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Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792DOI: 10.17472/LJRHSS
LONDON JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
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Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
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They were leaders in building the early foundation of modern programming and unveiled the structure of DNA Their work inspired environmental movements and led to the discovery of new genes They've gone to space and back taught us about the natural world dug up the earth and discovered the origins of our species They broke the sound barrier and gender barriers along the way The world of research wouldn't be the same without the pioneering efforts of famous research works made by these women Be inspired by these explorers and early adopters- the women in research who helped to shape our society We invite you to sit with their stories and enter new areas of understanding This list is by no means a complete record of women to whom we are indebted for their research work but here are of history's greatest research contributions made by...
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Department of Electronics and Computer Science, Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin, Ph.D., Computer Science, Japanese Institute of Information Technology,Warsaw, Poland.
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Harbin Institute of Technology Shenzhen Graduate School, China Ph.D.,The Hong Kong PolytechnicUniversity Hong Kong
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ABSTRACT
382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573341Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine
Ziad M. M. Shehada
University of Malaya
The current criteria for evaluation in Palestine are driven by the informational value of the resources available. A re-evaluation of the significant criteria is needed in order to address both inherent and assigned values of the heritage resources. This re-evaluation is also crucial to take into consideration the different types and categories of the immovable heritage of all periods. The purpose of this research is to gain understanding of the heritage values in Palestine and to develop a characterization of Palestine's immovable heritage. Such values will result in a wider comprehension of the past, which shaped the identity of Palestine as a nation-state. The researcher followed the field reconnaissance survey through observation and documentation of sixty-six sites to obtain valuable information about the current situation and to build the basis of evaluation criteria of the cultural properties through three case studies. The result of this study is useful to establish a nucleus for exclusive inventory in the future and thus, increase the benefits for the local population and tourists. Simultaneously, the results strengthen the awareness of the Palestinian heritage and identity.
Keywords: values, significance, immovable heri- tage, field reconnaissance, palestine.
Classification: FOR Code: 120102
Language: English
© 2020. Ziad M. M. Shehada. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine
Ziad M. M. Shehada ____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
The current criteria for evaluation in Palestine
are driven by the informational value of the
resources available. A re-evaluation of the
significant criteria is needed in order to address
both inherent and assigned values of the heritage
resources. This re-evaluation is also crucial to
take into consideration the different types and
categories of the immovable heritage of all
periods. The purpose of this research is to gain
understanding of the heritage values in Palestine
and to develop a characterization of Palestine's
immovable heritage. Such values will result in a
wider comprehension of the past, which shaped
the identity of Palestine as a nation-state. The
researcher followed the eld reconnaissance
survey through observation and documentation
of sixty-six sites to obtain valuable information
about the current situation and to build the basis
of evaluation criteria of the cultural properties
through three case studies. The result of this
study is useful to establish a nucleus for exclusive
inventory in the future and thus, increase the
benefits for the local population and tourists.
Simultaneously, the results strengthen the
awareness of the Palestinian heritage and
identity.
Keywords: values, significance, immovable heri-
tage, field reconnaissance, palestine.
Author: University of Malaya, Malaysia.
I. INTRODUCTION
Heritage resources in Palestine are under a
continual threat. The military occupation poses an
obvious danger to the immovable heritage
through deliberate attacks. The continuous expan-
sion of the illegal settlements in the West Bank as
well as the illegal separation wall causes direct
damages to the heritage sites (Sharif, 2017). In
1993, the Palestinian Authority was established in
accordance to the Oslo accord. However, the
destruction of heritage resources has continued in
the name of development. Almost 50% of the
buildings were constructed in the Palestinian
towns and villages at the expense of the protection
of the heritage buildings (De Cesari, 2008).
Since its establishment, the Department of
Antiquities (under the Ministry of Tourism and
Antiquities) has largely concentrated on archaeo-
logical projects, which consist mostly of salvaging
excavations, providing basic protection and
maintenance of archaeological sites dating before
1700 AD. The evaluation of the heritage resources
in Palestine focuses on prehistoric and classical
settlement archaeology (Khirfan, 2016). This
generates a bias in the evaluation criteria of the
significance of heritage resources. Consideration
of other values, such as the contribution of these
resources to national identity as well as asso-
ciative or aesthetic and architectural values has
recently begun through only a few isolated
conservation projects (Shehada, Yaacob, &
Keumala, 2015).However, the informational value
of the cultural resources, embodied in the
archaeology/tourism paradigm, is still the main
driving force in evaluating the significance and
defining the immovable resources of the country.
II. RESEARCH METHOD
The researcher has an important role in
determining the method of inquiry that is
appropriate to the nature and type of data
collected against the character of the research,
community dynamics and local context. The
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1 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
researcher followed the field reconnaissance
survey to conduct in-depth eldwork. The eld
reconnaissance was adapted from other
precedents and similar windshield surveys
normally used in inspecting architectural heritage
in a particular region (Kumar et al., 2020).
The National Park Service in the U.S. Department
of the Interior identified two kinds of surveys for
historical and cultural heritage of a certain region.
The National Park Service denes surveys that are
conducted for the purposes of conserving a
community's architectural heritage as processes of
recognizing and collecting data on a historic
resource of the community. These include not
only recording and physical research of heritage
in the ground and eld survey, but also a
background search and planning before the
survey starts. It further includes preservation and
organization of data survey and improvement of
inventories. The first was an "Intensive Survey"
which is "a close and careful look at the area being
surveyed. It is designed to identify precisely and
completely all historic resources in the area. It
generally involves detailed background research, a
thorough inspection and documentation of all
historic properties in the field" (McCarthy, 2009).
The second kind of survey is known as the
"Reconnaissance or Windshield Survey"; wind-
shield is a common method of reconnaissa- nce
survey. “It is an inspection of an area which is
most useful for characterizing its resources in
general and for developing a basis for deciding
how to organize and orient more detailed survey
efforts'' (Anfinson, 2018). Reconnaissance might
involve activities such as driving around a
community or a region while noting the general
characters of its historic and cultural resources or
studying aerial photographs, historical or recent
maps or historical photographs of buildings and
sites.
When conducting field reconnaissance of the
heritage resources, an oral historical and
ethnographic component should be included
because in many cases, it might be the only or the
most accurate source of information about the
history or evolution of a certain building or site.
When researching the values and significance of
the cultural heritage, the common archival
research will be inadequate in such surveys since
the actual or "Cultural Truth" will be found in the
minds and thoughts of the inhabitants (Tomaselli,
2012). The objective of the Windshield Survey in
this research was inspection, identication, initial
reconnaissance and direct observation of the sites.
III. DATA ANALYSIS
This research is exploratory in nature based on
analytic induction (working with the pieces to get
the general picture) rather than using the
hypothetico-deductive model. The generated data
from the eld reconnaissance is called immediate
inferences. Inference comes from the Latin “In”
and “Ferre” (to carry or bring) (Maynard, Gilson,
& Mathieu, 2012). In logic, the inference is the
procedure of deriving conclusions from premises.
If the conclusion follows from a single premise,
the process is said to be one of immediate
inferences. If the conclusion follows from two or
more premises jointly, the process is said to be
one of mediate inferences (O'Shaughnessy, 2012).
In Palestine, there are almost 6620 immovable
heritage resources geographically distributed
along the Gaza Strip and the West Bank (Brebbia
& Boquera, 2016). The study sample comprised
1% of the study population, as it was difficult to
visit such a large number of sources, exhausting
money, time and effort. That ratio represents 66
buildings of the heritage resources in Palestine.
These sites have been selected randomly with
consideration given to the geographical
distribution and number of resources in each city.
The reconnaissance included 19 cities: Hebron,
Nablus, Jenin, Ramallah, Al-Birah, Tulkarem,
Salfit, Btelehem, Qaqilya, Beit Jala, Tubas,
Jericho, Gaza, Beit Hanoun, Rafah, Tell Al-Ajoul,
Deir Al-Balah, Khanyounis and Jabalia. The list of
cities is, by no means, exclusive; it forms a
representative sample from all over the country.
Figure 1 shows the locations of the cities visited.
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The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine
Figure 1: Map of Palestine shows the cites visited by the researcher
The number of visited resources follows a particular criterion according to Table 1:
Table 1: Criterion of the Number of Visited Resources
Number of resources in the City Number of visited resources
More than 1000 6
Between 200-999 5
Between 100-199 4
Between 50-99 3
Between 10-49 2
Less than 10 1
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3 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine
Figure 2: Number of sites visited in each city
IV. CASE STUDIES
The researcher selected three sites from the sixty-
six sites visited as case studies. They were selected
on the basis of their values and significance in
addition to being successful conservation projects
in Palestine. These sites shed light on some
important conservation issues in Palestine. The
study understanding of these successful projects
enhances the value of immovable heritage in
Palestine and contributes in advancing the
country’s progress from the economic, tourism
and cultural aspects. This trend should be
considered by the relevant ministries in the
Palestinian Government and by decision makers
in the State.
4. 1 The Ottoman Court, Ramallah
The Ottoman Court or Al-Khan (Caravanserai) is
one of the most important buildings in the old
town of Ramallah. It was a residential house and
built at the end of 18th century for Habash and
Qisis families. The building was converted into a
caravanserai in the 19th century (Awad, 2016). The
building was used for hosting travellers in the
upper floor and animals as well as goods on the
ground floor. However, it was believed that the
building was converted into an Ottoman Court,
where the upper floor was utilized by the Ottoman
Judge and the lower floor was stables for the
horses of the soldiers. The site's historic context is
very rich and diverse. Excavations showed that
the site served as an ancient burial place. Later
on, a Byzantine church was built there on the top
of a Roman temple dedicated to Hercules
(Muhawi et al., 2012). The existing court was built
near the Byzantine church, replacing other houses
built in the area. During the 1930’s, the site
became famous for its association with Ahmad
Murad Pasha (Ottoman Alderman of Jerusalem)
who visited the building and ordered it to be
converted to a court (Meskell, 2018). The most
definitive use of the building dated back to 1883
when the building hosted the first and sole health
clinic in Ramallah, before the clinic was moved to
the newly opened hospital in Ramallah’s urban
expansion of the 1920’s. The building was
returned to the owners who witnessed the 1927
earthquake, which struck the building causing
substantial structural damage that called for
structural intervention (Wagemakers, 2014). After
1948, the building was used as the premise of an
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olive oil press that was proven by the reinforced
concrete base of the press. For the last 30 years,
the building has been deserted.
The Ottoman Court was built of limestone walls
supporting cross-vaulted rooms. The two-story
building was found to have front and back yards.
The ground floor area was 300 m2 consisting of
three cross vaults and the upper floor (area 200
m2) was set back to allow for a covered gallery in
addition to rectangular cross-vaulted rooms (De
Cesari, 2019). There was a total of six rooms, a
gallery and two yards. Two stone-faced thick walls
(about one meter thick) supported cross-vaulted
huge rooms (the middle room on the ground floor
was about 8 by 8 meters). Doors mounted with
flat lintels and semi-circular windows, similar to
those of the gallery, were associated with
semi-circular arches. The interiors were plastered,
and lime washed. The exteriors were pointed. The
rough topography did not allow the researcher to
take panoramic photographs. The court was of
particular significance due to its distinctive
architecture, fine stone craftsmanship and
ironwork (Büssow, 2011). The court’s location on
the mountain accessible through steps that
connect various houses contributes to a sense of
place in the city. In addition, the site is associated
with significant persons as previously mentioned.
The court was bought in 2000 by the municipality
of Ramallah to conserve (adaptive use of the court
into a museum and cultural centre for children)
and protect the site (UNESCO, 2014). The
objectives of the adaptation project were to create
a dynamic, multi-disciplinary entity dedicated to
promoting the fine arts while also fostering
cultural and creative dialogue. The project
demonstrates the role played by private
organizations in the conservation of architectural
heritage.
Figure 3 & 4: Ottoman court before and after restoration
The conservationist idea was to keep the character
of the court by retaining the 2-bay plan and
closing the windows from the inside only for
exhibits. After completion, the centre included a
library for children with 5,000 books on
Palestinian and Arab, an international art and a
gallery. It also has a cultural café, open studios for
painting and sculptures as well as lecture rooms.
The centre receives about 600 children daily with
their families. Children under 18 years old
constitute 44% of the total population of the city
(Beshara, 2002). The total cost of rehabilitation
was $180,000. This was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency
(SIDA) and implemented by Riwaq Centre for
Architectural Conservation. The building was
rehabilitated to host the Ramallah Cultural
Museum in 2003 and is managed by the Ramallah
Municipality (Kanaaneh et al., 2013). The spaces
on the ground floor were adapted with the
function of including exhibition or multi-purpose
halls, administration and services. The front yard
and back yard have an open-air amphitheatre and
the first floor is equipped with a library, computer
rooms, an open gallery and services.
The interventions varied according to the
problems. Stability measures were taken into
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consideration, whereby a system of ties and
anchors were employed to overcome the
deteriorating situation. The missing or badly
deteriorating stones were replaced with stones
from the site or with new stones. Services for the
ground floor, the back garden and the upper floor
were integrated within the project. Light facades
were adapted. Double glass with thin steel
sections was used for the windows. Similarly, the
doors were furnished with steel and glass with
protection bars for the ground floor while wooden
coffer doors were used for the upper floor. Glass
and steel handrails were also added while new
stone steps were installed. The walls were
plastered, and lime washed (Sharif, 2017). The
rooms were tiled with golden desert polished local
stone that recall the stone tiles of the past and
yards were paved with cement coloured tiles
framed with stone grid. Electricity, the first
central heating and a computer network as well as
sanitary and water supply systems were installed
in the backyard.
The restoration enhanced the environment after
being a dump place for years while the rapidly
growing trees converted the area into a green
island. The structural elements of the project did
not change for the adaptive use. The spaces
remained the same. Only two windows were
converted to doors to connect the old building
with the service area in the backyard. The use
changed dramatically from being a residence,
khan, court and clinic into a cultural museum
with activities dedicated mainly to children
(Sinclair, 2012). The building currently stands in a
good state of conservation; protected, used and
closed properly. The building is usually fully
occupied by children and their activities and
sometimes is used for art exhibitions. The project
is, for several reasons, considered one of the very
few successful conservation projects in Palestine.
It is a perfect example of the adaptive use of the
modern architectural heritage for the needs of the
local community.
4.2 Monastery of the Temptation (Dair Quruntul)
This Monastery, which dates to 1892 AD, is
located on the Mount of “Quruntul ” (5 km North
West of Jericho). The word "Quruntul" is derived
from the Latin word "Quadraginta" which means
"forty". The crusaders gave this name to the
mountain in the 12th century as a mention to the
forty days that Christ spent fasting and
worshipping there (Pringle, Pringle, Leach, &
Press, 1993). The Mount in general and this
Monastery in particular are associated with
religious significance for Christians. According to
the Gospel of Luke, the devil (Satan) followed
Christ to this location and Jesus said to Satan,
“Man does not live by bread alone” (Press, 2018).
The first monastery was built at the site in the 6th
century above a cave. The hills or mountain is
known as Mount Temptation. The cave was
identified as the traditional site of the temptation
experienced by Helena of Constantinople in 326
A.M., but the current monastery was founded by
Archimandrite Aframeos in 1892 and restored
several times (Wareham & Gill, 2011). There are
about thirty to forty caves on the eastern side of
the mountain that were previously inhabited by
monks and hermits in the years when Christians
were persecuted. The caves were later turned into
storage rooms, chapels and cells. An advanced
system of channels transferred rainwater to five
caves, which were used as water tanks.
Although Jericho is 413 meters below sea level
(the lowest spot in the world), the Quruntul
Mount rises about 350 meters above the sea
(Lemire, Tihanyi, & Weiss, 2017). This
demonstrates the magnitude of the mountain’s
height from which cities and mountains in Jordan
can be seen. Due to its presence at the foot of the
mountain, the Monastery looks as if it is hanging
in the air. The path leading to the mountain used
to be off-road but network cable cars in front of
Tel Jericho (1 km length) was created in 1998 by
the private sector and 180 steps were built to
reach the Monastery (Andree, 2013). The
Monastery of the Temptation is an architectural
masterpiece for having some parts suspended in
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the air and others carved in the rock. The
Monastery consists of two levels built of masonry
in front of a cave. It contains several different
types of spaces including a relatively small church
(15×12m), thirty rooms for monks and five
cantilevered balconies. The number of tourists
doubled after the establishment of the cable cars
whereby the Monastery of Quruntul is now the
most important tourist destination in the province
of Jericho.
Figure 5: Monastery of the Temptation Figure 6: Dome of the Monastery
The Monastery is significant because in addition
to having religious values, it stands as witness to
Roman architecture with Ottoman inuence. It is
the only Monastery in Jericho that dates back to
that era and has retained its integrity. The stone
detailing around the doors, windows, at the
corners and entrances exemplify local
craftsmanship with clear Ottoman inuence. The
Monastery’s location and its domes contribute to
a sense of place in this city by serving as an
orientation device for locals and visitors. Briey,
the areas of signicance this resource falls into are
architecture, ethnic heritage and religion.
The Monastery has been subjected to an
insensitive addition during the early 1980’s to
expand its size. This addition did not take into
consideration its character, period of signicance
or any of its architectural features. Unplanned
and poorly researched additions to historic
buildings constitute a problem faced by many of
the architectural heritage in the country (Wild,
2018). The Monastery of Temptation presents a
significant exchange of humanitarian values
within the Neolithic Era in terms of architectural
development, especially urban planning and
architecture, and structural technology. It spreads
exceptional and unique evidence for disappeared
cultural civilizations, customs, and traditions until
the 6th century BC. A significant example is its
familiar skulls with inlaid eyes, the earliest
instance of old worship in the past. Furthermore,
the site disseminates considerable information
about craft and architectural development, pre-
dominantly through the Neolithic Era, including
the evolution of the building layout from circle to
rectangular and the development of different
handicrafts like basketry, pottery, masonry, using
unbaked mud bricks and natural stones for
construction. The information explains valuable
periods in humanitarian history.
4.3 The Clock Tower, Nablus
According to the marble inscription on the south
entrance, the Nablus Clock Tower was constructed
in 1901 by Sultan Abdul Hamid II on the 25th
anniversary of his ascension to the throne. He
ruled the Great Ottoman Empire from 1876 to
1909 for almost 33 years (Szepesi, 2012). Many
clock towers were constructed all over the Empire
during Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s rule. Seven were
built in Palestinian cities (Nablus, Nazareth, Jaffa,
Haifa, Acre, Safed and Jerusalem). The clock
towers in Nablus and Haifa are identical. In 1922,
exactly five years after the fall of the Ottoman
Caliphate, the Jerusalem Clock Tower was
destroyed (Abujidi, 2014). The Nablus Clock
Tower is considered a symbol of Municipality of
Nablus and is situated at the centre of the main
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Old City square, adjacent to Masjid An-Nasr. It is
a square high-rise building consisting of five
levels. The entry of this Tower is located on the
first level with two windows on each side of the
second level. The third level has stone balconies. A
clock on each side of the fourth level has been in
existence since the tower was first built. The
function of the windows on the fifth level is to
balance the clocks’ weights. It is possible to reach
the top of the tower using the internal stairs. At
the top, there is a view of the city. The lower room
was used in many reigns as a police department.
The area where the clock tower was built was
named the door of the Saraya (palace) because its
buildings included the Turkish Government
Palace. However, the name was changed after
Nablus fell into the British hands in 1918
(Tütüncü & Azerbaidzjan, 2006). The Clock Tower
withstood the massive earthquake that shook
Nablus in 1927. Nevertheless, neighbouring
vendors said the upper parts (fallen in the
earthquake) were restored. The restoration and
rehabilitation project of the Nablus Clock Tower
started on 23rdDecember 2012 by TIKA (Turkish
Cooperation and Coordination Agency) while the
supervision of the project was concluded by the
technical team of Nablus Municipality. The total
cost of the project was $38,000 and all the works
were completed according to contemporary
conservation and restoration principles within
three months (Akgunduz & Ozturk, 2013). Newly
installed ground and interior lighting now
highlight the Clock Tower at night. Sky search
lights were also fixed with the light pack focused
perpendicularly to the north to highlight the
centralization of the Tower.
