A Nested Governance System for ICZM in Egypt

Óscar García-Aguilar(1), María Merino(1,2), Pino González-Riancho(1,3), Marcello Sanò(4) and Raúl Medina(1,5)

(1)

Environmental Hydraulics Institute “IH Cantabria”, University of

Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain

Tel: +34-942-201 616 Fax: +34-942-266 361

Email: gaguilaro@unican.es (2)

Email: merinogm@unican.es (3)

Email: grianchop@unican.es (2)

Centre for Coastal Management, Gold Coast campus, Griffith University,

QLD 4222, Southport, Australia

Tel: + 610755528520

Email: m.sano@griffith.edu.au (5)

Email: medinar@unican.es

Abstract

Despite the considerable effort in ICZM over several decades, effective

governance of the coastal zone remains a considerable challenge in many parts of the

world. This paper presents the nested governance system proposed for the Egyptian

Northwest coast which has been designed to arrange and organize the state

organizations, private sector corporations, civil society and citizens who are or want to

be active in and utilize the resources of the coastal zone, establishing incentives and

parameters for their behavior, and creating circumstances for collaborative

management.

Introduction

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is an established management

process at the international level striving for the sustainable use of coastal areas (Cicin-

Sain and Kneth, 1998; Kay and Alder, 2005). However achieving the aspirations for

ICZM is complex not least because of the many human activities and diverse regulatory

regimes that exist in coastal areas, whose interest and concerns must be effective

integrated into a single policy and implementation (Ibrahim 2012). Actually

conventional systems of government have not been very successful in resolving coastal

management problems and this lack of progress is partially attributable to inadequate

representation in governance processes of the variety of knowledges present on the

coast and to failures in capturing the complexity of voices, interests, values and

discourses of coastal users.

Despite considerable effort over several decades effective governance of the

coastal zone remains a considerable challenge in many parts of the world (Sorenson,

1997; Gonzalez-Riancho et al, 2009). In fact implementing ICZM programmes have

proved to be extremely problematic, especially in developing countries that often suffer

from both highly centralized and compartmentalized systems of governance and a lack

of effective public or stakeholder participation, at any spatial scales (Hale, 2000)

In the particular case of Egypt, the coastal zone is both very important for the

country’s economy and one of the most densely populated regions in the Middle East

and North Africa region, furthermore conflicts over coastal resource use have being

increasing due to rapid industrialization and urbanization due to urban and tourist

development. Actually Egyptian coastal zones are exposed to many pressures and some

of the acknowledge major negative effects include the consequences of pollution,

shoreline erosion and flooding and deterioration of the natural resources and habitats.

These problems are multidimensional and multi-located, and the Egyptian government

has tried to respond to these challenges by promoting and implementing ICZM.

Although implementing ICZM in Egypt represents a unique challenge as authoritarian

regimes, prima facie, undermine principles inherent in achieving governance

approaches to ICZM (Tabet and Fanning, 2012).

Coastal governance challenges are not likely to be resolved by singular

solutions; rather interaction and collaboration will generate improvements and many

authors suggest that a co-requisite for progress in coastal management is the

development of institutions and processes that enable the different knowledges to have a

bearing on governance processes (Clarke et al., 2013). Since integration among sectors,

disciplines, institutions and levels of government is most salient feature of coastal zone

management (Kay and Alder, 2005) undertaking a governance approach to ICZM

recognizes the importance of institutional arrangements in management promoting both

horizontal linkages among the different sectors utilizing coastal resources and vertical

linkages between different jurisdictional level of authority (Ehler, 2003).

