihas .. ., = \ adda. 2 addaa ,. , . ^ 1 humham (320 tales

weight of rice). 20 iunehami .. = 1 y6dumu or Icdradi,

2 yHttmuB .. ., := 1 pnndimu. 2 panditmus .. ^= I palh-pult! ( = 8 0

ehanis). 7i pttllc-puttt'i ,, = I garce (garisa) of

l-uwhams or 192,000 tolas weight of rice.

The palU'piUti of 80 lainchauis is only found in the north-east of the district, z.fi., in Cocanada, Pedd^pviiara, Pi th^puram and Tuni. I n the other parts of the district the malaka pufti of 200 hmcfiams (three of which go to the garce) is used, but not the yedumu or pandwnu.

l a P61avaram the measures used are—

CHAP, Y\.

6 tolas weight of rice 8 ffiddas 8 t/tvras

10 iunchamfi 4 i>imus , . 5 gonidtis Of 20 tSmus 3 puttts

1 gidda, 1 tavva. \ h'lnehaht (of 320 tolas

weight of rice), 1 ticmu. 1 ffo»6du. 1 puid of 200 kunehattitt. 1 garce of 600 kiineha,H» or

192,0-'i0 tolas weight of rice.

In Bhadr icka lam the scale recognized ia— 10 tolas weight of rice = 1 giddn. 4 ffiddae ,, ., : 2 sdhs

\V tavvan

ii Jcunchaws 2 irusctn Ti tftmudxs 2 yidumhs 2 pajidum'is

tolas

= 1 s6l/i. = I tarra or eeer (holding 80

tolas weight of rice), ^: 1 muiti'Jca (of 160 tolas

weight of rice). — 1 kunehaM (of 800

weight of rice). = 1 frum. = 1 tiimudu. — 1 yidumu, = 1 faiidiiMU. = I pidii (of 80 kuncliams or

640,000 tolas weight of rice).

I t will be noticed tha t the Bliadr^chalara gtdda and iavva, are twice as large as those elsewhere, and the Bliadrdchalam kunckam two and a half times as large,

120 G6DAVAR!.

CHAP. v;. T7EJai[I» AND

MEASDREH.

MiscellanG-onB com me r-ciftl notfi-t ioni .

Lineal

Ghee and oilj as already s ta ted , a re sold wholesale by measure. The larges t measure used for oil is tlie kunckant, and for ghee the seer. But ter -mi lk and curd are measured in small pots called munthas. I t is the pract ice in th is dis tr ict to set milk for curd in a number of these small pots , ins tead of in one large pot as is done in some southern districts, and t h e pots are 3old separately. There are four usual sizes of them ; namely , the qua r t e r anna , lialf anna , three-quar ter anna and a n n a iHuut/tuHyHO called according to the price ( and so t h e capacity) of eacli. An anna vumf/ia holds abou t half a seer. Milk in sold by tiie seer and its srtbmaltipJes. fjarge quant i t ies of inilk are sometimes spoken of in tej jns of the kadaofi or JcdvcuU, whicli hold 20 and 40 seer^i respectively, Popu la r phrases to denote capacity are the closed liandfnl, called QWppedvt, or pidikedtt, the open handful or cfidredii, a n d t h e double handfu l ordvsedu.

Fiu i t s (e.jf .j mangoes , p lanta ins , cocoanuts a n d gnavas ) , pa lmyra leaves, and d u n g cakes are sold b y ' hands,* one hand or cheyyi be ing equivalent to five. Twen ty chetji/is make one .lahyu, and for every sala(fa one r.heijyl ex t ra is th rown in as hosar'n or ' for luck. ' Kosarii, means * ba rga in ing . ' Betel leaves are sold wholo-bale by the mnd^. Th i s is a vary ing quant i ty equivalent genendly to 200 or 300 leaves according to tlieir t i i ickness. i^ \:, ^apposed to be the quant i ty t h a t can be held in the two ^ a u d s , when t h e hands are pressed together a t the wrist , as when catcl i iog a cr icket ball. T h e leaves are sold retail by t h e iMtfa, which conta ins 100 leaves.

T h e old native scale of measures is in use alongside with tlio Eng l i sh inch, foot and yard . Tiie native scale is : —

1 Oilifuht

12 ftiiguiitD

'2 jdnas 4 nturas

1!,000 hams 4 kosses

6 kihset

= 1 = 1 = 1 := 1 = 1

=z 1

(lift Ijrrjutltli of )i niun'H thumit, ov if iiiuli,

Jana (span) mura (cubit). bdra (fathom). koss \^2^ ndles). dmad-i (about nine

miles). tnnjili (iimTeli, uv halt

ing i^lace ; about 13 niileh).

Besides these, there are tlie beitft, or the breadth of four fingers placed together , and the (odiihtt, or half s^mn, made by extending the thumb and forefinger as far apa r t as possible. The bSra is the dis tance between the t ips of the fingers of the two Jiauds when the arms are bo th s t re tched ont horizontally t o their greates t

OCCDPATIONS AND TRADE. 121

extent. In describing heights and depths above iive feet or so, CHAP, 71. natives always use the terms niluvn and ara (half) niiuvu. The WEiaitn AND nilitvti is equivalent to the height of an average adolt person. ' ' '""' In tlie &.geucy chalaka and mancha, which (see below) are really square measares, are used to denote distances. They each represent about 70 yards.

Some of tliese- measures of length are used iimch more frequently than tlie English standards. Tims the jdna and the mura are very commonly used for measuring cloth, and the mura and bdra for measuring ropes. Again the hCas and the dmada are in very common use for long distances, and the ma/ili is not rare.

Acres and cents are only of recent introduction, and are less L»n<l familiar to the natives than the English lineal feet and inches, measures. The native table of land measures is the same throughout the district except in Tuni, BhadrAchalam, Tellavaram, Chodavaraiu and the wilder parts of Polavaranij and is based on the quantity of seed required to cultivate a given area of land. Thus a mdnadti is the quantity of land that can be sown with a mdnika or seer of seed, and is equivalent to about two and half cents. An addedn is five cents, a ktmchedti ten cents, an vldtimu neresa is an acre, an y^dumu two acresj a pandionu four acres, and a putti eight acres. A different and vaguer terminology is used in Tuni. There wet land is spoken of in terms of the outturn of paddy —or in ' garces ' ; and dry land in terms of the number of days it would take a pair of bullocks to plough it—namely in yellu or ploughs. Thus one yiru or ' plough ' of dry land Is the quantity of land that a pair of bullocks can plough in one day, or abbut half an acre. A ' garce ' of wet land is said to be about two acres.

Tliere appears to be no precise table of land measure known in Bliadr^cbalam, perhaps because there is no need for one among the inhabitants of those uncivilized parts, Tlie zamindars' accounts are said to be kept in acres and cents. In the wilder tracts of this taluk and of Polavarain, and throughout the Agency, areas are described in terms of chalakas, mano/ias and kattipodu, illancAa is the raised bamboo platform put up in the middle of a field, on which tlie watcher sits to scare away birds and animals. The term is used to describe the amount of land which can be * commanded by one watcher, or about two acres. Ths e/ialaka, is the same as the mancha in extent. I t literally means ' a piece.' Katiipodu has a reference to podv, cultivation, and denotes as much land as can be cleared in one day by one kaiti or billhook, This extent is said to be about an acre,

16

122 aSDAVAKI.

MeasDreB of time.

CHAP. VI. English minutes and hoars are well understood and are used WEIGHTS AND equally With the native measures o£ time. The latter are : —

MEABDRES. QO vipadiyas.. . , = 1 ^«(f(ya (or 24 minutes). 2^ ffttdit/dB .. ,, = I g>jnUt (or Engli ^h hour).

3 gantas ., . . = 1 j4inu (or watch).

Of these, the vigadiya is rarely, if ever, used, the term being only known to the educated. Periods shorter than twenty-four minutes are generally expreased in English minutes or in terms of fractions of the gadiya.

In telling the time of day or night a native calculates the number of gadujas or jdmua that have elapsed since (J A.M., OV 6 P.M. as the case may be. Thus 7-12 o'clock, whether A.M. or P.M., woold be ' three gaditjas,^ and 9 o'clock would be ' one /«?»»' or ' seven and a h*lf gadiyas.''

There are also, however, iu this as in every otlicr district, a number of expressious in common use which denote various times of the day. Those which occur most frequently here are ' the rising of the star "Venus' ( swfrfcf? podichetappiidu).'w\\iii\iis of course variable; • the ti)ne when the first cock crows ' (3 A.M.) ; * the time when the second cock crows ' (4 A.M. ) ; * the time to begin ploughing ' (6 A.M.) ; * cock-crow time ' ; ' t he time to sprinkle cow-dnng-water ' and ' the time to make batter-milk,* both of which indicate 6 A.M ; ' the time 1o milk tlio cows ' (7 A.M. ) ; ' the sheph*erds' breakfast time ' (9 or 10 A.M.) ; ' the time to let the cattle out to graze,' which is very variable; ' the time when the feet burn ' (midday) ; muppoddu vela, ' when three ^'(imus have passed ' (about 3 I'.M.) ; * time to begin cooking ^ (4 P.M.) ; ' sanda j'dmit,^ about three hours after nightfall, from mndd, evening; and ' the thief t ime ' or itddiiight. A variation of the last, found in the Agency, is ' the time when the cock crows at the thief ' The agency people also use the phrase jdva vSla, or */ianji time,' for 10 A.M. or breakfast t ime; and sometimes call it muiitha veh, or ' porringer time,' from the vessel in whicbthey eat it.

Besides the ordinary currency, cowries (gawalu) are very commonly used in making small purchases throughout the low country, except in Pithdpuram and Tuni, They areimporfed from Bombay and sold by weight. Ninety-sis cowries make one three-pie piece ; but there are a number of terms denoting smaller ucmbevs. Thus 4 cowries =1 punjam ; 3 punjams = 1 toli; 3 iotis = 1 dammidi (three-quarters of a pie) ; 2 dammidis = egdni{or 1^ pies) ; 2 ^gdnis ==1 dabOu, kdni.or kotta dabbu, which are the ordinary names for a three-pie piece. The value of a

Loc&l monetary tertns.

OCCVrATIOWS AND TBADE. VAZ

cowry, puti^am and Mi are not absolutely constant, but vary elig-iitly with the market price of cowries. Tbe dubbu is also a term of varying application. In Pitbapuram, Tuni, and the Agency it means four pics, and is synotiyraous with a pdta dabbu ('old tfabhu'). In this case a.a e</d>n means two pies and a dammUlt one pie ; but the kdni ami tbe Ao /ff rf^/Z^iff ('new dabbi'') still denote three pies.

For sums above an anna a variety of curious terms are used. Thus,

4 hoita dnhhus 2 annas

\Gpdt« dabbm 2 jxfmtiti 3 j)iivillas 1 pdva 1 ti.dda 1 vardha (pagodn 1 jmd vardha 1 raxda . . .. = 100 rflpees.

In Tuni, and perhaps elsewhere, the ckaviihm (8 annas), pdcK (rupee), mdda (2 or pagoda of 4 rupees, are used to denote percentages. Thus if a man wants to say he is giving- 6i, 12\, 25 or 50 per cent, lie will say bo is giving a diHam (onc-sixteentli of a pagoda), chavulam (one-eighth), a i>dvu (one-quarter) or a mdda (one-half) respectively. No donbt the use of the pagoda as a unit of reference is the cause of the name ^dvn for a mpee, the word literally meaning ' a quarter.'

In Bhadrachalaui, besides the usual British Indian coins, those of the Nizam's Dominions are also in common use.

* * * * • •

* * r

• • * t < *

1 * 4

m * •

• • 4

) or pwy'i ,

= ^

= =r =r

'= —

:= = =

1 anna. 1 bedtr. 1 pdoida or diUam (=•* unuaB) 1 iankamti (or 5 as. i ps.). 1 hiilt rupee or chavulam. 1 muppdvnla (12 annas). 1 rupee. 2 rupees. I rupees.

3J rupees-

dd/am (4 annas), rupees) and I'linj/',

CHAr. vi!

124 GODATARI.

C H A P T E R V I I .

MEANS OF C0M5IUNICATI0N.

OHAP. Vir. BOA AS.

Their length and oondi-tiOD.

Qaarriei.

ROADS—Their length and condition—Quarries—Maintonanco, cstablishmont and allotments—Bridges—Ferries. WATKR CARRIAGE—T)»e rivers—Upper G6dk-vari project—Navigable canals; Iheir history—Expenditure ancl traffic— Nature of traffic—Conflictiug intorcsts of irrigation and navigation. HAnRA!; RAILWAY. ACCOMMODATIOM KOR TRAVEH^Rua—Bungalowfi—Chat-trams.

THERE are just under 860 miles of road in the G6davari district, most of which are shaded hy fine avenues. Of these> 580 miles are metalled or gravelled, cluefly the former. The long lead from the quarries which hms in most cases to be paid for, malces it the best economy to carry the best material available, and latterly gravel has for tliat reason been discarded. The rest of tlie roads are repaired vfith earth and satid. Nearly four-fifths of these earth roads are in the agency divisions of Polavaram and Bhadra-chalatQ, the former of which possesses less than thirty, and the ' latter only six, miles of metalled road. On a good metalled road a cart will carry 1,500 lb. at about two miles an hour; on an earth road the load is about 1,000 lb. and the distance traversed in an hoar about one and a half miles. The metalled roads in t i e uplands are generally good, and so are some of those in the delta j but the latter have great difficulties to contend with. They have naaally to be made on a rich alluvial soil saturated by irrigation •water for many months in the year, and the lead for metal is nearly always long, and in some cases amounts to as many as 40 miles. The numerous navigable canals enable this metal to be transported at less cost than usual, but it often lias to be carted by road for four, five and even six miles from the canal-side dep6ts to the places where it is required. Moreover, floods occasionally submerge the country and do a great deal of damage, and against these it is impossible to provide entirely except at enormous expense. Finally the material available is not of the best, being only laterite of fair quality.

The metal used in the delta is obtained from the laterite quarries of Kadayam and Samalkot. The uplands are as well snppUed with quarries as most other districts, and some of those recently opened yield very good metal. Ordinarily the only material available is laterite and sandstone of poor quality.

http://GODi.Vl.RI

and nllot-mcnts.

ilEAKS OF COMMUNICATION. 1 2 5

On the earth roads a hard surface crust is made by mixing CUAF. vii. sand and earth with water and then tamping the mixture with RI>AD».

rammers. On the metalled roads tlie consolidation is donebytlie jiaintenftuce District Board's two six-ton steam rollers or by hand roUers of cBtablishmeat from two to three tons. Material is supplied, and generally spread, by contract, but the latter work is not popular arid is only taken np as a necessary adjunct of a contract to supply. Petty repairs are done departmentaily. Road maistries are posted to every sixteen miles of road and daily labour is obtained when necessary. Gang coolies are not employed. Avenue coolies are entertained to tend tlie nui'series and the young trees by the roadsides. The superior establishment consists of the District Board Engineer, two Assistant Engineers, five overseers and nine sub-overseers.

The usual grant for the maintenance of the roads is some Rs, 85,000. Tbo minimum and maximum allotments per mile are Rs. 50 and Rs. 300 respectively; and the average for metalled roads is about Rs. 110. The above figures include Bhadrachalam ; but that taluk has since been excluded from the operation of tlie Local Boards Act, and in future its roads will be managed by the Divisional Ofl cer at Bhadrachalam.

In the delta there are few bridges. This fact, and tlie reason Bridgen. for it, are referred to as follows by JSJr. "Welch ':—

' Tlierc is probably no artificial irrigation and navigation system, except perhaps the neighbouring one of the Kistna, in which the provision of bridges per mile of canal and channel is so small as in the Godavari delta.^ This lias arisen from the fact that when the works were coraroenced, and for long after, there was not a single made road in tlie delt-a, and the people were accustomed to wade through the streams and water-courses which crossed theii' path-ways, or w]jen tlie water was too deep for wading to use dug-outs or rafts . . . . Bridges liave however been provided over the tail-bays of almost all the locks, and of late years a few liave been constructed at otlier places at the expense, or partly so, of local funds.*

Matters have been considerably improved recently. In the delta, on the main roads, bridges have now been built over all waterways except the actual branches of the Godavari. The minor roads, however, have received much less attention.

' The Enghweriny taorhs of the Qcdivari Delia (ULatimB, lSQS),^,lZb. - A vory reaiarkuMe noutrast is preconted by tlic Taujoro delta, where line

bridges arc very plentiful.

126 GODAVABI.

CHAP, VII. Outside the delta, also, some fine bridges liavc been built in ^*^*" ' recent years. Of these, that at Yerravaram, which carries tlic

great northern trunk-road over the Yelorn nver. was constructed by the late Mr. P . H, Brown, BI.I.C.E., District Board Engineer,' and was opened for traffic in 1887. (t consists of sixteen spans of 32 feet with segmental brick arches on flrst-class coursed rabble piers and abutments. The bridge over the Tuni river at Tuni, on the same road and at the north-eastern extremity of the district, has ten spans of 30 feet. I t was built over 30 years ago by the PubHc Works depai-tmeut. A fiue bascule bridge crosses the Gddavari at Coringa. It is uii iron construction 260 feet long with a 50-foot di-awbridge in the middle, and is built on solid iron piles four to five inclies in diameter and screwed down to from 30 to 45 feet below mean sea level. This also was designed and erected (in 1901) by Mr. Brown. The drawbridge consists of two bascules which when raised afford an opening of 50 feet for sailing ships. There has been no difficulty in passing througli it the largest ships wliich can enter the river,which run up to 500 to 600 tons. As originally conatrncted, it took eight men to opon and close the bascules, but recent improvements designed and carried out by the present District Board Engineer, Mr. C. J . Lowry, enable each span to be easily opened and closed by one man, The

• flooring is of steel trough plates except over the drawbridge, which is floored with teak.

The only bridge across the Goddvari is tha t at Eajahmundry which carries the Madras Kailway and is described below. Foot passengers are allowed to cross it. Q 'here is no separate footway, bnt it is iloored and provided with a liand-rail, and there are xefogea on every pier where people can wait for a train to pass.

Feniee. The deficiency of bridges both over the God^vari and over the many channels in the delta is supplied by ferries. Tlie three steam ferry-boats which at present ply on the God^vari are referred to ' below. Besides these there are 34 ferries under the control of the local boards, and eight more in the Bhadr^chalam taluk. The local fund ferries are equipped with boats constructed by the local boards or by the Public Works department; the former contributing half the cost in the case of all natural waterways. Of these boats, fourteen are first-class, and the same number

' To thiBQflicer, who w«s tlio liret DiBliieO Boavd Engineer (ind hold that post Iron) laSO to 1901, tho district owos the conetruotion of moat of its roada and of many minor bridges, as well as the plantiug ol miles of flne aveniiCB, Ho ttlao erected the bnildinpf now occupied bv tho branch of the Bank ot Madras and St. Thomas' Ctnroh in Cooanada, as well as a number of other public bnildiugs,

MEANS OP C0M51ONICATI0N. 127

second-class, iron ballacuts.' A balkcut is a platform with liand-raLIs laid on a broad-beamed punt., and is ordinarily o£ sufficient length and breadth to take a cart and its bullocks. The bigger river ferry-boats are large flats which will hold three or four carts with tlieir bullocks. Long boats are used at some of the lesser ferries, and rafts laid on hollowed-out palmyra trunks (ca,lled sangadis) at a few iusignificant ones. The round boats made of hides stretched over a bamboo framework wliich are used on some of the rivers of tlie Presidency (e.j?., the Tungabhadra, Oauvery and Bliavani) are not employed in this district. Across narrow waterways the boats are propelled by poles, or, more rarely, are pulled across with the help of a rope tied from bank to bank. For crossing the wider and deeper channels, oars or (as sometimes on tlie Qoddvari itselfj sails are used,

Thirty-four of the local fund ferries are leased out by auction by the taluk boards concerned to contractors; who are allowed to charge certain fixed fees. In 1904-05 the sums paid for the right to work these feri'ies amounted in round figures to Rs, 23,300. The eight ferries of Hhadrachalam fetched some Es. 700 in the same year. The ferry across the Tasishta Q6ddvari at Kotipalli was leased for Rs. 4,020 and that aci-oss the Vainat^yara at Bodasakurru for Es. 2,300, All the steam ferries were sold for large amounts.

All the other local fund ferries are allowed to be used by the public free of charge. They are managed \>y the villagers, who arrange for some one to work each of them and remunerate him themselves. For some of tliem the boat or ballacut is supplied by the District Board, and in that case the village headman is held responsible for its proper treatment.

The G6ddvari river is largely used as a waterway. The three steam ferry-boats mentioned above do much passenger traffic. One of them, a stern-wheel boat with compound engines^ plies between Rajavolu fEazole) and Narasapur ; another, a large boat with an upper deck, of the usual river-steamer type, travels between Eajahmundry, Dowlaishwerara, Bobbarlanka, Vijesvai-am and Kovv6r \ and the third, another stern-wheeler, touches at all the ferry stations on both sides of the Godlvari between Eajahuiundry and Polavaram aud has recently been ran experimentally as far up as Kuunavarara, to provide commuuicatj^g^ with Bhadrdchalam.^ These boats are worked by crew -

.idia dnilng ^ Tclugu haRa, a. jjlank and ftaffM, to tie ; lience ' a platform. ' - Tlioao uro Kovvui-, Aftkafevula, Kuiufii'iid^Fsiu, Villau^i Dt-lfu (Madrats

ftntl Gfit&la.

CHAP. VII. ItOADS

WATFR CAKBIAQE,

Tlie rivera.

328 G6DXVARI,

CHAP. VII.

CABRIAOF.

Upper GfidaTari project.

by the District Board, bat are generally managed by contractors who find the fuel, etc., fcate tlio passengers' fees, and pay a reat to the District Board. They are inspected by the District Board Engineer from time to time to ensure that tliey are maintained in a safe and proper condition. Tlie Public Works department iias one or two steamers at Dowlaishweram which are used by officials for inspections or journeys on the river.

A great deal of goods and passenger trafiic is also cai'ried on the river in native sailing-hoats. Tliese art generally * dlionis,' which ran up to 35 tons capacity. They fro up by tiie Dummagidem canal referred to below when there is enough water in the river and the canal is open (usually from Jnue to tTanuary), and travel a long way above Dummagfidem. Groing up stream they sail when the wind is favourable, and, when it is not, ^wle or, when possible, tow. Coming down stream they either sail or row, or drift with tlie current, rowing just enough to keep on steerage way. Rafts of timber (see below) comedown the Upper Godavari from December to May.

The project of opening up the navigation of the Upper Godavari was first urged on the attoution of Oovernmont in 1851, A vast amount of money was expended on it ; but it was eventually pronounced too expensive to be remunerative, and was adandoned.

Sir Arthur Cotton, a vigorous advocate and pi*omoter of water carriage, was the first to broach the subject. He hoped that it might be possible to provide * still-water steam navigation from the sea to Berar,' which would he, he said, ' the cbeapebt line of communication in the world.' I t was decided in 1853 to investigate the project ; and careful and repeated examinations of the river were carried out.* The great difficulty to be overcome was the existence of three remarkable barriers of rock, forming rapids which are only navigable during floods. The firstof these, which is nine miles long, begins near Dummagudem, at a distance of 143 miles from the sea ; the second at Enchampalli, ]u,9t below the junction with the Indravaii and 220 miles fi-om the river's mouth; and the third, called the Dewalamurry barrier, at a iioint 310 miles from the sea. These barriers excepted, it waa estimated that

(^here was sufficient water in the river during nine months in the " for steamers drawing from two to four feet of water, according

' '•'"'"tate of the river. The fall of the rivor ia moderate ; and oTmauy minor'Si ^ ^ J^^^ * ^ current was estimated to be only a erectea (he bnilding ^'ts of tliese is Lieut. F. T, Haig'a iieport oa the NavigabiMg Thomas'Cimrcli in CooaiVMairje, 1S56), whiolj corjUms alaborftte plana and din-

*aatioi| on the wa^s of tlia river,

MEANS OP OOMMONICATIOK. 129

mile and .v half per hour, and rarely to rise above three miles CRAP, vil. an hour. It was proposed to evade the ubstraotiou caused by WATKB

the Ijarriers hy cuttirifj canals provided w-ifli lock? aloofj the side «IAQE.

of the rivor past the iinpassahle points, The project was warmly accepted by Government, and, on

their strong recouimnndation, was sanctioned bv the Court nE Directoi-s. It wa&''however never conipleted. The estimated cost of the whnlo scheme, which was designed to vender the river navigable for 47:i miles above the anient for four or five months of the yeai', aud to open out to traIHe 300 miles of its tributaries, was JL202,000. Up to 1861 £20,000 had been laid ont in prelitiiinnry surveys, etc. fti 18l33, when Sir Bichnrd Temple inspected the works, no less tlmn t700,000 had been spent. He reeonimended that the works at the first ;tnd second barriers and up to the foot of the third barrier should be proceeded with at an estimated cost of L255,000, so that navigation might be opeued so far; but in Oetohcr 1871, at the reriuest of the Government. of India, tilt! whole scheme was abandoned on the ground that it involved an ez])enditnre which ilid not give promise of any adequate return.'

I t has never been revived. T'here is a fine lock and anient at Dnnaniagudem and a canal (two miles in length) which is still used. Cargo boats can as a rule puss through it between June and Jnuuary, and small boats throughout the year, except when it is closed for repaii-s. At the second harrier at l^'uchampalli, are a partly-completed anient and the remains of unfinished locks and excavations. The Dummagideni works wore damaged in the flood of 1900, and estimates, amounting to Rs. 1,26,800, for repairing them were sanctioned in 1905 and are now being carried out. It would be a great help to navigation if the canal there could be carried down to Bhadrdchalam; but the work would be difficult and costly, as the excavation would be largely in solid rock.

When the Godavari anient was being built, it was proposed Navigable that the canals taking off from it should beao constructed that J>a"al9; **»»''• they would serve for navigation as well as irrigation. iVIr. Walch writes as follows on the subject ^:—

• Even when sending in his first general estimate with his Hecond reiwrf Major Cotton had said that cue of the results to be expected

• Sttttoiucnt cjchibiting tlve Matetiiil and Moral ProgceHs of India dnring 1H72-73, p. 79.

• Oliaijtor XI of Tliif Eitpiiieerinf irorlct 0/ the Q6dAvar'i Brlta (MadfBti 189C).

' Dated .\prll 17tb, 1846, 17

liistory,

file:///prll

130 O6DXVABI,

CHAP. YU. WATEE

CAHHIAOE, ^-'^^^^>îsx;ri;;t::rs^ * established thronglioui thn

lixpeiiclttvirp auti tii'iiflit;.

delta would be

estimate incladod a proW.io^ . f oneTalh f o T ^ T ^ ' ' l'"'^'''''''*' *!'« «inaU masonry w o r l L ' The s l / f . . l ^ l f ' l L '^"''^'^^ .*««1 «' ^nd other .^.y,..«....; ,.,.„,;, J i ^ ' "ii ess of thi

»j^t:>^

i;^<>^'''""". ivhich could

oi ^ W t would W reciuired to n . . l . . the S ^ n T i ^ X n : r " : i : ' : r . ^ ^ «y«t TT, into iv-alV .ffi.ioMt Hnr-s of . o m m M m , . . Z ^ r ; T n r '*"

arrangements £*«• iiaviûrioii. (in* novon HK iifxniM Utw, the provisions for that jjiivpose us l»lll o 5t ti iin\v tlovolopmi-nt olf ilii> original intentions to which sanction had boon giv«ii. The Qovainov of the day, Sir Henry Pottinger, even weut so far us to say ' 1 cannot shut my eyes to the fact that this is an entirely novel scheme which, so far as I recollect, had no existence in tlie original project for an anient across the G^ddvari.

' But Colonel Cotton was determinetl that his chief canals should be made navigable and so ho went on with steady insistence, loyally backed up by the officers who followed him on the delta works, till at last opposition to Itia views on the subject was broken down, and there are now in the Qodavari system alone nearly 500 miles of canals which, besides carrying water for irrigation, are excellent lines of communicalion. Nor is this a l l ; fi-om the Q6d4Tan system, navigation can at three places pass into the Kistna system with its 30.0 miles of navigable canals, and from it again into the Buckingham Canal, which runs along the coast for 196 miles from the end of the Kistna system to Madras, and for 65 miles further south, I ' rom Oooanada to the south end of the Buckingham Oanal the length of canal navigation is 450 miles,

' There cannot be the slightest doubt that the provision for olieap carriage, not only in and about the district itself but also to the neighbouring districts and to an excellent sea-port, contributed largely to the rapidity with which the G^davari irrigation developed and tlie district sprang into prosperity. In this waj' the cost of the works specially required for navigation has been repaid over and over ftfâin, q.uite irrespective of thp direct returns fi-om boat licenses, tolls and 80 on.'

T h e development of canal traffic has indeed beeu cnormoud. Sir Artl iur Cotton wcot.o in 18r>2, ' I siiuuld not. be snrprised if, aftt'r a few ytârs, the distr ict bo well mana-god and the canals kept in good order , the trallic were to ayer.ige 50 tons a d a y / T h e traffio

' In hialeUor No. 18!, datcilSi'd AxieuRt ]84i), Captain Orr gives the number requireii aa 10, Thei-e are iww 5J-, exclusive of head-]ocks.

CASHJAOE*

traffic.

MEANS OF COJIMUKICATrON. 181

in 1803-04 aiuonutod to 393,725 tons, or over 1,000 tons a day ; CHAP, VIL

lud by 1902~O3 it had risen to 576^643 tons, or nearly 1,680 tons ^WATFK

H day, that is, more than 88 times as much as that anticipated b j the founder of the canal f=ystera, •

It was not till 1863 tliat tolls were levied for the use of thu canals. Nowadays a considerable annual income is derived from fcliem. The total receipts in 1902-03' were Rs. 85,6o0 and tho total maintenance charges Es . 63,900, leaving a net profit of Rs. 21,700. A navigation establishment (chiefly lock superintendents] coating Rs. 448 per mensem is kept up for the central and eaatern deltas belonging to this district. In 1902-03 fees were paid on 158,000 tons of displacement; and cargoes worth 230 lakhs and over 345,000 passengers were transported on tho canals. Timber rafts with a displacement of nearly 119,000 tons also used these waterwa,ys.

Tho passenger traffic is carried in what are called rddkdri Natuisvf . boats, long covered craft holding from 40 to 70 passengers and

entirely owned and directed by private enterprise. They are towed hj regular staffs of coolies paid monthlj wages and posted at stages of from ten to twelve miles in length. These boats also carry produce, and are patronized for tliis purpose when time is an object, as their pace averages three miles an hour. They all start from Rajahinundry or Dowlaishwerain, and they constitute a regular boat service,

The cargo boats are numerous and range from 7 to 40 tons displacement. They all carry sails. Theii* charges for cargo are about four pies a ton a mile on the average. They are worked by crews of two or three men and one or two smaU boys, who tow, pole, or row the boats as convenient. On still water they can sail five miles an hour. Otherwise their pace is about three miles an hour down stream and one and a half up stream. '*,

The timber rafts consist mostly of log.' and bamboos from the forests of the Upper Goddvari, which are lashed together and floated down between December and Jtay for export. Bamboos come down in December, but timber not until January, Of a total transported tonuRge of 118,632 tons, only 418 tons were taken np stream,

The canals are nsed to a small extent bj* hoiiso-boats. These are nearly all Government boats employed by officials, but there are one ov two private house-boats also. The only steamei-s on

1 These, wud oicccpt where otlierwi&o stated the foKowintr, figures are fov the WUOIQ delta ejotem, iuoluding the ]}avt in Kistua distriat,

132 06Div'ARI.

CHAP, vn, WATER

CARRIAGE.

Conflioting iuteiestR of irrigation eml unrfgation.

MADRAS RAILWAY.

the canals a t p resen t arc the insporHon I)oafs of flie Publ ic Works depar tment , Mr . AValcli ' says t h a t : —

' The introduction of Ktejim power for the triiiiR}iortiitioii of freight along the canals liaf- often been considered, and it hsts to Komo extent been tried without enccei-s. I t ciinnot compete with inanmtl Idboiir QT]less that becomea far less plentiful and cheap tluin it now is, and unless canals along the chiof lineF: of coniiTinninition be nmintnined alont/ their whole letif/ths wwrf ^( fUpoints to a depth j^re;itr'r thiin ^ nuw the case. That stenm or ])erhapf; electricity will eventujilly KU]torsedo towing coolies on the Qodavari canals is niost probablr, bnt this will not be for many a long day, '

T h e combinat ion of irrigntion and navigntion in tlicsjo canals is not ent i rely wi thout its d rawbacks . The i r roqnironients are necessarily to some extent conHictinj^.

' For irrigation, huge (piantities of water and coiisequ+jntly ol' tiilt have to be taken into a canal, and therefore the B1O])C of the surface mast be considerable; for navigation tlie loss water taken into the canal the better, and its surface should have no slope, Forirrigation, there are times when the canal should be ke))t low so that large quantities of water may not have to b*» passed into the drainages when they ftre sdready lillyd by rain-water; for navigation the canal should alwnys be kei^t up to its full level. For irrigation, even when the river or other source of snj>ply is low, it is often necessary to go on letting as much water a,*; possible out of the cjinal to supply crojw, thereby reducing the level and the depth in the caiml, especially at its end ; for navigation at such times the water should be kept in the oanal so as to maintain as nearly as possible its full depth,*

These dilficalties have been experienced in the Grdddvari system. On the El lore canal, which is the through line of conunanioat ion to the K i s t n a rtvor system, the s i l t ing was found to impede traffic, and the necessity of kee inng enough water in the canal for navigat ion caused much tempting' extension of i r r igat ion to be abandoned. These facts were adduced in 1888 as a rguments for the necessity of l igh ten ing t h a t canal of some of its traffic and in support of a proposal for a railway between the Kis tna and Goddvari rivers—a proposal wJiicli has since developed into the Nor th -eas t l ine of the Madi-as Railway. A s far as t h e present dis tr ict is concerned, navigat ion is always subordinated to i r r iga t ion , and though every a t t empt is made to keep tlie canals full, navigat ion has to take its chance when water is scarce,

The only railway wliich traverses the district is t h a t which was originally called the Eas t Coast Railway but is now known

' Op. cit., p. I5i;,

MEANS OP C O M M U K I C A T I O K . 133

MADRAS ItAII.WAT.

ACCOM MOD A-TtOK tOR

IRATt LLBRl.

BnngftlowB,

officially as the Novth-oast line of the Madras Riiilway. It CFIAP. vil. enters the district from the south at RajabiuHudry over a fine bridge across the Grodavari, and. skirting the north-western edge of the delta, tinallj* runs from Saiualkot parallel witli the coast till it passes out of tlio district at Timi. From Samslkot a hranoh nms to Cocaaada, t])e iuhabitsmts of which have always protc.'sted vigorously against the chief coimuercial centre on tho section being tluis left off the lunin Itnt', The bridge over the Gt'ulavari at Rajahmanriry is one of the finest in the Residency-It is built of steel girders laid on masonry piers wliieli are sunk from 48 to as much as 100 feet below low water level and stand over 44 feet above that level. Tt ha^ a total length of no less than y,000 feet, or over H miles, between abutments, aud consists of o6 spans of loO feet each, i t was opened to goods traffic in 1900, The railwaj was o])ened from Eajahmnndry to Waltair (in the Vizagapatam district) in 1893 and the Cocanada branch in the same year.

In 1904 tliere were altogether 110 travellers' bungalows in the district, of which 70 were maintfliued from local funds, 21 by tho [TorGst department, and ten bj the Public Works department. A detailed list is j^iven in the separate Appendix. Of the local fund bungalows, nine were in Bhadj-.-iclialam tnluk, and, since the Local Boards Act has been recently withdrawn from operation in that tract, are now managed by tlie Eevenue department. Those maintained by tlie Forest department are designed primarily for the use of its own officers, but are also available for private individuals on payiuent of fees. "Nineteen of them arc in Bhadraclialam. That taluk contains 29 rest-houses in all, and Chodavaram eleven. These buildings are necessarily numerous in the Agency, where only short marches are possible and teuts can only be carried with difficulty. Tuui and Pithapiiram divisions only contain three and I'onr bungalows respectively. Tho accommodation in tbe travellers' bungalow.-; ranges from furnished and terraced buildings to empty thatcTied sheds, tho latter predominating. With a few exceptions, the local fund bungalows are of an inferior type,

Tliere are eight endowed chattrams under the management of Chattramii. the local boards, sis of which liave considerable incomes. Their total annual revenues are some Ks. 18,000. TLey were all bequeathed by private individuals to the taluk boards. The largest is the Nallaeheruvu choultry in Peddapnram taluk, the income of which is Rs. 5,5O0. Th^re, and at two other largo institutions at Peddapnram and Kottipudi, people of all castes

134 aduXvAsi.

CHAP. VIr. ACCOMMODA

TION roil THAVELIiBBg.

are fed. At. two other considerable cliattranw Brahmatis are fed. Tlirco msignificant choultries are maintainod by t)io mmiicipality at Hiijalnnundry.

Private chattrauis appear to exist in large nwinbers^ in this district, and they are much less exclusively devoted to the needs of Brahmans than is the case in some places. Indeed at several of theiu food (though not accommodation) is provided even for Malas. At many of them all Sfidra castes are fed. Most of them, it seems, are supported by private liberality without reg-ular endowments. Some arc of a considerable size. Those nt Cocanadft (maintaiaed by a KomatJ), Sivmnlkot (by a rich Beddi merchant), Pithapuram {by the zainindar) and Kdtipalli (by ttic Polavaram proprietor) are worthy of particular mentioB, Tlio largest of all is supported by a K6mati at Rajahnmndry. Another large one in that town, called the chanda (' subscription') choultry, is kept op by subscriptions from tlie local merchants, wlio set aside a percentage of their daily profits for the purjJosG.

Thu Collector's office esfituatefitlio nuiuber of tboHo itintitulious at 71.

RAINFALL AND SEA80N8. 135

CHAPTER YllL

RAINFALL AND SEASONS.

RAINFALL. PAM/NE—TUO conditions oiisting—Fainino in ]7i)l—Thp 'Oontdr fjimino ' of 1833—Distress in 1833-38--Disaster of ISSfl-U—Imi)rovcment rcBuU.ing from the anient—Scarcitj- in t.lie Ageuoy, 189". JXCXD.-ITIOXS HV THE SKA—About. 170ll—In 1787—Its extent anfl ellfcrts—Tlie QCCOnj])anying Imrrioone—Thelamlliolduro' losses—Inundation of 183fi. CITI.O.VFS. Pr.oons —In 1614—In 1875. 1878, 1832, 1883 and laSJ-^ftvcnt HOCMI of 1886— Floods of 1837 and 18K—Of 1805-06—Of 1900.

T H E following table shows the average rainfall in certain sensons of the year in the various taluks and in the district as a whole. The seasons selected correspond roughly with -what may be called the dry weather, tlie hot weather, the south-west monsoon and the north-east monsoon. The figures shown are the avemg-es of a series of years. As will he seen, records have been kept at most of the stations for more tlian thirty years. Those where ligures for only a few years are available have been entered separately and not included in the district average ;—

Taluk,

Cocanada

Pithhpui'Rin ... Timi Pod(la|inram,„

Raoiaciiundi't)-jjni-ani.

.inialftimvani.

Nagai'attt Island.

BujaluuitnOi'y. niiadi'tiolmlnni. Chid a varum . P^lftvurani ...

Amaliipuram,,, Vellavnram ...

Station.

Cooanadfi Coiinga PitliHpurara.,. Tuni , PeddftiiDi'iim. Prat.tipi'uln ... Alanifir

Ratnnctiandt'a-pur.ini.

AmnUpuniiiii. Kottap6tit ,„ Rajuvolu

(SivaWdii). Rajalmtnndiy. nhadraoliftlnia. Ch^daTamm, PcJlavai-aiii ...

.Average for the dietnet,

^[ummidiTarmn. Addntig-cla ...

Year a recorded.

1870-1903 1870-1003 1870-1W3 1870-1903 1870-1903 1870-1003 188G-1903

1870-1 f103

1870-1903 1886-1903 1870-1903

1870-1903 1875-1908 1870-1903 1870 1903

1901-J!X)3 1895-1903

1 i->

0-93 0-58 0-50 0-9(J 0'65 0-97 0-67

0 6 9

0-84 0-58 0-43

0-79 I ' d 0-78 0-m

0-7(3

2-03 1-tl

' $ i ' S •£ ^mi 1 "I , ^ -f and ] S 1 § S

1 i-t 1 O

2'3G 1-95 2-19 2-74 2-41 2-pO 2'4f)

2-i2

2-22 2-38 1-29

3-19 2-7!) 2-87 :t-57

2'63

1-25 o-Sti

21-98 21-09 20-41 21-39 23-22 23-90 23-82

24-71

25-42 2501 2i-88

2C-C4 35-70 27-77 28-27

2'l-93

27-73 29-85

15-CO 18-67

nm 1O70 10-52 9-79

12-03

1406

ic-.to 13-90 ]fl-50

9-.-.C 3-83 S-9-1 8-5-1

1203

20-89 9-87

Total.

40-87 42-20 34-4G 35-79 36-80 37-tJ2 .1001

41-88

J l-SS 41-87 43'15

40-18 4,-J'39 40-80 41-31

40-2C

.'il-JIO 46-&!>

CHAP. VIII

liAlNFAI.L.

136 G<SDAVARI.

CHAP. VIIT B^ixrALr..

F A M I N E .

The condition N eiitttlng.

I t will be noticed that t)ie first three montlis of the year are practically rainless. April is itlinost as dry. Jn May, showers herald in the south-west monsoon, which begins in the middle o£ June and brings nearly two-thirds of the total yearly fall. I t is naturally lieavier in the Bhadrach.ilani taluk beyond tlie Ghats than in the rest o£ the district. Conversely, tlie nortli-east monsoon is hardly felt in that taluk, 'Phe latter current is much weaker in this district than in many other parts of the east coast. The rain it bring:; generally consists of a very lienvy downpour on its first arrival, and after the 15t!i November rain wort)i iiieniioning rarely appear.-. The delta benefits more from this north-east monsoon than the uplands ; whereas the latter get more rain in the hot weather than the former. Tlie annual average fall for the whole district (40'2t) inches) is moderately high for this Presidency. In only eight other districts is the amoimt greater, Vizagapatam on the north gets rather more vain, and Oanjuiu a good de^il uioi-e; but Kistna on the soutli receives much less.

The highest fall on record is tliat at Chodavaram in 1893, which amounted to 86-02 inches. 'J'wenty-two inches fell in-September, over twelve in June, Augnst and October, and over nine more in •July and November, In the same year 85*83 incites of rain were registered at Amaldpuram. The lowest fall recorded for any station is 1340 inches at 'J'uni in 1870, No i-ain was received from January to April or from October to December, inclusive, in that year.

The major part of the district is, humanly speaking, safe fi-om anything in the nature of a famine. The Goddvari draws its water from vast and distant tracts and is not affected by any local failure of rain; and from the time that the anient first made thio river's supplies regularly available for cultivation, the delta has never felt the want of water. In the upland and hiU tracts, however, the crops are precarious, and in the Agency tlie danger is aggravated by the improvidence of the inhabitants. The people tjiere, on the other hand, are accustomed to eking out a liveliltood in bad seasons on toddy, gruel made from the pulp of tamarind, jack and mango seeds, and jangle roota. The delta produces vast quantities more food than ia refiuired for the subsistence of its own inhabitants, and also provides a constant field for labour; «o tlitit no one in tli« uplands need ever f>ta,vve for want of work if he will make up Iiis mind to titwel bo fur.

Before the construction of the anient, however, the whole district suffered cruelly on several occasions from terrible famines due to drought. I t was the recollection and the effects of these

nATNPAtr. AKD SEASONS, 137

viaifations wliich suggested the idea of constructing the anicut ' CHAP. Tin. and induced the Government to face the expense which that FAMINK.

project involved. Inundations from the sea have also caused much loss of life and property in the past, and so have cyclones, though no serious damage caused by either lias been esperienced for many years; and a fourth variety of natural disaster to wliich tlie delta is particularly subject is Hoods in the Goddvari river, wliich liave not only been common in past years, but even nowadays, in spite of t)ie utmost efforts, frequently cause considerable loss and hardship. The various occasions on which serious disaster or suffering has been experienced from these four different causes will now be shortly referred to,

Except for vague references by native historians, there is, as Pamiiio in usual, no record of the famines which doubtless occurred before the days of British occupation. The first visitation of which particulars survive is that which desolated the Northern (Jircars in 1791-92. In January of the latter year the Board of Revenue said that the erlreme drouglit had caused a large diminution of revenue and that ' though every alleviation in onr power has been afforded by the suspension of duties on grain as well es on all necessaries ot life, and every exertion is malring by the Collectors to discover and distribute for the general consumption such grain as may be hoarded up by individuals for their private advantage, yet many of the poorer class of inhabitants are perishing from want.' Application was made to the Government to sanction the importation of rice from Bengal, and ' every effort seems to liave been made by Government and individuals for affording temporary means of subsistence to the poorer class of people,' but in April 1792 the sufferings of the inhabitants still continued ' with little prospect of immediate relief.' Numbers had died and numbers more had emigrated ; and tlie Board feared that the decrease of population and cultivation would long be felt.

At that time a large sum was due to pensioners in the zamindaris of Masutipatam; and Government ordered that any balance of this which remained unclaimed at the end of a month from the date of notice to that effect, should be devoted to relieving distress. Over 35,000 pagodas (Es. 1,40,000) ^ wertj applied to this purpose, and the children of the poorer families were collected and fed at the public expense. Large remissions were also granted to the zamiudars and extensious of their leases were sanctioned.

> 8oe01(»pter )V, p. 80. * It is Bssumecj that tlio pagoda waa the focal pngocta of four rupees,

18

138 aiDAVARI.

CHAP. YUL PAMINE.

The ' Guntur famino' of 1833.

Tlie faiuine appears to have lasted from November 1790 to November 1792.> I ts effect on the people was terrible. I t was computed that one-fourth of them eit'ier emigrated or fell victims to starvation."

In 183:1 a succession of unfavourable seasons culminated in the g r ea t ' Guntur famine. ' Though this did not affect Goddvari so severely as the nciglibouring district of Gant6r after whicli it was named (where ' it covered the couutry with liuinan bones from Ongole to MasaKpatam ' ^) yet ao deeply did the remembrance of it enter into the hearts of the people that it afterwards became an era from which they reckoned dates. The author of tlie original Jl/«/;t*«/of this district, who knew the country well, says * ' I have frequently asked a man his age, and he has been unable to slate i t ; but he was quite ready to answer the question ' Jiow old were you at the time of the Great Famine ? "

The hardships appear to have begun with a hurricane in May 1832, which * destroyed much produce stored, a large number of cattle, and many cocoa, palmym aud bete] nut trees.' * This was followed by a failure of rain in western India and a consequent lack of freshes in the Goddvari, so tliat the paddy crop usually grown along the banks of tliat river was lost. A temporary rise of tlie river in the early part of the season had induced the ryota to commence this cultivation ; and their disappointment was thus the more bitter. Goddvari, howevtr, did not suffer oitlier so soon or so severely as the districts to tlie south of the river. As late as April 1833 the Collector was able to report that tliough a great iniluK of distressed people had taken place from IMasuIipatam aud Gunt6r, aad great distress prevailed qu account of the high price of grain ; yet ' the miserable creatures that everywhere meet the eye are principally other than the local inhabitants,'

But from that time forward matters gradually became worse. The contributions cheerfully given by the wealthier Europeans and natives were quite inadequate to the ueeda of the case. Jj'rom March 1833 to the end of July private subscriptions enabled about 3,000 people to bo fed every day, and it was itoped that a good monsoon might render Government relief unnecessary. Bat these hopes were disappointed, and assistance had at length to be demanded from the State. Relief-works, cbiefly the digging

' Mr. UOQSOU'B Sittftsd'cni Atli'a (MaJruB, 18t)5), p, (iS. ' General rejiorts at tbo Bowd of llevonau (MaJrtiH, 1R71), ii, 130, 1.J3 i-ts

iii, 2,2a, 31, 53, 73. ' Statiatical Atlas, p. 8 i . * P. 28S. ' Sir Honrjf Moatgomery'e report dated 18th March 1844, pava. 30,

JlArKl-ALL AND SEASONS. 139

of tanks, were opened in Angust, bnt gratuitous relief was pro- CHAP. viii. hibited, and many of the higher castes preferred to starve rather F.»MI\K.

than deuieau tliemseWes by doing earth-work. The relief afforded seems in any case to have been quite inadequate to the disti-ess, Thoueandi? of persons emigrated to Madras and to other more fortunate districts. ' A stream ot pilgrims Howed nigJit and day towards the south . . . . The great northern road soon became one long gmveyard. i t was often most difficult to distinguish between tho dying and the dead. ' ' Young girls were sold aiid sent away to Hyderabad; tho scarcit;j' of watei* added the torments of thirst to those of hunger; and grain could not be triinsportod without armed escorts, since the villagers turned out en masie when tliey heard of the ap]iroach of grain merchants with a convoy of food, and tried to obtain possession of it by force. Happily the famine did not last more than a year, and seems to have come to an end before the beginning of 1834,

The two following seasons were favourable, but tliere was a DistrosB in general failure of the monsoons between 1885 and 1838. In the ^835-38. lirqt of these years the early rains were deficient and yet many of the crops were destroyed by inundations ; in the next there was continued drought, and in 1837-38 the early showers again failed and the later rainfall was excessive.- The year 1838-B9 is described in the report of Sir Henry Montgomery, who based his statements ' onh i s own observations, and enquiries from persons ftf all classeSj confirmed by the periodical reports of the diilerent Collectors,* as one of 'extreme distress little less than famine, equal if not exceeding in calamities that of 1832-33.' This however seems to have been an over-statement of the case. Want of sufficient rain ruined the 'whi te ' paddy crop; and though iu December a few showers saved the cliolain harvest near Kajah-mundry, in the north of the district tliat crop was lost too. Small relief-works (the deepening of tanks) were started by private philanthropy in Rajahmundry; and these were taken over by Government in February 1839, in which month 450 persons were daily employed upon them. Eelief-works wei-e also started at Samalkot in Marcli. In June, good rain put a stop to the sufferings of the people. Altogether only Es. 6,15(j were spent on public relief, so the scarcity appears to have been far from severe. Two factors united to prevpnt more serious results : tlie area affected was not large, and tbe price of grain was kept down by liberal importations by sea.

* DiUrict Mauu.at, p. 289. '* Sir Heury Jtoiitgomoi'y's report already (quoted, para. 30,

140 a6DAVAEI.

CHAP. VIII .

Disasters of 1639-41.

ImproTOtneut resuUing from Die anicut.

Scarcity in the Agency, 1897.

The season of 1839-40 began propitiously ^ bat towards the middle of the year the district was visited by the disastrous cyclone and inundation referred to below. In 1840-41 ' the early rains were again wanting, the north-east monsoon failed, and sickness was prevalent,

This unfortunate cycle had tlms lasted twelve years, and Sir Henry Montgomery summed up the case by saying that of these twelve ' five were marked by peculiar distress and three were bad.' The population, which in 1821 had amounted to 7c!8,3()8, had decreased by lB;i9-40 to 533,836. God^vari fell into a state even more miserable than that of the Northern Oircara generally at that time, and at length Sir Henry Montgojnery was deputed to take charge of the district as Special Commissioner^ and to report what conld be done to raise it from its lamentable state of depression. His report, as has already (p. 80} been seen, resulted in the constractiou of the anicut at Bowlaishweram, whicli changed the whole face of the delta and delivered it from any future fear of famine. No general distress has been experienced since i t was built. Even the great famine of 1876-78 did not seriously affect this district, and men and cattle lied to it then in large*/ numbers from the famine-stricken tracts in Kurnool, BeUarytse and Nellore.^ ^^

In 1896-98 failure of the monsoons caused a good deal of'^ suffering throughout the Agency, especially in Bhadrdchalam and ^ Polavaram. Indeed the jungle people were perhaps liarder hit by this famine than by that of 1833. The Eev. J . Cain of Dnmmagiidem describes a conversation with an old man who jemembered the latter, and who compared the two by saying, * There were lewer of us then, and the forests had not been cut down, and there were plenty of roots.'

I n 1896 Bhadrachalam and Yellavaram suffered from short rainfall, bnt a remission of 50 per cent, of the dry assessment was sufficient to enable the ryots to last out till the end of the year 1896-97, and no relief was necessary.

Things were much worse in the following year. The southwest monsoon stopped on the 18th June, and distress amounting to famine in ]3hadrachalam, and verging upon famine in Polavaram, was the result. Yellavaram and Chodavarara had rather more rain, and in thoaf all that was needed was to assist for a short time a few aged or inGrm people, who could not support themselves and had no one to maintain thein. In Polavaram and

» See Ohapter XI, p. 167. =' B.P. CRev. S«tt., L.E, and AgtU), No. 43, dated 12Hi March 1896, p. IS.

HAINFALL AND SEASONS. 141

BhadrAclialam it was utscessarv to open relief-works. Matters CHAP. VUl, were made worse by the iact that, acting on a general bebef FAMINE,

(encourag-ed by tlie astrologers) that three whole years of famiue were impending, the sowcars i-efused to give the hill people the usual advances on the security of their crops upon which they generally subsist in the interval between sowing and harvest,

Kelief-worlts were opened, but, except ia Bhadr^chaluin, the liill men absolutely refused to come to them. In Polavaram they preferred to help themselves in their own lawless manaer by plundering their richer neighbours. Collecting in gangs, they looted no less than 39 villages in seven days; and, as the local police wer*i afraid to act, order was not restored till the District Superintendent of Police arrived with the Reserve, and niarched a number of the rioters off to prison. The villagers had not resisted the robbers, so no blood had been spilt, but it was estimated that property worth Rs, 10,000 had been stolen dur i i^ these riots. Meanwhile in Bhadrdchalam works were opened in ^ May 1897 and a fair number of Koyas attended them.

Gratuitous relief was given on a large scale in this taluk, but to a less extent in the rest of the Agency where either the distress was not so acute, or the hill men had helped themselves by robbery, In Bhadr&chalam nearly Rs. 12,000 were distributed in this way, and nearly Es . 17,000 were spent from charitable funds when the distress was at an end in buying seed-grain, cattle, etc. and selling them at low rates to the impoverished people to enable them to start cultivating again.

I t was not in the Agency alone that the pinch of these years was felt. Test works had to be" opened in Rajahmundry and Cocanada taluks and in EUore, then a part of this district; and nearly Es. 7,000 were spent on works in these three areas, A little gratuitous relief was also given in Rajahmundry, and a poor-house was established at Cocanada.

Inundations of the coast by the sea occurred fairly frequently INUNDATIONS

in former times, and Mr. Topping, the astronomer, when making " ' ' " ^ ^ ** enquiries about them in 1789, found that they were so well known * as to have a definite name, being called ttppena}

'i'he earliest of which any record survives occurred in December about the year 1706, but all that is known of it is derived from the oral testimony of a very old man some eighty-three years later. The wind had been blowing vei-y hard from the east for

' Seieciions Jram the R«corii« of tha Jfaira* Government, Ko, XII (UadraB 1866), 23. ^ '

U2 G6DAVARI.

CHAP, v i a . I N U K DAT IONS BY TJt£ 5£A.

To 1787.

I t s extent and efiectE).

two days and the sea burst upon the land during the night. A. few lives were lost in the neighbourliood of Coringaj innumerable trees were blown down, the paddy was ruined, the springs of fresh-water were spoiled and quantities of salt were deposited upon the flooded ground.^

The next inundation which occurred was that of May 20, 1 787-This -was so extraordinary in its violence that it was cominonly supposed to have been due to an earthquake, but Mr. Topping ^ ascribed it firstly to a * violent and long-continued gale '' from the North-East at a time when the South-West Monsoon should prevail, and had actually set iu many weeks previous to it , checking the Northerly cnrrent and forcing the waters back upon t.he coas t ' ; secondly to ' the configuration of the coast itself, peculiarly favourable to such an accident at, such a crisis/ in particular ' the sudden projection of Point Gardewar (Godavari) and the situation of Coringa in the recess or cul-de-sac of a bay *; and finally to the fact that the inundation occurred at the spring tides of the new moon. ' In short there happened -it that fatal juncture a union of almost every cause that could have a tendency to elevate the waters of the Sea.'

Pitiable details of the havoc wrought by this hurricane and flood are to be found in the correspondence from the then Chief and Council of Masulipatam.* Coringa island and tlio country near Injaram were flooded, and so was Narasapur. The hurricane raged with increasing violence from the l^ith of May onwards. On the 20th ' about ten in the morning/ writes the Reaident of Injaram on the 22nd and 23rd May ; -

' The sea rushed in upon us and inundated everything. On the morning of the 21st everything was desolation. The whole town of Coringa tind all the little villages about, with the inhabitants, (were) canned away. Nellapillee in m not much better otatG, Aa yet I cannot ascertain what loss the Hon'ble Company may have snatained; hut I suppose it is in proportion to the loss of hidividnals, which in fact amounts to everything we poSBeesed The poor block people are now running up and down crjing and lamenting the toss of relations from tlie inundation. I'he springs and wells all around are choked with salt water, and we have only to depend on the heavens ior a supply o£ fresh water Oattle, grain ai.d everything carried away. . , I now reCLueet in the most earneet manner that yon will with the utmost despatch send to this place by d6nis or any other sea

' SeUetioms from the Itecordu of the Madras Oovernmcnt, No. XIX (Madrtts,

•Ilitd., p. 28, Tliie blew for BII dsiye without iiitei'toisaiou.

* See Extracts from the Public Coneviltttttoiia, pp. 1123-69 und 1^03-10.

HAINFALL AND SEASONS. 143

oonveyance ivlmt r^iiantity of p-ain you may be able to collect. The CHAP; vni, remaining part of tlie blaisk mltabitants, who escaped from the iniui- I.SDMUTIOXS dation of the sea, aro now d3'ing by dozens for want of food; aud. * THE SEA. if wo do not receive sHpi>lies very soon, very soon there will not be ft native alive in the NillaiJUle*' havelly.'

His letters also contain a distressing account of the sufferings of tlie European men and women in the place, all of whouij however, escaped witli their lives. Five hundred bags of rice and other provisions were despatched to Injarani iroin Madras before the Olid uf the month, and this terminated the immediate suiferi tigs of the natives. Fnrtlior down the coast, the iiumdation was mach less felt; and the reports from Karasapur complain less of it than of the hurricane.