Figure 7 & 8: Nablus Clock Tower before and After Renovation
The Clock Tower has played a major role in
time-control for the people and is considered
nowadays the slogan as well as the symbol of
Nablus city. This resource is significant mainly
because of its contribution to a sense of place and
to the urban character of the city. This building
provides a certain feeling of time when the bell is
heard sounding twice each hour and once each
half hour (Books & LLC, 2010). This Tower
perfectly illustrates the need to conserve whole
areas rather than mere isolated monuments. It is
disturbing that the current building codes
implemented by government authorities (setback
from all sides, building height, oor areas) do not
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take into consideration the historic character of
such resources. It is important to implement a
grading system of historic and cultural resources
that would be most useful for architectural
heritage like the Clock Tower for two reasons;
firstly, as the resource lies in a heavily populated
residential area, its importance lies in the
relationship of the parts to each other. Examples
are the relationship between the Tower and the
entrance of the city, between the Tower and the
Turkish Government Palace, between the
openings, balconies and the open public space of
the surrounding houses. Residents should be
allowed to make certain balanced changes to their
homes. Otherwise, they will develop negative
feelings towards their historic environment and
the concept of registration of historic resources.
Allowing a certain level of freedom that does not
compromise the overall character of this resource
is acceptable. This can be accommodated by the
grading system wherein this resource can be
registered under a lower grade or rank that allows
certain levels of intervention. Secondly, this
particular resource covers a large area.
V. RESULTS
When designing the survey form, the researcher
did not anticipate the importance of such values
in evaluating the signicance of the immovable
heritage (armchair vs fieldwork researcher). Even
though the researcher has taken into conside-
ration the contribution to the national identity in
the research design, the fieldwork showed that the
contribution to community (neighbourhood)
identity was as important and existed in many of
the visited resources.
The immediate inference indicated the existence
of both inherent values and assigned values in the
heritage resources in Palestine. The inherent
values are architectural type or style, contribution
to sense of place, detailing and ne craftsman-
ship, utilitarian and potential added value
through conservation including information
values. Meanwhile the assigned values are
religious, contribution to community and national
identity, collective memory as well as association
with signicant events, persons and groups
(Figure 9). The immediate inferences also
elaborated two significant criteria: contribution to
a sense of place, which was observed in more
situations during the visits than anticipated and
contribution to local as well as community
identity, the existence of which was revealed
during the visits but was not included in the
research design.
It is notable from Figure 10 that the highest ratio
of immovable heritage in Palestine is residential
buildings (almost 30%) because the private
property encourages the owner to take care of his
building that has been inherited from the past to
be transferred to the future generations. In
addition, the loyalty towards the Nation provokes
pride in the history and national monuments
especially in Palestine where the civilizational and
cultural conflict has been intensifying between
Palestinians and Israelis since 1948.
Figure 9: Different values existed in Palestine Figure 10: Categorization of the resource
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Historical associations with little consideration to
other merits currently dominate the evaluation
criteria. Hence, the researcher revised the
evaluation criteria to include structures and the
acknowledgment of distinctive features of other
styles through the adoption of a visual approach
focusing on architectural aesthetics rather than on
history alone. Even though the sixty-six sites and
buildings visited do not represent all immovable
heritage, the value occurrence frequency gives a
characterization on the kind of values that are
either inherent or assigned to the heritage
resources in Palestine.
The researcher proposed evaluation criteria of the
immovable heritage in Palestine that could make
a major shift in evaluation criteria from emphasis
on historical associations to prioritizing archi-
tectural, community aesthetics and quality of the
physical environment. Such evaluation criteria
will increase the value of immovable cultural
heritage and will set up methods for protection.
(Figure 11).
Figure 11: Evaluation Criteria of the Immovable Heritage in Palestine
VI. CONCLUSION
The most common values in the visits were
architectural type or style, contribution to a sense
of place, utilitarian, potential added value through
rehabilitation, restoration or adaptive use as well
as religious and contribution to community
identity. The relevance of the value (contribution
to a sense of place) is a crucial evaluation criterion
of the architectural heritage significance. The
researcher in many situations (urban links, street
facades, understanding city context, landmarks
and orientation devices) observed these criteria.
The evaluation criteria in Palestine are abstract
and less developed than other countries. The
approaches of heritage value definition and the
existing significance assessment process in
Palestine do not reflect the multi-cultural charac-
teristics of the community. Reassessment of the
evaluation criteria for significance in order to
address both inherent and assigned values of the
Palestinian immovable resources is indispensable,
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taking into consideration the different types and
categories of the heritage in all periods of
Palestine's history. The research takes into
account the various reformulation modes more
appropriate and relevant paths to the
requirements of future generations and contem-
porary communities. The anticipation is that such
an evaluation will contribute in defining and
developing an effective agenda for immovable
heritage in Palestine.
The researcher included evaluation criteria that
emphasizes the significance of harmonic
resources as methods of approaching issues of
immovable heritage values. It challenges pre-
conceptions; advances understanding and
motivates a constructive debate about matters
relating to the assessment and value of Palestine's
immovable heritage. Such criteria will assist the
decision makers in deciding whether the re-
sources are considered a heritage resource. These
criteria help the Ministry of Antiquities and
Tourism plan integrated guidelines of selecting
the immovable heritage resources and opens the
door widely to include more resources while
re-evaluating previously neglected resources.
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ABSTRACT
382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573342Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
Historical Background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and Internal
Migration in ColombiaJaime Alberto Sandoval Mesa & Natalia Catalina Ubajoa Fierro
Lawyer University Santo Tomás
© 2020. Jaime Alberto Sandoval Mesa & Natalia Catalina Ubajoa Fierro. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of theCreative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permittingall noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
This article aims to analyse the main factors related to forced displacement and internal migrations, which took place not only in the 19th century but mainly in the 20th century according with the phenomenon of violence in Colombia.This phenomenon has been generated by factors related tointernal armed conflict, that occurred in several stages and areas of the country. The article shows through a brief historical overview, the main events that have been transforming the armed conflict in Colombia, in addition it explainssome causes and consequences of the phenomenon of forced displacement and local migration in the country. On the other hand, to understand the historical context of the phenomenon, it is possible to show the difficulties,to resolvethe current situation in Colombia, even with the 2016 pacification processes.
The above is developed through a hermeneutical and analytical method. For this purpose, the document was prepared using historical, descriptive, teleological, and reflective instruments.
Keywords: historical context, forced displacement, internal migrations, armed conflict.
Classification: FOR Code: 210399
Language: English
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Historical Background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and
Internal Migration in ColombiaJaime Alberto Sandoval Mesaα & Natalia Catalina Ubajoa Fierroσ
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ABSTRACT
This article aims to analyse the main factors related to forced displacement and internal migrations, which took place not only in the 19th century but mainly in the 20th century according with the phenomenon of violence in Colombia.This phenomenon has been generatedby factors related tointernal armed conflict, that occurred in several stages and areas of the country. The article shows through a briefhistorical overview, the main events that have been transforming the armed conflict in Colombia, in addition it explainssome causes and consequences of the phenomenon of forced displacement and local migration in the country. On the other hand, to understand the historical context of the phenomenon, it is possible to show the difficulties,to resolvethe current situation in Colombia, even with the 2016 pacification processes.
The above is developed through a hermeneutical and analytical method. For this purpose, the document was prepared using historical, descriptive, teleological, and reflective instruments.
Keywords: historical context, forced displacement, internal migrations, armed conflict.
RESUMEN
El presente artículo pretende analizar los principales factores del desplazamiento forzado y las migraciones internas, las cuales coinciden no sólo en el siglo XIX sino principalmente en el siglo XX con los fenómenos de violencia en Colombia, muchas veces generadas por los factores de conflicto armado en diversas etapas y zonas del país. El mismo, solamente quiere mostrar, a
través de un breve recorrido histórico, los principales eventos que cambiaron el conflicto armado en Colombia y de paso dieron lugar a las causas y consecuencias del fenómeno del desplazamiento forzado y las migraciones internas en el país. Al comprender la estructura histórica del fenómeno se puede evidenciar las dificultadas para al menos dar solución a su situación actual en Colombia, aun con los procesos de pacificación de 2016.
Lo anterior se desarrolla mediante un método hermenéutico, analítico. Para tal efecto, el documento fue elaborado mediante instrumentos de tipo histórico, descriptivo, teleológico y reflexivo.
Palabrasclave: contexto histórico, despla-zamiento forzado, migraciones internas, conflicto armado.
Author α: PhD in Law. Master of Criminal Law. Specialist in Public Law. Lawyer University Santo Tomás D.C. Research Professor. Bogotá Colombia. Research Product, New Granada Military University, Faculty of Law. Project. Inv. Der. 3162. Validity 2020-2021.
Author σ: Lawyer, Universidad Santo Tomás Bogotá D.C., Master in National and International Cooperation, Università Cattolica di Milano, Italy. Master in Migration Law, Universitàdegli Studi di Bergamo, Italy. Research product of the Master in in Migration Law from the University of Bergamo, Italy.
I. INTRODUCTION
The biggest structural problems in Colombia focuses on several processes of incessant forceddisplacement which have been extended throughout the whole 20th century and it continues today.
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Historical background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and Internal Migration in Colombia
This situation can be explained according with the context of the nation's establishment, its independency(The birth of the state, which was consolidated with the founding of the republic) and some events developed after the period of independence on August 7, 1819, and also the final process to the country to became an State through the Constitution of 1832 which was promulgated after “ la Gran Colombia of Bolívar. (1819 - 1830). In this sense, the historical and political development of the nation has been characterized by its instability, that has been affected by multiple conflicts and civil wars. In fact, there was a thousand-day war between 1899 and 1903, (La guerra de los mil días) which the country was devastated (URIBE VARGAS Diego 1985). For many experts, this event is considered as the first antecedent of the migration from the countryside to the city, particularly, it was a peasant migrationfrom many regions to the city of Bogotá.
Between 1910 and 1948, Colombia had a “relative”peace, however, the problem took place in the countryside during this period, due to the precarious conditions of the peasants, (without employment, labor contracts, without education, without a better future, forced to live in situationsalmost medieval), most of them made a decision to migrateto migrate to cities, particularly to Bogotá and Medellín. It should be said that overall, the situation of the peasants in these cases, was related to the role of the landowner “El señor de la Hacienda” who exercised control over all social aspects in the country. In Colombia thanks to the constitutional reform in 1936 and the internal migrations the peasant society was starting to change. In fact, the constitutional reform of 1936, enacted to ensure some economic and social rights focused on property and its social function, for instance, the right of association, and the right to be educated- free basic elementary for citizens etc. (SANDOVAL MESA Jaime Alberto 2018, URIBE VARGAS, Diego 1985). This all generated awareness of the need to have better conditions to the peasant, who had to migrate to the cities to find a better future than to be submitted to the landowner.
Another symbol of social struggles and causes of internal displacement occurred in 1928, in an unfortunate event that ended with the violent suppression of a strike at an American company called the United Fruit Company. The result was the use of the armed forces to suppress protests and strikes over working conditions with a balance of around 70 dead workers, called “The Massacre of the Bananeras”. Currently, the internal displacement and violence generated insecurity of citizens and therefore the decision to seek better living conditions. (ITURRALDE Manuel 2010)
For many people, this was the first event that generated the background to the current conflict. It all started due to the poor conditions of the workers in the field. The massacre "of the banana plantations", in 1928, represented a first protest these conditions. (ITURRALDE Manuel 2010) This type of social protest was defended by Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, who between the 30s and 40s became the political leader of this cause. He represented hope in defence of workers 'conditions and workers' interests in the National Congress; in his party, the Colombian Liberal Party, one of the traditional parties in Colombia and in general, in the country's political scene. (VAZQUEZ C. Alfredo 1986). All this generated a new concept of life, which perhaps the peasant did not know, and this new urban status generated a new social condition of workers from all over the national rural sector. The growth of cities just arises as a factor associated with internal migration. But the promoter of this phenomenon focused on the precariousness of the country's rural areas and to some extent the isolation of many regions with the metropolis.
II. THE HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE IN COLOMBIA. MAIN
FACTOR OF INTERNAL MIGRATIONS
The preceding precedents caused during the 1940s the origin of the armed conflict in Colombia, since many of the problems of the peasant never had a solution, even more in the face of the events of April 9, 1948, called the Bogotazo, in the which its leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitán was assassinated in the city of Bogotá, who
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up to that moment defended the rights of the popular class, of the working class and of course of the peasants.
For now, in Colombia in the social order, class differences remained between the upper class, the middle class, the working class and the peasants. But at that time the middle class represented a minimal population, and they aspired to occupy positions in the bureaucracy and participate in politics, while the popular class had nothing, not even constitutional guarantees. This factor associated with excluded social groups begins to represent the origin of the migrant populations that are going to settle in marginal territories of the cities and since then they are going to determine their growth in Colombia and an underdevelopment in crisis. All this is well documented in the 2014 historical report prepared by the National Commission for Reparation and Reconciliation in Colombia, also known as "Basta Ya". In the same it is stated in relation to the murder of Jorge Eliecer Gaitán "We do not know who killed him", the truth is that this fact generated the first wave of violence in the entire country and of course the second episode of great migrations in Colombia to from 1948 almost until 1962.
This first period was called the first violence in Colombia, it was also called bipartisan violence, between the liberal party and the conservative party (1948 - 1962), precisely because the causes of rural violence were determined by membership in one or the other party. During this period, there were mainly two events: First, the government applied force through the police to stop the violence, and second, in response to this fact, the first movement of peasants who defended themselves against the government's measures appeared. This movement was called “Liberal Guerrilla”, but it was a movement of peasants who, after a peace pact in 1955, laid down their arms and never returned to the armed movements. Of course, these peasants migrated to all urban areas in Colombia, because of all the causes mentioned.
In addition to all this, during this period there was a military dictatorship between 1953 and 1957 that was carried out, through a "coup d'état" by General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, against the government in force at the time. This coup represented a reaction for the defence of the peasants and the measures of force against the liberties exercised by the government of that time. For example, the government was responsible for measures that involved the closure of radio stations, people arrested without a warrant, etc. (SANDOVAL MESA Jaime Alberto. 2018). Paramilitary groups also emerged, supported by the police to persecute and in some cases to assassinate peasant leaders. Of course, this fact is associated with a multiplicity of migratory movements in this sense, especially from the countryside to the city.
In general, the dictatorship of Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1953 - 1957) was accepted at first by all the society and its notable success was the 1955 peace pact. However, in the end it also exercised authoritarian and arbitrary powers. These factors also coincide with movements to urban areas of peasants, not only because of violence in the countryside, as Orlando FalsBorda relates in the text, violence in Colombia, (FALS BORDA Orlando, GUZMAN C. German, UMAÑA Eduardo, 1962) but also because there is a brief period of infrastructure works and the foundation of new companies. That they attract peasant labour to the factories in big cities.
This migration of this time can be considered positive, since many peasants who travelled forgetting their lands and fleeing bipartisan violence, found refuge in the new factories that were just beginning to allow a moment of development in Colombia (FALS BORDA Orlando, GUZMAN C. German, UMAÑA Eduardo, 1962). This example of brief development may have been one of the factors that perhaps stopped migration for the time being, however, the issue has not been regular and therefore this cause persists in the phenomenon of internal displacement. But in turn it allowed in some cases, one of the main solutions that corresponds to the establishment and establishment of the
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migrant citizen. Unfortunately, the country's industrial development has been awfully slow and precarious, which has not allowed solutions in this regard to be structured.
In 1957, Colombia's traditional political parties (liberals and conservatives) signed a pact in Spain to overthrow the dictator. Indeed, with the support of the military forces, the traditional political parties of Colombia managed to overthrow the dictatorship and determined through the plebiscite the origin of a shared government between the two called the National Front regime. The characteristic of this regime was that each party would govern for 4 years and power would rotate for 4 years to the liberal party and the following 4 years to the conservative party. (VAZQUEZ C. Alfredo 1986). This government developed for 16 years between 1958 and 1974 and coincides with the origin of the current guerrillas as another cause of forced displacement. On this point, the argument of the absence of the state in many regions is sometimes added to this situation, which in addition to being real, still continues as a constant that implies that many of its inhabitants are forced to migrate to the cities, however, the phenomenon of violence is also part of this case, more than anything if its extension in time is taken into account, even to the present day. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014).
This fact began during the 1960s and for many constitutes the origin of the current guerrillas, mainly due to the exclusion of other political forces, for example, from the left. In this sense, a group of peasants who distrusted this government (National Front Regime) and who did not break their organization of the previous process of violence, organized into a guerrilla in the countryside and founded the revolutionary armed forces of Colombia (FARC). (VAZQUEZ C. Alfredo 1986). This was the origin of the FARC, which is now added as another of the factors of forced displacement in Colombia, given its policies assumed during the decades of its existence (1964-2016), almost all to the detriment of the peasant to whom it is added. another factor of
Internal Displacement. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014).
Another of the current guerrillas in Colombia is called ELN (National Liberation Army), which was born in 1966 and whose origin was mainly in universities, unions, and social groups. Finally, one of the most relevant subversive groups was The M19, which was born in 1970 as a protest election that, in his opinion, were illegitimate. According to them, the government committed fraud in the 1970 elections to choose the president of the national front against the other candidate, the former dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014). This was a university and especially urban guerrilla movement. Their actions had some support in society until they had one of their greatest mistakes, such as the taking of the Palace of Justice (November 3, 1985). Where in the crossfire, between official forces and members of the guerrilla, the Magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice were assassinated. After this, society lost credibility in them, and they had no choice but to negotiate the peace that materialized in 1990. (ITURRALDE Manuel 2010), This was a successful process and now they represent an important sector of the political left in Colombia. For example, the candidate in the elections for President last May won second place and represents the opposition in Colombia. He was a member of this guerrilla. Well, this context of violence has been an engine of displacement due to incessant events such as the massacres, killings of protected persons, damage to protected property, regional insecurity and, above all, threats to the civilian population that results in forced displacement.
II. FORCED DISPLACEMENT FACING THE CAUSES OF THE CURRENT CONFLICT
AND THE PEACE PROCESSES
In the 80s, drug cartels appear. For example, Pablo Escobar, the Medellín Cartel and the Cali cartel are remembered, mainly. During this time, drug trafficking appeared as an essential element of the conflict. In these cases, another phenomenon is presented, such as the displacement between cities, from one to the
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other depending on the cartels that generated pressure in society. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014)
Without this element, the conflict would have ended much sooner, but its financing capacity fuelled the survival of the armed groups. All of them, both the guerrillas and the cartelsthemselves and some new actors such as the paramilitary groups, had sufficient income to finance the conflict. Even so, the measures of the state had to face the three main lines of the Conflict. (BENAVIDES Farid Samir and Eduard VINYAMATA I CAMP, 2011) On the one hand, the activities of the guerrilla groups that at this time carried out activities not only of extortion or kidnapping but also of drug trafficking and terrorism, had serious effects on the population, causing forced migration to the cities. Here this effect was due to security reasons.
Secondly, the acts of the drug cartels generated many acts of terrorism in the cities with their internal wars and therefore another phenomenon called migration between cities arose. From one city to another, due to security chaos, an irrepressible phenomenon occurs, especially in Bogotá, which seems to become a refuge from internal displacement.
Finally, self-defence groups right fighting the rebels in parallel and illegal to the State, the scale in their actions in the conflict, with the most serious human rights violations and mass killings, also generated a factor of insecurity and violence in rural areas that also caused the phenomenon of massive forced migration to the cities.
This does not mean that there are no other similar groups now, because there is talk of the emergence of new groups, such as the so-called emerging organized gangs (Aguilas Negras, Urabeños, the Gulf cartel, etc.) that have replaced the presence of the guerrilla in the territories but not in the context of previous armed conflict. In any case, these groups also generate displacement phenomena due to their security actions, control, organized crime derived from drug trafficking, kidnapping, etc. These phenomena can be seen in
the northern region of the country in Antioquia, the Atlantic Coast, the Pacific where actions by guerrilla groups and emerging gangs still persist; the areas bordering Venezuela such as La Guajira, the Catatumbo where emerging groups coexist, and the ELN, the Amazon region in departments such as Caquetá and Putumayo mainly, Vichada to a lesser extent, etc. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014)
For these reasons, it is based on the existence of the conflict today even with the advent of the 2016 peace process, what happens is that at the moment it can be classified as a low intensity conflict, (JAIMES-AMADO María Cecilia & PRIETO SANJUAN Rafael, 2010) however, this does not mean that acts of violence that generate displacement do not continue to appear, on the contrary, the phenomenon continues in force along with Venezuelan migration that deserves further analysis.
III. CONCLUSIONS
We can identify several periods that originated forced displacement and current internal migration in Colombia, the first of which arises from the effects of the 19th century with the civil war that began in the late and early 20th century called "The Thousand Days War (1899-1903) ”. This first armed confrontation produced the first migration to the cities, especially Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, among others.
