Mechanical Devices in the Home - Forgotten Books

MECHANICAL DEVICES

IN THE HOME

EDITH ALLEN, M . A

Assistant Editor U . S . Department of Agniculc'

Formerly

Specialist in HorneEconomics in Kansas State AgriculturalCollege, University of Texas, and Oklahoma

Agricultural and M echanical College

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESSPEORIA, ILLINOIS

Copyrigh t 1922Edi t h Al len12 C 22

Printed in the United S ta tes of Am e

PREFACE

N WR IT ING this book, my aim has been (1) t o give in

I form ation which will guide househo lders in selecting and

installing the best cooking and heating devices, and in

using them with the greatest economy of fuel and safety

against accidents ; (2) t o explain the construction o f lighting

fixtures and how t o determine the amount o f light for health

needed in various places ; (3) t o explain the principles of coo l

ing ; (4) t o show h ow t o make small repairs which save plumb

ers’ bills ; (5) t o guide in the cho ice and care o f laundry appli

auces and cooking utensils ; (6) t o familiarize women with the

construction o f electric, acetylene and gas plants and engines,and (7) t o furnish tables o fmeasure o ften needed for reference .

There is a lack of material of this type which is non-tech

nical enough for the use of home econom ics students and

housewives . The material which I have o rganized applies

directly t o the appliances with which women work and is of

a nature t o fill their need in this field .

The book is designed as a text for senior-high schoo l and

junior-co llege classes, as well as for the needs o f home-demon

st rat ion agents, housewives and other women .

EDITH ALLEN

5 7 3 6 90

ACKNOWLEDGM ENTS

The author is particularly indebted in the preparation of

this book t o John G . Thompson, professor o f economics, Uni

versity of I llino is ; J. K. T . Ekblaw,instruct or o f farm mech

anics, University of Illino is, and editor o f Farm Power ; An

drey A . Potter, professor of steam and gas engineermg , Kan

sas State Agricultural Co llege ; J. M . Bryant, professor of

electrical engineering, University of Texas ; Harrison E. Howe,

National Council of Research ; M iss M inna C . Denton,home

economics specialist, United States Department of Agricul

ture ; M iss M arie Dallas, Washington, D . C . ; F . F . Good, in

st ruc t or in applied physics, Teachers’

Co llege , Co lumbia

University, NewYork .

The fo llowing is a list of companies furnishing illustrations ,data and other information

Am erican B lower Com pany .

Am erican Ironing Machine Co .

Am erican Lava Co .

Am erican Radiato r Co .

Am erican Stove Co .

Autom ati c E lectricWasher Co .

Baltim ore Gas Appliance Co .

Bates Edm onds Mo to r Co .

Bisse l’

s Carpet Sweeper Co .

B lake M fg . Co .

C . Brown M fg . Co .

B . Bryan Co .

Central Construction SupplyCo .

Central O il Gas Stove Co .

Cham bers Fireless Cooker StoveCo .

Ge o . M . C lark Co .

C leveland Metal Products Co .

Co lem an Lam p Co .

Conso lidated Gas , E lectric Lightand Power Co .

Cyphers Incubator Co .

Dangler Stove Co .

Davis Acetylene Co .

The DeLav al Separator Co .

Delco Mo to r Co .

The D em ing Co .

Detro it Heating Lighting Co .

Detro it StoveWorks .

Detro it Vapo r Stove Co .

A . B . D ick Co .

W . S . D ickey C lay Mfg . Co .

The Durham Mfg . Co .

Eagle Generator C o .

Fuller , Warren Co .

General E lectric Co .

Hamm ond Typewriter Co .

Hart Crouse Co .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 5

Herrick Refrigerator Co . Sears , Roebuck Co .

Huenfie ld Co . Sharples Separator Co .

Hum phrey Co . Singer Sewing Machine Co .

Hurley Machine Co . L . C . Sm ith Bros . TypewritingKalam azo o Stove Co . Com pany f

Kewanee Water Supply Co . Standard O il Co .

Klau-Van Pie t ersom -Dunlap . Edward L . Stock .

Landers, Frary , C lark Co . Thatcher Furnace Co .

Laundry e t t e M fg . Co . The Torrington Co .

Manning , Bowm an Co . To ledo Co oker Co .

Mantle Lam p Co . o f Am erica . Trenton Potteries Co .

H . G . M cFadden Co . United E lectri c Co .

The Monitor Stove Co . United Pum p Power Co .

National E lectric Supply Co . United States Dept . of Agricul

Northwestern Steel IronWorks . ture .Pacific Flush Tank Co . United States Radiator Co .

Po tom ac Power Lighting Co . Voss Bros . M fg . Co .

Rathbone , Sard Co . Walker Bros . Co .

Reliable Stove Co . Welsbach Co .

Remnert Mfg . C o . Western E lectric Co .

Rhinelander Refrigerator Co . White Frost Refrigerato r Co .

Ringen Stove Co . White M op and Wringer Co .

Ro chester RotaryWasher Co . Wi lcox Gibbs Sewing MachineRo chester Stam ping Co . Co .

The Yale Towne Mfg . Co .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I . COOKING STOVES

CHAPTER I . WOOD AND COAL STOVEs

1 . Air supply O f fire . 2 . The grate . 3 . Drafts or dam pers .

Starting t he fire . 5 . Keep ing a fire . 6 . Heating the oven .

Ashes . 8 . Ash chutes .

CHAPTER I I . GAS STOVEs 23

9 . Burners . 10. Simm e rers . 11 . Air m ixer . 12 . Regulating thegas . 13 . Lighting the stove . 14 . C leaning the stove . 15 . Accidents with gas stove . 16 . Pilo t l ight . 17 . P ilo t for t op burners .

18 . Gas-stove lighter . 19 . Am ount O f gas used . 20. Co ld-pro cessgaso l ine gas stoves . 21 . Acetylene stoves .

CHAPTER I I I . O IL STOVEs 31

22 . Purpose O f Oil stoves . 23 . Mechanical parts o f kerosene stove .24 . The burner . 25 . The ch im ney . 26 . Lighting the stove . 27 .

Managem ent o f the flam e . 28 . Adjustm ent and care o f the stove .29 . Wh en the stoves gives trouble . 30. Construction O f gaso linestoves . 31 . T o light the stove . 32 . Filling the gaso line stove .33 . When a burner blazes and canno t be contro lled . 34 . Changingfuel in vapor stoves . 35 . Operation Of vapor stoves .

CHAPTER IV . ELECTRIC STOVEs 42

Heating unit o f electric stove . 37 . Wiring Of stoves . 38 .

Operation Of electric stoves . 39 . Care o f ele ctric stoves . 40.

Utensils for electric stoves . 41 . Deta chable co oking devices .

CHAPTER V . ALCOHOL, ACETYLENE , AND CANNED HEAT 47

42 . Alcoh o l st ov es . 43 . Vapo r st o v es . 44 . Wick less st o v es . 45 .

Canned heat . 46 . Acetylene gas stoves .

CHAPTER VI . FIRELEss AND STEAM CooKERs 50

47 . The fire less co oker . 48 . The stones o f fire le ss co okers . 49 .

8 CONTENTS

Heating the stones . 50. Care o f the co oker . 51 . Other devicesbelonging t o cookers . 52 . D irections for using the cooker . 53 .

Tim e o f cooking food . 54 . Gas cookers . 55 . Steam cookers .

PART I I . HEATING DEVICES

CHAPTER VI I . WARM-AIR FURNACES 57

56 . Principle upon which a furnace works . 57 . The stove part .58 . The co ld-air shaft . 59 . Ho t -air pipes . 60. Lo cation Of thefurnace . 61 . Air . 62 . Pipeless furnaces .

C HAPTER VI I I . HOT-WATER SYSTEM OF HEATING 64

63 . E quipm ent for h o t -water heat . 64 . Heating unit . 65 . Them anagem ent Of the fire . 66 . The pipes . 67 . Expansion tank .

68 . Water . 69 . Radiators .

CHAPTER IX . STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS70. Equipm ent for steam heat . 71 . Steam gages .

valve .

CHAPTER X . FIREPLACES AND HEATING STOVES 74

73 . Construction Of fireplace . 74 . Managem ent o f fireplace .75 . Operating heating stoves . 76 . Care o f the stove .

CHAPTER XI . GAS , ELECTRICANDKEROSENE HEATERS 77

77 . Kinds o f gas heaters . 78 . Bunsen burner and asbestos-backheater . 79 . Lighting gas stoves . 80. Care o f gas stoves . 81 . I I

lum inating flam e and bright m etal reflecto r heaters . 82. Gas ra

diat or'

h eat ers . 83 . Managem ent Of gas radiato r . 84 . Keroseneheaters . 85 . E lectric heaters . 86 . Acetylene heaters .

PART I I I . LIGHTING DEVICES

CHAPTER X I I . ELECTRIC LIGHTS 82

87 . Kinds o f electric lam ps in use . 88 . E lectrical m easurem ents .

89 . Carbon lam ps . 90. Mazda or tungsten l am ps . 91 . Selectinglam ps for a ro om . 92 . E ffe ct of co lor schemes upon illum ination .

93 . Distribution o f light .

CONTENTS 9

CHAPTER X I I I . GAS LIGHT 88

94 .Construction o f m antles . 95 . Care o f m antles . 96 . Fixtures

for burning gas . 97 . Adj ustm ent . 98 . Care o f lam ps . 99 . Lighting a gas light . 100. Co ld-pro cess gaso line gas . 101 . Acetylenelam ps . 102 . Care Of burners Of acetylene lam ps .

CHAPTER X IV. KEROSENE LAMPS 93

103 . Construction O f kerosene lam ps . 104 . Managem ent o f kerosene lam ps . 105 . Lighting a kerosene lam p . 106 . TO extinguisha lam p . 107 . Care O f lam ps . 108 . Kerosene m antle lam ps .

CHAPTER XV. ALCOHOL AND GASOLINE LAMPS 96

109 . C lassification o f lam ps . 110. Gravity lam ps . 111 . Lighting the gravity lam p . 112 . Pressure lam ps . 113 . Gaso line lam pswith wicks . 114 . Al coho l lam ps with wi cks . 115 . Lighting alcoh ol or gaso line lam ps .

PART IV . COOLING DEVICES

CHAPTER XVI . REFRIGERATORS 100

116 . Principles o f refrigeration . 117 . The construction o f refrigerat ors . 118 . Lining refrigerators . 119. Insulation Of refrigerat ors . 120. C irculation in refrigerators . 121 . Drip from m elting ice . 122 . Arrangem ent o f food in the ice box . 123 . Filling andcare o f the ice box .

CHAPTER XVI I . ICELESS REFRIGERATORS ; WATERCOOLERS 105

124 . Com parative efficiency o f iceless refrigerato rs . 125 . Icelessrefrigerator . 126 . Sm all co o ler . 127 . Covered pail . 128 . Un

glazed earthenware . 129 . Coo ling with running water . 130. Refrigerat ing plants . 131 . Water coo lers . 132. Care o f water coo lers .

CHAPTER XVI I I . FANS AND VENTILATORS

133 . Selecting a fan . 134 . The constru ction o f the fan in comm onuse . 135 . Ventilator .

10 CONTENTS

PART V. WATER SUPPLYAND SEWAGE D ISPOSALCHAPTER X IX . PUMPS AND WATER FILTERS 112

136 . Suction pum ps. 137 . Care o f pum ps . 138 . Force pum ps .

139 . Com pressed-air pum ps . 140. Water filters .

CHAPTER XX . PRESSURE TANKS ; PLUMBING FIXTURES 117

141 . Pressure tanks . 142 . Construction Of the pressure tank .

143 . Care of pressure tanks . 144 . Ho t -water kitchen tank.

145 . Instantaneous water heaters . 146 . Heaters for tanks . 147 .

The elevated water tank . 148 . Faucets . 149. Valves. 150. Overflows . 151 . Traps for bath tubs and basins .

CHAPTER XX I . CESSPOOLS, SEPTIC TANHS AND CITYSEWER SYSTEMS

152 . Re leat iv e value Of cesspo o l and septic tank . 153 . Construotion Of the septic tank . 154 . The Size o f tank . 155 . D isposal o fwaste in cities .

CHAPTER XXI I . WATER CLOSETS

156 . Constru ction of water closets . 157 . Siphoning the trap . 158 .

The flushing tank. 159. Repairing the flushing tank

PART VI . LAUNDRYEQUIPMENTCHAPTER XXI I I . WASHING MACHINES 132

160. Kinds o f washing m achines . 161 . Suction m achines . 162 .

Cylinder washers . 163 . Ro tary washers . 164 . Machine withan oscillating washing device . 165 . Oscillating washers . 166 .

Lo com otive washer . 167 . Centrifugal washer . 168 . Care O f

washers .

CHAPTER XXIV . WRINGERS 138

169 . Ro ller wringer . 170. Care Of wringers. 171 . Centrifugalwringer or drier . 172 . Care o f the m achine . 173 . Com binationwasher and wringer .

CONTENTS 11

CHAPTER XXV. MANGLES AND IRONS 141

174 . Construction o f m angles . 175 . Co ld m angles . 176 . Heatedm angles . 177 . Care and use O f m angles . 178 . Flat , or sadirons .

179 . Charcoal irons . 180. E lectric irons . 181 . Gas irons . 182 .

Acetylene irons . 183 . Al coho l irons . 184 . Gaso line irons .

PART VI I . HOUSE-CLEAN ING EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER XXVI . VACUUM CLEANERS AND CLEANINGTOOLS 147

185 . Principle upon which vacuum cleaners work . 186 . Differentkinds o f vacuum cleaners . 187 . No zzle of vacuum cleaner . 188 .

Cautions in us ing vacuum cleaners . 189 . D ifference between handand power cleaners . 190. Carpet sweeper . 191 . M op wringers .

PART VI I I . DEVICES FOR PREPARAT ION ANDCONSERVAT ION OF FOOD

CHAPTER XXVI I . POTS, PANs AND OTHER DEVICES

192. Materials from which utensils are m ade . 193 . Alum inumalloy . 194 . Cast-iron utensils . 195 . Earthenware . 196 . Alum inumand graniteware . 197 . M ixing Spo ons .

CHAPTER XXVI I I . PARERS, SEEDERS, GRINDERS,SLICERS, ETC.

198 . Fruit and vegetable parers and knives . 199 . Parers whichgrate O ff Skins . 200. Seeders and Stoners . 201 . Cherry stoner .202. Grinders . 203 . Choppers o r m eat grinders. 204 . Choppers .

205 . Slicers . 206 . Lard and fru it presses , sausage stuffers .

CHAPTER XX IX . MIXERS, BEATERS AND CHURNS ;COFFEE POTS

207 . Use o f m ixers , beaters and churns . 208 . Care O f these devices . 209 . Freezers . 210. Care Of freezers .

~ 211 . Churns . 212 .

Drip co ffee pots . 213 . Perco lato r co ffee pots .

12 CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXX . DISH-WASHERS, CANNERS ANDDRYERS

214 . Dish dryer . 215 . C leaning Silve r. 216 . Canners . 217 .

Water seal . 218 . Pressure canners . 219. Use of the canner .220. Dryers . 221 . Care o f dryers .

CHAPTER XXX I . SEPARATORS AND EMULSIFIERS

222 . Cream separators . 223 . D ifferent types o f separato rs . 224 .

Washing the m achine . 225 . O iling . 226 . Whey separator . 227 .

Em ulsifier.

PART IX . SUNDRYDEVICESCHAPTER XXX I I . DUMBWAITERS AND OTHER HOUSE

FURNISHINGS

228 . Dum bwaiters and window ad justm ents . 229. Check valves .

230. Doo r fastener . 231 . Window shades . 232 . Hinges . 233 .

Sliding do o rs .

CHAPTER XXX I I I . SEWING MACHINES

234 . D ifferent types Of sewing m achines . 235 . Lo ck-stitch sewingm achine . 236 . Feed plate . 237 . Bobb ins . 238 . Shuttle bob

bins . 239 . Chain-stitch m achine . 240. Cautions for all m a

chines . 241 . General instructions .

CHAPTER XXX IV. AUTOMOBILES 192

242. Starting the m otor. 243. Driving the autom obile . 244 .

Care of car .

CHAPTER XXXV. LAWN MOWERS ; INCUBATORS 195

245 . Operation and care O f lawn m owers . 246 . Storing m owers .

247 . Scisso rs and shears . 248 . Principles upon which incubato rworks . 249. The body Of the incubato r . 250. Incubato rs heatedby a lam p. 251. The wick . 252 . Therm ostat . 253 . The therm om e t er. 254 . O peratio n Of incubator . 255 . Egg tester .

CON TEN TS 13

CHAPTER XXXVI . TYPEWRITERS

256 . Construction o f typewriter . 257 . Special features o f typewriter . 258 . Interchangeable-type typewriters . 259 . Car e O f

typewriters . 260. The hectograph . 261 . M im eograph andm ultigraph .

PART X . MOTORS , FUELS AND GAS PLANTS

CHAPTER XXXVI I . TREADLES AND WATER MOTORS 209

262 . Definition o f m otor . 263 . The treadle . 264 . Water m o

tors . 265 . Selecting a water m o to r . 266 . Two types O f waterm o to rs .

CHAPTER XXXVI I I . ENGINES ; MOTORS AND BATTERIES ; FUELS 212

267 . Gaso line engines . 268 . Figuring speed o f pulleys . 269 .

Operating the engine . 270. Po ints in caring for engine . 271 .

Generating electricity for hom es . 272 . Batteries . 273 . Liquidbatteries . 274 . A dry-cell batte ry . 275 . Storage batteries . 276 .

Som e uses for electric m otors . 277 . Definition tables .

CHAPTER XXX IX . GAS PLANTS

278 . Gaso line gas plants . 279 . Acetylene-gas plant . 280. Dire c

tions for operating acetylene plant . 281 . Cautions t o be Observedin using acetylene gas . 282 . Com pressed gases and o ils .

PART X I . MEASUR ING DEVICES

CHAPTER XL. SCALES FORWEIGHING 225

283 . E qua l-arm balances . 284 . Unequal-arm balances . 285 . Springscales .

CHAPTER XLI . DEVICES FORMEASURING VOLUME 227

286 . Graduate and m easuring cup . 287 . Tablespoons . 288 . Teaspoons . 289. Standard m easuring spoons . 290. Liquid and cooking m easures . 291. Dry m easures . 292 . Cub ic , square and linearm easures .

14 CONTENTS

CHAPTER XLI I . GAS, WATER AND ELECTRIC METERS 230

293 . D ifferent kinds o f m eters . 294 . Construction Of a gas m eter .295 . Reading the gas m eter . 296 . _Water m eters . 297 . Prepaym ent m eters . 298 . The electric m eter .

CHAPTER XLI I I . THERMOMETERS AND THERMOSTATS 233

299 . Mercury therm om eters . 300. Oven therm om eter . 301 . Maxim um therm om eters . 302 . Therm ostats .

CHAPTER XLIV . HYDROMETERS AND BAROMETERS

303 . Hydrom eter . 304 . Hygroscopes . 305 . Barom eters .

PART I

COOKING STOVES

C HAPTER I

WOOD AND COAL STOVES

Abrief explanation Of stoves is given in this chapter t o help

the woman with a new stove or with an Old one which she does

not understand SO that She may manage it without wasting

fuel and nervous energy .

FIG. C ross-section of cooking stove .

COOking stoves (Fig . 1) were invente d as a convenient

means for ho lding pots and pans in close proxim ity t o the fire .

They include a device for regulating the supply Of air t o the

z—No v . 22.

16 M ECHANICAL iDEVICES IN THE HOME

3 EAirSupply for Fire Aproper amount of air must be

supplied to the fuel t o produce a ho t fire . A smoky or yellow

flame indicates a lack Of sufficient air t o produce complete

combustion Of the fuel . Smoke is unburnt fuel . A smoky

fire does not produce as much heat as one which burns with a

blue or almost co lorless flame . It is usually not the fault Of

the fuel , but the way it is being used that causes a smoky fire .

2 . Th e Grate . Cooking stoves may be constructed for

burning either wood or coal . In both cases,the operation is

similar, except that more air Should be

passing thru the stove while wood is

being burnt . For burning coal,the

grate shOuld be less open in order t o

prevent the coal from falling thru .

Some modern stoves are made with

double grates . These may be turned

SO that the more Open part of them is used for supporting

the wood , and the less open part for coal .

FIG. l -a. Grate.

These grates are usually reversed by a stove shaker . (Fig .

1-a shows a detailed drawing Of a grate .) The housekeeper

must understand how this is done in order t o avo id reversing

them when She shakes down the ashes . Two difficulties arise

in reversing the grate when the stove is filled with fuel . The

coal may be wasted by falling thru the part intended for

wood , or pieces Of fuel may fall between the parts so that they

cannot be moved . When this happens, it is best t o let the

fire go out , take out the fuel , adjust the grates as they‘

should

be and rebuild the fire .

3 . Draft s or Dam pers . There are from three t o six

dampers on a stove (Figs . 1 and as fo llows

18 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME

5) A damper, or shutter, found in the pipe or chimney Of

most stoves, when closed , checks the draft up the chimney,and , when open, lets it pass freely.

6) The reservo ir damper, found on some stoves having

reservo irs, lets the hot gases pass next t o the reservo ir when

open and prevents this when closed .

4 . St art ing t h e Fire . If th e stove has a reversible

grate, see that it is adjusted t o suit the fuel before building

the fire ; then adjust the drafts . Open the draft below the

fire box, the oven dam per, and the shutter in the chimney ;close the draft above the fire box, and the draft which lets air

from the room into the pipe, so that the air may pass up thru

the fire box and directly up the chimney . Some chimneys

produce such strong drafts that the Shutter in the chimney

has t o be kept closed most Of the time,evenwhen starting the

fire . After the fuel has become ignited , the draft below the

fire may be partly closed so that it burns less rapidly. If the

fire is t o be used for heating water or food on t op o f the stove,it is now ready for use . If it is still burning t oo rapidly, the

draft may be entirely c losed , or the shutter in the chimney

partly closed . If at any time the sto ve smokes, the Shutte r

or drafts above the fire may be closed t oo much and should be

opened enough t o let all the smoke pass . Adding t oo much

fuel at one time and no t spreading it in a thin layer over the

entire surface Of the fire may cause the stove t o smoke .

5 . Keeping a Fire . If,after a fire has been used , it is

wanted for use later, close the draft below the fire box, open

the one above the fire box, or, if there chances t o be no draft

here,tilt the lids on the sto ve t o let in the air ; close the shut

ter in the chim ney and open the draft in the pipe that lets in

WOOD AND COAL STOVES 19

air from the room . With the drafts so adjusted , the fire

should keep a long time, as it will burn very slowly .

6 . Heat ing t h e O v en . When baking is t o be done , wait

until the fire is well started ; then'

c lose the oven damper . The

ev eness Of heat in the oven depends upon the even dist ribu

tion Of the hot gases below and on the sides of it . This is pro

v ided for in the manufacture Of the stove itself . The heat in

the Ov en may be regulated by the intensity Of the heat from

the fire as well as by the damper . Whenever a coo ler oven is

wanted , the flame m ay be permitted t o go directly up thechimney. Since ho t air is always seeking a higher level than

cold air, opening the oven door coo ls the oven, but it will no tprevent food se t on the bottom Of the oven from burning on

the bottom . In a closed oven, the greatest degree of heat is

at the t op, excepting sometimes the surface Of the bottom Of

the oven . M any stoves require the placing o f a thin gratingon the bottom Of the oven t o prevent food from burning onthe bottom . If food does nOt brown sufficiently on the bott om , remove the grating SO that the dish comes in closer c on

tact with the heating unit .

The insulation Of the oven door helps t o ho ld heat in the'

oven , but‘

the amount lost’

here is so small that many house

keepers prefer the convenience Of the glass door, which, inturn , saves heat by do ing away with the necessity Of openingthe oven door t o watch the cooking food .

Some housewives adjust the dam pers for heating the ovenand then never change them . They heat the kitchen in summer more than is necessary and use more fuel than they needfor cooking. It has been estimated that where the carefulmanager Of a stove uses one pound Of fuel

,the careless man

ager uses three and a half pounds .

One experiment station estimated that the househo ld coalrange is used on an average Of six hours a day

,if used

carefully, seven pounds Of coal is consumed . Careless man

agem ent , then , makes the waste Of coal quite an item in the

course Of a year,'

as it is not unusual for the Careless manager

t o use twenty-four pounds Of coal per six-hour day .

There is always some soot formed, even in the best-man

aged stoves , and the flame Often carries ashes with it. These

in tim e fill the narrow space about the oven and cut Off or

check the passage Of the hot gases about the oven . When

this happens and the oven damper is closed , the stove willsmoke and not bake well . NO stove Should be allowed t o ge tin this condition . The housewife can watch the accumula

tion Of ashes in the stove and remove them before they be

come one-fourth inch thick . If this is no t done , the Oven will

no t heat well ’ and some parts may be considerably coo ler than

others .

7 . Ash es . Ashes allowed t o accumulate in the fire box

will cause t he lining Of the stove t o burn out . Ashes will also

interfere with the heating of the rest of the stove . To

lengthen the life Of a stove, keep the ash pan em pty. If a full

pan Of ashes becom es hot , it wil l keep the grate Of the stove so

hot that it wil l warp and burn out , and sometimes cause

the oven t o warp .

If a housewife tries t o build a fresh fire in a stove with a full

ash pan, she will have t o wait f or the ashes t o become heat ed

thru before sh e can get satisfactory use Of the‘

Oven. She will

be unable t o regulate the temperature Of the o ven if it becomes t oo hot . It is a great waste Of fuel t o heat a large pan

full Of ashes .

WOOD AND COAL STOVES

A‘ UN ING ofFUEL bO X

JHAKfiR

FIG. 3 . Ash chute .

22 MECHAN ICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME

8 . Ash Ch utes . In some modern houses, there are ash

chutes which carry the ashes directly from the kitchen sto ve

t o a receptacle in the basement (Fig . These have t o be

installed with care . If there is a draft Of air which cannot -be

regulated from the basement up thru the fire box, the fire will

burn t oo fast . There should be a damper t o regulate drafts

here . An ash chute saves much dirt in the kitchen .

CHAPTER II

GAS STOVES

The gas stove is the simplest stove made . It consists Of a

burner or burners Of different shapes mounted on a suitable

frame . The best example Of a gas burner is a p ipe with ho les

punched in it, where the gas flows out and is se t on fire . This

pipe may be co iled into a circle and make a round burner, or

the ho les may all come at the end , which is arranged t o spread

the gas into a disc shape .

9 . Burne rs . Stoves are usually made with different

sizes Of burners . One manufacturer states that the gas

stoves made by his firm consum e per t op burner per hour

fourteen t o eighteen feet Of gas, and the oven burners con

sume eighteen t o twenty feet when the gas is turned on full .

Simm erers consume much less than this .

10. Sim m erers . Every gas range should have a sim

merer on it . This is a small burner, usually about an inch in

diameter . After a large kettle full Of food has been heated t o

bo iling, this burner may keep it Simmering for hours, using

very little gas . This burner will keep small kettles Of food

bo iling .

11 . Air Mixer . Gas escaping from any pipe will burn,

but it will burn with a yellow flame . TO make gas burn with

a blue flam e—that is, t o secure complete combustion— airmust be mixed with it . This is done in the air mixer (Fig .

The blue flame is desirable for cooking because it is hotter

than the yellow flame and does no t blacken the cooking uten

Sils .

Gas passes thru the aIr m ixer before entering the burner .

Sometimes the air inlet is only a ho le put in the under side Of

the pipe . The Opening for entrance Of air is shielded so that

the gas will not escape from the mixer,but will gO on into the

burner. A gas pipe looks about half an inch in diameter, but

the stream Of gas which is allowed t o flow into the burner is

Very small, in some cases being about

the d iameter Of a darning needle .

The opening for air is so large, that

a person ’s finger may be put into it .

