Post on 23-Jan-2023
2
Contents
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………3
Chapter I. General notions about evaluation………………….
……………………5
I.1. The main classifications of
evaluation……………………………………5 I.2. Functions of
evaluation.………………………………………………….10
Chapter II. The main classifications of word-
combinations………………………12
Chapter III. Means of expressing evaluation on the word-
combination level in the novel «Lord of the
Flies» by William Golding……………………………………..16
IV Conclusions……………………………………………………………………...28
V Reference literature……………………………………………………………….30
3
Introduction
One of the main functions of the language is
informative. This function does it possible to impart
knowledge from one participant of communication process
to another with the help of the language. In our time the
value of information grew to the high level, and speed,
and clearness of the message have matter. However, the
emotional side of the message does matter too.
In recent years the linguists have started to pay
more attention to the subjective element in the language,
including man’s estimated attitude to the phenomena of
reality, as in the learning process and in the process of
4
communication the man expresses his attitude toward the
world.
There is no a language in which the idea about
«well» and «badly» would be absent . As asserts V.V.
Vinogradov: «a word not only has grammatical, lexical
and subject meaning, but also in the same time expresses
the evaluation of subject...» [7, p.21]
It is gathered a great empirical material and formed
certain directions of the study of evaluation semantics
in English, German, French, Spanish, Russian
languages.
In different languages the methods of expression the
evaluation are different, though they have semantic
similarity. The differences refer to the area of
evaluation stereotypes and are related to pragmatic
character of evaluation.
A lot of scientists did a great contribution to the
study of evaluation: N.Platon, I.Kant, B.Spiniza, T.
Hobbes, N. Arutiunova, A. Ivin, E.Wolf, V.Kunin,
Y. Stepanov and others.
5
In most linguistic researches which are devoted to
the category of evaluation, the types of evaluation means
and methods of their expression are described, it is
consider the connection between evaluation and modality,
peculiarities of function of evaluation expressions in
different types of texts, theory of argumentation and
axiology, cultural aspect of evaluation and logic –
philosophical concepts of evaluation.
The evaluation can be examined in two ways: as a
category of logic and as linguistic category. In modern
logic an evaluation in the most general view is
determined as judgment about values. The value can be
defined as positive or negative means of objects of
surrounding reality.
Evaluate - means to express opinion, judgment about
a value or about means of anybody or anything. Basic
sphere of means, that for a custom is
correlated with evaluative, related to the signs «well»
and «badly».
6
The present course paper is an attempt to make a
stylistic study of selected work of William Golding from
linguistic point of view.
The object of this scientific research is William
Golding’s story Lord of The Flies.
Golding uses a huge quantity of different words,
synonyms and foreign words. The use of diction is
powerful, with the gripping use of words and description.
Golding creates tension and reinforces his theme and tone
with the use of specific words.
The subject of the research is peculiarities of
means of expressing evaluation on the word-combination
level in the novel «Lord of the Flies» by William Golding
The topicality of course paper consists in fact that
firstly, though evaluation is the multidimensional
category that is examined within the framework of the
different research, it attracts attention of many
scientist nowadays, secondly William Golding’s literary
legacy is poorly studied in English literature.
The purpose is to present the description of
language means of expression of evaluation values in the
7
novel «Lord of the Flies» by William Golding on the word-
combination level and to educe the individual – author’s
peculiarities of transmission of the valued relation.
The structure of this work has been defined by its
goals and objectives, and consists of an introduction,
the first chapter, which is devoted to the general notion
of evaluation, the second chapter concerning the main
classification of word-combinations. Chapter three, which
tells about means of expressing evaluation on word-
combination level in the “Lord of the Flies” by Golding.
8
Chapter I.1. The main classifications of evaluation
Evaluation as philosophical concept realizes
judgment in which a certain object is characterized in
its qualitative representation, in particular through the
categories of approval or disapproval.