The second period of migration occurs after the first bipartisan violence in Colombia between 1948 and 1962. In this scenario, not only did the current armed conflict originate, but the second wave of migration to cities in Colombia throughout the territory was generated. National. This second period produced the formation of marginal areas in the cities, which up to now have no growth control and only some measures of social reintegration and social improvement, however their growth is overwhelmed and sometimes lacking the state presence.
The third period of migration occurs just after the subversive struggle in Colombia between 1964 with the origin of the guerrillas and 1990. In this
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period the factors are multiple in displacement and forced migration, since many are due to the causes of the conflict, which link both subversive, self-defence groups and organized crime groups.
Another period that links the phenomenon of displacement and forced migration appears between 1990 and the present day, all generated with the escalation of the conflict that occurred between 1990 and 2005. From this last date, the pacification processes, although they did not end with the causes associated with displacement produced a lower rate in this regard, which is currently maintained and is generated from subversive groups that remain even after the 2016 peace agreement and organized crime gangs that operate in the regions for the purposes of drug trafficking, extortion, among other behaviours.Finally, the current scenario suggests relevant obligations in the face of the Peace Agreement signed in 2016, which is one of the appropriate actions against the phenomenon of displacement, since security is proposed in rural areas inhabited by members of demobilized armed groups, mainly from the FARC. If the objectives of the armistice and one of the aims of the agreement, such as the establishment of the peasants and the return to land in the rural area, are met, the phenomenon of displacement motivated by violence derived from the armed conflict can at least be stopped. .
However, the transition of governments may affect this process, however, mainly created institutions, such as the truth commission and the Special Jurisdiction for peace, are obliged to try to rescue the main objective of all, such as the end of the armed conflict in Colombia. If at least the phenomenon of violence that motivates displacement is met with this objective, at least it can lessen its effects without stopping the flow from the countryside to the city that remains constant, mainly for reasons of development and the absence of the State as mentioned above.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BENAVIDES Farid Samir and Eduard VINYAMATA I CAMP (2011). Peace processes and initiatives in Colombia and Ecuador.
First. Barcelona, Spain: UOC, First Edition, 2011.
2. FALS BORDA Orlando, GUZMAN CAMPOS German, UMAÑA LUNA Eduardo. Violence in Colombia. Volume I. Editorial Taurus. Reprint of 1962. Bogotá D.C. 2003
3. JAIMES-AMADO María Cecilia & PRIETO SANJUAN Rafael. (2010) Justice and Peace or when all roads lead to ... The Hague. International Law No 17, Colombian Journal of International Law, 165-230. Bogotá D.C. Colombia.
4. INTER-AMERICAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS. Case 19 Merchants Vs Colombia (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, July 5, 2004.
5. GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. (2014). Report “Basta Ya”. Chapter II. The origins, dynamics, and growth of the armed conflict. Bogotá: Presidential Department of the Republic.
6. ITURRALDE, Manuel (2010). Punishment, authoritarian Liberalism and Exception Criminal Justice. Bogotá: Century of Man Editors. University of the Andes. Pontifical Javeriana University.
7. SANDOVAL MESA Jaime Alberto (2018). Background of the Judicial Guarantees in Colombia in the Penal Code of 1936. Journal of the Permanent Secretariat of Mercosur. Year 6, No. 11; April 2018.
8. URIBE VARGAS, Diego (1985). The constitutions of Colombia. Historical and Sociological Perspective. Hispanic culture editions. Iberoamerican Cooperation Institute. Madrid, Spain, 1985.
9. VAZQUEZ CARRIZOSA, Alfredo (1986). Thepresidentialpower in Colombia. 3rd ed. Barranquilla: Ediciones Suramérica LTDA.
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ABSTRACT
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LJP Copyright ID: 573343Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change
Among Pregnant Women in South- West, NigeriaDr. J.K. Ajayi & N. A. Ajayi
The study assessed health information and good nutritional practices among pregnant women in Nigeria. One hundred questionnaires were distributed to pregnant women on pre-natal clinicdays at Teaching and Government hospitals in Ekiti and Osun States, Nigeria. 90 questionnaire were found useful. Summation Weighted Average (SWA), frequencies and percentages applied for variable distribution, while data was analysed using SPSS Software and Chi-square test, t-text and spear correlation-test used for the hypotheses. Results showed that ages 26-35 ranked highest (51.1%), 83.3% were married, and mostly in second parity. 55.6% were civil servants and many (62.2%) had tertiary education. Respondent's highest income falls between N31, 000 and N40, 000 monthly, while many fall below N10, 000. A significant relationship exists between respondents’ level of information competence and health status (rcal 0.390 is greater than rtab 0.174); between health information accessibility level and respondents nutritional choices (rcal 0.338 greater than rtab (0.174) all at 0.05 level of significance. It was revealed that health information awareness and accessibility were inadequate. The study therefore recommended organised talks for pregnant women at community level, while media-campaign, seminar/workshops with library playing prominent role should be intensified.
Keywords: health information, pregnant women, nutritional choice, behavioural change, pre-natal clinics, information competence, health status.
Classification: FOR Code: 920507
Language: English
© 2020. Dr. J.K. Ajayi & N. A. Ajayi. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use,distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South-
West, Nigeria DR. J. K. Ajayiα & N. A. Ajayi σ
____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
The study assessed health information and good
nutritional practices among pregnant women in
Nigeria. One hundred questionnaires were
distributed to pregnant women on pre-natal
clinicdays at Teaching and Government hospitals
in Ekiti and Osun States, Nigeria. 90
questionnaire were found useful. Summation
Weighted Average (SWA), frequencies and
percentages applied for variable distribution,
while data were analysed using SPSS Software
and Chi-square test, t-text, and spear
correlation-test was used to test the hypotheses.
Results showed that ages 26-35 ranked highest
(51.1%), 83.3% were married, and mostly in
second parity. 55.6% were civil servants and
many (62.2%) had tertiary education.
Respondent's highest income falls between N31,
000 and N40, 000 monthly, while many fall
below N10, 000. A significant relationship exists
between respondents’ level of information
competence and their health status (rcal 0.390 is
greater than rtab 0.174); between health
information accessibility level and respondents
nutritional choices (rcal 0.338 greater than rtab
(0.174) all at 0.05 level of significance. It was
revealed that health information awareness and
accessibility were inadequate. The study
therefore recommended organised talks for
pregnant women at community level, while
media-campaign, seminar/workshops with
library playing prominent role should be
intensified.
Keywords: health information, pregnant women,
nutritional choice, behavioural change, pre-natal
clinics, information competence, health status.
Exchange rate= Nigerian money N450=US $1
(US Dollar)
I. INTRODUCTION
Woman body goes through a great deal of
hormonal, physiological, and physical changes
during pregnancy. The way she nourishes her
body during this process will affect her own
health, as well as the health of her baby
(Healthline, 2015). This is because during
pregnancy, woman’s body has increased
nutritional needs. Her body requires
macro-nutrients (for example, calories, protein,
and fluids), and micro-nutrients (for example,
calcium, foliate, and iron). In general, most
women can meet these increased nutritional
needs by choosing a diet that includes a variety of
nutritious foods. Nutritional information aims at
improving knowledge, attitudes and information
rather than activities that aimed at increasing
food availability. Health information then is a set
of abilities needed to recognise a health
information need, identify likely information
sources and use them to retrieve relevant
information, assess the quality of the information
and its applicability to a specific situation, and
then analyse, understand, and use the information
to make a good decision (MLA, 2007). The World
Health Organization Constitution over the years
recognised and emphasized the need for careful
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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria
use of scarce resources of information, education
and communication as the most cost-effective
intervention of health (Popoola, 2009).
Appropriate nutritional information could also aid
in avoiding stressful events or avoiding exposure
to infections or complications in pregnancy
(Cohen, 2003).
II. HEALTH CARE NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN NIGERIA
In Nigeria, the number of rural poor women is
roughly twice that of the urban poor and the
depth of poverty was more than double in rural
areas. Income inequality is worse in rural areas,
with a Gini-coefficient of 45.6 compared with the
urban areas of 39.9 (Fos, 2000). Most home lack
basic amenities, mothers are underprivileged and
poorly educated. They cannot recognise a health
information need, cannot identify likely
information sources and cannot use information
to make good decision. Many women belief in
taboos that a pregnant woman should not eat
certain types of food or engage in certain
work/duties.uch include; a pregnant woman must
not eat egg, beans and even meat, not work in the
sun and so on.
However, eating the right foods can help persons
avoid certain diseases and recover faster when
illness occurs. Poor maternal nutrition during
these periods may adversely affect infant growth
and development and may increase life-time risk
of developing chronic disease (Osmond & Barker,
2001). Dietary change is generally needed for
women to meet the increased nutrient
requirements of pregnancy: and while some
women make significant dietary changes, others
find it difficult to do. Notably, even when women
do make changes to their diet, they do not always
adopt evidence based dietary recommendations
(Crozier et al, 2009; Forster et al, 2009).
Ajayi and Adewale (2010) postulated that the
concept of health information literacy
pre-supposes that an individual recognises the
need for information and how to find, evaluate,
use and subsequently communicate information
effectively to solve particular problems or make
decisions. Absence of health information is a
significant barrier to effective health care for
many people. A wide range of health-enhancing
behaviour significantly, depends on health
information literacy and consequently, drives
health-information seeking needs of individuals
(Atulomah & Atulomah, 2012). In view of
Obuh-Raph and Adamo (2012), the level of
ignorance in terms of nutrition especially by
pregnant mothers was still on the high side. The
ignorance cut across all classes of people from the
last to the greatest. Many pregnant mothers are
not aware of what to eat for proper development
of the growing foetus. In Nigeria, Akowe (2009)
quoted in Ogunjimi et al (2012) found that the
country constitutes just 1% of the World
population, and accounts for 10% of the worlds’
maternal and under-five mortality rates and that
annually, an estimated 52,900 Nigerian women
die from pregnancy related complications out of a
total of 529,000 global maternal death. The study
revealed further that woman’s chance of dying
from pregnancy and childbirth in Nigeria is 1 in
35. It is imperative then to investigate the
influence of health information in promoting
nutritional information practices and behavioural
changes among pregnant women in Nigeria,
which this study intended to carryout.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW Several qualitative studies found risk avoidance
was a strong motivator of dietary change during
pregnancy (Begley, 2002; Szwajcer et al. 2007;
Tessema et al. 2009; Ferrari et al; 2013; Reyes,
Klotz & Herring, 2013; Wennberg et al .2013).
Specifically not wanting to jeopardise their own
life or their unborn baby’s life (Reyes, et al., 2013)
led women to make dietary changes to avoid
preventable adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Healthier eating-patterns are common among
socio-demographically diverse women who
believed their personal behaviour had a stronger
influence on their nutrition and health than
external factors (Springer et al. 1994). As a result,
women of high social position see adequate
nutrition as how much one can afford in terms of
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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria
junk foods. Women occupying the base of the
social ladder believe that adequate nutrition is the
quantity of food one can consume during
pregnancy, but studies have shown that women’s
nutrition knowledge significantly influenced
dietary choice (Begley, 2002; Tessema et al, 2009;
Massad & Chapman, 2010; Barbour et al. 2012;
Ferrari et al. 2013; Groth & Morrison – Beedy,
2013; Reyes, et al 2013; Wennberg et al, 2013).
Barriers to health diet choices include; lack of
knowledge regarding the quantity of certain foods
required to ensure nutritional adequacy (Begley,
2002); exposure to confusing and frequently
changing dietary information (Ferrari et al. 2013;
Wennberg et al 2013); and misconceptions about
health choice alternatives (Groth & Morrison –
Beedy, 2013; Reyes, et al 2013). Furthermore,
Kelli & Shieh (2010) found that first time mothers
were more engaged than non-first time mothers
in using various information sources.
Aaronson and Pfoutz (2015) in a study that
investigated “seeking information: where do
pregnant women go” found that healthcare
providers and books were first or second most
important by the largest number of respondents.
It added that women of higher Socio-economic
status (SES) relied more on books and less on
family than did women of lower SES. Also, having
had a previous pregnancy was associated with
greater use of one’s self as information source.
Women who perceived more support from their
providers viewed them as more important source
of information. Schiwartz, Woloshin & Baazek
(2002) opined that consumers get most of their
nutrition information from television news of how
diet influences the development of disease. They
benefit from news coverage of nutrition when they
learn to make lifestyle changes that will improve
their health. Studies by Thorndike et al 2012 and
Hersy et al. 2013 revealed that nutrient–specific
labels which incorporated both text and colour
were most effective at aiding selection of healthier
foods by pregnant women, while mass media
campaigns have also been shown to be effective in
achieving change in health related behaviours and
could be used for dissemination of up –to-date
evidence (Wakefield, Loken & Hornik, 2010).
Piper (2009) submittted that community health
nurse play a vital role in promoting health during
pregnancy. The most important role is figured in
teaching and providing pregnant women with
information needed based on social and
psychological behavioural changes to maintain
health during pregnancy on mainly those related
to nutritional aspects.
3.1 Theoretical Framework
This study was anchored on Information
Utilization Capacity Theory (IUCT). This theory
propounded by Curras in 1986 states that the
utilization of information is dependent on the
ability of the users to access information.
According to Currás-Bosch (1986), the user’s
educational background, personality, belief, etc,
will to a great extent affect the ability of the user
to access information. Supporting this theory,
Wilson (1999) stated that personal characteristics
such as beliefs held by a person, interests, needs
or existing attitudes, personal cognitive need
(knowledge base) and level of information literacy
may constitute barriers to access and use of
information. The implication of this theory is that
pregnant woman’s personal characteristics as
stated earlier may influence the level of health
information access and use for nutritional choices
and behavioural changes at gestation period.
IUCT seen as a concept associated with personal
beliefs in determining information adoption and
usage anchored the base of this research work.
3.2 Statement of the Problem
Absence of health information is a significant
barrier to effective health care while health
information literacy is believed to be an effective
strategy to enhance a successful pregnancy.
Mothers are under privileged and poorly educated
in Nigeria and that many cannot recognize a
health information need, identify likely
information sources and majority cannot even use
information to make good decision (Ajayi &
Adewale, 2010). Therefore it becomes imperative
to examine how health information could
influence pregnant women’s decision making in
relation to their good nutritional choices and
behavioural change particularly in Nigeria.
3.3 Objectives of the Study
i. The prime objective of the study is to assess the
level of influence of health information in
promoting good nutritional practices and
behavioural change among pregnant women in
South-west, Nigeria. Specific objectives were
to;
ii. Find out the sources of health information and
their relative importance for healthy nutritional
practices and promotion among the
respondents;
iii. Examine respondents perceptions, practices
and health status to determine their health
information needs;
iv. Determine the respondents health information
accessibility level for healthy nutritional
choices;
v. Determine the health information competence
level of the respondents;
vi. Identify the participant’s health information
access barriers in promoting healthy
nutritional practices.
3.4 Research Questions
1. Does the respondent’s information competence
level have any influence on health information
accessibility level of the respondents?
2. Do barriers to health information accessibility
have significant influence on the respondents’
health information competence level?
3.5 Hypothesis
➢ There will be no significant relationship
between health information competence level
of the respondents and their health status
➢ There will be no significant relationship
between the respondents health information
accessibility level and improvement of their
nutritional choices for healthy living.
IV. METHODOLOGY
The study population comprised 100 pregnant
women of gestational age attending pre-natal
clinics in six (6) health centers located in two
major cities of Ile-Ife and Ado Ekiti, Southwest
Nigeria. A stratified random sample technique
was used. A random sampling of 90 pregnant
women was used and a method of proportional
allocation to sample was adopted to obtain the
sample size of each stratum. The method assumed
that the sampling fraction is equal to the sampling
fraction for each stratum i.e (f=fh) and fh-nh/N
(see table 1). This technique was adopted because
of peculiarity of the clinics.
Table 1: Sampling fraction for stratum
Clinics Nh Nh
1 18 =16
2 19 =17
3 18 =15
4 16 =14
5 15 =12
6 17 =16
103 90
The study ran for three months (August-October,
2019). The purpose of the study was explained
and informed consent also obtained from the
participants. A total of 100 questionnaires were
distributed among the women on clinic days. 94
questionnaires were returned out of which 90
were found useful, representing 90.0 percent. The
instruments include; A five-item Health
Information Competency Scale developed in
previous CHESS (Comprehensive Health
Enhancement Support System) studies, to assess
the respondent’s perception the respondents get
and use health information, while barriers to
Information Access Scale (Arora et al. 2002) was
modified to assess if participants had difficulty
finding health information.
V. DATA ANALYSIS
Sample characteristics and variable distribution
were described using tables, frequency counts,
means and percentages. Some results were
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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria
analysed using Statistical method of Summation
of Weighted Values (SWV). Likert scale 5 ratings
namely: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree
(D) and Strongly Disagree (SD), Undecided (1)
corresponding to scales of preference of 5, 4, 3, 2,
1 respectively was used in the instrument. Data
were analysed using the statistical package for the
social sciences (SPSS version 7.0) software, and
applying chi-squire test, t-test and spear
correlation test to determine the level of
significance.
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Results
Socio-Demographic variable of the respondents
(Table 2) showed that many (51.1%) were in the
range of 26-35 years, while few (11.1%) per cent
were within 36 and 50 years. The mean age was
30 years. Fifty-six per cent (55.6%) of the
respondents were civil servants, 13.3 per cent
were full housewives while 31.1 per cent were
self-employed/petty traders. Educational
background of the respondents revealed that
primary school certificate holders were 1.1%,
secondary school certificate (28.9%), and higher
education (62.2%) while 7.8% had non-formal
education.
Table 2: Socio-Demographic Variable of Respondents
Frequency Percentage
Age
Under 18 years 19 21.1%
18-25 years 15 16.7%
26-35 years 46 51.1%
36-50 years 10 11.1%
Total 90 100.0%
Occupation
Civil Servant 50 55.6%
Full housewife 12 13.3%
Self-employed/Petty
trader 28 31.1%
Total 90 100.0%
Education
Attained
Primary School 1 1.1%
Secondary 26 28.9%
Higher education 56 62.2%
Non-formal 7 7.8%
Total 90 100.0%
Figure 1 showed the importance of
socio-economic status of pregnant women in
meeting and caring for their pregnancies cannot
be detached from education and economic status.
Many (44.5%) of the pregnant women earned
between #31, 000 -#40, 000 per month, 13.3%
earned between #21, 000 - #30, 000 per month,
22.2% received between #11, 000 - #20, 000, and
15.6% earned less than #10, 000 per month (see
fig, 1). (#450.00 = US $ 1.00). Most of the
pregnant women sampled earned less than
$89.00 per month, the amount which is not
enough to maintain a family. This result agrees
with Shelly (2002) that about 1.2 million people in
the developing world are absolutely poor with
only a dollar a day to meet food, shelter and other
basic
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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria
Figure 1: Pie-Chart showing the income level of respondents per month
Parity: Table 3 revealed that 24.4% of the
respondents were 1sttime pregnant, 31.1% were
2ndtimer, 24.4% 3rd
timer, while 20.0% were at
4th and above pregnancy.
Table 3: Frequency table showing number of
Parity
Items Frequency Percentage
1st time Pregnant 22 24.4
2nd Pregnant 28 31.1
3rd Pregnant 22 24.4
4th above 18 20.0
Total 90 100.0
as their source of health information. Television,
friends and healthcare providers also serve as
good sources of health information. The findings
revealed that the newspaper, library,
family/relatives, posters were less frequently used
as sources of health information. Food labels also
serve as a good source of health information as
they are easily scanned through before purchase
for consumption. The result also revealed a good
frequency on the use of public health campaign as
a source of health information among the
respondents.
Figure 2: Sources of Health Information by the Respondents
Table 4 respondents’ Health Information
Accessibility level index reveals that 2.99 of the
respondents strongly agreed that they could easily
locate diverse sources of health information when
making nutritional choices while 2.95 cannot
confidently and easily locate such diverse sources.
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Less N10,000(15.6%)
N11,000-N20,000(22.2%)
N21,000-N30,000(13.3%)
N31,000-N40,000(44.5%)
above N40,000(4.4%)
Income
Sources of information: Figure 2 showed that
majority of the respondents frequently use radio
0
20
40
60 Health Information Sources
Most Frequently Frequently Less Frequently
2.91 of the respondents agreed to have got the
skill to access various sources of health
information when they needed to make diet
choices, however, 2.79 showed non-confidence in
accessing information when needed to make diet
choices and few (2.71index) of the women could
access health information resources without any
form of assistance. This is followed by those who
can only access health information on ante-natal
visiting day with index of 2.68. Those who could
not access health information because of health
information were not readily available had index
of 2.32, moreover, facilities like library,
information centers, and internet not being
available to provide health information, coupled
with information centers not found in the
respondent’s locality recorded indexes of 2.24 and
2.14 respectively.