TOO much air interferes with the

burning Of the gas ; in fact, there can

be SO much air mixed with gas that it

will no t burn . The air mixer regu

lates the amount Of air which flows

into the pipe . Once this is adjusted

for the kind o f gas t o be used , it se l

FIG. 4 .

of gas stove dom needs t o be changed . The airShom ng an

m l xers‘ Shutter has t o be changed, however,

if the gas pressure varies markedly from tim e t o time . Re

adjustment may be required if the stove is moved and con

nect ed with a different supply Of gas . When adjusting the

mixer for high pressure, artificial or natural gas, close the

Shutter until the flame will not blow away from the cone, but

will burn with a b lue, almost co lorless, flame .

12. Regulat ing t h e Gas . The amount Of gas which

passes into the stove is also regulated , first, by adjustment Of

the size Of the small opening thru which the gas must flow.

Once this is adjusted,it does not need t o be changed SO long as

the gas com es from the same source . Second , the flow Of gas

15 . Ac cid en t s wit h Gas St ove . Accidents with gas

st o ves are the result Of m ism anagem ent . The Odor Of gas in a

room indicates a leak in the gas fixtures,such as stoves or

pipes . When such an Odor is noticed , open windows and ex

t inguish all fires in the room or building . Next search for the

leak . It may be due t o an Open valve . See that these are all

shut tight . If no valves are open, send for a plum ber who

looks afte r gas fixtures . Leave the windows Open and do no t

carry lighted matches or

lam ps into the room until

the leak has been stopped .

M any accidents happen

at the tim e the o ven is

being lighted . Som etimes

gas escapes into a closed

o ven, so that it s Odo r is

no t no t iced in the kitchen .

This gas catches fire or ex

p lo de s when the o ven

burner is lighted,blowing the oven door open or Off the

hinges,flashing out Of the o ven, and burning any person near

the stove . TO avo id such accidents , always open the oven

and bro iler doors a few minutes before lighting the oven .

Fig . 7 Shows construction of gas-stove oven . If any Odor

Of gas is noticed on opening the doors, fan this out . Leave

the o ven and bro iler doors open a while after extinguishing

the fire and removing the cooked food . Gas may get into

the oven at the tim e the flam e is extinguished .

FIG. 6. Cleaning burner of gas stove.

16 . Pi lot Ligh t . M ost stoves are constructed so that

there is a pilot light for the oven . Always use it when light

GAS STOVES 27

ing the oven . It IS put there for the safety Of those using the

stove . There is no need for alarm when a pilot burns back,

no matter how much no ise it makes, since SO little gas flows

thru the opening . One Of

the functions Of a pilot

light is t o prevent people

from being burnt in case Of

an explosion in the oven .

Fo r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e y

should be at the side Of

the stove .

If the pilot burns back,

close it ; wait a minute , and

then try lighting it again .

The regular burners Of the

stove should no t burn back

if properly lighted by the

pilot . Be careful t o see that every part Of the oven burner

becom es lighted . Turn

t h e b u r n e r s o n fu l l

whi le l i ght ing them .

Afte r they are o nce

lighted , turn them as

FIG. 8 . Pilot light for gas stove . 1OW as deSiI‘ed .

FIG. 7. Gas ovens.

17 . Pilo t for Top Burne rs . Apilot made for t op burn

ers (Fig . 8) burns continuously with a very tiny flam e . Its

purpose is t o save gas, patience , dirt and matches . The

saving comes because the housekeeper can SO easily re -light

the burners that she will turn them out whenever She is not

needing the fire . Sometimes when the gas pressure is low ,

t he pilot light will go out . It can be re -hgh t ed by pres'

the valve as for light ing the burners and touching a match t o

it . If the pilot goes out , the Odor Of gas will be no t iced in the

kitchen until it is re -lighted .

18 . Gas-Stove Ligh t er . There are two kinds Of gas

st ove lighters . These differ from the pilot in that they do

no t burn constantly . One

Of these is so constructed

that it is first necessary t o

apply a match t o any one Of

the t op burners . The other

burners can then be lighted

by opening the valve in the

FIG . 9 Top Vl eW Of gas stove , regular m anner and press ‘

ShGW IHg lighten ing down on the lighter

knob . As soon as pres sure on the lighter knob is removed ,

the gas supply t o the lighter is autom atically cut Off

(Fig . The other lighter is made of metal which”

givessparks easily when subjected t o friction . The lighter is held

over the stove , the gas turned on and the friction produced

by rubbing one part Of the lighter across the other, making a

spark which ignites the gas .

19 . Am ount of Gas Used . It is claimed that feet

of illuminating gas produce as much heat as 50 or 60 pounds

Of anthracite coal or 4 gallons Of kerosene Oil . (See table

on page

The difference in gas bills, due t o management Of gas stoves,

is considerable . It is very easy for one woman t o use three

times as much gas as another in doing the sam e am ount Of

GAS STOVES 29

work . Some women do not realize when they are wasting

Water bo ils in an uncovered vessel at 212 degrees Fahren

heit,and no amount Of heat applied t o it will make it any hot

ter . When a pot Of food has reached the bo iling po int, a

smaller flame will keep it bo iling . Turn the gas as low as it

may be safely turned and still

keep the po t bo iling, and the

food will cook as rapidly as

When the gas is turned on full FIG. 10. S ingle t op burnerGas is a safe fuel in most and v al”

hands ; it saves the housekeeper much labor because it makes

SO lit tle dirt . When properly managed , it is the cheapest

fuel t o be had at the present time .

20. Cold -Proc ess Gasoline Gas St ov es . Co ld-processgaso line stoves require a burner fitted with valves in which

the gas orifice can be en

larged or diminished . TheFIG ~ l 0' a~ Ov en bum “ best Of these for using co ld

process gaso line gas can be adjusted by a turn Of the finger .

The adjustm ent Of the v alv eis t o compensate for the neg

lect upon the part Of users Of these plants . Very frequently

they will allow the supply Of gaso line in the carbureto r t o run

nearly out before they replenish it, in which case the gas

comes t o the burners in a thinner quality, and in o rder t o pro

vide the same vo lume Of heat,it is necessary t o adjust the

burner valves and throw a larger stream o f gas into the

burner . They are sometimes fitted with burners having side

sawed caps (Figs . 10 and 10-a) . These seem t o expose the

burning gas t o the air in a way t o make it burn better than in

other burners built for gas forced into them by greater pres

sure than is this gas . The opening for air must be adjusted

from time t o time so as t o keep the proportion Of gas and air

such that it will produce a blue flame .

21 . Ac et ylene St ov es . Stoves for the burning Of acetylene are similar in construction t o gas stoves . Tho acetylene

furnishes a satisfactory and economical light, it is not an

economical fuel when compared with kerosene, gas, wood or

coal . For this reason, it is not much used . It requires two

and three-tenths units Of acetylene gas t o equal one unit Of

natural gas for heating .

CHAPTER I I I

O IL STOVES

22. Purpose of O il St ove s . Oil stoves are designed for

the comfort Of the wom an who cannot have a gas or an elec

tric stove . They consist of tank, feed pipe and burners (Figs .

11-a and 11 -b) . AS they are portable, they can be moved t o a

summer kitchen or sheltered back porch on ho t summer days .

Oil stoves are no t foo l-proof and

should never be used by those who

are afraid Of them and who do not

understand them . M anufacturers

have done much t o make accidents

avo idable,and they send detailed

instructions with each sto ve . These

should be fo llowed exactly .

23 . Mech anical Part s o f Kero

sene St ove . The kerosene Oil sto ve

consists Of a tank Of Oil with a pipe

leading t o a ho llow ring-like cup be

low the burner (A, Fig . When

the burner is lighted,the Oil passes

down this pipe into the ring,where

it becomes heated and is vaporized . Fm . 11 , Parts of oil stoveAS the vapo r rises

,it is mixed with

burne r ‘

air and burns with .a blue flame . The small ho les in the

chim ney Of the burner and at the base Of the burner are t o

admit air . They must be kept open .

32 MECHANI CAL DEVICES IN THE HOME

If the burner is dirty or not properly adjusted,the right

amount o f air may not reach the vaporized Oil t o mix with it

and the stove will burn with a yellow flam e,making soot and

smoke .

FIG. 11-a. Large oil stove with oven .

24 . Th e Burner . The burner consists Of a chimney,a

wick or ring of asbestos,a valve or a lever

,and a ring-like cup

at the base of the burner . There are three distinct types Of

burners known as long chim ney, Short chimney and Wickless .

cup below the burner, or lower the lighter into the Oil . Wait

a moment, if need be, for the wick or ring t o become saturated

with Oil . Raise the chim ney and touch the lighted match t o

the ring or wick at several places . (Fig . 14,and Fig . 11, also ,

Show the posit ion Of the Chim ney

and wick for lighting .) Lower the

chim ney, seeing that it fits back into

place . Adjust the wick t o the proper

height t o get a blue flame (Fig .

DO no t turn very high at first, for, while

the stove is becom ing heated,the flame

burns higher and higher, and m ay begin

t o smoke .

27 . Managem en t o f t h e Flam e .

Turn the flam e no higher than is

Fm , 13 , Burner for on needed t o keep the po t bo iling . Som eStove ‘

stoves do no t burn well When turned

very low . DO not have the flam e

so high or so low that it gives Off

sm oke or gas . When turning out

the fire, be sure t o turn the wick

clear down , or turn the valve or lever

(Fig . 12) t o the po int indicated as

out on stoves which lift the ring above

the Oil . If this precaution is no t

taken,most sto ves leak Oil when not

in use,because the wick or rings carry

Oil t o the upper part Of the burner

where it spreads over the stove .

28 . Ad justm en t and Care o f t h e St ove . To prevent

FIG. 14 . Lighting oil stove .

OIL STOVES 35

trouble with uneven flames,set the stove perfectly level , par

t icularly the Wickless one . Keep the tank filled , but not t oo

full . Stoves are made so that it is difficult t o fill them t oo

full . An Oil stove cannot explode unless gas has formed in

some part, like the tank, and becomes ignited by heat or a

spark . Gas is more likely t o co l

lect in the tank when it is almost

When the tank is removed for

filling,any gas forming passes out

into the room and mixes with so

much air that it is harmless . If it

is filled before the Oil burns out Of

the pipe above the level of the

burners,no gas will be formed .

Stoves must be kept clean . A

clean sto ve means one with a clean

framework, clean burners,'

cleanFIG . 15 . Different types o f

ch imney,clean 0 11 and a clean flam es ,

wick or ring .

If a stove has no t been in use for some time, replace the o ld

wick with a fresh one (Fig . Clean the stove by wiping

off all the part s with a cloth . Keep the charred edges Of the

wick trimm ed level . The wick with a crust of char on t op

does not burn well . Use a match or small stick in removing

the char . Light the wick to see if it is even . If any po int

burns with a yellow flame, trim this place until the wick burns

even . The tank can easily and quickly be lifted O ff modern

oil stoves . DO no t re -fill near a lighted stove .

29 . Wh en t h e St e v e Giv es Troubl e . In case the stove

begins t o blaze and cannot be contro lled by the valves, remove the tank and carry it

to some safe place where the kero

sene In it cannot catch fire . When this is done , there IS less

than a pint Of Oil left in most stoves, and this will soon burn

out without do ing much harm ,if clothing and water are kept

away from the blaze . Open windows and doors t o let out gases

and smoke . If necessary, mo ve the

stove away from walls or furniture .

DO not attempt t o smother out the

flame . There is t oo much danger

Of clothing catching fire when this

is done . It is far safer t o let the

sm all amount Of Oil left in the st ove

burn up . Oil stoves cannot explode

when the tank is removed .

As soon as the Oil has burnt out

of the pipes and the wicks are

FIG 16. Inserting new burning with a dull glow, extinguishm ok ' the sm o ldering fire on the wicks by

patting them with the blade of a knife or a piece of woo len

cloth .

If a burner has been blazing beyond contro l , remove the

chimney . Brush out any soot which has formed . Examine

the burner,taking it apart

,if possible . Blazing may come

from wicks no t fitting, or from their getting so short that the

screw on the lever fails t o move them up or down . The ring

in Wickless stoves may no t be thick enough, or they may have

Slipped out of place, or become broken . Replace with new

wicks or rings .

OIL STOVES 7

Notice if any part Of the burner shows evidence o f

melting . If it does, do no t use this burner until inspected

and mended by an expert . If the lever has become worn so

that it fails t o work, it must be replaced or a new burner put

on the stove .

30. Const ruc t ion o f Gasoline St ov es . The gaso line

stoves consist of a burner and an Oil tank connected by a pipe

(Fig . The tank is elevated for

the purpose Of forcing the gaso line

into the burner . The pipe may be

any length . The danger from a gaso

line stove comes from the fact that

gaso line vapor izes at a low tempera

ture . If the tank becom es heated ,

producing gas , and then becomes

mixed with the proper propo rtion Of

air,it may explode if it comes in

contact with a spark . (Fig . 17-a is

an illustration o f the cross-section Of

the Red Star gaso line or vapo r stove .

See page Fm . 17 . S im ple gaso l ineFrom the pipe t o the burner is a burner '

very small opening, SO that a stream Of gaso line little larger

than the diameter of a needle flows into the burner proper,when the valve is open . The valve may be partly closed so

that the stream will no t flow SO fast .

Below the burner is a small cup . When the stove is co ld ,the gaso line flowing into the burner co llects here .

31 . To Ligh t t h e St ov e . The way t o light the stove is

t o turn‘

on the gaso line until it fills the cup below the burner.

When this is full, close the valve . Set this gaso line on fire .

As it burns,it will heat the burner .

The burner is heated so that when more gaso line is turned

on, this heat will change the gaso line t o gas . If the burner is

not hot enough t o do this, the gaso line flowing from the pipe

will flow down into the

cup and the stove will

burn with a sm oky flame

which becom es higher and

higher and l o o ks V ery

alarming .

When this happens, t he

valve should be c l o se d ,

and the fire perm itted t o

burn all the gaso line which

has co llected in the cup .

This may be sufficient t o

heat the burner . Test

after the fire has gone out ,

by lighting a match, turn

ing on the gaso line and

FIG. 17-a . Cross-section of gasoline touching the lightedmat chStove Sh OWing burner ‘

t o the burner . If all right,

it will burn with a blue flam e ; if no t , it will burn with a

yellow flame . If the yellow flame is noticed , turn out the fire

by closing the valve, and let the burner get co ld before at

tempting again t o light it . See that the burner has not be

come clogged with soot or dirt . Then proceed t o re -light the

Air must be mixed with the gaso line t o make it burn with a

OIL STOVES 39

blue flame . The air enters the burner through the same tube

that the gaso line flows into the cups when the burner is co ld .

In the burner are small ho les for the escape Of the gas mixed

with air,and here the blue flame Should appear, and nowhere

else . If it appears elsewhere, the burner is not working prop

erly . Sometimes the gas ignites at the po int where the air is

mixed with it . The fire should then be turned out and the

stove re-lighted immediately .

If the little ho les where the flames should be , or if any other

part Of the stove is clogged with Soot, it will no t burn as it

should . It must be cleaned . A dirty gasoline stove is dan

gerons .

32 . F i ll ing t h e Gaso l ine Stove . Never get Oil on the

tank or any part of the stove while filling it . If Oil is Spilled ,wipe it up

before igniting the stove . DO no t fill the tank

when the stove is lighted or when there is a fire anywhere near

the tank . If the fire has been burning, close all the valves

and wait until it goes out before Opening the tank . Close the

valve from tank t o pipe before filling . Fill the tank and cover

it before lighting the stove again .

Keep the tank filled . As soon as the indicator, which is

at tached t o a cork which floats on t op Of the gaso line, shows

that the Oil is low, turn out the fire and refill the tank . DO

not fill the tank t o overflowing . Gases from the stove can

only get into the tank when it is em pty and while there is gas

o line in the pipe t o feed the stove . Gaso line gas is very in

flamm able and will cause an explosion if it becomes ignited .

The tanks from gaso line stoves cannot be rem oved , as all the

jo ints must be tight t o prevent the escape o f gaso line fumes

as well as the Oil itself . The opening t o the tank must nev er:

be left uncovered , except for the few minutes while the tank

is being filled . The greate st care is required in using a gaso

line Stove ; in fact, they are so dangerous , that they Should'

be highly recommended for househo ld use . The description

and care Of them are given here because some persons persist

in using them when they desire a quick, ho t fire in cases where

fuel gas is not available .

33 . Wh en aBurner B lazes and Cannot Be Cont roll ed .

When a gaso line stove burner blazes and cannot be contro lled,

first close the valve leading from the tank into the pipe .

There will then be little gaso line t o burn, and no gases can

get back into the tank .

Keep clothing and water away from the blaze . Remember that

the stove is set on a metal frame which is not inflammable .

Shield walls and other Objects so that the burner may blaze

high without do ing damage . Clothing catches fire easily,

but the metal stove will not be consumed .

If the valves are Shut,the blaze will cease when the gaso line

has burnt out Of the burner and pipe . If the gaso line contin

ues t o flow out of the burner in spite Of turning the valve and

there is a danger Of its spreading t o the floor or table, se t a

shallow pan under the stove t o catch the gaso line . It can

burn in this way with considerable safety . Do not attempt

t o carry a burning stove . Simply protect floor, walls and fur

niture from catching fire, and let the gaso line burn .

34 . Ch anging Fue l in Vapor St ov es . There are some

stoves which are interchangeable, in that they may be ad

justed t o burn kerosene , gaso line or distillate . These are Of

the type called “ vapor” because they change the Oil t o gas be

fore it is ignited . A change from one kind Of fuel t o another

CHAPTER IV

ELECTRIC STOVES

Electric stoves consist Of frame, heating unit and switches

t o regulate the flow of current. Some are equipped with

oven, thermometers and special utensils (Fig.

FIG. 18 . Stove equipped with utensils .

36 . Heat ing Unit o f El ec t ric St ov e . The heating unit

consists o f co ils of wire or a plate of metal thru which the cur

rent flows, meeting resistance and producing heat. If the

ELECTRI C STOVES 43

current flowed freely thru the wires , little heatwould be gene

rated (Figs . 19 and

37 . Wiring o f St ov es . It is advocated“ that a separate

circuit of heavy wire be put into all houses where current is

used for purposes other than light

ing, t o provide for cooking and power

connections .

TOO heavy loading of wires with

electric appliances causes the burning

of fuses and sometimes damages the FIG. Heating unit ofelectric stove .

electric system . F ind out how much

current the wiring of the house will carry before attaching

new devices . There is danger o f fire if t oo much current is

allowed t o pas s over a wire Of t oo sm all size .

38 . Operat ion of El ec t ric St ov es . M any stoves are

with a switch which permits different amounts Of

FIG. 20. Heating unit of electric stove .

current t o pass thru the stove according t o the way the device

is set . At one po int it gives low heat another, medium,and

a third, high heat, and , lastly, no heat .

The cooking o f food on an open burner should be started

with high heat turned on SO that the food m ay cook quickly .

I f a large amount of food is cooking, there will be so much

radiation from the vessel that it may require all the current

t o keep it cooking . After food has started cooking, the switch

can be turned t o medium,and

,later

, t o low,depending upon

the amount o f food and th e temperature desired . Low will

keep an o rdinary pan o f water bo iling, once it has started .

A few minutes before the food is t o be removed from theopen burner, the current should be turned Off, as the heat in

the stove will continue the cooking for several minutes . From

tests Of electric stoves,it appears that in most Of them the

food will continue t o cook after the switch is turned Off for

about the same number ofminutes that it requires t o raise the

heating unit t o a temperature sufficient t o bo il water in a

small Shallow pan . A housekeeper who is using electricity

for cooking can soon learn how long the open burners and

o ven o f her stove will keep food cooking after the current is

turned O ff , and by putting this information t o use , She can

save many do llars in a year .

39 . Care of El ec t ric St ov es . When thru with a stove ,always turn Off the current. Great care Should be taken that

the stoves do no t become o verheated . This shortens the life

o f the stove .

Sudden Cooling Of the co ils o f wire caused by liquids spilling

on them,and corrosion Of the wires caused by dampness , wear

out stoves faster than need be . DO not wash or brush dirt

from burners having open co ils Of wire . Burn all dirt from

the burners .

40. Ut ensils for Elec t ric St ov es. The most economical

use of electricity can be secured with utensils built around the

ELECTRI C STOVES 5

heating units (Figs . 20 and and the next most economical

use with utensils built especially t o fit the heating units . This

means that there would be a heating unit for each utensil, or

size of utensil, and the expense o f equipment would be c on

siderable . Also , more care would be needed in washing the

utensils and in preventing

them from becoming bent .

Such facts must be consid

ered in choosing between

stoves with special devices

and those onwhich anypan

may be set . After install

ing an electric stove , start

with new utensils becausethey Will no t blacken on

FIG . 21. Utensil with heating unit .

an electric stove , and SO can be washed with the other

dishes .

When ordinary househo ld utensils are used , they Should be

Of such Shape that they stand flat, as they also Should on a coal

range . The most economical use Of heat is secured when the

area Of heat is smaller than the area of the bottom o f the ket

tle and is concentrated on the utensil . Care should be taken

when stoves are installed , that they are properly grounded so

that they cannot burn any one . A light bulb is attached t osom e stoves so that when the current is on the light burns,and when it is Off, the light goes out . Such a light should be

on all large stoves .

41 . De t ach abl e Cook ing Dev ic es . Cooking and heat

lng devices should have larger wires than those for lightingalone . Consequently, the attachment of a heating device in

a common light socket may cause burning out of fuses or other

damage .

One danger in using detachable electric devices occurs in

not turn ing Off the current when the stove is not in use , thus

permitting it t o becom e overheated . This Shortens the life

Of the sto ve .

Any tendency Of a stove or other electric device t o give

people a Shock when being used Should be taken as a warning

t o have the device examined by an expert and the trouble

corrected . Have the wires repa ired as soon as the insulation

breaks or burns O ff . Uninsulated W ires, such as cables and

cords , are unsafe .

CHAPTER V

ALCOHOL, ACETYLENE , AND CANNED HEAT

42 . Al coh o l St oves . Alcoho l sto ves are made only in

small sizes for light housekeeping . There are three general

types Of these—those which burn with a wick, those whichgenerate gas

,and those which permit the alcoho l t o burn Off

of the t op surface of the container .

Alcoho l does no t produce much smoke in burning, evenwhen no provision is made for mixing air with it . The o rdi

nary alcoho l lamp, having a wick, may be used as a heating

stove . Stoves with wicks draw the alcoho l up by capillaryattraction t o the po int Of ignition , and themetal jacket about

the wick prevents the fire burning back into the bowl con

taining the alcoho l . The char from the t op Of the wick must

be brushed Off from time t o time . NO other care is needed

for these stoves or lamps . Some Of them are pro v ided with

devices for checking the burning Of the alcoho l in o rder t o

regulate the heat . This is desirable since a small flame o f

alcoho l produces much heat .

Extinguish the fire by covering the wick with a metal cup .

43 . Vapor St ov es . Alcoho l vapo r stoves which generate

gas ho ld the alcoho l in a tank slightly raised above the level Of

the burner. A pipe leads from this t o the burner,where a

small stream Of alcoho l is permitted t o enter when the valveis open .

When starting these stoves,the valve is first Opened and

enough alcoho l allowed t o flow out t o fill a cup which is below

the burner . This generally ho lds about a tablespoonful Of

alcoho l . When the cup is full , the valve is closed and the

alcoho l in the cup ignited .

This heats the burner enough t o vaporize the alcoho l .

When the burner is heated , open the valve and ignite the gas .

If all the alcoho l is no t vaporized, the burner has no t been

heated ho t enough . Close the valve until all the alcoho l inthe cup is burnt .

44 . Wick l ess St o v es . Wickless alcoho l stoves are used

commonly on chafing dishes . The burner of one type con

sists of a metal dish packed with a porous material which is

non-inflamm able , but a good conductor Of liquids by capillary

attraction , and the t op is covered o ver by a wire screen . The

alcoho l is poured into the dish . The packing and screen pre

vent air from ent ering the bowl with sufficient rapidity t o let

the fire burn below the screen SO the flame stays above it,

burning Off any alcoho l which is conducted t o the surface .

The only possible way t o contro l these sto ves is by a device

which can cut Off air . One of these is a plate-like device witha handle . This fits over the stove and only that portion Ofthe t op burns which is exposed t o air thru the ho le in the

plate . M aking the ho le larger o r smaller makes the burn ing

surface larger or sm aller .

To extinguish the fire, cover the entire t op with a so lid

plate t o cut Off all air .

45 . Canned Heat . Canned heat is alcoho l combinedwith other substances into a cake about the consistency o f

hard soap . The co ver t o the can is used t o extinguish the

fire . It Should no t be fitted into the t op Of the can until the

flame has been extinguished for two or three seconds . Then

CHAPTER VI

FIRELESS AND STEAM COOKERS

47 . Th e Fire l ess Cook er . The fire less cooker Is a boxor can having a diameter som ewhat larger than that of the

largest vessel t o be placed in it . The space left around the

vessel is packed with some insulating material t o keep in the

heat (Fig . In home-m ade cookers, this material may be

hay, feathers , pillows, shredded newspapers, wo od Shavings

or sawdust.In commercially-made cookers, it is felt, ashes

t os woo l, cork, or other insulating material . Because most

insulating material will no t stay in place and readily absorbs

mo isture and Odors, some kind Of lining is put between it and

the vessel ho lding the food . This makes a little nest, into

which the vessel fits . In the better made cookers , this lining

is made Of metal , and the seams are water-tight .

The steam from the cooking foOd is absorbed by the insu

lating material if this lining is not impervious t o water.

Enameled or earthen linings, if well glazed , would also serve

this purpose as long as they did not chip or crack .

The cover, as well as the sides, Of the fire less cooker has t o

be padded with the insulating material . The cover must also

fit well SO that the steam and heat will no t escape thru cracks

between it and the body of the cooker.

48 . Th e St ones of Firel ess Cook ers . The stones for

fire less cookers are usually made Of soapstone or some com

posit e which will absorb considerable heat . They should be

slightly smaller in diameter than the nest . They can only be

used with safety in cookers which are metal-lined and insu

FIRELESS AND STEAM COOKERS 51

lated with material which will not ignite at a low temperature .

Stones should no t be put in home-made cookers which are not

insulated with asbestos or other fireproof material . Hot

stones can be used with safety in any of the commercial cook

ers which come fitted with them .

The temperature in a fire less cooker is below bo iling most

FIG. 22. Section of fireless cooker.

of the time . It is, therefore , a device for Simmering food,and Should be used for cooking meats

,fruits, vegetablesand

cereal dishes which require or are improved by long,slow

cooking .

Since the food has t o be shut in a fire less cooker t o keep in

the heat, fire less cookery is a method of steaming of food .

For this reason, I t has a slightly different flavor from food

baked in the oven, much as fried food differs from roasted

food . Hot Stones (Fig . 22) are put in mo st fire less cookers .

The heat from these brown the food and give t o the otherwise

steamed food a flavor similar t o that developed in bak ing,roasting and frying.

49 . Heat ing t h e St ones . M o isture given Off by the

cooking food is absorbed by the stones . They must be dried

or heated very slowly t o prevent this mo isture from crackingthem . When the stones have been removed from the cooker

wash them , because they absorb Odors from the food . Keep

them in som e warm, dry place while they are no t in use , such

as in the warming oven Of the cook sto ve or on a radiator .

When wanted for use , they will then be dry enough t o be

placed over the gas-stove burner if it is not turned t oo high at

first . Drying thus saves tim e when the stones are needed .

50. Care of t h e Cook er . The cooker Should be left

open t o air while no t in use .As soon as the food_and stones are

removed from it, t he mo isture should be wiped out and the

inside washed with soap and'

wat er, wiped dry and left t o air .

Such care is needed t o prevent the cooker from taking on the

Odor Of dishes previously cooked and transmitting som e of

them t o those cooked later .

51 . O t h er Dev ic es Be longing t o Cook ers . In most

commercial cookers there are wire devices t o raise the dishesOf food from the stone (Fig . 23) This prevents scorching and

bo iling over when the stones are heated very ho t . These de

vices are also used t o ho ld a hot stone above the food t o make

a brown crust on it . Some cookers are furnished with valves,permitting the escape of steam when it becomes t oo abundant .

The pressure of the steam automatically opens the valve .

