Post on 10-May-2023
IAJFTH Volume 5, No.2, 2018
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1
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة
الدكتورة. صورية شنبي الدكتور. السعيد بن لخضر
جامعة المسيلة الجزائر
ملخص
ومات واالتصاالت إلى تطور السياحة باعتمادها على هذه أدى التقدم الكبير في تكنولوجيا المعل
التجارية التقليدية االستراتيجياتالتكنولوجيا، حيث أن أثر تقنيات المعلومات واالتصاالت غير
للخدمات، مما يحقق تطوير وتحسين الخدمات السياحية، والتي تلعب فيها التكنولوجيا الرقمية دورا
رويج من أجل الجذب السياحي. حيث يعتبر النموذج الفرنسي للسياحة كبيرا خاصة فيما يتعلق بالت
الرقمية تجربة ناجحة في تطوير القطاع السياحي من خالل استخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة ألنظمة
الوطيدة بين مؤسسات قطاع السياحة وتهدف هذه الدراسة إلى إظهار العالقة االتصاالت والمعلومات.
منظومة البحث العلمي والتكنولوجي من أجل التطوير، والتي تشكل مدخال تنمويا والعاملين فيه وبين
يساهم في عملية تحديث وتطوير القطاع السياحي واستدامته. كما توضح الدراسة كيفية تطوير السياحة
هذه الدراسة على مصادر بيانات مختلفة تعتمد باستخدام أنظمة االتصال والمعلومات المتطورة . حيث
الكتب والدوريات والتقارير وغيرها من المراجع العلمية ذات العالقة. وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى ك
تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال األكثر حداثة الركيزة األساسية لذلك، حيث أدت إلى ظهور أشكال اعتبار
طوير وتحسين جديدة من السياحة المتطورة كالسياحة اإللكترونية وسياحة النقال، وهذا يعمل على ت
الخدمات السياحية التي تلعب فيها التكنولوجيا الرقمية دورا كبيرا للجذب السياحي. وقد ألقت الدراسة
الضوء على تجربة ناجحة في مجال السياحة الرقمية لفرنسا كانت من أهم أسباب تطورها وفق مبادئ
لتحقيق التنمية السياحية المستدامة.االستدامة واحتاللها الريادة العالمية، والتي يجب أن يقتدى بها
تطوير السياحة.-السياحة الرقمية-تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال الكلمات المفتاحية
مقدمة
الهائل في السنوات األخيرة على تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت في مجال السياحة االعتمادإن
حية للوصول إلى العمالء، خصوصا مع تخفيض أدى إلى خلق منافسة بين مختلف الشركات السيا
الحواجز، أمام عبور المنتجات ودخول عاملين جدد في السياحة الرقمية وكثرة المواقع السياحية،
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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2
وبالتالي قد نشأ وضعا جديدا في تسويق المنتجات السياحية عبر وسائل متطورة وبسرعة أكبر،
صاالت من خالل تسهيل تحفيز السفر وتنظيم اإلقامة فاعتماد السياحة على تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالت
والرحالت بتعيين الوجهات وتحديدها وشراء تذاكر النقل والحجز في الفنادق واألماكن األخرى
لإليواء، جعل االنشطة السياحية الرقمية تعوض تلك التقليدية ألنها تمس كل العاملين في السياحة من
سفر، مرشدين سياحيين وكذا الوسطاء وأصحاب الخدمات الفندقية دواوين سياحية ووكاالت وأعوان لل
وخدمات النقل والتسويق، في مختلف الدول التي تعمل على تطوير سياحتها والتي تتصدرها فرنسا،
حيث اغلب الفرنسيين يستخدمون هاته التكنولوجيا في رحالتهم السياحية.
: كيف يتم استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات مما سبق تظهر إشكالية الدراسة التي تتمثل في
واالتصاالت في تطوير األنشطة السياحية؟ وهل هناك نماذج ناجحة في هذا المجال؟
أهمية وأهداف الدراسة
هذه الورقة البحثية إظهار كيفية استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت في تطوير تحاول
جديدة همية هذه األنظمة في خلق خدمات ومنتجات سياحيةوتحسين الخدمات السياحية، وإبراز أ
تتجاوز المقومات التقليدية الثقافية والطبيعية، من خالل عرض نموذج ناجح تمثله السياحة الفرنسية
التي تحتل الريادة العالمية في الميدان.
استراتيجيةأوال: التطوير كحتمية
جديدة، ترتكز استراتيجياتلمتنوع، تتبنى المقاصد من أجل تلبية الطلب السياحي المستهدف وا
حول البحث واالبتكار والتوعية، حيث يرغبون في ترويج عروضهم من أجل تلبية توقعات وطلبات
السائحين، وبالتالي يبحثون في التكنولوجيات الجديدة لالتصال على الترويج والجذب في مناطق
1ووجهات جديدة.
إن البحث واالبتكار في القطاع السياحي هو لديناميكية الجديدة:االبتكار والبحث ضمن ا -1
حاليا غير واضح ومن الصعب تحديده، حيث أنه في القطاع السياحي يوجد االبتكار المسيطر وهو
مخصص لخلق منتوج جديد، عرض خدمة جديدة أو نشاط جديد، واالبتكار غير الكامل وهو مخصص
نت مقدمة مسبقا، حيث أن هذه التحسينات تكون حسب عدة لتحسين الخدمات والعروض التي كا
مستويات )أحسن تكوين للعمال، خدمة جد مناسبة، تجهيزات مريحة...( وبالتالي فإن االبتكار في
السياحة يتعلق بمجاالت متنوعة ومختلفة: االبتكار التكنولوجي، العملياتي، البيئي، التجاري
رض مع الطلب المقدم من قبل السياح.واالجتماعي، وهذا من أجل تكييف الع
Delphine Roussel, Innovation territorialisée et nouvelles dynamiques touristiques, article -1
de recherche, Marché et organisation N°07, 2008, PP.06-08.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
3
ن البحث واالبتكار يساهم في تطوير إ البحث والتطوير واالبتكار النوعي في السياحة: -2
القطاع السياحي، وبالتالي االهتمام بالنوعية، من أجل تثمين الخدمات السياحية، حيث أن تحسين
واالبتكار في النوعية يتعلق بكل مكونات النوعية أصبح من األهداف المهمة لجذب السائحين، فالبحث
المنتوج السياحي، ومنه من أجل اقتراح منتوجات ذات نوعية، يحتم على المؤسسات متابعة
التكنولوجيات الجديدة لإلعالم واالتصاالت.
إن التكنولوجيات الجديدة لإلعالم واالتصال كعامل أساسي لالبتكار السياحي: -3
متسارعة التي تخص نهاية القرن الماضي، قد قامت بتغيير أنماط الحياة التغيرات التكنولوجية ال
اليومية، ومن ضمنها ما دخل على القطاع السياحي، مما يظهر أن السياحة قد تحولت من خالل
التطور التكنولوجي، حيث أن أثر اإلعالم واالتصال حول تقنيات التوزيع السياحي غيرت
دية للخدمات. خاصة ما يتعلق بأنظمة الحجز في الشركات الجوية التجارية التقلي االستراتيجيات
والفنادق والوجهات السياحية، األمر الذي استغله العاملون في السياحة من أجل تقديم منتجات وخدمات
جديدة وأنظمة ترويج وحجز جديدة.
ثانيا: السياحة كمستخدم لتكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
احة تأخر في تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال عن باقي القطاعات، إال رغم أن قطاع السي
، حيث أن أغلب األعمال والخدمات استراتيجيةأنه اليوم أصبحت هذه التكنولوجيا بالنسبة له كرهانات
الموجودة أصبحت تستخدم التكنولوجيا، باإلضافة إلى الوسائل المستخدمة في الفنادق والنقل والترفيه
2ذا االتصال، وأصبحت الدراسات الجديدة في هذا القطاع كلها تعتمد على التكنولوجيا واستخدامها.وك
فإشكالية البحث والتطوير تعالج تحت زاوية أنظمة تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال في القطاع
ت، وكذا السياحي، حيث أن أغلب المشاكل المطروحة تتعلق بتحسين المنتوج وتنظيم مؤسسات الخدما
3إعادة تكوين الفروع، وذلك من خالل:
إن مشكل اإلنتاجية له حساسية خاصة فيما يتعلق بتكنولوجيا :األداء االقتصادي واإلنتاجية -1
اإلعالم واالتصال، حيث أنه في القطاع السياحي تطرح عدة إشكاالت نظرية، والتي تترجم في
ية التي تولد أرباح اإلنتاجية، باإلضافة إلى ضعف صعوبة اإلعالم في كل الوجهات واألماكن السياح
الترابط بين نفقات تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال وأرباح اإلنتاجية في السياحة وخاصة في الخدمات.
فمساهمة تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال في السياحة هي جد مهمة، حيث أن االبتكارات المقدمة
هيكلة.موجهة للخدمات أو للتنظيم أو ال
2 -Camel Gallouj and Erick Leroux, E-Tourisme, Innovation et modes d'organisation, article
sur revue management et avenir, N°42, Paris: France, 2011, pp. 214-215. 3- Camel Gallouj and Erick Leroux, idid , pp. 208-220.
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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4
إن انعكاس الصلة بين تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال والتنظيم تنظيم المؤسسة وتنظيم العمل: -2
تتركز حول جانبين: األول حول الدور الذي تلعبه تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال في حركة المركزية
م بها تكنولوجيا وعدم المركزية فيما يخص التنظيم في المؤسسة، والثاني حول التعديالت التي تقو
اإلعالم واالتصال في المهام وتوزيعها في المؤسسة السياحية. حيث أن مركزية وعدم مركزية بعض
الخدمات تظهر بأن تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال تلعب دورا هاما في توزيع المهام بين مختلف
ا تقود توزيع الوظائف وحدات المؤسسة األم أي بين الوحدات الجهوية والوحدات المركزية، حيث أنه
بين مختلف الوسائط والفاعلون في الفروع السياحية.
هناك الكثير من األعمال معنية باصطدام تكنولوجيا توزيع السلطات في الفروع السياحية: -3
اإلعالم واالتصال فيما يخص العالقات التي تعني السلطة داخل الفروع السياحية، وخاصة في إطار
الموجودة بين مختلف الفاعلين. وكون أن تطوير واستعمال التكنولوجيا بالنسبة للبعض العالقات القوية
منهم غير معروفة، إال أن استخدامها بالنسبة لهم قد سهل التعامل مع السائحين والفروع السياحية
خصوصا في توزيع المهام والسلطات. فبفضل تطبيقات تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال أصبح من السهل
بالنسبة للعاملين في النشاط السياحي مراقبة أذواق ومعلومات المستهلكين أو السائحين، كما أن المواقع
السياحية للوجهات والفنادق قد تطورت بتطور التكنولوجيا، مما سهلت التعامل بين األطراف.
لتحفيز االبتكار في إن لتكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال األثر الكبير االبتكار والطاقة االبتكارية: -4
الخدمات بصفة عامة وخاصة الخدمات السياحية، فدخول هذه التكنولوجيا على الخدمات السياحية
واحتكاكها بها خلق نوع من االبتكار المستدام بحكم الحركة والنشاط في القطاع السياحي وخاصة في
المؤسسات. لهاته االبتكاريةقطاع النقل السياحي، وبالتالي قد طور من الطاقة
ثالثا: العالقات المختلفة بين تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال والسياحة
توجد عدة عالقات تربط بين تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال والسياحة، قد تكون هاته العالقات
غير شاملة وغير حصرية على قطاع السياحة، وهي تتمثل في عالقة المبادلة، التعريف والترويج
4خيرا عالقتي التوزيع واإلنتاج، وذلك كما يلي:وأ
وهي ترجع إلى التبديل الكلي أو الجزئي لمكاتب االستقبال للخدمة أو تزويد :عالقة المبادلة -1
آلة"، وهذا ما -إنسان" بالعالقة الجديدة "إنسان -الخدمة بوسائل تقنية مبتكرة، أي تغيير العالقة "إنسان
والمطاعم بظهور محطات التوجيه واإلعالم وكذا محطات تسجيل الدخول تحقق بالفعل في الفنادق
والخروج منها، باإلضافة إلى الفحص الذاتي إلى غير ذلك من الخدمات اآللية. فعالقة المبادلة الكلية
4-Idid, pp. 221-223.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
5
تعني إمكانية الزيارة االفتراضية لبعض المواقع السياحية والوجهات والمتاحف عبر موقع إلكتروني،
في بعض األحيان عدد الزيارات االفتراضية هو عدد الزيارات الجسدية.وقد يكون
وهي تعود لوضعيات تشكل فيها الخدمة قيمة لالستخدام التكنولوجي، وهي عالقة التعريف: -2
عالقة جوهرية بين الخدمة واألداة، وينجم عن هذه العالقة العديد من االبتكارات )وسائل إلكترونية،
لخ(. هذه العالقة من الصعب توضيح تطبيقها على النشاط السياحي مباشرة، وإنما شبكات رقمية... إ
تكون عن طريق العميل أو المستهلك أو السائح، وهو ما يطبق فعال خاصة في الفنادق.
إن االبتكار التكنولوجي يحدد ظهور الوظائف الجديدة للخدمة، حيث أن عالقة عالقة الترويج: -3
سياحة، خاصة -جيا المعلومات واالتصال والسياحة تتجسد بصفة خاصة في موبايلالتعيين بين تكنولو
فيما يتعلق بالخرائط والتطبيقات الخاصة بالمعلومات الدورية للمواقع الخاصة بالفنادق، والوجهات
السياحية الموجودة في جهاز النقال )الموبايل(.
عملية تحويل سلبي، وإنما عملية حقيقية لتجديد إن عملية التوزيع هنا ال تعتبر ك عالقة التوزيع: -4
االبتكار، وفي هذه الحالة االبتكار الصناعي ال يساهم فقط في بعض الخدمات، لكن يساهم في تحديد
إدارة التغيير التقني لهاته الخدمات، حيث أنه في المجال السياحي فإن عالقة التوزيع بين السياحة
واسعة، فالسياحة تلعب دورا أساسيا في توزيع االبتكارات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
التكنولوجية، وهذا ما نلمسه من تطور بعض االبتكارات في الخدمات السياحية أكثر منها في الخدمات
األخرى.
المؤسسات السياحية تصمم وتنتج بنفسها ابتكارات تكنولوجية، لكن في الغالب عالقة اإلنتاج: -5
هي عالقة إنتاج مشترك، وهذا ما نلمسه من خالل بيع بعض المنتجات التكنولوجية فإن هذه العالقة
في النشاطات والخدمات السياحية، كأنظمة اإلعالم والتسيير في الفنادق النموذجية.
تلخص في أهمية ومزايا استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال في السياحة: -6
5النقاط التالية:
السياحية بمختلف أنواعها بشكل كبير على تداول المعلومات السياحية، وبالتالي اعتماد الخدمات -
يصعب قياس جودتها إال بعد التجربة، لذلك تعد االنترنت الوسط المناسب لها، من خالل صورة
على البيانات والمعلومات التفصيلية للمناطق السياحية المراد واالطالعتفاعلية مرئية تخيلية للموقع
رتها، وتمكن السائح من تخطيط ووضع برنامج لرحلته واختيار المناطق التي يرغب في زيارتها، زيا
وترتيب مواعيده باإلضافة إلى تخصيص ميزانية محتملة؛
شعوبي محمد فوزي، )دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال في تنمية قطاع وبختي إبراهيم، -5
.2010، 07السياحة والفندقة(، مجلة الباحث، جامعة قاصدي مرباح، ورقلة، العدد
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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6
إن استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال يؤدي إلى تخفيض تكلفة إنتاج الخدمة السياحية، مع رفع -
ى تخفيض حجم العمالة ورفع قدرات العاملين وتدريبهم على استخدام الترويج السياحي، مما يؤدي إل
االنترنت والتطبيقات والبرامج؛
التوسع في استخدام التكنولوجيا يؤدي إلى ظهور احتياجات كامنة لم تكن موجودة من قبل، وبالتالي -
.تطوير منتجات جديدة وتحسين الخدمات، مما يؤدي إلى الرفع من القدرة التنافسية
رابعا: تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال والتطوير في السياحة
6تشمل ما يلي:
فيما يخص النشاطات السياحية وخاصة الفنادق والمطاعم، والتي :تعاليم النهج التصنيفية -1
تكون ضمن فئة الشركات المهيمنة من قبل ممولي التجهيزات واألنظمة التقنية والتي تصنف على أنها
تكارا، بحكم التبعية وصغر الحجم، وبالتالي تم اقتراح النهج االبتكاري في الخدمات حسب أقل اب
الخصوصيات التالية: أداء الشركات في مجال االبتكار، طبيعة النشاط االبتكاري، قواعد المعارف
المستعملة في عمليات االبتكار، وأخيرا أشكال التفاعالت الكامنة لالبتكار.
ل على أربع مجموعات من خدمات التكنولوجيا هي خدمات تستخدم ومنه يمكن الحصو
التكنولوجيا، وخدمات متفاعلة ومعلوماتية، وخدمات تتموقع حول العالم والتكنولوجيا، وخدمات
التوجيه التقني.
دور االنترنت في تطوير السياحة واستدامتها: -2
إن ثورة االنترنت تولد استراحة بالنسبة االنترنت كقناة للتوزيع بأقل تكلفة وبأكثر مرونة: -2-1
لقطاع السياحة، عن طريق توزيع منتوجات السفر، وذلك بفضل التكنولوجيا غير المادية، فالعاملين
جديدة للتوزيع متعدد القنوات، لتضع جماال على صفحات شبكة استراتيجياتفي القطاع يتبنون
7االنترنت، ويكون ذلك كما يلي:
إن المنتوجات التكنولوجيا الجديدة والسماح بالتوزيع غير المادي وبدون وسائط: االنترنت و -أ
السياحية تكاد تكون غير مادية، حيث أن التوزيع في القطاع السياحي هو عملية منفصلة عن استهالك
الخدمة نفسها، حيث أن تحويل وثائق السفر إلى وثائق إلكترونية يسمح بتفادي نوعين من التكلفة:
ريف الطباعة ومصاريف اإلرسال، مما يسمح بأن تكون المؤسسات أكثر فاعلية وأكثر مرونة مصا
المرجع نفسه. -6
7- Kalfon. P, Tourisme et Innovation, l’harmattan, Paris: France, 2009, pp. 29-33.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
7
على مستوى عروضها، ويسمح للزبائن باالتصال مباشرة في االنترنت دون وسائط ووثائق، لتصبح
عملية التوزيع أكثر بساطة وسهولة.
لك عن طريق تبني عدة ويتم ذاهتمام العاملون في السياحة بهذا النوع من التوزيع: -ب
التوزيع تتمثل في البيع باالتصال وعدم االتصال استراتيجيات، فبالنسبة للمنتجين فإن استراتيجيات
باستخدام وسائط وشبكات مادية، باإلضافة إلى البيع الحصري عن طريق االتصال، أما بالنسبة
تكنولوجيا، تسويق األدوات التقنية ألنظمة التوزيع الشامل فهي في تطوير متزايد ألنشطتها لتمويل ال
التي تسمح للمنتجين بضمان التوزيع بأنفسهم. أما بالنسبة للوكاالت السياحية التي تستخدم االنترنت
فتقوم بتوزيع المسافرين عبر االنترنت.
إن ثورة االنترنت هي عامل ضروري لالبتكار في االنترنت قناة جديدة لالتصال والمعلومات: -2-2
المعلومات، حيث أن أغلب الفاعلين يستخدمون مواقع االنترنت لإلبالغ عن عروضهم، ومما مجال
يساهم في تطوير ذلك:
تعميم التدفق العالي لتسهيل وصول المعلومة بأكثر سرعة وبالتالي المصادر الجديدة للمعلومة؛ -أ
احة، خاصة في المنتوج نفوذ ثورة االنترنت، حيث مقارنات السفر أصبحت ال مفر منها في السي -ب
الجوي؛
وسائل مبتكرة تسمح بزيادة الجذب نحو المواقع السياحية. -ج
خامسا: السياحة الرقمية كنموذج الستخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة لالتصال والمعلومات
في فرنسا
تعتبر السياحة هي أكثر القطاعات استخداما للرقمية، :السياحة الفرنسية في وقت الرقمية -1
%62من الفرنسيين يقومون بحجوزات عبر االنترنت و %45حيث في فرنسا نجد أكثر من
يستخدمون األدوات الرقمية خالل رحالتهم وإقامتهم. وسنتعرض هنا إلى:
على اعتبار أن السائح حسب المنظمة العالمية للسياحة هو الشخص السياحة كقطاع متغير: -1-1
ساعة وذلك ألي سبب من األسباب. 24يئته المعتادة لمدة أكثر من الذي يبقى في مكان غير إقامته وب
من 1910وهو تعريف عرف مع تطور النشاط السياحي، ففي فرنسا كانت أول إدارة سياحية سنة
خالل ما يسمى الديوان الوطني للسياحة، وخالل ما بين الحربين العالميتين تم إنشاء الغرض الفندقي
م تطوير المهنة خالل األربعينيات والخمسينيات في حين في السبعينيات تم كتنظيم لهذه المهنة، وت
إنشاء ما يسمى النظام اإلجمالي للتوزيع إلدارة النقل السياحي وهو نظام آلي من خالل الحجز عن بعد
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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8
كتجارة إلكترونية، ويعتبر كبداية للسياحة االلكترونية والتي تطورت في نهاية القرن العشرين لتصبح
8 احة رقمية على المستوى العالمي واألوربي وعلى المستوى الفرنسي.سي
إن استخدام السياحة للرقمية ليس صدفة وإنما إدخال الرقمية على العرض والطلب السياحيين: -1-2
9يعود للطلب المتزايد للسائحين على كل ما هو جديد ومبتكر من معروض سياحي، وذلك لكون:
تعتبر االنترنت اليوم المصدر الرئيسي للمعلومات التي يطلبها السائح عن :السائح مستهلك فعال -أ
الوجهات التي اختارها، ومع تطور الرقمية أصبح هذا المستهلك يلعب دورا في اتخاذ القرارات بشأن
تطوير نوع وحجم الطلب وبالتالي هو شريك في القرار.
ن توزيع العرض السياحي هي عملية منفصلة : إاالنفجار الكبير لقنوات توزيع العرض السياحي -ب
عن استهالك الخدمة السياحية، حيث أن تطور المبيعات عبر االنترنت قد أعطى زيادة لفرص
المنتجين، حيث يمكن أن يكون فندق واحد قد يتبع عدة مراكز حجز، فالسياحة الرقمية قد فتحت عدة
دة قنوات مثل الهواتف النقالة والشبكات عروض سياحية لنفس المنتج أو الخدمة السياحية عبر ع
االجتماعية.
من الصعب أن يتكيف الفاعلون التقليديون للسياحة الفرنسية في مواجهة الرهان الرقمي: -1-3
الفاعلون التقليديون مع التغيرات الكبرى التي أتت بها الرقمية خاصة على اعتبارها كاشفة لنقاط
ن مصلحتهم تقتضي التفاعل مع هذا المتغير الجديد خصوصا مع الضعف للفاعلين السياحيين، غير أ
10تزايد إيراداتهم عند استخدام هذه التقنية:
مؤسسة سياحية 200000: يوجد في فرنسا ما يقرب وضعية المنتجين إزاء العرض السياحي -أ
منها %53حيث أن سواء في الفندقة، اإليواء، النقل، اإلطعام أو النشاطات الثقافية، الرياضية...إلخ.
حاليا مجهزة بأدوات رقمية في خدماتها السياحية لكن األدوات الرقمية هي مجرد مرحلة أولى، فالبد
من فهمها واستخدامها على النحو األمثل في مواجهة العالم الخارجي وخاصة العمالء.
ة أو الهيئة حيث تعتبر اليوم الوكالوجهة نظر منظمي الرحالت السياحية ووكاالت السفر: -ب
المنظمة للرحالت السياحية التي ال تستخدم االنترنت سيئة وتجاوزها الزمن، فأقل شيء فرض تطور
وسائل النقل ودخول الرقمية على هاته الهيئات للتعامل بوسائل رقمية للحجز والحصول على التذاكر
وعبر عدة قنوات.
8- Assemblée National, Rapport d' information sur l'impact du numérique sur le secteur
touristique Française, IREST, Paris: France, 10/02/2015, pp. 29-33. 9 - Idem, pp.34-36. 10 - Assemblée National, Op Cit, pp.36-39.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
9
وقت االنترنت مناسب للمؤسسات -ج
الهيئات اإلقليمية للسياحة: إن فرنسا تتمتع بشبكة منظمة سياحية إقليمية قوية تحتل مكانة ريادية على -
المستوى العالمي، مع التحول الرقمي ركزت هاته الهيئات على تحويل مراكز الحجز عبر االنترنت
ع عدم وجود بدال من إطالقها رغم وجود بعض الصعوبات في التوافق بين العديد من األنظمة وم
على تركيز القوى على الوجهات 2014موارد حقيقية للبحث والتطوير، حيث تم التركيز ما بعد
الجديدة والتحاور مع العمالء وتجاوز الحدود اإلدارية.
وهي إحدى الفاعلين في السياحة البيئية الرقمية الفرنسية: Atout Franceالدور المنوط بشركة -
هني السياحة من حيث المنشورات واللقاءات التقنية والمرافقة مع أصحاب وتهدف إلى ضمان دعم م
المشاريع والمشاركة في جميع األحداث المتعلقة بتطوير الرقمية في السياحة الفرنسية.
%95مليون زائر 4.5: وتستقبل سنويا أثر الرقمية على وكالء السياحة االجتماعية والجهوية -د
مالء ساهمت الرقمية أكثر في احتكاكهم بالجمعيات السياحية، حيث تم إنشاء منهم فرنسيين، هؤالء الع
للتبادل األوربي فيما يخص السياحة االجتماعية لتسهيل مشاكل 2012عام e-calypssمشروع
مليون أورو. 1.2وتم تمويل المشروع من قبل االتحاد األوربي بقيمة ،اإليواء واإلطعام للمعنيين
ونتطرق فيها لآلتي: برى األساسية للسياحة الرقمية في فرنسا:الرهانات الك -2
إن إدخال الرقمية على السياحة قد أعطاها استخدامات وحلوال ثورة ذات طابع غير مسبوق: -2-1
11 في عدة مجاالت وذلك تبعا لنوع السياحة، كما يلي:
ونية ومن ثم السياحة الرقمية حيث أن سياحة األعمال تعتبر المستفيد األكبر من السياحة اإللكتر -
سواء للتحفيز على السفر أو الحجز أو من ناحية الحصول على المعلومة؛
زاد التفاهم مع الهيئات والمنظمات السياحية من خالل الشبكات االجتماعية السائحين المستقلين حيث -
افة المعلومات المتعلقة والهواتف النقالة وتطبيقاتها، من خالل التفاعل مع المواقع والحصول على ك
برحالتهم السياحية وحجوزاتهم؛
سائحي المجموعات من خالل التفاعل والتعاقد مع مرشدين ومنظمين للرحالت السياحية باالتفاق -
على جميع الخدمات رقميا ربحا للوقت والتكلفة؛
الرقمية بالتواصل من السياحة السائحين األجانب فرغم حاجز اللغة إال أنهم وجدوا ضالتهم من خالل -
محل اإلقامة وتسيير رحالتهم وشروطهم المادية، كذلك تحديد الوجهات وبرامج الرحالت إلكترونيا.
11- Jaques Belin, Le tourisme numérique, Rapport présenté au conseil économique social et
environnemental régional, Paris: France, Novembre 2014, pp.13-15.
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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10
إن األدوات الرقمية موجودة في دخول الرقمية في كل مرحلة من مراحل دورة رحلة السائح: -2-2
12كل مرحلة من مراحل دورة حياة رحلة السائح الثالث:
إضافة للمواقع العالمية : قبل الرحلة أو السفر ) الحلم، التخطيط، المقارنة، الحجز...(مرحلة ما -أ
Promo vacances"موقع: " 1997وشبكات التواصل االجتماعي فإنه في فرنسا تم إطالق منذ
الذي يعتبر الموقع األول في فرنسا من حيث الحجز والمعاينة عبر االنترنت بكل ما يتعلق بالرحالت
لتوزيع Voyages-Sncf.com"سفار واإليواء واإلطعام والنقل، ومن ثم تم إطالق موقع:"واأل
السفر والرحالت عبر القطارات والطائرات من خالل الحجز وشراء التذاكر وحتى لكراء السيارات
الذي أطلق في مارس "a la carte" وإيواء الفنادق واإلطعام. وفيما يخص التسويق فإن موقع:
تكفل بكل ما هو موجود من سلع وبضائع تباع في فرنسا عبر الخط.ي 2014
تم إحصاء 2013في جوان أثناء الرحلة أو السفر )االكتشاف والتفاعل من خالل سياحة النقال(: -ب
سنة 11من عدد السكان )من %44.1مليون حامل لهواتف ذكية في فرنسا وهو ما اليقل عن 24.1
مليون 6فيما يتم إحصاء (GPS, Wifi, Ios, Androïd) م التطبيقات فما فوق( وبالتالي استخدا
حامل للوحة الرقمية، هاتين الوسيلتين قد سهلت للمسافر وكذا الفاعلين السفر والسياحة و سهولة
-codesأو ) (QR codes)التعامل والتحاور أثناء رحالتهم، وتم مؤخرا طرح قارئ الرموز
barres 2D Flash codeحدد هوية السائح وموقعه وكذا يسهل االشتراكات سواء في النقل أو ( لي
اإليواء أو اإلطعام.
حيث تم إنشاء موقع: بعد الرحلة )التواصل والمشاركة، الوالء، دور الشبكات االجتماعية(: -ج
wikis" لتطرح فيه كل الصور واألشرطة والملفات التي تتعلق بالتجارب السياحية بغية استفادة "
,facebook ):)مثل" إضافة إلى الشبكات االجتماعية Tripadvisorجمهور منها مثله مثل موقع: "ال
twiter, wayne, linkdin…..
إن الرقمية وتطورها في تحدي تكيف العاملين في السياحة مع المعطيات الرقمية الجديدة: -2-3
وة المنافسة خصوصا االسبانية، العالم قد أدى إلى ضغط على عاملي السياحة في فرنسا من خالل ق
وبالتالي تعرف السائحين على وجهات ومعالم سياحية غير فرنسية وما يتميز به من خالل ما هو
معروض على االنترنت، حتى أن الرقمية قد قامت ببعثرة للتسويق الفرنسي خصوصا مع حرية
13التجارة العالمية ودخول السلع والمنتوجات لألراضي الفرنسية.
12 - Jaques Belin, Op Cit, pp. 15-17. 13 - Ministère de l'économie des finances et de l'industrie, Pole interministériel de prospective
et d'interception des mutations économiques, prospective du m-tourisme, France, novembre
2011, pp. 23-28.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
11
إن الوسائل الرقمية المطبقة على السفر والسياحة تدعو إلى قوة ثقافية، تراثية وترفيه سياحي: -2-4
تطوير أفضل تعبير ما بين الثقافة والتراث والترفيه السياحيين، مما يسمح للزوار بتحضير حلقات مع
قامت وزارة 2014م المواقع والمعالم الثقافية والسياحية خاصة بواسطة الهواتف النقالة، حيث في عا
مليون أورو لمشروع االبتكار الرقمي للتراث والثقافة 1الثقافة الفرنسية بتوفير غالف مالي قدره
الفرنسية، كذلك استطاعت بالتعاقد مع شركة قوقل لطرح قصر فرساي في االنترنت كتعريف بهذا
14مليون سائح سنوي. 6.7المعلم الذي يعرف ما يزيد عن
إن هذه البيانات الرقمية هدفها (: Open, Smart, Bigبيانات الرقمية في السياحة: )أهمية ال -2-5
تثمين قطاع السياحة الفرنسي، حيث تمكنت الهيئات السياحية الفرنسية من فتح قواعد بيانات
Taurinمؤطرة من قبل قواعد: " SIT)متخصصة أو ما أسمته قطاع المعلومات السياحية )
Franceيل تبادل المعطيات السياحية فيما بين الهيئات، من خالل خلق: " من أجل تسه (Big Data,
Smart Data, Open Data) .15كقواعد بيانات رئيسية للسياحة الفرنسية
تعد استغالل اإلمكانيات السياحية بشكل أفضل في عالم مفرط االتصال الرقمي: -3
رقية السياحة ضمن المخطط االستراتيجي آلفاق الرقمية أحد األشغال الستة المعرفة في إطار مجلس ت
16في فرنسا خصوصا في مجال النظام البيئي والشراكة وكذا اإلطار القانوني لمهنة السياحة. 2020
رقميتهالنظام البيئي السياحي الفرنسي يجب أن يكمل -3-1
رنسا اليوم تحدث : إن فتشجيع التنمية في فرنسا إلى قطاع صناعي حقيقي للسياحة اإللكترونية -أ
هيمنة من قبل الشركات األجنبية العمالقة وهو شيء ال جدال فيه، األمر الذي يدعوا إلى تشجيع
الشركات الفرنسية لتطوير التكنولوجيا الرقمية إلبراز تقدمهم واسترجاع الثقة في إمكانياتهم وتعاونهم
17السياحة االلكترونية من خالل: على االبتكار الرقمي، قصد إخراج صناعة محلية فرنسية في مجال
: حيث في المدى القصير تعتبر سياحة النقال كاألسلوب األفضل تطويره تحديد أصحاب المنافذ -1-أ
والسيطرة عليه محليا ومن ثم االبتكار فيه خاصة الستقطاب هذا النوع للسياح في جميع األوقات
ن تطويره والتمكن منه هو إنشاء قواعد والظروف، في حين في المدى الطويل يعتبر أهم عامل يمك
بيانات لتثمين قطاع السياحة الرقمية ومن ثم اكتساح على األقل السوق المحلي.
: من خالل خلق مشروع ودنية المخبر لتحفيز تشجيع ظهور العاملين في االبتكار السياحي -2-أ
قصد لإلبداع السياحي، االبتكار المتخصص في السياحة ولخلق اإلبداع السياحي وجعل فرنسا كم
14 - Jaques Belin, Op Cit, p 18-20. 15 - Ministère de l'économie des finances et de l'industrie Op Cit, pp. 29-32. 16- Assemblée National, op cit, pp. 83-84. 17 - Idid, pp. 85-89.
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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12
بتطوير أدوات السفر وبعث اإلنعاش في التراث المادي والثقافي، وطرح وتعزيز السياحة والسفر
الذكيين من خالل أدوات النقل الذكية.
من خالل توحيد آراء وأفكار وجهود الفاعلين هيكلة قطاع السياحة حول السياحة اإللكترونية: -3-أ
رقمية، وهذا يعتبر كوعي من قبل الشركات الكبيرة في القطاع لمواجهة الهيمنة في السياحة الفرنسية ال
مليون مسجل 20أكثر من 2013الخارجية في الرقمية، حيث أن موقع البيع الخاص قد استقطب عام
" قد تخصصت في االبتكار الترفيهي Finlacلشراء مواد ومنتوجات سياحية، كما أن مجموعة: "
ضمن الوجهات السياحية دون الخروج عن النقاط التالية: لأللعاب الموجودة
؛أن تكون على مستوى سوق متناهي أو مع توقعات نمو قوي في االقتصاد العالمي -
أن تعتمد في المقام األول على تقنيات فرنسية؛ -
احتالل موقع قوي في سوق الرقمية أو يكون لها نظام بيئي أكاديمي وتكنولوجي واقتصادي. -
التكوين في إن غيابتدريب أفضل ألصحاب المقاصد السياحية باستخدام األدوات الرقمية: -ب
ترقية وتطوير التسويق السياحي، بالتالي قد استراتيجيةاستخدام األدوات الرقمية قد أدى إلى غياب
ين في أدى هذا الوضع إلى البحث عن وسيلة لربط الصلة بين العارضين للمنتوجات السياحية والعامل
مجال االبتكار الرقمي، لهذا البد على الفاعلين االقتصاديين والهيئات السياحية أن يتعاونوا لتقديم
18تكامل أكثر في هذا المجال.
19عن طريق: تشكيل أساسي للشراكة مع السلطات العمومية: -ج
إن العاملين ة كقوة: تحديد الوجهة من خالل العالمة التجارية القوية والتي تدعمها دولة إقليمي -1-ج
في النشاط السياحي باعتبار أن لهم دورا في قطاع السياحة، فإنه البد لهم من شراكة فعلية وشاملة مع
السلطات المحلية على مستوى األقاليم الفرنسية ضمن مشروع شبكات سياحية إلكترونية فعالة، من
ة للعمل الجماعي.خالل تجميع الموارد وتحديد األهداف المشتركة وإعطاء أولوي
: إن الشركة تعتبر هي المزود للترويج الرقمي للوجهات السياحية Atout Franceريادة -2-ج
الرئيسي لكل عاملي السياحة بالمعلومات الرقمية للسياحة الفرنسية وفي الحكومة الفرنسية، لكن يبقى
ع هيئات رقمية عالمية في مجال الدعم المالي مشكال بالنسبة لهذه الشركة قصد إقامة شراكات دولية م
الصينية وهي متخصصة في الحجز عبر Trip.com"السياحة اإللكترونية مثل الشراكة مع شركة: "
االنترنت لألسفار من أجل تعزيز راحة وسالمة السياح الصينيين في فرنسا.
18 - Assemblée National, op cit, p90. 19 - Idid, pp. 91-92.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
13
20: من خالل:ضرورة تحديد اإلطار القانوني لمهني السياحة -د
عياري لعاملي السياحة التقليديينالمتكييف اإلطار -1-د
لتطوير و عصرنة 2009/ 22/07: في إطار قانون على البيع في السفر والعطالت ونالقائم -
الخدمات السياحية، قصد تسجيل نظام موحد للقائمين على البيع في السفر والعطالت، من خالل إعطاء
كنولوجية في تقديم خدماتهم.تشجيع وأولوية للذين يستخدمون األساليب الرقمية والت
: من خالل تعديل أنظمة عرض وطرح األسعار في السوق اللوائح المطبقة على اإليواء السياحي -
عن طريق وسائل رقمية تسهل سرعة الوصول للمستهلك أو الزبون، وكذا ما يتعلق باألنواع المختلفة
لسابق ترتيب وتصنيف خمس سنوات في فرنسا حسب القانون ا اعتمدمن اإلقامات ومميزاتها، حيث
لكل منها.
على اعتبار أن تسويق العرض السياحي يزداد نموا عن إعالم وحماية السائح عبر اإلنترنت: -2-د
طريق الوسائل الرقمية، كما أن مكافحة الغش والتهرب الضريبي أصبح أكثر سهولة ، حيث في عام
من شكاوى القطاع ككل، %35.9اإلنترنت بلغت الشكاوى المقدمة لصناعة السياحة عبر 2013
، كما أن شكاوى القطاع كلها قد ارتفعت فقط بنسبة 2011في %20.7و 2012في %25.9عكس
، وبالتالي مصلحة السائح تتطلب اعتماد هاته الوسائل الرقمية التي 2012عنها في 2013في 5.8%
تعطي أكثر شفافية في تقديم الخدمات.
نتائج الدراسة
توصلت هذه الدراسة إلى أن أنشطة التطوير تعتبر المغذي الرئيسي لإلبداع واالبتكار في مجال
التكنولوجيا الحديثة ألنظمة االتصاالت والمعلومات، حيث تقترن هذه األنشطة بتحويل المعارف
أبعادها، والنتائج المتوصل إليها إلى خدمات سياحية متطورة تعمل على تحقيق تنمية القطاع بمختلف
والذي يعتبر من األنشطة الرائدة في ازدهار الدول، كما تثبته التجارب الناجحة في الميدان لبعض
الدول خاصة المتقدمة والتي تتصدرها فرنسا، والتي عملت على تطبيق أساسيات التطوير على
تصاالت، والتي األنشطة السياحية، من خالل أساليب التكنولوجيا المتطورة ألنظمة المعلومات واال
تساعد على تحقيق استراتيجيات فاعلو السياحة والقطاعات المكملة، حيث تتصدرها خدمات الفندقة
والحفاظ على البيئة، استدامة النقل، تحقيق األمن، وتطوير وكاالت ووسطاء السفر وفق أساسيات
تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال األكثر حداثة.
وجيا في مجال السياحة ينطوي على الميزات التي تشبه أو تختلف عن تلك إن االبتكار والتكنول
الموجودة في الخدمات األخرى، بمعنى تطوير المنتج السياحي يحقق ميزات فريدة من الخدمات
20 - Assemblée National, op cit, pp.93-95.
الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال
الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-
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14
بالمقارنة مع غيرها، ليظهر فيها دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال، حيث أدى التقدم الكبير في
ت واالتصاالت إلى تطور السياحة باعتمادها على هذه التكنولوجيا، وأصبحت تكنولوجيا المعلوما
المشاريع والنشاطات تقيم بمدى اعتمادها على التقنيات المتطورة من اجل تحقيق وزيادة القدرة
التنافسية في السوق السياحية، وذلك يتطلب االعتماد على تقنيات المعلومات واالتصاالت لجذب
اح، مما يحقق تطوير وتحسين الخدمات السياحية، والتي تلعب فيها التكنولوجيا الرقمية العمالء أو السي
دورا كبيرا خاصة فيما يتعلق بالترويج من اجل الجذب السياحي. وقد تبين في الدراسة أهمية ودور
سا التكنولوجيا الجديدة وخصوصا الرقمية في هذا النشاط، حيث أن السياحة هي القطاع األول في فرن
الذي استفاد من التحول التكنولوجي والتحول الرقمي ويشكل نموذجا ناجحا لتطبيق األنظمة
التكنولوجية الحديثة للمعلومات واالتصاالت، ففرنسا إحدى الدول التي نجحت في تطوير سياحتها من
خالل االعتماد على االبتكار السياحي وخصائصه، حيث استطاعت أن تبرز ضمن قائمة الدول
لناجحة في مجال السياحة، والتي تمثل احد المصادر الهامة القتصادها، حيث اتسع فيها االعتماد على ا
السياحة الرقمية.