Table 4: Respondents’ Health Information Accessibility level
S/N Health Information Accessibility Level SA
4
A
3
D
2
SD
1 Total Index
1
I feel fit to do every task because I always
access health information needed for my
pregnancy growth
120 126 14 9 269 2.99
2
I can easily locate various sources of health
information when making nutritional
choices
76 159 26 5 266 2.95
3 I know how to access health information
when I need to make diet choices 92 126 38 6 262 2.91
4 I find it easy to locate, access and use
health information for health living 68
13
8 36 9 251 2.79
5 I don’t have frequent contact with
healthcare providers for health information 68 57 70 19 214 2.78
6 I can access health information without
any form of assistance 88 84 64 8 244 2.71
7 I can only access health information on
ante-natal visiting day 84 87 60 10 241 2.68
8 I cannot access health information because
it is not readily available 60 57 72 20 209 2.32
9
Facilities like library, information centers,
and internet are not available to provide
health information
48 75 52 27 202 2.24
10 Information centers are not found in my
locality 36 63 68 26 193 2.14
Health Information competence level of the
respondents: Table 5 showed, 87.8% of the
respondents agreed that they know exactly what
they want to learn about their healthcare, 5.6%
could not decide while 6.6% showed they did not.
Majority (85.6%) indicated that they could
check/access health information from different
sources with ease, but 7.8% would not be able,
and 6.7% were undecided. Also, 53.3% of the
respondents found health information more
difficult to obtain than other types of information,
but 35.5% disagreed, whereas 11.1% could not
decide. The results showed that majority (88.9%)
of the respondents were satisfied with the way
they currently learn about health issues however,
8.9% of the respondents disagreed. Also, 68.9%
felt they are in control of how and what they have
as health information as against 18.9% who
disagreed while 12.2% could not decide on the
item.
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Table 5: Health Information Competence level of the Respondents
Items Agree Undecided Disagree
Freq % Freq % Freq %
I know exactly what it is that I want to learn
about my healthcare 79 87.8 5 5.6 6 6.6
I can check for health information from
different sources with ease 76 85.6 6 6.7 7 7.8
Health information is more difficult for me to
obtain than other types of information 48 53.3 10 11.1 32 35.5
I am satisfied with the way I currently learn
about health issues 80 88.9 2 2.2 8 8.9
I feel that I am in control over how and what
I have as health information 62 68.9 11 12.2 17 18.9
Health Information Access Barriers: Table 6
revealed identified barriers to adequate health
information which includes: lack of
seminar/workshop to sensitize the respondents
on relevant health information and the perception
that health information can only be given by
health workers, and never mind to access other
sources ranked highest in what constitute barriers
to information accessibility among the pregnant
women under study with index of 3.50 each,
followed by facilities needed to access health
information being sited far away from
respondents locality with index of 3.46. The
non-recognition of library to provide adequate
health information as other sources recorded
index of 3.32, followed by lack of knowledge of the
need for health information during pregnancy
and, Library not made available within
respondent’s locality to provide health
information ranked equal with indexes of 3.29
respectively. Other barriers like culture/tradition
e.g. certain taboo forbidding one from eating
certain food despite adequate health information,
one’s religion not supporting compliance with
certain healthcare even with access to health
information (e.g. blood transmission/use of
drugs) and respondents not knowing where to
find health information recorded indexes of 2.9,
2.76,and 2.54 respectively, while those who
perceived they do not need health information to
guide their nutritional choice ranked lowest with
index of 2.43. All these constitute barriers to easy
accessibility of health information among the
respondents in different dimensions and levels as
revealed from table 5 above.
Table 6: Health Information Access Barriers
S/N Items SA
5
A
4
U
3
D
2
SD
1
Tot
al Index
1
There is Lack of seminar/workshop on
health information for pregnant women
in my community
200 20 30 60 5 315 3.5
2
Health information can only be given by
hospital and doctors, and never mind to
access other sources
200 36 27 40 12 315 3.5
3
Facilities needed to access health
information are sited far away from my
locality
175 40 51 36 10 312 3.46
4 Library cannot provide adequate health
information as other sources 200 4 24 60 11 299 3.32
5
I have no knowledge of the need for
health information during pregnancy 175 40 9 60 12 269 3.29
6 Library is not available in my locality to 200 36 24 6 30 296 3.29
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provide health information
7
My culture/tradition e.g. certain taboo
forbid me from eating certain food
despite adequate health information
85 52 27 92 5 261 2.9
8
My religion does not support compliance
with certain healthcare even with access
to health information (e.g. blood
transmission/use of drugs)
50 76 30 82 10 248 2.76
9
I do not know where to find health
Information
- 96 48 80 5 229 2.54
10
I do not believe I need health
information to guide my nutritional
choice
- 132 39 8 40 219 2.43
Hypotheses Testing
HO1: There will be no significant relationship
between Health Information competence level of
the respondents and health status. Table 7 showed
that rcal
(0.390) is greater than rtab
(0.174) at 0. 05
level of significance. The null hypothesis (H0) is
therefore not accepted which implies that there is
a significant relationship between Health
Information competence level of the respondents
and health status.
Table 7: PPMCC showing the relationship between Health Information competence level of the
respondents and health status
Variable N
S.D Df rcal
rtab
Health Information
competence level
90 2.01 1.011
89 0.390 0.174
90 1.84 0.860
p < 0.05
HO2: There will be no significant relationship
between Health Information accessibility level
and improvement of their nutritional choices for
healthy living. Table 7 showed that rcal
(0.338) is
greater than rtab
(0.174) at 0. 05 level of
significance. The null hypothesis (H0) is therefore
rejected which implies that there is a significant
relationship between Health Information
accessibility level and improvement of their
nutritional choices for healthy living.
Table 7: PPMCC showing the relationship between Health Information competence level of the
respondents and health status
Variable N
S.D Df rcal rtab
Health Information
competence level
90 2.01 1.011
89 0.390 0.174
Health Status 90 1.84 0.860
p < 0.05
VII. DISCUSSION
Human being requires food to grow, reproduce
and maintain good health. Behavioural changes
are necessary to assist mother to change their
eating habits and practices that contribute to
nutritional deficits. Knowledge of health
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information serves as a basis for managing
uncertainty, coping with change and maintaining
some control regarding health decisions.
The study revealed that majority of the
respondents who attended pre-natal clinic were
within ages 26 and 35, and married. Most of them
were civil servants (55.6%) who had
post-secondary qualifications. This could have
been responsible for their information
consciousness and clinic attendance as just a few
pregnant women (7.8%) with non-formal
education/illiterates did not attend pre-natal
clinic regularly throughout the period (3-months)
of this study. This corroborates the findings of
Ajayi & Adewale (2010) that mother are under
privileged and poorly educated in Nigeria and that
they cannot recognise a health information need,
identify likely information sources, and cannot
even use information to make good decision. The
study also revealed that monthly income for
individual in Nigeria is still very low. The highest
paid among the respondents receive between N31,
000-N40, 000 ($83.68-$119.5) monthly while
some still receive as low as N10, 000 ($39.8) per
month. The poor income must have also been
responsible for the bulk of illiterates who ignore
clinics for lack of money to pay hospital bills
(Finlayson & Downe, 2015). This agrees with
Titaley et al. (2010) posits that financial difficulty
emerged as the major issue among women who
did not fulfil the minimum requirement for
antenatal care services. This was related to the
cost of health services and transportation costs.
The findings also showed that healthcare
providers followed by clergy/pastor, and radio in
order of preference were the most sought sources
of health information. This conformed to
Aaronson and Pfoutz (2015) that healthcare
provider was the most important by the largest
number of pregnant women studied. Reason
attributed to this was that women who perceived
more support from their provider viewed them as
more important source of information. This
therefore contradicted the finding of Schiwartz,
Woloshin and Baazek (2000) that consumers get
most of their nutrition information from
television.
The result indicated that accessibility to health
information is high among the respondents.
Those who claimed to feel fit to do every task due
to healthy nutritional choices as a result of
adequate health information at their disposal
ranked highest followed by those who could easily
locate various available sources of health
information. The findings also revealed that there
is a correlation between respondent’s information
accessibility level on the promotion of nutritional
choice and behavioural change. Cohen (2003) was
of the opinion that nutritional information could
also aid in avoiding stressful life events or
avoiding exposure to infections or carcinogenic
agents. The competence level is also found to be
high among the respondents .Those who know
exact information to seek has the highest.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Understanding of health information as a factor
influencing women’s dietary choices is central to
motivating positive dietary behaviour before,
during and after pregnancy. It enables interested
health professionals and policymakers to identify
efficient strategies for improving healthy food
choices among pregnant women. Accessibility to
health information was high among those civil
servants with post-secondary qualifications
(educated) while very few with non-formal
education (illiterates) attended pre-natal clinic
indicating low information literacy. Poverty and
cultural/traditional beliefs affected the
respondents’ nutritional practices within the
community. Healthcare providers and pastors
were the major sources of health information
with little concern about the libraries.
IX. RECOMMENDATIONS
Library should stand out through its mobile
services in providing educational packages to be
based on a careful community survey of cultural
beliefs and general knowledge about health
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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria
practices during pregnancy. This will allow
programs to respond to taboos/beliefs and/or at
least recognize when information disseminated is
contradicting local beliefs held by the women
themselves, friends, and family.
Various government agencies should adopt
persuasive communication methods, directed at
target audiences to aid in educating and
influencing women in their child-bearing years
and providing pregnant women with automated
daily feedback regarding their adherence with
dietary recommendations. This would promote
positive diet practices through presenting series
related to nutrition with emphasis on preparing
healthy meals, considering socio-economic status
of all population and common health problems in
the community.
Nigeria’s investment in nutrition education
should further improve in diets promotion for
healthy living among low-income women.
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ABSTRACT
382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573344Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
Migration in the Mekong Sub Region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social
Welfare ArrangementThitiwan Sricharoen
The research has purpose to analyze factors affecting on labor migration of 3 nationalities (Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao PDR) in Thailand, and investigate the demand on social welfare. The sample was 511 workers, divided into 211 Cambodian workers, 150 Myanmar workers and 150 Lao workers. Data collection use specific sampling method. Data analysis applies logistic regression analysis. Research found that most of the workers are female (53.82%). Most of them are married (57.93%). The average age is 30 years. The average education is primary. They are mostly MOU worker (66.93%). Factors influencing migration are income before migration, knowledge and attitude towards Thailand, own house belonging at home, number of family member living in Thailand, difficulties of finding work at home and career opportunities in hometowns. Policy recommendations are: 1) Medical welfare arrangement, 2) The provision of educational welfare for foreign children, 3) State welfare assistance, 4) development procedures for foreign registration, passport making, extension of visa and work permit, 5) Increasing officers and doing online database, 6) Official announcements through various media in Myanmar, Cambodian and Lao language, 7) Charging fees appropriately, 8) Encourage good relationship between employer and employee, 9) Labor protection, 10) Organizing foreign workers into the system.
Keywords: greater mekong sub region, inter- national migration, myanmar, cambodia, lao pdr.
Classification: FOR Code: 160799
Language: English
© 2020. Thitiwan Sricharoen. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Migration in the Mekong Sub Region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and
Social Welfare Arrangement Thitiwan Sricharoen
___________________________________________
ABSTRACT
The research has purpose to analyze factors
affecting on labor migration of 3 nationalities
(Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao PDR) in
Thailand, and investigate the demand on social
welfare. The sample was 511 workers, divided
into 211 Cambodian workers, 150 Myanmar
workers and 150 Lao workers. Data collection
use specific sampling method. Data analysis
applies logistic regression analysis. Research
found that most of the workers are female
(53.82%). Most of them are married (57.93%).
The average age is 30 years. The average
education is primary. They are mostly MOU
worker (66.93%). Factors influencing migration
are income before migration, knowledge and
attitude towards Thailand, own house belonging
at home, number of family member living in
Thailand, difficulties of finding work at home
and career opportunities in hometowns. Policy
recommendations are: 1) Medical welfare
arrangement, 2) The provision of educational
welfare for foreign children, 3) State welfare
assistance, 4) development procedures for
foreign registration, passport making, extension
of visa and work permit, 5) Increasing officers
and doing online database, 6) Official
announcements through various media in
Myanmar, Cambodian and Lao language, 7)
Charging fees appropriately, 8) Encourage good
relationship between employer and employee, 9)
Labor protection, 10) Organizing foreign
workers into the system.
Keywords: greater mekong sub region, inter-
national migration, myanmar, cambodia, lao pdr.
I. INTRODUCTION
The large flows of migrant labor taking place in
the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) reflect the
uneven pace of development among the eco-
nomies that constitute the sub region, as well as
the demographic disparities in its individual
societies. Thailand, which is a driving force of
economic expansion in the sub region, currently
hosts the largest population of migrant workers in
the GMS (Figure 1). Economic development in the
GMS has been consistently strong over the last 10
years and the migration of workers within the sub
region has been an important factor in that
development. The rapid improvement in
transport infrastructure throughout the sub
region has also greatly contributed to faster
movement of both goods and people. Although
economic and demographic factors would be
enough to drive labor migration, these flows are
further facilitated by such factors as cultural
similarities, population diasporas, and construc-
tion of highways. All these factors are producing
profound changes in trade and connectivity within
the sub region. In part, the sub region’s compe-
titiveness depends on labor migration because it
contributes to a flexible regional labor market that
makes the GMS more productive, more efficient,
and more competitive (ADB, 2009).
These three foreign national workers are like a
backlash in driving the economy of Thailand.
Accepted that Thailand has changed the
population structure by Thailand is changing to
the elderly society. The population has a longer
life expectancy. The achievement of population
control policy has exceeded expectations. The rate
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of population is likely to decrease. Thailand has
reduced the population of children and working
age due to Thai populations have higher
education. Therefore, they decide to delay the
marriage and have more family planning. This is
causing severe population shortage. In addition,
there are many types of work that Thai people do
not do such as risky work, hard work, dirty work,
lower level jobs, fishing jobs, construction work,
and house cleaning works. Moreover, The Thai
economy is growing every year, causing the
industrial sector to have more labor needs.
Migrant labor plays an important role. It can be
seen that at one point of the time the Cambodian
workers moved back to the country only a
hundred thousand people. The effect is severe,
causing business owners and industry to come out
to request the government assistance. The
industrial sector requires a lot of labor to drive or
increase production. Businesses still have to rely
on foreign workers. Thai workers with secondary
education or higher are moving to work in
factories that use machinery as a basis, or
businesses that have more benefits and rewards
that are worthwhile.
Source: United Nation, 2017.
Figure 1: Average annual rate of change in the number of international migrants by country or area of
destination, 2000 to 2017
Presently, Thailand encounter with the foreign
competitors that move the production base to the
low cost production country. This is the incentive
for a numerous foreign workers returning back
home, which lead Thai business owner’s
encounter more difficulties to seek labor. For
example, China is the largest global producers,
which is the destination for foreign direct
investment. At the same time, China has a mega
investment project in developing countries such
as Myanmar, Lao and Vietnam, which have
comparative advantage on low wage cost.
Although a hundred thousand foreign labor
moves back home in some period, but Thailand is
still being the destination of migration. The
empirical data present that the three nationalities
of foreign workers who received work permit
throughout the whole kingdom have increased
reach to two million people. The number of non
registered or non recorded alien workers
estimates a lot of million people. These illegal
aliens are as invisible person in Thai society. Until
now, we cannot deny that aliens with any
nationality are a part of Thai society and become
more and more significance on Thai economy.
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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement
How can we make these workers to have identity?
How can we make these workers be in the system
that can be checked? How can we make these
workers have the position? How do we know
where these workers live in Thailand? These are
the criticism in Thai society. Meanwhile, in an
international perspective, Thailand is being under
watched from Asian and the International Labor
Organization for labor treatment in accordance
with human rights. Therefore, Thai government
attempts to improve the suitable foreign worker
management that consists to the human rights
and the international labor organization standard.
The important of alien workers in Thailand
become more and more important because
Thailand lacks a lot of labor. It can be seen that
the aliens working in Thailand tend to increase.
Based on information from the Office of Foreign
Workers Administration, the Ministry of Labor of
Thailand found that between 2007 and 2017, the
number of aliens that had work permit in
Thailand was average annually 1,360,999 persons.
The average of percentage changes of work
permitted aliens increase 16.49 percent per year.
The number of alien workers increased sharply in
2009 and 2011 (Figure 2). Beyond the shortage
labor of Thailand, the causes of migration into
Thailand are because the economic conditions
and currency values of Thailand is better than
neighboring countries. In addition, labors
smuggled into Thailand easily and entered in
many routes. It may be because workers are not
afraid of punishment according to the laws of
Thailand. Hundreds of thousands of workers
remain in Thailand because government can not
send smuggled labors back to the country of
origin due to they are minorities and are stateless.
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2007-2017.
Figure 2: The number of migrant labors who have received work permit remaining throughout
Thailand
Figure 3 is the comparison of number of legally
three nationality aliens (Myanmar, Cambodia,
and Lao) and other nationality aliens who have
received work permit remaining throughout the
Kingdom during 2008 to 2017. It presents that
the three nationality alien account for 80% of total
alien in Thailand. Besides, its number has been
increased annually from 88,076 persons in 2007
to 1,831,337 persons in December 2017. It means
that in past decade, these aliens increased 1,979%.
It has a dramatic increased during 2008 to 2017.
While other nationality alien workers who come
to work legally increased dramatically in the year
of 2009 and 2011. In 2009, the number increase
up to 1,439,541 persons. Since 2012, the number
of other nationality aliens had suddenly dropped.
On December 2017, there were 231,470 persons.
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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement
708,976790,664
1,544,9021,335,155
1,950,650
1,133,8511,183,835
1,339,8341,443,474
1,476,841
2,062,807
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
Dec
.200
7
Dec
.200
8
Dec
.200
9
Dec
.201
0
Dec
.201
1
Dec
.201
2
Dec
.201
3
Dec
.201
4
Dec
.201
5
Dec
.201
6
Dec
.201
7
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2007-2017.
Figure 3: The number of legally three nationality aliens (Myanmar, Cambodia, and Lao) and other
nationality aliens who have received work permit remaining throughout Thailand during 2008 to 2017
These foreign workers are the power to drive the
Thai economy. Most of them are workers who
work in Thailand in the position of laborers or
domestic servants. According to the
Memorandum of Understanding on Employment
between Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao,
to replace the lacking of Thai worker, including
smuggle migrant workers received a status
adjustment as a legally immigrant. Legally three
nationality aliens are mostly come from
Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao because these
workers are feel familiar with Thai culture and are
similar in language (Foreign Workers
Administration Office, 2017).
The increasing of the migration is also leading
numerous problems. Handle the migration effects
are also be the challenge. It is not only the more
legal migrant workers to Thailand, but also the
more illegal migrant workers come to Thailand. It
can be seen that Thai authorities have seized a
large number of fleeing workers and returned
them home. However, the problem is still
endless. They are also trying to return to Thailand
in different ways such as even smuggling workers
lie over each other in a cargo car and some died,
they still smuggling into Thailand continuously.
Workers are willing to pay a high rate for the
domestic recruitment agencies to send themselves
to work in Thailand. In some cases, fraud is
caused by recruitment companies. Many workers
are disappointed that they do not work in the
manner they want to do. Many fleeing workers are
not protected by law. During the carrying
smuggling workers to Thailand, if the agency
encounters the inspection of policeman, they
escape and leave these workers during the way.
Some workers were killed and left in the sea. Even
though these things were occurred, these workers
still have a need to work in Thailand. Hence, the
study of migration motivation is important along
with finding solution to various problems that
arise. Although there has been research for a long
time; many findings have not yet been
implemented until now. The problems will
intensify. The government tried to solve the
problem. Until 2010, illegal foreign workers
decreased but there still have many other
challenges such as there is a part of a million
illegal workers register with Foreign Workers
Administration Office.
Finally, Thailand must be a leader in pushing
forward the ASEAN framework for migration by
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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement
88,076 105,361 271,443
577,594 826,868
1,021,172 1,177,629
1,268,685 1,290,577
1,831,337
702,588
1,439,541
1,063,712
1,373,056
306,983 162,663 162,205 174,789 186,264
231,470
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,008 2,009 2,010 2,011 2,012 2,013 2,014 2,015 2,016 2,017Legally 3 Nationality Aliens (Myanmar, Cambodian, Lao)Other Nationality Alien
working with partners in this region to create a
holistic regional solution to meet the challenges
arising from migration within this region (Thai
AEC, 2012). One of the most important policies
for Thailand is long term migration policy that has
been carefully considered by aiming to promote
economic benefits, national security and human
security for Thai people and foreigner equally.
