Post on 07-Mar-2023
International Journal of Culture andTourism Research
Editor in Chief
Prof. Jung, Sung-Chae, Ph.D.
World Cultural Tourism Association
World Cultural Tourism Association
Worldwide BureausKOREAWorld Cultural Tourism AssociationProf, Jung, Sung-Chae, Ph.D. PresidentDept. of Tourism Management, Honam University, TEL. 062-940-5582, FAX: 062-940-5582E-mail: scjung@honam.ac.kr, scjung50@hanmail.net, scjung50@paran.comHomepage: http://www.kasct.co.kr
JAPANHokkaido Academic Society of Tourism, Japan Chubachi Reiji(004-0844) 4-1 Kiyota Kiyota-gu, Sapporo Hokkaido, Japan
CHINAPresident, Wang Kunxin Tourism College of Zhejiang, China
PHILIPPINESRamon Benedicto A. Alampay, Ph.D.
Asian Institute of Tourism University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, the Philippines
SPAINPresident, Prof. Luis de Borja, Ph.D. CETA University College of Tourism and Hotel ManagementPadua, 11-13, 08023 Barcelnona, Spain E-mail : infomacio@cetaturismo.com
USAWalter Jamison, Ph.D. Dean, School of Travel Industry Management, University of Hawaii at Manoa 2560 Campus Road, George Hall 345 Honolulu, HI 96822 USA MALAYSIAProf, Hamidah Abd Hamid, School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 11800
USM, Pulau Pinang Malaysia
TANZANIAProf. Melubo KOKELDept. of Cultural Anthropology and Tourism, Iringa University, Tanzania
SERBIAProf. Snezana BesermenjiDepartment of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics University of Novi Sad, Serbia
TAIWANProf. Shiunn-Der KuoGraduate Institute of Hakka Cultural Industry, National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Taiwan
TURKEYProf. Sabah BALTA, Dept. of Tourism and Hotel Management, Yasar University, Turkey
AUSTRALIAProf. Abhijit GHOSHDirector of Academic Studies, Australian School of Tourism & Hotel Management, Australia
CANADADean, Shyam Ranganathan, MS,CHA School of Hospitality, Tourism & Culture and the Culture & Heritage Institute, Canada
KAZAKHSTANProf. Abdimanat A. ZholdasbekovSouth Kazakhstan State University
Editorial Board Members
Prof. Nikolay V. SOKOLOVProfessor, Saint Tikhon Orthodox University, Russia
Prof. Melubo KOKELDept. of Cultural Anthropologyand Tourism, Iringa University, Tanzania
Prof. Snezana BesermenjiDepartment of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Prof. Shiunn-Der Kuo Graduate Institute of Hakka Cultural Industry, National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Taiwan
Prof. T. Keiser TANAHASHI Faculty of Business Administration, Tokyo
Keizai University, Japan
Prof. Chan Ngai WENGGeography Section, University Sains Malaysia, Maysia
Prof. Mohd. Rosli MOHAMAD Dept. of Development Studies, Faculty of Economics and Administration, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Prof. Gunter SPREITZHOFERDept. of Geography and Regional Research, University of Vienna, Austria
Prof. Kullada PHETVAROONFaculty of Service Industries, Prince of Songkla University, Phuket Campus, Thailand
Prof. Sabah BALTAProfessor, Yasar University, Dept. of Tourism and Hotel Management, Turkey
Prof. Nikitina OlgaALEXANDROVNADeputy Director, the Branch of the Saint Petersburg State University of Economics and Engineering in Cheboksary, Russia
Prof. Klodiana GORICADept. of Marketing and Tourism, University of Tirana, Albania
Prof. Chutima TORCHAREONFaculty of Environment and Technology, Prince of Songkla
University, Thailand
Prof. Adman HusseinSchool of communication University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Prof. W.Packiaraja RobinsonFaculty of Management, School of Finance and Banking 1514, Mburabutoro, Rwanda
Prof. Him Lal GhimireCentral Department of Statistics Tribhuwan University, Kathmandu Nepal
Prof. Abhijit GHOSHDirector of Academic Studies, Australian School of Tourism & Hotel Management, Australia
Prof. Ovan StojanoskiOhrid, Univ. Macedonia
Prof. Cheng, Soo MayProfessor, Institute for Tourism Studies, Macau SAR
Prof. Contra Fees-OurOur University of Philippines, the Philippines
Prof. Prateep WetprasitFaculty of Service Industries, Prince of Songkla University, Phuket Campus, Thailand
Prof. Ching-Chi LAM (Cindia Lam), Institute For Tourism Studies, Macau, China
Prof. Xie ZhengVice-president, Associate Professor, Tourism College of Zhejiang, China
Prof. Sarinya La-ong-inAcademic Advisor, Hotel and Tourism Management Major Bangkok University International College, Bangkok, Thailand
Prof. Yasin BOYLUProfessor, School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Mugla University, Turkey
Prof. Akmal AHMEDJONOVDept. of Foreign Languages, Tashkent University of Information Technologies, Samarkand Branch, Samarkand, Uzbekistan
Prof. Mark EWENDept. of Marketing and Tourism, University of Hertfordshire, U.K.
Prof. S.C. Bagri Sanjay Mahar. I. KATHIRVELCentre for Mountain Tourism and Hospitality Studies, NHB Garhwal University, India
Prof. Zhang YUEHONGSchool of Foreign Languages, South China Agriculture University, China
Prof. Fusun CURAOGLUAss. Prof. Interior Design Department, Fine Arts Faculty, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Ravinder N.BattaAdditional Secretary Tourism, Goverment of Himachal Pradesh, India
Prof. Nur Undey KalpakliogluIstanbul Aydin University, Public Relations and Advertising Department Head, Turkey
Prof. Vivienne Pitter, PhDWest Indies, Mona, Jamaica
Prof. Um, Bahadur TamangProf. Asian Center for Peace and
Development Center, Post Box Number 11843, Lazipat Khathmandu, Nepal
Prof. Reiji ChuubachiSapporo International Univ. Japan
Prof. Keith BrownVice President Development, Cape Breton University, Canada.
Prof. Joldasbekov Abdimanap AbdrazakovichDoctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Head of International Tourism and Service Department, Kazakhstan
Prof. Alexandru NedeleaStefan Cel Mare Univ.Suceava, Romania
Prof. Aswin SangpikulDhurakij Pundit Univ. Bangkok, Thailand
Prof. Adman HusseinSchool of communication, University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
All manuscripts published are double–blind peer reviewed by accomplished scholars in the subject area of the manuscript and in the disciplinary or methodological approach used. The standard for publication is that the paper make clear contribution substantively or methodologically to the body of knowledge relating to the relationship between culture
and tourism.
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.kr
ⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
International Journal of
Culture & Tourism ResearchVolume 5 Number 1 December 2012
Articles
Tourism Development Strategy Priangan East Region
···········································································································Dewi Turgarini ····· 1
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and Authenticity of the Tourist Experience
············································································································Kyungjae Jang ··· 11
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT)
································································································· Jinnapas Pathumporn ··· 25
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah
··························································· Juliana LanggatㆍKamarul Mizal Marzukiㆍ
Noor Fzlinda FabeilㆍMohd. Irwan Dahnil ··· 39
Student Travelers: Destination Image and Choice Behavior
·········································································································Sung-Chae Jung ··· 51
Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions for Airplane Tickets and Hotels. An Example in the UK.
··························································Hao-Te LUㆍWan-Yu, HSUㆍChih-Yao, YI ··· 59
The Opportunity of Creative Economy Through Agricultural in Tourism Development
······························································································································Oda ··· 71
Maps on Public Display for Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand
···············································································································Simon Potter ··· 81
Potentials for Cultural Tourism in Sohbar Village, East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya
·················································································Bathsheba Goswami Pyngrope ··· 91
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei
·······························································Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu ··· 99
The Controversial Heritage of the Early Nazi Built Mass Tourism Resort at Pa in East Germany
····················································································Dieter Semmelroth · 117
The Management of Tourist’s Alimentary Needs by the Tourism Industry.
The Parameter of Religion
············· Polyxeni MoiraㆍDimitrios MylonopoulosㆍAikaterini Kontoudaki-MA · 129
Tourism Development Strategy
Priangan East Region-Exploration Food and Local Cuisine as Tourism Attractions-
Dewi Turgarini*1)
[ABSTRACT]
East Priangan (Land of Gods) is a region in West
Java Province, Indonesia, which stretches east from
the Bandung city. Culinary available in the area are
considered attractive to be presented to tourists.
Unfortunately, this potential has not been well
explored optimally.
Aim of the study is to identify the potential for
tourism that can attract tourists, including culinary.
Furthermore, based on the existing tourism potential,
the strategy for East Priangan tourism development
is drafted. The survey method was used. Local
culinary data was collected from interviewed to
community leader and then processed using descriptive
statistics. The strategy of tourism development is
formulated in several stages i.e. interviews of 200
randomly tourists and processed it using conjoint
analysis, FGD, and expert opinion.
The results show that Galendo, Ladu, etc. is a
uniquely culinary of this area. The key priority of
tourism development was eco culture-based tourist
attraction that combines of the cultural landscape.
Tourism is also directed at the economic based on
ecosystem that environmentally friendly as well as
manage and conserve the biosphere where life.
Therefore, the green tourism development strategy
priority is the implementation of eco-museum concept
on tourism object management, which connects the
cultural landscapes conservation blend with the
revitalization of local culinary, art and culture.
Key Words : Tourism, Strategy, Culinary, Eco-museum,
East Priangan
* Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
2 Dewi Turgarini
Introduction
Priangan (land of Gods) is a region in the eastern
province of West Java, which runs to the east of the
city of Bandung. This area includes Garut, Ciamis,
Banjar, Tasikmalaya District, and Municipal Tasikmalaya.
East Priangan has tourism assets, surrounded by
beautiful mountains nature fascinating. Moreover,
from the point of human culture, food and cuisine
available in the area is to be served to attract tourists.
Current tourism development on the one hand
relied upon by the local government to increase local
revenue (revenue), while on the other hand is also
a way to address the rising rate of poverty so it
needs to be well developed. If this happens, will
undoubtedly absorb more labour, and can help
reduce poverty. But it must also be realized that
now is not time anymore only on the development
of tourism-oriented nature alone. Precisely cultural
tour, the orientation of a complex reflection of the
way of life, work and workmanship community, can
be a determining factor tourist attraction destination.
Examines cultural tourism aspects traveling place
people learn about the way of life and thinking of
others so that it becomes a means of promotion in
international cooperation. In many countries, tourism
is now associated with “cultural ties”, knowledge and
also the image of pulling a nation among other nations
in the tourism market (Goeldner & Ritchie, 2003).
Emphasis on ethnic tourism destination to observe
the expression of the culture and lifestyle of the
exotic with a visit to the property that is traditional,
attending dance performances and a traditional ceremony
or participating in religious rituals, including eating
local specialties and so on (Smith, 1977). Channel
elements of this culture originated the hospitality,
architecture design, culinary, handicraft products from
the region, and all the characteristics of a community’s
way of life.
Therefore, in the development of tourism resources
are not only concerned but also it is also necessary
to determine strategies to achieve the expected
goals. Unfortunately, this potential has not been
explored very well, especially developed optimally,
while supporting existing tourism is relatively available.
Society was not much involved in the management
of tourism in the region. The next hope is the
density of tourist attractions in the city of Bandung
can be distributed to the areas of East Priangan.
As disclosed Kozak (2002) and Chen and Hsu
(2000) Further related tourism image that is known
to affect the individual’s subjective perception of
objects to choose a tourist destination, so it is something
that is often more important than tangible resources
(tangible resources) that has. The perception obtained
motivates consumers to buy or not items such
tourism. Therefore, the image is a cultural capital
(cultural capital) to be optimized attraction tourist
destination. Three things support the image of a
attraction tourist destination are: (1) functional-psychological,
(2) uniqueness-general, (3) attribute-holistic (Echter
& Ritchie, 1993).
Such iconic deemed not owned by East Priangan
region. Potential that exists in the area, especially
gastronomic dealing with food and drinks, have not
been explored properly, let alone developed. All of
these policies is still top-down, and the initiative
was always from the government. On the other
hand, the indigenous people had been feeling not
much involved in the management of tourism in the
region so that they are apathetic to help the government.
If this can be a touch more humane mode of travel
then the density had only rested in Bandung, be
distributed to the areas of East Priangan.
Tourism Development Strategy Priangan East Region 3
Therefore, the problems facing the region is the
absence of data on the type of food and typical
dishes that can be seeded to amenitas presented to
tourists, and then how the strategy for tourism
development related to food and drink native in the
area, in order to a national seed.
The purpose of this study is to identify the
potential of tourism to attract tourists, including
food and cuisine available in the area. Furthermore,
based on the identification of the potential of
tourism, tourism development strategy formulated
in the East Priangan.
Literature Review
Gastronomy
Gillesoie and Cousins (2001) stated gastronomy
an art or science of good food (good eating) to eat.
In other words, dealing with all the gastronomic
pleasures of food and drink. Other sources mention
the gastronomic as a study on the relationship
between culture and food. Gastronomy learn various
cultural components with food as its center culinary
arts (Fossali, 2008). Cultural and gastronomic
gastronomy is formed due to the cultivation of
agricultural products so that embodiment of color,
aroma and taste of the food can be traced to its
origin from the environment in which the raw
material is produced (Barrera & Alvaradi, 2008).
Gastronomy basically includes a detailed knowledge
of the national food and drink from many major
countries around the world. Gastronomic role is as
a foundation for understanding how food and
beverages used in certain situations. Through
Gastronomic possible to build up a picture of the
similarities or differences or behavioral approach to
food and beverages that are used in different
countries and cultures (Gillesoie & Cousins, 2001).
If you look at the elements of culture, architecture,
crafts, folklore, regional languages, visual arts,
literature references, and also the way of life in a
region, developed in different ways. All of which
contribute to the character of an area. In the pre-modern
economic structure, prior to the creation of long-distance
transport system and cross-national food trade and
climate; agriculture and food industries more oriented
to local market share. The difference in natural
resources and local expertise produces a unique
local food production (Haukeland & Jacobsen, 2001).
For that reason, in the future, may be considered the
gastronomic elements to show the identity of the
local culture of a region.
From the tourist point of view, foods with local
identity is equivalent to a trip around the museums
and monuments Tourism makes them able to feel
the local identity, on the other hand gives the
tourists an opportunity for the tourism industry to
offer new products.
Indonesia represents a long history of the integration
of our gastronomic culture of oriental (eastern) as
from India and China with accidental culture
(western) of the Dutch, Portuguese and Arabic.
Both cultures are mixed with the natural resources
that exist in the local area.
Good basic vegetable foodstuffs such as rice, sago,
potato, cassava and others, as well as animal sources
such as fish, lamb, beef, chicken and so on, come
along with a wide variety of spice flavours; salty,
sweet, spicy, sour and savoury derived of Cumin,
Coriander, Ginger, Coconut, Peanuts and others
(Freeman, 2010; Van Esteri, 2008; Advameg, 2010;
Gillesoie & Cousins, 2001; Fossali, 2008).
4 Dewi Turgarini
Tourist Attraction
Tourist attraction is something interesting to see,
feel, enjoyed and owned by travelers, made by
humans and require preparation before shown to the
tourists. Places is also a very complex sector of the
tourism industry (Swarbrooke, 1996; Swarbrooke &
Page, 2012), for being something permanent in a
tourist destination. Places addressed provide access
to the general public in the form of entertainment,
for fun, education, and saw something interesting .
It should be open to the public without any
reservation, must be published each year and should
be able to attract tourists and local people. Places
can also be a natural resource that is controlled and
regulated for fun, entertainment, music and education
visit by the public.
In addition, tourist attractions can be classified
into several attributes such as natural beauty,
climate, site and culture. Places can be art, culture,
heritage, tradition, natural resources, or entertainment,
which is a tourist attraction in the tourist destination
(KUBI, 2012). That way, tourist attraction is all
things that make tourists interested; may be an
attraction sites or events, both mutual gravitational
influence affecting. A place is a charm; sometimes
shape the nature and history have intrinsic appeal
and has indivisibility, unique advantages that can
attract tourists.
Potpurri Strategy
The hierarchy of policies, strategies and tactics
is used in the decision making of the management
efforts. Policy synthesized variations of optimization
principles to public policy and the legal process, or
can be interpreted as a decision designed to deal
with the social problems that certain actions can be
taken accordingly (Nagel, 1982; Cappiello, et al.,
1995; Rubin in Bryson & Einsweiller, 1988
Meanwhile, the management strategy is the
attempt to unify plans and resources owned by both
the external and internal environment (Langabeer II,
1998). The goal took the lead and created a safe
position with the efficiency, quality control, innovation
and attention to customer feedback; goal is sustainability
development (Lee and Snepenger, 1992: 48-49). The
tactic is part of a strategy to achieve sustainable
development, namely the existence of culture. At the
tactical level, been a way for the operationalization
of cultural factors in order to have a competitive
edge. In the development of culture, policy, strategy
and tactics are important because this sector should
pay attention to the balance. That the goals and
objectives of management culture that leads to sustainable
creative economy achieved in doing so redefined,
revitalization and repositioning of stakeholder engagement
strategy should be part of the decision making.
Methods
The method used in this study is a survey. Data
collected by the food and cuisine researcher by
observation and interviewing community leaders.
The data obtained in the field is processed using
descriptive statistics.
To formulate the development strategy of tourism
development carried out in several stages: first,
random interviews of 200 tourists visiting East
Priangan. The data was then processed using conjoint
analysis, a technique to measure the psychological
considerations (psychological Judgments) consumer
preferences for attributes of a series combination of
Tourism Development Strategy Priangan East Region 5
tourism, or depict realistic trade-off decision of
consumers to various tourism product attributes.
Second, to deepen the results of the survey,
stakeholders were invited researchers to discuss the
Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Finally, to determine
the priority of the strategy chosen, the results of
conjoint and FGD synergized with expert opinion,
and then processed using the AHP (analytical
hierarchy process).
Results
Type of Food Featured
From observations and field surveys obtained
excellent food from every region in eastern Priangan
(Table 1). Indicators of special food are ideal, flavor,
aroma and endemic area.
No Name Description Origin region
1 Assorted CilokTapioca flour, spice and water dough made of small round and braised
stuffed with meat or other. Then smothered with peanut sauce or ketchupTasikmalaya
2 Assorted OpakRice flour dough flavoured with a variety of flavours and then formed
roundly roasted in a variety of sizes with sandTasikmalaya
3 Assorted Pepes Steam fish or chicken or mushroom or tofu covered with banana leafTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
4 AwugSteamed grated cassava and coconut shavings and it was given and
brown sugar
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
5 Cikur Rice Steamed rice flavored with Kaempferia Galangal Tasikmalaya
6 Comet Grated cassava and formed small round filled with spicy oncom Tasikmalaya
7 Dodol A variety of sugar-sweetened mashed fruit then heated after thickens formed Garut
8 GalendoShredded coconut and then heated in a pan until the oil is filtered out
and the coconut flavoured and formed Ciamis
9 Ice Cingcau Grass Jelly IceTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
10 Peuyeum Fermented cassavaTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
12 Rangginang Seasoned rice roundly shaped and friedTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
13 Tutug Oncom Steamed brown riceTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
14 Chicken porridgeBoiled rice and spices, after thickens then given condiment fried onion,
chicken, celery, green onions and soy sauce
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
15 BaksoGround beef flavored and formed round boiled in broth and served with
noodles and spicy sauce
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
16 Lontong KariBoiled rice and then after a small cut chewy coconut milk and given
added beef or chicken
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
17 Liwet Rice Marinated steamed rice served with fried chicken, salted fish, and fried tofuTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
<Table 1> Food and Beverage Unique Seed East Priangan
6 Dewi Turgarini
18 SurabiGiven milk rice flour dough then baked roundly given the brown sugar
sauce or spicy oncom
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
19 BajigurGiven boiling water brown sugar and coconut milk and pandan leaves
filtered and drunk when warm
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
20 Rujak Various fruit slices with sauce of brown sugar, mashed beans, tamarind, chilliTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
21 Kerupuk Kulit Fried cow skinTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
22 Abon Ikan Lele Meat roasted catfish Tasikmalaya
23 Mie Ayam Sprinkled chicken stir fry noodlesTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
24Ayam Goreng &
BakarFried and grilled chicken
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
25 Sale Pisang Smoke bananaTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
26 Kolontong Dry cake of rice flour smeared brown sugarTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
27 Kupat TahuSteamed rice sprinkled with bean sprouts and tofu flushing with
coconut milk
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
28 Molen Tahu Tofu rolled by a layer of pastry dough and then fried Tasikmalaya
29 Molen SaleSmoked banana rolled by a layer of pastry dough and then fried
Tasikmalaya
30 SotoChicken meat, flushing with coconut milk and spiced (spring onion
lemongrass, galangal, bay , teaspoon pepper)
Tasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
31 Ikan Fried and grilled fishTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
32 Tahu Bulat Round fried tofuTasikmalaya, Garut,
Ciamis, Banjar
Source: Observation and Survey (2012)
Consumer Preferences
The results of the data processing methods
conjoint analysis (Table 2) show that the sub-file
summary (general assessment) show average
importance of each factor or attribute East Priangan
tourist village. Next, the utility column is a column
that contains 140 respondents overall opinion of the
individual level factors or attributes of the object. In
principle, the utility is the difference between the
value and the constant factor, the score range 1
(strongly preferred) to 5 (very unpopular). The constant,
theoretically (3.1012 in this study) is a number that
became the basis for the search for utility scale
factor of the ticket price, tourist activities, transportation
to attractions, reservation and length of stay.
Further interpretation of these results also show,
first, the ticket price, utility column shows 2 level
has a negative value i.e. A1 (IDR 25,000.00) and A2
(IDR 50,000.00), the general meaning of respondents
considered that both the price level reasonable.
However, the amount of the value of the utility, A1
(IDR 25,000.00 or approximately US$ 2.614) has a
value of-0.233 means that a greater preference of
Tourism Development Strategy Priangan East Region 7
Factor Average Importance Level Utility
Price (PRICE) 27,6500 A1 Rp. 25.000,00 (US$ 2.164)
A2 Rp. 50.000,00 (US$ 5.227)
A3 Rp. 75.000,00 (US$ 7.841)
A4 Rp.100.000,00 (US$ 10.455)
-0,2335
-0,1180
0,0230
0,0010
Tourism Activity (ACTIVITY) 33,3400 B1 Culinary
B2 Local Art
B3 Trekking
-0,7800
0,3130
-0,0733
Destination Transportation (TRANS) 17,8200 C1 Personal Vehicles
C2 Taxi Vehicle
C3 Mini Bus Vehicle
-0,1755
-0,0652
0,2402
Purchases of goods (BUY) 7,7000 D1 By phone
D2 Via the internet
D3 Came straight to the location
-0,0280
0,3130
-0,0533
Length of Stay (STAY) 13,4200 E1 1 Day
E2 2 Day
E3 >2 Day
-0,0351
0,0201
0.0132
Constant 3,1012
Sources: Primary data (processed)
<Table 2> Conjoint Analysis Results
respondents selecting the ticket price of IDR 25,000.00
to enter the territory East Priangan according to
income level.
Second, the factor of tourist activity has average
value of the greatest importance (33.34) to show
that this factor is the most important for travelers
in choosing East Priangan as a tourist destination.
In the column type activity factor, B1 (culinary
tourism) and B3 (trekking) have a negative utility
value, which indicates a preference of respondents
to the event. In between respondents prefer B1
(culinary tourism).
Third, the factor of transport used towards
sights, two utility levels seen in the column has a
negative value is C1 (personal vehicle) and C2
(taxi), with the value selected in C1 (personal
vehicle) of-0.1755. Fourth, how to buy goods to
have two levels of each consumer likes D1 (using
the phone) and D3 (coming to the object). Both have
a negative utility value (-0.0280 and-0.0533), so the
consumer preference is preferred to come right to
object and buying goods. Finally, the factor of
length of stay (length of stay) only E1 (length of
stay, one day trip), which has a negative utility
value, so in general the respondents would prefer to
live to enjoy travel no more than 1 day.
Furthermore, to determine the attributes of the
most important decisions for travelers in choosing
the East Priangan as with tourist destinations, can
be seen in the column average importance, which
contains a percentage value the importance of each
factor or attribute research respondents overall
opinion. The order of average importance of each
factor or attribute from the largest to the smallest
percentage values: (1) type activity (33.34%), (2)
Food and drink price (27.65%), (3) transportation to
the sights (17.82%), (4) length of stay (13.42%) and
(5) The way to buy product (7.77%).
8 Dewi Turgarini
Factor Correlation Coefficient Signification
Pearson 0,821 0,0000
Kendall 0,652 0,0009
Kendall 0,705 0,0408
Sources: Data Processing (2012)
<Table 3> The Results of Pearson Correlation
and Kendall
Then, to predict the pattern of the businesses
surveyed used estimated path-worth and compare
the results with the opinion of the actual respondents
(actual) of the stimulation process. Measurement
accuracy of prediction (predictive accuracy) is needed
to measure the level of accuracy of predictions
reflected high value and significant correlation
between the estimated (estimates) with the actual
results. Measurement accuracy of predictions by
analyzing Pearson and Kendall correlation values
obtained directly from the conjoint analysis.
The results obtained showed that both Pearson
and Kendall correlation value has a positive value,
significant, and confidence level of 95 percent (Table 3).
This indicates that there is a strong correlation
between the results of the estimation (estimates)
with actual results (actual). In other words, conjoint
analysis conducted has a high predictive accuracy
so that the opinions of 200 respondents sampled in
this study may reflect the will of travelers to the
object of the tourist destination.
Priority Strategies
As a result of brainstorming, expert meetings and
FGDs was acquired policies, strategies and tactics,
or operational actions in East Priangan tourism
development (Table 4).
To determine priorities among the elements,
Expert Choice helps synthesize judgment, examined
the consistency of such consideration and the final
decision based on the results of this process, by utilizing
assessment experts assisted with the processing
software. The results showed that the enrichment
of the typical culinary tourist attraction East Priangan
be a top priority for the iconic flagship attract
tourists followed by the determination of prices of
food and beverages served at an affordable tourist.
No Policy Strategy Operational
1 Tourism Package Price• Culinary Prices are affordable
• Giving special discount on certain days
Marketing
• Intensification of cooperation with travel agents
• Imaging through integrated marketing (word of mouth, leaflets,
e-tourism, etc.)
Increased Length of Stay
• Establish a calendar event scheduled
• Extrusion-existence of traditional local distinctiveness
• Creation amenity using products based on local resources
2 Object Development Tourism Attraction• Control the quantity and quality of tourist
• Enrichment diverse culinary community-based and local resources
Means of Transportation• Improved accessibility of transport
• Additional transport frequency
<Table 4> Tourism Development Strategies for the East Priangan
Tourism Development Strategy Priangan East Region 9
Conclusion
This study shows that, of the preferences of
consumers and producers, and the key priorities of
tourism development in East Priangan is based on
eco-culture attraction that combines natural scenery
and culture in the form of cultural landscape.
However, in order not to cause degradation, tourism
directed economic system that is friendly to the
environment biosphere ecosystem where the lives of
all living things.
To that end, a sustainable tourism development
strategy that prioritized cultural development that
can quickly attract the interest of tourists typical
foods and beverages such as East Priangan’s
Assorted cilok, Dodoo, Galendo, Ladu, tutug oncom,
chicken porridge and others.
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Submitted: June 06, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: October 02, 2012
Accepted: October 15, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and
Authenticity of the Tourist Experience-In Case of Toyako Manga Anime Festa-
Kyungjae Jang*2)
[ABSTRACT]
Experience of tourists is indispensable element in
cultural tourism. Nowadays, tourists play a role to
create a meaning of place, not only consumption.
Therefore, it is necessary to note the change of
authenticity in tourist experience. On the other
hand, conception to tourism resources and formation
of travel is also changing due to transition of
authenticity. Especially in Japan, a new form of
tourism using subculture as a resource is appearing.
The concept of authenticity has expanded and
diversified by local which purpose of tourism,
tourist, lifestyle, evolution of economic and travel
framework. Began with the analysis of objective
authenticity by MacCannell, nowadays, performative
authenticity theory that tourist can create their own
authenticity by the tourism experience is discussing.
With the changes of authenticity, meaning of
cultural resources and its relationship with the place
has also changed. Relationship between location and
resources has become loosely gradually. In addition,
identity of place has created by various Authentication
that of Cool and Hot. Recently, it became possible
to see identity of place by Information and
Communication tools (ICT). By using ICT, tourists
can easily make value of place of their own, and
Social Network Services (SNS) accelerate it by
eliminate the limitation of physical restrict.
One of the Cases appeared this phenomenon is
Toyako Manga Anime Festa (TMAF) of Hokaido,
Japan. TMAF is a subculture base festival launched
by a young group of Toyako residents in 2010.
Characteristics with multi use of place with ICT
based communication, participants grasp the feature
of place and make their own meaning through the
events, and they write that meaning to Internet
space such as blog. Then they create an image of
* Graduate School of International Media, Communication and Tourism Researches, Hokkaido University, Japan
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
12 Kyungjae Jang
that year of Toyako on the SNS.
Key Words : Cultural Resources, Authenticity,
Media contents, Social media, Place
Introduction
Cultural tourism began to be discussed from the
viewpoint of cultural consumption. However, according
to Smith (2009), not only consumption, experience
and participation became a significant factor, especially
with the advent of economic experience in the
economic field (Pine and Gilmore 1998). Along this,
Smith defined a cultural tourism as follows.
Passive, active and interactive engagement with
culture(s) and communities, whereby the visitor
gains new experience of an educational, creative,
and/or entertaining nature (Smith 2009).
According to this definition, as well as a guest
to visit the region, tourists will affect the region and
even to form the culture of the region through active
interaction with local. Such an expansion of the
definition also affected the debate authenticity in
cultural tourism. Not only discussions on the
authenticity of tourist interest, it is needs to discuss
authenticity which made by tourist.
Authenticity of the tourist experience is one of
the principal themes of tourism studies. Discussion
about the authenticity began with criticism for mass
tourism and the task of finding objective authenticity.
It based on the idea that tourism is an act that has
been lacking authenticity and tourists are the being
which seeking authenticity. However, nowadays,
due to diversification of culture and travel experience,
it is difficult to say objectivity as the only factor of
constructing authenticity. Because it is noticeable
that size of the group that formed the culture
getting smaller. In the past, nation-state was the
only group that formed the culture. Nowadays, role of
the region and small communities (so-called communities
of hobby or Otaku community in Japan) is getting
bigger. In this situation, various criteria such as
objectivity, subjectivity and existential are became
a factor of making authenticity and analyze these
factors are indispensable in order to grasp the
meaning of tourism.
On the other hand, it is necessary to discuss the
change of resources in cultural tourism. Traditionally,
cultural tourism resources created and transmitted
by the hosts which hold the resources physically
such as local community. One of typical example is
cultural heritage. Along with the diversification of
the role of tourists described above, by the internet
and the emergence of communication media, it can
be possible to valuing place their own meaning
personally. In other words, it is now also possible
that those elements do not have the location
becomes the resource of that place.
In addition, with this new value making, new
form of tourism to discover the meaning of place
has appeared. Relationship between tourism and
cultural tourism resources is diversifying gradually.
In this paper, changes of authenticity in tourism
experience, diversification of cultural resources and
changes in the morphology of cultural tourism are
discussed through the case of Toyako Manga
Anime Festa (TMAF), Hokkaido, Japan.
First, briefly reviews theory about the authenticity
of the tourist experience; diversification of authenticity
theory from objective authenticity, subjective authenticity,
existential authenticity to performative authenticity.
Subsequently, focusing on the relationship between
local and the tourist, change of cultural resources
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and Authenticity of the Tourist Experience 13
and its meaning is examined. Finally, to validate the
theory, the example of TMAF is examined.
Authenticity of Tourism Experience
TMAF xamined. Manga Anime Festa.resources
by state. Therefore, There is any question about
authenticity in the everyday life because every day
experience itself is authentic, and there is not
inauthentic experience which contrast with authentic
experience. Discussion of authenticity began with
the advent of mass tourism as an example of
inauthentic experience. Boorstin (1963) criticized
tourism as pseudo-event which sold cheaply in
mass market. Boorstin (1963:86-87) has strongly
criticized the mass tour which travel agents isolate
tourists from land. In other words, it became
impossible to access objective authenticity by mass
tourism. Following Boorstin, MacCannell (1973)
defined touristic authenticity as staged authenticity.
Based on theory of back region by Erving Goffman,
MacCannell classified front and back structure of
the social system. By MacCannell, tourists always
experience the front side of stage, and they cannot
see the real, objective authenticity in the back side
of the stage, which they always eager to see them.
Boorstin and MacCannell assume that real
authenticity exists. Authenticity theory of Boorstin
and MacCannell tied up with the reality of modernity
which means actual authenticity associated with the
place is presence. Their concept of authenticity is
based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and of the
purposiveness, which are basic principles of modernity.
However, with the advent of post-modern, it
became indispensable to personal and subject value
as a factor of authenticity. Wang (1999) classified
theory of authenticity relative to modernity into two
categories: the theory of objective authenticity and
the theory of constructive authenticity. Authenticity
of Boorstin and MacCannell described above is
positioned in the former objective authenticity. On
the other hand, constructive authenticity theory by
Cohen regards authenticity as flexible and plural
thing created by construction and interpretation of
tourist and local.
According to Cohen (1988:374), authenticity is a
socially constructed concept and its social (as
against philosophical) connotation which not given
but “negotiable”. Influenced by theory of culture as
a process and the ‘invented tradition’ of Hobsbawm,
constructive authenticity theory emphasizes interpretation
and individual viewpoints.
It is a same as objective authenticity theory that
recognizes tourist as being of seeking authenticity.
However, quality of authenticity is different, in terms
of authenticity as a sign and symbol.
Discussion of authenticity described above is the
discussion centered on tourist target. Wang (1999)
classified these as object-related authenticity. Apart
from that, there is a theory that emphasizes tourist
behavior as an important factor of authenticity.
Wang (1999) classified these as activity-related
authenticity, and one of it is existential authenticity.
Based on phenomenological ontology of Heidegger,
existential authenticity theory comprises personal or
intersubjective feelings activated by the liminal
process of tourist behaviors. In Existential authenticity
theory, it can be possible to tourists make their own
authenticity of place.
Factors that affect the authenticity is not only the
factor of social thought, it is also noteworthy factor
of economic changes in consumption patterns. For
example, Cohen has pointed out commoditization of
14 Kyungjae Jang
Boorstin MacCannell E. Cohen Wang Knudsen and Waade
Period 1964 1973 1988 1999 2010
Tourism Pseudo event Stage Interpretation Existential Create of place
TouristExperience pseudo
eventSeek authenticity
Seek
authenticity
Recognition of self as
existential beingCreating place actively
Authenticity Objective Objective Constructive Existential Performative
Focus of study Tourism object Tourism object Tourism object Tourism behavior Tourism behavior
Pattern of tourism Glaze Glaze Glaze Glaze Action
Authentication Cool Cool Cool Hot Hot
<Table 1> Diversification of Authenticity of Tourism Studies
ritual especially in the Third World as one of the
principal factors that affect the formation of
authenticity.
From the beginning of the 1990s, a new concept
began to be presented to the principles of the market
economy. According to Pine and Gilmore (1998), it
has become an era of Experience economy that
influential in economic value than commodity, goods
and service. With the mass production and mass
consumption, worth of goods gradually decreased,
and experience became prominent especially in the
business area.
With such change, arguments of touristic authenticity
in nowadays have changed. It is tourist can generate
their own authenticity by the tourism experience.
Authenticity theory mentioned above-objective,
subjective, existential-regard tourist experience as
“glaze”. Performative authenticity theory has emerged
with its criticism.
Rather than look for those provided by host side,
performative tourist action actively.
According to Knudsen and Waade (2010), performative
authenticity not only signifies that perform places
by actions but that places are something we authenticate
through one’s emotional/ affective/ sensuous to them.
It signifies a shift towards sincerity as a negotiated
value between local and tourist.
The concept of authenticity has expanded and
diversified by local which object of tourism, tourist,
lifestyle, change of economic pattern and travel
pattern (table 1).
Meaning of Cultural Tourism Resources
In discussing tourism resources in cultural
tourism, essential thing is the criteria and share of
values. Cultural tourism resources can be divided
into two categories: valued by public institutions
and valued by nonpublic institutions. Public institutions
can be subdivided into global scale, national scale
and public institution less than the national scale.
Cultural tourism resources by public institutions
associate with modernity. Because it includes that
who certificate the resources, what belongs to and
what the range of. For example, cultural tourism
resources certified by public institutions often include
the purpose of the education of the nation-state
members and national publicity. Therefore, in this
case, authentication of resources is often led by the
nation-state.
One of the examples that help to understand this
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and Authenticity of the Tourist Experience 15
concept is ‘cultural resources’ proposed by the
National Park Service (NPS) of USA. NPS defines
cultural resources as follow.
An aspect of a cultural system that is valued by
or significantly representative of a culture or that
contains significant information about a culture. A
cultural resource may be a tangible entity or a
cultural practice. Tangible cultural resources are
categorized as districts, sites, buildings, structures,
and objects for the National Register of Historic
Places and as archeological resources, cultural landscapes,
structures, museum objects, and ethnographic resources
for NPS management purposes. This definition of
cultural resource includes the means of education
and conservation, as well as pursuing active use.
On the other hand, there is greater authentication
system than a national scale. Typical example is a
World Heritage by UNESCO. UNESCO is offering
Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) as a condition
for becoming a World Heritage Site. ‘Outstanding
Universal Value’ to assess the value of the World
Heritage, it can be said that maximized modernity.
Because, it is impossible to defines OUV in this
postmodern world. In fact, even UNESCO could not
define OUV from 1972 until now. There is any
common language of sharing heritage despite it still
work. Thus, i Martí (2006) said cultural heritage
include world heritage is the ‘Zombie of modernity’.
Subsequently is the informal authentication.
