Post on 20-Jan-2023
A Nested Governance System for ICZM in Egypt
Óscar García-Aguilar(1), María Merino(1,2), Pino González-Riancho(1,3), Marcello Sanò(4) and Raúl Medina(1,5)
(1)
Environmental Hydraulics Institute “IH Cantabria”, University of
Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain
Tel: +34-942-201 616 Fax: +34-942-266 361
Email: gaguilaro@unican.es (2)
Email: merinogm@unican.es (3)
Email: grianchop@unican.es (2)
Centre for Coastal Management, Gold Coast campus, Griffith University,
QLD 4222, Southport, Australia
Tel: + 610755528520
Email: m.sano@griffith.edu.au (5)
Email: medinar@unican.es
Abstract
Despite the considerable effort in ICZM over several decades, effective
governance of the coastal zone remains a considerable challenge in many parts of the
world. This paper presents the nested governance system proposed for the Egyptian
Northwest coast which has been designed to arrange and organize the state
organizations, private sector corporations, civil society and citizens who are or want to
be active in and utilize the resources of the coastal zone, establishing incentives and
parameters for their behavior, and creating circumstances for collaborative
management.
Introduction
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is an established management
process at the international level striving for the sustainable use of coastal areas (Cicin-
Sain and Kneth, 1998; Kay and Alder, 2005). However achieving the aspirations for
ICZM is complex not least because of the many human activities and diverse regulatory
regimes that exist in coastal areas, whose interest and concerns must be effective
integrated into a single policy and implementation (Ibrahim 2012). Actually
conventional systems of government have not been very successful in resolving coastal
management problems and this lack of progress is partially attributable to inadequate
representation in governance processes of the variety of knowledges present on the
coast and to failures in capturing the complexity of voices, interests, values and
discourses of coastal users.
Despite considerable effort over several decades effective governance of the
coastal zone remains a considerable challenge in many parts of the world (Sorenson,
1997; Gonzalez-Riancho et al, 2009). In fact implementing ICZM programmes have
proved to be extremely problematic, especially in developing countries that often suffer
from both highly centralized and compartmentalized systems of governance and a lack
of effective public or stakeholder participation, at any spatial scales (Hale, 2000)
In the particular case of Egypt, the coastal zone is both very important for the
country’s economy and one of the most densely populated regions in the Middle East
and North Africa region, furthermore conflicts over coastal resource use have being
increasing due to rapid industrialization and urbanization due to urban and tourist
development. Actually Egyptian coastal zones are exposed to many pressures and some
of the acknowledge major negative effects include the consequences of pollution,
shoreline erosion and flooding and deterioration of the natural resources and habitats.
These problems are multidimensional and multi-located, and the Egyptian government
has tried to respond to these challenges by promoting and implementing ICZM.
Although implementing ICZM in Egypt represents a unique challenge as authoritarian
regimes, prima facie, undermine principles inherent in achieving governance
approaches to ICZM (Tabet and Fanning, 2012).
Coastal governance challenges are not likely to be resolved by singular
solutions; rather interaction and collaboration will generate improvements and many
authors suggest that a co-requisite for progress in coastal management is the
development of institutions and processes that enable the different knowledges to have a
bearing on governance processes (Clarke et al., 2013). Since integration among sectors,
disciplines, institutions and levels of government is most salient feature of coastal zone
management (Kay and Alder, 2005) undertaking a governance approach to ICZM
recognizes the importance of institutional arrangements in management promoting both
horizontal linkages among the different sectors utilizing coastal resources and vertical
linkages between different jurisdictional level of authority (Ehler, 2003).