The evaluation of literary texts is something that
readers always, automatically, and spontaneously, engage
in. They judge the development of a plot and generate
feelings of pleasure or dislike at particular events, the
feel that the text does not yield what they had expected,
or they find the author’s style rewarding or awkward. All
of this evaluation usually takes place as an integral
part of the reading process. [5. p,1]
9
In the English literature evaluation is expressed by
means of units which sometimes difficult to connect in
one context. That’s why in expression of evaluation
means, as a rule, author’s individuality is traced.
The theory of evaluation has a long history of its
development.
The concept of evaluation came to the field of the
linguistic studies from logic assessments, where
evaluation is defined as a statement about the values.
[9, p.12]. In this connection value refers to any object
of any interest, desires etc. In this case the
distinction is made between positive and negative values.
[9, p. 62].
Having borrowed the concept of evaluation from
logic, linguistic scholars concentrated on the methods of
expressing the evaluation means in the language.
In linguistics evaluation is understood as a
universal language category.
Evaluation - a universal category that expresses a
positive or negative speaker's attitude to the content of
10
speech and implements in parts of speech, exclamations,
modal shares, word -combinations, lexemes and sentences.
The difficult multicomponent structure of evaluation
predetermines existence of various classifications of
this category due to it’s criteria and functions.
The first complete classification of evaluation was
proposed by Finish scientist von Wright in his book
«Varieties of good». Scientist classifies evaluation due
to the three types of objects. This classification became
the basic for research of such linguists, such as: N.
Arutyunova, A.Wolf, A. Ivin.
Von Wright distinguished such types of evaluation:
1. Instrumental (evaluation of tools, instruments); 2.
Technical (evaluation of ability); 3. Evaluation of
favourableness(an orientation is on the achievement of
positive effect); 4. Medical(evaluation of functions of
organs of body and capabilities of mind);
5.Utilitarian(evaluation of utility, fitness); 6.
Hedonistic (evaluation of pleasure).
O. Wolf refers the structure of evaluation such
elements: subject of evaluation (individual, society, the
11
part of society), object of evaluation (предмет object,
phenomenon or person of reality), evaluation
proper(evaluation predicate), subject of evaluation
(interlocutor), evaluation scale (comparson to the
standard), evaluation stereotype (standard, standard of
norm), backgrounds of evaluation (criterion, reason of
estimation). [8, p.242]
In the terminological encyclopedia «Modern
Linguistics» by Olena Selivanova the most exhaustive
explanation of estimation as a linguistic category can be
found. The author indicates three main approaches to the
study of estimation existing in linguistics nowadays.
According to the first approach, estimation is a
connotative component of a language unit semantic
structure which indicates the native speakers’ attitude
to a designated phenomenon according to the absolute
scale «good – neutral – bad» or according to the relative
scale «better – just as good – just as neutral – just as
bad – worse» [11. p.438]
Such an approach is basic for a number of
investigations, but some researchers insist on referring
12
evaluative meanings to denotation. This question is still
being discussed, but more scientists stick to the point
that evaluative meanings can form both denotative and
connotative components of a language unit semantic
structure. The analysis of my language material proves
the latter point of view.
The second approach treats estimation as a text
category, which expresses the author’s, personages’, or a
hypothetic reader’s attitude towards the described
events, characters, their behavior according to the
absolute scale «good – neutral – bad» or according to the
relative scale «better – just as good – just as neutral –
just as bad – worse» taking into consideration other
types of axiological modalities [11. p.438].
The third approach studies estimation as a kind
of utterance modality, which reflects axiological aspect
of a situation denoted by this utterance, that is the
speaker’s evaluative attitude to the interiorized event.
Within the limits of this approach, the following types
of estimation are distinguished: rational (utilitarian,
normative, teleological); logical (epistemological,
13
deontical); emotional based on feelings (pleasant/
unpleasant); aesthetic that functions through ideas of
beautiful and ugly; ethic that is based on moral norms
(moral / immoral); sensory that is a result of perception
and quantitative that characterizes the degree or extent
of an object or its characteristics [11. p.439].
This approach raises question about the
classification of estimative meanings that is also an
object for discussion nowadays.