Postmodern and critical views about modernity
brought skepticism about the formation of objective
culture. In addition, in the background of 1.Deterritorialized
by globalization and 2.Diversification based on a
various media, it become possible to various groups
form and enjoy culture different way to modernity.
Especially, minority discriminated by culture, religion,
gender, race, age and ethnicity could form a culture
freely. By informal authentication, their culture
could be certificated. Bolz defined this era of small
group ‘era of Otaku tribe (geek)’
Result of these phenomena, two things can be
mentioned that arbitrariness of authenticity and
multi uses of place.
First is arbitrariness of Authenticity. It is a
theory that authenticity is not existing, but something
discovered. Cohen and Cohen (2012) define the
process of discovering and make authenticity
‘Authentication’. According to Cohen and Cohen,
there are two authentication processes of Hot and
Cool authentication. Cool authentication is formed
by formal institutions. Cultural resources by NPS
and World heritage by UNESCO mentioned above
are an example of hot authentication.
On the other hand, Hot Authentication is the
process of authentication by informal level. In this,
even tourist can authenticate their own value to
place. Existential Authenticity by Wang and Performative
Authenticity by Knudsen and Waade mentioned
above are close to hot authentication.
Second is a multi uses of place. Authentication is
a process of interpretation; thus it affects the identity
of the place. In other words, similar to authenticity,
instead of being fixed, identity of place is also
formed in various ways by the Authentication. In
addition, recently, it becomes possible to see identity
of place by Information and Communication tools
(ICT). By using ICT, tourist can easily input their
own value to place. Other tourist or local people can
see that value in that place by ICT with GPS technology,
due to technology so called Augmented Reality (AR).
In means, anyone can easily express their meaning
to place, and it is possible to coexistence of various
meaning in the same place from the meaning of
modernity, indigenous culture, culture of local people
16 Kyungjae Jang
and even new meaning from media contents.
Diversification of the Place and Cultural Tourism
Although the advent of this multi use of place has
passed, one thing that remains unchanged; physical
spaces and communities that are based on physical
space are still unaltered. However, with the advent
of ICTs, changes have occurred in the concept of
community and space.
According to Wellman (2001), the formation of
communities and locality vary per person and
location. Further, the rise of the ICTs and Internet
network developed person-to-person and role-to-role
community. In other words, rather than forming a
community in a space, individuals can select their
own community using ICTs. Through the ICTs and
Internet network, physical constraints of time and
space disappear. Time and space has become a ‘timeless
time’ and ‘space of flow’ gradually (Castells, 2000).
In addition, networks can visualize the unconscious
of humans. Azuma (2011) argues that the theory of
‘The general will 2.0’ is based on ‘The general will’
by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. According to Azuma,
networks will lead to a new publicity gathered by
human preference and interpret and analyze it
automatically, which is similar to the recommendation
system of Amazon.com. People’s accumulated unconscious
from a database of networks becomes public opinion
and can even become the basis of political decisions.
Furthermore, ICTs became a tool for new meaning
making of cultural resources according to physical
space, by using a system of social tagging. Tagging
is a system on the network that gives meaning by
cooperative classification (Mathes, 2004). It was
recognized only as a system of computer networks;
however, tagging physical locations by ‘pseudo’
tagging with ICTs became possible; thus it is
considered that tagging physical space or resources
by network.
ICT functions as an acceleration tools of multi
use of space. With ICTs and tagging mentioned
above, form cultural tourism has changed from the
gaze of the modern resources to meaning making to
place by informal, small community. This new
tourism is prominent in Japan, especially in the
sector of subculture of Animation, Cartoon and
game. One example is Anime Pilgrimage.
Anime is a Japanese style of notation Animation.
Anime Pilgrimage is film induced tourism that
popular in Japan especially among the young
generation. Background of Anime Pilgrimage is
concerned with the development of ICT. In the past,
background picture of animation was handwriting.
Nowadays, with the advent of digital photo process
technology, digital photos are used to make
background of the anime. Thus, world in animation
is remarkably similar to the real world because it is
based on real picture.
It is basis of aforementioned Hot Authentication.
Some of the avid animation fans noticed that the
world of animation is similar to real world, and they
began to find the place of animation world. By using
Google Maps and Street View, fans found the place,
and they began travel. That travel called Anime
Pilgrimage in Japan.
A feature of Anime pilgrimage is that fans are
not only guest but make value of place actively.
Almost all Anime Pilgrimage site have a tools that
make value such as Pilgrimage Notebook. Even
shrine, there are many wooden plaque so called
‘Ema’ of animation character is seen. These wooden
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and Authenticity of the Tourist Experience 17
plagues are sacred things for pray; however,
animation fans draw the characters of animation for
express their value (Fig 1).
<Figure 1> Tagging of Anime Characters on a
Traditional Shrine (Washimiya, Japan)
Even more, local people respect the value of the
animation fan and they began assist value make of fan.
Famous example is animation “Raki&Suta (Lucky&Star)”
and region “Washimiya”. Produced by famous ☆
Suta (Lucky☆Star)” and region “Washimiya”. Produced
by famous animation production Kyoto Animation,
aired from April 2007 to September 2007. Background
region of Lucky Star is Washimiya town of Kuki
city, Saitama Prefecture, bed town near Tokyo. Fan
of “Lucky☆Star” visits Washimiya shrine which
Kagami and Tsukasa Hiiragi that main characters
of anime live in and draw characters. With this
process, the shrine has two meanings: the conventional
meaning of the holy shrine and holy place of Anime.
By the resident of Washimiya, Shrine is a holy place
of that God of place live, and it is a cool authentication
of place. By Fan of Anime so called Otaku, Shrine
become a holy place of Anime. In this case, place
is authenticated by performance of fans. Two
authenticities coexist in Washimiya shrine. It is a
one of characteristics of Anime pilgrimage.
Furthermore, relationship between two is not
hostile but cooperative. Washimiya holds Matsuri
(Festival) so called Hajisai every year. Residents of
Washimiya respect value of Anime fan and they
permit anime fan join the festival. From 2008, With
the Traditional palanquin called mikoshi, Anime
palanquin (Fig 2).
<Figure 2> Rakisuta Mikoshi (palanquin) of
Hajisai (From Palanquin of Hajisai Home Page
(http://luckystar.wasimiya.com/img/0809_02.jpg))
It might say that it is a unique feature of Japan,
Anime and Manga contents play a vital role in the
Hot Authentication. However, this example tells
that cool and hot authentication can coexistence in
one place.
Subsequently, new cultural tourism and multi
uses of place by hot and cool authentication is examined
through the case of Toyako Manga Anime Festa.
Toyako Manga Anime Festa (Tmaf) and Multi Use of Place
Toyako (Lake Toya) is a caldera lake in the southern
18 Kyungjae Jang
part of Hokkaido-Nothern Island of Japan-and
famous Onsen (hot spring) area. Because of its
excellent terrain and volcanic landscape, Toyako
area is not only designated as a national park of
Japan but also certified as a global Geopark network-
assisted by UNESCO-in 2009 (The Toya caldera
and Usu Volcano Geopark).
Population of Toyako region is 10,132 people in
2010, trend of decreased from 16,243 people in 1965.
In addition, Toyako is one of the typical aging areas
of Japan. The ratio of old-age population over 65
accounted for 35.2% of the total population
With the Shikotsu-Toya National Park and Toyako
Onsen (Hot Spring), main industry of the area is
tourism. Producing population of 4,682 people, more
than 1,200 people engaged in tourism-related industries.
It is the greatest proportion of the population.
Main cultural resource of Toyako is Hot spring
discovered in 1917. Tourism development of Toyako
began since 1949, after designated a national park.
Number of tourists to the area has been extended
with the National Park designation; however, it has
gradually decreasing from 2000, after the eruption of
Mount USU in 2000.
A number of tourists visiting Toyako are 2.5
million in 2002 and 2.6 million in 2007. This number
dropped to 2.49 million in 2008 and fell sharply to
1.95 million in 2010 (Toyako-Cho, 2011).
For the improvement of this situation, Province
of Hokkaido government devised various tourism
promote plan. One is the G8 summit with central
government. By the slogan “To the world, to the
future tourism-Hokkaido”, government of Hokkaido
made action plan promote tourism in conjunction
with G8 Summit. However, there was no significant
achievement. Rather, residents raised complain to
strict security and closure of the region during the
summit. There was no merit to region held summit.
<Table 2> Number of tourist visiting Toyako
(From Toyako-Cho 2011)
After that, based on “Broad Zone of Tourism”
plan by the ministry of tourism Japan, Province of
Hokkaido government present “Hokkaido Noboribetsu
and Toya Broad Zone of Tourism” plan. It is a
package development plan with geography, volcanic
resources and indigenous culture. However, it is the
old-fashioned plan, so there is no effect of that.
As one of its symbol, KARAKAMI TOYA PARK
HOTEL, one of leading tourist hotel of Toyako
decided to close on 1 year from 2011.
So far as seeing, Toyako appears to progress
aging and declining. However, it is an image of
Toyako evaluated by point of view of Cool authentication.
When evaluated from hot authentication, especially
in the tourism sector, different results can be seen.
In order to see it, analyze tourism resources of
Toyako region is necessary. Major tourism resources
of Toyako can be summarized as follows.
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and Authenticity of the Tourist Experience 19
No Resources Characteristic Type of tour Span Certification Of place by Authentication
1 National Park NatureWatching, Canoeing,
Driving, EcotourYearly Nation-State Cool
2 Hot springNature Geology
ResortResort Yearly None None
3 Geo-park Network Geology Trail walking Yearly UNESCO related network Cool
4 Farm AgriculturalDairy product making,
Experience agricultural work
Spring-Au
tumnRegion Tepid
5 Firework Festival Seeing April-October Tourism association Tepid
6 Marathon Sports event Running 1time/year The Public sector Tepid
7Swimming
competitionSports event Swimming 1time/year
Tour company
Outside the regionTepid
8Hot spring festival,
Winter festivalFestival Participating 3 weeks Tourism association Tepid
9Bread of
HappinessFilm (media) Seeing location of movie Yearly
Movie company, Tourism
associationHot
10Toyako Manga
Anime FestaFestival
Participating and Making
festival2days/year
Tourism association, Fans
of Anime& Manga, ParticipantHot
<Table 3> Major Tourism Resources of Toyako
Tourist Association of Toyako Onsen launched
various tourism promotions with using these resources.
Resources of Toyako can be divided as three
patterns; cool authentic resources of modernity, hot
authentic resources of region centered and resources
of none of them. No. 1 and 3, National Park and
Geo-park are the typical cool authentic resources.
Tourist cannot participate and cannot add their
opinion to each site. Thus, travel using these
resources is based on gaze.
Farm of No. 4 is a resource certificated by region;
however there is no hot and cool authentication
because no meaning making of place in it. From
No.5 to 8 are the various festivals. These are
relations with authentication, however, strictly
speaking, neither hot nor cool. Because, there are
any process of meaning making. Here, called it
Tepid for convenience.
It is fascinating of No. 9, Location of film ‘Bread
of Happiness (Shiawase no Pan)’. Starred famous
actor Ohizumi Yo from Hokkaido, the movie was hit
in especially Hokkaido area. Tourism association
promotes Toyako as a location of movie eagerly. In
this case, two certificate processes occurred. First
is hot authentication by regional tourism association.
With time for movie released, tourism association of
Toyako made a location map of movie. It functions
as certificate place. Then, collaboration of tourism
association and regional industry related occurred.
They developed various products and goods related
movie. Second process is authentication by movie
fans. They visit and specify the location. Important
part of their authentication is on computer network.
Fans take a picture and upload picture of movies
and site they visit. It can work as hot authentication.
For the movie fans, accommodations provide
Campagne bread that came out in the movie to fans.
According to the local stakeholders, in 2012, it is the
20 Kyungjae Jang
highest density of tourist visiting the region for
movie. However, he said that tourism boom induced
movie ends with about one year, so it is the time
prepare risk management and following the plan.
No. 10, Toyako Manga Anime Festa (TMAF), is
the brand-new event based on hot authenticity from
2010. Toyako Manga Anime Festa includes strong
factor of hot authentication than No. 9. No. 10,
Toyako Manga Anime Festa (TMAF) includes
strong factor of hot authentication than No. 9. Was
launched by a young group of Toyako residents in
2010, TMAF has the characteristics of an Internet
network and subculture contents.
One of the motivations was Toyako G8 Summit
at 2008 mentioned above. Central Government and
Provincial Government has tried to cool authentication
using the summit but failed. With this lesson, young
group of Toyako region made a new event based on
Manga and Anime contents that popular media
contents in Japan.
Following three events compose TMAF: Cosplay
event, an Itasha event and a staging event. The first
two are the main events of the festival. Cosplay is
a Japanese-English word means costume play. Itasha
means a decorated car with characters of Anime,
Manga or games. These are consumer generated media
(CGM) by subculture fans in Japan (Figure 3). In
Cosplay, fans perform an act or impersonation of the
characters of animation, games or comics. The Itasha
event includes decorating cars with characters.
The number of participants of TMAF is 7,000
participants in 2010, to 13,000 participants in 2011.
In 2012, over 30,000 participants participates
TMAF and become one of the biggest events of
Toyako Area.
<Figure 3> Toyako Manga Anime Festa 2011
The features of TMAF are that the events do not
have fixed themes. Although the organizers prepare
the basic outline, the progression of the overall story
and character of the place is decided by the
participants, such as the costumes, who fits a given
character best and what to do. Thus, the characteristic
of the place (Toyako) is changing each year.
It is outstanding difference to other resources of
Toyako. Even if, it has a characteristic of hot
authenticity in No.9 location tourism, basic meaning
of places is fixed. However, In case of TMAF, fans,
in other words tourists make a meaning of place
every year. It is not fixed but liquid. These
communications lead to the interpretation of place,
which is combined with the character of the place.
At the first TMAF in 2010, there were many
Layars who enacted the anime character Gintama
(Silver Soul), a hero who has a sword with the
Toyako letters written on it. In 2011, there were still
many Layars who enacted Gintama along with
many Layars of other prominent anime characters
from 2011. After all, the meaning of a place on
TMAF is decided with the character of the place
and combined with communication over the Internet
network, which can be it is variable and irregular.
Managing Cultural Tourism Resources and Authenticity of the Tourist Experience 21
Place can be the basis and source of tagging as a
result of communication over the network.
In other words, TMAF is becoming an event for
authenticate to the region by various performance.
Since 2011, it has become more and more participation
of residents who did not have an interest in the
event raised. Not only external authentication, internal
hot authentication is progressing.
Furthermore, it is noteworthy that these types of
performances are based on communication through
an Internet network. For example, Layars (Cosplay
players) participate in a specific net community
about Cosplay and communicate about their TMAF
costumes. Communication between organizers and
participants also occurs using the Internet. Not only
as a communication tools between organizers and
participants, Internet network functions as tying
Toyako and internet world. Similar as movie tourism
mentioned above, it is essential to take a picture of
Layars and upload it to blog or SNS (Figure 3).
SNS is one of the tools that make the nature of
the place in TMAF. Analysis of Twitter associated
with TMAF by the Twit analysis service Topsy is
as follows (Figure 4).
According to the result, hash tag #tmaf is the
most (3,129 tweets), ‘Manga Anime Festa’ (1,638),
‘Toyako’ (1,179), and ‘Toyako Manga Anime Festa’
(819) follow it. Characteristic of tweets related
TMAF is that are temporary especially in the period
of TMAF except the keyword ‘Toyako’. It means
TMAF has a meaning only in a limited period; thus
it is liquid use of place.
<Figure 4> Toyako Manga Anime Festa 2010
TERM Tweets Influential Momentum Acceleration Peak Activity
#tmaf 3,129 (367) 11.7% 2,716 87 Jun, 2012
マンガㆍアニメフェスタ(Ma
nga Anime Festa)2,357 (259) 11.0% 1,638 69 Jun, 2012
洞爺湖(Toyako) 1,763 (106) 6.0% 1,179 67 Aug, 2012
洞爺湖マンガㆍアニメフェスタ(
Toyako Manga Anime Festa)1,142 (157) 13.7% 819 72 Jun, 2012
Overall Activity 8,391 (889) 10.6% 6,360 76 Jun, 2012
<Table 4> Analysis of TMAF Related Twitter (Based on Topsy Labs INC.)
22 Kyungjae Jang
By the participants of TMAF, Toyako is a
transparent area. Participants grasp the feature of
place and make their own meaning through the
TMAF. They write that meang to internet space
such as a blog and create image of that year of
Toyako by TMAF on the SNS
Conclusion
In this paper, characteristics of plural using of
place and new tourism are examined through the
TMAF. The authenticity of the tourist experience is
gradually changed from solid modernity to liquid
postmodern based on media and ICTs. Furthermore,
it became possible multi authentication of one place
and its multi use due to the development of the
media and ICTs. Not only nation-state, small group
can make their own meaning to touristic destination.
TMAF shows the way of multi use of regional
resources from the national park by nation-state to
movie by media, even to a small group culture.
Especially, TMAF emphasizes a role of tourists to
making authenticity of place nowadays and role of
SNS that made it possible to multilayered visualization
of meaning of place.
It is essential themes to discuss cultural tourism
to transformation of modernity and cultural tourism
resources with media and ICTs. However, there is
a little research, so this paper is meaningful propose
experimental form of new cultural tourism. Nevertheless,
this paper has limitations obviously.
First, it needs to analyze fluid certification or hot
authentication of region. Image based on TMAF
formed on the day of the event, and the event ends
and disappear at the same time. What this means
to the region and tourist, and what characteristics
of image that of created by TMAF are need to be
analyzed. Because, it is uncertain that image created
by TMAF is a real image of the region or just a
temporal image of the festival as previously.
Second is a role of residents. From the 2011,
participate of residents which not included in
organize committee have been gradually increasing.
It is necessary to examine because participate of
residents concern with authentication of region.
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Submitted: July 12, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: September 02, 2012
Accepted: October 28, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
Community Based Heritage Tourism(CBHT)-A Key Success Factor for Cultural Heritage Conservation or Threat?-
-A Case Study of Phuthai Villages in Northeast Thailand-
Jinnapas Pathumporn*3)
[ABSTRACT]
The aim of this study was to explore issues of
the authentic ethnic identity of the Phuthai people
in northeast Thailand and the success of their
tourism management by reference to physical
evidence, historical documents and comparative
study of five Phuthai villages in northeast Thailand
and one Phutai village in Savannakhet, Laos. The
research focused on the Phuthai as a major ethnic
group settled around the Phu Phan mountain range
in northeast Thailand. Their cultural heritage has
been retained and passed down through time,
especially in terms of the Phuthai ethnic identity as
Animist- Buddhist which had become imbued with
the influence of the Buddhism religion and Lan Xang
culture during the time of their sheltering from
Muang Thean or Sip Song Chu Tai in Vietnam to that
of Muang Vang Ang Kam in Laos since 1791. Even
though they had sheltered from Laos to northeast
Siam on many occasions between 1824-1844 as the
largest human migration beyond the Mekong river,
they could still retain their beliefs, culture and
patterns of everyday life as Animist-Buddhist due
to the fact that these significant movements were
based on their ethnic pride and the prestige of their
social status. These became aspects of their interesting
cultural heritage for outsiders and inspired many
organizations to assist them in developing the
community based heritage tourism now found in
many villages of four provinces: Kalasin, Sakon
Nakhon, Nakhon Phanom and Mukdahan. Their
tourism programs and the activities offered to visitors
are patterned around products such as Palang
dinners, cultural shows and home-stay accommodation.
Moreover, the existing tourism management has
* Lecturer at Khon Kaen University Ph.D. in Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism (International Program) Silpakorn
University, Thailand
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
26 Jinnapas Pathumporn
brought them socio-cultural impacts such as economic
conflict, changes to their culture and lifestyle and
diminution in their locality pride. Therefore, a
conclusion is that the current community-based
heritage tourism revealed in the case studies
indicates essential threats to cultural heritage
conservation. However, the best practice for turning
the threat back to a key success factor is to become
concentrated on real cooperation, participation and
integration between the local people and their
supporters for preparing a contextualized and customized
cultural heritage conservation and tourism development
plan particular for each specific place and engaging
the local communities to participate in each development
process. This must start from the knowledge-
providing step, then deal with planning, decision
making, implementation, the gaining of economic
advantage and well-being, and then, finally, evaluating
the outcomes.
Key Words : Community Based Heritage Tourism,
Cultural Tourism, Phuthai, Phu Tai, Key Success
Factor, Cultural Heritage Conservation
Introduction
Heritage tourism or cultural heritage tourism is
an important issue for visitors as an alternative
tourism form for responsible tourists and can be
used as a means for safeguarding heritage significance
and creating socio-economic benefits for the local
communities where heritage occurs. This type of
tourism links tourism and cultural heritage. The
National Trust for Historic Preservation (2008)
provides the following definition:
“Cultural heritage tourism is traveling to
experience the places, artifacts and activities that
authentically represent the stories and people of
the past and present.”
Even though heritage tourism can be a key concept
for protecting cultural heritage, it also affects the
particular life of local residents in the host
communities, especially their society and culture.
This is the case with tourism management in a
Phuthai tourism village in northeastern Thailand
which this study is examining.
Thenceforth, this research aims to study ways to
balance tourism development and cultural heritage
conservation of the Phuthai tourism village of Ban
Pao village, Mukdahan province, using the concept
of sustainable community based heritage tourism
management as a key success factor for preserving
their Phuthai ethnic identity, cultural heritage significance
and authenticity; also for providing long-term economic
benefits to stakeholders; supporting local residents’
quality of life; and being a model of sustainable
tourism management, through appropriate interpretation
and utilization of valuable resources, for other
heritage sites.
Research Methodology
The research is based on relevant historical
documentary and physical evidence together with
comparative analysis of Ban Pao village with five
other case studies within Thailand and Laos, which
have also experienced heritage tourism: Ban Phu,
Ban Renu, Ban Khok Kong, Ban Non Hom in
Thailand and Ban Muang Luang in Laos. The
related documents reviewed are concentrated on the
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT) 27
history of Thailand, Laos, and Thai I-san; the
myths of Muang Thaen and Khun Borom, Muang
Vang Ang Kam, including written and oral histories
about Poo Taa ancestor spirits in those sites.
Primary data were gathered: by fieldtrips; in-depth
interviews with key informants and local residents
in the six villages; and participant observations on
tourism activities, the Phuthai animist-worship, and
Buddhist religious activities. All of the primary and
secondary information collected are compared based
on four criteria, which relate to the Phuthai ethnic
identity, their Animist-Buddhist religion, changes of
the Phuthai ethnic identity, and community uniqueness
and tourism development of each site. These comparisons
are directed to establishing their ethnic authenticity
and heritage values; and finding out whether they
have experienced any socio-cultural impacts from
their tourism development, which can be seen as
either a threat or a key success factor of cultural
heritage conservation and community based heritage
tourism (CBHT) within the sites; thence proposing
key success factor(s) of a sustainable CBHT management
plan for Ban Pao and other heritage sites.
Research Results
1. Who are the Phuthai?
The Phuthai are one of two major ethnic groups,
which are (1) the Tai Kuey or Suay, speaking the
Mon-Khmer language and (2) the Tai Yhor, Tai
Saek, Tai Lao, and Phuthai people speaking the
Tai-Lao language, who settled down in the northeast
region of Thailand. They are of the same lineage
with the Black Tais in Sip Song Chu Tai as well
as the Phu Tai in Muang Vang (currently in
Savannakhet, Laos) and Thai Song Dam in Phet
Buri (Thailand), all of whom are of an ethnic group
in the Tai-Kadai language family, originating at
Dien Bien Phu (in Northwestern Vietnam) which
was the center of Muang Thean or Sip Song Chu
Tai territory or the Twelve Tai Chiefs comprising
Phong Tho, Lai Chau, Dien Bien Phu, Thuan Chau,
Son La, Mai Son, Yen Chau, Moc Chau, Tuan Giao,
Phu Yen, Nghia Lo, and Than Uyen and currently
dispersed in Vietnam, Laos and Thailand.
According to the study results, it was found that
although they all are of the same lineage, because
of their various migrating routes and the reasons
and conditions affecting their migrations, also different
social statuses and residential environments and the
different religious influences in which they have
been imbued in each historical period during
731-1893, critical differences have emerged between
the various groups.
Source: Jinnapas Pathumporn, 2011
<Figure 1> Historical Time Line of the
Phuthai Ethnic Identity Imbuement
The Black Tai, as the origin of them all, domiciles
at Muang Thean (or Muang Thanh city of Dien Bien
Phu district, Dien Bien province in Northwestern
Vietnam), which was the center of Sip Song Chu
Tai territory, built by Khun Borom in 731 and represented
in the first historical phase in the time line of Figure 1.
28 Jinnapas Pathumporn
The distinctiveness of Black Tai society and
culture has been presented through their own
writing and speaking language, also their unique
dressing style that is always black and has become
a part of their name in the present day. Their settled
locations are on low plains surrounded with mountain
ranges and rivers, which are found wherever they
have inhabited because of their strong relationship
with their hometown, as Sip Song Chu Tai is
located between the Black and the Red Rivers.
Hence sometimes they were called Phu Tai or Hill
Tribes. Rice farming, their original occupation, was
based on those locations.
Besides that, the Black Tai also believe in ghosts
and their ancestor spirits. Therefore, this belief has
had an influence on their way of life for a long time
such as in a feudal social system, spirit ritual and
architectural style. For example, the Black Tai
respect feudalism in their social system and clearly
separate the aristocracies from lower classes even
in death, according to the observations of Frank M.
Lebar et al. (1964), to the effect that:
“the Black Tai believe that each human has
32 souls which leave the body after death. Some
go ‘beyond the sky’, while others remain on the
altar of the ancestors. Black Tai social stratification
extends to their concept of the afterlife.”
The Black Tai in Sip Song Chu Tai have a strong
ethnic sense; however, they have had weak political
power which has been the reason for their status as
a dependency variously of China, Vietnam, Luang
Phrabang, Thailand, and France. Finally, they were
brought together to be a part of Vietnam. Due to the
wars and problems of water-shortage, some of
them decided to move from Sip Song Chu Tai to the
southern region such as to Laos and Thailand (See
Figures 2 and 3), which became significant to their
ethnic identity in the second historical phase.
Since 1699, the Kingdom of Lan Xang or Laos,
a big and strong kingdom of ancient Indochina, had
been disunited to become two lesser kingdoms, Lan
Xang-Luang Phrabang and Lan Xang-Vientiane.
The boundary of the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang
in northern Laos covered Muang Houaphan (or Xam
Nua of Laos) and Sip Song Chu Tai (or Muang Thanh
of Dien Bien Phu of Vietnam), while Vientiane administrated
Muang Phuan (or Muang Xieng Khouang of Laos)
and southern Laos. Until 1713, a third kingdom of
Laos had occurred in the southern region, which
was Champasak. Finally, in 1779, all three kingdoms
of Laos, including their colonies, became dependent
on the Kingdom of Thonburi (Siam or Thailand)
under the control of King Taksin (1767-1782) (See
Figure 2: Map of the Kingdom of Siam after 1767).
In this time the Black Tai’s migrations were
separated into two routes.
1) The first migrating route occurred in 1779,
when the Black Tai people of Sip Song Chu
Tai and populations of Lan Xang and its
colonies were forcibly moved to Siam (Thailand)
as captives and refugees from wars, following
King Taksin’s victory over Lan Xang. The
Black Tai were sent to settle in Phet Buri
Province due to the fact that the geography of
Phet Buri looks like Sip Song Chu Tai and it
was near the Royal Palace. Here, they were
called ‘Thai Song Dam’ by the Siamese,
according to their unique dressing style which
was always in black, and confined to be
laborers of food and weaponry in Tha Rang
area (in Ban Lhaem district), which was their
first settlement in Thailand.
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT) 29
(Source: Simulation, Vongthet, Sujit. Historic Maps
of Thailand (Siam). MathichonPakkred, 2007: 47.)
<Figure 2> (Left): Map of the Kingdom of
Siam after 1767
(Source: Simulation, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/
middle_east_and_asia/laos_pol_2003.jpg,)
<Figure 3> (Right): Map of the Phuthais’ Migration Route
2) The second movement, in 1791, was along the
sheltering route from Muang Thean to be
under the rule of the Lao King in Muang Vang
(currently in Vilabuly district, Savannakhet
province, Laos). This movement was from their
own decision, lead by Tao Ka, to escape from
the Yunnanese invasions and the problems of
water-shortage. This Black Tai group was
called Phu Tai or Tai Phu, which mean hill
tribes, related to their hillside settlement location,
whereas they called themselves Phu Tai which
means Tai people. Moreover, their leader (Tao
Ka) also was promoted as the governor and
had an arranged marriage with a Lao lady:
therefore, their social status was different from
the first groups. They have had a positive
relationship with other ethnic groups and
minds were opened to them more easily, especially
with the Lao people. Thenceforth, Lan Xang
culture and Buddhism religion have been slowly
infused into their animist life and changed to
become an Animist-Buddhist worldview, finally.
(Source: Tribal Textiles Info. Black Tai. Available
at http://www.tribaltextiles.info/Galleries/Black_
Thai.htm,)
<Figure 4> (Left): The Black Tai in
MuangThean or Dien Bien Phu
30 Jinnapas Pathumporn
<Figure 5> (Right): Thai Song Dam
in Phet Buri Province of Thailand
(Photograph 26.12.2007)
<Figure 6> (Left): The Phu Tais in
Muang Vang, Laos (Photograph 28.11.2011)
<Figure 7> (Right): The Phuthai in Ban
Pao, Mukdahan Province, Thailand
(Photograph: 23.02.2009)
Once again, the third movement occurred during
1824-1893 from Muang Vang in Laos to northeast
Siam, while the most significant event was during
1826-1844, which was the largest human movement
beyond the Mekong River in the history of Siam
(Thailand) and Laos and followed the successful
campaign of King Rama III (the Siamese King)
against the rebellion of King Anuvong of Laos. The
Phu Tai (the Black Tai who were settled in Laos)
were persuaded and allowed to establish their own
towns in the northeast region of Siam, dispersing
around the Phu Phan mountain range which covers
the area of four provinces: Nakhon Phanom,
Mukdahan, Kalasin and Sakon Nakhon (See Figure
8). Here, even though they were called Phuthai or
tribal Tais in the Thai meaning, they proudly declared
that, in their meaning, ‘Phuthai’ were Tai or Thai
people, which became the basis of arguments about
the real meaning of the term of ‘Phuthai’. However,
for the Phuthai themselves, they confirmed that
‘Phuthai’ means ‘the Tai people who live in Thailand’.
(Source: Simulation, Vongthet, Sujit. Historic Maps of
Thailand (Siam).NonthaBuri: MathichonPakkred, 2007:
51.)
<Figure 8> Map of the Phuthais’ Settlement in
Northeast Thailand
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT) 31
2. Significant Phuthai Ethnic Identities
1) Hillside Residential Geography
The historical record states that Tao Ka led some
of the Black Tai people of Sip Song Chu Tai to
escape to Lan Xang-Vientiane in 1791 due to the
problems of the Yunnanese invasions and water-shortage.
In that time Tao Ka and the Black Tais were allowed
to settle in Muang Vang where the geography was
similar to that of Sip Song Chu Tai with which they
were familiar, and where a hillside area isv surrounded
with mountains and water sources as in the Figure
9: Geography of Dien Bien Phu.
(Source: Simulation, http://maps.google.com)
<Figure 9> Geography of Dien Bien Phu
After that they needed to move again, to northeast
Siam due to two significant events: the sedition in
Muang Vang around 1824 (some sources stated that
it was from Yunnanese invasions); and the serious
campaign between King Rama III, the Siamese
King, and King Anuvong, the Lao King, during
1826-1844. Even though King Anuvong was arrested
on the 21st December 1828 and was about to be sent
to Bangkok for punishment but died 7-8 days after
his capture (Thongsavangrat, 1986), nevertheless
the human movements from Laos to the northeast
of Siam still went on until 1844. In this migration
period there was both persuasion and offering of
potential habitations. The landscape they selected
was also the same as that of their previous
settlement in Muang Vang and in Sip Song Chu Tai,
namely a hillside landscape near natural water
sources around the Phu Phan mountain range. This
type of their residential landscape is not only
because of familiarity but is also related to their
beliefs and relationship with their origin.
(Source: Simulation, http://maps.google.com)
<Figure 10> Residential Area of the Phu Tais in
Laos and the Phuthais in Thailand
(Source: Lo-hitkhul, Thirapab. Tai in Southeast
Asia. Bangkok: Manager, 1995: 76)
<Figure 11> (Left): Black Tai’s Habitat in
MuangThean or Dien Bien Phu
32 Jinnapas Pathumporn
(Source: Jinnapas Pathumporn, 2011)
<Figure 16> Buddhist Temples in the
Phuthai Villages
<Figure 12> (Right): Vilabuly District, Savannakhet
Province, Laos (Photograph 28.11.2011)
<Figure 13> (Left): Khamcha-I District, Mukdahan
Province, Thailand (Photograph: 14.07.2011)
<Figure 14> (Right): Ban Pao Village, Nong
Sung District, Mukdahan Province
(Photograph: 14.07.2011)
2) Animist-Buddhist
According to the comparative analysis between
Muang Vang-Muang Vay (Renu Nakhon, Nakhon
Phanom province, Thailand) and all other Phuthai
villages found, all of them are Animist-Buddhist as
represented through their beliefs, animist-worship,
and the shrines of Poo Taa spirit in every Phu Tai
and Phuthai village. The new Phuthai generations
still trust and respect their ancestor spirits as
recounted from generation to generation with no
doubt in the fact of their Poo Taa.
(Source: Jinnapas Pathumporn, 2011)
<Figure 15> Shrines of Poo Taa
Spirit of the Phuthais
At the same time, all Phu Tai and Phuthai villagers
also display respect in the Lord Buddha and retain
the ‘Heet Sip Song’, the Buddhist twelve-month
ceremonies, the same as Laotian and Thai I-san
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT) 33
people. However, it is also found that their Buddhist
religious activities and other normal activities, such
as praying in temples or making merit and virtue,
differed from Thai I-san people who always cerebrate
as a bigger festival.
3) Peaceful Everyday-life and Ethnic Pride in
their ‘Phuthainess’
Almost all of the Phuthai and the Phu Tai villages
are agricultural and participate as a handicraft
society. Their everyday activities are silk or cotton
weaving and crafting for their personal use and for
sales. Only in Ban Renu (well-known as the capital
of the Phuthai towns), which is a growing community,
has their everyday life changed to become more that
of a commercial community instead of focusing on
farming.
All of the Phu Tai and Phuthai villagers are so
proud in their ethnicity as can be noticed from their
name as ‘Phu Tai’ or ‘Phu Thai’, which they confirmed
to mean ‘Tai or Thai people’. Although, some sources
had argument about the real meaning of the ‘Phu’,
whether it means ‘Hill’ or not, they explained that
it is because of different pronunciations between
them and the Thai I-san. Therefore, other people
can misunderstand the meaning.
All of the Phuthai people are from the same blood
families, which are represented by their family name
such as the family of Nong Sung people which is
Klangprapan (from Chao Chanchompoo Klangprapan’s
family) or Ajvichai (from Chao Chaiyasit Ajvichai’s
family); and the family of Renu Nakhon people is
Kaewmaneechai (from Phra Kaewkomol or Tao
Sai’s family).
The Phuthai communities in northeast Thailand
are open-communities, while the Phu Tai communities
in Savannakhet of Laos are closed-communities due
to the fact that Thailand is more modernized and
easier for social communication than Laos. In the
other hand, this can account for a threat to their
traditional life, culture, and social relationship retention
such as in the case of Renu Nakhon.
(Source: Jinnapas Pathumporn, 2011)
<Figure 17> Silk-Weaving Lifestyle
4) Phuthai Language
Due to the history of the Phuthais’ movement
from various towns in Laos, there are different
accents in their Phuthai speaking language. Referring
to the in-depth interviews with local people in the
study sites, it was found that they normally
separate their origins by the groupings from their
residential area such as:
- The Phu Tai people in Muang Vang are called
the Phuthai in Thailand, as Phuthai Muang Vay
(Renu Nakhon) or Phuthai Muang Muk (Mukdahan
province);
- The Phuthai villagers in Ban Non Hom are
called Phuthai Katak (that is, those who moved
from Muang Katak or Phabang, currently in
Khammouan province, Laos) and are called the
Phuthai in other villages such as Phuthai Vang
(who migrated from Muang Vang and its vicinities).
34 Jinnapas Pathumporn
All of these Phu Tai and Phuthai groups use the
same speaking language and have no writing
language. But the accent of the Phuthai Katak is
louder and shorter than Phuthai Vang’s, which is
softer and longer with the voice dragging. However,
it is very hard for other people to separate their
different accents.
(Source: Simulation, ThinkNet Software by Jinnapas
Pathumporn, 2011)
<Figure 18> Various Phuthai Groups Separation
3. Threats from the Existing Tourism Management System
The study results have indicated that the Phuthai
people in Ban Pao and other villages surrounded by
the Phu Phan mountain range are of the same
ethnicity with the Phu Tais in Muang Vang of Laos.
This minority group can be seen as representing a
unique ethnicity which has been imbued by the Lan
Xang culture and Buddhist influence for almost 220
years, as the present Animist-Buddhist Phuthai.
Moreover, the route of their movement is also
historical evidence of great, significant events that
have affected their life in each historical phase,
especially in the ways of their immigrating to Siam
in 1824 which represented the establishing of the
second Phuthai capital called Muang Vang Vay,
with the twin town of Muang Vang in Laos. Especially
significant was their movement at the ‘persuasion’
of the Siamese King during the campaign of King
Anuvong in 1826, by which they could retain their
ethnic pride and social status to stand now as an
indicator of the regional history of the largest
human movement beyond the Mekhong River.
Furthermore, their residential geography is also
representing their strong relationship with their
historical hometown in Sip Song Chu Tai, which is
typically a hillside area surrounded with mountains
and water sources, and also with their original belief
of habitation selecting and worshiping.