التوصيات:
من اجل تحقيق تطوير القطاع السياحي والسير به نحو االستدامة بأبعادها المختلفة االقتصادية
حديثة على أنشطة القطاع واألنشطة المرتبطة به خاصة االجتماعية والبيئية يجب تطبيق التكنولوجيا ال
ما يتعلق بأنظمة المعلومات واالتصال، من خالل:
استخدام التكنولوجيا المتطورة سواء بالنسبة للمنتجات والخدمات السياحية أو بالنسبة للخدمات -
المساعدة كالنقل واالتصال؛
بعا عن متطلبات تنشيط السياحة بصفة عامة وضع إطار قانوني وتشريعي واضح ودقيق، يكون نا -
والسياحة االلكترونية بصفة خاصة؛
تنمية وتطوير وسائل وتقنيات االتصال والمعلوماتية الحديثة؛ من اجل توسيع استخدام خدمات -
االنترنت والهواتف الذكية، مع تشجيع الوسطاء االلكترونيين في األنشطة السياحية، واستخدام شبكات
اقع االلكترونية لجميع العاملين في قطاع السياحة وخدمات الفندقة وكذا القطاعات المرتبطة من المو
بها، مع تنظيم العمل مع الوسطاء التقليديين؛
اعتماد أنظمة التجارة االلكترونية في مختلف المعامالت ونشر استخدامها في كل المجاالت، خاصة -
لحجز وخدمات الطيران مثال، والخدمات الفندقية وتأجير المرتبطة بالسياحة كالنقل فيما يتعلق با
السيارات وشركات النقل المختلفة والمطاعم.
. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
15
قائمة المراجع:
، )دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال في تنمية 2010بختي إبراهيم، شعوبي محمد فوزي، -1
.07، العدد قطاع السياحة والفندقة(، مجلة الباحث، جامعة قاصدي مرباح، ورقلة
2 - Assemblée National, 10/02/2015, Rapport d' information sur l'impact du
numérique sur le secteur touristique Française, IREST, Paris: France.
3 - Camel Gallouj, Erick Leroux, 2011, E-Tourisme, Innovation et modes
d'organisation, article sur revue management et avenir, N°42, Paris: France.
4 - Delphine Roussel, 2008, Innovation territorialisée et nouvelles
dynamiques touristiques, article de recherche, Marché et organisation N°07.
5 - Jaques Belin, 2014, Le tourisme numérique, Rapport présenté au conseil
économique social et environnemental régional, Paris: France, Novembre.
6 - Kalfon. P, 2009, Tourisme et Innovation, l’harmattan, Paris: France.
7-Rapport du ministère de l'économie des finances et de l'industrie, novembre
2011, Pole interministériel de prospective et d'interception des mutations
économiques, prospective du m-tourisme, France.
IAJFTH Volume 5, No.2, 2018
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16
عقوبة اإلعدام " العقوبة العظمى"
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية
منال اسماعيل توفيق
ملخص البحث :
هاكنا لقنق اإل وناى فن عقوبة اإلعدام أو الموت واحدة من أدند الوقوبنات اليد ينة ونوة والثن تم نل ا ث
ث عصر ا القندي ولننهنا م الوصور واسثمرت ح، وجدت تلك الوقوبة ف مصر القديمة منذ ا دالقياة
حث ا ن تنإ غلئااهنا فن ا سنرة ال امونة والولنري النوبينة، كمنا ف بوض الوصوررفض للتورضت
وجدت ف الوديد م القضارات ا خرى ومنها الروما ية.
ضنيقة عرفت اللنريوة المصنرية القديمنة الوقوبنة الو"من ب عقوبنة اإلعندامب ولنن فن حندو فقد
وحناتت مقندو ة ، فلنإ تننن عقوبنة اإلعندام تو ننط غت فن لناا ضنيق وعلنن الونرااإ ال لينرة والثنن
، فوولها جزاء الونرااإ الثني يننوى خلركنا كيينر القديإ بأ ها ع"م وتوثقق الموت وصفها المصرى
عل الدولة والموثمط وتم ل فوا ا كييرا ف ا رض.
ة ويمن تقويمها ف الوصر الفرعو غل سييي رايوي : الوني كاى لوقوبة اإلعدام أسياب عديد
، القاضن اتغثصناب، م نل القثنل الومندوذات ثناا مقندو ة بنا فرا ا ول: افوال د صية مرتيلنة
ننن بنناليمي علنن اعثيننار ا هنا جريمننة فنن حننق اهلهننة الثنن ا وننإ بهننا.. النذى يث لنن حنندو الونندل، القي
ة و "ننام القنننإ ، وكنن مننا يمننل الدولننم ننل ا ثهاكننا للققننوا الوامننةا : فأفوننال ت ، أمننا الونني ال ننوكنننذا
منن ا مننوال واتخنثس ، ومنهنا ال يا ننة الو"من ، سننر ة المقننابر، سنر ة الموابنند ، والممثلننات الوامننة
الوامة.
لر ينة و د اسث دم المصرى القديإ الوديند من ا سنالي لثنفينذ تلنك الوقوبنة ومنهنا : اإلعندام بقلنط ا
، واإلعدام باإلحراا.عدام بال ازوا، اإلعدام باإلغرااوكو أ دمها، اإل
اما ف روما فقد ع رفت عقوبة اإلعدام ف الوصري الومهورى و اإلميراطنورى علن حند سنواء،
ومدو نة جونثنياى من تونويل لوند من الونرااإ الثن يونثقق ذلك ما جاء با لواح ا ثن علنر ويؤكد
، ومنها اسياب ايضنا فر ينة م نل : القثنل الومند ، دنها ة النزور، ردنوة القضناة اإلعدامبة مرتنييها عقو
بهدف تضليل الودالة، الور ة، اإلضرار بمصالح الئير م ل لط مقصول الئير لنيس ، واخنرى عامنة
ر ينة ، و د تلابهت وساال اإلعدام فيما بي القضنارتي من لنط وكنذا، والمال الفوا اإل ارى م ل:
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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17
واإلحراا واإلغراا، ولن زا عليها ف روما القاء المثهمي أحياء للقيوا نات المفثرسنة لثلنثهمهإ، او
لألفيال لثدكوهإ.
بني القضنارتي سنواء فن واتخثسفو د خل صت الدراسة لود م النثاا تضمنت أوج الثلاب
لواضح ف مدى ا ثلناركا، والثيناي اللنديد ا اتخثسفا سياب وراء الوقوبة او طرا تنفيذكا، وكذلك
ف تقيل الموثمط لها.
يوننثهدف كننذا اليقنن عمننل راسننة مقار ننة لمفننر ة منن مفننر ات الموثمننط فنن : هدددا الدراسددة
حضارتي م ثلفثي وك عقوبنة اإلعندام وتقنوم الدراسنة علن عقند المقار نة لنيل فقند بئنرض رصند
اسية وات ثصا ية واتجثماعية وال لقية الث تلننل بنيناى كنل الوقوبة ولن بوصفها مرآة للووا الوي
حضارة منهما م خسل الثورف عل مدى ا ثلاركا، اسيابها، وطرا تنفيذكا، مدى تقيل الموثمط لهنا،
و يود واحدا من أكنإ أسنياب واتجثماعيةمط تقليل تلك النقاط وكو ما ي رى موال الدراسات اإل وا ية
راسة الثاريخ.
–اإلحنراا -اإلغنراا – لط الر ينة -ال ازوا –الوقوبة الو"م –اإلعدام :الكلمات الدالة
مدو ة جوثنياى. -اتلواح اتثن علر - وا ي حور مق
كس م المنه الوصف و الثقليل المقارى واإلسثدتل وذلنك عن اسث دامتإ : منهجية البحث
الم ثلفننة منهننا، اتسننثنثاجات واسننثنياطة مقننل الدراسننةح وتقليلهننا، طريننق جمننط الييا ننات حننول المفننر
للوصول للنثاا الم يثة بنهاية الدراسة .
ضنم الوقوبنات الثن تضمنت وا ي القضارات الم ثلفة لدول ك ينرة عقوبنة اإلعندام: مقدمــة
ق فن تنفينذكا فهن ومنها القضارتي المصنرية القديمنة و الروما ينة، وتوند مصنر ا سني صت عليها،
الم لرع المصري ن كذه الوقوبة وجول تلييقهنا ولن بالرغإ م كذا ود اى اول م سول تلييقها،
، كمنا كنا وا يثوخنوى القنذر اللنديد في أضيق القاتت ولهذا لإ تن تو ط ك يرا فني الموثمنط المصنري
ققنااق والمولومنات وكنذلك اخثينار ف القضايا الث تنوى عقوبثها اإلعدام وخاصة فيما ي ثص جمنط ال
وأسا ذلك أى الوقوبة عند المصريي كا ت جزء ت يثوزأ م فنركإ Gray,2005,p.16)) القضاة
. القضننننناري، فنا نننننت اإل ونننننا ية وا خنننننسا والرحمنننننة ت تثونننننارض وتموننننننهإ بثققينننننق الوننننندل
(.189، ص 1978)المرصفاوى,
القوإ والقووة، تلك الدتال الث ي ود اإلعندام من أك ركنا كما اى القضارة الروما ية لإ تودم تال
بالوصر الومهنورى بدءاتأكيدا ، فقد تضمنت تلريوات روما القديمة عقوبة اإلعدام عل مر عصوركا
وا ثهنناء بالوصننر اإلميراطننورى، وكنناى تلييقهننا يثوننإ بالقوننوة والهمويننة، غذ كا ننت منن الوسنناال الثنن
القاء ا فرا احياء للقيوا ات المفثرسة، ويلير مناركو فناليريو غلن أى اول ت وث دم لثنفيذ الوقوبة
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
18
تنفيذ لوقوبة غعدام بثلك اللريقة كما سولث المصنا ر ا بينة ي نون فريننا و ا صنئر، وذلنك عنند
كزيمة رطاجة، ولننن ط ينق علن ا جا ن من سنناى الصنقارى من أعنداء الرومناى وكناى كنذا فن
(( Maximus, 1888,II,7,1بروما عرض عام
أهم الجرائم التى تستوجب عقوبة اإلعدام
فى الحضارة المصرية : (1
رأينا كيف عرفنت مصنر القديمنة الوريمنة والوقوبنة م لهنا م نل بنا دنووب الونالإ القنديإ، وحنوت
وظهنر بمثنوى وكنو فونل بمونن يوا ن issاللئة الوديد م ا لفاظ الدالة عل الوقاب بلنل عام ومنها
-hd (wb.II.130واسننننثمر فنننن الدولننننة الوسننننل وكننننذلك ا كننننرام منننننذ عصننننر الدولننننة القديمننننة
Zamdee,1969,p.282 ، ) وsdni الدولة القدي نة ف عصر CDME, 725) ،) وnik و كا نت
3y csb3yt أما عقوبة اإلعدام فقد أ طلنق عليهنا، URK.IV, 1081,3)) تللق عل المذ اللرير
n mwt بمون بعقوبة الموت النيرىب (Goedicke, 1963,p.89) .
اوال : جرائم شخصية تقترا فى حق األفراد
لنرع المصنرى المنوت او تود ت ا واع الورااإ الفر ية رغإ لثها بلنل عنام والثن وضنط لهنا الم
اإلعدام كوقوبة بلنل خاص ومنها :
الورااإ الث تونثوج الوقناب اللنديد فن مصنر ي ود القثل الومد كو اول واكإ : القتل العمد
م مننذ ا زل ، باعثيناره فونس يننإ عن خلنورة غجرامينة دنديدة لندى الونا ي ونري الفرعو ية فهذا الفول م
لنرع . فنناى الونزاء الونا ل من صننف الفونل اهثنإ، ولنذا وضنط لهنا توثلزم مو فا صارما م ينل الم
رأ الوقوبات اليد ية واددكا ووة ، كما أى اإلكمال الذى يؤ ى الم لرع عقوبة اإلعدام بوصفها عل
غل ازكاا الروح يوثير ثل عمد، وكا ت مهنة الل عند المصريي القدماء م المه المقدسة، وكاى
الليي الذي يرتن أخلاء فاحلة في عسج المرض والثي تؤ ي غل موتهإ ي وا بالموت، ذلنك أى
ء "روا غلي الل باعثياره أحد فروع علإ النهننوت، ومن ثنإ فنلى ال لنأ فني اللن المصريي القدما
يود بم ابة خلأ في ممارسة اللواار الدينية، أي أ ن ي وند من يينل النفنر باهلهنة ولنذا كا نت من ضنم
، ص 2008.) الفقدى، وا ي حور مق اى الليين النذى يثوني فن منوت المنريض ي وا ن باإلعندام
37)
لنرع المصنري أحند ال"نروف الملند ة للوقوبنة، وكني ثنل اإلبن بين ، حين كناى كما عرف الم
ي وا عليها اإلب بثقليط أصابو ، ثإ تقليط أجزاء م جوم ، ثإ ي قرا.
: مت اللرطة، وبلئنت ور الودالنة وفني مقندمثها في مصر الفرعو ية "ي تخطى حدود العدل
فني اإلجنراءات وتققينق الودالنة، وكا نت بماعنتب الهنة للودالنة، ب ار حور النينرىب منثهن الد نة
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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19
وكاى المصريوى القدماء يوثيروى مهنة القضناء وممارسنث مهننة مقدسنة، يون علن من يمارسنها أى
يثوإ بالودالة والنزاكة، وأى أي غخسل م جا القاضي بمقثضيات مهنث يقابل ر فول عنينف سنوءا
لنرع غذ أعثيركنا من الونرااإ النينرى وعقوبثهنا م يل الموثمط باإلسثن نار والئض ، أو من ينل الم
، 1998المجدوو،، –) عبد العدال اإلعدام و د تإ غعدام اضيي بوييها ف عهد الملك رمويل ال ال .
(144ص
: بنناليمي ينننوى نند ا ثننرف جريمننة فنني حننق اهلهننة.نننباعثيننار أى منن يقي الحنددث بدداليمين
(31، ص1999سقا ،) ال
: وعا عليها فناى اإلعندام اتمثناععرف الم لرع المصري القديإ جرااإ جريمة اإلمتناع
المجددوو،، –) عبدد العدال جنزاء من ي لناكد د صنا يقثننل آخنر وت يثقندم لنودتن منط درتنن علن ذلنك.
(144، ص1998
أك نر دنووب الونالإ القنديإ ت ود مصر الفرعو ية من " :واالغتصا،" الزنا جرائـم العرض
تدينا ، فنرا وممارسنة وتلييقنا ، كمنا كناى المصنريوى القندماء يهثمنوى بنا خسا والقنيإ، ومن كننا جناء
لديهإ، و د فرا يدور الصقل ف كثاب بي فول الز ا وكثنك الونرض واتغثصابتوريإ فول الز ا
غثصابا مما يوثوج اللدة ف الوقوبة فنناى فيرى أى فول الز ا لو تإ بالئص اصيح ا اتغثصاباى
المئثص يوا بقلط عضوه الثناسل واحيا ا تصل غل حد موا ينة الونا باإلعندام ويؤكند ذلنك كنس
( 32، ص1999) السقا ،م بر يث لييد وبوتا وكذلك قوش مقيرة آ .
: موثمنط المصنري فني غى جريمنة بالثقنرش الونونيب الثني يونا منهنا الالتحرش الجنسى
الو ت الراك ، د حد لها المصري القديإ في تلريوات عقوبات را عة، تصل غل حد اإلعندام، فننرى
أى مصر بذلك سيقت ول الوالإ المثقضرة عندما عرفت أى للوريمة مفهوما اجثماعينا .
Diodoros, 1967,1,77) (
الحقوق العامة" انتهاكحق الدولة " ثانيا : جرائم عامة تقترا فى
لنرع : جريمة الخيانة العظمى غذا كا ت الورااإ الثن ت قثنرف فن حنق ا فنرا ند دنئلت الم
المصرى القديإ و فوث غل وضط وا ي لقماينة مقندرات ا فنرا ، فنلى الونرااإ الثن ت رتنن فن حنق
بل ا منر أجنل وأع"نإ خلنرا فهن ت ونرض أمن الوط ت ت ورض فر ا بوين لل لر او تنال م أمن ،
أم بأكملها لل لر بقي ي صيح الثهاوى ف أمركا بم ابة خيا ة، فاعث ير المثآمري عل "نام القننإ أو
المواو ي للموثومر او الملثركي ف الث نابر علن النوط والمفلني سنراره للوندو ممن ي ورضنوى
لنرع من الوط واتف ا فرا لل لر وعلي يوثققوى المقاكمة باسإ ال يا نة الو"من ، واعثيركنا الم
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
20
أدنند الوننرااإ خلننورة ولننإ يننن لهننا عقوبننة سننوى المننوت وذلننك بئننض الن"ننر عنن الوضننط اإلجثمنناع
( Golénischeff, 1913,p.9) للوا .
ة كما أى ال وض ف دئوى الفرعوى وغفلاء أسراره م الورااإ النيرى المصنفة تقت بناب ال يا ن
الو"م والث توثوج عقوبة اإلعدام و د ور ت أم لن لنذلك علن بونض ا وسنثراكا من عهند الملنك
O. Cairo 25556 (Černy, 1927, p.201, Gardiner, 1913, p.60) سث ا ول
نندبرة ضنند كمننا كا ننت ال يا ننة الو"منن تلننمل كننل مننا يمننل حنناكإ الننيس بننأذى ومنهننا المننؤامرات الم
لث وصلنا الوديد م النصوص الث ت لير غليها بالير يات، وخاصنة غذا منا وصنل المثنآمري الملوك وا
Pap. Millingen, 1, 11- Pap. Eritageلم ندع الملنك لوجنو أعنواى لهنإ اخنل القصنر ومنهنا
1116 A و "نرا ل لنورة تلنك الوريمنة وحواسنيثها كا نت ت وقند لهنا مقناكإ اسنث نااية يقنوم باخثينار ،
، كما حنإ الم لرع بنفل الوقوبة اى اإلعدام عل كل م سناكإ او سناعد فن (ااها الفرعوى بنفو اعض
(Yoyette, 1952,p.109 – Debuck,1937,p.154) كذه الوريمة م ل الوناة اتساسي .
أمنا الونندى ال نناا لوطنن والنذى يث لنن عن صنفوف الوننين او يمثننط عن تنفيننذ أوامنر اانده فننس
إلعدام وغ ما باللر م ال دمة وغعسى عمل الم ذى للوميط مما ي ورض للذل والمها ة وكن ي وا با
( 87، ص 1997) محمود،عقوبة فوية ولننها أدد غيسما م الموت.
: لننرع سننر ة الممثلنننات بلنننل عننام سننواء ال اصننة منهننا سددر ة الممتلكددات العامددة جننرم الم
وامة، ولنن دد ف الوقوبة عل سنر ة الممثلننات ال اصنة بالدولنة با فرا أو الثابوة للدولة أى ال
اخننثس م ننل يويننةسننواء كا ننت كننذه الممثلنننات مؤسوننات ينيننة م ننل سننر ة المقننابر والموابنند او
,Lurje, 1971 ) ا موال باإل ارات الم ثلفة، وكا نت الوقوبنة ت ئلنل غلن حند الوصنول ل عندام
p.157: )
:يوة إليماى المصرى القديإ الراسخ باليو فقند اكنثإ اكثمامنا كيينرا بالقفناظ ثسر ة المقابر
علن القينور و هن مقثوياتهنا والوين بالووند اتعثنداءعل الوود وحمايث سليما ، ولذا أعثير أى
م الورااإ النيرى وخاصة غذا كاى حد الملنوك والثن تونثلزم عقوبنة را عنة تصنل غلن اإلعندام
لوريمة او عل ا ل القد منها، وكا ت المقابر تضإ بي جنياتها أدياء ثمينة من النذك لمنط تلك ا
وغيره مما يئرى اللصوص با ثقامها والولو عليها وتسيما ف فثرات ضوف الوللة مما ع نرف
لنرع الوقوبنة علن من يثونرأ علن ا ثهناك حرمنة القينر باسإ ضايا سر ات المقابر، ولنذا دند الم
.Pap باإلعدام كما ور ف الثققيقات ال اصة بقضايا سر ات المقابر بالير ينات م نل حي ض
BM (( Peet, 1977, p.151 و ايضنا ، Pap. Mayer, A. (( Peet, 1920, p.145 ،
وغى كا ت بوض الوثااق ا خرى أدنارت غلن عقوبنة لنط اليند فن بونض حناتت سنر ات المقنابر
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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21
بور ة ا وات الموجو ة ف المقينرة بويندا عن الموميناء م نل أ وات الينناء وربما كذا فيما ي ثص
.Saltاو سر ة بوض لط احوار م مقيرة تسث دامها ف بناء مقيرة أخرى م ل ما جناء بير ينة
124,Rt (Allam, 1973, p.284 - Černy , 1929, p.245)
: الوصنور فقند ح"ينت بالوديند من كمينة الموابند كمؤسونات ينينة علن منر سر ة المعابد
، اعثنداءاتمثيازات، مما اسثدع اى توضط لها عدة وا ي خاصة لقمايثها والقفاظ عليها من أى
و نند ور بوضننها بمرسننوم الملننك سننث ا ول م ننل الئرامننات والولنند وجنندع ا ننف وصننلإ ا ذى
علن الموابند أو أمسكهنا اتعثداء، غذ كاى (Lurje,1971,p.158)وصوت غل الموت بال ازوا
تثوندأو موظفيها أو خدمها او الضراا المقدمة لها جريمنة لهنا طنابط خناص لمنا لهنا من داسنة غذ
عل الموابند ي وند نوع من الهرطقنة الدينينة ت ونرض صناحيها اتعثداءبم ابة أمسك غلهية، كما كاى
,Harari,p.60-Černy) دننننند أ نننننواع الوقوبنننننة وكننننن الوقوبنننننة الو"مننننن اى المنننننوت .
1937,p.186) الموروا وكل كو اخل المويند او ئف الوقوبة حو الل، وكاى ي راع الثدرج
م امسك أم خارج المويد او ملقق ب ، وكاى القا وى المصرى دديد القنرص علن سنرعة ضنيد
ة الموثنندي علنن أى منن امننسك الموينند لدرجننة ا نن وضننط عقوبننة للقاضنن الننذى يثياطننأ فنن مقاكمنن
(Griffith, 1927, p.201 ) الوارا.
: بقدر ما كاى الم لرع المصرى القديإ حنريص علن المؤسونات سر ة المؤسسات الدنيوية
الدينية المملوكة للدولة ومثلد منط منا تثونرض لن من سنر ات وفنرض لهنا عقوبنات را عنة ونده
، فنود وا ي حور مق تلير غلن ايضا دديد القرص عل حماية مؤسوات الدولة الد يوية أيضا
) كا ت –عدة عقوبات را عة ف رضت عل م توول ل فو سر ة ضراا الدولة أثناء توريدكا
الضننراا ت نندفط فنن دنننل مننوا خننام أولينن كا خلنناب والولننو وغيركننا وتومننط بواسننلة مننوظفي
ت عديندة تيندأ بوندع ا نف يثورض غل عقوبا -الدولة وت قمل عل سف لثيقر غل مقر القنومة (
(Griffith, 1927,p.205)والنف غل ثارو وصوت بالوقوبة غل حد الموت او اإلعدام.
عرفنت مصنر القديمنة "امنا غ ارينا مثقندما، ويرجنط ذلنك غلن اعثمنا : جرائم اإلدارة العامة
للونيلرة علن ميناه ات ثصا المصري عل الزراعة ومياه النيل، غذ كاى ت بد م تضنافر الوهنو
النيل واتسثفا ة منها، وت يمن الوصول غلن ذلنك غت عن طرينق تن"نيإ غ اري ينق وفونال، و ند
تميز الن"ام اإل اري المصري بالمركزية اإل ارية، وكاى عل رأ تلك الوللة الملك يواو جمط
سنيا جنزاء لننل من يقنناول من كينار المنوظفي واإل ارات الم ثلفنة، وعلين كناى الوننزاء عنيفنا و ا
اإلخسل بهذا الن"ام اإل اري باعثياره يهد مصلقة النيس ، فنوند نوا ي حنور مقن تثضنم صنا
، كما أى موظف الضراا الذي يرتن جريمنة ضراا الذي يرتلي يوا باإلعدامبأى موظف ال
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
22
ف سننوية عن غيرا اتن اتخثس يثورض لننفل الوقوبنة، كمنا كناى رب ا سنرة منلفنا بثقنديإ كلنو
وأموال وعد أفرا أسرت ، فلذا دم بيا ات كاذبنة وغينر صنقيقة غلن الوهنات اإل ارينة الم ثصنة
(144، ص1998عبدالعال ، المجوو، ،) كاى الوزاء كو الوقوبة الو"م
فى الحضارة الرومانية : (2
الوصنر اإلميراطنورى عرفت روما ايضا عقوبة اإلعدام منذ بنداياتها ولنن زا ت بلننل كيينر فن
عما كا ت علي ف الوصر الومهورى، وربما سي ذلك كنو منا دنهده كنذا الوصنر الوديند من أحندا
الوياسنن ، وكننذلك ظهننور اتسننثقرارجوننام منهننا مننا يوننثلزم الثئيننر الودينند منن فننرض يننو لثققيننق
مورسنت خسلن عقوبنة المويقية واصلدامها بود م ا باطرة ا واانل ومنا تيوهنا من فثنرة اضنلها
وم خسل ما جاء با لواح ا ثنن (Justinian,Digest.IV,XVIII,II)، م ثلفةاإلعدام بأدنال
علنننر فننن الوصنننر الومهنننورى و مدو نننة جونننثنياى القا و ينننة اللنننهيرة فننن الوصنننر اإلميراطنننورى
موت م جميط منا كثن ا سنسف من مثنوى يمنن حصنر ال (3، ص2005جستنيان،) ونرااإ والث ج
عل النقو الثال : (Justinian,Digest.1,IIX,11)الث توثوج عقوبة اإلعدام
اوال : جرائم شخصية تقترا فى حق األفراد
: لننرع وجوننل عقوبثهننا اإلعنندامالقتددل العمددد و نند حنند ، منن أولنن الوننرااإ الثنن اكننثإ بهننا الم
كن القثنل بال نناجر ويونرف أصنقابها باسنإ ب الم لرع ثس ا واع م القثل بناخثسف الوسنيلة بينهنا و
ال نوري ب، وحامل النينال، ومن يونث دموى الونإ ويورفنوا باسنإ ب الونماموىب، والونموم كننا تلنمل
الوإ ف اللوام واللراب أو الوزااإ الوقرية، كما أ اعثير غعلاء عقا ير مق"نور اسنث دامها و
بة الموت، و د تلد فن حالنة ثنل ا بنناء ل بناء سنواء تؤ ى غل الموت م الوموم مما يوثوج عقو
- 46، ص2015) حداف،،سرا أو جهرا باسث دام وسيلة دديدة القووة ف الثنفيذ كما سنرى فيما بود .
Justinian,Digest.IV,XVIII, 5)
: تورضت روما وخاصة بود القروب ا كلية بها لننوع الزنا ومرتكبى الفواحش مع الوكور
لثدكور ا خس واتجثماع وضياع القيإ، فناى تبد م وجو وا ي صنارمة ورا عنة لثققينق م ا
أغوننلل موموعننة منن القننوا ي تقننارب الز ننا وال يا ننة اإلميراطننوراإلصننسح اتجثمنناع ، فأصنندر
الزوجية، فومقت لألب بقثل ابنث الزا ية والرجل الث مارست مو الوريمة بلنرط ضنيلهإ مثليوني
(Levine, 2009, p.44- Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII, 4) ، ولنن بنالرغإ من ذلنك كناى
الرومنا فن تليينق تلنك الوقوبنة فنا نت الوقوبنة تونثيدل بوقوبنة أ نل أو ينثإ بالموثمط از واجيةكناك
م نال وأدنهر الثئاض عنها وخاصة فيما يرتيد بز ا المقنارم فن الليقنات الولينا من القننام والننيسء
كمننا كا ننت عقوبننة اإلعنندام لمرتنينن ، (Ginsburg,2006,p.119)زواج أجربينننا منن كسو يننو
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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23
الفواحن مط الذكور م الوييد الذي ينثإ خصنيا هإ ومنا يونثثيو من اسنثئسلهإ جنونيا وذلنك ن أمنر
( 44، ص2015) حاف،،اتدمئزازيناف اللييوة وي ير
: ا ثن علرة أى م ي ونثدع لللنها ة ويندل بلنها ة زور فنما جاء با لواحشهادة الزور
.وا باإلعدام جزاء ما ا ثرفتؤ ى غل تضليل الودالة وي نثلف أمره ي
:جناء أيضنا بهنا أى تنأليف منا ي وند ذمنا أو الثئنن بمنا التأليف والتغنى بما يعد إهانة للشخص
يوند جريمنة وحند لهنا عقوبنة اإلعندام -لينا فيمنا يلني الون والقنذف حا -ي ود غكا ة حد ا دن اص
كوزاء.
: اى يول القضاة للردوة وضيلهإ مثليوي بها بهدف تضنليل مونرى الودالنة رشوة القضاة
مما يؤ ى غل ا ثلار ال"لإ وكو ما يثوارض مط واجيهإ مما يود جريمة توثوج ا صن عقوبنة وكن
اإلعدام.
:اره ليس بهدف اإلضرار ب كناى ي وا ن باإلعندام فلى اطط مقصول ج اطع محصول جاره
(Johnson, 2003, pp. 4-11 ) ثإ ي قدم جوده كقرباى للربة كريل بود موت
: بوريمننة الثزويننر بنننل أ واعنن العبيدددي وا نن باإلعنندام كننل منن ي ي ننت تورطنن منن التزويددر
نط وتوظيف فنناى ينثإ األحدرارخثإ ، أما فن حالنة م أجل اإلسثفا ه من سواء بالنثابة أو النقن او بص
((Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII.7اسثيدال عقوبة اإلعدام بالنف .
: كاى ظهور المويقية واعثنا ها أحد أكإ ا ساب الث أ ت غلن غعندام الدخول فى المسيحية
ميراطورينة، الن يري سواء م الرومناى أ فونهإ برومنا أو من غينركإ من سنناى الوتينات الثابونة ل
فنود أى عد ا كييرا م الونندري راحوا دهداء ا ل الووننرية الروما ينة ، و ند ابثننر الرومناى لثلنك
.Mac Mullen, 1986,p.322 1990,p)الوريمة تقديدا ا واع جديدة م القثل منها ص اللمط.
359- Millar,1984,p.124) قوبنة أخنرى صنارت أك نر ولن بودكا بدأ اسنثيدال عقوبنة اإلعندام بو
(Davis, 1994,p.100) ديوعا وك ا دئال اللا ة ف المقاجر.
الحقوق العامة" انتهاكثانيا : جرائم عامة تقترا فى حق الدولة "
: وكنن منن الوننرااإ الوياسننية ال ليننرة ويثونناوى فيهننا الوننرم سننواء كا ننت الخيانددة العظمددى
أو "ام القنإ ود ص اإلميراطور فنسكمنا وجهناى لوملنة واحندة، وكنذلك ال يا ة بالثآمر عل الدولة
الوقوبنة فنا نت لنسكمننا اإلعندام، كمنا كا ننت فنل الوقوبننة ت قنرر ت ثهناك أو غكا ننة سنموة اإلميراطننور،
وكاى القا وى الروما دديد القووة ف تلييق الوقوبة ف كذه الوريمة لدرجنة ا ن طيقهنا علن المنثهإ
كاى د توف يل صدور القنإ فث ليق عل اسم وسموث وكو وع م أ واع الوقوبة المونوية حث لو
دديدة اإليسم حي ت"ل أسنرت تونا من الونار بونده، والققيقنة ا هنا جريمنة او بنا حرى تهمن ديمنة
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
24
ر حدي ة وجدت ف كل الوصور فقد كا نت فن الوصنر الومهنورى واسنثمر توظيفهنا سياسنيا فن الوصن
) حدداف،، ا بنناطرة ذريوننة للننث لص منن اعنندااهإ والموارضنني لن"ننام حنمهننإ . ليث ننذكااإلميراطننورى
( ,Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII,3 -42، ص2015
م وتيونن اإلميراطننور 37 ننام اإلميراطننور جننايو كنناليووت بللئنناء جريمننة ال يا ننة الو"منن عننام
وبلندة ومن بونده اإلميراطنور وميثينا و فن مهااسنث داكسو يو حث أعا كا يروى وأفنرط فن
(Bunson,1991,s.v.Maeistas) هاية القرى ا ول الميس ى.
: وك م وجهة الن"ر الروما ينة أحند الونرااإ الوقاادينة، فقند تسلق واجتياز أسوار المدينة
ق الثونلق أو أسنوار المديننة سنواء عن طرين اجثيناز صت اللريوة الروما ينة علن أى كنل من يقناول
وسناال أخنرى مونرم اسنث داماسث دام وساال موينة م ل الولإ لثواعده للوصنول غلن أعلن الونور أو
وم حق ا كال ا فونهإ أى ي رجنوا علين من بوابنات المديننة ويثوناملوا مون بنالونف ن يهند أمن
( Justinian,Digest. I,IIX,II )مدينثهإ، وك ما ة تهدف غل حماية المدى والروماى أ فوهإ .
منن خننسل المصننا ر الستينيننة لمننل كيننف أى القفنناظ علنن مددن أمددوال الدولددة : االخددت
ا مننوال الوامننة و ممثلنننات المقدسننات الدينيننة كنناى أمننرا يوننثقق الثقنندير واتحثننرام، وعلينن فقنند وضننط
ال الدولة المنلفي كإ بل ارتها الم لرع بندا ينص عل أى موا ية الموظفي الذي ي ثلووى ديئا م أمو
نثلل. , ص 2008)جنددى، بقنإ مناصيهإ باإلعدام كإ ودركااهإ وم يواعدكإ ف غخفناء المنال الم ي
175- Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII, 9 )
طرق ووسائل تنفيو عقوبة اإلعدام
فى الحضارة المصرية (1
غزكنناا الننروح أو سننليها كنناى امننرا بننال كنناى للقينناة عننند المصننرى القننديإ دسننية كييننرة ولننذا فننلى
ال لورة لذا ويها غل سللات غلهية، فنا ت عقوبنة اإلعندام كمنا أوضنقت النصنوص تصندر من ينل
كمننا أى تلننك الوقوبننة تقدينندا كا ننت (،Pap. Prisse, 9, 7-12 vaud, 1916, p.26)éDاهلهننة
) ل اإللنننن علنننن ا رضومم نننن (Ruiz,2001,p.86)مفوضننننة للفرعننننوى بوصننننف اضنننن القضنننناة
و د اتيط المصريوى القدماء طر ا م ثلفنة لثنفينذ عقوبنة اإلعندام، وكا نت (،187، ص1997محمود،
وسيلة الثنفيذ ت ضط لثقدير القاض ، وربما كاى ذلك وفقا للييوة الورم، ومنا ة الل ص اتجثماعينة،
، ولنذا توند ت (Bluche,1975,p.155)حث أ ن كا نت أحيا نا يصناحيها وسناال تونذي م نل القنرا
طرا ووساال الثنفيذ عل النقو الثال :
ود أ دم الوساال الثن اسنث دمها المصنرى القنديإ مننذ الوصنور ا ولن ، حين ت : طع الر بة
ي ينت -ربما بهنا دنفرة - مثقركةكاى المثهإ ي ولق ف عمو خلي م يت جيدا ف ا رض ول هاية
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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25
وعند جذبها تلينر النرأ فن الهنواء منفصنلة عن الووند لثونقد أرضنا فيلثهمهنا أحند بها رأ المثهإ
القيوا ات المفثرسة، وكو ما يلي الثهام الوموإ للقلن عنند مقاكمنة المنوت ، وكناى كنذا الوتند ال لني
اء تصوير تلك ا اة وكنذه ف اليداية يوث دم كأ اة توذي ثإ أصيح وسيلة لثنفيذ عقوبة اإلعدام، و د ج
اللريقننة بالنثنن الدينيننة ومنهننا علنن سننييل الم ننال الونناعة الوننابوة منن كثنناب باإليمنن واتب والنننص
علن إرؤوسنهالمصاح يؤكد ذلك ب القضاء عل أعداء رع ف كل مناى ف كذه المدينة ثإ يمرروى
390ووينننننذة ر نننننإ حنننند الونننننني ب ، كمننننا ظهنننننرت فننننن صننننوص ا كنننننرام ومثنننننوى الثوابيننننت بالث
(Helck,1977,Colm.1219; 1975,p.6 – Hornung,1968,p.17)
المقدسنات والونرااإ الماسنة بنأم وا ثهناكوكاى يونرى ذلنك فني الونرااإ الماسنة بالندي ، كالونقر
الفرعوى، م ل عدم الثيلي ع المؤامرات الثي ت قاك ضده، وعدم غطاعة أوامره، وأيضا جرااإ القثل.
م اإلغراق : ( أدد طرا تنفينذ عقوبنة المنوت فزعناStrauss,1977, Colm.17 حين ،)
كا ت ت وث دم لموخ وجو الوناة هاايا غذ كا ت القياة اتخرى وا بدية مركو ة بوجو الوود وبالثال
فلى غغراا الوود ليل موناه فقد حرماى المثهإ م حق القياة ف الد يا وغ ما أيضا حرما م القيناة
، لنذا كا نت Pap.Westcar, 4, 9بدية حي تقوم الثماسيح بالثهنام الووند كمنا جناء بير ينة وسنثنار ا
(Lorton, 1977, p.15, f.n.61- Erman,1913,1-9-11)واحنندة منن أ ونن أ ننواع الوقوبننة
وكا ننت تلننك الوقوبننة تننر فنن صنني القوننإ المصننرى القننديإ ب غذا رجوننت فنن أ ننوال فلثلقننوا بنن غلنن
وييندو أ هنا كا نت كوقوبنة ، Pap.BM10335,Vs.16-17 (Blakkman,1925,p.252)حب الثموا
تسحننق مرتنينن الوننرااإ النيننرى ومنهننا ال يا ننة الو"منن ، و نند وجنندت واسننثمرت علنن مننر الوصننور
فواءت عل لوحة من الدولنة الوسنل ب ت توجند مقينرة لللن ص النذى يرتنن جريمنة ضند جسلثن ،
، واوسثراكا م عصر الرعاموة ب سيدى سي أى تلقق الوقوبة بهذه الونيدة ج ما سي لق ف النهرب
الث سر ت كذا اإلزميلب، كمنا أ هنا ور ت بننص من ا سنرة القا ينة والولنري ، فنوندكا فنذت علن
م المدجاى خاضوا ف أمر الفرعوى وأفلوا أسراره، فأمر رجال بوضوهإ ف جوالي وغلقااهإ اثني
(Breasted,1962,p.784 – Gardiner, 1913,p.60)ف النهر .
ارتيلت النار فن فننر المصنرى القنديإ بثصنورات مثيايننة فنا نت ترمنز للثلهينر اإلحراق :
كوسنيلة للوقوبنة وكنذلك للثونذي ، اسنث دمتوالقماية وكذلك للفناء والودم فه تأكل كل ما توند، ولنذا
بالوقنناب الننذى يوننثقق مرتنينن اهثننام تننرتيداهخننر فهنن فنن فنننر المصننرى القننديإ والمننرتيد بالوننالإ
والمواص ، أما كو ها وسيلة لثنفيذ عقوبة ب الموتب فن القيناة اإلولن فقند ثينت اسنث دمها مننذ عصنر
ات ثقننال ا ول وغى كنناى كننناك منن ينننا ى بوجو كننا منن الدولننة القديمننة موننثندا لمننا جنناء بقصننة الملنننة
,Grieshummer)إ المنننننننؤرـ كيددددننننننندرو وت، يثنننننننوكريل با سنننننننرة الوا سنننننننة ومننننننننه
1977,Colm.206) وكاى غصدار حنإ بم ل كذه الوقوبنة ت يونن فقند منوت اللن ص وغفناان بند يا ،
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
26
ف الوالإ الد يوى والقياة ا ول وغ ما أيضا حرما م الوالإ اهخر حي يفن جوده ويثناثر الرمنا ،
-Strauss, 1977, Colm.17- Helck, 1975,p.6). وكنذه الوقوبنة مرتيلنة أك نر بوقوبنة الز نا
Pirenne, 1932, p.139- Kornfeld, 1950, p.105)
رتنن فنناى ي صناح عقوبنة اما فن حالنة ثنل ا بن بناه فنا نت الوقوبنة ت ئلعنل ليلناعة الونرم الم
ن اسنثهاى اإلحراا بل ويويقها لط اصابط يند الونا ثنإ حر ن حينا ، وذلنك ل لنورة كنذا الونا و
بأواصر الدم وصلة القرب ، وف حالة ما غذا كاى المثهإ م أحد النيسء فقد كاى ي ثنرك لن ا منر لينهن
حيات بنفو .
وكناك وع آخر من اإلحنراا حين كناى القنرا ينثإ فني غرفنة الرمنا ، وأخنذت كنذه الوقوبنة عن
وي ثرك وى طوام، ثإ بود ذلك ي هال علي اليلداى اهسيوية، فناى المقنوم علي يوضط ف غرفة الرما
(Bluehe, 1975,p.155)رما مثوك م أعل لودة أيام حث يموت.
: من اتغثيالأى او اإلعدام عل ال ازوا وموناكا الوضط فوا الوتد او ال ازواالخزو ة
صنوص النذي وجناء فيهنا ب الل Mayer. A و د ور ذكركا ف أك ر م نص من بينهنا بر ينة أسفل
لقوا حثفهإ فوا رأ ال نازوا ب وفن مرسنوم القماينة ال ناص بمويند سنث ال نا ب القنا وى سني ليق
علينننننن بلرحنننننن أرضننننننا ووضننننننو علنننننن ال ننننننازوا بوننننننوار الموينننننند، كننننننو سننننننرا ممثلناتنننننن ب
(Brunner,1939,p.161) ، خلد بينها وبي عقوبة لط الر ية فقد و د حد أحيا ا عند المؤرخي
وض اى الل ص كاى يقيد ثإ ي لنرح ويوضنط علن ال نازوا من منلقنة الر ينة ولنن ثينت فن ظ الي
,Edgerton,1974)النهايننة اى كننذا غيننر صننقيح خاصننة وأى عقوبننة لننط الر يننة كا ننت موروفنن
p.225,N.46 .وكا ت كذه اللريقة ت وث دم ف تنفيذ حنإ اإلعدام ف جرااإ سر ة القيور ،)
: إ تنن من اللنرا الموثنا ة أو المونث دمة فن مصنر الفرعو ينة فلنإ وند ييدو أ ها لن الشنق
قننات مننط أحنند المثهمنني يصننر الدولننة القدي ننة ور ت فنن الثققعنهننا سننوى غدننارة بوننيلة ت نونن غلنن ع
بوننر ات المقننابر ب ب صننوص القيننل الننذى سيوضننط حننول ر يننة كننذا الئننسم أ ننت أخننذت صننيي واهى
ن ربما يننوى تويينر وضنط القينل حنول الر ينة تويينر مونازى ي لنير عقوبث سوف تلقق ب غدا ب ، ول
( (Pap .BM. 10052 Peet,1977, p.145عل ا رجح غل اإل ا ة وليل الوقوبة،
فى الحضارة الرومانية (2
تود ت طرا تنفيذ عقوبة اإلعدام ف القضنارة الروما ينة ولننهنا تمينزت جميوهنا بنالونف والقونوة
و الثال : اللديدي عل النق
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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27
: وكنذلك ، وكو ضربها بالويف وك عقوبة كا ت ت ونث دم غالينا منط الووننريي طع الرأ
وكننذلك مننط المننزوري منن الويينند، فنن حالننة القثننل الومنند وخاصننة مننط فئثنن ال نوننريي وحملننة النيننال
Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII, 5,7) )
: عل اتل والدي ليلاعة الورم فيوضنط ك عقوبة صارمة و ت تليق غتالوضع فى كيس
فنن كننيل منن الولنند ويوضننط مونن يننك وكلنن وثوينناى و ننر وي نناط علينن موهننإ وي ثننرك لثنننهن تلننك
,Justinian,Digest. IV القيوا ات لقم حث الموت ثإ ي قمنل الووند وي لقن فن اليقنر أو النهنر
XVIII, 6) )
: وك عقوبنة غالينا منا تنرتيد بوريمنة الز نا، ءوكاى يثإ حرا المثهمي وكإ أحيااإلحراق.