Finally, it shall be consider that extra challenges to environmental governance

emerge from fundamentally different spatial and temporal scales driving social and

ecological processes. Actually these scales are not self-evident, rather they are socially

and politically constructed (Wyborn and Bixler, 2013) and nested governance is

presented as a mechanism to provide social benefits through decentralized and

community-based natural resource management while addressing causes and

consequences of social and ecological issues crossing spatial and jurisdictional scales

(Marshall, 2008)

This paper presents the nested governance system proposed for the Egyptian

Northwest coast in the framework of the Marsa Matruh – El Sallum ICZM Plan. Such a

system, which is framed by the Protocol on ICZM in the Mediterranean and the

National ICZM Strategy for Egypt, was designed to arrange and organize the state

organizations, private sector corporations, civil society and citizens who are or want to

be active in and utilize the resources of the coastal zone, establishing incentives and

parameters for their behavior, and creating circumstances for collaborative

management. The major elements of the governance system shall enable decision-

making at the relevant scale for a problem: local, regional or if necessary, supra

regional, involve public-private networks to enhance representation of diverse interest

in governance and lead deliberative processes for adaptive learning supporting policy

making.

The structure of the paper firstly introduces the Marsa Matruh – El Sallum

IZCM Plan that shall develop this governance system, later on the governance system is

described at two dimensions, the formal structures and the enabling conditions proposed

by the Plan. Finally the paper ends with a note regarding the Plan implementation and

the major conclusions of the issues discussed.

The Marsa Matruh – El Sallum ICZM Plan

The development of an ICZM Plan in the Egyptian Mediterranean coastal areas

between Marsa Matruh and El Sallum (MSICZM Plan) is an outcome of the

international community commitment to progress towards the efficient coastal

governance in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable

Development (MSSD) stresses that moving seriously towards and implementing

efficiently sustainable development is to require adequate structural changes in

economic, social, environmental and political sectors. One of the priority actions

detailed in the MSSD is to adopt by 2007 a Protocol for the Integrated Management of

Mediterranean Coastal Zones, which is to implement the Mediterranean Strategy on

ICZM by means of National Strategies and Regional Plans. In fact, the Protocol on

ICZM in the Mediterranean, which entered into force in March 2011 and is still pending

for ratification by Egypt, in its preamble states “the Contracting Parties are determined

to stimulate national, regional and local initiatives through coordinated promotional

action, cooperation and partnership with the various actors concerned with a view to

promoting efficient governance for the purpose of integrated coastal zone

management”.

The signature of the Protocol by Egypt encouraged specific changes in the Law

for the Environment Nº4/1994 to fully integrate it into the Egyptian legislation. The

amendment to the Environmental Law was approved in 2009 and it included the explicit

definitions of coastal zone, ICZM, coastal ecosystem and coastal plan and programmes.

Furthermore, the adoption of the Protocol by Egypt encouraged the elaboration of the

National ICZM Strategy for Egypt which was developed during 2009 and it is still

pending of approval. The approval and formal adoption of the Strategy will establish the

regulatory framework for the MSICZM Plan and contribute to link the international

commitments as the ICZM Protocol with regional plans implementation. In fact, the

Protocol, the Strategy and the Plan urgently require formal institutional and regulatory

frameworks to promote stakeholders cooperation and collaboration for ICZM and the

coherence between these three policy initiatives is to allow the development of a nested

governance system for the Mediterranean Northwest Coast of Egypt, defined by Olsen

(2009) as a situation in which management, power, and responsibility are shared cross-

scale among a hierarchy of management institutions.

The MSICZM Plan is defined as a management plan, i.e. it determines how the

different authorities shall cooperate when they are planning a common issue and what

needs to be done regarding those issues that are not addressed by any specific plan.

Besides, the MSICZM Plan also provides different policy recommendations and

environmental objectives regarding the use of coastal resources based on the outcomes

of the Land-use Analysis and Carrying Capacity Assessment carried out during the

planning process, which shall be considered by the corresponding responsible authority.