As regards to the beginning of this new unique
ethnic identity based on their origin and on their
pride in their myths and their strong relationship
with their historical hometown, it is this potentially
valuable heritage which should be conserved and
passed down to the next generation as well as its
potential for tourism development, which can be an
effective tool for interpreting their cultural significance
and gaining socio-economic benefit under the conditions
of sustainability.
However, at the current stage of the heritage
tourism villages in northeast Thailand, community-
based tourism management is likely to be leading
them to changes and socio-cultural impacts such as
change of culture and lifestyle, diminishing local
pride, causes of future conflict, and social relationships
that are retreating. In Ban Pao Phuthai village, for
example: outside organizations, which are principally
Tourism Authority of Thailand and Mukdahan
Tourism Industry Association, invited the villagers
to promote their community to be a conservation
tourism village. Their tourism village had been
popular for a short time and then declined due to the
fact that they were not ready for the development
without an adequate knowledge base. The second
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT) 35
supporter organisation, which is the Department of
Agricultural Extension, was established the year
after. This department helps them to redevelop their
village and the landscape by changing from conservation
tourism to agro-tourism, including Phuthai culture
and handicrafts, with the budget supporting such
activity, knowledge provision and a training
program. Therefore, the villages pay all attention to
this tourism development.
Tourism activities, which they offered to all types
of tourists, included visiting their sufficiency career
groups, like mushroom planting, a rice mill, a cricket
farm and hand towel doll group, enjoying the
scenery and the natural attractions at Phu Pha Khao
mountain and to have Palang dinners with Phuthai
cultural shows, which are not what cultural tourists
need. Therefore, the type and purpose of visiting
Ban Pao village are changed to field trip visiting.
Due to the fact that their Phuthai culture is not
interpreted in the right way, there are a lot of
change to their cultural heritage, related to tourism
impacts, such as the meaning of their rituals,
change of culture and lifestyle, and loss of pride in
their locale. There are also signs of social relationship
breakdown and the threat of future conflict. The
beginning of all the problems is coming from the
mis-direction of the development plan, which does
not concern itself with the authentic cultural
heritage and its utilization, and from the inconsistent,
poorly directed and discontinuous activity of the
supporting organizations themselves, which are the
significant threats to sustainable tourism development
and conservation.
Similarly, the beginning of tourism development
in the other four tourism villages is quite similar. It
has been started from outside organizations that
planned to utilize the diversity and interesting
aspects of their cultural resources. However, it can
be found that the Phuthai villages are not succeeding
in their tourism development, in part due to their
quiet atmosphere and their same-pattern of cultural
activities offered to tourists. Furthermore, the
support offered to their tourism development is a
considerable issue due to the fact that three of the
five villages were supported by the Community
Development Department (CDD), while Ban Pao
village is supported by the Department of Agricultural
Extention and Phuthai Renu is not promoted as
cultural tourism village although it is well-known
as the central Phutai town.
Referring to the National Trust definition about
‘cultural heritage tourism’, that it is travelling to
experience the places, artifacts and activities that
authentically represent the stories and people of the
past and the present, the question of whether the
current tourism management in the Phuthai cultural
tourism villages in Thailand can reach this goal
needs to be considered.
For the existing tourism management of Ban Pao
and other four tourism villages in northeast Thailand,
it was found that they have adopted a wrong way
of cultural significance interpretation and an inappropriate
tourism management, which are the causes of
socio-cultural impacts from tourism management
such as loss of pride in one’s locale and serious
economic conflict within and outside the community.
Regarding the study results, the problems faced
by tourism development and cultural heritage
conservation in the sites are because of inappropriate
utilization of their valuable authentic heritage
resources; there are wrong ways interpretation of
the cultural significance of the places; there is no
effective tourism development plan; nor is there
readiness for tourism development; knowledge is
36 Jinnapas Pathumporn
lacking in the supporting organizations; there are
different goals and development policies of each
supporting organization; there is wrong target
tourist selecting; no cooperation and participation
from local people is in evidence; and there is
competition rather than cooperation between the
tourism villages.
4. Key Success Factor of a Sustainable CBHT Management Plan
The conclusion from the study is that the present
pattern of management plan and tourism product are
threats to sustainable community based heritage
tourism. Hence, the key solution for sustaining the
CBHT sites and turning back the present threat is
a plan concentrated on the real cooperation, participation
and integration between the six groups of stakeholders:
cultural heritage and natural resources (the people
themselves), local communities, tourists, site managers
or conservationists, the tourism business sector and
the government sector.
As the key players, they should all focus on:
development of tourism products from the potential
authentic identity and culturally significant aspects
of the people; local community participation; targeting
of the right tourism groups; site managers’ or
conservationists’ involvement; sharing of marketing
ideas with the tourism business sector; and working
as an integrated network with the government
sector. Consequently, the stakeholders are needed to
equally weigh three significant P’s: People, Planning
and Process as follow:
1. People: The decision-makers of the tourism
development plan should engage all stakeholders to
participate in the decision-making step and all other
following steps. Moreover, the government sector
also should train and truly empower the local people
in this step of participation. The top level decision-
makers should provide more correct knowledge and
training programs about cultural heritage conservation
and tourism development for the sustainable planning
and implementation of the program. Furthermore,
the government sector should engage the powerful
private sector to become integrated into the community
development plan with economic development as a
goal.
2. Planning: The planning step should be based
on local communities’ participation in creating integrated
plans for cultural heritage protection planning, a
sustainable tourism development plan and a tourism
marketing plan. These will come from networking
and will be developed as contextualized and customized
plans particular for specific sites.
3. Process: The implementation of these three
development plans should be knowledge-based,
appropriate in their utilization and with all stakeholders
participating in their evaluation.
Finally, the research results indicate that the best
practice for turning the threat back to a key success
factor is to concentrate on real cooperation, participation
and integration between the local people and their
supporters for preparing a contextualized and customized
cultural heritage conservation and tourism development
plan particular for each specific place and engaging
the local communities to participate in each
development process, starting from the knowledge-
providing step, thence the planning, decision making,
implementation, the gaining of economic advantage
and well-being and then, lastly, evaluating the
outcomes.
Community Based Heritage Tourism (CBHT) 37
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Refereed Anonymously
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and
Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah-A Case Study Of Tamu Besar Kota Belud-
Juliana Langgat, Kamarul Mizal Marzuki, Noor Fzlinda Fabeil, Mohd. Irwan Dahnil*
4)
[ABSTRACT]
Local cultural events have been one of the most
important components of tourism nowadays. This
event seen as an instrument for tourism development
and can be part of tourism destination marketing.
The result of having the events can be seen from
economic, sociocultural, local businesses and political
dimensions. The effectiveness of organising such
event can be evaluated from the perspective of the
visitor and tourist. The purpose of this study is to
investigate various expectations and satisfactory of
visitor of cultural events and activities organised.
Moreover, this study also evaluate the visitors’
satisfactory towards the facilities that was provided
during the event as well as the activities organised.
The analysis utilised a sample collected during
Tamu Besar Kota Belud, Sabah involving 141
respondents with self-administered survey. The
result of the study reveals that the main motivation
of the visitor to participate is to experience the
cultural event. In general, the event has met the
visitor expectation and they are satisfied of the
facilities and activities provided during the event.
The findings of this study will be used to assist the
cultural event organiser to enhance the visitor’s
experiences towards staging the cultural event.
Key Words : Motivation, Expectation, Satisfaction,
Cultural Event
Introduction
In recent years, the number of events has grown
rapidly and an industry around events has evolved
and received increasing attention by researchers.
There is a growing stream of academic research
* School of Business and Economics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan Ums, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
40 Juliana LanggatㆍKamarul Mizal MarzukiㆍNoor Fzlinda FabeilㆍMohd. Irwan Dahnil
focusing on the motivations of participants. Previous
studies has been agreed that understanding motivations,
expectation and satisfaction of visitors will lead for
better planning, marketing and promotion of festivals
or events. Likewise, special events from the visitor’s
perspective provide opportunities for leisure, social
and cultural experiences outside the normal range of
choices or beyond everyday experience (Getz, 1991)
Malaysia has several colourful and attractive
events and festival that attracting participant from
local and international visitors. Recently, events
have become a key element in the tourism development
strategies of many destinations including Malaysia.
In Malaysia, festival or event is one important
strategic area as outlined in the Economic
Transformation Program: A Roadmap for Malaysia
(2010). The plan highlights the need to encourage
and target more international events.
In Sabah (Malaysia) cultural event with a tourism
interest include the Lepa-Lepa Regatta, the Pesta
Kaamatan, Pesta Gabus, the Kota Belud Tamu
Besar and etc. There are also a host of smaller and
more localised exhibitions and shows promoted and
organised by Sabah Tourism Board, Sabah Cultural
Board, District Office and other relevant agencies.
Where possible and appropriate, some festivals and
cultural event have been packaged into tourism
products in order to market Sabah, achieved media
coverage, and increase visitor arrivals. Staging the
event has been primarily successful in attracting
Sabahan visitors and satisfying local and some
domestic tourism needs.
Literature Review
Cultural tourism is described as peoples’ movements
for essentially cultural motivations, which include study
tours, performing arts, cultural tours, travels to
festivals, visits to historic sites and monuments, folk
lore and pilgrimage (World Tourism Organisation,
1985). Events can be defined as experiences that are
unique, as they have the ability to create time and
space to convey specific objectives for a specific
audience (Gonzalez & Morales, 2009).
Globally, tourist destinations are developing and
promoting the cultural event as a means of attracting
and enhancing visitor experience. The cultural event
is being used as a tool or instrument to boost local
economy and has the potential to aid in the seasonal
and geographical spread of tourism (Long and
Perdue, 1990).Festivals and cultural events are
regards as an important element in the marketing
of cultural tourism. The event has capacity to
enhance visitation level ince it offer a concentrated
and often unique experience, provide an additional
reason for visitors to visit a particular location.
Through the event, it can provide enjoyable ‘things
to do’ for visitors, allow informal and rewarding
contact with the local population and allow tourists
to discover new cultural experiences. According to
Getz (1991), festivals and events regards as a new
wave of alternative tourism which significantly
contributes to sustainable development and improves
the relationship between host and guest.
Bachleitner and Zins (1992) reveals that by
organising a cultural event, it can enhance local
community learning, awareness appreciation of
community pride, ethnic identity, tolerance of others
and brings about the opening of small and medium
sized family enterprises. Moreover, cultural events
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah 41
also can foster cross-cultural communication that
can promote understanding between the host and
the guest (Sdrali and Chazapi, 2007).
Many researchers concludes that a majority of
the festival and event motivation studies have been
conducted under the theoretical framework of travel
motivation research (Backman, Backman, Uysal, &
Sunshine, 1995; Getz, 1991; Nicholson & Pearce,
2001; Scott, 1996), which has been conceptually grounded
on both the seeking-escape dichotomy (Iso-Ahola,
1980, 1982; Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987), and push-pull
model (Dann, 1977; 1981; Crompton, 1979).
A motive identifies as an internal factor that
arouses, directs and integrates a person’s behavior
(Iso-Ahola, 1980). In the context of cultural event
or festival, a decision made to visit in an event is
a directed action which is stimulated by a desire to
meet a need. Motives can be regarded as starting
point that launches the decision process to visit a
destination or participate in an event. Furthermore,
motivation is a state of need, a condition that serves
as a driving force to display different kinds of
behavior toward certain types of activities, developing
preferences, arriving at some expected satisfactory
outcome (Backman et al, 1995). In the context of
event, Getz (1991) concludes that the basic needs
met by events can be categorised into three categories
which are physical, interpersonal or social and
personal. The categories was identified heavily
influence by Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy need.
Crompton & McKay (1997) identifies the three
reasons for better understanding regarding the
motives of cultural event visitors. They believed
that studying festival or event motivation is a key
to designing offerings for event attendees, a way to
monitor satisfaction, and a tool for understanding
attendees’ decision-making processes. Getz (1993)
also outlines the importance of analysing visitors’
motives for attending festivals and events and
understanding of visitor motivation is an approach
that can be used for planning event programs
effectively and marketing them to visitors (Crompton
& McKay, 1997). For the organiser and event
manager, the analysis of visitor can helps them to
better position of their events (Scott, 1996).
Previous study by Lee et al (2004) outlines that
socialization, event novelty, escape, excitement, and
family togetherness are the top five motivators. Them
also concluded that attendee’s motivations to attend
the event can be different according to visitor’s
demographic profiles, types of event, frequency of visit,
resident status as well as nationality. Similar to the
categories outlined by Getz (1991), McDonnell et al.
(1999 proposed the four main groups which are social
motives, organisational motives, physiological motives
and personal motives as shown in Figure 1 below.
Previous research revealed that customer satisfaction
is an important theoretical as well as practical issue
that could be considered by an event organizer.
Customer satisfaction is regarded as a marketing
and promotional tool to attract the most variable
segments of the market. According to Kozak and
Rimmimgton (2000), satisfaction is important consideration
to successful destination marketing (Philip and
Hezlett, 1996) by recognising the fact that customer
satisfaction influence the choice of destination, the
consumption of products and services and the
decision to return (customer loyalty). One of the few
studies on satisfaction in the events was by
Gandhi-Arora and Shaw (2000), focused specifically
on the relationship between loyalty, satisfaction as
well as novelty seeking behaviour in a special
events or festivals context. The findings also indicated
that there was a modest relationship between
42 Juliana LanggatㆍKamarul Mizal MarzukiㆍNoor Fzlinda FabeilㆍMohd. Irwan Dahnil
satisfaction with special events and their intentions
to attend special events in the future.
Source: Adapted from McDonnell et al. (1999)
<Figure 1> Motives for Attending an Event
Methods
Research Context: Tamu Besar Kota Belud
Kota Belud a small town in Sabah, Malaysia was
chosen as contextual setting as the Tamu Besar
event is a yearly event organised in this particular
district. Once a year, Kota Belud hosts the Tamu
Besar where people flock to this quaint district to
join in the festivities. Tamu Besar-which means
Big Market-is literally the biggest tamu organised
throughout Sabah. Tamu Besar Kota Belud gives
visitors the opportunity to immerse themselves in
Kota Belud’s immensely diverse culture. The main
highlights of the event are the Bajau Horsemen
(fondly known as the ‘Cowboys of the East’) parade,
Ratu Sarimpak beauty pageant and water buffalo
race. Moreover, visitors should seize this grand
occasion to stockpile on home wares and food
produce as vendors, farmers, and fishermen will
have their best merchandizes to offer here. The
event also highlights the colourful cultures of Kota
Belud district. Throughout this event, the younger
generation of Bajau will get in touch with their
age-old heritage as horsemen of the east. There will
also be a parade of ponies dressed in gorgeously
ornate costumes as well as an exuberant display of
riding skills by the Bajau horsemen.
<Figure 2> Location Map of Tamu Besar, Kota Belud
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah 43
Sampling and Instrument
The intention of this study is to investigate
varies expectations and satisfactory of visitor of
Tamu Besar Kota Belud event in Sabah. Convenient
sampling were used by ensuring the information
obtained would based upon the visitors actual
experiences and a self-reported experienced through
questionnaire survey was chosen as mean of information
gathering. Taking into account in difference of
ethnics group’s profile and educational levels, the
questionnaires developed was simple and easy to
understand with minimum reading and writing. To
reduce any possible uncertainty in the questionnaire,
Bahasa Malaysia was used as language of the
instruments as the entire ethnics groups understand
this national language.
A quantitative approached were applied in order
to develop the questionnaire. The questionnaire is
divided into five major sections. Section A was
designed using nominal scales focuses on the
respondents’ demographic profile like gender, ethnicity,
age and hometown. Ten questions were used in
Section B in order to identify the visitors’ motivation
factors to visit the event and ten questions also
created in Section C which identifying the visitor’s
expectation towards the event. In looking on the
visitor’s satisfaction towards the facilities, twenty
questions were designed in Section D. Meanwhile,
ten questions in Section E were probed on how the
visitor’s satisfaction towards the activities that
being organised by the organiser. These four
sections require respondents to indicate their level
of agreement on six types Likert scales ranging
from zero (0) with “not applicable” to five (5) with
“strongly agree”.
Data Collection
The survey was conducted in one day at Tamu
Besar Kota Belud in November. The respondents
were approached conveniently. While answering the
questionnaire, each of the respondents was briefed
about the confidentiality and anonymity through the
information sheet attached with the questionnaire.
With the positive feedback and no obvious problems,
142 questionnaires were able to be collected. The
questionnaires were coded and keyed using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 19. The
reliability test (Cronbach’s Alpha) was undertaken
on Section B, C, D and E separately and result
showed that the instrument and items used was
reliable with coefficient alpha value at 0.63 for
section B, 0.67 for section C, 0.81 for section D and
0.72 for section E.
Result And Discussion
Respondent Profile
Table 1 summarises the socio-demographic and
travelling characteristic of respondents. Out of 141
respondents, 53.9 percent (n=76) were females as
opposed 46.1 percent (n=65) males. 39 percent
(n=55) were Bajau, 14.9 percent (n=21) were Dusun,
12.1 percent (n=17) were Kadazandusun, 5.7 percent
(n=8) were Rungus, 7 percent (n=1) were Murut and
27.7 percent (n=39) were others ethnicity.
44 Juliana LanggatㆍKamarul Mizal MarzukiㆍNoor Fzlinda FabeilㆍMohd. Irwan Dahnil
Socio-demographic Characteristic Respondent (%) Travelling Characteristics Respondent (%)
Gender Visiting Companions
Male 46.1 Family and relatives 36.9
Female 53.9 Friends 29.8
Ethnicity Group tour 19.9
Bajau 39.0 Alone 5.7
Dusun 14.9 Couple/Spouse 7.1
Kadazandusun 12.1 Source of Information
Rungus 5.7 Banner 42.6
Murut 0.7 Poster 16.3
Others 27.7 Newspaper Advertisement 8.5
Age Tourist Guidebook 2.1
< 20 years old 14.9 Information centre 0.7
21-30 years old 55.3 Website 7.8
31-40 years old 13.5 Brochure 5.7
41-50 years old 11.3 Others 16.3
>50 years old 5.0 Mode of Travelling
Origin (Hometown) Walk 3.5
Kota Belud District 44.7 Car 77.3
Other District of Sabah 42.5 Motorcycle 2.8
Outside Sabah 12.8 Bus 16.3
Time Spent (Event)
Less than 30 minutes 8.5
30 minutes-1 hour 17.7
1 hour-2 hours 27.0
More than 2 hours 46.8
(N = 141)
<Table 1> Profile of Respondents
Samples also showed that 70.2 percent (n=99)
were below 30 years old, 13.6 percent (n=19) who
were between 31 and 40 years old, 11.3 percent
(n=16) were between 41 and 50 years old and 5
percent (n=70) were above 50 years old. The
proportion of the respondents showed that, 44.7
percent (n=63) were came from Kota Belud itself,
42.5 percent (n=60) were from others district of
Sabah and 12.8 percent (n=18) were from others
states in Malaysia.
A total of 43.9 percent (n=53) respondents were
visited this event with their family and relatives,
29.8 percent (n=42) were visited with their friends,
19.9 percent (n=28) were visited as a group tour and
12.8 percent (n=18) were visited with their couple
and alone.
The result also shows 42.6 percent (n=60) of the
respondents were knew about this event from the
banner that hung by the organiser, 16.3 percent
(n=23) were knew from the poster, 8.5 percent
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah 45
(n=12) were knew from the newspaper advertisement
and 38.9 percent (n=58) were knew from the others
promotion tools such as website, brochure, tourist
guide book and information center. The analyses
showed the conventional promotion tools such as
banner were more effectives in promoting event
compare to the electronic promotion tools.
Majority of the respondents, 77.3 percent (n=109)
were using car to visit the event, 16.3 percent (n=23)
were using bus and 6.3 percent (n=90) were using
motorcycle and walked. During the visit, 46.8
percent (n=66) spent more than 2 hours at the event,
27 percent (n=38) were spent between 1 to 2 hours,
17.7 percent (n=25) were spent between 30 minutes
to 1 hour and 8.5 percent (n=12) were spent less
than 30 minutes.
Motivation Factors
From the descriptive statistics, the higher magnitude
of mean scores indicate the majority of the respondents
agreed that the attractive stalls are the main reason
for visiting the event (M = 4.24, item 1). The respondents
also agreed that the event planned usually are fun
and enjoyable (M = 4.14, items 2) and it is an annual
event that they usually visited (M = 4.14, items 3).
Furthermore, they are also agreed that they are
motivated by the tons of activities held by the
organiser that draw them to revisit the event again
(M = 4.12, items 4) and the event were held on the
weekend (M = 4.12, items 5). The respondents also
agreed that the event was fun and enjoyable (M =
4.10, items 6) and can lead to discovery of different
types of people and their behaviour (M = 4.08, items
7) as shown in Table 2 below.
The event also visited by people all over (M =
3.99, items 8) and the respondents also agreed that
there are several activities that attract their interest
was organise during the event (M = 3.95, items 9).
Thus, they also agreed that the event organiser is
an expert in organising such event (M = 3.62, items
10). Due to this Tamu Besar Kota Belud event was
held yearly, it became one of most looking forward
event by the community in the Kota Belud district.
On top of that, the visitor was attracted to the varieties
of stalls that were opened up during the event.
Motivation Items Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
It is an annual event i usually visit. .00 5.00 4.1489 1.08849
There are tons of activities held by the organiser that draws
me to visit it again this year..00 5.00 4.1277 .86892
Attractive stalls are the main reason for visiting the event. .00 5.00 4.2411 .83581
The events planned usually are fun and enjoyable. .00 5.00 4.1489 .85303
I come to the event because it is held on the weekend .00 5.00 4.1206 1.07222
The event will be visited by people all over. .00 5.00 3.9929 1.02467
The event organiser is an expert in organizing such event. .00 5.00 3.6241 1.22205
This event will lead to discovery of different types of people
and their behaviour..00 5.00 4.0851 .95983
There are several activities that really attract my interest. .00 5.00 3.9504 .97341
This event was fun and enjoyable. .00 5.00 4.1064 .88400
<Table 2> Visitor Motivation Factors
46 Juliana LanggatㆍKamarul Mizal MarzukiㆍNoor Fzlinda FabeilㆍMohd. Irwan Dahnil
Event Expectation
As shown in Table 3 below, the respondents was
highly expected the participation from the local
communities to visit the event (M = 4.49, item 1)
and gaining some knowledge and experiences while
visiting the event (M = 4.21, items 2). Hence, the
respondents also expected that there are a numbers
of stalls will be operated during the event (M = 4.20,
items 3) whereby it will be interesting to visit (M
= 4.16, items 4) and there are various activities are
expected to be scheduled (M = 4.15, items 5).
Despites those mentioned expectations, the respondents
also expected that the event will be officiated by the
minister or other high rank government officers (M
= 3.97, items 6) and the international tourist also
expected to be visiting the event (M = 3.82, items 7).
The respondents themselves also expected to
participate in the activities during the event (M =
3.45, items 8) and they also expecting there will be
performances from popular artist (M = 3.41, items
9). Nevertheless, the respondents were slightly
agreed about their expectation towards the numbers
of the parking spaces during the event (M = 3.37,
items 10).
These visitors expectations indicates that, majority
of the visitor are expecting the excitements and
experiences during their visit to the event with the
varieties of activities and numbers of stalls will be
opened and the expectation of the performance by
the artist during this local cultural event.
Expectation Items Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Participation from the local community is highly expected. 1.00 44.00 4.4965 3.44264
I expect to gain knowledge and experience while visiting this event. 2.00 5.00 4.2128 .73493
The event is expected to be interesting to visit. 2.00 5.00 4.1631 .73314
A number of stalls are expected to be operated. 2.00 5.00 4.2057 .74179
There are various kind of activities expected to be scheduled. 2.00 5.00 4.1560 .75860
I highly expected that this event will be officiated by the
minister or others high rank government officers..00 5.00 3.9787 .92171
International tourists are expected to be visiting this event. 1.00 5.00 3.8227 .95830
I hope to participate in this event. .00 5.00 3.4539 1.16787
I hope that there will be performances from popular artist. .00 5.00 3.4184 1.20804
Parking spaces are expected to be enough. .00 5.00 3.3759 1.25663
<Table 3> Visitor Expectation Towards the Event
Facilities Satisfaction
Results of the visitor satisfaction towards the
facilities are presented in Table 4. The respondents
were satisfied with the services that provided by
the volunteer committee in organizing the event (M
= 3.67, items 1). They are also satisfied with the
number of restaurant and food stalls that opened
during the event (M=3.60, items 2) and the service
served at the premises were satisfying them (M=
3.51, items 3). However, there are respondents was
not satisfied with the cleanliness at the event
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah 47
location (M=3.31, items 4). They are also were not
satisfied with the limited menu offered in the
restaurant and food stalls (M=3.31, item 5). Despite
that, the respondents were slightly satisfied with
the parking location provided whereby it was too far
from the event location (M=3.20, items 6). The
respondents also slightly satisfied and dissatisfied
with the existence of the signage (M=3.12, items 7)
and numbers of the signage provided during the
event (M = 3.17, items 8) with the small wording
and it very difficult to read (M=2.90, items 10).
Hence, majority of the respondents were slightly
satisfied with the level of cleanliness of the
restaurant or food stalls (M=3.02, items 9) and
dissatisfied about the cleanliness nearby the business
premises (M=2.87, items 11).
Thus, the respondents were dissatisfied with the
number of parking space provided during the event
(M=2.82, items 12) and the information counter
were not strategically located (M=2.72, items 13).
Besides that, the respondents also was not satisfied
with the number of accommodation and hotel around
(M=2.68, items 14) and the location of these facilities
was not convenient (M=2.67, items 15). In addition,
Facilities Satisfaction Items Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
I am satisfied with the services that provided by the volunteer
committee in organizing this event.1.00 5.00 3.6170 1.01882
I am satisfied with the number of restaurants/food stalls. .00 5.00 3.6099 1.08083
The service that was served in the restaurant/food stall was superb. .00 5.00 3.5177 .96068
I am not satisfied with the cleanliness at the event location. .00 5.00 3.3191 1.17303
I am not satisfied with the limited menu offered in the
restaurant/food stall..00 5.00 3.3121 1.15347
The parking location provided is too far from the event location. .00 5.00 3.2057 1.37590
I am satisfied with the existence of the signage provided
during the event. .00 5.00 3.1702 1.25901
The numbers of the signage provided during the event makes
it easy for the crowd to direct ourselves here and there..00 5.00 3.1206 1.23332
I am satisfied with the level of cleanliness of the restaurant/
food stalls,.00 5.00 3.0284 1.05521
Wording used on the signage are too small and difficult to read. .00 5.00 2.9007 1.41575
I am satisfied with the number of the parking space provided. .00 5.00 2.8227 1.20880
I am satisfied with the cleanliness nearby the business premises. 1.00 5.00 2.8723 1.18232
The information counter was not strategically located. .00 5.00 2.7234 1.67377
I am satisfied with the number of accommodation/hotel. .00 5.00 2.6809 1.44578
The location of accommodation/hotel is convenient. .00 5.00 2.6738 1.49998
I am satisfied with the numbers of rubbish bins provided. .00 5.00 2.6028 1.18249
The information center provided brings ease to the crowd. .00 5.00 2.5319 1.50975
I am satisfied with the number of toilets provided. .00 5.00 2.4823 1.22243
The service provided at the information counter is superb. .00 5.00 2.4752 1.53800
I am satisfied with the cleanliness of the toilets provided. .00 5.00 2.3333 1.18723
<Table 4> Visitor Satisfaction Towards the Facilities
48 Juliana LanggatㆍKamarul Mizal MarzukiㆍNoor Fzlinda FabeilㆍMohd. Irwan Dahnil
the respondents also was not satisfied with the
numbers of rubbish bins provided during the event
(M=2.60, items 16). The information center provided
was not bring any ease to the visitor (M=2.53, items
17) and the services provided at the counter was
dissatisfied the visitors (M=2.47, items 19). Moreover,
the respondents also dissatisfied with the numbers
(M=2.48, items 18) and the cleanliness of the toilets
provided during the event (M=2.33, items 20). With
that, facilities and services are the main support
while staging an event and it also a factors that
contribute the satisfaction among the visitors. The
event can’t be successful without these supporters.
Activities Satisfaction
Activities are the main concerned while staging
an event especially the local cultural event. As
presented in Table 5, the respondents were satisfied
with the activities organised because it also introduced
the multi ethnics in the Kota Belud district (M=
4.20, item 1) and it can attract the crowd (M=4.11,
items 2). Majority of the respondents were satisfied
with the event (M=4.07, items 3) and there also
satisfied by the activities conducted because it
involved the local communities (M=4.07, items 4).
The respondents were satisfied by the commitment
shown by the organiser (M=4.05, items 5), they also
thought that the event are worth spending (M=3.92,
items 6) and satisfied with the days scheduled for
the event (M=3.92, items 7). Besides that, the respondents
also satisfied with the numbers of staff and
volunteer during the event (M=3.82, items 8). They
also satisfied with the activities arranged during the
event (M=3.80, items 9) but the respondents were
disagreed about delaying activities will bring dissatisfaction
to the visitors (M=2.90, items 10).
These analysis is indicating that, activities
during the event is the main contribution to the
visitor satisfaction as they are getting what they are
expected from the event and even the delaying
activities will not bring dissatisfaction to them.
Activities Satisfaction Items Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
I am satisfied with the activities that being held because it also introduced
the multi ethnics in this district.1.00 5.00 4.2057 .76081
The activities held attract the crowds. 1.00 5.00 4.1135 .84593
The activities conducted were satisfying because it also involve the local people. 2.00 5.00 4.0780 .76598
I am overall satisfied with this event. 1.00 5.00 4.0780 .82869
I am satisfied with the commitment shown by the organiser. .00 5.00 4.0567 .87646
The event is worth spending. 1.00 5.00 3.9291 .82501
I am satisfied with the days scheduled for this event. .00 5.00 3.9291 .85059
I am satisfied with the numbers of staff and volunteers that contribute the
successfulness of the event..00 5.00 3.8298 .94836
I am satisfied with all the activities arranged during the event. 2.00 5.00 3.8085 .79206
Delaying activities bring dissatisfaction. .00 5.00 2.9078 1.42378
<Table 5> Visitor Satisfaction Towards the Activities
Visitor Motivation, Expectation and Satisfaction of Local Cultural Event in Sabah 49
Conclusions and Suggestions
The findings of this study clearly indicate that
the Tamu Besar Kota Belud event only able to
attract the interest of the local people especially the
communities nearby. Majority of the visitors were
attracted to visit the Tamu Besar for the purpose
of shopping at the stalls provided as well as to enjoy
the varieties of activities held there. Furthermore,
most of the visitors came to this event because this
is an annually event and they have positioned in
their minds what to expect during Tamu Besar Kota
Belud. Thus, they also expect that there are
something different and special every year. In
contrast, the facilities provided and the cleanliness
during the event were not met their expectations.
Meanwhile, the visitors were satisfied for what the
organiser have done in staging this event.
This local cultural event is given a huge benefit
to the local people especially the local who stayed
in Kota Belud area. The event can developed the
local economic and household income during the
event whereby the community can opened up their
business stalls during the event. Again, by having
this event yearly, it will foster the inbound tourism
pattern amongst the local people especially in
Sabah. Noted that, Sabah Tourism Board itself has
listed this event as one of the local event and jointly
organised it annually with the district office.
In addition, by organising this Tamu Besar Kota
Belud annually, the quality of the event can be
improved and monitored. Instead of promoting it
locally, the Sabah Tourism Board should promoting
it widely with not only targeting the local community
but also the other part of Malaysia as well as the
abroad tourist who want to gain more about the
local culture and heritage. Besides that, the facilities
and the services also would be upgraded and built
to support the successfulness of the event. In a
nutshell, this study hopes to provide information on
current issues about the trend in the local cultural
tourism by considering their motives and expectations
in order to meet their satisfaction. Hence, the
organiser should be more innovative and creative in
organising the local cultural events in order to
maintain their competitive advantage for the benefit
of the local community and Sabah tourism industry.
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Submitted: May 21, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: July 05, 2012
Accepted: September 23, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
Student Travelers-Destination Image and Choice Behavior-
Sung-Chae Jung*5)
[ABSTRACT]
This study determines the perception of attraction
preference attitudes and, to investigate selected
destination choice criteria which determine travel
image. This study results that the student travel
were on the basis of active tourist activities such
as sports and adventure. They were more likely to
prefer exciting leisure activities, and less likely to
desire relaxed and quiet activities. They prefer
excitement and adventure in a vacation and are
typically long-term, interested in self-development
and less expensive accommodations. The information
presented in this study will be helpful to the policy
makers and marketing planners formulating public
and private sector tourism business for students. In
marketing implications, this study is to present the
market segmentation which adapts marketing planning
and management to achieve the tourism business for
the students by determining their perceptual
behavior on attraction choice. In political implications,
the study gives a guide to develop student tourist-
oriented tourist attractions and it will be an indicator
of student tourism policy to promote their travel.
Key Words : Destination Image, Choice Behavior,
Student travelers
Introduction
As the demand of student tourism rapidly grows,
marketing strategy and political planning for student
travelers would seem of particular importance in
overall managerial development. In spite of these
attention-getting facts, the importance of student
tourism has not yet been fully recognized. Careful
marketing, regular monitoring and evaluation of the
* Dept. of Tourism Management, Honam University, Korea
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
52 Sung-Chae Jung
reactions of this segment would seem of particular
importance in the overall management of a student
tourist destination.
Travel destination image can be described as the
overall impression or attribute that an individual
acquires of a specific destination, this overall
impression is considered to be composed of the
tourist’s perceptions concerning the relevant qualities
of the destination. It is important to destination
marketers and operators in tourism complementary
industries to know in which of their target market’s
choice sets what they are positioned and preferred
before they proceed with strategies designed to
enhance their position. The understanding what the
tourists want, their needs, their priorities, and each
one’s relative importance is important to travel
policy makers and marketing planners who have to
effectively establish the marketing and policy
programs to better fit their customer’s needs. It can
be useful to estimate the level of importance of
tourist attractions in the travel destination. The
gathered directional information is helpful to suggest
a managerial direction for increase the effectiveness
of tourism policy.
The study, especially, examines how travelers
choose their travel destination comparing the perceptual
image of destination by travelers who intend to
travel. The gained information will be valuable in
attending more effective and efficient performance
when designing marketing strategies and can serve
as a frame of reference for future research. These
findings can serve the tourist industry as a tool for
decision making regarding tourism policy activities
and measures for determining priority of assignments
aimed at improving elements of the tourist supply.
It will be an efficient indicator of the tourist supply
quality.
Destination Images
Research on the spatial behavior of the tourists,
along with their perceptual preference patterns,
could help tourist departments to identify specific
target market segments whose travel behavior
conforms the most to the goals of their tourism
policies. To accomplish this goal, recent segmentation
studies have incorporated psychological measures
such as attitudes (Walmsley D.J. & Jekins J.M.
1992, Beaman & Vaske, 1995; McDougall & Murno
1987, Ross, G., 1993), psychological benefits (Tinsley
& Johnson 1984, Crompton,J.L. Fakeye, P.C. and
Lue,C.C. 1992), and motivations and preferences
(Calatone & Johar 1984; Yuan, S. & McDonald, C.
1990; Crompton,J.L. & Ankpmh, P.K, 1993, Chang &
Mahoney 1997; Jung, 1996). The findings of the
researches (Yuan & McDonald 1990; Kim et al.
1996; Cha 1997) indicate that the level of importance
that individuals attach to the various factors differs
among the different socio-demographic and travel
characteristics. These studies’ findings give a
theoretical background for us to expect that the
perceptual interest attitudes will be varied according
to the different circumstantial environments such as
different sets of socio-demographic and travel
characteristics.
Travel destination image can be described as the
overall impression or attribute that an individual
acquires of a specific destination, this overall
impression is considered to be composed of the
tourist’s perceptions concerning the relevant qualities
of the destination (Dadgostar & Isotalo 1992). A few
studies (Haati & Yaves 1983; Gartner 1989; Reilly
1990, Mansfield, Y. 1995, O’Leary L. & Morrison.
1997) have pertained to destination image. However,
it is criticized that those studies have alluded to the
Student Travelers: Destination Image and Choice Behavior 53
complex nature of destination image, there really
has been limited effort, up to this point, to carefully
examine and understand the unique characteristics
of this concept. Ethchner & Ritchie (1993) develop
35 attributes on the basis of arrangement along the
functional-psychological continuum.
Attractions are a primary motive for tourist visits
and their success or failure in satisfactory product
has implications for the provision of provided
attributes at destination. The preference will be
made as results of perception on expected attractions.
In the same vein, this is why the information of
tourist perceptual attitudes on choice of tourist
attracting attributes is useful to establish the
strategy and managerial direction towards tourism
development.
Student Traveler’s Behavior
World youth tourism is a dynamic force in the
total tourism phenomenon and the potential market
share and increase rate are of consideration to the
travel market. As Roberts (1983) points out, youth
is a time of recreational taste and skill acquisition,
when individuals build leisure capital that can
extend or limit their life-long opportunities. According
to the literature review, it can be assumed that
youth travel has different characteristics compared
to other older age cohorts’ tourism due to different
travel environments affecting their travel behavior.
This suggests that developing different tourist
products and different marketable approaches will
be effective to target the different groups among
different age cohorts.
A number of studies, which focus on youth
travelers and others that also refer to youth
travelers, identified that differences exist between
youth and other age cohort’s tourist behavior
(Abdel-Ghaffar, A. et al.,1992,Godbey 1980; Roberts
1983; Grauburn 1983; Romsa & Blenman 1989;
Pearce 1990; Bojanic 1992; Ross 1993; Jung 1995a;
1995b; 1996; Kim et al. 1996). The assumptions and
verifications showed that behaviors for taking
vacations vary by age cohorts, and the more
outdoor recreational activities are preferred by the
younger than the older, who have delicate physical
conditions that set constraints on the choice of
vacation destinations. In one side, young people and
leisure are sufficiently free to permit the spread of
democratic youth cultures which enhance the quality
of life, however, on the other hand, the freedom of
leisure is as an illusion, such as young people’s
opportunities are determined by traditional class and
gender divisions, so, leisure does not alleviate so
much as reconcile individuals to unsatisfying existences.