This hurricane not only vvrecked a frreat ntimber of ships Theoccom-along the coast but was also felt far inland. As far north as P ' y' S Yevuag6dem (now in the Kistna district) the camp of a detachment of sepoys was completely wrecked. ' The trees under which the tents were, fell upon them and tore them to pieces,' writes an officer on May 23rd. ' With the greatest exertion the ammunition was saved. The men were flying about like footbifills endeavouring to find the Tillage. Lieutenant Ciiniugham and I very nearly lost our lives in the same attempt. • . . When we reached the villngo (we) found nothing but the walls of tlie honses and the greatest misery amonff the inhabitants.' A siini-lar story is told of the effects of thestorm at Samalkot. * This dreadful hurricane has not left a roof standing even to the Commanding Officer's house. A range of barracks for two battalions, the guard-room and several other buildings are le^el with the ground.' So great was the force of the wind that near Yernagudem scarcely a tree was left standing, and at Narasapur for some time no one could stand upright.

The zamindars suffered very considerably from this visitation, Theluntthold-bat they seem all to liave much overstated their losses in order to ws'loaae*. support extravagant demands for remissions of i-evenue, and the real amount of these seems never to have been, even approximately ascertained. An ofiBcer who w&s directed to enquire into their extent in this district assessed them at over sixteen lakhs; but his data were of a very doubtful character, and both the Council of Masulipatam and the Board of Revenue considered his estimate ' entirely inadmissible.^ In the end no remissions were given, hut forbearance was shown in the collection of the kists,

In 1839 a cyclone raged all along the coast from Vizagapa- Inundation tarn to Narasapur. I t was accompanied by a tidal wave which "f f ^ burst upon the shore and inundated Oooanada and Coringa.

144 O6DAVARI.

CHAP, VIII, Much of the shippino^ was driven on shore, some of tho wrecked INUNDATIONS vessels being carried, it was said, fonr miles inland. Tlie loss of

• life and property was very great. Tlie merchants' storehouses at Coringa and Injarain were ruined ; ctvttle and crops were destroyed; large tracts of Ifind were rendered unfit for cultivation by the salt water; and the tanks and wells wero rendered brackish from the same cause. The force of the wind was also most destructive. Very many of the native houses in Sainalkot were blown down, all the European houses except two were nnroofed, and even in Rajalimundry some of the houses were nearly dismantled by the violence of tlie storm.

Since then no serious inundations from the sea havo occurred in this district. The destructive tidal wave which desolated Masnlipatam just a quarter of a century later did not affect Q-6ddvari.

CycLONEB, The inundations just described were usually accompanied (if

not caused) by violent storms, and some of tliese were doubtless cyclonic in nature. In more recent times, four cyclones occurred in the ten years preceding 1878, all in the months between September and December. In November and December 1878, two others arrived which caused the sea to rise dangerously ftt Cocanada, destroyed a good deal of cultivation there, submerged some of the huts near the creek, blew down a number of niud houses and trees, and killed many cattle. In October 1904 a cyclone swept across the whole country levelling many trees in the Agency and thousands of cocoa and areca palms in the coast taints . So universal was the damage to ])lantain gardens that plantains had actually to be imported from Tanjore. Since that year no violent cyclone has visited tlie district, but the barometer is always carefully watched in the months (September-December) when they are most to be expected,

The fury of the Gddavari in full flood has always e-vcited the wonder of those who have seen it. The irresistible torrent which pours througl\ the deep gorges in the luUs through which it forces its way has been referred to on p, 5. Sir Henry Montgomery? when pressing for the construction of an anient across tlie river, could not deny that ' the Sodivari, when flllei as it was in the early part of the present season (li^43-;4), is a fearful atreamj overflowing the country through which it passes and carryiug before it all impediments to its course.' Before the anicut was built and attempts tx) control the river were becim, destructive Hoods seem to have been constant, and even now, as has been more than once said, they occur every now and agaiJi-

FLOODS,

HAIKFALL AND SEASON'S. 145

'DM^ eaHiof^t of wln't'li any rec[»rd is ext.'inf ]ia)>]iened in and CJIAP. VJII. rtbont. N'rtraâpur in Jf>H, Tlie aoeonnl of an Enjflisii meroliftiif, Fr.i>oi>>. quoted in Sir >I. "MontgoJtiery'ts report, sfiyj;: ' fn August tliere ]nn;T|~ Impponed a greater ovcrHow tlian had lnên seen in twenty-nine year.*, The whole .Salt ITillj:. Towns, ami Itiee were drove away and many thonsand men and cattle Mere drowned ; the Water I'i.' ing three Yards above the higli n'uv.*

Tlie daiuajfo done liy Hoods in later years to various parts of lalSTj, 18TS, the anient system lias already been briefly noticed in Chapter IV. .^^"i8g4'

'I'he Hood oi" July lS7o.' tlie greatest fresh that Jias occurred in the Godavcry since the extraordinary (louiU of 18(53 and 18()tl,' tlid nt) groat damage \o tlje crops, though thei-e iêre three i>reaches in the embankment of the Vasishta Goduvari.'

That of August 1878, however, breached the iiead-sluice of tlie Bobbarlanka canal and submerged a large extent of land in tlie Araaliipuram talak. That tahik was ' mostly Hooded and was at one time in imminent danger , so much so that it was considered advisable to remove the people to thehig i i lands. But the timely action taken by the Depai+ment of Public Works saved the people and their property. ' Tlie crops suffered much less than was expected, and only Ra. 8,000 had to be reiaitted.

In dune 1882 a ilestructive Hood in the river inundated a large tract of country in Amalapuram and Nagaram, and did much liRrm to villages and crops. In Nagaram six villages were entirely; and eight partly, submerged. On the Kistna side of the river the damage was even greater. The engineers again exerted themselves to the utmost to save life and property, antl the loss of crop was not very large.

In August 1883 a breach in the Vasishta Godavari caused considerable damage to the crops in Narasapur.

A dangerous Hooi] occurred in the Gautami Godavari in August 1884. Some 300 houses valued at Us, 11,500 were washed away; other property worth Rs. 18,200 was destroyed in the villages of PiUanka and M allavarani in the Ea'ntachandrapuram t.aluk; and 23 villages were snbnierged between the river and the Injaram canal. The damage to crops was estimated at Rs. 30,000, and serious breaches were made in the Kotipalli road,

The highest flood on record occurred in August 1880. The Great flood ot river was 14'5 feet deep on the anient on the night of the 19th. 18S(5. By nnon of the 20th it had risen to 1G2, and by 5 A.M. on tlie '21st to 16'9 feet, above tho anient, or 1 - feet highor than any previously recorded iiood. By 10 that n i g i d i t had fallen to l(J-5 by (J A.M. on the 22nd to 10, and to 146 on the following

19

146 0<iD.\vA[u.

HAV, Vin, ijiorning. Tlie ontei- wall of tiif Dowlai-^hworaiji look was carried Fnoop"!. away, and a brearli 250 yard-* long wac nindc in tiic Kaiik t>f the

main canal, wliich ivsultt'd in tho wlmle ottijo sonth-ca^torn corner of the Rajalinmndry tahik being submor-ged. Many breaches also occurred in the central delta., t)ic worst being in tlie Ganna-Taram canal, and wliole tracts itf country were under water. "Fortunately, the inhabitants, with very few exf-eptions, succeeded in making their escape to nnturat f'minences Jind the riv.er and canal banks. The liver also lireached its bank near Polavaraui, Hooded Polavarain, ^md did a great deal ot damage tlipre and in TallaiJ^di and some other villages.

The loss of crop waa again nothing like so great as sit ouo time seemed likely. I t was estimated that the damage "» Amaldpurani and Ramachaudrapuram was Es. 48,000, and that houses in those taluks and Rajahmundry liad suffered to about the same extent. In the district as it was then constituted Ra. 10,500 of land revenuu and Rs. -^5,000 of water-tax were remitted, and damage estimated at Rs. 15,000 was done to the llood-banks, canals and channels.

lb87^and ^^ ^^^^ °^ *^^ "^^^^ y^^^' * ^^'^ ^'^^''^ lasted for about twelve days. 1S02. The river was 15-8 feet above the anient on the I9th. A number

of breaches occurred in the left bank of the Vasishta and a large one in the Vainat^yam, and some 2,200 acres of wet crop wei'o Io.st. This was mostly replanted again and the remission oJ revenue on account of the submersion of crops amounted to only Hs, 0,400.

On October 3rd 1891 the river attained the unparalleled height of 1 6 9 feet above the anient; but no b readies occurred. A flood of only 129 leet in September of the following year breached the Cocanada and Samalkot canals (the latter in thiiteen places) as well as the river flood-banks above the anient. Scarcely any harm was

^ done to the crops; but the budget allotjuent for repairs to the delta works had i<o be increased by Es . 30,000, chiefly on account of the repairs rendered necessary on the Samalkot canal.

Of 1895-M. Tlie crops in Amalipnram and Eamachandrapuram suitered from floods in 1895 ; but this was owing to excessive local rainfall, and not to the action of the river. Twenty inches of rain fellifl 24 hours in A mal^puram on the tjth September. Remissions. t>t revenue amounting to Es. 10,000 were granted for submersion ii these and the Bajahmundry taluks, and roads and trees suffered nmaU more than the crops.

More serious damage was done by the river next year. Risiof? to ia-8 feet above the anient on the 2nd August, the water made

J.'AINTALL AND SKASONB. 147

a )arff( number of broaolios in tlto canal and rivor banks, and Ctt.\P'jrUL rising' ayain to 13'7 on iho I6t]i much inerea.sod the liarni already FLOODS.

done. ", Tlip iasf of this Jong list of calnniities occnrred in 1000. Of IPOO.

IVforn dayli<v]if on tho 14th August the rivor overtopped the lork and canal banks at Dnnunagndeni and oomjDh'tply tlooded out tliat village, driving the in)iabitant« to theltigher jjronnd and drowning a fow women and children. If breached its bank near the Vijc'svarani anient and did frreat damage to the works of Utc western delta in t)ic present Kislna distrirtj and tii o central delta was innndated through ninuoi'oiis breaches in the Gantami, Vasishta and Vainatej^am. Little liarm was done to the eastern delta, titongli parts of Rajabiuiinrtry talnk were innndated by a breach in the t)ood-bank. Tlie repairs to the breaches liad not been finished before a slightly higher ilood on the 22nd September (158 feet over the aiycut) opened many of them again. The damage done to the delta and Dnmmagndein works was estimated at Hs. 10 lakhs. Only about Bs. 40,000 had to be remitted for submerged crop in tlie present distriet. The talnk worst affected was Amalapuram, where 4,000 lionses were destroyed an<l some 70,000 acres of land were more or less damaged.

148 GODAVAUI.

C'llAPTKMMX.

I'UBLIC JIKALTII

Piiev.*j,i..vT D)>K.t5is—Wnl.iria : In the A^-'cncy—hi iln' up) UHIH - In ""' (iulta—OiOlura— £ni:i)I-pOx—Otiui- (lj.%ciiS(,'a -S;(iiit;if jfin. Mf-im AN l^'.T'-rmiOKK—i''iiljltc )iOB]jit;i)s jirjil <Ii!:jK;ii6ari("i—.^lisBiim iiiHiiditi'iiis-- Iin-ti-tiif.ions iti L'fto.iiiarlji— Jinjalmmndn lvp-.|pitiil.

CHAP. IX. T H E most uoticeaWe oi ihe diseases which aiilict the dhirict PKEVALEM IS malaria. TIiis is worst in ihe Agency. Ilie f-iJi!/ts tJiert' DisEASKs. jjj,^ densely wooded aud the valleys ure filled with » tan.<rle of

Malaria; in damp juiif^le, RO that during the rains the- (joiintry fs cniinentty the Agency, g^ited to tJie propajfatioii of the malai'ia-hc':irin,i( ino^()iiito.

Beyond the tihyts, tlio lowec ptirtH of Bharirfichalam ;i|)p('ar to Jje equally Jiialfu-ions^ the villjJtre.-' alojiff the \fi\hy of the* Saveri river and those lying- between it and the J?t'l:a))at!o hill;* heing-the woriit parts of the talnk. •

Even the Koyas, who have rpsided for unloUl { '•pnei-ations in the Agency, iire not iinmnoe to malaria. ^Dio (tlseaso is sai<l Lo be chvonif among them, and its effects arc partiinilarly notu-fiiblo in the case of \]\^ children. People from tlm jilaius HHIVO- ("i"' tnore severe\y, "howe-jer •, ami irom tlfte earVie«t tvmf!< «v to the present day the conntry has retaincfl a most nneriviablc rei»nta-tion tor iU unheulthiness. The Board of RevoniiC referred to its ' pittrid fovpr ' as far back as 1791 ; and of the party of 3^ men who wore recently engaged in inspecting the forests ol Eekapalle preparatory to the preparation of tiic wnrking-l^'t^" for their exploitation, almost all subsequently snU'ered fi'Oiu lo' ' fever of a malignant and lingering type,several were danjjcronsly ill, and as many as one-foiirth died. It is clxaracteristic of ttus malaria that it does not as a rale show itself when the victin\ is in the hill conntry, but appears in all its virulence aa soon as «c descettds to the plains. Ono explanation of this fact avers tliat' the system is braced to resist the disease by tlie rooler air of the hiUs, but as soon as the patient reaches ihe hotter phiins becomes relaxed, and nUows the latent malaria to obtain the upper hand. The agency malaria is generally said to be more pi'evaloiit in tl>e cold than in the hot weather, but no season of the yeai- is fi'^^ from it.

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PIUtMC lltALfH. Hi)

'Vhn iijiland.taliilis adjoitiinjrthe A>rom'V also m&or. though to cilAP iv ' =>.mir,Ie.s exteni,j™», m.darial fever. T.i k^Kl;)-?*!. (..fore f),e P S M - U . ; ;

iidvent ,.r the theory that all iiKiIaria i. ,'opiv,M-o.i by the ano- "'-*<^^:^-|ihHca innsijriito. elaborate en<iiiJries won- ...adea. to the l-rcvidoncL- I.. rl. -~~ \ and f-aiLsos of the disease in thrsv parts of t(,o ,i;stm-t, and (lie "l''""^»-bnnitai-y Commissioner arrived at tho t-onelusion that the fever " - * in Mio plains mis duo to the iiortJieHy winds which sweep OVPI-

tlie jiialarioii.s forests of the hill tract's. Me pointed our tltaf the fjihikft wliieh were most open lo hreesses I'rotii tbesca had tlie le:ist fever, while (buso vvhich were nioKt exposed to wind Wow/ny across unhealthy .fungJe^ had the hi^zhest ratios of siekness nmi .J

V death from wtalaria. Tlie (lUesdon had also been raised at that tfnit wliether the ii, tlio dL-Im. J-

^'rea; increase of irrigation nnderfJie rerenfly-eonstriictea anient was in Jiny way- responsible for the insahihrity of thv district. *> It wua known that in some places (the Punjab, for eiianiple) ' irrigation wa.s invariably accompanied hv malaria. Enqtiiries ' wore therefore directed at the same fjnie to tJie elucidation of tiiis _ ' ^ |ioint- The ronriusion arrived at was that the irrigation had Ijfitl Jio eJlcct npon the ]»feva]encc of iiwlaria. 'I'he result of iive ^ years' registration ot vital statistics • demonstrates in a very etear '

- inannei- tliat the intensity of fever in any Udnk ha^ no relation to ^ the extent of irrigation of the land, bat is solely dne to .^. -eo-lapli ical position and its exposure to .ualarions wmds dnr.n,' ^ e north-east naonsoou.' The irrigated taluks were in fact o l d to .nlfor H. very varying degrees. For hVeyca.. the death-

.:;,! in K,imachandraparam talnk had been ll'O per tlionsand, ; wl>il.. .» Am^ i(ipJ1^aln and Narasapiir it was b'O and 4-t> ycT T thousand respectively. The difterence WAS attnbuteA enUTo\\ \c* the position of the taloks, fciie former being exposed to winds from Ibo north, >yhile the latter are swept by sea-breezes.' Theories regarding tliG dissemination of malaria have donbtless changed since titose days, and vital statistics in rnriii areas are seldom 'S

i" suificioJitlv accurate to afford a lirni fonndatiou for debatable propositions ; but the fact remains that the deJta taluks {unlike ^ irrigated areas in some places in this Presidency—the valley of » the Tungftbhatlra, for example) are not greatly subject to malaria " * and are, in fact, the part of the district in which it is least ^ previilcnt.

Cholera, however, is endemic tlirooghont the delta. ' I t is CholCTa, ^ chielly conveyed from place to place along the lines of commmu- *' cation, that is, by the movement of jiei-sous affected with it, and by ^'^i

' Proweiliiiyji ol i.!i** Mndi'as Oo;'i»niinoin, Piililic nfii:irtii»(;ii(. .Ntuf l-i, i^ 1871 ami (.i.O ,No. 143,ildted 30t)i DpcemluL-i-lS7:i. ^

4V

150 OODAVARI.

DlM-;AbK-

Smu!l-iio:t,

rilAP, IX. the irrigation rhanuels, -wliich ave usofl for drinking pnrposo?. At. I'RKVJLKNT titriee the diReas.^ lias liroken out in a very Si-rJuns manner. Ii»

1892 as many a^ 1:5,000 persons dieil of it in tlie Gt'irMvari (ll.'striet (IS then cttri^titntedj and in 1878, 1870 an<l IP89 its vietimf* nunibererl between nine and ten thonsan*!. Mut siieli vi^sitations liavo been rare; and, tiioiig-]! in nearly every one of thi' last •!;> years rliolera lias elaimed >!onic vief ims, the nnniher of tliese ha*:, as a rule, been h'ss than tliaf even In less popnl^ns r|is;iriet.s. H exoeoderl one tlumsand in 17 of the 32 yearrf between ItiTI and 1902 inehisive, but on only four oecasions was it higher than lu any other district,

The ravaj^e.s of aniall-iiox iiave nn tln' wluilr Urou If a.- serlou-? than thoiie of rholera, bnb on more than one oeeasion they lia 'P been very i;rav^. In 1878 ovor 18,000 persons died of the disease in tlie disti'let as then cuustitnted, and In 1884 over n,:)00. I n six of the ^2 years between I87J and 10U2 more deaths occurred from small'pox in this district tlian in f*"/ other; in fifteen of these years the inort,ality exceeded one UioLLSand; and in only one yeai- did it fall below one huudreti.

A serious epidemic of the disease brolvC out. in tho del taluks and the Tuni division in lilOO, and after tliat eompnlsory vaccination was extended to a number oi the Linion«:. It ^^ i " in force in the municipalities of Kajahmundry and Cocanada ani the unions of DowlaishweTam, Ainalapurani, Kottapcta, Peddd-jjurani, Eamaehandrapni*ara, Pithdpnram and T'lini.

Certain other less virulent diseases are common in Godavai . Dysetttery and diarrhoea are frecivient, but perhaps not more than elsewhere. Elephantiasis and hydrocele are also prevalen , and Llic t own of I'eddiipurain has a bad name for the former* Guinea-worm is rare. A few eases of black-watcv fever have occurred in the Bhadrachalaiu taluk. A peculiarity of th*; district is tlie prevalence of beri-beri, the Telugn name for whicb is ubhu vffijuoii, Thoug-h endemic in many localities, it is f''p* qnently epidemic, and it is commonest alonf the coast. U is s *-to confine its attacks to males and to bo inost frequent amons the middle-ag^ed,

A pfood deal has been done in the municipalities to impro^ sanitation, and with satisfactory resnlts. In i-ural villages, ^ in other d is t r ic ts , matters are st.ill "btickward and even t.he s t » ' of* the unions leaves much trf> be desired. 'Plie diiHcolties *v'''' l^rtjatest In tli« delta, wliere the pressure i>f cultivation loaves li^*'** waste land round the village sites and the population is thickest. Brinking-water is also nsually obtained there from the irrigati""

Other

3&nitaUou,

PfBLIO HEALTn, 151

r.maU, H']ilt>)i ju'c li-.ihlv to fKilliitioii. Tlif w.itpf-worlv^ re- L'HAP. IX, ccntly cotijifructcr! in r'ncnn.id<i miinici[>aiity iire rfforaHl fo t'sKVAhi-vi in 0!(;ti't<^f X I V . ' I>JSM>>X.

' llie j)iil>lic iiK'^licat institutions in tUa ilisfriof ooinpnse seven MKHICAI.

liosjjjtnls tin<l Mcvonk't'n dis!i»e(isariei!. Of tlipso, two iiuspitals .ind IvsTiTmoxJ. a in^pensiii-y uvo m.tlntttincHt by tlic tntuiifi|).iHties, iiiuj flie i-est ^''îc hy tlie iuciil L rds. Stati<5tif^ rcgftnlin^'- ,)jl of tltein «*i|| be (iimwngnnVi! foiniil in tlj(i se nite Appentlix to lliis v»jliiin»\

Besides (lie ;il)ovu. the mi^siuns luainfitin sersfal uiedifal , iustitution.'*. Tlie Amerifiin Luthertin Mission at I?rtjnJuniiiidi'> insîtlitions. keeps np.i dispensîry for women and children in wJiicIisojiie 3,000 nnerf lire treated annually. Coiinectetl witli tlie di.spensar^ is a small liospiftil, and flie erection of a larger one 1ms been resolved u])on. The (Jaiitulian Baptist Mis.îon luanûês, und in part maintains, the Kelloek Home for le|iers at Iti'nuiithaTidrapuram, which Was founded in 18S)9 by the liberalitv ot ili-s. ICelloek, the widow of Dr. Kellock, a Canadian Baptist. At tlie end of 1904 the patients a+^-fviding it numbered 9-1. I t contains three larg'e wards for nvrictfhd ^ smaller one for women, and is owned, and largely .suuported, by the J\rission to Ijepei-s in the East. At a distance of a mile from it, is the I'liillips Memoriid H'jine for the untainted children of the lepers, which was erected from the subscriptions of the children at tending Snnday schools in Grreat Bri tain in memory of the first Secretary of the Indian Sunday School Union. T h e Canadian Baptist Mission also lias a dispensary at Eainachaudrapuram, aad is erecting at Pithapuraui a hospital to contain 21 beds.

T)ie medical institutions in Cocanada town compnse a hospital, InBtimiona 1 . . I T f I _i •! 1 _ in CoMiiadfi.

a bmncli dispensaiy and a dispensary lor women and cJiuuren. The first of tliese is situated in the suburb of .Fagaimatha-

puram. It was founded in 185ti and has ;t2 beds for male, and 14 for temale, pa t i en t s ; in the out-patieut department is a room with six beds set apart for Europeans. The main block is woU vent i la ted 'and l ighted; bnt there are no oa.yto, or special contagious, wards. Tlie hospital is jointly maintained from Provincial, local, and ]nunicipal funds. I t is in charge of a Commissioned Medical Officer aided by an Assistant Surgeon and two hospiUl assistants, and is under tlie general control of tht municipal council.

The branch dispensary in the same town was iounded m I88ti and is maintainetl ?>y the mumcipality. I t treats over 20,000 patients aHnuallv. The building was erected in memory of M li .By- Konuniroddi Narasinga I?ao by Ida sou.

1 5 2 fiODAVAKl,

CHAP. IX. The disjiensai-y for women and children ;it Cociin;idii was MKjfic' i, e.?tabli8liod in 18''5 nud tlie attondancc is over 11.000 luiiiuall)'.

l.NSTm-T ioNf. j ^ ^ ^ exponditurp is nu.vrly all met from lucal funds and tl is niider the control oC tlie District Buavd.

Jta];ijiuiuiidrv TJio Ktijahmiindiy hospital has been in ejcisU^nce since 185'1, I t contaiiw t'.7ent)' beds for men and twelve fa- wtjmen. The attendance is hirger than that at any otlier it >ii;ical instHution in the district, and compares favourably wif li thoHf^iirOs for must of the mufas.gal institutions in the Presidency. Its expenditure is niet from municipal and local funds ; it jtos.ses.ses an invested capital of Us. 5.500; is under the general control of the municipality; and is manaj^ed by a (Jivil Sui-g-eon and two iiospitnl assistants.

ont

http://jtos.ses.ses

EDVCITION. 158

CHAPTER X.

EDUCATION.

CENSUS STATISTICS—By tnlnkB—By rcligiona. EDDCATIONAI. iKSTiTUTiONa— Early begiiirings—Schools now eaieting—Tlio Goveraitiont college, Hajoh-miindrj—Tho Government trainiog college, Itnjnhmundry—Tiio Pithapiiram Rajii'a oollcgo.

SEVENTY-SEVEN in every thousand of tho male, and 7 per mille cHAP. X. of the female, population of the district can read and write. The CEXSO figures are greatly reduced by the inclusion of the Agency, where StAxwrics. education is at a discount and only 30 per mille of the males and g talni^ three per mille of the other sex are literate. Excluding this tract, they come to 8>i and 8 per mille of the two sexes respectively, or about equal to Ihe average in the plains of the east coast districts taken as a whole. Taking the statistics for the taluks sepai'ately, it is found that the highest figures in the lowlands are those of Eajahmundry (105 and 15) and Cocanada (103 and 12), while the lowest are those of Peddapurara, namely 51 and 3. li. .!^gency aU the figures are very low, but Bhadrfichalam and P61avaram take a far higher position than Ch6davaram and Yellavaram. In this last only 11 per mille of the males and 1 per mille of the females can read and write.

If the statistics of literacy among tlie adherents of the chief By religrioni. religions are examined, it wiU be found that botii the Muham-madans and Christians are far better educated than the Hindus. Among the Hindus, the literate persons per miUe of the male and female population, respectively, number 74 and C j among the Masalmans, t SO and 20 ; and among the Christians, 400 and 317. I t will be noticed that these last are the only people whose girls have received an "education in any way equal to that given to the boys,

G6d^vari was the pioneer among the Madras districts in EDOCITIONAI

educational matters. As far back as 1826 the Collector, Mr. iNaiiTCTioNs. Bayard, under instructions from Grovercment, established schools w-nnj^^g -at botli Eajahmundry and Cocanada; but these were both abolished after a short life of ten years. In 1854, the year when the Court of Directors issued its memorable despatch about education, Mr. George Noble Taylor, who was the Sub-Collector of the district as it then existed, and resided at Narasapur,

80

154 a6DlTABI.

INSTJTDTIONS,

Schools novr

^ m i ? . X. ioTtned a society at that town for the purpose of advancing EDUCATION iL education, and established schools in Narasapiir (the nucleus of

the existing Noble high school) and three others of the chief towns of his charge, all of which were supported by local subscriptions. His system spread throughout his subdivision, largely owing to the interest take* in the matter by the ryota themselves. Attracted by the nove ty of the institutions already establiphed, they applied to Mr. Taylor to open primary vernacular schools in a number of viUagei?, and proposed to defray the cost by a fixed annual addition to the revenue demand of each village at the time of the annual settlement, which should form a permanent fund to be applied solely to educational purposes. The movement was brought to the notice of Sir Walter Elliott, then Commissioner' of the Northern Circars, who recommended it warmly to the attention of Government; and a scheme was ultimately sanctioned by which this addition to the revenue demand was levied iu the three taluks of Mogalturni, Tanaku and Undi (all now in the Kistna district) and schools were maintained from the proceeds,*

The higher educational institutions now in existence in the district comprise three colleges (namely the Government tirts and training colleges at Rajahmundry and the Pithdpuram R^ja ^ college at Cocanada); seven upper secondary schools for boys; and 53 lower secondary schools, of which eighteen provide ordinary instruction for boys, fifteen similar instruction for girls, and twenty are Sanskrit schools for hoys. There is onlj one district in the Presidency (Tanjore) in which there are more colleges, and only four where there are more lower secoadary schools. The number of pupils under instruction in these two grades, and also in the upper secondary schools, is also very much above the average. Primary education, on the other hand, both in the number of institutions and of pupils, la considerably below the average of otber districts. Detailed statistics regarding the subject will be found in the separate Appendix to this volume,

TheGo-reifn- The most important educational institution in the district is "ajLh?"***' * « Government college at Rajahmundry. 'ITiis was originally,

-»— established by Government in 1853 as a ZiUa school for imparting instruction to the children of the four districts of the Northern Circars up to the present secondary staudard. In IStibit, was

' Bee Chapter- XI, p. 169. ' Thfl correspondence will be found in Silettiom from tk» Sttordt of "t*

MadrM aovtmmmt NQ, XXYI.

Itajab mandr j

EDUCATION. 135

raised to the rank of a Frovincial school, bat owing to various cUAi\ x. unfortunate circumstances it remained in effect a Zilia school Eot-cAiioNiL till 1873, when an F.A. class was started. A B.A. class was ^•'"^'^"""'^-formed in 1877 and the Provincial school became a first-grade college. I t is now one of the three first-gi*ade colleges in the Presidency which are Grovernment institutions, the other two being the Presidency college and the college at Kumhak6nam. The high-school classes were discontinued in 1885. The college was affiliated to the University in 1891 in mathematics, physicaj science and mental and moml philosophy.

The institution is entirely supported from fees and Provincial funds. I t is managed by a European Principal (an officer of the Indian Educational Service), who is under the control of the Director of Public Instruction, and its a<;sistant staff consists of three lecturers, all officers of the Provincial Educational Service, eix assistant lecturei-s, tliree munshis for Telngu, Sanskrit and Hindustani , and a gymnastic instructor. A carpentry class is also attached to it , where the students work out of college hours under the guidance of a qualifietl mechanic. I t s total s trength is ahout 230, of whom some 160 are reading in the F.A,, and 70 in the B.A. , classes. The fees are Eg. 40 each term for the B.A, course, and Es . 32 for the F .A. Over 200 of the boys are Br^hmans.

A hostel, rented from private persons, is attached to the oollege, and in this BrAhman students are boarded and lodged. I t is under the direct control of the Principal, assisted by a Superintendent and two members of the college committee, and has a manager who attends to the details of its working. The bearding fegs vary from Es . 7 to Rs. 9 a month, according to the market price of rations, and the building accommodates fifty boys. Arrangements are being made for tlie construction in the college compound of a hostel for all classes. Tlie students in the college come from the four districts of the Northern Circars, bnt the majority belong to G^ddvari.

The college is endowed ^vith three annual prizes founded in honour of, and called after, respectively, the late Mr, B . 11, Toong, formerly Executive Engineer of the district, and two former head-lectorers of the college, the late M.K.l i j s . Sundara Bao and Sabrahmanya Aiyar. Two scholarships are given t y M.B.By, <T. V, Subbar^yadu SIstri , at present Assistant Inspector of Schools, Guntur Division, in memory of the late M.U.Ry. B . Gavara R&zu, B,A., of this college, after whom they are named, Their value is respectively Rs. 60 aud Ks, 30 per annum and

156 G6DATABI.

CHAP. X. they are given, on the result of a competitive examination held EDUCATIONAL every alt<3mate year, to necessitons students of the Junior B.A. iNSTm io.vs. and Junior F.A. classes respectively.

The Govern. '["he training cpUege ah Eajahmundry was originally established college'™*""'* as an elementary normal school by the Godavari District Board in Kajab- 1883. I ts status was raised in 1890 to that of a second-grade mtui ry- normal school. In 1892 it was taken over by Governinent and in

February 189-i it was mised to collegiate rank with tiie Union high school, transferred to Government by the managing com-mitteej as its practising pchool. I n May 1904 it was affiliated to the University of Madras for the degree of Licentiate in Teaching. Its aim is twofold: to supply the educational institutions of the Northern Circars aud Ceded Districts (Cuddapah excepted) with trained Teliigu teachers, the want of whom has long been a bar to education in those districts ; and to work (as a practising school) a large and efficient high school at Uajahmundry with classeb as large as the needs of the town and the neighbourhood require.

The college is maintained from Provincial funds and the general management is in the hands of the Principal of the Kajahmundry college, 'i'he teaching staE consists of a Vice-I'rincipal—a member of the Provincial Educational Service— eleven Licentiates in Teaching, two matriculates, a 'drawing-master, an agricultural iuatructor (who holds a diploma in agriculture), two pandits and a gymnastic instructor,

When transferring the Union high school to Government with aU its properties, the managing committee also handed over a site, measuring two and a tbii-d acres, purchased by them in the heart of the town. On this, the Government began in 1897 to construct a building at a cost of about l!s, 65,000 ; and, on its completion in 1899, it was occupied by the training college classes, which had been before located partly in the arts college and partly in a rented building. With a view to providing a recreation ground for the boys of the practising school and the students of the training college, and to secure healthy surroundings for the latter, the authorities negotiated with the Rajahmnndry municipality for the acquisition of the whole of the Potter's tank, situated in front of the college, and in 1895 submitted proposals for its acquisition. The Bcheme however fell through then owing to its probibitiv© cost. I n 1901 the subject was re-opened; and in the following year a portion of the Potter's tank and the house-sites i» front of the college were acquired, and this area was reclaimed

KDtTCiTIOir. t57

and enclosed withinacoinpound wall at a cost of abontKs. 18,500. CBAP.x, In 1902 proposals estimated to cost lis. J2,000 were submitted KDICATIOXAL

for the extension of the building at its northern end and the I^"srlmIo^i. carrying out of certain alterations in tlie existing- structure. These were sanctioned, and the work is now proceeding. ISo hostel is attached to this college. The fees in the practising section range from Es. li)~G to l?s. 7-6 a term, and the rates of stipends to students under training from Es. 5 to Ks. J 5.

The arts college possesses certain endowments for the benefit of Muliammadan students ; and when it contains no boys of that faith who are eligible for these, they are given to Muhainniadan papils in the practising section. They consist of two ' Yeomiah scholarships,' each of the annual value of JRs, t>, constituted from the funds of an ancient yeoniiah which lapsed to Government, The interest on fis. 7,200, being the amount of a boarding-house fund collected by tlie late Saijid Ali Sihib Bahidur, a retired Deputy Collector, supplejuented by a grant from Government, is also devoted to forming Muhammadan scholarsliips open to poor Muhammadan pupils, and ranging in value from Ks. 3 to lis. 7 per mensem accoi-ding to tlie class in whicJi tlie pupil is reading.

The Pitljdpurain K^ja's college at Cocanada was founded in Tbs Pithi-1852, as a general English and vernacular school, througli the P ljam H4|a'» exertions of the then Collector, Mr. Prendergast, and his sheris-tadar, M.E.Ky. Tulasinga Chettiy^r. I t depended entirely on private sabecriptions, gradually declined, and ultimately collapsed for a time in iSG'i' In the following year, however, through the efforts of the Collector, Mr. Purvis, whose bust is now placed in a prominent position in the northern block o£ buildings in memory of his interest in the institution, the school was resuscitated and was formally re-opened on the 28th October 1863. Government made a monthly contribution of Us. 70 towards its expenses, and the late K^ja of Pitliapiii-am, who liad been one of its earliest pupils, added a further sum of Ks, 100 a month.

I t was located in a rented building till 1865, when the increasing attendauce rendered it necessary to provide better quarters for it. The late Kaja of Pithipnram again showed his interest in the promotion of education by presenting the institution with a munificent endowment of Es. 28,000, the extensive and valuable site which it now owns, and a som of Es, 3,700 for the building and its furniture. Further contributions were collected and a building grant of Ks. 5,000 was obtained from Govei-nment, and with these and the E^ja's donation the northern block of buildings was constructed.

158 QdoXrABi.

CHAP. X. This was soon found insufficient, and shortly afterwards the EDPCATIONAC western block was erected and was called the ' Linton Memorial ^''"'^""*"'^- School' in memory of the late Mr. Liuton, an Assistant Collector

who had evinced great interest in the welfare of the institntion. This block cost Re. 7,000, of which one half was contributed by Government and the other by the public.

Tlie necessity of additional buildings was felt again in 188!i, and a two-storied house was erected at a cost of Es . 12,000, of which a moiety was contributed by the late M.E.Ey. Pydah Rdma-krishnayya, anotlier of tlie earliest students of the scIiool, and a moiety by Government. The building was opened by the then Governor, Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff, on March -ird 1883.

In 1897 a hall was constructed from college funds, at a cost of Es . 6,000, and in 1902 a hostel was completed at a cost of Rs. 7,55t), of which Es. 2,500 was given by Government. The latter is divided into two blocks (containing six rooms each) which are called respectively the Brodie and Sweet Homes, after Messrs. V. A. Brodie and II. Sweet, a Collector and a Superintendent of Police of the district who took much interest in the improvement of the college,

The school tauglit up to the ' middle school standard ' (corresponding to the present lower secondary course) till 1866, when it was raised to the matriculation standard. In January 1884 the school committee opened an F.A. class, and the institution was duly affiliated to the Madras University and styled the ' Pithdpur Rija 's College * in honour of its liberal patron. In order to place the institution on a satisfactory financial basis, the connMi*|** registered itself on the 29th August 1892 under the Indian Companies Act under tlie name of ' T h e Pif.hapur Rija's College, Limited,'

The institution is managed by a council of which the Collec**"^ of the district, the Ohairinan of the municipal coancil, a repre* sentative of the Rdja of Pithdpuram, the Inspector of Schools and the Principal of the college are ex-officio members. A separate committes of seven disposes of all mattore not expreesiy reserved for the decision of the council.

The college is supported mainly by school fees, which m 1903-04 amounted to nearly Ra. 15,000. Other important items of income are the interest (Ua, 1,400) on certain Government pro-notes and a mortgage loan of Rs. 400; and a monthly grant from Government of Es, 90. The college is generally sel^* supporting, but is sometimes worked at a small loss. The deficit in 1903-04, for eiample, was Re. 370.

CDVCATtON. 169

The estatdishment consists of a Principal and sixteen assistant cHiP. x. masters ; two Sanslcritj and two Telugii, pandits ; two gynmastic EovcA^tonAL ins t ruc tors ; and copy, drawing and music masters- The attend- " " " " ' ' ' ' * ' ance, according- to recent figures, amountn to 487, of whom 39 are reading in the senior, and twelve in the junior, F.A. class. Tlio fees paid vary, according to tlie class in which tlie hoy is reading, from Es . 60 per annum for the P .A. classes to Es . 14 for the first class, 'i'he hoys come mostly from tlie adjacent taluks of Cocanada, E^machandrapuraiu, Pedddpuram and Pithd-puram. The hostel buildings completed in 1902 will accommodate 24 boys, who pay twelve annas each per Tnensem for the use of them. They have not yet boarded there, but a kitchen has recently been built at a cost of Es . 1,000 to enable them to do so.

Liberal scholarships are given in the college. Tliey amount in all to E s . 492 a year and vary from Es. 40 to Es . b per annum according to the class to which tliey are open. They are tenable for terms varying from two to four yeai'S, and are awarded by oompetitive examinations. They are only open to boys who are too poor to prosecute their studies without pecuniary Iielp j and entrance to the examinations is also subject to certain age . limits.

160 06DiTARI.

C H A P T E R X I .

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION.

CHAP. XI. EAELT

HlflXOttY,

Tb« aamlndnri.

KABLY HISTOBY—rtio zamindaria—Their adinini§tration—Thi* baviti land—Com-mitieo of Clrtuit, 1785-87-Settlement with the ztimindorR in 1789—AboHtIon of the Chipfa and Councils, 170i—Collectors of the havUi land. THE PKRMA-NEXT SiiTTtEMEKT, ISOIi-OU—ItB faildro-1(8 fftoct on fho ryotB--Spec:al CommiKBioner appointed, 1S43. RVOTH'ABI SI;TTI,I:MI:\TH—ik-fore 38G5— Settlement of 180S-06—Ita Bcope—Groupinff of villagos-Clasoificaiion of BOils-Standard crops, graiu outturnfi, cominulation pricoH—Cultivation expenseH and money ratcH — Pinftncial I'esolts—Wator-rate in tho de l t a -The existing settlement; HK scope—Reclassification of delta wiU—Wator-tato problems—Settlement of ivild tracts—Finanobl rcjults—Uhadrachalnm ta luk-Propr ie tary rights—l^'ixing of tho pc-bkosh-Sett lement t-f 18flO in Bhadriciialam—Agency trjicts and rented villages. DIBTIUCT AND DIVISIONAI. LIMITS. VtujtGE EsTABLisiiMEXTs-Ke-oi-gauiied in ISCC—Itoviaed in 1885. IN'AMH.

As has already been mentioned oti p. 34 above, tho district, when it was at length definitely acquired in 1768, was not at once administered directly by the Company but was leased oat to native renters called zamindars, over whom was a head renter named Hussain Ali Khdn. The latter's lease expired in 1?69 and the newly-acqnired territory was then placed under the direct administration of the servants of the Company. The agents of the old factories and their subordinates were converted into Provincial, Chiefs and Councils, and the Rajahmundry and EUore Oircars were put under the Chief and Council of Masalipatam, who for the next 35 years controlled the entire political, civil and revenue administration. They foand that the land of the district was of two classes; namely, the /taviU (*havclly0 land, which consisted of household estates, situated round the chief towns, which had been appropriated by the Musalmans to the upkeep of their numerous garrisons and establishments and administered directly by them; and the ^amindari land, the collection of the revenue in which was leased out on a commission to zamindars.

These zamindars, in theory, were merely agents of the Musalmans,* created for the sole purpose of collecting the revenue. Theoretically, they were removable at pleasure; but they were

^' See Higginbotham'a reprint (Madras, 1883) of the Ft/th Report on " " «/aiVs 0/ the East India Company (1812) and Mr. Cirant*e Foliticai Siirt'ft/ of the iTortkern Circors appettded t tereto , both of which have been freely utilised in tl>» fftUointiK pag«ft.

LAND ]lEVE^ ?E ADMINISTEATION, 161

generally permitted to remain for generation after generation in CttAP. XL posseasion of their estates. They were often charged with the EABIY

raising of loeal troops, who were couseqaeutly devoted to them, Hisroir. and during the las administration of the later years of Musalman rule they had become so powerful that they had usurped hereditary rights and come to regard thein^^elves as the legal owners of the soil. They maintained the semblance of state, residing in mud forts in which their palaces were situated, moving abroad only on elephants or in gorgeous palanquins, and being accompanied on their esciirsions by a rabble of armed peons and a posse of relatives and followers mounted on hor.ses or borne in palanquins. Their practice was to exact by force or fraud all the revenue they could, to pay a certain fixed sum to the Government, and to appropriate the balance themselves. The diief and Council of Jlasulipatam treated these zamiudars as the owners of their estates, subject to the payment of a money pcshtash to Government which was settled from time to time on what was called the 7«(£wK jamabandi, i.e., a customary sum assessed on no scientific liflsis. The A(7tJ /i land was tept nnder direct management as in the time of the llusalman.=<,

Tlie zamindars undoubtedly oppressed their ryots. The Thflir admin-' ancient established custom' of collecting tlie revenue in the 'stration, zamindari land was by a division of the crop (dsard), but in practice several different modes were adopted by the zamindars.^ In some cases the crop was shared; in others, particularly on the more fertile soils producing paddy, there was a fixed rent; and garden land, or land producing tobacco, cotton, betel, sugar-cane, oilseeds, palmyra or fruit trees, was assessed on special principles. Where the paddy crop was divided between the zamindar and the ryot, the division was theoretically supposed to leave the cultivator 40, 50 or 60 per cent, of the crop, the higher rates being allowed to Brahmans and other favoured classes. But as a matter of fact tlie cultivator's share rarely exceeded 20 or 25 per cent, The fixed rents were also maintained at an oppressively high level.

The haviU land appears to have been managed on a somewhat The kaviU similar system, a renter being substituted for a zainindar. Divi- *'"'*• sion of the crop was more common, but arbitrary assessments called sist and mahvaii were in some places substituted in its stead. Here again however it was the practice rather than the theory wliich was of essential importance to the ryot, In the

' 3eo tho i-oporU of 1780 and 1787 of Vb.Q Committoo of Circuit roforred to below,

21

162 G(5DAVARI.

EABLV HiSTORT.

Committer of Circnit, 1785-87.

CHAP, XI. division of crops the proportions theoretically allowed to the cultivator were the saino as in the case of paddy io zamindari land ; but ' many after collections were made, and the renter usually exacted a higher price lor bis proportion than that of the market, which reduces the ryot's share to a fourth or even a fiftli part of the produce.' Tlie cultivators, in fact, were as much under the thumb of the renters as of the zamindars. They liad no right in the soil, and the renter let the land to the liighest bidder. Bad es was the condition of the zamindari ryots, their fields were better cultivated than the havili farms immediately dependent on the Company.^

The Chief and Council at Masulipatam did little or nothing to check this maladministration and oppression, and in 1775 the Court of Directors, aware of the evils of the existing system, and anxious both to protect the ryots and to secure a more adequate revenue from the zamindars, ordered that a Committee of Circuit, to be composed of 6ve Members of the Council of For t St. George, should be appointed ' to inquire into the state of the Northern Circars by ascertaining with all possible e.^actness the produce of the country, the number of inhabitants, . . . the gross amount of the revenues, the articles from which they arose, the mode by which they were collected and the charges of collection.' The Directors farther ordered that enc^airies should be made into the military strength and finaacial position of the zamindars ; and intimated that, while not desiroaa of depriving these latter of their revenue, tliey were determined to protect the ryots from violence and oppression.

Hardly, however, bad this Committee begun its labours than its work was interrupted by the intervention of the new Q-overnor of Madras, Sir Thomas Rumliold, who in X778 decided to summon the zamindars to Madras and himself make a settlement with them there. The arrangement made accordingly was for five years at a rate 12^ per cent, above the ' mdnuil jamabandi,' i.e., the amounts the zamindars had hitherto been paying.

Sir Thomas Rumbold ceased to be Grovernor in 1780 and in 1783 the Committee of Circuit was reappointed. I t conducted a lengthy enquiry into the resources of the district and the other points referred to in its instructions, and its reports on the Aa-ulif and zamindari kinds dated respectively December 18, 1786 and February 15, 1787 contain a full and valuable description of the country. The immediate effect of its enquiry was that the increment of 13^ per cent, imposed by Sir Thomas Eumbold on

' Cirouit Comiaittee's Beport dated February 15,1767, p»ro. 43.

I/ANi) REVENUE ABJtlNiSTitATION. 1Q9

the zaniindars was confirmed, and in 1786 his settlement was CHAP. xi. extended for a period of three years till 1789; so that it was EABLV

actually in force for eleven years. HISTOBV,

In 1789 the Chief and Coanoil raported that a just assessment iiettlement on tlia zaiuindaris would be two-thirds of their gross revenne. r 'IUj 'aM ,-• The Board of Revenue (which had been established in 1786) and i"89. the Government agreed, and a settlement was made on these terms except in tho case of the zamindari of Pith^puram, the ieaae of whicli had not expired and ivhioh was then being admiuistercd by renters.

lu 1791, however, famine devastated tho country,' the zftinindars fell into arrears, large remissions were granted them, and their settlements were extended front th ree to five years wherever the shorter of these terms had been fixed;

Tho Chief and Council at ITasulipatam had distinguished Abolition or themselves during this trying time neither by their knowledge of nd Coanoili. tlie conditions of their charge, uor by their loyalty to superior 7***-authority; tlie rejjorts of the Committee of Circuit had also proved the inefficiency of tlieir adjninistration ; and in 1794 they

• and the other Chiefs and Councils in the Northern Circarg wern abolished, and the country was divided into Collectorates. At first, three Collectorates were formed with head-quarters at Coca-uada^ Eajahmnndry and Mogaltnrru, now in Kistna ; but shortly afterwards the greater part of the present district was placed under one Collector at Rajahmundry and was named the Hajahmundry district.

Collectors had already been appointed in 1787 for the CoUoctoraof management of the Mvill land. TiU 1792 they were'independent f '""'" of tlie Chiefs in Council, but from that year till 1794 were sab-ordinated to them. They introduced much-needed improvements, reducing tho size of the areas leased to renters, and in some cases dealing directly with the lyots by sharing the actual crop witli them in fixed proportions without the intervention of middlemen. The latter practice, though a great improvement on the system it succeeded, liad many drawbacks, as it involved, among other things, the maintenance of a large establishment of native officers who generally combined with the inhabitants to defraud the State.

From 1794, land which fell under the immediate management of Government was leased out in appropriate farms on joint rents to the leading ryots, the rents being fixed in grain and commuted

'• Soo Ohaptot VIII, p. 187,

164 oiDAVAiir.

CHAP. XI, EARLY

HirtTOKT,

THE PEBUANENT

SKTTIIEMEN'T, 1802-03,

into money at the market price or the average price for a number of years. This plan, however, still left much to be desired, since no precautions were taken to prevent the head ryots from oppressing their poorer neighbours—the besetting evU of all joint rent systems. Moreover the famine of 1791 had denuded the country of cultivators, and though much laud had thus gone out of cultivation the ryots had to pay for i t just as if it had yielded a crop.

Meanwhile the Court of Directors and the Grovernment of India had been pressing the Madras Government to introduce permanent settlement which had been adopted in Bengal in 1793 and which was supposed to provide a solution of the vexed questions of the amounts which the zamindars ahould receive from their ryots and should pay to Government. The system was introduced in the Rajahmundry district in 1802-03. The estates o£ the existing zaniindars were confirmed to them in perpetuity on a peshkash which was generally fized at two-thirds of the average gross collections of land revenue in preceding years, the period of calculation varyiug from eight to thirteen years according as accounts were available. The //avili land was divided into proprietary estates (or ' muttas') of convenient size yielding from Ks. 3^500 to Rs. 17,500, and these were sold in public auction to the highest bidders on permanent tenure subject to the payment of a peshkash calculated on the best available data. In both cases the rights of the undertenants were protected by a legislative enactment (Regulation X X X of 1802) which enforced the grant of pattas and the observance of customary rights. The land-customs, salt, abkdri and otber miscelianeous sources of revenue, which had been included in former assessments, were resumed by Government and excluded from the assets of the new estates.

Twenty-seven muttas and thirteen ancient zamindaris were thus formed. Two other small zamindaris ^ were subsequently added to this number. The hilly and thinly populated estates of Bampa, Totapalh, and Jaddangi, whose owners were called man-sabdars and whose revenues were triflingj were not brought under the permanent settlement like the other parts of the district, and their existence was in fact almost ignored.

The greater part of the district was included in the Pedda^ pnram estate, which was assessed with a peshkash of nearly seven lakhs. Large areas were also included in the Fithdpuram, P<SIa-varam and K6ta Rdmachandrapuram zamindaris, which were

Vilaaa, cuid JampEiUi av.d BantnnuUi.

tAND ItKVBKUE ADMINI5TIIATI0X. 165

assessed respccticol^- at two and a half laths, one lakh, and one CHAP, x i / and a quarter lakhs. The other properties were inconsiderable THE in extent There were in all fourteen ancient zamindaris aud S^TTL'KM""'

twelve Louttas in those parts of the present Goddvari district —~ whicL were then included in the district of Rajabumndry.'

The Pithdpurani zamindari is the only large property which retiiins anything liko its old proportions. Much of the Peddi-puram estate has been bought in hy Government for arrears, and what remains of it has been divided into nine small zaiuindans •which altogether pay a peshkash of less than oue and a half lakhs. The whole of the Kota Eamachandrapuram estate was bought in b / Government in 1846, and Polavarnm has been reduced by salfcs fcr arrears to a petty estate paying a peshkash of less than Hs 7,000. The other properties have suffered similarly from sales and subdivisions. E-Kcluding the agency hill muttas and Bhadr^chalam, eighteen zamindaris and eleven muttas are still in existence.

This permanent settlement was a Hismiil failure. Both the Itsfoitnre. ancient zamindaris and the newly-created proprietary estates were speedily involved in financial difficulties. In the case o£ the former this appears to have been Ics» the effect of over-assessment than of extravagance and misnaanagement. Indeed the most lightly-assessed of them all was the first to collapse. Theneivly-created pi*oprietors not only imitated the extravagance of the ancient Kamindars, but had also to struggle against over-assessment. Their estates quickly began to bo put up to sale in satisfaction of arrears of peshkash^and usually passed at first into the hands of speculators who eventually came to the same end. la 1813-14 the first of them was purchased on behalf of Governmeut at auction by the Collector, and thenceforwai-d, as the figures

in the margin show, * an ever-. *_, ^0- o/aovfrnntfni increasing area came, by the

same process, under the direct ^^'^'- villagM,

, aif 14 administration of Government. 1817 . . . ' - • •' 1820 133 Though the proprietary es-1832 150 tates were the first to fall, iSiO " several of the ancient zamin-llTi ::: ::; m <l"i3 eventually shared their

fate. ' Those fiffures exclude Bhadraohalam and parts of Yellavarani, which were

not added to the disti let till later- The figures of peshkash iuclnde areas whioli have Binoe been Lauded over to Kistna, and are only rooyhly oorroot.

im G<SDiVARI.

CHAP. XL THE

PBEMAXENT SETTLEMENT.

Ita effect on the ryots.

The political results of the permanent settlement were uqually disaetroQs. In 1822, Sir Tliomas Munro, then Governor of Madras, examined in a characteristic minute t.hc causes of the frequent diatarbances of the peace wiiich occurred, and »ttributed much of the disorder to the attempts of Government to enforce the rights of traders and other specuhitors who had lent mono/ to the zaraindara and proprietors on the security of their estates. H e wrote :—

' I h e y are not dishonoured, they think, by their posseGbioiiei falling into the hands of Government, but they consider themselves disgraced by seeing the nhodes of thoir ancestora become the property of a low trudor. As the Regulations now stiind, we must, wheiiorer a eowcar obtains a decree against a zainindar for a jjiirt or the whols of the zamindari, bupport Jiiin by force both in getting and miuntiiining possession of it j and hento we are every day liable to bo dragged into a petty warfare among unhealthy hills, wliero an enemy is hardly ever seen, where numbers of valuable lives are lost from tlio climatei and where we often lose but never gain reputation.''

He was emphatically of opinion, none the less, tliat tlie great hope for the future lay in the gradual extension of the area of the Government land. ' No zamindari once forfeited for rebellion should ever be restored. All ostates falling in should invariably be kept and annexed to the Circar lands.'

Nor did the permanent settlement bring peace and plenty to the cultivators. Few of the zamindars interested themselves personally in the management of their estates ; tliey entrusted everything to the care of managers, whose policy it was to render their masters entirely dependent on tliem and to prevent their interfering in the administration. There was nc system oF management; the only object was to extort from the ryots the utmost possible amount of revenue. A second middleman was often inti*odnced by renting villages annualily or for a term of years, preference being given to such proposals as ensured the highest amount of rent and afforded security for its punctual payment, and little regard bsing had to the class of persons tendering or the iuHuence rack-rents must have on the resources of the villages. In adverse seasons all that could be taken of the ryots' produce was claimed on the part of the zamindar, and in ordinary years the demand purposely exceeded their means. The deficiencies of bad years were made up in good ones, and in both the ryot was left only a bare subsistence.

The inherent evils of this system were soon exaggerated by a succession of natural calamities which is described in more detail

* Arbuthnot'a Kim* o (London, 1881), i, 213.

LANJ> REVENUE ADMINISTRATION, 167

in Chapter YIIL Annnfavourableseasonin 1831-32, culmina^ng CHAP xr. ^ i^?d t t ru l t ive hurricane in May of the latter year was fo lo.ed ^^ J . . ^^ ^" " "^^ " , „ „f W - • the three years l83o-dtsêie gETTLwrEXT. by the disastrous ^ - - ^ f J f ^ l ' * ' ^ * , , l i t of them almost — '^^ ' T Z T 2 T ^ i^ 8:S a " 'lone did great damage allalong amounting to f^« »« • ' J , ° j - \^^^ , , , , , ^ of 1840-41 was almost the coast and far i n l a n d , ^ n e ^^^^.^^ .^ ^ ^ ^^^^^^

revenue at length, ^ '^ J ' ^ j tl^^ Civil Service, to make ^PPf >t« . Montgomery. Bart nab l e j - - ^^^^ IS, X844, dealt fully with the - -enqomea. ^ i s repo , He attributed them ehietly t^ the

evils of the ^^^t^°^ J , 7 / ^ , .E^mindars and proprietors, and the i,,ffieient --f : ^^^^^^^^^^ the viUages. He

' = ' " ' ? ' ' " " ed the want oi adequate means of irrigaUon-especaaUy ,130 l -^ '^^^^f ' , t Godavari water-and the disrepair of the eîst-the neglect «£ the ^ " ^ ^^ the enquiries which a t.mately

in& ôTks '^fj'l^l2l^^ of the great anicut ot Dowlaishweram

i;dl:^--ô"^^^^^^^^^^ êltf of the Goddvari consequent

''ZT' ost important part of his report, howe>xr was that ^ B v o ™ The most i m p o r t a n p which should he ^^^^^ jges.

devoted to a ^"'^^^J^^fX^.;,^^^^^ area which, as has been seen,

^ ^ ^ P * ^ ' t ' t r r d l ' c H S ^ ^ of Government. was coming nn<iBT Government

, , , d 3 w e i . - - R e d o u t to th ^ ^ ^ ^ I„ 1.17 that

system -P15^;^^2hrd and fo.- a number of years the Government plan was ^^'^"1^'J^';''' ^ ^ , ^ ^-^^^ ^,ard system of sharing the crops fand was ^^^"^^^^^ t^ f ' ^â l or periodical rents. In both or the vUabadt system of * ' ' ^^^/"^^J ^ , , , t l y and with-Lses the settlement T ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ t J t^^ Collect'or was only

- X t o c o m e t o r e a s o n a h l e ^ r ^ _ ^ ^ ^

The dsari or sharing system ^-^^^^^ ,3tiuiate or by

ôneyof the ^ - ^ T , ; ? / r S i o he actual crop harvested ,etaal measurement of ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ universal on wet land. I ^

168 GdnAvjRu

pHAP. xr. drawbacks, as already mentioned, were that it involved tlie enter-BTOTWABI tainment of a large native i .*^ who cheated the Government and

bnlued the ryots, Under the vimbadi system, whicli was geneniUy applied to dry

laud, the assessment on the village as a whole was fixed annually by the Collector with reference to tlie probable prospects of the harvest, but was frequently revised at the janiabandi in accordance witb the actual state of the season This lump assessment was distributed among the different fields by the ryots themselves) individual agreeinents being t iken by the Collector from eacli ryot for the rent apportioned to his holding.

The fairness of this distribution was in theory maintained by the introduction o£ the peculiar system of * cliallenging/ under which any ryot who considered that his own holding was over-tissessed and that of his neighbour too leniently rated could demand thnt the latter should be made over to him at an increased rate which he named. If the ryot in possession consented to pay the enhanced demand he could retain the land, and in that case a proportionate reduction was made in the assessment of the tlelds held by the ryot who challenged. If, however, the ryot in possession refused to agree to the increased rate, he wns compelled to give up the land to the challenger, who took it on the higher terms he had himself named.