This device insures the cooking Of certain vegetables, cereals

or doughs without their becoming t oo soggy t o be palatable

(A,Fig .

52 . Direc t ions for Using t h e Cooker . Put the stones

on t o heat . Prepare the food as for cooking in any other way .

Then heat it , either in the oven or on t op Of t he st ove . It is

preferable t o heat the food in the same Vessel in which it is t obe cooked in the fire less cooker. Transferring food t o a co ld

FIG. 23 . Devi ces for fire less co oker .

vessel entails a loss Of heat,Since the first Vessel is already

,When the stones and food are hot , place the stone in thebottom of the cooker. Put in any asbestos mats or other

devices which are needed t o protect the food . The stone should

be hot enough t o respond t o the te st for flat irons . It Should

make the Snappy no ise Of a good hot iron when the finger is

mo istened and touched t o it . Place the food in the cooker .

Place another stone above the utensil if it is desirable t o have

FIG. 24 . Gas co okers .

the food brown on t op . Close the fire less cooker, and let it

stand until ready for use .

53 . Tim e of Cook ing Food . Six hours or over night

Should be allowed for the cooking O f cereals . Stews Should

be given two t o three hours’

time for cooking .

Large roasts and hams require five t o six hours . It is

sometimes necessary, when they are large, t o remove them

and heat the food and the stones on the stove once during the

process Of cooking Dumplings and angel cakes cook well in a

fire less cooker . So do all dried peas and beans .

It is profitable t o cook foods requiring more than forty

minute s ’ heating in a fire less cooker . The heating unit is a

part of some cookers .

Electric cookers , instead Ofbeing furnished with stones t o

be put inside the nest, have a heating unit and plate for ho ld

ing heat in the cooker.

Co ld food may be put in

t o this cooker, the current

turned on,and the heat

ing and cooking all be

done inside the cooker.

The electric oven which

is well insulated answersthe purpose of a fire less

cooker when the current

is disconnected . Either a

thermometer, which the

housewife may watch, or

thermostat, which con

tro ls the current, must be

attached t o electric cook

ers t o prevent burning

the food or injuring the cooker with t oo much heat .

FIG. 25 . Steam cooker .

54 . Gas Cook ers. Since heated air rises, special cookers

in the fo rm Of insulated caps are made t o put over dishes Of

food heated on gas burners (Fig .

The inside of the cap must be kept clean . Ge t the dishes

hot with the cap suspended over the food , but leaving about

an inch space for the escape o f gases from the heating unit .

As soon as the food and cap have been sufficiently heated

over the fire, turn Off the gas and lower the cap so that it willretain the heat . After the cooker has been used

,it should be

wiped out clean ; otherwise it will retain som e o f the Odors o f

the cooked food .

55 . St eam Cook ers . There are several steam cookers

in use in homes . The Simplest of these 1s a covered pan

which has a perforated bottom, which is set over another pan

(A, Fig . in which water is placed for forming steam . Oneof the difficulties Of this cooker is that the water in the lower

pan cannot be watched and may bo il dry . On the more im

proved cookers a whistling device (B ,Fig . 25) is attached t o the

pan,and when the water becomes low and steam ceases t o

flow thru it, air begins t o come in, and the device makes a

wh istling no ise .

QUESTIONS FOR PART I

1 . What is sm oke ! Under what conditions is the greatest am ounto f heat for cooking or o ther househo ld purposes produced from fuel !2 . How is an oven m ade t o heat evenly !3 . Explain the purpose o f each draft and dam per on a stove .4 . Observe the am ount o f fuel used in a coal

st ov e from day t oday . Make the sam e kind o f observation for a gas or electric stove .How was the stove m anaged when the least fuel was used !5 . Des cribe the construction o f a gas stove . Find t h e vent thruwhich the gas enters the burner . I s this large or sm all !6 . Where is the air regulator ! For what is it used !7 . What has happened when the gas in a burner “ burns back” !8 . How Should a kerosene stove be regulated ! How Should it becared for !9. What precautions should you take against fire from kerosene andgaso line stoves !10. Describe the heating unit o f an electric stove .11 . How m ay electric current be saved in the operation o f an electric stove !12. How does a fireless co oker cook fo od !13 . How m ay one determ ine when it is econom ical t o use a firelesscooker !

below the grate in the fire po t lets in air which is essential t o

the proper burning Of the fuel . In this respect, it is similar

to a cook stove. A draft above the fire when opened a littlelets in air which aids in the complete combustion of the gases

FIG. 26. Warm -air furnace .

given Off by the fuel . Burning these gases adds t o the amount

of heat secured from the fuel. Opening the draft wider checksthe burning o f the fire . There Should be a damper in thesmoke pipe . When this is closed , it checks the draft up the

WARM-AIR FURNACES 9

chimney. This is needed because some chimneys Often draw

up air t oo fast t o make the fire burn well . When checking the

fire,close the draft below, open the one above the fire box,

and close the one in the pipe . TO make the fire burn fast,

Open the draft below,close the one above the fire box, and

FIG. 27 C irculation Of warm air .

open t he one in the pipe . Remem ber that a fire will no t burn

well if there is t oo much draft . Adjust the drafts until the

fire burns with a clear, bright flame without giving Off smoke .

After a fire is built,the manner of adding fuel makes a differ

ence in the efficiency of the furnace . When using coal, add

it in rather sm all amounts, spreading it in a layer over the

entire fire . DO not make this layer so thick that the fire

smokes . The fuel will not burn with a clear flame if the fire

is being smothered . Much fuel is wasted by ignorant and

careless management Of furnaces .

58 . Th e Cold -Air Sh aft . It is thru a co ld-air shaft that

the coo ler air com es int o the furnace . Som e furnaces have

this bui lt so that it draws the coo ling air from the rooms abo ve

down into the furnace t o be heated again . This is an e conom

ical arrangement . Some others draw fresh air from out of

doors into the furnace, letting the co ld air from the rooms

above drain into the cellar and out of doors . This is more

expensive, as the air t o be heated is usually co lder, but it has

the advantage Of helping ventilate the room s by bringing a

constant supply Of fresh air .

The co ld-air Shaft leading from out Of doors Should have

the outer end covered with wire mesh , and a cloth which

Should be washed or renewed Often .

Never sweep dirt down a register or cold-air Shaft .“

com es back into the room in time . Dust the regist ers o cca

Sionally .

In Older heat ing system s,there was but one large co ld-air

shaft t o drain t he co ld air from the room s above . In more

modern houses , a co ld-air shaft is placed in every room that

may be Shut Off from the others . This does away with the

Old difficulty Of heating a closed room, for it is as im portant

that the co lder air gets out as that the warm air gets in .

59 . Ho t -Air Pipes . The hot -air pipes lead from the t op

Of the jacket about the furnace t o the floor abo ve . In most

houses, one pipe goes t o each room . Th is IS unnecessary if

the room s are not closed Off, but if they are, they need the

pipe entering the room . TO economize with heat and regu

late the am ount O f air passing up these pipes, there must be

a Shutter in them,near the furnace, as well as in the regist er.

This shutter is placed near t he furnace SO that no heat passes

WARM-AIR FURNACES 61

into the pipe when no t wanted in the room t o which it leads .

This saves waste in radiation from the pipe in the cellar.When a room is not in use , close this damper .

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FIG. 28. Pipeless furnace .

Since warmed air will continue t o travel upward so long as

it stays warmer than the air above, it is important that the

pipes have a continuous rise thruout their entire length , thoin some parts the rise may have t o be only very Slight . The

Shorter the pipes, the better, for there will be less loss Of heat

from radiation on the way t o the room s .

60. Locat ion o f t h e Furnac e . A central location for

the furnace is best because the pipes m ay be shorter, and this

FIG . 29. One-room ,h ot -air heater .

makes possible a great er elevation per foot Of each plpe , SO

that the air can flow thru it faster . A central location also

permits a uniform distribution Of pipes about the furnace,

which,in turn , producesa more even flow Of air t o all the

room s .

The air from the hot register rises t o the t op Of the room,

or, if the way is open, t o the t op Of the house . Here it spreads

WARM-AIR FURNACES 63

o ver the upper area . As it coo ls or is displaced by still hott er

air,it falls . When it reaches the floor, it flows down the co ld

air shaft in the floo r . If the co ld-air Shaft is no t in the floor ,there may be a layer Of co lder air there SO the room

will no t

be com fortable .

61 . Air . There is a constant change of air in all houses,

due t o Opening o f doors and the fact that walls are no t air

tight . This may no t be enough for comfort . If a room is no t

heating well,it has been found that opening the window t o

change the air in the room , even when the outside air is very

co ld , helps in the circulation Of air in the room,and so with

the warming Of it . It is difficult t o warm a room filled with

stagnant air .

62 . Pipel ess Furnac es . The pipeless furnace works on

the same principle as the one with pipes (Fig . One large

Opening above the furnace lets the heat in t o some central

room ,and from here it circulates Into all other rooms no t

closed Off from the central room . The co ld-air shaft may be

around the opening for heated air .

Stoves encased in a metal jacket that operate like hot -air

furnaces (Fig . 29) are used in heating one -room schoo lhouses

and other small public buildings .

CHAPTER VI I I

HOT-WATER SYSTEM OF HEATING

63 . Equipm en t for Ho t -Wat e r Heat . The ho t -water

system Of heating a house consists o f a bo iler in the basement

or below the level Of the lowest radiator . This bo iler is de

signed t o heat water as it Circulates thru co ils over the fire

F IG. 30. Garland furnace with h o t -water bo iler .

(Fig . From the bo iler, pipes lead t o radiat ors and an ex

pansion tank, and return pipes bring the co ld wat er back t o

the bottom o f the bo iler (Fig .

The heat from the furnace fire causes the water t o circulate

thru this system of bo iler,pipes

,radiators and tank, due t o

the fact that ho t water is lighter than co ld water .

used . A gas burner is som etimes placed in the fire pot and

used for heating a furnace , but this is one Of the most wasteful

ways Of usm g gas . A real gas furnace is much more econom

ical . The fire and heat from the fire circulate around the co ils

containing the water . If the co ils are no t constantly kept

full Of water, they will be injured by the heat .

65 . Th e Manag em en t o f t h e Fire . When burning

coal , spread the coal all o ver the surface o f the fire in a thin

layer so as not t o smother it and thus make it burn with a

smoky flame . Keep the ashes cleaned out from underneath

the fire and around the fire po t . Clean the flues every forty

eight hours . Soot on the co ils is more effective than asbestos

would be in keeping heat from penetrating t o the water.

Regulate the fire with the drafts . Open the one below the

fire box t o let in air t o aid combustion . Open the one found

in most furnace doors a very little . This aids in the combus

tion Of gases,thus making more economical use Of the fuel,

while opening it wider checks the burning o f the fire . Broken

and warped doors and drafts let in t oo much air and destroythe

efficiency Of the heater . Open the chinm ey dam per, shown

in Fig . 2, Sec . 3 , admitting air t o check the draft . Close the

chim ney or pipe damper of the type Of cook stove shown in

Fig . 2, Sec . 3, t o check the draft up the chimney.

66 . Th e Pipes . The pipe carrying the hot water from

the bo iler out t o the heating system leads t o the expansion

tank, tho sometim es separate pipes lead from the bo iler t o a

radiator . Insulate each pipe , except the part in the room t o

be heated,with asbestos or som e other covering, t o keep the ,

heat in it. Keep the pipes full Of water . When they are in

stalled, see that they are put in so that they gradually rise

HOT-WATER SYSTEM OF HEAT ING 67

upward . If they dip downward at any po int, air will co llect

at these places and check the circulation Of ho t water thru

pipes .

67 . Expansion Tank . The expansion tank (A, Fig . 31,

and Fig . placed somewhat higher than the t op of the

highest radiator, is fitted with an overflow, for water expands

as it is heated . If the expan

sion tank is closed so that the

overflow pipe will no t open ex

cept under pressure after the

alr in t he tank has become

compressed by the expansion

Of the water, a higher temper

ature in the pipes may be reached , but such a furnace must

be given more careful attention than one with an open ex

pansion tank . Learn t o know the parts of a heating system

and how they operate before trying t o manage it .

68 . Wat er . Fill the bo iler and radiators full Of water,

and add enough more t o partly fill the expansion tank . From

time t o time, note the height Of water in the tank, t o know if

more must be added . DO no t add water when unnecessary,

as fresh water tends t o rust pipes faster than water from

wh ich the carbon dioxide and air have been exhausted . To

note the height Of water, read the gage .

FIG . 32. Expansion tank .

If there is much sediment in the water used,this must be

drawn Off from the bottom Of the bo iler t o prevent its accu

mulat ing there . Wh en this is done , fresh water must be

added t o replace the water drawn Off . Lo ss of water from

evaporation must also be replaced . NO water should be put

into the system except t o replace such loss . Do not draw the

water out o f the syst em , and refill it from tim e t o time . The

practice o f changing the water in the furnace rusts it more

than keeping the same water in it all the tim e .

69 . Radiat ors . Radiators (B ,Fig . 31) are made of

rather complicated co ils of pipe, so Often an accumulation

Of air lodges in them . This inter

feres’

with the circulation of the

water and the radiator does no t

get hot . There usually is a vent

(A and B ,Fig . 33) attached t o

each radiator t o let out air which

co llects there . If a radiator does

not heat well, open the air vent

until the air ceases t o flow from itFIG. 33 . Vents for radiators .

and water comes ; then close It .

Valves should be placed at places where co ld water co l

lects in bad plumbing .

34 . Radiators under floor .

In very co ld weather, do not entirely shut Off the valve Of

the pipe leading t o any radiator, as the circulation of a little

warm water is needed t o keep it from freezing . Radiators

m ay be placed under the floor (Fig . 34) when so desired .

CHAPTER IX

STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS

70. Equipm ent for St eam Heat . A steam-heating

system consists of a bo iler, a fire pot , pipes from the bo iler

leading t o the radiators, and radiators (Fig . On some

FIG . 35 . Steam furnace .

systems, return pipes are pro

v ided t o carry condensed steam

or water back t o the lower part

Of the bo iler . A safety valve

(Fig . 36) is attached t o steam

heating systems instead Of an

expansion tank. This keeps the pressure Of the steam in the

bo iler from becoming t oo great, and thereby prevents an ex

plosion . The pressure gage (B , Fig . 35) must be se t , and ,when set , Should only be changed by a person understanding

it . Build and manage the fire for a steam bo iler the same as

for any stove or furnace . Keep water in the bo iler at 212 de

grees Fahrenheit, so steam may form, for without it, the ra

diat ors will not be heated . Small valves are attached t o most

steam radiators . Their purpose is t o let out air, which accu

mulat es in the radiator . As soon as the steam begins t o

come into the radiator, it forces the

air out Of the valve . When it reaches

the valve, the heat in the steam

causes part of the valve t o expand FIG. 36. Safety valve .

and close the outlet, which is small . When the radiator is

hot , steam Should no t escape , provided the valves are in goodworking order . There is a gage (Fig . 37) furnished with

each bo iler which Shows how much water is in it .

Keep enough water in the bo iler t o come within certain

lines on the indicator . The t op of one of these lines is usually

six or eight inches from the t op of the bo iler .

There is always some variation in the amount

of water in steam furnaces on account of the

formation and condensation Of the steam in

pipes and radiators . See that the bo iler is

never empty,but do not put in fresh water

except when necessary .

The Space above the water in the bo iler is

FIG. 37 . Water left for steam . The loss Of water from a boiler

gage for steam in good working order is thru the air valves inplant

the radiators . If the furnace is properly

managed, very little water Should be lost during the course of

a year, so there is little need for adding water.

Some furnaces have two pipes t o the radiators . When

steam is shut Off from a radiator, the valve leading to the

STEAM -HEATING SYSTEMS 71

pipe which carries Off the water from condensed steam must

be closed , also , t o prevent the pressure -Of the steam in the

bo iler from forcing water from the bo iler up this pipe . This

may happen because the pipe draining the water from the ra

diat ors enters the furnace near the bottom Of the. bo iler . The

steam being retained in the furnace presses down on the

water and so may force water up the drain pipe , if it is no t

closed , instead of raising the safety valve .

Carelessness of this kind may work much damage, for bythis means all the water from the furnace can be forced up

into the radiators , leaving the bo iler empty. This makes it

important that every woman Should understand the steam

heating system in her home .

Some steam-heating systems have a check valve in the pipe

which returns water t o the bo iler . This valve permits water

t o flow thru it in but one direction ; that is, toward the bo iler .

This prevents a rush of water from the bo iler t o the radiators .

Steam furnaces, also , are Often equipped with another safe

ty-valve device, which is a plug of metal which melts at a

rather low temperature and is placed in the bo iler directly

over the fire . If the water line in the bo iler falls low,this

plug melts and steam from the bo iler puts out the fire,thus

saving the furnace from damage .

However, melting out the plug makes much work both in

replacing the plug and in cleaning the fire box t o rebuild the

fire, so that it should not be depended upon t o regulate theheat in the bo iler .

Knocking in steam radiators occurs most Often in those

systems using the inlet steam pipe for the return Of the water

which has formed as ar esult of condensation . It is caused by

water accumulating at some po int and the steamComing up

the pipe, vio lently forcing it back into the radiator . This

only reaches a danger po int in systems which do not have

pipes Of the proper size, or when the pipes do not slope grad

ually downward , SO that all the water may flow back t o the

furnace . On co ld days, there will be some knocking in asteam radiator when it is being heated in the morning . A

two-pipe system,while it is somewhat more expensive, is less

subject t o this trouble .

71 . St eam Gag es . Steam gages (B , Fig . 35) are de

vices for indicating the pressure of steam within an inclosure .

They are a kind Of spring balance . When the pressure of the

steam increases,it pushes up on the spring, and this turns the

hand of the indicator, which Shows the number Of pounds of

pressure that the steam is exerting on the inside of the boiler

or container.

72. Safet y Valv e . A safety valve (Fig . 36 and A, Fig .

38) consists Of a small opening t o a bo iler over which is a

weight. When steam is developed until itmakes enough pressure on the inside Of the valve t o raise this weight, some Of the

steam escapes, thus lowering the pressure on the inside until

the weight falls back into place . Never let anything interfere

with the action Of safety valves .

M ost safety valves have the weight attached t o a lever

which has a movable weight on it so that the position of the

weight on the lever makes a difference in the number of

pounds of pressure required t o open the valve . By means o f

this device,the temperature of the inside of the bo iler can be

CHAPTER X

FIREPLACES AND HEATING STOVES

73 . Const ruc t ion o f Fireplac e . Fireplaces are an en

largement in the base of a chimney where fire is built . The

upper part of the fireplace is Sloped forward,and

,in some

cases,a damper is placed in the chimney t o regulate the flow

of air upward . The damper Should not be SO constructed

that it will close entirely, for if it did, the smoke would comeinto the room . The fire in the fireplace burns best when the

fuel is put in a grate or on andirons SO that air can get under

it and be drawn thru it by the draft Of the chimney. A

steady draft makes the combustion Of the fuel complete and

thus prevents smoking.

The hearth is made of fireproof material and should be

wide enough t o catch all Sparks flying from the fire . A screen

is Often nee ded for safety from fire . DO no t pile reserved

fuel or put rugs on the hearth .

Fireplaces and chimneys Should be built Of fireproof brick,stone or concrete . Have them examined once a year for

cracks,as these make them unsafe . The walls Of the chim

ney and the fireplace Should be thick enough t o prevent dan

ger from fire .

74 . Manag em en t o f Fireplac e . The management Of a

fireplace is very simple . The draft up the chimney Should be

properly regulated SO that the fire does not smoke . Sparks

and bits Of fuel Should not be drawn up the chimney. The

fire Should be built SO that it is not sm othered . Air Should

circulate thru the fuel. Keep the ashes cleared away.

FIREPLACES AND HEAT ING STOVES 75

There are some fireplaces which are intended t o heat rooms

after the manner of hot -air furnaces . The heat and smoke

fr om the fire pass upward thru a metal heater, encased by an

air chamber. Much Of the heat passes thru the metal , warm

ing the air in the chamber. This warmed air passes thru

pipes and registers into the rooms, while the smoke finds its

way t o the chimney ; TO complete the circulation Of air, the

co ld air from the floor passes into the air chamber near the

floor at the Sides of the fireplace . Sometimes fresh air from

the out side Of the building is mixed with the air in the cham

If there is an opening in the floor Of the fireplace , a damper

Should be put in this opening t o regulate the flow of air . The

heater in a fireplace must be kept free from soot and ashes .

If the metal is covered with soot,heat will no t readily pass

thru it, and the soot will co llect mo isture and cause rusting .

One way t o keep the heater clean is t o regulate the draft up

the chimney so that ashes and bits Of burning fuel are no t

drawn into it . Also , the fire Should be kept burning with a

clear (no t smoky) blaze . Soot is unburnt fuel .

75 . Operat ing Heat ing St oves . Astove is a device for

ho lding the fuel and for permitting the heat t o pass readily

into the room . In the stove there is space below the fire for

co llecting ashes . There is an opening for fresh air t o enter

below the fuel,t o aid combustion, and a damper above t o act

as a check draft when open,a chimney t o carry O ff smoke, and

one or two dampers in the chimney t o regulate the draft .Wh en a fire is being built

,close the draft over the fire box

and open the one below ; open the damper in the chimney

this allows the free passage o f the air up the chimney .

76 . Care o f t h e St ov e . DO no t permit a large bed Of

ashes t o accumulate in the bottom Of a stove . Athin layer o f

ashes must be kept in the bottom o f some wood sto ves t o

keep the fire away from the metal bottom .

The po lish or finish Of the stove is a matter Of taste . Some

stoves are made Of iron, which”

does no t need blacking ;some must be blacked . Blacking keeps them from rusting .

All must be kept free from dust and dirt , as this accumulates

mo isture and causes the stove t o rust .

Letting the stove get red hot warps it . It Should not be

permitted t o get so ho t .

The grate (Fig . 3) in stoves ho lds the fuel so that air can

flow up thru it. If the grat e is clogged with ashes,this cannot

happen . The grate should be Shaken t o make the ashes dropthru . A clean grate is important t o the complete combustion

of the fuel . Shaking after glowing coals begin t o fall is a

waste Of fuel .

When an attempt t o Shake the grate is made, it may sud

denly refuse t o move . In this case, something mayhave lodged

between its parts, or it may have been Shaken from its proper

position . Shaking the stove t oo hard may displace the grate .

The common remedy for a displaced grate is t o let the fire

go out , remove all ashes and cinders, and readjust the grate .

Some kinds o f soft coal form “ clinkers,” and these catch in

the grat e . In burning fuel that makes clinkers, shake the

ashes from the fire several times a day . Rem o ve all accumu

lat ions in the fire box daily. Clinkers are made from sub

stances which melt and recombine, forming a different mate

rial which is quit e hard and does not burn . Constant atten

tion t o the fire prevents clinkers from forming in large masses .

CHAPTER X I

GAS, ELECTRIC AND KEROSENE HEATERS

77 Kinds of Gas Heat ers . There are several types Of

gas heaters—those using an illuminating flame and reflector,those fitted with a Bunsen burner and an asbestos back, and

those heating wate r in a device like a radiator. The last two

FIG . 39 . Gas heater Showing air m ixer .

burn with a blue flame . All gas stoves ought t o be fitted with

a flue for discharg ing the products o f combustion .

78 . Bunsen Burner and Asbest os-Back Heat er. The

burner is a long pipe punctured with ho les extending across

the stove . There is an Opening for mixing of air with the gas

at the po int where this pipe enters the stove, and a valve to

regulate the flow Of gas (Fig .

79 . Ligh t ing Gas St o v es . TO light the stove,open the

valve,count three, and apply a lighted match t o the burner .

Counting threegives time for the pipe t o fill with gas, SO that

the fire will no t flash back and burn in the air mixer .

80. Care o f Gas St ov es . The only care that this stove

needs is t o keep it po lished SO that it will no t rust . Keep the

burner clean of dust and soot . Be sure that the valve is en

t ire ly closed when the gas is turned Off, and that the pipes fit

tight at all connections SO that gas cannot leak into the room .

81 . I l lum inat ing Flam e and Brigh t Me t al Refle c t or

Heat ers . These heaters are used with manufactured gas .

They burn with an illuminat

ing flame Since there is no

device formixing air with the

gas as it enters the stove . The

bright metal reflecto r no t

only makes . an attract ive

sto ve, but reflects the heat

out into the room . Some

stoves are made with tips of

aluminum or other non-cor

rosiv e metal over the open

ings in the burner (Fig .

Gas logs are a type Of gas heaters used in fireplaces (Fig .

82 . Gas Radiator Heat ers . Gas radiators (Fig . 42) are

another type of gas heater . The radiator is a co il o f pipe .

The heating unit is below the co il and works like any other

Bunsen burner . A sm all amount of wate r is kept in the

pipes . There is a device attached t o the radiator t o auto

m at ically adjust the height Of the gas fire (A,Fig .

FIG. 40. Reflector gas heater .

GAS,ELECTRIC AND KEROSENE HEATERS 79

83 . Manag em en t o f Gas Radiator . Put enough water

in the radiato r or co il Of pipe t o fill it t o the depth Of one inch .

Keep this amount Of water in it at all times .

Light a match , turn on the valve which lets gas flow into

the burner, wait for it t o fill with gas , and

touch the match t o the burner .

M ost Of these heaters are fitted with

thermostats .

In about thirty minutes after lighting

the gas , the water will have formed

enough steam inside the radiator t o auto

m atically turn the valve lowering the gas

flame . If the steam pressure falls low,the

thermostat will permit more gas t o flow

into the radiator by automatically opening the valve .

FIG . 41 . Gas logs .

There is a safety valve attached t o

the Side of the radiator which opens if

the automatic device fails t o close Off

the gas before the steam pressure in

side becomes t oo great .

84 . Ke r o sen e H e a t e r s . Kero

sene heating stoves have burners like

those used on kerosene cook stoves .

(See Chapter I I I .) Surrounding, or

about, the burner is a jacketed air

FIG . 42 . Gas radiators .

space . Here air is heated and rises

t o the upper part Of the room while

fresh air“

from the lower part Of the room is drawn thru the

jacket . Som e heat is also given Off by radiation . Fig . 43

shews a picture Of an Oil heater .

The burners Of these stoves Should be cared for the same

way as the ones on cooking stoves .

FIG . 43 . Oil heater .

The sto ve should be kept

p o l ished and free from

dust . This pre v ents i t

from rust ing .Wipe Off any

kerosene which may accu

mulat e on the outside, for

it makes an unpleasant

Odor .

Take care in moving

kerosene stoves no t t o jar

the chimney or other parts

of the burner out of place ; o therwise the stove will smoke .

When the sto ve is lighted , turn the burner quite low. The

flame will becom e higher

as the parts of the stove

become heated .

85 . Elec t ric H e a t e r s .

The electric heat ers (Fig . 44)

are composed of one or

more co ils Ofwire thruwhich

the electric current flows

with difficulty . This heats

the co ils SO ho t that they

glow . A reflector throws

the heat out into the room .

The cOil and reflector are

attached t o a ped estal .

They are desirable for useFIG . 44 . E lectric heater .

in room s which are not quit e warm enough . Care m ust be

PART III

LIGHTING DEVICES

CHAPTER XI I

ELECTRIC LIGHTS

87 . Kind s o f El ec t ric Lam ps in Use . The electric

lamps on the market now are either tungsten (also called

M azda) or metallized carbon (called gem carbon) lamps . Of

all lighting appliances, electric lamps and systems are most

easily cared for . If properly selected,they make an excellent

light from the standpo int Of hygiene . It is important for

every one t o know enough about lighting t o be able t o select

proper kinds and sizes of lamps .

88 . El ec t rical Measurem en t s . A vo lt is the unit o f

electric pressure which com pares with the pound as the unit

of water pressure .

An ampere is the unit of electricity flowing thru a wire

which com pares t o the gallon as the unit Of water per m inute

flowing thru a pipe .

Awatt is the unit Of electrical power. It is determ ined by

multiplying the volts by the am peres .

Akilowatt equals 1000watts .

Akilowatt hour equals 1000watt-hours .