Their tourism behavior is highly explorative in
nature and is very sensitive to trends, especially
with respect to destinations.
Method
The data were computed and analyzed by
statistical analyses such as factor analysis, mean
scores and standard deviation, T-test and analysis
of variances. The representative sample was student
travelers. Data were gathered through a self-
administered questionaire using a Likert five scaling
approach. This study’s method intends to identify
the tourists’ perception as to what they consider
important and how they were interested in traveling
to the area. Information in this category is based on
the concept that an attitude and the performance of
54 Sung-Chae Jung
some behavior is a function of what one is
interested in and how much value is placed on that
interest.
This study’s method intends to identify the
tourists’ perception as to what they consider important
and how they were interested in traveling to the
area. Information in this category is based on the
concept that an attitude and the performance of
some behavior is a function of what one is interested
in and how much value is placed on that interest.
In this study, four demographic and four travel
characteristics explainable variables such as gender,
age, income, travel cost and accommodation, transportation,
travel type and information sources were developed.
Results
The respondents are likely to be female and
younger than 25 years of age(73.6%) and respondents’
income is in generally concentrated in between 2
million and 5 millions of income (71.9%). 58.3 % of
them reported they received their travel cost from
other people and 41.7 % of respondents resolve their
travel cost by themselves.
Respondents choose economic accommodations
such as pension (54.9%) and rather than high cost
hotels (12.5%) and motels (15.5%). Almost of them
traveled by car (46.5%) and tourist bus(31.9%).
Their travel comprises individual travel (57.6%),
group travel (21.5%) and family travel (20.8%).
Their principal information sources was internet
(61.6%), other travel information was friends/
relatives (13.9%) and travel, but TV(10.4%) and
information books are only were 3.5%.
Characteristics %
SexMale
Female
31
76
Age
Under 20
21-24
Up 25
20.1
53.5
26.4
Travel CostBy themselves
From others
41.7
58.3
Income
1 Million
1-1.99 Million
2-2.99 Million
3-3.99 Million
4-4.99 Million
+5 Million
4.2
12.5
25.0
22.9
24.3
11.1
<Table 1> Respondent’s Characteristics(%)
Characteristics %
Accommodations
Hotel
Motel
Pension
Condominium
Guest house
Others
12.5
15.5
54.9
6.9
7.6
2.8
Transportation
Bus
Tourist bus
Car
Airplane
Ship
Others
11.1
31.9
46.5
2.8
7
1.4
Travel type
Group
Individual
Family
21.5
57.6
20.8
Information sources
Television
Internet
Travel agency
Friends/relatives
Travel Guide Books
10.4
61.6
10.4
13.9
3.5
<Table 2> Travel Characteristics(%)
Factor Analysis
The importance of image listed in the questionnaire
is indicated by the 20 attributes. The attributes
Student Travelers: Destination Image and Choice Behavior 55
obtained a loading above the average which is
represented in Likert type scale. The following
attributes were among those that received the highest
loading scores: shopping (0.85), sports (0.83) and
well-known (0.81). The results of the factor analysis
of the 20 attributes are reported in Table 3.Six
factors, which explained 69.2 %. Of the overall
variance, were identified as dimensions of importance
and labeled (1) Tourism Infrastructure, (2) Recreation,
(3) Natural Attractions, (4) Cultural Attractions, (5)
Service, and (6) Events. Each dimension was
labeled based on the characteristics of the attraction
variables that are part of the different factors.
The first dimension was titled Tourist Infrastructure
because it is composed of 6 variables that stress the
importance of tourist infrastructure such as Safety,
Food, Price, Accessibility, Restful and Fun. The first
dimension explained 18.84% of the total variance.
The eigenvalue was 3.77, and the reliability alpha
was 0.86. The second dimension, Recreation was
included Sports, Social environments, Events, Resort
and Recreation. The eigenvalue of the second dimension
(2.99) explained 14.95% of the total variance,
reliability alpha was 0.82. The third dimension,
named Natural Attractions, contains three attributes.
The eigenvalue (1.90) of this dimension explained
9.52% of the total variance. The reliability alpha was
0.65. The Cultural Attractions dimension obtained
an eigenvalue of 1.85, which explains 9.23% of the
total variance. This fourth dimension comprises two
attributes such as Well-known and Cultural attractions.
The reliability alpha of this dimension was 0.66.
Factor Name Attributes Factor Loadings Communalities Eigen ValuePercent of Variance
ExplainedReliability Alpha
F1 : Tourist
Infrastructure
Safety 0.79 0.74
3.77 18.84 0.86
Food 0.75 0.67
Price 0.73 0.67
Accessibility 0.73 0.70
Restful 0.60 0.68
Fun 0.58 0.64
F2: Recreation
Sports 0.83 0.75
2.99 14.95 0.82
Social Environment 0.72 0.64
Events 0.66 0.65
Resorts 0.58 0.65
Recreation 0.58 0.64
F3: Natural
Attractions
Climate 0.71 0.71
1.90 9.52 0.65Adventure 0.59 0.68
Scenic Beauty 0.59 0.68
F4: Cultural
Attractions
Well-known 0.81 0.761.85 9.23 0.66
Cultural Attractions 0.76 0.72
F5: ServiceKindness 0.72 0.73
1.74 8.71 0.63Quiet 0.62 0.63
F6: EventsShopping 0.85 0.82
1.60 7.67 0.61Remembrance 0.56 0.69
Total variance explained : 69.2
<Table 3> Results of Principal Component Factor Analysis
56 Sung-Chae Jung
The last two dimensions service and events
contain two attributes each such as Kindness, Quiet
and Shopping and Remembrance. The eigenvalues
are 1.74 and 1.60 each. The reliability alphas were
0.63 and 0.61.
Table 4 provides a profile of the 6 factors based
on various demographic and travel characteristic
variables. The Tourist Infrastructure (Factor 1) was
significant difference in age and accommodation and
Recreation (Factor 2) revealed significant difference
Characteristics F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
Sex Male / Female
T 0.72 2.58 1.19 1.96 2.65 0.11
P 0.47 0.01 0.24 0.05 0.00 0.91
Age Under 20/21-24/ Up 25
F 7.27 0.34 7.15 0.73 7.32 1.86
P 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.16
Travel cost By Themselves/ From Others
T 1.62 0.16 2.06 -0.39 1.42 0.64
P 0.10 0.87 0.04 0.70 0.16 0.52
Income1 Million/1-1.99 Million/2-2.99 Million/
3-3.99 Million/4-4.99 Million/+5 Million
F 1,17 1.00 0.43 1.06 0.61 1.36
P 0.32 0.42 0.83 0.38 0.70 0.24
AccommodationsHotel/Motel/Pension/Condominium/Guest
house/Others
F 2.80 0.68 1.72 0.34 1.75 0.34
P 0.01 0.64 0.13 0.89 0.12 0.89
Transportation Bus/Tourist bus/Car/Ship/Others
F 0.98 2.31 0.51 2.31 1.07 0.57
P 0.44 0.03 0.80 0.03 0.39 0.75
Travel Type Group/Individual/Family
F 0.93 5.17 0.19 2.90 2.87 0.66
P 0.40 0.00 0.83 0.05 0.05 0.52
Travel
Information
Television/Internet/Travel agency/Friends/
relatives/Travel Guide Books
F 1.64 0.05 0.95 0.27 1.02 2.08
P 0.15 0.99 0.45 0.93 0.41 0.07
<Table 4> Difference of Destination and
Choice Characteristics
in sex, transportation, travel type and travel information.
Natural Attraction (Factor 3) and Events (Factor 6)
were appeared not significant different.
Sex, transportation and travel type were significant
different in Cultural Attractions (Factor 4) and sex,
age and travel type were appeared as significant
different in Service (Factor5).
Concluding remarks
The findings of this study offer a number of
implications as they may be related to major
evaluated dimensions applied by student travelers.
It is important to remember when marketing
tourism that not all destinations are alike, nor are
all young people alike. Therefore, it is necessary to
segment the market for tourism and determine the
salient attributes on attraction preference characteristics
for student travelers. This will enable the tourism
suppliers to develop effective marketing programs.
A concern of this study’s implication can give a
direction how commit the tourism development to
establish efficient policy planning and marketing
strategy for student tourism. The presented
information help to identify two sets of forces at
work that influence the design of the tourism
planning programs, the first set includes political
implications which can be contribute to effective
policy programs and the second includes marketing
implications to enhance the tourism business for
student travelers.
Student Travelers: Destination Image and Choice Behavior 57
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Submitted: June 10, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: August 22, 2012
Accepted: October 17, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions
for Airplane Tickets and Hotels.
An Example in the UK.
Hao-Te LU Ph,D*6)
Wan-Yu, HSU**
Chih-Yao, YI***
[ABSTRACT]
Customers usually like to make travel plans
weeks or months ahead of the travel schedule.
Therefore, they can take extra time to search
information they need in order to purchase the
products at the lowest possible price. Accordingly,
this study bases on the revenue management (or
yield management) to examine the prices of two
categories, airplane tickets and hotels, over a
period of eight weeks in order to observe how the
prices cycle up and down over time. The aim of this
study is to investigate whether there is an optimal
purchasing time for any of the products.
A structured observation, often also called
systematic observation was conducted by this study
to investigate the two categories of travel products.
The study reveals that prices for the products
assume an increasing trend as the date of the
product consumption approaches. The implication
for consumers is that they could purchase the
products as early as possible to take advantage of
the early prices. Although prices sometimes drop,
they rarely drop lower than those the first day
consumers start their search for tourism products.
At end of this study, we also discuss the price
variation in Taiwan and an avenue for further
research.
Key Words : Revenue management, Optimal decision,
Strategic consumer and fare fluctuations
* Department of Business Administration Tainan University of Technology, Tainan, Taiwan
** Swansea University, UK
*** Department of Business Administration Tainan University of Technology, Tainan, Taiwan
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
60 Hao-Te LUㆍWan-Yu, HSUㆍChih-Yao, YI
Introduction
Most customers in the UK may have had a
similar experience. That is when they have a period
of time for a break and make travel plans. They
start to search related information of products and
they fix their attention on the computer screen for
a series of days. Before making the decision to
purchase a certain travel product, people spend lots
of time searching the product’s information, types
and prices, in an effort to find a product that meets
their expectations and is cheaper. However, the
prices cycle up and down, customers feel that it is
difficult to make a decision and they wonder when
the optimal time for purchasing this kind of
products is.
No matter the trip is for business or leisure,
customer have asked the same question countless
times that is “When is exactly the best time to book
advance travel products (e.g. airline ticket or hotel)
to get the cheapest fare?” (Doward and Dearlove,
2010). This type of consumer behaviour stems from
the fact that booking too early may meet a risk of
changes to the travel plan, but booking too late
would result in much higher ticket prices, and the
tickets could even be sold out. Otherwise, Möller
and Watanabe (2010) pointed out that eight weeks
ahead of the departure date is the optimal time to
buy the advance plan ticket. It is well-known in the
airline industry that with the approach of the
departure date, the fare goes up. On the other hand,
theatre tickets, for example, are usually cut down at
a discounted price on the day if the tickets have not
sold out. The purpose of these distinct pricing
strategies is the same, namely to maximise revenue
for the firms.
This study therefore employed an empirical
observation method to investigate two categories of
travel products over a period of eight weeks to
observe how the prices changed over time. Each of
them involves several distinct products that are
selected on different websites. For the airline, the
first booking day is prior to the travel day for four
weeks and eight weeks. For the other category,
hotels may have a multiple-day stays, so we need
to set different engaged periods for each. For the
duration of our observation, the prices of each item
will be recorded once every day. Through the
observation, we would discover if the optimal
booking time of eight weeks ahead for airline tickets
and this could be applied to the hotels. In addition,
the shifts in prices of each item are collected from
different suppliers, such as the five airline companies
selected in this survey. These shifts will also
represent their unique pricing strategies. To this
end, the following are the aims of study:
1. To investigate whether there is an optimal
purchasing time for the products.
2. To compare the results with findings in the
literature.
Literature Review
Revenue Management
Before discussing the two travel products, it may
be required to understand how the revenue
management has been utilised in the tourism
industry and how it helps the industry to maximise
revenue.
Revenue management (hereafter referred to as
RM), or yield management, which originates from
Operations Research, is one of the greatly
Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions for Airplane Tickets and Hotels. An Example in the UK. 61
successful techniques apply to current management
issues and become a set of widespread new
business practices (McGill and Ryzin, 1999). The
research on RM can be traced back to 1960s when
an operations researcher, Taylor (1962), introduced
this technique in the scientific literature for the first
time. At an earlier stage, Rothsein (1974) presented
the use of overbooking on hotel reservations. More
recently, the concept of RM was introduced to the
service industry and has since become one of the
most successful innovative technologies. Belobaba
and Weatherfore (1996) extended the RM technique
to compare various decision-making rules and
flexible fare classes. RM is used to a large extent
by those who seek profit-oriented firms, providing
the right service to the right customer at the right
time for the right price. Accordingly, RM can be
applied to various industries and has brought
remarkable success in businesses.
RM also represents the setting and managing of
prices for products or services based upon tactical
means, in order to maximise profit. Berman (2005)
described revenue management as being an
effective mechanism which helps service suppliers
to allocate fixed capacity, and to provide broader
scale discounts. Bell (2010) indicated that revenue
management is the art and science provided for
firms to enhance profits through increasing revenue/
units sold, which is different from marketing where
firms increase revenue through expanding the
market share or the number of units sold. For
example, when RM techniques apply to the airline
industry assumed that passengers would not shift
from a higher fare class to a lower one, especially
when the lower fare is available again. As a result,
firms organise the sale of products or services to
different market segments; whilst also considering
other factors which could affect successful marketing,
and making themselves profitable (Chiang et al.,
2007; Guadix et al., 2010). Chiang et al., (2007) also
indicate that RM has become crucial factor of
business success for airlines, hotels and many other
service industries.
Strategic Consumers
It is widely accepted that customer never want
to spend more money on products. According to
numerous researches, strategic consumers basically
result from the prevalence of the Internet (Anderson
and Wilson, 2003; Etzioni et al., 2003; Zhou et al.,
2005). Etzioni et al. (2003) described that when
product prices are obtained easily through the
Internet, it is possible for consumers to become
sophisticated shoppers because they are able to
compare, track, anticipate prices, and rush or postpone
purchasing decisions. When pricing data and information
are no longer difficultly to obtain online, consumers
vary their purchase behaviour and tend to postpone
making decisions. Therefore, when buyers become
strategic, they anticipate the pricing policies made
up by suppliers and determine the time for purchases
(Dasu and Tong, 2010; Su, 2007). As described
above, customers are always searching information
they need in order to purchase the travel products
at the lowest possible price.
Research Method
The aim of this study is to analyse and examine
if a trend in price shift is observable in two
categories of travel products. The rationale is to
investigate whether there is an optimal purchasing
62 Hao-Te LUㆍWan-Yu, HSUㆍChih-Yao, YI
time for any of the products. A structured observation
method was employed for the observation and
recording of behaviour. Therefore, it is necessary to
outline the identification and categorisation of the
products, the methods of data collection and analysis
methods used in meeting the research objectives.
The overall observation period was from 4th
October 2010 to 28th November 2010. The total eight
week period was further divided into two sections.
The first period was from 4th October-31st October,
2010 whilst the second period was from 4th October-
28th November, 2010. This was done in order to
inspect the price changes within each four week
period and within an eight week period of the
product delivery.
Data Analysis
This section was also divided into two parts to
investigate the two different travelling products;
they are airplane tickets and hotels.
The Analysis for Airplane Tickets
Five airline companies were involved for this
survey and they can be classified into two different
types of service suppliers: full-service carriers
(FSCs) and low-cost carriers (LCCs). The three
FSCs are BMI, British Airways, and Lufthansa and
two LCCs are Ryanair and EasyJet. These five
airlines are currently operating their fleets over the
two routes that have been selected for this survey:
London-Glasgow (domestic) and London-Milan
(international).
First Period (4th October-31st October)
The ticket prices for the three routes presented
a trend upward over the period as the travel date
approached. During the final week in particular,
prices underwent a significant increase. Figure 1
and Figure 2 below show the fare fluctuations of the
five airlines which depart on the route from London
to Glasgow, and London to Milan.
<Figure 1> Air Fare Trends of the Route:
London-Glasgow (depart on 31 Oct)
Figure 1 shows the evident that the fare for each
airline went up although some days over the four
weeks the prices dropped. The two LCCs, in this
observation, offered relatively lower fares compared
to the FSCs until the end of the first observation
period. There are also two remarkable shifts
existing in the graph. Firstly, EasyJet was the only
one airline offering tickets, the price of which
increased consistently without dropping once over
the four weeks which means that customers should
book with EasyJet as soon as possible in order to
acquire tickets at the lowest price. Secondly, the
FSCs, in general, listed higher airfares with their
prices steadily rising; however, all of them had their
fares decrease at least twice over the four weeks.
As the travel date approached, Lufthansa and BMI
seemed to adapt the “last-minute sale” strategy to
Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions for Airplane Tickets and Hotels. An Example in the UK. 63
decrease ticket prices. Other than EasyJet and
Lufthansa, the other three airlines offered a
moderately high ticket prices at the beginning of
this period and decreased their fares on different
days to prices that were below the starting rates.
<Figure 2> Air Fare Trends of the Route:
London-Milan (depart on 31 Oct)
It is remarkable that, on this route, the FSCs
lowered ticket prices on the same day, 13th October,
and the next day the fares went up. In addition, for
this route, there was no airline offering a
last-minute deal, and in Figure 2 British Airways
shows a large increase of £68 in its air fare on 27th
October, which implies that price indeed goes up as
the travel date approaches
Second Period (4th October-28th November)
The second period was observed to determine the
difference in price shift between four weeks before
and eight weeks before the departure day. The
following two illustrations provide no doubt that the
air fares rise with the approach of the travel date;
nevertheless, they undergo more frequent fluctuations
and significant price changes, and notably the
low-cost carriers exceeded full-service carriers in
ticket prices on some particular days.
<Figure 3> Air Fare Trends of the Route:
London-Glasgow (depart on 28 Nov.)
In Figure 3, over the eight weeks, the five airlines
all gradually raised ticket prices. Particularly over
the final week, the prices for Lufthansa and Ryanair
shot up. If the fare on the first booking day of 4th
October is viewed as the “base fare”, then, except
EasyJet, the airlines all cut their ticket prices down
to the levels at which the fares were lower than the
“base fare”. Compared to the base fares, ticket
prices on 16th October for Ryanair and on 27th
October for BMI posted about 30% and 26%
decreases, and Ryanair cuts its fare on 18th
November by over 50% to £26.99 compared to the
previous day.
Looking at Figure 4, it becomes apparent that
lines in this figure intersect more frequently than
the lines in Figure 3, indicating that the five airlines
employed different pricing strategies over eight
weeks on this route from the UK to continental
Europe than from their UK domestic flights. In
Figure 4, the fare for UK-Milan opened at a very
high level. By the end of this period, the ticket prices
offered by the two LCC airlines were higher than
Lufthansa’s, with the highest fare before the
departure day being charged by EasyJet.
64 Hao-Te LUㆍWan-Yu, HSUㆍChih-Yao, YI
<Figure 4> Air Fare Trends of the Route:
London-Milan (depart on 28 Nov.)
Suggestions for customers
Anderson and Wilson (2003) indicate that more
price-sensitive consumers usually book tickets
earlier than less price-sensitive customers, and
most leisure travellers are higher price-sensitive
consumers compared to the less-price-sensitive
business travellers. However, consumers are always
looking for cheaper tickets. As a result, in this
study, we conduct an observation for four weeks
and eight weeks on two routes operated by five
airlines to investigate how the airfares change over
time. Through the observation, we conclude some
findings as suggestions for consumers to book
tickets at lower prices with these airline companies.
1. EasyJet increases its airfares gradually, and
fares increase higher consistently with the
approach of the departure date. As a result,
consumers book tickets with EasyJet as soon
as possible. If your travel date is less than one
month, you have likely missed the lowest fare.
Therefore, as you approach the departure date
within less than one month, do not give up any
opportunity to book immediately when you
find the fare decrease slightly.
2. It is quite difficult to predict future prices for
Ryanair, yet, it is still a good idea to book
early. If your travel day is less than one week
away, you may try to look for other airlines,
even the FSCs which sometimes provide lower
airfares than Ryanair in the final week prior to
departure.
3. These three FSCs airlines, they provide a
relatively higher price levels compared to
LCCs airlines; however, in our survey, the
highest percent increase for prices reveals a
relatively lower rate within four weeks and
eight weeks. As a result, in addition to
booking earlier, book when the price is down
on that day.
The Analysis for Hotels
Hotels play an important role in people’s decision
to make overnight travel plans. This section will
discuss the trend in price shift for the other category
of travel product, hotels. The same empirical
observation methods utilised in airlines was also
applied to the hotels, with the same observation
period over eight weeks from 4th October to 28th
November. The observation period was again divided
into two periods to investigate how prices for the
hotels change over four and eight weeks. Möller and
Watanabe (2010) noted that the best time to book
an airline ticket is eight weeks before the day of
travel. Therefore, we examined whether there is
also an optimal booking time for the hotels. At the
end of this section, this study summarised the
analysis for hotels and make purchasing decision
suggestions for customers.
Guadix et al. (2010) proposed that the hotel
Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions for Airplane Tickets and Hotels. An Example in the UK. 65
industry varies the vacancies at different room rates
on each day in order to maximise revenues, which
is well-known for experienced customers that hotels’
prices change over time although not as frequently
as in the case of airlines. Hotel room rates are
influenced by brand/label, location, rank, different
room types, and board, which greatly help the hotel
industry to make profits and reduce vacancy rates.
In this survey, two different types of hotels-the
airport hotel and non-airport hotel-ranked as 4-star
were selected at random in order to discover how
these two types of hotels utilise pricing strategies
differently, and to find out whether it is possible for
consumers to forecast the lower room rates. To
investigate the trend in prices shift, we chose one
hotel of each type in the following five cities:
Glasgow, London, and Cardiff of the United Kingdom,
Berlin in Germany, and Milan in Italy. Within these
two observation periods, we set two different check-in
dates with 4-night stay, which are 25th-29th of October
for the first period and 22nd-26th of November for the
second period.
First Period (4th October-31st October)
Figure 5 illustrates the price changes for five
airport hotels over four weeks during the first
period. The prices for the five hotels start at entirely
different levels and reveal a gradual upward trend
with occasional drops. The hotel near Milan Malpensa
Airport (MXP) maintained its room rates without
obvious fluctuations, represented by the horizontal
line in Figure 5. Regarding the hotel located in
Cardiff, the green line shows significant changes on
some days. The hotel near Berlin Schonefeld Airport
(SXF) was the only one offering offering last
minute deal with price decreases for two days.
<Figure 5> Airport Hotels Price Changes
during the First Period
Figure 6 depicts how room rates for five
non-airport hotels shifted during this period. Three
lines are approximately horizontal, indicating that
three start their prices at similar levels; however,
there were no available rooms for the hotels located
in the Berlin and Cardiff city centre by the end of
this period. That is why two lines stop abruptly. The
prices for the hotel in the London city centre follow
an increasing trend; this stands in contrast to Milan,
where the room rate reached a peak of over £2,000
on 20th October. Moreover, this hotel was the only
one with decreasing prices over the last few days.
<Figure 6> Non-airport Hotels Price Changes
during the First Period
From Figures 5 and 6, it can be found that the
airport hotels located in five different cities started
their prices at different levels, which indicates the
66 Hao-Te LUㆍWan-Yu, HSUㆍChih-Yao, YI
hotels’ different characteristics and standards of
expenditure accordingly. As for the five non-airport
hotels, the starting room rates for each were the
lowest prices in this period, although their room
rates began at a relatively higher level than that for
airport hotels.
Second Period (4th October-28th November)
Figures 7 and 8 show the price shift trends over
eight weeks during the second observation period.
Some non-continuous lines appear in these two
figures, which means rooms were sold out on some
days and became available a second time. These
two figures present some more fluctuations as
compared to the first period; nevertheless, there is
no significant increasing price trend, except for the
hotels near Cardiff Airport (Figure 7) and in Milan’s
city centre (Figure 8). Surprisingly, with the
approach of check-in date, the two lines representing
the prices for the hotels near Milan and Berlin
airports decreased slightly, as shown in Figure 7.
<Figure 7> Airport Hotels: Price Shift Trend over
Eight Weeks during the 2nd Period
Unlike the starting prices for the non-airport
hotels, which were the lowest in the first period
(Figure 6), the non-airport hotel in Glasgow’s city
centre reduced its room rates on some days during
the second period to a price that was lower than the
beginning price (Figure 8). Consequently, consumers
may still have the chance to acquire lower prices as
the actual consumption date approaches in Glasgow.
The non-airport hotel in Milan’s city centre
displayed remarkable price changes in this survey,
selling its rooms at the highest prices for both
periods; however, its prices climbed as the check-in
date approached during the second period (Figure
8). This stands in contrast to the last minute sales
(and decreasing prices) of the first period (Figure
7). Also, the hotel near Milan’s city centre had the
largest change of about 450% and 290% in its
highest and lowest prices for the first and second
period respectively.
<Figure 8> Non-airport Hotels: Price Shift
Trends over Eight Weeks during the 2nd Period
The optimal decision points for customers
According to Schwartz (2006), hotel rooms are
advanced booking products that involve a complex
consumer decision process. When consumers look
for hotels online, they usually feel frustrated because
of too much on-screen information, deals, and
unknowns, which makes it difficult for consumers
to determine which hotel is better or can better meet
Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions for Airplane Tickets and Hotels. An Example in the UK. 67
their needs. This is one characteristic of a travel
product that customers pay for but cannot experience
immediately. Although the conducted survey cannot
precisely determine the optimal booking time for
hotel rooms, advanced booking is suggested.
Consumers could usually obtain better prices when
they book earlier, but how early? If the Web site
charges little or nothing for a refund service, a
consumer may consider booking earlier and then
obtaining a refund if and when room rates decrease;
the consumer could then re-purchase the same
product at a lower price. In addition, hotels provide
many services and often offer them for free as part
of a “deals”; searching for such deals is another
good way to obtain an upgrade or get more services
for the same price.
Suggestions and Conclusion
In this survey, we observed the price changes in
the two categories of tourism products over eight
weeks, and indeed discovered some interesting
results that have been discussed above respectively.
Following is a brief list of suggestions for
consumers to book tourism products in advance.
1. The common rule for consumers to acquire
lower prices in these two categories of tourism
products is to book as soon as possible.
Although prices sometimes drop, they rarely
drop lower than those the first day consumers
start their search for tourism products.
2. EasyJet’s price trends are easier to predict.
They generally to trend up with rare drops; in
comparison with Ryanair, it seems that consumers
can decide when the optimal booking time is.
When consumers book tickets with Ryanair,
they should not doubt that they have obtained
the lower price and just buy the ticket. The
prices will only increase after that.
3. The FSCs usually provide airfares with relatively
stable increases as compared with LCCs; thus,
consumers should generally book earlier but be
on the lookout for prices drops that occur on
particular days.
4. Airport hotels and non-airport hotels located in
the city centre usually possess steady sources
of guests, leading to the prices with no significant
shifts; however, the room rates are high. If
consumers do not want to stay too far from the
airport or the spots, they can try to search for
hotels of lower classification.
5. If consumers make travel plans close to the
actual consumption date, they can look for
some travel product Web sites that provide
last minute deals.
When is the optimal booking time for consumers
to make purchase decision of tourism products?
Researchers provide the statistics of eight weeks in
advance. According to this survey, we observed the
price shifts for travel products over eight weeks,
and found that eight weeks could be a better timing
when consumers plan their tours earlier. When
consumers purchase products with the approach of
the consumption date, the optimal timing of
purchasing decision for tourism products is decided
by the consumers.
Revenue Management in Taiwan
In the end, we suggest that the RM can be
discussed in Taiwan for further research, especial
for service industries. Although low-cost carries or
68 Hao-Te LUㆍWan-Yu, HSUㆍChih-Yao, YI
budget airlines and fluctuations of prices are not
popular in Taiwan, this study provides a good
avenue for further related research. For example,
the acceptance level of customers for price variation,
not just budget tickets for early birds.
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Optimal Timing of Purchasing Decisions for Airplane Tickets and Hotels. An Example in the UK. 69
Submitted: June 03, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: August 21, 2012
Accepted: October 15, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
The Opportunity of Creative Economy
Through Agricultural in Tourism
Development
Oda*7)
[ABSTRACT]
Agricultural area increasingly narrow, population
and natural resources dwindling mineral. Prolonged
economic crisis in the European countries and the
industries in the face of the economic crisis and
need to think of innovative ideas and strategies to
change the paradigm of thinking, from the era of
economic and IT industry towards a creative economy.
The main capital of the creative economy is not
money and material but creative and innovative
ideas appropriate potential that each country.
Development of agricultural into tourist destinations,
such as diversification agricultural into tourism
products, is the way in creative and innovative ideas
that can be done to solve the problem of world
economic crisis.
Agriculture much more tourist demand destination
by tourists because it provides a natural feel with
a variety of facilities and tourists activities. The
Problems, agricultural has not been utilized optimally
as a destination that developed into a multipurpose.
The purpose of this study is to find business
opportunities to overcome the economic crisis and
increasing income communities. Revenue and income
through diversification agricultural products.
The used method is descriptive method; focused
on data, facts and current information in the field
related to agricultural in developing tourism as a
creative economy. Theories relevant to the problem:
to explain the creative economy is not dependent on
the economy and the IT industry only but the most
important is the ideas. Tourism is one economic
activity that gives a favorable prospect.
Key Words : Creative economy, Agro tourism,
Tourism Development, The community-based
* Hospitality Department, Tourism Academy-Bina Sarana Informatika Bandung, Indonesia
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
72 Oda
Ⅰ. Introduction
Historically, Indonesia is well-known as agricultural
country, gardening and agricultural sector, has
important role in determining and forming various
economic reality and society in many regions in
Indonesia. Is the sixteenth largest country in the
world, the comparation of land and ocean 7:3 consisting
of 71 % ocean and 29% land. Even though only 29%
(149 million in square) has prosperous land so most
of Indonesian people are farmers. Agriculture
including all activivities cultivating all creatures
(including plantation, animal and microbial), farming
business is specially named depending on plantation.
Forestry is farming business with its trees plantation
managed in wild land semi-wild land. Animal
husbandry using dry land animal (especially all
vertebrata except fish and amphibian and all non-
water vertebrata). Agriculture is specially food plantation,
farming business can involve various subject
simultaneously for the sake of efficiency and profit
increasing and keeping environment (id.wikipedia.
org/wiki/agriculture). In this paper author focuses
on agricultural tourism, various product of agricultural
tourism, activities, facilities and other instruments.
Indonesia has prosperous land to grow various
kinds of plantation such as; tea, coffee, chocolate,
spices like clove, cassia nutmeg and medical plantation
like quinine, asiri oil and tobacco, plantation like
rubber, oil palm and many of fruits, vegetables and
flower. It is grant from above had by Indonesian,
beautiful nature, prosperous land and geographic
situation lead to produce many kinds of varieties in
every region, with its kind and different form. It
causes many European consider Indonesia to run
agricultural business, especially the product of
horticultural like tea, coffee, chocolate, sugar cane
and spices; clove, nutmeg, cassia that is hard to
grow in cold area like Europe. after Indonesian got
independence (1945) population keep on growing
drastically (241.973.879 people: 2005), Indonesia is
the fourth most densely populated country in the
world, the fast growing of population cause many
land of farm changes to be industrial area and
housing. And the region that still have farming land
until today is region out of Java, especially Sumatra,
Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua, while Java, Bali
and Madura is a few farming land.
Tourism development is one of business activity
to increase regional income (PAD) and denoting the
most income for Indonesian Government. Tourism
development is also one of the ways to develop
regions and tourism area. Area potential denoting
culture, historical sites, the beauty of natural forest,
area of farming and horticultural are regional asset
that can be developed as tourism object. To realize
that natural resources denoting mineral like oil, gas,
coal mining, gold and so on will run out, Indonesia
develop tourism instead with various kinds of potent
had by each region, farming land is developed to be
object and tourism area. Agriculture used to be only
agricultural only, today agricultural collaborate with
tourism, on farming area can be diversified to be
some tourism objects, for example strawberry garden
can produce jam, ice cream syrup that can be
factory tour to see the process of producing, tourists
can buy directly jam and syrup as product. Tourists
also can buy fresh strawberry by picking themselves
in the garden, after the tour the tourist can break
to visit many kinds of restaurants selling many
kinds of food made of strawberry such as steak
with strawberry sauce, juice, pancake and many
others that can be developed like hotel for guest to
stay. The problem is until today the farming land
The Opportunity of Creative Economy Through Agricultural in Tourism Development 73
and agricultural have not been able to be empowered
optimally as agricultural tourism business.
Today tourism commodity displays the increasing
for the people of developed country and Indonesian
people have been need as the result of high activity
and the increasing of income, aspiration and prosperity.
Preference and motivation of tourism develop
dynamically, the trend of need in visiting unique
tourism objects far from the city and enjoy beautiful
landscape with its fresh air, so agricultural tourism
is the right destination as area of family recreation,
hobby or educative tourism. Agricultural tourism
open many kinds of work fields for the people living
around farming land to decrease and solve unemployment
problem and increase people economic, as the the
result it will increase regional income (PAD) through
retribution and tax. Tourism can be developed from
one diversified object to become many interesting
tourism objects, to develop it needs creative and
innovative ideas as the generator of economic
creative, and tourism activity can not be separated,
every tourism event means economic activity, to
increase tourism activity and economic needs human
resources with good ideas, creativity and innovation
of tourists and local society.
Ⅱ. Creative Economy, Agricultural Tourism and Tourism Development
1. Creative Economy
Since European countries fall in long-term economic
crisis, some expert of Europe states that economic
creative is more and more important, and especially
on the role of industry, culture and and creativity.
Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIS), even in
Europe especially Hogeschool voor de Kunsten
Utrecht (HKU, 1987), in its development open
cultural entrepreneurship, art and creative economic.
In Creative Economy, How People Make Money
from Ideas written by John Howkins: Creative
Economy is economic activity input and output is
idea, only with ideas, a creative person can have
proportional income. Information and creativity based
on ideas, Stock of Knowledge and Human resources
(HR) as main production factor in economic, this is
a concept in new economic era.
Alvin Toffler (1988) divides economic civilization
waves into four waves. First, agricultural economic
period, second industrial economic period, third, is
information economic period, and fourth is creative
economy. The fourth period denoted as creative
economic period because it is ideas-oriented, creativity
and innovation.
(http://forum.kompas.com/nasional/44777-definisi-ekonomi-
kreatif.html)
Part 1. Civilizations according to Alvin Toffler
Financial time reports the decreasing of Production
Manufacturing Index (PMI) in USA, has decreased
in the last three years in industrial sector, industrial
activity from 53, 5 to 49,7 in June (Survey Institute
for Supply Management). In PMI consensus, if
above 50 means expansion and if under 50 the
economy is in recession phase. The worst
decreasing of PMI in Europe since 2011, while
Indonesia 48,1 to 50,2 and India 54,8 to 55 (Survey
74 Oda
HSBC in Indonesia) tend to grow up. Today the
global economic growth is recession shadow, the
impact is unemployment in productive age happens
everywhere, European countries, USA and Asia
(Kompas July 5th 2012).
At long-term economic crisis in Europe, they
think over strategy of economy in information and
industry period to creative economy, based-ideas
and creativity and innovation. In Indonesia, to run
the business by diversifying small and middle
business of one object can result some or many
products. Creative economy does not rely on investment
and export but it maximize local economic activity
with ideas, creativity and innovation as capital to
maximize local diversification of economic activity
creative economy presents new atmosphere on
European economic activity and Asia especially
Indonesia by maximizing ideas, creativity and
innovation, and individual talent to create product in
economic value. Creative economy as strategic
sector in solving unemployment and motivate youth
to run their own business. According to a reference,
creative industry is:
‘Creatives Industries as those industries
which have their origin in individual creativity,
skill & talent, and which have a potential for
wealth and job creation through the generation
and exploitation of intellectual property. This
includes: advertising, architecture, the art and
antiques market, crafts, design, designer fashion,
film and video, interactive leisure software,
music, the performing arts, publishing, software
and computer services, television & radio’.
Other opinion stating that creative economy is
the same as creative industry. Research by New
England Foundation of the Arts (NEFA) states:
“Therefore, our definition of the creative
economy is represented by the ‘cultural core.’ It
includes occupations and industries that focus on
the production and distribution of cultural goods,
services and intellectual property. Excluded are
products or services that are the result of
non-culturallybased innovation or technology.
While a broader notion of the creative economy
is valuable to examine, we concentrate on what
could be considered the cultural component of the
creative economy. The occupations and
industries we include in this cultural component
are listed in the Appendix (document:
http//www.nefa.org/pubs/ducoment).
The center circle, labeled “Cultural Core,”
represents NEFA’s new research definition and
is nested within a broader circle of creative
industries. The band around the core labeled
“Cultural Periphery” represents the occupation
and industry categories that may be added to the
core to customize a particular local creative
economy study being done.
Based on the statements above can be concluded
that basically industry not only focus on material
production or service, but also distribution, exchange
and sales and consumption of product and service,
including diversification of one object to be many
others. But it should be noted that industry is related
to fabrication or manufacture (Second Industry),
because industrialization era is signed by dramatic
development by of manufacture industry. Industry
denoting a part of economic activity, industry is said
the segmentation of Economy.
In economic creative trend of 21st century, fund
The Opportunity of Creative Economy Through Agricultural in Tourism Development 75
is not main capital but the ideas, and innovation
had by someone as main stock holder, the entrepreneur
and the owner of ideas have the main role. The most
important asset is the person having the ideas and
innovation, if the person move to other region, they
would bring the assets and idea, so, the best thing
the company can do is creating environment that
make the owner of idea and innovation keep staying.
There are many ways that can be carried out by
Indonesian to anticipate economic crisis by building
small and middle economic segmentation based-creativity
and innovation, one of them is collaborating with
agriculture to agricultural tourism in tourism activity.
