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Transcript of EFUSI
HUMAN BODY
NURSING GENERAL
DIAGNOSA KEPERAWATAN
Elisasiregar's BlogSearch:
Efusi Pleura
02MondayJUL 2012
POSTED BY ELISASIREGAR IN DIAGNOSA KEPERAWATAN ≈ 1 COMMENT
TagsDiagnose, Efusi Pleura, Nursing General
Efusi Pleura
1. Pengertian
Efusi pleura adalah suatu keadaan dimana terdapat penumpukan cairan dalam rongga pleura. Selain cairan
dapat juga terjadi penumpukan pus atau darah. Efusi pleura bukanlah suatu disease entity tapi suatu gejala
penyakit yang serius yang dapat mengancam jiwa penderita (Sarwono, 1995 Hal 786).
Efusi pleura adalah istilah yang digunakan bagi penimbunan cairan dalam rongga pleura (Sylvia, A. Price, 1995
Hal 704)
Efusi pleura adalah jumlah cairan nonpurulen yang berlebihan dalam rongga pleural; antara lapisan visera dan
parietal (Susan Martin Tucker, 1998 Hal 265).
1. Etiologi
Secara umum penyebab efusi pleura adalah sebagai berikut :
1. Pleuritis karena bakteri piogenik
2. Pleuritis tuberkulos
3. Efusi pleura karena kelainan intra abdominal, seperti sirosis hati, pankreatitis, abses ginjal, abses hati, dll.
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4. Efusi pleura karena gangguan sirkulasi, seperti pada decompensasi kordis, emboli pulmonal dan
hipoalbuminemia.
5. Efusi pleura karena neoplasma, seperti mesolioma, karsinoma bronkhus, neoplasma metastatik, limfoma
malignum.
6. Efusi pleura karena trauma, yakni trauma tumpul, laserasi, luka tusuk pada dada, ruptur esophagus.
Efusi pleura dapat berupa transudat dan eksudat. Eksudat dibedakan dari transudat dari kadar protein yang
dikandungnya dan dari berat jenisnya. Transudat mempunyai berat jenis kurang dari 1.015 dan kadar
proteinnya kurang dari 3%, sedangkan eksudat mempunyai berat jenis dan kadar protein lebih tinggi, karena
banyak mengandung sel (Sylvia, A. Price, 1995 Hal 704).
Transudat terjadi pada :
1. Peningkatan tekanan vena pulmonalis, misalnya payah jantung kongestif. Pada kasus ini keseimbangan
kekuatan menyebabkan pebgeluaran cairan dari pembuluh.
2. Hipoproteinemia, seperti pada penyakit hati dan ginjal, atau penekanan tumor pada vena kava.
Sedangkan penimbunan eksudat dapat disebabkan oleh :
1. Sekunder dari peradangan atau keganasan pleura.
2. Peningkatan permeabilitas kapiler atau gangguan absorpsi getah bening.
3. Patofisiologi
Dalam keadaan normal seharusnya tidak ada rongga kosong antara pleura tersebut, karena biasanya di sana
hanya terdapat sedikit (10-20 cc) cairan yang merupakan lapisan tipis serosa dan selalu bergerak secara
teratur. Cairan yang sedikit ini merupakan pelumas antara kedua pleura, sehingga mereka mudah bergeser
satu sama lain. Dalam keadaan patologis rongga antara kedua pleura ini dapat terisi dengan beberapa liter
cairan atau udara.
Diketahui bahwa cairan masuk ke dalam rongga melalui pleura parietal dan selanjutnya keluar lagi dalam
jumlah yang sama melalui membran pleura viseralis via sistem limfatik dan vaskuler. Pergerakan cairan dari
pleura parietal ke pleura visceralis dapat terjadi karena adanya perbedaan tekanan hidrostatik dan tekanan
koloid osmotic. Cairan kebanyakan diabsorbsi oleh sistem limfatik dan hanya sebagian kecil yang diabsorbsi
oleh sistem kapiler pulmonal. Hal yang memudahkan penyerapan cairan pada pleura viseralis adalah
terdapatnya banyak mikrovili di sekitar sel-sel mesotelial
1. Gambaran klinik
Keluhan-keluhan yang sering didapat adalah berupa sesak nafas, rasa berat pada dada serta keluhan/gejala
lain penyakit dasarnya seperti : bising jantung (pada payah jantung), lemas yang progresif disertai berat badan
yang menurun (pada neoplasma), batuk yang kadang – kadang berdarah pada perokok (karsinoma bronkus),
tumor di organ lain (pada metastasis), demam subfebril (pada tuberkulosis), demam menggigil (pada
emfisema), asites (pada sirosis hati), asites dengan tumor di pelvis (pada sindrom Meig).