A watt-hour is the am ount Of energy needed by a device

which uses one watt and is operated for one hour. For ex

ELECTRIC LIGHTS 83

am ple, a 25-watt lamp uses 25 watts‘

, and if it is operated one

hour, it uses 25-watt hours Of electricity .

The cost of burning an electric lamp is the num ber of watts

marked on the lamp multiplied by the hours the lamp is

burned , and then translated into kilowatt hours and multi

plied by the price per kilowatt hour .

89 . Carbon Lam ps . Few carbon lamps are being made

now,but they may still be Obtained in some stores . The car

bon lamp can be distinguished from

M azda lamps (Fig . 45) by the appear

ance o f the filament . The carbon

lamp g ives about candles Of light

per watt o f electricity consumed . Car

bon lamps burn, making a yellow or

reddish light,and consume fully tw1ce

as much current as M azda lamps Ofthe same candle power .

90. Mazda or Tung st en Lam ps .

Tungsten lamps are the ones in com FIG. 45 . Direct light .m on use . T hey give t o can

dle of light t o one watt of electricity used . They have a

filament o f tungsten and may now be used in any position .

Le ss electricity is required t o bring tungsten t o a glowing

white heat than other materials used in lam ps .

To compare the brightness of two lamps , do no t look at the

filament, but ho ld pieces Of white material like paper at an

equal distance from each lamp and compare the brightness of

the surfaces ; or put an opaque Object in front Of the light and

let a Shadow be cast on‘

another Object . The brighter light

will cast a heav ier shadow .

When substituting a new tungsten lamp for a carbon lamp ,select one about one -half the number o f watts , unless more

light is wanted . In houses, it is a common practice t o sub

stitut e a 40-wat t M azda for a 50-watt gem carbon lamp , thus

saving ten watts per hour and getting more light .

91 . Se l e c t ing Lam ps for a Room . There are so many

possibilities for the use , of electricity in lighting a house, that

it becomes a fine art . When buying lights for a room , con

sider (1) the Size Of the room , (2) the use o f the room, and (3)the co lor o f walls

,floors, ceilings, furnishings and decorations .

For lighting purposes, lamps may be obtained ranging from10 or leSS t o more than 100-Candle power .

There are co lored , transparent and frosted globes . There

are reflectors and Shades Of various co lors and patterns . TO

Obtain the same degree Of illum ination , smaller lamps are

needed in small rooms than in large ones .

92 . Effec t o f Color Sch em es Upon I l lum inat ion . The

co lor Of the walls and furnishings makes a difference in the

candle power required t o give a certain amount of light .

Those co lors which absorb the most light require the higher

candle power,and tho se reflecting the highest per cent of

light require the lower candle power

Tho frosted globes absorb some light, they diffuse the rest

of it . They dispense with the annoyance Of glare from lamps,

and are useful in places where the full intensity Of the lamps

is not required .

The light absorbed by different co lors varies considerably,

as shown by the accom panying table

ELECTRIC LIGHTS 5

TABLE SHOWING ABSORPT ION OF LIGHT

WhiteChrom e yellowOrange .

C lean pine woodYellow paper .

Yellow paint (clean)Light p ink paper .

D irty p ine wo odD irty yellow paint .

Em erald green paperDark brown paper .

Verm ilion paperB lue green paperCobalt green paper .

Deep cho co late paper

93 . D istribut ion o f Ligh t . Light in rooms for general

use should be distributed as evenly as possible thruout the en

tire room . Avo id excessive contrasts Of brightness and dark

ness . Hav e the lamps Shaded t o diffuse the light so that no

one need look directly at the filament . When working by a

light,do no t put the lamp very close t o the material, as this

produces t oo strong contrasts o f light and dark, or, when

reading, it produces t oo much reflection from the white parts

of the paper, wh ich is trying on the eyes .

Direct lighting means that the rays from the lamp go di

re ct ly into the room (Fig . Indirect lighting means that

the rays are all directed toward a reflecting surface such as the

ceiling (Fig . From here they are reflect ed,giv ing an

even amount Of light t o other parts of the room . When di

rec t ed toward the ceiling, they make it the brightest part Of

the ro om .

A semi-indirect light avo ids this difficulty (Fig .

In diffused lighting,the lam p is covered , as by frosting, SO

that the rays o f light are broken up and so scattered that no

FIG. 46 . Indirect light .

direct ray shines into th e eyes, and there is no bright Spot Of

light in the room .

When costs must be lim ited , certain decorative effects must

be weighed for their value, som e being more expensive than

others .

City lighting plants can provide current for any num ber o f

lamps in a house if it is properly wired . If more lamps are

attached than the wiring will carry,and all are turned on, the

fuses will burn out .

Electric plants for private homes (see Sec . 271) usually fur

nish current Of a different vo ltage from city electric plants,

SO special equipm ent and lam ps must be used with small

plants .

ELECTRIC LIGHTS 87

Inquire Of the company who installed the wiring or electric

system , how many lights and other devices can be attached

and for what vo ltage they Should be made .

FIG. 47. Sem i-indirect light .

CHAPTER X I I I

GAS LIGHT

94 . Const ruc t ion of M an t les . A mantle is a device

made of thread saturated with som e fireproo f material like a

mixture o f thorium and cerium which will glow,giving Off a

white light when heated ho t . The mantle (A and B , Fig .

FIG. 48 . Mantles .

48) is placed over the burners Of lamps

using liquid or gaseous fuel . The gas

is mixed with air so that it burns

with a blue flame . The blue flam e

gives O ff little light, but it does no t

sm oke and is much hotter than a

yellow flam e . When a mantle is

placed over the blue flam e,it is heat

ed with less fuel consum ption than isrequired t o make a yellow illuminat

ing flame . The light from the glow

of the mantle is steadier and whiterthan the light from an Open flam e

that it is more hygienic.

M ant les are made in different pat

terns SO that they may be used on upright and inverted burn

ers. The inverted mantle throws more light downward than

an upright mantle . This is advantageous in lighting a

ro om, for most Of the light is wanted in the lower part Of

the room . M antles can be used on lamps burning gas , kero

In the special burner Of the mant le lam p, the gas is mixed

with air SO that it will burn with a blue flam e (Fig . A

blue flame is not good for light ing, but when a mantle is

placed over the flam e, it becom es heated , glowing ho t . Since

the mantle is made Of a mat erial which gives Off a white glow,

it lights the room with a steady light which is far better than

the flickering light Of the open flame (Fig . 48 a) .

97 . Ad justm en t . See‘ that the ports thru which air is

drawn into the lam p are open as wide

as needed t o give a clear, smokeless

flame without firing back . Some

lamps are fitted with a screw beside

the cocks t o regulate the am ount Of

gas flowing into the lamp . It Should

be adjusted so that no m ore gas flows

into the lam p than is needed t o get as

bright a glow as possible from t he

m antle . Regulate the gas flow by

closing the valve attached t o this

Fm , 50,Open - flam screw until the mantle decreases per

acetylene burner '

ceptibly in brightness, and then Slowly

opening it until the m antle becom es bright . Gas companies

Often adjust lamps for their custom ers .

98 . Care o f Lam ps . Clean the burners if they becom e

sooted . Replace mantles if they are broken .

99 . Ligh t ing a Gas Ligh t . When lighting a lam p, turn

on the gas, count three , and then light the lam p . Counting

three g ives tim e for the burner t o fill with gas and prevents

burning back with an explosion . M antles are very delicate

GAS LIGHT

and easily broken by jars or strong drafts . Burning back

may break the mantle .

Burning back means that the gas ignites at the opening

where it should be mixing with the a l r instead Of at the tip Of

the burner . This happens when the lamp is lighted before itbecomes filled with gas , or when there is t oo much air mixed

with the gas .

100. Cold -Proc ess Gasol ine Gas . It is more econom

ical t o use co ld-process gaso line gas with a mantle lamp than

an open-flam e burner for lighting .

Be sure t o use the burners made

especially for this kind Of gas .

The lam ps are managed like all

others .

101 . Ac e tyl ene Lam ps . Open

flam e burners are used for ace ty

lene gas because no mantle burn

er has been constructed whichFIG . 50-a. Showing electri c

will operate reliably with this rich l ighting devi ce for ace t ylene burner .

Acetylene gas gives about ten tim es as much light per cubic

foot as manufactured gas burned in an open flame . The

burners require little care . Sometimes the ho les in burners

become stopped , and they Should be cleaned out with a fine

po inted instrument like a needle . When they do no t work

well, it pays t o replace the Old tips with new ones .

Acetylene gas burners are constructed so that a very fine

spray of gas strikes another fine Spray,which

,when ignited

makes a broad flame . This flame,which is almost white

gives O ff light . The burners appear as illustrated in Fig .

102 . Care o f Burners o f Ac et yl ene Lam ps . Keep the

two ho les Open . Clean them with a large needle . See that

there are no leaks about the burners or pipes. If these are

found,

fil l with white lead or some similar substance, and

tighten connections . If this does no t suffice, the trouble

should be referred t o a plumber . Fig . 50-a shows an acety

lene burner .

Acetylene lamp mantles can be used only with acetylene

which is under high pressure . Therefore, they cannot be

used with all plants . The special burner for m ix ing a ir Withthe acetylene t o make it burn with a blue flam e must be used

with the mantle .

CHAPTER X IV

KEROSENE LAMPS

103 . Const ruc t ion o f Kerosene Lam ps . A kerosene

lamp consists o f a bowl, a burner, a wick and a chimney.

In the ordinary lam p , the bowl for ho lding the oil is placed

below the burner (Fig . The Wick carries the oil from

the bowl into the burner by

capillary attraction one end

being in the oil and the other in

the burner .

The burner, which has ho les

in it t o let in air, ho lds the

W ick so that only the oil reach

ing the t op burns . The area

and shape o f the flam e depends FIG 51 Lam ps and lam pchim neys .

upon the form o f the t op sur

face of the wick . The glass chimney is used t o cause an

air current thru the burner and t o protect the flam e from out

side drafts . A screw moves the wick thru the burner . If

the wick is t oo small , the fire may burn back thru the burner

and ignit e the oil in the bowl . It is im portant that a wick

fit the burner . If the chim ney is t oo short or broken,the

lam p will smoke (A,B

104 . Manag em en t o f Kero sene Lam ps . When the

lam p sm okes,it is wasting fuel . Smoke is incompletely burnt

fuel . The oil in the lam p should be clean . It should never

be mixed with gaso line or other more explosive o ils .

Fill the bowl each day the lamp is used t o within one-half

inch o f the t op . A full bowl helps t o make a safe lamp .

Put the chim ney on the lamp so that it fits in it s ho lder .

Keep it clean and bright . Keep the wick clean and trimm ed

evenly . See that it entirely fills the opening t hru the burner .

This prevents the fire from burning back down the burner and

igniting the oil in the bowl .

Oil will no t pass up a wick which fit s t oo tight . Do no t cut

a wick t o trim it, but keep the charred part scraped or

brushed o ff even with the t op of the slit in the burner . A

burnt match is useful for this purpose .

105 . Ligh t ing a Kerosene Lam p . When lighting a

lamp,be sure it is in order and that any

openings t o the bowl are closed . Lift

the chimney,turn the screw t o raise the

wick about one -eighth inch above the

slit . Touch a lighted match t o the wick,

adjust the chimney, and , lastly, mo ve the

wick up or down until it burns clear

and bright without smoking . After the

burner becom es warm, the flame may

Fm , 52 ,Mantle for grow higher and sm oke . Do not leave a

k erosene lam p ’ newly - lighted lam p unwatched . After

the lamp is heated and adjusted , it should burn with a flame

of even height .

106 . To Ext ingu ish a Lam p . Turn the wick down un

til it is slightly below the t op of the slit . Do not turn t oo far.

It will then go out of itself, or a slight puff of air will ext in

guish it . This is safer and will smoke the chimney less than

attempting t o blow out the full flame .

107 . Care of Lam ps . Keep the inside and outside of

KEROSENE LAMPS 95

bowl and chimney clean . Wipe all soot from the burners .

Trim the wick each day the lam p is used . Fill the bowl with

oil t o within one -half inch o f the t op . Ge t new wicks when

the o ld ones becom e dirty .

108 . Kerosene Man t l e Lam ps . Kerosene mantle lamps

(Fig . 52) give three t o four times as much light per unit of oil

as the o rdinary kerosene lamp . M any mantle lamps on the

market are unreliable . Care , therefore , should be taken t o

give the lamp a trial before investing so as t o be sure t o get a

good one .

The care and lighting of mantle lamps differ so much that

the directions must be furnished by the manufacturer and

should be fo llowed with exactness .

CHAPTER XV

ALCOHOL AND GASOLINE LAMPS

109. Classificat ion o f Lam ps . Since the principle o f

Operation is the same for most alcoho l and gaso line lam ps,

they will be considered together .

These lamps may be divided into two classes—gravitylamps and pneumatic, or pressure

,lamps .

110. Gravit y Lam ps . Gravity lamps

have the tank elevated above the burner

so that the force of gravity brings the fluid

t o the burner. It is usually a little t o one

side of the burner so that it cannot becomeheated by it. A pipe from the tank leads

downward and either over the chim ney or

under the burner, where it will be heated

by the flam e o f the lamp . When heated ,it changes the gaso line or the alcoho l t o

FIG . 53 Gaso line gas . The pipe carries the gas on t o aor alcoho l lam p .

po int where it is m ixed with air before it

flows into the burner (Fig.

111 . Ligh t ing t h e Gravit y Lam p . In o rder t o light

these lamps, the generator must first be heated so as t o make

the gas. After this has once been done, the heat o f the lamp

keeps the generat or hot . As soon as the gas is formed , light

the lamp .

These lamps are furnished with mantles . The flam e is blue

and,consequently, gives out very little light, but much heat.

t o rise . It passes thru a place where it is mixed with air,and

goes on into the burner, where it is ignited . If the lamp

burns low, more air must be pum ped into the tank t o force up

the gaso line or alcoho l . When all the fluid has been burned,

the lamp will go out , since , then , only the air which is under

pressure in the tank will be com ing into the burner.

Extinguish the lam p by turning o ff the supply of fuel t o thegenerator . To light these lam ps, first heat the generator

directed for the particular lam p in use , and then light the

burners . Detailed directions cannot be given here, as they

differ with different lamps .

113 . Gaso line Lam ps wit h Wick s . There are Some

gaso line lamps made with wicks which help conduct the oil

into the burner, where it is changed t o gas by the heat from

the lamp,mixed with air and burned in a mantle . The flam e,

from a mixture o f alcoho l or gaso line and air, is blue and gives

o ff little light, but much heat . It is used with a mantle .

114 . Alc oh o l Lam ps wit h Wick s . The wick o f one

type o f alcoho l lamp conducts the alcoho l up thru a round

tube which it completely fills . The tube prevents the fire

from burn ing down into the bowl of the lamp . Alcoho l

makes a very hot and alm ost sm okeless flame, even when

little air is present . The mantle is put o ver the flam e, and ,when heated , gives a good light . Other ordinary fuelscannot

be used on so sim ple a lam p because they would smoke the

mantle .

115 . Ligh t ing Al coh ol or Gaso line Lam ps . Heat the

conducting pipe at the po int where the fuel is t o be changed t o

gas . (D irections for this come with each lam p, and they dif

fer considerably .) Aft er being heated sufficiently, the valve

ALCOHOL AND GASOLINE LAMPS 99

leading t o the burner is opened and the burner lighted with a

match or torch . Use clean gaso line for these lamps, un

mixed with water or other substances .

QUESTIONS FOR PART III

1 Are there any differences in the electri c light globes on the m arket !I f so ,

in what ways do they d iffer ! How d o these differences affect thelighting power of the globes !2 . What influence has the s ize and decoration of the ro om on thebrillian cy o f light from a given lam p !3 . How should the l ight in a l iv ing-room be distributed !4 . What are the diff eren ces in direct , sem i-direct and indirect lighting !5 . What is the purpose o f a m antle for a gas or kerosene lam p !6 . What is the difference in burners t o be used with and without

m antles !7 . How is the light from a lam p m easured !8 . Wh ich lam p gives the greatest candle power o f light for theam ount o f fuel used—the one with or the one without a m antle !

PART IV

COOLING DEVICES

CHAPTER XVI

REFRIGERATORS

116 . Principl es o f Refrigerat ion . Refrigerators (Fig .

56) are designed t o prevent the rapid spo iling of food bykeeping it t oo coo l for the rapid growth of bacteria. They vary

FIG. 56. Refrigerator .

considerably in their efliciency , according t o their construe

tion and t o the way in which they are managed . To preserve

food and t o save ice, the housewife must understand her refrig

erat or, and she must choose a good one . There is as much

difference in the efficiency with which housewives managetheir refrigerators as there are differences in refrigerators .

iozit 3, MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME

19 . fa l n‘

Sulatien‘

qfRefrig erat ors . The more complet e

the insulation of a refrigerator, the more efficient it will be .

D ifferent k inds o f material, as well as dead-air spaces, are

used for this purpose . The t op,

as well as the bottom,must be

insulated . M aterials which are

likely t o crack or settle down

and leave uninsulated spaces

should not be used . Because

sawdust settles, it is no t satis

factory . There are felts,papers

and other materials which are

good . If the refrigerato r is no t

water-tight and the insulating

material absorbs water,it will

FIG . 57 . Diagram showing cir lose its efficiency for insulation .

culation in a refrigerat or .

120. Circula t ion in R e

frig erat ors . The better the circulation in a refrigerator,the more efficient it will be . The air in the refrigerato r must

be free t o circulate over the ice . As it coo ls, it should drop

t o the bottom of the ice box . When it warms, it will rise andbe displaced by fresh falling co ld air. It should be free t o rise

t o the t op o f the refrigerato r and from there pass into the ice

chamber and o ver the ice t o be coo led again (Fig . When

the ice always melts unevenly and in the same relative

place— that is, more on the side or bottom—it indicates

poor circulation in the refrigerator .

121 . Dr ip from Me l t ing I c e . There should be a pan

under the ice t o catch the drip from the melting ice, and a

drip pipe t o carry it out of the refrigerator (Fig . If the

REFRIGEBATORS 103

drip pipe passes into a pan set under the refrigerator, the pan

should be emptie d so that it will no t overflow. The water in

the pan should no t be allowed t o become stagnant .

If this pipe passes t o a drain, it should no t be attached t o

the drain,but drip into it . The small amount of fresh air pass

ing up the drip p ipe from the room is advantageous . Because

some air does flow thru here, t he drip'

pipe and the drain pipe

must be clean and free from gases and odors .

The drip pipe should be straight and free from places in

which dirt may co llect . It must be removable, so that it canbe cleaned . The doors o f the refrigerator must shut so tightly

that frost or dew will no t fo rm about their edges on a ho t day .

122 . Arrang em en t o f Food in t h e I c e Box. Ice boxes

are usually coo ler at the bottom than at the t op. Do no t put

food in the ice chamber because this necessitates Opening the

doo r and wastes ice . Do not put papers or flat boxes on the

shelves which will interfere with the circulation of air in the

refrigerator .

123 . Filling and Care o f t h e I c e Box. The housewife

must open the doors of the ice box as seldom as possible,and

close them quickly. Do no t cut off the circulation of air

from the ice by wrapping it in a blanket or newspapers . It

cannot do its work then . The ice box is kept co ld by the

gradual melting of the ice . The ice melts fastest as the tem

perature of the Ice box rises . Covering the ice may keep itfrom melting, but it will also allow the refrigerator t o get

warm , and so , whatever is gained in saving ice at first, will be

lost at the higher temperature and in coo ling the box again .

Steady melting does the most good .

The shelves and drain pipe should be removable , and these

and the refrigerator should be washed and thoro ly scalded

once in every t wo weeks .

There is a saving in planning t o open the refrigerator as

little as possible . The filling of the ice box with a large piece

of ice two or three tim es a week, rather than with a small

piece every day, is m ore economical .

breezes may reach it, and it should be anchored so that it will

no t blow away.

An iceless refrigerator may be made from a rectangular

frame o f wood , t o which heavy canton flannel iS 'but t oned or

tacked . On the t op of this should be placed a pan of water

with strips of cloth extending from the water t o the covering

of the frame . This will conduct the water from the pan out

onto the cloth . The number Of strips of cloth regulate the

rapidity with which the water is car

ried t o the sides of the refrigerato r.

The food is set inside (Fig . The

refrigerator should be placed in a shadyspot where the breezes can strike it.

Iceless refrigerators must be kept clean,

and the covering o f cloth should be

washed o ccasionally .

Some iceless refrigerators are enclosed in a chimney-like

closet built on the house, the co ld air coming in at the bo t

t om and being drawn upward by the natural draft of thechimney-like structures . This draft hastens the evaporation

of the water. Such refrigerators are expensive and less satis

factory than ice ones .

FIG . 59. Device forcoo ling food .

126 . Sm al l Co oler . A few things may be kept coo l,like a bottle o f milk and a sm all dish of butter, by sett ing

them in a shallow pan of water and covering them with a flan

nel cloth which comes down into the water and so rem ains

moist (Fig . The evaporation of the water from the flan

nel coo ls the food somewhat below the temperature o f the

surround ing air .

127 . Cov ered‘

Pail . Another device is a metal pail (Fig .

ICELESS REFRIGERATORS ; WATER COOLERS

60) covered with a heavy layer of cloth and a pan se t on t op of

the cover. Into the pan is put some water and strips o f cloth

t o conduct out the water . This may be"

hung in the kitchen

window if it is shaded . The co ver and the

strips must be secured so that they will no t

blow off .

128 . Un g l az e d Ear t h enwar e . Un

glazed earthenware pitchers and jugs make

excellent water coo lers . The water is put in

them, and , as the container is porous , a sm all

amount filters thru the earthenware, and , as

it reaches the surface and air,it evaporates

coo ling the remaining water .FIG . 60. Go v

129. Cooling Wit h Running Wat er . ered.

pai l f or

A Very little stream of water from a faucetCO Ohng f0°d °

will coo l the baby’s milk and ' k eep it from souring . The

bottle should be se t in a pan o f water which is constantly

renewed by the sm all stream running

from the faucet . (Fig . This

method o f coo ling should be used only

in homes supplied with water from a

spring or in an emergency . Under

most circumstances,it is t oo ext rav a

gant a method of keeping food t o be

recommended .

In cities it should be

Fro . Coo ling with prohibited because it might cause t oorunm ng wat e r‘ great a drain on the city water supply.

A larger device used for coo ling milk is a tank of running

water (Figs . 61-a-b) . The water flowing thru this tank

commonly flows into another tank used for the watering of

stock. Cans with inverted covers like those illustrated are

waterproo f, because the air is caught inside them so that it

cannot get out for the water t o replace it . It does no t require

a large stream o f water t o re

new that in the tank and

keep it coo l . The efficiency

of this device depends en

F IG. 61-a. C ross-section o f co o l t ire ly upon having a supplying t ank '

of co ld water available .

130. Refrigerat ing Plant s . Refrigerating plants are

sometimes installed in private dwellings . These consist of a

motor and a machine for compressing gas, a chamber which

is t o be coo led,and sometimes co ils of pipe containing brine .

When the gas—for example, am

monia or carbon d i o xid e—is c om

pressed, it heats the pump which com

presses it . That is , when a liquid or

gas is being compressed , it g ives up

heat . When a liquid or gas expands, it

takes heat from somewhere . In refrig

erating plants, the expanding gas is0 0 0 1n

made t o take the heat either directly

from the refrigerator or storeroom, or from brine which is

then used for coo ling the refrigerator or room . Refrigerat

ing plants require the same care as pumps, motors and re

frigerat ors .

Wat er Coolers. Since ice is not always pure, it

is necessary t o use coo ling devices which do not permit it t o

come into direct contact with the water. One type of water

coo ler consists of a can set in an ice box with a pipe leading

CHAPTER XVI I I

FANS AND VENTILATORS

133 . Se lec t ing a Fan . With the com ing o f electricity

into the home, fans have become practical home devices . Donot buy a fan or other electrical device without ascertainingwhether the current is direct or alternating, and what vo ltage

is needed t o run it. M ost city homes are now supplied with

current ranging between 105 and 115 vo lts, so most fans are

FIG . 64 . B lower . FIG . 65. Stationary fan .

made for that . Fans will run on a small wire like that used

for lighting.

134 . Th e Const ruc t ion o f t h e Fan in Com m on Use .

Amoto r turns the fan . There is a regulator on some fans, so

that they can be run at different rates of speed . Oil cups areimportant parts o f fans . When a new fan is purchased , these

cups are full of oil . The oil will last for many months,but if

an o ld fan heats and sparks while being run , have an elec

t rician exam ine it t o see if all the parts are in o rder and there

FANS AND VENTILATORS 111

is a supply of oil . Figs . 64 , 65 and 66 show types o f fans in

common use .

135 . Vent ilat or . A hood (Fig . 67) with a pipe leadinginto the chimney

,placed over a cook stove,will conduct hot

FIG. 66 . Movable e lectri c fan . FIG. 67 Stove ventilator .

air and steam up the chimney . This is due t o the fact that

warm air rises and co ld air comes in t o take its place . An

open skylight over a cook stove , also , makes an excellent ven

t ilat or and coo ling device for kitchens .

QUESTIONS FOR PART IV

1 . How m ay refrigerators be judged fo r efficiency !2 . What are the essentials o f a go o d refrigerato r !3 . How is an iceless refrigerator co o led ! Under what cond it ions isit useful !4 . What m ay be the m atter with an electric fan when it heats and

sparks !

PART V

WATER SUPPLYAND SEWAGE DISPOSAL .

CHAPTER X IX

PUMPS ANDWATER FILTERS

Suc t ion Pum ps . A pump is a device for lifting

water. The pumps in common use work on the principle

that water which is under the pressure o f air will rise t o fill a

vacuum or a partial vacuum . The pump is composed o f a .

combination of valves and a piston for forcing the air out o f

the pipe t o allow the water from below t o be forced into it . A‘

valve catches the water as it starts t o flow back . The weight

o f the water ho lds the valve closed .

An outlet above the piston permits the wat er t o flow into atank or sink when the piston is again lifted t o make a new

vacuum and draw more water (Fig .

137 . Care o f Pum ps . The leather or m aterial form ing

the piston must be kept mo ist, or it will shrink and leak.

When it becomes worn and o ld , it must be renewed . It is not

a difficult task t o put new packing on a small suction pump .

To do this , remove the pin attaching the piston t o the handle .

Lift out the piston , unscrew the bo lt wh ich ho lds the leather

packing in place ; put on the new packing, and replace the

bo lt, piston and pin .

Always pump with a regular,even stroke—a jerky one

tends t o wear the working part s o f the pump .

The cylinder and pipe containing water must no t be al

lowed t o freeze . There is usually a plug in the pipe which

These act automat ically . Whenever an out let pipe is opened ,the extra pressure o f air from the storage tank raises the wat er

from the well or cistern (Fig . Air should be kept in the

pressure tank.

When this arrangement is used ; open and close faucets

FIG. 7O. Compressed-air pum p system .

slowly, no t with a jerk . Fig . 70-a shows plumbing where

such a system is used .

140. Water Filt ers . Water filters are devices for strain

ing minute particles out of water. They are made o f sand ,

charcoal or porcelain, kisse lguhr and other materials . They

are without value unless they are kept clean . A dirty filter is

worse than none . Alm ost the only way t o clean them is t o

sterilize them or put new material in them . Only with ex

pert care can filters be made effective for removing disease

PUMPS AND WATER FILTERS 115

FIG . 7O-a. System of plum bing with com pressed-air tank .

germs . A dirty filter may prove a menace . Filters are val

uable for removing coarse dirt from the water .

Filters on faucets should be cleaned or renewed every day .

Large filt ers for rain water should be renewed every few

months .

when water from another t ank, such as a city reservo ir, flows

into it .

145 . Inst ant aneous

FIG. 71. Instantaneous water F I G . 72 . Device for heatingheater . water autom atically.

before, the water reaches bo iling temperature . This will

prevent steam from form ing, which might injure the system .

