COMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMSCOMPILED IN UNITED KINGDOMS

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Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

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ABSTRACT

382U

LJP Copyright ID: 573341Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

Ziad M. M. Shehada

University of Malaya

The current criteria for evaluation in Palestine are driven by the informational value of the resources available. A re-evaluation of the significant criteria is needed in order to address both inherent and assigned values of the heritage resources. This re-evaluation is also crucial to take into consideration the different types and categories of the immovable heritage of all periods. The purpose of this research is to gain understanding of the heritage values in Palestine and to develop a characterization of Palestine's immovable heritage. Such values will result in a wider comprehension of the past, which shaped the identity of Palestine as a nation-state. The researcher followed the field reconnaissance survey through observation and documentation of sixty-six sites to obtain valuable information about the current situation and to build the basis of evaluation criteria of the cultural properties through three case studies. The result of this study is useful to establish a nucleus for exclusive inventory in the future and thus, increase the benefits for the local population and tourists. Simultaneously, the results strengthen the awareness of the Palestinian heritage and identity.

Keywords: values, significance, immovable heri- tage, field reconnaissance, palestine.

Classification: FOR Code: 120102

Language: English

© 2020. Ziad M. M. Shehada. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine 

Ziad M. M. Shehada ____________________________________________

ABSTRACT 

The current criteria for evaluation in Palestine

are driven by the informational value of the

resources available. A re-evaluation of the

significant criteria is needed in order to address

both inherent and assigned values of the heritage

resources. This re-evaluation is also crucial to

take into consideration the different types and

categories of the immovable heritage of all

periods. The purpose of this research is to gain

understanding of the heritage values in Palestine

and to develop a characterization of Palestine's

immovable heritage. Such values will result in a

wider comprehension of the past, which shaped

the identity of Palestine as a nation-state. The

researcher followed the eld reconnaissance

survey through observation and documentation

of sixty-six sites to obtain valuable information

about the current situation and to build the basis

of evaluation criteria of the cultural properties

through three case studies. The result of this

study is useful to establish a nucleus for exclusive

inventory in the future and thus, increase the

benefits for the local population and tourists.

Simultaneously, the results strengthen the

awareness of the Palestinian heritage and

identity.

Keywords: values, significance, immovable heri-

tage, field reconnaissance, palestine.

Author: University of Malaya, Malaysia.

I. INTRODUCTION 

Heritage resources in Palestine are under a

continual threat. The military occupation poses an

obvious danger to the immovable heritage

through deliberate attacks. The continuous expan-

sion of the illegal settlements in the West Bank as

well as the illegal separation wall causes direct

damages to the heritage sites (Sharif, 2017). In

1993, the Palestinian Authority was established in

accordance to the Oslo accord. However, the

destruction of heritage resources has continued in

the name of development. Almost 50% of the

buildings were constructed in the Palestinian

towns and villages at the expense of the protection

of the heritage buildings (De Cesari, 2008).

Since its establishment, the Department of

Antiquities (under the Ministry of Tourism and

Antiquities) has largely concentrated on archaeo-

logical projects, which consist mostly of salvaging

excavations, providing basic protection and

maintenance of archaeological sites dating before

1700 AD. The evaluation of the heritage resources

in Palestine focuses on prehistoric and classical

settlement archaeology (Khirfan, 2016). This

generates a bias in the evaluation criteria of the

significance of heritage resources. Consideration

of other values, such as the contribution of these

resources to national identity as well as asso-

ciative or aesthetic and architectural values has

recently begun through only a few isolated

conservation projects (Shehada, Yaacob, &

Keumala, 2015).However, the informational value

of the cultural resources, embodied in the

archaeology/tourism paradigm, is still the main

driving force in evaluating the significance and

defining the immovable resources of the country.

II. RESEARCH METHOD 

The researcher has an important role in

determining the method of inquiry that is

appropriate to the nature and type of data

collected against the character of the research,

community dynamics and local context. The

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1 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

researcher followed the field reconnaissance

survey to conduct in-depth eldwork. The eld

reconnaissance was adapted from other

precedents and similar windshield surveys

normally used in inspecting architectural heritage

in a particular region (Kumar et al., 2020).

The National Park Service in the U.S. Department

of the Interior identified two kinds of surveys for

historical and cultural heritage of a certain region.

The National Park Service denes surveys that are

conducted for the purposes of conserving a

community's architectural heritage as processes of

recognizing and collecting data on a historic

resource of the community. These include not

only recording and physical research of heritage

in the ground and eld survey, but also a

background search and planning before the

survey starts. It further includes preservation and

organization of data survey and improvement of

inventories. The first was an "Intensive Survey"

which is "a close and careful look at the area being

surveyed. It is designed to identify precisely and

completely all historic resources in the area. It

generally involves detailed background research, a

thorough inspection and documentation of all

historic properties in the field" (McCarthy, 2009).

The second kind of survey is known as the

"Reconnaissance or Windshield Survey"; wind-

shield is a common method of reconnaissa- nce

survey. “It is an inspection of an area which is

most useful for characterizing its resources in

general and for developing a basis for deciding

how to organize and orient more detailed survey

efforts'' (Anfinson, 2018). Reconnaissance might

involve activities such as driving around a

community or a region while noting the general

characters of its historic and cultural resources or

studying aerial photographs, historical or recent

maps or historical photographs of buildings and

sites.

When conducting field reconnaissance of the

heritage resources, an oral historical and

ethnographic component should be included

because in many cases, it might be the only or the

most accurate source of information about the

history or evolution of a certain building or site.

When researching the values and significance of

the cultural heritage, the common archival

research will be inadequate in such surveys since

the actual or "Cultural Truth" will be found in the

minds and thoughts of the inhabitants (Tomaselli,

2012). The objective of the Windshield Survey in

this research was inspection, identication, initial

reconnaissance and direct observation of the sites.

III. DATA ANALYSIS 

This research is exploratory in nature based on

analytic induction (working with the pieces to get

the general picture) rather than using the

hypothetico-deductive model. The generated data

from the eld reconnaissance is called immediate

inferences. Inference comes from the Latin “In”

and “Ferre” (to carry or bring) (Maynard, Gilson,

& Mathieu, 2012). In logic, the inference is the

procedure of deriving conclusions from premises.

If the conclusion follows from a single premise,

the process is said to be one of immediate

inferences. If the conclusion follows from two or

more premises jointly, the process is said to be

one of mediate inferences (O'Shaughnessy, 2012).

In Palestine, there are almost 6620 immovable

heritage resources geographically distributed

along the Gaza Strip and the West Bank (Brebbia

& Boquera, 2016). The study sample comprised

1% of the study population, as it was difficult to

visit such a large number of sources, exhausting

money, time and effort. That ratio represents 66

buildings of the heritage resources in Palestine.

These sites have been selected randomly with

consideration given to the geographical

distribution and number of resources in each city.

The reconnaissance included 19 cities: Hebron,

Nablus, Jenin, Ramallah, Al-Birah, Tulkarem,

Salfit, Btelehem, Qaqilya, Beit Jala, Tubas,

Jericho, Gaza, Beit Hanoun, Rafah, Tell Al-Ajoul,

Deir Al-Balah, Khanyounis and Jabalia. The list of

cities is, by no means, exclusive; it forms a

representative sample from all over the country.

Figure 1 shows the locations of the cities visited.

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2 © 2020 London Journals PressVolume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

Figure 1: Map of Palestine shows the cites visited by the researcher

The number of visited resources follows a particular criterion according to Table 1:

Table 1: Criterion of the Number of Visited Resources

Number of resources in the City Number of visited resources

More than 1000 6

Between 200-999 5

Between 100-199 4

Between 50-99 3

Between 10-49 2

Less than 10 1

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The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

Figure 2: Number of sites visited in each city

IV. CASE STUDIES 

The researcher selected three sites from the sixty-

six sites visited as case studies. They were selected

on the basis of their values and significance in

addition to being successful conservation projects

in Palestine. These sites shed light on some

important conservation issues in Palestine. The

study understanding of these successful projects

enhances the value of immovable heritage in

Palestine and contributes in advancing the

country’s progress from the economic, tourism

and cultural aspects. This trend should be

considered by the relevant ministries in the

Palestinian Government and by decision makers

in the State.

4. 1 The Ottoman Court, Ramallah 

The Ottoman Court or Al-Khan (Caravanserai) is

one of the most important buildings in the old

town of Ramallah. It was a residential house and

built at the end of 18th century for Habash and

Qisis families. The building was converted into a

caravanserai in the 19th century (Awad, 2016). The

building was used for hosting travellers in the

upper floor and animals as well as goods on the

ground floor. However, it was believed that the

building was converted into an Ottoman Court,

where the upper floor was utilized by the Ottoman

Judge and the lower floor was stables for the

horses of the soldiers. The site's historic context is

very rich and diverse. Excavations showed that

the site served as an ancient burial place. Later

on, a Byzantine church was built there on the top

of a Roman temple dedicated to Hercules

(Muhawi et al., 2012). The existing court was built

near the Byzantine church, replacing other houses

built in the area. During the 1930’s, the site

became famous for its association with Ahmad

Murad Pasha (Ottoman Alderman of Jerusalem)

who visited the building and ordered it to be

converted to a court (Meskell, 2018). The most

definitive use of the building dated back to 1883

when the building hosted the first and sole health

clinic in Ramallah, before the clinic was moved to

the newly opened hospital in Ramallah’s urban

expansion of the 1920’s. The building was

returned to the owners who witnessed the 1927

earthquake, which struck the building causing

substantial structural damage that called for

structural intervention (Wagemakers, 2014). After

1948, the building was used as the premise of an

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The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

olive oil press that was proven by the reinforced

concrete base of the press. For the last 30 years,

the building has been deserted.

The Ottoman Court was built of limestone walls

supporting cross-vaulted rooms. The two-story

building was found to have front and back yards.

The ground floor area was 300 m2 consisting of

three cross vaults and the upper floor (area 200

m2) was set back to allow for a covered gallery in

addition to rectangular cross-vaulted rooms (De

Cesari, 2019). There was a total of six rooms, a

gallery and two yards. Two stone-faced thick walls

(about one meter thick) supported cross-vaulted

huge rooms (the middle room on the ground floor

was about 8 by 8 meters). Doors mounted with

flat lintels and semi-circular windows, similar to

those of the gallery, were associated with

semi-circular arches. The interiors were plastered,

and lime washed. The exteriors were pointed. The

rough topography did not allow the researcher to

take panoramic photographs. The court was of

particular significance due to its distinctive

architecture, fine stone craftsmanship and

ironwork (Büssow, 2011). The court’s location on

the mountain accessible through steps that

connect various houses contributes to a sense of

place in the city. In addition, the site is associated

with significant persons as previously mentioned.

The court was bought in 2000 by the municipality

of Ramallah to conserve (adaptive use of the court

into a museum and cultural centre for children)

and protect the site (UNESCO, 2014). The

objectives of the adaptation project were to create

a dynamic, multi-disciplinary entity dedicated to

promoting the fine arts while also fostering

cultural and creative dialogue. The project

demonstrates the role played by private

organizations in the conservation of architectural

heritage.

Figure 3 & 4: Ottoman court before and after restoration

The conservationist idea was to keep the character

of the court by retaining the 2-bay plan and

closing the windows from the inside only for

exhibits. After completion, the centre included a

library for children with 5,000 books on

Palestinian and Arab, an international art and a

gallery. It also has a cultural café, open studios for

painting and sculptures as well as lecture rooms.

The centre receives about 600 children daily with

their families. Children under 18 years old

constitute 44% of the total population of the city

(Beshara, 2002). The total cost of rehabilitation

was $180,000. This was funded by the Swedish

International Development Cooperation Agency

(SIDA) and implemented by Riwaq Centre for

Architectural Conservation. The building was

rehabilitated to host the Ramallah Cultural

Museum in 2003 and is managed by the Ramallah

Municipality (Kanaaneh et al., 2013). The spaces

on the ground floor were adapted with the

function of including exhibition or multi-purpose

halls, administration and services. The front yard

and back yard have an open-air amphitheatre and

the first floor is equipped with a library, computer

rooms, an open gallery and services.

The interventions varied according to the

problems. Stability measures were taken into

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consideration, whereby a system of ties and

anchors were employed to overcome the

deteriorating situation. The missing or badly

deteriorating stones were replaced with stones

from the site or with new stones. Services for the

ground floor, the back garden and the upper floor

were integrated within the project. Light facades

were adapted. Double glass with thin steel

sections was used for the windows. Similarly, the

doors were furnished with steel and glass with

protection bars for the ground floor while wooden

coffer doors were used for the upper floor. Glass

and steel handrails were also added while new

stone steps were installed. The walls were

plastered, and lime washed (Sharif, 2017). The

rooms were tiled with golden desert polished local

stone that recall the stone tiles of the past and

yards were paved with cement coloured tiles

framed with stone grid. Electricity, the first

central heating and a computer network as well as

sanitary and water supply systems were installed

in the backyard.

The restoration enhanced the environment after

being a dump place for years while the rapidly

growing trees converted the area into a green

island. The structural elements of the project did

not change for the adaptive use. The spaces

remained the same. Only two windows were

converted to doors to connect the old building

with the service area in the backyard. The use

changed dramatically from being a residence,

khan, court and clinic into a cultural museum

with activities dedicated mainly to children

(Sinclair, 2012). The building currently stands in a

good state of conservation; protected, used and

closed properly. The building is usually fully

occupied by children and their activities and

sometimes is used for art exhibitions. The project

is, for several reasons, considered one of the very

few successful conservation projects in Palestine.

It is a perfect example of the adaptive use of the

modern architectural heritage for the needs of the

local community.

4.2 Monastery of the Temptation (Dair           Quruntul) 

This Monastery, which dates to 1892 AD, is

located on the Mount of “Quruntul ” (5 km North

West of Jericho). The word "Quruntul" is derived

from the Latin word "Quadraginta" which means

"forty". The crusaders gave this name to the

mountain in the 12th century as a mention to the

forty days that Christ spent fasting and

worshipping there (Pringle, Pringle, Leach, &

Press, 1993). The Mount in general and this

Monastery in particular are associated with

religious significance for Christians. According to

the Gospel of Luke, the devil (Satan) followed

Christ to this location and Jesus said to Satan,

“Man does not live by bread alone” (Press, 2018).

The first monastery was built at the site in the 6th

century above a cave. The hills or mountain is

known as Mount Temptation. The cave was

identified as the traditional site of the temptation

experienced by Helena of Constantinople in 326

A.M., but the current monastery was founded by

Archimandrite Aframeos in 1892 and restored

several times (Wareham & Gill, 2011). There are

about thirty to forty caves on the eastern side of

the mountain that were previously inhabited by

monks and hermits in the years when Christians

were persecuted. The caves were later turned into

storage rooms, chapels and cells. An advanced

system of channels transferred rainwater to five

caves, which were used as water tanks.

Although Jericho is 413 meters below sea level

(the lowest spot in the world), the Quruntul

Mount rises about 350 meters above the sea

(Lemire, Tihanyi, & Weiss, 2017). This

demonstrates the magnitude of the mountain’s

height from which cities and mountains in Jordan

can be seen. Due to its presence at the foot of the

mountain, the Monastery looks as if it is hanging

in the air. The path leading to the mountain used

to be off-road but network cable cars in front of

Tel Jericho (1 km length) was created in 1998 by

the private sector and 180 steps were built to

reach the Monastery (Andree, 2013). The

Monastery of the Temptation is an architectural

masterpiece for having some parts suspended in

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the air and others carved in the rock. The

Monastery consists of two levels built of masonry

in front of a cave. It contains several different

types of spaces including a relatively small church

(15×12m), thirty rooms for monks and five

cantilevered balconies. The number of tourists

doubled after the establishment of the cable cars

whereby the Monastery of Quruntul is now the

most important tourist destination in the province

of Jericho.

Figure 5: Monastery of the Temptation Figure 6: Dome of the Monastery

The Monastery is significant because in addition

to having religious values, it stands as witness to

Roman architecture with Ottoman inuence. It is

the only Monastery in Jericho that dates back to

that era and has retained its integrity. The stone

detailing around the doors, windows, at the

corners and entrances exemplify local

craftsmanship with clear Ottoman inuence. The

Monastery’s location and its domes contribute to

a sense of place in this city by serving as an

orientation device for locals and visitors. Briey,

the areas of signicance this resource falls into are

architecture, ethnic heritage and religion.

The Monastery has been subjected to an

insensitive addition during the early 1980’s to

expand its size. This addition did not take into

consideration its character, period of signicance

or any of its architectural features. Unplanned

and poorly researched additions to historic

buildings constitute a problem faced by many of

the architectural heritage in the country (Wild,

2018). The Monastery of Temptation presents a

significant exchange of humanitarian values

within the Neolithic Era in terms of architectural

development, especially urban planning and

architecture, and structural technology. It spreads

exceptional and unique evidence for disappeared

cultural civilizations, customs, and traditions until

the 6th century BC. A significant example is its

familiar skulls with inlaid eyes, the earliest

instance of old worship in the past. Furthermore,

the site disseminates considerable information

about craft and architectural development, pre-

dominantly through the Neolithic Era, including

the evolution of the building layout from circle to

rectangular and the development of different

handicrafts like basketry, pottery, masonry, using

unbaked mud bricks and natural stones for

construction. The information explains valuable

periods in humanitarian history.

4.3 The Clock Tower, Nablus 

According to the marble inscription on the south

entrance, the Nablus Clock Tower was constructed

in 1901 by Sultan Abdul Hamid II on the 25th

anniversary of his ascension to the throne. He

ruled the Great Ottoman Empire from 1876 to

1909 for almost 33 years (Szepesi, 2012). Many

clock towers were constructed all over the Empire

during Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s rule. Seven were

built in Palestinian cities (Nablus, Nazareth, Jaffa,

Haifa, Acre, Safed and Jerusalem). The clock

towers in Nablus and Haifa are identical. In 1922,

exactly five years after the fall of the Ottoman

Caliphate, the Jerusalem Clock Tower was

destroyed (Abujidi, 2014). The Nablus Clock

Tower is considered a symbol of Municipality of

Nablus and is situated at the centre of the main

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Old City square, adjacent to Masjid An-Nasr. It is

a square high-rise building consisting of five

levels. The entry of this Tower is located on the

first level with two windows on each side of the

second level. The third level has stone balconies. A

clock on each side of the fourth level has been in

existence since the tower was first built. The

function of the windows on the fifth level is to

balance the clocks’ weights. It is possible to reach

the top of the tower using the internal stairs. At

the top, there is a view of the city. The lower room

was used in many reigns as a police department.

The area where the clock tower was built was

named the door of the Saraya (palace) because its

buildings included the Turkish Government

Palace. However, the name was changed after

Nablus fell into the British hands in 1918

(Tütüncü & Azerbaidzjan, 2006). The Clock Tower

withstood the massive earthquake that shook

Nablus in 1927. Nevertheless, neighbouring

vendors said the upper parts (fallen in the

earthquake) were restored. The restoration and

rehabilitation project of the Nablus Clock Tower

started on 23rdDecember 2012 by TIKA (Turkish

Cooperation and Coordination Agency) while the

supervision of the project was concluded by the

technical team of Nablus Municipality. The total

cost of the project was $38,000 and all the works

were completed according to contemporary

conservation and restoration principles within

three months (Akgunduz & Ozturk, 2013). Newly

installed ground and interior lighting now

highlight the Clock Tower at night. Sky search

lights were also fixed with the light pack focused

perpendicularly to the north to highlight the

centralization of the Tower.

Figure 7 & 8: Nablus Clock Tower before and After Renovation

The Clock Tower has played a major role in

time-control for the people and is considered

nowadays the slogan as well as the symbol of

Nablus city. This resource is significant mainly

because of its contribution to a sense of place and

to the urban character of the city. This building

provides a certain feeling of time when the bell is

heard sounding twice each hour and once each

half hour (Books & LLC, 2010). This Tower

perfectly illustrates the need to conserve whole

areas rather than mere isolated monuments. It is

disturbing that the current building codes

implemented by government authorities (setback

from all sides, building height, oor areas) do not

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The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

take into consideration the historic character of

such resources. It is important to implement a

grading system of historic and cultural resources

that would be most useful for architectural

heritage like the Clock Tower for two reasons;

firstly, as the resource lies in a heavily populated

residential area, its importance lies in the

relationship of the parts to each other. Examples

are the relationship between the Tower and the

entrance of the city, between the Tower and the

Turkish Government Palace, between the

openings, balconies and the open public space of

the surrounding houses. Residents should be

allowed to make certain balanced changes to their

homes. Otherwise, they will develop negative

feelings towards their historic environment and

the concept of registration of historic resources.