According with the ICZM policies previously mentioned and based on the sound

integrated diagnosis of the coastal areas between Marsa Matruh and El Sallum carried

out during the first phase of the project (IH Cantabria, 2007), the overall aim of the

ICZM Plan is to progress from the current coastal planning and management, which can

be described as Government-driven, towards an effective coastal governance. Coastal

governance is herein understood as the model which enables the involvement of inter-

organisational networks, made up of governmental and societal stakeholders, and seeks

out new means of cooperation so as to achieve specific policy objectives. The proposed

coastal governance is characterized by:

- Coordination of government policy and action (vertically and horizontally)

- Collaboration of government and non-government stakeholders (including local

communities, private corporations and investors and NGOs)

- Decentralization, referring to the transfer of certain central assets to regional

decision-making bodies

The MSICZM Plan proposes 3 Areas of Activity which are based on the

objectives of the National ICZM Strategy to ensure the vertical coherence and

coordination between national and regional policies. These 3 Areas of Activity are

developed through 9 Strategic Objectives, which target the priorities of the Northwest

coast of Egypt and that are developed through 27 Operational Objectives and 50

Actions. This proposed scheme for the MSICZM Plan has the advantage of matching

the specific needs of the study area while ensuring their coherence with the national

priorities established in the National ICZM Strategy.

Additionally, the MSICZM Plan provides four time-bounded roadmaps for the

Plan implementation that group those actions which are complementary and inclusive to

better coordinate the implementation of the actions and ensure that enabling conditions

are met before launching other related actions. These Roadmaps ensure then the

temporal coherence of the MSICZM Plan implementation since actions are defined

according to the Objective identified, but the roadmaps are associated with the ICZM

Plan development process. These Roadmaps are as follows:

- Establishing an institutional and regulatory framework for effective ICZM

- Building local capacities for coastal governance

- Developing a research agenda

- Implementing coastal resource stewardship

Finally a specific Action Factsheet was produced for each Action. These

compile all the necessary information for its implementation, i.e., objectives and

roadmaps, description, stakeholders involved, related actions, timeline, costs, progress

indicators, policy considerations and environmental objectives. The implementation

cost of the MSICZM Plan in ten years was estimated in 11,300,000 Egyptian Pounds.

A Nested Governance System for the Northwest Coast of Egypt

Although the MSICZM Plan establishes a variety of actions dealing with (i) laws

and regulations development, (ii) constitution of administrative boards and multi-

stakeholders partnerships, (iii) specific programs for institutional and technical capacity

building, (iv) raising awareness campaign and workshops for behavioral change, (v)

creation of financial mechanisms for local initiatives promoting sustainable

development, among others, the implementation of the MSICZM Plan essentially

consists of developing a nested coastal governance system based on the principles of

sustainability, adaptive management, stakeholder participation and integration (Duxbury

and Dickinson, 2007). This governance system was designed at two levels; (i) the

formal structures to clearly identify the roles and responsibilities of the different coastal

stakeholders, and (ii) the enabling conditions required for its proper functioning.

Formal Structures of the Nested Governance System

The need for a decentralized and participative governance of coastal areas have

been highlighted by many authors, actually Davos (1998) suggested that coastal zone

policies are socially constructed and that effective implementation of these policies

depends on the voluntary participation of stakeholders who often have disparate

priorities and interests. In the particular case of the Northwest coast of Egypt and based

on the diagnosis carried out in the project framework, the governance system advocated

for a design of multi-stakeholders formal structures enabling the decentralization of

planning, integration of administrations and scales, and stakeholder participation as the

main mechanisms for pressing on solving pending issues such as the mistrust between

officials and citizens (Borhan 2007), the marginalization of Bedouin communities and

the excessive use of top-down approach, that has been argued not to be the appropriate

as they act as an obstacle to setting up durable ICZM processes (Ibrahim, 2012).

The design of the governance system, shown in Fig.1, clearly identify (i) the

leaders for ICZM processes in the Northwest coast, (ii) the multi-stakeholder bodies to

develop local constituencies for ICZM processes and (iii) the mechanisms for science-

policy integration and adaptive management. These are described herein below.

Fig.1: The Nested Governance System for the Northwest

Leadership

ICZM processes require a strong leadership

Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for developing Egypt’s sea and coastal zone

policies. Notwithstanding EEAA has very limited authority to enforce any regulations

or ensure compliance from other government agencies (

Accordingly, the leaders of ICZM processes

Matruh Integrated Coastal Zone Management Committeeits Technical Secretariat (TS)

Matruh authorities together with EEAA which main mission is

vertical coordination and to

Committee, formed by high

Matruh Governorate and also acting

Sonak et al (2008)

ICZM effectiveness is the capacity of the actors.

amongst all actors, not only the focal actor

implementation (Nawar and Kashef, 2007

MSICZMP requires the existence of a

body of the MICZMC

multidisciplinary board of

Fig.1: The Nested Governance System for the Northwest Coast of Egypt.