146 . Heat ers for Tank s . Hot water is lighter than

co ld . A pipe from t he bottom of the tank leads into the

heater,passes thru the heating co ils and up into the t op o f the

tank (Figs . 73 and Water from the tank circulates thru

this pipe as the ho t water rises and the co ld water falls in the

tank. As the heater is located on a level with the bottom of

the tank,co ld water seeking this level flows into the pipe and

becom es heated (Fig .

Wat er Heat ers . The instanta

neous water heater (Fig . 71) is

a device which heats water on

its way t o the outlet . It is

com posed ofaheatingunit and

piping connected t o the outlet

pipes . In this type of heater,the pipesmust always be kept

full of water,and some device

should be attached (Fig . 72)t o the heater which will low

er the heat as soon as, or

PRESSURE TANKS ; PLUMB ING FIXTURES 119

A booster is a device which keeps the water hOt up t o the

faucet (Fig . If there is a pilot on a gas water heater,be sure t o use it .

The burners should be cared for in the

sam e way as on other heaters using the same fuel . Keep the

tank full of water and the

water free t o circulate

thru the pipes . Air-tight

tanks may become so ho t

that steam is formed in

large amounts . Tanks

which are not connected

with city water pipes may

be fitted with safety valves

which open when'

the pres

sure of steam inside the

tank reaches a certain

po int,which is below the

danger po int .

Should the pipes or tank freeze,do not start the fire in the

heater, but thaw the pipes with applications of ho t water or

other means until the water can circulate in them .

Electric heate rs are usually incased in a waterproo f covering and put in the center of the tank . Small electric heaters

are in use for heating a glass or other small amount of water.

These are called immersion heaters .

FIG . 73 . Fo rce pum p and bo iler .

147 . Th e El evat ed Wat er Tank . In rural homes,water

is sometimes stored in an elevated tank. This is usually

placed in the attic . It is frequently filled by means o f a force

pump connected with a windmill or gaso line engine . If there

is no ov erflowt o this tank, which there should be , it must be

watched when being filled t o prevent it from overflowing . It

may be fitted with an aut om at ic'

dev ice sim ilar t o those used

FIG . 74 . Water heater and tank . FIG . 75 . Booster for h ot water .

on the expansion tanks of hot -water furnaces or tanks t o

water closet s for regulating the inflow of water .

148 . Fauce t s . Faucets are made in different patterns,

but they need practically the same care (Fig . 77) The leather,

or rubber, washer in a faucet must be renewed when it leaks .

To renew the washer, unscrew the cap from the faucet. Re

move the valve . Take o ff the ring o f packing. Replace

with a new ring, and put the faucet together again . The only

too ls needed for this repair work are a wrench and a screw

driver. Shut off the water from the pipe t o the faucet before

beginning t o repair a leaking faucet .

149 . Valv es . Valves are construct ed much like faucets .

FI G. 77 . Fauce t sh owing FIG.

78 . Radiparts . ator valve .

They, t oo , sometimes need repacking . Fo llow the dirce

tions for repacking of faucet (Fig .

150. O v erflows. Keep overflows clean. When the plug

FIG . 79 . Cross-section of overflow Plum ber ’s pum p .

on bath-tub .

and overflow are combined, as they som etim es are, lift out

the cylinder forming the plug and overflow and wash it .

When it fails t o ho ld water in the tub or basin, it may need

PRESSURE TANKS ; PLUMB ING FIXTURES 123

a new washer on the lower part . This may be replaced very

easily . Fig. 79 shows one type of overflow.

I t is more difficult t o keep other overflows clean . They

may be flushed or cleaned with a brush attached t o a wire .

151 . Traps for Bat h Tubs and Basins . Dirt and

slime co llects in traps . Clean them frequently. Always

leave clean water in the traps o f bathroom fixtures and

sinks . Only matter quickly so luble in water should passinto drain pipes . Keep matches

,sweepings, rags, fruit

skins and stones out o f the fixtures .

If the drain from a basin,sink or tub fails t o carry away the

water, the stoppage may be removed with a sm all plumber ’s

pump (Fig . This is a small rubber cone-like devicewhich is placed over the outlet t o the drain and moved up and

down so that it sucks air, water and whatever may be m ov

able up the pipe .

CHAPTER XXI

CESSPOOLS, SEPTIC TANKS AND CITY SEWER SYSTEMS

152. Re lat iv e Value o f Cesspo o l and Sept ic Tank .

Sewer pipes for private water systems usually drain into cesspoo ls or septic tanks (Figs. 81, and 81-a) . The waste g oes thrua process Of decom position before passing out into the so il .

FIG . 81 . Septi c tank and ti le .

Sewage should bo th liquify and oxidize before entering into

the so il. Oxidation purifies liquid sewage so that it is no tcontaminating. If oxidation is not b rought about in the

cesspoo l or septic tank, sewage, which is fresh, should be run

onto the surf ace of the ground where the air and bact eria foroxidation can be found. Cesspoo ls are not as good as septictanks because there is not the surety of sewage being oxidized

in them,as there is in the septic tank . They lack oxidizing

chambers .

them being that they are constructed so that they drain the

tank Often enough t o remove the oxidized sewage and not so

o ften as t o remove it before it has become oxidized .

154 . Th e Size o f Tank . Because the liquid must bedrained from the tank at certain intervals, it is important that

C LO SED CO VER

FIG . . 82. Details of septi c tank .

the size of the tank be adapted t o the amount of waste it

will receive .

Septic tanks are kept warm by the heat generated in t he

oxidizing process,which is Simply slow burning of the waste ,

so that they rarely freeze in winter .

Run waste water from the kitchen Sink and laundry tubs

into a catch basin t o co llect the grease from the water, as

grease or oil on the surface of the sewage of a tank will stop

the action o f the microbes in the tank by smothering them .

When t oo much grease does get into it, the tank must be

thoro ly cleaned .

Do no t use lye,chloride of lime , carbo lic acid and other

chemicals in drains and septic tanks. D isinfectants of this

CESSPOOLS,SEPTIC TANKS , SEWER SYSTEMS

type put into pipes leading t o a septic tank will kill the useful

bacteria which decompose the sewage .

Use clear bo iling water t o clean the pipes . This will be

coo led by the time it reaches the tank so that it will no t kill

the useful bacteria .

Inso luble mineral matter gradually accumulates in septic

tanks, so that they must be cleaned once every few years .

Care will postpone t he times for cleaning .

Do notwash vegetables with much earth adhering t o themin sinks leading t o cesspoo ls or septic tanks . Shake or rinse

off the dirt before washing them .

155. Disposal o f Wast e in Cit ies . In some cities,

househo lders are required by law t o have catch basins c onnec t ed t o their sewer systems t o remove leaves and dirt fromstorm water and grease from kitchen sinks and laundry tubs .

The laws of other cities forbid the use of catch basins, but urge

househo lders t o help care for the city sewer system by not

putting grease into sewer pipes .Strong chemicals Should not be put into the pipes . Use

only bo iling water in clean ing pipes . Do not wash v ege

tables ou which there is much loose dirt in sinks .

CHAPTER XXI I

WATER CLOSETS

156 . Const ruc t ion of Wat er Close t s . The water closet

is a device for the disposal o f excrement. The closet includes

a tank of water for flushing the waste from the bowl t o the

sewer or waste pipe . Between the bowl and the waste pipe is

a device called a trap which ho lds water and seals the end o fthe waste pipe so that gases from the sewer or the septic tank

cannot come into the house . (Fig . 83 -a . )

The bowl of the newermodels ofwat er closets have the trap

as a part of the bowl, which saves jo ints and connections

likely t o catch dirt and stop up the trap (Fig . The

water coming from the flushing tank is carried around the

bowl so that it is flushed clean by the swift-flowing water.

When the water reaches the bottom o f the bowl, it rushes

upward a few inches before it can turn downward t o the

waste pipe . This it does while flowing rapidly and cleansing

the bowl ; when the tank empties, water co llects in the bowl t o

the level,where it can flow down the waste pipe (Fig . As

soon as all the water above this level has gone down the pipe,

the rem ainder stays in the bowl , form ing the seal until the

next time the bowl is flushed . Fig . 83-a shows two kinds of

traps .

If water flows at t oo rapid a rate thru the trap of the bowl,

as in cases when there is t oo much pressure on the water or

the tank is se t t oo high so that grav ity gives it t oo much force,

or if an excessive suction is produced in the drain pipe, all the

water m ay run out o f the bowl , leaving the t rap unsealed .

shut s o ff t he valve . If the float catches so that it fails t o rise

and fall, or becom es disconnected from the valve , it will no t

operate the valve . There is an overflow pipe in the tank

which carries o ff all water rising above a certain level in the

tank. This prevents the tank from o verflowing when the

valve fails t o turn .

159 . Repair ing t h e Flush ing Tank . When the water

continues t o flow into the tank, take o ff the cover o f the tank

and examine the valve and ball t o see

why they are not working properly . If

disconnected or caught,remedy the

trouble . If the plug fails t o stop the

flow o f water out o f the tank, water will

F IG. 84 . Diagram of also continue t o flow into the tank . Toflushing tank .

rem edy th is temporar i ly, push the plug

down over the outlet and also note the reason why it has no t

fallen back autom atically . If worn ,it may have t o be re

placed with a new one .

There should be a valve t o close the pipe t o the tank . With

this valve, much water can be saved in time o f trouble, and

greater convenience may be had in rem edying difficulties

with the devices inside the tank .

QUESTIONS FOR PART V

How does a pum p l ift water from a well !How d o pum ps d iffer in construction !What care should be given a pum p !When is a water filter useful ! When dangerous !What is a pressure tank ! How does it operate !Describe two kinds o f water heaters . What precautions should

be taken with each kind o f heater !S’

QUESTIONS 131

7 . Describe a water faucet . Try t o replace an o ld washer with anew one .

8 . Have y ou ever cleaned the overflow t o a t ub or basin ! Shouldthey be cleaned !9. What are traps ! What m ay cause them t o fail t o wo rk !10. How woul d y ou select a go od trap ! How woul d y ou clean it !11 . Describe the construction o f a septic tank . What is the actionthat takes place in a septic tank ! What care should be given t o it !12 . Exam ine the tank t o a water closet . How does it Operate !

PART VI

LAUNDRYEQUIPMENT .

CHAPTER XX I I I

WASHING MACHINES

160. Kinds o f Wash ing Mach ines . Washing machines

are tools t o help remove dirt from clothes either by friction or

by forcing water thru them . They are known by such names

as suction, cylinder, rotary, oscillating, locom o t ive and cen

FIG . 85. Washer t o place in bo iler . FIG . 86 . Another type o f washerfor bo iler .

t rifugal machines . These names are used differently by v a

rious authorities .

Washing machines may be att ached t o any kind of motor,

or they may be manipulated by hand .

161 . Suc t ion Mach in es . The suction machines are

made t o force water thru the clothes (Figs . 85 and Som e

are operated by hand , som e by mechanical power, and som e

are funnel-shaped devices t o be placed in bo ilers .

Hand or mechanical suction machines have cones or fun

nels which are pushed down onto the clothes and then sud

denly lifted , causing suction which draws out the dirt pre

tub in small apartments . The tub then serves as the outer

part of the washing machine .

163 . Rotary Wash ers . In the rotary, or milk-stoo l , type

of washer, som etimes called“

Do lly”

(Fig . the stoo l-like

contrivance whi ch presses

against the clothes must be

turned half-way around in one

direction, and then back the

o ther way, t o prevent twisting,

tearing or otherwise injuring

the clothes . Theclothes are thus

rubbed against the corrugated

sides and bottom of the ma

chine,and thru thewater.Never

put t oom any clothesin this typeFIG' 88 ’ Cyhnder wash er °

of machine because t oo tight

packing causes themachine

t o tear them .

164 . M ach ine wit h

an O scil lat ing Wash ing

Dev ice . This washer con

tains an oscillating device

for rubbing the clothes

over the corrugated bot

t om . The rubbing device

is also corrugated and is

put on t op of the clothes

and moved backward and fo rward , thus rubb ing them

between two wash-boards (Fig .

FIG . 89. Rotary washer .

WASHING MACHINES 135

165 . O scil lat ing Wash ers . Oscillating washers have

corrugated bottoms . The clothes are put into the machine

with the wash water. The

washer rocks, throwing the clothes

backward and forward thru the

water,loosening and squeezing

out the dirt . This washer works

easiest when the machine is well

filled with water .

166 . Locom ot ive Wash er .

The locomotive washer (Fig . 91) FIG . 90. Oscillating washh

slides backward and forward , thusm g m ac m e

churning the water and clothes . It is operated only by power ,

FIG . 91. Lo com otive washing m achine .

heating unit,usually gas, in the base of the machine

keeps the water hot .

167 . Cent rifugal Wash er . A centrifugal washer (Fig .

91-a) contains a perforated basket which wh irls in the water

contained in the machine . The clothes are placed in the bas

ket, ro lled into bundles . The rapid whirling thru the water

removes the dirt from the clothes .

168 . Care o f Wash ers . The bearings and other motorparts of a washing machine should be kept o iled . Keep belts

FIG. 91-a. Centrifugal washing m achine .

tight . Run the machine about ten minutes each while the

clothes are in the first wash water and the two sudsy waters ,

and five minutes each for the ho t and the co ld rinse waters .

Blueing had better be done in a tub .

Wooden machines must dry out occasionally, or else they

get slimy. Do not let them get dry enough t o crack. Air

the machines after use . Cover them when not in use t o keep

them clean .

CHAPTER XXIV

WRINGERS

169 . Ro l ler Wring e r . The kind of wringer in most gen

eral use is the one made of two ro llers rotating in opposite

directions, the clothes being drawn in between the two by

friction , and the water pressed out . (See Fig .

The ro llers In modern wringers are made of a composition

o f rubber. They are adjusted so that they may be brought

close together or moved apart. When wringing thin articles,

the ro llers should be se t close together, and when wringing

heavy articles, they should be se t far apart . This adjust

ment of the wringer helps t o do better work and save wear

and tear on clothing and wringer .

170. Care o f Wring e rs . The bearings should be kept

o iled, but oil must be kept o ff the ro llers, as it rots them .

Keep the ro llers washed clean . Soap and water will remove

the dirt which co llects on them . If this does not clean them,

wipe the ro llers in a weak so lution of ammonia .

If the ro llers get badly stained, wipe them with a cloth

dipped in kerosene . Wash this off immediately, as kerosene

disso lves the rubber as well as the dirt .

Never leave a wringer with the pressure on the ro llers when

no t in use . The pressure is either adjusted by thum b-screws

or by a clamp . Loosen these when thru with the wringer.

171 . Cen t rifugal Wring er , or Dryer . The centrifugal

wringer,or dryer

,consists of a tub ,

inside o f which is a sm aller

tub with perforated sides . There is a drain at the bottom of

the outside tub . The wringer is attached t o a device for

WRINGERS 139

mak ing the inside tub turn rapidly. The power used is either

band o r machine (Fig .

The rapid turning of the inner tub for three minutes throws

the c lothing and water in them t o the outside of the revo lving

center. This tub being perforated, lets the water thru whileretaining t he clothing . Thus

,the clothes are wrung as dry as

FIG . 92 . Washer and dryer .

in a wringer o f the ro ller type . If the machine is turned a

longer tim e,the clothes can be wrung entirely dry

172 . Care o f t h e Mach ine . When loading centrifugal

wringers, put the heavy pieces at the bottom o f the basket .

Put articles in basket in bunches , and pack fairly tight . Do

not have loose ends hanging out . Fo ld sleeves into garments .

Load the basket full if there are clothes enough . A cover

helps t o ho ld the clothes in place . Load so that it runs even

and does no t wobble .

Nev er ho ld your hand on the extractor after it has started .

173 . Com binat ion Wash er and Wring er . The cent rif

ugal washer and wringer combined is built so that the basket

can be lowered into a tub of water. The clothes rotating in

water are washed . After this is accom plished , the cylinder

is raised,and , when rotated , serves as a wringer o f the centri

fugal type .

Load the washer with fewer clothes than for wringing .

Ro ll each garment into a bunch before putting it into the

washer .

Centrifugal wringers are used also as dry-cleaning machines .

For this use , they should be operated out of doors and at a

slower speed than when water is used . Friction heats gaso

line, causing it t o evaporate rapidly. The friction between

clothing, tub and gaso line when turned at a high speed may

produce a spark which will ignite the gaso line .

adjusted on mangles . (4) The covering put on mangle ro llers

must be of even thickness, or they will not do good work. (5)Do not mangle starched garments, or those on which are

many or large buttons . (6) Wax the steel ro ller while it is

warm , and wipe it clean With a cloth (Fig . (7) Always

remove pressure when not using mangles .

178 . Flat , or Sadirons. Irons are o f two kinds— those

which must be heated on a stove, and the self-heating ones .

The weight of the iron governs the

amount of heat it will absorb,and

this is the amount that it will give

up In Iron ing . Heat is needed t o

dry clothes, and as the cloth can be

smoothed best when damp, but will

wrinkle again unless dried whilesmooth , heat is essential t o the iron

ing process .

The weight of the iron helps in

the smoothing process . The heavyFIG. Waxing roller irons do the

best grade of work, butm angl e'

are harder t o manipulate . The

most satisfactory iron for a woman of average strength t o

i manage weighs SIX t o eight pounds .

The fo llowing po ints should be remembered in using the

iron : (1) Rub rusty irons with bees’-wax or paraffine and

wipe with a cloth . (2) Wash irons frequently, and rub with

sand soap , Dutch cleanser, ashes or salt t o po lish them . (3)

Rinse in bo iling water and wipe dry. Warm on the stove and

rub with bees’-wax, and set away. (4) Before using, wipe

with a clot h . (5) Do no t wash electric irons— rub with wax

MANGLES AND IRONS 143

or paraffine . W ipe o ff with a clean cloth . (6) It has been

found by tests that the time required in heating the self-heat

ing iron usually equals the time required for the iron t o co o l

after the heating has been stopped , but

that an iron coo ls faster on wet, heavy

cloth than on thin , dry cloth .

179 . Ch arcoal I rons . Charcoal is

no longer used for heating irons . It makes

t oo much dirt . D ifficulty is found , also ,

in keeping charcoal irons at a constant

temperature .

180. El ec t ric I rons . An elect ric iron

(Fig . 95) is made up o f a heavy nickel

plated base, a block of iron which ho lds

the heat,and a heating unit o f small wires,

or a plate , thru which the current passes , FIG. 95. Parts o f

meeting resistance . Since resistance electri c iron

against the flow of an electric current produces heat, the iron

is heated . It has a handle and shell covering the heating unit

t o protect the hand and prevent loss o f heat thru the t op .

Getting electric irons t oo ho t injures the heating unit, as

electricity can heat metals so ho t that they ril elt . Excessive

heat may disconnect the circuit by burning the wires in the

iron, or it may melt the metal so as t o form a short circuit .

Always fo llow exactly the directions for connecting and

disconnecting the iron with the current . Som e say discon

neet at the plug between iron and cord , or others the plug

placed near the socket (Fig . 95-a) . The weakest part in irons

is likely t o be in the attachment plug . When connecting the

plug0t o the iron , be sure t o get it back in place each time . A

v plug that does no t fit well into place may cause sparking and

develop sufficient heat t o burn o ff the insulation from the

cord , if not the fuses of the system t o which the iron is at

tach ed .

Never attach an iron t o a lighting system without making

(sure that the iron is made t o be operated on the vo ltage of the

current t o which is is connected . If it is not the same, at

taching the iron may either burn out the fuses of the lighting

system, or ruin the iron .

Operate the iron at a good temperature for ironing, and

take care t o keep it from getting

hotter than is required .

181 . Gas Irons . Gas irons

are attached t o a tube leading

from a gas pipe . There is a

burner inside the iron which isFlgfecgfr

ifiaggghn

ifigg Plug for generally a straight rod with

perforations in it for the escape

o f the mixture o f gas and air. The air mixes with the gas at a

po int near where the gas pipe enters the iron . The principle

o f heating an iron is the same as the heating of a gas stove

(Fig .

The burner in the iron is lighted, and as soon as it has

heated the iron,the ironing can proceed . The only diffi

cult ies encountered in using this kind of an iron are that a

quick, jerky stroke may blow out the flame, and if the work is

being done in a drafty place, the iron may not heat evenly .

These difficulties can be overcome, however. The person

using the iron can learn t o use a stroke which will be rapid and

still not put out the flam e . The ironing board may be pro

Gasoline irons with the tank . attached are operated the

same as alcoho l irons . The danger in these irons comes

in the tanks becoming overheated . Alcoho l is used first t o

heat the generator because it will no t sm oke the iron . The

gaso line, when lighted , Should burn with a blue flam e .

The tank should be one which has been tested t o stand a

high gas pressure, as the gaso line in the tank may become

heated and vaporize . The gas so formed must not escape

into the room , where it might be ignited by a spark . If not

allowed t o escape, it exerts considerable pressure inside the

tank . If the pressure becomes t oo great, it will break the

tank,escape and ignite from the flam e In the iron . The open

ing for filling must always be kept closed when the iron is in

QUESTIONS FOR PART VI

1 . Explain the construction o f various types of washing m achines .

What are the advantages o f each !2 . What care should a ro ller wringer receive !3 . How does a centrifugal wringer dry clo thes !4 . How does a m angle d iffer from a wringer !5 . What is the diff erence in care that should be given t o a plain flatiron and an electric iron !

PART VII

HOUSE-CLEANING EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER XXVI

VACUUM CLEANERS AND CLEANING TOOLS

185 . Principl e Upon Wh ich Vacuum Clean e r Work s .

The pr inciple of a vacuum cleaner is that, thru suction, dust

and dirt are drawn from the floor or other surfaces into some

container . If the power o f the cleaner is sufficient, it may

FIG . 98 . Brush and vacuum cleaner com bined .

pick up anything—but cleaners hav m g a moderate am ount of

power are som ewhat more d iscriminating . They do , how

ever, rem o ve the fine, greasy dirt that brooms, brushes and

carpet sweepers fail t o get . The coarser dirt and ravelings

may be taken up by a carpet sweeper,with a brush

, or picked

up by hand . The brush is combined with the cleaner in many

machines (Fig .

148 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN'

THE HOME

186 . D iff eren t Kinds of Vacuum Cleaners . There are

cleaners with bellows, pumps or fans t o draw in air and dirt .

The ones with bellows in them work on the principle o f a bel

lows which is reversed so that when the air is drawn in,it

brings the dirt with it . The other kind works with a fan

which draws or sucks air from the floor thru a nozzle into the

machine . In the machine, the dust is filtered out of the air

and co llected in a pan .

The machines with fans in them are mostly power ma

chines,as the fan must revo lve very rapidly. The hand ma

chines are mostly o f the pump and bellows types . Som e are

combined with the carpet sweeper, making two machines in

one . With this device once go ing over the floor is sufficient

for removing both coarse and fine dirt . The hand machines

do no t have as much power of suction as the power machines,but they do very satisfactory work . They are more effective

than a carpet sweeper in remo ving dirt , but they do not get as

much of it as the stationary cleaner . Removing the sharp

grit from rugs and carpets lengthens the life of them so that

the more grit a cleaner can remove without tearing the carpet,

the more valuable it is .

When the pump type is being used , the piston is drawn up,drawing with it air and the dirt which is present at the po int

from which the air comes . Acloth filters out the dust. The

air escapes from the machine be fore the piston is lowered t o

draw in more air and dirt . If this were not true, the dust

would be forced back as the piston was lowered .

187 No zzle of Vacuum Cleaner . The nozzle, or po int

of entry o f air into the machine, is an important part of a

vacuum cleaner . This is constructed so that it fits the sur

get over-full of dust may ruin the machine by . making some

part leak continuously .

189 . D ifferen c e Between Hand and Power Cl eaners .

Power machines differ from hand ones in that they are run by

motor power (Figs . 99 and They may have larger

co llecting cham bers and may. be

stationary in the cellar and con

nect ed t o the room s by long

pipes (Fig . They must

likewise not be over-full o f dust .

They must be kept properly

adjusted . As the operation of

the mechanism shakes the ma

chine, it may loosen screws and

nuts, so they mus t be kept

t ightened . The mo to r must

also be kept in order . The m o

tors used for vacuum cleaners

FIG . 99, E lectric v acuum are the same as those used on

d eaner ‘other power devices. They may

be small elect ric mo t ors, forming a part o f the machine, or

large motors which operate several machines .

In any case, they must be given the same care as any other

moto r o f the same type . (See Chapter XXXVI I I .) If they

become overheated , they will not work well . They must be

kept lubricated t o avo id friction, and they must be keptproperly adjusted . Fig . 100-a shows a num ber of different

at tachm ents for vacuum cleaners .

190. Carpe t Sweeper . A carpet sweeper is a combina

tion of brush and dust pan . The advantage of this device i s

VACUUM CLEANERS

M etal SwiSc rew C lam p fo r attac hing

Hand le Lockueg Smog.

Univ ersal M o ror m Dome;

O il Hole for Lubrication Steel Bar Sprungo f To p Mo tor fo r O perating Swnc h

Rubbe r Carrie r W heel.Check.

Nozz le Adjusting Ca ter.

FIG . 99-a . E lectri c vacuum cleaner , showing parts.

that the dust is gathered into the machine as the brush

rotates, due t o the action o f the wheels on which the machine

moves . The dust is co llected into pans at each side o f the

brush ; these are covered so that the dust does not fly into the

air as much as otherwise would be the case (Fig .

O il the sweeper regularly about once a month by putting

FIG . 100. Stationary vacuumcleaner.

FIG . 100-a. Nozzles forvacuum cleaner.

one drop of oil on the ball

bearing on the hub o f each

wheel . Failure t o oil carpet

sweepers causes them t o wear

out quickly, t o squeak, and t o run hard . M ore oil than is

needed only gathers dust and gums the sweeper .

FIG . 101 . Section o f carpetsweeper .

Empty the sweeper (Fig . 102) each time it is used , even

during the sweeping if necessary . Don ’t fill it t o overflowing .

191 . M op Wr ing ers . There are two kinds o f m op wring

em t o attach t o pails. One is made of two flat surfaces which,

when pressed together with the m op b etween (Fig .

squeeze the water out of it, and the other is made of two

FIG . 106. Another type of105. M op wringer. m op wringer .

wringer ro llers which ,when brought together by a lever afterthe m op is put between them, rotate as the m op is pulled up

ward and wring out the water (Fig.

QUESTIONS FOR PART VII

1 . How do vacuum cleaners p ick up dust !2 . Describe som e type o f vacuum cleaner .3 . What care should be given a vacuum cleaner !4 . Tell how t o clean a carpet sweeper .

PART VIII

DEVICES FOR PREPARATION AND CON

SERVATION OF FOOD

CHAPTER XXVI I

POTS,PANS

, AND OTHER DEVICES

192 . Mat erials from Wh ich U t ens i lsAre Mad e . Since

there is considerable cho ice in utensils made from different

materials,the housekeeper may like t o know something about

these materials and about their care, and the effect o f acids

and alkalis upon them .

Russia iron is one of the o lder materials for pots and pans,and it still ho lds a place in cookery, for it makes bread , loafcake and cooky pans, which give t o the food a thin, brown

crust,due

, undoubtedly, t o the way in which it conducts

heat. (See tables on page

Tinned metal,which is well tem pered , also , gives a thin,

and pies. It makes good bread ,

M ost o f the cheap tin o f today is

oes good work, but

utensils kept as well po lished and as attractive re heavily-tinned ones .

Sheet iron make the most popular frying pans. ho lding heat as it does,

makes a desirable brown coating on most foods without the

danger of burning pans of other

materials . This is due t o specific heat and conductivity o f

the metal . Sheet-iron frying pans are useful in cooking foods

which are wanted on Short notice . The small-sized ones are

most in use .

193 . Alum inum Al loy. Satisfactory frying pans are

made from aluminum alloyed with other metal and cast.

Real aluminum frying pans warp. They do not brown the

food as well as materials that conduct heat less rapidly .

194 . Cast -I ron U t ensils . Heavy cast iron finds special

favor in the making of po t roasts, bread sticks and popovers.JIt browns the roast and makes a thick crust on bread sticks

and popovers .All iron o r tin utensils give better service as they become

tempered with use . They must be kept dry in order t o pre

vent rust. Do not use them for cooking acid foods .