This challenging necessarily rendered occupation insecure, and it moreover failed to meet eveiy case of unfairness, since the unit of challenging was the entire holding and not a particular field ; and a small ryot whose one or two 6eld* were over-assessed could not afford to challenge a wealthy cultivator with a large holding, however sure he might be that the latter was too leniently rated. ' Accordingly, * wrote the Collector in 1825,' the substantial ryots invariably contrived that their own lands should be lightly assessed and the burden thrown on those of the poorer ryots.'

This apportionment of the lump village assessment among the different holdings was made either annually or periodically. If the latter, it was generally accompanied by a redistribution of the iields among the various viUagers every three, four or five years (according to the custom of each village), somewhat ic the same way as under the hiraiyidu form of the mirdsi tenure in Tonjore, of which relics even now survive. This was done chiefly to prevent the land held by the smaller ryots from being exhausted by continual poor farming, bat also to counteract the frequent changes of possession rendered possible by the challenging system.

L A N D RIVEK0E ADMlXISTRATIO.V. 169

The vUohadi leases did not work satisfactorily. Arrears OHAP. xr. usually acciiuialated owing* to the inability of the poorer classes ETOTWAM

to pay their rents, and theu alterations were made in the total BTiLgMgXTS. amount of the lamp assessment; bat apparently nothing was done to render its incidence more fair.

Both the dsard and the visabadi systems therefore had their drawbacks, and more'than one Collector proposed A return to the renting methods. This was indeed nathorized in 1839, bhoaorh it was not actually carried out.

Sir Henry Mont;gomery^3 report of 1844 already refeired to recorded the opinion that the only satisfeetory way of dealing with the Government land was by a survey and scientific settlement, Meanwhile, as a temporary measure, he advocated a system of joint village rents, and this was introduced a year or two later and remained in force for some 2U years. The challenging system, curiously enough, was retained, and the main modifications iotroduced were the abolition of the dsard system and the insistence of the joint responsibility of the village community as a whole for tlie default of any of it^ members. Sir Henry Montgomery's view was that these joint village rents would afford protection to the poorer lyots in so far as their interests were mixed up with those of the richer, and he was also anxious to remove the obnoxious interference of (• overnment servants which was an essential part of the dsard system, and had also grown up round the visabadi system owing to the ryo(s being unable themselves to arrange the apportionment of the lump assessments among the different holdings.

Meanwhile notable chang^ea had been effected in the adniinls-tmtion of the district. In 1819 a Special Commissioner with the powers of a Board of Revenue was appointed to the charge of it, and the post was continued until 1855. In 1869 the Eajahmuudry, Afasulipatam and GuntAr CoUectorates were formed into the two districts of Goddvari (with Cocanada as head-quarters) and Kistna, the boundary between which followed the course of the Upputeru and Tainaleru rivers. The anieut across tho God&vari Imd also been completed in 1B53.

Proposals for the first scientific settlement of the taluks Settlementof coniijrising the new Godavari district were submitted by *^^'^^-Mr. E. E, Master, Deputy Director of Eevenue Settlement, in two seliemes, one in 1860 dealing with the western delta, and the other in 1861 relating to the rest of the district.^ The two

' PrinteO in No. XXII of the Stlectiam frmn the Modr-ns Record*.

32

170 G0DAVAB1

CHAP. XI. RYOTWABI

Its tcope.

ClauiSoation Ot SOilR.

Sts ada.Td crops, grain onttnrna, Joni mutation prioBR.

schemes, with certain modifications, were introduced in 1862-63 and 1866-67 respectively.

I t was not considered desiraWe to survey or settle the whole of the villages belonging to Government. The achem e did not deal with 148 Government villages in the Agency and elsewhere in which patches of land were only cleared for temporary cultivation and abandoned after a year or two for fresh ones. These were left to be settled from year to year. Waste land, even in surveyed villages, was often left nnclassified on the ground that it was not likely to be aooD occupied ; and many of the laitkas in the G6ddvari were omitted from the scheme, because their limits were continually flactuatiug, and were ordered to be leased out annually by auction—a system which still obtains.

The remaining area w«8 divided into the ' upland* and the ' delta,' according as it lay outside or within the influence of the G6d4vaTi irrigation. In each of these tracts the villages were grouped into classes with reference to their general fertility and the quality of their irrigation sources. All the delta land was classed as dry, n. uniform water-rate of Es. 3 per acre being imposed on irrigated fields in addition to the dry assessment,

The soila were grouped into fourteen classes," the arenaceous series amounting to four per cent, of the whole, the alluvial to six, the red ferruginous varieties to 29 and the regar to 59 per cent. There was also an exceptional class, making up two per cent of the whole, in which were placed the lankas in the God^-vari and the land irrigated by the Tel^ru river in Peddapuram talak.

The grain values of each of the * sorts ' into which these classes were subdivided were ascertained by experiment. The crops taken as the standard for each class were as under:—

Lankai. -^^^^

Tobacco. White paddy.

. __ Delta, land and upland dry.

Red.

Cholam. Cambu. HoTBe-gi'am,

Black.

Cholam Cambu. Ragi, Black 1

pftddy. J

Sandy,

Cambn.

Ragi. Black 1

1 paddy.J

Exceptional land andor the

YeWrn.

White paddj.

3ugav-cane.

Prom the grain values, a deduction was made of one-sixth in tha delta and one-fonrth in the uplands to allow for vicissitudes

* B,P. (Eev. Sett,), No. 43, dated 12th May 1896, p. 6.

LAUD KEVENUE ADMIWI8TBATI0N. 371

• Groin,

Wliite paddy Blsok paddy Cambn ... Bagi HoFgc-giam . Cholftm

Tobficco Sugaro-Dotie

Ss. per garce

72 GO 60 CO 9(> 84

Sx. 20 per mawnd:^,

40 15

of season and unprofitable areas. Gommutation prices were CHAP. XL calculated from the prices of past years and independent enqumeSt RTOTWASI

and Tcorfeed out as shown iu the margin.* ' * The ultimate grflin values were reduced to money in accordance with the comnia-tation prices, and the gross annual mouey value per acre of each soil was fixed by-taking the average of the money equivalents of the groin values of each kind of standard crop. For the special class of land under the Tel^ru river the calcnla- ^ tions were made on the aseumption that sugar-cane would be cultivated once in four years and paddy in the others, the

aggregate outturn being estimated for four years and the average for one year taken from this.

e next made for cultivation espenseS) ths CnttiTntton expenses per acre on each class of soil being oKpenBcs and taken as the average cost of cultivating an acre with each of the standard crops, The result worked out in ordinary oases to between Es, 5-8-0 and Rs. 2 per acre, but in the case of tobacco it came to Rg. 35,and in that of sugar-cane to Es. 95, per acre. Both the gross and the net value of each ' sort' of soil having thus been ascoi'tained, rates of assessment per acre were framed. The share of Government generally approximated to half the net produce. The rates arrived at were modified in their application to actual fields according to the classification of the villages already referred to, the same soils paying less in villages which weiedassed low in the scale of fertility. In

the end, the eighteen rates for dry land and fourteen for wet shown in the margin * were arrived at. 'l he first three of the f jnner applied onlj to the exceptional soils in the lankas, etc.

The result of the settlement was an increase in the revenue demand amounting, on the whole, to four lakhs, or 2^ per cent., over the figures of 1859-60, though there was a decrease in the dry upland villages. In the area which at pi-esent mates up the district, the approximate increase in the delta land amounted to Ke, 90,000, or 12 jcr cent., and in the upland wot land to

Deduct

Dry. sa. A, 20 0 13 0 G 0 4 8 4 0 3 S 3 0 3 8 2 4 2 0 1 12 } 8 1 4 1 0 0 12 0 S 0 6 0 4

ions W(

mt, He. 10 8 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 3

A 0 0 0 8 0 8 0 8 0 8 0 8 4 0

Finsnciftl r«salta.

172 eiODAVARr.

-CHAP, XI. BTOIWABI

•SETriElIEKTS.

in tbe delta.

'Ptx . i V^TOl IT'

Its Hcope.

JUolaeaifi cation f delta eoils.

Es. 41,000, while in the upland dry laud the decrtstise was Rs. 14,000. The net increase in tUis tract was thus some Rs. 1,26,000. The water-rate in the delta was raised almost immediately (I860) from Rs. 3 to Rs, 4 per aci-e, and eventually in 1894 to "Rs. 5 ; and this resulted in a further incrodse.

'L'liis separate water-rate on regularly irrigated wet land was quito excuptional, the raetliod usual in other districts being to charge such land a consolidated wet ashjessmcnt. It was introduced under the orders of the then Secretary of Stfite, Sir Charles Wood. His idea appears to have been that, though Governntont was selling the water, it had no concern wifch the use made of it, and was only required to fix a ' fair comracroial value * for it. But to some land the water was worth much more than to others (ttince fields which grew excellent dry crops did not always do well when irrigated), and in effect the greatest inequalities of assesBmeat grew up among the delta fields.' These considerations led the Government to reclassify the delta land when, the present Rf.ltlniTiont. wuR int.rodocod.

Tlic nKHliMiioul I'tmMiiuy'd in fori-'o for 3 0 ôn r s a m i in I89li proposals for it:* revision were made. The chief factors calling for consideration * were the enormous increase in prices (they had more than doiiltled in most cases), and the great improvement iu moans of communication, which had occurred since the last settlement. The anomalies caused by the water-rate system in the delta also called loudly for removal. In the uplands no reclassification of soils was considered necessary, and the chief change was an aU round enhancement of the existing rates by one-thirJ, so that Government might share in the profits resulting from the great increase in prices.

In the delta, however, both wet and dry land soUs were reclassified and a consolidated wet assessment was substituted for the existing dry assessment plus water-rate.

In reclassifying these soils three series (alluvial, regar and arenaceous) were adopted, the first containing two classes and each of the two latter three. I' ach class wag subdivided into ' sorts.' The standard crops taJien for wet .and dry land were white and black paddy respectively. For the former the grain outturns wliieh had been arrived at for the same classes of soils in Taniore were adopted; they were rather less than those

^ See ti.O., Ko. 623. TLev., datoa 27tb Augûet 1894 stud B P (Vc-v <!B*0 Ko. ie.ftawAÔtU Janudry 1895, p. 1. ' ' ^ -*' - -«^'-J' ^^^> Seethe .xlmv.Btive report in B.P.fKev. Sett.), No, 43, dated 12th Ma,-ol.

LAMD KBVENDE ADMIKISTKATION. 173

worked out at the first settlement. For jhlackpaddy the out- CHAP. xi. turns adopted we.-e also rather below those calculated at the g ^ ^ ^ - , earlier settlement. For viciHsitudes o£ Peasou and unprofitable ai-ea3 allowances o£ 10 per cent, were made lu wet, aod 20 per cent. in drv land. The delta crops never faU and the ryots there obtain very high prices for their cmps .in famine years; but their assessment wns not enhanced on! that account. Ihe eatimatod cost oi' cnltivation was raised, the maxima for wet and dry crops being Rs. U and Rs. 8 against Us, 5-8-0 and Rs. 1 respectively under the old settlement. The commutation prices were taken at Rs. 118 and Rs. y6 per garce for black and white paddy respectively. The average prices of the last twenty non-faraino years were actually much higher than these figures, but efteen per cent, was deducted from the averages to allow far merchants' profits. Half the net annual money value of the outturn of each field as thus ascertained was taken as the Govcrninent share and rounded otf to the nearest standard

rate of assessment. The result was the » irfi. Dry. marginally-noted * fourteen rates for dry,

':f* ;"; "^l p' and twelve rates for wet, lands. The two j p 0 0 0 highest dry rates were only applied to laolia 0 (I 7 0 or padui/ai (river bank) lauds, which arc of 8 0 •'' *• exceptional fertility. For purposes of dry \ ^ Ij Q assessment, the villages were divided into two ^l^ (J 2 8 groups with reference to their means of com-. 1 8 3 0 iiiunication and their proximity to markets ; 4 - 0 1 8 while wet land was grouped in blocks ^ * (irrespective of village boundaries) into ., g 0 12 four ' classes ' with reference to the quality

0 8 of the ii-rigation and drainage. When the ^ rates of assessment were applied to parti

cular fields they were modified according to the groups and yclasses in which the fields were included. 'A - The general result of the settlement was that in the whole of

Si Godavari delta—including those portions since transferred to K' tna-district—tliere was a gross iucrease in the assessment of Ks. 2,35,000, or eight per cent.

11 change from the system of water-rate to a consolidated Water-»ate «pt assessment caused some difiiculties. The first doubt which P"' ' ™'-

L(, was as to what laud shnuld be assessed.as wetaud what as dry, '"• fe aiiiftT t\H forrofcr system the ryot had bpftn able to pleaiw W^^M as to whether he would grow dry crops or wet. It was

t ally decided that all land which bad buen conUnuously

174 GODAV'AKI.

CHAP. XI. RTOTWABI

SlTTLEMSST*

Set.Uemont of Tritd triicts,

Financial reraltfl.

chalam Wuk.

under wet cultivation for the five years 1893-99 (bat excepting 1895-96), or from which Government water could not he excluded, should be classed as wet. The next question was what water-rate should be imposed on the remaining delta fields when they were ii-rigated. In the case of this land the option o£ using or refusing the water was continuetl. and, in consideration of this concession, the water-rate was fixed at one rupeo per acre more than the difference between the wet and dry assessment. No land was classed as permanent double-crop land. The charge for a second crop on wet land was fixed at halt the wet assessment, and specific rules were made for the charges for irrigated dry crops and second wet crops on dry land.

The levy of water-rate in zamindari and inam land occasioned some discussion. A ruling of the High Coort had raised a doubt as to the right of Government to levy the rate on land of these two classes from which water conld not be excluded, and this had to be removed by legislation (Act V of 1900} ; and the late was eventually fixed at the old uniform figure of Rs. 5 per acre.

Besides reassessing the areas dealt with at the former settlement, the existing settlement assessed to revenue many villages which either did not then belong to Government or had been left out of account owing to their jungly nature. Some 41 proprietary villages had been resumed by Government ^ since the original settlement, and many jungle villages had so far advanced in civilization as to justify their assessment. The large areas of waste land in the surveyed villages of the upland taluks, which at the original settlement had been left unassessed on the ground that they were not likely to bo brought under cultivation within a reasouable period, were now brought into lino with the tialds enjoining them.

On the whole, then, 320,000 acres which had been settled in 1866 and assessed at Rs. lljSSjOOfi were charged Es. 18,36,000 in the new settlement of 1900; 19,000 acres which had come newly under cultivation between the two settlements, and had been provisionally assessed at Kg, lfl,000, were now charged Es. 23,000 ; and some 4iJ,000 acres were assessed for the first time in 1900 at Rs. 34,000.

The existing taluk of Bhadrachalam beyond the Gh^ts hecamo British territory in 1861), and till 1874 was administered as part of the Upper God&vari district of the Central Provinces. I t is mfide np of the old Bhadrachalam and R^kapalle taluks. In

Thirty-Bevon TilUgen of the Tdtapttlli estate in 1S8I and four i>f the fiftDjpa estate in 1982.

,LANO BETEKUB ADMljrlSTRATION. 175

1874 it was decided, in view of its racial and geographical CHAP. XI. afRnitieg to the Gfddftvari district of this Presidencyj to transfer ETOTW^M the taluk to this latter. Its revenue history is therefore distinct »"i^s"»» from that of the rest of the district,

BhadrAchalam is a portion of a large zamindari estate which propvietarr 19 said to have heen in the possession of the present family since rf8'»t»' 1324, and tlie rest of which remained, at the time of the cession in 1800, a part of the Nizam's Dominions. Tiie possession of the property by the present owners has on several occasions been seriously, though not permanently, interrupted by feuds with a rival family. R^kapalle, wliich was formerly a separate taluk but is now embodied in Bhadrachalam, was leased ont in 1815 by the proprietors of the latter estate to renters who subsequently set (it nought tlieir authority and even rose in arms against them. These people were accordingly registered as inferior proprietors at the settlement which followed the cession in 1860. Another class of inferior proprietors were the ' Doras,' to whom the owners of the estate liad been wont to rent out certain areas on short leases on a commission of from 20 to 40 per cent, of the gross produce. Their position was also defined at the settlement.

Besides fixing the position of the superior and inferior proprietors, this settlement also determined the status of tlie ryots. Some of these possessed varying degrees of occupancy right in the soil, but the rest were tennnts-at-will. The occupancy rights conferred ranged from a conditional right (in the case of those who had held their land for tVelve years) to an absolute right, and in all cases the proprietors were prohibited from raising the ryots' rents during the currency of the settlenient.

The assesBinent of the peshkash to be paid by the pi-oprietors Fixing o! the was calculated by regular settlement operations. The villages P**' "* ' were grouped for purposes of assessment into ehuka vsubdivi-sions) with reierence to their fertility and locality, and the land was surveyed and the soils classified field hy field. The rental which each class of soil in each chvik might be assumed to be able to pay was then calculated with reference to the money rents actually paid during the last five years, and to the value of rents paid in kind. Of the assumed rental thus arrived at, one half was taken as thepeshkash.

' Thouo are olo&rly aoi ont in tbe papevB printed witlj G.O., No 122, Uor^nua ^ated 2Ptli Jannary 1885, pp. 4 and f,

176 Q6DiVARI.

CHAP. I I . BTOIWAAI

Settlement of 1890 in

The Doras above referred to had to pay the superior proprietors the whole of the peshkash so fixed on each village, together with road and school cesses each amounting to two per cent, on the peshkash, a dik oess of a half per cent., and a tribute of from 10 to 40 per cent, called inalikkdna. The amount and description of rent due from the cultivators to tlie proprietors was also prescribed, pven in the case ol the teoants-at-will upon whom no permanent arrangement was binding. Waste lands and forests were declared to belong to Government, after a liberal deduction of waste (from 100 to 200 per cent. oT the cultivated area and called the dupaii land) had been set apart round each ^Tllage for the extension of cnltivation, firewood and grazing purposes The abHri revenue was also resumed, and the rani of Bhadrdchalam was granted a deduction of Rs. 4,428 from her peshkash as compensation for the loss she suffered through the resumption of this and the forests This settlement was thus altogether different in principle from those carried oat in zamindaris in this Presidency.

Besides the occupied propiiebary tracts, the country contained a vast extent of waste land and a small area of occupied land the proprietary right in wliich was vested in Government. The latter consisted of a number of small and neglected villages in the heart of the forest, in which only shifting cultivation (poilii) was practised. The ryots in these were given occupancy rights over all fields which they coiiH prove to h^ive been continuously held by them, and a small assessment—apparently four annas on the extent culturable with one axe, about three acre's—was levied,

After Bhadrfichalam became part of tlic Qcidavai-i district, the question o£ its rp-aettlement arose. The orlgindl sfttUiment had been far less favourable to the proprietor than iho.sts carried out in tliis Presidency, and the pi-oprietor pressed for a reduction of bis peshkash and the restoration of his former rights to the revenue from abkari and the forests The general lines upon which the re-settlement should proceed were ultimntely laid down in 1885 ; but it was not carried out till 1888-89 nor introduced till 189t). Tiieinferior tenures were not interfered with— indeed ryota with provisional occupiincy tenures were granted absolute occupancy rights. The average rates on Governmeut wet and dry Iniul were put fit 8 annaH and 4 annas respectively. and cultivation is now measured up annually. The pesbka.'th was fixed at two-thirds of the various superior and inferior proprietors' assets, ascertained by a scrutiny of their accounts, subject to the proviso that no cuHailment exceeding 15 per cent.

' tAKP BEVENPE ADMIXESTKATIOJJ. 177

should be effpcted in any proprietor's income. The abkari and OHAP. Xr. forest revenue were again retained in the hands of Government, BYOIWAW

but as an act of grace an allo^Tance of lis. 1,000 a year was made * ' to the zaraindar of BhadrAclialaiu as compensation therefor, th<j deduction from tlie rani's pe^hkaah above referred to having lapsed at her death. The cost of the vilbge establishment was deducted from the assets on which the peshkash was calculated. The malihhdnus were fixed at a nuiform rate of 10 per ceat. on the peshkash. The road and other cesses were continaed and formed into a fund called the BhadrAchalam Tload Fund, which was to be administered by the Collector

The net resnlt df this settlement was a loss to G-overDment of just over Ks. 1,000 annually,

The present Agency tracts of Goddvari consist of the whole Agency of the old mansabs (estates) of Kampa and Jaddaugi, the more j^ted^" hiUy parts of the old I'edch'tpuram and I'olavaram zamiudaris, tillage*. the Dutcharti aud Guditerii oiuttas of the Golgouda Agency transferred from Yizagapatam iu Ife'Sl and the Jihadrdchalam taluk transferred from tlie Ceutial Provinces. As has already-been seen, the mansabs were disregarded, a^ being animportaut, both at the permanent settJement in 180:*-03, and at the settle-mentof 18<>l-^6, and since that time they have all been resumed in circumstances described in the account of each in Chapter XV"; tlie land wliich formerly belongf^d to the two zamindaris of Peddspumm and Polavaram is held either by muttadars or direct from Government; and the revenue system in Bhadrd-cbalam has just been described.

The Government villages, generally speaking, have not been surveyed or settled, but are rented out from year to year to the highest suitable bidder, who is debarred by the terms of his annual patta from raising the rents of the ryots. The auction is merely a form, as there is seldom any competition. Some of these villages are being surveyed and it is proposed to introduce an experimental settlement direct with the ryots on the basis of existing rents. The mattadars pay a small quit-rent. They hold tlieir l a n d ' on. a sernce tenure of the same nature as that o£ the former mansabdar [i.e., kdvalgdn or watch and ward) for any breach of which they are answerable to the Government. The holders of the muttas transferred from Vizaga-patam are on somewhat similar ground, their tenure Toeing conditioned for service and defeasible at the will of Government. Governmuut can remove them and cau appoint whom they choose as their successors. The Agency also includes a few mokhds*

' G.O., No, X03, Revenue, dated 3rd February 1890.

23

173 a6DAvAni.

CHAP. Xl! villages granted by Government on favourable t«rms for services DtsTRici AND performed—generally during the Rainpa rebellion.

LIMITS. I* tas already been mentioned that the area which now makes ap the Goddvari district was originally placed undet- the Chief and Council at Masulipatam ; was divided in 1704 into the Collectorates of Cocanada and Rajahnmndry; was incluJed in 1802 in the new Rajahnmndry district; formed part of tl»e Giddvari district fii-st formed in 1859 ; and was increased by the addition of Bhadrdchalam taluk in 1874 and two muttas of Golgonda Ageucy in 1881.

The district thus constitnted increased enormously in wealth, population and importance when the irrigation from the G6ddvari anient took full effect, and became a heavier charge than one CoUector could efficiently admiaister. Accordingly in 1904 the portion of it whicli lay south and west of the Qodavari river (with the single exception of the Polavaram division) was transferred to the Kistna district, which latter in its turn was lightened by the formation of the new district of Guntfir. The existing divisional charges are as under :—

Division. Taluks. Area in Gqtiare miles.

Populfttion in

thousands.

Eajahmnndry (Sub-Collector) ...

Bhadrachalftm Agencj (Ileud Assistant Collector).

Pfilttvaiam Agency (15aropean Doputy Oollootor).

PeddipnrttQi {Dopnty Colleotor).

Ilead-quarter (Cocanada) Deputy Col lector,

Xlajalimundry, Amala-pttram, Nagariim.

Bhadrachaliim

Pdlavaram, Yella-varain, ChSdavaram.

I Peddajrornin, Ruinn-chand r J* puru m.

I Oocancda, Pithapuram, j Tnni.

Total ...

U93

911

2,220

800

701

I 5+2

I I I

387

;t6V

5,03-1 1,*4*

VI LIACE ESTABLISH'

MEN-ra. K6 or^nizod in 1866.

It was not till 1866 that the village establishments of the district were thoroughly re-organized on modern lines. At that time the village servants were paid partly by certaia customary fees and partly by the profits of the cultivation of ioam lands granted them free of assessment. The customary fees had been collected with, and included in, the old joint-rent settlements ; and then deducted under the head of orilinary remissions and disbursed to the villafe servants entitled to tliem. At the settlement of 1^62-67 these fees were not included in the assessments fixed opon the land, and the Government expressly reserved the power to levy a regular oess for the proper remuneration

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION. 179 t '

o£i the villagfe officers. I t wa-? decided in 1866 ^ that this cess CHAP, XI.' slioiild be levied under the recent Village Service Cess Act of VILLASB

1^64 at the rate of 8 pies in every rupee of the land revenue on ^"tNis!"' Governiueiit lands and of water-i-ate on inaias. I t was ordered that the inam landa which had up to then formed part of the remuneration of the village bervants should be enfi-anchised {i.e., surrendered to the then ]iolders) at a, quit-rent of five-eighths of the land revenue assessment -vhich would have been charged upon them had the j not been inauis. The proceeds of the coss'and the quit-rents on the inams were set aside to constitnle a fund (since ' abolished) for the future payment of the village establishments.

Before these changes were introduced, the existing establish-meuts were revised. The number of villages was greatly reduced by clubbing small ones witii larger ones adjoining, and the establisliments were greatly modified, being iu every case much reduced. A munsif, a karnamj a talaiyari (called in this district a ndyalc) and one or more vettis (accoiding to the amount of the revenue demand) were allowed to each village; an additional talaiyari was sanctioned for 29 large villages; and nirgantis *""• (distributors of irrigation water) were largely increased in number, but were only employed for tanks in upland villages in which the ryots applied for them, and were not allowed in delta villages. The payment of mnnsifs and karnams varied, with the revenue demand of the village, from Rs. 1^ to Rs. 12, and from Rs. 5 to Rs, 20 a month, respectively. The lower rates for munsifs (Rs. 1^, Es . 2, Rs. 8 and Es . 4) were confined to villages where the revenue demand was small aud the work of the headman consequently light. The pay of the talaiyiris, nirgantis and vettia was fixed at a uniform rate of Es . 4 a month. ITie old village shroffs wore abolished,

Village barbers aud (Jhamars (leather-workers) had also been formerly remunerated with land inams. These were not enfranchised, but were left to their holders to be enjoyed as service inams on condition that tbe holders rendered to the villagers the services, as barbers and leather-workers, which bad been customarily required of them. Specific services were usually specially paid for in grain by the villagers, and these payments formed an addition to the income obtained from the inams.

In 1885 ft new scheme of village establishments was Kftvised sanctioned. The essential alterations effected by this were the n 1885, increase of the munsifs' pay and the appointment of monigara to help them ; tho appointment of assistant karnams ; a moderate

I See U.O., No. 1237, Uevonue, dated 'ZZri May 186^, and also Ho», 963, dated 20th Juae 1870, and 1097, dated 2atL J0I7 1883.

180 GODAVABI.

CHAP. XI, VILLAGE

EsTABLtsa-

INIMS,

increase in the nnmber of the talaiyaris and nirgantis and a decrease in that o£ the vettis ; and the payment of those village officers in whole inam villages and zamindaris who did work for Government. Villages were graded into six classes, and the pay of niunsifs and Itarnams varied between Es . ti and Ks. 12 and h s . 8 and Hs. 20 respectively. I n some cases tlie luunsifa were paid as much as Es . 15. T)ie number of villages was altered by regronping and by making provisiftn for some resumed villagea in the Kampa and Totapalli mansaba, and tlie net result was that the total was reduced by ten. Subsequent to the reforms of 1885 the number of monigars was slightly reduced by regroupi n g ; ' and finally in 1898^ the minimum pay of karnams waa- raised to Hs. 8.

I n Government villages in Bhadrachalam an establishment of headmen (patois), karnams (patwaris) and talaiyaris is paid from a fund constituted from a deduction of one anna in the rupee on the land revenue collections in those riUagea.

The inams of the district were settled by llie Ina-m Commissioner between 1860 and 1870. One peculiar class of inam then dealt with was the ferry inams, which had been granted to remunerate the boatmen who worked ferries on the G6ddvari. The enfranchisement at a quit-rent of two-thirds of the assessment, of snch of these as had been rendered unnecessary by other ferrying agency was ordered in 186o,^ Ferry inams stUl exist, notably in zamindari villages. As has been said, the village service inams in Government vlDagcs were enfranchised at a quit*rent of five-eighths of the assessment, and the inams of the qoasi-piivate servants of the villagers in such villages—the barbers and the cliucklers-—were not interfered with. '

Since 1902 a spe;;ial otEcer has been engaged upon the enfranchisement of the village service inams proper in the proprietary estates. Tlie principles followed differ in two important particulars from those adopted in the case of village service inams in ryotwari villages. The enfranchisement is at a quit-rent equal to the full assessment leviable on such lands, instead of at five-eighths of this amount ; and the enfx-anchised lands are liable to re-assessment a t the re-settlement of the district. The work la practically completed and the revised village establishments nearly all introduced.

' G.O,, No. 601. Bevenne, dated 25th Augnst 1990. ' O.O., Xo, 20?! HcTcnuc, dated 15th April 189S. ' Proteedinga of GdTcrnmen^, dated Slst February 18G5, para. 21. *ae« the coii-«6pondence ending ^ i th CO., No. 541, Kevenae, dateU 8id

AprU 1872.

SiLT, ABKiRI AND MISCELLANEOUS REVENUE. i s l

C H A P T E R X I I .

SALT, ABIfiltr AND MISCELLANEOaS HEVENUE.

SALT—The Bjstenis nf admiuiBtration—Motliode of mBnnfactiiro—MarkotB—Salt for yaimm—Fish-cui'injf j erds—Conl'iMbaiid salt'carth. ABK^RJ JXI> OPIUM —Arrack—Arrack in the Ajtency—Toddy—Todd^ in t i e Ajfmicy—Forei^D liquor—Ojiium and liemp-druga —In (lio .\g(;ncy. CDRIOMS—Land custotus— Sea-customs. I C0ME- TAX. STAMfi.

THREE systems of administering the Government salt monopoly CHAp.xn, are in force in the Godavari district; namely, the excise system, SALT.

the monopoly system and the modified excise system. ^j^^ ^T^ej^,

Under the first of these, which is in force in the factory at p^**"»'oia. tTaganodthapnram (Jagannaikpur) and the major part of that at Penugndiru (these are the only two factories in the district)^ the salt is manufactared by licensees who are allowed, subject to certain restrictions, to make any quantity they choose, aud dispose of it how and when they like, after they Lavo paid to (rovern-mentthe excise duty on it, plus a small gess per inaund to cover interest on the capital cost of permanent works connected with storage and manufacture which have been carried out by Government. This system was introduf-ed into tliedistdct in 1885-86.

-It has two drawbacks ; namely, that the quantity mauufactured by the licensees maybe inadequate to the demand, and that by manipulating the inarket the licensees (or outside capitalists) may unduly raise the price of salt. The former of these disadvantages is met by the provision of penalties for neglect to maunfacture, and the latter by the retention of a part of the Penugud^firu factory under the old monopoly system, the second of the two systems above referred to.

Under this, the pans are worked by license-holders who are required to hand over all the salt tliey make to Government, and arc paid for it a state'd rate per garce called the kudivdram (' cultivator's share *) which is calculated to cover all expeuses of manufacture and leave the license-holder a reasonable proSt,

Of late years the third of the above systems, the modified excise system, has been introduced in an extension of the Penu-gudfiru factory. Under this, the Board of Revenue announce, before the manufacturing season begins, wliat quantity (if any) Government is prepared to buy, aud the licensees are bound to make and deliver this quantity. Having done so, they are allowed

182 GODAVARI,

CHAP. XII,

SA.LT.

Methods ol

tnre.

Miirketg.

Salt for Tftuam,

to manafacture on their own account in tlie same manner as tinder the excise system.

The figures in the margin show the extent in the two factories which is worked under each

Centa, Acres. Jagai Ddt1ia>|)iii'ain, uxcUi*. 127 Penoguduru, oroiao. 609

Do. , monopoly 77 Do, , modified excise 88

8 hi

H 18

of these three systems. The Jagannathapnram factory ia within Cocanada' municipality and that at Penuga-

d6ru is near that town. lu both of them, the salt is made by the ordinary methods. The pans arc supplied with brine from channels connecting with the sea or tidal creeks, and not from brine-pits. At Jaganndthapuram a steam pump is used for lifting the brine, and, atPenugndnru,picottahs. The soil at Pcimgudura is nearly all of a clayey description, and is sandy in only a very few parts. The result is tbat the salt made there is dark in colour and rather dirty, That made at Jagannathapnram is also darker than Qsual. In both places, however, the quality is good and the salt has the commercial advantage of being rather light, whigb. sioc© salt is bought wholesale at the lactones by weight q-^^ ^e^^^^^^ in he bazaars by measure, renders it popular wit!*' j.t.g dealers-The Jagannathapnram factory used to be worked ein- g|y \)j the Oriental Salt Company, Limited, which endeavoured^ D +1© use of certain patent processes, to purify the local product bo as to enable it to compete in the Calcutta market with ' Liverpool' salt. The attempt failed and the company was voluntaiily wound up at the end of 1904 The factory is now worked, under a lease running for 20 yeara from January 1889, by Messrs. Hall, Wilson &. Co., who have been recognized as leceivers on behalf of the debenture-holders in the company.

The salt made in the two factories is largely consumed within the district itself. Out of 780,000 maunds of salt manufactured there in 1905-06, nearly half was consumed within it< The balance was sent to Vizagapatam, Kistna, the Central Provinces and Orissa. The exports by sea used formerly to include large quantities sent to Rangoon; but in recent years cheap salt, mostly from Germany, has reached that town and reduced prices to a stage which leaves no profit on this trade. When the stock of Bombay salt is short, salt is sometimes exported from Cocanada to Calcutta, lu 1903-04 about 126,000 uoaunds were sent there; but this figure is quite exceptional, and the exports by sea rarely exceed 50,000 maunds in all.

The supply of salt to the French Settlement of Yanam is governed by the rules wliich apply to the other French Settle-Djents in this Presidency. Under a treaty of l81o between

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SALTj ABKAEI AND MISCELLANEOCS REVENUE. 183

France and England, modified hy two suhsequent conventions CHAP, xn., entered into in 1818 and 1837 between the Governments of SALT,

Madras and the French Possessions,' it was agreed tliat the Frenclij in consideration of an annual payment, should undertake to manufacture no salt in their territories, that the Madras Govtrnment should supply them with sucli salt as they required ' for domestic use and consuinptton ' at cost price, and that they should retail t h i s ' a t nearly the same pr ice ' as it fetches in adjoining British territory,

In Goddvari, as elsewhere, fisli-curing yards have been pish-onring established in which salt is sold at a IjHle over cost price for nse yw**-in the curing of fish caught in tlie sea. There are four of these ; namely, at Coringa, Gudarugunta (near Cocanada), D'ppSda(neaT Pithdpnram) and Konappap^ta, furtlier north up the coast. At least three-quarters of the fish cured are small. The larger kinds chiefly include mango fish, sharks and skates. The demand for salted fish is great and exceeds the supply, though the method of curing is primitive if not inadequate. Prices, however, are kept down by the merchants, who make the fishermen advances and so have them in their power.

Salt-earth is at present declared to be contraband only in the Contraband Pithdpuram and Tuai divisions, certain villages in the Totapalli '' t-**''* ' zamindai-i in Pedddporam taluk, the Cocanada and Nagaram taluks, and the Amalapuram taluk less the division under the deputy tahaildar of Kottapeta. Elsewhere the saline soils are neither plentiful enough nor rich enough in salt to constitute a danger to the revenue. The Salt Act is not in force in the Agency, ha t no saline earths exist there and the supply of salt is all obtiained from the low country.

No saltpetre is made in the district, either crude or refined. The abkdri revenue consists of that derived from arrack, AnKiRi AND

toddy, foreign liquor and hemp-drngs. Statistics regarding each 0'''™'_ of these items, and also concerning opium, will b© found in the separate Appendix,

The arrack revenue is managed on what is known as the Avrftok. contract distUlery supply system, under which the contract for the exclusive privilege of the manufacture and supply of country spirit in the district is disposed of by tender, an excise daty is' levied on the spirit issued from the contractor's distillery or warehouse, and the right of retail sale in licensed shops is sold separately by auction every year. Wholesale vend dep6(s are opened hy the contractor at places fi.\ed by tlie Collector, and the number of

I The flra*. two of theso papers ftro printed in extemo in Aitchison*8 Treaties, etc. (1892), Tiii, 214-22.

1 8 4 GfSOAVAllI,

CHAP. XII. retail shops is defiaitely limited. The rates at whlcli the spirit ABKiKi A^D should be sold to the retail vendors are fi.\erl by Govei-timent and

OPII^. embodied in the terms of tlie contract. T}ie contract is held at present by Messrs. Parry &. Co., Managers of the Deccan Sugar and Abkdri Co.'s distillery at Samalkot/ who make the spirit at that distillery from molasses,

Tho consamption of arrack in Qoddvarij when compared with that in other districts in which the still-)iead daty is tlie same (Rs. 4-6 per gallon of proof spirit), is moderate. In 190:3-04 the average incidence of the arrack revenue per head of population in the district as forJuerly constituted was 2 as. 7 ps. against 3 as. 11 pa. in the then Kistna district, 'Z as. I p. in Nellore, and 3 as. in the Presidency as a whole.

Up to 190i) the arrack consumed in the district was made from toddy and on the oat-stiU system. The change to the spirit made from molasses in the distillery, which was dearer than the other and had a less popolar flavour, caused a fall iu tlie consumption and revenue (which however was more than counterbalanced by a rise in the revenue from tiddy) and also oKered a strong temptation to illicit distillation. The consamption of the molasses arrack, however, is now steadily increasing, and it wotild seem that the vigilance of the protective staff oi the Salt and Abttari department has resulted in the transition from the one system to the other being safely tided over.

ABPI^.X'"'*'"' ( '* ' * ^g-pntM-. +bii (iJTticlv revenneis differently administered. • IL i i i e H/atomB U.-0 lu roroi i ; ..uKiely, Lliw or.li.uu-y exc i se sy s t em, the nominal fee system, and the oat-still and shop system.

TW AbVfiri Act I ol 1886 has been extended to 47 villages atam. aud. Polavaram—chie&y tlie more

civilized villages near the plains—and. We £-£o\se %ys't?rtn"taa\i^%u introdviced into 3t> o£ these—two in Tellavaram, four in Chodavaram and 2 i in Polavaram.

l a tlie rest of the Agency only the old Abkari Act (III of 1864) is in operation, and the abkiri administration is in the hands of the fievenue officials. <')Qtside Chodavaram, the second of the two systems above mentioned is in force in the Koya and Ileddi villages, the inhabitants of which are allowed to make arrae-'S for their own consamption on payment of a nominal fee of two annas a head per annum for every male over fourteen years of age. The rules require that the village headman should take out the license and make and supply arrack to the Koya and Heddi residents, bat in practice no actual license is granted. In

> See Chapter \l, p.lH,

http://Q6d.iva.vi

(/Ijudnvnram Jittlc aWnt'ri rovemm U tlci'ivtit Trom tJio imilfin, (îrAi*. All, since a toddy tax (cfiujurH^Hinnit) is supposed to bo included in AnKiai isn the quit-rent levied frojn the muttadars ; but the ont-stiil system ''"'"• is in force in some of the muttas.

Jn all parts of the Agency in wliich neither of the aforementioned systems is in force, tije an-aelt revenue is managed on the out-still system, wherehy tlie right botli to make and to sell arrack in licensed premises is sold annually by auction.

In Bhadraclialam the nnaok is distilled from the flowers of Mie ippn (Bama hiifolia) tree, hut elsewhere in the Agency from toddy.

In tlie plains, the toddy re\ênue is now managed on the usual Toddy. tree-tax system, under wliich a tax is levied on every tree tapped and the right to open retail shops ia sold every year to the highest bidder. The toddy is nearly all drawn from date and pahnp-a palms, the number of each of tliese which is tapped rieiog about equal, Date toddy is used from October to the end of January and from July to September, when palmyi-a toddy is scarce. The toddy-dmwers are generally of the I'diga and Ganialla castes.

A fair number of trees are tapped for sweet juice in the delta faluks, since the dcjuand for jaggery at the Samalkot distillery and sugar factory is very large. Many more are tapped in the western delta lately ti'ansferred to the Kiatna district, Licenaes have to be taken out for tapping for sweet juice. The low price of jaggery formerly retarded the industry; btit recently (probably owing to the effect of the countervailing dutigjjjgjn sugar) the price has risen from Es. M' per candy ;q± oC[i ijifij,to Rs. 21 or Es. * ii, and this may result in an extensi^ i of sw ^ ûice tapping, The tappers, however, are very usuaLy iu debt to capitalists froiu whom they have i-eceived advances, and are perhaps not likely to benefit much themselves.

In the Agoncy, the tree-tax sj' stem is in force in the 30 villages Toddy in the already mentioned whei-e the excise system of arrack administi-a- -Agency, tion has been introduced, but elsewhere no separate revenue is derived from toddy. Toddy is drawn by the hill people from dato, palmyra and sago (Cari/offt wrcJis) palm trees.

Six taverns have been opened in Eajabmundry and Cocanada Foreign for the sale of foreign liquor to be consumed on the premises, ''qno'"' The right to sell -iu them is disposed of annually by auction. In tho Agency, a few shops have been opened on payment of fixed fees,

The sale of opium, preparations of the hemp plant and poppy- Opium tad heads is controlled under the system usual elsewhere. Supplies ''s'"P-^"'"g«' are obtained from the Government storehouses. There is an

24

186 <.r)i)AVAnT,

CUAP. xir. -ABKIBI ,V\O

OPIUM.

ID the Agency,

CDSTOMS.

Land-

opium ?tijroLouse at Ttujah mini dry, ilio only onu in the Presicleuoy outsiiilp Madras. Tjicfuscs for whulosale vend dopfltj; are isRiied by the Collector on |inyiiieiit of u fee of Rs, ]'o per tiiuinm, uiid I'etail shops are sold uiiniially by auction, Tbe I'otail price of opium is fixed by GovormuGnt at 2^ tolaa for a rupee. *

The amount of opium eonsnined is very large. In the old God^vari districl the average couRuinption pec liead of (be population in 1903-0-t was 'OlO tola against '082 tola in tlie Pi-esidenoy as a wliole, and the incidence of the revenue was 3 tis. 2 ps. per head ayaias t i ps. for the wliole Presidency. I t has been suggested that sjiiugyling to Burma (nicst difficult to prevent) is responsible for ujuch of this abnormal consumption.^ Parcels of opium sent by ^jost from this district were seized in Rangoon in 1902-0:J and previous years, and tlio many emigrant.'? who go to Rangoon from Cocanada are believed to smuggle thu di-ug witli them, Tlie Rangoon autliorities have been particularly on tlio alei't recently. Anutlicr explanation i^ that opium is used in tlie district as a prophylactic against malaria; but agiiiust this is tho fact that the drug is not consumed more largely in t)ie malarious thau in the healthy tiiluks,

The consumption of iietjjp-drugs per licad of tlie population is smaller in Godavari than nsaal. I n 1003-0-1 the incidence ol revenue in the old Godavari district per head per annum was one pie against two pies in tlie Presidency as a whole.

I n the Agency, the villages to wliich Act I of 1880 has been applied are supplied witji ganja from two shops in Polavaraiu which got tkefe g^^elt from tlie phtiu'*. Elsewhere there are no restrictions oi^j j ^ ^ ^ nlf^j-ution of gaiija; bu t as a fact it i< UtJ grown or ton. aed.^v/lWre are a few opium shops. They n supplied from EajabmuiJtiy and are mauHged in the ordinary manner, but by the Revent.e department instead oi' by the ablciri authorities.

Under native rule, and even in the early years of British administration, land-customs were Levied at fr^^fiuent stations along the main lines of communication, and had the most baneful effects upon trade. In their repoH of 17^7, the Circuit Committee^ wi-ote ; —

' Numerous diowkib are placed on all the read-?, where, besidee the zavnindarb' dneB. m.iny rassooms are flxacted, which is tlm cause of much vexation nnd intonvpni^ncc ti> the trader. Th« enormous dutiea exacted on teak deserve particular notice. From l^olavuram to Yarifiui tkey amoant to '200 per coat. That carried by the Naraea-pnr branch paya 200 per cent, at nine pbces. Hence teak tiuiher in frequently brought fi'om pAgn iit a cheaper rate thau can be afforded by the merchants wlio trade in thib article to EBkapalln.'

^ Sise Obaiitsv Xl, p. 102.

little ire

SALT, AliKAIll AMJ lIISChLLAXEOl S REVENL'E. 187

The only land-customs now collected are tbosc oa goods passiny CilAP, x i l . into tlio district from ihe I'^oiich Settlement of Vanam. These CUBTUMK.

arc levied at two stations (cliowkis) established at Nilapalli and Injantiii, on the oast and (rest frontiers of the Tauatu Settlement. The tarili of rates iu force is the same as tliat for sea-bornu iiuporls from foreign countries. The only articles whicli are ever charged an export duty in this Presidency are paddy and rice; and by an arrangement entered into many years ago the export of these to Yanani, in quantities sufficieat for the coimuatptioa of its inhabitants, is permitted free uf duty.

Thorc is only ouc considerable port ia the district, that of Sua-ciLstoms. Cocauada, luid there u rejj^ular sea-customs establishment is maintained. (Joi'iuga is also open to foreign tra,de, but the business done is voiy small, 'Die sea-custo;us work is bujierviseJ by the onlinary eslablisliment of the Salt, Abkari and Customs department. The small siib-]iorts of UppAJa aud Beadamurlankh, are open only to coasting trade.

The Income-tax Act does not apply to the Agency tracts. Xxcoiit-TAx.' l''iguros for the rest of the district will be found in the separate Appendix to this vohnno. The incidence of the fax per head of the population in the present disttit't in the trienninm ending 1004—'-'5 vvas as higji as one anna six pios, against Id^ pies in the mufassal districts as a whole, Madura and the exceptional case of the Nilgiris were the only areas in which the figure was higher. Of tlic various taluks, the incidence was highest in 'i'liui^ Cocanada and Eajabiiiundry, and lowest in Pitlmparam and Eamachandra-puram. The gresit wealth of the delta taluks comes from agricul-tuml pursuits, the income from which is not habl^*f\tax, and the incidence in several of these is low. ij> ' ^ .-

Tlie revenue from stamps is very large in Jj-jportiou to the population, the receipts per mille of the inhabitants from judicial stamps being higher in only two other districts and those from non-judicial stamps in only four othoj's. Of the total stamp revenue, by far the largest amount is paid by "the Cocanada and Rajahmundry taluks,, owing no doubt to the exist-ence of the Judge's and Sub-Judge's courts at their liead-quartei-s. Considerable contribntions arc also made by Amalapurani aud Pedd^puraiu, aud, to a less extent, by K4niac]iandmpuram. In the Agency, the revenue from stamps is exceedingly small, especially in Yellavnram and Ch6davaram'. The Collector {and, during his absence from head-quarters, the Treassiuy Deputy Collector) have been empowered to iillix iinpiesset.1 labels to documents presented by the public.

S T . ' I M P B .

188 GODiVABl.

CHAPTER XIII.

ADMINJSTIUTION OF JUvSTICE.

C H i P . XIIX. EARLY

MEIHOBD,

Under native rule-

Under the Chiefij and CoimeiU.

B411I.Y METHODS—Uiidcv nnLivf* role—Under ).ho Cliieiij and Couiidle. Tiif PFESEXT SVSTKM—In tbo plains—In the Ag-cncy. Cn'i i . Jvvj 'icr—Bxiiting Courts—Amount of litif^tioii—Wejjistml.ioii. CiiiiiiVAL f usTici:—'I'iic varHns Courts--Criuoo—Tlic YjinWij; or MakkiituB—Other criminal clusai/s. Pot iei i—Former systoius—Tlie existioy force. J.MI, ' ; ,

UNDER native rule, and also in the early days of British admiois-tration, tlie regular courts oi justitie were few, Tlie Committee of Circuit,^ in its repoi-t of December 1786, describes as follows the system which was in force :—

'During the Mogul Government thoro were courtn of jusHcf established at Rajahmtindry and Ellore, where Kazis administt-red justice according to Mnliammadau law,- The FDujidiire' reserved to themselves the iuHictioii of capital punishments jtnd the dotcTmiiiu-tion on causes of conssiderabltj property. There was also at each phico a Ciitval (kotw^l) with an eetablishmeut of peons to superintend the police, and a Nurkee whose duty it was to rejjulatc the price of provisions,

' Of these nothiug Ijut the names reiu:uu, and the inhabitants are without any Courts of Justice. Trifling disputes are settled b j the Karnams and head, iuhahitante. Matters of greater consequence are referred to the Renter or the Chief and Council; bat the distanco a t ' which some of the farms are fi-om the seat of Government renders an appeal to the latter troublesome and expengivo, ' For heinous crimes (which aro seldom, i^erpetrated) tlio only imprisonment at present inflicted by our Government is confinement of the culprit's ^lei-son.'

I n the early days of British rule the only civil oouH liaviug any ]'urisdiction within tlie district was tliat of tlie Chief and Council at Masulipatamj and the activities of this were coHfioed almost exclusively to the limits of Masuli)>atam town and fact-ory. ' Of criminal Jarisdietfon there was none. There was no law jn'O-viding- for the infliction of death or any other penalty, . . The Chiefs in Council bad very little anthorifcy in their districts ; and of course every zamindar conld'interfere in the direct admi-nistmtion of justice.' A brief but vivid picture of the lawlessness

' See Chapter XI, p. UV^. I.e., the Pnnjd6.i-8, jbometimeh oallod also Nawfiba, who wore in cliiirye of

eacli ot the live Northern CiroarM,

ADMINrsrKAriON OF Jt'STICE. 189

whicli naturally resulted from fliis state of filings is alForded CHAP. x n i . by a contemporary account of the condition in 1789 of the port EIBLV

ol Coringa, tlicu a hnsy place. There, owing to the number of * ships and sailors that visited tbo port and tlie ' geneml want of police,' fighting, thefts and luiirdei- were common. ' AVIieij any wrong is done the injured party lias no one of siifRcicnt authority to apply to for I'edress. Every one laere is Judge of bis own cause. The Honorable Conipimy's Eesideut lives at Compra-poliam (Sunkarpalaiyara near Injaram), eight milea oH; and when applied to on such occasious urges waut of due authority to remedy abuses and to take cognizance of ofl'enccs.' ^

Tlio beginning ot tho lai>t century witnessed asakitjiry change THL in the state of things. Tlie supine Chiefs and Councils had been PB • c T replaced iu 1794 by Collectors; and iu 1802 Lord Cornwallis' in the plains. system of judicial administration was introduced into this Presidency and 11 Zilta Court was estabhshed at Eajahmuudry. I t was subordinate to a peripatetic Provincial Court at Afasulipatam, the judges of which used to come on circuit from time to time and hold criminal sessions. In the same year (1802) native commissioners were appointed to hear petty civil suits. A few )ears later they received the designation of district niunsifs, which, though their powers have been much increased, thoy still bear. In 1827 Auxiliary Courts were estabHslied and native judges (later called Principal Sudder Amins) were appointed witli extensive autliority. In 1843 the /villa and i'roviucial Courts were abolished and a Civil and a Subordinate Court were created in their stead at Eajalimnndry. The latter was abolished in 1859; but in 1873, when the existing District Ooui-ts Act became law, the name of Subordinate Courts was given, as elsewhere, to the courts of the Principal Sudder Amins, and the chief court in the district was designated the District and Sessions Court. The Sub-(^ourt at llajahuinndry was temporarily abolished in 1677.

In the Agency, both civil and criminal justice are differently l^ the administered. This tract consists of the deputy tahsildars' ° "°^* divisions ol Polavai-am, Yellavaram and Chodavaram and the taluk of Bhadrachalam, all of which are remote tractjs covered with hill and jungle, sparsely provided with comumQications, shunned by the dwellers in the plains, and inhabited by backward tribes who are most illitei-ate and ignorant of the ways of the world, and yet ready to go out on the warpath if once any of their many

1 iWet/'OMs ftom the lUwrdi of tlie Madtai Uoioiimtiif {M^dj'ui., 1855),

190 GODAVAJtl.

CHA]', SJIJ. peculiar sascepUbilitios are wounded. I n cuiintiy, and to )ici)|ilo, " Till. sncli as these, much of the onUnary law of the land is unsuitcd, ST>TFM^ and. a spctînl uysteni lias coiisetiuenflj" been introducod,

A precedent existed in the case of the Agencies o£ Vizagapatiim and Ganj'în. In conseqtiencc of tlic unceasinf^ turbulence in them -which led at lengtli to the appointment, in I83:ij of a Special CoJiuiiisstoner, with special ]iowers, to veritore order, t)iciC two tracts -were excluded, by xVct X X I V of J S3!), from the operation of much of tlie ordinary liav and wcru phiccd under tho direct administration of tlio Collectors of those districts, -ndn» were endowed with special and extraordiuary powers within them in their capacity as ' Agents to the -jiovernor. '

A similar method of administration was extended to the greater part of the present Godavari Agency in 1879, advantage being taken of the ticheduled Districts Act (India Act X I V of 1874) to constitute an Agency in tJie then iîiadi-achalani and Eekapalle taUiks, which make up the present Uhadrachalam taluk, and ' the Kampa country, ' which is practically the present Chodavarani division.

The Agency thus formed has been tlireo times extended; namely, in l yS l , when the innttas of Dntcliartj and Oiiditern (now ill Yellavaram division) were transferred to it from llie ViKaga-pataiD Agency; in i><83,' when the vill'^ges of the I'esnined mansab of Jaddangi and large portions of the Pokvarani division were added; and in lÔI.- when the lôlavai-am and yellavarani divisions attained «ubstanti;illy their present shiipo.

In the Agency thus constituted the Collector of tlif district, in his capacity as Government Agent, is both District Magistrate and District and Sef.sioi)B .Jndgo; the tahsildar and deputy tahsildars have mhiov civil jnrisdiction within their respective charges, corresponding (-with certain modificationsj to that of district munsifs; and the Agency Deputy Collector of Polavaram and tlie Divisional Officer at Bhaflr^chalam, in their caiiacity as Assistant Agents, hear appeals f rom tlieiii and have powers similar to those oi Subordinate Tudges. The tahsildars and deputy tahsildars ând the talnk elieriatadar at Bhadraelialam) are second-class niagiatj-ates, and the Divisional Officers, as elsewhere, are first-class magis t ra tes ; but appeals froni the decisions o i the latter lie to the Collector as Agepcy Sesiions Judge . The village ninnsifs have the ordinary criminal, but no civil, ]K)W(>rs. The ])Vf)ceciiire in civil snits is not governed by the nsnal Civil

' Sn> imtircation ill llic Qti:<--tle ol hidta. J'ui- ]gb;{, i, 26i . ' Sec Jiotificiition in tlie Ga'Mte o/ Indta for 1891,' i| ^JS.

file:///with

ATIVIVISTKATION 01' .IPSTICC. 1 9 1 V

ProLTilun^ CorIc; biif by a simpler set of rules framed iiiifler CitAP. Xlil. * ,>.<>otto)i fi of tliu fii-lierluled Histriet^ Act. Rules under this same THE

PBFftfX SYSTEM.

fiinctinoiit liavL'nlst) Ijeeu dniwn up for tLe iîiid«iice ot tlie Ayent RfsfXT io other brrtnehe-> of tlie acliniuistration.

Out^de the Agc-ncy, the civil tribun^tU of the district are of CIVIL the usnaT four gTados; naiuclj^j the courts oi village and distnct JUSTICF. ' mnnsifs, the Sulj-Uourt aud the Di'itrict Court. ExUtiiit;

District tuunsifs' courts have been established at Rajahinundry, , Oocanada, Peddapuraui and Aiiiahipuvam. I 'hat at Amalapuram ' has a heavier file than any oF the others.

The Sub-Couffc is statiouod at Cocanada. I t was established in 187-i. Another Sub-Court was in exi'ileuco at Rajahuiuudr^ for a few months in 180y; boji an rf^guhirly working there in n)0;j ; but was aboUshed in 1905,

'Die District Court is held at Rajahinundry. Before the -district was reduceti in size by tliB transfer to Kistna of the taluks south of the Godiivan, the (ile of this court was \ery heavy. In ^ 1902 the number of suits instituted in, and of appeals dispotjed of "> by, it was jifreater timn in any other District Court in the I 'residency.

As in other wealthy tlistricts, the amouut of lilig'ation in -ûiou'ttof > fJ6davari is threat. I J / I ! H ) 2 , in tlio district as tlien c-onstituted ''*'"'^''°"' but excluding tlio A*>pucy, more suits were instituted per unit of ' the population than in any other in the Presidency excepting r TanjorCj North Malabar and Tinneveily. In the Agency, on the other hand, litijjâtioii is rarer than in any other trai;t in Madras except the Agencic'^ of Vizagapatani and G-anjam.

The reo'i-jti'ation of assurances is effecteil iu the usual mnuner, Kogistration. A lîstrict. Ueo'istrar id statiofled at Docanada and sixteen sub-registrars are located at Rajahmundry; at AmaUporam, ICottap^ta and Mumniidivar.im in Amalapurnm taluk ; at Razole iu Na"-aram; at Peddipuraui and Frattip.'idu in Peddiiparamj at Rdmachamlrapuram, Drahslulnimaui, Alara*\r and IJikkavolu in Ramachandrapuram ; at Cocanada nnd Coringa m Cocanada taluk- and at l^rilavaram, Pithdimram and Tuni. There are no sub-reW't-nv^ in tl^^ Cli6davaram or YcUavaram Asreucy tracts but in Bbadrachalam the fiegistratiou Act v.as extended to certain villages in 1906 and the taluk sheristadar acts as sub-

registrar. ' 'J^he criminal tribunals are of the same classes as elsewhere, CHBUÂL

The viHa.ê magistrates have the usual powers both wjtlnn and out^ ^ ^ ^ side the Aivoncy. Bench Courts, in^ ested w,th thml-olass powers ^;,':,;t"""' to tr) offen^c^• under the Towns Nuisances Act. the Municipalities

192 O<5DAVARI,

CHAP. XIII. CBUHN'.VI. Jueiicn.

Crime.

Act and the conservancy clauses of the Police Acij have been established at Rajahmundry and Cofianada. 'I'he latter idso tries cases of assault and voluntarily eausinfj hurt under tbe Penal Code.