One of the most detailed and exhaustive
classifications of language estimation has been devised
by Nina Arutiunova. Her classification partly coincides
with that Olena Selivanova mentioned above, but it is
more detailed and well-grounded. Nina Arutiunova
distinguishes general estimation which is based on a summary
of miscellaneous properties of an object and particular
estimation, the meaning of which includes additional
components referring to the estimation structure (e.g.
motivation) [6. p. 194].
The meaning of general estimation is realized by
adjectives “good” and “bad” and their synonyms with
14
different stylistic and expressive characteristics
(wonderful, great, excellent, terrible etc.) [6. p.198].
Meanings of particular estimation are differentiated
according to the side of a complex object they
characterize. These are: 1) sensory estimation (pleasant
– unpleasant; tasty – tasteless, fragrant – stinking
etc.); 2) psychological estimation which includes two
sub-types: a) intellectual estimation (interesting,
gripping, clever – uninteresting,trite, silly); b)
emotional estimation (happy – sad, pleasant –
unpleasant); 3) aesthetic estimation (beautiful – ugly);
4) ethic estimation (moral – immoral, kind – unkind) 5)
utilitarian estimation (useful – harmful, favourable –
unfavourable); 6) normative estimation (right – wrong,
standard – non-standard, healthy – ill); 7) teleological
estimation (effective – ineffective, successful –
unsuccessful) [6. p.198].
Evaluative meaning may be defined as calculated or
judged assessment of
15
the quality, importance or value of something or somebody
or a spontaneously expressed opinion of the kind, quality
or category of somebody or something.
This definition attempts to encompass both the conceptual
meaning of the word and its contextual meanings which
relate to concrete instances of its use and cannot be
exhaustingly accommodated in dictionaries. This
definition also suggests that adjectives and adverbs are
the principal carriers of evaluative meaning. With a few
exceptions that relate to conceptual meaning, adjectives
and adverbs, indeed, convey evaluation. Adjectives of
colour and names of material would make exceptions but
even these adjectives may become evaluative through the
extension of their meaning figuratively.
For example:
1) The actress gave a rather wooden performance.
2) She was known as the “Iron Lady”.
Therefore it is possible to conclude that adjectives
and adverbs of subjective evaluation generally group
around two poles of meaning –the positive and the
negative. For example: good: perfect, lovely, amazing,
16
excellent, etc.; sweetly, pleasantly, etc. vs. bad: terrible,
horrible, awful, ghastly, frightful,
etc.; rudely, sourly, etc.
17
Chapter I.2. Functions of evaluation
There are three functions that evaluation is used to
perform, and each of these it an object of interest to
the linguist.
These functions are:
1)to express the speaker’s or writer’s opinion, and
in going to reflect the value system of that
person and their community;
2) to constract and maintain relation between the
speaker or writer and heare or reader;
3)to organize the discourse.
The function are not exclusive, that is, a single
instance of evaluation may well perform two or three of
the functions simultaneously.
The first function.The most obvious function of
evaluation is to tell the reader what the writer thinks
or feels about something. Identifying “what the writer
thinks” tells us more than just one person’s ideas. Every
18
act of evaluation expresses a communal value-system, and
every act of evaluation goes towards building up that
value-system. This value system in turn is a component of
the ideology which lies behind every text.[4, p.6]
The second function of evaluation is to build and
maintain relationship between writer and reader. This has
been studied in the relation to three main areas:
manipulation, hedging and politeness. In each of these
areas, the writer can be said to be exploiting the
resources of evaluation to build a particular kind of
relationship with the reader. Evaluation can be used to
manipulate the reader, to resuade him or to see things in
a particular way. [4, p.8]
The third function. We have discussed above how
evaluation can used to build a relationship between
writer and reader, in particular by assuming shared
attitudes, values and reactions which it can be difficult
for reader, as subordinate in this relationship, to
dispute. This relationship does not exist only in terms
of the information in the text, however, but in terms of
the text itself. In other words, the writer does not only
19
tell the reader “this happened, and this in my opinion
about it”, but also tells the reader “this is the
beginning of the text, this is my opinion about it”, but
also tells the reader “this is the beginning of our text,
this is how the argument fits together, and this is the