Policy that requires the establishment of an
independent manage migration organization and
work effectively. In addition, the policy that
manages the registration of aliens effective and
transparent. Labor migration is significance on
economic, politic and society. Migration has an
affect each other on international relationship
between Thailand and neighboring countries.
Hence, welfare arrangement and labor protection
are very important.
II. METHODS
The purposes of research are to describe the
migration characteristics, analyze factors affecting
on labor migration of Burmese, Cambodian and
Laotian to Thailand, and investigate the demand
on social welfare. The analysis of factors affecting
on migration of migrant workers in Thailand
applies Binary Logistic Regression Model to
analyze the relationship of independent and
dependent variable. The equation is as below.
Binary Logistic apply X as dependent factor. Variable X is dichotomous variable.
X = 1 Labor have demand to migrate
X = 0 Labor do not have demant to migrate
Factors affecting on migration of foreign workers (Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao) to Thailand are
consist of the following variables.
Personal factors:
1. SEX Male
2. AGE Age
3. EDU Educational level
4. DEBT Debt
5. STATUS Marital status
6. UNEMPLOY Being unemployment
7. INCOMEt-1
Income before migration of labor
8. INCOME Present income of labor
9. EMPLOYER Ratio of employed family worker to total family members
10. ATTITUDE Knowledge and attitude toward Thailand
11. OWNHOUSE Having own house at home country
12. FAMMEMB Number of family member living in Thailand
Factors relate to home country or country of origin:
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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement
Pr(𝑌𝑌 = 1) = 11+𝑒𝑒−𝑥𝑥
(1)
X = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1SEX + 𝛽𝛽2AGE + 𝛽𝛽3EDU + 𝛽𝛽4DEBT + 𝛽𝛽5 STATUS+ 𝛽𝛽6 UNEMPLOY+ 𝛽𝛽7𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽8 INCOME + 𝛽𝛽9 EMPLOYRT + 𝛽𝛽10 ATTITUDE+ 𝛽𝛽11 OWNHOUSE + 𝛽𝛽12FAMMEMB + 𝛽𝛽13DIFFICULT+ 𝛽𝛽14𝑈𝑈𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽15 DRYWEAT+ 𝛽𝛽16 POOR + 𝛽𝛽17 LOWINCOM+ 𝛽𝛽18 POLITIC + 𝛽𝛽19 OPPORTU + 𝛽𝛽20 WELFARE + 𝛽𝛽21 DISTANCE+ 𝛽𝛽22 DIFINCOM + 𝛽𝛽23 POPDENS + 𝛽𝛽24 AREA + 𝛽𝛽25 NONFARM+ 𝛽𝛽26 GETJOB (2)
15. DRYWEAT Arid climate that is not favorable for agriculture
16. POOR Difficulties and poverty in the country of origin
17. LOWINCOM Low wage level compared to foreign countries
18. POLITIC Unstable social and political of home country
19. OPPORTU Career opportunities
20. WELFARE Welfare and public utilities
Factors relate to destination country:
21. DISTANCE Distance between the country of origin and destination country
22. DIFINCOM Income difference between destination country and country of origin
23. POPDENS Population density between destination country and country of origin
24. AREA Area size ratio between destination country and country of origin
25. NONFARM Working on non farm sector
26. GETJOB Having a work position in Thailand
Results: Qualitative Analysis of Migration in
Thailand
This study provides background information
about labor migration in the subregion, which
comprises of migration of Myanmar, Cambodia,
the Lao PDR and Thailand. As Thailand is the
most favorable destination for migrant labor. The
migrations of more than one hundred thousand
labors of the study countries had been discussed.
According to the migration of Burmese in 2017,
the majority of Burmese migrants came to
Thailand up to 1,835,106 people, followed by
migration to Malaysia (308,337 people), Saudi
Arabia (242,510 people), Bangladesh (239,742
people) and USA (142,494 people). For the
migration of Cambodian in same period, it
discovered that the Cambodian people migrate to
Thailand for the most number of 750,109 people.
The next biggest category was their migration to
the USA, accounted for 152,415 people. Note to
migration of the Laotian, it observed that most of
Lao people migrated to Thailand and USA, with
926,427 people and 183,894 people respectively
(Figure 4).
Reference to figure 5a reveals that on September
2018 migrant labor from Myanmar to work in
Thailand was at 67% of total three nationality
migrant labors, followed by Cambodian labor,
account for 22%, and Laotian amount for 11%.
The migrant labors were divided into two types,
which are, proving the original nationality and
import according to MOU type. Turning to figure
5b which is the type of proving the original
nationality, it presented the information that
Burmese labor contains the highest percentage of
about 80%. The rest was migrant labor from
Cambodia (13%) and Lao (7%). Figure 5b present
the type of import migrant labors according to the
memorandum of understanding, which are most
common in Burmese labor with 46%, come after
with the Cambodian with 36% and Laotian with
18% (Figure 5).
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13. DIFFICULT Difficulties in finding work at home country
14. UNEMPLOYt-1
The unemployment of worker at home country
Source: World Bank, 2018.
Figure 4: International migration of Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao and Thailand in 2017
Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2018.
Figure 5: Migrant labors (Burmese, Cambodian and Laotian) in Thailand classified by country of origin
and type of labor
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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement
1,835,106 persons926,427 persons
750,109 persons
Migrant Labor from Myanmar to Country (Persons):1.Thailand1,835,106 2.Malaysia 308,3373.Saudi Arabia 242,5104.Bangladesh 239,7425.USA142,4946.India 50,0817.China 39,7768.Australia32,5409.Vietnam 11,695
Migrant Labor from Cambodia to Country (Persons):1.Thailand750,1092.USA 152,415 3.France64,3064.Australia36,9205.Canada27,6186.Bangladesh 20,1097.Malaysia 17,226 8.South Korea 14,550
Migrant Labor from Lao to Country (Persons):1.Thailand926,4272.USA 183,8943.Bangladesh90,2534.France 43,524 5.Canada 16,631 6.Australia 11,660
Migrant Labor from Thailand to Country (Persons):1.USA 253,5852.Malaysia 93,6353.Australia 72,2504.Germany 61,0005.Japan 47,047 6.UK 41,353 7.Sweden 38,792 8.South Korea 34,372 9.Cambodia 31,791 10.Brunei25,451
Myanmar1,423,595
67%
Cambodia463,525
22%
Lao240,133
11%
A: Total Migration Labor: Proving the Original Nationality Type and Import
according to MOU Type
Myanmar 1,038,584 79.94%Cambodia
165,480 13%
Lao 95,157
7%
B: Proving the Original Nationality Type
Myanmar385,011
46%
Cambodia298,045
36%
Lao144,976 18%
C: Import according to MOU Type
Results: Descriptive Analysis of Migrant Labors
(Burmese, Cambodian and Laotian) in Thailand
Data is collected of totally 511 migrant labors.
Three nationalities of migrant labors are Burmese,
Cambodian and Laotian. Research results indicate
that the age of migrant labors are highest in the
range of 25-29 years. Family sizes of migrant
labors are on average of 3-4 persons (32.57%).
The numbers of migrating people in each
household has an average of 2 people. The average
number of working people in household is 3
people. The type of business that migrant workers
do the most is construction (41.1%). The number
of times that workers come to Thailand is on
average 2 times. The migrant labor has lived in
Thailand for an average of 6 years. Most workers
agree that migration is worth. Most of them do
not have Thai friends. Most of them are
persuaded to work in Thailand (57.53%). They
mostly use personal money for migration. Main
reasons of migration, firstly, Thailand has the
better opportunity to work and higher income
than home country (30.92%), secondly is the
unemployment rate at home (27.2%), and thirdly
is poverty situation (19.37%). Average monthly
income of worker is 9,554 Baht. Average monthly
expenditure is 4,486 Baht. Most workers do not
have debts. The average remittance or the money
that migrant workers transfer to their dependents
in the sending countries is 2,627 Baht per month.
The remittance increases the income of the
recipient households, which contribute signifi-
cantly to poverty reduction. Most of the workers
are responsible for only some part of family
expenses. Most of them were unemployed before
migration. Most of their former occupation is
agriculture. Average wage before migration was at
106 Baht per day. Almost all of them face the
difficulty in finding work at home country.
Difficulties in finding work are agreed by 86.67%
of the interviewed Burmese, 83.41% of
Cambodian and 60.67% of Laotian. A little bit
more than a half (56.16%) of total labors says that
they lived at parent’s home before migration.
41.29% of total workers migrate with their
siblings. Around one third (31.31%) migrate alone.
Interestingly, whole family migration is found in
some Cambodian and Burmese family. The
average number of followers is 2 people.
According to the demand on welfare arrangement,
it reflects that migrant labors are mostly demand
on health care and medical treatment, with the
highest score of 4.22. The next biggest category is
welfare for children traveling with immigrants,
with high score of 3.67. The demand on social
welfare by the state ranks third with average score
of 3.61. The other demands on welfare
arrangement are life and property security
welfare, social security welfare, and cheap
accommodation provision welfare, respectively.
Table 1: Demand on welfare arrangement
Demand on welfare Mean Std.
Deviation Meaning
1. Health care and medical treatment welfare 4.22 1.28 High
2. Foreign children welfare 3.67 1.42 High
3. Social welfare by the state 3.61 1.39 High
4. Life and property security welfare 3.59 1.48 High
5. Social security welfare 3.59 1.39 High
6. Providing cheap accommodation welfare 3.37 1.58 High
7. Social welfare by the NGO 3.36 1.44 High
Source: Own calculation.
Regarding the demand on facilitation
development, firstly, most migrant laborers want
the government to improve the procedure and
duration of alien registration, passport making,
visa extension and work permit (Mean is at 4.19).
Secondly, laborers want the government to
consider whether the fee adjustment should not
be too expensive (Mean is at 3.88). Thirdly,
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laborers want the government to prolong working
periods of migrant workers in Thailand (Mean is
at 3.87). Other demands are the development of
access to the education and public health services,
reducing the process of recruitment companies in
providing labor to work in Thailand, and
developing the regulations that are conducive to
short-term work in Thailand.
Table 2: Demand on facilitation development
Policy on Facilitation Development Mean Std.
Deviation Meaning
1.Development of the procedure and duration of alien registration,
passport making, visa extension and work permit 4.19 1.21 High
2. Development of fee adjustment 3.88 1.29 High
3. Development of allowing longer working periods in Thailand 3.87 1.31 High
4. Development of accessing to the education and public health
services 3.82 1.26 High
5. Development of reducing the process of recruitment companies 3.56 1.33 High
6. Development of regulations of short-term work 3.50 1.21 Medium
Source: Own calculation.
Concerning to the policy of improvement of
working condition in Thailand, it’s important to
keep in mind that country with a large proportion
of migrant labors may experience various
problems related to employment. As a matter of
fact, migrant labor raises the policy to solve
working problems. First of all, migrant labor want
employer to have a good practice (Mean equal to
4.06). Additionally, they need to have labor
protection from exploitation at high level (Mean
equal to 3.94). The next demand is the demand on
changing working place freely (Mean equal to
3.69). Lastly are other demands such as demand
on Thai government and local government to join
together to solve labor problems, demand on
complaint mechanism, and demand on the
attitude adjustment of Thai people towards
foreign workers.
Table 3: Demand of migrant labor for the policy of improvement of working condition in Thailand
Policy to develop and solve migrant labor problems Mean Std.
Deviation Meaning
1. Demand on employer to have a good labor practice 4.06 1.34 High
2. Demand on labor protection 3.94 1.28 High
3. Demand on changing employer and working place freely 3.69 1.32 High
4. Demand on Thai government and local government to jointly
solve labor problems 3.43 1.31 Medium
5. Demand on complaint mechanism 3.37 1.32 Medium
6. Demand on attitude adjustment of Thai people towards
foreign workers 3.20 1.29 Medium
Source: Own calculation.
It is vital to note that the policy of foreign worker
management is significance. First, it turns out
that workers give an important on the legally
registration of foreign workers at the highest level
with the average of 3.84. The next issue that be
ranked at high level is the allowing foreign
workers to become legal immigrant (Mean is
3.81). Furthermore, from workers point of view
that the management of recruitment companies
should be legally (Mean is 3.66). Besides, workers
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give an opinion that there should have the
cooperative between both side of the government
in establishing a labor recruitment center at the
country of origin (Mean is 3.64). In addition,
workers think that government should have a
flexible management on the smuggling people
into Thailand and the sending offenders back to
their country (Mean is 3.62). Moreover, workers
notice that government should have the relaxation
law for the smuggling people (Mean is 2.62). To
add to it, it seems to them want government to
consider the nationality of foreign children who
born in Thailand (Mean is 3.61). What’s more, to
their way of thinking about the specifying the job
features that the factory needs in order to reduce
the problem of using the wrong type of labor and
to prevent oppression of wages and exploiting
labor (Mean is 3.51). Then, workers suggest about
border management (Mean is 3.50). As a matter
of fact, border is messy with thousands of people.
Another issues that rank at medium level are the
anti-human trafficking and child labor uses (Mean
is 3.40), the relaxing of using unskilled foreign
workers (Mean is 3.30) and the establishing
online foreign worker database (Mean is 2.89).
Table 4: Demand for thePolicy of Migrant Worker Management
Policy of Migrant Labor Management Mean Std.
Deviation Meaning
1. The legally registration of foreign workers 3.84 1.19 High
2. The allowing aliens to become legal immigrant 3.81 1.15 High
3. The management of recruitment companies to be legal 3.66 1.29 High
4. The setting up a labor recruitment center from the country of
origin 3.64 1.31 High
5. The management of smuggling people into Thailand and the
sending offenders back to their country 3.62 1.42 High
6. The relaxation law for the smuggling people 3.62 1.36 High
7. The consideration of nationality for foreign children born in
Thailand 3.61 1.31 High
8. The specifying the job features that the factory needs in order
to reduce the problem of using the wrong type of labor and to
prevent oppression of wages and exploiting labor
3.51 1.31 High
9. The development of border management 3.50 1.39 High
10.The anti-human trafficking and child labor 3.40 1.41 Medium
11.The relaxing of using unskilled foreign workers 3.30 1.32 Medium
12. The establishing online foreign labor database 2.89 1.46 Medium
Source: Own calculation
Results: Factors affecting on Migration of
Migrant Labors
In estimating statistical significance, the model is
adjusted by reducing the number of variables in
order for all variable to have a statistically
significance of 0.05. Therefore, the variable
influencing on labor migration is as the following
equation.
(3)
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X = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽2 ATTITUDE + 𝛽𝛽3 OWNHOUSE + 𝛽𝛽4FAMMEMB +𝛽𝛽5DIFFICULT + 𝛽𝛽6OPPORTU
In estimating the coefficients of various
independent variables ( ), it will be provided in β
the form of odd ratio in order to have a linear
relationship and to predict the opportunities that
the sample will choose to migrate.
(4)
Result of logistic regression analysis is as follow.
Table 5 presents the statistical test of Chi-square
of model,
which
have
the
following
hypothesis.
H0 : The decision to choose migration of foreign
workers does not depend on any independent
variables.
H1
:The decision to choose migration of foreign
workers depend on at least one independent
variable.
When considering the test statistics of the model,
it is found that the Chi-square is equal to 133.020
and the Sig. is equal to 0.000, which is, rejecting
the hypothesis H0
at the confidence level of 95%.
This presents that the decision to migrate of
migrant workers depend on at least one
independent variable.
Table 5: Statistical test of Chi-square by the method of Omnibus tests of model coefficients
Chi-square df Sig.
Step 1 Step 133.020 6 .000
Block 133.020 6 .000
Model 133.020 6 .000
Source: Own calculation.
Table 6 illustrates the results of goodness of fit of
the model. The value of Nagelkerke R Square is
the value that can be explained by the variation of
this model which is equal to 0.307, indicating that
30.7 percent of the variation can be described in
logistic equation.
Table 6: Goodness of Fit of the Model
Model Summary
Step 1 -2 Log likelihood Cox & Snell R Square Nagelkerke R Square
566.567a .229 .307
Source: Own calculation.
Based on table 7, Chi-square statistics test use for
testing the appropriateness of the logistic
regression model. The hypotheses of the test are
as follow.
H0: The logistic equation of the model is
appropriate
H1: The logistic equation of the model is not
appropriate
When considering the Chi-square test with the
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test, it is found that the
Chi-square equals 8.299 and the Significance
value is 0.405 which is greater than 0.05. That is,
at the 95% confidence level, it does not reject the
H0
hypothesis. The logistics of this model are
appropriate.
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ln(Odd Ratio) = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽2 ATTITUDE + 𝛽𝛽3 OWNHOUSE+𝛽𝛽4FAMMEMB + 𝛽𝛽5DIFFICULT + 𝛽𝛽6OPPORTU
Table 7: Chi-square test by using Hosmer and Lemeshow test
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test
Step 1 Chi-square df Sig.
8.299 8 .405
Source: Own calculation.
Table 8 describes the classification table. It is a
validation of the reliability of Step 1, which means
that only constant values are found from the
actual data. Migrant workers do not have the need
to migrate in the future for the amount of 289
people. When using equations that have only
constant predictions, it is predicted that 78.9
percent of the actual migration demand are
accurate. Migrant workers have demand to
migrate in the future for 222 people. When using
the equations that have only constant predictions,
it predicts that the migration demand is correct at
67.6 percent. The average percentage of accurate
forecasts in the model is 74 percent.
Table 8: Classification table of factor affecting on labor migration from country of origin to work in
Thailand
Predicted
Demand to migrate in the future
Have Do not have
Demand to migrate in the future Percent
Demand on Migration) 150 72 67.6
Do Not Demand on Migration 61 228 78.9
Overall Percentage 74.0
Source: Own calculation.
Note: Constant is Included in the Model. The Cut Value is 0.5
.Table 9 indicates factors that influence on
migration of foreign workers, consisting of, 1)
personal factors, including income before
migration, knowledge and attitude towards
Thailand, having own house at home country,
number of family members living in Thailand; 2)
Factors related to the country of origin, including
difficulties in finding work at home country and
career advancement opportunities at home
country.
Table 9: Factors that Influence on Migration of Foreign Workers
95% CI for Exp(B)
Variable B S.E. Wald df Sig Exp(B) Lower Upper
INCOMEt-1
0.0001 0.0000 14.7342 1 0.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
ATTITUDE -0.6170 0.1328 21.5809 1 0.0000 0.5396 0.4159 0.7000
OWNHOUSE -0.7982 0.2122 14.1521 1 0.0002 0.4502 0.2970 0.6823
FAMMEMB 0.3619 0.0651 30.8902 1 0.0000 1.4360 1.2640 1.6315
DIFFICULT 1.0115 0.2501 16.3526 1 0.0001 2.7497 1.6841 4.4895
OPPORTU -0.2133 0.0712 8.9699 1 0.0027 0.8079 0.7027 0.9289
Constant 1.8271 0.6551 7.7796 1 0.0053 6.2158
Source: Own calculation.
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When consider the coefficient of logistic
regression model, it can be written as the
equation.
(5)
MIGRAT Demand on migration
INCOMEt-1
Income prior to migration
ATTITUDE Knowledge and attitude toward Thailand
OWNHOUSE Having own house at home country
FAMMEMB Number of family member staying in Thailand
DIFFICULT Difficulties of seeking work in local area at home country
OPPORTU Career opportunity at home country
CONSTANT Constant value
Factors affecting on labor migration are comprise
of:
1) Variables with positive values of coefficients,
that are INCOMEt-1,FAMMEMB, DIFFICULT
variables;
2) Variables with negative values of coefficients
that are ATTITUDE, OWNHOUSE,
OPPORTU variables.
III. PERSONAL FACTORS
3.1 Income prior to migration
The coefficient of variable INCOMEt-1 is equal to
0.0001, meaning that the income before
migration of migrant workers varies in the same
direction as future migration demand of workers.
That is to say, if the income before migration of
the migrant worker increases 1 unit, the future
migration demand will increase by 0.0001. It is
consistent with the hypothesis that if workers
have more income before migration, the ability or
the possibility of future migration has increased
because international migration has a relatively
high cost. The costs include traveling,
accommodation, passport preparation, work
permit, border crossing fees, etc. Labor requires a
certain amount of private funds.