Allowing a certain level of freedom that does not

compromise the overall character of this resource

is acceptable. This can be accommodated by the

grading system wherein this resource can be

registered under a lower grade or rank that allows

certain levels of intervention. Secondly, this

particular resource covers a large area.

V. RESULTS 

When designing the survey form, the researcher

did not anticipate the importance of such values

in evaluating the signicance of the immovable

heritage (armchair vs fieldwork researcher). Even

though the researcher has taken into conside-

ration the contribution to the national identity in

the research design, the fieldwork showed that the

contribution to community (neighbourhood)

identity was as important and existed in many of

the visited resources.

The immediate inference indicated the existence

of both inherent values and assigned values in the

heritage resources in Palestine. The inherent

values are architectural type or style, contribution

to sense of place, detailing and ne craftsman-

ship, utilitarian and potential added value

through conservation including information

values. Meanwhile the assigned values are

religious, contribution to community and national

identity, collective memory as well as association

with signicant events, persons and groups

(Figure 9). The immediate inferences also

elaborated two significant criteria: contribution to

a sense of place, which was observed in more

situations during the visits than anticipated and

contribution to local as well as community

identity, the existence of which was revealed

during the visits but was not included in the

research design.

It is notable from Figure 10 that the highest ratio

of immovable heritage in Palestine is residential

buildings (almost 30%) because the private

property encourages the owner to take care of his

building that has been inherited from the past to

be transferred to the future generations. In

addition, the loyalty towards the Nation provokes

pride in the history and national monuments

especially in Palestine where the civilizational and

cultural conflict has been intensifying between

Palestinians and Israelis since 1948.

Figure 9: Different values existed in Palestine Figure 10: Categorization of the resource

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The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

Historical associations with little consideration to

other merits currently dominate the evaluation

criteria. Hence, the researcher revised the

evaluation criteria to include structures and the

acknowledgment of distinctive features of other

styles through the adoption of a visual approach

focusing on architectural aesthetics rather than on

history alone. Even though the sixty-six sites and

buildings visited do not represent all immovable

heritage, the value occurrence frequency gives a

characterization on the kind of values that are

either inherent or assigned to the heritage

resources in Palestine.

The researcher proposed evaluation criteria of the

immovable heritage in Palestine that could make

a major shift in evaluation criteria from emphasis

on historical associations to prioritizing archi-

tectural, community aesthetics and quality of the

physical environment. Such evaluation criteria

will increase the value of immovable cultural

heritage and will set up methods for protection.

(Figure 11).

Figure 11: Evaluation Criteria of the Immovable Heritage in Palestine

VI. CONCLUSION 

The most common values in the visits were

architectural type or style, contribution to a sense

of place, utilitarian, potential added value through

rehabilitation, restoration or adaptive use as well

as religious and contribution to community

identity. The relevance of the value (contribution

to a sense of place) is a crucial evaluation criterion

of the architectural heritage significance. The

researcher in many situations (urban links, street

facades, understanding city context, landmarks

and orientation devices) observed these criteria.

The evaluation criteria in Palestine are abstract

and less developed than other countries. The

approaches of heritage value definition and the

existing significance assessment process in

Palestine do not reflect the multi-cultural charac-

teristics of the community. Reassessment of the

evaluation criteria for significance in order to

address both inherent and assigned values of the

Palestinian immovable resources is indispensable,

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The Characteristics of Immovable Heritage Values in Palestine

taking into consideration the different types and

categories of the heritage in all periods of

Palestine's history. The research takes into

account the various reformulation modes more

appropriate and relevant paths to the

requirements of future generations and contem-

porary communities. The anticipation is that such

an evaluation will contribute in defining and

developing an effective agenda for immovable

heritage in Palestine.

The researcher included evaluation criteria that

emphasizes the significance of harmonic

resources as methods of approaching issues of

immovable heritage values. It challenges pre-

conceptions; advances understanding and

motivates a constructive debate about matters

relating to the assessment and value of Palestine's

immovable heritage. Such criteria will assist the

decision makers in deciding whether the re-

sources are considered a heritage resource. These

criteria help the Ministry of Antiquities and

Tourism plan integrated guidelines of selecting

the immovable heritage resources and opens the

door widely to include more resources while

re-evaluating previously neglected resources.

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ABSTRACT

382U

LJP Copyright ID: 573342Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Historical Background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and Internal

Migration in ColombiaJaime Alberto Sandoval Mesa & Natalia Catalina Ubajoa Fierro

Lawyer University Santo Tomás

© 2020. Jaime Alberto Sandoval Mesa & Natalia Catalina Ubajoa Fierro. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of theCreative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permittingall noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

This article aims to analyse the main factors related to forced displacement and internal migrations, which took place not only in the 19th century but mainly in the 20th century according with the phenomenon of violence in Colombia.This phenomenon has been generated by factors related tointernal armed conflict, that occurred in several stages and areas of the country. The article shows through a brief historical overview, the main events that have been transforming the armed conflict in Colombia, in addition it explainssome causes and consequences of the phenomenon of forced displacement and local migration in the country. On the other hand, to understand the historical context of the phenomenon, it is possible to show the difficulties,to resolvethe current situation in Colombia, even with the 2016 pacification processes.

The above is developed through a hermeneutical and analytical method. For this purpose, the document was prepared using historical, descriptive, teleological, and reflective instruments.

Keywords: historical context, forced displacement, internal migrations, armed conflict.

Classification: FOR Code: 210399

Language: English

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13 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Historical Background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and

Internal Migration in ColombiaJaime Alberto Sandoval Mesaα & Natalia Catalina Ubajoa Fierroσ

____________________________________________

ABSTRACT

This article aims to analyse the main factors related to forced displacement and internal migrations, which took place not only in the 19th century but mainly in the 20th century according with the phenomenon of violence in Colombia.This phenomenon has been generatedby factors related tointernal armed conflict, that occurred in several stages and areas of the country. The article shows through a briefhistorical overview, the main events that have been transforming the armed conflict in Colombia, in addition it explainssome causes and consequences of the phenomenon of forced displacement and local migration in the country. On the other hand, to understand the historical context of the phenomenon, it is possible to show the difficulties,to resolvethe current situation in Colombia, even with the 2016 pacification processes.

The above is developed through a hermeneutical and analytical method. For this purpose, the document was prepared using historical, descriptive, teleological, and reflective instruments.

Keywords: historical context, forced displacement, internal migrations, armed conflict.

RESUMEN

El presente artículo pretende analizar los principales factores del desplazamiento forzado y las migraciones internas, las cuales coinciden no sólo en el siglo XIX sino principalmente en el siglo XX con los fenómenos de violencia en Colombia, muchas veces generadas por los factores de conflicto armado en diversas etapas y zonas del país. El mismo, solamente quiere mostrar, a

través de un breve recorrido histórico, los principales eventos que cambiaron el conflicto armado en Colombia y de paso dieron lugar a las causas y consecuencias del fenómeno del desplazamiento forzado y las migraciones internas en el país. Al comprender la estructura histórica del fenómeno se puede evidenciar las dificultadas para al menos dar solución a su situación actual en Colombia, aun con los procesos de pacificación de 2016.

Lo anterior se desarrolla mediante un método hermenéutico, analítico. Para tal efecto, el documento fue elaborado mediante instrumentos de tipo histórico, descriptivo, teleológico y reflexivo.

Palabrasclave: contexto histórico, despla-zamiento forzado, migraciones internas, conflicto armado.

Author α: PhD in Law. Master of Criminal Law. Specialist in Public Law. Lawyer University Santo Tomás D.C. Research Professor. Bogotá Colombia. Research Product, New Granada Military University, Faculty of Law. Project. Inv. Der. 3162. Validity 2020-2021.

Author σ: Lawyer, Universidad Santo Tomás Bogotá D.C., Master in National and International Cooperation, Università Cattolica di Milano, Italy. Master in Migration Law, Universitàdegli Studi di Bergamo, Italy. Research product of the Master in in Migration Law from the University of Bergamo, Italy.

I. INTRODUCTION

The biggest structural problems in Colombia focuses on several processes of incessant forceddisplacement which have been extended throughout the whole 20th century and it continues today.

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Historical background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and Internal Migration in Colombia

This situation can be explained according with the context of the nation's establishment, its independency(The birth of the state, which was consolidated with the founding of the republic) and some events developed after the period of independence on August 7, 1819, and also the final process to the country to became an State through the Constitution of 1832 which was promulgated after “ la Gran Colombia of Bolívar. (1819 - 1830). In this sense, the historical and political development of the nation has been characterized by its instability, that has been affected by multiple conflicts and civil wars. In fact, there was a thousand-day war between 1899 and 1903, (La guerra de los mil días) which the country was devastated (URIBE VARGAS Diego 1985). For many experts, this event is considered as the first antecedent of the migration from the countryside to the city, particularly, it was a peasant migrationfrom many regions to the city of Bogotá.

Between 1910 and 1948, Colombia had a “relative”peace, however, the problem took place in the countryside during this period, due to the precarious conditions of the peasants, (without employment, labor contracts, without education, without a better future, forced to live in situationsalmost medieval), most of them made a decision to migrateto migrate to cities, particularly to Bogotá and Medellín. It should be said that overall, the situation of the peasants in these cases, was related to the role of the landowner “El señor de la Hacienda” who exercised control over all social aspects in the country. In Colombia thanks to the constitutional reform in 1936 and the internal migrations the peasant society was starting to change. In fact, the constitutional reform of 1936, enacted to ensure some economic and social rights focused on property and its social function, for instance, the right of association, and the right to be educated- free basic elementary for citizens etc. (SANDOVAL MESA Jaime Alberto 2018, URIBE VARGAS, Diego 1985). This all generated awareness of the need to have better conditions to the peasant, who had to migrate to the cities to find a better future than to be submitted to the landowner.

Another symbol of social struggles and causes of internal displacement occurred in 1928, in an unfortunate event that ended with the violent suppression of a strike at an American company called the United Fruit Company. The result was the use of the armed forces to suppress protests and strikes over working conditions with a balance of around 70 dead workers, called “The Massacre of the Bananeras”. Currently, the internal displacement and violence generated insecurity of citizens and therefore the decision to seek better living conditions. (ITURRALDE Manuel 2010)

For many people, this was the first event that generated the background to the current conflict. It all started due to the poor conditions of the workers in the field. The massacre "of the banana plantations", in 1928, represented a first protest these conditions. (ITURRALDE Manuel 2010) This type of social protest was defended by Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, who between the 30s and 40s became the political leader of this cause. He represented hope in defence of workers 'conditions and workers' interests in the National Congress; in his party, the Colombian Liberal Party, one of the traditional parties in Colombia and in general, in the country's political scene. (VAZQUEZ C. Alfredo 1986). All this generated a new concept of life, which perhaps the peasant did not know, and this new urban status generated a new social condition of workers from all over the national rural sector. The growth of cities just arises as a factor associated with internal migration. But the promoter of this phenomenon focused on the precariousness of the country's rural areas and to some extent the isolation of many regions with the metropolis.

II. THE HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE IN COLOMBIA. MAIN

FACTOR OF INTERNAL MIGRATIONS

The preceding precedents caused during the 1940s the origin of the armed conflict in Colombia, since many of the problems of the peasant never had a solution, even more in the face of the events of April 9, 1948, called the Bogotazo, in the which its leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitán was assassinated in the city of Bogotá, who

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Historical background and Main Causes of the Phenomenon of Forced Displacement and Internal Migration in Colombia

up to that moment defended the rights of the popular class, of the working class and of course of the peasants.

For now, in Colombia in the social order, class differences remained between the upper class, the middle class, the working class and the peasants. But at that time the middle class represented a minimal population, and they aspired to occupy positions in the bureaucracy and participate in politics, while the popular class had nothing, not even constitutional guarantees. This factor associated with excluded social groups begins to represent the origin of the migrant populations that are going to settle in marginal territories of the cities and since then they are going to determine their growth in Colombia and an underdevelopment in crisis. All this is well documented in the 2014 historical report prepared by the National Commission for Reparation and Reconciliation in Colombia, also known as "Basta Ya". In the same it is stated in relation to the murder of Jorge Eliecer Gaitán "We do not know who killed him", the truth is that this fact generated the first wave of violence in the entire country and of course the second episode of great migrations in Colombia to from 1948 almost until 1962.

This first period was called the first violence in Colombia, it was also called bipartisan violence, between the liberal party and the conservative party (1948 - 1962), precisely because the causes of rural violence were determined by membership in one or the other party. During this period, there were mainly two events: First, the government applied force through the police to stop the violence, and second, in response to this fact, the first movement of peasants who defended themselves against the government's measures appeared. This movement was called “Liberal Guerrilla”, but it was a movement of peasants who, after a peace pact in 1955, laid down their arms and never returned to the armed movements. Of course, these peasants migrated to all urban areas in Colombia, because of all the causes mentioned.

In addition to all this, during this period there was a military dictatorship between 1953 and 1957 that was carried out, through a "coup d'état" by General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, against the government in force at the time. This coup represented a reaction for the defence of the peasants and the measures of force against the liberties exercised by the government of that time. For example, the government was responsible for measures that involved the closure of radio stations, people arrested without a warrant, etc. (SANDOVAL MESA Jaime Alberto. 2018). Paramilitary groups also emerged, supported by the police to persecute and in some cases to assassinate peasant leaders. Of course, this fact is associated with a multiplicity of migratory movements in this sense, especially from the countryside to the city.

In general, the dictatorship of Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1953 - 1957) was accepted at first by all the society and its notable success was the 1955 peace pact. However, in the end it also exercised authoritarian and arbitrary powers. These factors also coincide with movements to urban areas of peasants, not only because of violence in the countryside, as Orlando FalsBorda relates in the text, violence in Colombia, (FALS BORDA Orlando, GUZMAN C. German, UMAÑA Eduardo, 1962) but also because there is a brief period of infrastructure works and the foundation of new companies. That they attract peasant labour to the factories in big cities.

This migration of this time can be considered positive, since many peasants who travelled forgetting their lands and fleeing bipartisan violence, found refuge in the new factories that were just beginning to allow a moment of development in Colombia (FALS BORDA Orlando, GUZMAN C. German, UMAÑA Eduardo, 1962). This example of brief development may have been one of the factors that perhaps stopped migration for the time being, however, the issue has not been regular and therefore this cause persists in the phenomenon of internal displacement. But in turn it allowed in some cases, one of the main solutions that corresponds to the establishment and establishment of the

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migrant citizen. Unfortunately, the country's industrial development has been awfully slow and precarious, which has not allowed solutions in this regard to be structured.

In 1957, Colombia's traditional political parties (liberals and conservatives) signed a pact in Spain to overthrow the dictator. Indeed, with the support of the military forces, the traditional political parties of Colombia managed to overthrow the dictatorship and determined through the plebiscite the origin of a shared government between the two called the National Front regime. The characteristic of this regime was that each party would govern for 4 years and power would rotate for 4 years to the liberal party and the following 4 years to the conservative party. (VAZQUEZ C. Alfredo 1986). This government developed for 16 years between 1958 and 1974 and coincides with the origin of the current guerrillas as another cause of forced displacement. On this point, the argument of the absence of the state in many regions is sometimes added to this situation, which in addition to being real, still continues as a constant that implies that many of its inhabitants are forced to migrate to the cities, however, the phenomenon of violence is also part of this case, more than anything if its extension in time is taken into account, even to the present day. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014).

This fact began during the 1960s and for many constitutes the origin of the current guerrillas, mainly due to the exclusion of other political forces, for example, from the left. In this sense, a group of peasants who distrusted this government (National Front Regime) and who did not break their organization of the previous process of violence, organized into a guerrilla in the countryside and founded the revolutionary armed forces of Colombia (FARC). (VAZQUEZ C. Alfredo 1986). This was the origin of the FARC, which is now added as another of the factors of forced displacement in Colombia, given its policies assumed during the decades of its existence (1964-2016), almost all to the detriment of the peasant to whom it is added. another factor of

Internal Displacement. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014).

Another of the current guerrillas in Colombia is called ELN (National Liberation Army), which was born in 1966 and whose origin was mainly in universities, unions, and social groups. Finally, one of the most relevant subversive groups was The M19, which was born in 1970 as a protest election that, in his opinion, were illegitimate. According to them, the government committed fraud in the 1970 elections to choose the president of the national front against the other candidate, the former dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014). This was a university and especially urban guerrilla movement. Their actions had some support in society until they had one of their greatest mistakes, such as the taking of the Palace of Justice (November 3, 1985). Where in the crossfire, between official forces and members of the guerrilla, the Magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice were assassinated. After this, society lost credibility in them, and they had no choice but to negotiate the peace that materialized in 1990. (ITURRALDE Manuel 2010), This was a successful process and now they represent an important sector of the political left in Colombia. For example, the candidate in the elections for President last May won second place and represents the opposition in Colombia. He was a member of this guerrilla. Well, this context of violence has been an engine of displacement due to incessant events such as the massacres, killings of protected persons, damage to protected property, regional insecurity and, above all, threats to the civilian population that results in forced displacement.

II. FORCED DISPLACEMENT FACING THE CAUSES OF THE CURRENT CONFLICT

AND THE PEACE PROCESSES

In the 80s, drug cartels appear. For example, Pablo Escobar, the Medellín Cartel and the Cali cartel are remembered, mainly. During this time, drug trafficking appeared as an essential element of the conflict. In these cases, another phenomenon is presented, such as the displacement between cities, from one to the

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other depending on the cartels that generated pressure in society. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014)

Without this element, the conflict would have ended much sooner, but its financing capacity fuelled the survival of the armed groups. All of them, both the guerrillas and the cartelsthemselves and some new actors such as the paramilitary groups, had sufficient income to finance the conflict. Even so, the measures of the state had to face the three main lines of the Conflict. (BENAVIDES Farid Samir and Eduard VINYAMATA I CAMP, 2011) On the one hand, the activities of the guerrilla groups that at this time carried out activities not only of extortion or kidnapping but also of drug trafficking and terrorism, had serious effects on the population, causing forced migration to the cities. Here this effect was due to security reasons.

Secondly, the acts of the drug cartels generated many acts of terrorism in the cities with their internal wars and therefore another phenomenon called migration between cities arose. From one city to another, due to security chaos, an irrepressible phenomenon occurs, especially in Bogotá, which seems to become a refuge from internal displacement.

Finally, self-defence groups right fighting the rebels in parallel and illegal to the State, the scale in their actions in the conflict, with the most serious human rights violations and mass killings, also generated a factor of insecurity and violence in rural areas that also caused the phenomenon of massive forced migration to the cities.

This does not mean that there are no other similar groups now, because there is talk of the emergence of new groups, such as the so-called emerging organized gangs (Aguilas Negras, Urabeños, the Gulf cartel, etc.) that have replaced the presence of the guerrilla in the territories but not in the context of previous armed conflict. In any case, these groups also generate displacement phenomena due to their security actions, control, organized crime derived from drug trafficking, kidnapping, etc. These phenomena can be seen in

the northern region of the country in Antioquia, the Atlantic Coast, the Pacific where actions by guerrilla groups and emerging gangs still persist; the areas bordering Venezuela such as La Guajira, the Catatumbo where emerging groups coexist, and the ELN, the Amazon region in departments such as Caquetá and Putumayo mainly, Vichada to a lesser extent, etc. (GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. 2014)

For these reasons, it is based on the existence of the conflict today even with the advent of the 2016 peace process, what happens is that at the moment it can be classified as a low intensity conflict, (JAIMES-AMADO María Cecilia & PRIETO SANJUAN Rafael, 2010) however, this does not mean that acts of violence that generate displacement do not continue to appear, on the contrary, the phenomenon continues in force along with Venezuelan migration that deserves further analysis.

III. CONCLUSIONS

We can identify several periods that originated forced displacement and current internal migration in Colombia, the first of which arises from the effects of the 19th century with the civil war that began in the late and early 20th century called "The Thousand Days War (1899-1903) ”. This first armed confrontation produced the first migration to the cities, especially Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, among others.

The second period of migration occurs after the first bipartisan violence in Colombia between 1948 and 1962. In this scenario, not only did the current armed conflict originate, but the second wave of migration to cities in Colombia throughout the territory was generated. National. This second period produced the formation of marginal areas in the cities, which up to now have no growth control and only some measures of social reintegration and social improvement, however their growth is overwhelmed and sometimes lacking the state presence.

The third period of migration occurs just after the subversive struggle in Colombia between 1964 with the origin of the guerrillas and 1990. In this

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period the factors are multiple in displacement and forced migration, since many are due to the causes of the conflict, which link both subversive, self-defence groups and organized crime groups.