end of our interaction”. To take a simple example, if a
mother writes a letter to her daughter, an interaction
will take place between them as mother and daughter
reacting to event in the world, but in addition an
interaction will take place between them as writer and
reader keeping track of the progression or organization
of the text. In short, the letter-writer and letter-
reader have two relationships: as mother and daughter and
as discourse-producer and discourse-recipient.[4, p.11]
20
Chapter II. The main classifications of word-combinations
The main object of study in syntax is the
communicative unit of the language, the sentence. The
phrase is the syntactic unit used as a notional part of a
sentence. As a level-forming unit, it is characterized by
some common and some differential features with the unit
of the lower level, the word, and the unit of the upper
level, the sentence. Like the word, the phrase is a
nominative unit, but it provides a complex nomination of
the referent, a polynomination consisting of several (at
least two) nominative components, presenting the referent
as a complicated phenomenon, cf.: a girl – a beautiful girl; a
decision – his unexpected decision; etc. Moreover, the regular
free phrase does not enter speech as a ready-made unit
like the word; it is freely formed in speech, like the
sentence according to a certain grammatical pattern. As
for the fixed word-combinations, idioms, they are closer
to the word in the type of nomination: they are ready-
21
made units fixed in dictionaries and studied mainly by
lexicology.
The definition of the phrase is rather a
controversial issue. In Russian linguistics, the narrow
approach, which was put forward by V. V. Vinogradov,
traditionally prevails: only a combination of two
notional words, one of which dominates the other, is
considered a word-combination. A much broader approach
was proposed by Leonard Bloomfield and it is shared by
many modern linguists. One of the leading specialists in
this field, V. V. Burlakova, defines a word-combination
as any syntactically organized group of syntagmatically
connected words; this includes combinations of functional
and notional words, and predicative and coordinative
combinations of words. Critical revision of these two
approaches is possible on the basis of the above given
description of the phrase (the phraseme) as a separate
lingual unit.
Defining the phrase as a polynominative lingual unit
helps reveal the status of notional phrases, semantically
independent («autosemantic») combinations of notional
22
words, as the basic type of phrasemes. Besides notional
phrases (phrases proper), two other structural types of
syntagmatic groupings of words can be distinguished,
which can be defined as phrases or word-combinations only
in form: formative phrases and functional phrases. The
formative phrase is a combination of a notional word with
a functional word, which is contextually dependent
(«synsemantic») and functionally similar to separate
notional words used in various grammatical forms, e.g.:
of Peter (= Peter’s); in a moment, without doubt, etc. Functional
phrases are combinations of functional words similar to
regular functional words, e.g.: apart from, as soon as, with
reference to, must be able, etc. [11, p.58]
According to the syntactical and semantic
interrelation between the components, all word-
combinations split into coordinate, subordinate and
predicative. This division is based on syntagmatic
relations of independence, dependence and inredependence.
Coordinate word-combinations are formed from
components equal in rank which are connected either
syndetically (with the help of conjuctions) or
23
asyndetically (without conjuctions): books and magazines; to
read, translate and retell; on the beach or in the water; quick but not
careless; neither this nor that; no sun. no moon; silent, immovable, gloomy.
Coordinate word-combinations are non-binary by their
nature: they may include several constituents of equal
rank, though not necessary of the same part of speech.
Coordinate word-combinations perform the function of
homogeneous parts of the sentence: There they were: stars, sun,
sea, light, darkness, space, great waters. [1, p.239]
As to the expression of sens , coordinate word-
combinations may be closed or open(infinite). Closed
word-combinations may consist of two components only:
rivers and lakes; neither he nor she; all but me. Open (infinite) word-
combinations consist of several components the number of
which may still be continued(as by enumerating): books,
note-books, bags, pens, pencils. [1, p.240]
The coordinated units are called conjoins, and the
resulting combination is a conjoint. The order of
conjoint words can be influenced by a tendency for the
shorter word to come first: cold and rainy; big and ugly; cup and
saucer; or by consideration of etiquette: mother and I.