2. The Development of Tourism and Agro Tourism
1) Tourism Development
a. Tourism
Tourism is all activities related to touring in
multidimensional and multidiscipline appaering as
the need of people and country and interaction of
every tourist and local people, government and
enterpreneurship (UURI-no 10 year 2009 on Tourism).
The activities of the tourisn iare supported by
various facilities and in its infrastructure and its
service, to make the tourist get proportional and
interesting service so the tour is satisfying memorable.
World Tourism Organizatio (WTO), states that
tourism is unseparated part of human life especially
relating to social and economic activity, in 15th
century there was a man travelling to want to know
world condition, he has travelled far away, like
Colombus travelling around the world to want to
know the form of earth, after Colombus had tripped
around the world, it has been known that the world
i like ball.
Some countries are facing 1. At a certain time
mineral resources run out 2. long-term global
econimic crisis 3. Biological natural resources is less
and less in worst condition (global watrning) that
needs rearrangement, conservation and revitalization.
Tourism development is long-term development in
continuity that must creatively and innovatively
developed. Countries that have farming land has
chance to develop and diversify alternative tourism
one of them is agrotourism. Natural tourism potential
based-farming as agrotourism to develop optimally,
through tourism development and empowerment of
natural resources with rearrangement of any potential
and natural resources and biology can be cohesive
tourism area. The development of natural tourism
area and agrotourism can create work field, business
opportunity and has contribution on regional income
and it can keep biology in nature. Thebrelation to
tourism, the condition of modern people choose the
nature (back to nature) as natural recreation facility,
refresh and free of polution and the noise og city.
76 Oda
b. Scheme of tourism flow
CREATIVE
ECONOMY
LOCAL TOURIST
ARTIFICIALDOMESTC INTERNATIONALFOREIGNER NATURAL
TOURIST TRANSPORTATION DESTINATION TOURISM
INDUSRTY
1. INFRASTRUCTURE
2. ACCSESIBILITY
3. EASE
4. COMFROTABLE
5. SAFETY
6. SERVICES
7. etc.
1. PLANE
2. SHIP
3. CAR/BUS 1. PLANE
2. SHIP
3. CAR/BUS
1. HOTELS
2. RESTAURANTS
3. TOUR&TRAVEL
4. GUIDES
5. TRANSPORTATION
6. GIFT SHOPS
7. etc
1. MOUTAIN
2. FOREST
3. LAKE
4. WATERFALL
5. BEACH
6. RIVER
7. etc
1. CULTURE
2. SOCIATY
3. TRADITIONAL
CEREMONIES
4. SPORT
5. AGRICULTURE
6. etc
PRIVATE CORPORATION GOVERNMENT COMMUNITY
Source: Gamal Suwanto, Developed by Oda
Figure 1
2) Agro Tourism
The basic of agro tourism is farming denoting
developing of agricultural business, farming sector
is developed by focusing on increasing variety and
plantation production of food especially rice and
commodity of traditional trade like vegetables and
fruits to meet the food need, agro tourism denotes
combination of farming and ecotourism. Ecotourism
is on of the activities of tourism based-environment
insight by focusing on conservation aspects of
nature, aspect of economic cultural socio empowerment
of local people and the aspect of learning and
education (http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotourism).
a. Definition of Agro Tourism
Agro tourism has large in meaning, in some
countries, agro tourism and ecotourism are classified
in same meaning and activities, agro tourism is the
part of ecotourism. In Indonesia the meaning of
agrotourism and ecotourism have a little different
meaning, ecotourism is the development of natural
tourism led to natural preservation based-
conservation. Some examples of ecotourism are
national park, natural reservation, protected forest
area, protected coral reefs, camping area and so on.
Agro tourism denotes tourism objects with
purpose to enlarge knowledge, recreation experience,
and the relation of business in farming. Agroturism
is also the development of natural tourism led to
maximizing natural resources, and optimize cultivation
The Opportunity of Creative Economy Through Agricultural in Tourism Development 77
ability either agriculture, animal husbandry, fishery
or forestry. So agro tourism is not only in agriculture,
but also maximizing waterworks both in land or
ocean. As examples, Fruit park, flower garden,
vegetables park, cohesive tourism, water tourism
and so on.
Agro tourism has special quality comparing to
other tourism, first the capital is not so high
because agro tourism does not change the area of
farming too much because the tourist prefer natural
panorama; second agro tourism involves local
people in high amount if it has more visitors can
recruit more people from other villages around, it
can support in developing tourism based-society
economic (based on community). Third this kind of
tourism can offer potential that is not so popular in
other tourism. The potential can be the specialty of
local region or local performance of tourism that can
enrich various kinds of culture. Fourth is service
business offering beautiful scenery and fresh air,
and also can have role as promotion media agriculture
product, fifth educative media for local people and
student, the signal of opportunity of development of
agribusiness product diversification. Sixth the
existence of agro tourism means the area is
developing. So agro tourism can be one of development
sources of a region, agriculture sector and national
economy. Agro tourism is one of business
diversification for it has good prospect, modern
people of today needs natural recreation facilities
more and more, fresher and free from pollution, one
of such tourism area is agro tourism.
In general, agro-tourism is the practice of
attracting travelers or visitors to an area or areas
used primarily for agricultural purposes. Very often,
the idea of tourism stimulates images of mass-
produced travel that attracts a large number of
travelers. (Lobo, R. 2000. Bermanfaat definisi pariwisata
pertanian. Universitas California Pusat Pertanian
Kecil, Cooperative Extension. www.sfc.ucdavis)
b. Agro tourism Development
Natural resources of land ocean, including land
waterworks or ocean waterworks should be preserved.
The preservation of nature and biology natural
resources can be carried out continuously in long-term
is very important, because the preservation of life
in the future depends on the preservation of nature
and environment: first the development based on
ideas and innovation (creative economy), second
the development based-conservation of nature and
environmental revitalization and maximizing agriculture;
keeping natural ecosystem, developing and preserving
natural resources of life, history, culture and recreation.
Third development based-society; posting agro
tourism as the empowerment of farmers (Community
based-tourism development) to get more value
either in farming product or tourism visit. Forth the
placement of agrotourism area as the centre. Fifth
inventory of agro tourism potential for other area,
sixth technical guidance of tourism institution and
agriculture in agro tourism guidance for farmers or
manager.
c. Facilities
The facilities for agro tourism 1. Infrastructure;
good accessibility either road or signs and also
traffic signs, transportation, electric, clean water
and irrigation 2. Facilities; rest area and ritual
facility, bathroom and toilet, restaurant, traditional
café, hotel, cleaning service, comfortability, safety,
cleanness and the excellent service.
78 Oda
d. Agrotourism Products
Many kinds of activities and products of agro
tourism offered; 1. agriculture related festival and
fairs 2. farm tour, Farmer on-farm retail market, 3.
on farm vacations, 4. on-farm educational programs.5.
on-farm bed and breakfasts, 6. U-pick vegetables
and fruit,7 factory tour 8. biking/hiking trails, 9.
Hiring some plantation in a certain time to harvest
and many others.
Agricultural tourism allows farm operators to
increase income through a variety of service initiatives
such as farm demonstrations, harvest festivals,
farm vacations, school group tours, hay rides, pick-
your-own crop harvests, bed and breakfasts,
campgrounds, crop mazes, and a host of other
products and services. These services can be tailored
to specific seasons in order to complement farm
production (Lobo, 2000, Helpful agricultural tourism
definitions. University of California Small Farm
Center, Cooperative Extension. www.sfc.ucdavis.edu)
e. Supplementary Activities of Agro tourism
Other activity that can be held as supplementary
activity of agro tourism; horseback riding, enjoying
to visit animal husbandry and birds in the location,
fishing, hang gliding, rappelling, climbing, canoe,
wad across, gift shop.
f. Other Activities
Getting to know and learn local culture, local
custom, song, and dance. Weaving or drawing batik
in local tradition and spending the night in inhabitants’
housing, having interaction among tourists with the
people.
Ⅲ. Conclusion
1. Tourism is the need and right of all people to
choose, today tourism commodity shows the
increasing for the people of developed countries
and becoming of need as the result of busy
time in increasing income. One of popular
tourism object is agro tourism.
2. Agro tourism denoting development of natural
tourism led to ability of maximizing natural
resources, agro tourism rely on ability of
maximizing agriculture, animal husbandry, fishery
(bream and marine) or forestry. Agro tourism
developed based on concept of conservation,
revitalization, plant cultivation and empower
local people, colaboration with tourism is
creative economy. Agro tourism open various
opportunities; work field for local people,
solving unemployment and increasing society
economic, so it can increase regional income
through tax.
3. Anticipating global economic crisis in experienced
by European Countries, and it spreads to Asian
countries and the impact is productive age-
unemployment. It is necessary to change
paradigm from industrial economy an information
to creative economy with its ideas and innovation
as main capital.
4. One opportunity in tourism sector, by creating
ideas and innovation to develop diversification
of agro tourism becoming many kinds of
product that can be offered and interesting for
domestic or foreign tourists.
The Opportunity of Creative Economy Through Agricultural in Tourism Development 79
References
Alfin Toffler(1988). Kejutan dan Gelombang Jakarta:
Pantja Simpati, Jakarta.
I Gusti Bagus Rai Utama.(2012). Agrowisata Sebagai
Pariwisata Alternatif Di Indonesia, Bali.
John Naisbitt(1994). Global Paradox, Binarupa aksara,
Jakarta.
Lobo, R.(2000). Helpful Agricultural Tourism Definitions.
University of California Small Farm Center,
Cooperative Extension. www.sfc.ucdavis.edu
Naisbitt,. Book Review Global Paradox (Online).
Retrieved July 24, 2012, from
http://www.scottlondon.com/reviews/naisbitt.html
Pitana I Gde & Gayatri, Putu G.(2005). Sosiologi
Pariwisata.Andi, Yogyakarta.
Prasetyantoko, A.(2012, July 2). Ancaman dari Jalur
Perdagangan., Indonesia., Kompas, Indonesia
Roso, Argowisata Kebun Teh Pagilaran Keindahan
Alam yang Memukau (Online). Retieved July 21,
2012 from http://duniapertanian.blogspot.com/2007/
10/agrowisata-kebun-teh-pagilaran.html
Santosa, P. Pengembangan Pariwisata Indonesia
(Online). Retrieved July 24, 2012, from
http://kolom.pacific.net.id/ind/setyanto_p._santos
a/artikel_setyanto_p._santosa/pengembangan__pa
riwisata__indonesia.html
Suwantoro Gamal.(1997). Dasar-dasar Pariwisata,
Andi, Yogyakarta.
. Definisi Ekonomi Kreatif (Online).
Retrieved July 22, 2012 from (http://forum.kompas.
com/nasional/44777-definisi-ekonomi-kreatif.html)
Submitted: July 21, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: September 19, 2012
Accepted: October 22, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
Maps on Public Display for Tourists in
Ayutthaya, Thailand
Simon Potter*8)
[ABSTRACT]
This article about publicly displayed maps in
Ayutthaya has five sections of text, six
photographs, and a list of printed references for
further reading. It opens with two one-paragraph
sections to explain how the research project of
which this article is part came about and to provide
a brief about the historical importance of Ayutthaya
and why it might attract tourists. Then comes a
lengthier section which discusses five maps-each of
a different type and shown in a photograph-in
regard to their content, symbolization, and
illustrations of sites, and this in turn is followed by
an analytical section which comments mainly about
the usefulness of the illustrative material for
advertising or explaining selected sites, their
incompleteness in regard to content, and-by using
a temple plan which represents the layout of the
Buddhist universe as an example-how there can be
more to an image than what initially meets the eye.
The concluding comment which wraps up the text
notes that although maps on public display are not
a necessity, they do provide a public service which
can be of help to tourists and thereby suggest that
organizations such as the Tourism Authority of
Thailand and the City of Ayutthaya are keen to
make tourism a reasonably pleasant experience.
Key Words : Tourist maps, Public display, Ayutthaya,
Thailand
Origins and Purpose of This Research Project
Having written over a dozen articles and collated
seven of them into a book about publicly displayed
* Graduate School of Languages and Cultures Nagoya University, Japan
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
82 Simon Potter
maps in Japan (Potter 2010a), it seemed worthwhile
to prepare some articles about such maps outside
Japan, partly to investigate whether other countries
are now doing what the Japanese have been doing
for at least two decades, and partly to create a
database for analytical comparisons and contrasts in
the future. As a starter, three articles have been
published about illustrated maps on public display
in Ayutthaya, Thailand (Potter 2010b, 2010c, 2011),
and this one essentially synthesizes those published
as 2010c and 2011, although with modifications,
some deletions, and fewer photographs so that this
article is not a copied-and-pasted monograph. That
said, a personal interest in Thai maps which are
displayed in public for the benefit of tourists began
while attending a conference about “The Map and
the World” in Buddhism that was held in Bangkok
in June 2007, when it was obvious that Bangkok at
least was in the business of putting up such maps,
and a variety of them were photographed for future
reference. A specific interest in Ayutthaya developed
while participating in the WCTA conference in
Bangkok in November 2009, when a day trip to the
former capital was taken and informative, publicly
displayed maps were found in relative abundance.
This led to a follow-up research trip in January
2010, when fieldwork was done equally in Bangkok
and Ayutthaya, yielded a sufficiently sized “sample
set” of maps as well as photographs of related sites,
and led to the three aforementioned articles;
subsequent research-oriented trips to Ayutthaya
have been taken in July 2010 and in September 2011,
the latter of which also included visiting Kamphaeng
Phet and Sukhothai for the same purpose. For this
article, which addresses maps only in Ayutthaya,
five different types of map are reproduced and
discussed in the context of their relevance to an
international tourist, with the Buddhist cosmology
which is embedded in the final map being explained
to demonstrate that there can be more in a map than
what the visuals alone reveal.
A Brief about Ayutthaya
The city of Ayutthaya is about seventy five
kilometers north of Bangkok, has many historical
ruins as well as contemporary cultural attractions,
and was designated a World Heritage Site by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) in December 1991. It
flourished from 1350 to 1767, when it was the capital
of its namesake kingdom (or of Siam) which was
an absolute monarchy with Theravada Buddhism as
its official religion (see Wyatt 2004, chapters 4 and
5, and Garnier 2004 for detailed accounts). Around
1700 Ayutthaya might have been the largest city in
the world, with its population having been estimated
at one million, but during the first half of the
eighteenth century internal political problems led to
weaknesses in the kingdom. The Burmese, a rival
kingdom in southeast Asia, attacked in the 1750s
and 1760s, finally sacked and razed the city in 1767,
and in the process decapitated the vast majority of
its Buddhist statues presumably in search of hidden
wealth. Having never regained its political importance,
Ayutthaya basically lay in ruins until archeological
and historical work revived its past and paved the
way for the city to become a fascinating destination
for tourists. Among its attractions, which are
mostly found on “the island” or not far from it, are
red-brick walls, stupas, and towers as well as
statues (most beheaded) which are the remains of
temples that no longer function as such, but there
Maps on Public Display for Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand 83
are also active temples-some with one foot in the
past and the other in the present-worth visiting and
activities such as riding elephants and tuk-tuks
(motorized tricycles) to do, while on the east side
of the island is a commercial district which caters
to all sorts of requirements for tourists as well as
local people. This so-called “island,” formed by
three rivers (the Chao Phraya, Lopburi, and Pasak)
flowing around it, is clearly visible on Maps 2, 3, and
4 in this article, and it is small enough to bicycle
around and visit several sites within a day. A more
intensive in-the-field study of the city, however,
requires much more time, as the following commentary
on the five maps reproduced here suggests.
Five Sample Maps
Ayutthaya, or more formally Phra Nakhon Si
Ayutthaya, is the name of both a province and a city
today, and Map 1 shows the province in a strictly
diagrammatic fashion which emphasizes transportation
routes. Commissioned by the Tourism Authority of
Thailand (TAT), the seal for which is in the upper
right corner and information about which is given
at the left of the composition, it is bilingual except
for the title and the legend. Although none of the
lines are explained in the legend, it would be within
reason for a person with fundamental map-reading
skills to be able to figure out that the thick black
lines with crossmarks running through the eastern
part of the province are railway lines, the red lines
(numbered or not) are roads, and the blue lines are
rivers. Beyond that, though, knowledge has to kick
in to make sense of what is in the map, notably that
the gray line interrupted by two dots represents the
provincial boundary and the fainter gray lines
interrupted by one dot are boundaries for the sixteen
districts within the province. By looking rather
closely at the map and knowing what at least
Ayutthaya the city has to offer, common reasoning
would dictate that the red dots that are concentrated
linearly just right of center denote sites of interest
to tourists, examples being from top to bottom the
Elephant Kraal Pavilion, Wat Yai Chai Mongkhon,
and Bang Pa In. Whereas the Thai label-translated
as “site to tour”-next to the red dot in the legend
confirms this, the meaning of the other two symbols
need not be clear; they are “district office” and “you
are here,” respectively, for the black circle and the
red star.
<Map 1> “Map of the Province of Phra Nakhon
Si Ayutthaya …” [from the Thai], north to the top.
While Map 1 has been included because it is an
example of entirely abstract cartography that
conveys predetermined important information in a
rather “dry” fashion, the remaining maps in this
article employ forms of artwork that go beyond
graphically locating places and provide visually
qualitative impressions of selected subjects. Map 2
is of greater Ayutthaya, the settlement in this case,
and it has two clear purposes, one being to convey
topographical information and the other being to
84 Simon Potter
advertise businesses. At the left of the composition,
the island which has most of the sites of historical
significance is easily identified, and the railway,
roads, and rivers on the map quickly catch the eye.
A closer look at the map, however, reveals that it
has many individual sites on and off the island
which are pictured through symbols that are
completely abstract in that they do not resemble
what they denote (abstract symbols par excellence)
or are drawings that resemble, at least theoretically,
a generalized type of phenomenon they depict
(symbolic resemblances). Most of these symbols
belong to the set which is listed in the legend below
the photographs on the right side of the composition,
and they are labeled in English as “temple,”
“government sector,” “education institute,” “Tourism
Authority of Thailand,” “hospital,” “bus station,”
“train station,” and “post office.” Those for sites
which are connected to the government sector (a
red circle colored orange inside) or are hospitals (a
red cross resembling a plus sign) are completely
abstract, while those connected to TAT and the
post office use pictorial symbols of those institutions,
the bus station and train station symbols use
pictures of the mode of transport associated with
them (a bus and a train), and that for educational
institutions is a house-like building with a flag in
front. The remaining symbol-that for temples-is
however worth critique because it is used without
distinction for temples that are active and for
temples that are ruins. At first sight, or for viewers
not in the know, there does not appear to be
anything wrong with the symbolic resemblances for
temples-they are the same picture showing the
same sort of phenomenon in the landscape-yet there
is an important difference between such temples as
Wat Phanan Choeng and Wat Mahathat, being that
the former is flourishing today, but the latter is a
ruins from a bygone age, which generally also
means that the architecture is significantly different.
In this context, it might have been better to have
created a symbolic resemblance from images of the
brick towers, stupas, and walls that are the main
archeological attractions of Ayutthaya so that
visitors might be alerted in a visual, symbolic way
to the fact that a temple such as Wat Mahathat
offers a different type of experience than one such
as Wat Phanan Choeng.
<Map 2> “Ayutthaya Municipality” [English title],
north to the top
As its background attests, Map 3 is at a venue
where transportation services for tourists are offered,
but an interesting thing is that it is composed
entirely in the Thai language and, like Map 1, is
connected with TAT. One interpretation of this, of
course, is that domestic tourists are also important
in Ayutthaya and that they might be interested in
taking at least one of the seven color-coded routes-
two by human-powered tricycle (samlor) and five
by motorized tricycle (tuk-tuk)-which are listed in
the legend at bottom center but which seem to have
been made into one combined grayish route on the
map. Still, non-Thai visitors could be just as
Maps on Public Display for Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand 85
interested as Thais in these forms of transportation,
which are illustrated in three corners of the map,
and might be shown a route to take on the map by
a prospective driver (who might, for that matter,
suggest something completely different). Besides
using “idealized portraits” to depict a good number
of historical sites to visit, Map 3 also has two
illustrations of an elephant which essentially advertise
the two riding centers, one due southwest of Wat
Phra Ram near the center of the island, and the
other due east of the island next to the Ayothaya
Water-Market that was built after the map was
made. Although the pictures on the map come
across as somewhat fuzzy, the idealized portraits do
draw out salient features of their subjects without
being too detailed and thereby give a decent idea of
what tourists might see.
<Map 3> “Road Map for a Tour around …
Ayutthaya” [from the Thai], north to the top
Map 4 belongs to a set of maps that are found
throughout the city, and copies from many sites
have been photographed while doing fieldwork, this
one being from near Wat Phra Ram. Dominated by
the rivers and canals in a strong royal blue, and
seemingly complemented by the road network in
black, the diagrammatic part is completely abstract.
Its legend lists the linear symbols as well as those
for the railway line, the Ayutthaya Historical Park
(most of the western two thirds of the island), and
police boxes (a black square with a Thai letter
inside it). To either side of the diagram are
elongated rectangles which include a list of sixty
two sites that are located on the map through black
squares with a number inside and are divided into
three groups: “tourist attractions” (50), “railway
station [and] bus terminal” (2), and “hotel[s]” (10).
Accompanying this list are three grayscale
photographs, two in the lower left and one in the
upper right, which comprise the only illustrative
material in the composition; these show the
Ayutthaya Historical Study Centre and Wat Phra
Ram at the lower left as well as the main stupa at
Wat Yai Chai Mongkhon, the tallest structure in the
city, at the upper right.
<Map 4> “Ayutthaya Tourist Map” [English
title], north to the top
Photographs capture an actual image of a site and
therefore belong to a category of illustrations that
have been termed “realistic portraits,” which could
also include rather detailed, almost lifelike paintings
or drawings. Although no such paintings or drawings
have been discerned from the Ayutthaya maps
86 Simon Potter
photographed to date, examples of realistic portraits
exist in the form of color photographs such as that
of Wat Chai Watthanaram to the right of the
diagrammatic part on Map 5. This map belongs to
a set of “Clean Ayutthaya” or, as translated from
the Thai, “Ayutthaya: A Clean City” maps that have
similar plans and photographs at various sites
throughout the island. Because the plan showing the
layout of the temple grounds neither is labeled nor
has a legend, the photograph helps make sense of
it. The temple is located beyond the southwest
corner of the island, across the Chao Phraya River
which can be seen in the upper right corner of the
photograph and as the thicker blue line on the plan.
Inside the temple compound is a square formation
with eight small stupas and a tower in the middle,
and these as well as, for instance, the two stupas
near the river, can be easily identified on the plan;
the significance of this layout is discussed in the
next section, which also has a photograph taken at
ground level.
<Map 5> Plan and Aerial View of Wat Chai
Watthanaram, north to the top in the plan
Analysis
It is worth noting that all five examples are
readily identified as maps-diagrams that portray
spatial distributions with at least a relative sense of
distance and direction-and that they emphasize
elements in the cultural landscape. On the “scientific”
side, each map provides topographical information
(science in the sense of knowledge) and has been
organized in an orderly, meaningful way (science as
system), but it is not clear to what extent they have
been compiled according to an internally consistent
scale (science as precision); in regard to the last,
only Map 4 gives a clue by noting below the legend
in the lower right that it is “not to scale,” yet by
comparing them to each other and to other maps
(including those based on satellite imagery via
Google), it is possible to conclude that none of them
is off the mark to the point that the spatial
information is distorted to a confusing or useless
extent. The fact that Maps 2, 3, and 4 can be used
comfortably for getting around the city and that
Map 5 clearly lays out the temple compound attests
to a conscientious attempt to create rather reliable
scientific documents.
On the artistic side, an interesting observation is
that these and other maps in Ayutthaya have
examples from the same categories of illustration
found on Japanese illustrated maps on public display.
Other than the “abstract symbols” which are generally
expected to be on maps, they are the “symbolic
resemblances,” “idealized portraits,” and “realistic
portraits” that have been mentioned in the previous
section, to which can be added “cartoon characters”
since Map 3 includes three pictures (one large, two
small) of what appears to be a boy on a samlor as
well as two of elephants, although the latter might
be better classified as symbolic resemblances on the
grounds that they are identical and locate two sites
for riding elephants. All of the maps include abstract
Maps on Public Display for Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand 87
symbols of one nature or another, and in fact each
map is in itself an abstraction since all of them have
reduced the topography to a collection of (often
colored) lines complemented by symbols and/or
illustrations for selected elements in the landscape.
In regard to illustrations that emphasize a quality of
their subjects and are not strictly devoted to locating
a site, only Map 1 is completely devoid of them,
although the diagrammatic parts of Maps 4 and 5
do not contain any such illustrations either. Still, the
three grayscale photographs within the list of
tourist attractions on Map 4 and the color photograph
of the temple compound next to the plan in Map 5
make these two “illustrated maps,” while Maps 2 and
3 clearly make use of symbolic resemblances, idealized
portraits, and/or realistic portraits within the
diagrammatic part. The significance of this is that
Maps 2, 3, 4, and 5 have been designed to convey
more than just topographical information.
The idealized portraits and photographs on these
maps are obviously useful for advertising or explaining
selected sites, although this need not be true of the
symbolic resemblances as suggested by what was
said about the symbol which is used for temples in
Map 2. It would be within reason to imagine tourists
looking over maps such as Maps 2 and 3 to notice
a particular picture and say “that’s the place we
want to go to,” or something similar, since some
might recall images of sites, but not necessarily
their names, after having read up about Ayutthaya,
or because a picture or photograph catches their
fancy. Photographs such as that in Map 5 can
contribute to a better appreciation of a site than a
simple diagram filled with lines and geometric shapes,
and just labeling the diagram with terms like “tower,”
“stupa,” and “wall” might not be very interesting. The
connection of the illustrations with selected sites
aside, it is important to note that some illustrations
are used to advertise specific businesses and services;
the samlors on Map 3, for example, refer to the
services offered by the adjacent shop, while Map 2
has what appear to be two dozen pictorial advertisements
of a commercial nature on the right side. These
advertisements include such information as business
name, products or types of service, and telephone
numbers in a reasonably appealing way, and although
the language in the advertisements is Thai, they
seem to be targeted at visitors more than local
residents; their venues in the diagrammatic part of
the map, however, have bilingual labels and what
appear to be business logos.
Despite their usefulness, maps such as the five
reproduced here do not reveal everything that
tourists might be interested in. By virtue of being
abstract diagrams that reduce topographical reality,
a lot of detail has to be left out and compiling a map
requires decisions of omission as well as inclusion
having to be made. Maps 2, 3, and 4, which cover
at least the main historical district, can certainly
direct viewers to such “must-see” sites as Wats Rat
Burana, Mahathat, Phra Ram, and Phra Si Sanphet
and the old Royal Palace, and a tour of that set
promises to be a day’s work that would do more
than introduce the day-tripper to the marvels of the
old capital. Added to this, Maps 2, 3, and 4 not only
include other sites on the island but also show
others off the island, and visiting at least some of
these-for example, Wats Lokaya Suttharam, Chai
Watthanaram, Phanan Choeng, and Yai Chai
Mongkhon-would contribute to a better understanding
of the historical city as well as the present one yet,
in conjunction with the other set of sites, take more
than one day to accomplish. As impressive as the
famous sites are, there are however other places
88 Simon Potter
worth visiting both on and off the island, and many
are not located or illustrated on maps such as these.
The best way to explore the city and to come across
smaller, less famous sites such as old temple grounds,
active temples, and religious venues that are not
Buddhist, as well as a wide variety of shops and
views of the natural or quasi-natural landscape, is
to walk or bicycle around it at one’s own pace. As
incomplete in terms of archeological and other sites
that such maps are, it is also worth noting that there
are at least two possible types of illustration which
are absent, but which would seem to attract attention
and enhance attractiveness, decapitated statues and
(as municipal symbols) elephants.
Finally, there is more to Map 5 than what might
catch the eye of an uninformed viewer in that the
prominent square in the diagram of Wat Chai
Watthanaram depicts the traditional Buddhist universe,
which is mainly metaphysical and linked to ethics
and human psychology, rather than a description of
a real cosmos that would fall in the domain of
natural science. The most important parts of this
universe-Mount Sumeru, the four continents or
landmasses, and the perimeter mountain range-can
be seen in the temple grounds of Wat Chai
Watthanaram and other temples in Ayutthaya such
as Wats Rat Burana, Mahathat, and Phra Ram
which were influenced by the architectural style
known as Khmer, the best known example being
the Brahmanist compound of Angkor Wat in
Cambodia. As can be seen in the view of Wat Chai
Watthanaram in the photograph printed here, the
vertical relativity of the structures there and at
other such temples in Ayutthaya captures the
hierarchical sense of size of Mount Sumeru (which
looms over the rest), the continents, and the
perimeter mountains.
A Symmetrical View of the Main Part of the
Grounds of Wat Chai Watthanaram
This universe, long known to specialists in
Buddhism (e.g. Sadakata 1998), received considerable
attention in the comprehensive volume on East and
Southeast Asia in The History of Cartography
(Harley and Woodward 1994, especially the chapter
“Cosmography in Southeast Asia”), where it is
referred to as the “Cakrav la system” and “Cakkav la
system” on the basis of the Sanskrit and Pali words
for “circle,” the proper shape of the range of iron
mountains that serve as its horizontal perimeter,
although the range can appear as a square as it does
in compounds such as those of Angkor Wat and
Wat Chai Watthanaram. Through the center of the
circle or square perpendicularly cuts Mount Sumeru,
which is said to be 160,000 yojanas from base to
peak-80,000 above the sea-level plane and 80,000
below it (converting a yojana into meters, incidentally,
is more or less meaningless)-and to be 80,000
yojanas for the other two dimensions, thereby giving
the impression that it would appear as a cube above
sea level, but it has been described and drawn as
a shape which resembles a chalice above the sea
because of a quasi-symmetrical tapering that makes
its middle 20,000 yojanas in breadth and depth.
Mount Sumeru above sea level comprises two
Maps on Public Display for Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand 89
heavens within the “Realm of Desire,” that at the
very top being the abode of thirty three deities, the
most important being Indra, while that of the lower
half above sea level is the abode of the Four Great
Kings who guard the cardinal directions and three
terraces for their subordinates, all of whom are
given the task of defending the heaven of the thirty
three deities at the top. In architecture, creating a
chalice-shaped Mount Sumeru would have been an
enormous, perhaps impossible challenge, so the
mountain has been stretched into a lofty column
which looms over compounds such as those at Wats
Rat Burana, Phra Ram, and Chai Watthanaram,
although a tapering of its lower half can be seen in
the photograph of the last temple. The horizontal
structure of the universe technically includes a
sequence of seven seas and perimeter mountains,
which are each half the width of its predecessor
closer to Mount Sumeru and the heights and depths
of the mountains above and below sea level match
their widths, and beyond the seventh range of
mountains is a wider sea which contains four continents
(including Jambudv pa, the home of human beings)
and their adjacent islands and which is surrounded
by the range of mountains that delimits the boundary
of the universe. In the photograph of Wat Chai
Watthanaram, the four continents can be seen next
to Mount Sumeru in the center-although the two in
the back are only partly visible-and seven of the
eight conical towers which represent mountains
along the perimeter range can be seen (one of them
is in front of Mount Sumeru and can be made out
by looking closely; the eighth tower is out of the
picture, behind Mount Sumeru).
Concluding Comment
To sum up, these five maps bear evidence of
cartography being applied as a public service. While
they are not strictly necessary since portable maps
can be acquired from different sources, they can be
of some help to tourists in Ayutthaya by providing
topographical information, views and explanations
of sites, and references to commercial establishments.
That the sponsors of such maps include the Tourism
Authority of Thailand and the City of Ayutthaya
suggests that institutions with a vested interest in
encouraging tourists to visit places, and thereby
spend money on auxiliary goods and services, have
made an effort to make touring a bit easier and to
provide some intellectual stimulation. In regard to
the latter, it might be added that there are many
information boards throughout the city which explain,
often in Thai and English, what a particular site is;
these information boards also contribute to a better
understanding of the city, especially when they are
at the smaller, less spectacular, and probably less
visited sites. Still, getting back to the maps, most
of them are not simply “dry” spatial documents with
the sole purpose of conveying information about
distance, direction, and location, but reasonably
attractive specimens of visual art. Although some
maps in Ayutthaya bear the hallmarks of aging,
especially through fading and discoloration because
of exposure to the natural elements, their combinations
of color, line work, and symbolization make them
generally appealing to the eye. This is also a good
advertisement for the city of Ayutthaya and would
seem to demonstrate a commitment to making the
tourist experience there a pleasant one.
90 Simon Potter
References
Garnier, Derick(2004). Ayutthaya: Venice of the East.
Bangkok: River Books.
Harley, J. B., and David Woodward, eds.(1994). The
History of Cartography. Volume 2, Book 2. Cartography
in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian
Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Potter, Simon(2010a). Publicly Displayed Illustrated
Maps in Japan: A Collection of Revised Essays.
Nagoya [printed via research funding at Nagoya
University]. 150.
Potter, Simon(2010b). Maps on Public Display for
Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand: Analysis of
Their Content and Artwork. Under “Proceedings
2010” at www.ictlconference.com (the website for
the International Colloquium on Tourism and
Leisure). 20.
Potter, Simon(2010c). Maps on Public Display for
Tourists in Ayutthaya, Thailand. Gengo Bunka
Ronshū [Collection of Essays on Language and
Culture] / Studies in Language and Culture 32,
1: 3-20. (published at Nagoya University)
Potter, Simon(2011). The Buddhist Cosmos on Selected
Maps in Ayutthaya: What Is Not Explained to the
Tourist Viewer. Gengo Bunka Ronshū [Collection
of Essays on Language and Culture] / Studies in
Language and Culture 33, 1: 47-59. (published at
Nagoya University)
Sadakata, Akira(1998). Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy
and Origins. Tōkyō: Kōsei.
Worachetwarawat, Chaiwat(2001). Ayutthaya. [This is
a small informative booklet written with tourists
in mind, but with contributions from scholars at
three of the Rajabhat Institutes (now Universities);
it is dated 2544 in the Buddhist Era.]
Wyatt, David K.(2004). Thailand: A Short History.
Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Submitted: July 04, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: September 07, 2012
Accepted: October 25, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
Potentials for Cultural Tourism in Sohbar
Village, East Khasi Hills District,
Meghalaya
Bathsheba Goswami Pyngrope*
9)
[ABSTRACT]
Sohbar Village selected for the present study is
an interesting area rich in history and culture,
uniqueness and individuality of its own. This village
has great potential for cultural tourism, a subset of
tourism concerned with showcasing built and living
culture which is identified with the place. In its
broadest definition, cultural tourism is travel directed
towards experiencing a unique place which is of
cultural interests: traditional cultural communities
and their lifestyles; their practices, products,
celebrations (crafts and festivals), rituals, food;
handcrafted dwellings and tools crafted from nature;
and the cultural landscape/land use. The area under
study is known for its rich culture and tradition
which usually have a strong bondage with the
natural environment. Planned cultural and tourism
management of the study area will help conserve
contribute to sustainable cultural tourism. The main
objective of this paper is to identify potential
cultural resources that can be exploited for cultural
tourism in Sohbar village through cultural mapping
Approach and Analysis, which involves inventorying
and tracking elements such as facilities, organizations,
activities, participants, places, etc. and assess how
cultural tourism help towards the development and
sustainability of communities cultural resources.
Hence, in this light, the cultural resources of the
study area will be investigated and assessed and
further develop cultural tourism.
Key Words : Cultural resources, Communities, Sustainable
development, Cultural mapping
* Research Scholar, Department of Geography, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Meghalaya, India
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
92 Bathsheba Goswami Pyngrope
Introduction
Sohbar village is located in the southernmost part
of the Meghalaya Plateau. It lies between 25° 13’N
to 25° 9’N latitudes and 91° 42’E to 91° 47’E
longitude. The region covers approximately 18.98
square kilometers of area. The total population of
Sohbar is 1039 persons which includes 503 males
and 536 females. Sohbar is situated on the lowest
of the southern slopes of East Khasi Hills bordering
on the Sylhet plains of Bangladesh. The area is
drained by Umsohryngkew River and its tributaries
flowing down south to Bangladesh. It is situated at
70 kms distance from Shillong the state capital of
Meghalaya. The area is connected by all season
Shillong-Shella road. Except for a patch of 2kms
towards the village, the rest of the road is metalled
and reasonably good. The village is rich in history
and culture. The village once witnessed war with
the Britisher’s and came under the British rule.
There is a graveyard where British missionaries
and their close relatives lay buried near the village.
A series of giant pillars or megaliths have been
erected in the corner of the village to commemorate
great deeds or to honour dead chieftains. The
Menhirs and Dolmens are an amazing attraction in
the village.
Sohbar village is located in a small hillock on the
other side of the river ‘Sohkhylleng’, from where the
Hima Sohbar slopes down to the Bangladesh plains.
The original people of Sohbar village are believed
to have been inhabited from a place called Um-
Sohbar in Ri-Bhoi District of Meghalaya. At that
time ‘U-Jawumbar’ was the ‘Syiem’ of Sohbar.
Before the advent of the British Sohbar village
comprised of three villages, namely; ‘Ka Nongskong’,
‘Ka Nongrum’ and ‘Ka Sohbar’. But after the great
Earthquake of 1857, Nongrum village was abandoned
and Nongskong village and Sohbar village were
clubbed together to be as one village called as
Sohbar village.
Database and Methodology
The proposed research is based on the primary
data collected through field work, personal observation
and interaction with tourists that visit the study
area. Apart from this, Secondary data related to the
topic were collected from different sources which
include tourist inflow, existing culture of the area
and the historical background of the area. Information
about the place was collected from promotional
pamphlets, books and articles in magazines and local
newspapers, literatures, journals, Dissertations, PhD.
thesis (published and unpublished) and statistical
Potentials for Cultural Tourism in Sohbar Village, East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya 93
data from Government offices. The proposed research
work was carried out in the following manner: First
of all a preliminary survey was taken in the study
area to collect information about the physical
features of the landscape having tourist interest.