AH the talisildars and deputy tahsildars in the district have second-class magisterial powei-s, hut ia Anialapurani, Cocanada, Peddapm-am, RaJHhmundry smd RiiniachandrapUKUU tliero are stationary sub-raagistrates, and the talisildars of tliese tahiks hear few cases. At Bhadrachalam, also, tliere is a second-class magistrate in addition tu the tahsildar. Deputy fahsildavs with second-class magisterial pmvei's are stationed at Kuftapeta in Amaldpurani taluk, Coringa in Cocanada taluk, Prattipddu in Peddapuram taluk and ^Vlamiir in Ttdmachandiapnrftm and independent deputy talisildars with siujilur authority at Pithdpuram and Tuni, As elsewhere, appeals from tlie second-class magis-truteSj and practically tlie whole of the first-class cases arising in the district, are decided by the Divisional Officers, w]io are severally stationed at Cocanada, Peddapurain, Eajahmundry, PolavaraiH, and Bhadrachalam. Tlie District Magistrate and the Sessions Judge have the usual jurisdiction, except tliat, as already mentioned, the latter has no jjowers in tlie Agency, his place in that area being taken hy the District Magistrate.

Godavari occupies a rather nnenviahle position among the Madras districts in respect of the total amount of registered crime which occurs witliin it, but a very large proportion of tne offences committed are common thefts, and another considerable percentage are simple liouse-breakings. In crime of tlie graver kinds—robberies, dacoities and murders —its position is not exceptional, and indeed dacoities are rare outside Pota\aram.

The nearest approach to a criminal tribe is afforded by the TanHis or Nakkalas. These people are called indifferently by eitJier of tliese two names, though they themselves resent tlie appellation Nakkala. This word seems to be derived from «rtfcfc«i a jackal, since tlie tribe is expert in catching these animals aud eats them. The Nakkalas are generally of slight physique,

dark of complexion and very dirty in their liabits. At Pithapurf«» thei-e are some of them who are more strongly built and pcrhap'' spring from a different strain. On the register of criminal gangs kept by the police there are at the present time 114 men, ^^l women and 23(J'children belonging to this caste. The most troublesome sections of them are those in the Raiuachandrapuwi" and Peddapuram taluks.

ADMCNISTBATION OK JUSTICB. 193

The Nakkalns are by nature wanderers and dwellers in fields CHAP. XUL and scrub jnngle, who iniilce a scanty living by catching jackals, CBiJuxAt hares, rats and tortoises, by gatherinfj honey, and by finding the ^STICE.

caches of grain stored ap by field-mice. To people with such slender means of subsistence the gains of petty pilfering offer a strong temptation ; but the Nakkalas seldom commit any of the bolder kinds of crime, though now and again they have been known to rise to liurglary, more rarely to robbery, and sometimes even to dacoity- Of late years most of them have settled down permanently in villages- They live in very small huts made

. of palmyra-leaves. Tliey add to their earnings from their heredi- ' tary occapiitions the wages to be earned by light cooiy work in the villages, and are consequently looked upon by the rest of the community tts rather an acquisition when cheap labour is in demand. They are sometimes employed as horse-keepers by subordinate officials ; and their women are very useful as sweepers, since, tliougli they are exceedingly dii'ty in tlieir persons, they are not considered to carry ceremonial pollution. If treated woU, tbey live in this hand-to-mouth fashion and give no trouble to the authorities, and their present unfortunate notoriety' as a criminal tribe is largely due to the performances of one uotorious gang of them in RAmachandrapuram taluk. Tliie gang, led first by one well-known criminal and later by another, consisted of about fifteen men and lived an entirely nomadic life, subsisting on the proceeds of its thefts and burglaries. I t has now been broken up, ten of its members being in jail (most of them on long sentences) and the others, with one exception, being in hiding ; and probably the criminal propensities of the Nakkalas will henceforth be less in evidence,

Three other classes of people, nainely, some of the Mllas, the othw ' Pachayappas,' and the ' Peddinti GoUas,' have pronounced "I'"' ' '*' criminal tendencies. Two small sets of Malas in the central delta (one in the limits of Kottapeta station, and the other in those of Nagaram station) have a decided turn for burglary, A number of convictions are on record against them. The Pachay-appas consist of six wandering gangs, containing 68 registered male members, who are constantly on the move and are under police supervision. They originally came from the direction of Gunt6r. They ostensibly live by begging, but there ia little doubt that the proceeds of crime coutribnte to maintain the men in the robust condition they exhibit and to support the crowd of children who belong to them. Oases are from time to time established against tliem, and some of them have been convicted of burglary and theft. The Peddinti Qollas comprise four gangs

2(

194 GODAVARt.

CHAP. Xlir . CtttuiNAr.

POLICE.

Foimei'

The eiiatiiig force.

who appeared in the distriefc in 1009. They are said to have come from Kitrnool, and to Jiave committed a larfj e dacoifcy in Kistna. Only tliirfcoeu male mcrahors of t]}esc now roiuiiiu.

Up to the time of the permanent wettleinent in 1802, such polioe as existed were ander the orders of tiie reaters and zamin-dars, and were In some cases remonerated by grants of land on favourahle tenure. In the larger towns kotwals with separate eetablishments were maintained. At the )>ermanent settlement, the zamindars' control over the police wiis withdrawn, and Government assumed the responsibility of enforcing law and order. In the hill country, which was excluded from the permanent settlement, the muttadars were, however, ptill expected to keep order within their ranttas, and this responsibility is even now insisted upon. The muttadare of Ohodavaram and Tellava-ram are hound by their sanads to ' afford eveiy assistance to the Sircar in maintaining quiet and order, by giving timely information of any disturbance or offence against the laws, and appreliend-ing and delivering up to the anthorities robbers, rebels and other bad characters.'' As a matter of fact tlioy perform tliis service indillerently, and are of little use in suppressing or detecting crime.

The existing police force, which like tiiat in otlier districts was constituted by Act XXIV of 1859, is in charge of a District Superintendent stationed at Eajahmundry, aided by an Assistant Superintendent at Bhadr^chalam who has immediate control over the poKce in the Agency.

Statistics of the force, and of its distribution among the various taluks, will be found in the separate Appendix. A reserve about one hundred strong under an inspector and two sei'geants i» maintained at Kajahmundry, and consists of picked men, better armed and drilled than the others, who are qualified to deal with disturbances. As a rnle the inspectors' divisions are included within the limits of only one taluk or revenue division, hut a few animpoi-tantezceptions occnr. Dowlaishweram in Rajahraundry talok, for example, is included in the limits of the Alnm^r station, jtnd Pithapnram lies entirely in the Suriyaraopeta (Cocanada) police division.

Besides the regular police, there are 477 talaiy^ris or rural constables, who, as in other districts, are required to afford help to the police, especially by reporting the presence of suspects witKin their villages and the occurrence of ci-iine, and by aidipg in the detection of offences committed within tlicir limitH, Th«y are reported to be of little real assistance.

Se« Chapter S I , p. 177.

AOUtl^ISIBATIOIf OP JUSTICE. 195

At Chodavaram is located the Special Hill Reserve, who are cu VP. xni. armed witli Martini-Henry riHes and are kept up primarily to POUCE,

copowith any overt disturbaucea which raay occur in the wild Agency country. Tliey number about 40 luon, are in charge of the divisional inspector, and perforin the ordiiiai'y duties of tlic utatiou.

At Rajaliniundry is one of the eight Centml -Tails of the JAILB,

Pcesideucy. It wus established in 18H4, is consti'ucted on the radiating principle, and will hold 1,083 criminal, and 20 civil, |)risoners. Cellular uccotmuodatioii has been provided for 400 convicts, and the rest are kept in wards. The convicts are employed in a variety of indnsbries, manufacturing, among other articles, carpeta, coarse woollen bltinkets, sandals, tin and brass work, fuiniture of various kinds, and fabrics woven from cotton, sucli us sheeting, rugs, table-cloths, napkins, etc. Fly shuttles are used in some of the looms. They enable double the ordinary ijuimtity of work to be accomplished, but have not yot bueu rendered suitable for the finer fabrics.

Thirteen sub-jails exist in the district; iiamcly, one at each oi the taluk liead-quartei-s and at the deputy tahsildars' stations of AlamAr (Raniachandrapuram t-aluk), Kottapeta (Amalapuram}, Prattipadn (Peddapuram), Pithapuram, Tuni and Polavaram. These have accommodation for 186 prisoners iu all.

^^6 OODIVABI,

C H A P T E R X I V .

LOCAL SELF-QUVEKNMENT.

Tui; LOCAL BoAKOs-The Union8-Pinances oi (l,u Hoard--. TIIL; IVo Mu.vt-ai'*LiTii;a—Cocanada mQnioIpality—Bniuhniumlry miinicipklity.

OHAl>.Xir. OuTBiDri the two municipalities of Cocanada and Eajdnnundry Bo,\lT 7 * ' " ^ ^ ^ ^^1°^. ^'^d excluding Bbadrdchalam taluk in the

Agency, local affairs (roads, hospitals, schools and sanitation) are m the hands of the District Boai-d and four taluk boards subordinate to it. Tlie areas in charge of these latter have been clianged from time to time, and the most recent alteration was effected in AprU 1905. The four boards are now those of Cocanada, in charge of the Cocanada taluk and the PitliApurain and Tutii dmsions; Pedddpuram, mth jurisdiction over tlie taluks of l^eddapurain and R^machandrapuraiu; Rajahraundry, compris-mg the Rajahmundry, AmaMpuram and Nagaram taluks; and Polavaram, which administers matters in the Agency divisions of ] dlavaram, Chodavaram and Yellavarani.

Prior to 1902 none of the Agency tracf.s were included within the operation of the Local Boards Act, and the roads, educational and medical institutions, and sanitation within them were in cha^e of the Revenue authorities, aided by advice from the Public Works and other expert departments. Tn 1902 the whole of

itvf^' '^ * '*' ^ " existed was brought under the Act; but m iyU5' Bhadrdchalam was withdrawn again from its operation and 18 to be managed henceforth ou the same system as was in force before 1902, The taluk is remote, thinly-popnhaed and covered witli jungle; and tlie income derivable within it from the ordinary sources of taxation provided for by the Local Board. tZ T ' ' ' ' "*«i«°* *« i»eet the expenditure which is iieces-ai7 Heavy contributions towards its local needs have conse-

r r J . ?^ ' ' ^^ ' ^""'^ '^ '^^ ^•'^'^ Provincial funds. Tbe game

u r t l , ! t , " ^ ' J T " "^" ^^''^^ ^^''^y divisions which make

Z conf r f . ^ P ' ' ' ' " * ^<^^™^«> ^l<ik board, and a simi-

t o r r J r o W ; "^ " ' " " ' " " ' '^^ ' " " - - s s a l - y to . ave i t

' See G.O., N<,. ai!7 L., dated 27tli Fabruary luos.

-^OCAL SELF-OOTTESNMENT. 19'!'

Fifteen of the larger towns in tlie district Iiave lieen oonsti- CHAP. XIV. tuted unioQ!^ witli the usual powers and functions. TJiese are TJIE LOCAI-

Bowlaisliweram, Ainalapuram and KottEi[>eta under the EajahmiiQ- ' ' ^ ° ' ' dry taluk board ; Pedddpumin, Jagapatinagaraui, Yel^svarain, Tlie TJoiou*. Jaggamp^ta, 3i4inachaiidrapur»m, Draksli&ramam, Mandapeta and Bikkavolu under the Peddapuram board; and GoUaniamidida, Saiualkot, Pitb^puram and Tuni under the taluk board of Ooca-uada. The chief item in their receipts is (as elsewhere) the house-tai, which is everywhere levied at the maximuui rates. The average tax per lionse for 1905-06 is estimated to work out to 12 as. 1 p .

The separate Appendix to this volume contains statistics of tlie Fiuauoea of receipts and expentiitnre of the various local boards. Tlie cliiel ' * °^^ *' source of income is, as usual, the land cess, which is levied at the ordinary rate of one anna in every rupee of the land assessment. The chief item of expenditure is the upkeep of the roads and the medical and educational institutions, l^hese have already been referred to in Chapters V I I , IK, and X respectively,

The only two municipal towns are Cocanada and Kajahmiin- THS Two dry. In the separate Appendix appear particulars of the receipts M' NICIPALI-

and expenditure of their councils. Cocanada was one of the jnunicipalities established under tlie Cuuimada

first regular municipal act (Madras Act X of 1865) and the coun- «"»n»«pft)ity. cil was constituted in 1866, I t now consists of twenty members of whom eight are nominated and twelve elected. The privilege of electing its own chairman was conferred upon the council in 1836, was withdrawn in 1893, but was restored again in 1897. The appointment of a ptiid secretary was sanctioned in 1899, H e is selected by the muaicipal council subject to the approval of Government.

Several considerable permanent improvements have been effected in the town by the municipality. First in importance come the Victoria water-works, whith were completed in June 1903. The water is obtained from the vSamalkot canal, and a large reservoir to contain two months' supply has been excavated in the water-works premises. The sclieme was designed to supply 400,000 gallons o( water per -iem (at the rate of 10 gallons per liead of the population of the town) and the sapply is expected to be perennial. The water is drawn from the reservoir just mentioned through filter beds iuto a second reservoir, and is thence distributed throughout the town by cast-iron pipes and fountains. Three Worthington engines of 10 horse power each are employed iu the works. The cost of the »cheme was

m 0t6r>XvATti,

CHAP. XIV. THE TWI>

Esjatimun-dry muaioi-I«afity.

estimated at Es. 4,P6,200, Hut actually amonnted to only JJs. 4,44,800. Of this sum Es. 1,44,500 were lent by Government. The scheme was carried out by the Public Works department.

Otlier permanent improvements effectred by tlie council are the construction, (it an outlay of Re. 18,137, of the bridge across tiio Yeleru; the revetting of the harbour creek for a length of some 270 yards at a cost of Rs. 8,000 in 1902-03 and the reclamation and laying out of a considerable strip of ground formerly covered by the creek ; tiie building of three public markets, the two largoi" of which cost Rs. 15,000; and the erection of two sluughter-liouses costing Es. 4,000 and of three municipal school-hoases at an average coiit of some Es. 1,500 apiece. The clock tower near tUe bridge was coneti-octed by a private gentleman some aO years ago, but the municipality contributed Ks. 1,000 to its erection and it now has charge of the building.

No drainage scheme has yet been prepared for Oocanada, but a portion of the town is served by the main sewer leading into the harbour creek whiob was constructed by the Public Works department at a cost of Es. 10,000 out of Provincial funds some years ago. Some smaller brancli drains Jead into this, and the municipality liaa kept botli these and the main sewer in repair at considerable cost.

The council's chief contributions to tlie medical and educational institutions within the town include the aiding of ten primary schools, the management of a lower secondary and twelve more primary schools, and the upkeep of a hospital and dispensary.

The municipality at Eajahmundry was also founded in 1866, The council originally consisted of ten members, but since 1895 the number has been eighteen. The right of electing some of the members waa granted in 1884, and twelve councillors and the chaitman are now appointed by election. A paid secretary was hrat eutei*tained in 1897-98. He is selected by the council, sub* ject to the approval of Government,

Very few permanent improvements of any magnitude have been executed by the municipality. Drinking-water is obtained from the Godavari river and the Kambala tank, and notliing of note has been done tirora municipal funds to improve the supply-Similarly no considerable improvement in the drainage has been effected or worked out. Three markets liave been constructed and two slaughter-houses. A choultry founded in 1H73 by Mr, H. Morris, a former Judge, and called by his name was completed by the municipality in 1874 at a cost of Rs. 1,500, A rest-house for homeless poor has been constructed at an ontlay of

ItWAli SKLF-U»IViKNllE.Vl \ tfH>

Rs. 500, and additions are being made to it in order to accotu-inodftte lepera and persons sulTtering- from other incurable dtaeasos.

The eoHucil bag partly supported the hospital in the town aince 1^71, and keeijs up four upper priuiary) foni' lower primary, and one lower secondarv school. It also maintains the Morris clioultry, two other small institntions called the Kaiubham and Durblia choultries, and a travellers' bongalow.

Governmont have sanctioned Ks. lt>,000 for revetting the river bank to prevent further ei-osion, which was becoming alarming, and a bund to protect the town from inundation dni-ing hea ^y floods is in contemplation.

CBLAP. XiV.

Ttia Two' Ml'MCIPAU-,

TIE*, r.

200 o6DivARi.

CHAPTER XV.

GAZETTEER.

AMALiPUEAii TALDK—AmaMpaifam—Amb&jip6ta—Ayinavalli—Bniidirulank*— Bentlamdrlanka — Gannarafam — K^sariiiknrni—Mandapnlli—JlurnmaUa— Pali vela—P^j'6ru—Bali—TidapaDi—Vanapalli—Vyigrfiavni'fitiui'am. COCA-N'AWA TALUK— Bliimavniam — Chollaijgi—Cocanudft—Coriii|rn—Gollapilai-yam — Injaram — NilapnUi — Samalkot— Saipavai-aiii—TiUai-^vu—Ymiutu. NAQARAM TALUK—Antai'V^di—JaganiiapSta—Katlali—Nagaram—Kajav61n— SiTakfidu—Tatip&fen- PKBDAPURAM TALUK—AnnavaKim—Dhfiramallipuram — JajrammapSta — Kandrakdta — KattipAdi — Kirlampfidi—Peddftpuram — Prattipidu—lligampSta— RangampSta—TallArii—Tfitapalli — Vimvavam — YeWsvavam. PiTiiipuRAM DivraioN—Chimdurti—KotUipalii—Mfilap^ta — PithSpnram—Ponuada—Up]j4da. RAjAiiiiUNDRY TAM'K—Dowlaishweram— Ufikavaram—Kopukonda—Kotfapalli—Hajahminiidrv, KiMACKANDHArUBAM TALTJK — Bikkav61ti —Drakaharaniam—Rangavaram—K6fcipa11i—Arsi'^<iipS.ka — Ramaoliandrapm'am- -Ramaghattalu—VSgayaintciapSta. TwNi DIVISION— Bendapddi—Hnmsavaiain —Kottai»alli^ Talldra — Tafcipika—T^taguntu — Tuni. BiiADBifHALAM TALOK—Bhadrttoiialam—Dnmrnogrfidem—GnndAla— Kiimai-aavlimigfideni—KunnaTai'ara— Parnasala — R4kapftlle—Sri B4magiri. CiirfDAVARAM DIVISION— Baiidapalli — BiraiiipalH ~ Bodulfini —Eolagoada— Cliavala — ChJdngdru—Chddnvaram-Cliopakonda -Dandangi—Dopacbintft-lapulem- -fleddada—Kdkdin—Koridumodalu—KnudSda—MamTade.—Masu-mmilli — Nfidundm—Wimmalapilom — P41em—PfimuUiru^PSta—Kampa— Sirigiudalapadu — Tadap6l)i —Tunn'firn—Vddapalli—VolagapalU—Valamfip" —Vfiniulakonda. P6J-ATABAM DIVISIOK — Gangdln — Gitdla — Jangareddi-gddem—PStn. P!ittiaam~P61aTaraia —iTadaviiyi. TELLAVAHAM DIVISION — Artdatigela — Aaig^ru — Dutoharti — Gart^du ^Jaddangi—Edta—Mfilmna-puvatn—Nell i pddi—Pan drapdle—Ramn vjivam—Vipabhad papii mm.

AMALAPUBAM TALUK.

OHAP.xv. AMALAPDEAM taluk is a triangular island enclosed between the AMAtiPDEAM, Vaaishta, Vainateyam and Gautami branches of the G6davari and

the sea. M''itb the smaller Nagaram island, which is similai'ly bounded, it oompriees the whole of the central delta of the G6d^vari river. Statisties regarding it will be found, in the separate Appendix to this volume. It is the most popnlous taluk in tha district and the density of its inhabitunts to the squire mile (048) is welt abovo the average oJ' tho plain talaks, Most of the wet land 'm in-igatcd by the central delta canal, but the area under wells, though not considerable, is far greater than in any

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Other tahik in the district.' Of the classified area, 87 per eent. CHAP. XV, r m l up of alluvial earth and the rest of arenaeeons soi^ A..apy^«. The average rainfall is the highest in tlie diatnct, namely 1488

inches in tha j'ear. , i i ^ t\,^ The taluk ia an agi'ioultural area, and boasts few other

indastricb. D^viingas weave white cloths in fair quantities m several villages, but the industry has greatly declined since the days when Bendam^rlanka was a busy port and oue of the (mtlcts for the great trade of the East India Ckunpauy in cotton piece-goods. A large eattle-fair, tnown beyond the district, takes place at Ambajipeta A number of places of local religions intereal-exist; bat only two of these, uamely Vanapalli and Vadapalli, are known much beyond the limits of the taluk. Peruni is the home of a class of Brahmana who have immigrated from the Q'amil country and are called ICona Slma gravidas. Eelics of the Jaina are fouad at Nedunuru and Atreyapuram ; and the large wells so common in the taluk are popnlarly ascribed to the followera of that creed.

Amalapuram, the head-qnarters of the taluk and a uJaion, AiuHiipnram, L" situated on the main canal of the wnti-al delta 38 miles south* cRBt of Rajahmaadry. Voyuktioa 9,ol0. It OOIitWiS the offim of a tahsildar, sub-registrar, stationary sub-magistrate and district luunsif, a travelloi-s' bungalow, a coronation rest-house for natives, a, local fund hospital (founded 1880) and high sohool, and a police-station.

Popular legends say that Amalapuram was the capital of the king of Panchala, the father-in-law of tiie Pandava brothers ; and the taluk is known throughout the district as ilie 'Panehala country,' Another name for it is the Koiitr sima. jr the ' end country,' The town contains two temples of local repute. One was built for an idol of Veukatasvami which was found there some years ago by a man of the place, who, as usual, stated that be was told of its existence in a dream; the other is a shrine to the serpent god, Wniibarayndii, the festival at which, held iu K^rgasirain (December-January) ia iairly attended. A littJe weaving of white cloths goes on, counts as fine as ISOs being used for the best work, and a little wood-carviug of a good class,

Ambijip6ta: A hamlet of Machavaram (population 5,661) AmhiijipSta. which lies five miles west by north of Amalapuram. Contains a police-station and is famous for its large oattle-fair, which is held every Wednesday and is visited even by buyers from other districts. The place is a centre for the manufacture of coooannt ropes and oil, and a lai^e number of general traders live there,

1 Soe Obapter IV, j>, 89. 2a

302 GODAVARI,

CHAP, X7. Ay inava l l i ; Eight milea north of Anialapuram, population 'AMAUPURAM, 3,3G3. Its temple to the belly-^od Siddhi Viuayaka is well AviaoTolli. knownto the people of this and adjoining distiicta, and vows arc fre

quently made therein, scarcely a day passing when pilgrims do not visit it to discharge tiicir obligations by breaking coeoanufcs before the god. The temple is anpposed to have l)ecn built to propitiate the belly-god by Daltsha, t)ic father-in-law of Siva, bofoio ho performed the famous ijdgam at Drdksharainatn referred to in the account of that place on p. 250 bolow. Ayinavalli is also well known to natives as the birth-place of two famous Sausbri' pandits, £ulnsu Achayya and his aori Papayya Sastri, who died not long ago. »

It has a hamlet called Muktesvaram (' the place of beatitude ') or Kshana Aluktesvaram {'the place of instantaneous beatitude') and the names at-e accounted for by a local legend. The wife of a sage, aaya this story, was seduced by some celestial being and cursed in consequence by her husband. She purified horsolf by a bath in the (xoda^ari and took to a life of contoniplatioit. Eama, when returning from Lanka, took compassion on her forlorn Htate and pei'suaded Siva to give her ntukii or beatitude.

Banddrulanka ; Four miles west by north of Amalapnram. Population 2,796. The village is known for the manufaoturo of excellent white cloths. Some 200 Dcvfinga houses aro engaged in the industry, and use thread of the finer counts, up to 1-303.

Bendamurlanka : Twelve miles by road 3outh-Bonth-wcst of Amalapumm. I t is a hamlet of Komaragiripatnara (population 5,757) and ooiitaius a police-station, a travellers' bungalow and a vernacular lower secondary school for girls. It is situated tit the mouth of tli© Vainat^yam branch of the G6davari. and was selected as the site of an English factor)' in 1751. This was seized without resistance by Bussy in 1757, but was i-ecoperod after the battle of Oondore. I t was once an important centre for the ti'ade with Europe in cotton piece-goods. • HeudamiirlanK'fl i« still technically a port; but has no harbour and has not been visited by any ships for a long time.

O^Diiavaram. GannavaratU : Nine miles west by north of Amatapuram. Population 2,101 Contains a small market and a travellers' bungalow. It gives its name to the fine aqueduct which crosses tho Vainnteyam &6davari there and is desorihod in Chapter IV-According to the local legend, it was at Gannaravam that tho sago Vaiualeya stole some of the water of the Vasishta Gortavari to make the river of his own which goes by liis name. The sago

Bftnd&ni-lanka.

Bandam^--lanka.

GAZETTEEB. 209

Vaeisbtfl citvecd the VaiuateyaiUj and a bath in it is only sanctify- CHAP. XV.

ing if taken on a Sunday. The lingam in the Siva temple ia aaid .l. ALiFi7BA}f to have been brouglit from the JJerbndda river by the kite Garuda, and the supposed marks of the bird's claws are pointed out on it.

K^sanakurtU : Eleven miles north-east of Amalapuram in K saankunu . a straight line. Population 3,55(j. A batb in its tank is supposed to confer religious merit. The sage Vydsa, who (sec p. 250) is said to have fonnded Draksharamiim, once, &\ the local legends, intended to establish a second Benares at Kesannknrrii; but heard a voice saying ' Kasi iiakuui,' 'do not make a Benares.' He acoordingly founded Dr^ksbaramam instead; but Kesanakurru was named after- the words ot the divino warning, which have since become corrupted to their j^resent form.

Slandapalli l Fourteen miles north-west of Amalapuram. Munduiiaili, Population 542, The god at the Siva temple here, Maudesvara, is bathed in oil every Saturday; and a common form of vow eonsiets in a promise to provide the oil for this bath. Satni-days coinciding with the second day before full-moon dav ai-e particularly propitious for the fulfilment of this vow.

Muramalla : Thirteen mites noi-th-east of Amalapuram, Mnvamulia. Population 1,448 The Siva temple here is visited by numerous pilgrims, and the usual vow taken by the devout is a promise to celebrate the marriage of the god. Hardly a day, it is said, passes without this ceremony being performed; and there is a proverb to the effect that at Muramalla there is a marriage every day and the garlands are always gi'ecn. The temple is rich, and is aaid to have been founded and endowed ' abont 500 years ago ' by the widow of a Kdna Sima Uravida Brabman.

Palivela ; Twelve miles north-west of Amalapuram. Popn* p iiveia. lation 7,509. The Koppesvara temple hei'e contains a number of inscriptions, some of which have been copied by the GoverHmeut Epigraphist (Nos, 498 to oO:> of 189S). Tlic oldest records a gift by a minister of one of l,bc Volaii.nidit fjnjuly tuid is dated 1172 A.I). None of the othora ai-o earlier than the fourteenth coiiturj'. One on the east wall of the slirinebftoHgs to the time oi the great Knkatiyu king Pratapa Biidra, and is dated in 1317, or not long before his fall,' The namfi in fi-ont of the temple is popularly declared to have been mutilated by oidei* of Aurangzeb.

In former times dancing-girls used to sleep three nights at the commoiiepment of their career in the iuner shrine, so as to be embmct d by the god. But one of them, it ia said, disappeared on© night, and the practice has ceased. The funeral pyre of everi

' Seo GoTuimmsut. Epigrupliist B Annual Kuport loi l8tH, [ip. 32 uiid 23

^04 G6DA\'"AHI .

CHAP. XV. girl of the donciDg-girl (San'i) caste dying In tlie village ahoiild AMAtXtunAM. be lit with firo brought from tho tompic. Tbe same ijractico is

found in tbe Snrangam temple near Trichinopoly Palivela forms part of the union of Kottapota (populatiou

10,369), in which Viidapalaiyam and Kammaroddipalaiyam are also included, Kottapeta contains the offices of a sub-registrar, a deputy-tahsildar and sub-magistrate, a local fund dispensary (founded 1892), a polifie-atation, a small market, and an JBnglish lower secondary school for boys. Tlie travellers' bungalow is in Palivela itself.

FStfiru. P 6 r 6 r u : Five miles .sonth-wobt of AnialapLiram. Population 5,864. Containa a Sanskrit school. The plaee is natoworthy as being the homo of a colony of Tamil Brahmans, called Koua Sima Dravidas, who came, at some date unltnown, from Valangi-man near Kumbakonam in Tanjorc district. The story of their emigration is recounted (with impossible details) in tbe village itself and is also known in Madras. Thoy no longer speak ^âmil, I'ut their village, both in appearance ;ind in general an'angemeiit, is 80 like a village of the south that it is popalarly declared that if a Tanjoi'e man could bo suddenly transported thither and set down in the middlo of it, he would think be waa in his nativtj country.

The original emigrants are said to have been fifteen families of twelve tjMrfttt, seven of which lêlongefl to tho Vâdama, and five to the Brahacharnam, subdivision of the Tamil Brahmans.

They first settled at Hdli, bat difficulties arising, they uventually obtained from a ri.]'a a grant of as much land as an elephant could traverae in a given space of time. Thus they secured possession of the vUlnge of l?^riiru. They inci-cascd and multiplied, and many of thera emigrated to G-anjamand Vizaga-patam, where they call themselves ' Periiru Dravidas.' Thoy are not popular in the district, and stories in disparagement of them arc common. The part they play in the festival at Autarvedi in Nagaram taluk is referred to in the account of that place below,

Per6rw, like Araalapuram, is connected by legend with the Mahabharata, for it is believed that the tank in the hamlet of Chin4^dn Garavu is the identical sheet of water in which Arjuna saw the reflection of the flying fish which he shot in order to win the hand of Draupadi. A bath in this tank on the four Sundays succeeding the New Year's day is considered to have a sanctifying elTect.

Numbei-B of large and ancfent revetted wells exist in the villsê, and we known as the Eeddis' wells. i.'ho story goes

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GAZETTEEH. 205

that a Brahmau who had the philosopher's stoup was murdered C B ^ P . XV. Itv a Keddi, and that his ghost haunted tlie murderor and gave A.MAi,iPtBj(M'. him no peace until ho built a number of large wells at wliich it — might quench its thij-at.

The village is a centre of the expoi-t of cocoaiiuts and coeoanut oil. One family of ilfichis does some good wood-carving.

B a l i : Twenty miles uoi-th-west of Amalapmam, population B t;. 4,045, Contains s travellers' bungalow, A section of the Dowlaitthwerara anicut was onginally called the liali anient, and the name occurs frequently in thft early accounts of the work. The village was once the head-qnai-ters of a talut. I t is also said to have been one of the first halting<placee of the Koiia Sima Drnvida Brrihmana just referred to. There ie a 'Tami l street* (Aram vi</i) in it even now. The image of Vishnu in Ihe local temple is represented as half male and Iiolf female, and the legend connects this fact with the well-known story of how theasMra* and devatm churned the sea to ohtain the nectar of immortality. When the nectar rose to the top, Vishnu appeared in the form of a beautiful woman, so as to divert the attention of the asuraHy was seen by Siva and was pursued by him as far as Bali.

Vadapal l i : Three miles north by east of liali. Population Vsdapdii, 9 )5 . I t is well known for its tempio to Vonkata or Vcnkanna, which is considered by the people of this neighbourhood to he almost as sacred as the famous shrine of the same god at Tirupati in North Aicot. The festival to commemorate the marriage of the deity lasts for five days in Chaitra (April-May), is very largely attended, and b a great occasion for the performance of vows.

V d u a p a l l i : Kight miles north-north-west of Amalapuram, Vanapalli. Population 4j68(j. A large festival in honouj' of the village goddess Pallalammn takes place there every year. Marvellous stoi'ios are told about- this deity: the size and age of her image alter according to the size and age of the worshipper ; it sweats profusely and its olothes have to bo wrung out every jnomiug; ' an engineer officer ' (name imknown) was turned blind some 40 yell's ago for entertaining the idea of demolishing the temple to make room for a canal; and the stone jackal in the shrine is one which used to defile the holy precincts every night, and was petrified in eonset^uence.

At the gj'eat festival, which lasts for a woek in the month of Chaitra (April-May), a hook-swinging takes place, but nowadays the man is swung lu a basket, or by a hoot run through hie belt. ^rhe festival is a great occasion with the jungle ' Ohentzus * who go there to celebrate tlieif marriages and settle their caste disputes.

'» ' 206 GonivABI.

CHAP. XV. AHALXPCRAM.

r _^^__

poram.

Vyagr6svarapi lJfam ; Ten miles nortli-north-weet of Ama-lapiiram, A hamlet of Pnlletikurru, the population of wbicii is

3,516. The name means 'tlie place of the tiger god.' I t is explained by a legend to the effect that a Brahman, being pursued by a tiger, climbed a sacred btlva tree; and thence addressed tho animal with mantrams Rnd prayera, which «o aifected its feelings that it turned into the etone llngam which is still worshipped imdor the name of Vyagr^svaTa.

A fairly large festival takes place In the villajjc on the Sankrinti (i.e. Pongal) day, wlien bouring gode come to visit this deity.

some fifteen of the noifith-

aAZBTTBBR, 207

COCANADA TALUK.

CtJAV. XV, CoCAXAD*.

— S

OoojtKAOA liee on tho coast north of the Godavarij aad all hut the northern poi'tiou of it is included within tho delta of that rirop. Over 8(J per cent, of the soil is consequeatly alluvial, and most of it is iniguted. Statistics regarding these and other joints will be found in the separate Appendix, '.'he taluk is one of the most deasely popnlated in tho district and the average revenue payable on each holding is over Bs. 40, or higher than in auy other.

ACost of tho taluk belongs to the Pitliapurain zamindari. It is well supplied with meane of commuuicatiou. The Madvas Railway crosses the north of it, and a branch inns through the heart of it to its head-tfuarters, the busy sea-port of Cooanada. 'JTiis town and the old port of Coringa are connected with the interior by good waterways. Boads are pleutifnl and, on the whole, good. Trade is eonfi©(][HeutIy large, and many important firms are loc«t«l at Oocauada, but industries are few. Kioe-milliug at Ooennada and sugar-refining at Samalkot ate the only considerable under-takingSf and the indigenous industiies are of an elementary kind. Oooi-se weaving goes on at several plaoesj chiut/.es arc largely stamped at Q-ollapalaiyam, Cooanada and Samalkot; and metal vessels are made at Cooanada, G-oIlamamidada and Peddada. The talnk contains several temples of no small local I'eputatiou. These are refened to below.

Bhlluavaram is now a portion of Samalkot, but it hns a Kinmai&m character of its own. The £uU name of the place as given in iu-seriptiona is Chalukyu Bhimavaram. Under the Mughals it appears to have been called Mrithyuj^nagar.' The Bluraesvara temple is lalooally famous b«th for its architectural beauty and for its sanctity. It posHcssesa huge lingam which is said to be similar to those in Ur^kshar^mam (in the K^maehnndrapuniin taluk), Aina-ravati (or Araara-rdma) in the Gunt^r district, PiilakoUu (aUo called Kahira-rama) in the Kistna district and ' Kumtua-riEnia,' a place not identified. The story goes that the god Suhrahmanya killed a demon named Tarakasura who was wealing a huge Ungaui round his neck, and tliat this was broken into five pieces, one of which fell at eaeh of these villages. The place is sacred on this account, and a bath in the Bhimagundam tank in front of the temple is believed to confer holiness.

' lUnokcnzio 'MBS., Local Re«ordH, i, pp, 496^1)9,

208 QODAVABr.

CHAP. XV. COCANADA.

Choll&ngi,

Cooanada,

There are a number of ancient inscriptiona in both the Bhim^svara and Narayanasvami temples in the viUago, Thirty of these have been copied by the Q-ovorntaeiit Epigraphiet (Nos. 460 to 489 of 18E>3). Some others, mostly of a private nature, are given iu one of the Mackenzie MSS.' The most ancient is one among the former dated 1087 A.D. A few of tliem mention members of the Reddi dynasty. The Mackenzie MS. gives what purports lo be a copy of a copper-plnte grant of Katama Vema Reddi to the Narayanaavami tempi*? dated X393 A.D.

Chol lang^: Lies six miles south of Cocanada, near tlio coast, and on one of the traditional seven holy moiitha of the GudavAri, It is the first place visited by those who are making tlie ' pilgrimage of the seven mouths,' - The branch of the river which has its mouth here is said to l\ave been brought down by the sage Tulya, and is accordingly called the Tulya-sagara-sangam. It ta reallj' nothing but the Tulya Bhiiga drain. The village is otherwiac quite insignificant, and its population is only 577.

Cocanada, the head-quarters of the taluk [and district, is a municipality of 4S,096 inhabitants and one of the Inisieat seaports in the Presidency, I t is situated on the western side ot the Coringa bay, and is connected by a branch with the Noith-cast line of the Madras Railway. Ita trade has been referred to iu aome detail on pp. 113-7. It is the head-quartei's of the Collector (the Judge resides at Hajahmundry)-, the District Forest Offioer, Local Fund Engineer, Assistant Commiasioner of Salt, Abkari and Customs, District Medical and Sanitary Officer, District Hegistrar, head-quarters Divisional Officer (either a Deputy CoUec-tor or an Assistant Collector) and Government Chaplain, and of the Port Oflficer ill charge of tlie harbour and port. The minor officials stationed there are the talisildar, district munsif and atationary sub-magistrate. The place is also the head-quarters of a company of the East Coast Rifle Volunteers, and eontaina a municipal hospital (founded 1856), a dispensary (founded 1888), a women and children's dispensary (founded 185)5), two police-stations, a travellei-s' bungalow, a large private choultry, a private native rest-hotise, the Pithapuram Raja's college, an English lower aecondary aehool for boys, and two English, and four vernacular, lowersccondary schools for girls. Its medical and education;*! institutions have been refcn-ed to in Chapters I X and X respectively, and the doinga of its niuiiieipal council iu

* Local Reuoidt.ii, 213-^0,

OAZETTEEB. 209

Chapter XIV. The salt factories in the suburb of Jagann^tha- CHAP. XV. puram and Penuguduxu are tneutioned in Chapter XII . The COCAKADA, town is situated in tlio Pithdputam zamindari.

Jagttnndthapuram, which lies south of the harbour, ie the only part of the placo which possesses anj historical interest. It was the site of a Dutch factory which, with Biinlipatam in Vizagapa-tam and Palakollu in Kistna, were ' i-epresented to be held under Fermana granted by the Nizam and confirmed by the Mogul or Emperor of Delhi, bearing various dates from A.D. 1628 to A.D. 1713 and by a Cowlc granted by Hajee Houasun in A.D. 1734 and A.D. 1762 by Jaffnr Ally Khan. The two last mentioned persons were Naibs or deputies of the Nizam in the Ciroars. The Dutch are stated to have first occupied these factories about the year A.D. 1628.'^ Their factory included the dependent villages of Gollapdlem and Gundavaram and they had a mint, at which were made the coins issued from Bimlipatam.^

In 1781 war broke out between the English and the Dutch, and the settlements of the latter on the Coromaudel coast were seized. Jaganniitbapuram was in that j'ear ' a place of some consequence. The factory house, foi-tified I believe/ and all the publick buildings were demolished in that year.'^

In 1784 peace was declared, and their factories were handed back to the Dutch in the followiug year. During the wars of the French Eevolution (1789-95) the aeftlemeut-s were again captured by the English, but were once more handod back in 1818 by a Convention of 1814, They were finally made over to the English Company in 1825, with the other Dutch possessions in India, under the operation of a treaty of 1824 between Holland and England.

The Dutch factory played a small part in the campaign of 1758-59 by which the Northern Cirears were taken by the English from the French. French officers wounded at tlie battle of Oondoro wore permitted to go to Jagannfithapuram on parole. In 1759 a small force of Frenchmen landed at Cocanada to intrigue with Jagapati Razu at Samalkot; but, as has been mentioned in Chapter I I , they were diiven by the English to take refuge in the Dutch fort, and their surrender was enforced under protest from the Dutch.

' Ilodgson'e report on the Dutch Settlements, qnoted in Mr, Jteti's MOHW mental remains of the Dalch East India .Co. {Mndi'aa, IS'J?), 52,

= Mr. Bea'H book, G3, CO. * Apparently b j ruclo ramparts of oaHh, Pinkerton's Collection of Travels

xi, 303, * LIodgBon'ti ropoi-t.

27

210 Q6DXVAEI.

CHAP. XV. CoCAN'ADA.

Coringa,

The first impetus to the town of Oocanada was given hy the eilting up of Coringa bay and the oonaeqnent decline of Coringa as a port and dockyard. Coeanada gradually took its place. A. second impulse was given during the American Civil "War (1861), when the town suddenly roao into great importance as a place o£ shipment for the cotton pressed at Grantor.

Coeanada is tho head-quarters of the Canadian Baptist Mission and contains a Boman Catholic church and convent. In the Protestant church is perhaps the finest organ in tho Presidency outside Madras City. It was built from private subsoriptions, of which a large portion was given by Messrs. Simsoii Bros-, about twenty years ago. A cemetery nenr tho Collector's house contains some old European tombs, the earKest of which is dated 1835 and a list of which is in the Collector's office. In the JagannStha-pnram cemetery are many more graves, the oldest of which is a monument to a Dutch family tho members of which were boried between 1775 and 1778. From the latter of those years up to 1859 the churchyard does not seem to have been used, but from that year onwards the burials have been numerous.

Of the industrial concerns in the town, the Local Fund workshops (near tho Collector's office) have been referred to in Chapter VI. The town also contains three rice mills and five printing presses. Of the latter, only two (one called the 8ujana Ranjani press and one managed by Messrs. Hall, Wilson & Co.) are of any importance. The latter prints general matter and the former Telugu books, and a weekly newspaper and a monthly magazine called respectively the Eavi and Savitri. In another press a monthly magazine called Sarasvati is printed. There are also about a dozen native factories which each employ several hand-presses for making castor oil.

The vernacular name of tho town, Kakindda, is supposed to have some connection with the phenomenal number of crows which live in it. A merchant recently opened his rice godowns to trap these marauding birds, and then, closing the doors, had the intruders killed, No fewer than 978 were accounted for in one morning in this way, but without sensible diminution of the

nuisance, Coringa (vernacular Korangi) : Nearly ten miles south of

Oocanada. Population 4,'vf58. I t contains a travellers' bungaloWj a native rest-house, a police-station and the offices of a deputy tahsildui' who is also a sub-registrar. It wa,s onee one of the greatest ports and ship-building centres on this coast; but, owing to the silting up of the channel which leads to it, it is now of ho

GAZETTEER. g j j

commercial importfinoe. Coi-iuga appears in PJiny's pages as the CHAP. xv. name of a capo, but the village is now several milea from the COCAHADA.*

sea. It was for long the residence of British merchants, but little now remains to call them to • mind. There are a few old tombs in the graveyard—some dating^ back to 1816' and portions of a few bungalows survive. One forma tbe present deputy tabsildar's office. Two others, one of ivhich must have been a fine building, belonged to a certain Mr. Graham, whose name is still well known. The latest date in the churchyard is 1857, and apparently English merchants did not live in the place long after that,

An interesting account of the town aa it was in its busiest days was given by Mr. Topping, an astronomer in the service of the Madras - ^vernment, who visited it in 1789. Ho deplored in particular the want of police, which he said were badlj needed owing to the number of ships —English, French, Dutch and Portuguese —that anchored in the road and the many disorderly people that lauded from tiiem. ' Nothing is more common,' he said ' than night broils and frays among people under the influence of intoxication. Frequent thefts and even attempts to assassinate happened during my short stay, which induced me to apply for a guard of sepoys, to protect myself and the Company's propertj from violence and rapine,' A ourious contrast, this, to the q«iet country village of to-day !

I t appears that the present town of Ooringa, whiuh is on the east of the river, was 'built ' about 1759 by Mr. Westcot a resident oflnjaram; while what is known as 'old Ooringa,'on the western bank, is older tlian this.^ The bulk of the mhabit-ants and the deputy tahsildar live in the former, but there are a few good houses in the latter. The village suffered severely fi'om tho hurricane of 1839, and has twice (in 1737 and 1832) been nearly swept away by tidal waves. The old village was also damaged by the tidal wave of 1706.

The place is indeed a sliadow of its former self. Its sea-borne trade was valuod in 1877-78 at Es. 8,22,000, and in 1880-81 at Bs. 3,20,000; but by 1884-85 it had fallen to Es. 33,000; and since 1898-99 it has ceased altogether.

Moreover the neighbouring village of Tillarevu has now monopolised the sbip-buUding that was formerly the i rido of Coringa. In 1802 Jlr. Ebenezer Eocbuck, a private gentleman

' See the list in tht Colieotov'a office. ' Selections from, the Rscord^ of the Madras Oofonmtnt (Madras 18SG

312 G ( 5 D A 7 A B I .

COCiNABi,

Injiu'aiu.

Tf^\4ing TA Coiingrv, constructed at a great cost a dock near the old town capacious enough to rocoive any ship of the Royal Navy not drawing more than fourteeii feet. H.M.S. Albatross and other ships were repaired in thia. It was X55 feet long, and its breadth was 51 feet at the bottom, and 76 feet at the top. The masonry at the bottom was fivo feet thick. It used to be pumped dry, after a ship had been admitted, by two steam engines in a few hours. Now it is choked to the level of the ground with earth, and nothing is to be seen of it but the tops of the brick -walls aorrounding it. No one seems to remember its being used. Till (juite recently, however) ships were repaiixid in mud docks at old Coringa.

The silting up of the port has progressed very rapidly in recent years. Between 1806 and 1861 the anchorage for big ships had to be moved five or six miles to the north. At the beginning of the last century a frigate drawing thirteen and a half feet was got over the bar; and a report to Grovemment written in 1805 records the opinion t ha t ' any ship not drawing more than twelve and a half feet of water may easily enter the mouth of the river in two springs at any time of the year.' Nowadays, however, it is only with great difficulty that a »liip drawing six feet can be got over the bar, and it takes a month to warp a vessel of that size up the river.

Coringa is of some religions importance, since the neighbouring village of Masakapalli is one of the places at which pilgrims bathe when performing the sapta-sdgara'ijdtrd ox ' pilgrimage of the seveu mouths *, already referred to. The river Oorinera la said to have been brought to the sea by the sage Atri, and tho bathing place is called the Atreya-sigara-sangam. It is also believed that the demon Mdrieha, who was sent by K4vana in tho form of a golden deer to Rdma, when he and Sita were at Parnasila, was killed by Rama at this place, R^ma is supposed to have founded the Siva temple of Korang^svai-asvdmi.

Gollapalaiyam (eighi. miles south-south-west of Cccanada, population 1,817) is of interest as the home of the oloth-painting described in Chapter VI. Some seventy households are also engaged in the stamping and dyeing of chintzes, and a little weaving of fair quality is carried on. There are some Jain remains in the neighbouring village of Ariyavattam.'

Injaram ; A zamiudari village near Tanam, fifteen miles south by west of Cccanada. Population 2,042, A factory, an

' Vor others, see Chuptei' I I I , p. 39.

OAZSTTBBIt. 218

oSahoot of the s^ttlemejat ^z: I'l'^i^p^fyij^^ rms fomnied tbeV6 \>;V Cll*irv SV',, ttie East India Company in 1708, was soou afterwards abaadoned, ckK-uvjjr^. but was re-establislied in 172J. I t was captured by the French under Buesy in 1757—the garrison numbered only twenty men and no resistance was offered—but it was ceded by the Nizam to the English in 1759 after the battle of Condoro, I t continued as a mercantilo establishment of the East India Company till 1829. Its two great qualifications as a factory were that it was situated near oue of the priucipal mouths of the Godavari and that very good cloth was made there. Indeed Captain Hamilton, who viaited ludia at the beginning of the eighteenth century, stated that it produced the best and finest longcloth in all India, With the abolition of the Company's factory the prosperity of tnjaram declined. It has now no sea-boi-ue trade whatever. No traces, it is said, exist of the European settlement.

Iniaram is the head-quarters of a small zamindari estate con-tainii^ three villages and paying a peshkash of Es. 2,832. It was part of the old Pedddpuraiu zamindari and was acquired by sale by the present holders' family iu 1845.

Nilapall i : An old sea-port near Tanam, on the eastern bank Nflapalli. of the Coringa river where it joins the Gautami Goddvari. Ita population is 3,936 and it coutains a vernacular lower secondary sohool for girls. The Company established a factory hero in 1751, but it was captured by Bussy in 1757. A quantity of good doth was formerly manufactured in the neighbourhood, and a considerable sea-borne trade existed; but now the place is of little importance commercially and has no sea-borne trade at all. In it are the remains of several old bungalows once ocoupied by English merchants, and four English tombs ranging in date from 1807 to 1865.

Its hamlet of G-oorgepet, which was clearly so named by Englishmen, contains a large mill belonging to the Coringa Eice Mills Company, where about one hundred men are employed and which is in charge of two European superintendents. The rice is sent in boats to bo shipped from Cocanada. The mill is said to bavo been started by a Prench engineer from Earaikk^l in 1854. Before that time the buildings are said to have been used as an Indigo factory.

Nilapalli is the only remaining village of the old Nilapalli •proprietary mufcta (ci-eated in 1802-03) which formerly contained nine other villages and paid a peshkash of Rs. 6,300. The peshkash is now only Ka. 480.

214 GdcXvABt.

CHAP. XV. COCASiDA.

Sainalkot.

S»rpaTarAm,

S&malkot (vernacular Chdmdrlakata) : Seven miles north of CocaQada, and the iunction between the branch line from that place and the North-east line of the Madras Railway, I t is connected hy canal with both Itajalimundry and Cocanada. Ita population was 16,015 in 1901. I t contains a police-station, a small martet, a travellers' bungalow and a fine private choultry near the railway-station. Its educational institutions oomprise the Canadian Baptist Mission seminary,' a vernacnlor lower secondary school for girls and a Sanskrit, school. The town is a union, and comprises the villages of Bhimavaram and Jaggamniag^ripdta.

Samalkot is included in tbe Pithapuram estate, was tho original residence of the family of sirdars who founded that property, was apparently the first capital of the zamindari, was deserted in favour of Pifchapuram for a time, but became the capital once moro in the eighteenth century. Ita fort was tho scene of some exciting by-play in the great drama enacted by tho English, French and Muhammadans in 1759, and aeems to have more than onco changed hands. Further pattioulars will bo found in the account of Pithapuram below. In the latter half of the eighteenth century the place was made a sanitarium for tho British troops in tbe district. Ban-acks wore built in 1786, and it was at that time ' the principal garrison of the English in the Oircar of Rajahmundry.^" The fort was demolished in 1838 and the place was abandoned as a military station in 1868. Owing however to the Rampa disturbances of 1879, two companies under a British officer were afterwards stationed there, and they were only withdrawn in 1893. Samalkot is now of some commercial importance owing to the eBtablishmont within it, in 1899, of the large augar-rofinery and diatillory which is described in Chapter VI. A largo Tmmber of D^v^ngaa in tho town weave plain cotton cloths, and a few make cotton cloths with lace borders. A little chintz-stamping and dyeing, and manufacture of kas-kas tattis also goes on. A Govomment esperimental agricultural farm * was started in the place in 1902 and has recently been made into a permanent institution-

S£i]rpa>V^£lin (enako town) lies 4^ miles north of Ooeanada and contains 1,681 inhabitants. It is locally famous for its sanctity. The temple is known by the name of Narada Ksli^tram after the riahi Narada, who is supposed to have founded it. This sago

' SeoChuptc'i-IJI, p, 41, - Qi*atil,'« PQlilical Sitrucy of Ihe Northern Gircats ajipondod to tlio Fifth

Report 'if the Select Committee iin the affa irs o/ the East India. Co., 1812 {Madras reprint, 18»3), p. 215.

* See Chapter IT , p. 76,

aAZETTBER. 215

was turned into a woman by Vishnu and married a Pithdputam CHAi*. XV, Kdja who was killed in battio with all his children. Thereupon COCAXAOA.

Viahnu pitied Hm and turned him back into a man. Both transformations were ofiected by bathing in tanks at Sarpavaram, tbo former in the Narada (.lundaoi) the latter in the Muktika Sarasu tank. To bathe in the Narada Gundam is considered a holy act, The name of the town is locally said to be derived from the fact that it was in this place that, as the Mahabh^rata relates, Parikshit the son of Arjuua was bitten by a snake and died. His son performed the sarpa ydgain (serpent sacrifice) to effect the destruction of all those reptiles, bat one snake was spared by India's meroy.

The tempio is a plain building of no beaut^'. A late Rdja of Fithdpui'am built its g6puram at a great cost. Eight inscriptions in it {Nos, 452-59 of 189S) have been copied by the G-ovemment Epigraphist. The oldest of these, on a pillar in tlie mantapam in front of it, is in Tamil and is dated in the 46th year of Kulottunga Ch61a D^va—apparently Eulottunga I (A,l>, 1070-11X8)—or 1116 A.D. One, dated A.D. 1414^ is a record of V^ma Reddi, and several others of the early part of the thirteenth century are grants of a Vishnuvardhana Mabdraja, who is probably the same person as the local chieftain Mallapa I I I .

TAllar^VU; Two miles south of Coringa on the cast bank of T6liar6vu, the river of that name. This village, like so many on this river, appears to have once been an important trading centre. It ia now only interesting as the scene of a small indigenous ahip-build^g industry.

Yanam (French, Tanaon) is a small Prenoh Settlement Tanam. which is entirely surrounded by British territory. It is situated about twelve miles Irom the mouth of the Gautami Gid^vori, at the point whore the Coringa river branches off from the main stream. The Settlement extends along the banks of these rivers for seven or eight miles, and its area is returned at 2,'<)58 acres. Besides Tanam, it includes the four hamlets of Adivipalem, K^nakalap^taj Mettak6ru, and E-uraammapeta. Its population in 1901 was 5,005 against 5,327 in 1891. The town contains a few handsome European buildings, including a fine church ; and there is a spacious walled parade on the south side facing the G6davari,

Yanam is a comparatively modern town, and was not in existence in 1706. The French established a factory there about 1750, and the place was formally ceded to them in 1752. It shared the vicissitudes of theii- other posseasions on this coast;

216 ddoivARi.

CHAP. XV. and from 1793 onwards, save for a short period in 1803-03 CocANAPA. was in the oooupatioa of the English till the treaties of IS 15*

restored it to its former owners. It was then finally handed back in 1817. In 1839 the town was laid wnste by a hurricane which was accompanied by an inundation of the aea,

Subject to the control of the Governor of the French Possessions at Pondicherry, Tanam is adminietered by an official called the Admmstrateur who is assiatcd by a local electivo Council of six. members. The Administratevr is the head of the magistraoy and police and president of the criminal court. Local affairs are managed by a communal council, also elective, of twelve members. Two free schools, one for boys and the other for girla, having an attendance of 203 and 248 respectively, are maintained in the town. The area of cultivated land in the Settlement iu 1903 was 664 hectares or about 1,000 acres. Land is held in absolute ownership subject to the payment of au assessment of Rs. 37-8 per candy (about ^ , acres) for cultivated land, and Es. 5 for pasture land. Water is supplied free of cost from the British canal which passes through Yanam. Little trade is now carried on at the place, and in 1903 the exports virere valued at only Es. 22,300 and the imports at lis. 53,625. The sea-borae trade is carried northwards down the Coringa river into the Cocanada bay, as the mouth of the G-autami Gr6divari is much silted up.

The special arrangements connected with customs and salt which are necessitated by the existence of the Settlement are referred to in Chapter XII above.

3AZETTEEK. 217

NAQAEAM TALUK.

NAGARAM taluk consists of the flmall island of that name CHAP, xv. whiob lies in the south-west oomer of the delta and is surrounded N^cntiia, by the Vainat^yam aud Tasishta branches of the God^vari and by tho sea on the east. I t ie sometimes known as the Tatipdka Sima (' country '), after the village of that name within it. It is called after the unimportant village of Nagaram, but its head-quarters is Rfijavolu. Till October 1st 1904 it was part of the Narasa-pur taluk, and the usual statistics are not always available for it, Certain figures appear in the separate Appendix, however. I t is now the obarge of a temporary tabsildar. I t is the smallest and the most densely peopled taluk in the district. I t in particularly fertile and is irrigated entirely by means of the great Gannavaram aqueduct referred to on p. 86,

Nagaram contains an important centre of pilgrimage in the Vaishnavite temple at Antarvedi, and several other places of religious interest. A fair amount of weaving is done in Jaganna-p^ta, M<iri, Sivak6du and TdtipSka; and the work of the first of these is well known, T^tip^ka has a certain historioal interest.

The whole of the taluk belongs to Qovemment with the exception of Lankala G-annavaram village, which forms a part of the Palivela thdna of the Pitbapui-am estate, and the whole inain village of Q-udumulakhandrika. This originally belonged to the old Pedd^puram zamindari, was purchased at a sale for arreai-s, and, after one more sale, was left by will to the late zamindar of Pitbdpuram.

Antarvedi ; Lies in the south-west corner of the taluk at the ADtaryMt. mouth of the Yasisltta G6ddvari. Population 6,583. It ie the last and the most important of the saored bathtng-places comprised in the sapia-sdffara-ydtrd already referred to, and has other distinct claims to sanctity which are widely recognized. The god of the place is Tjakshminarasimha-evuroi, an incarnation of Vishnu, who at the prayer of the sage Vasishta aud with the help of a local goddess killed another giant called Kabta Vilochana. The local goddess' name was Asvar6d^mba or Gtirr^lakka; a small stone image of her, mounted on a horse, is to be seen in the village. Lakshminarasimba-svdmi was entreated by Vasisbta to remain in the locality, and he accordingly concealed himself in an ant-hill, where the existing image of him was found. This was originally

88

218 GODAVAni.

CHAP, XV, enshrined in a abed by a shepherd, who bad niii-aculoualy dii-NAOABAM. covered it by tbe extraordinary jnsigbt of one of bift cows; and

one of its earliest devotees was a Sri Vaisbnavite pilgrim who spent Lis Ufe worsbipping it, and from whom the Sri Vaisbnavitea of Antarv^di claim to be descended. The present temple, as is mentioned in an inscription within it, was built in 1823 hy apioua Palli of Bendam6rlanka.