Pada pemeriksaan fisis akan ditemukan : fremitus yang menurun, perkusi yang pekak, tanda – tanda
pendorongan mediastinum, suara nafas yang menghilang pada auskultasi.
1. Pemeriksaan laboratorium/diagnostik
A. Sinar tembus dada (x-ray)
Permukaan cairan yang terdapat dalam rongga pleura akan membentuk bayangan seperti kurva, dengan
permukaan daerah lateral lebih tinggi daripada bagian medial. Bila permukaannya horisontal dari lateral ke
medial, pasti terdapat udara dalam rongga tersebut yang dapat berasal dari luar atau dari dalam paru – paru
sendiri. Kadang – kadang sulit membedakan antara bayangan cairan bebas dalam pleura dengan adhesi karena
radang (pleuritis). Disini perlu pemeriksaan foto dada dengan posisi lateral dekubitus.
1. Torakosentesis
Aspirasi cairan pleura (torakosentesis) berguna sebagai sarana untuk diagnostik maupun terapeutik.
Untuk diagnostik cairan pleura dilakukan pemeriksaan :
1.) Warna cairan.
Biasanya cairan pleura berwarna agak kekuning-kekuningan (serous-xantho-chrome). Bila agak kemerah-
merahan, ini dapat terjadi pada trauma, infark paru, keganasan, adanya kebocoran aneurisma aorta. Bila
kuning kehijauan dan agak purulen, ini menunjukkan adanya empiema. Bila merah tengguli, ini menunjukkan
adanya abeses karena ameba.
Characteristic Significance
Bloody
Most likely an indication of malignancy in the absence of trauma; canalso indicate pulmonary embolism, infection, pancreatitis,tuberculosis, mesothelioma, or spontaneous pneumothorax
Turbid Possible increased cellular content or lipid content
Yellow or whitish,turbid Presence of chyle, cholesterol or empyema
Brown (similar to chocolate sauceor anchovy paste)
Rupture of amebic liver abscess into the pleural space (amebiasiswith a hepatopleural fistula)
Black Aspergillus involvement of pleura
Yellow-green with debris Rheumatoid pleurisy
Highly viscous
Malignant mesothelioma (due to increased levels of hyaluronic acid)long-standing pyothorax
Putrid odor Anaerobic infection of pleural space
Ammonia odor Urinothorax
Purulent Empyema
Yellow and thick, with metallic(stainlike) sheen
Effusions rich in cholesterol (longstanding chyliform effusion, eg,tuberculous or rheumatoid pleuritis)
2.) Biokimia.
Secara biokimia efusi pleura terbagi atas transudat dan eksudat.
Di samping pemeriksaan tersebut di atas, secara biokimia diperiksakan juga pada cairan pleura :
- Kadar pH dan glukosa. Biasanya merendah pada penyakit-penyakit infeksi, arthritis rheumatoid, dan
neoplasma.
- Kadar amilase. Biasanya meningkat pada pankreatitis dan metastasis adenokarsinoma.
Table 2. Specialized tests for detecting causes of pleural effusion
Test Diagnosis
Triglycerides >110 mg/dL Chylothorax
Amylase >200 U/dLEsophageal perforation, malignancy, pancreatic disease, ruptured ectopic pregnancy
Isoenzyme: salivary Esophageal disease, malignancy (especially lung)
Isoenzyme: pancreatic Pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudocyst
Rheumatoid factor >1:320 and > serum titer Rheumatoid effusion
Antinuclear antibodies >1:160 and > serum titer Lupus pleuritis
Carcinoembryonic antigen >10 ng/mL Malignancy
Adenosine deaminase >43 U/L Tuberculous pleuritis
3.) Sitologi
Pemeriksaan sitologi terhadap cairan pleura amat penting untuk diagnostik penyakit pleura, terutama bila
ditemukan sel-sel patologis atau dominasi sel-sel tertentu.
4.) Bakteriologi
Biasanya cairan pleura steril, tapi kadang-kadang dapat mengandung mikroorganisme, apalagi bila cairannya
purulen, (menunjukkan empiema). Efusi yang purulen dapat mengandung kuman-kuman yang aerob ataupun
anerob.
Jenis kuman yang sering ditemukan dalam cairan pleuran adalah : pneumokok, E. coli, Kleibsiella,
Pseudomonas, Enterobacter.
Pada pleuritis tuberkulosa, kultur cairan terhadap kuman tahan asam hanya dapat menunjukkan yang positif
sampai 20 %.