Another period that links the phenomenon of displacement and forced migration appears between 1990 and the present day, all generated with the escalation of the conflict that occurred between 1990 and 2005. From this last date, the pacification processes, although they did not end with the causes associated with displacement produced a lower rate in this regard, which is currently maintained and is generated from subversive groups that remain even after the 2016 peace agreement and organized crime gangs that operate in the regions for the purposes of drug trafficking, extortion, among other behaviours.Finally, the current scenario suggests relevant obligations in the face of the Peace Agreement signed in 2016, which is one of the appropriate actions against the phenomenon of displacement, since security is proposed in rural areas inhabited by members of demobilized armed groups, mainly from the FARC. If the objectives of the armistice and one of the aims of the agreement, such as the establishment of the peasants and the return to land in the rural area, are met, the phenomenon of displacement motivated by violence derived from the armed conflict can at least be stopped. .

However, the transition of governments may affect this process, however, mainly created institutions, such as the truth commission and the Special Jurisdiction for peace, are obliged to try to rescue the main objective of all, such as the end of the armed conflict in Colombia. If at least the phenomenon of violence that motivates displacement is met with this objective, at least it can lessen its effects without stopping the flow from the countryside to the city that remains constant, mainly for reasons of development and the absence of the State as mentioned above.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BENAVIDES Farid Samir and Eduard VINYAMATA I CAMP (2011). Peace processes and initiatives in Colombia and Ecuador.

First. Barcelona, Spain: UOC, First Edition, 2011.

2. FALS BORDA Orlando, GUZMAN CAMPOS German, UMAÑA LUNA Eduardo. Violence in Colombia. Volume I. Editorial Taurus. Reprint of 1962. Bogotá D.C. 2003

3. JAIMES-AMADO María Cecilia & PRIETO SANJUAN Rafael. (2010) Justice and Peace or when all roads lead to ... The Hague. International Law No 17, Colombian Journal of International Law, 165-230. Bogotá D.C. Colombia.

4. INTER-AMERICAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS. Case 19 Merchants Vs Colombia (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, July 5, 2004.

5. GROUP, HISTORICAL MEMORY. (2014). Report “Basta Ya”. Chapter II. The origins, dynamics, and growth of the armed conflict. Bogotá: Presidential Department of the Republic.

6. ITURRALDE, Manuel (2010). Punishment, authoritarian Liberalism and Exception Criminal Justice. Bogotá: Century of Man Editors. University of the Andes. Pontifical Javeriana University.

7. SANDOVAL MESA Jaime Alberto (2018). Background of the Judicial Guarantees in Colombia in the Penal Code of 1936. Journal of the Permanent Secretariat of Mercosur. Year 6, No. 11; April 2018.

8. URIBE VARGAS, Diego (1985). The constitutions of Colombia. Historical and Sociological Perspective. Hispanic culture editions. Iberoamerican Cooperation Institute. Madrid, Spain, 1985.

9. VAZQUEZ CARRIZOSA, Alfredo (1986). Thepresidentialpower in Colombia. 3rd ed. Barranquilla: Ediciones Suramérica LTDA.

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London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

 

Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change

Among Pregnant Women in South- West, NigeriaDr. J.K. Ajayi & N. A. Ajayi

The study assessed health information and good nutritional practices among pregnant women in Nigeria. One hundred questionnaires were distributed to pregnant women on pre-natal clinicdays at Teaching and Government hospitals in Ekiti and Osun States, Nigeria. 90 questionnaire were found useful. Summation Weighted Average (SWA), frequencies and percentages applied for variable distribution, while data was analysed using SPSS Software and Chi-square test, t-text and spear correlation-test used for the hypotheses. Results showed that ages 26-35 ranked highest (51.1%), 83.3% were married, and mostly in second parity. 55.6% were civil servants and many (62.2%) had tertiary education. Respondent's highest income falls between N31, 000 and N40, 000 monthly, while many fall below N10, 000. A significant relationship exists between respondents’ level of information competence and health status (rcal 0.390 is greater than rtab 0.174); between health information accessibility level and respondents nutritional choices (rcal 0.338 greater than rtab (0.174) all at 0.05 level of significance. It was revealed that health information awareness and accessibility were inadequate. The study therefore recommended organised talks for pregnant women at community level, while media-campaign, seminar/workshops with library playing prominent role should be intensified.

Keywords: health information, pregnant women, nutritional choice, behavioural change, pre-natal clinics, information competence, health status.

Classification: FOR Code: 920507

Language: English

© 2020. Dr. J.K. Ajayi & N. A. Ajayi. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use,distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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19 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- 

West, Nigeria DR. J. K. Ajayiα & N. A. Ajayi σ 

____________________________________________ 

ABSTRACT 

The study assessed health information and good

nutritional practices among pregnant women in

Nigeria. One hundred questionnaires were

distributed to pregnant women on pre-natal

clinicdays at Teaching and Government hospitals

in Ekiti and Osun States, Nigeria. 90

questionnaire were found useful. Summation

Weighted Average (SWA), frequencies and

percentages applied for variable distribution,

while data were analysed using SPSS Software

and Chi-square test, t-text, and spear

correlation-test was used to test the hypotheses.

Results showed that ages 26-35 ranked highest

(51.1%), 83.3% were married, and mostly in

second parity. 55.6% were civil servants and

many (62.2%) had tertiary education.

Respondent's highest income falls between N31,

000 and N40, 000 monthly, while many fall

below N10, 000. A significant relationship exists

between respondents’ level of information

competence and their health status (rcal 0.390 is

greater than rtab 0.174); between health

information accessibility level and respondents

nutritional choices (rcal 0.338 greater than rtab

(0.174) all at 0.05 level of significance. It was

revealed that health information awareness and

accessibility were inadequate. The study

therefore recommended organised talks for

pregnant women at community level, while

media-campaign, seminar/workshops with

library playing prominent role should be

intensified.

Keywords: health information, pregnant women,

nutritional choice, behavioural change, pre-natal

clinics, information competence, health status.

Exchange rate= Nigerian money N450=US $1

(US Dollar)

I. INTRODUCTION 

Woman body goes through a great deal of

hormonal, physiological, and physical changes

during pregnancy. The way she nourishes her

body during this process will affect her own

health, as well as the health of her baby

(Healthline, 2015). This is because during

pregnancy, woman’s body has increased

nutritional needs. Her body requires

macro-nutrients (for example, calories, protein,

and fluids), and micro-nutrients (for example,

calcium, foliate, and iron). In general, most

women can meet these increased nutritional

needs by choosing a diet that includes a variety of

nutritious foods. Nutritional information aims at

improving knowledge, attitudes and information

rather than activities that aimed at increasing

food availability. Health information then is a set

of abilities needed to recognise a health

information need, identify likely information

sources and use them to retrieve relevant

information, assess the quality of the information

and its applicability to a specific situation, and

then analyse, understand, and use the information

to make a good decision (MLA, 2007). The World

Health Organization Constitution over the years

recognised and emphasized the need for careful

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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria

use of scarce resources of information, education

and communication as the most cost-effective

intervention of health (Popoola, 2009).

Appropriate nutritional information could also aid

in avoiding stressful events or avoiding exposure

to infections or complications in pregnancy

(Cohen, 2003).

II. HEALTH CARE NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN NIGERIA 

In Nigeria, the number of rural poor women is

roughly twice that of the urban poor and the

depth of poverty was more than double in rural

areas. Income inequality is worse in rural areas,

with a Gini-coefficient of 45.6 compared with the

urban areas of 39.9 (Fos, 2000). Most home lack

basic amenities, mothers are underprivileged and

poorly educated. They cannot recognise a health

information need, cannot identify likely

information sources and cannot use information

to make good decision. Many women belief in

taboos that a pregnant woman should not eat

certain types of food or engage in certain

work/duties.uch include; a pregnant woman must

not eat egg, beans and even meat, not work in the

sun and so on.

However, eating the right foods can help persons

avoid certain diseases and recover faster when

illness occurs. Poor maternal nutrition during

these periods may adversely affect infant growth

and development and may increase life-time risk

of developing chronic disease (Osmond & Barker,

2001). Dietary change is generally needed for

women to meet the increased nutrient

requirements of pregnancy: and while some

women make significant dietary changes, others

find it difficult to do. Notably, even when women

do make changes to their diet, they do not always

adopt evidence based dietary recommendations

(Crozier et al, 2009; Forster et al, 2009).

Ajayi and Adewale (2010) postulated that the

concept of health information literacy

pre-supposes that an individual recognises the

need for information and how to find, evaluate,

use and subsequently communicate information

effectively to solve particular problems or make

decisions. Absence of health information is a

significant barrier to effective health care for

many people. A wide range of health-enhancing

behaviour significantly, depends on health

information literacy and consequently, drives

health-information seeking needs of individuals

(Atulomah & Atulomah, 2012). In view of

Obuh-Raph and Adamo (2012), the level of

ignorance in terms of nutrition especially by

pregnant mothers was still on the high side. The

ignorance cut across all classes of people from the

last to the greatest. Many pregnant mothers are

not aware of what to eat for proper development

of the growing foetus. In Nigeria, Akowe (2009)

quoted in Ogunjimi et al (2012) found that the

country constitutes just 1% of the World

population, and accounts for 10% of the worlds’

maternal and under-five mortality rates and that

annually, an estimated 52,900 Nigerian women

die from pregnancy related complications out of a

total of 529,000 global maternal death. The study

revealed further that woman’s chance of dying

from pregnancy and childbirth in Nigeria is 1 in

35. It is imperative then to investigate the

influence of health information in promoting

nutritional information practices and behavioural

changes among pregnant women in Nigeria,

which this study intended to carryout.

III. LITERATURE REVIEW Several qualitative studies found risk avoidance

was a strong motivator of dietary change during

pregnancy (Begley, 2002; Szwajcer et al. 2007;

Tessema et al. 2009; Ferrari et al; 2013; Reyes,

Klotz & Herring, 2013; Wennberg et al .2013).

Specifically not wanting to jeopardise their own

life or their unborn baby’s life (Reyes, et al., 2013)

led women to make dietary changes to avoid

preventable adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Healthier eating-patterns are common among

socio-demographically diverse women who

believed their personal behaviour had a stronger

influence on their nutrition and health than

external factors (Springer et al. 1994). As a result,

women of high social position see adequate

nutrition as how much one can afford in terms of

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junk foods. Women occupying the base of the

social ladder believe that adequate nutrition is the

quantity of food one can consume during

pregnancy, but studies have shown that women’s

nutrition knowledge significantly influenced

dietary choice (Begley, 2002; Tessema et al, 2009;

Massad & Chapman, 2010; Barbour et al. 2012;

Ferrari et al. 2013; Groth & Morrison – Beedy,

2013; Reyes, et al 2013; Wennberg et al, 2013).

Barriers to health diet choices include; lack of

knowledge regarding the quantity of certain foods

required to ensure nutritional adequacy (Begley,

2002); exposure to confusing and frequently

changing dietary information (Ferrari et al. 2013;

Wennberg et al 2013); and misconceptions about

health choice alternatives (Groth & Morrison –

Beedy, 2013; Reyes, et al 2013). Furthermore,

Kelli & Shieh (2010) found that first time mothers

were more engaged than non-first time mothers

in using various information sources.

Aaronson and Pfoutz (2015) in a study that

investigated “seeking information: where do

pregnant women go” found that healthcare

providers and books were first or second most

important by the largest number of respondents.

It added that women of higher Socio-economic

status (SES) relied more on books and less on

family than did women of lower SES. Also, having

had a previous pregnancy was associated with

greater use of one’s self as information source.

Women who perceived more support from their

providers viewed them as more important source

of information. Schiwartz, Woloshin & Baazek

(2002) opined that consumers get most of their

nutrition information from television news of how

diet influences the development of disease. They

benefit from news coverage of nutrition when they

learn to make lifestyle changes that will improve

their health. Studies by Thorndike et al 2012 and

Hersy et al. 2013 revealed that nutrient–specific

labels which incorporated both text and colour

were most effective at aiding selection of healthier

foods by pregnant women, while mass media

campaigns have also been shown to be effective in

achieving change in health related behaviours and

could be used for dissemination of up –to-date

evidence (Wakefield, Loken & Hornik, 2010).

Piper (2009) submittted that community health

nurse play a vital role in promoting health during

pregnancy. The most important role is figured in

teaching and providing pregnant women with

information needed based on social and

psychological behavioural changes to maintain

health during pregnancy on mainly those related

to nutritional aspects.

3.1 Theoretical Framework 

This study was anchored on Information

Utilization Capacity Theory (IUCT). This theory

propounded by Curras in 1986 states that the

utilization of information is dependent on the

ability of the users to access information.

According to Currás-Bosch (1986), the user’s

educational background, personality, belief, etc,

will to a great extent affect the ability of the user

to access information. Supporting this theory,

Wilson (1999) stated that personal characteristics

such as beliefs held by a person, interests, needs

or existing attitudes, personal cognitive need

(knowledge base) and level of information literacy

may constitute barriers to access and use of

information. The implication of this theory is that

pregnant woman’s personal characteristics as

stated earlier may influence the level of health

information access and use for nutritional choices

and behavioural changes at gestation period.

IUCT seen as a concept associated with personal

beliefs in determining information adoption and

usage anchored the base of this research work.

3.2 Statement of the Problem 

Absence of health information is a significant

barrier to effective health care while health

information literacy is believed to be an effective

strategy to enhance a successful pregnancy.

Mothers are under privileged and poorly educated

in Nigeria and that many cannot recognize a

health information need, identify likely

information sources and majority cannot even use

information to make good decision (Ajayi &

Adewale, 2010). Therefore it becomes imperative

to examine how health information could

influence pregnant women’s decision making in

relation to their good nutritional choices and

behavioural change particularly in Nigeria.

3.3 Objectives of the Study 

i. The prime objective of the study is to assess the

level of influence of health information in

promoting good nutritional practices and

behavioural change among pregnant women in

South-west, Nigeria. Specific objectives were

to;

ii. Find out the sources of health information and

their relative importance for healthy nutritional

practices and promotion among the

respondents;

iii. Examine respondents perceptions, practices

and health status to determine their health

information needs;

iv. Determine the respondents health information

accessibility level for healthy nutritional

choices;

v. Determine the health information competence

level of the respondents;

vi. Identify the participant’s health information

access barriers in promoting healthy

nutritional practices.

3.4 Research Questions 

1. Does the respondent’s information competence

level have any influence on health information

accessibility level of the respondents?

2. Do barriers to health information accessibility

have significant influence on the respondents’

health information competence level?

3.5 Hypothesis 

➢ There will be no significant relationship

between health information competence level

of the respondents and their health status

➢ There will be no significant relationship

between the respondents health information

accessibility level and improvement of their

nutritional choices for healthy living.

IV. METHODOLOGY 

The study population comprised 100 pregnant

women of gestational age attending pre-natal

clinics in six (6) health centers located in two

major cities of Ile-Ife and Ado Ekiti, Southwest

Nigeria. A stratified random sample technique

was used. A random sampling of 90 pregnant

women was used and a method of proportional

allocation to sample was adopted to obtain the

sample size of each stratum. The method assumed

that the sampling fraction is equal to the sampling

fraction for each stratum i.e (f=fh) and fh-nh/N

(see table 1). This technique was adopted because

of peculiarity of the clinics.

Table 1: Sampling fraction for stratum

Clinics Nh Nh

1 18 =16

2 19 =17

3 18 =15

4 16 =14

5 15 =12

6 17 =16

103 90

The study ran for three months (August-October,

2019). The purpose of the study was explained

and informed consent also obtained from the

participants. A total of 100 questionnaires were

distributed among the women on clinic days. 94

questionnaires were returned out of which 90

were found useful, representing 90.0 percent. The

instruments include; A five-item Health

Information Competency Scale developed in

previous CHESS (Comprehensive Health

Enhancement Support System) studies, to assess

the respondent’s perception the respondents get

and use health information, while barriers to

Information Access Scale (Arora et al. 2002) was

modified to assess if participants had difficulty

finding health information.

V. DATA ANALYSIS 

Sample characteristics and variable distribution

were described using tables, frequency counts,

means and percentages. Some results were

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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria

analysed using Statistical method of Summation

of Weighted Values (SWV). Likert scale 5 ratings

namely: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree

(D) and Strongly Disagree (SD), Undecided (1)

corresponding to scales of preference of 5, 4, 3, 2,

1 respectively was used in the instrument. Data

were analysed using the statistical package for the

social sciences (SPSS version 7.0) software, and

applying chi-squire test, t-test and spear

correlation test to determine the level of

significance.

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

6.1 Results 

Socio-Demographic variable of the respondents

(Table 2) showed that many (51.1%) were in the

range of 26-35 years, while few (11.1%) per cent

were within 36 and 50 years. The mean age was

30 years. Fifty-six per cent (55.6%) of the

respondents were civil servants, 13.3 per cent

were full housewives while 31.1 per cent were

self-employed/petty traders. Educational

background of the respondents revealed that

primary school certificate holders were 1.1%,

secondary school certificate (28.9%), and higher

education (62.2%) while 7.8% had non-formal

education.

 

Table 2: Socio-Demographic Variable of Respondents

Frequency Percentage

Age

Under 18 years 19 21.1%

18-25 years 15 16.7%

26-35 years 46 51.1%

36-50 years 10 11.1%

Total 90 100.0%

Occupation

Civil Servant 50 55.6%

Full housewife 12 13.3%

Self-employed/Petty

trader 28 31.1%

Total 90 100.0%

Education

Attained

Primary School 1 1.1%

Secondary 26 28.9%

Higher education 56 62.2%

Non-formal 7 7.8%

Total 90 100.0%

Figure 1 showed the importance of

socio-economic status of pregnant women in

meeting and caring for their pregnancies cannot

be detached from education and economic status.

Many (44.5%) of the pregnant women earned

between #31, 000 -#40, 000 per month, 13.3%

earned between #21, 000 - #30, 000 per month,

22.2% received between #11, 000 - #20, 000, and

15.6% earned less than #10, 000 per month (see

fig, 1). (#450.00 = US $ 1.00). Most of the

pregnant women sampled earned less than

$89.00 per month, the amount which is not

enough to maintain a family. This result agrees

with Shelly (2002) that about 1.2 million people in

the developing world are absolutely poor with

only a dollar a day to meet food, shelter and other

basic

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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria

Figure 1: Pie-Chart showing the income level of respondents per month

Parity: Table 3 revealed that 24.4% of the

respondents were 1sttime pregnant, 31.1% were

2ndtimer, 24.4% 3rd

timer, while 20.0% were at

4th and above pregnancy.

Table 3: Frequency table showing number of

Parity

Items Frequency Percentage

1st time Pregnant 22 24.4

2nd Pregnant 28 31.1

3rd Pregnant 22 24.4

4th above 18 20.0

Total 90 100.0

as their source of health information. Television,

friends and healthcare providers also serve as

good sources of health information. The findings

revealed that the newspaper, library,

family/relatives, posters were less frequently used

as sources of health information. Food labels also

serve as a good source of health information as

they are easily scanned through before purchase

for consumption. The result also revealed a good

frequency on the use of public health campaign as

a source of health information among the

respondents.

 

Figure 2: Sources of Health Information by the Respondents

Table 4 respondents’ Health Information

Accessibility level index reveals that 2.99 of the

respondents strongly agreed that they could easily

locate diverse sources of health information when

making nutritional choices while 2.95 cannot

confidently and easily locate such diverse sources.

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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria

Less N10,000(15.6%)

N11,000-N20,000(22.2%)

N21,000-N30,000(13.3%)

N31,000-N40,000(44.5%)

above N40,000(4.4%)

Income

Sources of information: Figure 2 showed that

majority of the respondents frequently use radio

0

20

40

60 Health Information Sources

Most Frequently Frequently Less Frequently

2.91 of the respondents agreed to have got the

skill to access various sources of health

information when they needed to make diet

choices, however, 2.79 showed non-confidence in

accessing information when needed to make diet

choices and few (2.71index) of the women could

access health information resources without any

form of assistance. This is followed by those who

can only access health information on ante-natal

visiting day with index of 2.68. Those who could

not access health information because of health

information were not readily available had index

of 2.32, moreover, facilities like library,

information centers, and internet not being

available to provide health information, coupled

with information centers not found in the

respondent’s locality recorded indexes of 2.24 and

2.14 respectively.