(Ginsburg, 2006, p.121)
:(39، ص 2015. ) حاف،،ويثإ بللقاء المثهإ اخل غ اء كيير م النييذاإلغراق
: كا ت ت نفنذ غالينا علن ا سنرى من الونونيات الئينر اإللقاء للحيوانات المفترسة لتلتهمهم
تدخل ف حرب مط رومنا، وكنذلك علن موثنقن المونيقية من غينر روما ية م الوتيات واليس الث
فيمننا بونند عننند ظهننور الموننيقية وا ثلنناركا، فيننثإ غ خننالهإ غلنن حليننة لمصننارعة الوحننوش الرومننا يي
. الوااوننة فيلقننوى حننثفهإ وذلننك منن خننسل عننروض عامننة، وكنننذا أصننيقت عقوبننة ووسننيلة للثوننلية
(Melusky,2011, p.10- Adkins, 2004, p.39)
: ك عقوبة مرتيلة بالقروب كا ت ت نفذ أيضنا علن ا سنرى من الدهس تحت أرجل الفيلة
,Maximus)الونويات الئير روما ية، م لما حد عندما ا ثصر لوكيو بناولو علن بيرسنيو
1888, II ,7,1)
: لننهننا تلننك اللريقننة فنن المننوت باإلميراطوريننة الروما يننة منننذ اليدايننة و اسننث دمتالصددلب
مورسنت اضنلها زا ت بود ظهور المويقية واصلدامها بيوض ا باطرة الروماى وما تينط ذلنك من
خسل عقوبة اإلعدام ضد موثنق الديا ة الوديدة وخاصة م غير الروماى م سنناى الوتينات الثابونة
ا جنناء بمدو ننة ل ميراطوريننة الروما يننة ، أمننا الرومنناى فنا ننت الوقوبننة ت وننثيدل بقلننط الننرأ وكننو منن
ل القديل بلر ف رومنا جوثنياى، وخير م ال كو اسثلها كس م القديوي بلر وبولل فقد ص
وعلن النرغإ من كو همنا كوقوبننة - ن غينر رومنا بينمنا لونت رأ القنديل بنولل ن رومنا
ي ونند توننذييا امننا لننط مثونناويثي فنن النثيوننة وكنن المننوت غت أى الصننل أدنند غيسمننا للننول الفثننرة ممننا
، و نند تننإ غلئنناء تلننك الوقوبننة علنن ينند اإلميراطننور -الننرأ فوسننيلة سننريوة للمننوت ت لننو منن الثوننذي
((Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII,2 ولنلي
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
28
إصدار العقوبة و تنفيوها
لونرااإ كاى الفصل ف القضايا ف الموثمنط المصنرى القنديإ ينثإ عينر القضناء المقلن ، فيمنا عندا ا
الث يوثقق مرتنييها عقوبة اإلعدام، فف كذه القالنة فقند ي صنيح الملنك الفرعنوى كنو المننوط د صنا
بالفصل النهاا فيها بوصف اض القضاة ومم ل اإلل عل ا رض، وكاى تنفيذ الوقوبة يثإ علنا وف
لوقوبنة بونوار المويند وكننذا. ص مويد يثإ تنفيذ ادرا د ددأماكنها وخاصة ف حاتت الور ة فلذا ما س
( Ruiz, 2001, p.86)
أما فن القضنارة الروما ينة فنلى الوموينة المئوينة كا نت كن اللرينق اللنرع الوحيند تسثصندار
، و فنن الوصننر اإلميراطننوري (Johnson, 2003, p.7)أحنننام اإلعنندام فنن الوصننر الومهننورى
نصنسى اجثماعاتهناة الولينا حين كناى ينرأ المينر أصيح مولنل الونناتو بم ابنة المقنمنة الدسنثوري
لمقاكمة المورمي بلنل عام ومرتني جريمة ال يا ة الو"م بلنل خاص، ثإ تلور ا مر وخاصنة
) حدداف،، للقضنايا الثنن تونثوج عقوبننة اإلعنندام فأصنيح اإلميراطننور كنو صنناح ننرار الفصنل فيهننا.
(43، ص 2015
فلسفة العقوبة العظمى "اإلعدام"
سيق يثضنح لننا أى مصنر عرفنت الوريمنة والوقوبنة مننذ عصنوركا اإلولن م نل بنا دنووب مما
الوالإ ومنها روما، غت أى الوج ا سنو سنوء للوريمنة حنال ارتنابهنا أو الوقوبنة حنال تلييقهنا ي ثلنف
بمصر ع غيركا م اللرااط القديمة، فه عنند كنؤتء فن منثهن القونوة، غت ا هنا فن مصنر وعلن
غإ من لثهنا غت أ هنا كا نت تثونإ باإل ونا ية فن اإلولن وال ا ينة، فقند ارتيلنت ارتياطنا وثيقنا بن"نام الر
القننإ وبلننئوى النندي ، فننلى كناى القنناكإ ويننا بننات ا من موننثثيا ، و نند عرفننت مصنر الودالننة فنن ابهنن
لنينرىب منثهن بماعتب، وبلئت ور الودالة وعل رأسها ب ار حور ا صوركا و يدت لها غلهة ك
الد ة ف اإلجراءات وتققيق الودالة، ولإ تن الوقوبة وخاصة الوقوبة الو"م ب اإلعدامب سيفا مونللا
علن ر نناب الوينا بقنندر منا كا ننت للثهنذي واإلصننسح، ولنذا ونندكا ارتيلنت بننا خسا فوولهنا عقوبننة
كمنا (،401، ص 1995)زنداتى، للز ا، واإل وا ية فنس تنفنذ علن المنرأة القامنل حثن تضنط مولو كنا
بنألإكاى تنفيذ الوقوبة يثإ بود غعلاء المقنوم عليهإ درابا م درا حثن يموتنوا فن كندوء وت يلنوروا
(33، ص1999)السقا،الثنفيذ وكو ما يم ل منثه اتحثرام إل وا يثهإ.
، كمنا أى تنفينذكا يثونإ أما ف روما فنا ت ا حنام أحيا ا تثوإ بالونف بمنا ت يثناسن وحونإ الونرم
باللدة والونف، في لق بالمثهمي أحياء للقيوا ات الوااوة لثفثرسهإ بمنثه القووة وفن عنروض عامنة
(39، ص2015)حاف،،أمام النا ، أو لألفيال لثدكوهإ بأ دامها.
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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29
عقوبة اإلعدام بين البقاء واإللغاء
عقوبننة اإلعنندام واسننثيدالها بللئنناءامننت حملننت مصننر لننواء الريننا ة منننذ الوصننور الفرعو يننة حنني
داباكاب أحد ملوك ا سرة ال اموة والولنري ببوقوبات أخرى أجدى وأ فط للموثمط، حي ا ى الملك
بللئااها واسنثيدالها بوقوبنة ا دنئال اللنا ة علن أى ت قضن مندة الوقوبنة فن فنل منناى الوريمنة الثن
مرا ملنيا صنريقا بللئناء عقوبنة اإلعندام علن اى يقنوم المنثهإ غذ وده أصدر أ، ي وا م أجلها المثهإ
(Herodotus,II, 137-بثوليننة موننثوى ا رض فنن بلننده اى اسننث دام فنن الملننروعات الوامننة
وبهذا تقول المقنوم علي م ميت غل يد عاملة منثوة وكو أجندى ،(191، ص 1978المرصفاوى,
ا ى بللئناء عقوبنة اإلعندام باسنإ اإل ونا ية و ينل ظهنور وأ فط للموثمط، وكنذا صارت مصر أول م
من"مات حقوا اإل واى بقروى.
نتائج الدراسة
و د خل صت الدراسة غل عد م النثاا الهامة عل النقو الثال :
تلابهت كأل م القضارتي المصرية والروما ية ف بونض الونرااإ الثن اسنثوجيت المنوت -
ة الو"م ، سر ة المؤسوات الدينية والد يوية، القثل الومد ، الز ا، ت لن حندو كوقوبة ومنها : ال يا
الودل ، زا ت عليها ف القضارة المصرية بوض الونرااإ وكن : القنن بناليمي ، الثقنرش الونون ،
و جننرااإ اإل ارة الوامننة، كمننا تضننمنت الثلننريوات الروما يننة جننرااإ أخننرى ومنهننا : توننلق اتمثننناع
أسننوار المدينننة، دننها ة الننزور، ممارسننة الفننواحن مننط الننذكور، لننط مقصننول الوننار بهنندف واجثينناز
اإلضرار ب ، الثزوير، الثأليف والثئن بما يود غكا ة للل ص، الدخول ف المويقية.
كمننا تلننابهت القضننارتي فنن بوننض طننرا تنفيننذ الوقوبننة ومنهننا : لننط الر يننة ، اإلغننراا، -
للرا فيينمنا اسنث دمت القضنارة المصنرية ال وز نة واللننق، عرفنت واإلحراا، واخثلفثا ف بوض ا
القضننارة الروما يننة طر ننا أك ننر تنوعننا وأدنند وننوة ومنهننا: اإللقنناء للقيوا ننات المفثرسننة فنن حليننات
المصارعة، الدكل تقت أرجل الفيلة، وضط الل ص حيا اخل كيل م الولد منط حيوا نات لثنهلن ،
والصل .
لنرع لهنا عقوبنة اإلعندام بالقضنارتي وتثينط مناذج م خسل عرض الورا - اإ الث وضط الم
لها بالير يات الم ثلفة يثضح جليا أ هنا تنرتيد ارتياطنا وثيقنا بنال"روف الوياسنية، فنلمنا اسنثث ا من
لت الوريمة، بينما تزيد ف فثرات الضوف والفوضن ، ممنا يونثلزم تئلنيل الوقوبنة كمقاولنة للقضناء
وغصسح الموثمط وغ امة الودل، كما سحل اسثقدا الم لرع ليوض الثهإ الثن لنإ تنن عل الفوض
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
30
موجننو ة م ننل ال يا ننة الو"منن برومننا فنن الوصننر اإلميراطننورى لثنننوى أ اة القنناكإ للننث لص منن
موارضي ، وكنو منا ينلنف الثواطنؤ بني ا بناطرة ومولنل الونيناتو النذى يوند صناح اليند الولينا فن
لريوات بموافقة اإلميراطور القاكإ.غصدار الث
كما ا م خسل اسثوراض الورااإ أيضا ومسح"ة أعدا كا ومدى تنوعها بي القضنارتي -
سحل لثها بل ويمن أى قول درتها بالقضارة المصرية مقار ة بالقضارة الروما ية، ممنا يؤكند أى
د ا خس ن أو الوياسن أو المنال ممنا يلنير روما لإ تن موذجا للموثمط المونثقر سنواء علن الصنوي
وبوضوح ت هيار ا خسا وا ثلار الفوا الوياس والمال .
ف القضارة المصرية كاى القضاء المقل كنو المونئول عن الفصنل فن القضنايا و غصندار -
ما ينة الوقوبات ما عدا عقوبة اإلعدام ل لورتها ت رك أمنر الفصنل فيهنا للفرعنوى، وفن القضنارة الرو
كا ت الوموية المئوية ك المنوطة بلصدار ا حنام ف الوصر الومهورى، حل مقلها مولنل الونناتو
ف بداينة الوصنر اإلميراطنورى بوصنف مقنمنة سنثورية، وفن النهاينة ت نرك أمنر الفصنل فن عقوبنة
اإلعدام ل ميراطور الروما فو .
تنفيذ القوا ي وخاصة عقوبة اإلعدام، اتفقت كس م القضارتي عل ممارسة الونصرية ف -
الوضننط القننا و للمننثهإ حننر ام عينند – اتجثماعيننةوكنناى للثمييننز ثسثننة أسننياب اساسننية وكنن : الليقننة
وأخيرا طييوة الوريمة، فف روما وند ا هنا مينزت بني –روما ام م سناى الوتيات الثابوة لروما
من بندتذلك النفن ل دل بوقوبة أخرى ف حالة ا حرار فقد وم ات ا حرار والوييد فنا ت الوقوبة ت وثي
اإلعدام ف عقوبة الثزوير، واسثيدال الصل بقلنط النرأ بني الرومناى وغينركإ فن جريمنة اعثنناا
كن الوني الرايون ولننهنا تمينز الفنر عنا ة فن اتجثماعينةالمويقية، أما فن مصنر فنا نت الليقنة
فقد . طريقة تنفيذ الوقوبة
اخثلفت فلوفة الوقوبة بي القضارتي فقد تميزت القضارة المصرية بالرحمنة والر ن حني -
ا ثهوت أسلوبا غ وا يا ف تنفيذ الوقوبة فنودكا ت تنفذ القنإ ف المرأة القامنل حثن تضنط حملهنا، كمنا
ا ف كدوء، بينما تمينزت أ ها تمنح المقنومي بالموت كمية م اللراب الم در يل تنفيذ القنإ ليموتو
القضننارة الروما يننة بالقوننوة والونننف فقنند كا ننت تثيننط طر ننا تم ننل توننذييا للمقنننومي مننط تنفيننذ الوقوبننة
كللقااهإ أحياء للقيوا ات المفثرسة .
أى مصننر سننيقت ول الوننالإ المثقضننرة عننندما عرفننت أى للوريمننة مفهومننا اجثماعيننا فوا يننت -
المثقرش جنويا باإلعدام.
عقوبنة بللئناءحملت مصر لنواء الرينا ة فن ا سنرة ال امونة والولنري النوبينة حني امنت -
اإلعدام واسثيدالها بوقوبات أجدى وأ فط للموثمط م ل ا دئال الوامة.
فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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31
المراجع
أوال: المراجع العربية:
) أ ( الكتـب:
اإلعنندامبح عننالإ ةعقوبنن“الو"منن (: أضننواء علنن فلوننفة الوقوبننة 1999الوننقا، مقمننو ، ) -1
. 35 – 29النث ح الويزة، ص ص
( : الوقوبنة باإلعندام فن الثلنريط المصنرى تأصنيس وتقلنيس ، 2008الفق ، عمنا ابنراكيإ، ) -2
. 37، ار النهضة الوربية، القاكرة، ص 2ط
تنناريخ القننا وى المصننري راسننة تقليليننة للقننا وى اليللمنني (: 1978المرصننفاوى، فثقنن ح ) -3
. 189 ار الفنر الورب ، القاكرة، ص ، والفرعو ي
(، مدو نة جوسننثنياى فن الفقنن الرومنا ، ترجمنة :عينند الوزينز فهمنن ، 2005جوسنثنياى ، ) -4
.3، القاكرة، ص702المولل ا عل لل قافة، الملروع القوم للثرجمة ،
الموظفي فن مصنر غبناى الوصنر ا قرافات(: 2008جندى، غبراكيإ عيد الوزيز سليماى، ) -5
م ، مركز اليقو والدراسات الثاري ينة ، جامونة القناكرة، 284-ا.م 30الروما المينر
182-172ص ص
م : 284( : عقوبة اإلعدام ف روما منذ عصر أغولل وحث عام 2015حافل ، أحمد ، ) -6
راسة تاري ية مصدرية، مولنة مركنز الدراسنات الير ينة والنقنوش، جامونة عني دنمل، ج
. 46- 39، ص ص 1
والقا و ية ف مصر، القناكرة، ص اتجثماعية( : تاريخ الن"إ 1995ز ات ، مقمو سسم، ) -7
401
تنننناريخ الننننن"إ القا و يننننة ( :1998عينننند الوننننال، عنادننننة مقمنننند الموننننذوب، طننننارا، ) -8
. 144واتجثماعية ، الدار الواموية ، القاكرة ، ص
)،( الرسائل العلمية والدراسات:
(: الوقوبة ف مصر القديمة حثن هاينة الدولنة القدي نة، 1997مو مقمد )مقمو ، منال مق -1
. 185: 76رسالة ماجوثير )غير منلورة(ح كلية اهثارح جاموة القاكرة، ص ص
دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
32
ثانيا: المراجع األجنبية:
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15- Edgerton, :(1947), " The Nauri Decree of Seti I", JNES 6, p. 225,
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23- Grieshummer,R.:(1977), "Feuer", LÄ II, Wiesbaden, colm.206(1939)
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25- Harari, I., Le Principe Juridique de l,Organisation Sociale dans le
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دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
34
30- Hornung,E. :(1963), Das Amduat oder die Schrift des Verborgenen
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10. Yahrhunderts v.u.z Forschungen zum römischen Recht, 30
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فيقمنال اسماعيل تو
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43- Pirenne, J.: (1932), Histoire des Institutions et du Droit Privé de
l,Ancienne Égypte, Bruxelles, p.139.
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Conception, Leiden, p.282.
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36
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات أ شاهندا إمام
الملخص
التى كان لها بالغ ىاألمننفالت لحالة من الفوضى واإل ٢٠١١تعرضت مصر فى أعقاب ثورة يناير
عريقة. فقد انتشرت فى تلك الفترة العصيبة من تاريخ ما تملكه الدولة من مقومات تراثية ىر علاألث
الدولة كما نشطت جماعات طقمناتها المسلحة فى العديد من امصر الجماعات اإلرهابية وتنظيم
بعمليات من الشعب تهريب اآلثار الدولية وسماسرة التهريب والتنقيب فضال عن قيام بعض الفئات
وراء مصالحهم ا والحفر التنقيب بالمصلحة العامة للدولة وباتت آثار االعتبارلشخصية دون سعيا
الممنهج. وتهدف هذه الدراسة إلى عرضة لعمليات السلب والنهب والتدمير ىتراثها الحضارمصر و
ذلك من ىما ترتب علو ٢٠١6-٢٠١١التى شهدتها اآلثار المصرية فى الفترة من االنتهاكاترصد
الدولة فضال عما تكبدته صناعة السياحة المصرية من ىعلفية اقتصادية واجتماعية وثقاتداعيات
خسائر فادحة ال تزال آثارها واضحة حتى اليوم. كما توضح الدراسة دور صاالت المزادات ومواقع
لكترونى فى عرض اآلثار المسروقة والمنهوبة من مصر. وقد اعتمد الشق النظرى إلالعرض ا
الثانوية المتاحة من كتب وأبحاث لومات من كافة المصادرللدراسة على تجميع البيانات والمع
بينما تضمن الشق الميدانى االرتباطونشرات ودوريات وتقارير وغيرها من المراجع العلمية ذات
مع بعض الخبراء السياحيين واألثريين بكل من وزارتى نة مقن للدراسة إجراء مقابالت شخصية
شيط والمجلس األعلى لآلثار. كما تضمنت الدراسة أيضا زيارة السياحة واآلثار وكذلك هيئة التن
ميدانية لشارع المعز بالقاهرة. وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى إلقاء الضوء علي بعض المشكالت التى تواجه
المختلفة التى تعرض لها التراث المصرى منذ عام باالنتهاكاتقطاعى السياحة واآلثار فيما يرتبط
ى تلك المشكالت كما ألقت الدراسة الضوء على بعض الممارسات الجيدة عل وسبل القضاء ٢٠١١
التى قامت بها األجهزة الرسمية المعنية بالدولة فيما يتعلق بحماية اآلثار المصرية من السلب والنهب
فى ضبط عمليات تهريب العديد من القطع األثرية األثريةال سيما دور إدارة التقييم ومتابعة المنافذ
التى خرجت من مصر بطريقة غير أثريةالقطع ااستردادإدارة اآلثار المستردة بالوزارة فى ودور
مشروعة بالتعاون مع وزارة الخارجية المصرية.
تدمير التراث. –ثار نهب اآل -اآلثار -التراث الحضارى –اإلرهاب الكلمات المفتاحية
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
37
المقدمة
واالصالة التى تجسدها الهوية الوطنية واالعتزازخر يوحي التراث الحضارى المصرى بالف
(. ويلعب التراث دورا محوريا فى مستقبل األمم والشعوب لما له من دور محورى ٢٠١7)سعودى،
أحد الدعائم األساسية فى مجال البحوث باعتبارهالزمن عبر فى ترسيخ الهوية وتوثيق الجذور
العالم وتاريخها فضال عن دوره كأحد المقومات األساسية اإلنسانية وال سيما تلك المعنية بحضارات
(. أ٢٠٠9لصناعة السياحة فى العصر الحالى مما يستوجب العمل على حمايته والحفاظ عليه)سيد،
أنواعه وأشكاله، كان وال يزال مطمعا اختالفوهنا يجدر اإلشارة إلى إن التراث اإلنسانى على
وم بدعمهم وتمويلهم لتدمير اإلرث البشرى وطمث معالم لضعاف النفوس من اإلرهابيين ومن يق
الحضارات القديمة ، بما تحمله من معان القوة واألصالة والعراقة، متسترين خلف بعض الشعارات
( والفتاوى التكفيرية المحرمة لآلثار بدعوى أنها تعد أصناما واجبة ٢٠١3الدينية الزائفة )عطية،
اإلكتراث بالقيمة التاريخية والحضارية لما خلفته تلك الحضارات ( وذلك دون ٢٠١3اإلبادة )هجرس،
من آثار ودون النظر إلى االبعاد االقتصادية واالجتماعية لتلك المقومات التراثية والتى تعد من الركائز
السياحية. العديد من دول العالم األساسية لصناعة السياحة فى
العربية العديد من محاوالت طمث الهوية وتدمير وقد شهدت مصر كغيرها من المقاصد السياحية
للمعالم السياحية التراثية من جانب المختلفةالتراث إبان ثورات الربيع العربى من خالل االنتهاكات
( ٢٠١6والعمل على تشويه الصورة الذهنية للمقصد السياحى المصرى من جانب آخر )عبدالمقصود،
الحركة السياحية الوافدة ومن ثم انخفاض االيرادات السياحية حجم انخفاضعلى النحو الذى ادى إلى
(. ٢٠١5عديدة )عياد، واجتماعية اقتصاديةالمتحققة وما يترتب على ذلك من مشكالت
وتتناول األجزاء التالية عرضا لكل من مفهوم اإلرهاب وأنواعه ، ومفهوم التراث وأنواعه ثم شرحا
راث الحضارى المصرى، ورصد دور صاالت المزادات الت مبسطا ألثر اإلرهاب على تدمير
العالمية، وفتاوى تدمير اآلثار.
وأنواعهأوال: مفهوم اإلرهاب
العنف المنظم بقصد إيجاد حالة من التهديد الموجه ضد الدولة أو استخداميقصد بمصطلح اإلرهاب
يديولوجى يرتبط عمل عنف أ ( كما يقصد به أىTilly,2004) الجماعة لتحقيق أغراض سياسية
(. وقد أثار مصطلح Lizardo,2003) جميع الوسائل لتحقيق تلك األهدافبأهداف سياسية والعمل ب
الدول فى واختلفتاإلرهاب على المستوى الدولى جدال فقهيا واسعا من الناحيتين القانونية والسياسية.
و قامت كل دولة بوضع التعريف مفهومه ومعناه مما ادى إلى صعوبة االتفاق على تعريف ملزم له
الذى يتناسب مع قوانينها الداخلية وما تتخذه من إجراءات قانونية ضده.
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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38
اإلقليمى العربى فقد سعت الدول العربية إلى مجتمع ونظرا لما يمثله اإلرهاب من خطورة على ال
ية لتعريف اإلرهاب االحترازية لمواجهته وذلك بموجب توقيع اتفاقية عرب اتخاذ مجموعة من التدابير
كل فعل من أفعال العنف أو التهديد أيا كانت دوافعه أو ( تنص على أن اإلرهاب هو٢٠٠9اهر،)الط
جماعى يهدف إلى إلقاء الرعب بين الناس أو ترويعهم أغراضه يقع لتنفيذ لمشروع اجرامى فردى أو
ئة أو بأحد المرافق أو األمالك حياتهم وأمنهم إلى الخطر وإلحاق الضرر بالبي أو تعريض حرياتهم أو
)عبد أحد الموارد الطبيعية إلى الخطر تعريض عليها أو االستيالءأو احتاللهاالعامة أو الخاصة أو
(.١995العال،
وقد شهد القرن الواحد والعشرون تصاعدا ملحوظا في وتيرة العمليات اإلرهابية وأصبحت الجريمة
( إذ أنها تنتقل بين الدول من حيث ٢٠١6برة للحدود والدول )نوار،اإلرهابية جريمة دولية وعالمية عا
العصر الحالى(. وتختلف أساليب و وسائل وأنواع اإلرهاب فى ٢٠٠6التخطيط والتنفيذ )العموش،
األعمال حيث أن (٢٠٠5سواء كان ذلك علي الصعيد الدولى أو اإلقليمى )الثقفى،عما كانت فيما سبق
تنوعا وتطورا فى تنفيذ هجماتها عما كانت من أهدافها باتت تتبع أساليبا أكثر اختالفاإلرهابية على
(.٢٠١٠قبل )الشهرى،
ويقصد به "جميع أعمال العنف وأعمال القمع األخرى اإلرهاب الدولىتتعدد أنواع اإلرهاب لتشمل و
(. ٢٠٠9ادى،)سع والحصول على حقها فى تقرير المصير د دولة تريد التحررالتى تمارسها دولة ض
اإلرهاب الدولى من أبشع أنواع اإلرهاب ضد اإلنسانية ألنه يعمل على تدمير الشعوب يعدو
( من خالل الصراع المسلح وفرض النفوذ والهيمنة علي الساحة الدولية ٢٠٠4)جعفر،
(Mesadieu,2013.) اإلرهاب الذى تتم هوو"إلرهاب المحلى أو االرهاب الداخلى اكما يوجد أيضا
تتجاوز حدودها مارسته داخل الدولة عبر جماعات ذات أهداف محددة داخل نطاق الدولة والم
بأى شكل من األشكال بعناصر خارجية دولية ويكون ارتباطوتستهدف تغير نظام الحكم وليس لها
(.كما يوجد أيضا ما يعرف ١١8،ص ٢٠٠8جميع منفذيها منتمين إلى جنسية نفس الدولة")حسانين،
"اإلرهاب التى تمارسه بعض األنظمة الحاكمة ضد شعوبها وعلى أراضيها وهوهاب الدولة إر باسم
مجموعة من األعمال والسياسات الحكومية التى الداخلية وهى أعمال اإلرهابية تقوم بها الدولة عبر
بهدف تحقيق األهداف التى ال تهدف إلى نشر الرعب بين المواطنين إلخضاعهم داخليا وخارجيا
والذى اإلرهاب الفكرى (.هذا باإلضافة إلى ٢٢5،ص٢٠١٠ستطيع الدولة الوصول إليها" )جمال،ت
" العنف المعنوى الذى يتضمن أعماال تصيب اإلنسان فى إرادته وتفكيره ووعيه لتغير يتمثل فى
( 3٠،ص٢٠٠3)حمزه، "وكبت الحريات وكل ما من شأنه مسلط على الفكر الوعى وخداع األفكار
البنية التحتية وتوقف تقويض لحركة التنمية االقتصادية وتدمير الذى يتضمن"ب االقتصادى إلرهااو
إلى تدمير المنشئات والمرافق األساسية وإشاعة حاله من باإلضافة االستثماريةكل أشكال التدفقات
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
39
ع على جمي الحالةهذه والطمأنينة فتؤثر تنتاب السوق من عدم االستقرار الرعب والفزع التى
والذى يعتمد عليه اإلرهاب اإلعالمى و( ٢٠١3)منصور، " القطاعات االستراتيجية االقتصادية
وبثها عبر المواقع اإللكترونية والمواقع عملياتهم اإلرهابية أفكارهم وتصوير رهابين تلك فى نشراإل
الصحفية لبث الخوف والرعب فى نفوس الشعوب وخفض معنوياتهم وتدمير مقاومتهم )جمال،
٢٠٠7 .)
ثانيا: مفهوم التراث وأنواعه
االمم ذات الحضارات ينبغى عليها أن تفخر بتراثها النه يعطى شعبها هويته وصفاته العريقة الممتدة
( .وقد ٢٠١٢بين األمم )المسافر، االزمان المختلفة، وتميزه عن الشعوب األخرى وتتفاخر به ما عبر
جتماعية بمجموعة متعددة من اآلراء عن حضارات الشعوب جاءت البحوث اإلنسانية والحضارية واال
( أن 3،ص٢٠١6(. وقد ذكر ديورنت )٢٠١١ومدى تأثيرها فى التاريخ اإلنسانى )التويجرى،
" نظام إجتماعى يعين اإلنسان على الزيادة من إنتاجه وأسلوب معيشى يدور حول إنسانية الحضارة
بمفهوم يميز األمة من العادات تاريخهختلفة من الم هفى حقب تطورهشعب من الشعوب برصد مدى
على التمسك بأخالقيتها األبداع فى مختلف الفنون وحرصها والتقاليد واسلوب حياة ومقدرتها على
محاوالت "أنها (الحضارة على٢٠،ص٢٠٠٢) خليل كما عرف ابو وقيمها الدينية مكونه حضارتها"
الطبيعة للوصول إلى مستوى استغاللتنظيم والعمل على وال والتفكير واالختراع لالستكشافاإلنسان
وعلومها فهى احدى مراحل وآدابهاحياة أفضل وهى حصيلة جهود األمة التى تأتى من رقى فنونها
التطور اإلنسانى فى عمارة االرض إلقامة حضارة عالمية تجعل األمة فى طليعة الشعوب
المتحضرة".
ال ان جميعها تتفق على كونه يمثل الذاكرة الجامعة للشعوب للحفاظ أما التراث فقد تعددت تعريفاته ا
عبر األجيال. و تأتي كلمة "التراث" فى صميم ينتقلروث على هويتها الوطنية من خالل المو
( على ١١١،صب٢٠٠9عرفة سيد ) قدو .ورثتهاإلنسان إلى الذى يخلفه اإلرثمن المصطلح اللغوى
صائص بشرية عميقة الجذور ويتناقل من جيل إلى آخر ويصمد أنه " شكل ثقافى مميز يعكس خ
على تشكيل وجدان الشعوب مكونا روحها الثقافية"، وهو قدرتهوينتقل عبر سلسلة زمنية ليعكس
( على انه ما خلفته اإلنسانية من ثقافة وعادات ٢٠١3المعنى األصلى للتراث" كما تناوله محمد )
ناتج عن عملية واالصطالحالسلف االجداد، وهو ما يرثه الناس عنهم، وتقاليد وسلوك نقلها أجيال عن
ألية أمة توارث موروثها ألجيال جيال بعد جيل لكى تحافظ على موروثها وشكلها واجتماعيةبيئية
الثقافى امام المتغيرات الزمنية.
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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4٠
إلى التراث التراثوتتعدد أنواع التراث لتشمل كال من التراث المادى والتراث الطبيعي. وينقسم
المعنوى. ويعرف التراث المادى على أنه هو" التراث الذى صنعه اإلنسان وكل ما يستطيع والمادى
لعامل التغير المستمر التى سعى اإلنسان إلى اكتسابهالمسه من عناصر واألشياء التى تخضع دائما
ارة بشكل عام كالمواقع األثرية حاجاته األساسية" ويتمثل التراث المادى فى العم إشباعمن أجل
وينقسم التراث المادى .(٢٠5،ص٢٠٠7والمدن المتبقية والمتاحف والمتاحف المفتوحة") حمادة ،
إلى باإلضافةليشمل التراث الثقافى الثابت مثل المدن والقرى والمدن التاريخية والمدن المندثرة
طرق الحج و والمحطات التجارية ت المالمل الخانات واالسواق وبيوالمبانى االقتصادية التى تش
(. بينما يشتمل التراث الثقافى المادى المنقول كما ٢٠١6والمسيحية )عزوق، المقدسة سواء االسالمية
( على ادوات الحياة المعيشية من اوانى الطبخ وانواع األثاث وادوات الزينة ٢٠١4) جاء به خفاجى
يل العلمية من احبار واقالم وااللواح الكتابية وجلود إلى ادوات التسج باإلضافةواشكال المالبس
الغزال والبرديات.
لهشاشتهأما التراث الثقافى )المعنوى( وهو احد انواع التراث المهدد باالنقراض بمرور الزمن نظرا
للحفاظ ٢٠٠3جاء التصديق على اتفاقية صون التراث المعنوى من قبل الدولة المصرية لعام وقد
تعريف التراث المعنوى فى تلك االتفاقية ليشتمل كافة " ث والهوية المصرية، وقد جاءعلى الترا
وقطع اآلالتوالمعارف والمهارات وما يرتبط بها من الممارسات والتصورات وأشكال التعبير
ومصنوعات وأماكن ثقافية تعتبرها الجماعات والمجموعات وأحيانا األفراد جزءا من تراثهم الثقافى
الجماعات والمجموعات من جديد بصورة مستمرة إبداعه ما تعيد المادى المتوارث جيل عن جيل رغي
بما يتفق مع بيئتها وتفاعالتها مع الطبيعة وتاريخها وهو ينمى لديها اإلحساس بهويتها والشعور
ث صون الترا اتفاقية) قافى والقدرة اإلبداعية البشرية"ويعزز من التنوع الث باستمراريتها
ومنها على سبيل المثال العادات والتقاليد الشعوب وهى األفعال والسلوكيات (.٢7،ص٢٠٠3الثقافى،
وتوديع، المراسيم المتعلقة باألكل والشرب، السبوع، الطهور، استقبالمثل، األعراس، االجتماعية
(. ١99١الجنازات )ابراهيم،
"ما المنظمات المعنية بالتراث الطبيعى على أنهأما التراث الطبيعى فقد جاء تعريفه من قبل احدى
ينطوى على ظواهر طبيعية منقطعة النظير أو يضم مناطق ذات جمال طبيعى إستثنائى وأهمية جمالية
فائقة النظير وبه أمثلة فريدة لمختلف مراحل األرض بما فى ذلك سجل الحياة األرض للعمليات
المعالم الفيزيوغرافية الهامة التشكيالت األرضية أو تطورالجيولوجية الهامة الجارية والمؤثرة فى
النظم البيئة األرضية والبيولوجية الهامة المؤثرة فى تطور األيكولوجيةويقدم أمثلة وفريدة للعمليات
العذبة ونظم األيكولوجية الساحلية والبحرية والجماعات النباتية المياهونظم
(.(Iunc,2008والحيوان"
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
4١
التراث الحضارى المصرى رهاب وأثر على تدميرثالثا: اإل
األمنى المصحوب بمجموعة من العمليات االنفالتحالة من ٢٠١١ناير شهدت مصر إبان ثورة ي
التكفيرى الفكر نشرتدمير التراث المصرى وطمث الهوية الوطنية و استهدفتاإلرهابية المنظمة التى
(. وقد نتج عن ذلك تدمير ٢٠١6، ياسين ٢٠١3يل ، قند٢٠١٢المتطرف تحت شعار الدين) القماش
العديد من المقومات التراثية التى تمتلكها الدولة فى مناطق عدة منها على سبيل المثال متحف ملوى
)نشرة وزارة ضم آثار تونة الجبل واألشمونيينكمتحف إقليمى ي ١963عام افتتاحهالذى تم
والنهب والتدمير فى منتصف شهر أغسطس عام والذى تعرض لعمليات السلب (٢٠١6اآلثار،
( من قبل إحدى الجماعات اإلرهابية ومن يتبعها من عصابات تهريب اآلثار ٢٠١3)الجندى، ٢٠١3
( حيث تم سرقة ألف وثالثة وأربعون قطعة من أصل ألف وتسعه وثامنون قطعة من ٢٠١3)الصقار،
فى مكانها نظرا لكبر حجمها )قطاع اآلثار المعروضات بينما تم تدمير ما تبقى من آثار المتحف
ستمائة ستة وخمسون قطعة من القطع المسروقة وترميم أغلبها استرداد(. وقد تم ٢٠١7المصرية،
(. ٢٠١7)قطاع المتاحف المصرية،
ومن األمثلة الحية أيضا على اإلرهاب السافر المدمر متحف الفن اإلسالمى بباب الخلق )دار اآلثار
سابقا( والذى بدأت فكرة إنشائه فى عهد الخديوى إسماعيل وتم افتتاحه في عهد الخديوى العربية
( ويحتوى على مائة ألف قطعة ليس لها مثيل كما ٢٠١5عباس حلمى )هيئة االستعالمات المصرية،
(. وقد تعرض ٢٠١7لغات )عزالدين، عدةيضم فى مكتبته ثالثة اآلف كتاب ومخطوطات نادرة من
التى كانت تستهدف مبنى من قبل احدى الجماعات اإلرهابية ٢٠١4للتدمير فى يناير عام المتحف
(. وقد أدى التفجير إلى تدمير واجهة المتحف ٢٠١4)المريدى، مديرية أمن القاهرة المقابلة للمتحف
للبيانات الصدرة عن قطاع ٢٠١4ومئات من القطع األثرية النادرة )صبرى، ( والتى تقدر وفقا
تم ترميم مائة تسعة وستون قطعة منها بينما ال أثريةالمتاحف بحوالى مائة وتسعه وسبعون قطعة
يستحيل ترميمها مرة أثريةتزال عمليات الترميم مستمرة لباقى القطع مع العلم أن هناك خمسة قطع
(. ٢٠١7أخرى )قطاع المتاحف المصرية،
١9٠٢خديوى عباس حلمى واكتمل بناءه عام كما تعرض المتحف المصرى الذى أنشا فى عهد ال
المصرية ذات شكل من الطراز المعمارى فريد خليط من بين اليوناني والرومانى كمتحف لآلثار
( إلى عملية سرقة ونهب ممنهجة من قبل عصابات فى يوم ٢٠١7) بوابة محافظة القاهرة، والفرنسى
ت محتوياتها وسرقة ستة وخمسون قطعة بتحطيم ثالثة عشر فاترينة عرض وبعثر ٢٠١١يناير ٢8
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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4٢
لبيانات الصدرة من قطاع المتاحف أثرية تم استرداد سبعة وثالثون قطعة والباقى مفقود وفقا
(.٢٠١7المصرية)
هذا وقد تعرضت أيضا العديد من مخازن اآلثار للسرقة والنهب من قبل العصابات المسلحة
( منها مخزن ميت رهينة بالبدرشين بمحافظة ٢٠١١)والجماعات اإلرهابية. فقد ذكر عبد العليم
الجيزة و مخزن أسوان بجزيرة فيلة ومخزن بعثة متحف المتروبوليتان بدهشور وكذلك مخازن تل
( إلى سرقة مخزن سليم ٢٠١١الفراعين وبنى سويف وسقارة وقنطرة شرق. كما أشار الدخاخنى )
ومخزن تل بسطة. هذا وقد افاد باإلسكندريةحسن بالهرم ومخزن المتحف الرومانى بمصطفى كامل
الدخاخنى أيضا إلى تعرض المقابر الفرعونية لعمليات السطو والسرقة كما هو الحال في مقبرة إيمبى
صير ومنطقة شبس ونخن بمنطقة ابو –كا ومقبرتى بتاح - بالقرب من تمثال أبو الهول ومقبرة حتب
( إلى تكسير قفل ٢٠١7كما افاد قطاع اآلثار المصرية )مقابر ابيدوس التى تعرضت للحفر خلسة.
والنبش العشوائى لها وتشوية جزء صغير فى أحد مناظر مائدة القرابين بالمقبرة وتكسير N20مقبرة
.حمر مع عدم العبث بهمااال أقفال مقابر كل من جبل الهجرسة بسوهاج وجبل الدير
( أن بعض Ikram,2013) فقد ذكر األثريةألراضى أما فيما يتعلق بالحفر خلسة والتنقيب فى ا
بحوالى واحد وخمسون فدان من على مساحة تقدر باالستيالءقد قاموا صير األهالى بمنطقة أبو
األراضي البكر التى لم يتم التنقيب فيها على اآلثار مسبقا والتى تحتوى على مجموعة من المقابر
( أن منطقة ميت رهينة قد تم التعدى عليها وانتشرت بها ٢٠١7األثرية الهامة . كما أوضح )عفيفى،
كما أوضح لحالة الفراغ األمني. استغالالعلى األراضى التابعة لآلثار واالستيالءعمليات التنقيب
(Eldorry,2013 أن عددا من المواقع المحفورة بمنطقة الليشت قد تعرضت لعمليات نهب ممنهج )
م تدمير العديد من المقابر المكتشفة من قبل المهربين وسرقة المقابر ومنظم بحثا عن اآلثار كما ت
على األراضى األثرية بمنطقة االستيالء( أنه قد تم Hanaa,2013وتهشيم المومياوات بينما ذكر )
دهشور وتم التنقيب والحفر خلسة فى منطقة المقابر األثرية من قبل االهالى الذين قاموا فيما بعد بإعادة
.تمت بالمنطقة تلك األراضى فى بناء مقابر جديدة بغرض التستر على عمليات النهب التى اماستخد
وقد تعرضت أيضا اآلثار االسالمية لعمليات سرقة وتدمير ممنهج إذ قامت عصابات مسلحة بالهجوم
. ٢٠١١أبان حالة االنفالت االمنى التى شهدتها مصر فى اعقاب يناير على مناطق اآلثار االسالمية،
ومن أمثلة ذلك حرق قسم جمالية اآلثرى وهجمات من افراد عصابات التهريب على كل من سبيل
ثرى وبوابته الحديدية كما شهدت الوكاالت ألبطنطا والذى نتج عنه تحطيم اثاثة ا محمد على الكبير
الحرمين والجداوى بأسنا و باإلسكندرية هجمات مماثلة مثلما حدث بوكاالت الناضورة األثرية
الفريدة األثريةبمنطقة الحسين كما تم تدمير خان الزكارشة الذى يضم مجموعة من البيوت االسالمية
(.٢٠١١)عبد العليم،
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
43
هذا وقد صاحب تعدد وتنوع السرقات وعمليات السلب والنهب والتنقيب غير المشروع والحفر خلسة
خالل فترة لتعاون مع الجماعات اإلرهابيةبا والسطو على المخازن من قبل عصابات تهريب اآلثار
سماسرة التهريب الذين اتخذوا من انتشارإلى Teijgeler,2013)) ٢٠١١ التى أعقبت ثورة االنفالت
خلفيا لتجارة اآلثار الغير مشروعة )المنسى، صاالت المزادات ومواقع العرض اإللكترونى بابا
المستردة بالتعاون مع وزارة الخارجية دارة اآلثارالظاهرة تقوم إ لهذهوفى إطار التصدى .(٢٠١7
المصرية بتتبع صاالت المزادات ومواقع العرض لوقف عمليات بيع اآلثار المسروقة من الدولة
فيها صاالت المزادات تقوم احقيتها، والسيما ان تلك الدول التى تنتشر ألثباتبتدعيمها بالمستندات
( وقد أفادت إدارة االثار٢٠١5ة بيع اآلثار على أراضيها )شوقى، بتوفير الحماية القانونية لسماسر
( بأسماء أشهر صاالت المزادات العالمية ومواقع العرض االلكترونى التى تقوم ٢٠١7المستردة )
، ومنها على سبيل المثال مواقع إى أباى وإينفية والمسروقةالمنهوب يةالمصر ثاراآل عرض وبيعب
الت المزادات العالمية مثل اليف لوكشينر وسوثبى ودانيال كولوس وويبدون البول اإللكترونية وصا
وبونهامز وكريستى وبركات جاليرى .