Finally, it shall be consider that extra challenges to environmental governance
emerge from fundamentally different spatial and temporal scales driving social and
ecological processes. Actually these scales are not self-evident, rather they are socially
and politically constructed (Wyborn and Bixler, 2013) and nested governance is
presented as a mechanism to provide social benefits through decentralized and
community-based natural resource management while addressing causes and
consequences of social and ecological issues crossing spatial and jurisdictional scales
(Marshall, 2008)
This paper presents the nested governance system proposed for the Egyptian
Northwest coast in the framework of the Marsa Matruh – El Sallum ICZM Plan. Such a
system, which is framed by the Protocol on ICZM in the Mediterranean and the
National ICZM Strategy for Egypt, was designed to arrange and organize the state
organizations, private sector corporations, civil society and citizens who are or want to
be active in and utilize the resources of the coastal zone, establishing incentives and
parameters for their behavior, and creating circumstances for collaborative
management. The major elements of the governance system shall enable decision-
making at the relevant scale for a problem: local, regional or if necessary, supra
regional, involve public-private networks to enhance representation of diverse interest
in governance and lead deliberative processes for adaptive learning supporting policy
making.
The structure of the paper firstly introduces the Marsa Matruh – El Sallum
IZCM Plan that shall develop this governance system, later on the governance system is
described at two dimensions, the formal structures and the enabling conditions proposed
by the Plan. Finally the paper ends with a note regarding the Plan implementation and
the major conclusions of the issues discussed.
The Marsa Matruh – El Sallum ICZM Plan
The development of an ICZM Plan in the Egyptian Mediterranean coastal areas
between Marsa Matruh and El Sallum (MSICZM Plan) is an outcome of the
international community commitment to progress towards the efficient coastal
governance in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable
Development (MSSD) stresses that moving seriously towards and implementing
efficiently sustainable development is to require adequate structural changes in
economic, social, environmental and political sectors. One of the priority actions
detailed in the MSSD is to adopt by 2007 a Protocol for the Integrated Management of
Mediterranean Coastal Zones, which is to implement the Mediterranean Strategy on
ICZM by means of National Strategies and Regional Plans. In fact, the Protocol on
ICZM in the Mediterranean, which entered into force in March 2011 and is still pending
for ratification by Egypt, in its preamble states “the Contracting Parties are determined
to stimulate national, regional and local initiatives through coordinated promotional
action, cooperation and partnership with the various actors concerned with a view to
promoting efficient governance for the purpose of integrated coastal zone
management”.
The signature of the Protocol by Egypt encouraged specific changes in the Law
for the Environment Nº4/1994 to fully integrate it into the Egyptian legislation. The
amendment to the Environmental Law was approved in 2009 and it included the explicit
definitions of coastal zone, ICZM, coastal ecosystem and coastal plan and programmes.
Furthermore, the adoption of the Protocol by Egypt encouraged the elaboration of the
National ICZM Strategy for Egypt which was developed during 2009 and it is still
pending of approval. The approval and formal adoption of the Strategy will establish the
regulatory framework for the MSICZM Plan and contribute to link the international
commitments as the ICZM Protocol with regional plans implementation. In fact, the
Protocol, the Strategy and the Plan urgently require formal institutional and regulatory
frameworks to promote stakeholders cooperation and collaboration for ICZM and the
coherence between these three policy initiatives is to allow the development of a nested
governance system for the Mediterranean Northwest Coast of Egypt, defined by Olsen
(2009) as a situation in which management, power, and responsibility are shared cross-
scale among a hierarchy of management institutions.
The MSICZM Plan is defined as a management plan, i.e. it determines how the
different authorities shall cooperate when they are planning a common issue and what
needs to be done regarding those issues that are not addressed by any specific plan.
Besides, the MSICZM Plan also provides different policy recommendations and
environmental objectives regarding the use of coastal resources based on the outcomes
of the Land-use Analysis and Carrying Capacity Assessment carried out during the
planning process, which shall be considered by the corresponding responsible authority.