Table 4: Respondents’ Health Information Accessibility level

S/N Health Information Accessibility Level SA

4

A

3

D

2

SD

1 Total Index

1

I feel fit to do every task because I always

access health information needed for my

pregnancy growth

120 126 14 9 269 2.99

2

I can easily locate various sources of health

information when making nutritional

choices

76 159 26 5 266 2.95

3 I know how to access health information

when I need to make diet choices 92 126 38 6 262 2.91

4 I find it easy to locate, access and use

health information for health living 68

13

8 36 9 251 2.79

5 I don’t have frequent contact with

healthcare providers for health information 68 57 70 19 214 2.78

6 I can access health information without

any form of assistance 88 84 64 8 244 2.71

7 I can only access health information on

ante-natal visiting day 84 87 60 10 241 2.68

8 I cannot access health information because

it is not readily available 60 57 72 20 209 2.32

9

Facilities like library, information centers,

and internet are not available to provide

health information

48 75 52 27 202 2.24

10 Information centers are not found in my

locality 36 63 68 26 193 2.14

Health Information competence level of the

respondents: Table 5 showed, 87.8% of the

respondents agreed that they know exactly what

they want to learn about their healthcare, 5.6%

could not decide while 6.6% showed they did not.

Majority (85.6%) indicated that they could

check/access health information from different

sources with ease, but 7.8% would not be able,

and 6.7% were undecided. Also, 53.3% of the

respondents found health information more

difficult to obtain than other types of information,

but 35.5% disagreed, whereas 11.1% could not

decide. The results showed that majority (88.9%)

of the respondents were satisfied with the way

they currently learn about health issues however,

8.9% of the respondents disagreed. Also, 68.9%

felt they are in control of how and what they have

as health information as against 18.9% who

disagreed while 12.2% could not decide on the

item.

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Table 5: Health Information Competence level of the Respondents

Items Agree Undecided Disagree

Freq % Freq % Freq %

I know exactly what it is that I want to learn

about my healthcare 79 87.8 5 5.6 6 6.6

I can check for health information from

different sources with ease 76 85.6 6 6.7 7 7.8

Health information is more difficult for me to

obtain than other types of information 48 53.3 10 11.1 32 35.5

I am satisfied with the way I currently learn

about health issues 80 88.9 2 2.2 8 8.9

I feel that I am in control over how and what

I have as health information 62 68.9 11 12.2 17 18.9

Health Information Access Barriers: Table 6

revealed identified barriers to adequate health

information which includes: lack of

seminar/workshop to sensitize the respondents

on relevant health information and the perception

that health information can only be given by

health workers, and never mind to access other

sources ranked highest in what constitute barriers

to information accessibility among the pregnant

women under study with index of 3.50 each,

followed by facilities needed to access health

information being sited far away from

respondents locality with index of 3.46. The

non-recognition of library to provide adequate

health information as other sources recorded

index of 3.32, followed by lack of knowledge of the

need for health information during pregnancy

and, Library not made available within

respondent’s locality to provide health

information ranked equal with indexes of 3.29

respectively. Other barriers like culture/tradition

e.g. certain taboo forbidding one from eating

certain food despite adequate health information,

one’s religion not supporting compliance with

certain healthcare even with access to health

information (e.g. blood transmission/use of

drugs) and respondents not knowing where to

find health information recorded indexes of 2.9,

2.76,and 2.54 respectively, while those who

perceived they do not need health information to

guide their nutritional choice ranked lowest with

index of 2.43. All these constitute barriers to easy

accessibility of health information among the

respondents in different dimensions and levels as

revealed from table 5 above.

Table 6: Health Information Access Barriers

S/N Items SA

5

A

4

U

3

D

2

SD

1

Tot

al Index

1

There is Lack of seminar/workshop on

health information for pregnant women

in my community

200 20 30 60 5 315 3.5

2

Health information can only be given by

hospital and doctors, and never mind to

access other sources

200 36 27 40 12 315 3.5

3

Facilities needed to access health

information are sited far away from my

locality

175 40 51 36 10 312 3.46

4 Library cannot provide adequate health

information as other sources 200 4 24 60 11 299 3.32

5

I have no knowledge of the need for

health information during pregnancy 175 40 9 60 12 269 3.29

6 Library is not available in my locality to 200 36 24 6 30 296 3.29

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provide health information

7

My culture/tradition e.g. certain taboo

forbid me from eating certain food

despite adequate health information

85 52 27 92 5 261 2.9

8

My religion does not support compliance

with certain healthcare even with access

to health information (e.g. blood

transmission/use of drugs)

50 76 30 82 10 248 2.76

9

I do not know where to find health

Information

- 96 48 80 5 229 2.54

10

I do not believe I need health

information to guide my nutritional

choice

- 132 39 8 40 219 2.43

Hypotheses Testing

HO1: There will be no significant relationship

between Health Information competence level of

the respondents and health status. Table 7 showed

that rcal

(0.390) is greater than rtab

(0.174) at 0. 05

level of significance. The null hypothesis (H0) is

therefore not accepted which implies that there is

a significant relationship between Health

Information competence level of the respondents

and health status.

Table 7: PPMCC showing the relationship between Health Information competence level of the

respondents and health status

Variable N

S.D Df rcal

rtab

Health Information

competence level

90 2.01 1.011

89 0.390 0.174

90 1.84 0.860

p < 0.05

HO2: There will be no significant relationship

between Health Information accessibility level

and improvement of their nutritional choices for

healthy living. Table 7 showed that rcal

(0.338) is

greater than rtab

(0.174) at 0. 05 level of

significance. The null hypothesis (H0) is therefore

rejected which implies that there is a significant

relationship between Health Information

accessibility level and improvement of their

nutritional choices for healthy living.

Table 7: PPMCC showing the relationship between Health Information competence level of the

respondents and health status

Variable N

S.D Df rcal rtab

Health Information

competence level

90 2.01 1.011

89 0.390 0.174

Health Status 90 1.84 0.860

p < 0.05

VII. DISCUSSION 

Human being requires food to grow, reproduce

and maintain good health. Behavioural changes

are necessary to assist mother to change their

eating habits and practices that contribute to

nutritional deficits. Knowledge of health

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information serves as a basis for managing

uncertainty, coping with change and maintaining

some control regarding health decisions.

The study revealed that majority of the

respondents who attended pre-natal clinic were

within ages 26 and 35, and married. Most of them

were civil servants (55.6%) who had

post-secondary qualifications. This could have

been responsible for their information

consciousness and clinic attendance as just a few

pregnant women (7.8%) with non-formal

education/illiterates did not attend pre-natal

clinic regularly throughout the period (3-months)

of this study. This corroborates the findings of

Ajayi & Adewale (2010) that mother are under

privileged and poorly educated in Nigeria and that

they cannot recognise a health information need,

identify likely information sources, and cannot

even use information to make good decision. The

study also revealed that monthly income for

individual in Nigeria is still very low. The highest

paid among the respondents receive between N31,

000-N40, 000 ($83.68-$119.5) monthly while

some still receive as low as N10, 000 ($39.8) per

month. The poor income must have also been

responsible for the bulk of illiterates who ignore

clinics for lack of money to pay hospital bills

(Finlayson & Downe, 2015). This agrees with

Titaley et al. (2010) posits that financial difficulty

emerged as the major issue among women who

did not fulfil the minimum requirement for

antenatal care services. This was related to the

cost of health services and transportation costs.

The findings also showed that healthcare

providers followed by clergy/pastor, and radio in

order of preference were the most sought sources

of health information. This conformed to

Aaronson and Pfoutz (2015) that healthcare

provider was the most important by the largest

number of pregnant women studied. Reason

attributed to this was that women who perceived

more support from their provider viewed them as

more important source of information. This

therefore contradicted the finding of Schiwartz,

Woloshin and Baazek (2000) that consumers get

most of their nutrition information from

television.

The result indicated that accessibility to health

information is high among the respondents.

Those who claimed to feel fit to do every task due

to healthy nutritional choices as a result of

adequate health information at their disposal

ranked highest followed by those who could easily

locate various available sources of health

information. The findings also revealed that there

is a correlation between respondent’s information

accessibility level on the promotion of nutritional

choice and behavioural change. Cohen (2003) was

of the opinion that nutritional information could

also aid in avoiding stressful life events or

avoiding exposure to infections or carcinogenic

agents. The competence level is also found to be

high among the respondents .Those who know

exact information to seek has the highest.

VIII. CONCLUSION  

Understanding of health information as a factor

influencing women’s dietary choices is central to

motivating positive dietary behaviour before,

during and after pregnancy. It enables interested

health professionals and policymakers to identify

efficient strategies for improving healthy food

choices among pregnant women. Accessibility to

health information was high among those civil

servants with post-secondary qualifications

(educated) while very few with non-formal

education (illiterates) attended pre-natal clinic

indicating low information literacy. Poverty and

cultural/traditional beliefs affected the

respondents’ nutritional practices within the

community. Healthcare providers and pastors

were the major sources of health information

with little concern about the libraries.

IX. RECOMMENDATIONS 

Library should stand out through its mobile

services in providing educational packages to be

based on a careful community survey of cultural

beliefs and general knowledge about health

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Influence of Health Information in Promoting Good Nutritional Practices and Behavioural Change Among Pregnant Women in South- West, Nigeria

practices during pregnancy. This will allow

programs to respond to taboos/beliefs and/or at

least recognize when information disseminated is

contradicting local beliefs held by the women

themselves, friends, and family.

Various government agencies should adopt

persuasive communication methods, directed at

target audiences to aid in educating and

influencing women in their child-bearing years

and providing pregnant women with automated

daily feedback regarding their adherence with

dietary recommendations. This would promote

positive diet practices through presenting series

related to nutrition with emphasis on preparing

healthy meals, considering socio-economic status

of all population and common health problems in

the community.

Nigeria’s investment in nutrition education

should further improve in diets promotion for

healthy living among low-income women.

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ABSTRACT

382U

LJP Copyright ID: 573344Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Migration in the Mekong Sub Region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social

Welfare ArrangementThitiwan Sricharoen

The research has purpose to analyze factors affecting on labor migration of 3 nationalities (Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao PDR) in Thailand, and investigate the demand on social welfare. The sample was 511 workers, divided into 211 Cambodian workers, 150 Myanmar workers and 150 Lao workers. Data collection use specific sampling method. Data analysis applies logistic regression analysis. Research found that most of the workers are female (53.82%). Most of them are married (57.93%). The average age is 30 years. The average education is primary. They are mostly MOU worker (66.93%). Factors influencing migration are income before migration, knowledge and attitude towards Thailand, own house belonging at home, number of family member living in Thailand, difficulties of finding work at home and career opportunities in hometowns. Policy recommendations are: 1) Medical welfare arrangement, 2) The provision of educational welfare for foreign children, 3) State welfare assistance, 4) development procedures for foreign registration, passport making, extension of visa and work permit, 5) Increasing officers and doing online database, 6) Official announcements through various media in Myanmar, Cambodian and Lao language, 7) Charging fees appropriately, 8) Encourage good relationship between employer and employee, 9) Labor protection, 10) Organizing foreign workers into the system.

Keywords: greater mekong sub region, inter- national migration, myanmar, cambodia, lao pdr.

Classification: FOR Code: 160799

Language: English

© 2020. Thitiwan Sricharoen. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Migration in the Mekong Sub Region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and 

Social Welfare Arrangement Thitiwan Sricharoen 

___________________________________________

ABSTRACT 

The research has purpose to analyze factors

affecting on labor migration of 3 nationalities

(Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao PDR) in

Thailand, and investigate the demand on social

welfare. The sample was 511 workers, divided

into 211 Cambodian workers, 150 Myanmar

workers and 150 Lao workers. Data collection

use specific sampling method. Data analysis

applies logistic regression analysis. Research

found that most of the workers are female

(53.82%). Most of them are married (57.93%).

The average age is 30 years. The average

education is primary. They are mostly MOU

worker (66.93%). Factors influencing migration

are income before migration, knowledge and

attitude towards Thailand, own house belonging

at home, number of family member living in

Thailand, difficulties of finding work at home

and career opportunities in hometowns. Policy

recommendations are: 1) Medical welfare

arrangement, 2) The provision of educational

welfare for foreign children, 3) State welfare

assistance, 4) development procedures for

foreign registration, passport making, extension

of visa and work permit, 5) Increasing officers

and doing online database, 6) Official

announcements through various media in

Myanmar, Cambodian and Lao language, 7)

Charging fees appropriately, 8) Encourage good

relationship between employer and employee, 9)

Labor protection, 10) Organizing foreign

workers into the system.

Keywords: greater mekong sub region, inter-

national migration, myanmar, cambodia, lao pdr.

I. INTRODUCTION 

The large flows of migrant labor taking place in

the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) reflect the

uneven pace of development among the eco-

nomies that constitute the sub region, as well as

the demographic disparities in its individual

societies. Thailand, which is a driving force of

economic expansion in the sub region, currently

hosts the largest population of migrant workers in

the GMS (Figure 1). Economic development in the

GMS has been consistently strong over the last 10

years and the migration of workers within the sub

region has been an important factor in that

development. The rapid improvement in

transport infrastructure throughout the sub

region has also greatly contributed to faster

movement of both goods and people. Although

economic and demographic factors would be

enough to drive labor migration, these flows are

further facilitated by such factors as cultural

similarities, population diasporas, and construc-

tion of highways. All these factors are producing

profound changes in trade and connectivity within

the sub region. In part, the sub region’s compe-

titiveness depends on labor migration because it

contributes to a flexible regional labor market that

makes the GMS more productive, more efficient,

and more competitive (ADB, 2009).

These three foreign national workers are like a

backlash in driving the economy of Thailand.

Accepted that Thailand has changed the

population structure by Thailand is changing to

the elderly society. The population has a longer

life expectancy. The achievement of population

control policy has exceeded expectations. The rate

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31 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

of population is likely to decrease. Thailand has

reduced the population of children and working

age due to Thai populations have higher

education. Therefore, they decide to delay the

marriage and have more family planning. This is

causing severe population shortage. In addition,

there are many types of work that Thai people do

not do such as risky work, hard work, dirty work,

lower level jobs, fishing jobs, construction work,

and house cleaning works. Moreover, The Thai

economy is growing every year, causing the

industrial sector to have more labor needs.

Migrant labor plays an important role. It can be

seen that at one point of the time the Cambodian

workers moved back to the country only a

hundred thousand people. The effect is severe,

causing business owners and industry to come out

to request the government assistance. The

industrial sector requires a lot of labor to drive or

increase production. Businesses still have to rely

on foreign workers. Thai workers with secondary

education or higher are moving to work in

factories that use machinery as a basis, or

businesses that have more benefits and rewards

that are worthwhile.

Source: United Nation, 2017.

Figure 1: Average annual rate of change in the number of international migrants by country or area of

destination, 2000 to 2017

Presently, Thailand encounter with the foreign

competitors that move the production base to the

low cost production country. This is the incentive

for a numerous foreign workers returning back

home, which lead Thai business owner’s

encounter more difficulties to seek labor. For

example, China is the largest global producers,

which is the destination for foreign direct

investment. At the same time, China has a mega

investment project in developing countries such

as Myanmar, Lao and Vietnam, which have

comparative advantage on low wage cost.

Although a hundred thousand foreign labor

moves back home in some period, but Thailand is

still being the destination of migration. The

empirical data present that the three nationalities

of foreign workers who received work permit

throughout the whole kingdom have increased

reach to two million people. The number of non

registered or non recorded alien workers

estimates a lot of million people. These illegal

aliens are as invisible person in Thai society. Until

now, we cannot deny that aliens with any

nationality are a part of Thai society and become

more and more significance on Thai economy.

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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

How can we make these workers to have identity?

How can we make these workers be in the system

that can be checked? How can we make these

workers have the position? How do we know

where these workers live in Thailand? These are

the criticism in Thai society. Meanwhile, in an

international perspective, Thailand is being under

watched from Asian and the International Labor

Organization for labor treatment in accordance

with human rights. Therefore, Thai government

attempts to improve the suitable foreign worker

management that consists to the human rights

and the international labor organization standard.

The important of alien workers in Thailand

become more and more important because

Thailand lacks a lot of labor. It can be seen that

the aliens working in Thailand tend to increase.

Based on information from the Office of Foreign

Workers Administration, the Ministry of Labor of

Thailand found that between 2007 and 2017, the

number of aliens that had work permit in

Thailand was average annually 1,360,999 persons.

The average of percentage changes of work

permitted aliens increase 16.49 percent per year.

The number of alien workers increased sharply in

2009 and 2011 (Figure 2). Beyond the shortage

labor of Thailand, the causes of migration into

Thailand are because the economic conditions

and currency values of Thailand is better than

neighboring countries. In addition, labors

smuggled into Thailand easily and entered in

many routes. It may be because workers are not

afraid of punishment according to the laws of

Thailand. Hundreds of thousands of workers

remain in Thailand because government can not

send smuggled labors back to the country of

origin due to they are minorities and are stateless.

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2007-2017.

Figure 2: The number of migrant labors who have received work permit remaining throughout

Thailand

Figure 3 is the comparison of number of legally

three nationality aliens (Myanmar, Cambodia,

and Lao) and other nationality aliens who have

received work permit remaining throughout the

Kingdom during 2008 to 2017. It presents that

the three nationality alien account for 80% of total

alien in Thailand. Besides, its number has been

increased annually from 88,076 persons in 2007

to 1,831,337 persons in December 2017. It means

that in past decade, these aliens increased 1,979%.

It has a dramatic increased during 2008 to 2017.

While other nationality alien workers who come

to work legally increased dramatically in the year

of 2009 and 2011. In 2009, the number increase

up to 1,439,541 persons. Since 2012, the number

of other nationality aliens had suddenly dropped.

On December 2017, there were 231,470 persons.

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33 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

708,976790,664

1,544,9021,335,155

1,950,650

1,133,8511,183,835

1,339,8341,443,474

1,476,841

2,062,807

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

Dec

.200

7

Dec

.200

8

Dec

.200

9

Dec

.201

0

Dec

.201

1

Dec

.201

2

Dec

.201

3

Dec

.201

4

Dec

.201

5

Dec

.201

6

Dec

.201

7

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2007-2017.

Figure 3: The number of legally three nationality aliens (Myanmar, Cambodia, and Lao) and other

nationality aliens who have received work permit remaining throughout Thailand during 2008 to 2017

These foreign workers are the power to drive the

Thai economy. Most of them are workers who

work in Thailand in the position of laborers or

domestic servants. According to the

Memorandum of Understanding on Employment

between Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao,

to replace the lacking of Thai worker, including

smuggle migrant workers received a status

adjustment as a legally immigrant. Legally three

nationality aliens are mostly come from

Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao because these

workers are feel familiar with Thai culture and are

similar in language (Foreign Workers

Administration Office, 2017).

The increasing of the migration is also leading

numerous problems. Handle the migration effects

are also be the challenge. It is not only the more

legal migrant workers to Thailand, but also the

more illegal migrant workers come to Thailand. It

can be seen that Thai authorities have seized a

large number of fleeing workers and returned

them home. However, the problem is still

endless. They are also trying to return to Thailand

in different ways such as even smuggling workers

lie over each other in a cargo car and some died,

they still smuggling into Thailand continuously.

Workers are willing to pay a high rate for the

domestic recruitment agencies to send themselves

to work in Thailand. In some cases, fraud is

caused by recruitment companies. Many workers

are disappointed that they do not work in the

manner they want to do. Many fleeing workers are

not protected by law. During the carrying

smuggling workers to Thailand, if the agency

encounters the inspection of policeman, they

escape and leave these workers during the way.

Some workers were killed and left in the sea. Even

though these things were occurred, these workers

still have a need to work in Thailand. Hence, the

study of migration motivation is important along

with finding solution to various problems that

arise. Although there has been research for a long

time; many findings have not yet been

implemented until now. The problems will

intensify. The government tried to solve the

problem. Until 2010, illegal foreign workers

decreased but there still have many other

challenges such as there is a part of a million

illegal workers register with Foreign Workers

Administration Office.

Finally, Thailand must be a leader in pushing

forward the ASEAN framework for migration by

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34 © 2020 London Journals PressVolume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

88,076 105,361 271,443

577,594 826,868

1,021,172 1,177,629

1,268,685 1,290,577

1,831,337

702,588

1,439,541

1,063,712

1,373,056

306,983 162,663 162,205 174,789 186,264

231,470

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,008 2,009 2,010 2,011 2,012 2,013 2,014 2,015 2,016 2,017Legally 3 Nationality Aliens (Myanmar, Cambodian, Lao)Other Nationality Alien

working with partners in this region to create a

holistic regional solution to meet the challenges

arising from migration within this region (Thai

AEC, 2012). One of the most important policies

for Thailand is long term migration policy that has

been carefully considered by aiming to promote

economic benefits, national security and human

security for Thai people and foreigner equally.