وما تالها من أحداث وتغيرات جمة على الصعيدين السياسى ٢٠١١كما شهدت مصر أيضا إبان ثورة
ظهور الجماعات واالجتماعى خاصة فى تلك الفترة التى إعتلى فيها التيار المتطرف السلطة و
المتطرفة والمتشددة فى المشهد وشيوع الفتاوى الغريبة بتحريم اآلثار وتحريم العمل فيها )العمرى،
( والتى تناولتها مجموعات مختلفة من التيارات اإلرهابية. والتى جاء منها على سبيل المثال ٢٠١7
تعد من االصنام ألنهاحف بالشمع الفتوى بتغطية التماثيل واآلثار التى تتواجد فى المعابد والمتا
. وبتسليط الضوء من جهة االعالم على تلك القضية الهامة لتغير الهوية الوطنية ببث (٢٠١٢)عزت،
. كما والفنادق والسياحة وتحريم العمل فى مجاالت معينة ومنها اآلثار الكراهيةالسموم التى تعمل على
كل من االهرامات وابو دميرع وغيرها توصى بتعن طريق البي ظهرت فتاوى التخلص من اآلثار
تنظيم داعش اإلرهابى (.هذا وقد انتهز٢٠١5،حامد، ٢٠١5تحض على الشرك )زكريا، ألنهاالهول
االهرامات وابو الهول بتفجير المصريةاإلرهاب االعالمى ببث فيديو يقوم فيه بتهديد السلطات
(.٢٠١6، ناسةتدمير)لرفع راية االبادة وال والمعابد القديمة كما فعلوا فى سوريا والعراق
الدراسة الميدانية واختبار صحة الفرض
تمثل الشق الميدانى من الدراسة فى القيام بزيارات لكل من وزارتى اآلثار والسياحة والمجلس األعلى
-Semiوتضمنت تلك الزيارات إجراء مقابالت شخصية مقننة سياحةهيئة تنشيط اللآلثار و
Structured) االعتماد( مع مجموعة من الخبراء المتخصصين بكل من تلك األجهزة المعنية. وقد تم
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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44
صياغة أسئلة المقابالت الشخصية على القراءات فى المراجع السابقة والتحليل للبيانات ذات فى
الصلة بموضوع الدراسة.
واقع عشرة خبراء من قطاع وقد بلغ عدد الخبراء الذين شملتهم عينة الدراسة خمسة عشر خبيرا ب
وتم تحليل البيانات المجمعة سواء من المقابالت الشخصية أو وخمسة من قطاع السياحة. اآلثار
ومنهم مدير األثريينكما تم مقابلة العديد من الخبراء أسلوب التحليل الكيفى. باستخدامالمالحظة
كما األثريةادارة االثار المستردة و المسئول الفنى لمكتب الوزير واحدى المسئولين عن إدارة المنافذ
إلى المسئول ادارة باإلضافةتم ايضا مقابلة الخبراء السياحين ومنهم مسئول المكتب االعالمى للوزارة
البحوث، كما تعذر مقابلة وزارى اآلثار والسياحة.
لدراسةفرض ا
على الركيزة يصاحبهإن اإلرهاب وما الذى األساسيةمن عمليات تدمير ونهب للتراث يؤثر سلبا
يعتمد عليها المقصد السياحى المصرى من تراث الحضارة المصرية.
ن إ وقد اثبتت نتائج التحليل الميدانى والتى سيتم عرضها في الجزء التالى صحة فرضية الدراسة من
يصاحبه من عمليات تدمير ونهب للتراث يؤثر سلبا على الركيزة األساسية الذى يعتمد اإلرهاب وما
عليها المقصد السياحى المصرى إذ أن التراث المصرى وما يعكسه من هوية الحضارة المصرية هو
أحد المقومات األساسية لصناعة السياحة المصرية وال سيما السياحة الثقافية التى تأثرت كثيرا من
األحداث السياسية الغير مستقرة التى شهدتها الدولة فى تلك الفترة العصيبة من تاريخها العريق اءجر
وتذبذب وضعها التنافسى على من الحركة السياحة العالمية نصيب مصر انخفاضوالتى ترتب عليها
خريطة العالم السياحية.
نتائج الدراسة
تائج يمكن تلخيصها فيما يلى: توصلت الدراسة الحالية إلى مجموعة من الن
أو رقمى لآلثار مما قد يسهل عمليات التعدى عليها بالسلب والنهب إلكترونىعدم وجود توثيق -
بعد محو السجالت الورقية التى تثبت ملكية الدولة لتلك اآلثار ومن ثم ضياع حقها فى
استردادها.
ومات بين اإلدارات المختلفة داخل عدم وجود قاعدة بيانات إلكترونية لتسهيل تداول المعل -
وخارج وزارة اآلثار.
وزارة اآلثار إلى البيانات الدقيقة عن حجم اآلثار التى تمت سرقتها بطريقة صريحة افتقار -
وواضحة عن حجم االعداد المنهوبة والمسروقة.
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
45
اآلثار بدور مشهود البرية( بوزارة والبحرية، )الجوية، األثريةقامت إدارة تقيم ومتابعة المنافذ -
االنفالتخالل فترة خروجها من مصر الهامة قبل األثريةفى منع تهريب العديد من القطع
األمنى وماتالها من فترات عصيبة.
قامت إدارة اآلثار المستردة بالوزارة بالتعاون مع وزارة الخارجية المصرية واالجهزة -
التى خرجت بطريقة غير مشروعة األثرية القطع استردادالسيادية بالدولة بدور هائل فى
والتى لديها سجالت و وثائق إثبات ملكية الدولة لها وذلك من خالل تعقب مواقع العرض
ورفع القضايا الدولية. لألثروصاالت المزادات وتقديم االوراق الثبوتية
األمنى وهى القوة االنفالتقامت القوات المسلحة المصرية بحماية اآلثار والمتاحف أثناء فترة -
أو وقوع حرب إذ جاءت نتيجة استثنائيةالحامية والفاعلة للحماية أثناء حدوث أحداث
على ان القوات المسلحة المصرية كانت لها الفضل فى حماية اآلثار باإلجماعالمقابالت
والمتاحف . وبالرغم مما حدث من عمليات السطو المسلح على مخازن اآلثار او المناطق
يقارن بما حدث فى بعض الدول العربية األخرى التى دخلت فى نطاق ما فإن ذلك ال ثريةاأل
يعرف بالربيع العربى.
هناك قصورا فى الدور الذى يقوم به خفراء اآلثار نظرا لضعف االمكانيات المادية لوزارة -
مين المناطق اآلثار وما يترتب على ذلك من عدم استخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة فى عمليات تأ
والمخازن وانخفاض مستوى التدريب الذى يحصل عليه الخفراء المعنيين بحماية األثرية
عن ضعف مستوى ما لديهم من أسلحة فى مقابل األسلحة ومخازن اآلثار فضال األثريةالمواقع
الحديثة التى تستخدمها عصابات السلب والنهب.
والتى لم يكن قد تم المهربةة استرداد اآلثار وزارة اآلثار مشكالت ملموسة فى عملي تواجه -
تسجيلها بعد سواء تلك التى تم العثور عليها عن طريق الحفر أو التنقيب او التى تمت سرقتها
وخرجت من مصر بطرق غير مشروعة حيث ال يتوافر لدى األثريةمن مخازن البعثات
استردادجبها إثبات احقية الدولة فى الوزارة فى هذه الحالة المستندات الثبوتية التى يتم بمو
. ويرجع ذلك إلى وجود عوار قانونى فى اتفاقية اليونسكو لحماية التراث واالتجار غير األثر
بتقديم ما األثرمشروع فى اآلثار والتى ينص أحد بنودها على انه يجب ان تقوم الدولة صاحبة
للدولة التى األثرول ؤل تعذر ذلك يفى حا. واستردادهالمراد لألثريفيد من صكوك ملكيتها
يوجد بها او يقع على اراضيها ويحتسب من التراث اإلنسانى الخاص بها.
المصرية العريقة قصور مستوى الوعى الثقافى لدى بعض فئات المجتمع المحلى بأهمية اآلثار -
قيام بهويتهم حاضرا ومستقبال مما يترتب عليه ارتباطهوالتراث الحضارى المصرى ومدى
البعض من ضعاف النفوس بالتنقيب والحفر خلسة عن اآلثار فضال عن انتشار سماسرة
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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46
التهريب المدعومين من جهات أجنبية باإلضافة إلي الدور الذى تلعبه صاالت المزادات
العالمية فى عرض اآلثار المهربة والتى تفسح المجال أمام للقائمين على سلب ونهب وتهريب
لتسويق وبيع ما لديهم من مقتنيات. اآلثار المصرية
اليونسكو لحماية التراث واآلثار فى وقت النزاع المسلح إذ اتفاقية التى تشير إليه دورالقصور -
للعمليات اإلرهابية وما تم من سطو واالستنكارفقط بالشجب واإلدانة اكتفتأن المنظمة قد
فعلى لحماية التراث المصرى ومقدراته.مسلح من قبل العصابات المسلحة دون تقديم العون ال
كنتيجة غير مباشرة لما شهدته الدولة من ضعف الموارد المالية المتحققة لوزارة اآلثار -
مستوى الطلب السياحى على مصر ومن انخفاضالعمليات اإلرهابية وما ترتب على ذلك من
التى تعتمد عليها ثريةاألمثل إيرادات المتاحف والمزارات اإليرادات السياحية فاضانخثم
وزارة اآلثار كأحد مواردها المالية فضال عن قيام العديد من وكاالت السياحة الدولية بإلغاء
برامجها السياحية الثقافية إلى مصر والذى أثر بشكل سلبى على الميزان السياحى وميزان
لى عدم قدرتها على شديد فى ميزانية الوزارة أدى إ انخفاضالمدفوعات بالدولة ومن ثم حدث
من عمليات األثريةوتغطية التكاليف االمنية التى تحتاجها المناطق األثريةاستكمال المشاريع
.هغيرتأمين و
التوصيات
توصلت الدراسة إلى مجموعة من التوصيات التى من شأنها حماية التراث واآلثار
ة تلك التى تأتى فى المصرية من التعديات المصاحبة لفترات االنفالت األمنى وخاص
صورة هجمات إرهابية وتهديدات بالتدمير من أهمها:
قيام وزارة اآلثار بالتعاون مع الجهات المعنية بإقامة مشروع تكنولوجى لربط البيانات اإلدارية -
الخاصة باآلثار والمتاحف على مستوى إدارات وربطها بمكاتب الوزارة فى المحافظات
ادل المعلومات وتحقيق الدقة والشفافية فيها. األخرى لتسهيل عملية تب
البصمة باستخدام األثريةالتقنيات الحديثة فى المسح الرقمى للقطع استخدامالعمل على -
توجد على األراضى المصرية. أثريةاإللكترونية لكل قطعة
ال سيما قيام وزارتى اآلثار والسياحة بوضع بروتكول تفاهم للتعاون والتنسيق فيما بينهما و -
حتى ال يؤثر ذلك األثريةفيما يتعلق بتغيير سياسات التسعير الخاصة برسوم زيارة المناطق
سلبا على عمليات بيع البرامج السياحة المصرية فى الخارج نتيجة لفروق األسعار الغير معلنة
مسبقا.
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
47
ولوجيا المحاكاة التكن باستخدامقيام وزارة اآلثار بالعمل على تطوير موقعها اإللكترونى -
غات المتعددة المستخدمة فى عرض محتوى الموقع.لبال
التراث المصرى من قيام الدولة بتبنى مشروع قومى بالتعاون مع كافة االجهزة المعنية لحماية -
االنتهاكات والتعديات التى قد يتعرض لها ليس فقط فى فترات النزاع بل أيضا فى فترات
السلم.
المراجع
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دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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48
، الوثيقة العمانية اثر حضارى وارث معرفى، الوثيقة ، البحرين ٢٠١٢شمسة بنت حبيب، المسافر، -
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،تاريخ الوطن المسروق اثار مصر فى مزادات امريكا، بوابة جريدة الفجر، ٢٠١7ا، رش المنسى، -
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ومقتنايتة المسروقة، وزارة ، تاريخ متحف الفن االسالمى ٢٠١7تقرير قطاع المتاحف المصرية، -
اآلثار المصرية، مصر.
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وزارة اآلثار ،تاريخ المتحف الملوى والمقتنيات المسروقة،٢٠١7قطاع المتاحف المصرية، تقرير -
المصرية ، مصر.
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نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
49
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http://www.ssrcaw.org ابريل.١٠فى العالم العربى ،بيروت،
مقارنة مكافحته تواستراتيجيا،اإلرهاب دراسة فى البرامج الوطنية ٢٠١١سعود،محمد م قيراط، -
السعودية. مكتبة الملك فهد الوطنية للنشر، إعالمية،
م. ١٢:55مايو،س4جريدة الصباح العراقية،العراق، ،فى معنى التراث،٢٠١3محمد،محمد، -
www.alsabaah.iqhttps://
مصر. موقع الرسمى لمحافظة القاهرة، ،تاريخ المتحف المصرى،٢٠١7محافظة القاهرة، -
www.cairo.gov.eg
االقتصادى، مجلة الجيش اإلرهاب السياسى إلى اإلرهاب،٢٠١3منصور،تريز، -
.34٠اللبنانى،لبنان،ع
تهديد داعش بتفجير االهرامات بين الكالم والحرص واجب، بوابة الفجر ، ٢٠١6ناسة،محمد، -
م.9:37يونيو،س١٠،مصر،
https://www.elfagr.com/2169130
جديدة إلرهاب ،مجلة ألشكال،اإلرهاب الدولى واسلحة الدمار الشامل ٢٠١6نوار،شهرزاد، -
مجلة التواصل فى جامعة باجى مختار، كلية الحقوق، االدارة واالقتصاد والقانون،التواصل فى
.٢١-8، ص 45االدارة واالقتصاد والقانون ،الجزائر، ع
،العزب،الطيب، اثارنا التاريخية اعتزاز بالماضى ام نظرة حرام، ٢٠١3محمد الطاهر، هجرس، -
http://www.alyaum.com/articles/86 م.٢٢:4٠ابريل،س١4،صحيفةاليوم،السعودية
رئاسة تاريخ متحف الفن االسالمى، ،المتاحف القاهرة،٢٠١5هيئة االستعالمات المصرية، -
www.sis.gov.eg.. مصر الجمهورية،
، ١4٠ام، مصر، سيونيو، جريدة االهر 3٠، استرداد الهوية المصرية فى ٢٠١6ياسين، سيد، -
يوليو.7، 4733٠ع
دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر
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اإلنجليزيةثانيا: المراجع باللغة -Aldorry,m,2011,Why Do People Loot?The Case of The Egyptian
Revolution, Rawi Magazine Heritage,Egypt,No2.
-Hanna,M,2013,What Has Happened to Egyptian after The 2011 Unfinished
Revolution, Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage
,Penn Stat Unvi Pres, Vol1,No4, pp371-375.
-Ikram,S,2014,Cultural Heritage in Times of Crisis The View from Egypt,
Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies,Penn
Stat Unvi Press,vol1,No4 ,pp366-371.
-Kumar,R. S,2002,Impact of Usled War on Terrorism,Econmic And
Political Weekly,Vol37,No33,pp3414-3419.
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Location, Hum Boldt Journal of Social Relations,Dep of Sociology, Hum
Boldt State Unvi, Vol27,No2,pp162-192.
-Mesadieu,J,2013,Is Terrorism Inver Table The Immortality of Terrorism,
Faculty of The School of Continuing Studies, Arts in Liberal Studies,
Georgetown University Washington, D.C, Published M.A .
-Teijgeler, R,2013, Politice and Heritage in Egypt One and a Half Years The
Lotus Revolution , Journal of The World Archaeological Congress, Owner of
Culture in Development
Tilly,C,2004,Terror,Terrorism,Terrorists,AmaericanSociological,Usa,Vol22,
No1, pp1-25.
Abstract
Since the 2011 Revolution, Egypt has witnessed several phases of chaos
and political unrest that has consequently resulted in various undesired
outcomes regarding the country’s tourism sector and heritage
belongings. During such period, a number of terrorist groups have
managed to spread in many areas of the country. Besides, international
smuggling groups as well as local smuggling and exploration brokers
became also active. As a result, the Egyptian cultural heritage was
exposed to a series of vulnerable and systematic looting and destruction.
The current study aims at exploring the violations that the Egyptian
antiquities have been subject to in the period between 2011 and 2016
نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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and its consequent economic, social and cultural repercussions on the
country in addition to the drawbacks that the Egyptian tourism sector has
encountered as a result of such violations. The study also highlights the
role of auctions halls and electronic display sites in the exhibition of
stolen and looting antiquities. The theoretical part of the study was based
on the collection of secondary data from various relevant sources
including books, published research articles, publications, periodicals,
reports and other related scientific references, while the field study
included the collection of rich qualitative data through the conduction of
semi-structured interviews with some tourism and archeological experts
in the Ministries of Tourism and Antiquities as well as the Egyptian
Tourist Authority and the Supreme Council of Antiquities. The study
also included a field visit to Al-Moez Street in Cairo. The study
highlighted some of the problems facing the tourism and archeology
sectors in relation to the various violations that the Egyptian cultural
heritage has been exposed since to 2011 and proposed some the means
of eliminating these problems. The study also highlighted the good
practices carried out by the official bodies concerned with protecting
Egyptian antiquities and retaining the ones that have been looted and
illegally sent outside Egypt.
Keywords Terrorism - Cultural Heritage – Archeology - Looting of
Monuments - Destruction of Heritage.
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1
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis
A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi, Mohamed Hany Bahey, Tamer Abbas
Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University
Abstract: Hotel performance is the main driver behind profitability. Many factors contribute to this performance. The purpose of this study is to derive the underlying structure of hotel performance in a 5- stars hotel in Egypt using factor analysis. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartletts test of sphericity were used to test the appropriateness of factor analysis on the data. The sample size appropriateness was also discussed. Factor analysis was performed using seventeen hotel measurements to rank their relative significance. Principal Component Analysis was also used for component extraction and varimax method for rotation, four factors are selected based on Cattell's scree plot and on the conditioned extraction of the percentage of variance which accounted for 89.6% of the variations in the original variables. The analysis uses real hotel data from 2006 to 2015 and is highlighting the degree of importance of the customer segment factor that proved to be efficient in the hotel performance structure. This statistical implementation was done using SPSS version 20.
Keywords: Hotel Performance, Principal Component Analysis, varimax, customer segmentation, hotel internal drivers.
1 - Introduction: On picking up the Income Statement of any hotel operation, it can be noticed that, between 80% and 90% of Total Revenues are contributed by rooms and food and beverage departments. These two are the major revenue as well as profit contributors of a hotel operation. However, between the two departments there are very little similarities other than that they tend to complement each other in a hotel operation.
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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Rooms, as a product is less flexible than food & beverage. Rooms are a much more structured operation than food and beverage. Rooms operation has a limited number of products compared to food & beverage ones, which boasts a varied number of offerings.
Rooms and food and beverage functions differ significantly in cost elements. Although both have common categories of costs, there are costs that are unique to the food and beverage operation only which are: cost of food, cost-of beverage, operating equipment, live Entertainment, Rooms department costs tend to range between 15% and 25% of revenues. This is much higher in the Food & Beverage department between 50% and 60%. These have significant profitability implications. (Narasimhan, 2017)
Modern hotel management plays an important role in decision making and can be performed using statistical techniques applied to historical data.
The exploratory factor analysis method used discovers the number of factors representing the measured variables, this set of variables holds some patterns inside and the role of factor analysis is to discover these patterns and regroup variables into a limited set of factors based on the shared variance extracted that explores how much each factor contributed to the hotel performance variance, this reduces dimensionality into a smaller set of unobserved variables called factors that are used to represent variables (Bartholomew, Knotts & Moustaki, 2011).
Turning to hotel management elements, customer segmentation is one of the most fundamental concepts in modern management in general (Kotler and Armstrong, 2010). The importance of customer segmentation comes from the fact that some customer segments are highly profitable, some are moderately profitable, and some are unprofitable. This importance of hotel Customer segmentation as stated by (Olsen, 2005) grows even more in the context of developments in hotel management facing intense competition, sophisticated and increasingly demanding customers. Accordingly customer segmentation is considered as a powerful means to identify unmet customer needs. Hotels that identify underserved segments of customers can then outperform the competition by developing uniquely appealing products and services, this can have a great effect on hotel profitability in that, by dividing customers into different groups that share similar needs, the hotel can market to each group
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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differently and focus on what each kind of customer needs at any given moment. Large or small customer segments can be targeted depending on the hotel's resources or needs. Segments are often determined on the basis of customer similarities, such as personal characteristics, preferences or behaviors. Ideally, segments should correlate to behaviors that drive customer profitability (Epstein, Freidl and Yuthas, 2008).
In modern lodging industry, profitability analysis in general is a tool which enables managers to evaluate company’s performance. Although almost all hotels have processes for assessing the profitability of their products and services, most are far behind in assessing their customers’ profitability (Cross & Dixit, 2006). This explains the reason for which customer profitability analysis in modern lodging industry is becoming one of the most fundamental concepts in modern hotel management used to figure out the profitability of each customer segment, it is then obvious that customer segmentation and customer profitability analysis are two sides of one coin.
This study focused on main variables constituting hotel operation such as: Customer segments revenues RevCS1; RevCS2; RevCS3; RevCS4; RevCS5, Rooms Profit, Rooms Revenue, Room Variable Costs that are incurred when a unit of capacity is sold, for example, the additional energy, water, cleaning cost and the cost of breakfast (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012), Room Fixed Costs which are costs that must be paid regardless of the volume of units sold, for example cost of loans, wages, equipment, advertising, and energy regardless of its occupancy rates (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012), food and beverage profit, food and beverage revenue, food and beverage variable Costs that are the sum of payroll, benefits and training costs and maintenance (Kotas, 2014), food and beverage fixed costs are that spent in marketing, advertising, management salaries, office operations, wages and the associated benefits (Kotas, 2014), house Profit also called “gross operating profit” (GOP) is used primarily as a measurement of management’s ability to maximize revenues, control expenses and maximize profits (Hales, 2006), Management Fees also called “percentage fees” can be defined when the hotel owners rented out the property to a hotel company for management and the rental agreement was based on a percentage of total sales (Sungchon & Yu, 2012), FF&E are movable furniture, fixtures and other equipment that have no permanent connection to the structure of a building or utilities, for example desks, chairs, computers, electronic equipment tables, bookcases and partitions (Waymon, 98), and lastly incentive
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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Fees also called “performance fees” are considered to induce fund managers to work harder on portfolio optimization as they participate in any excess return they are going to realize (Gregoriou, 2008) to clarify the role of customer segmentation and main hotel departments using factor analysis statistical method.
Customer segments are identified based on the management strategy and policy of the investigated hotel that has its own rule for guest categorization. Results obtained are interpreted through the percentage rotated variance that identifies how much each factor contributed to the hotel profitability structure.
2- Objectives:
This paper focuses on extracting factors constituting the structure of the hotel investigated using a set of the main observed variables in the main departments of the hotel which are Food & Beverage and Rooms departments in accordance with the Customer map variables that form the main revenue generators in hotel operation and some other expenses.
The research was conducted using purely quantitative statistical method to estimate the underlying structure of the hotel by first proposing drivers which are the seventeen observed variables defined as shown in table (1) such as: customer segment 1, customer segment 2, customer segment 3, customer segment 4, customer segment 5, rooms profit, rooms revenue, room variable costs, room fixed costs, total F&B profit, F&B revenue, F&B variable costs, F&B fixed costs, House profit, Management fees, FF&E, Incentive fees.
Descriptive statistics and correlations of the observed variables are introduced and followed by the Factor analysis used to identify the underlying structure of the hotel performance measures; principal component method is used for extraction and varimax method for rotation. This preliminary study was conducted using SPSS and results of the hotel structure are interpreted using statistical measures to understand the important dimensions of the hotel performance that can be relevant in defining policies affecting its profit.
3- Methodology and Results:
In this paper, Results are inseparable from the methodology as both of them are complementary to each other.
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
5
The internal drivers above mentioned used in this analysis were measured monthly during the period from 2006 to 2015 giving a total sample size of 120 months and customer segments are identified based on the management strategy and policy of the investigated hotel that has its own rule for guest categorization.
3-a) Investigating the sample size
The population of this study is the life time of the investigated 5star hotel since it starts working till now with a total of 276 months that represents the monthly measurements over 23 years, the working age of the hotel. The sample size collected and analyzed is 120 months that represent 43.5% of the total population that is the sampling frame of the data during 10 years from 2006 to 2015 representing 120 cases with no missing values of the measured drivers.
General recommendations for determining the minimum sample size in factor analysis relies on two main philosophies, one depends on determining the absolute number of cases (N), while the other depends on the subject-to-variable ratio (p). Arrindell and van der Ende (1985) used two large empirical data sets that have 1104 cases and 960 cases respectively to examine the minimum sample sizes and subject to variable ratios (STV) that can produce stable factor structure. By drawing sub-samples from the two large data sets, the authors found that: For the first data set, which had 76 variables, the minimum STV ratio that required to produce clear, recognizable factor solution was 1.3 and the corresponding sample size (N) was 100; and for the second data set, which has 20 variables, the minimum STV ratio was 3.9 and the corresponding sample size (N) was 78.
Kline (1979) stated that “There should be at least twice as many subjects as variables in factor-analytic investigations. This means that in any large study on this account alone, one should have to use more than the minimum 100 subjects”. Gorsuch (1983) recommended at least 100 cases.
Hatcher (1994) recommended that the number of subjects should be the larger of 5 times the number of variables, or 100. The subjects-to-variables ratio should be not lower than 5. (Bryant and Yarnold, 1995). Also, Fabrigar et al. (1999) determined that samples as low as 100 could yield stable solutions.
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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Statistical Research Findings on Minimum Sample Size has shed light on the issue of establishing a minimum desirable level of sample size, these studies used either artificial or empirical data to investigate the minimum sample size or STV ratio, MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang & Hong (1999) conducted a Monte Carlo Study on sample size effects they obtained an excellent recovery (100% convergence) of population factor structure with a sample size (N) of 60 and 20 variables. However, this result was obtained only when the level of communality(over .7 in average or all communalities should be greater than .6)
Preacher & MacCallum (2002) concluded that: “researchers and reviewers should not be overly concerned about small sample sizes as long as communalities are high, the number of expected factors is relatively small, and model error is low (a condition which often goes hand-in-hand with high communalities)”. Garson (2008) stated that more subjects are needed when communalities are low and/or few variables load on each factor.
Jung and Lee (2011) analyzed the outcomes of the factor extraction methods maximum likelihood factor analysis (MLFA), principle component analysis (PCA), and regularized exploratory factor analysis (REFA) using sample sizes less than 50. They found stable factor-loading estimates with samples of 50 cases or less.
However, the main take-away message from recent simulation studies would probably be that the quality of the results vary so much depending on the communalities, on the number of factors or the factors-to-variables ratio, etc., and that considering the variables-to-observations ratio is not a good way to decide on the required number of observations. If the conditions are auspicious, the researcher might be able to get away with a lot fewer observations than old guidelines would suggest but even the most conservative guidelines are too optimistic in some cases. (Mundfrom, et al., 2005 and De Winter, et al., 2009).
3-b) Descriptive statistical data analysis
The pre-analysis of the standardized data show a great tendency to normality explored by the descriptive statistics measurements listed in table (1). All descriptive statistics in table (1) were found significant, skewness were bounded between ± 2; kurtosis between ± 3 and confirmed no major issue ofnon–normality of the data as well as an acceptable linearity relationship
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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CommunalitiesSkewness
with St. error = 0.221
Kurtosis with St. error =
0.438
Mean (Standardized)
St. Deviation (Standardized)
Correlations
CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4 CS5CS1 .956 1.028 1.573 -.00002 1.004169 1 0.961 0.945 0.871 0.400CS2 .967 1.069 2.156 -.00007 1.004191 0.961 1 0.951 0.895 0.384CS3 .950 1.775 2.717 .00001 1.004176 0.945 0.951 1 0.857 0.309CS4 .873 1.149 1.419 -.00002 1.004209 0.871 0.895 0.857 1 0.384CS5 .616 1.554 1.144 .00002 1.004137 0.400 0.384 0.309 0.384 1
Room ProfitRoom
RevenueRoom V.Cost
Room F.Cost
Room Profit .942 -.888 1.796 .00002 1.004177 1 0.883 -0.438 -0.912
Room Revenue .963 -.763 2.461 .00002 1.004180 0.883 1 -0.352 -0.844
Room V. Cost .827 .072 .647 .00002 1.004207 -0.438 -0.352 1 0.426
Room F. Cost .953 1.207 2.004 -.00002 1.004167 -0.912 -0.844 0.426 1
F&B ProfitF&B
RevenueF&B
V.CostF&B
F.CostF&B Profit .948 .496 .048 -.00002 1.004197 1 0.978 -0.84 -0.796
F&B Revenue .940 .469 .198 -.00001 1.004227 0.978 1 -0.867 -0.79
F&B V. Cost .820 .030 .342 .00002 1.004133 -0.84 -0.867 1 0.728
F&B F. Cost .747 -.064 -1.084 .00004 1.004229 -0.796 -0.79 0.728 1
House Profit Mgt Fees FF&EIncentive
FeesHouse Profit .914 .216 -1.272 .00001 1.004221 1 -0.826 -0.82 -0.807
Mgt Fees .953 .118 -1.256 -.00003 1.004208 -0.826 1 0.994 0.979
FF&E .947 .205 -1.230 .00001 1.004203 -0.82 0.994 1 0.987
Incentive Fees .927 .275 -1.188 .00003 1.004220 -0.807 0.979 0.987 1
* N◦ of valid data = 120 and zero missing values
between measured variables which can be seen in the matrix scatter plot shown in figures (2a), (2b), (2c) and (2d). The extracted communalities expressed in table (1) represent the proportion of each variable’s variance that can be explained by the factors.
Table (1) Descriptive and correlation statistics
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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Figure (2a) Figure (2b)
Figure (2c) Figure (2d) Figure (2) Aggregated Matrix Scatter plot for customer segments, rooms, F&B and profit in the studied hotel The measured data was statistically analyzed using factor analysis with principal component extraction and varimax rotation to relate observed variables into smaller number of components called principle components using Kaiser’s criteria, the result of this test as shown in table (2) is > 0.5 indicates that the sample size is sufficient and the p-value of Bartlett’s test that is < 0.05 is indicating that the correlation matrix is not an identity matrix and there is a need for factor analysis.
The KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity values are shown in table (2), where KMO=0.903 is accepted as a good measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity confirms rejecting the null hypothesis that the original correlation matrix is an identity matrix.
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas
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Table (2) KMO for Hotel Drivers segments
3-c) Factor Analysis model The hotel has income from different departments associated with different customer segments, profit and expenses in different departments. The problem is to associate group of variables to some factors that can conclude and describe hotel performance structure.
The idea is to start asking if there is unobserved variables affecting hotel structure and try to find the number of components that identify the underlying structure of the hotel.
Whereas the most commonly employed rule for determining the number of components is to retain those components with Eigen values greater than 1 according to Kaisar method (Kaiser, 1960 and Kaisar & Caffrey, 1965). However, this method was classified as a rule of thumb by many authors as follows: Gorsuch (1974) noted that many users employ Bartlett’s method to determine the number of components that is between one third and one fifth of the number of variables associated with this use that will be referred as Bartlett's concept this was also noted by (Horn, 1979) and (Velicer, 1976). It is also noted by Mote (1970) that rotation of a greater number of components resulted in more meaningful solutions. They implied that the relatively blind use of Kaisar method may sometimes lead to the retention of too few components and it is believed by some critics to sometimes underestimate the number of components.
Gorsuch’s (2014) argued that the number of factors is expected to be between V/3 and V/5 where V is the number of variables, he also argued that the latent root ≥ 1 criterion is an approximate method not a mathematical criterion but a rule of thumb of some approximate use. Accordingly, in order to predict factors explaining hotel performance measures in our case study the Bartlett's
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .903
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx.Chi- square 3625.09
df 136 Sig. .000
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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concept was combined with Cattell's scree test (Cattell R. B.,1966), (Cattell R. B.,1978) with conditioned extraction of the percentage of variance. So, having the number of variables V= 17 in our model, the lower and upper bound of number of factors will lie between 3 and 5. Plotting the roots for examining different numbers of factors as shown in fig (3) we can see the straight edge laid on the lower roots to determine the stopping point at the end of this straight line appearing on the scree plot that end at component No.6, this leads to exclude all the factors starting from this point which means that the upper bound of components that can be used in this model is 5, and putting a condition limiting the percentage of variance extracted to be > 5% will lead to identify the number of factors selected to be 4.
Fig (3) the Scree Plot
The extracted and rotated cumulated variance explained for each component of the factor model are shown in table (3a) from which it was found that 4 factors were responsible for 89.666% of the hotel variance in the case studied and the most important extracted factor is food and beverage department that explains approximately 63.096% of the variance extracted during the period of the study, followed by customer segments factor with 13.303% of variance then hotel profit Management factor that explains 8.111% of variance and then room department factor with 5.156% of variance in the model. Table (3-b) represents the highest correlations between variables and the components extracted neglecting factor loadings less than 0.5
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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1 2 3 4
Rev.CS1 .851
Rev.CS2 .876
Rev.CS3 .900
Rev.CS4 .836
Rev.CS5 .758
R.Profit .867
R.Revenue .940
R.Variable.Cost -.871
R.Fixed.Cost -.835
FB.Profit .802
FB.Revenue .813
FB.Variable.Cost -.776
FB.Fixed.Cost -.600
HouseProfit .701
MGTFees -.816
FF_E -.819
Inc.Fees -.806
Rotated Component Matrixa
Component
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.
Table (3a) Total variance explained
Table (3b) Rotated component matrix for hotel drivers
4- Discussions and Conclusion:
To interpret the underlying dimension obtained from the analysis, it can be seen from results in table (1) that communalities are greater than 0.6. So, none of the variable will be ignored when interpreting the solution and from tables (3a) & (3b) together it could be concluded that:
Total% of
VarianceCumulative
% Total% of
Variance Cumulative % Total% of
VarianceCumulativ
e %
1 10.726 63.096 63.096 10.726 63.096 63.096 4.411 25.946 25.946
2 2.262 13.303 76.400 2.262 13.303 76.400 4.017 23.629 49.575
3 1.379 8.111 84.511 1.379 8.111 84.511 3.969 23.344 72.920
4 .876 5.156 89.666 .876 5.156 89.666 2.847 16.747 89.666
5 .558 3.283 92.950
6 .317 1.867 94.817
7 .241 1.418 96.235
8 .170 1.000 97.235
9 .145 .852 98.087
10 .106 .622 98.709
11 .063 .368 99.077
12 .052 .308 99.385
13 .042 .245 99.630
14 .028 .164 99.794
15 .016 .097 99.891
16 .015 .090 99.981
17 .003 .019 100.000
Total Variance Explained
ComponentInitial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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a) The first component that groups the variables F&B profit, F&B revenue, F&B variable cost and F&B fixed cost explains 25.946% of the total variance which represent factor (1) with loadings 0.802, 0.813, -0.776, -0.66 respectively.
b) The second component explains 23.629% of the total variance using the variables revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4 and revCS5 which are strongly attached to factor (2) with loadings 0.851, 0.876, 0.900, 0.836, and 0.758 respectively. This means that customer segments have a strong impact on hotel performance.
c) The third component explains 23.344% of the total variance through some variables such as: House profit, Management fees, FF&E and Incentive fees which load together to represent factor (3) with loadings 0.701 , - 0.816 , - 0.819 , - 0.806 respectively.
d) The fourth component explains 16.747% of the total variance through its related variables such as: Room profit, Room revenue, Room variable cost and Room fixed cost which load together to represent factor (4) with loadings 0.867, 0.940, -0.871, -0.835 respectively.
The results of the factor analysis shown in table (3a) show that the 4 underlying factors of the hotel extracted can explain a proportion of 89.666% of the total variance, and that the underlying structure of the hotel is highly dependent on revenue from its different customer segments as can be seen from component No.2 which explains a proportion of 23.629% of the rotated variance and as found in table (3b) variables associated with this component which are revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4 and revCS5 are highly correlated to it.
Identifying the name of each component shown in table (3b) that represents grouping of variables with the amount of variance associated to each group of variables as shown in table (3a) will be listed as follows:
* Component No.1 “Food and Beverage Department” which is explained by the variables: F&B profit, F&B revenue, F&B fixed cost and F&B variable cost is responsible of 25.946% of the rotated variance.
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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* Component No.2 “Customer Segments” which is explained by the variables: revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4, revCS5 is responsible of 23.629% of the rotated variance.
* Component No.3 “Profit Management” which is explained by the variables: House Profit, Management Fees, Fixed Furniture &Equipment and Incentive Fees is responsible of 23.344% of the rotated variance.
* Component No.4 “Rooms Department” which is explained by the variables: Rooms profit, Rooms revenue, Rooms fixed cost and Rooms variable cost is responsible of 16.747% of the rotated variance.
Hotel drivers such as: F&B profit, F&B revenue, Room profit, Room revenue, revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4, revCS5 and House profit that had contributed significantly to factors 1,2,3 are positively affecting the hotel structure. While F&B variable cost , F&B fixed cost, Room variable cost , Room fixed cost , Management fees, FF&E and Incentive fees that had contributed significantly to factor 1,3,4 are negatively affecting the hotel structure, this explains the effect of the negative correlations found in table (3b).
As a result, this study identifies fewer factors to explain the underlying structure of the hotel as listed in tables (3a ), (3b) that shows the percent of variance explained by each factor, the highest correlations between variables and factors, communalities as shown in table (1) and variance proportions explained by each factor.
5- Recommendations:
From the above results, it is recommended to recall the importance of customer segmentation in customer profitability analysis through a description of the hotel structure as nowadays this analysis appears as a powerful tool to allow the hotel management to consider the profit from a customer perspective. It is also recommended to repeat this analysis to other hotels to discover their underlying structures and use this approach in customer related decisions and marketing plans.
Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt
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Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star
Hotel in Egypt
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi, Mohamed Hany Bahey, Tamer Abbas Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University
Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to derive a relation between customer segments, different hotel departments and hotel profitability in a 5-star hotel in Egypt using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques applied by AMOS 20.
The sample size appropriateness was discussed. A confirmatory factor model was proposed using SPSS 20, validity and reliability coefficients of this model such as: average variance extracted (AVE), composite reliability (CR), maximum shared squared variance (MSV) and average shared squared variance (ASV) are computed, all are found above the recommended criteria demonstrating a high level of discriminant validity, giving a high evidence that the proposed factors and their related variables are valid for studying relationship among constructs.
The AMOS model fit parameters such as: Chi- square divided by degree of freedom (CMIN/df), Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index (PGFI), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Relative Fit Index (RFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) are found within the standard ranges identified. The weight estimates of the AMOS model and their probabilities indicate that the internal drivers studied are significant to hotel profitability at a confidence level greater than 95%. The structural model validity was assessed using the standardized residual covariate results that were found <│2.5│providing a good fit of the data model.
A remarkable significance of this study is of taking the initiative for applying SEM techniques in Egypt to test the proposed conceptual model for studying hotel profitability factor’s effect using real data from 2006 to 2015.
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
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Keywords: Modern hotel management, hotel profitability, customer segmentation, customer profitability, confirmatory factor analysis, Structural Equation Modeling.
1 - Introduction:
Profitability is the key to the long-term survival and growth of any organization. In modern lodging industry, profitability analysis in general is a tool which enables managers to evaluate company’s performance; customer segmentation is one of the most fundamental drivers in hospitality management that can drive hotel profitability (Noone and Griffin, 1997).
The hospitality industry evolved into a global industry. For many people, hospitality services have become an integral component of business and social life, therefore hotel managers must incorporate services which customers demand. Customer profitability analysis CPA is a potent tool for marketing intelligence gatherers and strategic planners to understand how profitability is distributed within the customer base (Raaij, 2005).
Concerning hotel profitability Timothy (2013) stated that despite enormous variations in profitability, many hotels continue unprofitable relationships with customers, often providing them with pricing and service levels identical to those received by the most profitable ones. Why? In most cases, hotels simply do not know who the unprofitable customers are. As such, they cannot develop marketing strategies or manage costs accordingly.
Nowadays the use of customer profitability analysis appears as a powerful tool to allow management to consider the profit from a customer perspective. Customer profitability analysis CPA is the reporting and analysis of revenues earned from customers and the costs incurred to earn those revenues (Horngren et al. 2005).
There are several existing terms in the literature referring to customer profitability (Mulhern, 1999). Pfeifer et al (2004) used a definition where customer profitability is connected with the current understanding of the concept of accounting profitability. The design of the models in use can be customized by the company and even the characteristics of the customer relationship influence how the costs are assigned. However, the different
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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approaches all measure customer profitability, i.e., the difference between revenues and costs, assigned to a specific customer relationship.