24
By coordinating a word with itself, special meanings
are expressed, such as intensification: The car went slower
and slower; continuous action: They talked and talked; a large
number: We saw flowers and flowers and flowers all over the garden;
different kinds: There are teachers and teachers (= good and bad
teachers) [1, p.240]
Subordinate word-combinations are binary by their
nature: they consist of a head component commonly called
the kernel, kernel element, head-word, which is nucleus
of the word-combination, and of one or more subordinated
elements called adjunct, complement or expansion.
Adjuncts serve to describe, qualify, select, complete, or
extend the meaning of the head. They may be either a
single notional word or a group of words functionally
equal to it: Peter’s brother; her father and mother; take part in the
games; bad for you. [1, p.241]
On the base of the position of the adjunct in
relation to the kernel, subordinative phrases are
characterized as regressive or progressive: in regressive
phrases, the adjunct precedes the kernel, e.g.: a beautiful
25
girl; in progressive phrases, the adjunct follows the
kernel, e.g.: came home. [10, p.60]
Predicative word-combinations are structures with
predicative connection of words, built on syntactical
independence uniting the subject and the predicate. The
reciprocal nature of this connection consists in the fact
that the subject dominates the predicate determining the
person of predication , while the predicate dominates the
subject, determining the event of predication, e.g.
ascribing to the person some action, state or quality.
[1, p.242]
The traditional classification of phrases is based
on the part-of-speech characteristics of their
constituents (on the part of speech of the kernel in
dominational phrases); there are noun phrases (NP), e.g.:
a beautiful girl; men, women and children; verbal phrases (VP),
e.g.: went home; came and went; adjective phrases (AP),
e.g.: quite unexpected; nice and quiet; adverbial phrases (DP),
e.g.: quite unexpectedly. On the base of kernel-adjunct
relations, subordinative phrases can be divided into
those with objective connections (direct objective and indirect
26
objective) and qualifying connections (attributive and
adverbial), e.g.: to see a child (direct objective); put on the
table (indirect objective); a beautiful girl (attributive);
came soon (adverbial). [10, p.59]
Chapter.III. Means of expressing evaluation on the word-
combination level in the novel «Lord of the Flies» by
William Golding
27
Sir William Gerald Golding (1911-1993) wrote many
novels of a high intellectual and linguistic level and
was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1983. His education was
excellent. He studied in Oxford, at first natural
sciences and then English. His first published novel,
«Lord of The Flies» has been a great success ever since.
It is worth a closer look with an emphasis to the
language and stylistic devices he employs.
«Lord of the Flies» tells the story of a group of
English schoolboys who ended up on a tropical island
after their plane was shot down during a war. Though the
novel is fictional, its exploration of the idea of human
evil is at least partly based on Golding’s experience
with the real-life violence and brutality of World War
II. Free from the rules and structures of civilization
and society, the boys on the island in «Lord of the
Flies» descend into savagery. As the boys splinter into
factions, some behave peacefully and work together to
maintain order and achieve common goals, while others
rebel and seek only anarchy and violence.
28
On the very first pages it becomes clear that the
reading of «Lord of The Flies» is a challenging
experience. Golding uses a huge quantity of different
words, synonyms and foreign words. The use of diction is
powerful, with the gripping use of words and description.
Golding creates tension and reinforces his theme and tone
with the use of specific words. Many are connotative and
therefore create a story abundant in meaning and
symbolism.
Golding makes very good use of characters in «Lord
of the Flies», he shows both good and evil through each
of the characters.
Golding uses color such as yellow to symbolize
particular things such as innocence, as shown in the
piglets and the island, The word yellow makes the reader
think of the sun, enlightenment and Ralph: «The boy with fair
hair lowered himself down the last few feet of rock and began to pick his
way toward the lagoon».[2, p.1]
The word-combination fair hair refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
29
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
Ralph was described as the boy with fair hair, what gives
him already positive evaluation of the author.
The word-combination to pick his way refers
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: verbal phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: direct objective
The word-combination to pick his way describes determined
actions of Ralph, because he faces a lot of obstacles on
his way. It also gives him positive evaluation. While
most of the other boys initially are concerned with
playing, having fun, and avoiding work, Ralph sets about
30
building huts and thinking of ways to maximize their
chances of being rescued.