ICZM processes require a strong leadership and the Egyptian

gency (EEAA) is responsible for developing Egypt’s sea and coastal zone

Notwithstanding EEAA has very limited authority to enforce any regulations

or ensure compliance from other government agencies (Tabet and Fanning, 2012

he leaders of ICZM processes shall be a multi-stakeholder body,

d Coastal Zone Management Committee (MICZMC)

Technical Secretariat (TS). This MICZMC shall be the forum for the main sectoral

together with EEAA which main mission is to ensure horizontal and

vertical coordination and to discuss and agree upon common positions and criteria. The

formed by high-level policy makers, shall be the ICZM Focal Point of

also acting as a liaison with the National ICZM Committee.

stated that one of the most important factors that influence

ICZM effectiveness is the capacity of the actors. In Egypt a lack of institutional capacity

, not only the focal actor, is a major impediment to effective

and Kashef, 2007). Hence the implementation of the

MSICZMP requires the existence of a Technical Secretariat which

and that shall be formed by a specifically trained

of technicians and managers. They shall be responsible for

Coast of Egypt.

the Egyptian Environmental

gency (EEAA) is responsible for developing Egypt’s sea and coastal zone

Notwithstanding EEAA has very limited authority to enforce any regulations

Tabet and Fanning, 2012).

stakeholder body, namely

(MICZMC) supported by

the forum for the main sectoral

ensure horizontal and

discuss and agree upon common positions and criteria. The

the ICZM Focal Point of

as a liaison with the National ICZM Committee.

stated that one of the most important factors that influence

In Egypt a lack of institutional capacity

is a major impediment to effective

). Hence the implementation of the

which is the executive

and that shall be formed by a specifically trained

be responsible for

carrying out numerous specialized activities, such as the development of institutional

agreements, revision of laws and resource use regulations, establishing specific access

to micro-credits for Local Initiatives implementation, awareness raising activities,

implementing conflict resolution techniques, and supporting technically the creation of

local partnerships and consortia, among others.

Stakeholder Participation

Folke et al (2005) stated that management of any given resource would benefit

from actors agreeing on common rules and practices, coordinating usage, engaging in

conflict resolution, negotiating various tradeoffs, sharing information and building

common knowledge. Unfortunately as Tortell (2004) claimed, public participation is

one of the weakest elements in the implementation of ICZM in Egypt; actually Borhan

(2007) highlighted the fact that there are inadequate involvement of stakeholders in

formulating and implementing solutions to coastal management problems in Egypt.

Thus the creation of a specific forum must convoke all the stakeholders, including

social actors as community leaders, development agencies as Matruh Resources

Management Program, and private investors in the tourism or agro-industrial sectors, to

participate in the implementation of ICZM processes and to encourage the necessary

dialogue required to develop mutual understanding and trust for consensus building and

conflict resolution. The proposed Northwest Coast Partnership (NWCP) represents

hence a special challenge that is critical to progress on ICZM implementation.

The NWCP which shall contribute to define priorities, lines of action and issues

to be incorporated into the ICZM processes, ultimately aims to develop inter-

organizational networks made up of social, economic and governmental stakeholders.

These inter-organizational networks or Public-Private Partnerships are explicit

expressions of the existing social networks and as Scholz and Wang (2006) stated they

can be more important than the existence of formal institutions for effective

enforcement and compliance with environmental regulations. In any case, the existing

social networks present in the Northwest coast also needs to be re-shaped based on

dialogue and mutual trust between local communities and public authorities due to land

tenure conflicts and between local communities and non-Bedouins investors also as a

result of land tenure issues. Actually to overcome this situation, simply speaking, there

is a need to turn a set of isolated actors into a set of interacting actors, i.e. social

relations have to be created among them. These relations that may include collaborative

work arrangements or information exchange would result in increased levels of

collective action from increased possibilities for communication and over time by

increased levels of reciprocity and mutual trust (Janssen and Ostrom, 2006).