Hotel managers usually have two main sources of information: accounting information and market research. Traditional, accounting information is used to analyze past performance, evaluate departmental income and establish the budget. Market research is used to evaluate customer needs and satisfaction and forecast future business. There is a strong degree of interdependency between these two sources of information (Downie, 1997). Cross and Dixit (2006) stated that “poor managerial decisions related to pricing, activities identification, creation and other organizational issues are due to lack of awareness of customer profitability analysis that is why modern decision-making purposes rely on knowing which is which and refers to the process of dividing customers into groups in order to provide differential advertising or value propositions to different customer groups”.
The emphasis should be to develop accounting information and reports to support marketing decision making in hotels, to increase customer profitability. Customer profitability can be assessed in a number of ways. Assessment may vary from sales minus direct customer costs to budgeted lifetime sales minus direct and indirect costs (Van Raaij et al.2003).
According to Smith and Dikolli (2005), CPA management will at least be armed with information about unprofitable customers and can focus attention on developing innovations which might reduce the lack of profits from particular customers, without reducing customers’ satisfaction. An analysis of customer profitability measures the contribution to a firm’s profit per customer (Lind and Wedin, 2006). Also Vigerie (2007) stated that identification of customer segments is most effective when hotel management tailors offerings to segments of customers that are the most profitable and serves them with distinct competitive advantages. This prioritization can help hotels develop marketing campaigns and pricing strategies to extract maximum value from both high- and low profit customers.
The computation tool used in the present analysis is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using AMOS 20 as Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) stated that SEM is a powerful quantitative data analytical technique which estimates and tests theoretical relationships between variables and does not designate a single statistical technique but rather a family of relevant procedures including
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
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analysis of covariance structure, this combines regression and factor analysis as well.
SEM is a path analytical method for handling multiple relationships and assessing relationships from exploratory analysis to confirmatory analysis. SEM also estimates multiple regression equations simultaneously through specifying the structural model (Hair et al., 2010). The SEM approach starts with model specification that links the variables assumed to affect other variables and directionalities of those effects (Kline, 2011). SEM can also estimate and test theoretical relationships between observed endogenous variables and latent, unobserved exogenous variables (Bryne, 2010)
This study is concentrated on analyzing main factors of the hotel investigated, such as Rooms, food and beverage, and house profit in accordance with customer segments map which are the main revenue generators of any hotel operation. These factors were statistically derived and defined using an exploratory factor analysis model by (El Kafafi et al., 2018) in which the main hotel factors obtained and their related variables are defined as the major internal drivers affecting hotel profitability in a 5-star hotel in Egypt.
The selected drivers constituting hotel operation used in this study are: Customer segments revenues Rev CS1; Rev CS2; Rev CS3; Rev CS4; Rev CS5. Rooms Profit, rooms revenue, room variable costs that are incurred when a unit of capacity is sold, for example, the additional energy, water, cleaning cost and the cost of breakfast (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012), room fixed costs which are costs that must be paid regardless of the volume of units sold, for example cost of loans, wages, equipment, advertising, and energy regardless of its occupancy rates (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012). Food and beverage profit, food and beverage revenue, food and beverage variable costs that are the sum of payroll, benefits and training costs and maintenance (Kotas, 2014), food and beverage fixed costs are that spent in marketing, advertising, management salaries, office operations, wages and the associated benefits (Kotas, 2014). House Profit also called “gross operating profit” (GOP) is used primarily as a measurement of management’s ability to maximize revenues, control expenses and maximize profits (Hales, 2006).
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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Management Fees also called “percentage fees” can be defined when the hotel owners rented out the property to a hotel company for management and the rental agreement was based on a percentage of total sales (Sungchon & Yu, 2012). FF&E are movable furniture, fixtures and other equipment that have no permanent connection to the structure of a building or utilities, for example desks, chairs, computers, electronic equipment tables, bookcases and partitions (Waymon, 1998). Incentive Fees also called “performance fees” are considered to induce fund managers to work harder on portfolio optimization as they participate in any excess return they are going to realize (Gregoriou, 2008). 2- Objectives:
The key research idea in this article is to provide an automated method to measure to what extent customer segments can affect main hotel divisions such as rooms and Food and beverage, and to study how much the overall hotel profitability can be affected by the selected hotel drivers mentioned above using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). In this study an analysis of the overall hotel profitability as well as room profit and food and beverage profit that are based on the effect of customer segments were performed using statistical methods to create a numerical relation quantifying each customer segment profitability. This leads to obtain assumptions as to how customer value analysis incorporate in the overall hotel framework to set out tools and measures that will attempt to calculate profitability in terms of customer segments. This creates an attempt to stimulate financial managers to take the lead to translate this analysis to actions and create the culture of value.
3 - Methodology:
The population of this study is the life time of the investigated 5star hotel since it starts working till now with a total of 276 months that represent the monthly measurements during 23 years, the working age of the hotel. The sample size collected and analyzed is 120 months that represent 43.5% of the total population that is the sampling frame of the data during 10 years from 2006 to 2015 representing 120 cases with no missing values of the measured drivers.
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
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Referring to the investigation of the sample size explained by (El Kafafi et al. 2018) in which it was concluded from several references listed there that the quality of results are no more depending on large number of cases as in traditional statistical analysis.
Hair et al.(2010) stated that: “As SEM matures and additional research is undertaken on key research design issues, previous guidelines such as: “always maximize your sample size and sample sizes of 300 are required” are no longer appropriate. It is still true that larger samples generally produce more stable solutions that are more likely to be replicable, but it has been shown that sample size decisions must be made based on a set of factors”. They also suggested the following for minimum sample sizes based on model complexity and basic measurement model characteristics as follows: Minimum sample size of 100 cases for Models containing five or fewer constructs, each with more than three items (observed variables) and with high item communalities (.6 or higher).
The research was conducted using purely quantitative methods to support Hotel Management in detecting changes in the mutual guest–hotel relationship and advice the suitable treatment for maintaining high level of profitability. The goal is to estimate the effect of each customer segment on hotel profitability through the main hotel division’s j and variables related to each division.
First, we refer to the exploratory factor model presented in (El Kafafi et al, 2018) for defining and analyzing the most important variables or the internal drivers used in this study such as: customer segment 1, customer segment 2, customer segment 3, customer segment 4, customer segment 5; rooms profit, rooms revenue, room variable cost, room fixed cost; food and beverage profit, food and beverage revenue, food and beverage variable cost, food and beverage fixed cost; House profit, Management fees, FF&E and Incentive fees.
Second, validity and reliability were checked using the confirmatory factor analysis model shown in fig (2) and finally the SEM model was derived as shown in fig (3) and results are discussed.
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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The population of this study is the life time of a 5star hotel and the sampling frame is the hotel data during 10 years from 2006 to 2015 representing 120 cases with no missing values of the measured drivers. Analysis continued to derive a statistical relation based on increase or decrease of values in profitability in terms of the internal drivers identified.
Customer segments are identified based on hotel policy and management strategy, each hotel has its own rule for guest categorization and customer profit management strategy that is identified in the three recurring steps shown in fig. (1).
Figure (1): The customer profit management strategy
The measured data was first analyzed using factor analysis with principal component extraction and varimax rotation to relate observed variables into smaller number of components called principle components as derived from (El Kafafi et al. 2018). Validity and reliability results of the confirmatory factor model are computed using the following equations (a), (b), (c) and (d) and are shown in table (1) (Hair et al., 2010; Fornell, 1981). Average Variance Extracted formula Composite Reliability formula
AVE … (a) …(b)
Identify customer segmentation
Identify a relation between major hotel sectors and net profit
Identify a relation between customer segments and major hotel sectors
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
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MSV = (Corr)² …(c) ASV … (d)
Where λ = standardized factor loading n = number of items δ = error of variance m = number of constructs corr = correlation between constructs Table (1) Validity and Reliability of the overall factor model (Measurement theory ssessment)
Average Variance Extracted
(AVE)
Composite Reliability
(CR)
Maximum Shared Squared Variance
(MSV)
Average Shared Squared Variance
(ASV)
customer 0.76484 0.93736 0.4225 0.3721 0.3844 0.393
Rooms 0.714125 0.90213 0.2704 0.4225 0.2116 0.3015 Food and Beverage
0.8433 0.95372 0.6241 0.3721 0.2704 0.4222
Profit 0.90815 0.97528 0.6241 0.2116 0.3844 0.4067
The reliability and validity coefficients listed in table (1) are all fulfilling the recommended criteria as follows: CR>0.7, AVE>0.5, MSV<AVE, ASV<AVE indicating that the observed variables are reasonably good measurement of each latent factor and are reliable for measuring relationship in the model and demonstrated a high level of discriminant validity of the constructs. As can be seen from table (1) all composite reliability coefficients (CR) are higher than 0.7 showing an acceptable level of reliability (Bryne, 2010).
Explaining the discriminant validity we can find from table (1) that shared variances between latent variables ASV are less than AVE (Kline, 2011), AVE > 0.5 is explaining a convergent validity.
For nomological validity it was found that each latent variable behaves to an acceptable degree of significance as it should within the conceptual system, this can be also seen in table (3) where all the relationships are significant at 0.01 level providing evidence of nomological validity, such findings have been reported by Hair et al. (2010).
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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The Confirmatory factor model was then created as shown in figure (2).
Figure (2) Confirmatory factor model
The SEM approach starts by visualizing a representation of the theoretical hypotheses and the measurement scheme is specified by linking the variables assumed to affect each other and determining directionalities of effects that finally develops a model in a way to extend the acceptance of modern hotel management techniques.
The structural equation model derived for hotel profitability analysis is shown in fig (3), it describes the relationship between Customer Segments, Rooms, food and beverage departments and profit, results of the model fittings are shown in table (2).
Table (2) Model Fit parameters (structural theory assessment) CMIN/DF P GFI AGFI NFI RFI CFI RMSEA 1.538 0.008 0.934 0.806 0.979 0.946 0.993 0.067
The conceptual model proposed used a theory based on the organizational literature and the collected data that might possibly relate hotel profitability to
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
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major drivers in the hotel, the model tests the hypothesis that customer segments can indirectly affect hotel profit through rooms and food and beverage departments as well as the direct effect of rooms and food and beverage departments on total profit and the effect of customer segments on rooms and food and beverage departments.
Figure (3) Structural Equation model The above model is a non-recursive SEM model in which relations between constructs are identified according to the direction that is assumed to affect the link between these hidden variables following the conceptual theory proposed by Hair et al., (2010). In summary, these results further suggest that customer segments are a major determinant in profitability analysis.
4- Results and conclusion
From the measurement model’s test results using confirmatory factor analysis shown in table (1) that are computed using equations (a), (b), (c) and (d) it was
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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found that CR > 0.7, AVE > 0.5, MSV < AVE and ASV < AVE which tell us that construct indicators are reliable and to enable the structural model to study relationships among the constructs with a high degree of evidence according to the standard criteria recommended for validity and reliability explained in (Fornell et al., 1981, Hair et al., 2010).
The model fit parameters shown in table (2) are found to fulfill the criteria of the standard AMOS fit results recommended and identified by (James, 2012) as follows: CMIN/df < 2, RMSEA < 0.08, GFI, NFI and RFI > 0.9 at level of significance p= 0.05 this can be proved by comparing these criteria to the results of table (2) that are the indicators of model fit parameters obtained from SEM model. Comparing these indicators with the standard AMOS fit indicators listed above we can see that RMSEA value computed is 0.067 < 0.08, p = 0.008 < 0.05, NFI, CFI and GFI were above 0.9, in addition to these indices X2 was within the threshold level (i.e. 1.0 < x2/df < 3.0), these results indicate that the structural model provides the good fit to the data.
Table (3): Factor loadings estimated by SEM model (*** p <0.01) Estimate P
Rooms <--- Customer .598 *** Food_And_Beverage <--- Customer .477 *** Profit <--- Food_And_Beverage .452 *** Profit <--- Rooms .660 *** Rev.CS1 <--- Customer .974 Rev.CS2 <--- Customer .983 *** Rev.CS3 <--- Customer .961 *** Rev.CS4 <--- Customer .890 *** Rev.CS5 <--- Customer .380 *** R.Profit <--- Rooms .934 R.Revenue <--- Rooms .715 *** R.Variable.Cost <--- Rooms -.341 *** R.Fixed.Cost <--- Rooms -.980 *** FB.Profit <--- Food_And_Beverage 1.000 FB.Revenue <--- Food_And_Beverage .976 *** FB.Variable.Cost <--- Food_And_Beverage -.881 *** FB.Fixed.Cost <--- Food_And_Beverage -.762 *** HouseProfit <--- Profit .801 MGTFees <--- Profit -1.000 *** FF_E <--- Profit -.989 *** Inc.Fees <--- Profit -.987 ***
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
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AMOS weight estimates and probabilities are presented in table (3), from these results we can see the relation between the proposed drivers and profit, the results are highly significant with p < 0.01 indicating that the internal drivers studied are significant to hotel profitability at a confidence level greater than 95%.
Moreover the path estimates obtained in table (3) show that our initial theory is leading to an empirical and theoretical evidence of the causal relationships between the identified components in the SEM model, so we can conclude from tables (2) and (3) respectively that the parameter coefficient obtained are reaching the standard AMOS values at a higher statistical level of significance > 95%.
From figure (3) we can conclude that rooms are affected by customers with loadings 0.6, customer segment 1 is affecting rooms by (0.97*0.60 = 0.582), customer segment 2 is affecting rooms by 0.588, customer segment 3 is affecting rooms by 0.576, customer segment 4 is affecting rooms by 0.534, and customer segment 5 is affecting rooms by 0.228.
Food and beverage is affected by customers with loadings 0.48, customer segment 1 is affecting food and beverage by (0.97*0.48 = 0.466), customer segment 2 is affecting food and beverage by 0.470, customer segment 3 is affecting food and beverage by 0.461, customer segment 4 is affecting food and beverage by 0.427, customer segment 5 is affecting food and beverage by 0.182.
Hotel Profitability is affected by rooms with loading 0.66 and by food and beverage with loading 0.45.
In assessing the structural model validity, it can be seen from standardized residual covariance results shown in table (4) that values are less than the acceptable range │2.5│ and providing good fit to data.
Both the goodness of fit indices and standardized residual covariance results were examined to test fitness of the structural model to the data as illustrated in tables (2) and (4) respectively.
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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Inc.Fees FF_E MGTFees HousProfit FB.F.Cost FB.V.Cost FB.Rev. FB.Profit R.F.Cost R.V.Cost R.Revenue R.Profit Rev.CS5 Rev.CS4 Rev.CS3 Rev.CS2 Rev.CS1
Inc.Fees 0.835FF_E 0.841 0.833MGTFees 0.898 0.904 0.971HousProfit -0.954 -0.997 -1.036 0.997FB.F.Cost 1.234 1.251 1.268 -0.89 0.819FB.V.Cost 0.775 0.82 0.87 -0.846 0.789 0.427FB.Rev. -0.986 -1.062 -1.126 1.22 -1.087 -0.683 0.906FB.Profit -0.942 -1.029 -1.089 1.241 -1.097 -0.736 0.954 0.983R.F.Cost 0.213 0.258 0.289 -2.029 1.689 1.098 -1.137 -1.213 0.198R.V.Cost 0.584 0.56 0.591 -0.732 0.048 0.514 -0.766 -0.807 1.706 0.258R.Rev. 0.23 0.135 0.217 1.855 -1.301 -0.779 0.693 0.792 -0.265 -1.662 0.384R.Profit -0.063 -0.063 -0.021 1.813 -1.59 -0.755 0.746 0.845 -0.144 -1.367 0.243 0.153Rev.CS5 -0.672 -0.827 -0.934 1.327 -1.501 -0.601 1.007 1.202 -0.209 -1.119 -0.305 -0.086 0.412Rev.CS4 -0.989 -0.939 -0.967 1.854 -1.843 -1.46 2.082 2.08 -0.754 -2.384 0.549 0.976 0.721 0.566Rev.CS3 -0.425 -0.369 -0.335 1.351 -1.417 -0.592 1.248 1.346 -0.626 -2.06 0.86 1.009 0.124 0.65 0.818Rev.CS2 -0.703 -0.708 -0.667 1.635 -1.682 -1.011 1.65 1.748 -0.89 -2.22 0.838 1.009 0.359 0.707 0.727 0.567Rev.CS1 -1.022 -1.075 -1.036 1.892 -1.836 -1.265 1.907 1.999 -1.206 -2.352 1.023 1.283 0.69 0.781 0.978 0.818 1.039
Table (4) Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
All the obtained measures are within the range criteria that would be accepted as a good fit and suggest that the structural model does a good job explaining the observed covariance matrix and relationships among constructs with high confidence level. This assures that the profit plan computed can be considered as a forward step toward continuous hotel financial performance refinement as well as in redefining customer segments characteristics according to new segmentation parameters discovered and the periodical evaluation implemented.
This can also lead to directed updates of marketing plans, prices, management process and profit and as hotels move forward in measurement and analysis of hotel profitability. Thus, the hotel may redefine customer segments after discovering new segmentation parameters related to customers’ needs that management should respond by increasingly turning to an oriented customer segment management for creating competitive advantage and achieving effective targeting.
Finally we can resume that the analysis applied includes lead and lag effects of the main internal drivers selected on hotel profitability and is testing the relationships between Profit and the income from Rooms and Food & Beverage departments through actual customer segments in the hotel, which proved its effectiveness on other drivers affecting hotel profitability. It can be also concluded that the above findings suggest that observations studied over the period of the study from 2006 to 2015 can act as a fundamental analysis for
Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel
in Egypt ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
29
future short term prediction of hotel financial analysis under a similar external and internal environment.
5- Recommendations:
This model can be considered beneficial in assessing financial statement and forecasting future financial performance and outcome given new market segmentation strategy. The results can be applicable in decision-making process to support customer related decision and allow the management to reallocate hotel resources to meet changes in marketing policy, so the management can set the strategy to improve the hotel profitability. Application of this model to other hotels is also recommended.
References:
Bryne, B.M (2010). Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, Applications and programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associated: London
Cross, R.G and Dixit, A., (2006). Customer centric pricing: the surprising secret for profitability. Business Horizons (2005) 48, 483—491
Downie, N., (1997). The use of accounting information in hotel marketing decisions, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 16 (3),305-312
El Kafafi, R.A., Bahey, M.H. and Abbas, T., (2018). Identifying Hotel Performance Structure using factor analysis – A case study in a 5-star hotel in Egypt. International Academic Journal- Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management Helwan University (IAJFTH), Vol.5, No.2
Fornell, C. and David F.L. (1981). Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (February), 39-50.
Gregoriou, G. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Alternative investments. CRC Press. p.234
Hair, J., Black, W. and Babin, B. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis: A global perspective: (7th edition) Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education.
Hales, J. (2006). Accounting and Financial Analysis in the Hospitality industry. Routledge. p.22
Horngren, T., Foster, G., and Datar, M. (2005). Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis. 12th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education , Inc.
Inkson, C. and Minnaert, L. (2012). Tourism Management. Sage. p.127 James L. A. (2012) IBM SPSS Amos User’s guide
Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
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Kline, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural Equation Modeling. The Guilford Press: New York
Kotas, R. (2014). Management Accounting for Hotels and Restaurants. Routledge. P.28
Lind, J. and Wedin, T., (2006). When do firms use customer accounting? Journal of Economic Literature, 23, pp. 48-90.
Mulhern, F.J., (1999). Customer profitability Analysis: Measurement, Concentration, and Research Directions.” Journal of Interactive Marketing 13(1): 25-40.
Noone, B. and Griffin, P. (1997). Enhancing yield management with customer profitability analysis, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 9 (2), pp.75-79,
Pfeifer, P.E., Haskins, M.E. and Conroy, R.M., (2004). Customer Lifetime Value, Customer profitability, and the Treatment of Acquisition Spending. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 2(9), 75-79.
Raaij, E.M., (2005). The Strategic Value of Customer Profitability Analysis. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 23(4), pp.372 – 381.
Smith, M. and Dikolli, S., (2005). Customer Profitability Analysis: An Activity-Based Costing Approach. Managerial Auditing Journal, 10(7), pp.3-7.
Sungchon, K. and Yu, L. (2012). The International hospitality business: Management and Operations. Routledge. p.142
Tabachnick, B.G. and Fidell, L.S, (2013). Using Multivariate statistics. Allyn and Bacon: Boston, Mass
Timothy, L.G Lockyer (2013). Global Cases on Hospitality Industry, Routledge, p 25
Van Raaij, F., Vernooij, M.J.A. and Van Triest S. (2003). The Implementation of customer profitability analysis: A case study. Industrial Marketing Management, 32, 573-583.
Vigerie, P., Smith S., and Baghai M., (2007). Making Choices That Drive Enduring Company Performance (New York: Cyan/Marshall Cavendish), 71-103
Waymon, L. (1998). Starting your own small business. Research and Education Association. p.50
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
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Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
Dina Ahmed Ali Khediwy Noha Shalaby Khaled Gharib
Abstract
In ancient Egypt, people believed that human existence did not come to an
end with death, but they believed in afterlife.1 The belief in afterlife was
continued until the Graeco-Roman period, and some aspects of the Egyptian
funerary religion were retained as fundamental. When the Greeks arrived to
Egypt, they followed burial customs either through cremation or inhumation.
The ashes of the corpse were put into an urn. Then, this urn was buried either
in a loculus or in a Kline. Through time, the majority of the Greeks followed
the burial customs of the Egyptians like the mummification.2
The belief in afterlife led to a series of developments in burial customs
throughout the Pharaonic period and Greaco-Roman period. These centuries
witnessed all the attempts to preserve the bodies in better condition by
mummifying them or by drying them, putting the body inside a mummy
container to preserve it from the destruction, and finally burying the mummy
in a tomb after the funeral rituals.3 The religious and funerary beliefs were
vital forces, so many art works connected with them like the decoration of
mummies, coffins, or sarcophagi, and the use of mummy mask.4
1Germer, R., (et al.), Mummies: Life after Death in Ancient Egypt, (Munich; New York:
Prestel, 1997), 20. 2
.224،(1998 ،)االسكندرية ،اثار االسكندرية القديمة عزت زكي حامد قادوس ،3Lloyd, A. B., "Mummification", in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Vol.2,
Redford, D. B., and Spanel, D. B. (eds.), (Oxford: Oxford U Press, 2001), 440. 4 Amira Ibrahim Zaki Selim, The Iconography of the Coffins in the Graeco-Roman Period,
PH.D, unpublished, Helwan University, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, (Cairo,
2009). 177.
31
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
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Keywords Loculus; Kline, Mummification; Sarcophagi, Hellenistic;
Klinai; Lenos
Introduction
The title of this article is (Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman
Period).A little number of sarcophagi which are decorated with two garlands
on the front side was found. The three sarcophagi are made of limestone and
divided into two parts according to the shape of the lid, the vaulted lid and
the gabled lid. One of these sarcophagi is unique, as it is decorated with floral
garlands on the three sides. The three sides are identical in decoration.5
This article is a part of the thesis which entitled (The Decoration on the
Greek Sarcophagi during the Graeco-Roman Period), and it is devoted to
the funerary iconography on the Greek sarcophagi and the religious and the
secular significances of these motifs during Graeco-Roman Period not only in
Egypt, but also in the neighboring countries.
1-Akheel Sarcophagus with Vaulted Lid:
Material: Limestone.
Provenance: Mina El Basal cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.
Present location: Kom El Shokafa cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.
Date: Ptolemaic period.
Dimensions: Height: 87 cm. Width: 93 cm. Length: 210 cm.
Bibiography:
- ابراهيم سعد ابراهيم، التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني، رسالة دكتوراه غير
منشورة، ، كلية اآلداب- جامعة طنطا، )الغربية،1992(، 247:237.
- Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo,
1961), 21.
ابراهيم، التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني،رسالة دكتوراه غير منشورة،، كلية اآلداب- ابراهيم سعد5
جامعة طنطا، )الغربية،1992(، 237.
32
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
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Plate 1: The sarcophagus of Akheel.
After: Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo, 1961),
Tav.1, fig. 1.
Description
It is a rectangular box with a low vaulted lid which symbolized the dome of
the sky. The lid represents a continuation, in terms of vault figure, to wooden
sarcophagi lids in the Late Pharaonic period. Each long side of the lid has
three broad protrusions which end with carved lion rearing its head. These
three broad protrusions act as handle of the lid. the name of the sarcophagus'
owner is inscribed with Greek letters in bas-relief on the rectangular edge of
the lid as "ΑΧΙΛΑΕΥς ΕyΨΥΧΕI", Achillaeous. It is also engraved with
alphabetical error on the right short side of the lid as "ΑΧΙΛΛΛΕyΨΥΕI".6
The researcher suggests that the owner of the sarcophagus has a Greek origin,
as his name was written with Greek letters as Achillaeous, and not in Latin as
Achilles, although the inscription dates back to 1st century A.D.
6 Fraser, P. M., " Bibliography: Graeco-Roman Egypt Greek Inscriptions", JEA 43 (1957),
101.
33
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
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The front long side is decorated with a long floral branch. The floral branch
is hanging above three bull heads forming two garlands in the middle. The
two ends of the branch are vertically falling down, one on each side. The two
garlands consist of different types of fruits as doum, pineapple, grapes, and
mainly laurel leaves. A triangular grape cluster is hanging from both
garlands. It is attached to each cluster an imitation of metal ring.
The three bull heads are depicted in front profile. Two strips are falling down
from each bull head, one strip at each side of the head. There is a high relief
semicircle between the two horns where the strip is passing through. The
eyes are carved in a shape of deep circle which edged with cilia. Each
garland is surmounted with a huge snake. The two snakes coiled and facing
each other.
The right snake is directing to left, while the left snake is directing to right.
The head of the two snakes is touching the upper edge of the sarcophagus.
The left snake is huger than the right one. Each snake is coiling around itself
twice. The space between the two rolls of the left snake's body is bigger than
that of the right snake's body. It is suggested that the right snake is referring
to Osiris, while the left one is referring to Isis.
In these garland-sarcophagi it is usual to find the space above the garlands
filled with masks, lions' heads, rosettes, portrait-busts, or Medusa-heads
which carved on the sarcophagi to protect it from any external danger, but
nothing unusual in finding snakes on funerary monuments. The snake was a
protector deity in afterlife, a symbol of resurrection and a spirit of the earth,
and it related to the underworld and death. The serpent is a symbol of
wisdom and consciousness in Greek civilization. It was associated with many
ancient myths, whether of God or of human.7 The researcher suggests that the
snakes replaced Medusa on this sarcophagus to do her role in protecting the
7Cormack, J. M. R., "A Garland-Sarcophagus in Beroea", in The Annual of the British School
at Athens, Vol. 41, (British School at Athens, 1940 – 1945), 116.
34
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
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sarcophagus and the deceased. As a result, the snakes are depicted in attack
position to threaten the true snakes.
The sarcophagus dates back to Ptolemaic period, technically, but the style of
the Greek letters dates back to 1st century AD. So this inscription is probably
later than the style of the sarcophagus.8 Alexandrian sarcophagi aren't
inscribed, and it is the only sarcophagus having the name of the owner. He
may have wanted to confirm his ownership of the sarcophagus, as he took it
from one of the Hellenistic tombs. It indicates that this sarcophagus was
reused and inscribed in the imperial period.9
Plate. 2: Sarcophagus of Beroea.
After: Cormack, J. M. R., "A Garland-Sarcophagus in Beroea", in The Annual of the British
School at Athens, Vol. 41, (British School at Athens, 1940 – 1945), 115.
There is another identical garland sarcophagus in Beroea, Greece. It dates
back to 2nd century A.D. They are similar in their decoration, but with some
differences such as the position and shape of the two snakes, the two
8Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo, 1961), 21. 9 Fraser, P. M., " Bibliography: Graeco-Roman Egypt Greek Inscriptions", JEA 43 (1957),
101.
35
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
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garlands' style, and the material of manufacture of the two sarcophagi. These
differences indicate that the Alexandrian sarcophagus is earlier than the
sarcophagus of Beroea.10
The right snake of Beroean sarcophagus is also smaller than the left one,
coiling around itself once, and extending its head to the beginning of the right
garland. While the left snake is larger than the right one, coiling around itself
twice, and extending its head at the beginning of the left garland. The right
snake is female, while the left one is male.11
2-Garland Sarcophagus of Unknown Person with Vaulted Lid:
Material: Limestone.
Provenance: Anfushi cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.
Present location: Graeco-Roman Museum, Alexandria - Egypt.
Number: 24874.
Date: Ptolemaic period.
Dimensions: Height with lid: 80 cm. Height without lid: 64 cm.
Width: 93 cm. Length: 211 cm.
Bibiography:
غير رسالة دكتوراه ،يالتوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والرومان ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد
.252:248 (،1992،الغربية) ،جامعة طنطا -اآلدابكلية ، ،منشورة
- Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo,
1961), 21.
- Database of Anfushi cemetery.
Plate 3:The garland sarcophagus and its front side.
After: Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo, 1961),
Tav.2, fig. 5.
10 Cormack, J. M. R., "A Garland-Sarcophagus in Beroea", in The Annual of the British
School at Athens. Vol. 41, (British School at Athens, 1940 – 1945), 116. 11 Loc.cit.
36
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
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Plate 4:The left short side of the sarcophagus.
After: Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo, 1961),
Tav.2, fig. 7.
Description
It is a rectangular box with a low vaulted lid which symbolizes the dome of
the sky. Each long side of the lid has three broad protrusions which end with
carved lion rearing its head. These three broad protrusions act as handle of
the lid. The front long side of the lid is decorated with two garlands of ivy
leaves which are carved in high relief and vertical position.
The left short side of the lid is centered with a high-relief mask of Medousa
that was carved in Hellenistic style of art. The Medusa is surrounded by a
branch of grapes which is coiled forming three spirals at each side. The first
two spirals have a grape leave, and the third one has a quadrilateral flower.
The long rear side and the right short side aren't decorated. The lid is broken
into two parts. It suffers from severe corrosion, especially on the right side.
The left short side of the sarcophagus is decorated with two garlands of wide
laurel leaves. The two garlands are connected by a high-relief circular knot in
37
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
the middle. A big triangular grape cluster is hanging from this knot. Each
garland is ended with a half triangular bull head, the other half of the bull
head is found on the front long side of the sarcophagus. There are two strips
hanging down from each bull head, one on the short side, and the other strip
on the long side of the sarcophagus.
The front long side is ornamented with two floral garlands. The floral
garlands are represented above two bull heads at the corners and a branch of
ivy leaves in the middle. The two garlands consist of different types of fruits
as pineapple, grapes, and ivy. A big triangular grape cluster is hanging down
from each garland, surmounted by a high relief round disk. In the center, a
feminine bust of the deceased is carved which appears as inserted in a
crescent. The crescent is opened up, and it has a small high-relief disk. This
bust is represented with a full face and long neck, in addition to wearing a
mantle.
This sarcophagus may date back to Ptolemaic period as it was found in the
Anfushi cemetery which is a Ptolemaic cemetery.
3-Garland Sarcophagus of Unknown Person with Gabled Lid:
Material: Limestone.
Provenance: Kom el Shokafa in Western cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.
Present location: Kom el Shokafa in Western cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.
Number: 81.
Date: Late Ptolemaic period.
Dimensions: Height with lid: 88 cm. Width: 96 cm. Length: 233 cm.
Bibiography:
غير رسالة دكتوراه ،التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد
.257-253 (،1992،الغربية) ،جامعة طنطا -اآلدابكلية ، ،منشورة
Database of Kom el-Shokafa cemetery-
38
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Plate 5: Garland sarcophagus of unknown person with a gabled lid.
Description
It is a rectangular box with a gabled lid and it has a rectangular edge at the
two long sides. Each long side of the lid is penetrated by two cylindrical
prominences which act as handles. The front long side is decorated with two
floral garlands. Each garland is ending with a half bull head at the corner. A
high relief strip is hanging down from each bull head. Both half bull heads
are sculpted above a pillar, but the left pillar is wider than the right one.
39
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
The floral garland consists of laurel leaves, lotus, doum, and other flowers; it
is wrapped by a ribbon. The two garlands are knotted in the middle above the
naked child. A triangular grape cluster is hanging down from each garland.
The upper part of each cluster is covered by a small grape leave.
Each of the two garlands is surmounted with a Medousa-mask. It is carved
with round ugly and angry face. The left Medusa is represented with more
comfortable, less edgy face unlike the right one. Two plumed serpents are
protruded from her forehead. The tail of the two serpents is knotted below the
Medusa's chin. Medusa is carved with bas-relief thick curls, wide nose, and
slightly open mouth. The Medusa masks are carved here without Dionysus'
followers.
In the middle of the long side a naked fat child is situated who stands on
broad rectangular pillar and raises the two garlands with his arms. His face
appears in full and is directed to the left, and he is looking down. His hair is
carved in a shape of bas-relief round curls, the front curls are only found. A
part of his left arm is appeared raising the right garland, while the right arm is
disappeared behind the left garland. The way of depiction of his body is
referring to heaviness of the garlands. The right leg is bended, while the left
leg is taut, and the right shoulder is inclining. The features of depiction of the
Meduza masks and naked child date back to Hellenistic Period.
Analysis
1- Floral garlands
The decoration of floral garlands is of Graeco - Roman origin and it is always
used in the funerary context in this period.12 The front long side of
Sarcophagus no. 1 is decorated with a long floral branch. The floral branch is
hanging above three bull heads forming two garlands in the middle. The two
12 Amira Ibrahim Zaki Selim, The Iconography of the Coffins in the Graeco-Roman Period,
PH.D, unpublished, Helwan University, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, (Cairo,
2009). 202-203.
40
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
ends of the branch are vertically falling down, one on each side. The two
garlands consist of Sarcophagus no. 2 is decorated with two garlands of wide
laurel leaves. The two garlands are connected by a high-relief circular knot in
the middle. The front long side of Sarcophagus no. 3 is decorated with two
floral garlands. The floral garland consists of laurel leaves, lotus, doum, and
other flowers; it is wrapped by a ribbon. The two garlands are knotted in the
middle above the naked child. A triangular grape cluster is hanging down
from each garland of Assos and garland sarcophagi. The grape cluster and
vine bunches were symbol of god Dionysus.
According to Greek myth, Daphne, was a mountain nymph loved by Apollo,
and Leucippus who disguised himself as a nymph. When the nymphs
discovered his lie, they tried to kill him. Apollo continued to chase Daphne,
and her cry for help was heard by her father, the river god Peneus, who
turned her into a laurel tree. Apollo promised that the tree would be eternally
green and took the laurel as his symbol. The Greeks gave a wreath of laurels
to the victors of the games at Delphi, but the victors of the Olymbic games
had a wreath of wild olives. They believed that the laurel communicated the
spirit of prophecy and poetry, so the priestesses of the Python and poets were
crowned by laurel leaves to acquire the inspiration.13
2- The lion sculpture
Each long side of the lid of sarcophagi nos. 1 - 2 was depicted with three
broad protrusions which ended with carved head of sad lion. To the ancient
Greeks, lions symbolized power and wealth and were featured in many
ancient Greek myths. The story of Heracles of the Nemean lion is widely
13 Stewart, W., Imagery and Symbolism in Counselling, (Bristol: Jessica Kingsley, 1995),
250.
41
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
known through Greek art and literature. The Nemean lion was killed by
Heracles who strangled it and afterwards wore the lion skin. The number of
lions in Greek sculpture is small. The oldest sculptured architectural
monument in Greece depicts the lion as a warder of the gate of the king.
Hellenistic art displays many lions fierce of aspect but mild of demeanor,
suffering themselves to be petted by cupids. The lion was the symbolic
guardian of a grave in Athens or in the surrounding countryside. So may be
the artist sculpted the lion on the sarcophagi to protect it from any danger. 14
3-The bull sculpture:
The front long side of sarcophagus no.1 is decorated with a long floral
branch. The floral branch is hanging above three bull heads forming two
garlands in the middle. The three bull heads are depicted in front profile. The
left short side of Sarcophagus no. 2 is decorated with two garlands. Each
garland is ended with a half triangular bull head, the other half of the bull
head is found on the front long side of the sarcophagus. There are two strips
are hanging down from each bull head, one on the short side, and the other
strip on the long side of the sarcophagus. The front long side is ornamented
with two floral garlands. The floral garlands are represented above two bull
heads at the corners and a floral branch a branch of ivy leaves in the middle.
The front long side of Sarcophagus no. 3 is decorated with two floral
quadrant garlands. Each garland is ended with a half bull head at the corner.
A high relief strip is hanging down from each bull head. Both half bull heads
are sculpted above a pillar.
There were two cults on Crete, the bull cult and the snake cult. Both of them
were devoted to worship of a goddess, and they represented antithetical
aspects of the fertile great goddess. The bull symbolized the earth's surface,
life, daylight, and physical power. The Greeks associated the bull with the
14 Rambo, E., F., Lions in Greek Art, Ph.D., Faculty of Bryn Mawr College, (Pennsylvania,
1920). V:VII.
42
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
sea god Poseidon because of the power of this god whom Hesiod called
"bull-like earth-shaker". The bull heads carved on the Greaco-Roman temples
serve a decorative purpose, but they maybe reflect earlier rituals which
terminated with the head of sacrificial animals displayed on temple wall.15 So
may be the artist sculpted the lion on the sarcophagi to protect it from any danger
or for a decorative purpose.
4-Medusa-Head sculpture:
The left short side of the lid of sarcophagus no. 2 is centered with a high-
relief mask of Medusa that was carved in Hellenistic style of art. The Medusa
is surrounded by a branch of grapes which is coiled forming three spirals at
each side. Each of the two garlands of sarcophagus no. 3 is surmounted with
a Medusa-mask. It is carved with round ugly and angry face. Two plumed
serpents are protruded from her forehead. The tail of the two serpents is
knotted below the Medusa's chin. Medusa is carved with bas-relief thick
curls, wide nose, and slightly open mouth.
Medusa is a recognizable figure from ancient Greek art. For Hesiod’s
Theogony, she was one of three Gorgon sisters born to Keto and Phorkys,
primordial sea gods; Medusa was mortal, while the others, Stheno and
Euryale, were immortal. According to Greek mythology, Medusa was
initially a beautiful girl, but she had sex with Poseidon in the temple of
Athens. This caused Athens to be angry, and she turned Medusa into an ugly
woman with a horrible face and writhing snakes instead of hair. If one looks
15 Werness, H. B., et al, The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art,
(New York: Continuum, 2003), 59.
43
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
directly at it he is turned to stone.16 The most common interpretation of
Medusa suggests she is an apotropaic symbol used to ward off the negative.
She represents a dangerous threat meant to prevent other dangerous threats,
an image of evil to repel evil. So the Medusa was sometimes carved on the
sarcophagi to protect it from any external danger and against enemies or
robbers.17
5-The snake sculpture
Each garland of the front long side of sarcophagus no. 1 is surmounted with a
huge snake. The two snakes are coiling and facing each other. It is usual to
find the space above the garlands filled with Medusa-heads, masks, lions'-
heads, rosettes, or portrait-busts, but it is unusual in finding snakes on
garland sarcophagi.
In Greek mythology, the snake symbolizes a guardian spirit and is inscribed
on many funerary monuments. Snakes represented wisdom; Athene, the
ancient Greek goddess of wisdom was associated with the serpent goddesses
of the Minoans. The ancient Greek art depicts Medusa and her sisters the
gorgons as serpent monsters.18 In Greek art the emblem of Aesculapius is a
serpent coiled round a staff. 19 For the Greeks, the snake represented eternity
and regeneration. As it is able to go dormant in winter then revive each
spring, as well as its ability to shed its skin and regenerate new self
representing the cycle of nature which dominate myth, birth, death, and
rebirth. The snake is usually depicted in Greek art as a symbol of the
chthonic, as the snake can be venomous causing almost instantaneous death,
and they are able to transgress into and out of the underworld. So the snake is
16 Miller, A. A., "An Interpretation of the Symbolism of Medusa," in American Imago, Vol.
15, (Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958) 389. 17 Madeleine, G.," Medusa in Ancient Greek Art", in https://www.metmuseum.org, in March
2017. 18 Eason, C.. Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A
Handbook., (California: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), 24.
19 Ovid, Fastorum libri sex., Vol.4, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014), 321.
44
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
a symbol of death, and they are depicted within myths as terrifying. Maybe
the snakes replaced Medusa on this sarcophagus to do her role in protecting
the sarcophagus and the deceased. As a result, the snakes are depicted in
attack position to threaten the true snakes.20
6- The child sculpture
Sarcophagus no. 3 is decorated with a naked fat child who depicted standing
on a broad rectangular pillar and raising the two garlands with his arms. The
representation of the child as naked is a feature of the ancient Egyptian art,
but his depiction without a sidelock of hair and without putting an index
finger in the mouth are features of the Greek art. Unlike the Egyptian child,
the Greek child was rarely represented placing his index finger in his mouth,
Also he is rarely depicted with a sidelock of hair, and he isn't completely
portrayed naked. The Greek artist depended mainly on the facial features and
the body to reveal the childhood features. Most of the child statues are made
of marble in Greek art, but in Egyptian art, most of the child statues are made
of white limestone, colored limestone, granite, alabaster, diorite, or bronze.21
Conclusions
The three garland sarcophagi are made of limestone. The front long side of
each sarcophagus is decorated with two floral garlands which ended with a
half bull head at the corners. They are divided into two parts according to the
shape of the lid, garland sarcophagi with vaulted lid as sarcophagi nos. 1-2
and garland sarcophagi with gabled lid without four pyramidal corners as
20 McCoppin, R., S., The Hero's Quest and the Cycles of Nature : An Ecological
Interpretation of World Mythology, (Jefferson, North Carolina McFarland et Company,
2016) , 72.
ر غير رسالة ماجيستي ،األطفال فى الفن المصرى القديم ومقارنته ببالد االغريقتمثيل ،زكريا محمود محمد الهادى 21
.127-126 ، (2014 ،)القاهرة ،ةجامعة القاهر -كلية االثار ،منشورة
45
Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
sarcophagus no. 3. The vaulted lid: it symbolize to the dome of the sky
according the ancient Egyptian beliefs. It is used in the wooden sarcophagi
from the Late period to the Roman period. The gabled lid: it has pyramidal
shape, and it symbolize the facade of the Greek temple. The lid of the three
sarcophagi is penetrated with protrusions which act as handle of the lid. Each
long side of the lid of sarcophagi nos. 1-2 has three broad protrusions which
ended with carved lion rearing its head; while the lid of sarcophagus no. 3
has two cylindrical prominences at each long side.
Sarcophagi nos. 1- 3 are decorated at front long side only, but sarcophagus
no. 2 is ornamented at three sides, the front long side, and the two short sides.