Policy that requires the establishment of an

independent manage migration organization and

work effectively. In addition, the policy that

manages the registration of aliens effective and

transparent. Labor migration is significance on

economic, politic and society. Migration has an

affect each other on international relationship

between Thailand and neighboring countries.

Hence, welfare arrangement and labor protection

are very important.

II. METHODS 

The purposes of research are to describe the

migration characteristics, analyze factors affecting

on labor migration of Burmese, Cambodian and

Laotian to Thailand, and investigate the demand

on social welfare. The analysis of factors affecting

on migration of migrant workers in Thailand

applies Binary Logistic Regression Model to

analyze the relationship of independent and

dependent variable. The equation is as below.

Binary Logistic apply X as dependent factor. Variable X is dichotomous variable.

X = 1 Labor have demand to migrate

X = 0 Labor do not have demant to migrate

Factors affecting on migration of foreign workers (Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao) to Thailand are

consist of the following variables.

Personal factors:

1. SEX Male

2. AGE Age

3. EDU Educational level

4. DEBT Debt

5. STATUS Marital status

6. UNEMPLOY Being unemployment

7. INCOMEt-1

Income before migration of labor

8. INCOME Present income of labor

9. EMPLOYER Ratio of employed family worker to total family members

10. ATTITUDE Knowledge and attitude toward Thailand

11. OWNHOUSE Having own house at home country

12. FAMMEMB Number of family member living in Thailand

Factors relate to home country or country of origin:

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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

Pr(𝑌𝑌 = 1) = 11+𝑒𝑒−𝑥𝑥

(1)

X = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1SEX + 𝛽𝛽2AGE + 𝛽𝛽3EDU + 𝛽𝛽4DEBT + 𝛽𝛽5 STATUS+ 𝛽𝛽6 UNEMPLOY+ 𝛽𝛽7𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽8 INCOME + 𝛽𝛽9 EMPLOYRT + 𝛽𝛽10 ATTITUDE+ 𝛽𝛽11 OWNHOUSE + 𝛽𝛽12FAMMEMB + 𝛽𝛽13DIFFICULT+ 𝛽𝛽14𝑈𝑈𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽15 DRYWEAT+ 𝛽𝛽16 POOR + 𝛽𝛽17 LOWINCOM+ 𝛽𝛽18 POLITIC + 𝛽𝛽19 OPPORTU + 𝛽𝛽20 WELFARE + 𝛽𝛽21 DISTANCE+ 𝛽𝛽22 DIFINCOM + 𝛽𝛽23 POPDENS + 𝛽𝛽24 AREA + 𝛽𝛽25 NONFARM+ 𝛽𝛽26 GETJOB (2)

15. DRYWEAT Arid climate that is not favorable for agriculture

16. POOR Difficulties and poverty in the country of origin

17. LOWINCOM Low wage level compared to foreign countries

18. POLITIC Unstable social and political of home country

19. OPPORTU Career opportunities

20. WELFARE Welfare and public utilities

Factors relate to destination country:

21. DISTANCE Distance between the country of origin and destination country

22. DIFINCOM Income difference between destination country and country of origin

23. POPDENS Population density between destination country and country of origin

24. AREA Area size ratio between destination country and country of origin

25. NONFARM Working on non farm sector

26. GETJOB Having a work position in Thailand

Results: Qualitative Analysis of Migration in

Thailand

This study provides background information

about labor migration in the subregion, which

comprises of migration of Myanmar, Cambodia,

the Lao PDR and Thailand. As Thailand is the

most favorable destination for migrant labor. The

migrations of more than one hundred thousand

labors of the study countries had been discussed.

According to the migration of Burmese in 2017,

the majority of Burmese migrants came to

Thailand up to 1,835,106 people, followed by

migration to Malaysia (308,337 people), Saudi

Arabia (242,510 people), Bangladesh (239,742

people) and USA (142,494 people). For the

migration of Cambodian in same period, it

discovered that the Cambodian people migrate to

Thailand for the most number of 750,109 people.

The next biggest category was their migration to

the USA, accounted for 152,415 people. Note to

migration of the Laotian, it observed that most of

Lao people migrated to Thailand and USA, with

926,427 people and 183,894 people respectively

(Figure 4).

Reference to figure 5a reveals that on September

2018 migrant labor from Myanmar to work in

Thailand was at 67% of total three nationality

migrant labors, followed by Cambodian labor,

account for 22%, and Laotian amount for 11%.

The migrant labors were divided into two types,

which are, proving the original nationality and

import according to MOU type. Turning to figure

5b which is the type of proving the original

nationality, it presented the information that

Burmese labor contains the highest percentage of

about 80%. The rest was migrant labor from

Cambodia (13%) and Lao (7%). Figure 5b present

the type of import migrant labors according to the

memorandum of understanding, which are most

common in Burmese labor with 46%, come after

with the Cambodian with 36% and Laotian with

18% (Figure 5).

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13. DIFFICULT Difficulties in finding work at home country

14. UNEMPLOYt-1

The unemployment of worker at home country

Source: World Bank, 2018.

Figure 4: International migration of Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao and Thailand in 2017  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2018.

Figure 5: Migrant labors (Burmese, Cambodian and Laotian) in Thailand classified by country of origin

and type of labor

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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

1,835,106 persons926,427 persons

750,109 persons

Migrant Labor from Myanmar to Country (Persons):1.Thailand1,835,106 2.Malaysia 308,3373.Saudi Arabia 242,5104.Bangladesh 239,7425.USA142,4946.India 50,0817.China 39,7768.Australia32,5409.Vietnam 11,695

Migrant Labor from Cambodia to Country (Persons):1.Thailand750,1092.USA 152,415 3.France64,3064.Australia36,9205.Canada27,6186.Bangladesh 20,1097.Malaysia 17,226 8.South Korea 14,550

Migrant Labor from Lao to Country (Persons):1.Thailand926,4272.USA 183,8943.Bangladesh90,2534.France 43,524 5.Canada 16,631 6.Australia 11,660

Migrant Labor from Thailand to Country (Persons):1.USA 253,5852.Malaysia 93,6353.Australia 72,2504.Germany 61,0005.Japan 47,047 6.UK 41,353 7.Sweden 38,792 8.South Korea 34,372 9.Cambodia 31,791 10.Brunei25,451

Myanmar1,423,595

67%

Cambodia463,525

22%

Lao240,133

11%

A: Total Migration Labor: Proving the Original Nationality Type and Import

according to MOU Type

Myanmar 1,038,584 79.94%Cambodia

165,480 13%

Lao 95,157

7%

B: Proving the Original Nationality Type

Myanmar385,011

46%

Cambodia298,045

36%

Lao144,976 18%

C: Import according to MOU Type

Results: Descriptive Analysis of Migrant Labors

(Burmese, Cambodian and Laotian) in Thailand

Data is collected of totally 511 migrant labors.

Three nationalities of migrant labors are Burmese,

Cambodian and Laotian. Research results indicate

that the age of migrant labors are highest in the

range of 25-29 years. Family sizes of migrant

labors are on average of 3-4 persons (32.57%).

The numbers of migrating people in each

household has an average of 2 people. The average

number of working people in household is 3

people. The type of business that migrant workers

do the most is construction (41.1%). The number

of times that workers come to Thailand is on

average 2 times. The migrant labor has lived in

Thailand for an average of 6 years. Most workers

agree that migration is worth. Most of them do

not have Thai friends. Most of them are

persuaded to work in Thailand (57.53%). They

mostly use personal money for migration. Main

reasons of migration, firstly, Thailand has the

better opportunity to work and higher income

than home country (30.92%), secondly is the

unemployment rate at home (27.2%), and thirdly

is poverty situation (19.37%). Average monthly

income of worker is 9,554 Baht. Average monthly

expenditure is 4,486 Baht. Most workers do not

have debts. The average remittance or the money

that migrant workers transfer to their dependents

in the sending countries is 2,627 Baht per month.

The remittance increases the income of the

recipient households, which contribute signifi-

cantly to poverty reduction. Most of the workers

are responsible for only some part of family

expenses. Most of them were unemployed before

migration. Most of their former occupation is

agriculture. Average wage before migration was at

106 Baht per day. Almost all of them face the

difficulty in finding work at home country.

Difficulties in finding work are agreed by 86.67%

of the interviewed Burmese, 83.41% of

Cambodian and 60.67% of Laotian. A little bit

more than a half (56.16%) of total labors says that

they lived at parent’s home before migration.

41.29% of total workers migrate with their

siblings. Around one third (31.31%) migrate alone.

Interestingly, whole family migration is found in

some Cambodian and Burmese family. The

average number of followers is 2 people.

According to the demand on welfare arrangement,

it reflects that migrant labors are mostly demand

on health care and medical treatment, with the

highest score of 4.22. The next biggest category is

welfare for children traveling with immigrants,

with high score of 3.67. The demand on social

welfare by the state ranks third with average score

of 3.61. The other demands on welfare

arrangement are life and property security

welfare, social security welfare, and cheap

accommodation provision welfare, respectively.

Table 1: Demand on welfare arrangement

Demand on welfare Mean Std.

Deviation Meaning

1. Health care and medical treatment welfare 4.22 1.28 High

2. Foreign children welfare 3.67 1.42 High

3. Social welfare by the state 3.61 1.39 High

4. Life and property security welfare 3.59 1.48 High

5. Social security welfare 3.59 1.39 High

6. Providing cheap accommodation welfare 3.37 1.58 High

7. Social welfare by the NGO 3.36 1.44 High

Source: Own calculation.

Regarding the demand on facilitation

development, firstly, most migrant laborers want

the government to improve the procedure and

duration of alien registration, passport making,

visa extension and work permit (Mean is at 4.19).

Secondly, laborers want the government to

consider whether the fee adjustment should not

be too expensive (Mean is at 3.88). Thirdly,

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laborers want the government to prolong working

periods of migrant workers in Thailand (Mean is

at 3.87). Other demands are the development of

access to the education and public health services,

reducing the process of recruitment companies in

providing labor to work in Thailand, and

developing the regulations that are conducive to

short-term work in Thailand.

Table 2: Demand on facilitation development

Policy on Facilitation Development Mean Std.

Deviation Meaning

1.Development of the procedure and duration of alien registration,

passport making, visa extension and work permit 4.19 1.21 High

2. Development of fee adjustment 3.88 1.29 High

3. Development of allowing longer working periods in Thailand 3.87 1.31 High

4. Development of accessing to the education and public health

services 3.82 1.26 High

5. Development of reducing the process of recruitment companies 3.56 1.33 High

6. Development of regulations of short-term work 3.50 1.21 Medium

Source: Own calculation.

Concerning to the policy of improvement of

working condition in Thailand, it’s important to

keep in mind that country with a large proportion

of migrant labors may experience various

problems related to employment. As a matter of

fact, migrant labor raises the policy to solve

working problems. First of all, migrant labor want

employer to have a good practice (Mean equal to

4.06). Additionally, they need to have labor

protection from exploitation at high level (Mean

equal to 3.94). The next demand is the demand on

changing working place freely (Mean equal to

3.69). Lastly are other demands such as demand

on Thai government and local government to join

together to solve labor problems, demand on

complaint mechanism, and demand on the

attitude adjustment of Thai people towards

foreign workers.

Table 3: Demand of migrant labor for the policy of improvement of working condition in Thailand

Policy to develop and solve migrant labor problems Mean Std.

Deviation Meaning

1. Demand on employer to have a good labor practice 4.06 1.34 High

2. Demand on labor protection 3.94 1.28 High

3. Demand on changing employer and working place freely 3.69 1.32 High

4. Demand on Thai government and local government to jointly

solve labor problems 3.43 1.31 Medium

5. Demand on complaint mechanism 3.37 1.32 Medium

6. Demand on attitude adjustment of Thai people towards

foreign workers 3.20 1.29 Medium

Source: Own calculation.

It is vital to note that the policy of foreign worker

management is significance. First, it turns out

that workers give an important on the legally

registration of foreign workers at the highest level

with the average of 3.84. The next issue that be

ranked at high level is the allowing foreign

workers to become legal immigrant (Mean is

3.81). Furthermore, from workers point of view

that the management of recruitment companies

should be legally (Mean is 3.66). Besides, workers

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give an opinion that there should have the

cooperative between both side of the government

in establishing a labor recruitment center at the

country of origin (Mean is 3.64). In addition,

workers think that government should have a

flexible management on the smuggling people

into Thailand and the sending offenders back to

their country (Mean is 3.62). Moreover, workers

notice that government should have the relaxation

law for the smuggling people (Mean is 2.62). To

add to it, it seems to them want government to

consider the nationality of foreign children who

born in Thailand (Mean is 3.61). What’s more, to

their way of thinking about the specifying the job

features that the factory needs in order to reduce

the problem of using the wrong type of labor and

to prevent oppression of wages and exploiting

labor (Mean is 3.51). Then, workers suggest about

border management (Mean is 3.50). As a matter

of fact, border is messy with thousands of people.

Another issues that rank at medium level are the

anti-human trafficking and child labor uses (Mean

is 3.40), the relaxing of using unskilled foreign

workers (Mean is 3.30) and the establishing

online foreign worker database (Mean is 2.89).

Table 4: Demand for thePolicy of Migrant Worker Management

Policy of Migrant Labor Management Mean Std.

Deviation Meaning

1. The legally registration of foreign workers 3.84 1.19 High

2. The allowing aliens to become legal immigrant 3.81 1.15 High

3. The management of recruitment companies to be legal 3.66 1.29 High

4. The setting up a labor recruitment center from the country of

origin 3.64 1.31 High

5. The management of smuggling people into Thailand and the

sending offenders back to their country 3.62 1.42 High

6. The relaxation law for the smuggling people 3.62 1.36 High

7. The consideration of nationality for foreign children born in

Thailand 3.61 1.31 High

8. The specifying the job features that the factory needs in order

to reduce the problem of using the wrong type of labor and to

prevent oppression of wages and exploiting labor

3.51 1.31 High

9. The development of border management 3.50 1.39 High

10.The anti-human trafficking and child labor 3.40 1.41 Medium

11.The relaxing of using unskilled foreign workers 3.30 1.32 Medium

12. The establishing online foreign labor database 2.89 1.46 Medium

Source: Own calculation

Results: Factors affecting on Migration of

Migrant Labors

In estimating statistical significance, the model is

adjusted by reducing the number of variables in

order for all variable to have a statistically

significance of 0.05. Therefore, the variable

influencing on labor migration is as the following

equation.

(3)

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X = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽2 ATTITUDE + 𝛽𝛽3 OWNHOUSE + 𝛽𝛽4FAMMEMB +𝛽𝛽5DIFFICULT + 𝛽𝛽6OPPORTU

In estimating the coefficients of various

independent variables ( ), it will be provided in β

the form of odd ratio in order to have a linear

relationship and to predict the opportunities that

the sample will choose to migrate.

(4)

Result of logistic regression analysis is as follow.

Table 5 presents the statistical test of Chi-square

of model,

which

have

the

following

hypothesis.

H0 : The decision to choose migration of foreign

workers does not depend on any independent

variables.

H1

:The decision to choose migration of foreign

workers depend on at least one independent

variable.

When considering the test statistics of the model,

it is found that the Chi-square is equal to 133.020

and the Sig. is equal to 0.000, which is, rejecting

the hypothesis H0

at the confidence level of 95%.

This presents that the decision to migrate of

migrant workers depend on at least one

independent variable.

Table 5: Statistical test of Chi-square by the method of Omnibus tests of model coefficients

Chi-square df Sig.

Step 1 Step 133.020 6 .000

Block 133.020 6 .000

Model 133.020 6 .000

Source: Own calculation.

Table 6 illustrates the results of goodness of fit of

the model. The value of Nagelkerke R Square is

the value that can be explained by the variation of

this model which is equal to 0.307, indicating that

30.7 percent of the variation can be described in

logistic equation.

Table 6: Goodness of Fit of the Model

Model Summary

Step 1 -2 Log likelihood Cox & Snell R Square Nagelkerke R Square

566.567a .229 .307

Source: Own calculation.

Based on table 7, Chi-square statistics test use for

testing the appropriateness of the logistic

regression model. The hypotheses of the test are

as follow.

H0: The logistic equation of the model is

appropriate

H1: The logistic equation of the model is not

appropriate

When considering the Chi-square test with the

Hosmer and Lemeshow Test, it is found that the

Chi-square equals 8.299 and the Significance

value is 0.405 which is greater than 0.05. That is,

at the 95% confidence level, it does not reject the

H0

hypothesis. The logistics of this model are

appropriate.

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ln(Odd Ratio) = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡−1 + 𝛽𝛽2 ATTITUDE + 𝛽𝛽3 OWNHOUSE+𝛽𝛽4FAMMEMB + 𝛽𝛽5DIFFICULT + 𝛽𝛽6OPPORTU

Table 7: Chi-square test by using Hosmer and Lemeshow test

Hosmer and Lemeshow Test

Step 1 Chi-square df Sig.

8.299 8 .405

Source: Own calculation.

Table 8 describes the classification table. It is a

validation of the reliability of Step 1, which means

that only constant values are found from the

actual data. Migrant workers do not have the need

to migrate in the future for the amount of 289

people. When using equations that have only

constant predictions, it is predicted that 78.9

percent of the actual migration demand are

accurate. Migrant workers have demand to

migrate in the future for 222 people. When using

the equations that have only constant predictions,

it predicts that the migration demand is correct at

67.6 percent. The average percentage of accurate

forecasts in the model is 74 percent.

Table 8: Classification table of factor affecting on labor migration from country of origin to work in

Thailand

Predicted

Demand to migrate in the future

Have Do not have

Demand to migrate in the future Percent

Demand on Migration) 150 72 67.6

Do Not Demand on Migration 61 228 78.9

Overall Percentage 74.0

Source: Own calculation.

Note: Constant is Included in the Model. The Cut Value is 0.5

.Table 9 indicates factors that influence on

migration of foreign workers, consisting of, 1)

personal factors, including income before

migration, knowledge and attitude towards

Thailand, having own house at home country,

number of family members living in Thailand; 2)

Factors related to the country of origin, including

difficulties in finding work at home country and

career advancement opportunities at home

country.

Table 9: Factors that Influence on Migration of Foreign Workers

95% CI for Exp(B)

Variable B S.E. Wald df Sig Exp(B) Lower Upper

INCOMEt-1

0.0001 0.0000 14.7342 1 0.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002

ATTITUDE -0.6170 0.1328 21.5809 1 0.0000 0.5396 0.4159 0.7000

OWNHOUSE -0.7982 0.2122 14.1521 1 0.0002 0.4502 0.2970 0.6823

FAMMEMB 0.3619 0.0651 30.8902 1 0.0000 1.4360 1.2640 1.6315

DIFFICULT 1.0115 0.2501 16.3526 1 0.0001 2.7497 1.6841 4.4895

OPPORTU -0.2133 0.0712 8.9699 1 0.0027 0.8079 0.7027 0.9289

Constant 1.8271 0.6551 7.7796 1 0.0053 6.2158

Source: Own calculation.

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When consider the coefficient of logistic

regression model, it can be written as the

equation.

(5)

MIGRAT Demand on migration

INCOMEt-1

Income prior to migration

ATTITUDE Knowledge and attitude toward Thailand

OWNHOUSE Having own house at home country

FAMMEMB Number of family member staying in Thailand

DIFFICULT Difficulties of seeking work in local area at home country

OPPORTU Career opportunity at home country

CONSTANT Constant value

Factors affecting on labor migration are comprise

of:

1) Variables with positive values of coefficients,

that are INCOMEt-1,FAMMEMB, DIFFICULT

variables;

2) Variables with negative values of coefficients

that are ATTITUDE, OWNHOUSE,

OPPORTU variables.

III. PERSONAL FACTORS 

3.1 Income prior to migration 

The coefficient of variable INCOMEt-1 is equal to

0.0001, meaning that the income before

migration of migrant workers varies in the same

direction as future migration demand of workers.

That is to say, if the income before migration of

the migrant worker increases 1 unit, the future

migration demand will increase by 0.0001. It is

consistent with the hypothesis that if workers

have more income before migration, the ability or

the possibility of future migration has increased

because international migration has a relatively

high cost. The costs include traveling,

accommodation, passport preparation, work

permit, border crossing fees, etc. Labor requires a

certain amount of private funds.

3.2 Knowledge and attitude towards Thailand 

The coefficient of the ATTITUDE variable is

negative. This means that if foreign workers have

better knowledge and attitudes towards Thailand,

this will lead to a decrease in labor migration

opportunities in the future at 0.6170. Therefore,

the study results are consistent with the study

hypothesis that workers with good knowledge and

attitude towards Thailand, there is a low chance of

further migration in the future due to workers

have knowledge and understanding about

geography, transportation route, Thai traditions,

culture, lifestyle adjustment and living conditions

in Thailand. When they have a positive attitude

towards working in Thailand, they may have

reduced future migration needs.