A well-known festival occurs in tlie village in M^bba (February-March), and at this the marriage of the god is celebrated. It lasts about a week, and is tlie largest in the district, as many as 80,000 people sometimes attending it. The car is dragged round on tbe second day ; and on the last the god ia taken down to tbe eca-sboio, where bis bronze quoit (chakram) ia laid on the head of each of the pilgrims, who afterwards bathe in tbe sea.

A eurious feature of this festival is tbe importance accorded thereat to the K6na Kima Drdvidas of P^riru montioned in the account of that place above. When the marriage of the god ia performed they represent big bride's relations, and they are also allowed to go to considerable lengths in making fun of the Sri Vaishnavite Br^bmane of Antarvedi, who are the leading religious party in the place and repi-esent the god himeelf at tbe marriage. On the last day but one of the festival they put on Vaisbnavite sect-marks and sing abusive songs about the Vaisbnavites, who show no resentment. The reason for all this ia said to he tbe fact that long ago tbe chakram of the god waa lost in the eea, and that one of the Tamil Br^hraans of Perdrn earned the everlasting gratitude of the people of Antarvedi by getting it back by the use of powerful charms (inantrams), I t is even believed that ttic Car cannot b« drawn without the help of one of these privileged persons. I t is solemnly asaerted tha t ' in the year Yijaya' (i fi93-94) the villagers could not move the car in spite of all their effortp, because no one from P^r6ru was jJuUing. Some men from there were sought out and prevailed upon to touch the ropes, and the car at once atarted; and nowadays they take care to have some one from Pei-liru to help pull. The temple ia a handsome building with a number of gopurams. hut it ia not of any great size. I t is endowed with some 800 acres of land and receives an annual tasdik allowance of abot.t Es. 3,000,

Autatvedi is of no industrial importance. The painting done there is referred to in Chapter VI.

Jagannapfite. J a g a n n a p 6 t a : Kour miles north-north-oast of Eujav61u. Hamlet of Mogalikud^ru, the population of which is 2,534. The place, is noted for ^its weaving, which, though now said to be

DAZETTEEI?; 219

doclinmg, still employs some •'•(00 fauiilies of Devangas. Thej CHAP. xv. weave white cotton turbana and cloths, ornamenteci with cotton WAOABAJI. or laee borders and sometimes with simple embroidery. They work with counts aa &ae as laOs, and their fabrics are noted for the closeness of the weaviog.

Kadali: Three and a half miles east-south-east of itdjavolu. Kudaif, Population 3,687, Contains a small local fund market. The god of the place ia named Kap6ti3rai'adu and is said to have been first recognized by a certain hermit, who, with his wife, used to worship him in tlic form of a kapota bird. One day the hermit was mistaken by a sliikSii for a real bird and shot while at hie prayers. He fell into the pool called the Kapota gundam at this place, ai: \ his wife flung herself ia after him. It is considered a holy act to bathe in this pool on Sandays.

The village ia known as 'the place of the five K's ' {KaMra panc/iakam), from five names of local importance which begin \yith that letter; namely, those of the god, of the village itself and of three familiea (thn Kddambri family of Niydgl Br^hmana, ^ the K^sibhatlu family of Vaidlki Br^hmans, aud the Katika-rcddi family of K^pus) which aie largely represented in the village.

Nagaram: Five mUes north-east of Rajavolu. Population Nae>t«m, 2,241, of whom about a quarter are Muharamadans. Contains a police-station and a small local fund market. It was presumably onco of importance, as for at least the last 120 years it has given its name to the Nagaram island, but now, except that it does a certain amount of local trade, it possesses hardly any features of interest. It contains the remains of an old fort which is said to have been built by the Mubammadans. *

Edjavolu (commonly called Ilaz61e by Europeans) has been Eijavitu. the head-quarters of the Nagaram taluk since it was split off from Naraaapur in 1904, It contains 2,553 inhabitants, a police-station, a flub-rogistrar'e office, n local fund dispensary (opened in 1881) and a local fund choultry,

Sivakodu; Two miles south-east of Kajavolu. Population SfreWrfa. 3,541. Contains a travellers' bungalow and an English lower secondary school for boys. The Siva temple, like that at Eaiiica-varam still further eouth-east, is supposed to have been built by B^ma on his return from Ceylon in expiation of his sin of hiUing king B^vana, who was a Brdbman. It is supposed to be the very last one he made for this purpose, and to have cojupleted the orore {k6ii) of temples the construction of which was needed to cleanse him thoroughly of his sin. Tho name Sivakodn is supposed to mean ' the crore of Siva' and to be derived from this fact.

" Sevrell's Li»(s 0/ jltitiSiiiljes, i, i l ,

file:///yith

220 GoDAVARt.

CHAP. XV. NASHIM.

Titipjka

There are about 50 Devangas iu the village who weave plain cloths, using thread of counta as fine as ISOs. A local carpenter carves wooden figures, bed-stoada and door-framoB well, and also makes musical instruments of fair quality.

TAtipAka: Throe miles uorth-north-eaet of Eajavolu. Population 2,838. A small local fund market is held there. In one of the streets is a -Tain image, buried up to its neck, the head of which is more than life eize. Several large wells in the neighbourhood are called ' .Tain wells.' The place is a centre of trade and o£ the jaggery indnatrj'. Some 50 X)ev4nga families weave plain cloths.

Tatipika seems at one time to have been a place of eomo importance, since the local name for the Nagsram island (Tatipdka Sima) is derived from it. I t is referred to uo the accounts of tho Muhammadan invasion of 1562-64, I t was then held by a powerful zamindar, Narasinga Eao, and was strongly fortified aud protected by a deep moat. The Kuhammadane were detained a month in front of the walla and were finally driven to i-aise the eiege. The place was attacked next year when the rains were over, and was then captured,

GAZBirEER, 221

PEDDAPUFAM TALUK.

PEPDAPUKAM tiilnk lies in the north-cast of the diBtrict, south of CHAP. xv. the Yellavaram Agency and west of Pithfipuram and Tuni. The PEooipoRAM. northern part of it is very liko the Agency in ctaractor, and is, in particular, exceedingly malariouSjjf. The greater port of the taluk, as well as the Pithapuram coi .try, is knoTvn to the satires as the Porlunadu. Very little of Peddapuram is inigated. More than half the wet area is undwr the Yeleru river, and over 4,600 acres under the large Lingamparti tank. Eighty per cent, of the soil is red ferruginous, eleven per cent, black regar, and only six per cent, alluvial. The average rainfall is 36*80 inches a year. The comparative barrenness of the taluk results in many contrasts to the delta tracts : the incidence of the laud revenue, for example, is only Rs. 1-13-7 per head; the density of the population (331 per square mile) is unusually low for this district; education is moi-e backward than in any other taluk on the plains; and only 5 per cent, of the male population can read and write.

Of the few industries in the taluk, the moat important is the manufacture of jaggery, which is exported in large quantities to the refinery at Samalkot.

The taluk was originally a part of the large zamindari of Feddapurant, the history of which is sketched below. It is now nearly all Governmeut land. The small estates of ICirlamp6di, Viravfti'am, Dontamuru and Bayavaram, one village of ihe Pithapuram zamindari and the Jagammap^ta estate are the only areas that are stilt zamindari land.

Annavaram : Twenty-fi ve miles north-east of Peddcipuram. AnuaTBiatUi Population 605. Possesses a small choultry and a temple of some local fame. The latter contains an image of Satya Narayanasvauii which was discovered on a hill near by as the result of a vision seen in a dream by a local Brahman, and many people, especially thoBO desirous of childi-en, go on pilgrimages to it,

Oharamalldpuram: Forty miles north by east of Pedda- DbiramftUi. puram among the hills. Population 86. Conte-ins the ruins of ?""-"»* an old mud foi-t, oval in shape and half a mile in diameter, which is declared by local tradition to have been built by Busay after his expedition against Bobbili,

232 GODAVAKI.

OHAf. XV. PtDKjtPnttlH.

Jsgftmma* ptfU,

E^ndr&k^ta.

Katttp^di.

Kitlainp6di

Pedd4para.»i

Jagammap6ta'; Eight miles north-west of Peddapnram; population 4,638. Chief village of a union which alao comprises K6ttiiraj Ragamp^to and Bamavaram. Contains a police-station, two travellers' bungalows (one for natives and the other for Boropeons), a small choultry, a small local fund market, and a lower secondary school for boys. The sublimate of mercury made in it is referred to in Chapter Vf. One or two Kamealas make brass vessels.

Jagammapeta is the chief village of the zamiudari of the same name, which consists of 28 villages and pays a peshkash of Rs. 33,062. Along with the Dontamfiru estate (one village, peshkash Es. 3,267) and tho Eayavaram estate (two villages, peshkash Rs. 1,998) this zamiudari was purchased from the Fedda-puram estate hy the Rdja of Pitbapui'am. He gave them to a certain Rao Yenkata Rao, and the present holder is the widow of the latter's grandson.

KAndrakcSta, six miles north of Pedd^puram, population 2,664, is celebrated for its festival to the village goddess N6kilam-ma, which lasts for a month and ends with the last new-moon day before the Telugu New Year's Day in March or April. Many pilgrims visit the place on this occasion and vows of many kinds are made to the goddess, generally, it is said, to secure alleviation from disease. A bufEalo is sacrificed, a wound being first made in its throat aad the blood caught in a pot, and its head being then cut off.

Kattipudi: Seventeen and a half miles north-east of Pedddptiram, Population 1,470. Contains a police-station, a travelleis' bungalow and a large choultry with an income of Es. 3,000 fi'om laud bequeathed to the taluk hoard, which devoted to feeding travollors of all classes,

Kirlamp^di; Nine miles north-north-east of Peddapuram. Population 4,316, Has a small market. Is included in the Jagapatinagaram trnion. Chief village of a small estate, consisting of ten villages paying a peshkash of Es. 23,186, which was purchased from the old Peddapuram zamindari at a sale for arrears. I t has changed hands since then and is now held in shares by two brothers. One share has been sold to the Maharaja of Bobbili.

Fedddpuram, the head-quarters of the taluk, HPS three miles from Sbmalkot railway-station and contains a population of 12 609. In it are the offices of a Deputy Collector, a tnheildar, a district munsif, a sub-registrar, and a stationary' sub-magistrate, and also a local fund dispensary (established 1881), a fair-sisied market, a

IS

GAZETTEEK. 2 2 3

police-station and a fine talnk lioard choultry where Br^hmans CHAP, XV, and Sfidroa are fed. This last is endowed with an income of PiDDlpniijt. Re. 3,400 from land, and was bequeathed to the taluk board. The town also coutaina a hi^h school belong^ing to the American miBsiou and a vernacular lower secondary school for girls,

It was for nearly three centuries the capital of a great zamindari estate which seems at one time to have extended from north of Totapalli to Nagaram island. About 1785 i t ' comprised nearly one-half of the whole Circar of Eajahmundiy, both in extent and value, and contained 585 villages.'^

Tho old zamindars of Pedd^puram are said to be descended from Vachchavaya Mupali, the iiorfidious minister of VidiSdri, the last Gajapati ruler of Ra-iahmundry, whose treachery is said to have been one of the factors which facilitated the Muhammadma conquest in 1571. The line of descent was unbroken till ITS*, when tho estate was apparently in the hands of a woman, the zamindarni Vaehchavaya Kagamma who was defeated near Pedddpiu-am by the Muliaiiimadans for joining in the rebellion of the chiefs of EUore, Mogalturru and Pithapm*am.- The Muham-madan general then enticed the sons of Kiiganima into his camp and tortured them to death ' by drizzling on them hot-boiled oil with brtish^s,'* Ragammaburnt herself all re when she heard the news. * Ohalla Peddy, a faithful servant, made haste to the palace and took periiiission from tho Eaneo to set the palace on Are to prevent tho ladies being maltreated by the barbai-ous Boldici-s of the Sirliisltkar.' * Her grandson Wiis sent for safety to \''izianagram. In 1749 the family was re-established by the amildar, Nimat Ali, who for a bribe of Es. yo/iOO appointed ono E^yappa Eaau, a gnindson of Eagamma, aa zamiudar. Kayappa Eazu like moat of the other zamindars, hated the Vizianagram Eaja and 80 opposed tho English in their advance in 1758. Ho waa either killed at Coadoro,* or was deposed by Auanda E^zu of Vizitt-nagi-am in the following year, and his son Timma E^zu, then a boy only seven years old, succeeded to the estate. Timma E^zu ruled till 1797 and was followed by Eaya Jagapati Edzu, with whom the permanent settlement was made. Ho died in 1804 without issue, and left the estate to a minor child adopted by him.*

* Grant'a Political Sii,rvey of the. Northern Chcars, already seTeral timfia

* See p. 235. » MS. history ofjPithiputam (Cocanada, 1881), p. 30. t Ihii. ' Grftut'a Political SHruey.

Selections from tho Records of the Oddiravi district (Cocauada, 1891); Mr, >nB report A&Ui 23rd November 1805, paru. 3,

224 O6T>AVABI.

CHAP. XT. The estate was eventually sold for arrears of revenue in 1847. PiDDiPCBAM. Much of it ia now Govermneut property, but parts of it went to

make up nine small estates which are still in existence. ThcBe are; Kottam, Viravaram, EirlampMi, Dontamiru, Jagammap^ta, E^yavaram^ Gollapr61u, Palivela and Injaram. The ancient line of zamindars still maintain something of (heir former position in the Kottam zamindari, which was split off from that of Peddd-puram in 1810.

Peddapuram town is an important centre of the jaggery trade and sends large quantities of that commodity to the factory at Samalkot. A little ailk-weaving ia also can-led on there; some 200 households are employed in weaving cotton cloths with loco borders; a few families stamp and dye cotton cloths; a fair amount of metal-work is don«; and a little good ahoe-making, The town has a bad name for elephantiasis.

The ditch aud parts cf the walla of the old fort are still to he seen. I t was built of stone, was oval in shape and about three-quarterB of a mile across. The laud inside the walls is now undor cultivation,

A hill in the neighbourhood, called the Pdndamilameiia (' the P^ndavas' hill ') , contains a cave which is supposed to be tho mouth of an underground passage leading to Bajahmuudry. *It is popularly supposed that the Pandavaa used to haunt this hillock and go to Eajahmundry through this passage.

Prattipidu. Prattipddu: Eleven miles north-north-east oi: Peddapuram. Population 2,100. Contains the offlcea of a sub-registrar and a deputy tahsildar, a police-etatiun and a native travellers' bungalow. It is the chief village of the Jagapatinagaram union which comprises also Kixlampudi, Simh4dripuram, Jagapatinagaram, Chillangi, Kimakrishnapuram and V(51auka, and the tolal population of which amounts to 11,329. It enjoys considerable local celebrity owing to its possession of an idol of Eamalingasv^mi, which was recently found on a neighbouring liill by a Kamsala who had been told in a dream that it was there. A cobra is said to have been shading the idol with its hood. About two miles from Prattipadu on the road to Jagammapeta are two idols under a cluster of trees which are known in tho neighbouihnod as Pdthal-arama (the foot goddess). These are visited by large numbers of pilgrims who in satisfaction of vows aaorifice fowls and animals to the goddess and hang up the victims* heads in front of her. A number of stories arc told about the malignant powers of t- i goddess : a Local Fund Engineer (name not specified) who vent-i to cut down one of the trees near by some twenty years age ^^ ^°

OAZBTfEBB. 225

thrown from his horse in consequence; another man who committed CHAP. XV.

the same offence was at once seized with fever and died within the PKuBipnEiM. week; and some ryota of Yerravaram who removed one of the idols to their village were struck with blindness.

Rdgamp6ta ; Eight miles north-west of Pedd£puram; popula- B«s*»)' tion 865. Is included in the Jagammap^ta union. Somo ten P**"' Linga Balijas make batJ^3..„ and ' glass' bottles here, an Inscry not common in this district. Brass vessels are made bv 'ew Karasalas.

Bangamp^ta : Ten miles west of Peddapuram, populatipn Rang»m' 8,017. Contains a large choultry called the NaUacheruvu choultry ^ '*' (from the tanV on the bank of which it ia situated) which has an income of Rs. 5,500 from land, and in which travellers of all classes aro fed. There is a travellers' bungalow eloso to it.

TaUuru : Eleven miles north-west of Peddapuram; popula* TaU4ru. tion l,76t<. Is called Taidoor in old maps. The present Vaiah-navite temple in the village is said to have been originally built above a rook-cut cave, by a saint called Bh^rgava, as a shrine to Siva. Tho local chief, a D6d^ku named Sitab Kh^Uj who was ft Saivito, was afterwards converted to Iho Vaiahnavite faith by the famous Bdm^nuj^ob^ri, and in consequence overthrew the Saivite lingams (which now lie buried in ' a mound known as tlie lingah i\lbh(C) and turned the temple into a Vaishnava place of worship.

T6tap&Ui> eighteen miles north-east of Peddipuiam, population Tdtapaiii. 94, was the former capital of one of the three ancient mansab-doris of the G6d^vari district. The original holder of this was a mokhasadar under the zamindar of Peddapuram, who was bound to pay his suzerain a quit-rent of 1,000 pagodas a year and attend on him when required with a body of 700 peons. It was this military service which caused him to be denominated a jnansabdar,*

His estate comprised 100 villages, of which 37 wore held b j inferior mokbAsadars.* Mr. Q-raut (writing about 1785} apeaks of the property as a ' region of tigers,* and mentions that in 1771, at the instigation of the Peddapuram zamindar, ' this little territory, with the eacrifice of almost the whole detachment to the unhealthiness of the climate, was reduced by the English to pay a future tribute to the zamindar.*' As this quit-rent was not punctually paid, the Peddapuram zamindar in later times resumed certain of the T<StapalH villages. The quit-rent of 1,000 pagodas

' a.O., So. SE9, Jadioiftl, d(Lt«d 19th Maich lB8i. , ' G.O., No. 3435, Judicial, dated 23id Wovemlwr 18S1.

* jPdlitUaiBwvov of th» NortUrv, Circar*. KW. • * < • .

226 a6olTABi.

CHAP. XV. PsDDiPCBAM.

Tlravai-arn.

YtW Travail).

on the property was one of the aeaets of the Pedddpuram zamindari on which the peahbnsh payable to the Company Ya9 assessed at the permanent ecttlemrnt. That settlement did not recognize the mansabdai* save as a subordinate of the Pedddpuram zamiiidar, nor deal with him direct. In 1847 tlic Peddipuram zamindari was sold for arrears of peshkash and bought in on behalf of Q-overnmeut, and from that date the feudal service of ' the mansabdar was due to Government and was occasionally demanded. In 1859 a money payment of Es, 6,500 per annum, being one-fourth of the assumed rental of the villages, was siAstitnted for this service. The estate thus bcoanio an unenfrau-chised inam from which uo service was required. Subsequently the mansibdar ran into debt and alienated a number of his villages. Government accordingly decided in 1881' to asscs» the whole estate fully and take it under their own manageractit, and, while reraitting the demand fixed iu substitution ofthefonner military service, to pay the mansabdar annually the diiference between the estimatpd cost of that sei"vice and the estimated value of the estate, or Es. 19,500. The ruins of the nian.sabdar'8 fort still exist in T6tapalli. I t was built of mud and stone, was oval in shape, and covered: some 200 acre^. The land inside it is now undei cultivation.

Viravaram ; Bight miles north of Pedddpuram. The chief village of a small estate which previously formed part of the Pedddpuram zamindari and was purchased at a*ale for arrears by a certain Kao Bhauayyamma, from whom the present holder has inherited it. I t contains eleven villages and pays a pcshkash of Rs. 26.759.

Yel^svaram : Fifteen miles north of Pcdddpm-am on the border of the Yellavaram division. Population 5,180. It is the chief village of a union which also includes Appanapalaiyam, Kdyavaram, Lingampai-ti and NiirAyanapatnam, and the population of which is 8,531. The village contains a local fimd dispensary (established 1883), a travellers' bungalow and alocalfund marhet. This last is much used by the hill tribes, and tlio village has been appropriately called' the gate of the Agenoy.' I t ia the scene of a large festival in honour of the village goddess N^ikdlamma in Vaisdka (May-June), which is also largely attended bv the agenoy people.

•'O-.O., To 559. Ju(licia), datod 19th March 1831,

\M

(JAZETTEEB. 227

P I T H A P U B A M D I V I S I O N .

T H E Pitbtipuram division lies along the coast, north of the CHAP, xr, Goddvari delta, and, except Nagaram, is the smalleet in the P"HiPLR -district. Most of it is incUided in the Pithiipuram zaniindari. •Thouo-h it adjoins the delta, where the rainfall is heavy, it rccoives only lt*4t> inchee annually on an average, the lowest figure in the district. Part of it, however, l)cuefita from the excellent irrigation provided by the Yeleru river. Tlie heatl-quai-ter town is of much historical and archjcological interest. Good weaving is done at Mulapeta, TJppada and KottapalH, and excellent bronze-work at Pitbdpuram. Chandurti waa the scene of the groat battle of ' Condore.'

Chandurti : Seven miles north by east of Pithapuram. oiftutinrti, Popalation 1,087. It is called Condore by Orme, and has given this name to the decisive battle which took place near it on the ninth of December 1758, which resulted in the wresting of the sovereignty of the Noi*thorn Ciroars from the Fi-ench by the Kngwsh*. The battle is described in detail by Orme,' and in somewhat different terms by Cambndge' and Malleson.^ A vei-y precise locqj tradition survives iu the village to this day as to the locality in which it was fought, and old swords, bullets, cannon-balls remains of pewter vessels, and elephants* bones have been found in quantities in the neighbourhood by the vUlagers while cnltivatmg their fields. The account given by Orme is more detailed than the others and agrees more closely with the local tradition.

"When the English under Colonel Forde entered the Pithapuram division they found the Frencli under M. Confians encamped at Gollapr61n/ some fom- miles north-east of Pithapuram on the main road. This was on December 3rd. The Fwnch force consisted of 500 Em-opeaus, 500 native cavalry, 6,000 sepoys and a great

1 Orme (JTadras, 1861), ii, 378 it * r)K War in India (London, 1761), 204 Ii'. !> Decisive liutihs a/Iaita, 80-87. * Cinnbridgo aa-ya ' near TaHapool' (le., Titipavti); and loiml tradition

plaoeBthoFrenotioimp at tlio now deserted vilkgoof VodiUapenta. Tlielatter may rofor to tlio totnporiiiry oooupaiion of that Tillngo by the FrLttcli on the morniDg of the bftttlo.

228 a6iikvARi*

CHAP. XT. number of local levies.^ They had had 36 pieces of cannon and PiTHipc»AM. some mortars, in fact, ' many more pieces of cannon than they

eonld use at onoe.' The English force consisted of 470 Europeans and 1,900 sepoys; while theii* ally, the Edja of Vizian^ram, had with him ' 500 paltry horse and 5,000 foot, some with awkward firearms, the rest with pikes and hows,' as well as a small force of 40 Europeans in charge of four guns, who, in the event, proved of more assistance than all the rest put together.

The French did not move from Gonapr61-Q, and on the sixth the Bnglish occupied Chehr61u, which was also on the main road and lay about three miles north of Gollapr61u, For the next three days the two aroaies remained m their respective camps; but on the early morning of the tenth they both made a movement. Forde, desiring to draw the enemy from their camp to a general action, and to lead them to ground where their cavalry wonld not be of mnch assistance to them, marched off at 4 A.M., followed at some distance by the Vizianagram forces, who were not ready to start fit the proper time, and at about eight in the morning took possession of Chandurti. which lay some two miles north-weat of OhebrAlu and well off the road. Meanwhile Oonflans had been indaced by an intelligent deserter, who had told him that the English force was raw andnndisoiplined and who had noticed a spot from which their camp eould he commanded, to send.off six guns the same night to cannonade Chebr61u; and ho followed with the rest of hie army and artillery to support them. The advance detachment of the French army came across the Vizian^ram troops as they were leaving Chebr61u about daybreak, and fired upon them for some little time, but apparently without doing much harm. When Gondans came up he imagined that the English intended to take possesaion of the now deserted villE^e of Vodula-penta, which lay midway between Gollaprolu and Chandurti and some two miles nearly due west of Chebrolu, and wonld have afforded them a strong advanced post in any attack upon Golla-priSlu. He at once marched across the plain to prevent this, and had no difficulty in doing it, ap Forde remained at Chandurti, two miles north of Vodnlapenta, resolved * to regulate his future movements by the enemy's.' Oonflans imputed this inactivity to fear, and supposing that, with the advanced post in the enemy*8 hands, the English would now return to their camp at Chebr61u he hunied forward to cut them off. Forde, nothing loth, advanced to meet him about nine o'clock, and the two armies oamo face to

' Oimo Ba-rs ' ft great number of the troops of the ooBtttrr, of which 500 were horse and 6,000 sepoya,' Cambridjfe Baya ' 8,000 aepoys and e. great manv of the Gonstt; power*.' '

OAZEtTEER. 229

face about a milo aoath-eouth-weet of Chandurti. The apot which CHAP. XV.

tradition identifies as tho scene of the battle which followed is PiTH fpuKAn. locally known as Aaglejalapd.dn, ' tlie place of tho English,' and IB at present covered by a small topo of babul trees. It is a little to the east and north of a small pool which lies about equidistant from Chandurti and Vannipudi, is due east of the latter, and about ono and a half miles noith-north-east of Tatiparti.'

Orme gives the following account of the battle which easued:—

' The French battalion of Europeans was in the centre of the line, with 13 SeM-pieces, divided on their Banks, the horse, 500, were on the left of the battalion; 3,000 Bspoys'formed the right wing, and the same number the left, and with each wing were &ve or six pieces of cumbrous cannon. The SngliRli arcay drew up witli their Europeans in the centre, tbe six field-piecee divided on their flanks ; the 1,800 sepoys were likewise equally divided on the wings. Colonel Forde placed no reliance on the Bajah's infantry or horse, and ordered them to form aloof, and extend on each flank of the sepoys: all this rabble kept beMnd, hut the renegade Europeans under Bristol, who managed the four field-pieces belonging to the Rajah, advanced, and formed with the division of artillerj- on the left of the English battalion. The line havinghad time, wore in exact order, and had advanced a mile iu front of the village of Condore [Chandurti], during wkich, the enemy cannonaded hotly from all their guns. At length the impetuosity of tbe enemy's approach, who came on, outmarching their cannon, obliged the English line to halt for action; and it chanced that tbe whole of their battalion stopped near and opposite to a field of Indian com, which was grown so tall that it entirely intercepted them from the enemy; but the sepoys on the wings were free iu the * plain on each hand. For what reason is not known, Colonel Forde had ordered his sepoys to furl their colours, which, besides the principal flag, are several small banners to a company, and to let them lay on the ground during the action.

The sepoys and horse of the enemy's wings greatly outstretched the wings of the Englisb line, and came on each in a oitrvo to gain their flanks; the French battalion in the centre, instead of advancing parallel to where by the wings they might judge the centre of the English line would be, inclined obliquely to the right, which brought them beyond the flold of Indian corn, opposite to the English sepoys on the left wing; whom from their red jackets,' and the want of their usual banners, they from tbe first approach mistook for the English battalion j respecting them as such, they halted to dress their ranks

> Mr. B. MoCorinacfc, Engineer of tlte Pithftpurdm estate, has kindly given much aseistance in locating tbe site.

a Tbey were from Bengft) and wore red t the Madras eepoja* tunics wei-e

HiuoUy white,

230 GdcATAiti.

CHAP-XV, before they engaged, and theu began to fire in platoons advaucing, PiraicoiiAM. but at the distanco of 200 yards. Nevertheless, this \va8 sufficient;

for the sepoys, seeing themselvos attacked without cover by Europeano iu front, and the horse and mahitudo of the enemy's sepoys gaining their rear, or coming down on their flauk, scarcely prftserved eourago to give their fire, hurried, ecattered, and without command ; and then immediately broho and ran away to shelter themselveB in the village of Ohambole (Cliebroln), and were followed by the nenrest of the enemy's horse. Thin success was greater than oven tho confidence of the enemy expected; uud several platoons of the French battalion •vere setting ofi to pursue them likewise, WIIOD they t-aw a lino of men with sliouXdored arms murehtiig fast and firiu from Ijohiud tho field of Indian corn across tlteir way; to occupy tho ground which tho sepoys hsd abandoned.

Otdonel Forde had been with the sepoys before their flight, encouraging them to resolution; but saw, by the usual symptoms of trepidation, that they would not staud the shook, wJiich prepared him to order the judicious movement which the officers were iiow performing w^th fo much steadincsB and spirit. Captain Adnet, commanding on the left, led the line, and as soon uw tho last files were got clear of the ctirn the word was given, wiien the whole halted, uud faced nt onco in full frout of the fneniy. This moUon was quickly executed ; for the foremost man had not more than 300 yards to match, and the field-pieces wore left behind. During this short interval, tho French battalion were endeavouring with much bustle t o get into order again ; for some of tlif^ir platoons had advuncedaconsiderabledistancebefore otheis ; and thus tho tire of tho English line commencod befoio the enemy's was ready; it was ftivon in divisions, that is, the whole battalion divided into five, and began from Captain Aduet's on the left, which was wiihin pistol shot, and brought down half the enemy's grenadiers; the five rau on, and before the time cnme for Adnet's dWieion to repeat theirs, the whole of tlio enemy's line were in confusion, and went about ruuniug fast to regain their guns, which they had left half a mile behind them on the plain.

The ardour of the English battalion to pursue was «o great, that Colonel Forde judged it best to indulge it in the instant, although not certain of the eucress of the sepoys on the right, but concluding that the enemy's sepoys who were to attack them, would not continue long, if they saw their Europeans completely rputed. Tho order was ^ v e u for the battalion to mHrch on in following divisious, the left leading. Nothing could repress their eagerness. All marched too fast to keen their ia,nh, excepting the iourth c^-vieion comtnanded by Captain Yorke, who to hove a reserve for the whole battalion, if broken as the eaeicy had been, by their owji impetuosity, obliged his men to advance in strict order. The French battalion ruUied at their cuna which were 13 in number, spread in difierent brigades, or seta as they chanced to stand when left by the troops advancing to the

OAZETTEBB, S31

action. This ai-tillery began to fire as soon as the ground was clear CBAP, XV of flieir own troops, aud killed some mfn, ivhich onlv qaiokened tbo PITIUPDBAM,

approach of the divisions to cIos*3 in with the guns, of which several fired whon tlio first division was within pistol shot, and Adnet fell moi'tAlIy wounded; but his men rushing^ on drove the eupmy from the guns the}' attacked, and the other divisions foUowiuj; with the smno spirit, ohhgod them to abandon JIU the others

The day. if not completelv victorious, was at loa&t sf-curfd from reverse by the pohse«sion of all the etiOEuy's field artillery fit for quick firing; but their camp ' at Golhiprolu J, to which tJioy wero rearing, still remained to l)o attacked; and Colonel Torde halted until joined by his sepoya. and, if they would (.'Omp, by the Rajaii's troojifl.

The sepoys and horso of the enemy's riplit wiug wvve in their turn pauiok-wtrnck by the firo of the English iMttalion ranting their own, aud all tnrned to gain the rear of the guns, kecpins: aloof to the left of tlio Ejiglish divisions; and then wont oti' a :,Mn with the French batt'ilion to the camp. Their left wing of sepoys behaved better, advincing to tbe use of mn.sketry against the English aepoye of the left, with whom tlie battalion, when filing ofi to oppose the French, left th« tliree field pieces of their r ight; and the sei>oys, cncou-raged by thi^ assistance, the ardoar of the Europeans marching off, and tlie spirit of their own commander Captaiu ICnox, luaintrtiued tiieir ground, facing aud firing in various directions behind the banks of the rice fields in which they Jiad drfiwu up. The enemy's wing never-tholc'is continued the distant fire, until they saw their baitaliou of Europeans quitting their jjuns, and the sepoys and hoif-e of the right retreating with them to tbe camp; when thpy went off likeivise; Htretchiug round to the left of the Enghsh battalion halting at the guua, and keeping out of their reach. Captain Knox tl- u advanced to join th*) battalion with his own sepoys, and the six fielu-piecea, and had collected most of the fugitives of the other wing. Messages had been contiuually seat to the Hajah's horse to advunce, but they could not ho prevailed upon to quit the shelter of a large tank,' at this time dry, in which they, his foot, and himself in the midst of them, had vemaiiied cowering from the heg-inning of the action.

As soou as the sepoys joined, and all the necessary dispositions w^re made, which took an hour, (Colonel Forde advanced to attack the enemy's camp; but, not to rotard the march, left the field-pieces to follow. A deep hollow way p-insed along the skirt of the camp, behind which appeared a considerable number of Europeans regularly dra*n up, as if to defend the passage of the hollow way, aod several shot wero fired from heavy cannon planted to defend the approach. Jnst as the English troops came near, and the first division of the Europeans stept out to give their fii'e, the field-pieces were arrived

' The ChMidui-t; tank.

232 G6DXVABI.

CHAP. XV. PlTHiPURAM.

Kottapalli.

Mdkpfitn.

witbin Bhot; on which all the en^my went to the right-about, aban-doned their camp, atid retreated, seemingly every man aa he listed, m the ntmoBt confusion; but the EngUsh battalion crossing alter them, many threw down their arms, and surrendered themselves prisoners. Mr. Conflans had previously sent away four of the smaUest field-pieces ; and the money of the militory che&t, laden for expedition on two camels. The spoil of the Beld and camp was 30 pieces of cannon, moat of which were brass; 00 tumbrels, and other carriages laden with ammunition; seven mortars from thirteen to eight inches, with a lar(?p provision of uliolln; 1,000 draught baUoobi, and all the tents of

and thf»6 died of their vounds the oamo evening ; 70 of their rnnk and file were likewise killed, or mortolly wounded : six officers and 50 rank and file were taken prisoners, and the same number of wounded were supposed to have escaped. Of the English battalion, Captain \dnet tiudl5 rank and file were killed; Mr.Macguire, the paymaster, and Mr. Johnstone, the commissary, who joined the grenadiers, two officers, and 20 of the rank and file were wounded ; the eepoye had 100 killed and more wounded. No victory could be more complete. Mr, Coiiflana, the commander of the Fiench army, changing horses, arrived on the fnil gallop at Eajahmundrum before midnight, although the distance is 40 miles from the field on which the battle was lost; the troops took various routes, but most of them towards Rajah-mundrum.'

Kottapall i; Five miles east-south-east of Pithdpuram. Population 1,203- Good muslins arc woven here by 200 hoaan-bolds of Pattu Sales. The work is referred to in Chaptej- VI.

Mulap^ta ; Seven miles east of Pithdpuram. Population 2,002, About 100 households of Pattu Sdlea weave good cotton cloths in the village. Tho Moudi Jaganaa temple there is widely known. There are two goda and a goddess in the temple, namely Bdta R^ma, Jagauu^tha, and his sister Subndra, All the imagee are of wood and ai'o without hands or feet and aro therefore called mondiy or 'crippled*. Whence the name of the temple. Popular tradition says the images were washed ashore in the village. It is said that the idols ia the great Jaganndtha temple at Ffiri in Orissa are changed once a year, the old ones being thrown into the sea, and that these are a set of the old ones from that place. In Ph^lguna (March-April) a five-daya* festival takes place at the temple and the pilgrims bathe in the sea on the new-moon day. I t is declared that married women of the lower classes who are desirous of children are permitted, without disccedit attaching to them, to indulge in promiacuous intercourse at this feast, and respectable people consequently resent bein" aaked whether ihey attended it. A curious feature of the worship i«

file:///dnet

QAZETtE^R. 233

that suppliants do not clasp their hands before the deities in the CHAP. X7. oonveational Hindu form of reverence, bat salaam to them as in PiTBiPowM the Muhammadan fashion of greeting. Nor do they address th« Qsnal praises to them, but aotunlly insult them with the most valgar abuse. No reusone are forthcoming for these cuatoms.

P i t h ^ p u r a m : A union of 13,320 inhabitants. The head- PitUpawm. quarters of the great Pithdparam zamindari, of a deputy tahsildar and of a sub-registrar. I t contains a poHeo-station, a large choultry maintained by the Eaja, another kept up from local funds, a local fund hospital (founded 1879), an upprr secondary school for boys, an English lower secondary school for boys, a G-ovemment lower secondary aohool for girls and a largo cattle market. Tlio Bdja owns a bungalow near the station which is generally placed at the disposal of travellers. Close by are his experimental farm and veterinary dispensary.

Pithiipuram is mentioned as a sovereign city in very early ita antiquity. times. In the Allahabad pillar inscription of the Gupta king Samudragupta, which belougs to the middle of the fourth century A.D., the chieftain Mah^ndra of Pistapurara is mentioned along with the kings of Conjceverara and Tengi. He was almost undoubtedly a Pallava chief and a semi-independent feudatory of the Pallava t ing Vtshuugopa of Conjeeveram, Agaiu ' the strong fortress of Pishtdpura' is one of the places mentioned in the Aihole inscription of the Eastern Ch^lukya emperor Pulak^sin I I as having been subdued by him when he conquered the Vengi country. But from this period onwards a wide gap occurs in the history of the place. Inscriptions ranging from 1186 to 1391 A.D. and belonging to the Velanfindu chiefs, the K6na3, Mallapa's Eastern Chalukya line, and the Eeddi kings are found in i t ; but thoy throw no light on its history.

In comparatively modern times Pithapuram reappears as the hoad-quartei's of au important zaraindari. Mr. Grant, in his Political Survey of ihe Northern Circars ah-oady quoted, states that the ancestors of the Eaja of this estate were established as renters of part of it as early as 1571, but that the family was involved in the general proscription of Indian landholders under the rule of Eustum Kh^n until in 1749 one of its members obtained a eanad for the zamindari from the amildar Nimat Ali,

A detailed history of the estate has recently been published History of th« at Cocanada by order of the Rdja. Up to the end of the P»*i'»P"a™ eighteenth centmy, this consists entirely of a ti-anslation of one of the Maokonzio MSS. The dates and names {especially the former) in this are evidently confused, but it may be relied on

30

234 G(5Di7AIlI,

CHAP. XT, PiTHipDEAM.

Origin of the Pithipuram 'amily,

Grant of the camindari, circa 1684.

There it refers to erentB In the latter half of the eighteenth oentnry Further mateiiale for a historical sketch of the estate are provided by the appointments and title-deeds given to the family by snocessive Mahammadan rulers wliich are still preserved in its archives, and by an old genealogical tree kept there.

The fam^y is of the Velama etock and its ordinary titles (like those of the Kalahasti zamindai-s) are Rao or Eaya-Nimgdr. I t claims descent from one Anupotama Ndyudu, about whom some remarkable atones are told. His existence is proved by orders of the B^hmanl kings-one of Ala-ud-din (14o5-58} dated 1454 ' pardomng h m for his misbehaviour' and gi-anting him and his brother Madhava certam lands, and the other by the son of Muhammad Shah I I (1463-82) dated 1464^65 and confirmiug or modifying the former grant—b-it these do not connect him with PithS puram. The grants confer villages in the Nizam's Dominions and the former directs him to come to the court of the Sultan'

^ . ^ I t t ' V ? " V T u ' ^ ' ''""'''^'^ °^ ^^^ ^ f' ^ * (mentioned in theMS h^toyy) ot h.s son, who collected a large army and conquered forts m the west, which were afterwards held by the family as a jaghir. The Dames of two of these forts ^r^^L • the MS as Eailasa and Metuk^r, and a M e t S H s ' m S d I he g a n t Anupotama's brother, Hadhaya Nayudu, is sa d n

the MS. 0 have founded the family of Yenkati^ri in N e l t o The family were afterwards onsted fi-om their jaglm by ' soi rDelhi

after Anup6tamaNayudn), won back Metuk6r and KaiUsa by force of arms and his son and grandson ruled them more or less mdependently. The sons of the latter were ousted a^ain and served tiie kmg of Goleouda as sirdar. This must hive been about the end of the sixteenth ecntury.

It is from Madhava Rao one of these sirdars, that the P.thdpuram family is descended. His sons ' Uved for a long time a Samalkot, and one of them, Tenagu Rao, was appointed Sirdar of the EajahmundryCircar at the head of 4,000 troom with Anaparti (in Eamachandrapm:am taluk) as a iaghir ^ He i«

n«79 ft«r Y"" ' P P ° ? ^ ? ^^ ^ ^ S ^^'^ Hassan of Goleonda (1672-88), who was undoubtedly well disposed to his family He

350 men and the letter of appointment, dated 1676-77, f stUl

' The Plthdpnmm MS. profoseea to quote an inscHni;^^ t <=oufir,m.,BtUi«appomtmeut. and tUtod 1598. Bnt t h r d i r « .T "^""P"^ ' ^ d th« list of Mnhammadaa mler« in the E a j a h ^ a X MS Tf ^ V " " " ' " ^ • does notBtipport the appomtnient. referred to below

QAZETIEER. 2 3 5

kept at Pithapuram. Both the MS. history and the genealogical CHAP. XV. tree agree in saying that the nucleus of the present zamindari of PIIHIPORJIII.

Pithdpuram was given to another SOD named Eamachandra Rao ; tlie former ascribes the gift io king Abu Hassan, but the latter gives the date as 16i7. I'he eanad then granted is not forthcoming, but the MS. gives what purports to be a copy of it. According to this, the grant included the ' pergunnas' of Cocanada^ Sclopaka ( 7 miles south of Cocanada ) and Porlunadu (i.e., apparently, Pithdpuram).' Samalkot and two other villages wore also given as mokhftsa,

The MS. goes on to describe the fortunes of Tenugu Eao's children in some detail. Two more of Lis sons, Krishna Eao and Eangasayi Eao, were intimates of king Abu Hassan, being particularly good chesa-plaj'ors. The latter killed himself in the presence of the king rather than survive the insults which that ruler, being out of humoui', one day heaped upon him.

Various descendants of the seven sons of Tenugu Eao held Bebelliouof the estate for eomo years. One of them, Venkata Krishna Edya- »bout 1733. Nimgiir, at length obtained an exemption from the payment of peshkash and * ruled over the estate as if it were independent.' Certain zamiodars of the country having failed to pay then-revenues, an expedition was sent by the Muhammadans under Eustum Khdn,^ the subordinate of Anwar-ud-din, about 1733 to suppress them. The zamindai-a of Mogalturru and EUore were defeated at EUore and called in the help of Venkata Krishna E^ya-Nimgftr and the zamindarui of Peddapuram. The united forces of the zamindara fought the Muhammadans twice near Peddapuram, but were defeated and driven into oxile. The E^ja of Pithapuram ' lived for some time among the hills of Totapalli on predatory exoursions.' His cousin Bachchanna was captured with the remuauts of tho array by Rustum Khan and he and his followers were beheaded at Pithapuram.

Venkata Krishna Eaya himself is said in the MS, to have died Bis restora-of jungle fever in T<5tapalli. But this is apparently wrong. The fj'eo. ""* genealogical tree makes him rule till 1759, and his existence in 1754-55 is proved by nine Mahammadau grants to him, ranging

' P^rlunidii is nowadays nsed to designaJe tliose parts of tlie Cocanada, Peddipuramaud Pittipmam oonutry wliioli are watered by t ie Tek'ru, The word 19 locally explained to mean ' the land of floods,' from porlu, ' to overflow.'

' Called in the MS. ' Haji HuKsaln,' bat evidently identicdl with Eustum KhSn. Tlio Rajahmnndry MS. ropreaents liim as Nawfib of Hajahmunttry from 1730 to 1737, and l lr . Grant (p. 208) givos the dato of the defeat or the Mogal-u r m sainiadar ae 1733.

236 oiDivAEI.

CHAP. XT.

The estate dnimg tbe Anglo-Fiencb war.

Snbseqneat historr.

from 1749-50 to 1754-55, which are still kept at Pithdpuram.» His etttatos and jaghira were apparently regrauted to him in the nrat of theao years by Nimat A\i, who wag Nawab of Rajahmuudry from 1749-50 to 1751-52. The gap hetwoea 1734, when he was defeated by the Musalmans, and 1749, when ho was restored, la hard to fill, Aawar-ud-din had quieted tho country, and the people were ' in enjoyment of peace of mind and frcodom from predatory incursions."' Bustum KUdu had boon killed by his own son, Nur-ud-din, and the latter waa beheaded by Anwar-nd-din. But whether Veakata Kriahna Eaya was allowed to return to hi8 estate before 1749 and, if not, who ruled the property in the interim, is not clear.

The authorities do not say what happened to the estato while the B"rench held the Northern Oireara, but when the Tizianagram B&ja induced the English to invade tho country in 1758-59, tho Pith^pnram zamindar, like the other chiefs of this district, suspected that he wished to extend hia dominions at their expense, and accordingly opposed the invasion. He apparently took no part in the battle of Condore; but hearing that tho Eogliab were advancing against Samalkot with the Vizianagram Eaja ho obtained tho help of the Dutch of Cocanada to resist them. The MS. says that the Samalkot fort held out for three months, but then submitted. Very shortly afterwards, however, the French landed some troops at Cocanada and these were received into the fort at Samalkot, and were joined there by Jagapati Kdzu, a relative and enemy of the Vizianagram Raja. This coalition fought an action at TJnddr with the Vizianagram forces, but was defeated. Samalkot was re-taken by the English and the French were driven to Cocanada. Ml this must have taken place in 1759. Tho E^ja of Pithdpuram toot refuge in Ttaghavapm-am, but, on tho death of the Vizianagram R4ja Boou afterwards of amall-pox, he returned to Pithapuram.

Meanwhile the Nizam had again become possessed of the district, and about 1761 tho zamiadar was re-eatablished in his property.

Who held the property during the next few years is not clear, and there seems to have been some fighting over the successions. In 1765 tbe then Edja, Eumdra Mahipati, died, and his uncle Nil^dri succeeded. He seems to have been a man of character and to have taken a strong line in the disturbancos of the precedin g years.

• Pour of thoBe bear tbe seal of the Mughal emperor Ahmafl Shih (1748-E4> and one of Alam^r H (1754r-59).

/

237 GAZETTEER.

. . \ flsKumaraVcnkatalfahipati CHAP. XV. The next zamindaroi any interest iK«ma>a^ ^^_^^^^ ^.^^ p ^ ^ ^ ^ , , , ,

Eao^ (1786-93), of ^vhom ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ he were an independent the poshkasfa and ruled over ^^^^^f^''.^VL>io^«icivt of the greatest xuler without any disturbance and m tbo e|>)oy î^gÛpatam' (the delights/ Thiswas too mnoh for t e . ^^^^ ^j^^ ^ , ^ i ^ d ^

Chief of the English Council there) "^'^^J^^^ f , ilasuiipatamj to appear bolore ^ ' ^ / ^ ^ ^ X r e t u t n l uttered the foUowln ^ but on his way he halted a * ^ ' ^ " ' ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ any fnrther; for if naivo soliloquy : ' I t is -ot Vôi^^^^^^^'l, ^ t b c p e s t a h tho Nawdb were to question me ^ n> ^^^^ . ^ ^ ^ be and leou ld not give him ^-îsfactery ans • , ^ . go he very difficult to say what «*«Pf ^ ^ ^ ^ . f vhere, ' the climate of retired to tho bills ^T -" ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ H ^ ^ttaeked by jungle fever the place being unsuitcd to mm, a n d ' died prematurely there. ^^ ^^^ Board o!

The story is confirmed by t ^ S f ^ ^ . ^ n d e d that the late Kevonue of that day. I b j ôard ^ê^^^^ ,Uould succeed him,

zamindar's young '^ ' ' ^«^" '7 !"J ' r , ,n , , „en t aettlemeut wasmade and it was with this man t h ^ l b c p a m ^ , ^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^g^l tH

in 180=i. From his death, which occu ^^^ . ^^ ^^^^^ jc

estate was under ^1": f?;"^ "J^ ^ n It was h^ ^ ^ ^ management from l ^ f / ^ ^ ^ i ^ f ângadhara Edma Kao w, h a t h e n ' v n e r Vonkata H ^ ^ J ^ ^ ^ ^ S died in 1890, an . v.th ^ balaaee of four lakhs This zami ^^^ ^^^^^ f w s brief interval, the esta e «°^^^^;7 j^^âed over to its present until October 1906, when it was n , . ^ ^ proprietor. ^ ^, .^^ , , , . lu the early years o The «-^« ^

The estate is a remarkably ?^^^\f .ershadowedhy the more British administration it was n ' l o u ^ \ ' ^ ^ ^ , ^^^^^ ^^^ l , t er h ^ important zarnindaii of P<;^f P^^^^^'. ..tended. Not on y does ceased to exist Pithapuram \ ^ ^ , f j i V P i t h d p u r a m division and it now comprise nearly the whole of the ^1^^^^^ ^ j , i , ^ ^

the CoeanaAa taluk, but it aUo .^ . ^ ^ , , d r y . eight m AmaUpuram, twelve in ^^"^^;'-,%j,6davaram, as well as otbe» Rdmaohandrapuram and tour ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ gs^ square

in North Aroot and other districts. ^^^ ^ ^ ^^^^ ^^0, and the

miles and its income in i^" peBhkash Rs. 2.44,000. ^ ^ ia divided mto six ^ For purposes of admi^trat^^n i^^^^.^^.^^ , ,ve no admitted ihdnasJô\xxmd,r^thanaMr.^^ ^^^^ have shown a occupancy right i - ^^-^^^tmuf^centb what is known as the tendency to claim this, ^^^_^^^^ ^ . ^ . _ ^ ^

,ThUUtU,M.hipatimentio»eabyth.

1 38 G^DiVAEI.

CHAP. XT. vantavdradi system of laud tenure has been onforeed by the estate. PiTuipcBAM. This is, in effect, the joint-rent system in vogue in ryotwari lands

prior to 1866 and detcribed in. Chapter XI. I t included the ' challenging ' there referred to. This undesirable method wag practically abandoned under the Court of Wards. Rentals were fixed, whenever complaints were made about them, by holding a kind of public auction and giving the land to the man who offered the highest figure. When once thus settled, they were'not altered until the holding changed banda by succession or otherwise, and the successful bidder was not interfered with in big possession. The estate has now been surveyed ; and it may bo hoped that the R^ja will introduce a regular settlement on the basis of tlie survey,

The town. The town of Pithdpuram is one of the least attractive places imaginable. The streets are narrow, winding, uneven and dusty, and the houses aro poor in appearance. The Edja's residence is in striking contrast, being an imposing building of great size.

The town possesses some religious and arohteological interest. I t is known tbroughont the Noi*thern Circars as a place of pilgrimage. The particular point of sanctity is iho pdda gaya pool in front of the Kukkut^svara-svimi temple. According to tho legend, a giant named Gayasura, who was so big that when he lay down his body stretched from Graya to Pithdpuram, once ruled southern liidia. Ho was killed by Siva while his feet were resting in Fithapuram near this pool. The pool is accordingly called, the pdda (' foot *) gaya. The local Hindus speak of three gayag, where different parts of the dead eriant were found. One of these is the place of that name in Bengal, and it is held throughout this district that any one who bathes there ought also to bathe in the pdda gaya'pool at Pitbdpmam. Three large images of Buddhist or Jain origin, sitting cross-legged in the usual contemplative attitude^ stand at the side of one of the main streets of the town. They are known as sanydsi devuh, (' eiscetie gods') and a festival is held in honour of them in times of drought; by which means, it is supposed, they are induced to send rain. Four interestmg inscriptions have been found in the Kuntim^dhava temple. These give some historical information and the genealogies of three lines of chieftains who ruled in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.^ A small raostjue in the biizaar street has evidently been built with the materials of an old Hindu shrine. I t is locally supposed that the pillars came from the Kuntimddhava tsmple. There are some inscriptions on the pillars.

' Bee GOTOmment •Bpigrspliiat'a annual repf vt for 1894 pp, 3 f( ^ioA inacriptiona Kga. 490 to 403 of 1803. ' ' *'

QAZETTEEB. 239

One of the largest cattle markota in the district takes place in CHAi*. xv, the town every Saturday. The sale of the right to collect the fees PiinipoBAM. at this fetches over Es . 3,000 annually. Tho excellent bell-metal work done in the place is refen-ed to in Chapter VI. About fifty households of D^v^ngas weave plain but fine cloths and about the 8arac number of Senapatis make coarser stuffs.

Fonnada: Lies near the sea const eight miles cast by noiih of Ponnid*. Pithiipuram. Population 2,927. Its ancient importance is attested by the fact that three spots in Pithapuram town, namely, one of the fort gates, a well, and a cattle-stand, bear its name. A building erected round a banyan tree in the village is held sacred both by tho Muhaminadans and the Hiudus of the locality, Tlie legend says that long ago a Muhamuiadan widow wished to be buried with her husband, was prevented, bat was permitted to live in this building, which was erected over his tomb. After her death the entrances to the building were closed.

Uppada: Seven miles east-south-east of Pithapuram j popula- uppada, tion 3,912. Contains a police-station. The travellers' bungalow recently collapsed owing to the encroachments of the eea. It is noted for its muslins, which are known throughout a large part of the Presidency. Thoy are referred to in Chapter VI. About 200 Devangas are engaged in this industry,

The village gives its name to a small zaniindari estate with an income of Es. 2.700 and a poshkash of Es. 660. This was given by the late Eaja of Pithapuram to his sister.

The erosion, of the coast and the existence of a submerged town here have been referred to in Chapter I.

240 aiSDAVABr.

KAJAHMUNDRY TALUK.

CHAP. XT. RjtJAB-

MUNDBT.

P o w l a i s h -

EAJAHMUKDRY talnk lies along the left hank of the G6ddvari just above the bead of the delta. Most of it ia not a particularly fertile upland, and as much a3 71 per cent, of the soil is ferruginous. Nearly all the rest is i-egar. The taluk is irrigated chiefly by tanks, of which 28 of fair si/o are in charge of the Public Works department. The largest arc those at KottapalH (ayaout 970 acres) and Edpavaram (8* 3 acres). Eice is the most widely grown crop, but the areas under tobacco and castor are considerable. Nine per cent, of the cultivable land is unoccupied, and the incidence of the lu.nd revenue per head is only Rs. 1-10-11. The number of educational institutions in Rajahmundry towa results in the people being more literate than in any other taluk, and over ten per cent, of the male population can read and write. The industriea of Rajahmundry town and Dowlaishweram arc referred to below. At Rajanagaram and KSteru a fair amount of weaving is done, at Duppalapiidi black Ijangles are made by twentj KdpuSj and the stone-carving of Jegurupddu is well known. Large taluk board chattrams have been established at Edjd-nagaram and Dowlaishweram.

Nearly the whole of the taluk ia Government land. It includes nine "villages of the Pithdpuram zamindari and also nine other small proprietary estates, but of these latter all but one consist of only one village. The eioeption is Yangalap^di, which comprisea three villages.

Dowla i shweram ; Four and a half miles south of Rajahmundry. Population 10,304. I t appears to have been a place of importance during the early struggles between the Hindus and Muhammadans and is now widely known as the site of Sir Arthur Cotton's great anient across the Godavari. referred to in Chapter IV, is the head-quarters of two Executive Engineers, and contains the Public Works department's work-shops mentioned in Chapter VI. The town is a union and contains a local fund dispensary (established lb92), a large local fund choultry, a fair-sized market, an English lower secondary school for boys, and a Sanslsrit school. The choultry (called, after the house-name of the donot, the Kruttivantiv^ti choultry) is endowed with land bringing in an income of Rs. 2,100 annually, and was bequeathed to the talnk board. The income ia devoted to feeding Brdhmana,

GAZETTEEK. 2 4 l

There nrc a small European chmrcli and ccmotcry in the village. CUAP, XV. "What looks like a town wall and is pierced by the road entering HAJAU-

the place is really only the bank of the old railway constructed to " bring materials from the quarry to the river for the building of

Hindus. The name Dowlaishwcram is doived from that of the neighbouring hill Daulagirl. Thci-c, it is said, a saint named Namda used to live ; and he is credited with the foundation of the Vaifbnavite temple of Juuardhanasvami on the hilJ, as well as of many other ehiines to the same god in the villages on the river bank in this and the Bamachaudi-apnram taluk. Tiiat in Dowlftishweram lias an annual festival lasting aix days in Pehruar^- orMareli. A cavo on the side of the hill is supposed to be the montli of a subterranean passage loading to Bcnaies, In it is a stoQO image called IConda Nicdmthi or Santdna Qopdlascdmi, which is visited by woraon who desire to Jvave children. The temple of Aujamiya contains two rdoi trees said to have been planted by Rama and Sita respectively ; and there are two footsteps in the rock there which aie supposed to he those of these two deities. Dowlaishweram is in consequence somfctimts called Rdtua pddd- /:sMtra»t, ' the holy place of llama's feci.' 'i'hc sanctity of the village is also enhanced by the fact thiit it is the last place at which the watei's of the GcJdavari flow down united and undiminished, and by a fancifnl legend that iOS Siva temples lie buried somewhere or otlicr in the neighbourhood. The result is that Oowlaishwcrara is one of the holiest of the bathing-places along this holy rivei', and is thronged by pilgrims during the • pushhamni festival.'

A feast to the village goddess Miityulamma is held in the village OUL'C every tlu-ce years. A bufffdo is .sacrificed and afterwards votive offniuga of pots of buttermilk are presented to the goddess, she is taken outside the village, and tlie pots are emptied there. The head of the balfalo and a pot of its blood are also carried round tlie village by a Mala, and a pig is sacrificed in an unusual and cruel mauiier. It is buried up to its neck and cattle are driven over it until it is trampled to death. This is supposed to eusai e the health of men and cattle in the ensuing year.

A few industries fiourish in the place. Two Kamsalas make brass and bronze vessels, and about 25 persons of various castes

'' 960 Cliuptor J| p. C,

n

249. G^DAVABI.

CHAP. XV. do really good wood-carving. Tho place is also tnown for its HAJAK- architects, who arc said lobe employed throughout the plain taluka

iio^^T. ^^ jjg Patriot when houses are built.

GikaTaratn. Gokavaiam 1 Nineteen miles north-north-cnst of Eajah-mundry. Population 2,425. Contains a local fund rost-houso and a large weekly market to which the hill people bring tlie produce of the Eampa country for ealc,

Kdrokonda, Korukonda : Eleven miles north-uorth-cast of Rajabmundiy. Population 3,952. Contains a police-station. A travellers' bungalow is kept up in the ueighbounug village of G6uag6dcm. A pilgrimage to the temple of NarasiinhasTami at K6rukonda is supposed to be of unrivalled efficacy in granting offsprinfj to childless women, and the place is often thronged with suppliants of this class. Humour avers that the Brahmans of tho place take a personal and direct share in ensuring that thoir prayers shall not be fruitless, and the belief has passed into a proverb. A festival which lasts for fifteen days takes place at the temple in the months of January and February.