The proposed nested governance system designed for the Northwest coast of

Egypt includes the development of two different working groups as a way to progress

towards adaptive collaborative management, which explicit focus on the adaptability of

the joint management process in response to environmental change and the continuous

acquisition of new knowledge (Bodin and Crona, 2009). These working groups, which

are the seeds of the new social networks that shall play an active role in creating social

constituency for ICZM, shall be constituted through two different processes, i.e.

Markaz-Driven and Issue-Driven Working Groups. In the one hand, the proposed

Markaz-Driven Working Groups have the scope of each markaz, (Local Council) and

they are to be chaired by the Markaz officer and formed by representative and

influential people of each local community. They shall agree upon the priority needs for

the Markaz and about the vision they have regarding their next future. On the other

hand, the proposed Issue-Driven Working Groups are to technically and scientifically

support the discussions held within the Markaz-Driven Working Group. They shall be

chaired or co-chaired by the local competent authority(ies) dealing with the Issue and

they are open to any other representative of an involved public authority or agency,

academia, private sector, local associations, local representative or NGOs. They are to

analyze and discuss the management questions regarding the issue of interest such as

user needs, cost and benefit assessments, best technology available, policy limitations

and conflicts of interest.

Science-Policy Integration

It has been argued that scientists should play a more prominent role in the

policy-making process, but communicating science for ICZM is a two-way process and

involves scientists and practitioners as both givers and receivers of information

(Stojanovic et al., 2009). In this sense, a platform in the Northwest coast for

dissemination of scientific research is required to guide the wise use of coastal

resources, to protect the environment and to improve the quality of life of coastal

communities. The MSICZMP proposes hence the establishment of an active

partnership, the Matruh Research Advisory Group (MRAG), composed of

universities and the wider research community of Matruh. The MRAG shall then

promote the applied research in management questions for developing and innovating

new techniques and technologies in terms of cost-benefit, efficiency, environmentally

friendly and traditional acceptance. Additionally the MRAG shall develop a Research

Agenda that shall consist on a focused multi-disciplinary programme of applied

research to support policy-making and management decisions.

On the other hand, science will only be used in ICZM if it is communicated

clearly and effectively Stojanovic et al (2009) and accordingly the MSICZMP proposes

the creation of the Matruh Coastal Observatory (MCO) which is to ensure the free

flow of information on coastal issues in the study area. In fact, the proposed MCO shall

compile information from diverse sources to periodically update and publish the

Northwest Coast Indicators System. This Indicator System, also developed in the

project framework, is to provide information regarding the environmental quality of

coastal resources, economic activities, social welfare, conflict resolution and

development of ICZM policies. Based on their assessments, the MCO shall periodically

publish a report to evaluate the achieved progression on ICZM and sustainable

development in the Northwest Coast.

Enabling Conditions of the Nested Governance System

Because institutional reform such as horizontal and vertical integration is

especially difficult in authoritarian systems, the required elements to build the basis for

the appropriate functioning of the nested governance system were also provided by the

MSICZM Plan. These elements include (i) Institutional Arrangements and Legal

Framework, (ii) Capacity Development, (iii) Financial Resources and (iv) Awareness.

Institutional Arrangements and Legal Framework

There are about 200 separate laws and decrees in existence which are applicable

to certain degree to the Egyptian coastal zones so the identification of which regulations

have priority or precedence is very difficult (Borhan 2007). The MSICZM Plan

proposes 8 actions dealing with the Legal Framework to clarify competencies between

sectoral administrations, reviews the regulations dealing with coastal resource uses and

establishes a Single-Point-of-Contact or incorporates ICZM and Collaborative

Management principles and regulations into Matruh legal framework. Additionally

there are 9 actions dealing with Institutional Arrangements as specific agreements

between Matruh Governorate and Ministry of Defence, to promote common use of the

large coastal and urban areas under their jurisdiction, development of users association

(dealing with water, agriculture or tourism), or the MICZMC and NWCP.