3.3 Having own home at home country 

The coefficient of the OWNHOUSE variable is

equal to - 0.7982. If migrant workers have their

own homes in the former homeland, the

opportunities and needs for future migration of

workers will be reduced. The results of this study

consistent with the hypothesis that workers, who

have their own home have less migration

opportunities than workers who do not have their

own home because workers with their own homes

have a certain level of security, sticking to comfort

at home, having home concern, having the need to

take care of their property. They have migration

requirements less than people who do not have

their own home. Hence, workers with their own

homes are expected to have a relationship in the

opposite direction of migration.

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MIGRAT = 1.8271 + 0.0001 INCOMEt-1 - 0.6170 ATTITUDE- 0.7982 OWNHOUSE + 0.3619 FAMMEMB+ 1.0115 DIFFICULT - 0.2133 OPPORTU

3.4 Number of household members in           Thailand 

The coefficient of the FAMMEMB variable is

equal to 0.3619, meaning that the number of

members of households living in Thailand varies

in the same direction as the future migration

needs of workers. That is, if the number of family

member lives in Thailand increases by 1 person,

the demand for future migrant workers will

increase by 0.3619. It can be explained that

numbers of household members living in

Thailand have a relationship in the same direction

as future migration needs. For this reason,

migration opportunities will increase. Accordin-

gly, the research finding is in the same direction

as the hypotheses about variables that labor has

more incentive to migrate to the country that their

family members are staying because their strong

interpersonal relationships within family, living

together implies the ability to support each other

and reduce living expenses in foreign countries.

Migrants who maintain strong links with their

home countries also tend to strengthen

technology, investment, and venture capital ties

and promote a better cultural understanding

between the sending and receiving countries.

Factors related to the source area or home

country:

3.5 Difficulties in finding work in the home               country 

For the coefficient of the DIFFICULT variable is

positive, the value is 1.0115. This would imply that

if foreign workers have difficulty finding work in

their hometowns, it will increase the chance of

migration to 1.0115. Hence, the result of the study

is consistent with the hypothesis set at the

beginning of the study that difficulties in finding

work in the former homeland is a factor which

pushed migrant workers to leave the area. For

instance, homeland may have problem of drought,

natural disasters lead to unable to do agriculture,

and consequently it will be a driving force for

migrant workers to move in areas that create

more opportunities and income, so the difficulty

of finding work in home countries will have a

relationship in the same direction as migration.

3.6 Opportunities for career advancement 

The coefficient of the OPPORTU variable is equal

to - 0.2133. If foreign workers have a higher

chance of career advancement or work, opportu-

nities and needs for future migration of workers

will be reduced. It can be seen that the study

result is consistent with the study hypothesis that

opportunity for career advancement is an

important factor that makes workers no longer

want to migrate in the future as workers have

financial security for themselves and income for

raising family members. In addition, international

migration has high expenditure. Labor may not

have demand to migrate in the future for that

reason. Therefore, having career advancement

will have a relationship in the opposite direction

of migration.

Based on the results of significant considerations

(Sig values) of the experiment, it displays that

each variable in the model has statistical

significance. R value represents Partial

Correlation value, where Meaning of R 1≤R ≤1.−

is similar to Partial Correlation in linear

regression analysis. The meaning of Exp (B) can

be described as follows. From the logistic

coefficient (B) will explain the meaning by

considering the odds.

(6)dds Odds O = P̂P̂ ( Migration)

(Not Migration)

If considering the value, it can be concluded in 3

characteristics as follows:

If , it will lead Odds value increase bi > 0 ebi > 1

or the chance of future migration will increase.

If , it will lead Odds value decrease bi < 0 ebi < 1

or the chance of future migration will decrease.

If , it will lead Odds value do not bi = 0 ebi = 1

increase or decrease, migration opportunity will

increase or decrease.

Exp (B) of the variable DIFFICULT = 1.0115,

which has a value greater than 1. It explains that if

the DIFFICULT value increases by 1, the odds

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ratio will increase or the opportunity for future

migration will increase.

The next procedure is the inspecting the

relationship between each independent variables.

The examining the relationship between each

independent variable use Pearson Correlation

Coefficients method to find the correlation

coefficient of the independent variable. If the

correlation coefficient is greater than 0.80, it

indicates that there is a high relationship between

independent variables or have a condition of

multicollinearity.

Table 10 describes the correlation matrix between

variables. It displays that the highest correlation

coefficient is the variables of having own house at

the original residence (OWNHOUSE) and the

opportunity for career advancement (OPPORTU)

which is equal to 0.1023, which has a value below

0.80, indicating that these independent variables

does not cause conditions of multicollinearity with

dependent variables. Therefore, it does not need

to consider the selection of independent variables.

The results reveals that the variable INCOMEt-1 is

associated in the opposite direction of the

ATTITUDE variable, meaning that foreign

workers who have low income before migrating to

work in Thailand, they may have good attitudes

about Thailand. Thus, they demand to work in

Thailand. So, they would surely have to seek

information and knowledge about the destination

country they intend to work.

The variable INCOMEt-1

is related in the opposite

direction to the OWNHOUSE variable, implying

that the lower the income of foreign workers

before migrating to Thailand, the higher the

tendency to have their own house. On the

contrary, high income worker may have low

interest to buy own house. Workers who have the

desire to earn more income abroad, they have not

yet settled back to their home country. Thus, the

need to buy houses and having their own house in

their home countries is less.

The variable INCOMEt-1 is related in the opposite

direction to the FAMMEMB variable, indicating

that foreign workers who have less income before

migration, they may have many family members

living in Thailand. The inadequate income of

household may lead household members migrate

to the country that has the opportunity to

generate more income.

The variable INCOMEt-1 is related in the same

direction as the DIFFICULT variable. It highlights

that low income before migrating labor face low

difficulties in finding work at home country. On

the same way, high income before migrating

worker may face high difficulties in finding work

at home country. Due to high unemployment rate

in Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos, cause the

employer desire firstly to lay off the high income

employee. As a result, they encounter the

difficulties of finding work.

The variable INCOMEt-1 is associated in an inverse

direction to OPPORTU variable. It conveys that

the lower the income of foreign workers before

migration, the higher the opportunity to seek the

career aboard. Low income worker try to create

more opportunities by working in Thailand, which

has more career prospects.

The ATTITUDE variable is related in the same

direction as the OWNHOUSE variable, presenting

that the more the perception and good attitude

towards Thailand of foreign workers, the more the

possibility of them to have own house at home

country. Due to the foreign workers who have a

positive attitude towards working in Thailand,

they tend to continue to work for many years,

earning more income and saving. Thereafter, they

tend to buy own house at home country.

The ATTITUDE variable is related in the opposite

direction to the FAMMEMB variable. It points

that the more knowledge and good the attitude

towards Thailand of foreign worker, the lower the

number of family member living in Thailand. If

foreign workers have more knowledge and good

attitude towards Thailand may lead them

continue to work longer and have more income to

support household. Hence, household members

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are not necessary to migrate. Migrating household

members in Thailand will decrease.

The ATTITUDE variable is related in the opposite

direction to the DIFFICULT variable. The less

knowledge about Thailand of foreign worker, the

more difficulties in finding work at home country.

This underlines that if workers have little

knowledge and attitude towards Thailand, labor

may hard to migrate to work, so they have less

choice and must work at home country that is

difficult in finding work.

The ATTITUDE variable is related in the same

direction as the OPPORTU variable, meaning that

foreign workers who more knowledge and good

attitudes towards Thailand may receive more

opportunities for career advancement.

The OWNHOUSE variable is related in the same

direction as the FAMMEMB variable. This implies

that foreign workers who have their own house at

homeland may have high number of family

member staying in Thailand.

The OWNHOUSE variable is related in the

opposite direction to the DIFFICULT variable.

This suggests that the higher the tendency of the

workers have their own house, the lower the

difficulty in finding work in that country because

they have a certain level of security.

The OWNHOUSE variable is related in the same

direction as the OPPORTU variable. This

demonstrates that the more migrant workers who

have their own house, the more opportunities of

them to achieve career advancement as well.

The FAMMEMB variable is related in the opposite

direction to the DIFFICULT variable. This

illustrates that if the number of members of the

household in Thailand is increased, the difficulty

of seeking work at home country will decline due

to their household members will help each other.

Table 10 : Correlation matrix between variables

CONSTANT INCOMEt-1

ATTITUDE OWNHO

USE FAMMEMB DIFFICULT OPPORTU

CONSTANT 1.0000 0.0228 -0.8763 -0.1923 -0.1294 -0.1412 -0.2881

INCOMEt-1

0.0228 1.0000 -0.1016 -0.1136 -0.1571 0.1001 -0.1901

ATTITUDE -0.8763 -0.1016 1.0000 0.0755 -0.0319 -0.1183 0.0530

OWNHOUSE -0.1923 -0.1136 0.0755 1.0000 0.0386 -0.0898 0.1023

FAMMEMB -0.1294 -0.1571 -0.0319 0.0386 1.0000 -0.1094 -0.0850

DIFFICULT -0.1412 0.1001 -0.1183 -0.0898 -0.1094 1.0000 -0.0841

OPPORTU -0.2881 -0.1901 0.0530 0.1023 -0.0850 -0.0841 1.0000

Source: Own calculation.

The FAMMEMB variable is related in the opposite

direction to the OPPORTU variable. It displays

that foreign workers tend to have high household

member living in Thailand if the career

opportunity at home country is worse off. Because

of having a network of relatives who have already

worked in Thailand can help them to choose a

good work position and earn high income.

Finally, the DIFFICULT variable is related in the

opposite direction to the OPPORTU variable. It

portrays that foreign workers who face difficulties

in work at home, they may have low skill and

knowledge, consequently when they move to

Thailand they may have low opportunity in career

advancement. Moreover, labor market in Thailand

is competitive. At the same labor wage, employer

looks forward to hire high skill labor.

. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION 

This paper recommends the policy for foreign

workers, which are, social welfare arrangement,

work facilitation development, labor problems

solution and foreign workers management.

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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

V

4.1 Social welfare arrangement for migrant           workers 

(1) Suggestions for the provision of medical

welfare. If the government wants employers who

have these three foreign nationalities to cooperate

in the registration of foreign workers and insured

in the social security system for the purpose of

protecting themselves, the government should

reduce the fee that the employers have to pay into

the social security fund. Some employers express

an opinion that the extension of the social security

coverage for worker, government should evaluate

the breakeven point of the social security fund

before and after expanding the coverage to foreign

workers whether the money the worker paid cover

to the cost or not.

(2) Recommendations for the provision of welfare

for migrant children education. At present, there

are many alien children who migrate with migrant

workers. The Ministry of Education should take

care of the education of migrant children. If these

alien children are neglecting, being an uneducated

person, they may commit crimes in Thai society.

(3) Recommendations for social welfare by the

state. Many alien workers fled into the city,

causing the work to be unstable and having to stay

hidden, having a low quality of life and commit

crimes. The suggestion is the state should

separate foreign workers, who do not have

documents showing their identity, and send them

return to the country of origin. In the waiting

period for repatriation, the state should provide

short-term social welfare for humanitarian

assistance. For foreign workers with documents

and sources of support, the state should change

the status to be legal workers.

4.2 Development of work facilitation 

(4) Suggestions for the reduction of steps and

timing of registration. The samples suggest for the

development of the process and length of

registration time, passport making, extension of

visa and work permit should be faster. According

to the data from the Ministry of Labor in 2018, it

was found that about 2 million people registered

to work but there were still have about 800,000

foreign workers who have not yet completed their

nationality verification according to the period of

registration. This cause these foreign workers

were an illegal worker, but employers and

entrepreneurs still need to hire. The sending labor

return to the country of origin according to legal

measures may affect the labor shortage situation

in the country. The second problem is managing

foreign workers in Thailand, there is still a lack of

a complete database that is unique, the same and

update data in the whole country, which lead to

obstruct of setting the overall migration policy. In

addition, foreign workers registration has a

specified period, causing many new alien workers

and existing foreign workers are not able to

register in time. The fact that many foreign

workers are not registered may cause social

problems. When there is an offense and escape,

making it difficult to arrest. Government should

have control measures that enable identification.

The suggestion is the government should establish

the Bureau of Foreign Labor Management in

every province in order to allow foreign workers

to register throughout the year and to spread the

management of foreign workers to cover all

groups of workers in order to immediately

determine the direction and policy.

(5) Suggestion for the increasing of the officer.

The government should increase staff to manage

foreign workers in the appropriate ratio with the

amount of foreign workers. Foreign worker

management should not mix with the domestic

worker management. The officers do the specific

works such as filling out alien labor information,

establishing an online labor database, updating

data of each alien worker that they resigned from

a factory and moved to another factory, number of

times to enter the country, crime history

information, etc.

(6) Suggestion for the media channel

announcement and language uses. The govern-

ment should announce the procedure and timing

of registration of foreign workers, passport

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Migration in the Mekong Sub region: Route from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao to Thailand and Social Welfare Arrangement

making, visa extension and work permit through

various media. Furthermore, the relevant

departments should translate Thai language

announcements into Myanmar, Cambodia and

Laos language because foreign workers suggested

that they do not understand any Thai alphabet.

Most foreign workers speak Thai but they cannot

read and write Thai.

(7) Suggestions for appropriate fee adjustment

improvements. Foreign workers pay more

attention to the cost of paying various fees. Fee

rate and precisely cost should be announced on

the website so that foreign workers are not

deceived by recruitment brokers about the fees of

various state operations.

4.3 Policy of solving foreign labor problems 

(8) Recommendation for building a strong

relationship of employer and employee. From

interview, foreign worker notice that there should

have the organization act as middle man to build a

positive understanding and interpersonal

relationship between employer and employee. The

suggestion is government agencies should provide

training for employer who wants to hire foreign

workers to have a positive thinking and have a

good care of employee. Besides this, government

should also provide the training for employee

before working to understand the rules and

working conditions in Thailand. Likewise,

government should establish the consulting center

for both employer and employee to use the service

when they face the problem during the time they

work together in Thailand.

(9) Recommendations for labor protection,

prevention of labor exploitation. The government

should have measures to take care of employment.

For instance, Thailand has announced a minimum

wage of 300 baht per day, causing many

interested workers to work in Thailand, resulting

in excess labor supply. Entrepreneurs who want to

reduce production costs will push foreign workers

cost burden or pay the minimum wage, but

increase the number of working hours and reduce

the number of holidays. Problem of labor

exploitation have begun to decrease since April

2018 from the website of the Government Gazette,

page 31, book 135, section 31(a) public the

announcement of the Prime Minister's Office on

the approval of the Emergency Decree on the

Management of Foreign Workers (No. 2) BE

2561and the Emergency Decree amending the

Immigration Act, BE 2522 (1979) to use the

system only as necessary, determine the control

process and inspect the process of bringing aliens

to work. For example, the announcement cover

the changing the workplace, including canceling

the declaration of the residence area of foreign

workers by allowing workers to work and stay

anywhere in order to comply with human rights

principles and prohibit employers to collect

expenses from foreign workers to prevent

exploitation

IIV. THE MANAGING OF MIGRANT WORKERS 

(10) Recommendations for managing foreign

workers. Having a numerous illegal foreign

immigrants may cause an average net fiscal

burden of each illegal immigrant. Government

agencies should manage foreign workers to enter

the system. In addition, related agencies such as

Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Labor, Royal

Thai Police, Foreign Labor Management Bureau,

Employment agencies in various provinces,

should cooperate meeting to monitor the situation

of foreign workers continuously as well as

evaluate the effective works of the Emergency

Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers

for the stability of the country and management of

foreign workers according to international

standards.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

The authors would like to thank Kasetsart

University Research and Development Institute

(KURDI), Kasetsart University, Thailand, for

funding this research. In addition, the author also

has a special thank to all migrant workers from

Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao for their kindness

to participate the interview.

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ABSTRACT

382U

LJP Copyright ID: 573345Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

 

Politics of Empowerment of Women in South AsiaDr. Shiw Balak Prasad

Mandal University

In the 1970s most Latin American countries were ruled by military dictatorships. All forms of civil disobedience were met with arrests, torture, or even death. The bodies of the victims often simply disappeared. The vanished body, deprived of identity, of physical and spiritual space, of social as well as historical memory, brings to mind the nearly universal condition of women pushed to the margins of official and recorded history, uneducated, illiterate, and powerless. The story of the disappeared represents a startling parallel to the worldwide struggle by women for visibility and for human rights and justice. So the women’s rights, must also be defined as being seen and treated as equal in the political and ideological as well as domestic and private arenas. The participation of women in the political and the social realm allows for delegitimizing discrimination against women- and achieving genuine equality – not only under the law. It also affects individual cultures that previously denied women the possibility of an education and confined them to a world of silence. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created in 1948 as an international body of laws, was meant to protect the integrity and dignity of human beings. Those laws, together with the 1979 Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, have been pivotal in the affirmation and implementation of women’s rights. At the same time, these instruments have been used to prove the continued existence of violations of rights in both public and private spheres.

Keywords: eclaration, empowerment, government, human, international, politics, rights, women.

Classification: FOR Code: 160699

Language: English

© 2020. Dr. Shiw Balak Prasad. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia 

Dr. Shiw Balak Prasad ____________________________________________

ABSTRACT  

In the 1970s most Latin American countries were

ruled by military dictatorships. All forms of civil

disobedience were met with arrests, torture, or

even death. The bodies of the victims often simply

disappeared. The vanished body, deprived of

identity, of physical and spiritual space, of social

as well as historical memory, brings to mind the

nearly universal condition of women pushed to

the margins of official and recorded history,

uneducated, illiterate, and powerless. The story

of the disappeared represents a startling parallel

to the worldwide struggle by women for visibility

and for human rights and justice. So the women’s

rights, must also be defined as being seen and

treated as equal in the political and ideological as

well as domestic and private arenas. The

participation of women in the political and the

social realm allows for delegitimizing

discrimination against women- and achieving

genuine equality – not only under the law. It also

affects individual cultures that previously denied

women the possibility of an education and

confined them to a world of silence. The

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created

in 1948 as an international body of laws, was

meant to protect the integrity and dignity of

human beings. Those laws, together with the

1979 Convention for the Elimination of All Forms

of Discrimination Against Women, have been

pivotal in the affirmation and implementation of

women’s rights. At the same time, these

instruments have been used to prove the

continued existence of violations of rights in both

public and private spheres.

Keywords: eclaration, empowerment, government,

human, international, politics, rights, women.

Author: Professor and Former Head, University Dept.

of Political Science B.N. Mandal University,

Madhepura (Bihar), INDIA.

I. INTRODUCTION 

One of the most hotly debated issues at national

and international platforms, by academicians,

politicians, policy makers and various government

and non-government organizations, especially

during the last three or four decades had been the

women issue. The declaration of 1975 as

International Women’s Year and the subsequent

decade as the United Nations Decade for Women

was the first official international recognition of

women’s issues in a global context. This global

concern about the women’s issues is evident from

the four international conferences convened

under the aegis of the United Nations. (Mexico

Conference 1975, the Copenhagen Conference

1980, Nairobi Conference 1985 and the latest

being the Beijing Conference 1995, which was

also, Nairobi Conference 1985 and the latest being

the Beijing Conference 1995, which was also the

largest attended by as many as 35000 women

from all over the world.)

These conferences may not have achieved much

by way of creating equality or ending

discrimination against women, as the plight of

majority of women, especially the rural and tribal

in the developing countries continues to be

pathetic. The documents and final agenda,

declarations and commitments that come out of

the conferences are hardly ever used or

implemented seriously. But the real utility of

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these conference lies in the diffusion of knowledge

about the women’s issues. The women’s

organizations – the NGO’s looked upon by many

as “elite bodies” founded many times by vested

interests, ignorant of the real problems of the

women, especially the rural, may not have been

successful in ameliorating the miseries of the

ordinary women but still they should be credited

with having acted as a lobby to pressurize the

policy-makers to take some women-friendly

decisions.

If one scans through the documents concerning

women at national and international levels, one is

bound to see a shift in the paradigm which may be

termed as from “welfare to empowerment.” The

most important new recognition at Beijing, both

by NGO’s and officially, was that “women need to

be where economic decision-making and financial

allocations take place. For too long women have

been takers, not makers, of economic policies and

national politics. The challenge now is to change

this.1 Thus the emphasis has come to ensure

women’s “full and equal participation in power

structures and decision-making,” and the term

which has come to be widely used is

“empowerment of women” – political and

economic. The purpose of writing this paper is to

raise a few issues in the light of this development.