Base maps were prepared using the survey of India
topographical maps. Field work was carried out in
Sohbar village to collect primary data and information
related to the topic. Data was analyzed and was
presented graphically in the form of Maps and
Charts. At the same time satellite imageries were
consulted and maps were prepared. The cultural
attractions of the area was studied and interpreted
to identify potentials for cultural tourism. Photographs
were also taken to support the research.
Physical Base
Although a part of the Indian Peninsular region,
the topography of the study area is marked by
rugged hilly terrain in the north at 350m above sea
level and low altitudes plains to the south up to 65m
above sea level which is dissected by minor rivulets
of the main Sohryngkew River. To the north, the
land rises abruptly to the higher altitudes of the
plateau whilst to the south, the land slopes gently
to the plains of Bangladesh. To the east, the land
slopes gently forming a gorge through which the
Umiam River flows. To the west, the land rolls with
hills of different elevations. There is an extensive
belt of limestone depicting Karst topography.
Geologically, the rocks of the area form a part of
the cretaceous-tertiary sedimentary sequence that
occupies the southern fringe of the Meghalaya
plateau.
The climate of the study area is sub-tropical type
where seasons can be classified as:
∙Summer (March-April)
∙Pre-Monsoon (May-Mid June)
∙Peak-Monsoon (Mid June-October)
∙Post-Monsoon (October-November)
∙Winter (December-February)
All the climatic features discussed above reveal
one important aspect that the area under study is
under sub-tropical climate where dry and hot season
are followed by a wet and rainy season. The area
has a vast stretch of fairly dense mixed vegetation
and rich in flora and fauna. The area is famous for
its large variety of orchids some of which are
almost endangered like the “king of orchids”, it is
also a home of the insect eating “pitcher plant”-
(Nepthenes Khasiana). The region is also a home of
a large variety of animals like the Hoolock Gibbon,
clouded leopard, civet cat and bats are some of
them. The land use pattern in the north of the study
area is mainly cultivation of betel nut and other
horticultural crops, while to the south people engage
themselves in agriculture and growing paddy.
Socio-Cultural concerns
Majority of the population belong to the Austro-
Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman Linguistic community
of which the two important subfamilies are the
“Monkhmer” and the “Kokborok”. The region is
rich in cultural heritage and ethnological diversity.
The study area composes of three main tribes, the
Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos having their own
traditional political institutions and matrilineal society
in nature. One striking feature of the Khasi-Jaintia
culture is their inclination to erect “mawbynna” or
monoliths/megaliths, dolmens and cromlechs. Some
94 Bathsheba Goswami Pyngrope
of those monoliths are said to be commemorative
stones erected as sweet remembrances to the departed
heroes, while some others have some religious
connotations. Some Khasi scholars say that the
upright “Mawbynna” represents manhood and the
flat dolmens signify the womanhood. The Khasis
and the Jaintias are generally short and sturdy.
They are hard working and fun-loving. They also
have a great penchant for gold ornaments.
The British rule brought along with it Christianity,
western culture, education and other forces of modernity
which led to a transformation in the Khasi society
bringing considerable change in the society. The
Khasis have a matrilineal society. Descent is traced
through the mother, but the father plays an important
role in the material and mental life of the family.
While, writing on the Khasi and the Jaintia people,
David Roy observed, ‘a man is the defender of the
woman, but the woman is the keeper of his trust’.
No better description of Meghalaya matrilineal society
could perhaps be possible. In the Khasi society, the
woman looks after home and hearth, the man finds
the means to support the family, and the maternal
uncle settles all social and religious matters. In the
Khasi society the traditional chiefs are the Syiems,
Lyngdohs, Sirdars and Rangbah Shnong or the
village headmen who look after the administration
of the Elaka and villages as per local customs and
traditions. The majority of the Land belongs to the
people and not to the government. The landed
property is classified under ‘Ri-Raid’ or community
or Public land and ‘Ri-Kynti’ or Private land.
Findings
Historical Background of Sohbar
To get a glimpse of the Khasi traditional dance
and attire, one can watch the ‘Shad-phore’, a religious
dance performed to pay respect to the fore-fathers
who have died long time ago. It is a three day
sacred dance festival performed inside the sacred
yard of the village. The festival is held once in two
years in the month of March-April. The Village has
separate market days for varieties of forest products
such as bay leaf market and betel nut market. In
ancient times, Sohbar village was surrounded by a
pitfall or a ditch dug purposely and the floor of the
ditch was planted with pricks which were long and
pointed and covered with weeds to safeguard the
village from any sudden enemy attack. According to
the author E.W. Chyne, in his book “Na Ki Hamsaia
ka Mynnor”, he wrote that there was only one road
from the front which had a ‘Kyrdop’ known as the
‘Kyrdop Sohbar’ meaning “entrance of the village”.
Sohbar has got its own months calculated only after
its religious customs and ceremonies were performed.
It is said that long time ago, in one of those religious
months of ‘Nai-Tohtan’, any person from outside
who came to Sohbar and accidentally touched a
local village man, that man was arrested and taken
to a rock called the “Mawshyti Raja,” where he was
sacrificed after his head cut and body thrown to the
gorge. The whole of this area was governed by ‘U
Lyngskor’ and three Sirdars. They are; U sirdar
Nongskong, U sirdar Sohbar and U Sirdar Nongrum.
Hima Sohbar came in contact with the British with
the construction of the Gauhati-Sylhet road that
passed through this village. From here aroused the
Khasi-Sohbar relationship. When the war between
Potentials for Cultural Tourism in Sohbar Village, East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya 95
the Khasis and the British broke up, Sohbar was on
the side of U Tirot Sing the khasi warrior. But,
unfortunately the British won the battle and annexed
Sohbar by an agreement dated 29th October, 1829
under the British area and appointed a Political
agent David Scott in 11the of February in Sohra and
Sohbar came under his supervision. The First school
in Hima Sohbar was set up in 1854 by Rev. William
lewis known as Welsh Mission Lower Primary
School, Sohbar. At the same time the Gospel of
Jesus Christ had also came together. In 1928, Tarani
K. Purkayastha came to Sohbar and started another
school under the name of new India School which
later was taken over by the Ram Krishna Mission
Cherrapunjee. He also set up a dispensary inside the
school compound in 1930. The red cross was set up
in 1973 by Jebon Ryngnga and later in 1996 a public
health centre was set up by the Department of Health
and family Welfare, Government of Meghalaya. In
the field of transport and communication also the
pony road of Gauhati-Shillong started in 1826 via
Sohbar Village. The Cherrapunjee-Companyganj State
railway constructed a 12 kilometers railway line.
The main motive behind the construction of this
railway line was to transport and carry goods and
items in the year 1883-84. Ropeway was also
started from Majai via Sohbar to Sohra for carrying
goods alone but in 1950 this was stopped. Oranges
was the backbone of Sohbars economy but after
1950 everything died out and later people engaged
themselves in betel nut plantations only.
The ‘Shad Phore’:The ‘shad-phore’, is a religious dance performed
to pay respect to the forefathers who have died long
time ago. It is a three day dance festival but the
religious ceremonies starts from the month of
November itself. It is held once in two years by an
agreement between Sohbar village and Nongjri
village. This festival is held every two years
alternately as a mark of friendly relationship with
its neighbouring villages.
Earlier the ‘Shad-Phore’ festival was practiced in
four villages namely; Sohbar, Nongjri, Mawlong and
Wahlong. But now, only Sohbar village and Nongjri
village practice it. The other two villages have
stopped practicing it. The ‘Lyngdoh’ or the priest,
performs the holy rituals. His family prepares food
7 days before the ‘Shad-phore’ to be given to the
ones who had died.
The First day: “shad-ruthang”, it is a religious dance depicting the opening ceremony of the
religious dance festival or practice. This dance is
performed inside the sacred yard. This dance
continues till late in the evening and the residents
of the village tease the guests who have come from
outside the village.
The Second day: “shad Kyn-hei” This dance is performed early in the morning, inside the sacred
yard. This dance sequence is performed by three
boys and three girls. ‘Shad Kynhei’ is followed by
another dance called the “shad-pomwait” which depicts
96 Bathsheba Goswami Pyngrope
victory over a war. This dance is again followed by
the ‘shad phore’ in the afternoon. The dance is
performed by the original khasis only and in the
evening the villagers gather for the “shad-Dkhar”.
Here, people from different villages come to participate
in this dance. One will play the harmonium the other
will sing in Khasi local language and the third will
dance to the tune of music and song. Whoever
performs well becomes the winner. This is performed
to trace the “ustad” or genius. This dance continues
till the following morning.
Ka “Noi-Pyrda”-is the month of April and the
beginning of the festival. During this time food
crops like potatoes and yam are grown and followed
by the harvest of the food crops in the month of
June. The harvest is first brought to the Lyngdoh’s
house who is the priest of the village who performs
the sacred rituals. Once the ritual is completed, the
harvest is made public.
‘Beh-Khlam’-meaning ‘wipe off’ the Plague by
sacrificing a piglet. The piglet is cut into four halfs
and placed in four direction of east, west, north and
south. During the ceremony people are allowed to
go outside the village but people from outside the
village are not allowed to enter inside unless the
ceremony is complete. “Mei-ram-ew”-a female pig
is sacrificed and given to the Mother Nature and soil
to bring prosperity and good harvest in the village.
“Ka bam Hu-Leng”-In this goats are sacrificed and
small pieces of its meat are packed in banana leaves
and distributed to every family in the village who
believes in this faith. “Thang ram”-In this rituals
the lyngdoh performs the sacrifice and blesses the
harvested food. On this day, the ‘Lyngdoh’ or the
priest put the sacrificed food in the “Maw-Shieng”or
below the monolith where they have kept their
ancestors bones.
1. Name of cultural
attractions
Historical importance, Khasi culture,
Religious dance festival, Menhirs
and Dolmens, trekking through
the village.
2. Location and timing:March-April after every Two
years
3. Describe potential
activities
Dance, music, religious ceremony,
food
4. Environment fragility: Flora and fauna, waterfalls
5. Socio-cultural
concerns:
Matrilineal society, marriage of
a member inside the same clan
is prohibited and is considered
as a taboo.
6. Choose Potential
market draw:
Visitor can stay up to 2 days
and more
<Table 1> Cultural Attractions
SWOT Analysis of Sohbar
Strengths-
∙nature/beauty and climate
∙unique culture and tradition
∙unexplored destination
Weakness-
∙infrastructure
∙connectivity to / within
∙lack of government initiative
Opportunities
∙marketing unexplored destination
∙financial assistance
∙look east policy
∙employment potentials
∙sustainable tourism
Threats
∙uneven growth
∙non-local participation
<Table 2> Cultural mapping
The Third day: “Shad-sngewbha”, this dance is
performed outside the premises of the sacred yard
of the lyngdoh. This dance is performed by both male
and female who are still unmarried. It is believed that
if anybody lies about their status and performs this
dance bad omens follow them. There are lots more
Potentials for Cultural Tourism in Sohbar Village, East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya 97
to know about the place and its culture. And for this,
we have to visit the places and see it ourselves and
get to know more about it and also experience the
scenic beauty of which God has created which
would be possible only through tourism.
Conclusions
Policy makers, tourist boards and cultural attraction
managers around the world continue to view cultural
tourism as an important potential source of tourism
growth. There is a general perception that cultural
tourism is good tourism that attracts high spending
visitors and does little damage to the environment
or local culture while contributing a great deal of the
economy and support of culture. Cultural tourism
may do more harm than good by allowing cultural
tourist to penetrate sensitive cultural environments.
The study area is backward in terms of tourism
facilities. The Government has to take initiative to
develop the infrastructure of these areas as well as
provide incentives to private sectors to set up tourism
facilities of international standards. As outlined in
the state tourism policy, the major role has to be
played by hoteliers, tour operators and travel agencies
and others who provide services in the tourism
sector and bring about integrated and healthy tourism
development.
References
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Government of Meghlaya.
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Sangma, C. T.(2006). Meghalaya Yours to Discover,
DVS Publishers, Guwahati.
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Methuen and Co. Ltd.
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East India, Trishnatur Printers, Guwahati.
Tiwari B. K., Barik, S. K., Tripathi, R. S., Sacred
Forests of Meghalaya, 1999, NEHU, Shillong.
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98 Bathsheba Goswami Pyngrope
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Submitted: August 03, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: September 17, 2012
Accepted: October 29, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei-Taking the Disputes over the Shihda Night Bazaar as An Example-
Steven M. Anderson*10)
C.J. Anderson-Wu**
[ABSTRACT]
The fast growth of the Shida Night Bazaar in
recent years brings up a number of issues that
actually have existed in many cities in Taiwan but
never caused serious clashes between the residents
and stall owners. Stalls and stands set up in
residential areas without complete legal status have
been tolerated in Taiwan’s many neighborhoods and
by the local governments, considering they absorb
the increasing population of unemployed. The
“informal spaces” became characteristic cityscapes
throughout Taiwan.
As the city government attempts to promote
tourism and to transform Taipei into a “World
Design Capital”, the resulting shopping and tourism
have led to an intolerable disturbance of the local
people’s daily lives. Along with the sprawl of small
businesses in narrow alleys, the problems of urban
zoning and the absence of law enforcement have
become issues. The discrepancy between the
reality and the image the city government tried to
construct also raised questions about the false
promises of tourism and urban gentrification.
Key Words : Taipei, Night bazaar, World Design
Capital, Cultural tourism, Urban gentrification
Introduction
Historically, a key character of Taiwan’s urban
spaces is irregular roads connected by maze-like
arteries of tiny alleyways twisting between structures
that are often of dubious legal status in terms of
zoning. Such pedestrian scale spaces lend themselves
* Department of Applied Foreign Languages, Chungyu Institute of Technology, Taiwan
** Taiwan Architect Magazine, National Association of Architects, Taiwan
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
100 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
to dense commercial activity when they are located
adjacent to facilities that draw heavy traffic such as
universities.
Traditionally the government has opted to take a
hands-off approach to code enforcement in many
such situations and in cases such as the Shihda
night market the result has been a thriving, dense
area of commercial activity accompanied by intractable
logistical problems for the businesses there, not to
mention the issues of air and water and light pollution,
fire hazards, a total absence of parking spaces even
for motorcycles and a great deal of noise.
Moreover, the commercial success of the area has
made it an attractive target for shops that have
higher profit margins such as clothing boutiques,
eye glass shops and fast-food chain stores. In many
cases, these shops have pushed out many of the
original shops in the original night market area
threatening to reduce its appeal as a tourist venue.
As a result, the lower budget shops including many
food vending stalls and independent street vendors
have moved their wares into the surrounding
neighborhoods that were originally outside the
boundaries of the original night market.
This situation has come to be played out in public
as a kind of battle between the residents of the area
and the businesses that operate there. The following
is an effort to illustrate the underlying complexity
of the issue and how the multiple forces that are
operating are actually much more complex and
involve a variety of different and sometimes contrasting
commercial interests including pressures towards
gentrification and the tourism market in addition to
the multiple identities of the residents of the area.
Background of the Disputes
On this map the purple parts on the map are the
Shida University(National Taiwan Normal University).
The yellow parts are residential areas; the green
parts are parks or greeneries; the red parts are areas
where mixed use-residential buildings and businesses
coexist. The area encompassed by the red line is
where the night bazaar actually is. Clearly it has
grown much beyond the scope of mixed uses and
extended deeply into residential area.
<Map 1> The Red Part in the Center is about 1
Hectare, but the Night Bazaar Sprawled to 18
Hectares Included with the Red Line.(resource:
http://theericel.blogspot.tw/2012/02/blog-post.html)
Night bazaars form spontaneously around populated
areas throughout Taiwan, especially near universities
where students away from home need to find meals
and commodities for their daily use. Stalls and
stands in bazaars provide affordable food and
products, although they are sometimes of relatively
poor quality.
There are about 6,500 households and 700
businesses in this highly dense blocks. The current
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 101
zoning policy allows restaurants and fashion shops
to set up in the residential areas on the alleys wider
than eight meters. Alleys between six meters and
eight meters are zoned for beauty parlors and
bookstores among other businesses with limited
customer flows. And no business should be set up
at all in alleys narrower than six meters. Nevertheless,
in the Shida Night Bazaar, there are only about 150
businesses in the mixed use area that are legal.
Most of the 400 businesses in the alleys narrower
than eight meter alleys are operating contrary to the
zoning regulations. And businesses in alleys narrower
than six meters which are not legal at all number
as many as 150(China Times, 2012).
This table shows that about 350 businesses in the
Shida Bazaar are operating outside the law.
ZoningNumber of
BusinessesLegal Status
Mixed Use(Red) about 150 Legal
Residential Area facing alleys
wider than 8Mabout 100 Legal
Residential Area facing alleys wider
than 6M, narrower than 8Mabout 250
80% against
zoning
Residential Area facing alleys
narrower than 6Mabout 150 Illegal
<Table 1> Distribution of Businesses in the
Shida Bazaar
Noises, sanitary problems and fire hazards caused
by the still growing Shida Bazaar finally irritated
some of the people living in these neighborhoods.
They complained that they had to live with smoke
from the restaurants, noise from peddlers and
shoppers late at night, trash left by tourists, as well
as the safety risks caused by the illegal building
expansions extended by many businesses in the
small alleys. The flashing lights from the plentiful
neon and LED signs disturbed the sleep of some
residents according to their complaints, the stands
occupying their staircases blocked their access and
made exiting the building difficult. Since the end of
2011, local residents began reporting illegal businesses,
and the city government issued tickets to the
businesses that got the most complaints. Some
businesses had to shut down because they no longer
could afford paying the recurring fines. During this
time, local residents established a Self-Rescue
Association to fight against the pollution they
witnessed daily in the area, but the local businesses
set up their own Alliance of Shida Stores to protect
their businesses. The two groups first urged the
government to mediate their conflict but the
government failed to make any progress and, as of
the time of this writing, no active measures have
been taken.
Dispute 1: Zoning Policy Unfitted to Taiwanese Cities
Taiwan’s zoning policy is a continuation from the
Japanese Occupation Period in 1941, and in 1964 the
Nationalist Government mixed the existing framework
with the zoning regulations from the U.S.(Zen-Wei
Lin, 2011). But the separation of residential areas
and commercial areas is never a reality in Taiwanese
cities. Shops on the first floor with shop owners and
their families living upstairs has been the standard
practice for certainly over a century in Taiwan but
also part of a broader tradition that goes back many
centuries. China has a considerably extended history
of urban architecture for which this model has been
a key icon going back long into tradition. It’s also
no surprise that stores set up along streets and
alleys naturally form business clusters. People both
102 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
live and work in the same neighborhood(Jui-Mao
Huang, 2012).
Dispute 2: Promotion of Night Bazaars to Meet Middle-Class Taste
The city government began to gentrify night
bazaars in an attempt to promote tourism in Taipei.
The city government wishes to be the 2016 World
Design Capital, an award given by the International
Council of Societies of Industrial Design(ICSID).
The selection of Design Capital started in 2008
(ICSID Webpage), and Torino, Seoul, Helsinki and
Cape Town were Design Capital of 2008, 2010, 2012
and 2014 respectively. Design Capital is awarded to
cities that are able to solve their problems through
design.
Commissioned by Taipei City Department of
Cultural Affairs, cuisine critic Han Liang-Lu established
the South Village in Shida Night Bazaar, an attempt
to create a feel comparable to the East Village in
New York City. The slogan “Culture in Alleys” was
proposed in order to transform the bazaar into a
high cultural neighborhood. In addition to food
promotion, events imitating those in European literature
salons were also staged with the governmental
budgets. These events have been criticized as blind
to the facts that most of the eaters and shoppers
come to this area not because of its cultural flavor,
but because of the cheap foods and products
available here. Artist Mu-Ching Wu pointed out
that, looking back the history of this bazaar, all the
attempts of making over the area through cultural
themes were failures(Mu-Ching Wu, 2012).
Dispute 3: Real Estate Speculation
The governmental promotion did not necessarily
succeed in bringing more cultural flavor to the area,
but it did attract a lot more people to dine or shop
there. The first impact was the soaring rents. In the
busiest alley, a stall selling stewed meats pays
80,000NTD(about 2,700USD) a month for its 9-pin
space(about 30 square meters). A chain cosmetic
store pays 420,000NTD(about 14,000USD) for a
20-pin space(about 66 square meters) a month. In
an interview, the General Secretary of the Organization
of Urban Reforms(Ours) Peng Yang-Kae said, because
the rents are so high, many real estate agents
interested in speculating on the market actually
bought the stores and became landlords. Residents
having garages on the ground floor also were
persuaded by realtors to rent their garages to
businesses. A garage of 6-pin(about 20 square meters)
can earn the owners 30,000NTD(about 1,000USD) a
month. High rents result in fast handovers of
businesses. A very popular discount bookstore was
replaced by a Starbucks, and a spicy beef noodle
stand with an open layout serving cold beer called
“Big Bowl” that had been well-loved by generations
of students was kicked out. Instead of the displaced
local icon the new tenant was an eyeglass chain
store. A small set of cafeterias and eateries moved
away, their former spaces are split by three boutiques.
A very popular basement-level gathering spot for
Rock & Roll music lovers “Underworld” finally
ended its business in July 2012 after operating on
the edge of violating zoning laws for sixteen years.
The Department of Fire decided the narrow staircase
to the underground space did not meet fire protection
requirements. The founder of “Underworld” said:
“We eventually have to surrender to the greed of
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 103
middle-class.” (Dizzy Ha, 2012)
On the contrary, the values of the apartments in
these neighborhood dropped because of the
worsening living quality, which further heightened
the tension between businesses and residents.
Dispute 4: Unequal Law Enforcement
The city government seems to sidestep the
problem by issuing tickets to businesses when the
residents file complaints. However, the problem gets
a bit more tricky when you get into the details. It
turns out that some stores against zoning regulations
actually have business licenses. They questioned
why the city government never told them that their
businesses should not set up in the alleys according
to the zoning regulations when they were applying
for the business licenses. Store proprietors in Shida
Night Bazaar keep urging the government to find
solutions, such as lifting or amending the impractical
zoning policy, but the city government never takes
any action. They threaten that if they can’t run their
own businesses in the college area then the same
should be true for stores that don’t meet zoning
regulations throughout the city. If the law was
enforced across-the-board, tens of thousands of
stores in Taipei would easily be affected.
Dispute 5: Impractical Policies of Urban Development and Tourism
Night bazaars are home-grown cityscapes found
in every city in Taiwan. The informal economy
absorbs a significant population of the laborers laid
off from manufacturers or people who want to leave
farming villages to make a living in the cities. There
are more and more people who fall into these groups
as Taiwan’s manufacturing sector has steadily
shrunk over the years. The energy and creativity of
night bazaars attracts tourists from all over the
world. But when tourism became a major focus of
the city government, all the issues regarding living
standards were distorted. The real needs of local
residents were ignored, the authorities only cared
about how many tourists had stopped by and how
much money they had spent.
When the clashes between the residents and
businesses owners get worse and worse, one of the
few actions the city authorities took was to take
down the signs that read “Shida Night Bazaar” from
roads and bus stops. The webpages about Shida
Night Bazaar was also removed from the City
Department of Information and Tourism.
Review of Literature
Over the past decades, has Taiwan’s attempts to
take part in globalized economy brought the entire
society real economic benefits or just illusions of
benefit? It seems that one of the first lessons that
Taiwan meets along that path towards integration
into that globalized economy is the significance of
the politics of spaces(Anderson-Wu, 2010). The
word “tourism” had come to represent a hated idea,
compared to the word “travel” in the twentieth
century(Crick, 1989) because of the fast expansion
of the tourism industry and its broader impacts.
Social Psychologist P. Pearce has pointed out that
tourism mirrors the popular ideas about the subject
and perhaps is only another example of how
sophisticated tourists like to laugh at the inferior
versions of themselves. Tourism involves individual
and collective behaviors and memories; it is about
104 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
people’s cultural identity as well as regional economic
status. Thus in many developing societies that are
eager to earn recognition and money, tourism has
become a highly deceptive industry. Tourism
becomes a business of how to lead strangers to find
out or to think about a place or an event that is
assumed to be the reality of a local people.
Dean MacCannell commented in his essay “The
Tourist: A New Theory of Leisure Glass”(1976) that
tourist attractions, as cultural production, must have
“markers” for the sight of tourists(Abbeele, 2009).
Sightseeing can be understood as a process whereby
a tourist moves from one marker after another.
Thus the promotion of tourism is to establish a
typology of markers. And the formation of the sight
is about the different types of “marking”. Once the
tourist markers are picked out, they are proliferated
to produce the sights for tourist attractions. While
an alienated tourist is seeking new experience for
self-fulfillment, she/he instead consumes staged
activities.
Local culture is the main source of such questionable
authenticity. Foods, folk arts and customs unusual
or exotic to tourists are commodified without the
consent of their daily suppliers or participants
(Cohen, 1988), and certain lifestyles are represented
by local people to meet the desired novelty for
tourists(Mamadi, 2004). Following the renaming of
the Shida Night Bazaar was the promotion of
foreign food and drinks such as burritos, pizzas,
Greek cuisines, Indian delicacies and a variety of
coffees. A few Jazz bars also were picked out to
shape an ambiance of foreign leisure in this area.
Book readings only focused on western literature.
The image of this night bazaar created by the
“South Village” was utterly bourgeoisie to people
unfamiliar to this area. To local people, it still is a
crowded place for cheap food(Liberty Times, 2007).
The naming or renaming of places are often
about political and cultural domination(Guo-Chow
Huang, 2007). How can people who have never been
in New York associate the ideas of South Village
to East Village? The attempt of gentrifying a night
bazaar by social elites has confused or annoyed the
public. A city’s marketing campaigns may change
the urban environment. Urban places are re-imaged
or re-invested for the development of tourism, but
the prices of makeovers are often borne by local
communities.
Places of cultural significance play an important
role in today’s urban regeneration. They provide
opportunities for entrepreneurialism and economic
growth, and the images of cities can be shaped
through creative approaches to urban development
(Wirth & Freestone, 2003). Shaping a city’s image
through the so called “cultural strategies” has
become the same mission as stimulating the city’s
economy, and cultural industries have been used as
the initiatives for the growth of a city.
As Sharon Zukin has stated: “In a shopping
street, vision is power”(Ent, 2010). Shaping the
images of a city refers to controlled visual elements
or arranged presentation. In other words, a city of
spectacle is neither a set of geographic sites, nor a
collection of images, but a social relationship mediated
by images(Gotham, 2005). The development of
globalized tourism is about the de-territorialization
of spaces and the replacement of genuine activities
with contrived spectacles(or markers) for tourism
consumption. People’s cultures and lifestyles are
represented with a series of symbols, thus the
promotion of tourism often undermines local traditions
and results in resistance from local communities.
Spectacular urban areas easily become the sites of
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 105
struggles where powerful economic and political
interests defend for what they prefer to be taken for
granted. And since the tourism industry has to take
the task of remodeling social-spatial relationships,
local people often feel that their history and culture
have been inaccurately portrayed.
Marketing researcher Philip Kotler has dealt with
marketing southern Asian countries. He examined
how widely held country images affect attitudes
towards a country’s products and services and ability
to attract investment, businesses and tourists(Kotler,
2002). Destination marketing has been compared to
country promotion or city branding. Within encompassing
strategies of branding to mutually reinforce brands
and sub-brands, a city can build up its brand equity
and achieve greater exposure(Donald and Gammack,
2007). A model of destination image is required to
allow multiple interpretations, it means a faraway
destination might be subject to shallow, even distorted
perception. Nevertheless, as destination image is
widely considered to affect market decisions, attempts
at image construction continue.
Kevin Lynch stressed in his work “The Urban
Landscape of San Salvador and Nanjing” the
importance of environmental planning in the cities
of developing countries. He emphasized that the
quality of the environment is not secondary to
economic development and should not be a luxury
reserved for wealthy countries(Lynch, Banerjee,
Southworth, 1996). Lynch admonished San Salvador
not to copy developed countries but to create an
environment suiting its own needs and culture.
Kosan Srisang, a former Executive Director of
Ecumenical Coalition on Third World Tourism,
pointed out that tourism in developing countries
doesn’t benefit the majority of people, instead it
exploits people, pollutes the environment, destroys
the ecosystem, bastardised the culture, robbed people
of their traditional values and ways of life(Mowfort
and Munt, 2003). To Srisang, tourism is only slightly
different from colonialism. Many developing countries
take tourism as a guiding developmental strategy,
and developed countries are more than happy to
encourage such views in developing countries.
The consumption of city tourists is a major force
of urban gentrification. Cultural tourism drives the
changes of neighborhoods and a variety of services
are introduced in order to develop globalized tourism.
However, new businesses or the activities of
tourists might replace the actual cultural elements
of the neighborhoods.
Gentrification as urban strategy weaves global
financial markets together with large and medium-sized
real estate developers, local merchants, property
agents and retailers(Smith, 2002). As real estate
development becomes the centerpiece of a city’s
economy, it is justified by appeals to jobs, taxes and
tourism. Researchers also have noticed the transformed
role of the state in urban gentrification. Since the
1990s, the states have played more active roles in
urban gentrification. The government became a
partner with urban developers instead of playing the
more appropriate role of an urban planner. Gentrification
has become widespread and a not-so-hidden agenda
of many city officials anxious to replace the growing
ranks of vulnerable poor, deviant and anonymous
with outgoing, free-spending, image-making white
collar taxpayers and their upgraded houses and
trendsetting shopping districts(Clay, 1994). With urban
policies as tools, gentrification is fueled by public
planning and private capital. Urban planning no longer
guides or regulates the direction of urban growth,
instead it seeks to fit itself for the pursuit of highest
market returns. Lower income groups are excluded
106 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
during the enhancement of tourism(Smith, 2002).
Among a variety of urban renewal processes, the
concepts of “tourism gentrification” has been proposed.
Gotham defined “tourism gentrification” as “the
transformation of a middle-class neighborhood into
a relatively affluent and exclusive enclave marked
by a proliferation of corporate entertainment and
tourism venues”(Bures and Cain, 2008). The commodification
and consumption of urban spaces result in the
change of the balance between the use of the space
for living and the use of the space for economic
purposes. The exchange value becomes predominant
over the use value. The flood of money from real
estate developers/investors/speculators into a neighborhood
pushes up the rents and the value of properties,
resulting in changing combinations of tenants or
property owners. Businesses in this neighborhood
also will alter their service and products, thus the
overall representation of the area shifts.
When local elites use tourism as a strategy of
economic revitalization, tourism services and facilities
are incorporated into redevelopment zones and
gentrifying areas. In these new cityscapes, gentrification
and tourism amalgamate with other consumption-
oriented activities, cultural facilities and entertainment
venues(Ritzer, 2011).
Night Bazaars for Local People or for Tourism?
Older night bazaars formed in the old urban
areas, stands and vendors settled down and ran
business daily. Moving bazaars are a relatively new
phenomena in Taiwan. Night bazaars grew fast
during the 1960s when Taiwan’s economy relied on
labor-intensive manufacturing industries and people
moved to cities from farming villages. In the 1970s,
factories suffered from the shrinkage of overseas
orders due to the energy crisis, overstocked products
flew to night bazaars at discounted prices. Today,
night bazaars are still the major channels for cheap
or defective products from small to medium-sized
manufacturers.
Although night bazaars have a history longer
than half a century, many vendors in night bazaars
don’t possess completely legal status--some don’t
have business permits at all, some are running
business outside the scope listed on their permits.
Since they are not in official records they are
beyond the regulations of the government. Over the
past decades the authorities never bothered to
enforce laws upon them. Unregulated, night bazaars
are usually chaotic and are often called “Urban
Tumors” despite the fact that they are popular. Until
recent years, an anxiety about modernization
overshadowed Taiwan, night bazaars began to be
considered backwards, and some attempts at
improvement had taken but failed.
Chiencheng Circle Food Bazaar in Taipei was
once the largest and the most loved place for local
delicacies. The number of stalls had grown so much
without a correspondent spatial adjustment and no
measures for fire protection had ever been taken. It
was destroyed by fire in 1993 and again in 1999.
Although the building was repaired in 2000, the city
government decided the shabby building should be
remodeled. A reputable architecture firm was engaged
and in 2002, the new building covered in shiny,
durable glass screens was unveiled. Fancy as it
was, the new building did not fit the needs of the
food suppliers and or the eating public. Only twenty
stalls returned and fourteen of them withdrew shortly
because of unavoidable but also unaffordable losses.
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 107
Shihlin Night Bazaar was another example. The
remodel did not happen until the stalls sprawled so
much and finally were so out of control that the old
building began to threaten the safety of shoppers
and diners. The makeover kicked off in 2002 and
was completed in 2012. According to a survey of
Pollster, 54.8% of the people who have been to the
new Shihlin Night Bazaar don’t like it, while 45.2%
liked it(Pollster, 2012).
It is a paradox that people like the old style of
night bazaars but at the same time think they are
backwards. Twenty years ago when foreign diplomats
were visiting Shihlin, bazaar vendors without permits
would be banned from this area. When there were
important visitors around, laws and orders were
enforced. On a day-to-day basis though, when there
are conflicts, no effective negotiation could proceed.
That’s why bazaar vendors are expelled every now
and then but the removal is never thorough. Everyone
is clear that bazaars provide opportunities for people
between employment and goods unsold in other
shopping venues. Off season products from department
stores or shopping malls often end up in night
bazaars, people like the bargains.
Nevertheless the business patterns and shopping
behaviors shift when night bazaars are remodeled.
Chiencheng Food Bazaars now is a high-end
restaurant after having been taken over several
times by different managerial bodies. The fate of the
newly reopened Shihlin Night Bazaar still needs a
longer period of observation.
Attempts of gentrifying night bazaars is suspected
of benefiting property speculators. Real estate prices
soared in the gentrified Shida Night Bazaar. A
inexpensive cafeteria sold for 115 million NTD
(about 3.8 million USD), a discount bookstore sold
170 million NTD(about 5.7 million USD), and a
stewed food eatery sold at 5.06 million NTD per
pin(about 50,600USD per square meter). Independent
bookstores, inexpensive eateries and small retailers
had to move to the margins of this area, their
replacements are chain stores, boutiques or thematic
restaurants which students never can afford. As the
sense of a place has disappeared, local communities
wish to recapture the past, but the past had long gone.
Three Ways of Depicting Night Bazaars
Yu Shuenn-Der proposed three ways of depicting
night bazaars in Taiwan(Yu, 1995). First, night
bazaars are the residual left from old Taiwanese
culture. Second, night bazaars constitute marginalized
spaces in cities. Third, night bazaars are where the
informal economy survives.
Night bazaars maintain the disappearing tradition
of Taiwanese society, from how the foods are
cooked to the styles of peddling. In the alienating
cities, night bazaars are the only spaces that provide
the setting for the occasions where people still can
interact in old manners, for example, bargaining
over prices. Stepping into a night bazaar is almost
like stepping into a kind of street theater, one
returns to the old time, a vernacular ambiance is
brought back.
Night bazaars are marginalized when Taiwan is
“making progress” toward a modernized world. A
lot of time night bazaars are ignored on purpose
because they are exactly the opposite of what a
progressive and modernized world that people are
collectively working toward. The products sold in
night bazaars are usually inferior, or copyright/
trademark infringed goods. Most of the stores and
stands are shabby, and foods are always presented
108 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
in a vulgar fashion.
Compared to department stores and shopping
centers, night bazaars have more transactions, many
without records. Vendors with permits usually pay
a fixed number of tax, and a lot more vendors
without permits never pay taxes. Night bazaars
have been articulated in the consumption of the
entire society although no official numbers indicating
the real scale of economy they constitute. Nevertheless,
when the rents of a night bazaar like Shihda became
so high, small stalls are kicked out and replaced by
larger retailers or more expensive restaurants, the
informal economy is formalized, and the feel of
grassroots organization is gradually diluted. Interestingly,
the more formal they become, the less popular they are.
Night bazaars reflect the conflicts of values and
interests. Since there is never a more comprehensive
social welfare network in Taiwan, the government
is clear that getting rid of the badly organized,
unpresentable night bazaars will cause big holes in
the mutual social support system which has been
spontaneously built up by people’s own power and
creativity. When a society has relied on such an
informal economy for decades, law enforcement
doesn’t solve any problems, it only worsens the
conflicts. Residents in Pucheng Street protest that
too many restaurants make too much noises and
produce too much smoke, they are no longer able to
stand the pollution and bad quality of life. But
Pucheng Street is 9M wide, all kinds of businesses
are allowed to set up there, only they have to meet
the requirements of Ordinance of Clear Air and
Noise Abatement. People living in this street complain
that there used to be small bookstores, bakeries or
stationery stores in this area, now they are mostly
large restaurants. Without the creativity of dealing
with business in a gray area, the government let the
problems get worse. The paradox results in discrimination
and hatred between people.
Creative Industry, Neighborhood Aesthetics and the Capital of Design
The area around Shihda Night Bazaar has several
historical sites, many of them were the residences
of past scholars who once taught in Shihda(National
Taiwan Normal University) or Taida(National Taiwan
University). These houses were taken over from the
Japanese colonial government, and were designated
to scholars in honor of their academic achievement.
The Japanese style houses with yards and big trees
are hardly seen today, they are the greatest heritage
of this area.
Setting eyes on the literary ambiance in this area,
the central government initiated a program called
“International Spotlight”. Yongkang Street, Qingtien
Street and Longquan Street are packaged for the
foreign audience as the KQL Spotlight with pinyin
letters from the street names forming the acronym.
The webpage of the International Spotlight emphasizes
that business proprietors in this area don’t care
about money, they rather enjoy working here. Their
literature suggests on the contrary that this is untrue
for people in bazaar stalls. The KQL Spotlight
organizer is either too romantic about the reality or
trying to exclude Shihda Night Bazaar from the
KQL Spotlight(Website of International Spotlight, 2011).
Twenty stores along these streets were introduced, half
of them are located in Shihda Bazaar.