So the sarcophagus no. 2 is a rare example and has other unusual features.
The first feature is the two short sides of this sarcophagus which are
decorated with two garlands, although the short sides of Alexandrian
sarcophagus are decorated with a garland, ended with a bull head at each
side.22 The Second feature is representation of two round disks which are
corrosive, and they may had a Medusa mask. The third one is the feminine
bust of the deceased. The face is eroded, and the facial features and hairstyle
aren't clear.23
The lid of sarcophagus no. 1 has a Greek inscription of the name of the
sarcophagus' owner (Akheel), and it is unusual in the Alexandrian
sarcophagi. Although the inscription dates back to 1st century A.D., the
sarcophagus was found in a Hellenistic tomb. Maybe the owner wanted to
confirm his ownership of the sarcophagus by inscribing his name on it, as he
كلية ، ،غير منشورة رسالة دكتوراه ،التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد 22
.249 .(1992،الغربية) ،طنطاجامعة -األدابكلية ، ،غير منشورة رسالة دكتوراه ،التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد 23
.252.(1992،الغربية) ،جامعة طنطا -األداب
46
Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
lived during 1st century A.D., and he took over this sarcophagus from a
Hellenistic tomb.24
Sarcophagi nos. 2- 3 are decorated with Medousa masks. The left short side
of the lid of sarcophagus no. 2 is centered with a high-relief mask of
Medousa that was carved in Hellenistic style of art. Each of the two garlands
of the front long side of sarcophagus no. 3 is surmounted with a Medousa-
mask. She is carved with round ugly and angry face.
The back of the sarcophagi is generally free of the decoration, as they were
usually placed against a wall inside a tomb.
24 Fraser, P. M.," Bibliography: Graeco-Roman Egypt Greek Inscriptions", JEA 43 (1957),
101.
47
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
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The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
Loris Tawfik Shaza Gamal Ismail Louay Mahmoud Saied
Abstract
Esna is located about 50 km to the south of Luxor at the west bank of the
River Nile.1 It has a very long history which started from the prehistoric
period and ended with the modern times.2 Its importance as a city goes back
to the ancient Egyptian times because it is located at the trade route between
Sudan and Egypt.3 It has many Coptic monuments, for example Deir El-
Shuhada and Deir El-Fakhory.4
This article focuses on Deir El- Shuhada and its different elements and on the
mural paintings which were executed in tempera.
Keywords
Deir-mural painting-Virgin Mary-martyrs-Esna-church-Jesus Christ
Introduction
Deir El- Shuhada is located about six km to the south-west side of Esna.5 It is
considered as one of Pachomius monasteries.6 It was built at the same place
where the martyrs were killed by Arianus during the reign of Diocletian (284-
305 AD).7
1 Depuydt, L., “Esna’s Triple New Year”, in: JARCE, vol. 40, 2003, p. 55. 2 Needler, W., Predynastic and Archaic Egypt in Brooklyn museum, 1984, p.49. 3 Basta, M., The Temple of Esna, 1987, p. 22. 4 Badawy, A., Guide de L’Egypte Chretienne, 1953, p.73; Sauneron, S.,”Les Neuvieme et
Dixiem Compagnes Archeogiques a Esna I”, in BIFAO.67, 1969, p.101. 5 Meinardus, O. F. A., Christian Egypt, Ancient and Modern, 2nd.ed., 1977, p. 440. 6 Munier, H., “L’Archeologie Copte et L’Oeuvre du Comitée de Conservation des
Monuments de L’Art Arabe, De 1933 A 1935”, in. BSAC, Tome VII, 1941, P.89-90. 7 Khater, Anton., Martyre des Citoyens d’ Esna, 1981, p. 66.
48
The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
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Fig. (1) The monasteries between Arment and Edfu
.114، ص 1990صموئيل السريانى، بديع حبيب جورجى، الدليل إلى الكنائس و األديرة القديمة من الجيزة إلى أسوان،
Deir El- Shuhada is rectangular in shape about 50 m long and 40 m wide and
it dates back to the eleventh century.8 The entrance of Deir El- Shuhada is
located at the southern side of the enclosure (fig. 2). It is decorated with a
semi-circle arch. The entrance leads to a rectangular court about 22.65 m
long and 4.10 m wide which separated between the old church and the
modern church.9
8 Meinardus, otto. & Rutschowscaya, Marie., Christian Egypt (Coptic Art and Monuments
Through Two Millennia), 2002, p. 247.
. 260 ، ص1988، مصطفى عبدهللا شيحة، دراسات فى العمارة والفنون القبطية9
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Tawfik, L. Ismail, Sh. Saied, L.
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Fig. (2) The entrance of the monastery (Photo by: The researcher)
The old church
Clarke mentioned that “The old church was built near to the east side of the
old enclosure wall of the monastery.”10 Nowadays, there is a space between
the enclosure wall and the old church as a result of building a new enclosure
wall. The church has two entrances; the old one which is located at the
western side which is the current entrance of the church. The modern
entrance is located to the east side of the old entrance (fig. 3). It may be dated
to 786 AD and was reconstructed several times after that date.11 The church
is rectangular in shape about 16.95 m long and 13.90 m wide. The main old
church of Deir El- Shuhada has another two churches beside it and maybe
they were built in the Fatimid period.12
10 Clarke, S., Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valle, 1912, p. 114. 11 Kamil, Jill., Coptic Egypt History and Guide, 1987, p. 133.
.262مصطفى عبدهللا شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص. 12
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Fig. (3) Plan of the old churches of the Monastery of Martyrs
After: Grossmann, Peter., Dayr Al- Shuhada: Architecture, in: Ce, vol III, 1991, p. 870
The first church (The church of Saint Ammonius)
This church probably dates back to the eleventh or the twelfth century.13 It
consists of three aisles. The southern aisle is divided into four parts. The first,
second and third part covered with a cross vaulted roof, but the fourth part is
just a side room which covered with a semi-circle vaulted roof. The third part
contains a baptistery, which dates back to 1903 AD. Before this time, this
part contains of a tomb for one of the monks of the monastery.14
The main or the middle aisle consists of four parts. The roof of the first part
is covered with a dome. The second part (nave) is covered with a dome with
a small opening for light and ventilation. There is a small granite column
with a hallow about 93 cm high in the middle of the nave and pulpit with four
stairs at the south-west side of this part (fig. 4). The third part of this aisle is
covered with a cross vaulted roof. The fourth part is the main altar which is
dedicated to Saint Ammonius. The façade of the sanctuary is made out of
brick about 2.75m high and consists of two entrances with a semi-circular
13 Meinardus, otto. & Rutschowscaya, Marie., op. cit., p. 247. 14 Bock, de, W., Matériaux pour servir à l’archéologie de l’Égypte Chrétienne, 1901, p. 72.
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Tawfik, L. Ismail, Sh. Saied, L.
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arch and a small window with pointed arch in the middle. The roof of this
sanctuary is covered with irregular dome.15
Fig. (4) The pulpit and the granite column (Photo by: The researcher)
The northern aisle consists of four parts, these parts are separated from each
other’s by semi-circle arches. The first part in the western side has some
architecture restorations after 1903 AD. Before 1903, this part was covered
with a cross vaulted roof, but now it is covered with shallow dome. The
second part is covered with a cross vaulted roof. The third part is covered
with shallow dome. The fourth part is a side room which has the old
baptistery.16
The sanctuary of saint Ammonius is decorated with the scene of Jesus Christ
(fig. 5) which measures about 4 m wide and 1.65 m long.17 This scene dates
back to the eleventh or the twelfth century and was painted in tempera. On
this scene Jesus Christ is represented with his majesty sitting on the throne.
He is holding with his left hand a square Bible while he is raising his right
hand in blessing. He is depicted with short black beard, wearing dark red
.263مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص 15
16 Clarke, S., Op. cit., p. 115.
.276مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص 17
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The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
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garment and there is a black halo around his head. He is surrounded by two
Archangels Michael and Gabriel who are bending towards him.18 Their arms
are raised and their wings are extended behind them. They are depicted with
red wings and there is a dark turquoise halo around their heads. They are
wearing a dark turquoise garment with red cloak.19
There is a representation of Saint Basil to the right side of the Archangel
Gabriel and the Bishop Gregory to the left side of the Archangel Michael.
Saint Basil is represented with long white hair and beard holding the Bible
with his left hand. He is depicted with a yellow halo around his head and he
is wearing a yellow garment. Saint Gregory is represented with black hair
and beard holding the Bible with his left hand. He is depicted with yellow
garment and yellow halo around his head. To the right side of Saint Gregory
there is a representation of a young man who is breadless which disappeared
nowadays.20
Opposite this painting, above the door there is a scene representing the Virgin
Mary with the child and surrounded with two angels and date 786 AD. This
painting and its date are only mentioned by De Bock but Leroy did not find
this painting in 1975.21
18 Capuani, M., Christian Egypt Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia, 2002,
p. 247. 19 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 4.
.277مصطفى شيحه، مرجع سابق، ص 20
Du Bourguet, Pierre., Dayr Al- Shuhada, Ce., vol. 3, 1991, p. 869. 21 Bock, de, op. cit., p. 76-77.
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Fig. (5) The scene of Jesus Christ at the sanctuary of Saint Ammonius
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 5
The second church (The church of the three men)
This church is located to the south of the northern aisle of the main church.
The entrance of this church is located to the north-west side from the main
first church. The entrance leads to the transverse hall, which is covered with
barrel vaults with four openings for ventilation and light purposes. There are
two entrances from the east side of the transverse hall which leads to two
sanctuaries.22 The north sanctuary is dedicated to Saint Bidaba and the south
sanctuary is dedicated to Saint Andrew and Saint Christodoulas.
These two sanctuaries are identical in their architectural style which is
different from the other churches at Esna. Each sanctuary is divided into two
parts by a screen wall which has two entrances and a small window in the
middle. The two entrances and the window are decorated with semi-circular
arch. From the east side of the wall there are the altars and from the west side
22 Clarke, S., op. cit., p. 114.
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The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
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there is a small corridor.23 There is no mural painting on the wall of this
church.
The third church (The church of the Martyrs)
The entrance of this church is located to the east-north side of the main
church. This church consists of two aisles, each aisle consists of three parts.
The entrance leads to the southern aisle, the west part of this aisle is the
tombs of martyrs which is covered with cross vault.24 The middle part
covered with a little dome which is decorated with the stalactite niches (fig.
6). There are three openings in the dome for ventilation and light purposes.
The third part is the sanctuary from the eastern side which is dedicated to
Saint Aqladios. This sanctuary is characterized by six crosses on the wall
above its entrance.
The second aisle consists of three parts; the tombs of martyrs in the west side,
the middle part which is covered with a barrel vault and the sanctuary from
the eastern side.25 This sanctuary is dedicated to Saint Tawadros. The
architecture style of two sanctuaries is like the style of the sanctuaries of the
previous churches. Each sanctuary is divided into two parts; the west part and
the east part by screen wall. This screen wall has two entrances and a window
in the middle.26 The two entrances of Saint Aqladios’s sanctuary and the
window are decorated with pointed arches but the other entrances and the
window of Saint Tawadros’s sanctuary are decorated with pointed arches.
.267مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص 23
24 Van loon, G.J., “The Esna Monasteries: Dayr al- Shuhada and Dayr al- Fakhuri”,
Christianity and Monasticism in Upper Egypt, ed.by: Gabra, G. et, Takla, H.N., vol. II,
2010., p. 226.
.269مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص 25 26 Clarke, S., Op. cit., p. 115.
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Fig. (6) The dome in front of saint Aqladios sanctuary (Photo by: The researcher)
The sanctuary of saint Claudius is decorated with different scenes, these
scenes are represented in the apse on the eastern wall. There are two scenes
placed one above the other. Also, there are another two scenes one on the
arch wall and the other one is on the southern wall of this sanctuary (exactly
on the southern wall of the corridor which is located before the alter). These
scenes were painted in tempera.
Scene of Jesus Christ (fig. 7)
This scene is decorating the apse of the sanctuary. Jesus Christ here is
represented seated on a bench without a back inside a mandorla. He is
holding with his left hand a square Bible while raising his right hand in
blessing. The cover of the Bible is decorated with a cross in the middle and
stars. There is a representation of the heads of the four evangelists from the
middle and lower parts on each side of the mandorla.27 From the side of the
mandorla there are a representation of two angels in profile position. They are
bending and raising their hands toward Jesus. Their wings are one raised and
27 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 3.
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the other one is lowered. Under the mandorla there is a representation of two
persons praying and raising their hands above. Some parts of this scene are
damaged nowadays.28
Fig. (7) The scenes of Jesus Christ at the sanctuary of Saint Claudius
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 15
Scene of the Virgin Mary (fig. 8)
This scene is occupying the apse wall under the previous scene. The Virgin
Mary is depicted with the child surrounded by two Archangels Michael and
Gabriel. They are wearing a crown and holding a glob with their left hands.
The Archangel Michael is holding a long stick ends by a cross with his right
hand while the Archangel Gabriel holds a sword with his right hand. They are
wearing a red garment with decorated yellow cloak. The Virgin Mary is
wearing a dark green garment with red cloak but some parts of this scene are
damaged nowadays.29
واالقصر وأرمنت، عادل فخرى، نبيه كامل، تاريخ المسيحية والرهبنة وآثارها فى أبروشيتى نقادة وقوص،وأسنا28
.472-471 ، ص2008الطبعة االولى، 29 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 9-10; Capuani, M., op. cit., p. 247.
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Fig. (8) Scene of the Virgin Mary
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 27
Scenes of the two saints
This scene is depicted on the wall of the arch of the sanctuary. The two saints
are Saint Peter and Saint Stephan. Saint Peter is represented in a standing
position, holding a group of two keys with his left hand while the other hand
is raising (fig. 9). He is depicted with white hair and beard. He is wearing a
dark red garment with white cloak and there is a yellow halo around his head.
Saint Stephan is represented in a standing position holding a cup with his left
hand while two fingers of the other hand are resting on a cup (fig. 10). Here
Saint Stephan is represented with black hair and beardless. He is depicted
with dark red garment and white cloak. In the middle of this arch there is a
representation of a black cross.30
30 Du Bourguet, Pierre., op. cit., p, 870.
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Fig. (9) Saint Peter
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 23
Fig. (10) Saint Stephan
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 22
Scene of Saint Claudius (fig. 11)
This scene is painted on the southern wall of the sanctuary measures about
1.85 m wide and 3 m long and painted in tempera.31 The name of the Saint
has disappeared nowadays. This scene is represented with rich colors. Saint
Claudius is represented with short black hair, riding a horse and there is a
representation of two hands holding two crowns surrounding the face of the
saint. He is holding a saddle with his left hand while the right hand is holding
a spear. There is a representation of a cross below the scene of Saint
Claudius.32
279مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص .31
32 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 15.
59
Tawfik, L. Ismail, Sh. Saied, L.
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Fig. (11) Saint Claudius
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p.41
The scenes of Saint Tawadros sanctuary
This sanctuary contains four scenes as follows:
Scene of Jesus Christ (fig. 12)
This scene is represented on the apse, the upper part of this scene is damaged,
and it is painted in tempera. Jesus Christ here is represented with his majesty
and like the scene of Jesus Christ on previous sanctuary except the Christ’s
feet are rested on a stool and the two Archangels Michael and Gabriel are
represented standing on one knee on the ground, their arms are stretched
forward and the wings are forming a right angle.33
33 Du Bourguet, Pierre., op. cit., p, 870; Capuani, M., Op. cit., p. 247.
60
The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
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Fig. (12) The scene of Jesus Christ at the sanctuary of Saint Tawadros
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 31
Scene of Saint Tawadros (fig. 13)
This scene is similar to the scene of Saint Claudius but here it is represented
on the western wall of the sanctuary. The name of the saint disappeared and
the scene is depicted with rich colors. He is represented riding a horse with a
short black hair and beard. He is holding a saddle with his left hand while the
right hand is holding a spear. There is a representation of a hand holding a
crown to the left side of his face. His head is surrounded by a white yellow
halo. Nowadays some parts of this scene are damaged.34
.280مصطفى شيحه، مرجع سابق، ص 34
Van loon, G. J., op. cit., p. 230.
61
Tawfik, L. Ismail, Sh. Saied, L.
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Fig. (13) Saint Tawadros
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 45
Also, there is another scene belongs to Saint Boktor in the northern wall of
the sanctuary (fig. 14). This scene like the previous scene but smaller in size.
He is represented riding a horse, holding a saddle with his left hand while his
other hand is holding a spear.35 Some parts of this scene are damaged
nowadays.
Fig. (14) Saint Bokter
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 47
.280مصطفى شيحه، مرجع سابق، ص 35
62
The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
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There is a representation of the Archangel Gabriel (fig. 15). He is represented
in a standing position, holding a globe which is decorated with a rosette with
his left hand while the other hand is holding a stick ending by a cross. Near
his right foot there is building with three domes, probably a picture of the
church. This scene measures about 220 cm in height and was painted in
tempera. These scenes maybe date back to the beginning of the twelfth
century.36
Fig. (15) The Archangel Gabriel
After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 37
The modern church
This church was built in 1931 AD.37 The church is dedicated to the Virgin
Mary. It is located to the south of the old churches. The roof of the church is
supported by twelve domes. The church consists of three aisles which ended
with three altars. The middle altar is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, the
northern altar is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and the southern altar is
dedicated to saint George. The baptistery is located to the south-west side of
36 Du Bourguet, Pierre., Op. cit., p, 871; Capuani, M., op. cit., p. 247; Leroy, J., Op. cit.,
p.,13-14. 37 Van loon, G.J., Op. cit p. 226.
63
Tawfik, L. Ismail, Sh. Saied, L.
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the church.38 Now, this church is under restorations so, it is difficult to know
the measures of the church.
The well
The well has unhealthy water, the soldiers of Arianus washed their swords on
this well as what the people believe in. The well is located on the south-west
side of the monastery. Fig. (16)
Fig. (17) The well (Photo by: The researcher)
The cells
They are located to the north of the monastery. They consist of seven cells
with long corridor. These cells were built in modern times for nuns.
The base
It is a square base which used at Epiphany in old times, like the base of Abu-
Serga church in old Cairo. It is located to the southern side of the old
churches.
38 Meinardus, O, Op. cit 245.
64
The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
The tombs
The monastery contains tombs of the people of Esna, which is located in
front of the main entrance of the monastery.
Conclusion
Deir El- Shuhada can be dated to the early eighth century according to the
date which was founded by De Bock on the wall of the old church while the
existing old churches date back to the eleventh century and the modern
church dates back to 1931 AD. This monastery has a great historical
importance so it was renovated and reconstructed several times. The
importance of this monastery is due to its location where the martyrs were
killed by Arianus. Nowadays, it became one of the monasteries of Nuns in
Upper Egypt.
This monastery is characterized by different mural paintings. Some of then
represent rare scenes compared to the churches in Esna such as the scene of
the Virgin Mary, Saint Bokter, Saint Tawadros, Saint Claudius, Saint
Stephan, Saint Peter and the scene of the Archangel Gabriel. Also, this
monastery is recognized with some elements like the column of oil, the
pulpit, the stalactite which is located in the nave of the church of Saint
Ammonius and the base which is located in the southern side of the old
churches.
Bibliography
Badawy, A., Guide de l’Egypte Chretienne, 1953.
Basta, M., The Temple of Esna, 1987.
Bock, de, W., Matériaux pour Servir à l’archéologie de l’Égypte
Chrétienne, 1901.
Capuani, M., Christian Egypt Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two
Millennia, 2002.
Clarke, S., Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valle, 1912.
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Depuydt, L., “Esna’s Triple New Year”, in: JARCE, vol. 40, 2003.
Du Bourguet, Pierre., Dayr Al- Shuhada, Ce., vol. 3, 1991.
Grossmann, Peter., Dayr Al- Shuhada: Architecture, in: Ce, vol III, 1991
Kamil, Jill., Coptic Egypt History and Guide, 1987.
Khater, Anton., Martyre des Citoyens d’ Esna, 1981.
Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975.
Meinardus, O. F. A., Christian Egypt, Ancient and Modern, 2nd.ed., 1977.
Meinardus, Otto. & Rutschowscaya, Marie., Christian Egypt (Coptic Art
and Monuments Through Two Millennia), 2002.
Munier, H., “L’Archeologie Copte et L’œuvre du Comitée de
Conservation des Monuments de L’Art Arabe, De 1933 A 1935”, in.
BSAC, Tome VII, 1941.
Needler, W., Predynastic and Archaic Egypt in Brooklyn museum, 1984.
Sauneron, S.,” les neuvieme et Dixiem compagnes Archeogiques à Esna
I”, in BIFAO.67, 1969.
Van loon, G.J., “The Esna Monasteries: Dayr al- Shuhada and Dayr al-
Fakhuri”, Christianity and Monasticism in Upper Egypt, ed.by: Gabra, G. et,
Takla, H.N., vol.II, 2010.
إلى الجيزة من القديمة األديرة و الكنائس إلى الدليل جورجى، حبيب بديع السريانى، صموئيل
.1990 ،أسوان
،وأسناو تاريخ المسيحية والرهبنة وآثارها فى أبروشيتى نقادة وقوص،عادل فخرى، نبيه كامل
.2008، الطبعة االولى، االقصر وأرمنت
،1988، دراسات فى العمارة والفنون القبطيةمصطفى عبدهللا شيحة.
66
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
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The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on
Five-Star Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
Eleri Jones Maher Fouad Hossny Nehal Mohamed Eltayeb
Abstract
Currently Egypt is experiencing a time of financial recuperation, with
tourism and accommodation at the forefront. The country’s economic status
saw a downturn in the near past because of market precariousness. Although
this has had a negative effect on the country’s tourism sector. The state of the
economy is expected to return to pre-2011 levels in the mid-term. The
shrinking of inbound tourism has resulted in a drop in occupancy rates,
revenues, and tourist arrivals in the past few years. This can be largely
attributed to hospitality constraints measures and certain destination
challenges influenced the tourism sector in the city of Alexandria. This paper
aims at investigating the influences of inbound tourism constraints (ITC) on
five-star hotel revenues and travel agencies companies by using a survey
questionnaire directed at five-star hotel chains and travel agencies in
Alexandria.
The results reveal that both seasonality and guest loyalty have significant
influences on hotel revenues from inbound groups, but this influence is even
more significant when structural and psychological empowerment are
combined. Furthermore, the results of travel agencies indicate that the
diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs, as well as negative
destination images, influence the choice of destination for inbound groups.
Keywords
Inbound Tourism, Hotel Revenue, Room Rates, Guest Loyalty, Seasonality.
67
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Introduction
Tourism is considered the backbone of the Egyptian economy and an
essential source of foreign currencies, pulling in investments, retaining work
power, and partaking in the main cities improvement. Tourism is additionally
a sensitive industry in light of security and economic issues, as it attracts
visitors from all over the world (UNWTO, 2016). Recently, Inbound Tourism
Constraints (ITC) have become an important challenge, particularly for large
cities, such as Alexandria. The literature focuses on narrowly-defined supply-
side and socio-demographic constraints. These include constraints to travel,
such as visas for inbound tourists (Edgell, 1988), distance to the destination
(McKercher and Lew, 2003), climate and seasonality (Baum and Hagen,
1999; Martin, 2005), lack of transportation and accommodation, safety and
security (Brijesh, 2003; George, 2003), and lack of tourism promotion.
The worldwide development of inbound travel represents a remarkable
chance to build cordiality incomes. According to Colliers International Hotels
(2014), Egypt's inbound visitors appearance diminished by 33% in 2011 and
17.9% in 2013, largely due to safety efforts and certain movement
confinements, which affected major cities, such as Cairo, Alexandria, and
Luxor. While Sharm El Sheik and Hurghada saw separate increments of 10%
and 6%, as these urban areas were seen to be more secure.
The concept of constraints has gained increasing attention in studies on
tourism and hospitality industry (Lee et al., 2012; Ayeni et al., 2009), since
identifying and surmounting such constraints is essential to ensure that
tourism encourages growth and physical development of destination areas.
This is true where development is planned and accomplished. However, the
development of tourism is being hindered by local constraints, which should
be comprehended and settled.
68
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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In spite of the fact that the capability of tourism exists in Alexandria, there
are constraints that must be tended to in order to promote inbound tourism,
and also in order to persuade tourists of the uniqueness of this historic place.
These include hotel revenue constraints and destination constraints from the
prospect of generating revenue, and destination development in Alexandria,
which can also lead to the preservation and revival of the inbound groups to
the city. This study also provides scientific support for necessary action
considerations to further promote inbound tourism.
Literature Review
The worldwide development of inbound groups represents a remarkable
chance to expand marketing opportunities and increase hospitality revenues.
The World Tourism Organization (2013) identified inbound tourism as the
activities of the guest travelling to a place outside his standard condition for
not more than a year and at least for 24 hours. The movement is for
recreation, business, and not for permanent work and gaining money.
Inbound tourism is considered the backbone of the hospitality industry,
mainly for its revenue advantages. In hospitality industry, revenues literature,
and demand for international tourism have attracted predominant research
interests. El Haddad et al. (2008) defined revenue management as yield
management, which is considered a fundamental instrument for coordinating
free market activity by partitioning clients into various sections in light of
their buying goals and allocating capacity to the different segments in a way
that maximizes a particular industry’s revenues.
Kimes and Wirtz (2003) characterized revenue management as the utilization
of data frameworks and evaluating procedures to allocate the right capacity to
the right client at the right cost at the ideal time. This puts revenue
69
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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management practice into the domain of promoting management where it
assumes a key part sought after creation (Cross et al., 2009) and overseeing
purchaser behavior (Anderson and Xie, 2010).
Revenue management frameworks can be divided into two noteworthy
gatherings; the quantity control approach and the dynamic pricing
approach(Aziz et al., 2011; Ingold et al., 2001; Talluri and Van Ryzin, 2005).
The quantity control approach is sectioned by classifications, for example, by
rate, visitor composition, room type, or potentially length of stay. Every
classification has a settled cost. However, the quantity of rooms allotted to
the classification is progressively controlled in a way that augments income.
The dynamic pricing approach is set in order to augment income, considering
the hotel occupancy, and the present and expected demand.
A recent study by Falk (2014) revealed that weather and climate of a country
can be functioned as a push and a pull factor in motivating tourists to select a
country as their preferred destination to travel. Accordingly, decrease or
increase in hotel revenues depend on the impact of weather conditions on
tourism demand and hotels revenue. Colliers International's Hospitality
Division (2015) reported that the main cities and the primary leisure
destinations in Egypt witnessed a decrease in inbound international tourist
arrivals. This report shows that inbound tourism dropped by 33% during
2011. However, this figure increased by 17.1% the following year, with
Sharm El Sheik and Hurghada encountering high visitor increments. On other
hand, hotels in Alexandria saw a drop in universal appearance because of the
executed travel notices.
The sector of tourism and hospitality was more affected by the current
economic and political conditions. A decline of inbound tourism began in
the second half of 2012 and it got stronger in 2013 after several consecutive
years of growth. Figure 1 shows a sharp decline in tourist flows, length of
stay, tourist spending and increased restrictions on business travel expenses
70
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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that led to a significant contraction of inbound travelers. These impacts
resulted from increased unemployment, market volatility, economic and
social insecurity, and a significant decline in the average household income.
Table 1 Inbound tourist arrivals to Egypt through worldwide tour operators.
Source: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
ur
Figure 1: Inbound tourist arrivals to Egypt (during 2010-2016)
Source: Egypt Tourism Revenues
https://tradingeconomics.com/Egypt/tourism-revenues
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Variable
Total international arrivals 9,800,000 11,500,000 9,500,000 9,900,000 9,327,804 5,398,934
Total
international
arrivals
Overnight
visitors
(tourists) 9,451,900 11,163,900 9,209,200 9,650,000 8,983,739 5,168,412
Same-day
visitors
(excursionists) 348,100 336,100 290,800 250,000 188,700 141,141
Top markets Germany 965,000 1,165,000 885,479 877,228 1,010,879 653,915
France 345,000 318,000 191,689 144,766 136,623 101,075
United
Kingdom 1,034,000 1,012,000 955,344 905,713 869,481 231,299
Italy 555,000 719,000 504,110 400,356 332,932 131,458
Russian
Federation 1,832,000 2,518,000 2,393,908 3,138,958 2,389,882 53,864
Nights in all types of
accommodation 114,200,000 137,800,000 94,410,000 97,256,000 84,127,586 32,712,186
71
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Hausmann, Rodrik and Velasco (2005) reported that the key variable of
interest on the demand side is the consumption of domestic goods and
services by visitors.
Demand constraints could be increasing due to many reasons. One reason
may simply be a lack of desire to visit Egypt, which could be driven, for
example, by negative perceptions about the safety and security situation of
the country. Cost is another driving force behind the decision to vacation at a
given destination. Any country needs to be price competitive and
discriminating (i.e. offer different packages to appeal to different budgets) if
it is to promote its tourism sector.
Further indicators concerning the average occupancy percentage of hotels in
Egypt dropped to an average of 50% in 2013 precisely after the Arab
Spring’s political unrest. However, in 2014, the occupancy percentage of the
Egyptian hotels increased to 55% particularly in the hotels of South Sinai
while Alexandria had a lower occupancy rate of 29%. Figure 2 shows hotel
occupancy in the major tourist cities in Egypt in 2013 and 2014.
Figure 2: Average Occupancy Percentage in the Main Egyptian Tourist Destinations
Source: Colliers International Hotels, 2014. Egypt Hotel Market Overview.
72
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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Destination image was assumed to be a basic part in destination decision
matters, and a definitive objective of any destination to influence conceivable
tourists’ movement related decision-making and choice through marketing
activities. In spite of the fact that not all components adding to the
improvement of an image can be controlled, tourism marketers need to
deliberately build up, reinforce, and, if necessary, change the image of their
destination (Chi and Qu, 2008).
Advertising plays an important role in forming the typical image for tourists.
That image can become an unreal created differentiation, because it strongly
influences and creates beliefs about tourism products provided (MacKay &
Fesenmaier, 2000). In addition, destination image contributes to framing a
destination brand and more to its prosperity. “The beginning stage for
creating and keeping a solid brand image is the key comprehension of the
visitors' images of the destination and image considers are essential to a
general effective promoting procedure. . Hence, it is clear that image is
strongly related to tourism marketing issues and plays an incredibly
important role for the touristic success of a destination” (Tasci and Gartner,
2007, p. 413).
While a few people may have a constructive image about a destination, others
may have a negative one. Concerning destination choice, information
provision before visiting a destination basically performs three functions:
first, it creates an image; second, it minimizes the risks that the destination in
question might entail; three, it serves as a technique for the later justification
of the eventual choice made (Friás et al., 2008).
Seasonality was considered as a challenge and an issue that influences
numerous areas of activity, which does not cause reactions only at
73
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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government and tourism organizations, but also researchers and scholastics
that are searching for the reasons of seasonality in tourism demand as well as
strategies for combating the seasonal character of tourism stakeholders.
The general consensus of many researchers, such as Cellini and Giuseppe
(2010), Cooper et al. (2005), Goeldener and Ritchie (2003), Commons and
Page (2001), Butler (2001), Krakover (2000) and Butler (1994), is that the
seasonal nature of tourism implies a number of negative effects on the
economic, ecological and socio-cultural environment of the tourist
destination and so on tourism demand.
Seasonality can influence both the tourism industry and hospitality industry.
The negative impacts of seasonality are more than the positive but there is
also positive aspects to seasonality. Seasonality in tourism and hospitality
industry has several focal points which include the relationship of seasonality
to demand and visitation, particular destination which focuses only on
seasonality, the effect of seasonality on employment and the financial well-
being of tourism that has an impact on destination areas, policy implications
(Butler, 2001).
Research framework
In this study, there are six hypotheses, which were developed to define the
path and direction of the current study, as well as to give a proper
conclusion..
74
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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Figure 3 shows the summary of hypothesis used in this study
Research Methodology
Surveys of directors of rooms, revenue managers, sales and
marketing, and tour operators’ managers were conducted in five-star hotels
and travel agencies in Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt. The sample frame is
hotels division heads who deal with groups’ reservations, and travel agency
staff who arrange programs for inbound tourism to Alexandria city. The
sample size was 220 managers from five- star hotels and 180 travel agency
INBOU
ND
TOURIS
M AND
HOSPIT
ALITY CONST
RAINT
S
MARKETING
TOOLS
TOURISTS
PROGRAMS
NEGATIVE
DESTINATION IMAGE
HIGH ROOM RATES
LOYALTY AND
GUEST BEHAVIOR
SEASONALITY
DEMAND
HOTEL REVENUES
DESTINATION CHOICE
H1
1
H2
H3
3
H4
1
H5
H6
3
75
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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staff. A random sampling technique was used to select hotel managers and
travel agencies from the population.
A questionnaire was designed based on the research objective
consisting of four dimensions for hotels and four dimensions for tourism
companies. The eight dimensions used a 5-point Likert scale ranging from
1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree.
Objective of the study
- Examining the revenue constraints of inbound tourism groups in five-
star hotels in Alexandria, Egypt.
- Identifying the reasons behind inbound tourists’ lack of interest in
visiting Alexandria, from travel agents perspective.
Data Collection
The questionnaire was administered to hotel managers and travel agencies
staff in Alexandria. The data were collected using two types of structured
questionnaires.
The first survey was directed to Directors of Rooms, Revenue Managers, and
Sales and Marketing consisted of four clusters of questions that include the
following:
1. Revenue impact (10 variables).
2. Constraints of seasonality demand (10 variables).
3. Constraints of loyalty and guest behavior (10 variables).
4. Constraints of high room rates (10 variables).
The second survey was administered to travel agencies staff consisted of four
clusters of questions that include the follows:
1. Destination choice (10 variables).
5. Constraints of marketing tools (10 variables).
6. Constraints of diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs (10
variables).
76
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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7. Constraints of negative destination image (10 variables).
The questionnaire was developed based on the contribution of inbound
tourism arrivals through the travel agencies to Alexandria, hotels current
supply, hotels demand, the effect of negative destination image, and
destination constraints.
From the 400 copies of the questionnaire distributed to hotels and travel
agencies, 340 (170 from Hotels, and 170 from tourism companies) were
returned and used for the analysis after the data were screened, which
amounted to a response rate of 85%.
Descriptive statistics analysis and regression analysis were used to measure
the objectives of the study. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
program (SPSS) version 24 was used for analysis and reliability analysis.
Reliability
In relation to the internal consistency of the data, hotel managers’ and travel
agencies staff perceived aspects of the factors that influences hotel revenues
from inbound tourism arrivals through travel agencies programs in form of
questionnaire include four dimensions for each form of questionnaire.
Reliability test was used through the SPSS software to generate Cronbach
Alpha values for each of the eight variables of the study; six independent
variables for both hotel managers and travel agencies staff and two dependent
variables. Cronbach’s Alpha is the most commonly used method to test
reliability, through measuring internal consistency. Saunders et al. (2009)
considered 0.70 (or above) value of Alpha is an acceptable level of reliability,
with higher level of reliability as the value goes higher. Table 2 shows the
results of reliability test - all Cronbach’s Alpha values dimensions have
clearly exceeded the minimum recommended value (α = 0.70).
77
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Table 2: Reliability test results
HOTEL DIMENSIONS Reliability
Statistics
TOUR OPERATORS
DIMENSIONS
Reliability
Statistics
Revenue impact .763 Destination choice .707
Seasonality demand .816 Marketing tools .751
Loyalty and guest
behavior .790
Diversity and
attractiveness of Tourists
programs
.700
High Room rates .791
Negative destination
image .728
Total Cronbach's Alpha .790 Total Cronbach's Alpha .720
Results
Descriptive analysis of study’s scales for hotels To measure the impact of inbound tourism programs on five-star
hotels in Alexandria, Egypt, descriptive statistics was used. A survey that
consists of four variables with forty questions reflecting the perceived
impacts of inbound tourism programs by five star hotels in Alexandria.
All questionnaire items employed a five-point Likert-type scale with
1 being “strongly disagree” and 5 being “strongly agree”. To aid in the
interpretation of these scales, the researchers have established an interpretive
scale for the results as follows: “4.5 or greater = Strongly Agree; 4.49 - 3.50
= Agree; 3.49 - 2.51 = Neither Agree nor Disagree; 2.5 - 1.51= Disagree;
1.50 or less = Strongly Disagree”. Table 3 presents the output of the
descriptive analysis.
Table 3: Output of the Descriptive Analysis
Scale Extracted Dimensions N Mean Std.
Deviation
Dependent
Hotels
constraints
Revenue impact
170
1.832 0.454
Independent
Overall constraints
Seasonality demand
Loyalty and guest behavior
High Room rates
3.57
3.71
3.89
3.56
0.380
0.300
0.332
0.479
Dependent
Destination
constraints
Destination choice
170
.901 0.360
Independent
Overall constraints
Marketing tools
Diversity and attractiveness of Tourists
programs
Negative Destination image
3.80
3.91
3.92
3.52
0.206
0.134
0.086
0.599
78
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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The Output of the Descriptive Analysis for hotels
From Table 3, it is necessary to note that all the scales in this research were
computed from the mean scores of its sub-scales. Therefore, the impact of
hotels from inbound tourism programs scale as three- Independent
dimensional was computed by summing up its 30 items. The mean score for
overall constraints scale is 3.57 with a standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.380.
The revenue impact (dependent variable) computed by summing up it is 10
items was 1.82 with a standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.454.
This shows that the hotels believed that the revenue impact of the leisure and
business groups who stayed in their hotels through travel agencies is
influenced by three important dimensions, namely: seasonality and demand;
loyalty and guest behavior; room rates. Those three dimensions had a
negative impact on hotel revenues from inbound tourism as they were
considered major constraints on inbound tourism.
At the dimensional level, the highest score was reported by hotel managers
for constraints of loyalty and guest behavior dimension with a mean score
3.89, and S.D at 0.332. This explains that hotel managers confirmed the
importance of loyalty and guest behavior to hotel chains. This loyalty plays
an important part in selecting hotels for inbound tourists. However, groups
are used to stay with a particular organization in other destinations, usually in
Cairo, Sharm Elsheikh and Hurghada. It will also result in not recommending
the destination and hotel to friends and other associates of the guest.
This was followed by the constraint of “seasonality and demand” with a
mean score 3.71 and S.D at 0.300. This indicates that seasonality is the
subject matter of fluctuations of demand or supply in the hospitality industry
79
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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in Alexandria which, are affected by weather conditions, public and school
holidays.
The third dimension was reported for “high room rates dimension" with a
mean score of 3.56 and S.D. of 0.479. This illustrates that hotel managers
agreed that increased room rates had a negative influences on the impact of
attracting the groups to Alexandria. Increased room rates were due to the
economic situation and price inflation.
Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for revenue impact from
inbound tourism programs with a mean score of 1.832 and S.D. of 0.454
which, indicates that hotel managers were not comfortable with the revenue
achieved from inbound tourism groups to Alexandria.
The Output of the Descriptive Analysis for travel agencies’
The results of tourism programs scale revealed that the mean overall score
was 3.80 with S.D. of 0.206. This means that, inbound tourism is considered
another market opportunity in Alexandria. Interestingly, inbound tourism is
not one of the high priority markets due to the challenges that this destination
encounters. Therefore, the challenge dimensions concerned the inbound
tourism industry indicate that, this important market has been in decline due
to a number of reasons such as, constraints of marketing tools, constraints of
diversity and attractiveness of tourists programs, and constraints of negative
destination image.
At the dimensional level, it can be noted that the highest score was reported
by the travel agencies staff for “constraints of diversity and attractiveness of
tourists programs dimension" with a mean score of 3.92 and S.D. of 0.086.
This explains that travel agencies highly agreed that the programs could be
more attractive, if the entrance fees of the tourist sites is lower than the
provided fees as it is not appropriate for all tourist segments . Unfortunately,
tourists lack interest in visiting Alexandria for many reasons, such as:
80
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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Alexandria airport is not a hub airport , which means that it doesn’t serve as a
transfer or stop-over point to get passengers to their final destination which
could hinder tourists to stay in Alexandria for 1 or 2 days. Alexandria is not
included in tourism programs organized by tour operators abroad. The
beaches in Alexandria are not equipped for receiving tourists. It is worth
mentioning that most western European countries, which represent the main
market, for exploring tourist, have very well maintained beaches, similar to
those in Alexandria. Non diversity of tourism attractions that is included in
tourism programs and concentrating on one or two of the tourists sites and
neglecting the other alternatives because the travel agents abroad are not
aware of the tourist attractions in Alexandria. They only include visiting the
library of Alexandria in their programs. Tourists coming from Europe are
usually scheduled to visit Jordon and Israel in addition to visit Egypt, this
agrees with the Brizzi (2005) report.
The second dimension is constraints of marketing tools with a mean score of
3.91 and S.D of 0.134. This indicates that there is a lack of destination’s
ability to achieve its marketing goals. Marketing tool constraints can affect
any element of the marketing mix -product, price, place, or promotion.
Constraints of marketing tools include budget limitations, products that do
not meet the market's needs, prices that do not adequately represent value,
and ineffective promotion.
The third dimension was reported for “negative destination image” with a
mean score of3.52 and S.D. of 0.599. This illustrates that travel agency staff
agreed that the development of destination marketing is a high-priority for
the inbound tourists and that can be achieved in different ways for example
conducting more conferences in Alexandria and not concerning only in
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The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Sharm El Shiekh. This will build a positive destination image toward
Alexandria.
Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for destination choice
impact with a mean score of 0.901 and S.D. of 0.360. This indicates that
Alexandria city is not the popular destination for inbound tourism groups.
Although the city has many historic places, it has not evolved over the years
to become one of the world most prestigious and popular tourist attractions,
enticing visitors from different sectors to its shores to experience what the
destination offers.
Hypotheses testing
1- Hotel revenue constraints
Correlation and multiple linear regressions were used to describe data and to
explain the relationship between one dependent variable, revenue impact and
three independent variables: loyalty and guest behavior; room rates, and
seasonality demand in Alexandria hotels. On the other hand, the relationship
between one dependent variable destination choice and three independent
variables marketing tools, diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs,
and negative destination image for travel agency companies was shown in
table 4. The general form of the multiple linear regressions is defined as:
y=βₒ+β₁.Xᵢ₂+β₂.Xᵢ₂+…+βᴘ.Xᵢn for i=1…n
Table 4: Constraints for hotel revenues and travel agencies
Indicators/Variables Symbol
Revenue impact
Seasonality demand
Loyalty and guest behavior
High Room rates
Y
x1
x2
x3
Hotels
Destination choice
Marketing tools
Diversity and attractiveness of Tourists programs
Negative Destination image
Y
x1
x2
x3
Tourism companies
As displayed in Table 5, the relationships between the hotel revenues and
constraints of inbound tourism were based on Davis’ (1983) conventions for
82
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interpreting correlation coefficients. Those conventions are as follows: 1.0–
.70 = very strong association, .50–.69 = substantial association, .30–.49 =
moderate association, .10–.29 = low Association and .01–.09 = negligible
association.