According with the ICZM policies previously mentioned and based on the sound
integrated diagnosis of the coastal areas between Marsa Matruh and El Sallum carried
out during the first phase of the project (IH Cantabria, 2007), the overall aim of the
ICZM Plan is to progress from the current coastal planning and management, which can
be described as Government-driven, towards an effective coastal governance. Coastal
governance is herein understood as the model which enables the involvement of inter-
organisational networks, made up of governmental and societal stakeholders, and seeks
out new means of cooperation so as to achieve specific policy objectives. The proposed
coastal governance is characterized by:
- Coordination of government policy and action (vertically and horizontally)
- Collaboration of government and non-government stakeholders (including local
communities, private corporations and investors and NGOs)
- Decentralization, referring to the transfer of certain central assets to regional
decision-making bodies
The MSICZM Plan proposes 3 Areas of Activity which are based on the
objectives of the National ICZM Strategy to ensure the vertical coherence and
coordination between national and regional policies. These 3 Areas of Activity are
developed through 9 Strategic Objectives, which target the priorities of the Northwest
coast of Egypt and that are developed through 27 Operational Objectives and 50
Actions. This proposed scheme for the MSICZM Plan has the advantage of matching
the specific needs of the study area while ensuring their coherence with the national
priorities established in the National ICZM Strategy.
Additionally, the MSICZM Plan provides four time-bounded roadmaps for the
Plan implementation that group those actions which are complementary and inclusive to
better coordinate the implementation of the actions and ensure that enabling conditions
are met before launching other related actions. These Roadmaps ensure then the
temporal coherence of the MSICZM Plan implementation since actions are defined
according to the Objective identified, but the roadmaps are associated with the ICZM
Plan development process. These Roadmaps are as follows:
- Establishing an institutional and regulatory framework for effective ICZM
- Building local capacities for coastal governance
- Developing a research agenda
- Implementing coastal resource stewardship
Finally a specific Action Factsheet was produced for each Action. These
compile all the necessary information for its implementation, i.e., objectives and
roadmaps, description, stakeholders involved, related actions, timeline, costs, progress
indicators, policy considerations and environmental objectives. The implementation
cost of the MSICZM Plan in ten years was estimated in 11,300,000 Egyptian Pounds.
A Nested Governance System for the Northwest Coast of Egypt
Although the MSICZM Plan establishes a variety of actions dealing with (i) laws
and regulations development, (ii) constitution of administrative boards and multi-
stakeholders partnerships, (iii) specific programs for institutional and technical capacity
building, (iv) raising awareness campaign and workshops for behavioral change, (v)
creation of financial mechanisms for local initiatives promoting sustainable
development, among others, the implementation of the MSICZM Plan essentially
consists of developing a nested coastal governance system based on the principles of
sustainability, adaptive management, stakeholder participation and integration (Duxbury
and Dickinson, 2007). This governance system was designed at two levels; (i) the
formal structures to clearly identify the roles and responsibilities of the different coastal
stakeholders, and (ii) the enabling conditions required for its proper functioning.
Formal Structures of the Nested Governance System
The need for a decentralized and participative governance of coastal areas have
been highlighted by many authors, actually Davos (1998) suggested that coastal zone
policies are socially constructed and that effective implementation of these policies
depends on the voluntary participation of stakeholders who often have disparate
priorities and interests. In the particular case of the Northwest coast of Egypt and based
on the diagnosis carried out in the project framework, the governance system advocated
for a design of multi-stakeholders formal structures enabling the decentralization of
planning, integration of administrations and scales, and stakeholder participation as the
main mechanisms for pressing on solving pending issues such as the mistrust between
officials and citizens (Borhan 2007), the marginalization of Bedouin communities and
the excessive use of top-down approach, that has been argued not to be the appropriate
as they act as an obstacle to setting up durable ICZM processes (Ibrahim, 2012).
The design of the governance system, shown in Fig.1, clearly identify (i) the
leaders for ICZM processes in the Northwest coast, (ii) the multi-stakeholder bodies to
develop local constituencies for ICZM processes and (iii) the mechanisms for science-
policy integration and adaptive management. These are described herein below.
Fig.1: The Nested Governance System for the Northwest
Leadership
ICZM processes require a strong leadership
Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for developing Egypt’s sea and coastal zone
policies. Notwithstanding EEAA has very limited authority to enforce any regulations
or ensure compliance from other government agencies (
Accordingly, the leaders of ICZM processes
Matruh Integrated Coastal Zone Management Committeeits Technical Secretariat (TS)
Matruh authorities together with EEAA which main mission is
vertical coordination and to
Committee, formed by high
Matruh Governorate and also acting
Sonak et al (2008)
ICZM effectiveness is the capacity of the actors.
amongst all actors, not only the focal actor
implementation (Nawar and Kashef, 2007
MSICZMP requires the existence of a
body of the MICZMC
multidisciplinary board of
Fig.1: The Nested Governance System for the Northwest Coast of Egypt.