Granite, cast aluminum and Russia iron are the popular

and satisfactory materials for roasting pans .

195 . Eart h enware . For cassero les and bean pot s, earth

enware is a favorite material, tho heavy glass gives equally

good results . These materials are fitted for long, slow baking

of food . They ho ld heat and conduct it t o the food in such a

way as t o produce results which are difficult t o duplicate witho f other materials .

Alum inum and Granit eware . Stew pans are

sat isfactory when made o f aluminum and o f high

grade graniteware . An assortment of pans and double bo il

ers containing utensils o f each material gives the best results,

as the granite is most desirable for cooking some acid and very

salt!! food , while aluminum is light and satisfactory for pre

wood cut in a plain design makes the best.

spoon . Acids do

no t attack it . Plated silver or so lid nickel spoons com e next

in usefulness . Softer metals wear o ff t oo fast t o be satisfac

to ry .

Nickel is a most desirable material for househo ld utensils,

but is very expens ive . It is not in common use in this coun

TABLE SHOWING CONDUCT IVITY AND SPEC IFIC HEATOF METALS

METAL CONDUCTIVITY SPECIFIC HEAT

S ilverCopper .

Alum inum .

T in .

IronGlassSilicon

Tungsten .

.159 at 10° C .

.2029 at 232° C .

CHAPTER XXVI I I

PARERS, SEEDERS, GRINDERS, SLICERS, ETC .

198 . Fruit and Veg e t abl e Parers wit h Knives . Parers

of the type with a knife have a fork-like device on which the

fruit or vegetable is held while a knife blade , attached t o a

shaft governed by a spring, is pressed against the fruit or v ege

table so that it cuts off a thin layer o f the surface . Both the

fruit and the knife are caused t o ro

tate so that the who le surface o f the

sphere-like object will be covered by

the blade o f the knife during one or

more revo lutions o f the wheel which

operates them (Fig . The knife

is guarded so that it cuts only a thin

layer from the outer surface of the

fruit or vegetable . After the knife

has made the complete journey over

the surface , a device attached t o the machine pushes the ob

jec t from the fork so that a new one may be put in its place .

Parers are quite complicated devices , but they have been per

fected so that they are no t clumsy, and some can core apples,

stone peaches and slice the fruit .

FIG . 107 Parer .

Keep this type of machine dry so that it will no t rust . Do

not put it into water. Wipe o ff the blade o f the knife and the

fork when thru paring, so that the acid o f the fruit will not

disco lor them and dull the knife . Keep the other parts dry

and11Oiled

. In tim e the spring governing the knife becom es

weak and the machine will no t do good work. This spring

can be replaced on some machines. Parers are usually made

o f cheap material so that a new machine costs less than

the repairs .

199 . Parers Wh ich Grat e O ff Sk ins . Another type o f

parer is a grater-like device . This is used in larger establish

ments than the ordinary

home , but is useful where

there is much canning

o f hard fruits or vegetables

t o be done at home . It

consists of a co ntainer,

FIG . 108 . Cherry stoner. FIG . 109. Grinder .

the inside of which is rough like a grater. The vegetables

or apples are put into the container with water enough t o

float and separate them, and the who le is agitated so that

vegetables com ing against the Sides have the outer

surface removed or grated o ff. The water acts as the

medium for moving the vegetables and for rem o ving the bits

o f skin from the Sides of the parer

Keep this parer clean by scrubbing the inside with a stiff

brush and rinsing well with water after using. Keep in a dry

place .

There are several makes of stoners, but most o f them

work on this principle, whether the rod is lifted by hand or

moved by a crank .

FIG. 111 . Parts of Universal grinder .

202 . Gr ind ers . Grinders are of t wo principalthe ro ller and the burr . Coffee and other hand mills are of

the burr type (Figs . 109 and The food passing between

these rough surfaces is ground t o a fine powder as one is

turned on the other .

203 . Ch oppers or Meat Grinders . Choppers or meat

grinders , as they are som etim es called, consist of a Spiral

PARERS , SEEDERS , GRINDERS , SLICERS 163

channel, thru which the food is pushed along. Knives are

placed in the Sides of some machines t o chop the food as it

passes,while in others the knives are only at the outlet .

Keep the fingers out of the hopper

when the chopper is being operated .

Keep the machine clean and dry

when no t in use (Fig.

204 . Ch oppers . Choppers have

been made which really chop the

food without crushing it, but these

machines are so clumsy and no isy, FIG 112 Vegetable Slicefi

that they have no t come into common househo ld use . They

consist'

of chopping knives which are raised and lowered

by levers and a crank .

205 . Slic ers . Slicers vary in

design . The fo llowing illustrations

(Figs . 112 and 113) Show two dif

ferent types . Care must be taken

to guard the fingers when using

Slicers . Wash the knives and keepthem dry when no t in use . A

so iled knife gets dull faster than a

clean,dry one .

206 . Lard and Fruit Presses ;

Sausag e St uffers. Presses and

FIG . Un i ve r s a l v e g e stuffers are of two types—the onetable s licer .

which depends on th e we ight

exerted on a long lever,and the other which depends on a

screw t o press the substances . The screw forceS '

a flat board

or surface down upon the food as it is turned . M ore pressure

for the Size of the device can be secured with the screw

than is practical a weight on the long of a lever

FIG . 114 . Lard and fruit press .

(Fig. The stuffer is like a press,except that the food

is forced out one ho le .

dry . Very little oil should be used , as it would tend t o get it

into the food . Sometimes the rivet ho lding a wheel needs t o

be tightened , as, for example , when one becomes so loose that

the wheel slips cogs . If it is t oo tight,the wheel may bind

and work hard .

209. Freezers . The freezer is a mixer in a can which is

in turn se t in a freezing'

ture of ice and salt .

Freezing can be done with

out stirring the cream . This

makes a cream filled with

crystals, while if stirred , it

will be sm ooth and Velvety

because it freezes more even

ly . The rapidity o f freezing

and the proportion o f the

ice and salt affect the fine

ness o f the grain of the frozen

dish .

A freezer is designed not

FIG. 1 16. View showing.

internal only t o stir the food,but t o

arrangem ent Of cak e m en

scrape it from the sides o f the

can . That which freezes first must be stirred into the middle

o f the can ;.

o therwise , it would form a hard frozen layer o f

cream on the sides,leaving the middle unf rozen, and

' interfere

with the turning of the paddle or beater .

In the bottom of the outside bucket, ho lding the ice and

salt,is a socket into which the pivot on the bottom of the can

fits . The can turns on th is pivot in the direction opposite

t o which the paddle is turning . Some freezers are made so

M IXERS , BEATERS AND CHURNS ; COFFEE POTS 167

that the can stays stationary . The function of the pivot is

then t o ho ld the can in the center of the pail so that the paddle

will be in the proper position t o turn easily .

210. Care o f Freezers . The pail o f wood should no t be

stored in a very dry place when not in use . The can and pad

dle must be kept clean and dry so that they will not rust.The bearings and wheels which turn the paddle and can must

be kept dry and o iled .

There is a ho le in the upper part of the tub or pail in which

the can sets,and this should be kept open as it is placed

slightly below the level of the t op of the can so as t o drain o ff

any water from the melting ice which otherwise might get

into the can and make the food salty .

Some freezers have another ho le at the bottom o f the tub .

This should be kept closed while food is being frozen. It is

useful t o drain off the water from the tub when the freezer is

t o be repacked or emptied . It should no t be opened at any

other time .

211 . Ch um s . Churning can be done with almost any

device which agitates the cream, but the churns which are

simplest are most easily cleaned and least wasteful of butter .

They are barrels or o ther containers which revo lve or swing

backward and fo rward .

Keep churns clean and well aired so they will no t give up

odors and flavors t o the butter . After a churn has been used,

rinse it with co ld water and then wash it in hot water, t o

which washing soda has been added . Lastly,rinse with

scalding water . Le ave open t o air when no t in use , but pro

t ec t from dust and dirt .

212 . Drip Co ff ee Pot s . Drip coffee is made in a funnel

or a cup-shaped device which is suspended in a coffee pot (Fig .

This is made either o f cloth or perforated metal . The

coffee is pulverized and packed into the funnel . Co ld water

is poured on t op of the coffee and slowly filters thru it,ex

tracting flavoring substances . The water is

heated after it has filtered thru the co ffee .

213 . Percolat or Coff ee Pot s . A eof

fee perco lator is a device put in a co ffee

po t t o ho ld the ground coffee above the

water and pump Some Of the water t o the

FIG. 117. Drip fun t op of the pot so that it can seep backnel m percomt on down thru the ground coffee (Fig .

Aperforated cup with a perforated cover ho lds the coffee .

Thru the center of this cup passes a small tube t o the t op of

FIG . 118 . Percolator .

the pot . At the bottom of the tube is a flat plate with turned

down edges or other device which supports the pipe and rests

on the bottom of the pot . A small amount of water gets un

der this and into the pipe . The heat in the stove turns the

CHAPTER XXX

DISH-WASHERS, CANNERS AND DRYERS

Tho dish-washers (Fig . 119) have found a place in hotels

and large establishments, they are still in the experimentalstage for general househo ld use .

Small machines on the market,patterned after the hotel

FIG. 119. Dish-washer .

type,are giving good results for home use . When using these

machines,place the dishes in them in the manner directed and

use as much water as is called for.

Some d ish washers wo rk on the plan o f revo lving the dishes

in the water, some in forcing the water over the dishes, and

others by agitation of both dishes and water.

DISH-WASHERS , CANNERS AND DRYERS 71

Keep the pan washed clean . Keep all bearings properly

o iled . Have the machine dry when not in use . There is

least breakage in the washers which ho ld the dishes stationary (Figs . 119, -a,

-b and -c) .

One type o f dish-washer has

no motor ; the force of the run

ning water washes the dishes .

This can only be used where

the water supply is abundant

and under considerable pres

Sl l l‘

e The washers equipped FIG . 119-a . Sm all dish-washerwith paddles for throwing the f°r h°useh°1d use

water over the dishes use about a dishpanful o f '

water for

washing the dishes, and as much more for scalding and rinsing

them . When well scalded in thedish-washer, the. dishes will dry if

the cover t o the washer is left Open.

214 . Dish Dryer . There is

a number of dish dryers on the

market which ho ld the dishes separate from each other. Into these

dryers , bo iling hot water is poured,over the dishes. There is provision for the water being drained

away immediately, and the heatFIG. 119-b. Walker dish it imparts t o the dishes dries them .

washer.(Fig . 119

215 . Cl eaning Silv e r . Silver can be cleaned in an alu

minum pan filled with water and soda. There are silver

cleaners which are merely aluminum pans with which come

directions for proportioning the soda and the water. A mix

ture o f salt and baking soda is sometimes used,combined with

a piece of z inc in an aluminum pan. The salt, soda, zm c and

FIG . 119-c. Tray for holding dishes .

Silver are put into ' the aluminum pan and se t on the stove.

The action of the salt and soda on the metals produces anelectro lytic action which brightens the silver.Do not use this method of cleaning on gray or co lored silver.

216 . Canners . Canners are devices for sterilizing fruit

and other food which is being canned . The wash-bo iler type

FIG. 120. Water bath canner .

consist s of a bo iler or kettle with a rack in the bottom t o raise

the jars an inch or so from its bottom t o prevent the cracking

used for canning . The amount of pressure needed and the

time o f sterilizing depends on the organism present . A

higher pressure is an indication of a higher tem perature in

the canner . After the jars are filled and put in the canner,

the cover is fastened down tight by thumb-screws . There is a

pet cock which is kept open when the canner is first heating,

t o let the air be forced out by the first steam which forms . As

soon as the steam begins t o escape,the pet cock is closed and

the temperature inside o f the canner begins t o rise abo ve the

temperature o f bo iling water (Fig .

On the canner is a safety valve which is set so that the instant a certain number of pounds of pressure is reached

,it is

lifted up by the steam . Some o f the steam then escapes,thus

preventing the pressure in the canner becom ing so great that

there is danger o f its exploding .

219 . Use o f t h e Canner . Wat er is put into the canner

t o reach t o the bottom of the rack . The jars are filled accord

ing t o canning directions and are set‘

in the canner . When

the jars are in,t he cover is adjusted t o the canner and screwed

on tight so that no steam will escape between the co ver and

the canner . The pet cock is left open until steam begins t o

escape thru it as the canner is heating on the stove . When

steam begins t o com e,the pet cock should be closed

,and the

steam-gage hand then begins t o turn , indicating that the

pressure in the canner is rising .

When the steam gage reaches the po int desired , t he safety

valve is adjusted so that the steam will escape should the

pressure continue t o rise . Until the operator knows where t o

set the weight t o the safety valve,leave it well out t o the end

of the rod until the pressure in the canner has reached the de

D ISH-WASHERS,CANNERS AND DRYERS 175

sired po int .Then mo ve the weight t o the po int on the arm

o f the valve which will just keep in the st eam .

Be sure the cover is properly adjusted . Be sure t o exhaust

the air from the canner before closing the pet cock. Keep the

fire so that the desired pressure will be maintained without

the escape of steam

from the safetyvalve .

When steam escapes

from the canner thru

the pet cock at a

rapid rate,it may

cause liquid t o flow

out of the jars .

Be certain t o let

the canner coo l until

the indicator on the

s t e am g ag e h a s

reached zero before

opening the canner .

Wh en the indicator

po ints to zero , open

the pet cock . If a heavy stream o f steam starts t o escape

from it, close it again and wait a few minutes longer . Test

again by Opening the pet cock ; if a very little stream o f steam

escapes, leave the pet cock open and wait until steam has

stopped escaping from it . Now loosen the screws ho lding

the cover in place . Partially loosen each screw. When this

is done, fully loosen all and lift o ff the cover . These precau

tions are taken t o prevent the operato r from being burned

t eam or gett ing hurt by the cover being lifted by the

FI G . 122 . Device for sealing tin can .

steam . It also prevents the breaking of glass jars due t o

sudden pressure changes .

Never let the canner coo l so long before the pet cock is

opened that air will rush into it,due t o the vacuum which is

sure t o form when the steam is coo led if the pet cock is no t

opened. Such a condition may break the jars .

Tin cans are sealed with a de

vice (Fig . 122) which fo lds the

edge o f the cover over the t op o f

the can so tightly it will no t leak .

220. Dryers . Dryers are de

vices t o ho ld the food being dried

in a thin layer so that the air can

be circulated thru it free ly . Som e

tim es they are devised t o direct

currents o f air thru the drying material . If the air is heated,

the drying is hastened (Fig .

FIG . 123. Dryer .

A S ieve on which food is spread hung above the st o ve is a

sim ple dry ing device and one o f the most practical for home

use . The heat currents rising from the stove pass thru this

and dry the food .

M any dryers are constructed on this sam e principle, having

a heating unit below and trays of food above . These trays

have t o be shifted from time t o time , as the mo isture from the

lower ones rises wit h the heat t o the upper trays, thus retard

ing their drying . The t op trays , if t oo numerous, are useless

on this account . Two or three seem t o be all that can be used

with advantage at one tim e in hom e dryers, t ho som e mach ines

are made with many m ore .

CHAPTER XXXI

SEPARATORS AND EMULSIFIERS

222. Cream Separat ors. A cream separator is a device

for separating cream from milk. Separation can be done best

while the milk is still warm (Fig.

Separators should be set in a bright,dry

,airy place free

from dust and dirt . Near the separator should be a conv en

ient place for airing and sunn ing the tin part s wh ich come incontact with the milk.

The base for the separator should be so lid enough so that it

will not shake while the machine is being operated . If set on

a wooden floor, see that the boards are nailed in place, and if

the floor is thin, put heavy strips to cover several boards

across it. Fasten the st rips firmly to the floor and set the

separato r on them . When the machine is set up, be sure

that it is set level .

223 . Difi erent Types o f Separat ors . There are two

types of separators—o ne which contains discs of metal (Fig .

and the other which depends upon a cylinder in whichthe milk rotates (Fig . 124) for the separation of the cream

from the skim milk. Fig . 126 shows a sectional View of the

DeLav al separator .

Cream is lighter than milk,and when milk and cream are

whirled rapidly, the milk, being heavier, flies to the outside o f

t he container, and the cream stays near the center. Two

pails whirled rapidly made the first separator ever used , but

that was clumsy and im practical .

SEPARATORS AND EMULSIFIERS 179

M odern separators cons ist of a pan which ho lds the milk,and which lets it flow in a stream into the portion of the ma

chine which is being whirled rapidly by the turning of the

FIG . 124. Cream separator .

wheel at the side . There is a place in the rotating part which

lets the cream flow from the center into one container, and

the milk flow from the outside t o another . ~

The parts o f the machine must be fitted together properly ;o therwise, it will fail t o do good work.

Always turn the wheel at the speed indicated for the machine with discs . If there is no speed indicated

,turn as fast

as needed for good separation o f milk and cream . Take care

no t t o drop and dent any of the tin part s . Adjust for the

density desired for the cream .

224 . Wash ing t h e Mach ine . As soon as milk has been

skimmed with the separa

t or, pour some water into

the bowl and run it thru

the separator the same as

the milk.

Wash the bowl and other

parts in ho t water in which

washing soda has been dis

so lved . Rinse in clearwa

ter,and then scald with

bo iling water . Once a

week give it a more thoro

washing, s crubbing a l l

parts with a brush . Sun

FIG . 125 . D iscs in DeLav al cream the Fa l l/S When 110 13 in

separator .use

225 . O il ing . The mechanical parts which fwhirl theseparator should be kept o iled . In o iling, fo llow the direc

tions wh ich com e with the machine . Use a good grade

o f oil .

226 . Wh ey Separat or . A whey separator is a machine

very much similar t o a milk and cream separator . It is'

is o f interest t o the woman who lives in the city . Emulsifiers

are used in large institutions . Some have been installed in

settlement houses and public schoo ls. They might be owned

by communities where people might use a large amount o f

dried milk. In the emulsifier, the milk, water and sweet but

ter are warmed . Af ter this, they pass thru a device looking

much like a separator, but which mixes the ingredients t ogether instead o f separating them . From the mixer the milk

passes over a coo ling device, and is ready for use . This ma

chine should be kept clean , and the parts which come in c on

tact with the milk scalded out with hot water after being

rinsed with co ld water .

QUESTIONS FOR PART VI I I

1 . What m etals would y ou select for a pan t o use when a thin crustis wanted ! What m aterials produce thick crusts !2 . For what purposes would y ou choose alum inum ! Granite ! Castiron ! Glass ! Earthenware ! On what basis would y ou m ake a cho iceo f utensils ! Why wouldn ’t glass m ake a go o d i ce-cream freezer !3 . What are the essentials o f go o d parers , slicers and co rers !4 . What kind o f dish washers are proving the m ost helpful !5 . Describe a silver-cleaning device . Does the use o f such devicesharm the silverware !6 . What is a water-bath canner ! How would y ou m ake one !7 . What m ay cause glass j ars in pressure co okers t o break !8 . How m ay the breakage be prevented !9 . Explain the ways in which cream m ay be separated from m ilk.

10. How do separators help !

PART IX

SUNDRYDEVICESCHAPTER XXXI I

DUMBWAITERS AND OTHER HOUSE FURNISHINGS

228 . Dum bwait ers andWindowAd justm ent s.Dumb

waiters and elevators are used in homes where the kitchen is

on a different floor from the dining-room .

The simplest ones are a set of Shelves counterbalanced by

weights . When the elevator is raised, theweights drop down , and when it is lowered ,the weights rise .

Window weights hung over a pulley in the

t op of the window sash work on the same

principle as dumbwaiters—the weights help

in raising the window. The only care need FIG. 127 . Springed is t o replace the rope when worn . 3

3nfor Win“

Another window pulley is made of metal

like that in a clock spring (Fig . The spring is drawn out

when the window is lowered , and the weight of the window

is just enough t o ho ld it, so very little force is needed t o raise

the window,as the spring is pulling on it, t oo .

229 . Ch eck Valves . Check valves are made t o prevent

doors from slamming . They are used in o ffices and public

buildings, and , o ccasionally, in homes (Fig . One kind

contains glycerine and castor oil, which move from one c om

partm ent t o another as the door is opened and slowly flow

back as a spring pulls the door shut .

The other kind is operated by compressed air and a spring .

The air causes the steady action of the door stop .

Another type of pneumatic hinge is attached t o a door

FIG . 128 . Check valve .

strong spring on the inside .

which is hung so that it would

naturally swing shut . When

the door is opened,the air is

exh austed from part of the

hinge . Af ter it h as been

opened,the slow equalization

of the air inside the doo r stop

and out side allows the door t o

close slowly without slam

ming .

230. Door Fast ener . A

door fastener (Fig . 129) is a

small device which has a

When the spring

is released , it pushes down on a rod which is

capped with rubber. When down, this comes

in contact with the floor and ho lds the door in

place . To change the position o f the door, asmall lever is used t o lift the rod and compress

the spring,thus releasing the door st op from

contact with the floor .

231 . Window Sh ad es . Window shades FIG. 129. Doo rho lder.

are equipped with a spring in one end of the

ro ller t o aid in raising it. At the end o f the spring is a flat

bar which is held in position by the bracket on which t he

CHAPTER XXI I I

SEWING M ACHINES

234 . D iffe ren t Types o f Sewing Mach ine s . There are

two types o f sewing machines in use—the chain-stitch and the

lock—stitch . Sewing

machines are made

t o run by hand , foot

or mechanical motor

power . This m akes

no difference in de

sign or care of the

stitching part o f the

machine . M otor and

FIG . 132. Lo ck-stitch m achine . foot power run the

B e d Sl idePresser Foo tPre sser Foot Thum bScrewNe edle C lam pNe edle C lam p Thum bScrew6 . Ne edle Bar Thre adGui de7 . Ne e dle B ar Bushing8 . Thre ad Cut t e r9 . Fa ce Plate Thum bScrew

10. Slack Thread Regulat or

11. T ension Spring12 . T ension RegulatingThum b Nu t

13. Tension D iscs14 . T hread Tak e-upSpr ing15 . Thread Guide16 . Pre sser B ar Lift e r

machine faster than17. Face Plate18 . Pre ssure R egulat ing hand pOWQI

T hum b Screw19 . Pre sse r B ar The treadle of thegfl

gfire a

g-up Le v e r

rea 111 e

22 . Armfoot power mach ines

23 . Spoo l Pin24 . Bobbin W inder S top SwlngS OI! . p ots .

Lat ch25 Be l t Q o v er These should be kept26.

G BiobbinWinde rThreade

27 . B a

39 1P I

O i led and clean from

3310152wigs!“1 ey lint and thread . The

Spindle30.

W11301

bbin Winder Worm large and the sm alle e

hSt it ch Regu lat ing wheels for the beltum b Screw

3 4 . Fe ed Platethe axle .

235 . Lo ck -St it ch Sewing Mach in e . A lock-stitch

sewm g machine (Figs . 132 and 133) consist s of shafts and

SEWING MACHINES 87

wheels which move the needle, feed plate and bobbin . The

t op thread is guided from spoo l t o needle thru a tension so

that only the needed amount passes forward each time the

needle is raised after the

thread has caught in the cloth .

When there is a difference

in the size of the thread used

on the machine,the tension

must be adjusted t o fit the

thread,unless the tension is FIG . 133 Under part of m achine

autom atic . If the tension isusing a Vibrating Shut t le

not properly adjusted o r the machine threaded properly, the

thread will either break, t angle at the needle po int, or draw

the t op thread tighter than the bottom one (Fig .

A longer stitch is needed for coarse thread than for fine

thread .

236 . Feed Plate . A device below the needle called the

feed plate (No . 34, Fig . 132) sho ves the cloth faster or slower

under the needle,according t o its adjustment, thus mak

544 ,m m ing a longer or shorter stitch . This

dev ice is a rough plate which mo ves

backward each tim e the needle is

raised , and forward again when the

needle comes down . While moving

F IG . 134 . Diagram ssh ow backward,the rough surface moves

ing pm per tensionthe cloth , but it drops slightly below

the level o f the table as it moves back into place, so does

not affect the cloth . For short stitches, it mo ves with a

sho rt stroke,and for long stitches , with a long stroke . If the

feed plate becom es gummed with lint and oil,the machine

will not make even stitches and may fail t o move the cloth .

Sometimes it will fail t o stitch . Improper threading maybreak

the needle thread . Too tight a tension may break it . Too

coarse thread for the size o f the needle

may break the needle . A bent, blunt

po inted or incorrectly set needle may

I break .

237 . Bobbins . There are two stylesFlgm1

35 Shuttle bOb ‘

of bobbins used on lock-stitch sewing

machines— the Shuttle bobbin (Fig . 135)and the round bobbin (Fig . depending on the particular

type o f machine used .

238 . Sh u t t le Bobbins . In shuttle bobbins, there is a

long iron spoo l on which the thread is wound . This isput into

the bobbin with the twist in

the direction indicated in the

book o f directions'

for the

FIG . 137 . Pulling up bobbinFIG . 136 . Spo o l bobbin . thread .

machine being used , and the thread is drawn thru the slit s

and ho les in the bobbin which govern the tension of the

lower thread (see Fig .

Put the shuttle into place and draw the thread up over the

feed plate (Fig . The machine moves the shuttle back

ing-machine oil . Poor oil gums the parts o f the machine .

Clean the machine every day it is in use . Take care t o set

the needle in its proper position,and fasten it firmly in place .

241 . Gen eral Inst ruc t ions. Thread the machine ex

1 . C lot h Plat e 19. Sm a l l Whee l2 . Pre sse r Foot 20. Be l t3 . Nee dle-Bar Nu t 2 1 . Sha ft4 . Needl e B ar 22 . Fram e

5 . Ne edle-B ar Screw 23 . St it ch Re gulat or6 . Foot B ar 24 . Cap7 . Le v er 25 . Looper8 . Li f t e e 26. Link9 . Tak e Up 27. Fe e d B ar

ac t ly according t o instructions . If not properly threaded,it

will fail t o stitch— the thread will tangle . If the bobbin is

no t properly threaded, it will not have the proper tension, and

the machine cannot sew as it should. The bobbin thread will

break if it is no t properly threaded thru the bobbin case . It

will also break if the bobbin tension is t oo tight (No . 14, Fig .

138 . Chain-stitch m achine .

10. Em broidery Spring1 1 . Pul l O ff12. Spoo l-Pin13 . Spoo l-Pin Hol de r14 . Aut om at ic Tension1 5 . T ension Rod1 6 . Bal l S tud1 7 . Lev er Stud18 . Conne ct ing Rod

28 . Fee d Surface

SEWING MACHINES 191

Always regulate the stitch and the size o f needle for each

Size and kind o f thread used . A table for this usually com es

With each machine, or is o ften stamped on the machine . Se

lect the thread suitable t o the material . The number of aneedle is marked on the shank . Needles made for one kind

of machine will no t always work on another.

An automatic tension should no t be changed or meddled

with . Some tens ions must be adjusted t o the thread . Fo llow

directions coming with the machine for adjusting tensions .

Remove any thread which has become entangled in the mech

anism o f the machine .

Never use a bent needle . A bent needle drops stitches on a

chain-stitch machine . Soaping the needle helps it t o go thru

goods difficult t o penetrate .

When a machine runs hard , it needs oil or has become gum

med up with poor oil . When gummed , clean with kerosene

oil. Thread or ravelings wound about the axles o f the wheels

also makes the machine run hard . Learn t o use the attach

ments of your machine—take care that they do not become

bent .

The lock-stitch does not rip easily.

The ends of the thread o f chain stitches should be carefully

fastened . If started from the end where the seam was com

plet ed , the loopstitch may be easily unraveled and thus save

time when mistakes are made in sewing or when garm ents are

being made over .

CHAPTER XXXIV

AUTOMOBILES

No lengthy treatise on automobiles can be given here, but a

few facts o f general information are well in o rder .

Each car has its special features,but the basic principles o f

Operation and contro l are the same for all makes . Let us con

sider, first, the contro l of the machine on the road

242. St art ing t h e M o to r . Open the throttle from one

fourt h t o one-third way,t o permit entry of plenty of gas into

the motor. Set the time contro l about as far down as the

throttle . Turn on the ignition switch and turn the motor

with the starter .