What has been the impact of this trend especially

in South Asia in general and India in particular?

What are the myths and realities linked with this?

How far the constitutional and statutory

provisions have been made in order to fulfill the

said object? Is it all rhetoric or is there an element

of genuine concern for the women? What are the

so-called women-friendly policies and how far in

the new liberalized market economy on the one

hand and the atmosphere of political corruption,

violence and armed conflicts and the rising

fundamentalism on the other, political and

economic empowerment can create gender

equality and gender justice?

It is a known fact that there is still no society in

the world in which women enjoy exactly the same

opportunities and position as men. The gaps

between men and women are particularly wide in

developing countries like that of South Asia. The

social structure prevailing almost in all the South

Asian countries is virtually the same, with some

differences here and there, and is in a sense

by-product of history of thousands of years in

terms of mixing of different races, religions and

communities. Discrimination against women and

their subordinate position in society in general

and in family in particular, and this in spite of

several reform movements launched at different

stages of history and the present crusade launched

by the various women’s organizations, is common

in all the South Asia countries. This probably is

the outcome of the patriarchal system of society

and the associated attitudinal values inculcated

and transmitted through religious customs,

traditions and social norms which have gone deep

into the social psyche of the region according to

which a woman is and supposed to be preserver of

the institution of marriage and family. She will

probably make all sorts of sacrifices and bear all

victimization in the name of “adjustment.” Very

rarely she decides to desert her family and

children, which is quite in contrast to the Western

values.

The statistical data reveals a pathetic picture

despite all the rhetoric. At he global level women

today constitute 70 per cent of world’s 1.3 billion

poor, two-thirds of the illiterates and (with their

children) 80 percent of 25 million refugees -

mostly victims of armed conflict.2 The whole

world knows about the extraordinary and

pernicious sex ratio in South Asia, the special

aspects of domestic violence as expressed in

dowry deaths the gross inequality in nutrition and

literacy. To take a few indicators the sex ratio in

India according to 1991 census in 927 females to

1000 males, a deficiency of females in the

population that defeats biological superiority.

This is all the more disturbing when we notice

that it has decreased continuously. In the

beginning of the century it was 972 per 1000

males, by 1941 the ratio had fallen to 945 females

per 1000 males. It fell further to 933 females per

1000 males by 1981 and the 1991 census has the

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52 © 2020 London Journals PressVolume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia

record 927 – the lowest so far.3 Life expectancy of

the females is 57.7 years to 58.1 for males.

(However, it may be noted here that highest life

expectancy of females in South Asia is in Sri

Lanka, it being 75.4 years).4 Deaths of young girls

exceed by that of boys by 1/3 of a million every

year. One hundred and twenty thousand women

die in child birth every year. While the official age

of marriage is 18, only 19.5 per cent of women are

married at or above this. India has the largest

number of illiterate women i.e. 64.6 per cent of

male literates compared to 39.29 per cent female

literates. Again as a matter of comparison the

female literacy rate in the neighboring state of

Pakistan is even lower i.e. only 23 per cent which

is 36 per cent in the case of males. Unemployment

for women by current weekly is stated 44 per cent

rural and 53 per cent urban. Sixty six per cent

women as compared to 37 per cent men are not in

conventional labour force but are concentrated in

subsistence sectors. Within market workers

women workers are casual workers. In Sri Lanka

also the economically active group is male

dominated. According to census of population in

Sri Lanka in 1981 the proportion of economically

active men was 74.5 per cent as compared to 25.5

per cent female labour force but this was of

course, exclusive of women engaged in production

estimated mainly during peak agricultural

seasons.5

The 1995 annual report of the Human Rights

Commission of Pakistan reveals a depressing

report of the position of the women in Pakistan.

The female literacy rate, as stated earlier, is 23 per

cent at the national level, Baluchistan having the

lowest percentage of 0.8. The family laws are

heavily loaded in favour of the male. The divorce

rate (woman divorced) remains high. In the

absence of a written acceptance of the wife’s right

to dissolution of marriage (Khula) it is difficult for

wives to obtain dissolution. This despite the fact

that the superior courts have held that since both

men and women are equal it is explicit right to a

wife to claim ‘Khula’ if there is sufficient evidence

that she and her husband cannot live together

within the limits set by Allah and in that condition

there is no need for the husband’s consent. The

practice of forcing girls into celibacy by marrying

them to the Quran is widespread (especially in the

rural or even in certain areas of Sind – this is in

fact, in order not to give the woman a share in the

land holdings). The young girls are still auctioned,

sexual abuses of minor girls have been frequent.

Another oppressive practice is that of “karokari”

i.e. if a woman is suspected of having had illicit

relations, her husband has the right to kill her – in

fact to save his honour he has to kill her. These are

in fact the unjust feudal customs. Even some laws

are explicitly anti-women like the Hadood

Ordinance, which was introducted during

Zil-ul-Haq’s regime and is still in operation. There

is an Evidence Act too where two women would

have to bear testimony in place of one man in a

court of law. But in the Hodood Ordinance a

woman cannot bear witness. However, the Family

Laws Ordinance brought in during 1961 was

certainly a reformative one.

Thus it is a well recognized and established fact

that there is much oppression and discrimination

against women. The image of the women being

just an object is the outcome of the feudal values

prevalent in the society. According to one

Pakistan delegate Khadija Gauhar, who is also a

leading activist in the women’s movement in

Pakistan who attended the third convention of

Pakistan – Indian Peoples’ Forum for Peace and

Democracy held at Calcutta (December 28-31,

1996) considered that the two basic factors which

are responsible for women’s oppression there are

orthodoxy in Islam and their interpretation of

sexist segregation which was there, particularly in

certain classes, this having been reinforced by the

feudal system.6

Apart from the socio-economic field the women

are marginalized in the political field too. Political

activity is typically monopolized by men in most

societies, despite the fact that some women do

reach the top. The countries in South Asia can

claim credit for giving the world its first woman

President (Sirimavo Bhandaranayake) India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have had the

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Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia

women heads. Bangladesh is having women both

as the Prime Minister and the leader of

Opposition. In Sri Lanka, mother and daughter

team are occupying the offices of President and

Prime Minister. Not long ago Pakistan had a lady

Prime Minister. India’s Mrs. Gandhi, however,

consistently denied that she was a feminist. She

once told the reporters that she did not regard

herself as a woman. She was a person with a job to

do. It may be said that in spite of the occasional

rise of a few women in politics, the participation

of women in politics has not been very

encouraging almost in all the countries of South

Asia. Again making a review of the data regarding

representation of women in Indian Parliament,

especially the Lok Sabha, reveals that the

percentage of women representatives never

reached to a reasonable digits. It was just 2

percent in 1952, remained under six up to the

eighties. It was highest in the eighth Lok Sabha

when it was 8.1 percent. During the 10th Lok

Sabha it was 7.1 percent.7 After that Inter

Parliamentary Union (I.P.U.) meet at New Delhi

the statistics of women representatives in

legislatures revealed a dismal picture not only for

the developing countries but also for the

developed countries except the Nordic countries

where it ranges between 30 to 50 percent.

After having touched upon the status of women in

the South Asia region, in general and in India in

particular in social, economic and political fields,

let us have a look at the various policy decisions

taken at international and national levels.

The various policy documents issued at the

International Women’s Conferences have focused

on various issues concerning women like violence

against women, illiteracy, neglect of the girl child,

participation of women in development and

political empowerment of women.8 Of these the

last two issues i.e. participation of women in

economic development and their political

empowerment have come to be regarded as the

solution to their agonies. As stated earlier in the

paper a marked shift in paradigm can be seen in

the agenda of these conferences. The earlier

conferences focused on making women the

beneficiary of various welfare schemes of the

states. The World Plan for Action adopted in

Mexico City 1975 tried to formulate a worldwide

consensus on women’s issues and initiate a

co-ordinated approach to them. An attempt was

made to document the contribution of women’s

work to society by compiling gender –

disaggregated statistics and to assess the needs

and concerns of women all over the world.9 It gave

little priority to women’s economic resources.

Similarly the Forward Looking Strategies adopted

at Nairobi 1985, though talked of better economic

facilities for women but did not make any

mention of gender equality in economic resources.

However, the “Platform for Action” adopted at

Beijing Conference identified 12 “critical areas of

concern” or areas of particular urgency that stand

out as priorities for action. These include issues of

poverty, health, literacy and education, economic

empowerment of women, participation of women

in political process, violence against women, the

effect of armed conflict on women and the

portrayal of women, the effect of armed conflict

on women and the portrayal of women in the

media and focus on a girl child.10“Women’

spoverty is directly related to the absence of

economic opportunities and autonomy, lack of

access to economic resources, including credit,

land ownership and inheritance, education and

support services, and minimal participation in the

decision making process.” Hence one major area

of concern in the “Plan for Action” was to develop

gender-sensitive national and international

policies, to provide poor women with economic

opportunities and equal access to affordable

housing, land, natural resources, credit and other

services, to devise statistical means to recognize

and make visible the work – including unpaid and

domestic – of women and their contribution to

national economics.11

The document stressed on elimination of wage

inequality and occupational segregation and

creation of flexible work environment. Nothing

the inequality between men and women in

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Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia

sharing political power and decision-making at all

levels, the document urged governments, political

parties, NGOs and international organizations to

adopt the goal of giving equal representation to

women at all levels of decision-making including

the legislatures and integrate their concerns into

public policies. The document stressed that

equality in decision-making provides the leverage

without which integration of the equality

dimension in government policies is not feasible.

(In India the subject of women’s participation in

development through the institutions of

Panchayat has been debated for quite a long

period.)

As for India, it was in 1974 that the National

Committee on the Status of Women in India made

the first assessment of the status of Indian women

and focused on her as an individual with rights of

her own. The Committee recommended the

establishment of statutory women’s Panchayats at

the village level with autonomy and resources of

their own for the management and administration

of welfare and development programme for

women and children as a transitional measure to

break through the traditional attitudes. Although

the recommendations had no statutory status but

in some places, for example, in Andhra Pradesh

such all women Panchayats were formed. But

after 73 and 74th constitutional amendments all

panchayat and local bodies are formed.

The policy of the government had been to

associate women with the working of grass-root

institutions so that the benefits of governments,

welfare policies could reach to the women. But

influenced by the shift at the international level in

the policies regarding women, the Indian

government also started talking of associating

women in the development programmes. As a

result, the Government of India prepared a policy

document - the National Perspective Plan for

Women 1988-2000 A.D. (The NPP) on the basis

of which implementation strategies and precise

measures to make the system more responsive to

women’s needs was to be conceptualized. The

perspective was said to have been adopted to

bring the economic development and also

integration of women into the mainstream of

economy.

Two pertinent recommendations of NPP, to

secure effective participation of women in the

decision-making process at national, state and

local level were, (i) reservation should be made of

30 percent seats at Panchayat to Zila Parishad

levels and local municipal bodies for women (ii)

30 percent of executive heads of all bodies from

village Panchayat to district level and a certain

percentage of chief executives of Panchayat Raj

bodies at lower, middle and higher levels must be

reserved for women.12

First concrete measure to give constitutional

sanction to these recommendations was taken up

by Rajiv Gandhi’s government by introducing the

64th Constitutional Amendment Bill on local

government on 15th May 1989. The bill, however,

got defeated in Rajya Sabha. It was in 1992 that

the two Constitutional Amendments namely 73rd

and 74th were passed giving 33 percent reservation

to women in rural and urban local bodies. The

step has been hailed as path-breaking and

revolutionary. And now the 81stConstitutional

Amendment12Bill giving 33 percent reservation to

women in the legislatures has generated a good

deal of controversy and interest. Introduced

enthusiastically by the Deve Gowda government,

the bill was collectively supported by all the

women parliamentarians cutting across party

affiliations, but the initial enthusiasm subsided as

there was a lot of dismay within political parties

(including those pushing the bill) about the

implications. The National Alliance of Women

spear headed a campaign where women groups

across the length and breadth of the country tried

to put pressure on the different parties to support

the bill. The OBC lobby reacted and asked for

reservation for their section in the women quota.

Every one is aware that the bill was referred to a

select committee but was not taken up by the

eleventh Lok Sabha. Even the Gujral government

had also declared its commitment to pass the bill.

However, the opposition by itself to the bill

exposed the limitations and constraints of the

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Politics of Empowerment of Women in South Asia

existing social and political system. The position

of this concerned is the same till now.

Here my humble submission is that the various

political parties and the vested interests are

engaged in political rhetoric. This may be

illustrated by the fact that if these so-called

“sympathizers of the women’s cause” have had

any genuine concern for the empowerment of

women they should have first set their own house

in order. Though the value of an amendment bill

like 81st, should not be denied completely but just

providing reservations in Legislatures or jobs, the

women will not start having their say in

decision-making. Already the experience of the

women’s participation in the decentralized

governance and development, of course, with a

few exceptions, has been peripheral. At the time of

elections, they are usually projected as someone’s

mother, sister, wife or widow and not as people’s

representatives. The ground reality is that women,

especially rural, have been in the quagmire of

illiteracy, poverty and ignorance. In a society

which is divided, into castes and classes and is run

according to the old feudal values, the

subordination of women is bound to continue,

irrespective of the fact that some women have

been made to occupy positions of

decision-making, at local, state and national

levels.

Secondly, reservation as a policy does not appear

to me a very positive indicator. A better

alternative could be providing the opportunities

and right type of education to inculcate the right

type of values. By right type of values I mean the

attitudinal values based on equality of human

beings, irrespective of caste, colour, creed or sex.

The policy of reservation, in the case of SCs, STs

and now OBCs have shown that once they are

started as a transitional step have the quality of

becoming permanent and giving rise to the elite

sections within its categories. I,m not an opponent

of the policy of empowerment of women but what

I want to emphasize is that the need is to strive for

certain basic changes in the value system of our

society. The exploitation of women is not only

prevalent in rural, uneducated and ignorant

sectors but can be seen in educated, economically

well-off urban sectors as well. There may be a

difference of degree.

Further the various women’s organizations apart

from looking into the hardships of the urban

women should try to reach the poorest of the poor

and make them aware. They must not take

anti-men position. The concept of empowerment

of women must not look like making women

dominate their men counterparts. A harmonious

relationship based on equality and understanding

must be the aim.

REFERENCES

1. Aggarwal, Bina : “From mexico 75 to Beijing

95, Mainstream, Vol. XXXVI, No. 49, October

28, 1995, p. 10.

2. Ibid, p. 9

3. Forbes, Geraldine : The New Cambridge

History of India : Women in Modern India,

Cambridge University Press, 1966, p. 235.

4. United Nations Population Fund Report, The

Times of India, New Delhi May 3, 1997, p. 4

5. Momsen, J.H. and Kinnaird, Vivian : (Ed.),

Different Places. Different Voices : Gender

and Development in Africa, Asia and Latin

America, London, 1993.

6. Khadija Gauhar, Khalija : “Women in Pakistan

: Face of Oppression and Resistance,”

Mainstream, Vol. XXXV, No. 10, February 15,

1997, pp. 25-26 and Pal, R.M. : “Human

Rights in Pakistan Much to learn form HRCP

Report,” Mainstream, Vol. XXXIV, No. 45,

October 12, 1996, pp. 18-19.

7. Rao, Ranga : “Declining Trend in Women

Representation in Indian Legislatures,

“Parliamentary Affairs Monthly, Vol. 12,

January 1995, p. 5.

8. Aggarwal, Bina op cit. and Malik, Sona

“Beijing Women’s Conference, Some

Questions for Action, “Mainstream, October

28, 1995.

9. Ibid.

10. Partap, Sangeeta : “The Beijing Meet : Critical

Concerns Over Women in Society. “Frontline,

May 19, 1995, pp. 108-109.

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11. For various aspects regarding participation of

women in panchayats, see special issue of

Kurukshetra entitled Ushering in an Era of

Women in Panchayats, june 1994.

12. Kannabiran, Vasanth and Kannabiran,

Kalpana : “From Social Action to Political

Action : Women and the 81stAmendment,”

Economic and Political Weekly, February, 1,

1997, pp. 196-197.

(Prof. Shiw Balak Prasad)

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ABSTRACT

382U

LJP Copyright ID: 573346Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792

London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences

Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Lerato la favour: The Revival of Basotho Pride and Love for their Cultural Accordion Music

Basotho accordion music has its roots from initiation schools where song composition skills were one of the traits the initiates were supposed to acquire. In these schools, the eloquent ones would sing about their achievements, and the experiences of their daily lives in general. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to explore one Basotho accordion song: Lerato la favour, using a case study research design. We purposely selected the song to achieve the research aims of the paper. The study is framed qualitatively using an eclectic framework where Africana womanism forms the basis of analysis, supplemented by patriarchy and psychoanalysis. We focus on analyzing the language used in the song. The analysis was deemed relevant to unpack the use of poetic language, the character of the poet as well as the themes inherent in the song. To generate data, we listened to the song several times, transcribing the lyrics then later translating the transcriptions to English. Following this, we conducted a systematic and descriptive analysis of the song using inductive thematic analysis. The findings of the study suggest that Basotho accordion music makes use of poetic language deviant from the language of everyday use. The study, therefore, recommends a need for further research on Basotho accordion music for the preservation of Sesotho and appreciation of indigenous knowledge systems.

Keywords: basotho accordion music, culture, indigenous knowledge, patriarchy, oral tradition.

Classification: FOR Code: 200299

Language: English

Ntsoaki Teresa Mokala & Prof Sol Rampasane Chapole

© 2020. Ntsoaki Teresa Mokala & Prof Sol Rampasane Chapole. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting allnoncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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59 © 2020 London Journals Press Volume 20 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0

Lerato la favour: The Revival of Basotho Pride and Love for their Cultural Accordion Music 

Ntsoaki Teresa Mokalaα & Prof Sol Rampasane Chapoleσ

____________________________________________ 

ABSTRACT 

Basotho accordion music has its roots from

initiation schools where song composition skills

were one of the traits the initiates were supposed

to acquire. In these schools, the eloquent ones

would sing about their achievements, and the

experiences of their daily lives in general. The

aim of this paper, therefore, is to explore one

Basotho accordion song: Lerato la favour, using

a case study research design. We purposely

selected the song to achieve the research aims of

the paper. The study is framed qualitatively

using an eclectic framework where Africana

womanism forms the basis of analysis,

supplemented by patriarchy and psychoanalysis.

We focus on analyzing the language used in the

song. The analysis was deemed relevant to

unpack the use of poetic language, the character

of the poet as well as the themes inherent in the

song. To generate data, we listened to the song

several times, transcribing the lyrics then later

translating the transcriptions to English.

Following this, we conducted a systematic and

descriptive analysis of the song using inductive

thematic analysis. The findings of the study

suggest that Basotho accordion music makes use

of poetic language deviant from the language of

everyday use. The study, therefore, recommends

a need for further research on Basotho accordion

music for the preservation of Sesotho and

appreciation of indigenous knowledge systems.

Keywords: basotho accordion music, culture,

indigenous knowledge, patriarchy, oral tradition.

Author α: Wits School of Education, Department of 

Languages, Literacies and Literature 1.

σ: Wits School of Education, Department of Languages, 

Literacies and Literature 2.

I. INTRODUCTION 

Basotho accordion music initially started in the

initiation schools where the initiates were trained

to compose songs. In the initiation school,

dikgeleke (the eloquent ones) “articulate social

realities and contradictions that lie beneath the

surface of institutional and community life, to

help re-establish the moral basis and satisfy social

relations,” (Coplan, 1990, p.253). In another

study, Coplan (1992) strengthens this argument

by indicating that Basotho accordion music takes

its strength from the initiation schools where the

initiates were acquired song composition skills,

among other things. Coplan further explains that

this music was influenced by mangae (poems by

initiates) looking at the word order and the poetic

structure it adapts. Thus, Coplan (1990) asserts

that “it should be noted that Basotho boys go to

initiation schools where they learn mangae and

other songs” (p.253). For our line of reasoning in

this paper, we use Rapeane-Mathonsi’s (2011)

view that music is the manifestation of culture,

and Basotho traditional music is central to their

daily lives. Hence, we find it necessary for further

research regarding Basotho accordion music.

Initially known as famo (which is a noun derived

from the verb famola- meaning to flare a skirt),

accordion music evolved, and later became

popular music heard from shebeens. This music

was a form of entertainment and a marketing tool

for shebeen owners. Phafoli (2009) agrees that

famo has been a popular Basotho music

performed in shebeens in the shanty towns in

South Africa as a form of entertainment.