Ralph is the athletic, charismatic protagonist of
“Lord of the Flies”. Elected the leader of the boys at the
beginning of the novel, Ralph is the primary
representative of order, civilization, and productive
leadership in the novel.
The word representing color black brings to mind
evil and Jack. From the beginning of the novel, Jack
desires power above all other things. He is furious when
he loses the election to Ralph and continually pushes the
boundaries of his subordinate role in the group. He is
the leader of the hunters, the first time they find a
pig, Jack stops, and couldn't kill the pig. That revealed
how Jack was civilized, yet later on he would kill the
pig without hesitation. «We've got to have rules and obey them.
After all, we're not savages. We're English, and the English are best at
everything.» [ 2, p. 40]
This quote depicts how Jack thought he would never
become a savage, because he is "English" but in the end
he is far more than a savage. His thoughts were
31
prejudiced, as he was not the best. The phrase best at
everything emphasizes his self-confidence, what gives him
negative evaluation.
The word-combination best at everything refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: adjectival phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
One of the characters that represents goodness is
Simon. He is very good and pure, and has the most
positive outlook. Simon is very different from the other
boys, he seems to always be helping the Littluns and many
other vulnerable boys such as Piggy. «Simon sitting between the
twins and Piggy, wiped his mouth and shoved his piece of meat over the
rocks to Piggy, who grabbed it.» [ 2, p.74]
This quote interprets an example of a time when
Simon helped Piggy by giving him food, it shows Simon's
wholeheartedness. The verb grab has rather negative
meaning and the author shows us how children were greedy
not only to food, but also to power and leadership.
32
The word-combination grabbed it refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: verbal phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: direct objective
The children in the novel – all of them are boys –
show parts of their identities in their speech. On closer
examination it is found that there is a wide variance in
the age of the boys, from about 6 to 12 years of age.
From here on in the book the younger boys are simply
referred to as the "littluns" and the older boys as
"bigguns" Mostly, the actions of “littluns” are confined
to shouts during the meetings. An example of their speech
is the report of a littlun named “Phil”: «Last night I had a
dream, a horrid dream, fighting with things. I was outside the shelter by
myself, fighting with things, those twisty things in the trees.¨ He paused, and
the other littleluns laughed in horrified sympathy. ¨Then I was frightened
33
and I woke up. And I was outside the shelter by myself in the dark and the
twisty things had gone away.» [2, p.56]
The word-combination horrid dream refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
In this quote we can find two examples of
evaluation. The first is horrid dream, at first the child
mentioned that he had a dream, we understand the word
dream as something good, he did not say a nightmare,
which has already negative meaning. But in the next part
of the sentence we have horrid dream, adjective horrid gives
negative meaning to the word dream. According to the
absolute scale we can evaluate this word-combination as
bad and refer it to the emotional type of evaluation.
The second example is laughed in sympathy. The verb laugh
is positive, because you are laughing of funny things,
34
but not in this case. The noun sympathy can be explain as
a feeling of understanding that somebody have experienced
something very unpleasant. Here, the author uses
oxymoron, he combines contradictory terms, which change
the evaluative meanings of each other.
The word-combination laughed in sympathy refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: verbal phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: adverbial
In the Ralph’s speech we can find another example of
verbal phrase: «We need an assembly….» [2, p.58]
The word combination need an assembly refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components:
surbodinative
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: verbal phrase
35
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
Type of relation between the constituents in phrase:
direct objective
The reader can evaluate this speech as positive. For
instance, the word-combination need an assembly evokes some
positive feelings in the reader, because of noun assembly,
which means that some group is together and this is
associated with cooperation which always has positive
meaning.