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 109
<Map 2> (resource: Bureau of Tourism)
<Map 3> (resource: Bureau of Tourism)
In June 2012, the Bureau of Tourism withdrew
KQL from the International Spotlight because of the
insistence of disturbed residents and the unmediated
hostility towards the Shihda Night Bazaar. Deputy
Chief of the Bureau Liu Hsi-Lin said: “Tourism is
about greeting visitors with open arms, if people are
showing their shitty faces instead of friendly smiles,
we should not bring our guests to their neighborhood.”
(China Times, 2012). CEO of the Lovely Taiwan
Foundation Hsu Lu commented that it’s a pity
because KQL presents the neighborhood aesthetics
of Taiwan.
The feelings of outsiders obviously are very
different to those of the people living in the area.
Is “neighborhood aesthetics” about community
empowerment, or, is it actually commodification of
culture? In “Tourism and the Commodification of
Urban Culture”, Susan S. Fainstein pointed out that:
“Urban regimes are pulled between the contradictory
needs to be welcoming travelers and wary that
outsiders may intend harm. They must protect
visitors from the city, and protect the city from
visitors.”(Fainstein, 2007). The overwhelming tides
of globalization has increased travel greatly, for
post-industrial cities, Taipei for example, tourism is
the only way to maintain the economy from decline.
Lifestyle, culture and history, anything characteristic
in a city should be a tourist commodity.
In many cases city promotion is about an enclave
created by tourism industry which is cordoned off
from the existing urban fabric and designed to
cosset the affluent visitors while warding off the
threatening natives(Levine, 2003). The spatial inequality
is exacerbated by skewing civic agenda when a city
invests scarce resources in tourism while slashing
vital services, particularly for low-income people.
When tourism spaces are expanding, it is at the
expense of the living spaces of local people. After
all, the growth of recreational activities attracts real
estate development and results in the privatization
of public realms.
The government had thought to promote
independent designers in the area of Shida together
with several quiet neighborhoods in Taipei where
studios of individual designers like to set up. In
110 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
2011, along with the Congress of International
Design Alliance hosted by Taipei City Government,
a project “Outreach of Living Aesthetics” was
launched by the Urban Redevelopment Office(official
website of Urban Redevelopment Office, Taipei City
Government, 2011). And there were tons of festivals
in Taipei using the term “Neighborhood Aesthetics”
in the same year. Eleven maps of “Creative Neighborhoods
in Taipei” have been printed and given away to
tourists by the Department of Cultural Affairs, and
KQL was one of the neighborhoods. The Department
of Cultural Affairs had hoped that through outlining
the independent bookstores, art studios, designers’
workshops and galleries together with public or
private museums or historical sites, clusters of
creative businesses would form spontaneously.
On the website of the Department of Cultural
Affairs, it said: “Whether a city is mature or
whether a city is dynamic, neighborhoods provide
the best clues for your observation. London, Paris,
Tokyo and New York, they all have marvelous
neighborhoods containing exciting lifestyles. These
cities are distinct because of their unique streetscapes
of neighborhoods(Official website of Department of
Cultural Affairs, Taipei City Government, 2011).
But before any cluster of creative industry has
formed, residents in KQL already suffered. In order
to have an undisturbed life, they’d rather to be
unknown.
Currently the Taipei City Government is applying
to be the host city of 2016 World Design Capital,
four themes have been proposed for the campaign:
Smart Lifestyle, Sustainable Ecology, Healthy Life
and Urban Regeneration((Official website of Department
of Cultural Affairs, Taipei City Government, 2012).
The goal of World Design Capital is to award
cities able to solve their problems through design
and create an environment friendly to the development
of creative industry. The World Design Capital of
2008 was Torino in Italy, 2010 Seoul in South Korea,
2012 Helsinki in Finland and 2014 Cape Town in
South Africa. Over the past years, Seoul has
accomplished many ecological restoration projects
through design, including Namsan Renaissance, the
Hangang Renaissance and the Street Renaissance,
though not without controversies. According to the
Jury of the 2010 World Design Capital, Seoul stood
out because all these projects have been realized
systematically, not piece by piece. Furthermore, the
measures Seoul had taken made individuals and
neighborhoods in the metropolis visible(Design to
Improve, 2011).
Taipei City Government also is campaigning with
several projects, including the restoration of Tamshui
River, the preservation of historic settlement Paozanyen
(Treasure Mountain Community), the management
of household waste and the network of healthcare.
Nevertheless, there are still many crucial urban
issues unsolved. Like the tourism infrastructure
which has become a burden after the events are
over, and there are still more to be built. The
pavilions for the 2010 Floral Expo and the gigantic
stadium among other facilities to be constructed for
the 2017 World University Game are examples.
These constructions are not sustainable, and they
cost tremendously in maintenance.
And when conflicts burst out in Shihda Night
Bazaar, the attitude of the city government shows
it doesn’t possess a systematic strategy for the city
as a whole. The slogan “Neighborhood Aesthetics”
brings nothing but discrimination against rundown
neighborhoods. For vendors making a living in
cities, foreign laborers away from homes, low-income
people and students who have to find affordable
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 111
foods and goods in night bazaars, their right to
access the cities does compromise. It has become a
battle between people with property ownership and
people without. But when a place has been
characterized by so many participants without full
rights, why must their case recede because of an
impractically and unfairly implemented laws?
Suggestions
There are some issues for all to face. First, the
authorities of urban planning must take the
responsibility of amending laws, ordinances and
regulations that reflect the reality of Taipei. The
zoning system is useless as it is a pastiche of
European, American and Japanese systems. A more
flexible and realistic zoning system must be
reconsidered.
The urban policy of Taipei was an attempt to
duplicate American cities which followed the mentality
of modernism: Rational, ordered, centralized governance,
and a standardized aesthetics. Although modernism
accentuates highly controlled cities, it never could
be imposed upon Taiwanese cities(Fang, 2012). The
consequence of enforcing regulations that ignore the
local history and cultural characteristics is local
culture kidnapped by globalized tourism. Highly
regulated cities, like the projects proposed by Le
Corbusier, can’t be organic and they never impress
visitors.
Huang Jui-Mao pointed out that urban life is
“unplannable”(Huang, 2012), thus urban planning is
about setting up a mechanism that allows a city to
grow organically, and having a vision about what
kind of city we identify and we want in the future
is the ultimate principle of urban policy. City governance
can’t be exercised piece by piece since a city is not
simply patches of lands or buildings. Lives in
streets, neighborhoods or districts are formed by
diversified people and events, and no neighborhood
should be reserved for certain activities only. Thus
the right to access the city is fundamental as a
democratic issue.
Second, urban regeneration should start from
communities instead of the authorities or real estate
developers. All the efforts of the government trying
to implant western styles of urban spaces have
failed. The attempts of the Taipei City Government
to make Taipei a global city only result in a disconnect
between local communities and the potential tourism
developed based on the factual conditions of each
neighborhood. Hsia Chu-Joe had urged the empowerment
of communities with autonomy, he believes that
grassroots or community-oriented energy is how
we can fight the invasion of globalized capitalism
(Hsia, 1999). He pointed out that gentrifying a
neighborhood had been the measure the government
had taken most frequently over the past few decades,
but neighborhood gentrification kills the communities
through real estate speculation, which leaves no
space for the creative industry to grow. Indeed,
looking back at the history of Taipei, no neighborhood
could be gentrified without excluding diversity.
Community empowerment is about how a
community cultivates its own autonomy in the
complicated web of state power through democratic
procedures. It might have to ward off the political
oppression from the state in order to prevent false
public opinions from being fabricated and violently
imposed upon it. In the conflict over the Shihda
Night Bazaar, many residents only wish to erase all
the stalls and stands without complete legal status.
Were their wish to actually come true however,
112 Steven M. AndersonㆍC.J. Anderson-Wu
they’d live in the most distressed neighborhood in
Taipei.
Third, employing rent control to terminate property
speculation and encourage small creative businesses
is a real possibility. The Taipei City Government
has been too friendly to real estate developers, “we
respect the market mechanism” is a pet phrase of
officials, which is a shameless lie. The current level
of rents in the KQL area can’t be affordable to any
small creative business, and a neighborhood without
creative business won’t be an interesting tourist
destination.
It is not hard to predict rent control will be
strongly opposed by real estate developers and
brokers, but it is one thing that the government is
able to take action immediately to calm down the
disputes in the Shihda Night Bazaar.
Conclusions
It’s all-too-tempting to cast disputes into simple
narratives of the good guys versus the bad guys
and simply look for a place to lay the blame but
when dealing with the complex issue of urban
planning in the context of a tourist destination but
its crucial to see that there are multiple forces at
work that may be both pushing and pulling at the
same time in an interactive manner. Moreover, just
because a party to the dispute sees their interests
in one way, they may not even know what is best
for their own good completely apart from the fact
of whether their case is just or not.
Simply assuming that the interests of the
residents need to be considered above all others and
that we, or anyone else, knows what those interests
are is complicated by the multiple factors we’ve
mentioned in this paper as well as other factors that
may have been overlooked. Certainly a number of
the residents in a famous tourism area choose to
locate there precisely out of a desire to be a part of
the lively atmosphere. One of the writers of this
paper, Steve Anderson, formerly lived in the old
heart of the night market area in the early 1990s and
found the noisy crowds, flashing lights and smoky
stalls enchanting as a young college student. Even
twenty years ago the area was a sea of people on
any night of the week so one would think that these
issues of noise and crowding are not coming out of
nowhere taking the residents of the area by
surprise. This is a traditionally bustling area.
The place in question is, after all a key part of
the wider academic heart of Taipei that encompasses
several square kilometers densely populated by an
unusually skewed population of people in their twenties
and thirties attending the prominent research universities
built there many decades ago. Assuming that the
majority of the people who live in an area of that
nature with such a pronounced youthful demographic
primarily wish for peace and quiet is a rather remote
stretch of the imagination. It is safe to assume there
is a big gap between the interests of the landlords
that own the properties and the tenants that actually
live in the buildings many of whom are young
students.
Nonetheless, this image of peace, quiet, tranquility
and safety is a convenient rhetorical angle to
promote an agenda that facilitates gentrification. We
need to be careful not to assume that a few vocal
proponents of these values can be taken to genuinely
represent the interests of the area as a whole.
Certainly they do not stand for the interests of the
smaller businesses operating either on the edge of
the law or even blatantly illegally that form much
The Dilemma of Night Bazaars in Taipei 113
of the attraction of the area for people from all over
Taiwan as well as for foreign tourists looking for
an exotic night market experience. It would hardly
be reasonable to assume that peace and quiet is
what draws tourists to the area either. Moreover,
landowners that push for stricter building code
enforcement thinking that what the area needs is an
“upgrade” may find that overly aggressive enforcement
could ironically end up lowering the value of their
own properties if it results in a more bland character
for the area.
The government is where the dilemma is most
acute and it is where this situation serves as an
excellent illustration of the fault lines within Taiwan’s
developmental history and how they are forced to
the surface under the pressures of gentrification.
The original core of the night market area was
created on the basis of being granted an exemption
from zoning laws. Relaxed enforcement was precisely
what allowed the crowded alleys to bloom with the
many eateries that served the needs of the student
population looking for flavors beyond the university
cafeterias. However, in the well-intentioned efforts
to promote the area the government, perhaps
inadvertently, played a role in stimulating a boom
in real estate prices that forced many of those same
small businesses out to be replaced by more
profitable chain stores. Now the government is
being petitioned to come in and “clean up” the
problem of the spillover of the low-end shops into
the neighborhoods that extend beyond the original
boundaries of loose code enforcement. From the
government perspective it must seem to be a case
of no good deed going unpunished.
The Shihda Night Bazaar is a good example of
an area becoming a victim of its own success. We
can only hope that going forward it does not become
another example of failed urban planning policy.
Sadly, Taiwan’s history shows that bad decisions
have been made with the best intentions in the past.
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臺北居住美學推展計畫
Submitted: July 02, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: September 22, 2012
Accepted: October 30, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
The Controversial Heritage of the Early
Nazi built Mass Tourism Resort at
Pa in East Germany
Dieter Semmelroth*11)
[ABSTRACT]
As a manifestation of the Third Reich’s tourism
and leisure policy, one of the World’s first mass
tourism resorts was developed between 1936 and
1939 on the Island of Rügen at the shores of the
Baltic Sea. Executed by the Nazi Organisation
“Kraft durch Freude”(KdF) (“Strength Through
Joy”), a 4.5 kilometre-long concrete hotel complex
with more than 6,000 rooms was built close to the
sea-side resort of Prora with the objective of
offering cheap package holidays for up to 20,000
people at a time.
The design won an award at the 1937 Paris World
Exhibition for the idea of promoting mass tourism
and its then modern architecture of steel-reinforced
concrete, intended to withstand the rough sea climate.
The project testifies to Hitler’s megalomania. The
hotel complex was to have two piers big enough for
ocean liners, swimming pools and solarium halls,
shops and related infrastructure such as schools,
water and power stations. Due to the outbreak of
the Second World War, the complex was newer fully
completed.
During as well as after the War the set of
buildings was used by refugees and later by the
Soviet and East German military. Following Germany’s
re-unification in 1990, repeated attempts were
made to privatise the building complex, which is
protected by the German “historic monument code”.
Today, only a fraction of the complex is being used
for a small museum and since July 2011 as one of
Germany’s largest youth hotel. The youth hostel
project is controversial due to the buildings past,
with critics saying that such an architectural
monstrosity with its dubious history is the last place
where people should be spending their holidays.
* TUI AG, Germany
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
118 Dieter Semmelroth
Key Words : Mass tourism, Third Reich, Mega resort,
Privatisation of Historical Monument
1. Introduction
In Germany, the beginning of mass tourism is
commonly linked to the Nazi period. During the
Third Reich all aspects of everyday life were to be
controlled by Nazi organisations. This was also true
for organized tourism, which the Nazis targeted in
the pre War period to raise their standing among the
population and to prepare the people for the
up-coming war efforts.
In accord with the Nazi ideology, holiday resorts
were planned. However, only one of these mega-
resorts was partially realized. On the Baltic Sea
island of Rügen, a monumental building complex
was constructed with length of more than 4.5
kilometres and a capacity to house 20.000 vacationers
at a time. However, this complex was never used
as a hotel but served during the war for various
military purposes and later as a centre for refugees.
After the Second World War the building complex
and the surrounding were still used by the security
forces. Only after the German re-unification efforts
were made to privatise buildings and to find alternative
uses. However, due to this specific past it is difficult
to find adequate commercial applications.
2. Background on the Nazi Resort Concept
After World War I, tourism in Germany was
largely a privilege of the wealthier segments of the
society. Due to difficult economic and political times,
the great majority of the people could not afford
organized holiday trips. Apart from a lack of funds,
workers were entitled only a few days of paid
annual leave, which did not allow much travelling
(Spode, 2004). When the National Socialist Party
took power in 1933, the new rulers introduced
radical changes.
2.1 Ideology of the “Kraft durch Freude” (Strength Through Joy) Organisation
According to Nazi ideology, all mass organisations
had to be “re-aligned” to support the new ruling
party. Old mass organisations like the free trade
unions-which started in the 1920 to offer organised
trips to their members-were dissolved and replaced
by uniform Nazi-run organisation. Both employees
and employers were forced to join the “Deutsche
Arbeits Front” (DAF) (German Labour Front).
In Fascist Italy since 1925, there was a recreational
organization, the national recreation work “Opera
Nazionale Dopolavoro” (De Grazia, 1981). This
inspired the head of the DAF, Robert Ley, to
establish a similar organization in Germany.
As a consequence the organisation “Kraft durch
Freude” (KdF) (Strength through Joy) was formed
to organise and control the ordinary Germans daily
life. The KdF’s involvement was very diverse. In
addition to travel services and sporting activities
such as gymnastics and swimming courses, there
were also events related to education, culture and
even village beautification programmes. One of
KdF’s key objectives was to provide affordable
vacation for all Germans either within their home
country or abroad (Baranowski, 2004; Spode, 1991;
Spode & Steinecke, 1991).
At the same time DAF promoted the extension
The Controversial Heritage of the Early Nazi built Mass Tourism Resort at Pa in East Germany 119
of holiday entitlement for workers to two or three
weeks a year. Indeed, during the “Third Reich” the
holiday entitlement for most workers was extended,
especially for younger ones. The motivation behind
this was not philanthropy, but the desire to achieve
the total control by monitoring the leisure of
Germans thus further strengthening Nazi ideology.
The maintaining of industrial peace through appeasement
of the workers’ was an important aspect of Nazi
policy (Spode, 1991). KdF should therefore primarily
secure the internal peace, by promising the workers
travel and leisure experiences.
For Nazi ideologues, leisure was not conceived as
an end in itself, but had to serve as means for the
state. The official goal of KdF was to support the
creation of “new” German people and a new
“Volksgemeinschaft”(German community) (Frommann
1992, p.106).
Robert Ley’s idea was to offer to the workers in
their spare time ways to recover from long working
hours. However, such a recovery was not be used
for idleness and amusement, but to re-focus the
forces of the working population and to fill it with
energy and “power” for their duties. KdF activities
such as theatre visits, vacations and cruises at
affordable prices were part of the efforts by the Nazi
leadership, to give the Germans the impression that
they live under a “feel good dictatorship”. (Aly, 2005)
Hitler himself is quoted by Ley as saying: “I want
the workers to be granted sufficient leave and that
everything is done to allow them to fully recover in
their space time. This is my wish because I want
a strong people and nation that keeps its nerve.”
(Robert Ley, quoted in Frommann 1992, p. 108).
Cultural objectives included the strengthening of
national pride by boosting the sense of the “German
community”. The German people should spend their
leisure time together in order to generate a strong
community, superior to those of other nations. The
German people should be full of self-confidence
when travelling abroad and compare their home
country with the visited destinations-for the benefit
of Germany, of course. The world should get the
impression of a healthy and peace-loving Germany.
However, the ultimate goal was to raise the
populations’ readiness for war. Nazis considered
healthy and motivated people as particularly fit for
war. Eventually, these targets were announced only
shortly before the Second World War began.
2.2 Financing of KdF
The natural DEF members were at the same time
also subjects of KdF. They paid a monthly DAF
membership fee of at least 0.50 Reichsmark (RM).
The vast majority of the KdF staff did not receive
a salary. In 1937, the “Strength Through Joy”
organization had 106,000 volunteers and 4,400
full-time employees.
In the pre-war period, DAF revenues grew from
281 million RM (1933) to 538 million RM (1939).
Those funds were raised as compulsory membership
fees. Throughout its existence, KdF was subsidized
on an increasing scale by its mother organisation.
In 1934, KdF received eight million RM from DAF,
and in 1938 a total of 32.5 million RM. Early
expectations that KdF would be self-financing by
the income generation from its travel agency and
related commercial activities did never materialise
(Spode 1982; Spode 1991; Frommann 1992).
2.3 Tourism in the Third Reich
KdF was one of the most popular organizations
120 Dieter Semmelroth
during the years of National Socialism in Germany,
especially the Department “Travelling, Hiking, Holiday”
responsible for organizing trips. About four-fifths of
all trips were day tours and hikes. Domestic trips
organised by KdF lasted from three to fifteen days.
The total number of participants encompassed
400,000 tourists in 1934 and peaked at 1.4 million in
1937 (Baranowski, 2004,p. 121).
Only a fraction of the KdF tourists were able to
get on the prestigious high-sea voyages to Madeira,
Italy and Norway. Nevertheless, the Nazi regime
succeeded, thanks to massive propaganda efforts, in
creating the impression that normal workers could
enjoy such luxury leisure cruises (Spode, 1982;
Spode, 2004).
2.4 Development of the Resort Concept
In order to promote domestic travel in pre-war
Germany, KdF planned several huge sea-side resorts.
As early as 1935, the KdF travel organization recognized
that there were not enough accommodation capacities
for its far-reaching mass tourism plans. That
year Robert Ley announced at the Reich Party
Rally: “The Führer instructed me to think through
the possibilities of a mass resort for 20.000 people
and if possible to realize it. The first resort is
already being planned … total of three resorts are
to be built.” (Rudolf Ley, quoted in Frommann, 1992,
p. 292).
In order to create adequate facilities to house tens
of thousands of “comrades” on holiday, in 1935 the
idea was refined to construct up to five mega-resorts
on the shores of the North Sea and Baltic Sea with
a capacity of 20,000 beds each. The ultimate objective
was to build sea-side tourism facilities for appr.1.5
million guests per year, based on an average 10-day
stay per guest (Prora, p. 4).
Three locations at the Baltic Sea were identified
namely, one at the island Rügen, one near Kolberg
(Pomerania) and one in the area of Lübeck /
Travemünde. In addition two more sites were
considered for the North Sea region. However, only
Resort Seebad Rügen was designed and partially
built, while the other projects never even reached
the panning stage. According to Ley, the initial
costs for a one-week all-inclusive stay at the KdF
Rügen resort were calculated at 12 RM (equivalent
to 55 EUR) per person. Later the price was raised
to 20 RM (equivalent to 90 EUR), including train
travel from Berlin (Frommann, 1992, p. 293).
However, the planning of the new KdF resort
was met with reservations by other seaside resorts.
Owners of family hotels and guesthouses at the
coasts of North and Baltic Sea expressed their
concerns regarding the “cheap” competition from
the new mass tourism development (Frommann,
1992, p. 294).
At the same time, there early criticism was
voiced about the expected side effects of mass
tourism. Concerns were raised regarding environmental
pollution as well as the insufficient space for the
vacationers. The objections were related to the fact
that total space at the new resort was calculated to
be not more than 2,80 m² per holidaymaker.
3. Architecture and Concept of the “Seebad Rügen”
The gigantism of the “Seebad Rügen” to be
constructed next to the settlement of Prora can be
derived from the National Socialist ideology, but is
also linked to modern trends then existing in
The Controversial Heritage of the Early Nazi built Mass Tourism Resort at Pa in East Germany 121
architecture. The Cologne born architect Clemens
Klotz who also designed other Nazi monuments,
linked his Prora design to the most modern concepts
available at the time (Dolff-Bonekämper, 1999;
Wilkens, 1988).
Klotz based his design on the projects Obus and
Fort-l’Empereur developed by the architect Le
Corbusier for Algiers. The French star architect
envisaged endless houses of hundred meters height
and up to 25 km in length, which should frame the
coast of the Mediterranean, as a kind of protective
walls. The massive complex was to create housing
for up to 180,000 people and was to be linked by
motorways on the buildings rooftops. These projects
were never realized but at their time they were
considered to be the “avant-garde” of modern urban
development.
For the “Seebad Rügen” Klotz reduced the height
to six storeys, the length of the building complex of
4.5 km, and the number of inhabitants to 20,000. The
infrastructure facilities included in the Klotz design
were located on the opposite of the beachfront
behind the building complex. The resort complex
was to have two piers big enough for ocean liners,
swimming pools, shops, schools, a power station, a
hospital and even then ultra-modern solarium halls.
In 1937, the design won an award at the Paris
World Exhibition for the idea of promoting mass
tourism and its modern architecture of steel-
reinforced concrete, intended to withstand the rough
sea climate
The overall project included more than 6,000
rooms, a giant festival square of 400,000 m² and a
temple-like festival hall with a seating capacity for
20,000 people. However, only the hotel facilities
were actually built.
The social concept for the guest facilities was
modern and generous by the standards existing at
that time. For KdF-tourists rooms of 2.50 times 4.80
meters with two beds, sofa, table, chairs, a closet
and hand wash basin were foreseen. However, the
well-structured “endless” building complex with
numerous wings, pergolas and glass elements appeared
more modern than other buildings designed and
constructed during the Nazi era.
The architectural concept included unprecedented
tanning halls with glass roofs and indoor pools
artificial wave generation. These amenities as well
as the planned spa facilities were designed to allow
an extension of the regular tourism season even into
fall/winter times.
The concept of repetition, featuring the same
building blocks, in the same intervals with the same
functions gives these houses a place in modern
architectural history.
Many features of mass tourism, eventually developed
after the Second World War, were already envisaged
in the design of the “Seebad Rügen”. However, the
overall architectural concept was more monumental
and monotonous than at any other second location
ever since (Wilkens, 1988).
4. Construction Phase
The necessary land for the seaside resort near
Prora was acquired for the KdF in 1935. The
cornerstone ceremony tool place on May 2nd, 1936,
although at this time the tender for the initial
construction lots was still running. The early date
was chosen deliberately marking third anniversary
of dissolution of the free trade unions by the Nazis.
The actual construction work began only six months
later. (Spde, 1997)
122 Dieter Semmelroth
In the three years between 1936 and 1939 eight
hotel blocks and adjacent buildings were built. Nine
renowned construction companies (Philipp
Holzmann, Hochtief, Dyckerhoff & Widmann,
Siemens Bauunion, Boswau & Knauer, DEUBAU,
Sager & Woerner, Polensky & Zöllner, Babock)
were involved in the work. At the peak of the
construction activities, a labour force of more than
9,000 was engaged on site. With the exception of
Sager & Woerner (construction of the wharf) all
other construction companies built one block each.
The intention was to develop a type of competition
for the fastest Works among the companies
involved. The total building materials used for the
project equals quantities required to construct a one
meter high and 20 cm wide wall that runs around
the equator.
Already in 1937 it became clear that the budget
of 50 million RM (40 million constructions and 10
million equipment) set by KdF was significantly
exceeded. The KdF-site management estimated the
construction cost at RM 237.5 million (today’s
equivalent of approximately € 800 million to 1
billion €) (Rathke, 2011).
When the Second World War broke out in 1939,
building activities were largely stopped. With the
exception of one, all “hotel” blocks, the southern
edge of fairground buildings and the wharf were
completed within the building shell. Still outstanding
were the pools, the Festival Hall and much of the
infrastructure. Essential protection works were
quickly carried out on the buildings already erected,
before the construction finally came to a standstill.
The building materials already delivered remained
on site, suggesting a planned resumption of work
after the war.
Source: Ehemaliges Nazi-Hotel……
<Picture 1> Partial View of the
“Seebad Rügen”, 1941
5. Use of the Building Complex
5.1 During the War (1939-1945)
During war times, the unfinished resort was used
for military and training purposes and later as a
shelter. In early war years, parts of the KdF resort
served as a training centre for Air Force nurses and
a police battalion.
Starting in 1943, parts of the southern building
complex were utilized to provide shelter for refugees
after the bombing of Hamburg. Beginning in 1944,
sections of the resort were converted into a German
military hospital.
Towards the end of the war, parts of the building
complex were also used to provide temporary
housing to Germans who fled their eastern homelands
in the face of the advancing Soviet Red Army.
5.2 Post War Use (1945-1990)
In May 1945 the Red Army occupied the island
The Controversial Heritage of the Early Nazi built Mass Tourism Resort at Pa in East Germany 123
of Rügen. Subsequently, parts of the Prora complex
were used for the internment of estate owners
suspected of having supported the Nazi regime. In
addition, other sections of the complex housed
displaced persons from the German Eastern territories.
Parts of the buildings were dismantled and machinery
and other reusable items were shipped to the Soviet
Union as war reparations.
Between 1948 and 1953 the buildings were used
by the 13th anti-tank brigade of the Red Army. The
Soviet soldiers destroyed one block located at the
southern end and conducted exercises with explosive
at the two northernmost blocks. Later, other buildings
were damaged but remained standing.
After 1949, the East German People’s Police, and
its successor the Nationale Volksarmee (NVA)
(National People’s Army) of the German Democratic
Republic (GDR), used some sections of the building
complex as barracks. The Prora area was declared
as a military zone and closed to the public. The
corresponding conversion works to adopt the
buildings to the military utilisation were completed
by 1956.
During the following years, up to 10,000 soldiers
were stationed at the Prora military complex.
Among other service units, the barracks included a
Military Technical School. Since 1981, soldiers from
developing countries maintaining friendly relations
to the GDR such as Angola and Mozambique were
trained at the officer’s high school for foreign
military.
Since 1982, up to 500 so-called “construction
soldiers” were stationed at Prora. Construction
soldiers were drafted by the military but refused to
deal with weapons. Instead they were used to do
civilian construction work in the case of Prora, they
mostly worked on projects in the vicinity of the
ferry harbour of Mukran (Liersch, 2003).
The southernmost part of the Prora building
complex was used as a family resort for members
of NVA troops. In addition, the military operated a
convalescent home (named after the former GDR
Leader Walter Ulbricht), and children camps.
5.3 After Germany’s Re-unification (since 1990)
5.3.1 Early Attempts to Find Alternative Uses
After the German reunification in 1990, the
German army took over the Prora complex. In 1992,
the military use came finally to an end when the
facility was handed over to the Federal Property
Management Corporation. Since early 1993, Germany’s
largest building ensemble is fully accessible by the
public. At the same time the whole complex was
granted the status of a protected building under the
“German Historical Monument Act”. As a listed
building, early privatisations efforts failed. For most
buildings, only the absolutely necessary security
measures were carried out. As a result, the empty
buildings were open for vandalism and decay.
Between 1995 and 2005 various exhibitions and
documentations were presented in Block 3. The
so-called Museum Mile included the KdF Prora
Museum, the Museum of the NVA, the Rügen
museum as well as special exhibitions.
Between 1993 and 1999, Prora was the site of one
of Europe’s largest youth hostel, which provided
reasonable accommodation rates. However, at the
end of this period the Federal Property Management
Corporation did not renew the rental agreement
with the hostel operator as the agency still wanted
to sell parts of the entire complex. Since 2000 the
124 Dieter Semmelroth
Documentation Centre Prora is located at the
southern edge of the fairground. This is in addition
to special exhibitions including the permanent collection
showing the history of the “Seebad Rügen” Resort.
The focus is on the background of the project and
its appropriation by the Nazi propaganda.
In 1997 a development concept for the Prora
complex was elaborated (Arras, 1997). Eventually,
the property agency was successful in selling most
building blocks one by one: However, still for most
privatised buildings the final use was not clear. In
September 2004, Block 6 was sold for 625,000 € to
an unknown bidder. In 2005, Block 3, the former
Museum Mile, was acquired by the Island Arc
GmbH, which announced plans to use the building
as a hotel and a local museum.
In October 2006, sections 1 and 2 of the Prora
were sold to the Project Development GmbH. In
September 2010 a German-Austrian investor announced
new plans to build some 400 apartments for elderly
people, a hotel with 300 beds, including tennis courts,
swimming pools and a small shopping centre. The
calculated investments are estimated to € 100 million
(Rügen: Investoren). As the previously announced
development plans for Block 3 failed, this unit was
put up for sale again in 2010.
Other parts of the property were used for new
leisure facilities. Since September 2007, an international
youth campground with 250 spaces has been operating.
In March 2008, on a 3.7 hectare coastal forest plot,
a “high ropes and climbing course” opened. The
related investment costs was said to be € 460,000.
By November 2011 all blocks were reported to be
sold to private investors (Nazi-Ferienanlage…).
For an overview of the contemporary and planned
future use of the Prora complex and see the
following table 1.
BlockYear of
Sale
Selling
PriceAcual/planned Use Investment
EUR EUR
6 2004 0.625 Unknown
20083.7 hectar of coastel
forest used 400.000
as climbing and high
ropes garden
2007 Youth Camping ground
capacity: 250 tents
4 2011 Private Investor
Appartments etc
5 2006 Youth hostel (opening
6/2011)
capacity: (96 rooms,
402 beds)16.360.000
Exhibition Center
3 Unkwin Investor
1 and 2 2010Planned commercial
use100.000.000
Flats (400)
1 2012 Private Investor
Hotel (300 beds),
Leisure facilities
Source: Own compilation
<Table 1> Contemporary Use of the Prora
Complex, Cursive Planned Activity
5.3.2 Use as a Youth Hostel
In November 2006 the Federal Agency for Real
Estate sold Block 5 to County of Rügen. The new
owner built a modern youth hostel and leased the
facility for 40 years to the German Youth Hostel
Association. The County spent €16.4 million for the
complete renovation of a 152 meter long section in
Block 5 (Jugendherberge eröffnet. The youth hostel
consists of 96 rooms and 402 beds and was
constructed in compliance with the requirements of
the preservation act for historic buildings. With the
opening of the hostel in July 2011, a new chapter in
The Controversial Heritage of the Early Nazi built Mass Tourism Resort at Pa in East Germany 125
the history of the building has begun.
The hostel is the largest of its kind in the Federal
Sate of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and the sixth
largest nationwide. All hostel guest rooms are
overlooking the sea. Two-thirds of the rooms have
a private shower and toilet facilities. The hostel has
a permanent staff of 35 employees. The summer
months 2011 and 2012 were completely booked.
Also, for 2013 there are considerable “early bird”
bookings.
The State’s tourism association hopes that the
hostel will provide a further boost to the children
and youth tourism in the region, which currently
holds a share of ten percent of the total volume of
domestic German tourism. Already, the North East
is among the most popular domestic destinations for
German children and adolescents. In addition, the
hostel is expected to attract foreign visitors to
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. At present, the
proportion of foreign visitors is still below five
percent.
According to the hostel management, the new
facility will market itself as an ideal location for
international youth meetings and exchange programmes.
The hostel manager Dennis Brosseit announced: “Our
credo is: to feature all colours instead only brown
associated with Nazism.” (quoted in Jugendherberge
eröffnet). Plans exist for a separate training and
seminar centre in a building adjacent to the new
hostel, at an additional cost of three million Euros.
The Prora centre, located at the opposite end of the
building complex, already offers tours and seminars
a for guests and visitors.
In the Internet, the political right has praised the
opening of the hostel as a continuation of the
original Nazi idea to promote cheap holidays for
Germans. However, on the occasion of the opening
of the hostel the Minster of Social Affairs of the
Federal Sate of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Manuela Schwesig made it very clear that the
operator of the facility is fully aware of the
buildings troubled past and would not allow any
misuse for political purposes. The Minister stated:
“The Youth Hostel Association is fully aware of the
delicate history of the Prora building complex. This
applies to the part originally planned as a
destination for the Nazi mass tourism as well as for
the time when it accommodated construction soldiers
in the GDR.” (Schlesweig quoted in Jugendherberge
eröffnet).). And the representative of the new hostel
owner, Rügen County administrator Kerstin Kassner
added, “We will do everything to ensure that no
brown ideas can take root here.” (quoted in
Jugendherberge eröffnet).
6. Controversy about the Future Use
The above analysis has demonstrated that one of
roots of modern mass tourism in Germany leads
back to the era of Nazi rule in 1930s. The Nazis used
organized tourism conducted by KdF as an instrument
to mollify and control the masses. A key element in
this effort was the development of seaside mega
resorts. The capacity was set to cater for up to
20,000 vacationers at a time. Only the Seebad Rügen
Resort was constructed on the shores of the Baltic
Sea. Although the project design was modern and
functional in many aspects at the time, the overall
complex was very much inspired by the totalitarian
Nazi ideology and architecture.
After the Second World War this particular history
made an adequate use of the building complex
difficult. In former East Germany the buildings were
126 Dieter Semmelroth
partially used by the military. Soon after Germany’s
re-unification in 1990, the Prora complex was
handed over to civil authorities. In order to save the
unique ensemble the whole complex was put under
the historical monument protection code. However,
the authorities did not provide a clear and concise
concept for future utilisation. As a consequence,
many attempts to privatise individual building blocks
failed. Still it is not clear if the present block owners
have the imagination and financial means to develop
their respective buildings. However, innovative utilisation
and commercial development are essential to save
the Prora complex on a medium to long term run
thus avoiding further misuse and decay. Successful
new utilisation concepts would also be the best
protection against the danger that the monuments
could become a rallying point for “Neo Nazis”, who
still belief in the values and ideology of the failed
Nazi past.
References
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und nationaler Sozialismus. Frankfurt am Main.
ISBN 3-10-000420-5.
Arras, H. E.(1997). Entwicklungskonzept Prora für
Rügen: [Bedarfs-und Wirtschaftlichkei-
tsuntersuchung] / [S.T.E.R.N. Gesellschaft der
Behutsamen Stadterneuerung. http://www.stern-berlin.
com/. Berlin: S.T.E.R.N., 1997.
Baranowski, S.(2004). Strength through Joy:
Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third
Reich. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-83352-3
De Grazia, V.(1981). The Culture of Consent. Mass
Organizing of Leisure in Fascist Italy. Cambridge
et.al..
Dolff-Bonekämper, G.(1999). Das KdF-Bad Prora auf
Rügen. Ein Versuch über Architektur und Moral.
nn: Annette Tietenberg (Ed.). Das Kunstwerk als
Geschichtsdokument. Festschrift für Hans-Ernst
Mittig. Klinkhardt & Biermann, München 1999,
ISBN 3-7814-0419-6, pp. 144-157.
Frommann, B.(1992). Reisen im Dienste Politischer
Zielsetzungen. Arbeiterreisen und „Kraft durch
Freude“ -Fahrten. Stuttgart
Harms, F.(2007). Nazi-Propaganda: Wellness unterm
Hakenkreuz. In: Spiegel online 19. Juli 2007.
Liersch, H.(2003). Ein Freiwilliger Besuch-als
Bausoldat in Prora, 2. Auflage, 2003, Verlag
amBATion / Randlage, ISBN 3-928357-06-9
Rathke, M.(2011). Prora wurde den Nazis zu teuer.
Sächsische Zeitung online, 25. April 201
Rostock, J.(1991/1992). Das KdF-Seebad der
Zwanzigtausend Prora/Rügen. Herausgegeben von
der Gesellschaft zur Förderung von Qualifizierung
und Beschäftigung in Prora mbH.
Spode, H.(1982). Arbeiterurlaub im Dritten Reich. in:
Timothy Mason et.al.: Angst, Belohnung, Zucht
und Ordnung. Herrschaftsmechanismen im
Nationalsozialismus. Opladen
Spode, H.(1991). Die NS-Gemeinschaft „Kraft durch
Freude“-ein Volk auf Reisen? in: Spode, H. (ed.):
Zur Sonne, zur Freiheit! Beiträge zur
Tourismusgeschichte. Berlin. ISBN
3-928077-10-4.
Spode, H.(1997). Ein Seebad für zwanzigtausend
Volksgenossen. Zur Grammatik und Geschichte
des fordistischen Urlaubs. in: Peter J. Brenner
(Ed): Reisekultur in Deutschland. Von der
Weimarer Republik zum ‘Dritten Reich’,
Max-Niemeier-Verlag, Tübingen, ISBN
3-484-10764-2
Spode, H.(2004). Fordism, Mass Tourism and the Third
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Reich: the Strength through Joy Seaside Resort as
an Index Fossil. In: Journal of Social History 38,
pp. 127-155.