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Lerato la Favour: The Revival of Basoth Pride and Love for their Cultural Accordion Music

It seems that famo music was first associated with

the immorality of its singers and shebeens. Coplan

(2006) explains that this music was famous in

illegal taverns known as shebeens, where women

entertained migrants with dance, poetic song, and

sexual companionship. However, researchers

(Phafoli, 2009; Phafoli, & Khotso, 2020) point out

that the music has now translated into a form of

identity for Basotho as they have accepted it as

their traditional music. Phafoli and Zulu (2014, p.

181) agree that “Basotho accordion music has had

a great social impact in the forging of Basotho’s

identity.” The researchers further note that

Basotho accordion music has changed its

structure as “it is no longer sung by women in

shebeens flaring their skirts; rather, it is now

accepted as the Basotho traditional music meant

to preserve the integrity of the Basotho as a

nation” (Phafoli, & Zulu, 2014, p. 182). Worth

noting further is that for Basotho accordion

music today is a form of music that preserves

Sesotho as a language and the culture of Basotho.

Phafoli and Martins (2015) concur that accordion

music is of great value to Sesotho as it helps in

preserving and retaining the dying flavor of the

Sesotho language. For this reason, Basotho root

themselves deeply within it. Hence this paper

sought to find out how famo music has presently

transformed.

Famo music has come to be one of the favorite

Basotho music genres among both the educated

and uneducated alike. Coplan (1990, p. 262)

asserts that “for the exclusively Sesotho speaking,

this is their favorite music; even the highly

educated enjoy it, and no longer look down upon

it, and appreciate its sagacity, humor, and Sesotho

aesthetic and cultural qualities.” Phafoli and

Khotso (2020) are of the view that Basotho

accordion music seems to be not only a renowned

form of oral literature but also a symbol of culture

with which Basotho identify. Against this

background, the current paper aims to explore

Lerato la favour, a popular accordion music song

which won many Basotho’s hearts. As a case

study, we investigate how the artist uses Basotho

accordion music to narrate the story of a bitter,

angry, broken-hearted Mosotho man. Phafoli and

Zulu (2014) point out that through this music,

Basotho men reflect on their values, norms, and

traditional belief systems that define and

influence the lives of ordinary Basotho, within this

Phafoli and Khotso (2020) share the same

sentiments that famo music “was a popular

shebeen performance played by Basotho migrants

in the Republic of South Africa (RSA)” (p. 48).

Worth noting is that the music was known for the

immorality of its performers. It was played for

rough and sexy Basotho migrants (Phafoli, 2009).

When performing the famo dance, women would

flare their skirts up to attract men. Coplan (1985)

and Khotso (2017) explain that the dancers wore

no underwear, painted their sex area red with a

ring known as a stoplight. Initially, the music was

associated with single, deserted, deserting or

married promiscuous, undesired women who

were known as matekatse (whores) “ a term

universally translated in Lesotho as ‘prostitutes’,

derived from ‘ho teka, (to roam about helplessly)

and ho tekatsa, (to abandon one’s husband)

(Coplan, 1990, p. 254). It is interesting to note

that Coplan (1990) stresses that these canteen

keepers (the women) developed this famo dance

and song genres that form the basis of

contemporary Basotho national popular music.

Given these explanations, it makes reasonable

sense to conduct further research on accordion

music.

context men. In the song under investigation, the

artist shows how his heart was broken by a

woman he was in love with and was ready to

marry her. Worth noting is that Phafoli and Zulu

(2014) think that the narrator of the song has the

liberty to choose what he wants to sing about,

therefore defining and forging his identity. In this

case study, the researchers believe that the poet in

the song of Lerato la favour narrates his story

with a bitter heart of a scorned man and paints a

bad picture of the woman who broke his heart.

Since the woman is not there to give her side of

the story, we stand by her side, to critically

analyze how the singer makes use of sharp words

of bitterness and anger from a man to a woman

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Lerato la Favour: The Revival of Basoth Pride and Love for their Cultural Accordion Music

has left him. A narrative inquiry is relevant for the

current paper as Briggs, Coleman, and Morrison

(2012) assert that a narrative aims to perceive and

describe the narrator’s experiences. The artist

tells his story, reflecting on his own experiences in

love, giving an account of his journey and stating

his anecdotes, parables, and tales (Clandinin &

Connelly, 2000). To this end, it seems reasonable

to investigate Lerato la favour. The following

section discusses previous studies related to the

current paper.

II. PREVIOUS RELATED STUDIES 

Different studies have investigated the evolution

of Basotho music genres. This paper will focus on

these studies: Phafoli (2009), Mokala (2020), and

Phafoli and Khotso (2020).

Phafoli (2009) conducted a study on the language

techniques, and thematic aspects of the Basotho

accordion music. In the study, the researcher

investigates the themes of Basotho accordion

music from 1980-2005. The study is deemed

relevant for review as it looks at the social,

political, economic, and academic importance of

Basotho music. The study further presents the

cultural aspects which shape the experiences of

artists as reflected in their songs (Phafoli, 2009).

In line with what the current paper investigates,

the study further reveals “the poetic language and

language skills of the Basotho nation” (Phafoli,

2009, p. 5). Phafoli’s investigation is different

from the current paper as it employs a

functionalism framework to analyze accordion

music; whereas the current study employs an

eclectic approach. Phafoli’s (2009) study further

differs from the present study in that it uses

different data collection methods, namely,

interviews with artists, observations, and

collection of songs, while we chose one tool of

data generation. We picked one Sesotho accordion

song accompanied by a praise poem as the subject

of investigation for this paper. We listened to both

the song, and the praise poem, put both on paper

and translated into an international lingua franca,

English.

Mokala (2020) conducted a study on

ditolobonya-songs as a platform for Basotho

women’s narratives. Mokala’s study proposes that

it is important for Basotho men and women to

come together since ditolobonya-songs do not

afford men the opportunity to fight against

patriarchal structures. However, it leaves the gap

since it does not address the narratives of Basotho

men, as it focuses on the experiences of Basotho

women as portrayed through ditolobonya-songs.

The study also uses Africana womanism as its

theoretical base while the current paper is framed

within a heterogenous frame, combining Africana

womanism, patriarchy and psychoanalysis. The

study reveals that through ditolobonya- songs,

Basotho women voice out their experiences in

marriages and relationships. The study further

indicates that Basotho women use

ditolobonya-songs as a “weapon, to break the

silence, to support each other in telling their

‘untold stories’ in which their social structures do

not afford them such opportunities to present

their case” (p.145). The current paper finds

Mokala’s study useful as it informs on the laments

of women echoed through ditolobonya-songs,

which make it possible for this study to unpack

the laments of a broken man depicted through

Basotho accordion music. However, it is different

from the current study in many ways. Firstly, it

unpacks the experiences and realities of Basotho

women’s lives as narrated in ditolobonya-songs

while the current paper looks at the experiences of

a Mosotho man through Basotho accordion music.

Secondly, the current study approaches Basotho

accordion music from one case while Mokala’s

study was informed by different

ditolobonya-songs.

Phafoli and Khotso’s (2020) study reveals how

accordion music artists articulate their concerns

of piracy, poverty, and economic exploitation as

challenges they face as artists in surviving the

entertainment industry. In the study, the

researchers highlight that the issues of the state of

poverty in Lesotho, poverty alleviation,

unemployment, and exploitation are some of the

overarching themes in Basotho accordion music

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songs. The study employs the theory of

functionalism in unpacking the function of

Basotho accordion music within the Basotho

nation. For this reason, Phafoli and Khotso

(2020) note that the survival and sustainability of

the artists are dependent on their social and

economic environment. The study is relevant to

the current paper as it unpacks how economic

factors affect the artists of accordion music genre

highlighted. It differs from this study as it is

unravelled within one theoretical base. This

paper, on the other hand, is framed within an

eclectic model, thus incorporating issues of

women’s voice, the patriarchal ideologies of the

artist as well as the social and cultural influences

of Basotho men in their understanding and

perceptions of women. The current study limited

itself to one song: Lerato la favour; while Phafoli

and Khotso (2020) looked at different songs

whose themes are about the economic and poverty

state in Lesotho. Having explored how scholars

have reacted to Basotho cultural music genres, we

present the theoretical framework guiding this

study in the following section.

III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

The theoretical framework of this study takes its

departure from an eclectic perspective

encompassing three ideologies, namely Africana

womanism, which forms the basis, patriarchy, and

psychoanalysis. The researchers decided on this

approach to enable them to unravel the study

aiming to build a strong foundation for the

analysis of the song under investigation.

Africana womanism was first introduced by

Hudson-Weems (2000) advocating that in

addressing issues surrounding the survival of

black women, it is of utmost importance to

consider their African cultural perspectives. We

are taking this frame of reference as we feel that in

the song under analysis, the woman under

scrutiny is not there to answer for herself, we

cannot get her side of the story. For this reason,

we are taking a stance to support her by revealing

the underlying themes we identified while

analyzing the song. We adopt this paradigmatic

approach to bring in the existence of an African

woman (Reed, 2001) who seems to be

non-existent in the song and dominated by the

male voice. Moi (2015, p.1) says: “theory today has

become so abstract and overgeneralized that it no

longer says anything relevant about women’s

lives…. If academics working in the field [of

feminism] succeeded in improving our

understanding of the complex relations between

identity and oppression, the world would be a

In her study entitled “understanding the

meanings represented in ditolobonya-songs:

Basotho women’s experiences and realities,”

Mokala (2020) adopts Africana womanism to

unravel how Basotho women use

ditolobonya-songs to articulate their experiences

and the cultural circumstances surrounding such

experiences. In the same vein, the current study

adopts the same lens to look through the

non-existent woman in this view, taking into

consideration cultural, historical, and patriarchal

ideologies rooted in the perception of Basotho

men of women. This comes to the fore through the

analysis of the linguistic cues used in the song

such as “lehehle la mosadi,” (a damsel whose

character is full of blemishes, or a whore), “tjhe

meteno e fedile meaparong” (in our time decent

clothes are a rarity), “o hanne ke mo rekela

seshweshwe,” (a seshweshwe gift I bought her,

she did not favor with acceptance) to name but a

few.

Patriarchy in the current study is understood as a

system of male domination where there is a

better place”. Earlier in (1995), Obioma

Nnaemeka who was writing about ‘Feminism,

Rebellious Women and Cultural Boundaries…..’

said: “while rejecting the spurious dichotomy of

the ’insider’ that brings cultural understanding

and the ‘outsider’ who brings theoretical

expertise, I argue that a serious feminist critic or

any critic for that matter of African [texts] must

be an ‘in outsider’ who pays equal attention to

cultural contexts and critical theory” (p.81). Our

choice of the Africana Womanism framework, as

the analytical tool in this paper, is informed by the

sentiments espoused by Moi (2015) and

Nnaemeka

(1995).

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IV. METHODOLOGY 

In the current paper, we made use of qualitative

research methodology. According to Maree

(2015), qualitative research is the research

method that makes use of open-ended,

exploratory research questions. By nature,

qualitative research methodology relates to people

and is used by researchers conducting case

studies. Macmillan and Schumacher’s (2010)

opinion is that making use of qualitative research

methodology can provide a detailed description

and analysis of a practice, process, or event. We

put into consideration that our interpretations

play a significant role, as the data from

transcriptions of the song are subject to our

understanding (Maree, 2015). Making use of

qualitative research was appropriate in the

current study as our interest was on gaining an

in-depth understanding of the lyrics of Lerato la

favour song. Henning (2004) argues that

qualitative research emphasizes on acquiring an

understanding and an in-depth inquiry of a

phenomenon. The qualitative research

methodology was deemed relevant for this study

as the focus was on understanding and

interpreting the Lerato la favour song, from the

perspectives of the singer, of a heart-broken

relationship. We are interested in how the

narrator constructs his understanding of women.

To do this, our interest was to systematically and

descriptively analyze the song under investigation.

Having discussed the methodology guiding the

study, we evaluate the research design of this

paper.

V. RESEARCH DESIGN 

In the current study, a case study of one specific

accordion music song is analyzed. Maree (2015)

defines a case study as a “bounded system” in

which researchers define each case within its

boundaries. We conveniently selected Lerato la

favour song in accordance with predetermined

criteria relevant to the objectives of the current

study (Maree, 2015). We conducted in-depth

descriptions and interpretations of the lyrics of

the song Lerato la favour for the purpose of

understanding the narratives of the artist. As

Mouton (2008) notes, this led to an in-depth

understanding of the phenomenon under study.

By employing the inductive thematic analysis

approach, we established emerging themes from

our data (Maree, 2015). Therefore, we used a

multi-perspective analysis of the singer’s views as

we exploited an eclectic approach. It was

important for the researchers to make use of case

study research since it enabled them to “close-in”

on the real-life situations and test views directly to

phenomena as they unfolded in the analysis

reduction of women to an inferior position

(Mosetse, 2006). These belief systems inherent in

men influence the perceptions they have about the

idea of manhood and womanhood (Walby, 1997).

It is important to note that the internalized sex

roles definition shape children’s perceptions

which later influence their behavior. Walby (1997)

elucidates that men exploit women’s loving

capabilities which are seen through the way the

poet undermines his lover’s feelings for him by

indicating that her love is shallow “mokedikedi

wa lerato ho phoqa” (an elixir of love so deceitful,

meaning her love for him is shallow). Julia

Kristeva (2011) says psychoanalysis develops a

theory of the unconscious that links sexuality and

subjectivity. In doing so, it discloses the ways our

sense of self and our political [and cultural]

loyalties are influenced by unconscious drives and

ordered by symbolic structures that are beyond

the purview of individual agency. What Kristeva

says here is particularly pertinent to the character

of the singer in Lerato la favour. His sense of self

and cultural loyalties all come to the fore in the

song and attendant poem. It is worth mentioning

that the use of an approach adopted in this paper

is relevant as the underlying meaning of the song

under investigation. Against this backdrop, the

ideologies adopted in this study are so intertwined

that separating them seemed impossible hence

the justification for a multidimensional

framework of reference. Having established the

theoretical lens through which we see this study,

in what follows, we evaluate the research

methodology of the study.

(Mouton, 2008). It is interesting to note that case

study research is deeply rooted in the interpretive

paradigm. For this study, the researchers took the

interpretive lens of a case study as it granted them

a chance to understand the subjective views of the

singer from his cultural and psychoanalytical

context. According to (Darke, Shanks, &

Broadbent, 1998) an interpretive approach is

founded on the ideology that reality is not

objective but constructed and interpreted by

humans through their value systems rejecting the

notion of value-free research. This section focused

on discussing the research design of the paper. In

the subsequent section, we discuss the identified

themes from the song under investigation.

VI. ANALYSIS OF LERATO LA FAVOUR 

6.1 The title of the song 

The song, Lerato la favour is, according to the

artist, love of favours. It is a song about the love

relationship of selfishness, deceit, lies, pretence,

abandonment, and never-ending demands. The

artist says:

I thought you loved me

You never really did love me.

You focused on your selfish interests.

Having used me, you abandoned me.

Put differently, the title of the song simply says:

the love that never was.

6.2 Language usage in the song 

There is a close relationship between the language

of poetry and that of dipina (songs). In her study

of Difela Tsa Diparola- Thota (Chants of the

mineworkers), Makobane (2000) observes that

‘the poets have used various techniques in the

composition of their difela (chants) to appeal to

their audience” (p.43). The poetic nature of the

language of dipina (songs) that captures the

minds of the listeners is one aspect of this art

form. Phafoli (2009, p. 76) thinks that “… the

language used in accordion music is related to the

Basotho oral traditional literature such as praise

poems.” Musicians express themselves in a

language full of techniques that are not used in

everyday language Phafoli (2009). The Russian

Formalists would call this technique ‘ostranenie’

commonly understood as defamiliarization. The

nature of the language used in accordion music is

related to the Basotho traditional literature as

praise poetry (Guma, 1967; Kunene, 1971;

Moleleki, 1992; Moeketsi, 1993; Phafoli, 2009).

The poetic nature of accordion music is based on

its orality, just like praise or heroic poetry as

Phafoli (2009) notes.

Poetic diction refers to the choice of words used

for aesthetic and evocative qualities, over and

above the meaning of a word. In Lerato la favor

the artist says:

I went hop-hop in pursuit of a bird;

Of a feathered beauty chirping happily.

A damsel of dubious character,

Who a serial gossiper has become,

A great pretender she is

She was pretending to love me.

The opening two lines are a metaphor of a happy

man chasing (hop-hop) merrily after a pretty,

singing young woman, ‘a feathered beauty

chirping happily’. This merry, carefree mood is

suddenly and almost unexpectedly contrasted by

the next four lines, where the tone becomes sad

and melancholy. The ‘feathered beauty chirping

happily’ has suddenly become ‘a damsel of

dubious character’ and ‘a serial gossiper’. It

appears that the singer, through the words chosen

and used in the song, is inviting the listeners to

share his sadness and to empathize.

6.3 Theme(s) in Lerato la favour 

The theme is the overall underlying meaning of a

given text. We get to know more about the artists

as they express their feelings about their

experiences and relationships with others

(Phafoli, 2009 p.181). Worth noting is that Coplan

(2006) shares the same sentiments by asserting

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that the songs map the artists' experiences as they

reflect on their existence as Basotho men. Our

take is that in the song Lerato la favour, the

underlying meaning is the domination and

oppression of a young woman by a young man

who is inseparably ‘married’ to patriarchy and

static, old fashioned customs and traditions.

Among Basotho says Phafoli (2009, p. 181), the

perception of inferiority of women is instilled in

the minds of the young males during their growth.

This underlying theme plays out as sub-themes of

gender stereotypes, rebellion, rejection, and

bitterness.

Nkumane (1999, p.73) indicates that stereotypes

are socially constructed. They originate from the

way society perceives its way of life. These

stereotypes become ingrained images in society’s

mind-set, and as time goes become very difficult

to change. The language and the words used in a

text reflect the norms and values of [any given]

society. It is therefore not surprising that the

language used to describe women abound in

abusive and sexual overtones. In Lerato la favor

we find examples like:

A seshweshwe gift I bought her,

Instead, she opted for the Whiteman’s

Leggings with a bold black stripe

That disappeared between her legs.

The sub-themes of rebellion and rejection are

embodied in the character of the present but very

silent young woman in the song. We do not hear

her speak but, we see her act. She is not

interested in the traditional gift of ‘seshweshwe’

(a traditional Sesotho dress); instead, she

rebelliously wears ‘leggings with a black stripe

that disappeared between her legs’. The silent

young woman does not only rebel against the

archaic disposition of the singer; she rejects him

just as he was about to drive lobola cattle to her

father’s kraal. This is a woman character who is

dynamic, she can change. She is a fully rounded

off character as New Criticism would say. The

character in question is a very courageous young

woman. She does not only reject a suitor; she is

turning her back against custom, tradition, and

society.

On the opposite end, the singer in Lerato la

favour cannot believe that he has been rejected,

abandoned, and shamed by a young Mosotho

woman. The flat character that he is does not have

the wisdom to stop and ask himself why the

woman behaved in the manner that she did.

Instead, he hurls insults at the woman. Here are

some of them:

For I partake not of a meal uncovered,

How does one partake of a good meal,

Together with flies?

uncovered meal’ because of the way she chooses

to dress. He cannot partake of this ‘meal’ because

he will have to share it with flies. Calling

someone’s body a ‘meal’ is gross, to say the least!

As if this is not enough, the singer goes on:

A seed without any core

Is of no use.

My people will such,

Cast before swine.

The mental image we see in the four lines just

given evokes the feeling of disgust in the listener.

The reference here is to a barren woman. The seed

without a core refers to infertility. When and how

did the ‘man’ character in the song prove that the

‘woman’ character is barren and infertile? What

we see here is the character portrayal of someone

enslaved by unproductive patriarchy.

VII. CONCLUSION 

The study concludes that the evolution of Basotho

accordion music has seen an achievement in the

growth and appreciation of this music genre

among Basotho. For this reason, and in

accordance with the findings of this paper,

Basotho accordion songs reflect strong messages

that mirror patriarchal and belief systems held by

Basotho men towards women. It is therefore not

surprising to see how the singer in Lerato la

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The singer calls the body of the young woman ‘an

favour paints the subject as immoral, ungrateful,

demanding, and deceptive. The study aimed to

analyze language used in defining the pain and

anger of a heart-broken Mosotho man. The

analysis of the song under discussion disclosed

that domination and oppression of women seem

to prevail in the song, thus, revealing patriarchal

ideologies held by Basotho men. This study,

therefore, forms the basis for further research on

Basotho accordion music to preserve both the

language and culture, but most importantly for

the music to softly but firmly say women are also

children of Society. They are not ‘Children of a

lesser God.’

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APPENDIX A  

The song for analysis:

Molepe: Lerato la Favour number 2. Lilepe music

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