Capacity Development

Most of the coastal management actors lacked the knowledge, skills and

responsibilities to promote ICZM activities. Therefore previous to incorporate ICZM

processes into practice a strong programme for capacity development shall be put in

place. Accordingly the MSICZM Plan proposes 5 actions starting with a capacity needs

assessment for ICZM and Collaborative Management, and specific trainings of local

communities for the provision of the required skills to be part of the ICZM practice.

Financial resources

Financial resources are always essential to initiating and supporting any ICZM

processes and donor agencies have been the main source of financing support to coastal

management initiatives in Egypt. Actually, as a developing country and particularly

Matruh has limited available resources, so international donor still remains as key actors

for ICZM implementation. However, ICZM must be cost efficient in its practice and the

MSICZM Plan proposes 3 specific actions aiming at providing enough financial

resources to ensure ICZM implementation at a local scale. These actions include access

to micro-credits or an annual award for local users willing to develop specific initiatives

promoting ICZM

Awareness

Many key stakeholders have been underutilized in coastal management projects

at both local and national levels (Ibrahim 2012) being not only a deficit in participation

but a lack of awareness regarding the needs for participation. Therefore, much efforts

needs to be done in awareness in order to fully integrate the culture of participation and

collaboration into coastal management practice, even more when the governance model

proposed consider the creation of partnerships within local communities and their

collaboration into the MSICZM Plan implementation. This challenge actually is very

ambitious since it entails behavioural change of Matruh administration and local

communities. Aiming at this, the MSICZM Plan proposes 4 actions, including public

awareness campaigns in school to reach the youngest generations or public workshops

dealing with collaborative management and integrated resource use practices.

Implementing the MSICZM Plan

During the elaboration of the ICZM Plan for the coastal areas between Marsa

Matruh and El Salum certain events occurred hampering its implementation process

despite the MSICZM Plan presentation hold in Cairo November 2011. These were the

change of Matruh Governor and EEAA ICZM officer, both key stakeholders for the

proper empowerment of ICZM processes in the area. These facts confirm the necessity

expressed in this paper for creating horizontal governance structures and strong enough

institutions to continue working and progressing in ICZM despite possible changes in

key personnel.

Conclusions

The proposed nested-governance system aims to harmonize the geographical scales of

the economic trends that are driving the development of the Northwest coast, as tourist

expansion or residential constructions, which response to regional driving forces, with

the local aspirations of the Bedouins historically settled in the area. The MSICZM Plan

then proposed a nested governance system for Matruh which consists in the provision of

formal structures and the creation of the enabling conditions for the development of

ICZM processes. This governance system is therefore intended to give appropriate

answer to the diverse challenges that Matruh officers and local populations face and

which expected key outputs are described herein below.

The creation of active partnerships with the wider research community to foster

collaboration and proposed the creation of a research agenda focussed on the

management questions raised by local stakeholders and populations since there is an

increasing recognition that management activities and decision-making should be based

upon the best available science. However, there are several obstacles to the effective use

of science in policy-making, which can be attributed to the lack of communication and

interaction between the research community and coastal practitioners.

Behavioural changes in local populations which are to be promoted not only by raising

awareness campaigns but also giving them the chance to be active in their development

since Bedouins are not fully integrated in the decision-making processes. The

development of Public-private Partnerships shall be an outcome of the success of the

NWCP efforts and the Working Groups functioning. Actually in the specific case of

Northwest coast these Public-private Partnerships shall not only contribute for their

empowerment regarding local development but also for conflict resolution, with

important issues as land tenure which could be better addressed in collaboration and not

only through consultation processes.

Acknowledgements

The development of the MSICZM Plan was funded by the Spanish Cooperation Agency

for International Development and EEAA the authors would like to thank Dr. M.

Borhan, Mr. Ibrahim El-Haffyan, Mr Ayman Afifi and Dr A. Gabra for their

contribution and continuous support during the execution of the project activities.

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Keywords

Nested-governance, ICZM, Egypt, Collaborative Management, Public-Private

Partnership