ICZM processes require a strong leadership and the Egyptian
gency (EEAA) is responsible for developing Egypt’s sea and coastal zone
Notwithstanding EEAA has very limited authority to enforce any regulations
or ensure compliance from other government agencies (Tabet and Fanning, 2012
he leaders of ICZM processes shall be a multi-stakeholder body,
d Coastal Zone Management Committee (MICZMC)
Technical Secretariat (TS). This MICZMC shall be the forum for the main sectoral
together with EEAA which main mission is to ensure horizontal and
vertical coordination and to discuss and agree upon common positions and criteria. The
formed by high-level policy makers, shall be the ICZM Focal Point of
also acting as a liaison with the National ICZM Committee.
stated that one of the most important factors that influence
ICZM effectiveness is the capacity of the actors. In Egypt a lack of institutional capacity
, not only the focal actor, is a major impediment to effective
and Kashef, 2007). Hence the implementation of the
MSICZMP requires the existence of a Technical Secretariat which
and that shall be formed by a specifically trained
of technicians and managers. They shall be responsible for
Coast of Egypt.
the Egyptian Environmental
gency (EEAA) is responsible for developing Egypt’s sea and coastal zone
Notwithstanding EEAA has very limited authority to enforce any regulations
Tabet and Fanning, 2012).
stakeholder body, namely
(MICZMC) supported by
the forum for the main sectoral
ensure horizontal and
discuss and agree upon common positions and criteria. The
the ICZM Focal Point of
as a liaison with the National ICZM Committee.
stated that one of the most important factors that influence
In Egypt a lack of institutional capacity
is a major impediment to effective
). Hence the implementation of the
which is the executive
and that shall be formed by a specifically trained
be responsible for
carrying out numerous specialized activities, such as the development of institutional
agreements, revision of laws and resource use regulations, establishing specific access
to micro-credits for Local Initiatives implementation, awareness raising activities,
implementing conflict resolution techniques, and supporting technically the creation of
local partnerships and consortia, among others.
Stakeholder Participation
Folke et al (2005) stated that management of any given resource would benefit
from actors agreeing on common rules and practices, coordinating usage, engaging in
conflict resolution, negotiating various tradeoffs, sharing information and building
common knowledge. Unfortunately as Tortell (2004) claimed, public participation is
one of the weakest elements in the implementation of ICZM in Egypt; actually Borhan
(2007) highlighted the fact that there are inadequate involvement of stakeholders in
formulating and implementing solutions to coastal management problems in Egypt.
Thus the creation of a specific forum must convoke all the stakeholders, including
social actors as community leaders, development agencies as Matruh Resources
Management Program, and private investors in the tourism or agro-industrial sectors, to
participate in the implementation of ICZM processes and to encourage the necessary
dialogue required to develop mutual understanding and trust for consensus building and
conflict resolution. The proposed Northwest Coast Partnership (NWCP) represents
hence a special challenge that is critical to progress on ICZM implementation.
The NWCP which shall contribute to define priorities, lines of action and issues
to be incorporated into the ICZM processes, ultimately aims to develop inter-
organizational networks made up of social, economic and governmental stakeholders.
These inter-organizational networks or Public-Private Partnerships are explicit
expressions of the existing social networks and as Scholz and Wang (2006) stated they
can be more important than the existence of formal institutions for effective
enforcement and compliance with environmental regulations. In any case, the existing
social networks present in the Northwest coast also needs to be re-shaped based on
dialogue and mutual trust between local communities and public authorities due to land
tenure conflicts and between local communities and non-Bedouins investors also as a
result of land tenure issues. Actually to overcome this situation, simply speaking, there
is a need to turn a set of isolated actors into a set of interacting actors, i.e. social
relations have to be created among them. These relations that may include collaborative
work arrangements or information exchange would result in increased levels of
collective action from increased possibilities for communication and over time by
increased levels of reciprocity and mutual trust (Janssen and Ostrom, 2006).