3.2 Knowledge and attitude towards Thailand
The coefficient of the ATTITUDE variable is
negative. This means that if foreign workers have
better knowledge and attitudes towards Thailand,
this will lead to a decrease in labor migration
opportunities in the future at 0.6170. Therefore,
the study results are consistent with the study
hypothesis that workers with good knowledge and
attitude towards Thailand, there is a low chance of
further migration in the future due to workers
have knowledge and understanding about
geography, transportation route, Thai traditions,
culture, lifestyle adjustment and living conditions
in Thailand. When they have a positive attitude
towards working in Thailand, they may have
reduced future migration needs.
3.3 Having own home at home country
The coefficient of the OWNHOUSE variable is
equal to - 0.7982. If migrant workers have their
own homes in the former homeland, the
opportunities and needs for future migration of
workers will be reduced. The results of this study
consistent with the hypothesis that workers, who
have their own home have less migration
opportunities than workers who do not have their
own home because workers with their own homes
have a certain level of security, sticking to comfort
at home, having home concern, having the need to
take care of their property. They have migration
requirements less than people who do not have
their own home. Hence, workers with their own
homes are expected to have a relationship in the
opposite direction of migration.
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MIGRAT = 1.8271 + 0.0001 INCOMEt-1 - 0.6170 ATTITUDE- 0.7982 OWNHOUSE + 0.3619 FAMMEMB+ 1.0115 DIFFICULT - 0.2133 OPPORTU
3.4 Number of household members in Thailand
The coefficient of the FAMMEMB variable is
equal to 0.3619, meaning that the number of
members of households living in Thailand varies
in the same direction as the future migration
needs of workers. That is, if the number of family
member lives in Thailand increases by 1 person,
the demand for future migrant workers will
increase by 0.3619. It can be explained that
numbers of household members living in
Thailand have a relationship in the same direction
as future migration needs. For this reason,
migration opportunities will increase. Accordin-
gly, the research finding is in the same direction
as the hypotheses about variables that labor has
more incentive to migrate to the country that their
family members are staying because their strong
interpersonal relationships within family, living
together implies the ability to support each other
and reduce living expenses in foreign countries.
Migrants who maintain strong links with their
home countries also tend to strengthen
technology, investment, and venture capital ties
and promote a better cultural understanding
between the sending and receiving countries.
Factors related to the source area or home
country:
3.5 Difficulties in finding work in the home country
For the coefficient of the DIFFICULT variable is
positive, the value is 1.0115. This would imply that
if foreign workers have difficulty finding work in
their hometowns, it will increase the chance of
migration to 1.0115. Hence, the result of the study
is consistent with the hypothesis set at the
beginning of the study that difficulties in finding
work in the former homeland is a factor which
pushed migrant workers to leave the area. For
instance, homeland may have problem of drought,
natural disasters lead to unable to do agriculture,
and consequently it will be a driving force for
migrant workers to move in areas that create
more opportunities and income, so the difficulty
of finding work in home countries will have a
relationship in the same direction as migration.
3.6 Opportunities for career advancement
The coefficient of the OPPORTU variable is equal
to - 0.2133. If foreign workers have a higher
chance of career advancement or work, opportu-
nities and needs for future migration of workers
will be reduced. It can be seen that the study
result is consistent with the study hypothesis that
opportunity for career advancement is an
important factor that makes workers no longer
want to migrate in the future as workers have
financial security for themselves and income for
raising family members. In addition, international
migration has high expenditure. Labor may not
have demand to migrate in the future for that
reason. Therefore, having career advancement
will have a relationship in the opposite direction
of migration.
Based on the results of significant considerations
(Sig values) of the experiment, it displays that
each variable in the model has statistical
significance. R value represents Partial
Correlation value, where Meaning of R 1≤R ≤1.−
is similar to Partial Correlation in linear
regression analysis. The meaning of Exp (B) can
be described as follows. From the logistic
coefficient (B) will explain the meaning by
considering the odds.
(6)dds Odds O = P̂P̂ ( Migration)
(Not Migration)
If considering the value, it can be concluded in 3
characteristics as follows:
If , it will lead Odds value increase bi > 0 ebi > 1
or the chance of future migration will increase.
If , it will lead Odds value decrease bi < 0 ebi < 1
or the chance of future migration will decrease.
If , it will lead Odds value do not bi = 0 ebi = 1
increase or decrease, migration opportunity will
increase or decrease.
Exp (B) of the variable DIFFICULT = 1.0115,
which has a value greater than 1. It explains that if
the DIFFICULT value increases by 1, the odds
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ratio will increase or the opportunity for future
migration will increase.
The next procedure is the inspecting the
relationship between each independent variables.
The examining the relationship between each
independent variable use Pearson Correlation
Coefficients method to find the correlation
coefficient of the independent variable. If the
correlation coefficient is greater than 0.80, it
indicates that there is a high relationship between
independent variables or have a condition of
multicollinearity.
Table 10 describes the correlation matrix between
variables. It displays that the highest correlation
coefficient is the variables of having own house at
the original residence (OWNHOUSE) and the
opportunity for career advancement (OPPORTU)
which is equal to 0.1023, which has a value below
0.80, indicating that these independent variables
does not cause conditions of multicollinearity with
dependent variables. Therefore, it does not need
to consider the selection of independent variables.
The results reveals that the variable INCOMEt-1 is
associated in the opposite direction of the
ATTITUDE variable, meaning that foreign
workers who have low income before migrating to
work in Thailand, they may have good attitudes
about Thailand. Thus, they demand to work in
Thailand. So, they would surely have to seek
information and knowledge about the destination
country they intend to work.
The variable INCOMEt-1
is related in the opposite
direction to the OWNHOUSE variable, implying
that the lower the income of foreign workers
before migrating to Thailand, the higher the
tendency to have their own house. On the
contrary, high income worker may have low
interest to buy own house. Workers who have the
desire to earn more income abroad, they have not
yet settled back to their home country. Thus, the
need to buy houses and having their own house in
their home countries is less.
The variable INCOMEt-1 is related in the opposite
direction to the FAMMEMB variable, indicating
that foreign workers who have less income before
migration, they may have many family members
living in Thailand. The inadequate income of
household may lead household members migrate
to the country that has the opportunity to
generate more income.
The variable INCOMEt-1 is related in the same
direction as the DIFFICULT variable. It highlights
that low income before migrating labor face low
difficulties in finding work at home country. On
the same way, high income before migrating
worker may face high difficulties in finding work
at home country. Due to high unemployment rate
in Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos, cause the
employer desire firstly to lay off the high income
employee. As a result, they encounter the
difficulties of finding work.
The variable INCOMEt-1 is associated in an inverse
direction to OPPORTU variable. It conveys that
the lower the income of foreign workers before
migration, the higher the opportunity to seek the
career aboard. Low income worker try to create
more opportunities by working in Thailand, which
has more career prospects.
The ATTITUDE variable is related in the same
direction as the OWNHOUSE variable, presenting
that the more the perception and good attitude
towards Thailand of foreign workers, the more the
possibility of them to have own house at home
country. Due to the foreign workers who have a
positive attitude towards working in Thailand,
they tend to continue to work for many years,
earning more income and saving. Thereafter, they
tend to buy own house at home country.
The ATTITUDE variable is related in the opposite
direction to the FAMMEMB variable. It points
that the more knowledge and good the attitude
towards Thailand of foreign worker, the lower the
number of family member living in Thailand. If
foreign workers have more knowledge and good
attitude towards Thailand may lead them
continue to work longer and have more income to
support household. Hence, household members
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are not necessary to migrate. Migrating household
members in Thailand will decrease.
The ATTITUDE variable is related in the opposite
direction to the DIFFICULT variable. The less
knowledge about Thailand of foreign worker, the
more difficulties in finding work at home country.
This underlines that if workers have little
knowledge and attitude towards Thailand, labor
may hard to migrate to work, so they have less
choice and must work at home country that is
difficult in finding work.
The ATTITUDE variable is related in the same
direction as the OPPORTU variable, meaning that
foreign workers who more knowledge and good
attitudes towards Thailand may receive more
opportunities for career advancement.
The OWNHOUSE variable is related in the same
direction as the FAMMEMB variable. This implies
that foreign workers who have their own house at
homeland may have high number of family
member staying in Thailand.
The OWNHOUSE variable is related in the
opposite direction to the DIFFICULT variable.
This suggests that the higher the tendency of the
workers have their own house, the lower the
difficulty in finding work in that country because
they have a certain level of security.
The OWNHOUSE variable is related in the same
direction as the OPPORTU variable. This
demonstrates that the more migrant workers who
have their own house, the more opportunities of
them to achieve career advancement as well.
The FAMMEMB variable is related in the opposite
direction to the DIFFICULT variable. This
illustrates that if the number of members of the
household in Thailand is increased, the difficulty
of seeking work at home country will decline due
to their household members will help each other.
Table 10 : Correlation matrix between variables
CONSTANT INCOMEt-1
ATTITUDE OWNHO
USE FAMMEMB DIFFICULT OPPORTU
CONSTANT 1.0000 0.0228 -0.8763 -0.1923 -0.1294 -0.1412 -0.2881
INCOMEt-1
0.0228 1.0000 -0.1016 -0.1136 -0.1571 0.1001 -0.1901
ATTITUDE -0.8763 -0.1016 1.0000 0.0755 -0.0319 -0.1183 0.0530
OWNHOUSE -0.1923 -0.1136 0.0755 1.0000 0.0386 -0.0898 0.1023
FAMMEMB -0.1294 -0.1571 -0.0319 0.0386 1.0000 -0.1094 -0.0850
DIFFICULT -0.1412 0.1001 -0.1183 -0.0898 -0.1094 1.0000 -0.0841
OPPORTU -0.2881 -0.1901 0.0530 0.1023 -0.0850 -0.0841 1.0000
Source: Own calculation.
The FAMMEMB variable is related in the opposite
direction to the OPPORTU variable. It displays
that foreign workers tend to have high household
member living in Thailand if the career
opportunity at home country is worse off. Because
of having a network of relatives who have already
worked in Thailand can help them to choose a
good work position and earn high income.
Finally, the DIFFICULT variable is related in the
opposite direction to the OPPORTU variable. It
portrays that foreign workers who face difficulties
in work at home, they may have low skill and
knowledge, consequently when they move to
Thailand they may have low opportunity in career
advancement. Moreover, labor market in Thailand
is competitive. At the same labor wage, employer
looks forward to hire high skill labor.
. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This paper recommends the policy for foreign
workers, which are, social welfare arrangement,
work facilitation development, labor problems
solution and foreign workers management.
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V
4.1 Social welfare arrangement for migrant workers
(1) Suggestions for the provision of medical
welfare. If the government wants employers who
have these three foreign nationalities to cooperate
in the registration of foreign workers and insured
in the social security system for the purpose of
protecting themselves, the government should
reduce the fee that the employers have to pay into
the social security fund. Some employers express
an opinion that the extension of the social security
coverage for worker, government should evaluate
the breakeven point of the social security fund
before and after expanding the coverage to foreign
workers whether the money the worker paid cover
to the cost or not.
(2) Recommendations for the provision of welfare
for migrant children education. At present, there
are many alien children who migrate with migrant
workers. The Ministry of Education should take
care of the education of migrant children. If these
alien children are neglecting, being an uneducated
person, they may commit crimes in Thai society.
(3) Recommendations for social welfare by the
state. Many alien workers fled into the city,
causing the work to be unstable and having to stay
hidden, having a low quality of life and commit
crimes. The suggestion is the state should
separate foreign workers, who do not have
documents showing their identity, and send them
return to the country of origin. In the waiting
period for repatriation, the state should provide
short-term social welfare for humanitarian
assistance. For foreign workers with documents
and sources of support, the state should change
the status to be legal workers.
4.2 Development of work facilitation
(4) Suggestions for the reduction of steps and
timing of registration. The samples suggest for the
development of the process and length of
registration time, passport making, extension of
visa and work permit should be faster. According
to the data from the Ministry of Labor in 2018, it
was found that about 2 million people registered
to work but there were still have about 800,000
foreign workers who have not yet completed their
nationality verification according to the period of
registration. This cause these foreign workers
were an illegal worker, but employers and
entrepreneurs still need to hire. The sending labor
return to the country of origin according to legal
measures may affect the labor shortage situation
in the country. The second problem is managing
foreign workers in Thailand, there is still a lack of
a complete database that is unique, the same and
update data in the whole country, which lead to
obstruct of setting the overall migration policy. In
addition, foreign workers registration has a
specified period, causing many new alien workers
and existing foreign workers are not able to
register in time. The fact that many foreign
workers are not registered may cause social
problems. When there is an offense and escape,
making it difficult to arrest. Government should
have control measures that enable identification.
The suggestion is the government should establish
the Bureau of Foreign Labor Management in
every province in order to allow foreign workers
to register throughout the year and to spread the
management of foreign workers to cover all
groups of workers in order to immediately
determine the direction and policy.
(5) Suggestion for the increasing of the officer.
The government should increase staff to manage
foreign workers in the appropriate ratio with the
amount of foreign workers. Foreign worker
management should not mix with the domestic
worker management. The officers do the specific
works such as filling out alien labor information,
establishing an online labor database, updating
data of each alien worker that they resigned from
a factory and moved to another factory, number of
times to enter the country, crime history
information, etc.
(6) Suggestion for the media channel
announcement and language uses. The govern-
ment should announce the procedure and timing
of registration of foreign workers, passport
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making, visa extension and work permit through
various media. Furthermore, the relevant
departments should translate Thai language
announcements into Myanmar, Cambodia and
Laos language because foreign workers suggested
that they do not understand any Thai alphabet.
Most foreign workers speak Thai but they cannot
read and write Thai.
(7) Suggestions for appropriate fee adjustment
improvements. Foreign workers pay more
attention to the cost of paying various fees. Fee
rate and precisely cost should be announced on
the website so that foreign workers are not
deceived by recruitment brokers about the fees of
various state operations.
4.3 Policy of solving foreign labor problems
(8) Recommendation for building a strong
relationship of employer and employee. From
interview, foreign worker notice that there should
have the organization act as middle man to build a
positive understanding and interpersonal
relationship between employer and employee. The
suggestion is government agencies should provide
training for employer who wants to hire foreign
workers to have a positive thinking and have a
good care of employee. Besides this, government
should also provide the training for employee
before working to understand the rules and
working conditions in Thailand. Likewise,
government should establish the consulting center
for both employer and employee to use the service
when they face the problem during the time they
work together in Thailand.
(9) Recommendations for labor protection,
prevention of labor exploitation. The government
should have measures to take care of employment.
For instance, Thailand has announced a minimum
wage of 300 baht per day, causing many
interested workers to work in Thailand, resulting
in excess labor supply. Entrepreneurs who want to
reduce production costs will push foreign workers
cost burden or pay the minimum wage, but
increase the number of working hours and reduce
the number of holidays. Problem of labor
exploitation have begun to decrease since April
2018 from the website of the Government Gazette,
page 31, book 135, section 31(a) public the
announcement of the Prime Minister's Office on
the approval of the Emergency Decree on the
Management of Foreign Workers (No. 2) BE
2561and the Emergency Decree amending the
Immigration Act, BE 2522 (1979) to use the
system only as necessary, determine the control
process and inspect the process of bringing aliens
to work. For example, the announcement cover
the changing the workplace, including canceling
the declaration of the residence area of foreign
workers by allowing workers to work and stay
anywhere in order to comply with human rights
principles and prohibit employers to collect
expenses from foreign workers to prevent
exploitation
IIV. THE MANAGING OF MIGRANT WORKERS
(10) Recommendations for managing foreign
workers. Having a numerous illegal foreign
immigrants may cause an average net fiscal
burden of each illegal immigrant. Government
agencies should manage foreign workers to enter
the system. In addition, related agencies such as
Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Labor, Royal
Thai Police, Foreign Labor Management Bureau,
Employment agencies in various provinces,
should cooperate meeting to monitor the situation
of foreign workers continuously as well as
evaluate the effective works of the Emergency
Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers
for the stability of the country and management of
foreign workers according to international
standards.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Kasetsart
University Research and Development Institute
(KURDI), Kasetsart University, Thailand, for
funding this research. In addition, the author also
has a special thank to all migrant workers from
Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao for their kindness
to participate the interview.
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ABSTRACT
382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573345Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
Politics of Empowerment of Women in South AsiaDr. Shiw Balak Prasad
Mandal University
In the 1970s most Latin American countries were ruled by military dictatorships. All forms of civil disobedience were met with arrests, torture, or even death. The bodies of the victims often simply disappeared. The vanished body, deprived of identity, of physical and spiritual space, of social as well as historical memory, brings to mind the nearly universal condition of women pushed to the margins of official and recorded history, uneducated, illiterate, and powerless. The story of the disappeared represents a startling parallel to the worldwide struggle by women for visibility and for human rights and justice. So the women’s rights, must also be defined as being seen and treated as equal in the political and ideological as well as domestic and private arenas. The participation of women in the political and the social realm allows for delegitimizing discrimination against women- and achieving genuine equality – not only under the law. It also affects individual cultures that previously denied women the possibility of an education and confined them to a world of silence. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created in 1948 as an international body of laws, was meant to protect the integrity and dignity of human beings. Those laws, together with the 1979 Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, have been pivotal in the affirmation and implementation of women’s rights. At the same time, these instruments have been used to prove the continued existence of violations of rights in both public and private spheres.
Keywords: eclaration, empowerment, government, human, international, politics, rights, women.
Classification: FOR Code: 160699
Language: English
© 2020. Dr. Shiw Balak Prasad. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia
Dr. Shiw Balak Prasad ____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
In the 1970s most Latin American countries were
ruled by military dictatorships. All forms of civil
disobedience were met with arrests, torture, or
even death. The bodies of the victims often simply
disappeared. The vanished body, deprived of
identity, of physical and spiritual space, of social
as well as historical memory, brings to mind the
nearly universal condition of women pushed to
the margins of official and recorded history,
uneducated, illiterate, and powerless. The story
of the disappeared represents a startling parallel
to the worldwide struggle by women for visibility
and for human rights and justice. So the women’s
rights, must also be defined as being seen and
treated as equal in the political and ideological as
well as domestic and private arenas. The
participation of women in the political and the
social realm allows for delegitimizing
discrimination against women- and achieving
genuine equality – not only under the law. It also
affects individual cultures that previously denied
women the possibility of an education and
confined them to a world of silence. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created
in 1948 as an international body of laws, was
meant to protect the integrity and dignity of
human beings. Those laws, together with the
1979 Convention for the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination Against Women, have been
pivotal in the affirmation and implementation of
women’s rights. At the same time, these
instruments have been used to prove the
continued existence of violations of rights in both
public and private spheres.
Keywords: eclaration, empowerment, government,
human, international, politics, rights, women.
Author: Professor and Former Head, University Dept.
of Political Science B.N. Mandal University,
Madhepura (Bihar), INDIA.
I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most hotly debated issues at national
and international platforms, by academicians,
politicians, policy makers and various government
and non-government organizations, especially
during the last three or four decades had been the
women issue. The declaration of 1975 as
International Women’s Year and the subsequent
decade as the United Nations Decade for Women
was the first official international recognition of
women’s issues in a global context. This global
concern about the women’s issues is evident from
the four international conferences convened
under the aegis of the United Nations. (Mexico
Conference 1975, the Copenhagen Conference
1980, Nairobi Conference 1985 and the latest
being the Beijing Conference 1995, which was
also, Nairobi Conference 1985 and the latest being
the Beijing Conference 1995, which was also the
largest attended by as many as 35000 women
from all over the world.)
These conferences may not have achieved much
by way of creating equality or ending
discrimination against women, as the plight of
majority of women, especially the rural and tribal
in the developing countries continues to be
pathetic. The documents and final agenda,
declarations and commitments that come out of
the conferences are hardly ever used or
implemented seriously. But the real utility of
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these conference lies in the diffusion of knowledge
about the women’s issues. The women’s
organizations – the NGO’s looked upon by many
as “elite bodies” founded many times by vested
interests, ignorant of the real problems of the
women, especially the rural, may not have been
successful in ameliorating the miseries of the
ordinary women but still they should be credited
with having acted as a lobby to pressurize the
policy-makers to take some women-friendly
decisions.