K6riikonda and its neighbour Koti' appear onco to have been of some political importance. One of the Mackenzie MSS. which deals with the ancient liistor}" of tho district*^ gives some account of their early foi-tunea. It saya that Koti and 101 Siva temples

^were founded by king Rajaraja of the Eastern Chulukya line, who reigned from 102'i to 1063 and is prominent in tho traditional history of Kajahmuudry, and that about two hundred years later a fort was built in Koti by an early Keddi chief named Annala D^va. The MS. goes on to quote a local inscription of 132i-.'Ji, apparently still in existence at tlic cud of tho eighteenth ecntiii'V, which rccoided the revenue arrangemctits made in tho village by tho Kakatiya king, Pratapa Rudi*a, who reigned till 1Z^4. Tho "Korukonda fort was built some time afterwards by K6na Rcddi, ' a good S-idra who became ruler of the adjoining country,' and who governed wisely and well. Jlc was succeeded by his son Mummidi Reddi, one of whose servants erected the Lakshminara-simha temple. The date of this event is given both in the MS. and in an inscription quoted by Mr. Sewell aa 1353,^ Mnmmidi licddi's three immediate successoi-a ruled for the next 40 years. One of them rebuilt tiie Hauganathasvami'tempIein;l'J94-95 A.D.

> Siiid to bo aliort for KfitiliDga n (' a. c iom nf JingamH ') ntid to bo Uerivotl from tilt! nomber of Rnivilo otnblomfl uhout. tbu pUco.

* l>o<!al Uecoids, vol. ii, p. 231 anil vol. six, p . 7S. Sec ulao Clmpter 11, p . Ii6. ' Litis 0/Antiquities, i, 21, The MS. only giYos tUo cycle year .

GAZETTEEE. 243

From this point until irnbammadan times are reached, tho CHAP.xr. MS. is silent, but it gives details of tho lessees of the place undpi- AMAH-

*lic Miipalmans. Tlje fort Tvaa appnronflj destroyed by the viffor- '•" "'" ' ona and cruel Uushim Khaa (l73<)-;^7) referred to on pp. 2(t-30, Its ruins are still to bo seen, and titcro is another ruined £ortree.s at. Koti. On the Piinrlava bill west of Korukondn arc two reek-cut caves- T)io MS. says that the Paiidavas lived iu tliem during their exile.

Kottapall i : IVonty-two miles nortb-north-east of fiajab- EottapolU. miindry. Population -J,WO. Contains a travellci-G' bungalow and a largo tank which in-igates some 970 aeres- The village gave its name to ono of tho 'pcrguunas' of tho old Polavaram zamindari. For many years tliis was divided from tlio rest of that estate and managed bv adiwan; but in 1781 it was re-anuexed to it and shoi-tly afterwards was placed under Narasimha, a brother of the Pdlavaraai zaniindar. During the fighting in 1785 at ftitula, described in tho ae:ount of Polavaram, two usurpers -wrested Kottapalli froui Narasimha and the Government troops had to interfere. They captured tbo place and put Narasimha over it once more. He stood aloof fi-om the disturbance of 1790 i-oforred to in the account of Polavaram, hut joined in the more considerable robeliion of Mangapati at the close of the century. Kottapalli was then oceupied by a company of sepoys to beep the hill people of Kampa in ehcekjand the young zaniin-dar was ultiuiately captured and deposed. His estate was then again united with Polavaram. It was however once more separated from it afterwards, and its 36 villages were sold in 1808 for arrears of revenue. The purchaser himself fell into aiTears in 1829, and the eslate was attached and remained under management till 1841, in which year it was put up to auction and purchased by Government. The village now belongs to Government. I t was formerly t,lio head-quarters of a deputy tahfiildar.

Rajahmundiy, the bea*3-quarters of the taluk, stands on tli« noj h-left bank of tbo Godavari at the hoad of the gi'i-at railway bridge mimdry. (see p. 133) which carries the Madras Uailway across that river. It is a mmiicipality of 36,408 inhabitants, and the second most important town in the district.

The earliest mention of Eajabmundry in any extant literature ie in the introduction to the Telugu translation of the Mahd-bharata, which waa composed by Nanuayahhatta in the reign of tho Eastern Chalukya king Uajaraja (102*4-02) who is known to popular tradition as liajanija Narendra, In this the town is

244 GOUAVABI.

jtiamabondrapattanam ('the city ot Kajamanemua j au.w. to as tbe capital of the Eastern Clu,lukya kingdom oud

atral gem of the Ve.igi com^try.' llajamabeiidra was a me by two of RAiaraja's predecessors, namely, Amma 1

CH.P .X. c«ned naiamal^nd.apat.^amCU.ccity o f E a ^ ^ ^

EH.1AII- reierred MVj Y. , tjjg eentral

title borne by two of Rajaraja'. ^ (018-iD) and Annm U ,9.15-70), and the town wn. perhaps fouu(l<>(l H ;m.l failed jificv one or other of these kmga. «'it n.10 of tbo Mackeii7,ie MriK. attributes its foundation to an carher V.'iuj. I,;LJIII;<\ "Vijsiy:'<lityti Mab<;ndra,

'I 'ho oxicnHion (A t h o Eab te ro LlbaVakya d o m m i o n a i n t o t\\ft kiii[^(l(.iti (.1 K;)linj;ii, un tlni n o r t h rnuHt \ iave rftndcrc' l R a i a b m u n -ih-y till iin(M,(t.iuit, Mtiiit,fp;i(.al i>omt. I t in doacr ibcd in compaxa-(,,v.ly ,.,.<.,M,t. ii . , . , . . ; .H M,U« U.r r ior a n d key to t h e V i z a g a p a t a m country V On the downfall of the Kakatiya dynasty of Wafangal before the armies ot the Muharamadane in 1323, the conquerors

mX tbeir way aa\ui^ ii A i ^ ^ l f m ^ l , > \ \ % ; ' ^ i ^ ' ^ m f e ^ ^ ' there contains an inscription dated 1323-3'4 which mentions Miiliammad Tughlak of Delhi. Local tradition says that this building was formerly a Jlindu temple and was converted to its present use by these Musalmana,

Rajabmundry next comes into prominence as the capital of one of the lines of lieddi kings.- Its firt>t independent sovereign of that lino has left inscriptions in it the dates of which range from 1385 to 1422. By 1458-59 a minister of the Gajapati king Kapilesvara was ruling at Kajahmundry ; and in 1470-71 tho town was captured Ijy tho armies of the Muliammadan Sultan of Kulbarga, Aboiit 1478 the Hindus revolted and tho Mubam-madan garrison was besieged and perhaps reduced, Tho Yijaya-nagar cbioftaiii Naraaimlia seems to have occupied the town at this time and to have bcoii driven thence by a relieving force from Kulbarga. In any case the Mubammadans soon recaptured Rajabmuadry and king ituhammad of Kulbarga made the town his head-quarters for some thrco years (1478-80).

Soon after, during the dissensions amoag the Musalman powers ia the Deccan, Rajahmundry was taken by the king of Ori?sa, About 1515, however, the town was captured by Krishna Deva, the king of Vijayanagar, in tho course of his campaign against the Orissa dynasty.

By 1543 Rajahmundry was the frontier town of the Orissa country and lay on the bordci-s of the nowMubammadan conqueat* 60iith and west of the Godavari river. I t was ruled by a prinee

' Camb)iflije's War m J»ifli'< (L(fn<ton, I7lj;), 207, ' JTp, Jji*., iv, 319.

http://Rflamahfodn.patt.nam

file:///iave

GAZETTEER. 243

of tlic Claiapatl tiouse, ono Vidiadri, who aeema to have pffccted cUMWV. independence. He was ill-advised enongh to join in an attack ,UM.I.

upon his Mnhammadan ncigJihours some time be ween 15o0 and • _ _ 15(54, and paid a heavy penalty. Defeated in the field, he ^ s> shnt up in Rajabmnndry. The Mnhamraadan powers of the Boccan th.n comhincd lo deal a death-Wow to the Vijayuuagar kingdom aiid lie obtained a «horl mspitf. But on the return of ^hc''Alu^alnlan iiivudera ho was again defeated outride the walls of Eaiahmundrv. At their first onset in this battle his troops Woke the ripW'wiun of the oiicmy, Wt, on their reserve coming up, the fugitives rallied aud Aiovc tlieiv iiss;u\«i\U iut-Uo U\i lovi. Yidiadri was hcsiogedl here tor fojv months, and at last (lo71-7'2) was uompellc \ lo surrender. The fire of the hoavv artillery of the Alusaliuans had made a hreach nearly fifty paces iu leugth in the curtain of the fort, and further rcaietauce seemed useless. Vidiadri was p .•mittcd to go unharmed and Rajalimnndry was never again a Hindu poseesijion.

Tho neigh bo uihood was the scene ot a stubborn battle a few years later, when the - .uhammadan governor defeated the inaur-gont raja of Kasimkuta. The fate of the day hung long in tbe balance and victory was only seemed by a charge of Mubam-madan cavalry which had turucd the flank of the Hindu army.

On the disruption of Auraugzeb's empire, Itajabmundry became the head-quarters of a nawabship of the province of Golconda. The names of the nawabs, and indeed of all the Musalman governors of tho town from 1673 to 1769, are given iu the Mackenzie MS, referred to above.

After the cession of tho Nortlieru Circars to tho French in llo'-i, Kajnhniuudry, on account of its central position, was chosen liy Bussy as bis hoad-quarters iu preference to Masulipatam. It remained the iVeucIi capital till (he English invasion of 1758-On tho evening after the battle of Condoro, a forco of 1,500 sepoys was sent on by Colonel Fordo to occupy the town. They arrived on the following evening (December lOth 17o8) and found the French, wJio iraaginctt the whole ll)nglish force to be upon thoni. in the act of evacuating the fort. One boat laden with several iluropeans was in tho middle of the Godavari river, and some othci*a with a few small field-piecea had just reached the opposite bank, wbcn the Knglish arrived. The English sepoys oponcd file on thorn from the walls of the fort, and this deterred them from carrying oft their guns, or remaining hi the vicinity. Fifteen Frenchmen wore taken prisoners in tho fori, and also a quantity of ammunition and stores. The town was shortly

246 GonivAiu.

CHAP. XV. afterwards, liowovcr, retaken by the French, When Colonel RAJAH- Fordc advanced southwards again&t Masulipatam in Fohruary

MuxDKT. 1759, only a atnall garrison, Bome sick and wonnded, and some treaanre had been left there ; aud a detached French force made a dash for the place and ensily captured it. The Commandant had only just time to send his treasure to (Joeanadji and his able-bodied men in retreat towards Vijiagapatain before the French arrived. The latter, liowever, did not attempt to hold the plnec.

During the few yeara thereafter in which the district was again in the bands of the Nizam, Rajabmundry was tho heud-()uarters of hia local representative, Hussain Ali Sbdn, Tbc lattcr's position waa precarious, and an English force of 200 sepoys and twelve artillery men under Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Henryj Cosby was sent to Eajahmundry to support bira. Two rival elaimanta were at thattime (iompeting for the position of Nawab. A near relative of one of them waa commandant of the fort at IJajahmuudry, aud had 500 Arabs, ready for any mischief, under him. Ho had entered into a conspiracy to take the town and hold it for his i-elative, but his design was defeated by tho vigoui" aud promptitude of Cosby, who, dcapito the insignificance of hia force, took him prisoner. Eoinforcemcnta were soon received from Masuli-patam, and Cosby maintained his position at Eajabmundry till the country was ceded to the Bnglish.

Though Masulipatam then became the centre of the administration, troops appear to have been stationed at Eajabmundry for many years. When, in 1794, the Chief and Council at JWasuli-patam wei-e replaced by Collectors, one of the latter was stationed at Eajahmimdry, When the 'Eajahmundry dibtriet' was constituted, the Collector did not live in tho tovi n v?bicli gave bis cbai^Q its name, though fvom the very first this bad contained the eom-t of the Zilla Judge appointed in 180^,' and it was not until 1867 that even the Sub-Collector was stationed there. The Sub-CoUeetor, tho District and Sessions Judge and the District Superintendent of Police are stationed there now. The place moreover contains the usual taluk oflicGs, a aub-registiaf and a district munsif. I t is the bead-quarters of the American Evongrlieal Lutheran Mission, which keeps up a high school there, a station of the Eoman Catholic Mission, and contains several Christian churches and two Euvopfan cemeteries. Tbe oldpr of the latter in near the old Civil Court, and the tombs in it go back lo 177]. The other contains a large number of graves dating from 1862 down to the present day.

' CbaptcT X l l i . p . 189.

fiAZETTEEB. 247

Tho-towu also contains two travellers' Inmgalows, one Vtelong-ii]g to tlio municipal council and the other to ttie taluk board ; several piivate chattrams, two of which ai-c inipoi'tant institutions ; two polico-stationH, a police school and a large Special Police Reserve ; a nianicipal hosj^ital and a mtesion dispensary ; a first-grade collcgCj a training college, two high scliook, three English lower secondary schools for hoji's, one English and three vernacular lower eceoudary schools for girls, and a Sanskj-it school. The choultries are referi-cd to in Chapter VIT, the oliief medical aud educational institutions in Chapters IX and X respectively and the municipal council and its doings in Chapter XIV.

Eajahmundry is not only of interest historically and as an administrative centre, but is also of importance to Hindus h-om a religious point of view. It is held that all pilgrims going from this district to Benares should also visit Eajahmnndry, and most of these people bathe in the river there on their way back from the holy city. I'bey also observe the curious custom of emptying half the contents of tlie pots of Granges water they bring baek with them into the G6davari, and fill them up again from the latter rivor. It is believed that if this is not done, the Ganges water will quickly dry up in tho pot. The sanctifying effect of a hath in the ^odivari at Rnjabnumdvy is placed so high that people come by train all the way from Atadras for the purpose, often going back the ne,\t rlay. The balhin? place is called the Kotilingam (' crore of lingams ') ghat. The name is explained by a story that the llrihrnan sages at one time wanted to make the place as sacred as Reuares, where there are supposed to be a crore of lingams, and therefore set themselves to found tho sumo number here in a single uiglit. Uufortunatcly the day dawned before the last one was made. Tho lingams are supposed to lie buried ill tho bed of tho GoH^vari oppobitt.' the ghat. The river id held to be partioulatly sacred at Eajahmundry (and Oowlainh-, wcram) because, like the Oauvery above (he delta, it is still nndi-minisbed by division into many branches. It is eatlo' the Agnuda (' entire ') GodAvari, just as the other is called the Ag.inda Oauvery. The Kajahmundry ghat is one of the centtes of the great piisfihiram festival, which takes place once in thirteen years.'

The place is also noted for the worship of a very widely known vill.igo goddess called Chamalamma, whose image reposes under a tree about a mile away. A fortnight's featival in her honour is celebrated iu I ho last mouth of tho Telugu year ^Msa^h-April), and at this a mud pot which her spirit is supposed to ontor

CHAP. XV. RAJAU-

MtlKDSY,

Sco Chapter I, p. C.

248 G6DAVAKI.

CHAP. XV. BAj&n-

is taken round the town every day and wovshippcd. Varioin peculiar rites are performed at the festival. The buffalo which is sacEifieed is not killed outright; but a wound is first made in its neck and apotfalof its blood is collected, A hook-swinging is conducted, but a aheep is the victim, and not a man, and it is swung by a rope tied round its body. The ordinary offerings of aheep, fowls, buffaloes, otc, are also made in fulfilment of vows. Another local deity is called Kannamma Peranttila ('housewife Kannamma 'J. She was a Eeddi woman, Slio, her husbund, and her six sons all died on one day of cholera about 40 yeara ago, and her soul appeared to one of her I'olativcs and said she had been deified. Ever since then she has been worshipped by all the non-6i4hman Hindus of the place, who ofier her sheep, fowls, cloths, etc. Her shrine is an unpretciitions tiled house.

The industries of the place are oE some note. Some '100 boueeholds of Devdngas weave coloui'ed cloths for inun and women. and some of them can do simple embroidery. A few Eangaris stamp chiutzos, and some tiiirty Kamsalas make vosfiels ol bi'ass, bell-metal and lead. One or two Muchis are said to paint ivith skill, and 30 Kamsala and Oddo carpenters do excellent wood-carving. Three fair-sized tanneries, managed by Labbaia, arc at work, and good shoes arc mad<i by Mddigas and GoduriH. A few potters make good gujas.

QAZETTEEE- 249

RAMACHANDRAPUBAM TALUK.

EAiiACHANDRAPUJiAM taluk Ues along thc left bauk of the CHAP, xv, (^autami G(5davari just below the head of the delta. ^KltealM*

Almost all its soii(fl per cent.) is alluvial, it is irrigated by the (j6ddvari water, nearly the whole of it is cultivated, and the density of its population h second only to that of Nagaram island. Paddy is natwrally the chief crop, but tobacco is gvown in fadi: quantities, and the area under Bugai'-eano is greater than in any other taluk in the district. Detailed statistics regarding the crops and other matters will be found in the separate Appendix,

Local industries are few. Kotipalli and Dr^kshdrdmam are saored places, and the temple in the latter contains many ancient inscriptions,

Nearly the whole of the taluk is now Government land. Eight villages belong to the Pithdpnram zamindari, eight others to the Y^gayammap^ta estate, and five more each make up a small estate.

Bikkavolu : Nino miloa north of EdmEiobandrapuram. Popu- BikknyiSiu. lation 7,994. It is a union, and contains a sub-registrar's office and a small local fund market. Two Mftchi wood-i^arvers do good work. The village is said in one of the AEaekonzie MSS. > to have been the capital of the earlier Eastern CbAlukya kings before they moved to RajnhmiLudry, It is said to contain extensive ruins and some deserted temples,^

Tlie place is no*w famous as a centre of snake-worship. The snake-god Subbarfiyadn has a three days feutival there in the sasfiU (sixth day) following thc new moon in Margaaira (December-January), whicli goes by thc name of the Siibbardyadi sashii. People attend this in the hope of obtaining relief from small bodily ailmeiits (such as boils and pains in the ears, eyes, eto.) and in order to get children. Childless womou spend a night fasting in the temple clothed in a particular kind of cloth (called ndtfula kokalv-) in which the colours are mixed in a peculiar way. AU castes appear to resort to the temple for tlie purpose. In former times a cobra was supposed to come out and show itself on one of the days of the festival.

' Wi)eon'uCttiuloguc,-p. aO?, So, 13,*. ' Seweil'a lints, i, 33.

33

250 cdDAVAEI.

CHAP. XV.

DKAPURAU.

DrfikahirA-luam.

Br^ksharamam : Four miles south by east of Bamachandra-puram ; population 11,213. Contains a private cbattram for feeding BrahmanB, a p<jlicc-3tation, a sub-re<;i8trar'3 office and a large eattle-mftrtet. The union of which it is the chief village also includes V^lamapAlaiyam, Totapeta, Jaganodyakulapalaiyam and Vegayammapeta. Two Muchi woodcarvcis do particularly good work, and a little weaving of tape and clothe is carried on.

The village is noted for its fine temple and foi' its sanctity. Its name is said to be more eorreutly ' Daksharamn * and to mean ' the garden of Daksha '. According to the well-known story in the Sivopurdnain, this Dakeba was a Brabman, the father-in-law of Siva. Thinking that he bail not been properly treated by that god, he performed a ydyam {sacrifice) without inviting him to be present. His daughter attended uninvited, ho treated her discouTteously, and she accordingly plunged into the fire of tbe (tacrifieo. Siva burst into i sweat on hearing the news, and brom vhis perspiration was born Virabbadra, who went and killed Daksha. Orthodox Brahmans will not perfonn a ijdijo.m inside the village, as it is held to be an ill-omened place.

The real centre of the religious iutevtat of Drtiksharamam ia the temple of Bhlm^svara-avami, It contains a particnlarlv big Hngani, some fourteen or fifteen fct^ high. This is supitosed to he part of a Hngam which broke into tivo pieces and fell at fivo holy places, nahiely at Bbimavaram or IShima-r^ma in Cocanada, Palakoltu or Ksliira-rama in Kistna, Amardvati or Amara-ri^ma in tlic Gruntiir district, and Kumitm-rama, "which is not identified. It is supposed to have been erected by the sun and worshipped by the seven sages who made the seven mouths of the Uodavari.^ So it is sufficiently holy. The seven sages arc supposed to have each brought water from their respective rivci-s nhdoigrotind to tho tank at Drakah^ramim, which is calltid the mpta Goddvari,' seven G-otlavaris.' There is a sacred bathing-ghat in this tank which confers in a condensed form all tho sanctity which is to ho obtaiijed by separate baths in each of the seven rivers.

Like many other holy places in this and other disti-iets, the town is called the southern Benares. I t i'! supposed to have been founded by tho eage Yy^sa, and a ravi tree and a ling.im planted by him are still shown. So great h its sanctity that a night's halt in it is believed by aomo to render future births annecoaaary. A fe&tival is held in honour of the god every Maltha (February-Rfarcb), and lasts for fh c days beginning on tbi' olovonth day after tlie new-moon dny.

' Chapter I, p. 6,

QAZETTBEH. 251

The temple is a rather handsome two-stoi-eyed building. Its erection is ascribed b j popular tiadition to an unknown Chola* king. In the porch round ttie shrine in the upper storey are Mack granite Chaiukyan pillars, a groat rarity in this district. Tiie lower poroh is also of black granite. On the northern side of the temple a figure uf a Jain tirthankara, sitting cross-logged, is carved on a stone slab. The atone f^pndi (bull) and Hanuman in the temple have had their heads knocked off, and it is said that this was done by the Maratlia marauders' when hunting for treasure. In the temple is a curious well, the mouth of wbich is the shape of a stning bow. It is called the radra ffrfam, and a bath in it is holy. The lingam at the side of the western gate is supposed to go to Benares every night.

The temple has an annual allowance of Rs. 1,000 from Grovemment, and some of the servants in it have inam lauds. But it is a large building and is not in particularly good repair, I t contains a great number of ancient inscriptions. No less than 271 of these have been transcribed by the Grovemment Kpigra-phist (Nos. 181 to 451 of 189.J). The earliest appears to be No. 185, which is dated in A.D. 1055, or during the reign of the Bijar^ja whose capital was at Eajahmnndry. The latsfrt; appears to'bcNo. 426, which belongs to the Ecddis' times, and is dated in the year corresponding to 1447 A.D.

Dr^ksbaramam is sacred to Muhammadans also. The mosque and tomb of a saint called Saiyid Shih Bhaji Aulia are much revered by the Muhammadans of the neighbourhood, who are often buried within their precincts. This saint is said to have been a contemporary of the famous Mira Sahib of Nagore near Nega-patam, and, like that rather shadowy pereonality, to have lived some five hundred years ago. He was born, it is said, at * O-ardez,' near Medina, and visited Dnikaharamam with four disciples. Being hungry, tbe visitors elaughtered the bull belonging to a math of tbe local Salvitc priests. In the disputes wbicli ensued the comparative holiness of the Muhammadan saint and the Saivite head-priest was called in question ; and to test the matter a lingam was thrown into a pond (the Lingdla chenwu) and each was told to oharni it hack again. The saint succeeded, was given the rtiatk to live in, and turned it into a mosque. A very similar talo is related of the Bdbayya darga at Penukoada.* The saint had a daughter, and her deseendanta are still living. They are said to receive an endowment fi-om the Nizam of

> See Ohaptor II, p, 30. * Ananiapiir D\3lriet QMHieer, 193.

CHAP. X7 . BjCUAcriA.v-BllAPCRAM,

252 Q<5oXVAKt.

OHAP. XT. BJ9ACH1K* DKAPOBAU.

GsngaTtrant.

Kfitipalli.

Hyderabad. In former times a festival of some importance used to be held at the mosque, but of recent years it hos ceased to be observed.

Two Dutch t^inbs stand in the village on what is called tho OUandti dibba (' the Holland mound ') . They are dated 1675 a-nd 1728 respectively and are covered with the sculptured slabs which aie characteriBtic of Dutch tombs in this Presidency,

Gangavaram : Seven milea south of Ramachandrapuram-Population 1,532, The name is supposed to mean ' Ganges blessing;' and to explain it a legend has been invented to the effoot that the Gautami GWdavari blessed the Ganges at this place. Defiled by the sins of the miiny wiokcd people who bathed in her, the latter river used to come every day in the form of a ci-ow to be purified by the Ga.utami, and used to return in the form of a hamsa bird. A.t last the Gautami took pity on hor and blessed her, and now she can purify herself.

KotipaJli : Nine and three-qarter miles south of Eama< ehandrapuiam. Population 2,476, I t contains a travellers' bungalow and a large private choultry maintained by the proprietor of P61avaram, at which travellers are fed. Tape and /t«sa mats are manufactured on a small scale in the vUIage. Its correct name seems to be Kddipaili, vfhich Dr. Madeane translates ' border village,' apparently from the Tamil kodi. I t is also sometimes called Kotipali, which means * a crore of benefits ' and is explained by the assertion that the^ value of a good deed done * there is increased one croie-f old by the sanctity of the place. The place is in fact held very sacred by Hindus. A bath in the Gid^vari here has virtue to expiate the most terrible of sins, even incest with a mother, and tho bathing-ghat is called vtdir'tgama,-fidgkahdri for this reason. A atory is told of a Brahman who inadvertently committed this sin, and was in consequence turned into a leper until he bathed here.

The temple is dedicated to SJom^svara,' the moon god ,* and is supposed to have been built by him to expiate his sin of having seduced the vnfe of his teacher Brahaapati. The injured husband cursed the moon and caused it to lose its brightness. I n the same precincts is a shrine to Kotisvaradu, ' the god of orores,' This was built, it ia declared, by Indra to atone for his seduction oJ the wife of Gautama. The erring god brought ' crores of waters' anderground to the G6d4vari at this place; and the deity of tho temple took his name from this act. There is a local festival there every year on the Sivardtri day. The great pushharant festival Leld once in every thirteen years is celebrated here with great ^clat>

OAZETTEEH. 263

Kotipalli forms a proprietary catate -wliieli pays a pcahkash of CHAP. X7. Ks. 5,831. It bplongs to the Raja of Vizianapram. FXSJACHAN.

_ vttA.ru RAM*

H a r ^ d i p a k a : Seven miles west by north of Ramacliatiava-pur^m. Population l,OUo. Some Siugams do a little tape-weav- ^larfdipik*. in"" there. After Kandrakota in Peddapuram taluk, this is the greatest centre f01- the worship of the village deities in the district. The goddess of this viHage is called Mavullamma. She was originally a moi-tal maiden who was i>eraecutod by her mother. Unable to bear the latter'a cruelty, she hid in a cave by a mango ti-eo, and disappeared for ever. Somo days later she was seen in a dream by her parents, and informed them that she had become one with the divine, and must henceforth bo worshipped as a goddess. This has been done, and the priesta at her temple ai-e supposed to belong to her family. The annual festival in her honour, which lasts for a fortnight, attracts many pilgrims. One peculiar feature of the ooremonies is that the blood of the saon^ced buifalo is left in the temple all night, with various kinds of grain scattered around it, atid the door secured and sealed. In the morning, It is said, a foot-step is seen in the temple, and some of the grain is found thrown into the pot. This ie oonsidered to afford a forecast of the coming season; those grains being expected to do well whicli are found in the pot.

Rdmaohandrapurfini: Head-quartcrsof the taluk, and once Rima-the chief village of a large ancient zaraindari which was eventually ^ a ^ * ' bought in by Government. The place is a union of 10,692 inhabitants, the other component villages being Pasalapudi and Mutsumilli, and contains a travellers' bungalow, a local fund rest-house for natives, a police-station, an English lower secondary aohool for boys and a local fund hospital founded in 1676. A tahsildar, stationary sub-magistrate and sub-registrar are stationed there. Some 25 D^vdnga households weave cloths of a fair quality. 'J'he village is a centre of trade in local produce.

Bdmaghat td ln : Four miles east of Kdtipalli. I t is a Rims. hamlet of the village of MasakapalU, the population of which ie sii****!"-2,244, I t contains one of the many temples supposed to have been founded by E^ma to expiate the sin of having killed the Brahman king Havana, Rama's foot-steps are said to be visible on a rock there. A bath at this place on the Sundays in the month of M^kham (February-March) is considered holy.

V 6 g a y a m i n a p 6 t a ! Five miles south-south-east of Rima- v£gay»m«ii. ohandrapuram and part of Draksh£r4mam union. Population '**"• 3,004. Contaiua a lower esoondary school for boys. I t jg the •hief village of an ancient zamindari, which comprises ten vilteges

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254 G6DXVAIII.

OEAP.XV, KIMACJIAK-I>EAPnitAM.

and pays a peahkaah of Es. 8,055. The present holder eays that the estate waa originally given by * Haidar Badshdh *—apparently the Nizam of Hyderabad—to one of hia ancestors for his literary ability. It was permanently settled in 1802 on a peahkaah of Rs. 8,750. The estate was diminished by a partition in 180J>, and in 1879 a suit about it went up as far as the Privy Council. The present zamindarni says that ahe is the eleventh in descent from the original fonuder.

GAZETTEEB.

TUNI DIVISION.

255

TUNI division lies in the north-east cornor of the district. I t CilAP. XV, is tlio most sparsely populated tract in the district outside the Tt^-Agency, and ednentiou is very backward in it,

I t is a hilly tract and contains little irrigated land. One large tank waters nearly 2,000 acres neat Hamsavaram, and a few oliannels take off from the Tandananadi liver. The local rainfall averages only 35-79 inches, which ia low for this district. The incidence of Ian."! revenue per head of the population is only seven and a half aniias. The weaving at Tuni is as good as ia to be •found asivwhore in the distriot, and a considerable manufaoturo of oil is carried on at the same place, Banglea are made at Hamsavaram and Kottapalli.

The division contains the whole of the Eottom or Tuni estate and twelve villages belonging to the Pith^puram estate.

B e n d a p u d i : Twelve and a half milea south-west of Tuni, Bendapddi. Population 1,477, I t contains the ruins of what must at one time have beeu a very largo fort. Old copper coins (and, more rarely, gold ones) are found there after rain. People bolievo that the philosopher's stone (^•parmvidi) is also to be found there. The ruins Include many dilapidated temples. Popular legend aseribes the building of the fort to the Kakatiya king Pratapa Rudra, and the same account of it la given in one of the Mackenzie MSS,^ called the ' Korukonda hyfeai^ which gives a description of that place. The fort at Bendapudi ia said in this to have been founded by two brothora, Pedda Malla Bdzu and Chinna MiiUa Razu, who ruled the country under t^ratapa Budra, They were an effeminate and tyrannical couple, if the account is to be credited. They drew upon themselves the vengeance of the Mng of Cuttaek by abducting the bride of one of his relatives, who was passing through the distriot. An army came from Cattaok to exact veugeanoe, and the fort was besieged. It fell after a siege of six years, the water-auppliea being cut off. The affair is described in some detail in the monusoript,

In the hamlet of Tirupati Agraharam is a temple to Venka-tfisvarasvami, in honour of which a five days* festival is held every year in Ohaitra (April-May). This is largely attended and ia well known to people living north of Cooanada,

* Wilson's CaUhgue, 396,8 (8).

256 G6OAVAKI.

CHAP. XV.

Hftineft*

Eottapalli.

TaUfiru.

Tatipika.

Tfitagnnia,

Tnni.

Hamsavaram : Six miles south-south-west of Tuni. Popu-latiou 1,909. Lime is collected there in large quantities and taken to T\ini to he bamt, and glass bangles are made there.

KottapalU ; Nine miles south-west of Tuni. Also called Ayyappar^zu-Kottapalli. i'opulation 2,449. There is a mound by the roadaido near the village^ which is known as the tomb of one Mala Buochamma, a Mala woman who is said to have burnt heraelf to deatli many years ago, no one knows why. People of all castes mate prayers and vows at this tomb. In the hamlet of Sitar^mpuram glass bangles ai-c made.

Talliora : Two milos west-north-weat of Tuni. Population 248. A cave iu a hill there contains the imagt; of Tulupulamma (' door mother ' ) , a goddess very much revered in this division. The adjoining valley is «alled Talupulamma lova. From the hill a perennial spring flows down into the jungle. This is a vory favourite bathing-place, and the local people pretend that they do not know where the stream goes to. They declare that the torrent shrinks or wideaa in proportion to tbo number of people bathing in it \ The goddess is especially appealed to in time ol" drought, her favourite days being Tuesdays, Thursdays and Sundays. Sho is worshipped with the usual animal sacrifices.

Tdtipdka : Six miles north-north-west of Tuni. Also called Tfitipaka-Jagannathanagaram. Population, 346, A tomb there is called the gundam (pit) of Lakshmamiiia, a woman who is supposed to have committed mti at this spot. I t is reverenced by tlio people of the locality, and a small festival ia held there in February or March.

T^tagunta : Seven and a ball miles eouth-woat of Tuni, Population 2,(300, A. hill there called the Parnaadta konda is supposed to have been inhabited by the Pandava brothers. I t contains a large cave about a hundred yards in length and consisting of two compartments.

Tuni ; Head-quarters of the division, and the chief town of the Tuni oi Kottam estate. Besides the offices of the deputy tahsildar and a sub-registrar, the town coiitains a polioe-etation, a travellers' bungalow, a private choultry for feeding Brahmans and S^dras, a large local fund market^ a local fund dispensary (established 1879), and the zamindar*a high school for boys,

a union and has a population of 8,842. same kind and quality as in Uppada 200 Dev^ngaa; a few Kdpus do simple

and It has been constituted Good weaving of the is done there by about dyeing and chintz-stamping; household vessela of brass

five or six blacksmiths make ordinary a large manufacture of castor and

aAZETTEEB. 257

gingelly oil is carried on, and there are two faotovieB for the CEAP.xv, purpose ; and the place is a ooneidorable tradinsj ccutre* Tnxi,

The Kottnm estate is interesting as being the only remnaDt of the old Pedditpurain zainindari which remains ia the hands of the original family. I t wasoreatedin 18l(i. A claim was advanced in that year to the zamindari of Peddapnram hy a relation of the then zamindar; and^ io settlement of that claim, the Kottani estate, till then a portion of the Peddfipurani zamindari, was severed from the rest of the property and made over to the claimant's father, VatBavaya Sirappa Eaiy-u. The two estates were ouoc again for a short time under the same proprietor. In 1838 one S6rya Nlir^yana, grandson of Vataavaya Siirappa B^zu, was recognized as proprietor of the Kottam mitta and soon afterwards succeeded also to the Peddapuram zamindari; but the latter estate had been held for but a short time by him when it was sold for arrears of revenue. 'I'he present zaraindar, Eaja Yatsavaya Venkata Sirahadri Jagapati Rdzu, is the second aon of Surya Ndriyana, and succeeded to the estate after tlie death of his older brother in 187J). Ho is now (1906) fifty-two years old. Tho property consists of 38 villages situated within a radius of twelve miles of Tuni. I t pays a peshkasb of Es. Si6,219.

93

256 G6DAVABI.

BHADRACHALAM TAL0K.

GHAP. XV, BHADKX-(.itALAM.

BHADR^CHALAHI taluk runs along the left bank ot the Goddvnri above the Ghats, b j which it is cut off from the rest of the lUstrict. I t is intersected by the Saveri, an important tributary joining the G6davari at Kunnavaram. Owing to iU position heytmd tho Ghdts its climatic conditions are rather different from tbosc of most of the district. The variations in temperature are greater, and tho rainfall, which is almost all brought by tho south-weat monsoon, is 43-39 inches at Bbadrachalam, a lugh record for tbis district, and probably much greater in other parts of the taluk. The officer who drew up the working-plana for the Eekapalle forests inferred ' from an examination of the undergrowth and the general factors of that locality that 70 inches would be a closer estimate ' of the annual i-ainfall among tbem, l^he taluk is for the most part covered with low hills and forest. Some high hilla rise to tho west of tho Saveri river adjoining tho GhSts, and a smaller cluster stands some way from the Gfid^vari and to the oast of the Saveri near B6dug6demin the centre of the taluk. The whole of the talnk is malarious, especially the villages along and to tho cast of the Saveri river, but the scope for irrigation is considerable, and with more energetic ryots and a better land system cultivation might be largely extended.

Cbolajn is the staple crop of the country, though paddy and a little tobacco are grown along the river banks. The taluk appears to contain uo indigenous industries whatever. Tho lacc-work of the DummagMom mission is referred to in Chapter VI.

The talnk is of interest in several unusual directions. Tlie curious K6ya people see p. 60) make up a large ptopoi-tiqu of its inhabitants; its revenue system, inherited from tho Central i*ro-vinces administration, is in most respects (p. 174) unusual in this Presidency ; coal has been mined for at Gauridevipeta (sixteen miles east of Bbadrachalam), albeit (p. 10) without much succoas, and plumbago has been worked at Pedakonda ; garnets, rock-crystal, sapphires and gold are found ; the country possesses many legendary associations with the story told in tho Riimdyana ot Rivana's stealing Sita,tbo wife of Edma ; and in it, from fifteen miles below Bhadvaohalam to fom- miles north of Dummag6dera, are a number of rnde atone monuments. No weapons have yet been found in these, but they contain haU-burnt pottery, charred

OAZETTKEB. 259

lioiies, aud beads nf ivorv and glass. From the position of ekcletons CU-AP, XV.

around them it would appear that human saonticcs accompanied BptADB*-the fiuieral ceremonies.' Forts ascribed to the Reddi dj'nasty J arc fonnd at Nallapalli, four milcs north-caat of Diimmag6dcm,and at Vaddigiidom near Hekapallc. Tlieie arc also the remaint of tv fino stone fort at Bcvarapalli, nine miles east of Bhadra-chalam ; but it was largely demolished b j the cngineora engaged in the Upper Godavan navigation works.

As is mentioned in Chapter XI, the zaniindar of Bhadraohalam hass a Bcmi-proprietarv right over the whole of the taluk. Beneath him, but still recognized by Govcrament, a rea number of other propriotois of larger or smaller estates. The only one of these which is of auy size is Eekapalie, which was for some time independent ot its suzerain, and the history of which is sketched below. The others only contain a village or two apiece. The largest are those of Nandigama, which contains ten villages and pays apcsh-kash of Ea. 1,308, and Tripurapantavldu, with seven villages aud a peshkash of Us. l,l!)o. No other inferior proprietor pays as much as Rs. 400 peshkash.

Bhadrdchalam ; Hcad-quartti's of the taluk and of the Bluidri Head Assistant Collector. Population 1,783, I t is the chief town «^"'""'-of the zamiudari of the same name. The oiiginal holder of this is said to have been one Anapa Ashwa Rao, who lecoivcd it in free jaghir from the Emperor of Delhi in A,D, 1324 on condition, of keeping up a body of 500 foot for service, and it is stated that the property has remained almost ever since in the families of the founder or bis kinsmen. The taluk formed part of a large estate which is called by Captain Glasfurd* the Hussanabad Sankaragiri zamindari, and is also spoken of as the Palavancha estate, from the town of that name in the Nizani*s Dominions in which a large portion of it lay. The ?;amindar of Bhadrachalam is zamindar of Palavancha also

In 1769 one of the Nizam's officers put the then zamindar to death and took the estate under management till bis own death in 1778, when it reverted to the founder's family. In 1809 an adoption, said to have been the firet in the family, was made. This was the cause of a great deal of disturbance and even bloodshed. The adopting zamindar belonged to tlio Daniara Ashwa Bao family, aud selected as his Ueir a boy of the Kundemnlla family. This choice was resented and resisted by anotber family, called by Captain Glasfurd the Sotpilly Ashwa Raos, who thought one of their members ought to have been scleoted. The

' See hia settlement report oa thia taluk (N^Bpur, 1809), para, 41.

CSALAU,

260 GfiDiVABI.

CHAP. XV. struggle between tho members of these families wont on for more BRAsaJ- than forty years. Tho Setpillys were • at first victorious; but

their representative made a raid into British territory nd was taken jprisoner and carried off to Hyderabad in 1811. The Damaia adoptee waa now appointed zamindar by the Nizam; })ut he was so haraased by the Setpillys that in 1819 a European officer (Mr. Ealph) was sent with a body of local troops to Pala-vancha, where he remained to keep order for three years. The Nizam soon intervened again, this time gprantiug a small portion of the estate to tlie Setpillys and one village to the Damaraft, and taking the rest under hia own managcmeut. The Setpillys defied the local authorities in 1844 and seized the greater part of the estate ; but their representative died in 1851; and, after a littte disturbance and some negotiation the property was handed over finally to the Damaras on a decision being passed in their favour (in 1853) by an influential panchiyat of zamindars Tho Damara appointed in 1852 was succeeded hy his mother in 1859, who was followed before her death in 1871 by her daughter's son, Parthasarathi Appa Rao, who is tho present zamindar The estate at one time (see p. 175) also included the present B^kapallo zamindari.

Until the taluk was handed over to the British Government by the Nizam in 1860 the Bhadr^halam zamindar always kept

up a troop of Rohillas, who received very little pay for their sorvioes and lived chiefly by looting the country round. Tho taluk was divided into ten satnuiiis, each of wiuch theoretically contained twenty-five Koya villages and each of which had to supply for a month, without pay or batta, a hundred K6yas to carry burdens, fetch supplies, etc., for tho KohiUas and hundred Madigas to act as horae-keepers. The whole'country appeai-9 to have been at the mercy of these undisciplined l{ohilln« 'Al l was grist,' writes Mr. Cain,i Hhat came to their m i ] '

s^npped and then regarded as objects of ridicule. The Kois have frequently told me that Uiey never could He down to rest at night without feeling that before morning their alumbere might he rudely disturbed, their houses burnt and their propeHv carried off. AS a rule ttiey hid their grain in caves and h X o f T 2 e

uTfa r f r e m P a r n S a . ^ ^ '^^ ^^"^^^^"^ ^ ^ ^ P ^ - i^ ^ ^

The present position of the Khadr^fhflU.v, „ • ,

Ind. Ant,, T, 303,

GAiETTEEK. 261

PrcBidcncy owing to his estate having hcon fii'st settled hy the COAP. XV. Central Provinces Govenimcnt. The point is referred to in BiiADsi-Chapter XI .

Bhadrdclialiim is oonsidorcd a ho)v t.pot, .-nice Rama is supposed to Iiavc lived there for sotiic time after the ahduc-Monof Sita. TJie name meant; ' the hill of Bliadra/ and is eftid to be derived from tho faet that a saint of that name was living Ihei-o at the time of Rama's sojourn. R^ma promieed to return wlion he had found Sita, and did eo after niauy vcai-s, and gave the saint salvation. The temple in the village, which is built on the top of a email hillock and is not remarkable architeo-tm-ally, is supported by an endowment from tho treasury of tho Nixam of Hyderabad, which amounts to Rs. 19,000 a year but email sums from which arc diverted to the upkeep oi the temple ftt Parnaeala and those in Hyderabad territory at Jlotigadda and Viruvandi opposite Cliintalagudcm and Tunihaka in this taluk. Legend says that the first beginnings of tho Bhadrachalam shrine wore made by a batrdgi who took np his abode tbero, built a oiuall temple and carved a rude imag-o of Kama. More antheu-ticatcd history commences about 1725, when Bama Dits, au official of the Nizam's government, was sent to collect tho revenues of this taluk, instead of transmitting the money, lie spent it in enlarging the shrine and building the ynpuram. His superiors at last objected to this, and sent a number of Eohillas who caifiod him to Hyderabad, where he died after an imprisonment of twelve years. Tradition, however, declares that he was iniraculoiialy ransomed by Eama and Lakshmana (who appeared before tho then Nizani in person) and returned to Bbadraohalam, where he disappeared and became one with the god. His adventures are tho subject of a book of Telugu poems, called the E^ma Diia hirlana, which is widely' known throughout the country. Tho poems iu this are often sung by the Telugu bards {bhdffccatas) who are in such favour at social gatherings throughout soutli India,

Eania Pas was succeeded in his ofl&ce by a certain Tumu 1 jakshminaraeimha Bao who, wiser than his predecessor, annually despatched part<of the tribute and devoted the rest to tiniuhing the work the lattor had begun. He also commenced another temple, While ho was thus engaged a wealthy man from Madras, named Varadaraina Das, brought two lakhs of rupees to Bhadrachalam and agi-eed to help bim to complete the work. Before this could bo done, however, tho Nizam's government, dissatisfied with tho small amount of revenue received, sent a number of sowars to take Laksbminarasimha Eao to Hyderabad. He bribed the sowars to

362 aou^VAKi.

CHAP. XT, BKADR^-CIULAH.

Dnmuia-gfidem.

ftiiadKlft,

Kamira-iv&mig&dcni.

(jive him a little grace, promising to follow tliciu shortly to Hyderabad. The rich man from Madras died soon after their departui-e; and Ijakshimnarasimha Rao embarked on ratta to cross the river, taking with liim the dead man, his widow and mother, hia own mother and a number of servants. ]Talf way across ho threw the corpse into the river and pluuged in himself, followed by tho widow, her mother-in-law and most of their followers.

The Nizam originally endowed the temple with a lakh of rupees, but the endowment was gradually reduced till in 3840-41 it was fixed at Us. 19,125, for which a «Hnad was given. An important festival takes place at the temple in tho month of Chaitra (March-April) and is said to be attended by as many as 20,000 people from all parts of India, in spite of the difficulties of the journey thither. A common object of the pilgrimage is to obtain children ; the childless women sleep behind the temple and draw an augury of the future from their dreams.

Dummagudem : Thirteen miles north of Bbadrachiilam. Population 2,556, I t was the bead-quarters of the old Upper G-odavaii Navigation project referred to in Chapter VII. Operations on this were discontinued in 1871, but while they were in progress Dumniagudeni was a busy town. I t is now an insignificant village. The anient ia in good condition and a large lock stands close to the village and a canal runs parallel with the river there for two miles. The lock is in fair condition, but was much damaged by the floods of 1900. The village is also the headquarters of the Church Missionary Society in the district (ECO p. 41) and the centre (p, 112) of a lace-making industi^ fostered by this. A number of roughlj'^ carved idols have been dug up near tho place,

Crundala: Eour and a half miles east of Bhadrdchalam. Population 359, This (like Sarpavaram in the Oocanada taluk) ia said to be the place whore king Janamejayfi,the son of Far'ikshit, performed the sacrifice descnbed in the Mahabharata becaufse his fatiier had been bitten by a snake. A hot spring in the bed of the Godavari near by is pointed out as the pit {gundant) where the sacrifice was performed. Pilgrims to Bhadrachalam bathe in this, and the name Gunddla is supposed to be derived from it.

Knmaiasvamigudem : Twenty-six miles south-east of Bha-drdchalfun. Population 110, Contains a very old and sacred temple to Kumarasvami, sou of Siva. He was devoted to the fair sex more than was seemly, and his father cured him by contriving that any woman he looked upon should at once assume the shape of hie mother, Parvati. The first occasion on which this happened

QAZETIEEIl. 2 6 3

was at Kuinarasvamigudcm, and Kutuiirasvami induced Siva to CHAP. XV. direct that a bath in the Godiivari at that spot should have great Rimntti-sanctifying virtue. The temple has no income and is very much ^^ ' out of repair.

Kunnavaram : Stands at the junction of the Saveri and Kunna fimm. Ooddvari rivers ; population 1,107. Formerly the station of the Special Assistant Agent and now the head-qnartcra of tho District Forest Otticcr, Upper Godiivari. ft is an imi>ortant point for the river-home trade, as it is beyond the Ghats and the nnbridged Saveri and carts can ti-avcl from it to BhadrAelialaiii.

Farnasfila : 'J'wenty-two milos by road north of BliaHr^cha- PnrnnsAk. lam. Population 2T(;. It is widely holievcd in the district that this ia the spot on the hanks of the Godiivari described in the Rauid}'ana where Havana carried off Sita.

In a stream bed near the village the people show the stone ou which Sita is supposed to have sat while bathing. Certain mflrka on a rock resemble foot-prints, and these are therefore called Sita's foot-prints, and are revered accordingly. On anollier rock are yellow stains which are attributed to the yellow Ayo from Sita's olotbes when they were laid out to dry, or, aoeording to another account, to tho saffron she used to adorn herself withal. The blaek stain left by Rjtraa's sash when put out to dry is also shown on atfother rock. The Nalngu gutta hill on the opposite side of the river is supposed to have been formed by an accumulation of mhgu (a kind of soap) left by Sita after her daily bath. Behind tho Vishnu temple is a hollow which is pointed out as the exact place wbere Sita was seized; some of the eartti is said to have been carried off with her. There is also a Siva temple in the neighbourhood where, it is said, Havana used to pretend to worship, disguised as a mendicant.

A email festival ia held at Painasula in Chaitra (March-.4.pril) at the same time as tho Bhadr^ehalam festival, and those who visit the latter place go on to Parnasdia.

R^kapalle ; Twcnty-oight miles east-south-east of Bhadra- R^bapatle. ohalam, and below the j'unction of the Godavari and Saveri rivers Population 617. The name means' wing village' and ia ejfplained as referring to the abduction of Sita which tradition locales in this taluk. I t is supposed that the wings of the bird Jatayu, who tried to oppose B^vanfi's flight but was killed by him, fell here.

K^kapallo is still important as the chief village of the most considerable of the inferior proprietors of this part of the country.

264 G6DAVABI.

cnAP. IV. The E^kapalle estate formed only a part of tho largo possessions BHADEi- of the AaUwa Raoa of Palavancha and Bhadrdchalara referred to ciiALiM." i^ the accouat ot the latter place above, and it was leased iu 157t

to a family of Komkonda (in Rajahinundry talak) who enjoyed it for nearly two and a half ceotariea. In 1814 the then holder was murdered by his four diwana, who eecm to have enjoyed the estate thereafter either jointly or aueeessively. 'fhree of tho fonr having died, the snrvivor, Venkayya, became for a time the sole proprietor; hat in 1857 he was compellcl to hand over a portion of the estate, then known as the Marrig6dein taluk, to one Kajaji, tho son of one of his deceased accomplices. Edjaji miacondneted himself, and his share was given over to the Bhadriiehalam zamiudar's direct control by the Central Provinces Government in 1862. The present proprietor of R^kapallo is the sen of Venkayya, The relations of the inferior to the siiperior proprietors in this taluk are referred to in Chapter XI. Rekapallo was formerly the headquarters of a taluk which comprised that part of tho Bhadruclialam talnk which lies to the eaat of a line running due nortli from a point a little to the east of Gauridevip^ta.

This country joined iu the Bampa rebellion of 1879, and at one time gave a great deal of trouble to tho authorities. Tho canses of the rising were quite different- from those which operated in Eampa; Under the Central Provinces administration, fCdu cultivation had been almost unrestricted, and the assessment ou it had been only four annas an axe. The Madras Glovernment almost trebled the assessment, excluded the cultivators from certain tracts, and levied a tax on the felling of certain speoies of reserved trees. These new taxes and restrictions wore considered a grievance, and it was for this reason that the Kampa leaders found adherents in the E^kapalle country. On tho tenth of July some Rampa insurgents under Ambul Eeddi, aided by a number of K^kapalle people, attacked the Vadd^6dem police-station. They were driven back, and a party of armed police was directed to proceed up to the river from Eajahmnndry in a steamer and launch. The steamer which was without a guard or arms, incautiously went on ahead, was attacked a Uttlo above the gorge, and was taken by the insurgents. A force of 125 sepoys was then sent up the river, the G-odavaxi and Saveri were patrolled by ateamei-s, and posts wore established along their banks. By September the people had resumed their ordinary occupations and quiet was restored. The Eekapalle country was again disturbed by an incursion of Tamman Dora in October 1880. He looted a few defenceless villages, but his stay in this quarter did not last long

OAZBTrKEK. 36fi

Sri Ramagiri ('holy Ba'ma'shin')lieE foi'ly-ioui* milessotiUi by oast of BImdracbalam. I t is suppo' ed to have been here that the bird Jatityu, wlio had tried to hiudor Itavauu's abduction of Sita but been mortally wouiidetl in the attempt, told tbe aewa of the abduotiou with bis dying breath to Eama an lie passed that way, Tho gi'ateml fijima performed the fuueral rites of the faithful bii'd at Sri Ramagiri, The god is kuowii us Kulaea (' the joyful') Bitma, because he here had mnvs of his lost wife ; while the Eama at Pariiyaala ia Soka ('the sorrowJul'), because Ms bereavement occurred theio. The temple is supported by the y^amiudar of B^kapalle, who devotes to ifc, maititeuauoe the uet iiijomc derived fi-om tbe village of Kuunavaram, which ordinarily umounis to about Rs 800 a year,

Tlio neighbouring hill called Vali Sugriva is 30 named from the legend that it was thero that Rama obtained further news of Sita from Sxigrivaj the brolher of Vali and king of the monkeys.

CHAP. XV. B11 AD s i .

Sri Rimagfri.

34

266 G6r)iy\v,i.

OHODAVARASr DIVISION.

CHAP. XT. OH6DAVABAV.

Bandapalli.

THR Chodavai'am divieion comprieea moat of vrhn^ was in former times known ae ' the Kampa country,' from the village of that name which stands jnatnoi-tli of Oh6davarain village. Its hiatory is sketched in the account of Bampa below. Almosfc all the division ia occupied by the Eastern Q-hats, and four-fifths of it consists of forest. The density of the population iu aa low as 32 persona to the square mite. Tliere ia only one metalled road in the <livi;;io«, namely that from the hoad-qiifii'ters to Rajahmimdry. but the road from the forraei- to Devipatam is paitially maintained.

Oidy one village in the division is on ryotwaii tenure, four arc held as mokhaaas direct from Government, 50 belong to zamiudaria. and the rest, aomc 300 in nnmber, coneiate of hill muttas hell on the haval tenure refeiTed to in Chapter XT. The zamindari villagea are said to have belonged long ago to some Eeddi chiefs called the Reddi Kazus, and to liavo been sold by them, appaicutly before the permanent settlement of 1802-03, to various lowland zamindars. At preacnt 20 villages belong to the Polavaram estate, four to Pithapuram, and two to Gutala; while the independent estatea of Dandangi and Toyyeru and the disputed mokhaua estate of Kondamodalu contain respectively twelve, eight and four villages. The hill mnttaa are 24 iu number and often havo a separate histoiy of their own A brief descnption of them will lie found below.

As there is only one Government village in the division, tlio ordinary statistica of Boils and cultivation are not available. 'The chief crops are said to be paddy, pulses, ragi, cambii and maize. In the hills, podu cultivation is the rule.

BandapaUi: Four miles eaat-uorth-east of Chodavaram. Population 22 i It is the head village of a hill mutta comprising thirteen villages. In ih&fiticri of 1840 the then muttadar and his eldest son took a prominent part among the insurgents, A rcwai'd was ottered for their capture, but they disappeared and were never seen again. The manaabdar of Rampa, on coming into power iu 184R, annexed the mutta on the plea that there were no heira to it, though the vanished muttadar had left an infant sou. In the aottlcmuut of 1879, made by Mr. Sullivan at the end of the Rampa rebellion, this son wa» given a sauad and his quit-rent was fixed at RB. 42.

GAZETTEEB. • 2 6 7

Birampall i : Ilcad village of a hill mnltii of clevcu vJllagee. CHAP. TV. Lies seven miles south-east of Chodavaram, and contains 166 in- Cn<JiurAHAw. habitants. The people of this luntta joined the rebellion of 1879; uirampolir. but thej seem to have been driven to this act by the rapacity of a renter to whom the muttadar bad sub-let the property. This renter admitted having made He. 300 a year out o£ it, though the qnii-rent was only Ra. 4U. At the settlement of 1879 no puniahment was imposed npon the people for having joined the late rebellion, . as it was coneedcd that they had some excuse for their action, but the mnttadar was deposed for maladministration and tlie property was given to bis brother on a quit-rent of Rs. 42.

Boduluru*. Head village of a hill mutta of the Rflmpa couiitiT, ijodol^n. eoutaining 3ti villages and paying :» quit-rent of lis. t>0. I t lies 2i> miles north by west of Cbiidavaram, and contains 90 inhabitants. The muttadar joined in the Kampa rebellion, and had not ' come in ' at the time of Mr, Sullivan's settlement. His quit-ront was accordingly raised from Rs. 40 to Rs. 60,

Bolagonda; Head village of a bill miitta; lies eight miles Bohgoxsia, north-east of Chodavanun; population 218. The miinsabdar of Kampa obtained possession of this estate in 1867 by means of a forged document purporting to be a deed of resignation by the muttadar. lie obtained an income of Ks. 30tj out of the property, though the quit-rent was only-Rs. 40, The mntUi was restored in 1879 to its former owner, but :»B be had joined in the fifih'i of 1858, and in the 1879 rebellion had been constantly seen with the notorious Tammau Bora and only escaped arrest owing to the absence of direct evidence to connect him with the atrocities committed, his quit-rent was i-aised to Re, 60, and the mntta was i-educed by granting the village of Vddnpalli as a rewai-d to a loyal munsif.

Chavalai An uninhabited village foi+y-two miles north by Chavaln. west of Chodavarmn, Gives its name to a hill mutta, though the chief village of this is now Jajilanka, population 23. The mntta contains 13 villages and pays a quit-rent of Rs. oO. Tho muttadar joined in the Rampa rebellion and bad not ' come in ' at the time of Mr. Sullivan's settlement.

Chiduguru: Uninliabited village ten miles noi'th-west of ChWugfiru, (Jhodavaram, which gives its name to a hiU mutta containing M villages and paying a quit-rent of £s . 40, the chief village of which is Radagunta. For participation in tho rising of 1838-40, the then muWadar was banged and was sueceodod by his brother. lu 187iJ, tho liampa mausabdar took possession of tho property on the plea that it bad been relinquished by the owner, but in 1879 a descendant of the man who had been banged was appointed muttadar.

268 . GODAVARl.

CHAP. X 7 , CH(tDAVy»IlAM

CIi<SdaTat'aiti.

Cbopakouda

Oandangj,

Oed<]U«,

K4kllrQ«

Chodavaram : Head-quartei* of ttie division. Population 377, I t contains a local fund dispensary (established m 902^

briefly descnbed m the account of Eampa below. Ch(Jd™am was strongly held by troops throughout tho greater part ofTl^ rebelhon. I t is situated on one aide of an extensive p l a t l

Chopakonda: % h t miles souti-west of P\..\A. Population 67. Chief place in a bill ^ Tff ^.hudavaraui. Ra. 21 and containing ' r X e " j f i g K ^ " ^ " * r " ^ ^*

Kampa obtained poJssion o S . thVluuV^L^^^^^^

t : ^ i i " " ^ -^ - - « - wrtir ^ f- ^ Dandangi : Twelve miles aouth-south-wost of VhAA...