Most of the sentences in «The Lord of the Flies» are
simple. There are sentences that are complex and the
occasional compound sentence. Most characters speak
simply and clearly. Often, they speak in fragments. For
example, when twins come back from the mountain top, they
started hastily to describe the beast they thought they
had seen. In their fear, they are only able to say a few
words, before the other twin is interrupting, now himself
beginning new sentences without ending them. Golding
calls this “antiphonal speech”. In general, when the
boys, either biguns or littluns, are enthusiastic about a
new plan, a consent or a point of argument, they are
36
talking simultaneously and only single words are
understandable or, for a reader, readable. These broken
phrases show fear to the reader and evoke some negative
feeling, state of apprehension.
There is a second, more important aspect in the
novel to analyse. Golding is very skilled in the
description of landscapes and nature: «Here and there, little
breezes crept over the polished waters beneath the haze of heat. When these
breezes reached the platform the palm-fronds would whisper, so that spots
of blurred sunlight slid over their bodies or moved like bright, winged
things in the shade.»[2, p.11]
The word-combination bright, winged things refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: coordinative
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
Golding uses imagery to describe the scenery and the
setting. The author describes the setting in two
37
contrasting ways. We think when the author describes the
island through the eyes of the children a more positive
ambience of the island is created because the children
are unaware of how bad their situation is and how bad the
island is. However, when the author is explaining the
setting he zooms into
small, yet significant, details and items that lead the
reader to understand that the boys are stuck in a deadly
island and that they will not be leaving for a while.
A good example occurs in the first chapter where
Golding writes: «There was a strip of weed-strewn beach that was
almost as firm as a road. A kind of glamour was spread over them and the
scene and they were conscious of the glamour and made happy by it.» [2,
p.25]
The word-combination strip of weed-strewn refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
38
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
The word combination as firm as refers to the functional
phrases.
The phrase glamour was spread refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: verbal phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
These word-combinations: strip of weed-strew, as firm as, glamour
was spread create a vivid world for the reader and evoke
negative evaluation.
The frightening description of the boy’s first
exposure to the island is mastered with sentences
conveying the underlying evil. For example Jack: «stood
there among the skull like coconuts” and the island was “torn
everywhere by the upheavals of fallen trees, scattered with decaying
coconuts.» [2, p.10]
The word-combinations fallen trees, decaying coconuts refer:
39
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
The author describes the island as the children’s
worst enemy.
The author uses negative words in the phrases fallen trees,
decaying coconuts to describe the setting. The word fallen, mean
that something is not in the correct position, that the
island does not seem to be right, that the island has an
air of animosity. The words are not pleasant and hint to
the reader that neither is the story. The author
describes how the coconuts are slowly dying by using the
word decaying. It suggests that the children are going to
die, just like everything else on the island. Eventually
everything on the island dies, the island dies from the
uncontrollable fire, the pigs die from hunting by the
40
boys and Piggy dies from hunting by the boys. This
suggests that the boys are their own worst enemy.
Golding uses the imagery to personify things in order
to make them even more evil then they already are: «the
heart of flame leapt nimbly across» and «the smoke increased, sifted,
rolled outwards…eating downwards» [2, p. 44], «the fire growled at
them.»[2, p.45]
The word-combination heart of flame refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
In that word-combination Golding personified the
inherently baneful fire to create an even more corrupt
character to plague the boys like a normal fire never
could.
The word-combinations the smoke increased, the fire growded
refers:
41
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinative
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
The author describes how the fire spreads. Everything on
the island dies from the uncontrollable fire.
In the novel we have the descriptions focusing on
the topic of noise.»The silence of the forest was more oppressive
than the heat, and at this hour of the day there was not even the whine of
insects. Only when Jack himself roused a gaudy bird from a primitive nest of
sticks was the silence shattered and echoes set ringing by a harsh cry that
seemed to come out of the abyss of ages.»[2, p.71]
The word-combination abyss of ages refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
42
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
The word-combinations silence was oppressive, silence shattered
refers :
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
There is silence at first, belonging to the forest,
which is complete: even the insects are influenced by the
time of day, and the heat. Golding creates a strong image
when he says that silence is oppressive, silence is shattered – which
makes the reader think of breaking glass –Then, word
combination harsh cry makes the reader think of something
loud and disturbing – and the sentence ends with the
metaphor of an abyss, an abyss of ages, which brings a new
dimension to the description, because it shows enmity
against man, as nature’s age is enormous when compared to
the existence of mankind and it is only days since the
boys have stranded on the island and its jungle. But the
43
island itself is much older and so are the birds and the
trees, which show the abyss like appearance of the cry.