If one scans through the documents concerning
women at national and international levels, one is
bound to see a shift in the paradigm which may be
termed as from “welfare to empowerment.” The
most important new recognition at Beijing, both
by NGO’s and officially, was that “women need to
be where economic decision-making and financial
allocations take place. For too long women have
been takers, not makers, of economic policies and
national politics. The challenge now is to change
this.1 Thus the emphasis has come to ensure
women’s “full and equal participation in power
structures and decision-making,” and the term
which has come to be widely used is
“empowerment of women” – political and
economic. The purpose of writing this paper is to
raise a few issues in the light of this development.
What has been the impact of this trend especially
in South Asia in general and India in particular?
What are the myths and realities linked with this?
How far the constitutional and statutory
provisions have been made in order to fulfill the
said object? Is it all rhetoric or is there an element
of genuine concern for the women? What are the
so-called women-friendly policies and how far in
the new liberalized market economy on the one
hand and the atmosphere of political corruption,
violence and armed conflicts and the rising
fundamentalism on the other, political and
economic empowerment can create gender
equality and gender justice?
It is a known fact that there is still no society in
the world in which women enjoy exactly the same
opportunities and position as men. The gaps
between men and women are particularly wide in
developing countries like that of South Asia. The
social structure prevailing almost in all the South
Asian countries is virtually the same, with some
differences here and there, and is in a sense
by-product of history of thousands of years in
terms of mixing of different races, religions and
communities. Discrimination against women and
their subordinate position in society in general
and in family in particular, and this in spite of
several reform movements launched at different
stages of history and the present crusade launched
by the various women’s organizations, is common
in all the South Asia countries. This probably is
the outcome of the patriarchal system of society
and the associated attitudinal values inculcated
and transmitted through religious customs,
traditions and social norms which have gone deep
into the social psyche of the region according to
which a woman is and supposed to be preserver of
the institution of marriage and family. She will
probably make all sorts of sacrifices and bear all
victimization in the name of “adjustment.” Very
rarely she decides to desert her family and
children, which is quite in contrast to the Western
values.
The statistical data reveals a pathetic picture
despite all the rhetoric. At he global level women
today constitute 70 per cent of world’s 1.3 billion
poor, two-thirds of the illiterates and (with their
children) 80 percent of 25 million refugees -
mostly victims of armed conflict.2 The whole
world knows about the extraordinary and
pernicious sex ratio in South Asia, the special
aspects of domestic violence as expressed in
dowry deaths the gross inequality in nutrition and
literacy. To take a few indicators the sex ratio in
India according to 1991 census in 927 females to
1000 males, a deficiency of females in the
population that defeats biological superiority.
This is all the more disturbing when we notice
that it has decreased continuously. In the
beginning of the century it was 972 per 1000
males, by 1941 the ratio had fallen to 945 females
per 1000 males. It fell further to 933 females per
1000 males by 1981 and the 1991 census has the
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Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia
record 927 – the lowest so far.3 Life expectancy of
the females is 57.7 years to 58.1 for males.
(However, it may be noted here that highest life
expectancy of females in South Asia is in Sri
Lanka, it being 75.4 years).4 Deaths of young girls
exceed by that of boys by 1/3 of a million every
year. One hundred and twenty thousand women
die in child birth every year. While the official age
of marriage is 18, only 19.5 per cent of women are
married at or above this. India has the largest
number of illiterate women i.e. 64.6 per cent of
male literates compared to 39.29 per cent female
literates. Again as a matter of comparison the
female literacy rate in the neighboring state of
Pakistan is even lower i.e. only 23 per cent which
is 36 per cent in the case of males. Unemployment
for women by current weekly is stated 44 per cent
rural and 53 per cent urban. Sixty six per cent
women as compared to 37 per cent men are not in
conventional labour force but are concentrated in
subsistence sectors. Within market workers
women workers are casual workers. In Sri Lanka
also the economically active group is male
dominated. According to census of population in
Sri Lanka in 1981 the proportion of economically
active men was 74.5 per cent as compared to 25.5
per cent female labour force but this was of
course, exclusive of women engaged in production
estimated mainly during peak agricultural
seasons.5
The 1995 annual report of the Human Rights
Commission of Pakistan reveals a depressing
report of the position of the women in Pakistan.
The female literacy rate, as stated earlier, is 23 per
cent at the national level, Baluchistan having the
lowest percentage of 0.8. The family laws are
heavily loaded in favour of the male. The divorce
rate (woman divorced) remains high. In the
absence of a written acceptance of the wife’s right
to dissolution of marriage (Khula) it is difficult for
wives to obtain dissolution. This despite the fact
that the superior courts have held that since both
men and women are equal it is explicit right to a
wife to claim ‘Khula’ if there is sufficient evidence
that she and her husband cannot live together
within the limits set by Allah and in that condition
there is no need for the husband’s consent. The
practice of forcing girls into celibacy by marrying
them to the Quran is widespread (especially in the
rural or even in certain areas of Sind – this is in
fact, in order not to give the woman a share in the
land holdings). The young girls are still auctioned,
sexual abuses of minor girls have been frequent.
Another oppressive practice is that of “karokari”
i.e. if a woman is suspected of having had illicit
relations, her husband has the right to kill her – in
fact to save his honour he has to kill her. These are
in fact the unjust feudal customs. Even some laws
are explicitly anti-women like the Hadood
Ordinance, which was introducted during
Zil-ul-Haq’s regime and is still in operation. There
is an Evidence Act too where two women would
have to bear testimony in place of one man in a
court of law. But in the Hodood Ordinance a
woman cannot bear witness. However, the Family
Laws Ordinance brought in during 1961 was
certainly a reformative one.
Thus it is a well recognized and established fact
that there is much oppression and discrimination
against women. The image of the women being
just an object is the outcome of the feudal values
prevalent in the society. According to one
Pakistan delegate Khadija Gauhar, who is also a
leading activist in the women’s movement in
Pakistan who attended the third convention of
Pakistan – Indian Peoples’ Forum for Peace and
Democracy held at Calcutta (December 28-31,
1996) considered that the two basic factors which
are responsible for women’s oppression there are
orthodoxy in Islam and their interpretation of
sexist segregation which was there, particularly in
certain classes, this having been reinforced by the
feudal system.6
Apart from the socio-economic field the women
are marginalized in the political field too. Political
activity is typically monopolized by men in most
societies, despite the fact that some women do
reach the top. The countries in South Asia can
claim credit for giving the world its first woman
President (Sirimavo Bhandaranayake) India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have had the
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Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia
women heads. Bangladesh is having women both
as the Prime Minister and the leader of
Opposition. In Sri Lanka, mother and daughter
team are occupying the offices of President and
Prime Minister. Not long ago Pakistan had a lady
Prime Minister. India’s Mrs. Gandhi, however,
consistently denied that she was a feminist. She
once told the reporters that she did not regard
herself as a woman. She was a person with a job to
do. It may be said that in spite of the occasional
rise of a few women in politics, the participation
of women in politics has not been very
encouraging almost in all the countries of South
Asia. Again making a review of the data regarding
representation of women in Indian Parliament,
especially the Lok Sabha, reveals that the
percentage of women representatives never
reached to a reasonable digits. It was just 2
percent in 1952, remained under six up to the
eighties. It was highest in the eighth Lok Sabha
when it was 8.1 percent. During the 10th Lok
Sabha it was 7.1 percent.7 After that Inter
Parliamentary Union (I.P.U.) meet at New Delhi
the statistics of women representatives in
legislatures revealed a dismal picture not only for
the developing countries but also for the
developed countries except the Nordic countries
where it ranges between 30 to 50 percent.
After having touched upon the status of women in
the South Asia region, in general and in India in
particular in social, economic and political fields,
let us have a look at the various policy decisions
taken at international and national levels.
The various policy documents issued at the
International Women’s Conferences have focused
on various issues concerning women like violence
against women, illiteracy, neglect of the girl child,
participation of women in development and
political empowerment of women.8 Of these the
last two issues i.e. participation of women in
economic development and their political
empowerment have come to be regarded as the
solution to their agonies. As stated earlier in the
paper a marked shift in paradigm can be seen in
the agenda of these conferences. The earlier
conferences focused on making women the
beneficiary of various welfare schemes of the
states. The World Plan for Action adopted in
Mexico City 1975 tried to formulate a worldwide
consensus on women’s issues and initiate a
co-ordinated approach to them. An attempt was
made to document the contribution of women’s
work to society by compiling gender –
disaggregated statistics and to assess the needs
and concerns of women all over the world.9 It gave
little priority to women’s economic resources.
Similarly the Forward Looking Strategies adopted
at Nairobi 1985, though talked of better economic
facilities for women but did not make any
mention of gender equality in economic resources.
However, the “Platform for Action” adopted at
Beijing Conference identified 12 “critical areas of
concern” or areas of particular urgency that stand
out as priorities for action. These include issues of
poverty, health, literacy and education, economic
empowerment of women, participation of women
in political process, violence against women, the
effect of armed conflict on women and the
portrayal of women, the effect of armed conflict
on women and the portrayal of women in the
media and focus on a girl child.10“Women’
spoverty is directly related to the absence of
economic opportunities and autonomy, lack of
access to economic resources, including credit,
land ownership and inheritance, education and
support services, and minimal participation in the
decision making process.” Hence one major area
of concern in the “Plan for Action” was to develop
gender-sensitive national and international
policies, to provide poor women with economic
opportunities and equal access to affordable
housing, land, natural resources, credit and other
services, to devise statistical means to recognize
and make visible the work – including unpaid and
domestic – of women and their contribution to
national economics.11
The document stressed on elimination of wage
inequality and occupational segregation and
creation of flexible work environment. Nothing
the inequality between men and women in
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sharing political power and decision-making at all
levels, the document urged governments, political
parties, NGOs and international organizations to
adopt the goal of giving equal representation to
women at all levels of decision-making including
the legislatures and integrate their concerns into
public policies. The document stressed that
equality in decision-making provides the leverage
without which integration of the equality
dimension in government policies is not feasible.
(In India the subject of women’s participation in
development through the institutions of
Panchayat has been debated for quite a long
period.)
As for India, it was in 1974 that the National
Committee on the Status of Women in India made
the first assessment of the status of Indian women
and focused on her as an individual with rights of
her own. The Committee recommended the
establishment of statutory women’s Panchayats at
the village level with autonomy and resources of
their own for the management and administration
of welfare and development programme for
women and children as a transitional measure to
break through the traditional attitudes. Although
the recommendations had no statutory status but
in some places, for example, in Andhra Pradesh
such all women Panchayats were formed. But
after 73 and 74th constitutional amendments all
panchayat and local bodies are formed.
The policy of the government had been to
associate women with the working of grass-root
institutions so that the benefits of governments,
welfare policies could reach to the women. But
influenced by the shift at the international level in
the policies regarding women, the Indian
government also started talking of associating
women in the development programmes. As a
result, the Government of India prepared a policy
document - the National Perspective Plan for
Women 1988-2000 A.D. (The NPP) on the basis
of which implementation strategies and precise
measures to make the system more responsive to
women’s needs was to be conceptualized. The
perspective was said to have been adopted to
bring the economic development and also
integration of women into the mainstream of
economy.
Two pertinent recommendations of NPP, to
secure effective participation of women in the
decision-making process at national, state and
local level were, (i) reservation should be made of
30 percent seats at Panchayat to Zila Parishad
levels and local municipal bodies for women (ii)
30 percent of executive heads of all bodies from
village Panchayat to district level and a certain
percentage of chief executives of Panchayat Raj
bodies at lower, middle and higher levels must be
reserved for women.12
First concrete measure to give constitutional
sanction to these recommendations was taken up
by Rajiv Gandhi’s government by introducing the
64th Constitutional Amendment Bill on local
government on 15th May 1989. The bill, however,
got defeated in Rajya Sabha. It was in 1992 that
the two Constitutional Amendments namely 73rd
and 74th were passed giving 33 percent reservation
to women in rural and urban local bodies. The
step has been hailed as path-breaking and
revolutionary. And now the 81stConstitutional
Amendment12Bill giving 33 percent reservation to
women in the legislatures has generated a good
deal of controversy and interest. Introduced
enthusiastically by the Deve Gowda government,
the bill was collectively supported by all the
women parliamentarians cutting across party
affiliations, but the initial enthusiasm subsided as
there was a lot of dismay within political parties
(including those pushing the bill) about the
implications. The National Alliance of Women
spear headed a campaign where women groups
across the length and breadth of the country tried
to put pressure on the different parties to support
the bill. The OBC lobby reacted and asked for
reservation for their section in the women quota.
Every one is aware that the bill was referred to a
select committee but was not taken up by the
eleventh Lok Sabha. Even the Gujral government
had also declared its commitment to pass the bill.
However, the opposition by itself to the bill
exposed the limitations and constraints of the
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existing social and political system. The position
of this concerned is the same till now.
Here my humble submission is that the various
political parties and the vested interests are
engaged in political rhetoric. This may be
illustrated by the fact that if these so-called
“sympathizers of the women’s cause” have had
any genuine concern for the empowerment of
women they should have first set their own house
in order. Though the value of an amendment bill
like 81st, should not be denied completely but just
providing reservations in Legislatures or jobs, the
women will not start having their say in
decision-making. Already the experience of the
women’s participation in the decentralized
governance and development, of course, with a
few exceptions, has been peripheral. At the time of
elections, they are usually projected as someone’s
mother, sister, wife or widow and not as people’s
representatives. The ground reality is that women,
especially rural, have been in the quagmire of
illiteracy, poverty and ignorance. In a society
which is divided, into castes and classes and is run
according to the old feudal values, the
subordination of women is bound to continue,
irrespective of the fact that some women have
been made to occupy positions of
decision-making, at local, state and national
levels.
Secondly, reservation as a policy does not appear
to me a very positive indicator. A better
alternative could be providing the opportunities
and right type of education to inculcate the right
type of values. By right type of values I mean the
attitudinal values based on equality of human
beings, irrespective of caste, colour, creed or sex.
The policy of reservation, in the case of SCs, STs
and now OBCs have shown that once they are
started as a transitional step have the quality of
becoming permanent and giving rise to the elite
sections within its categories. I,m not an opponent
of the policy of empowerment of women but what
I want to emphasize is that the need is to strive for
certain basic changes in the value system of our
society. The exploitation of women is not only
prevalent in rural, uneducated and ignorant
sectors but can be seen in educated, economically
well-off urban sectors as well. There may be a
difference of degree.
Further the various women’s organizations apart
from looking into the hardships of the urban
women should try to reach the poorest of the poor
and make them aware. They must not take
anti-men position. The concept of empowerment
of women must not look like making women
dominate their men counterparts. A harmonious
relationship based on equality and understanding
must be the aim.
REFERENCES
1. Aggarwal, Bina : “From mexico 75 to Beijing
95, Mainstream, Vol. XXXVI, No. 49, October
28, 1995, p. 10.
2. Ibid, p. 9
3. Forbes, Geraldine : The New Cambridge
History of India : Women in Modern India,
Cambridge University Press, 1966, p. 235.
4. United Nations Population Fund Report, The
Times of India, New Delhi May 3, 1997, p. 4
5. Momsen, J.H. and Kinnaird, Vivian : (Ed.),
Different Places. Different Voices : Gender
and Development in Africa, Asia and Latin
America, London, 1993.
6. Khadija Gauhar, Khalija : “Women in Pakistan
: Face of Oppression and Resistance,”
Mainstream, Vol. XXXV, No. 10, February 15,
1997, pp. 25-26 and Pal, R.M. : “Human
Rights in Pakistan Much to learn form HRCP
Report,” Mainstream, Vol. XXXIV, No. 45,
October 12, 1996, pp. 18-19.
7. Rao, Ranga : “Declining Trend in Women
Representation in Indian Legislatures,
“Parliamentary Affairs Monthly, Vol. 12,
January 1995, p. 5.
8. Aggarwal, Bina op cit. and Malik, Sona
“Beijing Women’s Conference, Some
Questions for Action, “Mainstream, October
28, 1995.
9. Ibid.
10. Partap, Sangeeta : “The Beijing Meet : Critical
Concerns Over Women in Society. “Frontline,
May 19, 1995, pp. 108-109.
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11. For various aspects regarding participation of
women in panchayats, see special issue of
Kurukshetra entitled Ushering in an Era of
Women in Panchayats, june 1994.
12. Kannabiran, Vasanth and Kannabiran,
Kalpana : “From Social Action to Political
Action : Women and the 81stAmendment,”
Economic and Political Weekly, February, 1,
1997, pp. 196-197.
(Prof. Shiw Balak Prasad)
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ABSTRACT
382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573346Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0
Lerato la favour: The Revival of Basotho Pride and Love for their Cultural Accordion Music
Basotho accordion music has its roots from initiation schools where song composition skills were one of the traits the initiates were supposed to acquire. In these schools, the eloquent ones would sing about their achievements, and the experiences of their daily lives in general. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to explore one Basotho accordion song: Lerato la favour, using a case study research design. We purposely selected the song to achieve the research aims of the paper. The study is framed qualitatively using an eclectic framework where Africana womanism forms the basis of analysis, supplemented by patriarchy and psychoanalysis. We focus on analyzing the language used in the song. The analysis was deemed relevant to unpack the use of poetic language, the character of the poet as well as the themes inherent in the song. To generate data, we listened to the song several times, transcribing the lyrics then later translating the transcriptions to English. Following this, we conducted a systematic and descriptive analysis of the song using inductive thematic analysis. The findings of the study suggest that Basotho accordion music makes use of poetic language deviant from the language of everyday use. The study, therefore, recommends a need for further research on Basotho accordion music for the preservation of Sesotho and appreciation of indigenous knowledge systems.
Keywords: basotho accordion music, culture, indigenous knowledge, patriarchy, oral tradition.
Classification: FOR Code: 200299
Language: English
Ntsoaki Teresa Mokala & Prof Sol Rampasane Chapole
© 2020. Ntsoaki Teresa Mokala & Prof Sol Rampasane Chapole. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting allnoncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Lerato la favour: The Revival of Basotho Pride and Love for their Cultural Accordion Music
Ntsoaki Teresa Mokalaα & Prof Sol Rampasane Chapoleσ
____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Basotho accordion music has its roots from
initiation schools where song composition skills
were one of the traits the initiates were supposed
to acquire. In these schools, the eloquent ones
would sing about their achievements, and the
experiences of their daily lives in general. The
aim of this paper, therefore, is to explore one
Basotho accordion song: Lerato la favour, using
a case study research design. We purposely
selected the song to achieve the research aims of
the paper. The study is framed qualitatively
using an eclectic framework where Africana
womanism forms the basis of analysis,
supplemented by patriarchy and psychoanalysis.
We focus on analyzing the language used in the
song. The analysis was deemed relevant to
unpack the use of poetic language, the character
of the poet as well as the themes inherent in the
song. To generate data, we listened to the song
several times, transcribing the lyrics then later
translating the transcriptions to English.
Following this, we conducted a systematic and
descriptive analysis of the song using inductive
thematic analysis. The findings of the study
suggest that Basotho accordion music makes use
of poetic language deviant from the language of
everyday use. The study, therefore, recommends
a need for further research on Basotho accordion
music for the preservation of Sesotho and
appreciation of indigenous knowledge systems.
Keywords: basotho accordion music, culture,
indigenous knowledge, patriarchy, oral tradition.
Author α: Wits School of Education, Department of
Languages, Literacies and Literature 1.
σ: Wits School of Education, Department of Languages,
Literacies and Literature 2.
I. INTRODUCTION
Basotho accordion music initially started in the
initiation schools where the initiates were trained
to compose songs. In the initiation school,
dikgeleke (the eloquent ones) “articulate social
realities and contradictions that lie beneath the
surface of institutional and community life, to
help re-establish the moral basis and satisfy social
relations,” (Coplan, 1990, p.253). In another
study, Coplan (1992) strengthens this argument
by indicating that Basotho accordion music takes
its strength from the initiation schools where the
initiates were acquired song composition skills,
among other things. Coplan further explains that
this music was influenced by mangae (poems by
initiates) looking at the word order and the poetic
structure it adapts. Thus, Coplan (1990) asserts
that “it should be noted that Basotho boys go to
initiation schools where they learn mangae and
other songs” (p.253). For our line of reasoning in
this paper, we use Rapeane-Mathonsi’s (2011)
view that music is the manifestation of culture,
and Basotho traditional music is central to their
daily lives. Hence, we find it necessary for further
research regarding Basotho accordion music.
Initially known as famo (which is a noun derived
from the verb famola- meaning to flare a skirt),
accordion music evolved, and later became
popular music heard from shebeens. This music
was a form of entertainment and a marketing tool
for shebeen owners. Phafoli (2009) agrees that
famo has been a popular Basotho music
performed in shebeens in the shanty towns in
South Africa as a form of entertainment.