1. Biopsi pleura
Pemeriksaan histology satu atau beberapa contoh jaringan pleura dapat menunjukkan 50-75 % diagnosis
kasus-kasus pleuritis tuberkulosa dan tumor pleura. Bila ternyata hasil biopsy pertama tidak memuaskan, dapat
dilakukan beberapa biopsy ulangan. Komplikasi biopsy adalah pneumotoraks, hemotoraks, penyebaran infeksi
atau tumor padan dinding dada (Sarwono, 1995 Hal 788)
1. Pemeriksaan cairan sitologi
2. Pewarnaan gram, kultur, dan sensitivitas cairan pleura.
3. Penanganan
Pada efusi yang terinfeksi perlu segera dikeluarkan dengan memakai pipa intubasi melalui sela iga. Bila cairan
pusnya kental sehingga kulit keluar atau bila empiemanya multikular, perlu tindakan operatif. Mungkin
sebelumnya dapat dibantu dengan irigasi cairan garam fisiologi atau larutan antiseptik (Betadine).
Pengobatan secara sistemik hendaknya segera diberikan, tetapi terapi ini tidak berarti bila tidak diiringi
pengeluaran cairan yang adekuat.
Untuk mencegah terjadinya lagi efusi pleura setelah aspirasi (pada efusi pleura maligna), dapat dilakukan
pleurodesis yakni melengketkan pleura viseralis dan pleura parietalis. Zat-zat yang dipakai adalah tetrasiklin
(terbanyak dipakai) Bleomycin, Corynebacterium parvum, Thio-tepa dan lain-lain.
Therapeutic thoracentesis may be done if the fluid collection is large and causing pressure or shortness of
breath. Treatment of the underlying cause of the effusion then becomes the goal.
For example, pleural effusions caused by congestive heart failure are treated with diuretics and other
medications that treat heart failure. Pleural effusions caused by infection are treated with antibiotics specific to
the causative organism. In patients with cancer or infections, the effusion is often treated by using a chest tube
to drain the fluid. Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or instilling medication within the chest that prevents re-
accumulation of fluid after drainage may be used in some cases.
Tube thoracostomy
Definite indications include empyema (presence of pus in the pleural space); hemothorax; large pneumothorax;
and parapneumonic effusion with a positive finding with Gram staining of pleural fluid, pH less than 7.0, or a
glucose level less than 40 m/dL. A chest tube also might be indicated for parapneumonic effusion with a pH
between 7.00 and 7.20 or an LDH level above 1000 IU/L. Patients with these findings should be admitted, and a
pulmonologist should decide if chest tube placement is required. A chylothorax can be managed with a chest
tube, although placement of a pleuroperitoneal shunt is preferred because it prevents malnourishment and
immunologic compromise.
When chest tubes are inserted in the ED for the treatment of a spontaneous pneumothorax, they initially should
be connected to an underwater-seal drainage apparatus or a Heimlich valve rather than to a suction device.
Suction can create negative pleural pressures and increase the risk of reexpansion pulmonary edema. A
pulmonologist should be consulted when change to a suction device is considered.
1. Komplikasi
Komplikasi yang sering terjadi antara lain :
1. Pneumotoraks
2. Pneumonia
3. Emfisema
1. Obat-Obatan
Drug Category: Antibiotics — Expeditiously initiate empiric systemic antibiotic coverage for infections or
potentially septic conditions (eg, parapneumonic effusions, empyemas, esophageal perforation, intraabdominal
abscesses) in the ED. Base initial antibiotic selection on the microorganisms presumed present and the overall
clinical picture. Considerations include the patient’s age, comorbid conditions, duration of the illness (acute vs
subacute or chronic), setting (community vs nursing home), geographic location, and prevalence of resistance.
When available, results of pleural fluid Gram staining should help guide antibiotic selection.
Generally for parapneumonic effusions, initial antibiotics used in the ED should have a broad spectrum of
coverage for both aerobic microorganisms and anaerobic microorganisms. Various effective single and
combination antimicrobial therapies exist. A combination therapy may include a third-generation cephalosporin
such as ceftriaxone and a macrolide or alternatively monotherapy with a new generation antipneumococcal
fluoroquinolone. If the patient is immunosuppressed or has structural lung disease (eg, bronchiectasis), a
cephalosporin with enhanced antipseudomonal activity, such as ceftazidime (Fortaz) is recommended. If the
patient is in septic shock, a combination antimicrobial therapy may include vancomycin with a new generation
antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone (eg, levofloxacin) and gentamicin if recently hospitalized/nursing home
residence.
Drug Name
Ceftriaxone (Rocephin) — Third-generation cephalosporin with broad-spectrum, gram-negative activity; lower efficacy against gram-positive organisms; higher efficacy against resistant organisms. Arrests bacterial growth by binding to one or more penicillin-binding proteins.