Table 5: Correlations Correlations
revenue Loyalty Rates Seasonality
Revenue Pearson Correlation 1 .311** .005 -.303**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .944 .000
N 170 170 170 170
Loyalty Pearson Correlation .311** 1 .299** .306**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 170 170 170 170
Rates Pearson Correlation .005 .299** 1 .465**
Sig. (2-tailed) .944 .000 .000
N 170 170 170 170
Seasonality Pearson Correlation -.303** .306** .465** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 170 170 170 170
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 5 shows that there was a moderate, positive correlation (r = 0.311)
between revenues of the hotel groups and loyalty. In addition, there was
moderate negative correlation (r = -0.303) between revenues of the hotel
groups and “seasonality. However, there was a negligible association
between revenues and rooms rates.
Table 6: Multiple Linear Regressions for hotels
Model R
R
Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics
R Squared
Change
F
Change df1 df2
Sig. F
Change
1 .529a .279 .266 11.66898 .279 21.445 3 166 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), Seasonality, loyalty, Rates
b. Dependent Variable: Revenue impact
83
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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The outputs of table 6 show the model summary and overall fit statistics. The
adjusted R² of our model is 0.226 with the R² = 0.227. This means that the
linear regression explains 27.9% of the variance in the data.
Table 7: shows the regression coefficients, the intercept, and the
significance of two coefficients in the model.
Table 7: Coefficient
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T Sig.
95.0%
Confidence
Interval for B Correlations
B
Std.
Error Beta
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Zero-
order Partial Part
1 (Constant) 55.460 7.229 7.671 .000 41.186 69.733
Loyalty .907 .149 .428 6.071 .000 .612 1.202 .311 .426 .400
Rates .257 .192 .102 1.340 .182 -.122 .636 .005 .103 .088
Seasonality -1.085 .171 -.481 -
6.335
.000 -1.423 -.747 -.303 -.441 -
.417
a. Dependent Variable: Revenue impact
The outputs of the linear regression analysis estimates the linear regression
function for the loyalty and guest behavior factor to be y = 55.460 + 0.907*
x. This means that an increase in one unit of loyalty results in an increase of .
.907 units of revenue. Thus the regression equation would be: revenue =
55.460 + 0.907* loyalty.
The linear regression analysis for seasonality factor estimates the linear
regression function to be y = 55.460 + (-1.085)*x. This means that an
increase in one unit of Seasonality would result in a decrease of 1.085 units
of revenue. Thus, the regression equation would be: revenue = 55.460+ (-
1.085)*seasonality.
Since we have multiple independent variables in the analysis, the Beta
weights compare the relative importance of each independent variable in
standardized terms. We find that seasonality has a higher impact than loyalty
y (beta = .481 and beta =- .428).
84
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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The t-test found that both intercept and two variables are highly significant (p
< 0.001) and thus are significantly different from zero.
The regression model is highly significant with p < 0.001. Thus we can
conclude that for every additional loyalty achieved the revenue will increase
by approximately .907 and decrease by -1.085 for every increase of
Seasonality. The previous result can be summarized using the following
multiple regression model:
y=55.460+(.907 X₁-1.085 X₃). Based on the previous results, the model
confirms Hypotheses 1, and 2 that hotel revenues influenced by seasonality
and loyalty and guest behavior.
2- Travel agency constraints
Table 8 shows the predicted initial hypothesis of a linear relationship
between the test results scored on the destination popularity and marketing.
That was administered to a sample of 170 travel agency staff.
Table 8: Correlations
Destinatio
n choice
Marketing
tools
Diversity and
attractiveness
of Tourists
programs
Negative
Destination
image
Destination choice
Pearson Correlation 1 .003 .066 -.603**
Sig. (2-tailed) .974 .392 .000
N 170 170 170 170
Marketing tools
Pearson Correlation .003 1 .370** .242**
Sig. (2-tailed) .974 .000 .001
N 170 170 170 170
Diversity and
attractiveness of
Tourists programs
Pearson Correlation .066 .370** 1 .378**
Sig. (2-tailed) .392 .000 .000
N 170 170 170 170
Negative Destination
image
Pearson Correlation -.603** .242** .378** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .000
N 170 170 170 170
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
85
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Pearson's bivariate correlation coefficient shows a medium negative linear
relationship between: marketing tools and diversity and attractiveness of
Tourists’ programs dimensions (r = 0.370); destination choice and negative
destination image (r =-0.603); marketing tools and negative destination image
(r = 0.242); diversity and attractiveness of tourists programs and negative
destination image (r = 0.378). That is significant as (p < 0.001). However,
there was negligible association between destination choice and both of
marketing tools and diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs.
Table 9: Model summary
Model R
R
Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Durbin-
Watson
R Square
Change
F
Change df1 df2
Sig. F
Change
1 .684a .467 .458 7.97048 .467 48.556 3 166 .000 1.226
a. Predictors: (Constant), Hotels, Airports, programs
b. Dependent Variable: selling
The output of Table 9 indicates the model summary and overall fit statistics.
The adjusted R² of the model is 0.458 with the R² = 0.467. This means that
the linear regression explained 46.7% of the variance in the data. Therefore, it
can be assumed that there is no first order linear autocorrelation in the data.
Table 10: Coefficient
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig.
95.0%
Confidence
Interval for B Correlations
B
Std.
Error Beta
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Zero-
order Partial Part
(Constant) 50.739 6.282 8.077 .000 38.337 63.142
Marketing tools .145 .142 .063 1.020 .309 -.136 .425 .003 .079 .058
Diversity and attractiveness of
Tourists programs
.646 .129 .322 5.011 .000 .392 .901 .066 .362 .284
Negative Destination image -1.536 .128 -.740 -
12.006
.000 -1.789 -1.284 -.603 -.682 -
.680
a. Dependent Variable: Destination choice
Table 10 indicates the regression coefficients, the intercept, and the
significance of two coefficients in the model. The result explains that the
86
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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linear regression analysis estimates the linear regression for Diversity and
attractiveness of Tourists programs function to be y = 50.739 + 0.646*x. This
means that an increase in one unit of diversity and attractiveness of tourist
programs results in an increase of 0.646 units of destination choice. Thus the
regression equation would be: destination popularity = 50.739+ 0. 646*
tourist programs.
On other hand the linear regression analysis for negative destination image
estimates the linear regression function to be y = 50.739 + (-1.536)* x. This
means that an increase in one unit of Negative Destination image results in
decrease of 1.536 units of destination choice. Thus, the regression equation
would be: Destination choice = 50.739 + (-1.536)*negative destination
image. Since there are multiple independent variables in the analysis, the
Beta weights compare the relative importance of each independent variable in
standardized terms. The results revealed that the negative destination image
has a higher impact than diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs
(beta = 0.740 and beta =- 0.322).
The t-test finds that both intercept and two variables are highly significant (p
< 0.001) and thus significantly different from zero. The regression model is
highly significant with p < 0.001. Thus it can be concluded that for every
additional tourist program achieved the destination popularity will increase
by approximately .646 and decrease by -1.536 for every increase of Negative
Destination image. The previous result can be summarized using the
following multiple regression model:
y=50.739+(646 X₂-1.536X₃).
87
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Based on the previous results, the model confirmed Hypotheses 5, and 6 that
destination choice is influenced by diversity and attractiveness of tourists’
programs and negative destination image.
Discussion
This study aimed to examine the influence of Inbound Tourism Constraints
on hotel revenues and destination choice in Alexandria, Egypt. The results of
the survey administered to hotel managers, revealed that hotels believed that
the revenue impact of leisure and business groups, who booked their rooms
through travel agencies were influenced by important three dimensions,
namely: seasonality demand; loyalty and guest behavior; room rates. Those
three dimensions have a negative impact on hotel revenues from inbound
tourism as they are considered a major constraint for inbound tourism.
On the other hand, the results of the regression analysis in this study provides
a support for the significant effect of Seasonality and guest loyalty toward
particular hotel chain on Hotel revenues. The linear regression analysis
estimates the linear regression function to be y=55.460 + (0.907 loyalty -
1.085 seasonality). Thus we can conclude that for every additional loyalty
achieved the revenue will increase by approximately .907 and decrease by -
1.085 for every increase of seasonality.
These findings are consistent with previous empirical studies that showed
that Inbound tourism linked to international tourism demand which
influenced by many of constraints as concluded by Brown (2015) who
identified demand constraints for inbound tourism as a real exchange rate and
income level of the tourists’ home country, tourism price, travel cost, foreign
direct investment, warm weather and climate in the country, crimes against
tourists, and political instability at the tourist destination.
The results of the descriptive analysis for hotel managers indicate that loyalty
and guest behavior plays an important part in selecting hotels for inbound
88
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tourists. However, groups are used to stay with a particular organization in
other destinations, usually in Cairo, Sharm Elsheikh and Hurghada. It will
also results in not recommending the destination and hotel to friends and
other associates of the guest.
Hotel mangers agreed that seasonality is the subject matter of fluctuations of
demand or supply in the hospitality industry in Alexandria, which, are
affected due to weather conditions, public and school holidays.
Hotel managers confirmed that seasonality is considered an issue for the
hospitality industry in Alexandria as it affects tourist attractions, tourist
accommodation, and the visitor experience. Seasonality brings negative
economic effects during the off-season for hotels in Alexandria. Moreover,
the location influences the level of seasonality, where seaside located hotels
has fluctuated the demand more than city based business because of weather,
habit and school holidays. In addition, it makes high demand on summer
when capacity is likely to be reached or exceeded. This means that the
attraction has too much capacity, and hotels overbooking. Therefore
seasonality is a major problem for the hotel industry. It can result in seasonal
employment for employees or overloading and business at times of peak
activity to compensate for low demand in off- season which leads to
overcrowding, overbooking, high prices and ultimately to customer
dissatisfaction and a bad reputation
The third dimension was reported for “constraints of high room rates
dimension" with a mean score 3.56 and S.D at 0.479. This illustrates that
hotel managers agreed that the increase of room rates have a negative
influences on the impact of attracting the groups to Alexandria. This increase
of room rates due to the economic situation and prices inflation
89
The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for revenue impact from
inbound tourism programs with a mean score of 1.832 and S.D. of 0.454
which, indicate that hotel managers are not comfortable with the revenue
achieved from inbound tourism groups to Alexandria.
The output of the descriptive analysis for travel agencies indicates inbound
tourism is considered another market opportunity in Alexandria.
Interestingly, inbound tourism is not one of the high priority markets due to
the challenges encountered in this destination. Therefore, the challenge
dimensions concerned the inbound tourism industry indicate that, this
important market has been in decline due to a number of reasons, such as:
constraints of marketing tools; constraints of diversity and attractiveness of
tourists’ programs; constraints of negative destination image.
The results revealed that concerning the diversity and attractiveness of
tourists’ programs that the entrance fees of tourist sites are not appropriate for
all travel segments. The tourists have lack of interest in visiting Alexandria
because of many reasons, such as: Alexandria airport is not a hub airport.
Alexandria is rarely included in tourism programs organized by tour
operators abroad. The beaches in Alexandria are not equipped for receiving
tourists as tourists coming from Europe are usually scheduled to visit Jordon
and Israel in addition to visit Egypt. This does not work in far or of
Alexandria since beaches in Jordon and Israel are cleaner and very well
maintained, unlike beaches in Alexandria. The travel agents abroad are not
aware of the tourist attractions in Alexandria.
The results of the marketing tools dimension indicate that there’s a lack of
ability for the destination to achieve its marketing goals. Constraints can
affect any element of the marketing mix -product, price, place, or promotion.
The third dimension was reported for “negative destination image" illustrates
that travel agencies agreed that the development of destination marketing is a
first-priority for the inbound tourists that can be accomplished by conducting
90
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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more conferences in Alexandria and not concerning only in Sharm El shiekh ,
which will build a positive destination image toward Alexandria .
Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for destination choice
impact with a mean score of 0.901 and S.D. of 0.360. This indicates that
Alexandria city is not a popular destination for inbound tourism groups.
The results for the linear regression analysis estimated the linear regression
function to be y=50.739 + (0.646 Diversity and attractiveness of tourists’
programs -1.536 negative destination image). Thus we can also conclude that
for every additional tourist programs the destination choice will increase by
approximately .646 and decrease by -1.536 for every increase of negative
destination image.
The study’s findings were supported by previous studies, such as: Chi and Qu
(2008) and Kolomiets (2010), which confirmed that image not just influences
pre-visit conduct and destination choice, yet additionally the conduct amid
and after a visit. Image has the ability to impact the way toward picking a
specific destination, the accompanying assessment of the outing there, and in
addition the visitors' future aims (Chi and Qu, 2008).
A study by Kolomiets (2010) explains that the main causes of the unbalanced
distribution of tourism demand are natural and institutional factors. Natural
causes of seasonality include air and water temperature, precipitation,
cloudiness, sunshine, visibility and winds. These causes of seasonality are out
of control of decision-maker, tourist demand, and they repeat with relatively
small changes.
Conclusion and Implications
This study aimed at analyzing the impact of the current constraints on
inbound tourism arrivals to Alexandria, Egypt. Emphasis was placed on
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The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star
Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt
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inbound tourism over the period 2012-2016. Data were collected using two
types of structured questionnaires to explore the impact of inbound tourism
constraints on travel agency programs and hotel revenues.
The results identify four binding constraints to hospitality and tourism sector
in Alexandria, Egypt. The first constraint is the lack of adequate loyalty
programs, which negatively effects both of guests satisfaction and loyalty to
accommodate in particular hotel and in the destination. Loyalty programs are
considered an important part of a comprehensive marketing strategy to attract
tourists during periods of recession.
These results are consistent with Peiguss (2012) who explained that Loyalty
programs functioning as an impetus by giving advantages in light of
aggregate obtaining after some time. Loyalty programs encourage clients to
move from place to another place and accommodate in particular
organization. These programs support repeat reservation and enhance degrees
of consistency by giving motivators to clients to come back.
Singh and Khan (2012) pointed out that satisfaction is not sufficient to make
guests return to a particular organization. The organization needs to covert a
satisfied customer to a loyal customer. It is so important because it costs so
much to convince clients to reserve and so little to incite a re-reserve. Loyalty
is a consequence of a positive passionate experience, physical attribute-based
satisfaction, and perceived value of an experience during stay.
The second constraint is seasonality, which is considered a major factor that
affects the level of room demand. Most lodgings have busy periods, where
demand pushes up to full occupancy, and low periods with many empty
rooms. By managing the times of high and low demand, pricing and room
distribution can accomplish more proficient income enhancement
The third and fourth constraints encountered by tourism companies to attract
the inbound tourism to Alexandria are the diversity and attractiveness of
tourists’ programs and negative destination image. These results indicate the
92
Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.
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importance of conducting complete and diverse programs that satisfy groups
through good marketing and promotional strategies so the destination can
experience sustainable growth in tourism.
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1PhD, Professor, Dean of Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Beni Suef University, Ex-Vice Dean of Post Graduate Studies and Research, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University. Address: 1, Abd el Aziz Al Suood, El Manial Cairo, EGYPT. 2 PhD, Professor, Head of Tourism Department, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University. Address: 1, Abd el Aziz Al Suood, El Manial Cairo, EGYPT. 3 MSc in Aviation Management, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University. Address: 1, Abd el Aziz Al Suood, El Manial Cairo, EGYPT.
Evaluating Airlines' Dynamic Distribution Capabilities Case Study: Impact of NDC Implementation on Airlines
Ghada A. Hammoud1, Hala F. Tawfik2, Rasha S. Fahmy 3
Abstract
Airline distribution demonstrates different methods of enhancement
and implementation of new ideas related to airlines' products deployment to
achieve customers' satisfaction and loyalty. The objective of this research
paper is to assess airlines adopting patterns of the latest dynamic distribution
capabilities and evaluating the new perspective in allocating airlines’
products through the new distribution standards. The paper will be exposed to
the existing distribution challenges over studying the implementation of
IATA New Distribution Capability (NDC) on airlines. The assessment
encompasses two segments through a case study that targeted an overall
community population 343 of all industry parties. The total community of the
first segment is 143 and was highlighted using a broad analysis to all airlines
models and all related parties that already have applied NDC. The second
segment represents a community of 200 airlines and related parties without
specification to the implementation. They were tested over an electronic
questionnaire distributed via the Survey Monkey platform that captured the
answers of globally scattered respondents. The valid sample is 31
respondents equating 16% of the second total population segment composed
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Evaluating Airlines' Dynamic Distribution Capabilities Case Study: Impact of NDC Implementation on Airlines
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of: applied, in the process of application or yet to apply for NDC. Airlines are
recommended to develop their strategies and invest in high technology to
facilitate the integration of data transmission across partners and third party
contractors. IT-Providers are recommended to develop a new software to be
designed for airlines to convey the
opportunity to have direct control over all customer big data and alternative
payments.
Keywords Personalization, New distribution capability, Dynamic Pricing,
Retailing and Merchandising.
Introduction
Purchasing travel is debatably, the past 3 decades; it is developed to reflect
not only the rapid changes that were seen in technology and communications
tools but also the growing range of market offerings and an increasingly
sophisticated traveller. Indeed, the next few years will undoubtedly bring
continued transformation of the industry as it pursues to further unlock to the
opportunities offered by dynamic capabilities besides the great change in the
distribution scene. Dynamic distribution could help to present and boost
additional annual revenue for airlines that goes in parallel with the delivering
of a richer experience for the traveller. Industry studies evaluations showed
the treasures earned by airlines in annual revenues through the sale of
ancillary services, primarily through their direct channels, in addition to the
communication and technological revolution that can be realized at the same
time frame. New internet protocols expand the interactions between
passengers and airlines in all extents of pre- and in-flight services which
made IATA to adapt a new standard of New Distribution Capability (NDC)
to streamline the business and improve all kinds of collaboration between
industry suppliers and airlines using the new technology trends to Improve
98
Hammoud.G. Tawfik.H. Fahmy.R.
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Airlines' Dynamic Capabilities (Malhartra, 2015; Thurston, 2016;
www.amadeus.com, 2017).
1. Practices of Dynamic Distribution Capabilities
The success of any particular airline distribution capability should depend on
the attributes of the differentiated product, brand, marketing and operations
strategies implemented by that airline. The remarkable shift in buying
patterns over the past decades demonstrate the reason behind customers'
seeking the optimal airline product that is specifically tailored to their needs.
Airlines are now focusing on delivering a great value of dynamic offers using
new practices of retailing and merchandizing capabilities that will positively
impact the increase in revenue. The augmentation of information technology
and data transmission allows new opportunities for distribution. Depending
on new protocols, such as Extensible Markup Language (XML), they expand
the interactions between passengers and airlines in the areas of pre-, in-flight
and post-flight services. These practices allow IATA to combine them and
adapt a new standard of New Distribution Capability (NDC). This helps to
simplify the business while improving the collaboration between industry
suppliers and airlines that employ new technology trends in deploying their
rich content. (Thurston, 2016; Malhartra, 2015).
1.1. Merchandising and Retailing Platforms
Merchandising and retailing concepts provide the airline industry a great
opportunity to sell more services that go beyond selling a seat; airlines can
now offer many options that can make a trip more comfortable and exciting
for travelers and more helpful for corporations with travel suppliers. The
evolution of airline merchandising services encompasses extra bag fees, in-
flight Wi-Fi, airport lounge access, extra legroom, preferred seating with
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Evaluating Airlines' Dynamic Distribution Capabilities Case Study: Impact of NDC Implementation on Airlines
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extra fees and more (farelogix,2010; www.businessdictionary.com, 2017).
These services are applied on smart phones where new applications are
designed to offer ancillary services on mobile devices with better
accessibility to the world of add-on choices whether pre or post -trip
regardless their location. (farelogix, 2010, Tanija, 2011). For several decades,
airlines were concerned most by developing their Passenger Service Systems
(PSSs) as a core system and improving the integration with passenger touch
points systems. The PSSs of today lack the flexibility that airlines necessitate
for new adaptation of full retailing platforms, as they are no longer
satisfactory for more flexible and dynamic sales environments that airlines
will require. Currently, airlines are adapting Full Retailing Platforms (FRPs)
that enable them to take the control of obtaining the required data and
technological capabilities through any distribution channel (harteveldt, 2016).
Technology augmentations and advanced customer intelligence enable new
opportunities for expanding and enlightening retail business in air travel.
Even though airlines deal with smart customers with extensive knowledge
and awareness, they are still controlled and limited by their traditional selling
tactics.. Digital applications enabled airlines to stimulate the smart
entertaining in-flight retail opportunities that should not only be integrated
and combined with airport technology to have a bundled service, but also
with the same level of technology throughout the travel journey
(www.futuretravelexperience, 2017).
Ancillary sales are the only area in airline business that is significantly
growing every year. Moreover, the third-party contractors that offer products
and services to be sold separately or in association with the air ticket -
through airlines' websites - are commission-based. Furthermore, airline
partnerships of co-branded frequent flyers with banks having credit and debit
card holders are also commission-based on every customer transaction
(Tanija, 2016). Despite the continuous enhancements and developments of
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airlines business utilities and Information Technology infrastructure, airlines
are still in the preliminary stages in choosing the effective IT-providers. In
many cases the retailing aspects are having organizational challenges through
the current sales and marketing funnels. Finally, retailing margins will
increase in the case of effective big data utilization. Following that the smart
revenue management operations should focus on optimizing total customer
value, which in return, will improve airlines value preposition. (Cronrath,
2017).
1.2. The Power of Personalization
The advanced digital stage of development has led to a fundamental shift
towards personalized connectivity or else airlines will be in risk of losing
their current and potential customers. Amazon.com comes first to mind when
mentioning personalization. This giant online retail store’s personalized
endorsements have enabled their customers to find and select the desired
product fast and easy with a reliable assembly of the overall user shopping
experience in a smooth and pleasant method. They want convenience and
tailored value that touch their own interests and needs which can be easily
attained through personalization. In the aviation field, studies show that 83%
of customers expect relevant information and that the products recommended
to them are based on their personal preferences
(www.sabreairlinesolutions.com, 2017). Personalization is unlike
customization, customization is a customer activity that is done by his/her
states of preference and receives information or a product that matches those
interests. On the contrary, personalization takes a step ahead by using
customers' big data to understand, assess and predict customer behavior and
act accordingly in constructing the exact suitable offer to build brand
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relationship and loyalty. This application will differentiate those airlines from
rivals that will help with the alteration of customers’ priority from price to
real value obtained from their trips (Piller and Tseng, 2010).
1.3. Dynamic Pricing and loyalty
The dynamic pricing system depends on customer’s profile and historical
data stored at airlines with all related circumstances of purchasing pattern and
subject to the demand during high and off-peak times. This provides
optimum flexibility and revenue potential with extreme cross sell and would
enrich selling opportunities (Tanija, 2014: www.sabreairlinesolutions.com,
2017). Analyzing customers' big data leads to efficient dynamic pricing as it
increasingly allows airlines to predict where their passenger will be flying
next to be able to match their choices and preferences. Airlines can integrate
this tailored pricing kit with marketing and promotions in real time to
optimize bidding (Christ, 2009). Synchronized loyalty programs could
become a point of difference in the market place for any airline; they are a
very good source for airlines to collect a wide range of customers’ exact
personal data. It is considered to be the backbone of airlines' customer data
centers when integrated with analytical tools, while also taking into
consideration that this data should be well managed and secured with privacy
measures to comply with all necessary authorities and restrictions. Customers
will be retained if they are well rewarded through promotional discounts and
special offers (Cowen, 2017; www.mycustomer.com, 2017).
2. Case Study: Impact of NDC Implementation on Airlines
The International Air transport Association (IATA) usually searches
for the best practices that are beneficial to all industry parties and provides
the suitable timeframe for airlines and other related industry parties. This aids
to implement and adjust their strategies accordingly. Right up until very
recent times, it takes too much effort to deliver new airline products such as
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preferred seating and lounge passes through indirect channels. Moreover,
applying the differentiation and personalization concepts were limited to
airlines interfaces and website only. Due to the enhancement of application
programing interface and current new technological distribution architecture,
the existing technology and processes finally have ascended customers’
expectations. Todays' customers ask for more transparency and choice of
offers and products. After recognizing the need to address these limitations,
the IATA approved the NDC Program as a Simplifying the Business
initiative in early 2012 as declared by Hoyles, (2015); Spanos, (2009);
(www.iata.org, 2017 a).
New Distribution Capability (NDC) is a travel industry-supported
program designed and launched by IATA for the development of market
adoption to a new, XML-based data transmission standard according to the
resolution 787 in early 2012. Initially, it was based upon the objective to
enhance basic standard to enable airlines to move to a dynamic content
distribution model. At the present time, customers are in need of more real
time dynamic interaction through all travel suppliers: airlines, distributors
and travel agents. Travel supply chain is able to offer an intelligent reaction
for product rich content based on customer personalization and preferences.
This process should be well integrated, controlled, examined and managed to
watch over the development of new passenger distribution platform and
standards (www.iata.org, 2017 b).
2.1. Statistical Analysis and results of Airlines' NDC Adoption
The case study focused on studying the impact of new distribution
capability (NDC) on airlines in general, to solve the existing distribution
challenges over the implementation on two segments. The targeted overall
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community is 343 of all industry parties for the two segments of study; the
first segment was emphasized via a broad analysis to all airlines models
(Legacy, Low Cost, and Regional) and related parties as IT providers,
Aggregators and Sellers that already applied NDC of total community 143,
and the other segment represents a community of 200 airlines and related
parties without specification to the implementation, they were tested over a
questionnaire distributed through Survey Monkey tool to capture the
respondent answers and evaluate airlines' level of deployment directly and
via travel agents using NDC and how the availability of rich content using
the new
technology affects their performance in terms of cutting cost, generating
profit and customer satisfaction.
2.1.1. Airlines Applied NDC
The information and data of this part of the study has been collected from the
IATA website, the data analysis and results shows that the total community
of a population were 143 of companies that are NDC certified consists of a
Valid Sample Population: 58 Airlines that adopt NDC encompass all Airlines
Business Models (Legacy, Regional and Low Cost), 53 IT-Providers, 15
Aggregator, 17 sellers. The study time horizon: single cross sectional analysis
(snapshot of time) April, 2018.
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Table 1: Airline Business Model and Level of NDC Certification
Ser. Airlines
Level
Business
Model
Ser. Airlines LevelBusiness
ModelSer. Airlines Level
Business
Model
1Aegean
Airlines2 Legacy 21
Etihad Airways P.J.S.C.
1 Legacy 40Qatar
Airways3 Legacy
2 Aer Lingus 1 Legacy 22 EVA Air 1 Legacy 41Rotana Jet
Aviation3 LCC
3 Air Austral 3 Legacy 23 Finnair 3 Legacy 42 S7 Airlines 3 Legacy
4AIR
CANADA3 Legacy 24 Fly Egypt 3 LCC 43
Saudi Arabian
3 Legacy
5Air China
Limited3 Legacy 25 Flybe 3
Regional/LCC
44Shandong
Airlines Co., LTD
3 Regional
6 Air France 3 Legacy 26 flydubai 3 LCC 45Shenzhen
Airlines3 Legacy
7American
Airlines3 Legacy 27
Gol Linhas Aereas
3 LCC 46Sichuan Airlines, Co. Ltd.
3 Regional
8APG
Airlines3 LCC 28
Hainan
Airlines3 Legacy 47
SunExpress
Deutschland GmbH
3 Regional
9Austrian Airlines
3 Legacy 29Hong Kong
3 Legacy 48SunExpress
Güneş 3 Regional
10British Airways
3 Legacy 30Iberia
Express3 Regional 49 SunExpress
XML-Capabl
e
Regional
11Brussels Airlines
3 Legacy 31Iberia L.A.E
S.A.
3 Legacy 50Swiss
International
Air Lines
3 Legacy
12Cathay Pacific Airways
3 Legacy 32 InselAir 3 LCC 51TAP Air Portugal
1 Legacy
13China
Eastern Airlines
3 Legacy 33JIANGXI AIR CO.
LTD2 LCC 52
Thomas Cook
Airlines Belgium
3Regional/Charter
14China
Southern
Airlines
3 Legacy 34KLM Royal
Dutch
3 Legacy 53Thomas
Cook
Airlines
3Leisure/C
harter
15Colorful
Guizhou Airlines
3 LCC 35Korean
Air1 Legacy 54
Turkish
Airlines1 Legacy
16Condor
Flugdienst GmbH
3 Legacy 36 Lufthansa 3 Legacy 55United Airlines
3 Legacy
17Emirates
Airline2 Legacy 37
Norwegian Air
Shuttle 3 LCC 56
Vueling Airlines S.A.
3 LCC
18Ethiopian
Airlines1 Legacy 38
Public Joint
3 Legacy 57WestJet Airlines
2 LCC
19 Olympic Air 2 Regional 39China
Airlines
XML-
CapaLegacy 58
Shaheen
Air
XML-
CapablCharter
20Xiamen Airlines
3 Legacy
Source: adapted from www.iata.org, 2018.
Table no. 1 illustrates all NDC adopted airlines, some of them are
early adopters since December, 2015 and over the years more airlines have
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joined the program consecutively till the time horizon of the study
April,2018. A general analysis has been made to the above mentioned
airlines and will be considered as part of the aviation sectors that adopt NDC.
Airlines under this part of study are classified and analyzed according to
several factors that will help in the analysis of the overall population of the
study.
The latest numbers of airlines that have already mentioned and implemented
NDC are 58 airlines at the time horizon of the study and are containing 4
airlines business models:
62% 21%
12%
5%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Legacy
Regional
Source: adapted from www.iata.org, 2018.
Figure 1: Total number of Airlines Implementing NDC
Figure no. 1 shows the variety of airlines business models that implement
NDC, Legacy carriers are representing the majority by 62% as a trial to
overcome the current difficulties in distribution capabilities, Low Cost
Carriers are 21%, they already have less pressure concerning distribution
capabilities and cost, Regionals are 12% and 5% are Charter/Leisure, this
percentage is suitable to their business size.
5%
12%
9%
74%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
XML Capable
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Source: adapted from www.iata.org, 2018.
Figure 2: Airlines Certification Level
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Figure no. 2 indicates that 74% of all airlines business models that
implemented NDC are certified level 3; that are capable to deploy their full
products and services rich content through offer and order management. 64%
of NDC airlines are not yet assigning any aggregators for distribution and
deploying their product that would be integrated in the NDC API-
Architecture throughout the past years since the early adoption in 2015.
Airlines that assigned one IT-Provider reached 50% of all implemented
airlines; IT-Providers are responsible for the merchandizing interface and
product display when using NDC.
1
28
52 57
010
2030
4050
60
Source: adapted from www.iata.org, 2018.
Figure 3: Trend of Airlines Adopting NDC
Figure no. 3 illustrates the trend of airlines that adopt NDC over the past
years till the study time of horizon, year 2016 shows a strong start that was
booming of rate of increase27% for 2015-2016, another increase of 24
airlines in the third year 2017 with a rate of increase for 2016-2017 is 86%
which is a remarkable result that point towards the airlines that are keen to
develop their distribution capabilities, the first quarter of 2018 shows a rate
of increase 10% which is a good sign to end a year of successful
implementation rate. This proves Roger's Innovation-Adoption Model
(Spanos 2009), airlines had passed by many stages through the journey of
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adoption from being doubtful, uncertain and unaware of NDC to the
implementation phase and by time airlines tendency to adopt will increase
with a prediction to realize a great increase to the year end in December and
ever after.
2.1.2. The Statistical Analysis and Results of the Questionnaire
The results and analysis of this part of the study came out of the
primary data and information that has been collected only for the purpose of
this study. An electronic questionnaire has been distributed on a population
of almost 200 respondents of the overall environment in the aviation sectors
through the SurveyMonkey Tool. The total valid sample were 31 equating
almost 16% of the total population. The sample respondents are a
combination of: applied, in the process of application or yet to apply NDC
that consists of all airlines business models (Legacy, Regional and Low
Cost), IT-Providers, Aggregators and Sellers. It was very hard to collect
respondents as some airlines and other parties cannot easily disclose their
distribution strategies and objectives. They consider it a matter of
confidentiality. Accordingly, the sample design is stratified random sample
of grouping. The Survey Design Consists of 31 questions of which: 5
Nominal Yes/No, 16 Ordinal closed Questions and 10 Likert scale. The
sample data illustrates that 51.6% of the respondents have not applied NDC,
the reasons behind this were figured out that some of them were not
proactively responding as they fear the change; others are lacking the vision
of competent distribution strategies for the implementation. The statistical
analysis used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version.20.
The analysis results consist of 4 main parts beside the first part of personal
data that will be classified as follows:
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2.1.2.1 Part 1: Airlines Vision, Strategy and Objectives
When analyzing the most significant results in the part of vision, strategy and
airlines objectives, it was obvious that airlines prioritize their strategies and
objectives differently.
2.1.2.1.1 Airline Strategy in Adopting New Distribution Capability NDC
Airlines' vision and strategy in general depends first on their business model
as mentioned by Cronrath (2017), airlines are setting their action planes
accordingly to reach their objectives.
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 4: Airlines strategy in adopting NDC
Figure no. 4 shows that 39% of respondents indicate that airlines' vision and
strategies of implementation were heading towards the additional sales of
ancillaries that come in the first rank, then in the second rank the product
diversity in Omni-channel of distribution by 32%, and the least priority of
objectives were focusing on OTAs, TMCs and corporations sales by 19% and
the disintermediation and digitalization by 10%. These results coincidently
approve harteveldt, (2016);
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2.1.2.1.2 Ranking the Importance of Different Dynamic Distribution
Capabilities
There is a great importance to the dynamic distribution capabilities that
enhances the deployment of airlines product and services as concluded by
Christ, (2009) that will have a positive impact on the end user.
3
1
2
4
Personalization
Dynamic pricing
Rich content
Standardization
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 5: Personalization, Dynamic pricing, Rich content and
Standardization Ratings
Figure no. 5 shows the importance of; personalization, dynamic pricing, rich
content and standardization once airlines adopt NDC. Dynamic pricing came
in the 1st rank, deploying rich content is the 2nd and personalization is in the
3rd place and finally standardization the last rank. They were rated as
supportive factors from all respondents (industry suppliers) point of view as
approved by Piller and Tseng, (2010); www.sabreairlinesolutions.com,
(2017). These factors indicate that using NDC will address more ancillary
services and guarantee extreme deployment with satisfactory content that fits
all type of customers and meet their preferences.
2.1.2.1.3 The Opportunities of NDC Application for Airlines
Arguments are always accompanied by any new technological innovations
that diversify the opportunities of applying this new technology as coincides
with Tanija, (2014). NDC is considered to be one of the latest technological
distribution means that have impacted airlines positively.
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Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 6: Diversity of Opportunities When Using NDC
Figure No. 6 Shows the biggest advantage of using NDC, it is offering great
opportunities; 1) Big data usage and personalization is the first choice as per
52% of the respondent answers, 2) Cost savings by 29%, 3) maximum
deployment by 13% and 4) PNRs Ownership by 6% so this analysis revealed
to Piller and Tseng, (2010); IATA, (2016 b). Airlines will control customer
data and be able to compete in the market and get rid of the current passive
behavior towards customer preference and anonymous offers and will be
more flexible to the ongoing process of active distribution without complete
dependence on other suppliers in the supply chain.
2.1.2.1.4 The challenges Confronting Airlines NDC Application
From the same prospective that any new technology has opportunities, it also
has challenges Hanke, (2016), that may face the adequate application of NDC
to achieve all parties' objectives.
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32%
16%
48%
4%
Not yet tested its downsides
GDS opposition
Less experienced in choosing the…
Vision dilution
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 7: Obstacles of Adopting NDC
Figure no. 7 illustrates the percentages of the challenges that may oppose
airlines when applying NDC; 1) 48% of all respondents answers' refer to
airlines' less experience in choosing the effective IT provider and aggregator,
2) 32% stated that NDC is not yet tested its downsides, 3) 16% of the sample
justifies that GDSs will have some concerns and opposition, 4) Airlines
vision dilution is one of the least challenges in the application of NDC. These
results claimed Tanija (2011); www.openaxisgroup.com (2017); Cronrath,
(2017). Other challenges may confront airlines are the possession of GDSs to
their PSS systems; Amadeus Altea considered to be the dominating GDS in
many markets in different areas and will be highly affected by the diversion
of airlines to NDC.
2.1.2.2. Part 2: NDC functionality
The functionality of any proposed information and communication system is
considered to be one of the top priorities of all industry parties as added in
www.eyefortravel.com (2017), its capability to combine fares and ancillary
services and propose bundled and a la carte offers will access the level of
efficiency to meet the customer preference.
2.1.2.2.1 NDC Ability to propose bundled and a la carte offers
Nowadays, Customers are becoming more technologically advanced; Hoyles,
(2015) they prefer to shop the entire travel itinerary with all its collective
ancillary services not only as a bundle or package but also as a la carte.
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Airlines are doing their best to gather customers' information to be able to
personalize a suitable offer that matches every individual customer.
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 6: NDC Proposition to Bundled and a la Carte Offers.
The above figure no. 6 shows that 59% of total respondents indicate the
excellency of NDC to propose bundled and a la Carte offers as per the
customer preference for ancillary requirements is answers as per previous
studies of Tanija, (2014); Belobaba, Odoni and Barnhart, (2016); IATA,
(2012). Since a long time, airlines had been depending on the frequent flyer
program and Customer relationship database on building a personalized offer
tailored to those customers only, and according to the availability of the big
data and automation tools they construct a good offer. This indicates that
airlines when adopting NDC will be able to alter offers as per their
customers' profile and preference more efficiently that lead the process of
selling their products more effectively based on actual customer data rather
than anonymously.
2.1.2.2.2 NDC Supports Airlines to Deploy Rich Content via Social Networks and OTAs. Airlines kept for many years focusing on the deployment through social
networks, OTAs and Meta-search using the dynamic distributions
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capabilities. Schaal, (2015), that were very beneficial for their presentation
especially in the markets that can be hard to reach.
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 7: NDC Helps Airlines in deploying the rich content.
Figure no. 7 indicates that 52% of total sample respondents approved that
NDC will be extremely helpful in allowing airlines to position their rich
content (pictures, videos, audio, virtual and augmented reality experiences…)
through social media, OTAs, meta-search in an extraordinary service level as
agreed with IATA, (2016)b; Cowen, (2017) which will stretch the
deployment with high technology trends and get the advantage of the internet
from time and cost savings compared to the traditional way of distribution
through GDSs. Besides the direct control of airlines to their PNRs' ownership
and possession, they will be able to control and monitor the purchases to
secure them and reduce fraud transactions through the use of suspected cards.
In addition, the digital innovations in payment environment will enhance the
customer shopping experience whether using web services, mobile
application and new entrance methods of payment such as; instant bank to
bank transfer, e-wallet like Alipay, etc…as proven by Hoyles, (2015); Hanke,
(2016); IATA, (2016)b.
2.1.2.3. Part 3: Airlines Technical Level
The continuous development of information and communication technology
provided airlines the opportunity to enhance their information and
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communication infrastructure as examined by Cook and Billig, (2017). They
started to integrate their core operation systems with other related systems to
present a quality product.
2.1.2.3.1 Airlines' Technical Challenges with Relevant Applications'
Interfaces
Integrating relevant applications and systems interface had been a challenge
that affects the level of efficiency of any airline operating system for many
years as found by www.forbes.com, (2016). For an adequate integration
airlines have to build a strong Application programs Interface (API) to
overcome this technical challenge.
2
3
4
1
Passenger Touch Points (e-…
Retailing systems (pricing, ancillary …
Core Service and PSS( Inventory,…
Related Functions (Loyalty, CRM,…
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 8: Rating the Technical Challenges for Airlines to Establish Interfaces with Third parties via NDC Figure no. 8 illustrates that NDC will face in the first rank some technical
challenges in the area of related functional systems like loyalty programs,
customer relationship management and revenue management systems,
followed by that in the second rank the Passenger Touch Points systems (e-
commerce, GDS, OTA,….) and the third rank the retailing systems and
finally the core service systems and PSS. These results may allow airlines to
adjust the technical challenges and dis-integration for airlines to establish
interfaces with all relevant application databases, solutions and other third
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parties but first they have to enhance their IT- Architecture and Application
Programs Interface API through using the XML-data base transmission
language as agreed with (Airline ticketing Report, (2003); Triometric,
(2014); www.quora.com, (2016); Belobaba and others, (2016);
www.amadeus.com, (2016), www.consortiuminfo.org, (2017). Airlines need
to substitute their data warehousing systems and use relational databases only
when desired and preferred to be by hosting the NDC platform on fully
managed applications whatever the regular storage or archival storage needs
through IBM, or Google Cloud. This should be done through one IT-Provider
to focus on the development of information technology and content
standardization to avoid any inconsistency via all channels in layouts and
simplify the process of the technical support in the diversity of markets and
choose more than one aggregator in different areas to aggregate their data for
concentrated distribution to each market according to its culture and
preference.
2.1.2.4. Part 4: Airlines Financial Capability and Billing System
Financially, the application of NDC adds extra financial burdens on the
airline as any new technology deployment because it needs a lot of
investments and funding especially in the initial stage and during the start-up
program. Managing the transition process effectively will reduce the risk
factor and guarantees that the benefits will cover and exceed the cost after the
implementation phase. The integration of airlines' payment system (online /
offline), Revenue accounting system and the travel agents' financial reports
through Billing and settlement plan (BSP) after the application will be likely
the same as before the application of NDC as BSP is a strong billing system,
but there may occur some issues that disturb any of the related functional
systems that could decrease the level of efficiency. The shifting to the
internet environment through NDC will reduce the distribution cost as shown
through Hanke, (2016); IATA, (2012). This reduction may not be promptly
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happening, but on the long run through a proper transformation strategy in
addition to the appropriate control of other related costs to the sales process.
2.1.2.4.1 Airlines Savings in Global Distribution Systems (GDSs) Cost
The increase in distribution cost represents a huge stress on airlines that is
becoming a threat Tanija, (2011), they kept trying to use other distribution
capabilities in order to minimize GDSs usage of for the sake of cost
reduction.