A co ld motor may dem and use o f the choker before start

ing, but, again, t oo free use of the choker floods the carburetor

with a rich; non-explosive mixture which can be removed only

by use o f the star ter. Should the motor flood t oo easily,or

should it take t oo much choking, have the carburetor read

justed . Common mistakes in starting the motor are (1) t oo

free use o f the starter,which is injurious t o the battery ; (2)

starting with the timer se t too far down , causing back-fire.

Occasionally, a novice attem pts t o start a car with the gears

set and the brakes on . With the motor started and running

smoothly, shift the gears into low and take o ff the brake . Let

the clutch back gently t o prevent the car from starting with a

jerk . In shifting gears,the throttle should be kept down t o

prevent the motor from racing upon releasing the clutch. (3)

A common mistake is the attempt t o shift gears with the

starting . Care o f the battery consists largely in keeping it

charged and filled t o the proper level with distilled water.

Tires should be kept inflated at all times . In case of trouble,

never run on a flat tire,as it will soon be worthless under such

treatment . Never drive a machine while out of order—stop

and have repairs or adjustm ents made .

CHAPTER XXXV

LAWN M OWERS ; INCUBATORS

245 . O perat ion and Care o f Lawn Mowe rs . The wheels

of the lawn mower permit it both t o move easily over the

ground and turn the knives which cut the grass (Fig .

This means that they must be kept well Oiled t o work

FIG. 139. Lawn m ower .

easily— that the shaft o f the wheel must no t become wrapped

with grass, weeds, string or wire . M ost machines are made

adjustable , and the knives are set t o allow them t o pass close

enough t o the plate at the bottom o f the mower t o clip the

grass as if the machine were a pair o f scissors . Keep the

knives prope rly adjusted in relation t o this plate . Do not let

them come so close that they touch the plate but very lightly,nor be so uneven that one end cuts grass , while the other

misses the plate so far that it will no t cut .

If the knives are kept properly adjusted and the mower is

not abused by trying t o cut wires,stones , or by being stored

where it becomes rusty,it will seldom need sharpening .

Keep all bo lts tight .

246 . St o ring Mowers . When storing for the winter,

grease the kn ives with a heavy coat o f unsalted lard , or cover

them with some other protective material .

247 . Sc issors and Sh ears . In popular language , thereis no distinction made between scissors and shears . Technic

ally defined, scissors are less t han six inches in length . Any

similar cutting device o f greater length is called shears . Both

are devices used for cutting cloth , paper, pruning trees, and

many other purposes . They consist of two kn ives riveted t o

gether at some po int between the handle and t he po int of theblade . The two blades are so adjusted that as the open scis

sors are closed,they touch lightly as they pass each other un

til the tip is reached . When the scissors are closed , the blades

should touch only at rivet and tip . Scissors not so adjusted

will not cut well , even tho the blades are very sharp . Drop

ping scissors often bends the blades. Blades may be straight

ened as well as sharpened , and thus make good metal scissors

like new .

248 . Principles Upon Wh ich Incubat or Work s . A

device for hatching chickens is called an incubator. In o rder

t o hatch chickens, the incubator must keep an average tem

perature of 102 degrees Fahrenheit . The thermometer

should be placed in the center o f the tray and on a level withthe t op of the eggs. The temperature of 102—é degrees Fahrenh eit must no t vary greatly during the incubation of eggs .

The incubator must also permit of suitable ventilation and

contro l of the mo isture in the eggs .

There are incubators heated with ho t water and others with

hot air. The air or water in those commonly used in homes

is heated with a kerosene lamp .

machine regulate the adm ission of air . Ventilation both reg

ulat es the amount o f air circulating in the incubator and the

amount of mo isture . Air from a dam p ro om keeps the eggs

mo ist. Air from a dry room dries them .

250. Incubat o rs Heat ed by a Lam p . Choose a lampwhich ho lds enough oil t o last for twenty-four hours . Good

lamps are usually made of metal and as plain

as possible (Fig .

The burner furnished with them is an‘

nary lamp burner carrying a straight,

wick . M etal chimneys are.

used,there being

enough mica in one side t o permit the flam e t o

be seen . The chimney extends into a metal

chamber containing the hot -water pipes, or

F m, 141 , Incu into a chamber thru which air is taken andbat o r lam p ‘ heated by the chimney. The fumes from the

burning oil pass out into the room and not into the incu

bator. The heate d air passes thru ducts into the incubator.

These are often constructed o f wood.

251 . Th e Wick . The wick most generally found prae

tical is the cotton wick, such as is used in o rdinary lamps. It

should be kept clean and renewed o ften . The lamp should be

kept filled regularly . The wick must always be kept trimm ed

even, t o prevent smoking .

Incubators heated by electricity have the heating unit

placed either above or below the trays of eggs . The current

is contro lled by a thermostat .

252. Th erm ost at . The thermostat also raises the dam

per over the t op of the lamp and air heater (Fig . when

the incubator reaches the temperature for which it is set , and

LAWN MOWERS ; INCUBATORS 199

lowers it when the temperature falls . When the damper is

lifted,the heated air passes out into the room and not into the

incubator. As soon as the incubator coo ls below this tem

perature , the thermostat contracts, letting the damper dropin place t o retain the heat and direct it into the incubator .

The thermostat works the same when a gas flame is used in

stead of a lamp . In electrical ma

chines,the thermostat operates the

switch,admitting much , little or no

current, as is needed t o maintain FIG 142 T h e rm o s t a tfor incubato r .

102 degrees Fah renhe it .

253 . Th e Th erm om et er . A thermometer is placed in

the incubator t o guide the operator in regulating the tempera

ture. I t guides him in adjusting the thermostat and the

heating device ; that is, it shows him when t o turn the wick o fthe lamp up or down .

Lamps should never be turned high enough t o smoke .

Smoke and gas in the room are likely t o get into the incubator

and harm the growing chicks .

254 . Operat ion o f Incubat or . Set the incubator level

it is const ructed t o work on the level . Heated air rises—if theincubator is not level, the highest po int will get most o f the

heat . It should be set in a dry room or dry cellar, which is

Well ventilated and well lighted . There should be no art ifi

cial heat in the room which is not regular. An uneven tem

perature gives difficulty in managing the heating of the incubator.

The room should be free from dust.

Adjust the incubator and run it for two or three days t o see

that it is operating at a constant temperature before putting

in the eggs .

Use only the best grade of oil, and use the sam e kind of oil

all thru one hatch . Change in oil may necess itate a

change in regulators which is not safe while the eggs are in the

incubators

Start the incubator with a good , clear, high flame in the

lamp, so that it can be turned lower as the germs in the eggs

begin t o grow and generate heat .

Start the incubator at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and by thesecond day, it will reach the tem perature of 102 degrees .

Vio lent fluctuations of temperature in the

incubator are dangerous and should be avo ided .

Accuracy in reading temperatures and in

adjusting the thermostat and ventilators is

essential . Fill the lam p and turn the eggsregularly. Cleanliness is important . D isinfect

the incubator between hatches, and air it well .FIG. 143 . Egg Creso l soap and water make a good disinfectt est er '

ant for incubators . Turn and handle eggs

with clean hands .

To know whether the incubator has the proper am ount o f

mo isture supplied , weigh t he trays before filling, weigh after

filling . At the end of the fifth day, weigh tray and eggs

again,subtract the tray weight, which is constant, from the

weight of the who le, and note the difference between this

weight and the original weight o f the eggs . If 100 eggs have

lost ounces, or per cent of their weight , the mo isture

is correct .

If they have lost t oo much weight, give more mo isture or

less ventilation, but , remember, that pure air is essential t o

incubators, so do no t shut off ventilat ion entirely .

CHAPTER XXXVI

TYPEWRITERS

256 . Const ruc t ion o f Typewrit er . The typewriter is a

machine for printing letters (Fig . The letters making

the im print are attached t o shafts which can each swing t o one

po int. Care should be taken t o strike one key at a time, as

FIG . 145. Typewriter , L. C . Sm ith .

they are all made t o reach the sam e po int, and contact with

each other may cause bent shafts . If a shaft becomes bent,

the letter attached t o it will not swing t o the desired po int, so

will be out o f alignm ent,or will fail t o leave a mark, since the

imprint is made on a ro ller and the letter hits only the nearest

part of the surface . The shaft may have one , two or three

letters on it. This is made possible by the use of the shift key

TYPEWRITERS 03

which raises or lowers the framework t o which the ro ller is att ached , so that when the machine is in normal position, one

se t Of type on the keys will be im printed , and , upon the ho ld

ing down o f a shift key and simultaneously striking a letter,

another set of type will make the imprint . On som e typewriters there are two shift keys, allowing three sets of charac

ters t o be used . The motion of the keys turns a small wheel

which shoves the ro ller from right t o left, and , also , turns the

spoo ls of ribbons so that a new bit o f ribbon comes under the

letter each time a key is struck . If the ribbon did not move,

t he letters would soon cut a ho le thru it . This ribbon carries

the ink which reproduces the imprint o f the letter. When the

end of a ribbon is reached , mo st machines reverse its direction

so that it again winds onto the spoo l from which it has just

unwound . On other machines, it is necessary t o release the

bar which contro ls the spoo ls t o reverse the winding of the

ribbon .

257 . Special Feat ures o f Typewrit er . Learn how t o

use the attachments on the typewriter t o get the greatest

service from it . If a machine is equipped with tabulating

keys,much tim e is saved by using them for the indentations

instead of working the space bar until the desired place is

reached,or by using both hands t o release the carriage and

move it t o it s desired place . Som e machines are equipped

with a key marked “ ribbon” key . This key,when pressed

lowers the ribbon so that no impression from it is made on the

paper. When the ribbon is removed,stencils may be cut

with the letters for mimeographic work . These are only

t wo examples . There are many automatic aids on each

make o f machine .

258 . In t erch ang eable -Type Typewrit e rs . On these

machines, the type is not placed at the end of a shaft, but the

complete set of letters is put on~

a sem i-circular plate which is

attached t o a wheel which brings the desired letter t o the

po int wanted when the key is pressed (Fig .

FIG . 146 . Hamm ond interchangeable typewriter .

The change o f type can be made very easily so that with

the proper semi-circular plate any one o f several languages

may be written on this kind o f typewriter regardless o f the

characters used t o represent the letters .

Charts of the keyboard are furnished with each se t o f le t

ters t o guide the operator in writing. This machine requires

the sam e general care as other typewriters .

or on a typewriter, and allowed todry . This copy is placed

face downward on the hectograph pad , which has been m o ist

ened and rubbed t o insure the contact at all places . It is al

lowed t o rem ain here for three or four m inutes . M ore tim e is

required in co ld weather, as the absorption of ink by the pad

is slower . The paper is then rem oved , leaving a reversed im

pression on the hectograph plate . Copies are then made by

placing dry paper on the impression and rem oving them in

stant ly . Twenty copies may be taken . The plat e should be

washed in lukewarm water imm ediately after use . The hec

t ograph plate Should be about the temperature of an o rdinary

room ; chilled plat es produce faint prints . Never use co ld

water on the plate . Keep pen

flowing freely when writing the

o riginal copy, by wiping it freFIG’ 147‘ He cmgraph ' quently . Keep the hectograph

covered when not in use .

261 . Mim eograph and Mul t igraph . The mimeograph

(Fig . 148) is a more complicated device for reproducing dupli

cates than the hectograph , but more copies may be made at

faster speed on this machine and the stencils may be saved

for making more copies lat er . A stencil (tissue paper, usually

blue,fastened t o a sheet o f equal size waxed cardboard) is cut

by a typewriter . This is done by rem oving the ribbon and

allowing only the outline of the type t o cut thru the tissue

which has been saturated with “

Derm ax,

” a liquid wax which

is brushed over the surface of the waxed paper, and the tissue

paper carefully sm oothed out upon it . Som e stencil paper or

waxed sheets do not rq iire this treatm ent o f“

Dermax”

stead a tissue or silk sheet is placed under the stencil pa

TYPEWRITERS 07

per. When the desired wording is cut , the cardboard is torn

o ff at the perforated line, leaving the four ho les which attach

the stencil t o the ro ller o f the mimeograph machine . First

see that the pad on the machine is well inked , and then fastenthe stencil t o the pins at the t op of the ro ller and with bar at

the bottom ,seeing that it is smooth .

FIG . 148 . Mim eograph .

Se t the adjustment which indicates the num ber of copies

turned out , so that it is no t necessary to count them while

printing. (Full directions are printed on this adjustment .)

Place the paper on the feed board,far enough down for the

sheets t o come in contactWith the ro llers which feed them in,and turn the handle . If the propo rtion o f space at t op is

greater or less than desired, set the attachment for regulating

the space . Full directions are printed on each attachment o f

t4machines . See that the ink tank which is located inside

the cylinder is kept full of the best ink. Ink the pad by push

ing the brush across the inside of the perforated cylinder .M ultigraphs differ frommimeographs in that they print the

copy from type instead of thru a stencil . The type is set in a

cylinder that is covered by an inked ribbon . M anuscripts

printed by a multigraph look more like typewriting than those

printed by a mimeograph . When turning out less than a

thousand copies, the mimeograph will be found more e conom

ical on account o f the small amount o f t im e requ ired in pre

paring the stencil .

QUESTIONS FOR PART IX

1 . By what m eans are dum bwaiters o perated !2 . Can y ou se e any relation between the construction o f door stopsand force pum ps !3 . What is the power for ro lling up a window shade !

4 . What does lo ck-stitch look like ! How does chain-stitch d ifferfrom lo ck-stitch !5 . In what way d o lo ck-stitch m achines differ from chain-stitch

m achines !6 . What are the advantages o f each ! What are the d isadvantages !7 . What is the tension ! How is it adjusted ! How is the length o f

stitch adjusted !9 . In what ways is an autom ob ile engine like the gaso line engine andthe electric m oto r used in rural hom es for o perating househo ld m a

chinery !10. What is the shape o f the knives on a lawn m ower that m akes it

cut the sam e as a pair o f s cissors !11 . What m ay be the reasons for scisso rs no t cutting as they should12 . What are the essential features o f a go o d in cubator !13 . What is a therm ostat ! How do es it work ! Are therm ostats o fany use t o the housewife on any o ther device than the incubato r !14 . What m echanica l facto rs are em bodied in a typewriter ! Findthe pulley , the levers , the springs , etc .15 . What are the differences in a hecto graph , a m im eograph and

m ultigraph !

and 149-a .) At least twenty-fiv e pounds o f water pressure is

required t o run an average-size washer. M ore pressure is ad

v antageous . The motor may be,and o ften is

,attached t o

tanks in which water is held under pressure, and used t o

pump water from a cistern or well .

265 . Se lec t ing a Wat e r Mo t o r . Before purchasing any

F IG. 149-a. Reliable water m otor.

dev ice t o be Operated by a water motor,ascertain how much

water pressure you have available. Under enough pressure,

the water from a faucet will give power enough t o a sm allsized water motor t o run a washing machine, sewing machine

or sm all feed grinders . These mo t ors are usually less than

one-half horse power .

TREADLES AND WATER MOTORS 211

266 . Two Types o f Wat e r Mo t o rs . One type o f water

motor is made up of a piston and valves in a cylinder (Fig .

The water pushes the piston t o a certa in pom t when a

FI G . 150. Sectional view of water m otor .

valve opens and lets out the water .

The piston then moves backward

until it automatically Opens another

valve,letting in more water, which,

in turn,pushes

the piston forward

and again t o the po int where the

first valve opens . The motion of

the piston must be strong enough

t o do the work. About twenty-fiv e

pounds o f water pressure is required

in moving the piston forward whenFIG . 150-a . Water m o t o r

attached t o a machine which might assem bled and i n parts .

be operated by hand by a wom an .

Another type of water motor consists of cups or fans on the

rim of a wheel . As the water flows over the wheel,it pushes

it around , thus giv ing it power t o do work provided there is

enough pressure behind the water (Fig . 150-a) .

CHAPTER XXXVI I I

ENGINES ; M OTORS AND BATTERIES ; FUELS

267 . Gasol ine Eng ines . A gaso line engine (Fig . 151)should be operated out of doors or in a well-ventilated room

except in cases where the exhaust pipe is carried thru the wal l

of the building t o the outside . The fum es may cause illness,or even death , t o any one staying in the room .

A gasoline engine should be mounted on a substantial base

of concrete or heavy timbers, or on a well-built truck,and

should be put in good o rder before the woman or girl begins t o

use it . The engine must be level . If more than one device

is attached t o it, be sure t o use the right pulleys on the engine

and the machine t o be operated . An engine is usually equip

pad with pulleys o f two or more sizes . The size o f the wheel

on the washing machine o r vacuum cleaner must be of a size

t o make the desired number o f revo lutions per minute .

268 . Figuring Speed o f Pul leys . For example,if the

speed o f t he engine is 425 revo lutions per minute and the

diam eter of the pulley on the engine is 12 inches, and thema

chine is t o be run at 150 revo lutions per minute, have a pulley

on the machine o f a diameter which equals 425 times 12, or

divided by 150, or 34 inches .

It would be more convenient t o have a sm allerpulley on this

machine . Since there is a smaller wheel on the engine which,

we will say , is 6 inches in diameter, put the belt on the sm aller

wheel, and then a wheel only 17 inches in diameter will be

needed on the machine .

269 . Operat ing t h e Engine . One person should be re

sponsible for the care of an engine . Starting the engine is

usually t oo heavy work for most women . Since a man usually

starts a gas engine which the women are t o use , it is more im

po rtant that they know how t o stop the engine and t o recog

nize when it is no t running properly. A co ld engine can be

started easier if warmed with h’

o t water.

Running an engine which is out of order may damage it se

riously . Have some one Show you how t o operate your en

gine . Stop it when not running properly .

270. Point s in Caring for Engine . The fo llowing are

po ints t o keep in mind when operating an internal combus

tion engine

1) Black smoke issuing from the exhaust pipe means there

is not enough air in proportion t o fuel .

2) When an engine misses more explosions than it should,

or backfires, the cause is likely t o be t oo much air in the fuel .

3) If the mixture o f fuel and air is in the proper propor

tion , but there is t oo little o f it, the engine will have no power.

4) Premature ignition may be caused by deposition o f car

bon or soot on the walls o f the cylinder ; the compression

being t oo high for the fuel used ; overheating of the piston, or

exhaust valve, or of some poorly-jacketed part .

5) Using t oo much or a poor quality o f lubricating oil, or a

mixture t oo rich in fuel, causes deposition of carbon on the

cylinder .

6) The use o f t oo m uch cylinder oil is indicated by a blue

smoke issuing from the exhaust .

7) Pre-ignition, or a bearing out of order, or the engine no t

being securely fastened t o it s foundation, causes pounding .

ENGINES ; MOTORS AND BATTERIES ; FUELS 2 15

8) Too much water in the.

oil used for fuel causes white

smoke t o issue from the exhaust pipe . This may be caused

by a leaky jacket on gaso line engines .

9) Stop the engine by shutting off the supply of fuel . Open

the switch t o the ignition system . Close the lubricators and

oil cups, and turn o ff the jacket water .

10) In co ld weather, drain o ff the jacket water to prevent

freezing .

11) Always leave the engine clean and in order t o start

again .

12) For safety, belts and wheels should be boxed“

in wher

ever possible .

Fig . 151 should be studied closely for a better understand

ing of the engine .

271 . Generat ing Elec t ricit y for Hom es . Water m o

tors, kerosene, gas and gaso line engines are the sources o f

power commonly used t o generate electricity for private

homes . A device for generating electricity is called a dyna

m o (Fig . The electricity generated is either used di

rec t ly while the engine is running, or it is stored in storage

batte ries . From here it is conducted thru wires and used for

lighting, heating and turning motors t o do work.

272 . Bat t eries . Batteries . are used mainly where a

small amount o f current is needed,as on oil or gaso line en

gines, t o make the spark t o ignite the gaso line or oil, and in

lighting gas and acetylene lam ps,and for some door bells .

There are several kinds o f batteries , as liquid , dry-cell andstorage .

273 . Liquid Bat t eries . In liquid batteries,electric cur

rent is generated by means o f direct chemical action between

an acid and two other substances , onemore easily attacked by

the acid than the other (Fig . such as zinc and copper .

This forms a simple cell, one form of primary battery . When

the chemicals and metals in a primary battery are exhausted,

they can be replaced with new metal or so lution .

274 . ADry-Cel l Bat t ery. A dry-cell is another form o f

FIG . 152 . E lectri c generator .

battery . In these, the mo isture o f the acid substance is ab

sorbed by some material like plaster-Of -Paris flour or blotting

paper, so that it can act on the metals or carbon in the cell and

still make a cell easily transportable . The absorbed mo isture

in dry cells slowly evaporates, and then they become worthless . These batteries are usually thrown away after they

have been used and have ceased t o generate electricity .

275 . St orag e Bat t eries . Storage batteries differ from

prim ary batteries in that current must be supplied t o them

276 . Som e Uses for El ect ric Mot ors . M o tors are now

used on sewing machines, washing machines, dish washers,vacuum cleaners, wringers, fans, refrigerating systems, pumps,grinders

,freezers, churns and separators. They are made

either for direct or alternating current. When purchasing a

motor, be sure t o designate the type of currentwith which it is

t o be used . Select motors of the right size t o operate the ma

chine . It costs more t o operate a large motor on a small device than a small motor .

277 . Definit ion Tables . A British thermal unit is theamount of heat required t o warm one pound of water one de

gree Fahrenheit .

The flash po int o f an oil is that temperature at which it will

fo rm an inflammable vapor. The accompanying table shows

amount of heat generated from a number of sources .

The total heat in a gallon of kerosene is greater than that in

a gallon of gaso line because the kerosene is heavier than the

gaso line . A gallon of gaso line will give on an average but

about fiv e-sixt hs as much tota l heat as a gallon Of kerosene .

This is approximately true , whether the heaviest grades of

kerosene are compared with the heaviest grades o f gaso line, or

the lightest grade of kerosene is compared with the lightest

grade of gaso line .

D istillate is the refuse left from the distillation of petroleum .

The flash po int o f kerosene may be between 70and 150de

grees Fahrenheit, depending upon the grade . For illumin

ating purposes, do not use kerosene with the flash po int lower

than 120 degrees Fahrenheit .

The flash po int of gaso line is 10 t o 20 degrees Fahrenheit ;

ENGINES ; MOTORS AND BATTERIES ; FUELS 219

that is,gaso line will form an imflammable vapor at tempera

tures as low as this .

Between 60 and 70per cent of the common fuels are utilized

in the generation of steam for heating purposes .

TABLE SHOWING GENERAT ION OF HEAT

AMOUNT B . T . U .

Anthra cite coalB itum inous coalLignite coalWo o dNat ural '

Illum inating gasKero seneAlco ho lGaso lineE lectricity

be ing m e l te d wi l l absorb 144 B . T . U

CHAPTER XXXIX

GAS PLANTS

278 . Gasolin e -Gas Plan t s . Gaso line-gas plants are de

vices for generating gas from gaso line . The gas is a mixture

Of air and gaso line vapor. It is made by air being forced thru

gaso line . There are small plants which can be installed in

FIG. 155. Gasoline gas plant .

private homes (Fig . Gaso line vaporizes at ordinary

tem perature . The vapor or gas produced can be used for

heating,lighting and running gas engines .

One gallon of gaso line, when entirely vaporized , produces

about thirty-two cubic feet of gas . Its heating power de

pends upon the character o f the gaso line utilized and the tem

perature at which it is kept during vaporization .

The plant is a dev ice for forcing air thru the gaso line t o

make it vaporize as fast as wanted . Combined with the ca

buret or is a storage tank for the gas . A weight, or water

motor, furnishes the powermost comm only used in forcing the

and coke fused together in an electrical furnace . It must be

kept stored in a dry place .

The plants for making acetylene are inexpensive enough t o

be installed in individual homes o f moderate means . Calcium

carbide for making the gas can be transpo rted without diffi

culty .

There are t wo types of machines . In one the wate r drips

on the carbide ; in the other, the more common type , the car

bide is dropped into the water. As soon as the carbide

touches the water, it gives o ff acetylene gas . The gas is

caught in and fills a bell above the water . AS it fil ls the bell ,it raises it, and when the bell reaches a certain height,it tripsa lever t o the doo r which lets in the

carbide and closes it .

When the gas is used , the bell goes down and , passing the

lever, opens the door t o let in a small amount of carbide .

Improvements have been made in the plants and in install

ing them until there is less danger from explosions than for

merly. Great care should be taken in operating them t o

avo id accidents . Since the gas . is highly explosive, fire,

lighted lamps and cigars must be kept away from the Vicinity

of all acetylene plants . Only one person should take the care

o f the plant, tho others should understand how.

280. Direc t ions for O perat ing Ac et yl ene Plan t .

1) Charge by daylight —remove all residuum, and fill with

fresh water before adding any carbide .

2) Fo llow exact directions for the machine used in the order

directed .

281 . Caut ion s t o Be Observ ed inUsingAc et ylene Gas .

1) Do not apply a light t o any opening that is not equipped

with a regular acetylene burner tip .

GAS PLANTS 223

2) See that any workman repairing a generator first re

moves carbide and drains all water out , and disconnects it

from piping and removes it t o the open air, where he then fills

all compartments with water t o force out gas before using

so ldering irons .

3) An open light should never be permitted nearer than ten

feet from the generator. The generator should never be

nearer than fifteen t o twenty feet from furnace or stove . Do

not hunt for gas leaks with a flame or light .

4) Do not use any artificial light exceptelectric light when cleaning or repairing gener

ator, or carry a lighted pipe or other fire

about it, even when empty.

5) If water in any cham ber should freeze, doFIG. 157 Pres

not atte mpt t o thaw it With anyth ing but hot sure tank foras .

water. g

6) Keep the motor o iled . Oil once in six months .

282. Com pressed Gases and O ils . Gases , such as Blau

Pintsch gas,and prest o lit e gas which is com pressed ace

ty lene gas, are compressed in strong tanks and so ld for use in

lighting and light housekeeping . Gaso line and alcoho l also

are occasionally stored in very strong tanks under enough ,

pressure t o make them flow thru very small pipes t o the po int

where they are wanted for use . These are frequently usedfor lighting iso lated public buildings

,such as rural schoo l

houses .

As the gas or oil is used,the pressure diminishes . There is

usually a pump attached t o the tank t o pump in air in o rder

t o keep up the pressure . The pump is sim ilar t o a bicycle

pump (Fig . 157)

QUESTIONS FOR PART X

1 . What is the difference between the treadle and a m otor-powerm achine !2 . How is power secured from water in a water m otor ! Or what isthe source o f power utilized by a water m otor !3 . How d o y ou determ ine the s ize o f pulleys t o use on the gaso lineengine and on the device it is t o o perate !4 . What are som e indications that a gaso line engine or autom ob ile

m otor is no t running properly !5 . What are the kinds of batteries , and t o what uses is each best

suited !6 . Do batteries need care ! If so , what care !7 . How is acetylene gas m ade ! Describe the device for m aking it .8 . How is gas for househo ld use m ade from gaso line !

285 . Spring Scal es . Spring scales depend on the action

of a spring, t o which an indicating po inte r is attached . When

there is no weight on the spring, the place t o which the indi

cato r po ints is marked zero . When these scales are manu

factured , a pound weight is placed so that it pulls on the

spring and the indicato r is pulled down t o another place, and

this is marked one . Scales are thus marked for the number

of pounds they are t o weigh . The spaces between the pounds

marked are divided int o equal. divisions, such as sixteenths

which indicates ounces . These scales cannot be relied on for

accuracy, for springs stretch or become weaker as they are

used . Avo irdupo is is the weight in common use for market

ing,while many tables for calculating dietaries are in the

metric system .

The housewife can have her balances corrected for weighing

by the city or county sealer of weights and measures so that

she can ascertain whether or not her food purchases are c or

rec t ly weighed .

TABLE OF WE IGHTS

AVOIRDUPO IS16 o z .—1 pound

100 lb .-1 hundred-weight

2000 lbs.—1 t on

oz .-1 gram (Metric

system )

APOTHECARIES27 gram s—1 dram16 dram s—l o z .