The proposed nested governance system designed for the Northwest coast of
Egypt includes the development of two different working groups as a way to progress
towards adaptive collaborative management, which explicit focus on the adaptability of
the joint management process in response to environmental change and the continuous
acquisition of new knowledge (Bodin and Crona, 2009). These working groups, which
are the seeds of the new social networks that shall play an active role in creating social
constituency for ICZM, shall be constituted through two different processes, i.e.
Markaz-Driven and Issue-Driven Working Groups. In the one hand, the proposed
Markaz-Driven Working Groups have the scope of each markaz, (Local Council) and
they are to be chaired by the Markaz officer and formed by representative and
influential people of each local community. They shall agree upon the priority needs for
the Markaz and about the vision they have regarding their next future. On the other
hand, the proposed Issue-Driven Working Groups are to technically and scientifically
support the discussions held within the Markaz-Driven Working Group. They shall be
chaired or co-chaired by the local competent authority(ies) dealing with the Issue and
they are open to any other representative of an involved public authority or agency,
academia, private sector, local associations, local representative or NGOs. They are to
analyze and discuss the management questions regarding the issue of interest such as
user needs, cost and benefit assessments, best technology available, policy limitations
and conflicts of interest.
Science-Policy Integration
It has been argued that scientists should play a more prominent role in the
policy-making process, but communicating science for ICZM is a two-way process and
involves scientists and practitioners as both givers and receivers of information
(Stojanovic et al., 2009). In this sense, a platform in the Northwest coast for
dissemination of scientific research is required to guide the wise use of coastal
resources, to protect the environment and to improve the quality of life of coastal
communities. The MSICZMP proposes hence the establishment of an active
partnership, the Matruh Research Advisory Group (MRAG), composed of
universities and the wider research community of Matruh. The MRAG shall then
promote the applied research in management questions for developing and innovating
new techniques and technologies in terms of cost-benefit, efficiency, environmentally
friendly and traditional acceptance. Additionally the MRAG shall develop a Research
Agenda that shall consist on a focused multi-disciplinary programme of applied
research to support policy-making and management decisions.
On the other hand, science will only be used in ICZM if it is communicated
clearly and effectively Stojanovic et al (2009) and accordingly the MSICZMP proposes
the creation of the Matruh Coastal Observatory (MCO) which is to ensure the free
flow of information on coastal issues in the study area. In fact, the proposed MCO shall
compile information from diverse sources to periodically update and publish the
Northwest Coast Indicators System. This Indicator System, also developed in the
project framework, is to provide information regarding the environmental quality of
coastal resources, economic activities, social welfare, conflict resolution and
development of ICZM policies. Based on their assessments, the MCO shall periodically
publish a report to evaluate the achieved progression on ICZM and sustainable
development in the Northwest Coast.
Enabling Conditions of the Nested Governance System
Because institutional reform such as horizontal and vertical integration is
especially difficult in authoritarian systems, the required elements to build the basis for
the appropriate functioning of the nested governance system were also provided by the
MSICZM Plan. These elements include (i) Institutional Arrangements and Legal
Framework, (ii) Capacity Development, (iii) Financial Resources and (iv) Awareness.
Institutional Arrangements and Legal Framework
There are about 200 separate laws and decrees in existence which are applicable
to certain degree to the Egyptian coastal zones so the identification of which regulations
have priority or precedence is very difficult (Borhan 2007). The MSICZM Plan
proposes 8 actions dealing with the Legal Framework to clarify competencies between
sectoral administrations, reviews the regulations dealing with coastal resource uses and
establishes a Single-Point-of-Contact or incorporates ICZM and Collaborative
Management principles and regulations into Matruh legal framework. Additionally
there are 9 actions dealing with Institutional Arrangements as specific agreements
between Matruh Governorate and Ministry of Defence, to promote common use of the
large coastal and urban areas under their jurisdiction, development of users association
(dealing with water, agriculture or tourism), or the MICZMC and NWCP.