Population Itil. B the head-quarter v i l l a ! nf 1 1 ^ ^ ''^"'• consisting of ten villages and ^ y i n g a ^ I ^ 7 ^ 1 : ^ T

then .amindar If Nu^vii ^ S ^ ' ^ ^ s T b r ; : " ' ' I T " ^ ' *'' ''''' the ancestors of the present o w n e r o f l a e ' e S ; " '-^^-/--^-^ to

:rdtTBr:r "" ^ "atXsTr;;;rt teen viUages^he chief p l a c T r w U " N t ' " '""'^'^ °^ *^"^" the then muttadar died w H W w t l . ^^'''^'^P"/^"*- In ] 871 <.E Ban.pa at once anoexld Z ^ r ^ ' ^ T ^^^ * ^ "* '* '^«^^-the late owner accordinglv tootTm^Zi; , ^ '^^T*''"'^**' "on of of 1879; and would o S e o m r i n ' ^ Z r ^ ' ' ' / V ' ^ ^ ^^belUon The villagers were allowedTo l e f o o e o + ' ? ^ ' '''*''''^^'^^-nâtUd and the ,nit-rent ^ J ^ : : ^ , ^ ^ ^ ' ^

containing nine villages and paybg a vLî fll^f'"^^ "*^*^^

KAkuru : IVenty-eight miles north of CUAA tion 78. Chief viUage o f a h m ° „ i P?^ ™'*^- ^''P^^^-which pays a quit-rent of Rs. 4u ai><11* .âmpa country, umttadar ioined in the Ba^^pa . e b t Z r i ^ * ^ ' '''''^^'- ^ h the thoe of Mr. S„m.an's S e m e t m f ^ u t . ' "^^ °^"^^ ^" '' Mr. Carmiohaelinl881. "^^ mutta was settled bv

GAZETTEER. 269

Kondamodalu; Twcnty-yevpn miles wppt of (.'hodjivaram. CHAP, xv, Population .v'J2. The head-quarters of a inukha»'i csttute at the CHdDA-ARAM entrance to the gorge on the Godarari, The present owner is the K^mjl^. grauddon of fchc Liuga Eeddi who asaieied Govorument in the Jala. Rampa rebellion.

'The lioverument ai'C aware," wrote Air. iSullivnu in 187y, ' that Liuga Eoddi has horn the very commcucemeut of the rising shown liimB&lf a moat loyal adhcreot of the G-oveniraent. Not only hae he supplied information and messengers, but he has brought into the Held .)0 or GO well-trained niulchlookmon who have boon of great use as scouts and euvoys. Witlihis following hu himself on more than uue ocuttsion ticcoiupauied paHies of troops and police . . , and has done everything he could to render* assistance. I t vus he who at the commeuecnient of the outbreak surprised and bi-ought iu Jaugani Pulicauta Sambiah,'

His services wei'e rewarded by the grant, as a mokhasa, of the village of Ravilaoka, which is held on the condition that (ho grantee attends the Collector with peous when required to do ao, and pays a quit-rent of Rs. 300. luinga Eeddi had previously, in 1858j been granted an allowance of Hs. 50 a month to compensate him for the withdrawal of his right of collcotiug fees on goods passing up and down the l^udavai'i. This grant ib conditional ou (jood behti^vioui'. Liuga Reddi had just then eai-ned the gratitude ~ of Government by holding aloof from the Jiitiri of his partner Subba Keddi s.

Kondamodalu comprises toui' villages and pays Ks. 110 annually to the zamindar of P61avai'am. Its pi-eoise relatione with the latter ai-e at present the subject of a law suit.

Kanddda : Kighteeu miles north-west by north of Ohodavaram. Ktmdida. l^opulation 129. Chief village of a hiU mutta belonging to the old Bampa estate, containing eight villages and paying a quit-rent of Es. 21. The muttadar was loyal during the 1879 rebellion, and his village was plundered and burnt by tho insurgents.

Marnvada; Three miles east of Ch(idavaiam, which gives its Maniwda^ name to a hill mutta containing three ^-illagee of the old Eampa mutta. This was granted to the family of one Earam Ohulu Dom, who during the first few months of the Rampa rebellion was of the greatest service to the authorities. • He was always with me,' wrote the fciuh-Oollector,' giving such assistance as guide etc. as was in his power.' The grant imposed a quit-rent of Ra. 15, but not the service conditions attached to most of the other hill muttas.

' G.O., No. 2207, Jndicial, duted 11th Noveraboi'lBSl, ' G.O., No. 1240, ReTenne, tinted l l t h September 1S&8.

270 o6liiVARI.

CHAP. XV. U H DA villi AM.

Uusurtunilli.

N^danuru.

Kiniiaalapi-lem,

Pa miller U,

r^R.

Ha Da pa.

This aaiiie family were also givoii, free of rent; the mofeham village of Darimfidugnta in the Bandafalli mutta, which had fornicrly beei) their propei-ty but had been taken h'oin thorn by the man-8iibda.r of Eampa.

MusuXUmilU : Five milca south of Cbodavaium, Population 188. IB the chief place in a hill mntta of 18 vilkgos. The people of this behaved well during the 1879 rebellion, and it was settled on the old quit-vent of its, 'i2.

N ^ d n n u m : An uninhabite<J village nine milna north-west of Chodavaram which gives its name to a hill mutta of the Eampa eountry, the cldef place in which is D^varapalli and which pays a ijuit-rent of Ea. 42 and contains eleven villagea. The muttadar joined in the Rampa rebellion and had not come in at the time of Mr. Sullivan's settlement. The mutta was settled in 1886.

N i m m a l a p ^ e m : Twelve miles north-east of Chodavaram. Population 170. A mokbasa village which the present holder says was given to bis ancestor about 1858 by the muttadar of Oeddada, to whom he was related. It was confirmed free of quit-rent in the possession of the holder at the Bcttlement of 1879.

F ^ l e m : Six miles south-west of 01i6davaram Population 319. &ivD9 its name to a. bill mutta containing nine villages and paying a quit-rent of Ea. 21. See also Velagapalli,

Famul^ru: Twenty-f oar miles noi-th by west of Ch6davaram. Population 15. Gives its name to a hill mutta of the old Eampa country, containing fileven villages and paying a quit-rent of Es. 40, the chief place in which is Kutruvada. This aui'reudorcd to the Eampa mansabdar about 1874, and was sub-let by him to au outsider who was arrested as a ringleader iu the rebellion of 187ft. In the settlement ot tbat year, however, no one else was willing to take the property and it was given to bis aou on a quit-rent of Es. 50. TTie quit-rent was reduced to Ra. 40 apain about ten years ago,

P 6 t a ; Twenty miles south of Ch6davaram. Population 728. Chief place in a small zamindari estate containing two villages and paying a peshkash of Ea. 546. Its history, matato nomine, is precisely the same as that of the Dandangi estate.

Rampa : A little bill village jast north of Ch6davarara. Population 177. Near it, beside a waterfall about 25 fewt high, is a shrine formed of three huge boulders, two of which make a kind of roof, and fitted with a doorway and one side-wall of eut stone. The water of the fall pours continually between the boulders. A rough lingam and other holy emblems have been carved out of the rock.

OAZFITBEK. 271

Eftmpfl was once the chief place in the amall mutta of the same CHAP. XV.

name and the residence of its muttadar. Tliie man was ehieftaiu CII6P*VARAM.

over the whole of the old Eampa country and controlled the other muttadai-B there, and the i-ehelUou in thie which ocom-red in 1879 and is referred to bplow waa in oou?cqnenoe called ' the Bampa rehcUion.''

In the earliest records which moutiou him. the zamindftr, monsabdar, or raja of Eampa is Jepcnhed as an independent ruler. Mr. Qr&ni,\uhkPolHii-(i! SDnvtjo/fhe Norf/teni Chvars already •several times i-eferrcd to, calls him as iudepeudont as the raja of Bastar ; and the Committee of Circuit, writing in 1787, said that, tliounrh the zamindari of Rampa belongrpd to the Oircar ot Rajah-mundry. yet neither the Company nor the Nizam's govcrumcut received any tribute fi-oin it. ' The country,' said this body, ' is represented to be extremely monntaiuoiis and fnll of jungle, the natives rude and unoultivatod, frequently making incursiouB ou the adjacent countries, plundering the villages dming the harvest, and driving off the cattle.'

At the time of the permanent settlement of lSo::J-Oy the Bnmpa coimtry was as entirely disregarded as if it had not e.\istod, and no aottlemeut of any part of it was niado. During the disorders which oroec in this district early in the nineteenth century, the mansabdar, R^mbh6pati D^vn, descended with an armed force from the hiHs and took foreii>le possession of some villages in the plains. He was driven out of these and submitted, offering to acknowledge ' for ever the sovereignty of the Company.'

Then (1813) for the first time a aettlement was made with him. Tho villagea he had taken were restored to him as mokhtiaas and, along with his ancestral possessions in the hills, were eorfirmed to him free of peshkash on condition that he maintained order in them and prevented incursions into the low country," Heappeai-a to have leased his villages to certain subordinate liill chiefs or muttadars, whom he required to keep order in their own charges and from whom he received an income of Ks. 8,750 per annnni.* These were the ancestors of the present muttadars.

He died in 1835 leaving a daughter and an illegitimate sou named Sri Madhnvati Rambhupati Devu, and the former was

' The following give .icctmnta of the early history ol Romp*, tho ca lists s of the rebeiliou and ita course. G.Os., Judl-iNoB. 103tJ, dated 5th Mav lii79; 7C5, dated Si-d April 1879, and 109, dated I6th .Tnnnary 1880. Aho the ivijort of Mr. D. V. Oarmiolittol, wlion Spooial Conimiaaionev, datud No^onihur let 1K81 j Mid the Presidency Adminiatratiou Repoita for 1879-80 niirt 1880-81.

' O.O,, No. 1036, Judicial, dntttd Btli May 1879, iippendis, p. 11, » G,0., No. 109, Judicin), dated IGth Jauuary 1880, p. 76.

272 GOBAVARI.

CHAP, XV, recognized by the muttadara as heiress to the zamindari. She CHdBAviBAM, declined to marry, declaring her intention of following the example

of a former zamindami of the coi^ntry who had remained unwedded all her life.' Sometime afterwards, however, her chastity was suspected, and she and her brother, both of whom were apparently detested, were driven out of the country.

They were maintained by the Government, and in 1840 the estate was placed under the Court of Wards. Grave distui-bancoH followjirl ''i iJolifr> fnvf^(- wAt put up in 1840) * but hv 1845 the more

iuglax, lê /amiiiQ&TTii soixenaereo tVie estate in favour of bcr illegitliaato brotbtir"; and in 1&48, aftet protracted negotiations, the muttadara agreed to accept this man as maufcabdar and to perform kheii- old police duties, on coodition that their united quit-rents should not exceed KR. 1,000 and that tlie maneabdar should never attempt to exact more from them.

The mansabdar agreed to this, but quickly broke his promiso. His coufiseatione of muttas and oppressions of the people i-esulted in rieingB against his authority in 1858 and 1861; and sneh was the hatred he inspired tliat when, in 1862, he attempted to go and reside m his property an insurrection arose ^vbieh had to be put down by a strong force of police. He continued bis deprcdationa however, and by 1879 had succeeded in getting eight muttas into his own enjoyment, had doubled the quit-rent in several others, and was denving a considerable revenue from taxes on fuel and grazing and other unauthoiized cesses,

He succeeded in doing this largely by making it appear, sometimes by disgraceful devices, that alj his actions had the sanction otGovonunent ; and unfortunately the officers of Government neither adequately realized what was going on iu hie country nor made sufficient endeavours to protect the muttadars.* They foreot that he agreement of 1848 was made under the authori^'ô Government J and some of the muttadara who complained of the mansabdar's exactions were referred to the Civil Courts, though the hill men are notorious for their dread of the plains The growing discontent among the people was increased by new abUri regidations preventing the drawing of toddv f . Ar. \-

that the muttadars should pay fees (called cki,urânn^Zrit

* a.O., No. 109, Judicial, dated l«th Jannavj 1880, p. «.

GAZETTEEE. 273

right to tap toddy, and the manaabdar threatened to levy an CHAP. X7. additional tax, called modalupaimu, at the rate of one-half or CH<iDATARAM. two-thirds of the ckignrupanmi.

Thia was the last straw, and was the immediate cause of the ' Eampa rebellion' of 1879. The uupopiikrity of the police, who had assisted in introducing the new toddy rules and also oppressed the people on their own account, was a contributory cause. The people said that ' they could not stand all the taxes that were being imposed; that three years ago came the ch'gurupamm; that thia year the mansabdar was demanding modahpanmi; that the constables were extorting fowls ; and that, as they could not livO; they might as well kill the constables and die.' ^ The operation of the civil law of the country was an additional grievance. Traders from the low country had taken advantage of the simplicity of the hill men, ' who would much sooner walk into a tiger's den than put in an appearance in the Eajahmundry court,' to make unfair contracts with them, and then, if these were not fulfilled according to the traders* own interpretation, to file suits against them, obtain ex parte decrees, and distrain as much of their property as they could lay hands on. In satisfaction of a debt of Rg. 5, cattle and produos worth Rs. 100 had been sometimes carried off in this manner, and eometimea, it was said, the formality of a suit was dispensed with, and the trader, accompanied by a friend personating an officer of the court, made the distraint without any authority whatever. The hill people laid the blame for all this injustice on Government and G-oveminent rules and regulations, and thought that their only remedy lay in rising against the authorities.

On the 9th March 1879 the police inspector of Rampa reported that there was reason to apprehend a disturbance. The Collector had gone to Bhadrdchalam, so the Sub-CoUcotor and Superintendent of Police set out for the hills with a small body of poUoe. At GWkavaram they met one of the muttadars who was suspected of disaffection, hut he tried to allay their suspicions and accompanied them to Ch6davaram. The nest day, however, two policemen were stopped near that place by a body of armed men, and news was received of the captm-e by some insurgents of a body of police near Bodul^iru. Early on the 13th March a large party of hill men came close to Ch6davaram and stated their grievances to the Sub-Collector, who went out nnarmed to meet them. He attempted to reassure them and they expressed themselves satisfied; but a few minutes later they called out that they could

' G.O., No. 109, Judioiftl, dated ]6th January 1880, p. 10. 3$

274 a6DAVAE[.

OHAP. xr . not troflfc the Sircar's promises, and began firing on the camp. No CB6D4TABAM. particular harm was done by their firo, bvit the Sub-Collector's

^^~^' party, which consisted of 39 police of all ranks with 32 carbines, was now cut ofi. They had no difficulty in holding out at Choda-vai-am until reinforcements came up, and by tiie 17th tho force in the village amounted to 149 men. Some 400 officers and men of the Syth Native Infantry had also been landed at Cocanada on the 16th and were moving up the country. Meanwhile, however, at Rampa two captured constables were solemnly sacrificed before the ehifif strine by the insurgents, the leaders of the latter announced that rebellion was their only hope, and the whole of tho Kampa country was speedily ablaze.

In the next month (April) the disturbance spread to tho Golgonda hills of Vizagapatara, and in July to the Rekapalle country in Bhidrachalam ; but the causes of the disaffection there (which are mentioned in the accounts of E^kapalle and Dutcharti) were essentially different from those operating in Hampa Itself.

The disturbed area now comprised over 5,000 square miles of wooded and hilly country. The operations of tho troops wore much hampered by the nature of the ground, and tho malcontents took advantage of their superior knowledge of the country to maintain a harassing guerilla warfare, avoiding all direct encounters with the troops, but attacking isolated police-stations and burning or looting the villages of those who assisted tho authorities. Troops were hasteoed up to the country, and by tho end of 1879 the Grovemment forces iuolutled, besides several huudred police

' drafted from neighbouring districts, as many as six regiments of Madras Infantry, two companies ol Sappers and Miners, and a sq^uadron of cavalry and a wing of infantry from the Hyderabad Contingent.

The chief leaders of the insni-gents were four notorious characters named Cbandrayya, Sirdar Jangam Pulicanta S^m-bayya, Tamman Dora, and Ambul Eeddi of Boduluru. Tho second' of these was arrested as early as April 39th 1879. Cbandrayya, however, scored many successes in the Tellavaram division at the beginning of May, and succeeded in burning Addatigela police-station. He was nearly captured in the middle of that month, hut in June he shut up a party of police under a European officer for some days in Addatigela. The spread of the disaffection to Bekapalle and Dutcharti, and the fear that the hill tribes of P61a-varam division might join tho inaurgonls, led to strenuous efforts on tho part of the authorities, and troops were moved up from all sides. The northern and eastern frontiers of the Rampa country

GA2EtTEEK. 275

•were occupied by strong detaclimenta of ecpoys, and military posts CHAP. XV. were cstabllsbed along tbo banks of tbe Gfoddvari and Saveri. CH^WYABAM.

At the earae time Air. Sullivnu, First Member of tbe Board of Ecvcmie, was appointed (in July 1879) to visit tbe district and ascertain ibc rcnl t'auscs of tbe trouble aud suggest remedies for it. Tbe steps be took, wbicb included Ihc deposition of the mausabdar and a promise tliat tbe rauttadars should theneefortb deal directly with Government, did mucb to sUav the excitement, and before the end of Aiigust If 79 as many as 70 of Chandrayja's men bad been captured, and Bampa was comparatively quiet.

Rekapnllc was also pacified about tbe same time, and tbe apprehended rising in Polavaram did not take place. The remaining rebels were now driven north to the billa of G-olgonda and Jcyporc. Amliul Kcddi was captured in November 1879 and Ohandrfty)a was killed in February 1880. Tbcii' removal broke tbe back of tbe trouble. Disturbances went on in a desultory fashion in the Vizagapatam district, aud in October 1880 Tamman Dora made a brief incursion into that part of the country. But by November 1880 quiet was finally and everywhere restored.

Tbe most deadly foo of tbe police and troops engaged iu suppressing tbe outbreak bad been tbe makria which infests this part of the country. At the end of tbe March 1880, out of 2,400 men employed, no less than 590 wei© on the sick list. Many deaths occurred, and in many other cases those attacked wei-e months before they completely recovered.

Tbe mansabdar of Eampa, as has been said, was deposed. As the Governmout order put i t , ' for gross misconduct and oppression tbe Government have cancelled absolutely and for ever the manaab-dari tenure of Kampa and tbe mokbasa tenm'e of the villages of tbe plain.' The mutt^ held by the mansabdar was also cancelled, and be himself was detained as a Stiite prisoner at Berhampore. Most of tbo mufctadars were either reappointed or replaced, and their position was defined. As early as Sei)temher 1879 Mr, Sullivan bad held a durbar at which the new eanads were distributed. With four exceptions, the settlement was made with tbe muttadar actually in undisputed possession or, \ffhere tbe mntta had been annexed by tbe mansabdar, with tbe heir of the former muttadar. In aiTanging tbe terms of tbe tenure of each mntta, tbe loyalty or disloyalty of its owner in tbe recent disturbances was considered and the quit-rent was raised or reduced in aocordance therewith. Generally, however, tbo muttas were granted, on tbe same terms as in 1848. Tbe sanads contained two conditions; firstly, that a stipulated annual quit-rent, including an abkari tax

file:///ffhere

276 G DXvABt,

CHAP. XV. and a local fund cess, should lie paid annually to Government; CH DAVAEAM. and, secondly, that the muttadar should conduct himself loyally

and peaceably, and should give cvcrj assistance to the Government in maintaining qviict and order. A worning was added that if the muttadar failed in his duties his mutta was liable to he resumed. The decision of G-ovemmcnt as to the rights of the mnttadars over the forests will be found in Chapter V.

The Rampa mutta had always been in the personal enjoyment of the mansabdar, and was resumed by Government. It had formerly consisted nf thirteen villages. Ten of these, with the title of muttadar of Eampa, were given to the mimsif of Ch6da-varam, who had given the greatest assistanco to Government throughout the outbreak, bad been their channel of communication with the muttadara, had obtained information regarding the movements of the rebels, and had got together a body of armed men to co-operate with the police and the troops. The grant was raado free of qait-rent, and was conditional on tbe grantee's hemg of good behaviour, paying the local fund ceas, and presenting to the Collector every year, in token of his allegiance, a bow and three arrows. The other three villages of the Hampa mutta were given to the muttadar of Marriv^da, who had also shown his loyalty during the rebellion.

Sirigindalapadu: One mile south-east of Chddavaram. Population 75. The vUlagc used to belong to the Bandapalli mutta; but at the settlement of 1879 it "was given at the request of the muttadar to a relative of his, who was going to assist hitn in the management of the mutta, and who had shown himself loyal in the recent rebellion. I t pays no quit-rent.

TAdap61Ii; Fourteen miles north-west by north of Ch6da-varam. Population 406. Chief viUige of a hill mutta containing nine villages. The quit-rent fixed in 1848 was Rs. 40, but it was illegally raised by the mansabdar to Es. 100 in 1862. The muttadar did not take part in the insurrection of 1879; but many of bis people did, and be himself not only assisted the insurgents with supplies but also concealed himself from the officers of Government and gave them no help whatever. In consideration of the fact however that bis mutta Is an isolated and rugged tract, right in the path taken by the rebels in their raids, it was considered at the settlement of 1879 that his conduct was more due to fear of the rebels than disloyalty to Government and his quit-ront was only ruiscd to Bs. 63. '

T u n n t o : Ten miles north-west of Ch6davaram. Population hill mutta containing 16 villages and

Sirigindala-pfida.

TidEipfiUi.

Tonniiriif

80. GKvea its name to

OAZETTEEh. 2 7 1

paying a quit-rent of Es. 35. This was returned aa deserted CHAP. XV, at the settlement of Eampa in 1848, but by 1879 it bad been re- CH i>±vAiujf. occupied, and a aanad was accordingly given to a descendant of a former innttadar.

V^dapall i: Twclvemilessoutli-weatofCbodavaram. Popula- VidapaUi. tion 193. I t waB given to an ancestor of tho present holder by Government in recognition of bia services in the Eampa rebellion, on a quit-rent of Es. 15.

Velagapal l i ; Bight miles south-south-west of Cbodavaram. Velagapalli. Population 50. Tho chief place in a mutta containing six villages and paying a quit-rent of Ea. 21, In 1848 it also included tbc P^lcin mutta; but at the scttlemout o! 1879 it was found that these had been divided, aad separate sanads -were accordingly given to the respect ivo owners in that year.

VAlam'uni: Twenty miles west-north-west of Ch6davarani. vyamfirn. Population 35. Gives its name to a mutta containing 22 villages and paying a quit-rent of Es. 42. This was one of the old Eampa muttaa, but behaved well in the 1879 rebellion. ,At the settlement of that year there was a dispute about the succession which is described in Mr. Sullivan's report.

V^mulakonda ; Ten miles north-west of Cbodavaram. Popu- vgmula-lation 95. Chief place in a mutta containing ten villages ^°^^^' and paying a quit-rent of Es. 26. The then muttadar joined in the rebellion of 1858, but the people toot no part in the xising of 1879.

oft tb jf this

,hat '

ran^ •'^bhai '

278 odDAvABI.

P6LAVARAM DIVISION.

CHAP. XT. T H E Polavaram division is the aouth-wcaternmost portion of the PiSiA-vAEAM. Godavari Agency, and is the only part of the district which lies ou

the right bank of the river. The density of its population (103 to the square mile) is far ahove that of any of the other ngency tracts, At the permanent settlement of 1802-03 it wna all included iu the Polavaiam estate. At pres-cnt only 24 of its villages are zamindari Innd, of which twelve belong to the so-called Polavaram and Pattisam estates, which arc really one property in the possession of the present Polavaram proprietor; five belong to the U^t^la estate and four to the estate of Gangolu ; and one villago belongs to each of the muttas of Bayyanagudem, BiUumilli and Janga-reddigCidem, which three form one estate. The fortunes of these vai'ious properties arc referred to below.

Polavaram is more fertile and more civilized than the other parts of the Agency. On tho weat and s'^uth it is aa flat as the adjacent Yemag^dem taluli, though more covered with jungle. I t possesses no industries worth mention. The attempts made to discover coal at Bedadaniru, the mica and plumbago of the division, and the chances of finding gold in its south-wcat corner, are referred to in Chapter 1.

The Pattisam and Taduv-Q^^^^emples are well known in tho surrounding country. j ^ pg

GanpSItt. Gangolu; Eight miles failea noth-west of Polavaram. Population 1,784. Its hamlet Chief JJJop^ta is the head-quarters oE a zamindari which was aequiicd from the G6tdla eatato by purchase about 40 years ago, and is still held by the descendants of tho purchasers. I t comprises four villages and pays a poshtaah of Es. 1,240.

64tiia. Gutdla: Five miles south of Polavuram. Population 3,300. Contains a vernacular lower secondary school for boys and a Sanskrit school. It was once the chief place of one of the * pergunnas' of the ancient Polavaram zamiudari, and its history is sketched in the account of this latter below. In the circumstances there narrated, it was put up to auction in 1810. In 1813 and 1813 it was sold for arrears of revenue, and in 1827 it passed by private sale to one Maoiyam Venkataratnam» an ancestor of the present holder. Since then various purchases and sales

OAZETTEER. 279

have much modified the extent ot the estate. The most important CHAP. x r . of these were the purchase ot 74 hamlets of the old Nngavaram pdLAVAXui. mutta and tlie sale of the G-atijolu niatta soma 40 years ago, The estiite now comprises five villages in the Polavaram division (includinpf Nag.vvar.im and ita iiamletn) an! five villages oUe-where. I t pays a peahkash ot fis, 6,721.

Jangareddigudem: Thirty miles south-west of Polavaram, Jangar«ddi> Population 1,918. Hea<i-quarters of a small estate consisting ot eiidom. this village, Billurail!i and Bayyauagudein, and paying a pesh-kaah of ^<. -3,008, lu 1832 Jangareddigudem was Hubdivided from the Polavaram estate in circumstanees referred to in the account of that property below. I t was subsequently bought (along with the other two villages) by the grandfather of the present holder some 50 years ago.

Pata P a t t i s a m ! A hamlet of this, called Pattisam Nidhi, PibaPatti-forms a pictuiesque and rocky island in tbe Godavari, three miles **™' south of Polavaram. The population ot tbe whole village is 3,002. It is called Pata (old) Pattisam to dlatinguisb it from K.<!tta (new) Pattisam, a hamlet of Grutala. A division ot the old Polavaram estate, containing five villages and paying a pesbkash of Es, 5j209, 13 called tbo Pattisam division, bat this was never held separately from P6lavaxam proper.

The village is the scene of a well attended festival at Sivaratrl. The local sifmh pwdnam says that the Pattisam hill went to the Himalayas to attend a conference of mountains, but, not being shown proper consideration, left tbe others and went and did penance hy itself. By means of this penance it induced the Siva of tlie Himalayas to leave that range and come to Pattisam, where he now resides in the Virabhadra temple. This temple also contains two stone images of women, called Aniswari and Pnni-swari, one of whom is roprosontod as being in childbed. These are mnoh worshipped by childless women desirous of offspring. The suppliant places her toot on a platform in trout o£ the figures, and vows that if a child like a pearl or like coral is born to her, she will present a pearl or a piece of coral to the images. In another part of the same temple ore figures of Durga and Mahishasura-mardhani, the form adopted by tbe goddess Parvati when she killed the demon Mahiahnsura. Sheep and fowls are sacrificed before these idols, though they are inside the precincts of tbe temple. The spilling of blood is not as a rule permitted inside Br^hmanical shrines. The Virabhadra temple has two villt^ea attached to it, which bring ha an annual income of about Rs. 2,000,

http://Nag.vvar.im

280 a6i>AvABi.

CHAP, XV, Another sacred place on the Pattieam island is the Bhadrakdli-PtftAVAEAM. ^ n d a m , a pit in the bed of the river which is a favourite hathing-

place. The Mahinandiavaram temple on another small island four miles up the river is also fairly well known. It is supposed to he the residence of the bull {nandi) which belongs to the Pattisam temple. I t has one agrahdram village as an endowment, and this brings in Rs. 800 a year. On the island ia a cave which is popularly supposed to be the entrance of an underground passage to Benares.

Fjhv&ram. Fo l aTa ram : Head-quarters of the Agency Deputy Collector (who, however, is temporarily located at Baiahmundry) and the deputy tahaildar. Population 4,455. I t also contains the offlco ot a sub-registrar, a local fund dispensary (established hy Government in I8ti0), a police-station, a travellers' buTigalow, a <3-ovem-ment girls' school and an English lower secondary school for boys, I t was formerly the chief place in the important zamindari of the same name, which formerly embraced the whole of this division and much of Ternag^dem and Bajahmundry taluks, hut now comprises only twelve villages paying a peshkaeh of Rs. 6,713.

This estate was long under the independent rule of an ancient Hindu family who derived their authority from the Grajapati kings of Orissa, and are said to have been descended from that line. Little is known of the estate previous to the British occupation of the country, but the names of three of its zaroindars, Venkatapati, Jaganndtha, and Venkatardma, have been preserved. I t was then divided into the three estates ot Polavaram, G6tila and Kottapalli, and subordinate to it was the small hill zamindari of N^gavaxam.

In 1780 the zamindar, Lakshmin^rdynna D^vu, died leaving three sons named Mangapati Deva, Narasimha D4vu and Vijaya-g6pala D^vu, of whom the last was the only son of his second wife. Mangapati was the eldest of tha three and succeeded to the zamindari. In 1781 Kottapalli, which had been temporarily in charge of another holder, was restored to the estate, and Mangapati waa thus in possession of all three of the eubdivisions uf the property. As he was a minor, his diwdn managed the estate for him. This man was the brother of Vijayagip^Wa mother, and he induced the Chief at Maaulipatam to recommend (1782) that the estate should be divided into three so as to make a provi^on for each of the three brothers. This was doac, and P61avaram fell to Mangapati, Gdtdla to Vijayag^pdla, and Kotta-palli to Norasimha.

rAzETTEF.n. 281

In 1785 Dasu Roddi, the zamindar of Nagavaram, pretending CUAP. XV.

that Vijajagopala's diwiiii was not managing the G-utala estate PotAVABA\!. properly, eaptured that town and toot the young EajaVnd hie mother prisoners. He was perhaps egged on to do this by ifaugapati, between whom and Vijoyagopala's mother there was no love lost. A force of soveu eompauies of sepoyu maroliod up to lihorato the prisoners aud restore order. The Nsigavaram zanaindar then moved his prisoners to his own estate and the English force accordingly marched as far an Anantapalli. The zamiudar then returned to Gutala, and the English fovec, supposing he would release the prisoners, retii'cd. He still however refused to do 80, and Gntala was accordingly captured. Two sepoys were wounded aud about eighty peons killed and wounded on both sides during the attack. Diisu Rcddi was sent to MasuHpatani and Vijayag6pala was restored to Gfttdla.

Similar disturbances took place in 178G-87, when the hill people, who were mostly adherents of Dasn Rcddi's, were driven out of the Company's territory by a detachment of sepoys. In 1788 peace was for tlio time restored, aud the jealousy between the branches of the Polavaram family appeased, by placing the whole of the estate under one diwdu.

Tills diwan managed the property efficiently till his death in 1790. A successor waa thou appointed with the apparent consent of the three brothers. The mother of Vijayagopala refused however to acquiesce in the new arrangemeutj and made herself supreme in G6tala. The Company's troops marched up to G6tdla to bring her to order, aud when they arrived she was discovered with hot sou in a room in the palace in which were two lai'ge open vessels of gunpowder, f he threatened that if she was touched she would destroy herself and all that wore near, and the Company's officer pmdently retired. The lady was idtimately pacified, and surrendered quietly. She was taken to Masulipatam, Vijayag6pdla was detained at Kajahmundry, aud Mangapati was recognized aa zamindar of the united estates of Gutala and Folavaram, Narasimha remained in charge of Kottapalli,

Thus f ai- the disturbances in the estate bad been due to private family feuds rather than to disloyalty to Government. The firmer revenue administration of the new Collectors appointed in 1704 however caused a real rebellion, of the whole family. Mangapati gave a great deal of trouble to the authorities, failing to pay his peahkash and withholding the accounts which were necessary to ascertain how far he had suffered from the recent famine and wl\at lomissiona should bo granted him on that

36

2 8 2 GODAVAHt.

CHAP. XT. account. So obstinate was he, that the Board oE Rcvenuo divooted I'dLAVABAM. that ho should bo taken prisoner. Ue was aceovdiDgly seized

and confined and liis estate attached; but he was afterwards liberated on hia agreeing to discharge the arrears in two yoara, to give security for tho current revenue as it fell duo, and to make an immediate payment of sixteen thousand i^agodas.

At this junetm-e Vijayagopala escaped from Eajabmundry and took refuge with Linga Reddi, a bill chief whose estate lay on the east bank of the Godavari above Polavaram. He was induced by his host and a fugitive revenue defaulter (wlio bad plundered Undi in 1798) to join them in a rebellion, and their combined parties eommenecd a fituri by plundering two villages in tlie Pdlavaram estate.

Hia hrother'a revolt encouraged Mangapati to give further trouble about hia revenue. He claimed indulgence, wbieb was refused. Ho promised to pay, but attll delayed. His conduct became rofraetory and tnrbulent; and ho made an exorbitant claim for a remission of over fifty thousand pagodas, and showed that he was prepared to back this up by force. Negotiations ensued while both the zamiudar and the Government collected theii- forces for the expected struggle. Tho zamindar's demand was finally refused, and a military detachment moved rapidly up tho country and captured Polavaram. The zamindar however cseapod, and the principal object of tho officer in command, who had hoped to end tho afEair by seizing hia person, was frustrated. • A reward was offered for hia apprehension and the country was placed under martial law. Mangapati first fled to the Nizam's Dominions, bnt letm-ned when tho coast was clear. A carefully planned attempt to captm-o him at Su*avdka (21 miles north of Polavaram) was \mBuccoBsfulj but ho flod and waa apparently uovor heaixl of again. I t is supposed bo took refuge in tho Kampa country.

^ Meanwhile tho outbreak started by Linga Eeddi and Vijaya-gopdla had been joined by the Eampa people, and sepoys had to be stationed both at Kottapalli and Indukfirp^ta to keep thorn in check. lu August 1800 they attacked Induktirp^ta, from which they were OMily beaten back, and three days later a band of inauigents advanced as far as Puruah6ttapatnam opposite P61a-varam; and, within eight of the troops stationed there seized the boats on that side of the river so as to cut ofi communication. VijayagopSla, whose heart had never apparently boon in the rebellion, however smTendered: Nar*t.simV,a +i • , .

and peace , a s gradually .-ctored. Tbo P « l a , ^ „ estate V n ;

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GAZETTEER. 2 8 3

given lo a cousin named Lalishminarayana Devn, with whom the CHAP, XT. potmanent sottlcmciit was m n d c ' Pd LAVA RAM.

Since that time anhdivisitms and revenue sales have played havoc with this ancient property. The first alteration iu its limits occiu'i-cd in 1808, when, in consequence of the accrual of large arrears of revenue, it was divided into the three muttns of GrutiUaj Pulavai-am and Koitapalli, and the last of these (comprising 30 villages) was sold in auction. Gut^la and Polavaram remained under the old family, I>iit next year the zamindar (Narasimlia Ddvii) hrokc into rebellion and tliey wore both put up to auction, and the ancient lino of tlie Polavaram zamindars camo to au cud.

The Polavaram mutta, of portions of which the present Polavaram is made up, was purchased at this sale by ono B^vayamma. I n 1812 it was sold a^am for arrears and was purchased by Bahu BaUndra Bazu, and in the following year i t was sold yet once more and was bought by Kocharla Kota Jaggayya , au ancestor of the present zamiadar. On his death in 1832, tlie estate was subdivided by Government and given to different members of the family, and the only parts of it which remained to Eamachandra Venkatakrishna Eao , the son of Jaggayya and the grandfather of the present zaraindar, wore the two properties of Polavaram and Pattissvm wliich (with the addition of the NallamilUpiidu estate purchased hy the proprictrix who hold tlio property from 1858 to 1888) form the present zamindari. Of the other portions which were subdivided off in 1832, the only village which has not since been purchased by Government is the Ja , r-arocldigiidera already referred to above. The Pulavai"am ostatce 'o*^ uder the Court of Wards in the yoara 1832-35,1846-54 nnvMff: ' -58.

Polavaram village c itains some tombs which arc locally stated to be those of European soldiers wlio foil in tho JlUn of Mangapati Ddvu at the end ot tho cighteentli century, TJiey bear no iueciiptions. Another grim relic of the old disorders in these -parts which existed here till recently was the gallows on which Subba Reddi and Kommi Eeddi, the ringleaders of the ^^wn" of 1858, were hanged. This was carried away by the floods of 1900,

T a d u v a y i : Thirty-seven miles west by south of P61avaram. Tiduv^yi. Population 1,627. I t is well known in this par t of the country for its Siva temple, to which many pilgrims go at Sivar^tri . The village contains a travellers' bungalow.

' Tlii« utcount of tlteso ilistiirbiintieB l.aa Uvn iibridgcd from Ml-. Morris' di fwrlirfion ill the or[giiiiil Dt-^lrict Manual. The autboi-itiea ou which he relit-d whith coiasiBt ol Ma. omcifti rcoordB and pi^intoa ropovt=s, arc tiuotod bv Itim on p. 275 thoveof. '

284 G(5DAVABI.

YELLAVARAM DIVISION.

CHAP. XV, YELLAVARAM.

Addutigelu,

T H E Yellavaram division of the Agency oecupica the north-easternmost corner of the district. The whole of it is hilly, though consideiahle ai-eas of level land lie among tho hills, and, except for fifteen villages adjoining the plains, is covered by forest; it is also very malarious; tho soil is poor and in the summer months water is always scarce; there arc only 24. miles o metalled road in the whole of i t ; and tho inhabitants are mostly Koyas and hill Eeddis. Consequently it ia very backward and sparsely populated, and contains only 31 persons to the square mile. Some little iiTigation is provided by a few tanks. Tho chief cereals are paddyj pulses and oiUseeds; but the lull men depend mostly on the produeo of the tamarind trees, wliich grow to a great size. There are no iDdustries worthy of tho name ia the division, exeept a very little basket making. ' I 'lioj-c aro five weekly marketa.

Largo areas which formerly belonged to tho old Jaddangi estate are now Government land, but considerable tracts are held by the various hill muttadars referred to below. Hound Jaddangi considerable tracts of forest havu bceu reserved and tho Forest department has opened up these with r-âds.

Addatigêla: Head-quarters of the division. Population 459. Contains a police-statioa, a travellers' buugalow, a local fund dispensary (established 1901) and caio of the four weekly markets of the division. I t is aa insjjtlificant place and little Buitcd to bo the hcad-quartors of a division, being unhealthy and fttuTOuuded with jungle.

The village was the scene of some stirring events during tho Rampa rebellion refen-ed to in the account of Rampa above. Almost the iSrst act of the insurgent leader Chandrayya was to burn down the police-station there. This occurred at tho end of April 1879. The station was rebuilt and re-garrisoned, but in June was again attacked by Chandrayya. On the twelfth of that mouth some police under a European officer were attacked by Chandrayya in thisêighbourhood, kept under fire for four and a half hours, and finally driven to take refuge ia the station. There they were attaoked'.three days later. They had to unroof tho thatched station buildings for foar of fire ; a roinfojccmcnt of

rcaenc was driven back by Ohandrayya; iiO men sent to their

<SAZETtEER. 2 8 5

ami a sortie of theirs ^as also ropulscd by him. Detachments CUAP. xv. wove then hurried up from various quarters, and the station was YELLAVABAM.

relieved (without opposition) on the 25th of June. A n i g ^ n i : Two miles north-oast of Addatigcla. Population Anisffini.

211. Is the chief TiUnffo of a iniitta consisting- of six villages and paying a (luit-rent of Es 80. The mnttadar's family is descended from the old mansahdar of J addangi who (sec the account of that plaee below) was deposed in 1846. llis infant eon had in later years imtnenso influence with hill people ; and at the time of tlio Eampa rebellion he exerted it entirely in the favour of Government and materially to their advantage. I t was decided to row«rd hira by giving him tho six villages of this mutta. Tlioy had formerly belonged to Dutcharti; but the holder of that mutta had not behaved well in tho disturbaneea, and deserved no consideration. Tiie grantee was succeeded by his sen in 1887 and the latter was followed by his mother, who died in 1004.

Dutcharti : Ten miles nearly north of Addatigela ; popula- DHiclmiti, lion ;108. It is tho chief village of the hill mutta of tho same name which pays a quit-rent of Ks. 1,200. Till 1881 this was a part of the Grolgonda taluk of Vizagapatam district. It was originally hold on service tenure under the old Golgonda zaraindar. His estate was sold for arrears and bought in by G-overnmcnt In 18S7; and tho muttadara under him thus became direct holders under Government on a service tenure.

This seriously lowered tlioii' statue, as thoy were directly subject to thij surveillance of tho Collector's native dmin; and several disturbances followed,'

At the time of the outbreak of the Sanipa rebellion of 1879 in this district the Golgonda muttadars had no such grievances against Government as existed in Kampa; but thoy still fi'etted against ilio restrictions which had been placed upon their powers, and tho moro daring spirita umontj them wcro moved by solicitations from across the botdei-, by a hunger for loot, and by a desire to pay off old scores against the police.

The chief of the malcontents was Ohekta ' Venkan Dora, niuttadar of Dutcharti, whose gi-andfather had been manager of that mutta, and, on the death of his mastei- without issue, had obtained a sanad for it himself. Tho first outbreak was caused by the action of one Dwirabandham Chandrayya, a man of some substance, who afterwards became one of tho chief loaders of the i-cbellion. His house was searched^ during hia absence, by the

' Tlienc are vofoiruU to in the BCCOIHU of CJolyotidii Uluk in thu Vi:((a„j.;<,(,(m Otiaeliin'r.

286 <10DAVARt.

CHAP. XV, police in connection with a dacoity. Furious that such a thing YET LAVARAJI. should have hoen done -when only his womenfolk wero prosont, ho

collected all the Imdmashes ia the surronadinf^ villages, descended * into Dutcharti and burnt the policc-stfition of Addatigcla.

This was at tho end of April 18/9. Numerous pnrties of insurgents who were beating up recruits, flyinw for shelter, or levying black-mail now icsortcd to this country ; and, though no fnvther open outrages wore committed, troops had to be sent up into theac hills.

Chebka Venkan Dora, muHadar of DuUharti, had avoided any overt act of rebellion. But it was the belief of all tho officer's, civil and military, who served in those hills, that bo bad oneouraged Cbandrayya on tho understanding that his own villagea ahould be spared from plunder. I t was beyond doubt both that his villages wpre not plundered and tb^t be could, if ho liked, have crushed the outbreak ihore and prevented the dostrnc-tion of A.ddatigela. When, therefore, the robeUion wa.9 over. It was decided to remove Cbekka Ycnkan Dora from his mutta. His brother, tho present muttadar, was appointed in 1881. At the same time the six villages which now constitute tho rautta of Anigeru (q.v.) were taken from Dutcharti to reward the loyalty of aoother inlluential hiU chief. The muttas of Dutcharti and Gnditeru, which were thought to bo moro accessible to the ofticora

, of this district, wore also transferred from the Vizagapatam to the Goddvari Agency in the same year.^

Gurt dn. Gurt^du, or G-uditeru, is a village of 300 inhabitants and containing a travellers' bungalow, which gives its name to a mutta in the extreme north-east of the division. Like Dutcharti, It f oi'med till 1881 a part of the Golgonda taluk of the Vinaga-patara district. It pays Es. 70 quit-ront. I t is quito isolated irom the rest oi tbo Yellavaram division by the Dnmkonda hill aud can on)y be reached by tho Yeduvampula pass through the Viiiagapatam district orfi-om Chodavaram via BoduUiru. Horses cannot get across this pass, and elephants have to ))e lightly laden. Along it may be seen the remains of the sangai-s built by tho hill men during the Bampa rebellion.

Jaddangi. Jaddaugi : Nine miles east by north of Addatigela ; population 537 ; contains a travellers' bungalow. \Va3 once tlio headquarters of a mansab which was formerly held on service

' NoUBoattou No. 217, Judicial, dated 29tli Juno 1881. For thesu ti'oublsB in Goltfotida, BOO lliQ tninme, dated Novamljov let, 1881, ot'Mr.i}. K Carmiohn *1 MoBiW of CoMuiiW, wlio waa ;ip|.oinlod uf, a[.ecittl ComiuisMJonui* to -n-nuZo a •wUltiniuiil. .iiiuu|fo

OAZETTEER. * ° ^

tenure tindor the old zamindar of Pcdddpuram. Wlioii ihat CTUP.xp. zaniiiidari fell into Iho hand? of Government, the mitttadar hcid VrrLAv BAJi. on tho same tcuiu'c directly under the new owners. I£c rehellcd in 1845 and tho mutta was aecordiugly resumed. It contained 80 villages.

At Jaddnugi is liold ono of the few markets iu YcUavarani. Near the village is a cave eoutaiiiiug the imaye of the well-known Brahman saiut Mduda%'ya Mahdmimi, who is supposed by tlie local people to havo lived in the cave. The river SWdmi is aaid to have been called after him.

Koia : Twelve milca north-uorth-wost of Addatigela, K6tn. Popnlatitm 105. Contains a poHcG-atatiou, ami is the chief village of the hill mutta of the same name, Imt^is a petty collection of huts. It is said to have orJg-inally fonncd a part of the Eampa mansabdar's estate, under which it was properly held on service teumc. Under the rauttadar there are five sub-muttasi; namely, thoso of Ycrragonda, Yarlagedda, Pasaraginni, Nulataniaddi, and Samagedda. Of those tho first named pays a kaUubaiH to the muttadar of Ks. 80 a year, aud the others each Ks. 50, Tho muttadar himself pays Governmeut an annual quit-rcnt of Es. 310.

Tho police-station soema to have been taken by tho iuaurgcuts at the eommencomont of the Eampa rebellion, aud an attempt inado on March 17tb 1879 by a force of police to reach and hold it was unsuccessful. It was however soon re-occupied, and resisted several attacks during April. I t is now the most uupopnlat station in the distiict.

Mohanapnram : Seven miles north-west of Addatigela. itfhnna-Population 1S8. I t is the chief village of a hill mutta >hich was ^ ' ®°'' formerly under the inansabdar of Eampa, and since 1879 has been held on service tenure dii-cct fi-om Government. The quit-rent is 1 8. 25.

Nellip-ddi J Twenty miles south-south-west^ of Addatigela Ndiipi'idi* Population 835. Contains a ti-avellers' bungalow and a weekly market. The village is held on mokhisa tenure. I t was given to the father of the late mokhasadar, who died in 1906, in recognition of his services to Government. Tho village was formerly part of the Eampa mansabdar's property. Tho quit-rent is Es. 350.

Pandrapole: Eight mileanoi-th-west of Addatigela. Popu- Pandrapriii*. latiou 87. Another of the old Rampa muttas. The father of the present muttadar, who is also the muttadar of K6ta, was confirmed in possossiou in 1879 on a quit-rent of Rs. 70.

288

CHAP, XV.

YKLLiVARAM

KSnaavaram.

Vi'i-abUadrft. puram.

G O D A V A R I .

Ramavaram: Seventeen miles north-west of Adrl.tigola and xnckdedm hoKotamutta. Contains a travellers'bungalow On a hill near tbie:.nlIago is a small eave in which ai^ four idol« From the rock above hong stalactites fi^m which water drinron ^ tho figures below. The temple of Visvan^tba i . th v I S e T s worshipped by the Sa.vites in the neighbonring hill, every t : ^ " ^ . : ^ ^ '' - - " ' - ' espeoiaU, potent in , r Z ^

Virabhadrapittam : Three and a half miles cast by eoutb of Addatigela; population 225. On the Devuda Piniarn.ni I L

lii';isT'r"' r''' 'i ^"'''' ^"^^ viS ', :T people " " ' ' ' ' ' " ^ ^ ^""• '^" ''>• ^'- -igi.houriur imi

289

I N D E X .

Abkavi rovonnc, 1S;}-l8i'>. Abu HaBSiin, 2S*, 23S. Arlama lii'iMi, 04. Atldanki, 25. AddiitiKcIa, 135 , '27J ,38i . Adivipi'ilpiUi 215. ^dmiiuHti-iitioii, of land rovfnui>, 160-180 ;

of Halt, abkavi, &c,, i-cvcnue. 181-187; of juBtici', 188-106.

AdiK-t, Captain, 21)0. 331, 232. Agency tiactsi, dosoiibcd, 2 ; JCnsalniiius

few ill, 3S ; bouaes hi, 13; food in, 4h, 186 ; witcibcraa UelicTed in. H i ; shifting cultivation in, 7 8 ; forests in, 92-101 jta*»»m; rcst-lioniica in, 133; HCiiroity in, l i O ; cyclone in, l-W; niulariii in, 148 ; education in, l&'i; ii'Tcium system of, 17'i~8i oxtont of, 177; Salt. Act not (xtendecl to, 1 8 3 ; Hri'uok rcvonao in, lS<t; liquor shops in, 185 i toddy i-ovonao in, 185; opium und Wonip drugii In, 186; Incomo-tux Act no tes tondodto , 187 J stiimii r e i enne ill, 187; administration of justicf' in, 189; alterations in tbo limits of, 100; litigation in, IIU ; locftl boards in, lOG,

Agricultural f:irm, 75, 7(3, 233. AffricuUure, U8-T9, AgricultnviBtH, economic condition of, 00. Ailiolo inscription, l^, 233. Alamdr, 135, 191, 192. Ala-iid-din (Babwani king), 234. Alfxaiidor, Kcv. F . ff- N., 66. Alleda Reddi. 26. Allobabad inuirnption, 18, 233. Alliiyii Veina Iti'il'li, an. AUuvium o£ tho delta, 9. Alpii Khun, 20. Anmlapurnt i talaU, iOO-206. Amai^imram town, timber (Upofc at, 1 0 1 ;

lead and ejilrer vrork at , 105 ; rice mill in, 110; vaiufalt at, 136 ; 'vaccination compulaory in, ISO; district munsif at , 191; sub-rofiisti-ar in, 1 9 1 ; union, 1 0 7 ; desoribod, 201.

Amar iva t i , 17,207, 250. Ambajip6ta, 15, 107, 112, 201. Ambul Rcddi, '26i, 274, 275, Aiiicricnu Evangolioal Lutheran Missiou,

39, 223. Amma I, 24, 244. Aninka l l , 241. AinnHumeutii,'15, 64,67. Anak&pallc, 103,

37

Ananlajiatli. 281. Anapa Aslura Kac, 250. .Annpai'ti, 234. Andhva 13rubitiniiB, 61 . Andhras, 17, 18. .\nflo3'ula[ittdu. 22!', Antcuts 01) (1M^ G<;dHvuri. 7y-89, 202. Ani(jeru, villago and nintia, 285, 286. Animitits, 42. Anna Reddi, 24, 25, 242, Amiiivaram, 221. AntavvWi, 106, 217. Anlclopc, IG. AucpiJiamiL Nayudii, 234. Anwar-ud-di'n, 235, 231'. Appanapiiliuyam, 22iJ. Avamii llrAbmans, 51 . Areca palms, 72, 80. .Arikarovalu, 1S7. Anyavat ta tn , 39, 212. Arrack, 113, 183. Artesian wo lis, 00, 111. Arts (ind indnstrios, 102-112. Ariiudol, Sir A. T., 95. AsarA H)su>ni of rovenno, 167. Asiatic Stcain Nuvigatiun Company, 115. A&oka inscriptions, 17. Att^yapuram,.30, 20], Att ivarnian, TallftTft king, 13. AiirangzL'l), 20, 203, AiiKfrian Lloyd steamers, 115. Aveunce, 121. Ayinavalli, 110, 202. Ayydparazu.Kottapalli , 256.

Uaclichanna, 336. Badogunta vill.iyu, 267. Biciivalas, 60, Bahii BaWndra Ka/.u, 283. Ballaciits, 127. Bamboo, 3,105, 108, 131, . Bandapalli tnnlta, 266. Baudarulnnka, 103, 202, Bang le making, 108, 225, 240, 25S. Bauk of Madras, 115.

.Bantuinil l i oatate, 164, Baptist Mission, 40, 151, 310, 314. BurAkar rocks, 9, Barber, Mr. C. A., 76. Barry & Co., Messrs. T . H., 78 116 B iaaGol l a s , 61 . Baekots, 108, 28-t, Basiia 2alt/ot{a, 62.

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Bat t i i ig placea, G. J}tiT&y&m.m.a, S83. Bayard, Mr., 153. Bayyana i^dem, 279. Be»rs, 15 ,71 , ' 7 . Bodadanfiru, 9, 10, Bell-inetal work, 105. Tlench-courtH, 191. Bcndswnfirlankii, tnouth o£ the GiSfltivaii

near, 6} Engliali factory at, 29 ; taken by the French, 3 1 ; forpst blotk, 98, 99! rope made at , 107 ; coftstiiig t rade of, 187; E. I , Co.'s ti-jdc at, 2 0 1 ; tie-Siiribed, 2( '2; temple built by a Pall (of, 218.

Uondapddi, 24, 2,>, 25EJ. B e n ^ l Rram, 71, 7G, 77, iicri.beri, 150. • Dast i ; Co., êssrti, , 115. Hotel, 3, 72. Ueiwada, 9 , 1 0 1 , Rhndvichnlam estat<>, 25)9. Hhndrachalaiii taluk, Chi'iwtinn miBftionin,

4*2; paddy ijcusons in, 0 8 ; foruBta in, 92, &4, 95, 100; iveighrs and measures in, l i s , l lV, I 2 i ; feirics in, 12U, 1 2 7 ; trai 'elJers 'bungalows io, 133; fever in, 150; eotfciement of, 171-177 i llctfiat.ra-Won ,\r',t.t'xliiiulRd to , Uil ; Lcical Honvdft AuL wiUidiawD Irom, lOti; dcMJiribed, 258^265.

Uhadrachaltwn t o w , jôld and rock crystals found ucar, H ; J togaltuiru family Hed to, 3 5 ! rainfall at , l ; (5; ABsiataut Soperin^cudent o! Policu a i , 194 ; described, 25U.

Bliadrakiligundaiu, 280. ' Hbanayyamma, 226. IthatrtizDB, 54, Biiimarnj, 15,

Bhimavai-atu, 207, 214. ?60, BikkavfJlu, draiu, 8, 113; village, 191,

197, 249. UiltatniUi, a7t». Bimlipntani. 209. Diral ja, 3 , 5. Biraiya Kouda, S. Birampalli mut t a , 2<i7. BiHOD, IG. Bison HiU, 3, 13, 07, 97. Blaok-bitck, 15, Black Ri-am, 73, 78,77. Black-wator fevci', 150, Blanford.Mr. "VV.T,. 10. Blond feude among Koyai, 62, . Boate, 127, 131, Bobbavlanka, 81, 127. Bo'bbarlanka cnual, 145. Bobbin, Mahaiijtt of, 222, BiSdasaltuiTo, 107, 127, BodugM«Eu liitltt, 'i, 2 D S . Bodnldru villugo and tnnutta, 267, 273, 28C B^ftftma, 58, 104, Boileau, Ml., 62.

l iolagonda m u t t a , 2f>7. Botauy. 12. Boundaries of tlic ilisirict. !• Htabmans, di'csH of, li ; fooil of, !."); dc-

Bcribcd, 51 ; uuniber of etudcntK aiii"ng. 155 ; Tamil s e c t b n of, 204.

Brandia, Sir 1)., 02. Brass work, 105, 222, 225. Ikido in-ioc, 'J-O, BridgcK, 125, 243. . Brit ish India Steam Navigat ion C o m p n y ,

115. iirodie, Mr. V. A., i59. Brown, Mr. T . II., 12C. Buckiiijjhani canal , 130. Hnddbism, 17. 20. BulTalooH, 13 ; sacvilicc vi, 48, 222, i l l ,

2 !8 , 2.53. Building Btouo, 11. Buluen Acbayyn, 202. Burma, 180, Buesy, M., Kovtberu CirearK coded to , 30 ;

iaicos Beiidaiudi-lanka, 2 0 2 ; XilapiiHi and Itijarnm. 2 1 3 ; fovL bni l t hy, 221 ; a t I ta iahmundry, 215,

Butlayflgiidein, ."30,

Ciui i .Uov. 3„ ,W, 5o ,60 , l ' l ( ) ,2«0. Cain, MiH. J. , 112. Calliand, Goueial , a 3 . Cambu, 4 5 , 7 1 , 76, V7. Canadian Bapt is t Ujgeion, 40, I5L, 210,

214. Capo Covinga, 211. Cape Ofidavari, l l : i , Carmicbael, Mr,, 268. Carpentry, 15,">, CarijaCa ur^vs. Sec Bogo I 'ahu. Caste deities, 47. Castes, 50-07, 102-194. Castor, 76, 77, 107, 116. Casuat ina plautaUona, 9R, !10. Cat t le , 13, 14, 15 j faire for, 15, 117, 201,

239. Cemotoi'ioa a t Cocajiadu, 210 ; Coringa,

211 i DovfIainbwer;uB, 241 ; l lraksharA-niam, 252; Nflnpalli, 213 ; Piilaîimm, 283 ; and Rajjilimuuclry, 240.