Adult Dose 1-2 g IV qd
Pediatric Dose 50-75 mg/kg/d IV qd or divided q12h; not to exceed 4 g/d
Contraindications Documented hypersensitivity; neonates (potential for causing kernicterus)
InteractionsProbenecid may increase levels; coadministration with ethacrynic acid, furosemide, and aminoglycosides may increase nephrotoxicity
Pregnancy B – Usually safe but benefits must outweigh the risks.
PrecautionsAdjust dose in renal impairment; caution in breastfeeding women and allergy to penicillin
Drug Name
Clindamycin (Cleocin) — Lincosamide for treatment of serious skin and soft-tissue staphylococcal infections. Also effective against aerobic and anaerobic streptococci (except enterococci). Inhibits bacterial growth, possibly by blocking dissociation of peptidyl t-RNA from ribosomes, arresting RNA-dependent protein synthesis.
Adult Dose 450-900 mg IV q8h
Pediatric Dose Not established
ContraindicationsDocumented hypersensitivity; regional enteritis, ulcerative colitis, hepatic impairment, antibiotic-associated colitis
Interactions
Increases duration of neuromuscular blockade induced by tubocurarine and pancuronium; erythromycin may antagonize effects; antidiarrheals may delay absorption
Pregnancy B – Usually safe but benefits must outweigh the risks.
Precautions
Adjust dose in severe hepatic dysfunction; no adjustment necessary in renal insufficiency; associated with severe and possibly fatal colitis; can cause pseudomembranous enterocolitis secondary to Clostridium difficile infection
Drug Category: Diuretics — Loop diuretics decrease plasma volume and edema by causing diuresis.
Drug Name
Furosemide (Lasix) — Increases excretion of water by interfering with chloride-binding cotransport system, which in turn inhibits sodium and chloride reabsorption in ascending loop of Henle and distal renal tubule.
Adult Dose 20-40 mg/d IV; then 80 mg within 2 h prn
Pediatric Dose1 mg/kg/dose IV slowly q6-12h with close supervision; not to exceed 6 mg/kg/dose; do not administer more frequently than q6h
ContraindicationsDocumented hypersensitivity; hepatic coma; anuria; severe electrolyte (K, Mg, Na) depletion
Interactions
Metformin decreases concentrations; interferes with hypoglycemic effect of antidiabetic agents and antagonizes muscle relaxing effect of tubocurarine; auditory toxicity appears to be increased with coadministration of aminoglycosides; hearing loss of varying degrees may occur; anticoagulant activity of warfarin may be enhanced when taken concurrently; increased plasma lithium levels and toxicity are possible when taken concurrently
Pregnancy C – Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.
Precautions
Frequently determine serum electrolyte, CO2, glucose, creatinine, uric acid, calcium, and BUN levels during the first few months of therapy and periodically thereafter; observe for blood dyscrasias and liver or kidney damage
Drug Name
Spironolactone (Aldactone) — For management of edema resulting from excessive aldosterone excretion. Competes with aldosterone for receptor sites in distal renal tubules, increasing water excretion while retaining potassium and hydrogen ions.
Adult Dose100 mg PO initial dose; adjust dose thereafter depending on individual response
Pediatric Dose Not established
Contraindications Documented hypersensitivity; anuria, renal failure or hyperkalemia
InteractionsMay decrease effect of anticoagulants; potassium and potassium sparing diuretics may increase toxicity of spironolactone
Pregnancy D – Unsafe in pregnancy
Precautions Caution in renal and hepatic impairment
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Carpenito Lynda Juall, (1995), Buku Saku Diagnosa Keperawatan, Edisi 6,EGC. Jakarta.
C. Long Barbara, (1996), Perawatan Medikal Bedah, Buku 2,Alih bahasa Yayasan
Doenges E. Marilynn et all., (2000), Rencana Asuhan Keperawatan (Terjemahan Indonesia), Edisi 2 Jakarta.
Guyton dan Hall, (1997), Buku Ajar Fisiologi Kedokteran, Edisi 9 Penerbit EGC Ikatan Alumni Pendidikan
Keperawatan Padjajaran Banduing.
Price A. Sylvia, (1995), Patofisiologi, Buku II, Edisi IV, Cetakan I, EGC. Jakarta.
Sarwono Waspadji Suparman (1995), Ilmu Penyakit Dalam, Jilid II, FKUI, Jakarta.
Tucker Martin Susan, (1998),Standar Perawatan Pasien, Edisi 5 EGC. Jakarta.
www.emedicine.com/emerg/pulmonary.com
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