Spode, H.(2007). Some Quantitative Aspects of Kraft-
durch-Freude-tourism. In: Margarita Dritsas
(ed.): European Tourism and Culture, Athens.
Spode, H. & Steinecke, A.(1991). Die NS-Gemeinschaft
Kraft durch Freude. In: Zur Sonne, zur Freiheit!
Beiträge zur Tourismusgeschichte, Berlin.
Wilkens, R.(1988). Gebaute Utopie der Macht. Das
Beispiel Prora. In: Romana Schneider und Wilfried
Wang (Ed.). Moderne Architektur in Deutschland
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am Main: Deutsches Architekturmuseum 24. Januar-5.
April 1998), ISBN 3-7757-0713-1, p. 117.
Newspaper Articles-Weblinks
Ehemaliges Nazi-Hotel. nun größte Jugendherberge in
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, (2011, July 8), in:
Positiv Magazin.de, (visited 22 Janiray 2012).
Jugendherberge eröffnet. im NS-Baukoloss Prora (2011.
July 4), in: focus.de, (http://www.focus.de/ reisen/
reisefuehrer/deutschland/ruegen-jugendherberge
-eroeffnet-im-ns-baukoloss-prora_aid_642
Nazi-Ferienanlage. Prora ist komplett verkauft (2011,
November3), in: welt.de, (visited 22 January 2012).
Rügen: Investoren. bauen Nazi-Koloss um, (2010, June
6), in: Ostsee-Zeitung Edition: Ribnitz-Damgarten,
(visited 22 January 2012).
Submitted: July 10, 2012
Final Revision Submitted: October 25, 2012
Accepted: November 10, 2012
Refereed Anonymously
The Management of Tourist’s Alimentary
Needs by the Tourism Industry.
The Parameter of Religion
Polyxeni Moira*12)
Dimitrios Mylonopoulos**
Aikaterini Kontoudaki-MA***
[ABSTRACT]
Religion and culture are determinant factors in
influencing food consumption. The food sector plays
an important role in tourism and directly affects the
satisfaction levels of tourists. Food choices made by
tourists are determined, to a lesser or greater
extent, by the religious parameter; consequently,
food constitutes a significant factor concerning the
criteria on the basis of which a destination is
selected. In this respect, the tourism industry should
pay the necessary attention to the aspect of the
relationship between religion and alimentation.
According to the available data, this parameter
has not yet been fully evaluated when planning and
promoting destinations in a way effective enough to
attract tourists from countries with high spending
levels and distinctive alimentary habits which
conform to their religion.
The present study presents the alimentary habits
of tourists on the basis of their religion, explores
the way by which the various tourism companies
meet the specific alimentary requirements of
tourists based on religion, and makes suggestions in
order for the tourism industry to rationally adapt to
this reality with the aim of raising tourism flows.
Key Words : Alimentation, Religion and Tourism,
Halal food, Kosher food, Fast period
* Technological Education Institute of Piraeus/Greece Department of Tourism Industry Management, Greece
** Technological Education Institute of Piraeus/Greece Department of Tourism Industry Management, Greece
*** Greek Ministry of Tourism, Greece
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, Vol 5(1) 2012
Available on line at http://www.kasct.co.krⓒ Copyright 2012 World Cultural Tourism Association. All Right Reserved
130 Polyxeni MoiraㆍDimitrios MylonopoulosㆍAikaterini Kontoudaki-MA
1. Introduction
Religion and culture are determinant factors in
influencing food consumption. The term “culture”
could be determined as the common set of
characteristics, attitudes, and principles which help
people choose their course of action (Goodenough,
1971). Culture reflects a common way of thinking,
affects the way we perceive the environment as
well as the way by which we adopt or adapt to
changes (Schein, 1983). Culture “guides” group behavior
in all dimensions of human life and indicates
“socially standardized” activities of people. These
social routines equally comprise alimentary habits.
According to Atkins and Bowler (2001) and Logue
(1991), culture significantly determines the food that
humans are allowed to consume. Carmouche and
Kelly (1995) hold that the factors which shape our
choices of food consumption are social class, gender,
culture, race and religion-which also constitutes a
cultural factor. Culture is the factor that encodes
food as “acceptable” and then “permissible to be
consumed”, as “good” or “bad”. Additionally, culture
determines which kind of food and which properties
of food are socially accepted (Prescott et al., 2002).
Thus, for instance, the consumption of the meat of
dog or cat which is accepted in South Korea
(Podberscek, 2009), called Gaegogi as well as in
other cultures of Southeastern Asia (Cambodia,
China, Thailand and Vietnam) (Bartlett & Clifton,
2003; Podberscek, 2007), it is rejected in Western
societies. In these countries, the idea of consuming
this kind of meat is viewed as ghastly and immoral
(Podberscek, 2009: 617).
Religion always played an important role in food
consumption (Khan, 1981). Most religions have
concrete alimentary rules and in parallel provide
clear guidelines for the way of preparing food (Ηalal
or Kosher). For some religions (Islam, Judaism),
these rules are very meticulous, regulating what,
how and when a product can be consumed or when
its consumption must be avoided. Blix (2001) argues
that by the dawn of human civilization, the bonds
between religion and alimentation were very strong.
Generally speaking, as far as food is concerned,
clear distinctions existed and exist between “good
and bad”, “edible and non edible”, “prohibited and
not prohibited” in all civilizations and religions
(Kittler & Sucher, 2004: 13; Lupton, 1996: 29).
As said, in many civilizations we can observe the
voluntary abstinence from some kind of food, mainly
for religious reasons. Practicing this abstinence over
a certain period of time is called a “fast”. Many
religions permanently prohibit meat consumption or
over specific periods of time. Since ancient times,
fasting was imposed in many civilizations; for
instance, for ancient Asian people and for the
Egyptians, fasting was imperative for religious
reasons. The purpose was for the believers to be
prepared to participate in religious rituals, taking
place in order to honor or propitiate their gods.
As an indicative example, Herodotus refers to the
Egyptians who were keeping a fast not only for
religious reasons in the festivities of the goddess
Isis, but also for health reasons (Elder Papadopoulos,
1987: 51-57). This habit was legated to the Greeks
and the Jews by the Egyptians and then, to
Christians and Muslims.
In ancient Greece, fasting was rather limited and
was practiced by the participants in various “mysteries”.
For example, Athenians fasted only during the
celebrations of “Eleusinian” and “Thesmofories”
with a view to achieving catharsis/purgation and
lustration (Foundation of the Hellenic World, 2012).
The Management of Tourist’s Alimentary Needs by the Tourism Industry. The Parameter of Religion. 131
The Lacedaemonians, on their part, commanded a
general fast when they were to participate in battles
of war. In Crete, the priests of Zeus had to strictly
abstain from consuming meat, fish and foods coming
from these animals. Generally speaking, within the
framework of ancient Greece’s religious spirit, keeping
a fast reflected a way of lustration and purgation,
and was viewed as an experience that contributed
to the discarnation of a person, making him capable
to approach gods, that is to say, reaching “theosis”.
Within the circles of religious and philosophical
schools and organizations, such as the Orphics and
Pithagorioi, many peculiar fasts were also kept.
Romans and generally people of the Italian city-
states often fasted. They did so, mainly in adverse
times, when citizens turned to the gods asking for
help. Pompilius Numa, the legendary second king of
Rome (Zoula, 2003) fasted before making sacrifices
to gods. In another case, the inhabitants of Tananta,
beleaguered by the Romans (282 B. C.), turned for
help to the inhabitants of Rigios, who then started
a ten day fast in order to propitiate the gods before
setting out against the enemy. In addition, certain
fasts were kept in Rome to honor the goddess
Demeter and Zeus (Vatalas, 262-263).
2. Religious Restrictions to the Alimentation
The degree of a person’s/believer’s attachment to
the requirements of a religion depends on the religion
it-self, the religious dogma, the local religious community,
and his/her family and social environment.
The majority of religious alimentary advice fall
under two general categories: a) temporary abstinence
from all or some food (fast), b) stable and distinctive
alimentary habits which are differentiated from those
of the rest population. Religious convictions affect
our way of feeding as a part of our daily life or as
a part of a religious ritual. These rules sometimes
are indicative and provide loose guidelines and some
other times constitute strict rules with which the
believers have to comply (Moira, 2009: 76).
Thus, Christians don’t have strict restrictions
placed to their alimentation, namely there is no
prohibited food, a reality we found in Muslims or
Jews, at least not all year long. There are certainly
some restrictions to the consumption of food for
Christians, for instance, at certain times of the year
a fast is kept, abstinence from meat on Wednesday
and Friday, etc. In these cases, the degree of the
prohibition or restriction is differentiated depending
on the dogma (Orthodox, Romeocatholic, Protestants
or Anglican Christians). The sacred books of Orthodox
Christians recommend an abstinence from food for
about 180-200 days per year. The believers have to
abstain from consuming meat, fish, olive oil, milk
and dairy products each Wednesday and Friday
throughout the year. In addition, there are three
main periods of time per year keeping a fast: a) 40
days before Christmas, when it is prohibited to
consume meat, dairy products and eggs, while it is
allowed to eat fish and olive oil, except from
Wednesday and Friday, b) 48 days before Easter
Lent, fish can only be eaten for 2 days, while it is
prohibited consuming meat, dairy products and
eggs. The consumption of olive oil is permitted only
on weekends, and c) 15 days in the month of August
(before the celebration to honor the Holy Mary).
During this period, the fast follows the same rules
as during Lent, except from the 6th of August, where
the consumption of fish is permitted. The consumption
of sea-food (shrimp, calamari, octopus, lobster, crab)
132 Polyxeni MoiraㆍDimitrios MylonopoulosㆍAikaterini Kontoudaki-MA
is allowed throughout the year, snails, as well.
Consequently, the practicing of a fast for the
Orthodox Christians could be described as periodically
vegetarian with a parallel consumption of fish and
sea-food (Sarri et al., 2003). Symbolically for Christians,
keeping a fast-for some periods of time or days-is
essentially linked with temperance and abstinence,
which constitute an “exercise” for the body and soul.
Muslims, in turn, follow strict rules of alimentation
that are called halal (legal or permitted by God) and
are based on the Islamic Sharia (Shari’ah). The
Koran prohibits the consumption of pork and its
derivatives, of alcohol, various kinds of jellies (which
are comprised from pork grease) and of products
that have emulsifiers (e.g. canned goods). In addition,
many Muslims abstain from consuming frozen green
vegetables with dips, especially margarines, bread
and pastry prepared with dried barm/ferment as
well as soft drinks with caffeine (RMIT University,
2011). All the above mentioned food is viewed as
haram, that is to say, “impure”, and it is, thus, illegal
and “prohibited” (El Mouelhy, 1997; In Wan &
Awang, 2009). Furthermore, according to the Koran,
the consumption of sarcophagus animals and sea
creatures which do not have scales and fins (e.g.
calamari, shrimps, lobster, etc.) is prohibited. Finally,
even animals that they are permitted to eat, must
be butchered and prepared with a specific ritual,
referred to as the Islamic canons (Koliou, 2005: 64);
during their preparation, they must also be kept
away from other food. During the month of Ramadan,
a clear prohibition is provided (This fast constitutes
one from the five Pillars/obligations of Islam (Kerr,
2009). Muslims must abstain from all type of food,
water and drinking from sunrise to sunset. Exempted
from the fast of Ramadan are infants, the mentally
ill, the elderly, travelers (during their trip and if they
are to keep the fast later), pregnant women, women
who have recently given birth, and those who have
their period-they are to fast later (El-Ashi, 2011).
Moreover, Muslims are obliged to consume only
halal food even when traveling to foreign places
(Bon & Hussain, 2010). For Muslims, keeping the
fast of Ramadan is also essentially linked with
abstinence, an “exercise” of the body and “discipline”
(El-Zindeh, 2009: 56).
The Jews equally follow strict alimentation rules.
It is worth noting indicatively that the word “fast”
is mentioned more than 40 times in the Old and New
Testament. The exact words mentioned are “tsum”,
“innah nephesh”, “afflict soul or self”, i.e, practice
self-denial, nesteia, nesteuein. In addition, the notion
of fast is widely referred to the books of prophets
and in history books (Warren, 2000). Fanatic Jews
follow to the letter the dictates of their religion,
while the liberals casually diverge. The feeding
canons of the Jewish religion are known under the
term “Kashrut”. Accordingly, food that can be
consumed is called “Kosher”, that is to say, “pure/
clean” or “permitted” (Masoudi, 1993: 667). Prohibited
food is pork, the meat of horses, blood sport,
halieutics that do not have scales and fins, while it
is also prohibited to eat meat with dairy products.
According to the Jewish religion, as it is the case
with the Muslim religion as well, animals must be
butchered with a concrete way by a person who has
assumed this duty. Additionally, during specific
fasts (i.e. Yom Kippur), the Jews abstain from
consuming all types of food from one sunrise to the
other. Finally, during its preparation, food must be
kept away from any other food (Moira, 2009: 77-78).
Hinduists are in their majority vegetarians. They
often use to abstain from food prepared in a way
that had caused pain to animals, because something
The Management of Tourist’s Alimentary Needs by the Tourism Industry. The Parameter of Religion. 133
like this warms their “karma”. Even those who, in
contraversion to the canon, consume meat, they
avoid pork and mainly beef, because for Hindus, the
cow is a sacred entity. Besides, they consume dairy
products. We have to mention here that very often
there are alimentation variations depending on the
area or the country of living (for example, consumption
of duck and crabs could be prohibited or allowed
depending on the area as well as the consumption
of alcohol, onions, mushrooms, etc.).
Buddhists do not have to comply with strict
alimentary restrictions, since Buddhism represents
more a philosophy of life than a religion. Besides,
they avoid consuming meat (mainly pork) because
the Buddha is said to have had metempsychosis into
various animals before taking the human form. In
the West, most Buddhists prefer a vegetarian diet.
Some of them, also avoid dairy products (Moira,
2009: 78).
In at least three Asian faiths, Buddhism, Hinduism
and Jainism, vegetarian cuisine is a popular choice
(Salter, in Partritz, 2006:165). Vegetarian alimentation
in China, Hong-Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan
is known as “zh icài” (Buddhist vegetarian cuisine),
in Vietnam as “ ồ chay’, in Japan as “shōjin ryōri”
(“devotion cuisine”), in Korea as “sachal eumsik”
(“temple food”) and in many other countries it holds
many other names. For Jainists, a vegetarian diet is
obligatory. In Hinduism and in Mahayana Buddhism,
a vegetarian alimentation is proposed by some
categories of these faiths (Walters & Portmess, 2001).
In contrast, a vegetarian dietary is not obligatory for
Jews, Christians, Muslims and Sikh.
3. Religion, Alimentation and Tourism
Feeding represents an important part within the
chain of the tourism product. In recent years, food
consumption during a trip and the stay at a
destination has become an object of inquiry for
many studies. These studies often demonstrate that
tourists’ interest in food may play a central role in
their choice of destination (Hall & Mitchell, 2001;
Hjalager & Richards, 2002; Cohen & Avieli, 2004;
Long, 2004). According to Hall & Sharples (2003),
tourist spending for food represents 1/3 of the total
tourist spending. For Telfer & Wall (2000) too, food
spending constitutes an important part of the total
tourist spending at a destination. The choices and
preferences of tourists are recognized as very
important in the tourism demand and subsequently
significantly affect the tourism offer, such as food
import, local production, etc (Torres, 2002; Torres, 2003).
In the developed and developing countries, the
interconnection of culture, religion and alimentation
is even nowadays very active for large parts of the
population. These influences over the consumption
of food during holidays have been pinpointed and
evaluated by many studies. According to Pizam and
Sussmann (1995), Japanese, French and Italian tourists
usually avoid consuming local food at their selected
destination, searching for their national cuisine.
According to research of March (1997), food consumption
during holidays is deeply affected by cultural or
religions factors. In particular, he found that Muslims
and Indonesians require the food they consume to
be Ηalal (March, 1997: 234), while Koreans have a
strong preference for their national cuisine.
As said, many studies have demonstrated that
religions, depending on the degree of their strictness,
strongly affect human behavior as far as food
134 Polyxeni MoiraㆍDimitrios MylonopoulosㆍAikaterini Kontoudaki-MA
consumption is concerned during holidays. According
to Minkus and McKenna (2007, in Lada et al, 2009:
68), 70% of Muslims comply with the canons of
Islam, consequently also with those that concern
alimentation. Hassan and Hall (2003) studying the
attitude of Muslim tourists in New Zealand found
that the largest percentage (82.2%) searches for
Halal food; 39.6% of them declared that they would
prefer to prepare the food by themselves, since they
don’t have much confidence in the locals for the
proper way of preparing it. Furthermore, Ching et
al. (2005 in Zailiani et al, 2011) having made a study
in hotels of Malaysia, extracted the conclusion that
satisfaction levels of Asian tourists and especially
of Muslims heavily depend on the provision of Halal
food. In addition, market research by the Cypriot
Tourism Organisation, which explored the opportunities
of development of the tourism markets of the United
Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Kuwait, demonstrated
that tourists originating from these countries choose
destinations that offer Halal products conforming to
Islamic traditions (CYMAR Market Research Ltd,
2009: 5).
Moreover, Cohen and Avieli (2004: 760) confirm
that Jews, even if they tend to be more flexible in
the consumption of non Kosher food, are strongly
concerned about hygiene issues and they explicitly
refuse to consume non accepted food, such as meat
of dogs, cats and of serpents.
4. The Management of Religious Alimentary Restrictions
For the above mentioned reasons, the food and
hospitality industry takes many initiatives in order
to manage the particularities that the religious faiths
set as far as the alimentary needs of tourists are
concerned.
Thus, the alimentation issue linked to the religious
convictions of tourists-clients has led to the creation
of new “tourism products”. As an indicative example,
we refer to Halal Tourism (Battour, 2010), since the
tourism market of Muslims approaches 1.57 billion
people (Scott & Jafari, 2011:50). According the World
Tourism Organisation, a new and extremely dynamic
market seems to have emerged since the inhabitants
of the Arab Gulf spend about 12 billion dollars per
year on leisure tourism (SETE, 2010). In particular,
according to the UNWTO and the site Cresentrating,
tourism spending of Muslims in 2010 amounted to
60 billion dollars (in Bahardeen, 2011).
It is also worth noting that the searching of the
phrase “Halal vacations” in the internet (as accessed
in Google on 10/01/2012) gave 341,000 results; the
worlds “Halal holidays” gave 5.440.000 results and
the words “Halal tourism” 4.710.000 results.
Within this framework, in order to attract the
interest of tourists whose daily life is intensively
governed by religious requirements, tourism enterprises
focus on these kinds of services and products
provision in all type of their communication.
Hotels. Nowadays, many hotels promote “Halal
holidays”, such as the “Les Rosiers” in the French
Alps that suggests “Halal skiing holidays”. Turkish
hoteliers on their part, advertise their services
provision based on the triptych “Sea, Sun and Halal”.
The “Τurquhouse Boutique Hotel” in Constantinople
advertises that the food offered is Halal, Islam rules
are followed, little carpets for prayer are available
as well as instructions for where the direction of
Kibla is (The direction to where the believer must
be turned during the prayer-Salah). In the hotel
“Bera”, in Alanya, a separate swimming pool for
The Management of Tourist’s Alimentary Needs by the Tourism Industry. The Parameter of Religion. 135
women is available and all food is Halal. The
Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary in Australia, the Hilton
in Glasgow and the Intercontinental Hotel in Prague
offer Halal meals to Muslim tourists (Hashim et al.
2003). In addition, in Thailand and the Philippines,
many hotels and restaurants offer Halal food (Bon
& Hussain, 2010).
Tourism Agencies. Some tourism agencies form
“special packages” on the basis of religious convictions
in order to attract more clients. For Muslims who
prefer to spend their holidays in an Islam-friendly
environment, there are the “Islam packages holidays”.
To cite an example, we can refer to the British
“Crescent Tours” and “Islamic Travels”. The General
Director of the Crescent Tours, Mr Enver, stresses
the fact that “the Crescent Tours was established
with a view of offering high quality Halal vacations”.
All accommodation and services offered, fully
comply with the Islamic rules. In the resorts, alcohol
is not served, and facilities, such as pools, leisure
places and spas are distinctive for each gender.
Moreover, in all the private beaches of the resorts,
the Islamic code concerning attire is respected
(Sisters Magazine, 2011).
In Japan, the International Tourism Agency “Miyako
International Tourist Co. Ltd” promotes “Halal friendly
Japan”, highlighting the fact that the personnel is
trained in Halal issues by the Japan Halal Association
(JHA), knowing and respecting the particular
requirements of Islam tourists as far as food, prayer
and generally the fulfillment of their religious duties
are concerned.
In a similar vein, tourism agencies operate and
offer “special packages” for the believers of the Jewish
religion-the so-called “Kosher package holidays”.
These packages address personal travelers, groups
of travelers as well as enterprises not only in Israel
but also abroad. Searching of “Kosher holidays”
online gets 4,080,000 results and “Kosher vacations”
1.150.000 results. As an indicative example, we can
refer to the tourism agency “Kosher Holidays”
which advertises that the hotels with which it
cooperates offer Kosher food, under of the strict
supervision of a rabbi. The agency also suggests
Kosher cruises. To cite an example, we can refer to
a seven day cruise in the Greek islands with the
ships Golden Iris and Royal Iris, where Kosher
meals are served under the supervision of rabbis,
whose names are mentioned in the site. The same
agency offers holidays during the Jewish sacred
celebrations.
Air companies. As far as air companies are
concerned, they are fully adapted to the needs and
exigencies of the travelers, that is to say, according
to their religious convictions. Thus, they offer Halal,
Kosher, Hindu or vegetarian meals for persons who
follow a specific diet. Exploring the websites of 56
air companies that fly outbound (this research was
made by the authors from 01/11 to 30/11/2011 for
the purposes of this essay), we find that, in their
majority, they serve meals corresponding to the
religious needs of the travelers during the flights.
A percentage of 9.52% of the air companies explicitly
refers to religious meals, in particular Ηalal, Κosher
and Hindu meals, and the rest of the companies
refer to them generally as “special meals”. We note
here that the categorization of meals as religious is
not strict, since in some cases these meals also
comprise vegetarian meals of the Hindu type (for
example, Alitalia, Finnair, Philippine Airlines). The
air companies of Arabic or Muslim countries do not
integrate the Halal meals in the category of “religious
meals” or “special meals”, since all of the meals are
prepared in this way (e.g. Saudi Arabian Airlines,
136 Polyxeni MoiraㆍDimitrios MylonopoulosㆍAikaterini Kontoudaki-MA
Qatar Airways, Etiad, etc.). Moreover, EL AL airways
serves all Kosher meals, but also serves other kinds
of meals which are integrated in the wide category
of “special meals”. Often, the ingredients of meals
are inscribed with details in the websites of the air
companies, and especially the prohibited ones.
Restaurants. As far as restaurants are concerned,
there are organizations that provide labels which
certify food provision in accordance with the religious
convictions of travelers. To cite an example, the
Muslim Consumer Group (MCG) is a non-profit
organization that offers training for Muslims in
order to search for and recognize Ηalal food. The
organization awards a relevant certificate. Its website
is visited by Muslims in more than 90 countries and
there are 500,000 visitors (Muslim Consumers Group,
2011). The website contains a table of the restaurants
and chains of restaurants that operate worldwide
(for example, KFC, Wendy’s, Pizza Hut, Burger
King, etc.), and a distinctive coloration is used to
indicate the degree of products’ correspondence to
the Halal specifications.
Within this context, the national tourism organization
of New Zealand took the initiative to promote the
country as a tourism destination friendly to the
Muslim countries of the Middle East (Wan Hassan
and Hall, 2003; Wan Hassan and Awang, 2009).
Thus, in many restaurants of New Zealand, Halal
food for Muslims is served, which is promoted in
the tourism campaign of the country. In order to
attract a larger segment of the Muslim market, the
national tourism organization of Thailand proceeded
to the establishment of a special agency for the
certification of Halal food. This agency grants the
respective certificates to the restaurants that offer
food which meet the requirements of Muslim tourists.
Similar is also the course of action of the Union
of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America
(UOJCA)-Orthodox Union (OU), which is one of the
oldest Jewish organizations in the US. The Union
supervises and certifies enterprises that provide
Kosher food. According to the available data, in 2010
the Union supervised more than 400,000 food products
in 8,000 factories in 80 different countries.
5. Conclusion
Religion plays an important role in the alimentary
and tourism choices. Its role is increasingly recognized
by agents of international tourism. It is indicative
that the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, adopted
by the UNWTO, makes a particular reference to the
obligations of the tourism industry in order to boost
tourism. According to the code, the professionals of
the tourism sector have to contribute to the cultural
and spiritual fulfillment of tourists, providing them
with the possibility to carry out their religious
duties during their trip (Moira, 2009: 134).
The food sector plays a significant role in tourism
and directly affects tourist satisfaction. Food choices
of tourists are determined, to a lesser or greater
degree, by the religious parameter and subsequently
food constitutes an important factor shaping the
criteria on the basis of which a destination is
chosen. Consequently, it is necessary that the
tourism industry give more attention to the aspect
of the relationship between religion and alimentation.
According to the available data, this parameter
has not yet been adequately taken into account for
the programming and the promotion of destinations
in order to attract tourists from countries with high
tourism spending and particular alimentary exigencies
which comply with their religious convictions.
The Management of Tourist’s Alimentary Needs by the Tourism Industry. The Parameter of Religion. 137
Since the existing research seems incomplete, the
authors suggest further exploration of the field at
the national and the global level with an aim to
collecting more information for the choices, desires
and needs of tourists depending on their religion and
the degree that it affects their travelling behavior.
This consideration will lead to more rational and
effective promotion of tourism destinations.
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Refereed Anonymously
14th International Joint World Cultural Tourism Conference Date : October 11-13, 2013
CONFERENCE ANNOUNCEMENT & CALL FOR PAPERS
Organized by:
∙ University of Phyao, Thailand
∙ Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
∙ Tourism College of Zhejiang, China
∙ Philippine Society for Culture and Tourism,
the Philippines
∙ The Hokkaido Academic Society of
Tourism, Japan
∙ Ceta University College of Tourism, Spain
∙ Yasar University, Turkey
∙ University of Novi Sad, Servia
∙ University of Hawaii, USA
∙ Cape Breton University, Canada
∙ National Pungting University of Science
and Technology, Taiwan
∙ Tumaini University at Iringa, Tanzania
∙ South Kazakhstan State University,
Kazakhstan
∙ Australia School of Tourism and Hotel
Management, Australia
∙ School of Hospitality, Tourism & Culture
and the Culture Heritage Institute, Canada
∙ Technical Education Institute of Piraeus,
Greece
∙ The Korean Academic Society of Culture
and Tourism
∙ World Cultural Tourism Association
World Cultural Tourism Association, Hokkaido
Academic Society of Tourism, Japan, the Tourism
College of Zhejiang, China, CETA University College
of Tourism, Spain, Philippine Academic Society of
Culture and Tourism, the Philippines, University, of
Hawaii, USA, Yasar University, Turkey, National
Pingtung University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan, Tumaini University at Irnga, Tanzania,
South Kazakhstan State University, Kazakhstan,
Australian School of Tourism and Hotel Management,
Australia, Cape Breton University, Canada, Technical
Education Institute of Piraeus, Greece and School of
Hospitality, Tourism & Culture and the Culture
heritage Institute, Canada are pleased to announce
the International Cultural Tourism Conference 2010.
The aim of this conference is to provide a forum
for international educators, scholars, researchers,
industry professionals, policy-makers and graduate
students with opportunity to explore and discuss
issues in the topics on cultural tourism promotion.
We are sure that it is clear the findings of this
conference can be an effective and insightful directions
for cultural tourism development and planning.
It is our great pleasure to welcome all of you to
this conference. We welcome you all of VIP guests,
educators, policy-makers and students to this
conference.
CONFERENCE REGISTRATION:
All presenters and participants are requested to
register for the conference. Registration fees are
US$350 per person for registration before August 31,
2010 and US$400 thereafter.
Conference registration fee includes participation in
all conference sessions in three days, participation
in all scheduled meal functions and refreshment
breaks, opening reception, and a copy of conference
proceedings.
CALL FOR PAPERS:
The Conference will focus on a broad range of topics
related to education and research in cultural tourism
and tourism/hospitality. The Conference organizers
invite papers, abstracts and presentation proposals
relevant to cultural tourism and tourism, hospitality
management. Considering the theme of the conference,
A paper with any of the following or related subjects
would be appropriate for presentation:
Any kind of issues in cultural tourism and
tourism/hospitality/foodservice.
∙ Cross-cultural studies in tourism/hospitality.
∙ Emerging issues in education and training.
∙ Studies and case studies on tourism/
hospitality development.
∙ Studies related to marketing and promotion of
tourism/hospitality.
∙ Studies related to tourism/hospitality forecasting and
economic aspects of industry.
∙ Studies on social, cultural, economic and
environmental impact of tourism/hospitality.
∙ Tourism/hospitality and environmental sus-
tainability.
∙ Human resources development and educational
issues in industry.
∙ Financial models or econometrics of tourism/
hospitality.
∙ Operation of tourism and hospitality
businesses at both macro and micro levels.
∙ The gaming and casino industry.
∙ Community tourism development and rural/
farm tourism.
∙ Post-modern tourism/hospitality and contemporary
issues in tourism/hospitality.
∙ IT and Internet aspects of tourism/
hospitality.
∙ Other papers related to the theme of the
Conference.
Submission Guidelines∙ 300 words of abstract and 10 pages of papers
should be submitted for the final selection
process.
∙ The abstract and paper should be submitted to
the following
email : wctaabstract@gmail.com and
wctapaper@gmail.com
∙ Deadline for submitting paper is August 31, 2010
∙ Paper Review Committee will conduct a refereed
screening of papers.
CONFERENCE ANNOUNCEMENT & CALL FOR PAPERS 143
Format of Presentations:-Paper sessions will have about 4 papers presented
in each 90 minute session, giving each presenter
20 Minutes..
-Panel sessions will provide an opportunity for about
four presenters to speak in a more open and
conversational setting with conference attendees.
Submitting a Proposal:1. Create a title page for your submission. The title
page should include:
a. title of the submission
b. name(s) of the author(s)
c. department(s) and affiliation(s)
d. mailing address(es)
e. e-mail address(es)
f. phone number(s)
g. fax number(s)
2. Email your abstract and paper, along with a title
page, to wctaabstract@gmail.com and
wctapaper@gmail.com.
Receipt of submissions will be acknowledged via
email within 48 hours.
If you do not wish to email your submission, you
may send it via regular mail or fax to:
Prof, Jung, Sung-chae, Ph.D.
President
World Cultural Tourism Association
Dept. of Tourism Management, Honam University,
59-1 Seobong-dong Gwangsan-gu
Gwang-ju, Korea 506-714
Tel : +82-62-940-5582
Fax : +82-62-940-5582
3. Submissions will only be published in the conference
proceedings if at least one of the authors registers
and attends the conference.
Final copies of accepted papers will be professionally
published with ISSN number PRIOR To the
Conference.
Please direct paper submissions and enquires to:
Prof, Jung, Sung-chae, Ph.D.
President
World Cultural Tourism Associatiomn
Dept. of Tourism Management, Honam University,
59-1 Seobong-dong Gwangsan-gu
Gwang-ju, Korea 506-714
Tel : 062-940-5582 / Fax : 062-940-5582 /
E-mail : scjung@honam.ac.kr,
scjung50@hanmail.net,
scjung50@paran.com
http://www.kasct.co.kr
CONFERENCE ADMINISTRATION
Call for Papers (Journals)
International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research Journal of World Cultural Tourism Association
Journal of Culture and Tourism Research Journal of the Korean Academic Society of
Culture and Tourism
Specifications and Instructions for Submitting Final Papers for Journal
Ⅰ. General Text Requirements:
A. All manuscripts must be prepared in English
and free of grammatical, spelling and/or
punctuation errors. Please make sure your
paper is thoroughly edited and proof read before
submission.
B. All manuscripts must be the original work not
yet submitted to any other journals or
publications prior to the Conference. Following
the Conference, authors are free to submit the
manuscript for publication in any journals.
C. The conference proceedings will be pro-
fessionally reproduced on CD with an
appropriate ISBN/ISSN number. Final copies of
all manuscript prepared based on the following
specifications must be submitted to
Scjung50@hanmail.net, scjung@honam.ac.kr
and scjung50@paran.com.
D. Page Limitations:
1. Authors are allowed to submit a final paper
of up to 20 single spaced pages, inclusive
of everything (e.g., any tables, figures,
references and appendices) for inclusion in
the Journal.
2. Papers exceeding this page limit can be
accepted with an additional production charge
of US$10 for every additional single spaced
page. Papers exceeding the page limit and
submitted without the additional production
charges will not be included in the journal.
Prepare your paper using Microsoft Word
software on PC only. Submit your paper to the
Director of Paper Review, Dr, Jung, as an email
attachment (scjung@honam.ac.kr).
Ⅱ. Paper Format (also see sample below)
The paper should follow the following format:
∙ Up to 20 single-sided pages inclusive of all
tables, figures, references, appendices and so
on. The text should be single- spaced within
each paragraph but double spaced between
paragraphs. Do not number the pages but
make sure the pages are in correct order. Pages
will be numbered by the editor.
∙ Font Type: Times New Roman
∙ Font size 11 point.
∙ The paper must be formatted for A4 size (210mm
x 297mm).
∙ Set the page margins exactly as follows: top,
bottom, left and right for 1 inch.
∙ Indent the first sentence of each paragraph with
½ inch and align text justify.
∙ All manuscripts must be accompanied by a short
Call for Papers (Journals) 145
abstract of about 100 words and a list of no
more than six key words, which define the
subject matter.
∙ Consistency in presentation must be
maintained throughout the paper.
∙ Use tables and simple diagrams which are clearly
presented. Please do NOT use colour graphics.
∙ Please do NOT use footnotes and do NOT
list references as footnotes at the end of each
page.
∙ If the paper does not follow these specifications,
it will be returned!
For other details, please see the example
format below.
<Table 1> Profile of Conference Participants
Profile Frequency Percentage
Male 98 49.00
Female 102 51.00
Total 200 100
TITLE OF YOUR PAPER CENTERED LIKE THIS
* Your Name James Bond
Your Department’s Name
Your Organization (University’s) Name
Your co-author’s name
Your co-author’s Department Name
Your co-author’s Organization (University’s) Name
and
Your co-author’s name
Your co-author’s Department Name
Your co-author’s Organization (University’s) Name
[Mark * in front of the name of the presenting author]
ABSTRACT
Starting with “Abstract,” your paper needs to be
typed in one column as shown in this example. Indent
the first sentences of each paragraph with ½ inch.
Use single space within each paragraph but double
space between paragraphs as shown in this example.
Do not number the pages but make sure the pages
are in the correct order. Pages will be numbered by
the editor. (All papers must be prepared and submitted
in English).
Key Words : identify and list key words (maximum
6) which represent the content of your paper.
Introduction
The paper title, author names (full names and
institution only), titles (e.g., Assistant Professor or
Assistant Dean or Head of School, etc.) and degrees
(e.g., Ph.D., etc.) are not necessary. Title and author
affiliations must be centered as shown above.
Submit your final paper to the Director of Paper
Review as indicated in the accompanying instruction
sheets. All papers need to be prepared in Microsoft
Word and submitted as an email attachment.
Tables and Figures
Tables and figures must appear within the text
(not at the end of the text). Tables and figures need
to be numbered sequentially (e.g., Table 1, Table
2, Table 3, etc.) and they should bear a title (with
appropriate upper and lower case letters) which
explains their contents. For example:
Title of Your Paper Centered Like This 147
References
References must be listed immediately following the
CONCLUSION or SUMMARY of the paper. Use
APA style (http://www.apastyle.org/). Alphabetize
by author, and for each author list in chronological
sequence. List the author’s names exactly as written
in the source cited. (Please do NOT list references
as footnotes at the end of each page).
See example below:
Aaker, D. A., Kumar, V. and Day, G.S. (1995), Marketing
Research. 5th ed. John Wiley, New York.
Diaz, A. B. C. and Ruiz, F. J. M. (2002), The Consumer’s
Reaction to Delays in Service, International Journal
of Service Industry Management, 13(2), 118-140.
Pritzker, T.J. (n.d.). An Early Fragment from Central
Nepal [Online]. Retrieved June 8, 1995, from
http://www.ingress.com/~astanart/pritzker/pritzk
er.html
Smith, P.S. (2001, October 23). The Finest Dining Places
in Hong Kong. South China Morning Post, B1, B3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement is optional and should appear after
the references and before the appendices.
Any “appendices” should appear at the end of the article
after the list of references and acknowledgement(if
applicable).
Website : http:// www.kasct.co.kr
CONFERENCE ADMINISTRATION
Please direct paper submissions and enquires to:
Prof. Jung, Sung-Chae, Ph.D.
PresidentWorld Culural Tourism Association
Dept. of Tourism Management, Honam University,59-1 Seobong-dong Gwangsan-guGwang-ju, Korea 506-714
Tel : +82-62-940-5582 / Fax : +82-62-940-5582 /E-mail : scjung@honam.ac.kr, scjung50@hanmail.net, scjung50@paran.com
http://www.kasct.co.kr
ISSN 2005-6133
International Journal of Culture & Tourism Research Volume 5 Number 1
PrintedDecember 26, 2012
PublishedDecember 31, 2012
PublisherWorld Cultural Tourism Association
Editor in ChiefProf. Jung, Sung-Chae, Ph.D.World Cultural Tourism Association
Dept. of Tourism Management, Honam University59-1, Seobong-dong, Gwangsan-gu, Gwang-ju, Korea
The Place of IssueKorean Studies Information Co., Ltd.513-5 Paju Bookcity, Munbal-dong, Paju-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea 413-756Tel : +82-31-940-1062