Cerioj'i Cundotteava^ 99. Chagallu, 35. Clialla Poddy, 228, Chalnkya BhimaTararo, 207, ChalnkyaB, 18-20, 249. CbdmarJaktfta, 214. Chambers. o£ Commerce, 114, Chandbavola, 23, 24. Chandrayya, 274, 275,284, 285. Chandnit i , 32, 227, Chattramo, 133, 198, 199, 240 Cliavala mutiiv, 2G7 Chebr<;iu 23, 24, 228, 230. 2 ^ f ^* Veakttu Dora. 285, S86. ChontauB, S9, 205.

r N I > E : £ 291

Cticrla Hnja, -10, Chotoot factory, llfi, Clicttia, 57. Chidiigfini mnt ta , 267. Cliigurufiuuiiu, l&.'i, :;?-( - 7 3 . Clii]l;uiel, 22-1. Chtnd/idit (tiimvii, 301. Chiniia Malltt lU^u, 21. 2.'5 li^intjl-titQmpillar, lUo i in CoLiiiiudu [bluk,

207 J Uollapwlaiyatn, 2l:i ; Samalkot , 211' ; tV-ddHimi-am, S^t ; KBJa.liii'.uiidry. : J 1 S ; Timi, 2OO.

Cliddu, 22. 2;f. Cbi'idavaram division, 2uli, 277. Oiifidavnraiu town, rainfall ut, I3b ; >]>eoiftl

Hill Polioc Uii^crvuat, 1!I6; dedcribt-d. 2(j8 ; a t tack on, S73 ! graa l to tbc mmitsif of, 27C ; ]iase from, 28l!,

C)h[>l:im, i t j , 7lj. 77. 7S. CbiSlaa, 10, 30. Cbolora, IW. Cbollsngi, 208. Cliopakotjda uiiitta, 26tt. t'lioithfioft, 133, IftS, ll'fl, 211'. Cliowhis, IS7. CbriRtian Mii^siona, 3E), 151, 216. Chiistiaiiii, 39, lo3 . Chnrcb Missiouary ScciVty, 41, 202, Clau Line Stcainor::, 1)5. Climatir, 11 . Clive, Lo rd ,31 , : i 3 . Coiil, 'J, 10. Cooutmda canal, 113, 1-lu. Cowitiadtt taluk, 207-216. Cocanada talok liourd, ]1>G, Cocnnada unvn, inclooiological observa-

ttciite iiiiid<^ ai, 1 2 ; fintiiug near, I t j ; Dutcb factory al, 2;); Fauucli forces ir;, 32, 3 3 ; Christian miasions in, -tl, 4 2 ; tobacco-factory tn, 78 ; milt, t roek at , tSj ; lu'tcniau wolt in, 0 0 ; tirowood markut in, 08, 0 9 ; t imber market ID, l o t ; cotton dyptng ill, 104 ; inctftl Work in, 105, lOH, 2 0 7 ; wood-parving at, 10(i; oil factories in, 1 0 7 ; I'opc exported from, 107 ; Bhou-niakiug in, 108 ; printing in'tiBoe* in, 110 i rice niilli in, 110; workshops in, 1] 1 j trodts of, U S , 2X3 ; liarbonr nt, 1 1 3 ; uavigaiiDji systcni from, 130; obottr;tn) at , 134; miufall at , 135 ; poor-hnase at , l i l ; t ida l WHYH in, 1 4 3 ; cyclone at, 1-1 !•; racc i ra t ion compulsory ill, 150; medical in 9 tit nt ions in, 151 ; bchool first establiabed at, 1 5 3 ; college at , 157; Collector's head* (jnartera a t , 163; salt factory in, I S l . 182 ! fish-ouving near, 183; taverns in, 185} port of, 187; oourte in, 1 9 1 ; dis t r ic t and nnb-registrars in, 1 9 1 ; boneb" court (it, 193 ; municipal i t j , 107 ; ohinta s tamping in, 207; described, 208-310 i e ran ted to Pi t l i ipnram fftiuily, 235 ; P u t c b at , 2313; French driven to, 2313,

J Cock-tl(,*bting, 45. I Cocoaniif paliu, 3, 72, 8;i, 205 : fibre ropes.

10(1 20l ; tt-iif mutt,. 105; ..it, ItVT, 117, 205 ; oil-coke, 107.

Coir i-opee, 107. CoUeges, 151-159.

I Commercial woighis, 117. Comuiitiec of eircait, 1(J2, I&ft,

. Couiprapollam, ISO. Conaorc, bj t t le of, 'Jl, 209. 223, 227-232. Condans, .MaroniH de, 31, 227, 228, 232. Conjccverum, 18, li ' , 3."». Contract distillery supply system, 183, Coppor -rtork, 105. Corin;^ ihland, 88. Coring^ Mice Mills Co., 110, l l o , 213. Coringa rivoiij t!. Coringa t 'Wn, lisliiajr near, 1 0 ; foi-cst

reflorvo near, OS; baifoule luidgoftt, 126 ; i rninfalt tii, 135 ; inundatianb by tbc sea 1 at , 1-12; tittiil wave in, 143 ; fisb cnriog

at, 1S3 ; foreign t rade of, 187 ; lawlessness (in 17S!i) in, lii'.i-, snb-iegistrar nt, I P l ; deputy t ibs i ldar at , i;)2 ; decline of the port ot. 210; described, 210.

Costly, Sir Henry , 33, 240. Cotton, dyeing-of, 1 0 1 ; weaving of, 1 0 3 ;

ti-ado ill, 110, 117, 210. Sec also W e a r -ing.

Cotton, Sir Artliui*, 41, .""0, SG, 128, Cottcrn and Rundall , Jlcssre,, 74, Coui-ts, IS!). 101. Cows, 13. Crime. l>7,102, Croeodilea, 15, Cud da lore eat >d stone, 0. Cultivation expenses, 171, 173. Cuiiniugliam, Lieutenant , 143, CustomK, ISO, 187. Cut-stone, 11, Cyclones, 12, I t l .

Daksliu, uaorifiee of, 203. Dalberijiu hti/oha, 100,101, Diincing, (15. Diinoing girls, -M, ,)8, 303, 201. Diindungi estate , 208. Darimadugnlit, 270. Dasti Reddi, 281. Date palm, 105, 106, 185. Danlogiri, 241. Dcccau Sugar and Abkfiri Co., lOP, 111

184. Deer, spotted, 15, Dckkulas, 00. . Delhi Durbar Exhibition, IOC, Density of t he populatiou, 38 , Deputy tabsitdars, 192, D^Tsngas, 102, 104, 100, D^vaFapani,25d, 270. D^Tudu Pinjari hill, 288.

I N D E X . 293

Gantami fl^davnvi river, 6, 0 ,145 ,1*7, Gftvara Rozu, M.R.Ey. B., ]55 . Gavuda Jcttis", 57. GedLarc. bark, 99. GodtUda muttft, 2C8, 270. Gecso, \\i\A, 16, Gcoloey, 8-10. Gcoi-Biipot, 110, 2 i a . Ginpolly, 71, 70, 77, 107, 110. Olnsfurd, Caiitali), 259. Glasfp, bangles, lOfi; botf.K'H, 225. GnoiKH, 8. Goats , 1.1-. GfJdaras, 248. Gfidftvari Coal Co., Ltd., 10, n . Griddvari l ivor, origin of tbc name tif,

2 ; do^oll•ibcd, 4 - 7 ; Bmall fjainc and Jisb in, 15 J iDfifratioii from, 70 ; liiHbev floated down, 0 7 ; bridRea over, 12C, 2 4 3 ; (orrica acrOHS, 12C, 1:27; ianct i tv of, 247.

G6kaT(iram,112, 242, 273. Gold, 11 . Go! (J 6 mi til B' weights, 117. GoUamamifKWa, 103, 1(17, 207, Gollaji&laiyam, 104, lOB, 207,212, GollapAlem, 209. Gollaprfilu. 31, 224, 227, 228,231. GoDas, 109,193. G6nasfidcoa, 242, Gondwftua rocks, Lowei-, 9. Gouka I , 22. G o y i k a I I , 2 3 . Gonka I I I , 23. Gordon, Woodroffo A Co., Mcaoi-s,, 115. G^rikanadi river, 8, Gdtamiputra , 18. Go'jcrnmetit Agent, 190, G6vinda I I I , 20. G6Tiiida DSva, 28. Grabam, M r „ 2 1 1 , Grain, s torei of, 79 ; trade in, 112. Grant , Mr., 225, 233. Grant DnS, Sir W. B., U S . Gfaphito, U , Greoii (?rain, 71, 7G, 77. Gronnd-nut oil, ] 17, Gudar.ngunta, 183. Ondit^ro, village and mnttn, 28(i. * Gnduroulakhandrika, 217, Guinea-wortti, IfiO. Gullapddi, 11, Gundfila, 262. Gundftvaram, 209. « , Gunny-bag, 56,104, 117, Gniituf faraioe, 138, Gnrt^du, village and mat ta , 280, GAtAla, es ta te , 35, 278, 280 ; village, 5,

127 ;28 : . GnttinldS^FJ, 6 note.

Ha idar Ali, 34. Haig, Mftjor-General, 41, 8B,

I la lbiya cbicfs, 23. Itajec Honesiim, 209, l l i j i HoBsaiii, 29. Hall, Wilson & Co., McBsr.s., 110, 182,

210, Hamilton, Captain, 213. Haniaavaram, 108, 255, 26fi, HardtricJiia t i i ioto, 100. Hares , 15, 45. Havicljandana, 28. Harper, E«T. J . H., 40. ' Havelly land, 160, Hnvfli land, 160,101, 103, Heaip-drngs, 1S5, 180. Hides .and skins, 107,113. Hill cliolainf79. Hill Reddis, Cti, 94, iiO, 97. SJilU, 3. Hindus , 4'?-i;7, 153. History ot tite distr ict . 17-37. IHncn Tsiang, 19, 20, Hook-Bwin^ug, 305, 2IS U.)pe Island, 114. Uorse-ftram, 71, 7t!. 7 7 . Hospitala, 151. House-boats, 131, House-bniUling, 110. House-tax, 197. Honses, 43 . HiiknmpAa, 278. U mil an saccifict's, 03, Hnrricniies, U 3 , 211, 21H, HussaiD ,\V\ Kluin, 33, Itii), 210, Unssauabad Sankarngii'i zoinindnvi, 3S9,

idiga^, sbikaris, IG; oasto gtiddefcs of ,48 ; described, 57 ; mats made by, 105; oil-making of, 107 3 profession of, 185.

Impor ts , 113, Inams , 17e, ISO. Income tax, 187. Indigo factoriea, 110, 2i;i, Indrna, 57, Indravnt i river, 1. Indukdrp^ta , 282. IndiiBtries, 103-112, 210. Injaram es ta te , 213, 224. In jaram villngo, on tbc Gautnmi G6davari,

5, 0 ; Englisb factory at , 29 ; taken by the French, 31 ; inandat ion by tlie sea at , 142; loss by floode in, 144; land onBtoni<3 st t t t ionat , 187 ; described, 212,

Innca tt Co., Mcasts., 115, Inaci-iptions a t Aibole, 19, 233 ; Allababad,

18, 2 3 3 ; Amaravat i , 17 ; Antai*v^di, 218 i Bhima\avam, 208 ; Chandliavfilu, 24 , Cliebroln, 33, 24 } Di-dkstftrauiam, 34, 21}, 251 ; NanSghat, 1 8 ; P&lakoUu, 2 0 ; Palivfila, 24, 28, 203 ; P i tha -pnram, 233, 2 3 8 ; l l i i jabmnndry, 35, 244 ; Savpavaram, 216; and S imha ' obatam, 26.

38

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392 I N D E X ,

Dewalamurrv barrier, 128. Dliall, 77. Dharamallapurauj, 221. Dharanikotai 18. Dholea, 15. Diaeases, 18, 6: , 67, 148-l.W. Dispensaries,, 151, J52, Bistillei-y and sn^ui' faettirj at Bamalkot,

111,184,185. District Board, 196, District Court, 191. Diatricb muiisifa, 189, 191. Divili BrihittaoB, 51. Diwaioual olwrgcs, 178. fiivorfje, 49, Dogs, wild, 15. Dontamfim estate, 323, 22t.t Doi'achintulap^loi' niiitta, 2U8. Doras, 175,17G. Double crop land, 174. Dowlaishweram anient, 15, 74, 79, 140. Dowlaishweram town, description of tbe

GiJdavari ;it, 5 ; EoniaiiGiitliolie chapul at, 42; metal worl; at, 105; wood-car^iiJij at, 106; idok iiwtlc at, lOG; oil factovies in, 107; i-hoe-mahing in, 108; workshops at, 110; architeots in, 110; boat service to, X37, 131; vaccina--tion compulsory in, 150; police station for, 194; uni'DM.'ia?; de-jcribed, 240.

Drainage, 198. Draksburimum, cattle fair at, 19, 11? ;

inscription at, 24, 2\j ; .laJn relics in, 39; mosque at, 39; wood-carving at, IOC ; snb-rOffinti"ar in, 191 ; nnion, 197; huge lingatu at, 207 ; described, 250.

Diaviiiig, 139. Dress, 44. Dr j cnlti-vation, 79-79. Duck, 15. Bfid^kHS, 39. DumkondabiH, 3, 286. Dumm^^dem anient, 4, 129, 147. • luamagddern C£uial, 128, 129. Dunima^ddeiQ vU1<xg«, funiiiitton of rrioks

near, 9, 138 ; GhiiKtian miasiou at, 41, 43 ; human sao/iticcs near, 03 ; K6ya festival near, 64; luco work at, 112; described, 363.

Du^paii land, 94, 176, DuppalapAdi, 108, 240. Dutch, the, 29, 309, 230, 232. Dntcharti mutta, 285.

Earth gcddeas, festival of, 05, Earth-salt, 183, East Coast Railwav, 133, Economic condition of aKricultnrUtB, 00. Eduoatiod, 15a-lG9. Ele]>h»ntia9i«. ISO, 224, Elliott, Sir Walter, 3 54, EUoie canal, 132.

EUorfi, roducpd by Pulukfisin, II, 19; chieftains of, 24; siojo of, 28} plundered by Hill lloddis, 28 ; Maratbas marcU thronjjh, 30; attacked b j Colonel Pordo, 33 ; timber sent to, 101; Mns-alm.!n court at, 183; dnfcat of the zainindai' of, 235<

EnchanipaHi, 128, 129. Excise system of snlt adiniuietrution, ] t^ . ExportSj 112,182.

Factoric.':, at Cocaitada, 210 ; of the i^tist India Company, 212, 213,

FamiTy deities, 47. PamincB, 136-lJl, 103, 101, 107, Farm (ngricuUnral), at Samulkdt, 214, Paana, 13. Porishta, 24. Perries, 120. Ferry inanis, 180. Pirc protection in forcstq, 97. Fiacher, Captain, 82. Pish, 15. Piah-curiiig yards, 183, Pisbing-riGts, 99, /V(«ria, 31-37. Floods, 7, Ui~W!, 167. flora, 12. Floricun, 15. Food, 45, Porbcs, Mr. U,, 83. Porde, Col., 31, 227-231, 245. Foreign li(|uer, 185, Forests, 02-101. Forts at Bandapndi, 355; D6varapullt,

259 i DhavamallapDrain, 221; Koru-kouda, 25; Nagaram, 319 ; KaUapalli, 259; Pcddapuram, 234 j Tctapalli, 326 ; and Taddigiidein, 259,

Poses, 16. Freucb, tho, 29, 30, 31. Fruit trees, 100. Funerals, 50.

Gabriel, Rev. Tiiomus, 40. Gajapatis c(£(0riB8a, 26, Gall-nuts, 101, Gamallas, 48,57,185. GamLae, Mr, J, a,, 03. Game, 15, Game tales, 97, Ganapati (Kakatiya), 34. Ganapavaram tank, 89. Gangavaram, 263. Gangdlu mutta, 278, Qftnja, 186. Oanna-varam, aqaodnot, 80; canal, 146;

village, 202. ' Garnets, 11, Qaar, 15. GaoridfivipSta, 9, 10, 11,

294 I N D E X

InflOriptionB of Allatia Reddj, 2G; As6kii, 17 ; AttivarmntL, 18; Ganapati, 2 1 ; G6tamipntm, I S ; Kdtaya Temft Eeddi, 2C 208, 216; Enlfittunga I, 215 ; M»l-lappa III, 21&; Pratapa Kudra, 24, 203 ; Prithivimfila, 18; PulakSsin 11, 19, 233 ; Eajai'BJa (Chilukya), 231; Samudva-gupta, 233; Vishniivardbanu, Maliftrdja, 315; of Andhras, 18; ClialukyaB, 233; Haihiyae, 23 ; Kukatiyas, 203; KfinaB, 233 ; Nadendlas, 2'.1 ; Pallaâa, 18 ; EoddiB, 208, 233, i i t , 251; Vfilatmndu ohiots, 203, 233.

In(i firuht, 49. Inundations by tho sea, 141, Ippa tree, 62, 185. Iron, H . Irrigation, 79-90, 132, 149. Islaiula in the Gddtivari i-ivcr, 6.

Jaokals, 16, 45. Jaddan^, oBtat* and villago, 10*, 284,

286, 286. Jaf ar Ali, 30. JaCnr Ally Khan, 209. Jftga Eao Nayudu, 234. JagammapSta unioti, lOS, 100, 222, 225;

lamindari, 222, 224. JagannaikiiuT. See Jagaunathaparaiu. Jagannap^B, 103, IOC, 217, 218, JagoDnStba of P61avnrara, 280. Jaffonn^thap'oiam, Dutch fn.ctovy at, 29;

hospital at, 151; a.ilt factory, 181, 182; hamletof Cocanadn, 2t>9; com&terv at, 210.

Jaganniyakntapalaiyaîi, 250, Jigapati KaKu, 32, 3:(, 209, 236. Jagapatinâram nnion, 197, 222, 224. .laggumioag&fip^ta, iil4. ]iL<;gBmp€ta, 197. Jaggevj, 74,183, 220. 221. Jails, 195. .Tain wells, .=19,89. Jftlna, 38; relics of, 3», 201, 212, 220, a38. Jftjikuka village, 267. Jsllurn, 39, Janipalli estate, 164. Jansram Fnlicanta Sambayya, Slrd.ir, 260,

274. Jangateddigudem estiite, 279, 283, 7a«i Bj'Bteai, 91, 112. J^gunipftda, lOfi, 107, 2'I0. J3lu(fnmill5, 36. Johnstono, hlr., 232. Joint rent syHttm, 103, li;7, 199. jDnjtle-fowl, IS. Jnngle aheep, lo, Jiistico, administi'atioTiof, lEi8-195. .fuê i'0]>CB, 307,

Kadali, 219. Kadayam, laterite fjnarricH of, 124. Eailasa fort, 234. KaJdra. jp^fnchaleam, 219, KSkatiyaf of Wamugal, 23, 24, 203. K^kinadsh 210. Kikurn inntta, 308. Ka l io^ kingdom, 17, 22. Kalinî wood, 99. Kammamc^ 35. Kaiuiuarcddipulaiyam, 204-. EammaB, 55. KamBalaB, their dress, 44; food, 45; casto

goddess, 48 ; mfltal-wovk, 105,222, 225, 241, 248; VFOod-carvinff, lOl) j nnA musical instrunn'itts, lUti,

Kanithi rooka, 9, Kanakalap^ta, 215. Eaadikuppa, forest block, 98, 99. Kiindrakota, 48, 222, 263, Kipavarain tank, 89, 240, KapilSsvara, 20, 244. Kipna, sliikftriM, 10; tlescrihnd, 55 ; cotton

dyed by, lOi ; paintini; of, IOC; oil-makingrof, 107; banfe'lrw made by, 108, 240j dyeing and chintz-Btaniping (if, 256.

Knrain Dhulu Dora, 269, KarnabottiiH, 48, 58,102, 104, KaB-kas tattii^N, 214. Katatua Ecddt, 26. Kitaya V^ma Ueddi, 29, 208. Kutorn, 240. Kfitikftpus, 59. Kattipddi, 222. Kazalum, 39 Kellock Lcpor Home, 15]. Kerosine oil, 107,113, 117. K^Bauaknrrii, 203. Kinorsaiii river, 11. King, Dr., S, 11. Kirlamptidi, 222, 2','4. Kistnn. canal nyjtom, 130, Knox, Caplain, 231. Kocharla KOta Jaggayyn, 388. Komavagirjpntnam, 203. Kdmatie, 44, 45, 48, 54. Kommi fteddi, 283. K6naBodtIi, 25.

I Kona Si'ma, 1 note, 201. Kona Sima. Dravidaa, 204, 205, 218. KonappapSta, 183. K6nas, 233. Konda Reddia, t"6.

i Kondaniodalu estate, 269, Kondainudi, 18. Kondapalk', 26, 27, 28. Koudavid, 26, 26, 27, 38.

j K<lp;illi forcHt block, 07, Kona, 77. KOrckondn, 24, 25, 242, 264. Kfittt, villtijfc and luutta, 287. Kdte lidniaohandrapnram ewtate, 1.64,165. £oti , 242.

I N 1 > E X 295

KiJtipalli (^stiitc, 253,2)50; village. 6,137, ISi , 252.

KottuT Pittlisiiui. 279. Kuttaiji CBlaH', 22-1. 25G. Kotta)palli villiige, iu rithapuraiu division,

103, 1(4, 2381 1" ttajiihraundrj- taluk, SB, 80, 2-10, 2i3, 282 ; in Tnni dirision, 255, 256.

Tiott8p6ta, ruiiif.iU af, 136; vaL-oination compiilsoi'y iti, ISO; BHb.recift'ai' at. l e l ; (Icpulv tittiFildnr at, 192; nnioii, 197, aOi.

Kottijiiidi, 13.-!. Kottfint, 222, KotwulB, 10+. Kovvoda furest black, 97. Kovvfir, 3,127. Kfiy.is, catfclo raised by, 1 3 ; keen spovV^-

mon, It); ti^sistotl Siitihn ]tci1t!i, 'M; (Icflcribod, Bl); loit'Bt jn'Ivili'geKuf, 91,69, 97; not imnmne Iron) malnria, I IS; ai'rack mnuufacnu'C of, 164.

KHslma D6vn IWya, 27. 2-14., Kristinu Itno Nttyudu, 231 . Kslian.'i Muktt-Nvai-aiti, 202. Kndhi!ra111,in nail faotociesi, IHl. KnlOtiunga Chfidn fionkti, 23. Knlotlunjjn Cliola 1,21, 215. KuwAvti Miiln'p'tt!, 23ti. Kuiniira n'liiia, 250, KuuiHi'a Vcnliatft Malii'pni i Rao. 23T. Knmir.idfivfiirL, 127. Knmi'ivuifiri R*;dtti, 2(i. KntuiirauviimifÂdoiii, 2(12. Kfinn ({I'dtti, 2S, 242, Kiiniivaram, 127, 258, 20; , 26G. Knti'lrida naufta, 269. Knrenmniup^tn, 215. Kutruvada, 270.

Uabbais, 107, 2 i8 . Lace war'k, 112, Laflamme, Hcv. H. ¥., Jil. Lakshiuinai'aHimha Kao, Tdinu, 261, 262, LaJrBhmlnRfAyanti D^vu (hvo pnafirKtV 28f>.

28;t. (jally. Count do, 31. LimbadiB, cattle brouijlit b.v, 13. Lnud-eosfi, 197. Laitd-anstoma, 186, 187, Land Tiieasuiv;:, 130. Land Itovcnuo Admimstiiition, 160~180, Languages spoken,38. Lankala UaniiaTairani, 217. ianJraa, 6, 15, 78, 170, I7:i Latorite, 124 . Lead vessels, 105. Lepei's, 161, 199, Lighthouse, 114, Lime, 26G, Lineal nioaBui-os, 120. LingaDalijaH, 108,235. Linga Roddi (two persons), 269, 282.

Ling a 111 parti, 8i*. 22tl. f>iiig'a;r.B, 207. Linton Mcmoiial Sclino!, 158, Liquid measitrci., 11.^, Liquor, 69 , Litigation in tho .listrict, 191. Local Boai-ds, 196, Lcrcat $clf.(;ovcrnmeut, 196. Log-vôod plants, 98. Lowry, Mr. C. J., 126. lKm«if;em racemosa, 99. T.iithciaii Miasinn, 39, 151,

Ta

Macgnire, Mr., 232. Milchavtu'aiii, 201, Mackeiizio M8i5.. '2t, LTi, 233, lIua;>pollain,C, 29, SI. Maddur limka, 81. Mndurn rivor, 287. Mi'tdUova Niiyudu, 2S4. .Maillmvaii ItiimbliApati DSvu, Sn, 271. Jlt'idigrts, c.»Ltlt> jjoifonod by, IE ; dress of,

a ; food of, 45 ; i'\i<ixo Rodders of, i 8 [ lake aivoy uniiftala ofl'iircd tc 5[ari-dnmma, 49 : funoi-al rites of, 50 ; their connection with Kdmali's, 5 4 ; cnswmB of, 69 ; desijribod, CO ; mats niade bv, 105 ; loatbor woi-k of, 107, 108 ; baikott maiit! by, lOS; slioca made bv, 249,

.Madras Railway, 132. Îngdzincs, publislied at Cocanada, 21u. Maht'tnanclmaraui, 5, 280. MaliSiidra, chieffnin of Piatapumm, 2,t3, Malt^ndiMfrii-i, 20. Mahseer, 15. Mailflk'ic, 55, Mala Biicdiuaituit, 250,

I Malaria, 148,1311, 276. MulaB.iiUikai'is, l ( j ; tlieir dress, 44; food,

45 ; rain-making praotioes, 4 7 ; and caftc goddess, -IS; take away animals offered to MaridiimBia, 4S ; funeral rites of, .'0 ; their connection with Velaoias, .15; described, 5 8 ; mnts and (attjes tuodo by, 105; oritiieof, 103; ehai-o in buffalo sacrifice at i)oiv]aishTi'ei'anj 241

Malavati, 161. Malik Ahmed, 27. Malik Esfur, 25.

' arfrtftftnna, 176,177. iiallapa III , 24, 315. Mallavaratu, 146, Maudapalli, 203. BlandapSta, 197. Mangap.iti D6vn, 213, 280, 281, 382. Mdiigvove, 98, »[*.

I Maiisabdara, IQi, 225. llanuvos, 70 ,73 , 77, 78,107. Karntlias, 30. MarSdipaka, 48, 253. Markets, 117.182, 198,

39

296 I N D - E X .

Maniage I'nies and ceremonies, 49, 1 Jtarriage by capture, C5, 07. Slarrigldem, forcBts, 100 ; taliik, 304. Mampddit 105, Uarrivadn mntta, 2Gf>, 27C. Maaatcanalli, 312, 253. UasbUftaB) 59. Maatev, Mr a. E., IB9. Mastidie, 60. Maaulipatam, I'lngltah sottlemont ut, 29 ;

taken by Colonel favdf!, 32; chief and (K>uncil of, 34; timber sent to, 101 { early British court at, 188; later Provincial court at, 189 ; PiSlavaram lamin-darni confined in, 231.

Mats, 105, 252. M&yidaffilu, 16, McLaurin, Kuv. Jobii, -lO. Means oC oommuiiieation, 121-131. Meianres and wtigUts, 117.-131. Mfidaraa, mats iiiswlo by, 105, lOS. Medical insti tot ioiis, 151. M^nai-ikam, 49. Mercury, 109. Metal work, 105, 207, 22!. 241, 2t8. Jlcttakdru, 215. Metukdr, 234, Mica, 11. Mina, pied, 15. Jlinerals, 10.

- i'tiiiov forest pvoduce, 2ii, 101. Mint tDtttcln) at Bimlipatnivi, 209. 2todai\ipa,nwn, 273. Mogalikiidum, 218. Mogalturru, 35,103, 235, lltjlianapurriin, 287. JlolaaBcs, arvack made trom, \M. Monetary terms, 122. Money rates, 171,173. Monopoly by«tom of &rilt administvtttion,

181. Montgomery, ?!lr Henry. 80, 1K>, ltJ7. Moraein, U., 30, 32.

" M6ri,217. Morris, Mr. H., l&B. Mosques, 238, 24-t, 2r,t. MfStigadHsi, 201. Mrfitliynj^nagar. 207. MfidiiB, wood-carving of, lOD, 205, 249, 250;

painting of, 100, 2 IS; Icilhor work of, 108.

Mnhanioaaa Shuli of Knlliarga, 27, 331, 244.

iliibamtnad Tugiilak, 25, 244, MubaumadatiB. See MuEialnianK. Makt^Hvaram, 202. Mdlftpfila, 103,104, 227, 232. Mammidi N&yak, 25. Mnmmidi Reddi, 25, 242. Mummidivaranii 13S, 191, Munjavitrapuknibii, 107. Muuro, Sir Thomas, 1G6. Muramalla, 203. Mntalroans, sWfuria, 10; their conquest

of the diatriot, 25, 26,27 -, tulo of, 28-34;

Jcflcribed, 39; weavinf; of clotlia for, 103; jjith-work of, IOC; edacation among, 163 ; oDdowmenta for, 137 ; administration of justice during the rule of, 188.

Music, 150, UuBioat instriiaients, lOG, 220. MnsuDimilli mutia, 270. Mulrachas, 16. Mutanmilli, 253. Muttadar system in lhf> Affoncy, 177. Mnfttna, 101.

N

Nadendla, chiefs of, 2;i. Nagaram. island, 5, 217-220; Luluk, 217-

220; village. 106. 210. ITagavaraia muMa, 85, 270, 280. I^akkalas, IC, 15,193. NallaeheruTu, 237, KallaolierHVtt choultry, 183,225, Naliamillipudu cBtate, 283, Naliapalli, 259. ITaluguguttahill, 2C:i. N^BBKhat, 18. iTa^di nt Palivehi, 203. Nandigi'ima estate, 250. NandivavtQau, 20. Kannayabhatta, 243. NavasBjmr, eiioroachmonts of the OtSda-

vari at, 7 ; EngH.sb f'ictory near, 29 ; taken by Colonel T?'>rde, 32 ; timber dfipot at, 101; steam boat aer-vicc to, 127; floods in, 142, 113, MS ; head-tinartcrs of theSnb-Collcojor, 133 j school established at, 154.

SaraeiSpvinun village, 368. Narasimba Hfivu, 243, 280, 281, 282. Wavasimlia of Tljayonafjar, Silt, Narasinga nao, Konnnireddi, 152. Nnrasioga Una of TdtipSka, 2^C. Nur(iyan;ipatnam, 220, Natural divisions, 3. Navigable canals, 129. Nawabs of Rajahmnndry, 245, N6dunfij>u, inutla, 270 ; village, SU, 201. ^MlipA'^i, 287, Nerbudda river, 203. Newspaper, 210, Neyret, Hisbop, 42, Xidadavotn, 28. Niladriof Pitbapurain, 23fi, Nilapalli inutta, 213 ; village, 5, ] 87, 213. Nilgai, 15. Nimat Ali,223, 233, 230. Kimmalapaloni village, 270. Kisam of Hyderaba t, 29. Soble High School, 154. Horthern Gircnrs, 2D, 33. Sulakaniaddi,287. N&r.ud-din, 230,

I N D E X . 297

Oceopalions, U)2 -U2 . OddcB, wooJ-cai-ving of, 248, Oil mnnufaoturo, 107, 201, 210, 2B5, 25G. OiiiODB, 71 ,77 . Opiuiii, 45, IBS, 18t5. Orctcnls, 6*. Oriental SMt Co., Un, I * . ^ Oinanionta) iiiclul work, IU(!. On-, Gcnornl U. A,8:5.

l*«cliavaj>))us, 1P3, ' Paddy, 68-73,111;, 1^7 | l\idmn SnlOi., 104. ' Pniiigniigni rivor, I, Pmiitms, 106, 2 l s . Pftlakollu, tattle fair :tt, 15; inBcript-oti*. ^

at, 2 B ; h u g e liiigani in ,207; Dutcli ractor^ in, 200; a]u-iti<> at, 250, j

PaliivHiichtt ctlatf, 2^0. , PAIom iimttA, 270, 277. { I'aliv^la, estate, 217, 224; village, 21, L't:,

203. Palluviis, IS, 233. Pallia, 55, 218. Palmyran, 3 ,105,107, lOS, 18.K Pitmbal.iB, 50. FiinmWru niutta, 270. , riLijclii'ila connti'y, 201. P4ndo,iulainHl<i, 221, Pandrupdio, 287. Patinileru, 15. Pnntbei'ii, IS. Pfrpayysi Sdstfi, 202, PSpikonda, 3, 67, 97. Paroitt tongue, 38. Parnauala, 212, 260,261, 263, Parry & Co., Jlessi-s., I l l , 184. Partba^arathi Appa Rao, 260. Partridge, 16. I'asulaptidi, 263. PaaavagidDi, 287. pBtu Pattisnui uBtato, 270. Pattiftani, S. I'attUam Nidhi isltind, 279. Patta dales, 104, 232. Patttihadi system, 112. Peafowl, 16. Pedako&da, 11, (i7, 268, Podda Ualla Earn, 24, 235. Podda. V^gi, 19, Peddida, 207. Poddipuram oatato, IM, 165, 222, 223. Peddapuram iaittkj 221-326. Poddapnram talak board, 19U< Peddipuramtown, ttt i ldingstoue at, 1 1 ;

taken by tho MuBaltuana, 2 8 ; Lntberan Mission High School at, 4 0 ; Onptiat-Mi3aionat,4l; \voaTingat,103,103, lOi; motal work at, 105 ,100 ; oil iactoriea in, 107; nhoo.making in, 108; obattram at, 133; rainfall at, 135 ; clepLanttnsi^

ID, 130; vnccination coiupulsery in, 130; district munsif tind sub-registrar ID. 101; union, 107 ; dcscj'ibcd, 222; fighting wear, 235,

PcMinti Gollns, 193. ^ Pcglia format loserve, 88. " Pcnugondu, 64. Ponug\»dfiru,lSl, 1S2. ]'copU\ 38-C7. PorikoH, M, 56. 104. PcruiaucDt seUti'nit iii, 36. KU-IG?. Pt'rdrn, 107,201. P^tii estate, 270. I'hlllips Mi ittoLit.! ILuDic, ICtt. Pliysieul dcsi;n|)lioii, 1- I'l. I'iclicbiftuntas, 50. Pidiika-l:inku,8t. Vig, 16,241. Pigeon, ini|icri:iK l-j. Pillnnka, 145. Piktapurani, 233. TiLli work. lOG. I'itliapnrjtii division. 227-2'3i'. Pithapuiom estate, cbiof of, 1 3 ; L'ollcgw

Fujipovtcd from, 157-13tt; adminiiterfd by renters, 163; liistory of, 1C4, 165; villapes |)ui'chafod by the Eaji. of, 222; described, 233-8.

Pithapnnim town, .cattle fair at, 15 ; redacted by Pulak^sin IT, IP; Jain relics in, :U>; metal ivork ^t, 103, 106 ; uinNicnt inslriiinont^ made at, 106 ; oil fioloiieii in, 107 ; shoouiaking in, 108 ; cattle maiket at, 112; oliattram in, 134; rainfall at, 135; v/tccJnalion compulsorj' in, ISO ; mission hospital at, 151; IRaja'b collogo lit, 1S7-159; fish-cuimg near, 183 ; snb-rcgistiar at, 191 j deputy lahsildor at, 192; Sakkalas of, 1 9 2 ; jJoHce Btation for, 194; union, 197; described, 233, 238-239,

Plantains, 3, 72. Pl iDy.9 ,18, 211. Pltjmbago,ll, 258. Podw onltivation, 78, 94,264. Point G<SdAvari, 5, P. Point Noiniaopwr, 5, Pdltiratn island, 88. Pdla-raram division, S7S-283. P<Slav»ruai estate, ?5, 164, 165, 252, 280. Pdlavarauj taluk board, 196. Polavaram to^vu, Crddavai-i river flows by,

S jUsh caught near, 15; steam boat to, 127 ; rainfall at, 133 ; fiooda in, 146; ganjtt shops in, 18C 5 snb-regietrar in, 191; desoribed, 280 -383 ; cnptnre of. 282.

Police, 194,211. Fons&da, 239. Popnlation, 38-67.

I Portunndu, 221, 286.

Port ContiervuDoy lioard, 114, Potnli iu,27, Potters, 848. Potter's tank at Bajnhuiuudry, 16C.

298 l iTDSX

Pottery, 109. Pottinger, Sir Henry, 130. Piinhita m e r , 4. Pratapa Radra, 21, 27,203. 2f3, 236, Prattip4dn, 135.191, 192, 22k Ptendergasb, Mr., 167-Prices, 171, 172, l73, Principal SuAder Atnins, 181*. Prilltituj.prcesfS, HO, 310. Pritliisvara, 23. Prithivimdla, Pallavakinj:, IS. Proprietary estates, Iti-l. Flerocarpiia Mirsupmyn, 90, 100, lOl. Public health, 148, 153. PQlak^sinll, 19,233. Palletikorru, 206. Pimyaksh^tniit), 109. Pap pet shoWH, 45. Parashtfttaina GajapaU, 26. Puniah6ttaj)atnam, 282. Par vis, Mr., 157*. Paehkaraui festival, 6, 211.

Quail, l^. Qutb Shall of GolcoDda, 27.

KagampStU, 1U5, 108, 22:i, 2Zo. It^haTapuvam, 236, B»gi,45,71,7a, 77. Baiclt£r, 20. Railway, 132. BainEall. 13.'3. Raja Tatsavaya' VeiikELta bimliadri

Jagapati Ra<;a,2S7. Ilajahunadry district, 163. Rajabujnndry talnk, 2-10-2-I8. Rajahmnndry talak board, 19G. EajahmaniSry town, width of tlioGodavari

at, 6 ; eiiipo-Bhootin{rnear, 15;Gb^uk3'a capital, 21 ; indepuadenco of (>bt> king of, 24 J Muhammad I'ugUlak'a expftditioa againet, 25 ; Reddi chiefs of, 26 ; capital of Kondavid Redditj, 3(3; under the Uajafatifi of Orissa, 2G ; uoded to the Bahmaui kiu^, 2G; Muhuuimad Shah's iitay at, 27 i fighting vf itb the Iilusahnaus near, 28; the Freuch at, 31,32, 232; occupied by Colonel Porde, 32; English force posted at, 3 3 ; its Christian missiouB, 39, 40,42 j village goddess, 48 ; timber market, 101 jvveaviug, 103, 104; Jail, 104, 108, 195; metal work, 105, 106; wood aud atone carving, tOG ; masical inatrumonts, 106; painting, 100; tannerie*, 107; oil-factories, 107 ; shoe. makiug, lf>8; sugar-candy nod soft eajrar, 109 ; g'V"». 109j riuo juijts, l lOj arohiteote, 110; and piintiiig presses, 110; C^davari bridifc at, 12G,

133; boat service to, 137,131; chattramw in, 131; rainfall at, 135 : storm at, 114 ; vaccination compulsory in, 150 ; hospital and dispsusai'y ac, l.ll, 163 ; school first established at, 153 ; coUeRcs in, 15.1-157; CoUootor's hoad-qiiai'tci- at, 103 ; taverns in. 185; opintu storehouse at, 186; Musal-mau court at, 188; xllla court established at, 180; cKiHting civil courts in, 189,191 ; a lib-registrar at, 191; bench court at, 193 ; Qupei'intcudeiit of Police at, 1!>1;police reserveat, 191; muntci-pality, 198 ; described, 243; armed police seat uuriug Itampa rebellion from, 264; Vijayagopala detained a1, 281 ; and escaped from, 283.

R&jaji, 264. Rajanogavani, 2S, 21tJ. RajarBJa I, 20. Rajar&ja II , 21!. Riiaii»ia(Chalakya), 21,212, 213, 251. llajaraja f.'hdda CSanga, 23. Bfijarija Narfindra, 2-)-]. B&}ibv6lu, sugar factory near, 7 i ; uiiiiiical

instruments made at, 106 ; stoain boat to Jfavdsapur from, 127; rainfall at, 135; sub-registrai- in, 191; described, 2ly.

I Uuj6ndra Cbola, 20. ^ Rail, anicut, 20.>; village, 80, 2i>t, 30J.

Ealli Bros., Mcssrsi,, 115. Ralph, :Mr., 300. R£ma U&s, 201, EatDachandra Kao Hayudu, 23o. Ramachaudra Vcnkatukiishna Hao, 2b3. Ramachaudrapuram taluk, 240-254. K4mai!handrapuram town, Baptist juis-

sion at, 4 1 ; timber dSp6t at, 101; rain* hill at, 135 ; vaccination compuleory iu, ISO ; misfiion dispensary and lepor homo at, 151 i anb-registrar in, 191; union, 197 i described, 253.

Ramaghattala, 233. Eimakrisbikdpuram, 224. Rimakrishnayya, M.R.Ry, Pydub, 108 RamavHram, 232, 288. Riuihhdpati D6vu, 271.

, Rfimfisvaram, 0 note. I Ranjpa dibturbauces, nature of, 30 ; Sight-1 ing near Kota during, 227 j R6kapa11o

proprietor joined in, 384; described, 1 273 ; flgbtiug near Addatigela, 284 ; aud ! in Dutoharti estate, 285; help rendered

by AnigSiu muttadar during, 285, Rampa estate, 164; 174, 212, 271. Rampa forests, 93, 9.'>, 100. Rampa village, S70. Eanga Rao >fiyudu, 231. BangampSta, 226. Bang&ria, 104', 248. Eaugas6yi Rao N4yudu, 235. Rangoon, 18^. Ri'mUti-akdtas of Ufilkhwl. 20, 21. Rattan baskets, 108, Rsvilauka, 209. Eavutalapfidi stream, 89,

l ^ D X X 290

E&711 Jagapati Eav.u, 223. UiyaVP^lâa^, 223. UiyiTtttamestate; 222,221,226. IHtSk'. See Eajav6\«. nAxas, 16,53. Rcdai .lyunBty, 25. 20-J, 233. 2 I i, 2.->l. Rcd(li3' vvoHs, 8S, 201. It<>d<)is (KapuB), ti5. Ucrtdia<Hill>, U?, 2'''. Ot'-, TS^. llegiiir.iii'11), I'M. lUkiLimllo CBt.ito, -J'lO.Stil. IWfcapnllo hills, a. 1, 7, lOt), RfiltftVnlle villnije, ^tiS.

ItcKCi'rett fores U, 03. Rovoniio ndministiiitiou, 31, JM-ISO, Itovetiuo acttlt'moiits liiO-177 Rico, 45, 1:3, llfi, IJ17. Itico iiiittii, n o , 210. I Ripley & Co., McuHrB,, 11.), | RiTOr tratniib ruloB, 07. Rivers, 4-S. . Ko<id fund, 177, ! Roada, 12-1-127. ; •Rook-oreatala, 11. I Rock-cut c:ive«, 213, Itoobuctc, 3tr. Kben<?j(ti', 211. Rohillan, 200. Roman CatlioHca, .12, 210. Roi)e», 107. Itoîbui'gli, 13. Rxx<iro,Xiiva,2i. Unraboltl, Sir Tlionias, Ht2. UuHtuui Kliiu, 29, 233, 235, 23tJ, 2-1-3. Ryotwnri BoUlumeuta, 167-I74r.

S

Sabni'I vivuL', 4. Sacramento lihoal, 11^. Sagopalu), toddy drawn Irom, 1B5. Stiiyid All S&bib Bah&dar, 157-Saijitl Shah Bhaji Aulia. tomb of, 251. Saktivaituan, SO. Salabat Jang, 30,32. Sale 9, 10*. Salt, 181-183. Saltpetre, 183. Samagedda, 287. Simai, 77, 79. Samalkot canal, 8. 85. 113, 14(i, 197, Sauialkot town, Koibuvgh resided at, 13 ;

its Baptiiit Miaeioii, 4 1 ; Reman Catholic cha])el, 4 2 ! ngi-icnltural farm, 75, 7C> 1 artesian well, 90 ; cotton Eyeing, 104 j weaviog, 104; tutt.is, 105; shoe-making 108; Hugai' factory and diatillfry, 109, m , 184^ 186 i and la: erito qaari*ies, 124; brattoh railway to Cooanada from, 133; ohattrain in, 134j relief-works startod in, 139; storm in, 143, 144; tinton, 197; chintz-staroping' in, 207; Bhi'mavaraiii hamlot of, 207; tlie Fi'Oiicli iutri-fiio with Jdijapati Rftiu a1, 20t>:

ile&crihed. 3l4v its connection with the Pithapuvitm fAmilv, 234, 235; taken from the Pt',h6\*uTam Raja, 23i.',

Sambnr, 15. Snmiidrogiiptn, tnscriplion of, 2;t3. Sauads, (or tlio R.imjut luitttadari;, 275, iiauapnUi-laiikn, 108, Sand-gi-oaei', IS. Saiidatoue, 11, 121. Saniei, ••)», 20J. ^;iti)turinm, ;it .^;imall(ot. 211-. San i i i i t i on , 1 tM).

Sipta-<'ayiira-iji''t><', l>, 212. 217. Sarjmvaraiii. 2H. Saveri river, dc-'ôriiied, T; fi lt in, 15;

timber iloatt'S 'iewii, 117; malaria iu tlio vtllcy of, 1 S J iiitcrHi'cJs tlio Rhadi-fi-clialucu tahik, 23S.

SCIIOOIB, 154. Sea-customs, IW. Season.^ imfitvoiirable, 167. Se-oud-crop cuUivation. 71. Sclapaka. 235. S^tiupatiB. 23(1. St'rpmit gud, 201, Scrjjcnt sacriiifc. 21 j . Sotllcmwit of liquid Hevoiiue, llJO-177. Sheep, 14, Shifttc;; oiiltitatton, 7t>. Shiki'iria, 10. Sliip-b=ildiii5.r, 1:0,211,21:. . ShocB, 108, 22-^ 243. Sila, 30. SilSru river, 7. Silk-WMiviiig, 102, 224. Silver vesKcIa, 105. Simb^chuhim tem|>lu, 23, 21J. Simhadripuraui, 224. Simson k Co., Messrs., 115, 210. Simuko, Auclhra king, lii. Siiignni Sdlee, 101>, 258. Siiiijavai-am, lOJ, Siiif;inda1apiidu iiinttji, 276. Siripnlli, 108. Sir<Snoha, 4. Siruvjibo, i'S2, Silt, lai, Sitab Khin, 225. Sftdnagaram, 63,127. Sftaramporain, lOS, 256. Sivakddc, 100,135, 217, 210. Small-pos, 160. Stjiofciug, 45. Snofce-worship, 249, Snipe, 15. Soiln, 8 ,170, 172.

_ SonndrHia apetalat 99. " Sonth Indian Kiport Co., 11,

Sri R&niaKiri, 266. Sri VaiahwaTites, 218. Srikakolaiu, 18. ^ Srirangam tuniptc, 3UI. 8risaila»i, 24.

300 I N D B X ,

Stamps, 187. Steam fen-y boats, 127. Steamera, 115. Stone-carving, lOtl, 240. Stone monument*, 253, Sub-jails, U'S, ^ub-i-egistfai'B, 101. SubaOai- of the Doceaii, 'iO. Subba Hc<3ci!, .10, 233, Subbarayadu Sastri, H.H.Uy. G. V,, lo5. Snbriihmanya Aiyar, M.B.Hy,, Ifilj, SugiiUs. 13, 15, Suenr, 100,113, 117. Su^[ir-c;uidy,10[>, Sugav-cane, 7:1-76,171, Sullivan, 5ti'., 2G6-377 •pas.-im. Sandmii Rao, M.E.,Ry., LW. Sunkaipilaiyam, ISf, Simn hemp, 11, 71, /il, 107. Bujieist-itions, JC. Survev and seftlcnivat of (lio diRtricl.

169-174. S'lrya Narfiyana Ra/.n, 256. Sweet, Mr. H., 158. Sweet juice, 185. Sweot potato, 7;;,

Tidap^lli miitta, 27^. Tadavaji, 283. Tahsildare, 1112, Ta,idoor, ?2S. Talaiyfiris, 194. Talcliir tooks, 0, TaJikdta, battle of, 2S. Talismans, 4ti. T/illapudi, 7,127,146. Tallar^va, 110,211, 215. Tal!firu,a25.250. Taluk boards, 106. Taluke in the district, 1. Tamarind, 101, 284. Tamivan Dora, 26-1, 27'!-, 275. Tanks, SO, Tanning, 107, ZiS. Tape-weaving, 104, Tappitaa, 60, T&tipaka, in 'Nagaratu ielaad, 'lb, 39, lOG,

, 217, 220; in Twni division, 25, 25l3. Tatipaka sima, 1 note, 217, 220. TAtipaitF, 227 note, 229. Tattig, 105, Tattooing, 4.4, 66. Taylor, JJr. G. N„ 153, 15-i. Teak, 100,101. Teal, 15. Telae«u, 65. Telnkiilas, 107. Tempei-attire, la . Temple, Sir Kichftrd, 129. Tcnngn Rao, 234. reitAinaiia, QO, 100,101, T^tagnuta, 250.

Tidal creek at Cocaaadu, IIU. Tidal waves, 143, 211. Tigers, 13. TUla wood, 09. Tinibei'-doating, 7. Timborvatta, a2. 128, 131. Time measures, 122, Timma Razu, 223. TimpiLny, itov. .\, V „ l l . TivLalauiondi, 0 nolo. Tlnipati, 2or;, Tiiiipati .\jjraharam. 'io». Tirupati sand stone 3, !'. Tieeofc, llisliop, '12. Tobacco, grown on tiie/'(iiftas, 0; cultivii.

tiou of, 76, 77. 7»; export, of, 117 j cultivation expenses of, 171.

Toddy, 131., 18.";, Toddy.diaivoi-d, 57, 18r>. Tolls, 131. Topping, Mr,, bO, 141,142, : ! i ; . T6tapalli, 164-, 174, 225, 23.'). Tdtapeta, 260. Totai-aiuudi, 103. Totcniism, 54, 55, 56. ToTVns, ciiief, 2, Trade, 112-117, 182, 211, 21i;. Trap, 9 ,11. TVavoUei-s' bangaloWB, 133. Tree.tax system, 185. Ti'ibatariee o£ tho Gdddvari river, 7. TripurapantaTidii estate. 25[>. Troops at Samalkot, 214. Ts&kalas, 104. Tulasinga Cbefctiyar, M.lt.lty., 157. Tolya Bhaga drain, 6, 86, 208. Tnmtuapala, IS. Tttui diviBion, 26S-267 ; eatatei 2&C ;

rJTCr, 126. Tuni towu, Baptist Mission at, 40, 4 1 ;

na^us in, 53 ; its weaving 103; metal work, 105 J oil factories, 107 j sltoc-making, 103 ; caltlo market, 112 ; bridge, 126; s-nd rainfall, 135; vacoina-tion compulsory in, ISO, eab-rcgistrar at, 191 i deputy talisildar at, 102 ; nuion, 197 ; described, 2.50.

TQI'HITU motta, 276. TuiTOeriO) 72. Tweeddale, M^Tquis of, 80.

Udayaohandi-a, 20. Udayagiri, 27. Undi, 35, 282, Und&, 236. Uniom, 160,197. tjpp&da estate, 339, UppRda, villaRo, mouth of tho Yol&a near,

6 i onuroaehmeiit of tho son. i t , 10 : I weavintc at, 103, 2271 fish-ouring Rt,

183 ; coasting trade of, 187; described.

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I N D E X 301

Upper O^diivari Projeot, 128.

Vacu'inntioti, X50. Vocltchavayn Mnaali, 223. Viiohchftvayo lUjnraiufi, 283, Vfidnpilniyniii, 20.k Vi'ulnpHHi (AmiilMpucain tirluk), 20o. ViliJapalli (Cliotlitvarotii divi.aion}, 207, 277. Vu lili^fiiloiii, 23d, ^li-L ViiiiKiIt'yani GiiJuvflri rivfi', titiacrihiHl, .',

(I [ I'urry iicroSH, 12? ! lloatts in, 140, 147; origiti of iianic, 2(>2, 203.

Vtttalapddi, 114, VAIamfii'ii iiiutta, 277-VftlontriinHii, 20-1'. Viilottc, Rfv. L.M., 30. VMi Bngrivtt liill, 20ri. VSnai-atli, 205, Vangalap^di, 101. Vannipti4i, 229. VmitarluB, .)5, Vantaviiradi jiys(t;in, 2utt. Varadai'uma Din, ifOl. Vfirakam dystcm, ll'.f, Varugn. Blmttai, 6C. Vaslstitn fiodftvnri ctver, dcicrllioU, .>, Gx

fiTiiofl aci'Ofls, 127; floods in, I4.i, 14C, ].t7; Vainali'yam Gi'ddTni-ifovmeil from. 202.

VntBavayn idi-appn IJ-lzu, 550. Vc(iora,*2)t. V^tffayamiiiapfita, 150, 2$'i. Vclagnpatli, H , 277, Vukiiiap&laiyaDi, 250, Volauiaa, 65,101, Vt'lftiuikapalli, 110. Vfilanaudii family. 23, 21, 20.1, 23;i. Vâiilta,22-V. Vcipus, C3. V^ma llcd<li, 25, 210. Vunuilahori'la tit)i(ta, 277. Vongi, 10, 2a;t. Voiibata KHHljiia Ktyu KJmgfti-, 2;io. Voiikftfa JIahrjMtti firmsu'lhara lldimi Itno

237, Vcnkata Niladn of Pitbdptiram, 237. Vcrtkrtta Kao, 222. Vcnkatagiri S'jaraiiidai-i, 231. Vcnkatapati of Pdla-varam, 280, Voiikatardma of Pdlavnram, 280. Venkataratnnm, Maniyam, 27?. Vcnkatayyopahiyaui. 100. Venkayj'u of Bekapaile, S64 Vonnayya, Rai Uahadtu-, \ . Vetiiritiary dispensary, 233' Vidiadd Gajapati ot KajaTHiii^rv, 2S,

223^245, ViiayAditya Maltîtdra, 244. Vi|ay4di».ya 11,20, Vt)ayadifyaVII,21, VijayagiSpUa DUVTI, 280, 281, 282.

a:iaiKi

Vijuyatrngar kinîloiu. 27-Vij^flvarain, 127, 147. Vikr-.tnia C\\6\a, 22. Viki-ainadityB VI, 21. 22, Vilifsa estate, 164. Villngo dcitic", 4-7, 48, G3, 67; at Antai*-

-todi, 2 t 7 j Doivlai"hwcrani, 2 4 1 ; Knii-drak<Sta. 222; Mfti-Sdipakn. 25S t Pratti-padu, 22i i Hajahmundrv, 21" ; Talldru, 250; Tutipukn, 250; Vatiiiprtlll. 205; and Vd^svnmiii, 220.

Villntri.' cstablislimcnis. 178-lM>. Villaf,'!' mngiotratea, IPl. Villapit e r m r r inam<i, 17'.i, ISO, VMlagcs, 42, Ofi, G7, Vimaladitya, 20, 21. VipcaviiwSdia, 5;t, Viva Chola, 22. Vimbliatlra Hclili, 2i',. Vi'i-abliadrapur:iiii, 2SS. ViraioiiBlitiB. 55 . Vivavamm, 7, 22). 220. Vinivuiidi, 201, Vltabadi system of i-ovcnuo. tC-l. Visbmigdpa nf Corijf ovi'vam, 2.^3. VisUnuvardliana (two F.isteni CUalukya

kiofTi), 10, 20, 54, ,'5.*t. Vichr-uvai'tlliunii Malini'uji, 21S. Vif-Ufapatani, 31. Vi^.iaiin^fain, Raja of, 30, 31. 2.'iS. VoduUponta, 227 uotc, 22S. Volkart Bros,, Messrri., 1)5, ViiUmtx^cvs, <.'onii>aiiy at Coninuiila, 208. VowM, among Mains, 59 ; at- Annamran),

221 ; AyiHavilli, H02 ; Bhadvachalant, 2 6 2 ; BikkaviShi, Ui>; K/liidrak6ta, 222; KtSriikonda, 242; Kottapalli, 256; Ms-n-dapalli, 203 ; Maraumlla, 203; Pata Pattisa)ii,279; Prattipadu, 221; Enjali-uiundi'y, 248; Mtnavarain, 28P; and Tallfirn, 250.

' Vriddl>ft Gaiilami, Ss. Vtibalnnta, 100, Vyfigri'sravapuvBin, SOO.

W Wagea, i1|. Wainfrangn river, 4. Welch, Mr., 8fl, 125, I2a Warangal, 25, Soc also Kiikatiyas. WariUia river, 4, Water oarriftge,, 127. Water-rate in tlie doUa, 172, 173. M'eaving, 102-104 ; in Amalapnraro, 2 0 1 ;

Bawtl&TOlaiika, 202; Cocanatla. lalnk, 207; Di*akahavatiian), 2 5 0 ; GollapSlai-yani, 212 ; JagaiinapOia, 217 ; Kdtipalli, 2,)2 ; Iôttupalli, 232 ; Maredipaka, 253 ; Nagarom Uluk, 217; Peddapiiram, 22-1 ; Pitliaptiram, 23i> : llajahmundiy taluk, 240 ; Hfljahmimdry, 248 j liama-cliandrapurain,' 2S3 ; Samalfcot, 2l-( ; Siv»k<Sdn, 220 j Tilipaka, 220 ; Tiini, 255, 2S6; and Uppada, 233.

302 I N D E X

Wwgbts !Hitl measnrcs, 117-12^. U'ells, 79, 89, 200, 201.20*. Weatcot. Mr., 3U. \ \Vet caltivalion, 68-7C. IVidotv re-marriage, 41', VVilaon A Co., MosEra., 115, Winrt, 12. Witohcrnft, 64, C7. •Wood, Sir Charlns, L72, Wood-carving, IOC ; at AmalatJUi'Jui, 201 ;

Hikkavoln, 350; Doivhi.-hH-crum, 2il ; DrfikBhirima-ui, 250 ; P6.- iini, 20.'>; Hajaliitmadry, 2l3j and Sivubodn, 220.

Working p\anf for fotosi-;, 100,

Xytin foi'csis, JOO,

Yfiaadis, 1S*2. Vanaui, on the (laataniT GoJ.'ivori, Ti;

Pi-eiicli factory at-, 2!); Itoman Cftiholio mission at, 42 ; canal to, 8fi; salt for, lft2; land-cnfiloui^ on ^ oorlg from, 187; dcHcrihed, 215. o

yitnaon, 215. Yarlogodda, 2it7. Voilnvampuln pjiss, 28^1. VcMrii river, dpficribctl, 7 ; irriffntroti t'r»no,

89, 170, i n i mouth of, 113; brid-js over, 126, 1&8.

VttlesTarnm. 112, 197,225. Yellamancbiit, 105, Yfillavarani 'liviaicm, 2S-1.-288. YoHavarHm tillage, 7. Yonfiami'n'o, M. Yt'uiitiF, S7. Yooiiiiali sclioliirsliijijt, 157. Yornagij(lei)i. 3.i, M, IIH, Vcrra Kalwo, l l . Verragondn, 287. Yo»Tamotla, 11, Yorravaintn, 12fi, 223, Yorttt:alu9, 0, 'II!, 100, 10,S. YorUe, Oaptiin, 230. Youn^', Mr. H. Tl.. l.'.,'>.

Zumindsiri laaO, 11)0, Zaniindaro, 20, 30, 31, 160, 18-V.

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