Capacity Development
Most of the coastal management actors lacked the knowledge, skills and
responsibilities to promote ICZM activities. Therefore previous to incorporate ICZM
processes into practice a strong programme for capacity development shall be put in
place. Accordingly the MSICZM Plan proposes 5 actions starting with a capacity needs
assessment for ICZM and Collaborative Management, and specific trainings of local
communities for the provision of the required skills to be part of the ICZM practice.
Financial resources
Financial resources are always essential to initiating and supporting any ICZM
processes and donor agencies have been the main source of financing support to coastal
management initiatives in Egypt. Actually, as a developing country and particularly
Matruh has limited available resources, so international donor still remains as key actors
for ICZM implementation. However, ICZM must be cost efficient in its practice and the
MSICZM Plan proposes 3 specific actions aiming at providing enough financial
resources to ensure ICZM implementation at a local scale. These actions include access
to micro-credits or an annual award for local users willing to develop specific initiatives
promoting ICZM
Awareness
Many key stakeholders have been underutilized in coastal management projects
at both local and national levels (Ibrahim 2012) being not only a deficit in participation
but a lack of awareness regarding the needs for participation. Therefore, much efforts
needs to be done in awareness in order to fully integrate the culture of participation and
collaboration into coastal management practice, even more when the governance model
proposed consider the creation of partnerships within local communities and their
collaboration into the MSICZM Plan implementation. This challenge actually is very
ambitious since it entails behavioural change of Matruh administration and local
communities. Aiming at this, the MSICZM Plan proposes 4 actions, including public
awareness campaigns in school to reach the youngest generations or public workshops
dealing with collaborative management and integrated resource use practices.
Implementing the MSICZM Plan
During the elaboration of the ICZM Plan for the coastal areas between Marsa
Matruh and El Salum certain events occurred hampering its implementation process
despite the MSICZM Plan presentation hold in Cairo November 2011. These were the
change of Matruh Governor and EEAA ICZM officer, both key stakeholders for the
proper empowerment of ICZM processes in the area. These facts confirm the necessity
expressed in this paper for creating horizontal governance structures and strong enough
institutions to continue working and progressing in ICZM despite possible changes in
key personnel.
Conclusions
The proposed nested-governance system aims to harmonize the geographical scales of
the economic trends that are driving the development of the Northwest coast, as tourist
expansion or residential constructions, which response to regional driving forces, with
the local aspirations of the Bedouins historically settled in the area. The MSICZM Plan
then proposed a nested governance system for Matruh which consists in the provision of
formal structures and the creation of the enabling conditions for the development of
ICZM processes. This governance system is therefore intended to give appropriate
answer to the diverse challenges that Matruh officers and local populations face and
which expected key outputs are described herein below.
The creation of active partnerships with the wider research community to foster
collaboration and proposed the creation of a research agenda focussed on the
management questions raised by local stakeholders and populations since there is an
increasing recognition that management activities and decision-making should be based
upon the best available science. However, there are several obstacles to the effective use
of science in policy-making, which can be attributed to the lack of communication and
interaction between the research community and coastal practitioners.
Behavioural changes in local populations which are to be promoted not only by raising
awareness campaigns but also giving them the chance to be active in their development
since Bedouins are not fully integrated in the decision-making processes. The
development of Public-private Partnerships shall be an outcome of the success of the
NWCP efforts and the Working Groups functioning. Actually in the specific case of
Northwest coast these Public-private Partnerships shall not only contribute for their
empowerment regarding local development but also for conflict resolution, with
important issues as land tenure which could be better addressed in collaboration and not
only through consultation processes.
Acknowledgements
The development of the MSICZM Plan was funded by the Spanish Cooperation Agency
for International Development and EEAA the authors would like to thank Dr. M.
Borhan, Mr. Ibrahim El-Haffyan, Mr Ayman Afifi and Dr A. Gabra for their
contribution and continuous support during the execution of the project activities.
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