METRIC1 m illigram—l /I OOO

.001 gram1 centigram—l /l OO .01 gram1 decigram—l /l O .1 gramGram—1 gramDekagram—I O gramsHectogram—l OO gramsKilogram—1000 grams

CHAPTER XLI

DEVICES FOR MEASURING VOLUME

286 . Graduat e and Measuring Cup . Graduate ho ld

ing up t o four fluid ounces is helpful t o use t o check up liquidsbought in bottles . The standard measuring cup referred t o

in modern cook books ho lds half a pint of liquid . It also

ho lds about sixteen level tablespoonfuls of dry mate rial such

as sugar . The divisions on glass cups are less likely t o be ac

curate than onmetal ones, as the bottom may be thick or thin

unless carefully made . In selecting a cup, see that the bottom

section is equal t o the other sections .

1 cup 2 gills pint 16 tablespoons

48 teaspoons 8 fluid ounces .

1 cup is also of a quart and about 4/17 of a

liter.287 . Tab l espoons . Tablespoons vary in size . The size

chosen for measuring is the one in most common use and

ho lds about three level teaspoonfuls of material like sugar or

flour .

1 tablespoon 4 drains of liquid 3 teaspoons .

4 tablespoons cup 2 fluid ounces .

288 . Teaspoons . Teaspoons vary in size,but the spoon

in common use is the one understood as the measure in cook

ery. It ho lds about one and one-third fluid dram s .

289 . St andard M easuring Spo ons . Standard meas

uring spoons in sets can be purchased at a very moderate

price . They are part icularly valuable for checking the capac

ity o f the spoons more commonly used .

290. Li qu id and Cook ing Measures .

1 teaspoonful= 1 fluid dram s

3 teaspo onfuls= 1 tablespo onful= 4 dram s

2 tablespo onfuls= 1 fluid ouncecup= 1 gill

2 gills : 1 cupful= 8 fluid ounces16 tablespo onfuls= 1 cupful2 cupfuls= 1 p int2 pints==1 quart= 4 cupfuls4 quarts : 1 galloncupfuls= 1 liter

1000 cub i c centim eters= 1 literliquid quart s= lit er

31 gallons= 1 barrel1 m illiliter==one-thousandth liter1 centiliter one-hundredth liter1 de cilit er= one-tenth literLiter= 1 l iter1 dek alit er= t en (10) liters1 hecto liter= one hundred (100) liters1 kilo liter= 1 thousand (1000) liters

291 . Dry Measure s . It is wise for a housewife t o have a

se t o f dry measures, consisting of a pint, quart, gallon, peckand half-bushel measure . A quart or gallon liquid measureis not equal t o the dry one . It ho lds less. The diameter of

dry measures should be as fo llows

D IAMETERS OF DRY MEASURESMEASURE *D IAMETER1 pint 4 in ches1 quart 5-3/8 inches2 quarts 8 inchespeck 8 in ches

1 peck 10 inches1 bushel 13 inches

Th ese diam e t ers al low fo r proper h eaping .

CHAPTER XLII

GAS, WATER, AND ELECTRIC M ETERS

293 . Different Kinds o f Me t ers . The housewife has

need t o be familiar with three kinds ofmet ers—water, gas and

electric . These are devices for measuring water, gas or elec

tric current .

294 . Const ruc t ion o f a Gas Me t er . The interior ofone type of gas meter (Fig . 158) is somewhat like a water

FIG . 158 . Gas m eter .

wheel—the pressure o f the gas pushes the wheel around .

Every time a compartment full o f gas passes a certain po int,the gas flows out and the flange on the wheel trips a lever

which moves the hand o f the dial ahead,thus counting the

emptying o f the compartment. The gas in the compartment

back o f this then moves t o this place . The emptied compart

ment is filled with more gas as it passes the inlet .

295 . Reading t h e Gas M e t er . A gas meter is a device

for measuring the number o f cubic feet of gas which flows

thru a pipe . Small dials with the numbers from one t o ten

and a hand for an indicator Show the number of single feet,tens of feet, and thousands of feet,

which have passed thru

GAS,WATER

, AND ELECTRIC METERS 231

the meter . The reading on any date is the total amount of

gas which has passed thru . To tell how much has passed

thru the meter during any period of time, take the reading of

the meter on the firs t date , as indicated in Fig . 158, and then

take the reading on th e later date and subtract reading one

from reading two—the resu lting figure is the amount o f gas

passing thru the meter between

these two dates . When buying

gas, always keep the readings of

mete rs at the time when the gas

man takes them . Gas meters

o ften register mo re or less gas

than is actually consumed . Gas

companies are allowed a variation

or to lerance of one per cent fast

or slow, t o two per cent fast or

slow. Gas is paid for at a stated

rate per thousand feet in most

places .

296 . Wat er Me t ers . The water mete r (Fig . 159) is a de

vice for measuring the number of gallons or cubic feet of

water which pass thru a pipe . The reading o f the meter in

dicates the tota l amount of wate r which has passed thru the

pipe since the meter was installed . Water is paid for, unless

purchased at a flat rate,at so many cents a thousand gallons

or thousand cubic feet . One cubic foot is called in commercial transactions 7-1/2 gallons .

FIG . 159. Water m eter .

297 . Prepaym en t Me t ers . Prepayment meters are de

vices which will permit a certain amount of~gas or water, as

the case may be, t o pass thru a pipe , and after this amount is

used up, t he pipe is aut om atically closed so that no more

flows until more money is put into the meter. The weight o f

the co in works the valve .

298 . Th e Elec tr ic Me t e r . Electricity is usually pur

chased by the kilowatt hour, and m easured by the watt-hour

m e te r (Fig . This

measures the current pass

ing thru it, and the number

o f kilowatt-hours is shown

by the indicators on the '

little dials . Start from left

and read the num ber on

the dial , such as in the illustration , 3 hundreds 4 tens 9 units ,making 349 kilowatt -hours ; the total kilowat t -hours used

since the met er was in

stalled . To find the num

ber used between two dates,

take th e re ad ing o f the

meter on the first date and

subtract it from the reading5 9 4

on the second date . The F IG 160-a . E lectri c m eter showingdifference is the am ount

d l fl erem readings '

used dur ing the period . Good business wom en keep records

o f the readings o f their meters . Care must be taken t o read

the meter correctly . The hand next higher than the one

below may read t oo high . The higher hand may, if out o f

alignment, pass the figure when the lower hand approaches

the ninth po int in its dial,this causing the person t o read the

figures one , ten, hundred or thousand units t oo much .

(Fig . 160-a .)

FIG . 160. E lectri c m eter .

For example, if 40 degrees Centigrade is t o be translated

into Fahrenheit degrees, first multiply 40 by 9 360, then

divide by 5 72, and add 32, because 0 degree Centigrade is

the same as 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and the result is 104 de

grees Fahrenheit equal 40 degrees Centigrade . If 41 degrees

FIG . 161. Comparison of Cent i g r a d e a ndFahrenheit

Fahrenheit is t o be translated into Centi

grade degrees, first substract 32 from 41

9, then multiply by 5 45, and divide by

9, and the result is 5 degrees Centigrade 41

degrees Fahrenheit. Fig . 161 is a diagram

showing relative readings o f Fahrenheit and

Centigrade thermometers .

300. O v en Th erm om et er . Some oven

thermometers depend on the expansion of

metal t o indicate the tem perature . A hand

on the clock-like face o f these indicato rs

shows the degree o f heat . Few of these give

the actual temperature, but they do indicate

a slow,a moderate and a ho t oven .

301 . Maxim um Th erm om et ers . A

maximum thermometer is one in which the

mercury rises to reg ister the maximum

amount o f heat t o which it has been subjected . It stays at

this height when the tem perature falls , until it is shaken

back .

It is sometimes used in ovens t o ascertain the temperature

they have reached before the oven doo r is opened .

THERMOMETERS AND THERMOSTATS 235

TABLE OF TEMPERATURES USEFUL TO HOUSEKEEPERS

OVEN TEMPERATURES

Ho t o r quick .

SYRUPS

CENT .

ThinMedium—fondantThick—fudge .

Heavy—taffy .

C lear brittle .

Carm el alm ond and nut brittle

M ISCELLANEOUS

CENT .

Incubato rsBody tem perature . 98—99

Ro om tem perature .

Refrigerato r tem peratureChurningGrowth o f bacteria retardedGrowth o f bacteria m o st rapidMost bacteria are killed .

Downward , m arkedly. Growth o f bacteria

302 . Th erm ostat s . Thermostats are devices which

open or close valves or dampers in order t o keep rooms,bo il

ers, ovens, incubators, etc ., at an even temperature . All

metals expand on being heated , and contract on being coo led .

Some expand more than o thers . Two materials which ex

pand at different rates are frequently used in making ther

mostats .

Any certain temperature causes a given piece of

metal t o expand t o a certain size , or t o contract on coo ling t o a

different size . Som e thermostats are made o f a straight rod

of metal like copper which expands more than iron when

heated . The rod is so placed that when coo l it will allow fuel

like gas or oil t o pass thru a pipe,and when heated , it will

expand enough t o close the pipe,shut ting o ff the fuel . They

are placed so that they close the pipe at the t em perature de

sired for an oven or supply o f ho t water .

Other therm ostats are more complicated,as the expanding

metal moves a ser ies o f levers . These therm ostats are used

t o regulate dampers on coal and wood furnaces , when they are

placed in the rooms t o be heated . They are o ften used on

other devices , such as incubators .

Still others contro l an electric current . Wh en the metal

expands,it closes the circuit , causing the electricity t o do the

work desired . When it contracts , it opens the circuit . Ther

m ostat s can be se t t o do work at different temperatures .

These are som etimes attached t o clocks which , with a de

vice similar t o the alarm ,will change the indicator o f the

therm ostat so as t o se t it from one tem perature t o another at

a stated tim e for which the clock is set and turn it back at

another hour .

TABLES FOR BRIX AND BALLING HYDROMETERS WHENUSED AT 20

SUGAR To A QUART OF FRUIT JUICE To MAKEREADING ON THE JELLYHYDROMETERDegrees Pounds Ounces

*When t he reading for t h e fruit jui ce is de te rm ine d t he table sh ows how m uch sugar isuse d for jui ce o f that spe cifi c grav i ty .

TABLE SHOWING AMOUNT OF SUGAR PER GALLON

READING ON THE SUGAR To A GALLON OF WATERHYDROMETERDegrees Pounds Ounces

HYDROMETERS AND BAROMETERS 239

In the second table the readings show the specific gravity

of the syrup , and from that may be ascertained the propor

tion o f sugar t o a gallon of wate r in it .

A 250 cc . cylinder, or other tall vessel deep enough t o float

the sacchrom e t er, is suitable for making the measurements .

Be sure t o have the eye on the level of the liquid when making

the readings . If no sugar is in the water, the reading on the

hydrometer will be near zero . If there is sugar in the propor

tion o f seven ounces t o a gallon o f water, the reading will be at

the line marked 5 .

SYRUPS FOR CANNINGBerries 30 degrees , or 3 % pounds o f sugar 1 gallon waterSweet cherries— 30 degreesSour cherries —40 degreesPeaches —30 t o 40 degreesPears 20 t o 30 degreesPlum s 40 degrees

304 . Hygroscopes . Hygroscopes are devices for meas

uring humidity . Forty-fiv e t o sixty per cent

humidity is desirable in a house . This means

forty-fiv e t o sixty per cent as much wat er as

the air is capable o f taking up at room tem

perature . Co ld air is usually dryer than

warmer air because co ld air cannot take up as

much humidity as warm air . This is analo

gous t o the fact that warm water will disso lve Fm , 162 . Ba

more of some salts or o f sugar than co ld water .

rom e t e r ‘

305 . Barom e t ers . Barometers (Fig . 162) are devices

which show changes in pressure and currents of air. Changes

in the barometer usually indicate changes in the weather, and

thus they are of interest t o all persons . A decided fall in the

mercury of a barometer usually precedes foul weather,while a

rise indicates the approach o f fair weather. Wh en the pressure is low in any locality, air begins t o rush toward that

po int as it would t o fill a vacuum . So a fall in the barom eter

precedes the com ing of a high wind or a rainstorm . A rise in

the barometer precedes a calm,and since most rain is accom

panied with wind , the calm is a tim e o f fair weather .

242 INDEX

PageCerium 88Cesspo o l 124

Charcoal filter 114Chain stitch 186Cherry stonerCheck valve 71 183Chim ney

33 , 57 , 59, 74 , 75, 80, 9394 , 111

Chloride o f l im e . 126Choker 192Chopper 162 , 163Churns 165,C istern 114C lam p 138

Cleanin 25, 3 5, 127 , 172

C leaning equipm ent147 , 148 , 149, 150, 152 , 153

C linkers 76C lo ck 236C lutch . 192

C oal . 66 , 76Co ffeemill 162

Co g wheels “ . 165Co ils . 8 80Coke 222Co ld-pro cess gaso line-gas

29 , 91 , 145C o lo r and illum ination 84Com pressed-air pum p

113 , 115 , 117C om bustion

16 , 17 , 23 , 24 , 58 , 66 , 74 , 76, 77

Conductivity o f materials156 , 157 , 158

Contraction o f m aterials 235Co okers 50, 51 , 55 , 56Coo lers . . 105 , 106 , 108 , 109

C opper . 158 , 216 , 236Crank . 163

Cream separato r . 178 , 179

Cub i c m easure 229

Cup , m easuringCurrent , electric

42, 46 , 80, 83 , 86 , 110, 143 ,232

Curtain ro ller 185

Cylinderwasher 133

EarthenwareEgg testerE lectric appliances

DDam pers16 , 17 , 18 , 19, 20, 22 , 58 , 61 , 66

74 , 75 , 197 , 198 , 235, 236Decom position of sewage

124 , 125 , 127Degree . 233 , 234Dekagra 226Dekaliter 228Dekam eter . 229Derm ax . 206Density of liquids 237D irect current 110D irect lighting 85D ish-washer 170, 171D isinfectant 126 , 200D istillate . 40, 218Do lly washer 134Do o rs . 103 , 183 , 184 , 185 , 2 15Drafts

16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 74Drain 103 , 104 , 122 , 138Dram 226 , 228Drip pipe 102 , 103Drip sheet 25Dryer 171 , 176Dry

-cleaning equipm ent 140Dry

- cell battery 215 , 2 16Dulling o f edges 159 , 163Dum bwaiters 183Dust 76 78 80 148 , 150Dynam o 215, 216

. 107 , 156

42, 44 , 46 , 81heating 42 , 43 , 80, 1 19m easurem ents . . 43 , 82 , 230, 232

E lectric m otors 217E lectricity . 215 , 219

E lectro lyt e 217

Enam eled ware 157Engine , gaso line 137 , 2 12

Evaporation . . 67, 105 , 106 , 140Exhaust pipe 212 , 214Expansion o f m aterials

108 , 234 , 235tank 66 , 67 , 120

valve 70

Explosions , prevented25 , 35 , 37 , 39, 69

util iz ed 192 , 214 , 222

Fahrenheit therm om eter 233 , 234Fan . 110, 148 , 177

Fastener , do o r 184

Faucet . 109, 114 , 116 , 119, 120, 122

Feed plate 187 , 188 , 189, 207

Filam ent for lam p 83

Filter, water . . 114 , 1 16 , 168

Fire 18 , 19 , 34 , 41 , 66 , 75

Fireless co oker 50, 51

Fireplace .

Fire-po t . 20, 57 , 58 , 65 , 76

Flam e 23 , 35 , 38

Flam e , blue 3 1 , 3 8 , 49, 96

illum inating . 77 , 78 , 88 , 89 , 93 , 94

Flash p o int . 218

Flat-iron 142

Float for flushing tank 129 , 130

Flue 66 , 77

Fo rce pum p . 113 , 117 , 119

Freezer .

Freezing . . 68 , 112 , 126 , 166 , 233

Friction , danger from 140

Fuel 16 , 58 , 65 , 76 , 88 , 119

econom ical use o f19

Funnel 133 , 167 , 168

Furnace . . 57 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 75 , 222

Gage 67 , 69 , 70, 73 , 117

Gage , steam 72 , 173

Gallon . 228

Gas26 , 34 , 35 , 36, 37 , 38 , 40, 58 , 88

108 , 192 , 199, 214 , 215 , 219

221 , 230burners . 77 , 79 , 90, 144consum ption 23 , 28 , 29 , 66form ation 96 , 97 , 98kinds o f

29, 222,223

Gaso line89, 97 , 99, 140, 219, 223

0 0 0 0 0 0

Gaso l ineburner . 37 , 96

engine 119 , 137 , 212 , 215

Gaso line-gas 29 , 37 , 91 , 220

Gears 192

Generation o f heat and gas219 , 220

Generator 96 , 223

G ill 227 , 228

Glass utensils 156, 157 , 158

Graduate . 227

Gram . 226

Granite ware 156 , 1 57

Grate . 16 ,Grater . 160

Gravity lam p 96

Gravity , specific . . 217 , 237 , 239

Grinder 159 , 162

Heat . 48 , 89, 156 , 158 , 218

production o f42 , 140, 143 , 200, 219

use o f

II eat e r

141 , 143 , 196 , 197

Hectograph 205 , 206

Hecto liter 228

Hectom eter 229

H inge 184 , 185

Hom ogenizer . 180

Horse power 210

Ho t -water furnace . 64

Ho t -water tank 117

Hum idity . . 239

Hundred-weight . . 226

. 217 , 237 , 238 , 239

Hygros cope 239

Ice 100, 101, 102 , 103 , 104 ,I celess refrigerato r 105 , 106Incubator 235adjustm ent o f 199

Ignition o f gas 140, 214 , 215Illum ination28 , 77 , 78 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 88 , 218 , 219Inch 228 , 229

Ink 205 , 208

Insulation . 19, 46, 50, 55, 57, 66 , 102

244 INDEX

PageIron 155,Ironing board . 144Irons .

Jars , fruit .

Je llom e t e r

Kerosene lam ps 95oil .

stoves . 80Kisse lguhr filter 114

Keyboard . 202 , 204Kilogram 226Kilo liter 228Kilom eter 229

Kilowatt . 82 , 232Kneading m achine 165Knives 159, 163 , 196Kno cking, cause o f 71 , 214

Lard press . 163Lam p , adjustingburners

93 , 94

electric . . 82 , 83 , 84 , 87

gas o r o il

Laundry tubs . 127

Lawn m owerLava tip 89Leather , preventing shrinkin

Lever . . 72 , 154 , 163 , 190, 236Light . 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 98Lights . 82 , 88 , 98Lighters . 28 , 91 , 215

Lighting , lam ps . 89, 90, 94 , 95stoves25 , 27 , 33 , 34 , 37 , 38 , 78 , 79 , 80

Lighting plants . 86 , 114

Lim e 221Lining refrigerator . 101Lignite coal . 219Liquify , sewage . 124 , 125

Liter . 227, 228Lo com o tiv e wash er . 13 5

Logs , gas . 78

Leek-stitchLubrication

Natural gasNeedleNickelNo zzle

O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mangles . 141Mantles for lam ps

88 , 89, 90, 91 , 95 , 98Manufactured gas 78 , 89 , 91Maxim um therm om eters 234

Mazda lam ps . 82, 83 , 84

Measurem ents 225

Melting i ce 103

Metal , conductivity o f . . 156 , 158

Meter 229, 230, 231 , 232M icrobes, septic . 126

M ile 229

M illim eter 226M illiliter 228

M illigram 226

M im eograph . 206

M ixer 165Mo isture . 200, 239M op wringer . .

hdo t or

108 , 110, 133 , 150, 186, 192 , 209care o f 214 , 217

water . . 210, 211 , 220Mower 196Multigraph . . 206 , 208

O il 31, 93 , 110, 200, 214 , 218 , 223O il cups 33 , 3 5

Oscillating washer . 134 , 135

Ounce . 226 , 228

Oven 19, 20, 26 , 27 , 42 , 235

Overflow 67 , 119, 120, 122, 130

Packing .

PansParersPeck .

Perco lato r .

Pet co ckPilot light

246 INDEX

Steamcooker 56valves and gages . 70, 72 , 73 , 173

Steel for co oking . 155Stencil . 206Stitch . 188,Stones , fire le ss co oker . . 50, 54Stoner . . 161Storage tank . 113 , 220

Sto rage battery . . 215 , 216 , 217

Stove37 , 49, 57 , 58 , 63 , 65 , 70electric 42 , 44 , 1 57

gas . 23 t o 30, 144

heating . . 75 , 76 , 78 , 80, 141Stove , wo o d and coal 15 , 22Stoves, care o f

4 1 , 44 , 76, 78Stuffer . 163 , 164Suction pum p 112

, 113washer . 132 , 133 , 169

Sweeper , carpet 147 , 148 , 150Swit ch , ignition 192

Syrup , tem peratures o f . . 235

TTables85 , 158 , 219, 226, 227 , 228 , 229

235 , 238

Tablespo ons . 227 , 228

Tank30, 3 1 , 35 , 37 , 39 , 40, 64 , 67 , 96 ,

146 , 220, 223septic . . 124 , 125,water107 , 109, 113 , 117 , 119,

30Teaspo on 227 , 228

Tem perature20, 51 , 73 , 101 , 103 , 105 , 173 , 196

198 , 200, 206 , 220, 233 , 236Tem pering of m etal 156

Tension . 187 , 188 , 189Tester , egg 201

Thawing . 233

Therm al unit . 218

Therm om eter 197 , 199, 233 , 234

Therm ostat197 , 198 , 199 , 200, 235 , 236

Thorium .88

Thread 187 , 188

Throttle . 192

UUtensils for co oking . . . 44 , 155 , 156

Thum b—screwT im e for co oking fo od 54T im er 193T in 155 ,T on . . 226

122 , 128Trays . 176, 197 , 200TreadleTungsten 82 , 83 , 158

. 203 , 204 , 208Typewriter . . 202, 203 , 206

Vacuumcleaner

Valve25 , 26 , 29, 33 , 37 , 52 , 68 ,71 , 72 , 90, 119,129, 130, 145, 211

Vapor 40,Vent , radiator 68Ventilators . 110, 111 , 197 ,Vo lt . 82

WWarping . 76Washboard . 134

Wash bo iler . 172Washers for valves, etc 120Washing equipm ent, care o f

Washing m achines136, 209

Waste 76 , 124Water 67 , 102, 106closets . 128coo lers . . 105 , 108

filters . 114

for coo ling 107 , 215

for furnaces64 , 66, 67 , 68 , 70, 71 , 72, 8 1

heater 118 , 119

m eter 230

m otors137 , 209, 210, 211 , 220

tanks . 119-bath canner .

173—seal canner 173

PageWatt . 82 , 84

220, 226We 113 , 125

Wheels 137 , 165 , 211 , 230Whey separato r 180

Whistle 56

Wick . . 32 , 35 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 98 , 198

Wickless burner 32 , 33

Window , adjustm ent o f . . 63 , 183

shades 184

0 0 0 0 0

WireWo odWringer, clo thesm op

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS

AAcetylene burner 90

gas . 221Adjusting gas light . 89

Air m ixer . 24 , 77Alcoho l iron 145

Ash chute . 21

Autom atic devices for heatingwater 118

tension 190

Balance wheel .

Ball bearingsBarom eterBath-t ub overflow .

Battery . .

B lower .

B obb in shuttlespoo l .threadwinder .

worm wheel .

B o iler , washer forBo oster .

Bread m ixerBrush , electric cleaner .

carpet sweeperBunsen burnerBurner , acetyleneBunsen .

cleaning .

gaso line .

gaso line-gas .

oil stove .

Cam . 213

Canner,pressure 173

water-bath 172

Can sealer . 175

Cap, sewing m achine 190

Carpet sweeper . 152, 153

Centigrade therm om eter . . 234

Centrifugal washer . . 136

Cham bers ’

fire less co oker range 54Check valve for do or 184

Cherry stoner . 160

Chim neys , lam p . 93

C irculation in refrigerator 102

PageC lean-out for cook stove . 15C loth plate , sewing m achine 190Com pressed-air pum p . . 114Cooker , gas 54steam . 55Co oking stove 25Co o ler for fo odCrank shaft 213Cream separatorCurtain ro ller 185

Cylinder washer 134

Dam pers .

D irect lightD iscs in separator .

D ish dryerv washer .

Do or ho lder .

check valveDraft .

Dryer .

Egg tester 200Egg , appearan ce when tested 201E lectric fan 111

generato r . 216

heater 80

heating unit . 43

lighter . 91

m eter . . 232

plug 144

stovevacuum cleaner . 150, 151

Em bro idery sprin 190

Engine , gaso line . 213Expansion tank 67

Exhaust v alVe . 213

Fahrenheit therm om eter 234

Faucet showing parts 122

Feed bar , sewing m achine . 190

pipe . 31, 32 , 33

Fireless co oker . 51 , 53

Flam es , clear and sm oky . . 35

Flushing tank 130

Flywheel 213

250 INDEX

O il heaterstoveburnerl ighting

Oscillating washerOven burner , gas

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Overflow .

Pail for cooking fo od 107Parer 159

Pet co ck 173

Pilo t light 27

Pipes , h o t -water 65

steam . 69

Piston 213

Plant , acetylene-gas 221

gasoline-gas 220

Plug, ele ctric . 144

Pneum ati c gasohne lam p 97

Press , lard and fruit 164

Presser foot , sewing m achine

Pressure canners 173

thum b-screw for 186

tank 223

Pum p , com pressed-air 114

force 113 , 119plum ber ’s . 122

suction . 113

Pulley wheel . 213

Pulley , window 183

Rack for canner 173Radiato r . 65 , 68 , 79valve . . 122

vents . 68

Reflecto r gas heater . 78

circul ation o f a ir in . 102

i celess 105

Ro ller , m angle 142

wringer . 133 , 134 , 135

Rotary washer . 134

Safety valveSealer , fruit-canSem i-indirect lightS eparator, d isc

SeparatorDeLav al . 181

Sharpless 179

Septi c tank . 124 , 125 , 126Sewing ma ch lne , chain-stitch . 190

bobb in 188

lo ck-stitch 186

under part . 187

shaft 213

Shaft,crank . 213

Shaker, stove . 21 , 64

Shuttle . 187 188

S iphon . 126

Slicer 163

Spoo l ho lder . 186 , 190

for bobb in . 188

Spring i n curtain ro ller 185

Steam co oker . 55

furnace 69 , 73

Stoner 160

Stones , fire less co oker 51 , 53

Sto rage battery 217

Stove , coal 15

electric . 42 , 43 , 80

gasgaso line 37 38

62 , 77 , 7 8 , 80

34 , 80

p ipe .17

shaker 21 64

V entilat o r . 111

wood .15

Suctio n pum p . . 113

washer 133

Sweeper,carpet . 153

65, 121

coo ling 108

expansion .. 67

flushing .130

gas .223

septic 124 , 125, 126

Tension , sewing m ach ine186 , 187, 190

Therm om eter , Fahrenheit . . 234

Centigrade . 234

Therm ostat . 199

Thread , bobb in 188

cutter 186

guide 186

INDEX 251

Threadtake-upTraps .

Tray for dishesTypewriter , Ham m ond .

L . C . Sm ith .

Universal grinderUtensils for electric stovefor fireless co oker

Vacuum cleaner .147 , 150, 151 , 152nozzles . 152

Valve , co oker 51do o r check . 184safety 69radiato r . 122

Vegetable slicer . . 163

Vents 68 122

Ventilato r 111

WWasher , centrifugal 136 , 139cylinder 134

for bo iler 132

lo com otive 135

o scillating .

rotary . 134

suction . 133

Water-bath canner 172

Water closet 129

co o ler . 109

heater 120

m eter 231

m oto r 209 , 2 10, 211tank 121

for co o ling 107

Wheel 186 , 190Wick 36Window pulley 183

Wringer , centrifugal 139

m op . . 154

RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT

ALL BO O KS MAYBERECALLED AFTER 7 DAYSRe ne wa ls and Re cha rge s m ay be m ade 4 days prio r to the due da t e .

Bo o ks m ay be Re ne w e d by ca lling 642-3405 .

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