The author also develops a positive ambience of an
uninhabited island by
giving the island features that the reader knows are more
positive than negative. An example of this is when the
author describes a cirque. The author describes the boys
position using: «They were on the lip of a cirque» [2. p.25].
The use of personification makes the reader identify
that the island is more like a person and not an evil
thing. If Golding had used a sentence such as they were on
the knife edge of a cirque, then the reader would have
identified the island with images of danger and
negativity.
The word-combination lip of a cirques refers:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: progressive
44
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
The author later similarises the cirque with a waterfall. He
uses the such words to describe waterfall: filled waterfall,
overflow waterfall and spilled waterfall.
The word-combinations filled waterfall, overflow waterfall and
spilled waterfall refer:
According to syntactical and semantic interrelation
between the components: subordinate
According to the morphological characteristic of the
head word: noun phrase
According to the position of adjunct: regressive
According to type of relation between the
constituents in phrase: attributive
A waterfall is usually a thing of beauty, which can
be found in national parks, and people do not identify a
waterfall as being a bad thing. The words also come in
chronological order. For example something cannot be
spilled before it is filled. This gives the reader a
sense of natural series of events, the feeling as if
everything is occurring the correct order and therefore
45
the island is normal and passive. However, if the author
had mixed the words in the incorrect order then the
reader might have felt a bit confused and wondered about
the safety of the island.
We can see that W.G. Golding creates a lot of tension
in some passages, especially towards the end, when only
Ralph is left of that little group of the civilized. All
his plans to secure the fire, maintain law and order, and
await a certain rescue have failed, and his flight from
the hunters has turned to a pure fight to survive. He is
finally trapped in a thicket and a hunter is coming near:
«The savage stopped fifteen yards away and uttered his cry. Perhaps he can
hear my heart over the noises of the fire. Don’t scream. Get ready.»[2,
p.264]
Golding narrative perspective takes a sudden. Ralph’s
thoughts are embedded in the storyline. He continues some
lines later: «The seconds lengthened. Ralph was looking straight into
the savage’s eyes. Don’t scream. You’ll get back. Now he’s seen you, he’s
making sure. A stick sharpened. Ralph screamed, a scream of fright and
anger and desperation.» [2, p.265]
46
The whole tension that was built up in the chapters is
suddenly released by the arrival of the Navy Officer.
Here there is some kind of turning point. Before, the
children were described not so much like adults, at least
partly as biguns, then through the extensive use of
hunters, then as tribe and finally as savages. Their whole
development in a process of deterioration is summarized
in these expressions. They use weapons, they kill, Roger
wants to behead Ralph as sacrifice for the beast, they
build up a hierarchy and they have a “Chief” they
struggle for power, they know punishments. And when they
see the naval officer, they immediately turn to children
who cry. Jack does not even claim to be boss. He is
described as little boy.
William Golding wrote “Lord of the Flies” after the
events of the Second World War. He said «Before the
Second World War I believed in the perfectibility of
social man, that a correct structure of society would
produce good will, and that therefore you could remove
all social evil by a reorganization of society.» [3.
p.12]
47
He wanted to show that it is wrong to believe that
evil only lives in other nations. Many believe that after
a war everything bad is destroyed. But Golding points out
the existence of evil in all of us. He thinks about the
events in Germany and is sure that it can happen in any
country. - That is the reason why every symbol in “Lord
of the Flies” has a good and an evil side (e.g. the
island). The struggle between good and evil still goes
on, and will continue.
Conclusions
Evaluation - a universal category that expresses a
positive or negative speaker's attitude to the content of
speech and realizes in parts of speech, exclamations,
modal shares, word -combinations, lexemes and sentences.In the language expression the evaluation can be
limited to elements, smaller than the word, and can
characterize group of word and the whole statement.
Examining word-combination level in the novel «Lord
of the Flies», it can be noted that it often occurs noun