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It seems that famo music was first associated with
the immorality of its singers and shebeens. Coplan
(2006) explains that this music was famous in
illegal taverns known as shebeens, where women
entertained migrants with dance, poetic song, and
sexual companionship. However, researchers
(Phafoli, 2009; Phafoli, & Khotso, 2020) point out
that the music has now translated into a form of
identity for Basotho as they have accepted it as
their traditional music. Phafoli and Zulu (2014, p.
181) agree that “Basotho accordion music has had
a great social impact in the forging of Basotho’s
identity.” The researchers further note that
Basotho accordion music has changed its
structure as “it is no longer sung by women in
shebeens flaring their skirts; rather, it is now
accepted as the Basotho traditional music meant
to preserve the integrity of the Basotho as a
nation” (Phafoli, & Zulu, 2014, p. 182). Worth
noting further is that for Basotho accordion
music today is a form of music that preserves
Sesotho as a language and the culture of Basotho.
Phafoli and Martins (2015) concur that accordion
music is of great value to Sesotho as it helps in
preserving and retaining the dying flavor of the
Sesotho language. For this reason, Basotho root
themselves deeply within it. Hence this paper
sought to find out how famo music has presently
transformed.
Famo music has come to be one of the favorite
Basotho music genres among both the educated
and uneducated alike. Coplan (1990, p. 262)
asserts that “for the exclusively Sesotho speaking,
this is their favorite music; even the highly
educated enjoy it, and no longer look down upon
it, and appreciate its sagacity, humor, and Sesotho
aesthetic and cultural qualities.” Phafoli and
Khotso (2020) are of the view that Basotho
accordion music seems to be not only a renowned
form of oral literature but also a symbol of culture
with which Basotho identify. Against this
background, the current paper aims to explore
Lerato la favour, a popular accordion music song
which won many Basotho’s hearts. As a case
study, we investigate how the artist uses Basotho
accordion music to narrate the story of a bitter,
angry, broken-hearted Mosotho man. Phafoli and
Zulu (2014) point out that through this music,
Basotho men reflect on their values, norms, and
traditional belief systems that define and
influence the lives of ordinary Basotho, within this
Phafoli and Khotso (2020) share the same
sentiments that famo music “was a popular
shebeen performance played by Basotho migrants
in the Republic of South Africa (RSA)” (p. 48).
Worth noting is that the music was known for the
immorality of its performers. It was played for
rough and sexy Basotho migrants (Phafoli, 2009).
When performing the famo dance, women would
flare their skirts up to attract men. Coplan (1985)
and Khotso (2017) explain that the dancers wore
no underwear, painted their sex area red with a
ring known as a stoplight. Initially, the music was
associated with single, deserted, deserting or
married promiscuous, undesired women who
were known as matekatse (whores) “ a term
universally translated in Lesotho as ‘prostitutes’,
derived from ‘ho teka, (to roam about helplessly)
and ho tekatsa, (to abandon one’s husband)
(Coplan, 1990, p. 254). It is interesting to note
that Coplan (1990) stresses that these canteen
keepers (the women) developed this famo dance
and song genres that form the basis of
contemporary Basotho national popular music.
Given these explanations, it makes reasonable
sense to conduct further research on accordion
music.
context men. In the song under investigation, the
artist shows how his heart was broken by a
woman he was in love with and was ready to
marry her. Worth noting is that Phafoli and Zulu
(2014) think that the narrator of the song has the
liberty to choose what he wants to sing about,
therefore defining and forging his identity. In this
case study, the researchers believe that the poet in
the song of Lerato la favour narrates his story
with a bitter heart of a scorned man and paints a
bad picture of the woman who broke his heart.
Since the woman is not there to give her side of
the story, we stand by her side, to critically
analyze how the singer makes use of sharp words
of bitterness and anger from a man to a woman
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has left him. A narrative inquiry is relevant for the
current paper as Briggs, Coleman, and Morrison
(2012) assert that a narrative aims to perceive and
describe the narrator’s experiences. The artist
tells his story, reflecting on his own experiences in
love, giving an account of his journey and stating
his anecdotes, parables, and tales (Clandinin &
Connelly, 2000). To this end, it seems reasonable
to investigate Lerato la favour. The following
section discusses previous studies related to the
current paper.
II. PREVIOUS RELATED STUDIES
Different studies have investigated the evolution
of Basotho music genres. This paper will focus on
these studies: Phafoli (2009), Mokala (2020), and
Phafoli and Khotso (2020).
Phafoli (2009) conducted a study on the language
techniques, and thematic aspects of the Basotho
accordion music. In the study, the researcher
investigates the themes of Basotho accordion
music from 1980-2005. The study is deemed
relevant for review as it looks at the social,
political, economic, and academic importance of
Basotho music. The study further presents the
cultural aspects which shape the experiences of
artists as reflected in their songs (Phafoli, 2009).
In line with what the current paper investigates,
the study further reveals “the poetic language and
language skills of the Basotho nation” (Phafoli,
2009, p. 5). Phafoli’s investigation is different
from the current paper as it employs a
functionalism framework to analyze accordion
music; whereas the current study employs an
eclectic approach. Phafoli’s (2009) study further
differs from the present study in that it uses
different data collection methods, namely,
interviews with artists, observations, and
collection of songs, while we chose one tool of
data generation. We picked one Sesotho accordion
song accompanied by a praise poem as the subject
of investigation for this paper. We listened to both
the song, and the praise poem, put both on paper
and translated into an international lingua franca,
English.
Mokala (2020) conducted a study on
ditolobonya-songs as a platform for Basotho
women’s narratives. Mokala’s study proposes that
it is important for Basotho men and women to
come together since ditolobonya-songs do not
afford men the opportunity to fight against
patriarchal structures. However, it leaves the gap
since it does not address the narratives of Basotho
men, as it focuses on the experiences of Basotho
women as portrayed through ditolobonya-songs.
The study also uses Africana womanism as its
theoretical base while the current paper is framed
within a heterogenous frame, combining Africana
womanism, patriarchy and psychoanalysis. The
study reveals that through ditolobonya- songs,
Basotho women voice out their experiences in
marriages and relationships. The study further
indicates that Basotho women use
ditolobonya-songs as a “weapon, to break the
silence, to support each other in telling their
‘untold stories’ in which their social structures do
not afford them such opportunities to present
their case” (p.145). The current paper finds
Mokala’s study useful as it informs on the laments
of women echoed through ditolobonya-songs,
which make it possible for this study to unpack
the laments of a broken man depicted through
Basotho accordion music. However, it is different
from the current study in many ways. Firstly, it
unpacks the experiences and realities of Basotho
women’s lives as narrated in ditolobonya-songs
while the current paper looks at the experiences of
a Mosotho man through Basotho accordion music.
Secondly, the current study approaches Basotho
accordion music from one case while Mokala’s
study was informed by different
ditolobonya-songs.
Phafoli and Khotso’s (2020) study reveals how
accordion music artists articulate their concerns
of piracy, poverty, and economic exploitation as
challenges they face as artists in surviving the
entertainment industry. In the study, the
researchers highlight that the issues of the state of
poverty in Lesotho, poverty alleviation,
unemployment, and exploitation are some of the
overarching themes in Basotho accordion music
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songs. The study employs the theory of
functionalism in unpacking the function of
Basotho accordion music within the Basotho
nation. For this reason, Phafoli and Khotso
(2020) note that the survival and sustainability of
the artists are dependent on their social and
economic environment. The study is relevant to
the current paper as it unpacks how economic
factors affect the artists of accordion music genre
highlighted. It differs from this study as it is
unravelled within one theoretical base. This
paper, on the other hand, is framed within an
eclectic model, thus incorporating issues of
women’s voice, the patriarchal ideologies of the
artist as well as the social and cultural influences
of Basotho men in their understanding and
perceptions of women. The current study limited
itself to one song: Lerato la favour; while Phafoli
and Khotso (2020) looked at different songs
whose themes are about the economic and poverty
state in Lesotho. Having explored how scholars
have reacted to Basotho cultural music genres, we
present the theoretical framework guiding this
study in the following section.
III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework of this study takes its
departure from an eclectic perspective
encompassing three ideologies, namely Africana
womanism, which forms the basis, patriarchy, and
psychoanalysis. The researchers decided on this
approach to enable them to unravel the study
aiming to build a strong foundation for the
analysis of the song under investigation.
Africana womanism was first introduced by
Hudson-Weems (2000) advocating that in
addressing issues surrounding the survival of
black women, it is of utmost importance to
consider their African cultural perspectives. We
are taking this frame of reference as we feel that in
the song under analysis, the woman under
scrutiny is not there to answer for herself, we
cannot get her side of the story. For this reason,
we are taking a stance to support her by revealing
the underlying themes we identified while
analyzing the song. We adopt this paradigmatic
approach to bring in the existence of an African
woman (Reed, 2001) who seems to be
non-existent in the song and dominated by the
male voice. Moi (2015, p.1) says: “theory today has
become so abstract and overgeneralized that it no
longer says anything relevant about women’s
lives…. If academics working in the field [of
feminism] succeeded in improving our
understanding of the complex relations between
identity and oppression, the world would be a
In her study entitled “understanding the
meanings represented in ditolobonya-songs:
Basotho women’s experiences and realities,”
Mokala (2020) adopts Africana womanism to
unravel how Basotho women use
ditolobonya-songs to articulate their experiences
and the cultural circumstances surrounding such
experiences. In the same vein, the current study
adopts the same lens to look through the
non-existent woman in this view, taking into
consideration cultural, historical, and patriarchal
ideologies rooted in the perception of Basotho
men of women. This comes to the fore through the
analysis of the linguistic cues used in the song
such as “lehehle la mosadi,” (a damsel whose
character is full of blemishes, or a whore), “tjhe
meteno e fedile meaparong” (in our time decent
clothes are a rarity), “o hanne ke mo rekela
seshweshwe,” (a seshweshwe gift I bought her,
she did not favor with acceptance) to name but a
few.
Patriarchy in the current study is understood as a
system of male domination where there is a
better place”. Earlier in (1995), Obioma
Nnaemeka who was writing about ‘Feminism,
Rebellious Women and Cultural Boundaries…..’
said: “while rejecting the spurious dichotomy of
the ’insider’ that brings cultural understanding
and the ‘outsider’ who brings theoretical
expertise, I argue that a serious feminist critic or
any critic for that matter of African [texts] must
be an ‘in outsider’ who pays equal attention to
cultural contexts and critical theory” (p.81). Our
choice of the Africana Womanism framework, as
the analytical tool in this paper, is informed by the
sentiments espoused by Moi (2015) and
Nnaemeka
(1995).
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IV. METHODOLOGY
In the current paper, we made use of qualitative
research methodology. According to Maree
(2015), qualitative research is the research
method that makes use of open-ended,
exploratory research questions. By nature,
qualitative research methodology relates to people
and is used by researchers conducting case
studies. Macmillan and Schumacher’s (2010)
opinion is that making use of qualitative research
methodology can provide a detailed description
and analysis of a practice, process, or event. We
put into consideration that our interpretations
play a significant role, as the data from
transcriptions of the song are subject to our
understanding (Maree, 2015). Making use of
qualitative research was appropriate in the
current study as our interest was on gaining an
in-depth understanding of the lyrics of Lerato la
favour song. Henning (2004) argues that
qualitative research emphasizes on acquiring an
understanding and an in-depth inquiry of a
phenomenon. The qualitative research
methodology was deemed relevant for this study
as the focus was on understanding and
interpreting the Lerato la favour song, from the
perspectives of the singer, of a heart-broken
relationship. We are interested in how the
narrator constructs his understanding of women.
To do this, our interest was to systematically and
descriptively analyze the song under investigation.
Having discussed the methodology guiding the
study, we evaluate the research design of this
paper.
V. RESEARCH DESIGN
In the current study, a case study of one specific
accordion music song is analyzed. Maree (2015)
defines a case study as a “bounded system” in
which researchers define each case within its
boundaries. We conveniently selected Lerato la
favour song in accordance with predetermined
criteria relevant to the objectives of the current
study (Maree, 2015). We conducted in-depth
descriptions and interpretations of the lyrics of
the song Lerato la favour for the purpose of
understanding the narratives of the artist. As
Mouton (2008) notes, this led to an in-depth
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
By employing the inductive thematic analysis
approach, we established emerging themes from
our data (Maree, 2015). Therefore, we used a
multi-perspective analysis of the singer’s views as
we exploited an eclectic approach. It was
important for the researchers to make use of case
study research since it enabled them to “close-in”
on the real-life situations and test views directly to
phenomena as they unfolded in the analysis
reduction of women to an inferior position
(Mosetse, 2006). These belief systems inherent in
men influence the perceptions they have about the
idea of manhood and womanhood (Walby, 1997).
It is important to note that the internalized sex
roles definition shape children’s perceptions
which later influence their behavior. Walby (1997)
elucidates that men exploit women’s loving
capabilities which are seen through the way the
poet undermines his lover’s feelings for him by
indicating that her love is shallow “mokedikedi
wa lerato ho phoqa” (an elixir of love so deceitful,
meaning her love for him is shallow). Julia
Kristeva (2011) says psychoanalysis develops a
theory of the unconscious that links sexuality and
subjectivity. In doing so, it discloses the ways our
sense of self and our political [and cultural]
loyalties are influenced by unconscious drives and
ordered by symbolic structures that are beyond
the purview of individual agency. What Kristeva
says here is particularly pertinent to the character
of the singer in Lerato la favour. His sense of self
and cultural loyalties all come to the fore in the
song and attendant poem. It is worth mentioning
that the use of an approach adopted in this paper
is relevant as the underlying meaning of the song
under investigation. Against this backdrop, the
ideologies adopted in this study are so intertwined
that separating them seemed impossible hence
the justification for a multidimensional
framework of reference. Having established the
theoretical lens through which we see this study,
in what follows, we evaluate the research
methodology of the study.
(Mouton, 2008). It is interesting to note that case
study research is deeply rooted in the interpretive
paradigm. For this study, the researchers took the
interpretive lens of a case study as it granted them
a chance to understand the subjective views of the
singer from his cultural and psychoanalytical
context. According to (Darke, Shanks, &
Broadbent, 1998) an interpretive approach is
founded on the ideology that reality is not
objective but constructed and interpreted by
humans through their value systems rejecting the
notion of value-free research. This section focused
on discussing the research design of the paper. In
the subsequent section, we discuss the identified
themes from the song under investigation.
VI. ANALYSIS OF LERATO LA FAVOUR
6.1 The title of the song
The song, Lerato la favour is, according to the
artist, love of favours. It is a song about the love
relationship of selfishness, deceit, lies, pretence,
abandonment, and never-ending demands. The
artist says:
I thought you loved me
You never really did love me.
You focused on your selfish interests.
Having used me, you abandoned me.
Put differently, the title of the song simply says:
the love that never was.
6.2 Language usage in the song
There is a close relationship between the language
of poetry and that of dipina (songs). In her study
of Difela Tsa Diparola- Thota (Chants of the
mineworkers), Makobane (2000) observes that
‘the poets have used various techniques in the
composition of their difela (chants) to appeal to
their audience” (p.43). The poetic nature of the
language of dipina (songs) that captures the
minds of the listeners is one aspect of this art
form. Phafoli (2009, p. 76) thinks that “… the
language used in accordion music is related to the
Basotho oral traditional literature such as praise
poems.” Musicians express themselves in a
language full of techniques that are not used in
everyday language Phafoli (2009). The Russian
Formalists would call this technique ‘ostranenie’
commonly understood as defamiliarization. The
nature of the language used in accordion music is
related to the Basotho traditional literature as
praise poetry (Guma, 1967; Kunene, 1971;
Moleleki, 1992; Moeketsi, 1993; Phafoli, 2009).
The poetic nature of accordion music is based on
its orality, just like praise or heroic poetry as
Phafoli (2009) notes.
Poetic diction refers to the choice of words used
for aesthetic and evocative qualities, over and
above the meaning of a word. In Lerato la favor
the artist says:
I went hop-hop in pursuit of a bird;
Of a feathered beauty chirping happily.
A damsel of dubious character,
Who a serial gossiper has become,
A great pretender she is
She was pretending to love me.
The opening two lines are a metaphor of a happy
man chasing (hop-hop) merrily after a pretty,
singing young woman, ‘a feathered beauty
chirping happily’. This merry, carefree mood is
suddenly and almost unexpectedly contrasted by
the next four lines, where the tone becomes sad
and melancholy. The ‘feathered beauty chirping
happily’ has suddenly become ‘a damsel of
dubious character’ and ‘a serial gossiper’. It
appears that the singer, through the words chosen
and used in the song, is inviting the listeners to
share his sadness and to empathize.
6.3 Theme(s) in Lerato la favour
The theme is the overall underlying meaning of a
given text. We get to know more about the artists
as they express their feelings about their
experiences and relationships with others
(Phafoli, 2009 p.181). Worth noting is that Coplan
(2006) shares the same sentiments by asserting
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that the songs map the artists' experiences as they
reflect on their existence as Basotho men. Our
take is that in the song Lerato la favour, the
underlying meaning is the domination and
oppression of a young woman by a young man
who is inseparably ‘married’ to patriarchy and
static, old fashioned customs and traditions.
Among Basotho says Phafoli (2009, p. 181), the
perception of inferiority of women is instilled in
the minds of the young males during their growth.
This underlying theme plays out as sub-themes of
gender stereotypes, rebellion, rejection, and
bitterness.
Nkumane (1999, p.73) indicates that stereotypes
are socially constructed. They originate from the
way society perceives its way of life. These
stereotypes become ingrained images in society’s
mind-set, and as time goes become very difficult
to change. The language and the words used in a
text reflect the norms and values of [any given]
society. It is therefore not surprising that the
language used to describe women abound in
abusive and sexual overtones. In Lerato la favor
we find examples like:
A seshweshwe gift I bought her,
Instead, she opted for the Whiteman’s
Leggings with a bold black stripe
That disappeared between her legs.
The sub-themes of rebellion and rejection are
embodied in the character of the present but very
silent young woman in the song. We do not hear
her speak but, we see her act. She is not
interested in the traditional gift of ‘seshweshwe’
(a traditional Sesotho dress); instead, she
rebelliously wears ‘leggings with a black stripe
that disappeared between her legs’. The silent
young woman does not only rebel against the
archaic disposition of the singer; she rejects him
just as he was about to drive lobola cattle to her
father’s kraal. This is a woman character who is
dynamic, she can change. She is a fully rounded
off character as New Criticism would say. The
character in question is a very courageous young
woman. She does not only reject a suitor; she is
turning her back against custom, tradition, and
society.
On the opposite end, the singer in Lerato la
favour cannot believe that he has been rejected,
abandoned, and shamed by a young Mosotho
woman. The flat character that he is does not have
the wisdom to stop and ask himself why the
woman behaved in the manner that she did.
Instead, he hurls insults at the woman. Here are
some of them:
For I partake not of a meal uncovered,
How does one partake of a good meal,
Together with flies?
uncovered meal’ because of the way she chooses
to dress. He cannot partake of this ‘meal’ because
he will have to share it with flies. Calling
someone’s body a ‘meal’ is gross, to say the least!
As if this is not enough, the singer goes on:
A seed without any core
Is of no use.
My people will such,
Cast before swine.
The mental image we see in the four lines just
given evokes the feeling of disgust in the listener.
The reference here is to a barren woman. The seed
without a core refers to infertility. When and how
did the ‘man’ character in the song prove that the
‘woman’ character is barren and infertile? What
we see here is the character portrayal of someone
enslaved by unproductive patriarchy.
VII. CONCLUSION
The study concludes that the evolution of Basotho
accordion music has seen an achievement in the
growth and appreciation of this music genre
among Basotho. For this reason, and in
accordance with the findings of this paper,
Basotho accordion songs reflect strong messages
that mirror patriarchal and belief systems held by
Basotho men towards women. It is therefore not
surprising to see how the singer in Lerato la
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The singer calls the body of the young woman ‘an
favour paints the subject as immoral, ungrateful,
demanding, and deceptive. The study aimed to
analyze language used in defining the pain and
anger of a heart-broken Mosotho man. The
analysis of the song under discussion disclosed
that domination and oppression of women seem
to prevail in the song, thus, revealing patriarchal
ideologies held by Basotho men. This study,
therefore, forms the basis for further research on
Basotho accordion music to preserve both the
language and culture, but most importantly for
the music to softly but firmly say women are also
children of Society. They are not ‘Children of a
lesser God.’
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APPENDIX A
The song for analysis:
Molepe: Lerato la Favour number 2. Lilepe music
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London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
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