8%
84%
0
8%
Not at all
Less than 10%
from 10 - 30%
more than 30%
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 8: Results of NDC Enhancement in GDSs Cost Savings
Figure no. 8 shows that 84% of the sample respondent results agreed that
NDC reduced GDSs cost by less than 10%, where these airlines has been
passed by the critical phase of all the technical and functional transition
phases safely. 8% have been reduced the GDSs cost by more than 30% which
is a great percent indicates that these airlines are capable of all functional and
financial preparations besides the advanced IT- infrastructure and
architecture they own, while these savings should be addressed gradually on
the long term as presented by Cook and Billig, (2017); www.lek.com, (2017).
GDSs will be in trouble and have to adjust their business model in order to
maintain as strong as before and offer new solutions to cope with the new
technology enhancements.
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2.1.2.4.2 Sellers' Segment Productivity on GDSs
Travel agents and sellers in general are commission seekers; they usually
obtain incentives for their bookings on airlines and also for segment
productivity from GDSs as stated by Tanija, (2011). For these reasons, sellers
preferred to use GDSs most generate profit.
10%
90%
0
0
Not at all
decreased by 10% or less
decreased from 10 – 30%
more than 30%
Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.
Figure 9: Results of NDC Reduction to Sellers Segment Productivity on
GDSs
Figure no.9 shows that 90% of the respondents of the sample data approved
that sellers that applied NDC decreased their segments' productivity and
GDSs incentives by 10% or less within a fiscal year, while 10% did not
recognize any decrease. The sample result approves Hoyles, (2015). This
could not be very pleasant to travel agents as they used to obtain certain
amount of incentives from GDSs that heavily depend on in running their
business. Airlines have to find a way to offset this decrease in revenue for
travel agents or else the later will search for another substituting channel to
gain and guarantee such incentive (Accenture, 2016).
3. Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
It has been proved that airlines' vision, strategy and objectives in distribution
have been achieved through dynamic distribution and NDC implementation.
It provides airlines the disintermediation in distribution which focuses on
product diversity and deployment through Omni-channels. Airlines’ adoption
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of the dynamic distribution capabilities and NDC in specific will provide
opportunities through the total control and usage of passenger data and
personalization. Although being faced with remarkable challenges such as
the lack of experience in choosing the effective IT provider, aggregator and
GDSs opposition, the airlines' application of dynamic distribution capabilities
and NDC will enhance proactively in offering their rich content and bundled
or a la carte offers which are tailored to every customer. These offers are not
anonymously based on his/her preference and shopping experience for
ancillary requirements via social networks. Therefore, there will be a great
improvement in the interaction resulting in building strong relationships with
customers. There is a correlation between airlines information and
communication technology infra-structure, PSS systems, API architecture
and all related functional systems with relevant application databases,
solutions and other third parties and IT capabilities. Airlines will not be able
to implement NDC and integrate with such new standards without the
satisfactory enhancement of their IT structure.
Airlines started to enhance their merchandising capabilities to be able to
interact proactively with their customers through offering additional ancillary
services to elevate the level of satisfaction and loyalty within the provided
technological capabilities. The development of dynamic trends in
communication technology and distribution capabilities influenced the
process of airlines distribution in general and customer interaction in specific
which is known as Active Distribution.
These trends will permit airlines to have a personalized service as per
customer profile and travel pattern which facilitates the opportunity of using
a dynamic pricing and loyalty system. This supports the customers’ to
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reallocate their priorities of searching for the best price to obtain a real value
and benefit that last. The results of the first part of the case study show that
legacy carriers are more willing to adopt NDC. The general trend throughout
the past three years for airlines adoption show a rate of increase 2016 over
2015 by 27% and 2017 over 2016 by 86% and 2018 over 2017 by 10% for
the first quarter which indicates further increase till year end. The second part
covers the adoption pillars; vision, strategy and objectives, functionally,
technically and financially of NDC. 39% of airlines main strategy and
objective was to motivate more additional ancillary sales with respect to the
importance of offering a dynamic pricing method to the rich content. 49% of
airlines are poorly experienced to choose the adequate IT provider and
aggregator to fulfill their vision and it is considered to be the biggest
challenge that faces them when applying NDC.
Functionally, 59% of the sample results approve that NDC will tolerate
airlines to deploy bundled, a la carte and personalized offers built on the
customers’ preference for ancillary requirements. Technically, it is essential
for airlines to make further developments to their ability of managing data
center infrastructure in general and the integration process with third party
suppliers in specific. Last but not least the financial level which is very
important and so is the billing system. NDC will add extra financial burdens
on airlines as the other side of innovations, as they need to invest heavily in
the enhancement of their technology capabilities and the transition period not
to mention the periodic technical support and updates. The significant
advantage of implementing NDC was interpreted to a decrease in GDSs cost
as 84% of implemented airlines reduced their GDS cost by 10% or less in
their previous fiscal year. Sellers and GDSs so far were gaining the lower
privilege of implementing NDC as 90% of the applied sellers decreased their
productivity on GDSs by 10% or less in their previous fiscal year while
airlines and IT- providers are the winners.
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Airlines are recommended to focus on their vision and strategy to adapt
dynamic distribution capabilities and invest heavily on the enhancement of
their IT-infrastructure to be able to apply the IATA initiative of deploying the
new distribution capability NDC and integrate between partners through a
common standard shared among them. By using the high technology in data
transmission via Application Programing Interfaces APIs across partners and
third party contractors. IT-Providers are recommended to develop a software
designed especially for airlines to raise the opportunity to take direct control
over all alternative payments. It is highly recommended for airlines to set an
incentive strategy and schemes for sellers to offset the decrease in GDSs'
segments productivity that they used to depend on in their budgets for
decades. In the near future, NDC will be considered the baseline of
technological dynamic distribution capabilities platform that other new
technological trends and enhancements will depend on.
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personalization,retrieved,6Aug2017
- www.wns.com/insights/blogs/blogdetail/408/aviation-new-distribution-
capability-the-way-forward,retreived,20oct201,
- www.wnsdecisionpoint.com/our-insights/reports/detail/44/ndc-take-off-
planning-for-the-long-haul-retreived,20oct2017.
124
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
Radwa Ahmed Mousa Ali Omar Mey Zaki
The Old Kingdom was famous with stability in all fields and flourishment in
industry, construction and art, in which resulted a great civilization depended
mainly on its internal resources.1
The social and economic conditions had developed during the old kingdom
and especially the fifth dynasty, that’s because the kings of the fifth dynasty
realized that they rule in different circumstances from their predecessors.
They increased the financial benefits to the high priests of the sun temples
and exempted some temples from paying the taxes which were levied on
them in order to guarantee their loyalty and effect on the people.
The fifth dynasty kings allowed dignitaries of people to take positions in the
government although these positions were only for the princes of the royal
house since the time of king Senefru2. Democracy could be determined easily
in which the gap between the kings and the high officials did not exist
anymore3, in addition to the members of the royal family who left the high
offices to regular people4. It has been noted that all the viziers and high
officials of the fifth dynasty were from regular people, this is completely
different from the fourth dynasty as the control used to be in the hands of the
1Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt And The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,
Vol. 1,(London, 1962), 45. 2Maher, G., Autobiographies in Ancient Egypt From The Old Kingdom to The End of The
Second Intermediate Period, (Cairo, 2006), 217. 3Shaw, I., Nicholson, P., Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (Cairo, 2002), 160. 4id., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000), 110.
125
Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
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king's family5. This was considered a remarkable development in the
Egyptian administration during that period6.
Very few letters have survived from the Old Kingdom, as the oldest letters
known were hieroglyphic copies of letters sent by king Djedkara-Izezi (2414-
2375 BC), to the officials Senedjemib and Rashepses dates back to the fifth
dynasty7 .
Several courtiers and officials from the reign of Djedkare Izezi are known
through their autobiographical texts that inscribed in their tombs in Giza,
Saqqara and Abusir, while the king's pyramid is located at southern Saqqara.
Most of these tombs consisted of topics, show the relationship of the tomb's
owner with the king, and also give insights about the administrative reforms
that carried out by Izezi during his reign, this trend continued throughout the
end of the old kingdom8.
There were four letters sent during the fifth dynasty by king Djedkare-Izezi,
It seems that king Izezi enjoyed writing letters as he sends a letter to his
vizier Rashepses in addition to another three letters sent by him to
Senedjemib9. Copies of these letters were inscribed in their Mastabas which
located in Saqqara and Giza.10
The first letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier
Rashepses: This letter was sent by king Djedkare-Izezi to Rashepses in order to praise
him. Rashepses held many titles recorded on the walls of his tomb11 such as:
5Smith, S., The Old Kingdom In Egypt and The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,
Vol. 1,(London, 1962), 45. 6Shaw, I., op.cit., 110. 6Shaw, I., Nicholson, P., Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (Cairo, 2002), 160. 8Shaw, I., op.cit., 111- 112. 9Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas, Vol. 7, ( Boston, 2001), 89. 10Shaw, I., Nicholson, P., Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (Cairo, 2002), 160. 11Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt In The Old Kingdom The Highest Titles And
Their Holders, (London, 1985), 94.
126
Mousa, R. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
chief justice, overseer of scribes of royal documents and vizier12 who lived
during the middle of the reign of king Izezi13. Rashepses was buried in his
tomb which located to the north of the enclosure wall of the step pyramid at
Saqqara.
This letter reads:
"Royal decree of the chief justice and vizier, the overseer of scribes of royal documents,
Rashepses:
My Majesty has read at court this very fine letter that you sent on this fine day of very truly
gratifying Izezi with what he very truly likes. It was more desirable to My Majesty than
anything else to read this letter of yours for you surely know how to express what My
Majesty likes above all these, and your diction is surely more pleasing to me than anything
else. My Majesty knows full well that you desire to say everything that My Majesty likes.
O Rashepses, I say to you innumerable times as follows: O you who are beloved of your lord
praised of your lord, who are favorite of your lord and who are privy to your lord's secrets,
it is because Re has given you to me that I know full well that he must love me. As truly as
Izezi lives forever, you should express immediately any wish of yours in a letter from you
today so that My Majesty might have it fulfilled immediately14".
Second letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier
Senedjemib:
This letter was sent by king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier Senedjemib Inti
concerning a construction of a lake. Senedjemib Inti was a very important
and powerful official15 who lived during the end of the reign of king Izezi, he
was the successor of Rashepses as a vizier16. He showed his close relation
12Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 18. 13Strudwick, N., Op. cit.,95. 14Wente, E., Op. cit., 18. 15Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas, Vol. 7, ( Boston, 2001), 89. 16Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt In The Old Kingdom The Highest Titles and
Their Holders, (London, 1985), 95.
127
Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
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with the king by recording three letters he received from his lord in his
mastaba at Giza, the letters are inscribed in sunk relief17.
This letter reads:
"Royal decree to the chief justice and vizier, the overseer of all works of the king and
overseer of scribes of royal documents, Senedjemib:
My majesty has reviewed this ground plan which you sent to be considered at court for the
(pool?) area of the broad court (?) belonging to the jubilee palace of "Lotus-of- Izezi." Now
you can say unto My Majesty that you have made it to a [length] of 1,000 cubits (523 meters)
and to a [width] of 440 +cubits (230+ meters) in accordance with what was commanded to
you at court. How well you surely know, how to express what Izezi likes above all else. It is
indeed for Izezi's delight that the god has produced you.
My Majesty knows that you are more skillful than any overseer of works who has ever been
in this entire land. I am doing on your behalf something far greater than I ever did for [you].
You have indeed achieved distinction (?) innumerable times, so [you] shall serve as overseer
of all works of the king.
O Senedjemib Senior, it is with me that I want you to be, for you know full well that I love
you.
Year of the six [teenth(?)] count, fourth month of the third season, day 2818."
Third letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier
Senedjemib: This letter was sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier Senedjemib
concerning the decoration of the sacred marriage chapel.
This letter reads:
"Royal decree to the chief justice and vizier, the overseer of scribes of royal documents and
overseer of all works of the king, Senedjemib:
My Majesty has read this letter of yours which you wrote in order to inform My Majesty of
everything that you have done in the drafting of the inscriptional (?) decoration for the
sacred marriage chapel of Izezi, which is in the (lake?) area of the palace. Isn't it truly so
that I am gratified thereby? It is not a case of saying something merely by way of gratifying
17 Brovarski, E., Op. cit 89. 18Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 18.
128
Mousa, R. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Izezi. May My Majesty be informed immediately of the truth of the matter? Will it in fact get
accomplished? 19
You are one who says what Izezi likes better than any functionary who has ever been in this
land. Since My Majesty knows full well that every ship is on an even keel, I know in what way
you are surely very useful to me. [Really] pleasing to me is the diction of the overseer of all
works of the king.
It very truly is to Izezi's gratification. If only [you] might come to [me! But] it means that you
are working at this very assiduously. You have acted innumerable times so that [My Majesty]
should love you, and you know full well that I love you20."
Fourth letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier
Senedjemib: This letter was sent by king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier Senedjemib
concerning the king's jubilee.
This letter reads:
"[Consideration has been given to the substance of this letters of yours which you directed to
the king] at the palace in order to inform My Majesty that a command of the king was
delivered to you regarding [… Now you can say] unto my majesty that you are going to make
the lake in accordance with what was said at court […] without you. And you say that you
are going to […] the jubilee. My Majesty has very much liked hearing these words of yours
[…] beside you. The Ka of Izezi did not appoint you for just any sort of thing in your (?) […
You are one] for whom My Majesty [will do] anything which is known [to] My Majesty
because the overseer of all works of the king is immediately mentioned whenever I inspect a
project at court, for you are […] that where of My Majesty commands them to give to him
while under the king according as I retire (?) in order to [read] each letter [which arrives
from you] every day. It is because Re has given you to me that I know full well that he must
love me21."
19Ibid., 92. 20Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 19. 21Ibid., 20.
129
Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
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The Comments
During the fifth dynasty the relation between the kings and the high officials
took a different shape, this can be noticed easily from the compliment words
that king Izezi used in his letters to glorify his viziers in an exaggeration way.
He was very humble and down to earth as he used to praise and appreciate
anything they have done to him although he is the king and that is part of
their work22, like when he said to Rashepses in his letter: ''I know that Re
must love me because he gives you to me''23.
The three letters sent from the king to Senedjemib shows his importance and
close relation with the king who used to praise him even much more than
Rashepses. This reflects the king's great respect and satisfaction with his
achievements24. One of these three letters has been written by the king
himself. It talks about a lake of 1,200 cubits length25. The king expresses his
gladness and satisfaction with that plan and promoted Senedjemib to be the
overseer of all works of the king26.
The king's praises was source of pride of Rashepses and Senedjemib, that’s
why Senedjemib's son (Senedjemib Mehi) inscribed the letters that were sent
from the king to his father on the wall of his father's tomb, same as Rashepses
who included the letter that he received from the king in his tomb as well.
22In some funerary chapels from that period, small biographical details light up the daily life
of the court during that time. Rewer in his tomb in Giza describes how he was accompanying
king Neferirkare as a Sem-priest in the course of a ceremony, when the king struck him
accidentally upon the leg with His staff. The king hastened to assure him that he must not
regard this action as a blow but as a honoring.
Another case it is not exactly clear what kind of accident happened to the Vizier Washptah,
who seems to have been working on a new building to king Neferirkare. The court physician
was called and writings consulted but at the end the vizier died. The apologies of the king
and his concern for the stricken vizier shows the humility and modesty of that king and may
be that was a feature of the kings of that period. 23Loc. Cit. 24Ibid., 19- 20. 25Breasted, J. H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988), 121, 122. 26Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas, Vol. 7, ( Boston, 2001), 89.
130
Mousa, R. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Another main feature can be noticed during the fifth dynasty, was the
expansion of sending trade and foreign campaigns by land and sea. The reign
of Userkaf was considered the beginning of Egypt's contacts abroad27.
Expeditions were sent to Wadi maghara and Wadi kharit in Sinai to bring
turquoise and copper28.
Inscription carrying two or more of Izezi's names found in the copper and
turquoise mines at Wadi Maghara in Sinai, in addition to a graffito mentions
his name at Tumas 150 km south of Aswan. Actually the Egyptian relations
with its neighbors was not peaceful all the time during the reign of Izezi, a
scene found in the tomb of Senedjemib Inti represents Egyptian troops
storming and sacking an Asian fortress29. There is evidence to an expedition
sent to Punt during the reign of King Djedkara Izezi, as the god's seal bearer
Werdjededkhnum brought back a dwarf from Punt to the king30. This was
mentioned in the letter sent by king Pepi II to his official Herkhuf in the six
dynasty about 100 years later31.
The Sixth dynasty
During the Sixth dynasty the king's authority and influence started to
decrease gradually while the statesmen had many privileges and the province
rulers became as kings in their nomes. This period also had been known for
27Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt And The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,
Vol. 1, (London, 1962), 38. 28Shaw, I., The Oxford History Of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000), 111. 29Baker, D., Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs, vol.1, (Cairo, 2008), 84. 30Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt and The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,
Vol. 1, (London, 1962), 45. 31Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 20.
131
Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
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the large number of trade expeditions which was sent to the south while had
been guarded by armed garrisons32.
The political relations between Pharoanic Egypt and Nubia had an important
role in the foreign policy of ancient Egypt in most of its eras. The importance
of Nubia was due to its strategic location, the second cataract had been
considered the natural southern border of ancient Egypt, in addition to the
economic importance in which the Egyptian economy relied on getting the
raw materials and minerals especially gold from Nubia and other southern
lands. This was the main reason that makes the Egyptians keen on keeping
those regions under their control33.
Nubia was considered the only road that leads to the rich southern Sudanese
nomes where Egypt used to import gold, ostrich feather, ebony, panther skin
and ivory. That’s why Egypt pharaohs cared so much from the early
beginning of the dynasties on controlling the commercial convoy roads and
defeat raiders who used to threaten the safety of those convoys, in addition to
the constant fear on Egypt's southern borders as the Egyptians felt danger
from some Nubian tribes34.
The most famous traveler of that period was Herkhuf who recorded the
details of his expedition in addition to his autobiography on the walls of his
tomb in Aswan. It's considered the most famous biography from the old
kingdom which contains 58 lines carved on the outer façade of his tomb; it's
now in a very bad state of preservation35.
Among his tales about the expeditions Herkhuf included a letter that he
received from the boy king Pepi II in his autobiography. This letter is
32Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and
Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23. 33Smith, G.E., Jones, F.W.,The Archaeological Survey of Nubia, Vol. II, (Cairo, 1910),15-36. 34Breasted, J.H., A History of Egypt, Part IV, (New York, 1905), 922. 35Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature a Book Of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and
Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23.
132
Mousa, R. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
considered the only complete royal letter from the old kingdom. Herkhuf's
tomb is the only tomb in Aswan which has inscriptions36.
The tales and considerations of Herkhuf about these expeditions are
considered the main source of information about Egypt's relations with Nubia
at that time37.
The letter sent from king Pepi II to Herkhuf:
This letter was sent by king Pepi II to Herkhuf, in order to look after the
pigmy he haunted. Herkhuf was the governor of Upper Egypt; he lived and
worked during the time of king (Merynra) and (Pepi II), he led four
expeditions to Nubia38. He was an important person who held many titles.
This letter reads:
"Royal decree to the role companion, lector priest, and commander of Nubian auxiliaries
Harkhuf:
Consideration has been given to the substance of this letter of yours which you directed to
the king at the place to let it be known that you have come back down safely from Iam along
with the expeditionary force which is with you. You mentioned in this letter of yours that you
have brought back all sorts of great and fine gifts which Hathor, lady of Imaau, has given to
the Ka of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Neferkare (Pepi II), may he live forever and
ever.
You mentioned in this letter of yours that you have brought back a dwarf of the god’s dances
from the land of the horizon-dwellers, one like the dwarf which the god’s seal-bearer
Werdjededkhnum brought back from Punt in the reign of Izezi. You mentioned unto My
Majesty that one like him has never been brought back by anyone else who had previously
traveled through Iam.
36Breasted, J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988), 159. 37Lichtheim, M., Op. cit., 23. 38Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature a Book Of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and
Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23.
133
Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
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How well indeed you know how to do what your lord loves and praises! If you continue day
and night being concerned with doing what your lord loves, praises, and commands, his
Majesty will fulfill your many worthy aspirations so as to benefit the son of your son forever,
so that all people will say whenever they hear of what My Majesty has done for you, “Is it
like that which was done for the sole companion Harkhuf as he was coming back down from
Iam, because of the vigilance he displayed in order to do what his lord loves, praises, and
commands?”
Come sailing north to the Residence at once! Cast off, bringing back with you this dwarf
whom you have brought from the land of the horizon-dwellers, alive, prospering and healthy,
for the god’s dances in order to amuse and delight the King of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Neferkare, may he live forever.
When he goes with you aboard the ship, assign able men so as to be round about him on both
sides of the ship lest he fall into the water. When (he) sleeps at night, also assign able men so
as to sleep round about him in his tent. Inspect ten times during the night, for My Majesty
wishes to see this dwarf more than the products of Sinai or Punt. If you arrive at the
Residence with this dwarf still alive, prospering and healthy in your charge, My Majesty will
do for your something greater then was done for the god’s seal bearer Werdjededkhnum in
the reign of Izezi, reflecting My Majesty’s yearning to see this dwarf.
Orders have been delivered to each chief of a new town and to each companion and overseer
of priests to command that provisions be exacted from the charge of each: from every estate
of the department of supplies and from every temple respectively. No exemption has been
made therein.
Sealed by the king personally in Year 2, third month of the first season, day 1539."
The Comments:
The time of Pepi II was famous with the large number of expeditions that he
used to send to the south leaded by the rulers of Elephantine, as the most
well-known one was Herkhuf40.
During the second year of king Pepi II reign Herkhuf was sent by the king to
Yam while he was collecting products from there he hunted a pygmy from
39Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 20-21. 40Breasted, J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988), 159.
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the land of the horizon dwellers this term was used to refer to the people from
the remote regions east and southeast of Egypt41.
This was not the first pigmy brought from a foreign land, another one had been
brought to king Izezi from Punt by the god's seal bearer Werdjededkhnum, The
pygmies used to dance in order to honor and entertain the gods42.
Herkhuf sent a letter to inform the king with the latest news and
achievements including the pygmy in his letter43. He was smart enough to make
the child king excited by telling him that he got a pigmy that one like him has never
been brought back by anyone else travelled to Iam. The king was a child not more
than eight years old; he couldn't hide his childish enthusiasm44.
Herkhuf received a letter from the king expressing his happiness and showing
how much the boy king was excited to see the dancing pygmy that Herkhuf
has bringing back with him, as he cared for the safe arrival of the dwarf more
than anything else about the expedition45.
It seems that dwarfs were rarely found because of the king's excitement and
happiness with the news of bringing a pigmy, as he promised him to fulfill his
aspirations to benefit the son of his son forever.
Finally the king had practiced his authority at the end of the letter, when he
informed Herkhuf with the latest orders concerning the provisions, as this was a part
of Herkhuf's responsibilities46.
41Anon, Egypt, (Australia, 2005), 33. 42Wente, E., Op. cit., 20-21. 43Anon, Egypt, (Australia, 2005), 33. 44Wente, E., Op. cit., 20-21. 45Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature a Book Of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and
Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23. 46Wente, E., Op. cit., 21.
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Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance
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Herkhuf was so proud with that personal letter sent to him by the king as he
included it in his tomb autobiography; also this shows that he delivered the
dwarf safe to the king unless he would never copy this letter in his tomb.
The Conclusion:
The fifth dynasty kings were not from royal origins and then they became
rulers as Westcar papyrus47 stated48. This could also mean that the fifth
dynasty rulers were not used to be treated as kings. May be diplomatic ways
and sweet words were used to praise and describe the high officials in order
to gain their loyalty and honesty to the king all the time. King Izezi used
almost the same words to praise Rashepses and Senedjemib in his four
letters.
During the late Old Kingdom Egypt had a strong and good relation with its
southern neighbors, such as Iam and Punt 49. Herkhuf succeeded to defeat the
revolting tribes in the south and forcing them to pay heavy tributes loaded on
300 donkeys as he mentioned and as a result the influence of the pharaoh had
been extended as far to the second cataract50.
At the end it can be said that the political and economic status during the late Old
Kingdom was stable, as there were no battles or famines existed. This can be
noticed easily from the letters that survived from the fifth and sixth dynasty, which
shows that they used to send many expeditions to different foreign lands in addition
to the constructions such as the pool and the chapel in the royal palace; this reflects
the luxury and stability which Egypt enjoyed at that time.
47Petrie, F., A History of Egypt from the Ist To The XVIth dynasty, (London, 1916), 69. 48According to Westcar papyrus legend which dates back to the fourth dynasty specially time
of King Khufu, a prophecy was narrated to King Khufu by a magician named Dedi who was
brought by prince Hardjedef son of Khufu. He predicted that Radjedet the wife of a priest of
god Re at Sakhbu(in the delta) will give birth to a triplet who are going to be the first three
kings of the Fifth Dynasty, named as: Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare whose considered the
seed or production of Re as a result of her union with him.This prophecy caused Khufu's
depression because the birth of this triplet will replace his own descendants on the throne of
Egypt. 49Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 20-21. جيمز هنري برستد, كتاب تاريخ مصر منذ اقدم العصور الي الفتح الفارسي, الطبعة االولي, )القاهرة, 1929(, 50.89
136
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List of References
1. Baker, D., Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs, vol.1, (Cairo, 2008).
2. Breasted, J.H., A History of Egypt, Part IV, (New York, 1905).
3. Breasted, J. H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988).
4. Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas,
Vol. 7, (Boston, 2001).
5. Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings,
Vol. 1, The Old and Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973).
6. Maher,G., Autobiographies in Ancient Egypt From The Old Kingdom
to The End of the Second Intermediate Period, (Cairo, 2006).
7. Sethe, K., Urkunden Des Alten Reichs,(Leipzig, 1903).
8. Shaw, I., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000).
9. Smith, G.E., Jones, F.W., The Archaeological Survey of Nubia,
Vol. II, (Cairo, 1910).
10. Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt and The Beginning of The
First Intermediate Period, Vol. 1, (London, 1962).
11. Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt in The Old Kingdom The
Highest Titles and Their Holders, (London, 1985).
12. Petrie, F., A History of Egypt from the Ist to the XVIth dynasty,
(London, 1916).
13. Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990).
بعة االولي, , الطكتاب تاريخ مصر منذ اقدم العصور الي الفتح الفارسيجيمز هنري برستد, .14
.(1929)القاهرة,
137
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
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Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
Shaimaa Ahmed Afifi Aly Omar Abdallah Shaza Gamal Ismail
Abstract
Saint Mena was a famous martyr of Christianity, his life and martyrdom was
kind of legendry story. His iconography was highly attested to several
materials of Coptic art. He was depicted with various iconographies each had
a related attribute with his legend. He was glorified by a healing cult and had
a great pilgrimage center. His cult was translated into flasks with his
iconography as orant found in different places and scattered within several
museums around the world. This article discusses the different gestures of
Saint Mena in Coptic art.
Keywords: Saint, Halo, Iconography, Equestrian, Orans, chlamys.
Introduction
Saint Mena
Saint Mena’s birthplace was Qetwa in the land of Egypt. He was the only
heir to his wealthy family, and was a Christian by birth. His father was a high
officer in the government service. His family soon died leaving him an
orphan, and then he joined the army and became an officer. He was martyred
in Phrygia, at the end of third and the beginning of the fourth century. His
sufferings were recorded in several languages such as Latin, Greek, Coptic
and Syriac. His famous reputation was gained due to the rumors that had
138
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
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spread all over Egypt about the supernatural powers of the Saint and his
ability to cure. 1
The passion of his martyrdom is recorded in Greek language. According to
this account Saint Mena had lived under the authority of joint-rule of the
Roman emperors Diocletian and his Colleague Maximinus. It was during that
time confessing Christianity was a crime, due to the issued imperial edicts
against Christianity. Mena was a soldier at Kotyian alongside with his
fellows after receiving the edicts, he flew to the desert. After a while he made
a presence in the city again at the performance of the games at one of the
great festivals. He was seized and presented in front of the prefect, Pyrrhus.
After confessing Christianity, he was chained and thrown into jail. On the
following day the prefect ordered him to insult Jesus and to make a Roman
religious sacrifice. It was upon his refusal to obey the orders, he was severely
tortured. Finally he was beheaded outside the city and his body was burnt.
However, faithful mob had successded in wrapping the ashes in fine linen in
order to get him back to his native country.2
According to the Arabic account in the Jacobite Synaxarium, there is more
details account upon saving the Saint’s life. The troops of Mareotis saved the
body with them in their way to Pentapolis. It was during their sea voyage a
tame creature attacked them. The body was saved as flames came out from it.
When the Mareotis reached Alexandria, the camel carrying the holy body
refused to move anymore. Upon this incident another camel was brought, but
acted the same way despite being severely beaten to move. It was realized
that the body has to be buried there upon this divine will. This pitch is now
housed the monastery of Saint Mena at Mariot near the city of Alexandria. It
1 Wilber, D., The Coptic Frescoes of Saint Menas at Medinet Habu, The Art Bulletin,
Vol.XXII, No. 2, Jun., 1940, 86-10 2 Budge, W., TEXTS RELATING TO SAINT MENA OF EGYPT AND CANONS OF NICEA
IN THE NUBIAN DIALECT,California,1909, 23.
139
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is worthy to point that the Saint’s tomb is a holy place to visit for hundreds of
years. 3
There were several miracles attributed to Saint Mena which took place in his
own shrine. These miracles were recorded in different languages, Greek,
Latin, Ethiopian, Nubian and Coptic. The miracles attributed to Mena fall
into two categories either punishing or healing. One of miracles was the egg
miracle. According to it, a pagan woman who lived near Alexandria lived a
luxurious life owned everything except fertility. All her household had no
children even the animals. Her house was close enough to the river which
allowed her to notice the people crossing the river to reach Mena’s church.
Hearing about the miracles of this Saint, she said" If only one of my hens
would lay, I promise that I will sent the first egg over to Saint Mena’s
church”. The miracle did occur and the hen laid one egg. The woman took
the egg alongside with her maid went to the shore searching for a boat. 4
After finding the boat, its sailor asked her about the reason of her voyage; she
told him about the miracle and told him she would be a Christian if she
herself would be pregnant. The man affords to deliver the egg to the church.
He did not only forget to take the egg to the church but also cooked and ate it.
When he went to the church to receive the sacrament, he had a vision of Saint
Mena with a hunting spear. He committed his sin. Again Saint Mena
appeared near to him and kicked the man against his head and suddenly the
egg he had eaten turned into a chicken under him, Saint Mena took the egg
and went to the woman’s house. He gave her the egg and told her to let it
amongst the cattle and they would all give birth. She herself would give birth
and to call the kid Mena. After they had given birth , she and her households
3 Ibid, 24. 4 Gaselee, S., Stories from the Christian East, London1918, 35-38
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and cattle, she went to church alongside with her family in order to be
baptized.5
The Monastery of Saint Mena in Maryut
It was the incident of the shepherd and his ill lamb that led to discover the
Saint’s body relics, as the shepherds’ ill lamb descended into a lake next to
the Saint’s body. Then, he came out to bury himself in sand and finally he
was totally healed.6 When the emperor Constantine learned of his fame and
since this emperor had an only daughter who was ill, he sent her to the
shepherd. The daughter of Constantine asked the shepherd what he did to
cure all the sick people and animals, and the shepherd told her. She took dust
from the ground of this place, wet it with water, and anointed with it all the
parts of her body, and having passed the night in this place, Saint Menas
appeared to her and said, 'When you arise in the morning, dig in this place
and you will find my body. She arose and gave orders to dig, and when she
had found the body of the Saint, she rejoiced greatly and sent someone to her
father to tell him what had happened. The emperor erected a monument over
the body of Saint Mena and a beautiful church constructed in this place.7
When the fame of the healing miracles was spread, the place that was
originally just a small village turned into a great pilgrimage healing center.
Thousands of pilgrims came every year to be healed. The great basilica that
was erected at the end of fifth beginning of sixth century is one of Egypt’s
greatest churches. Many guest houses that were functioned to host the
pilgrims were built. Emperor Zeno (474-491) sent a military garrison to
secure the military movement. After that, the monastery suffered from some
disasters for several circumstances, such as the Persian invasion (619A.D)
5 BROWNE, G., "GRIFFITH'S MIRACLE OF ST. MENAS", The Bulletin of the American
Society of Papyrologists, Vol.XX, No. 1/2 1983, 23-37 من اقوال أباء الكنيسة السكنية القبطية األرثذوكسية، تاريخ حياة الشهيد العظيم مارمينا العجايبي،)القاهرة،1906(،75 67 Wilber, D., "The Coptic Frescoes of Saint Menas at Medinet Habu", The Art Bulletin, Vol.
XXII, No. 2, Jun., 1940, 86-103.
141
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and the Arab conquest (639-41A.D). Then it was revived during the reign of
the Patriarch Mark III (799-819A.D), but again suffered a great drop due to
the Bedouin attacks. For a few decades the pilgrimage center was rich
treasures for thieves.8The monastery enjoyed both prosperity and suffered
from abounded periods until it was finally declined. Despite that, it was when
Kyrillos VI became the Patriarch and Pope of Mark seat; he erected a new
monastery cathedral to restore the glory of Abu Mena cult center. The
original monastery consisted of three main separated buildings, connected
directly with each other: the Basilica, Martyr- church and the Baptistery. 9
The Importance of Saint Mena pilgrimage center stood behind the countless
miracles attributed to him. So Pilgrims came to his center in order to be
healed and get the Saint’s bless. After finishing their religious journey, they
took a souvenirs carved with Saint’s iconography to their native lands. So a
great number of preserved pilgrims’ ampullae were scattered around the
world indicating the how much Mena’s cult was of great importance to
pilgrims.
8 Grossman, P., ABU MINA: A Guide to the Ancient Pilgrimage Center, Cairo,1986, 8-14. 9 Grossman, P., The Pilgrimage Center of Abu Mina, Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late
Antiquity, V.CXXXIV, Leiden,1988,281-302.
Fig. 1, Saint Mena Pilgrimage center in sixth century, ABU MINA:
After, A Guide to the Ancient Pilgrimage Center, (Cairo, 1986), fig. 1
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Plate I, Saint Mena dressed Roman military uniform,
After, Rutschowscaya, M., La peinture copte, (Paris, 1992), 49
Plate II, Saint Mena dressed Roman military uniform.
After, Zibawi, M., Images de l’Égypte chrétienne : Iconologie copte,(Paris, 2003), 95
Saint Mena dressed Roman military uniform
Date: Seventh-eighth century.
Material: Painting on tempera.10
Dimensions: Height 67 cm, Length 79 cm.
Province: Chamber XXXIV Kellia, Now exhibited in the Louvre Museum.11
Description: Saint Mena is depicted on praying posture raising his hands
while wearing the traditional Roman military uniform consisting of a red
10 Ziegler, Ch., The Louvre Egyptian antiquities, Paris, 2006, 92. 11 Rutschowscaya, M., La peinture copte, Paris,1992, 49
143
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
short belted tunic and a chlamys12 over it. His head with short curly hair is
surrounded with the glory halo of Saints and martyrs13, right to his head this
is an inscription bearing his name.14
Plate III, Saint Mena in the martyrs dome
After, Lyster, w., ed. The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Paul,
Egypt, Cairo, 2008, 220
Saint Mena in the martyrs dome.
Date: 13th century.
Province: Monastery of Saint Paul,Red sea.
Descritption: Saint Mena is depicted riding a brown horse wearing a belted
tunic with a chalmys over it. Beneath the horse, there is a representation of
aquatic camel monasters, probably the monasters of his legend. Accroding to
the legend, while transfering the Saint’s body to Egypt beastes with necks
12 The chlamys was a type of an ancient Greek cloak. 13 Halo or Nimbus is a zone of light, generally represented in different form; circle, square or
triangle. It was frequently used in Coptic art behind the head of divine or sacred personage to
identify their great identity. 14 Zibawi, M., Images de l’Égypte chrétienne : Iconologie copte, Paris, 2003,198
144
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
raised a loft and faces like camels attacked the relics but fire flames emerged
from the Saint’s body and
saved it.15 Beneath the Saint’s figure, there is an Arabic inscription read as
"الشهيد العظيم ماري مينا العجايبي"16
Plate IV, Saint Mena receiving the crowns
After, Bolman, E., The Early Paintings, chapter III in Bolman, E., ed. Monastic Visions:
Wall Paintings in the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea,Cairo,2002,42
Saint Mena receiving the crowns.
Date:18th century.
Province:Western wall of the nave,Monastery of Saint Antony, Red sea.17
15 Lyster, w., ed. The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Paul, Egypt,
Cairo, 2008, 219 16 Moorsel, P., Le monastère de saint- Paul près de la mer rouge, Cairo, 2002,105
145
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Description: The scene represents Saint Mena as an equastrian18 riding his
yellow horse. His head is surrounded by the glory halo of Saints. Beneath his
horse, there is a representation of two camels and a man between them
whipping one of the camels. These two camels refres to the legend of Saint
Mena, the two camels that refuse to move the Saint’s body. Next to the
camel, there is a a domed structure of mudbrick with a cross on its top,
symbolising th shrine that was built to house the Saint’s body. Next to
Mena’s head , a divine hand offering him the crown of martyrdom on both
sides.19 Beneath the scene there is an Arabic inscription read as اذكر يارب "
ره عبدك الخاطئ المسكين الغارق في بحار الخاطايا الذي ال يستحق ان يدعي شماسا من اجل كت
خطاياه..."
17 Moorsel, V., Les peintures de monastère de saint –Antoine près de la mer rouge,
Cairo,1995,160 18 Equestrian saints iconography was a matter of interest in Egypt. Their cult was attested in
several documents such as: papyri, inscriptions and carvings. Coptic art preferred to depict
equestrian saint as horsemen riders, probably drawing them from the tradition of slaying the
dragon horseman. The depiction of slaying the dragon is believed to be the continuation the
ancient Egyptian legend, in which god Horus overcome evil. Equestrian saints iconography
was portrayed on different materials as early as third century, while being spearing a demon
of various shapes: dragon, crocodile, serpent and scorpion. Equestrian saints iconography
symbolize victory over evil in coptic art 19 Bolman, E., The Early Paintings, chapter III in Bolman, E., ed. Monastic Visions: Wall
Paintings in the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea,Cairo,2002,42.
146
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Plate V, Christ and abbot Mena from Bawit
After, Mathews, Th., The Christian Dawn of Christian Art: in Panel Paintings and Icons,
New York, 2016, 23
Christ and abbot Mena from Bawit.
Date: six-seventh century.
Province: Monastery of Saint Mina in Bawit, Middle Egypt, Now exhibited
in louver Museum.20
Material: Fresco Painted on sycamore wood.
Dimensions: Height.57 cm, width.57cm.
Description: The two figures are represented in frontal gesture, on the right
Jesus Christ standing and stretching his arms around Saint Mena as a gesture
of protection.21 He is represented taller than the other figure, wearing a tunic
and scarf while holding one of the Gospels books in his hands. On the left
side, Saint Mina standing wearing a tunic and a scarf, making a blessing sign
of his right hand. The two figures heads’ are surrounded by halos bearing an
20 Bolman, E., The Early Paintings ,Chapter III in in Bolman, E., ed. Monastic Visions: Wall
Paintings in the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea, Cairo, 2002, 21 Ziegler, Ch., The Louvre Egyptian Antiquities, Paris, 2006, 93.
147
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
inscription, but Jesus halos distinguished with a cross sign in-between it22.
The halo of Jesus bears the inscription “Savior”, while Saint Mina’s halo
bears “Ape Mena Superior”23.
Plate VI, Saint Mena slaying a monster.
After, Shafik, M., ed. The Coptic Icons St. Mina Monastery in Fum Al-Khalig Cairo, Cairo,
2008, 87
Saint Mena slaying a monster.
Date: 18th century signed by Ibrahim the scribe and Yuhanna al Al- Armani.24
Province: Saint Mena Monastery, Fum al-Khalig.25
Dimensions: Height 61.8cm, Width 43.5cm.
Material: Tempera on wood.
Description: The icon depicted Saint Mena on a brown horse slaying a
monster with his cross ended spear while holding the lance with his other
hand. The yellow background is decorated with dark green trees from both
22 Christ and Abbot Mena,(20th sept.2018), Retrieved from https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-
notices/christ-and-abbot-mena 23 Rutschowscaya, M., Le Christ et l'abbé Ména, RMN-Louvre, Solo (11), 1998. 24 The production of the Coptic icons witnessed a renewal trend at the second half of
eighteenth century in Ottoman Egypt. Many produced icons were signed by Ibrahim the
scribe and Yuhanna al Armani. Yuhanna al Armani al Qudsi was a famous Coptic artist. His
name was attributed with the renewal trend in the eighteenth century; despite the fact of
being not a Copt. Ibrahim the scribe was a famous Egyptian artist an d their names were
connected since they have worked on many pieces together. 25 Anonymous, Coptic Icons part I, Cairo,1998,141.
148
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
sides. Saint Mena depicted wearing a tunic and a chlamys over it. His head is
decorated with a golden crown and surrounded with the halo of glory. The
winged dragon beneath the horse is depicted lying on his back with sharp
nails and teeth grabbing with his claws. An Arabic inscription is found above
the monster read as "26"عمل ابراهيم و يوحنا األرمني
Plate VII, Saint Mena mounted a horse.
After, Van Moorsel., ed. catalouge general du muse copte: The Icons, Leiden,1991, PL.D2
Saint Mena on a horse.
Date:18th century attributed to Yuhanna al Armani according to characteristic
of his style.27
Material: painted on panel.
Dimensions: Height 33cm, Width 5.57 cm.
26 Shafik, M., ed. The Coptic Icons St. Mina Monastery in Fum Al-Khalig Cairo, Cairo,
2008, 87. 27 Despite the fact that icons of both artists Yuhanna al Armani and Ibrahim the scribe
shared a number of distinguished formal features. They depicted figures with almond shaped
eyes against a flat background; there are several properties that would help to identify the
difference in style between the two painters. For instance: the heavy horizontal black lines
that referred to trees foliage painted by Ibrahim were contrasting to the delicate vertical lines
of Yuhanna. Despite these properties, sometimes it is hard to differentiate their works,
particularly as they collaborated so closely that they sometimes signed the same work
together.
149
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Description: The icon is representing Saint Mena while riding his brown
horse, slaying the dragon with his cross spear .His crowned head, with half
long grey hair is surrounded by a golden halo. Next to his head to the right
his name is written in Arabic.28 He is depicted wearing a short brown tunic
and a brown chlamys. Bottom right there is two small figures of Jews raising
their hands. At the center of the landscape there is white church with dome
and windows is depicted, and to the right another domed building, perhaps a
chapel. 29
Plate VIII, Bas-Relief figuring Saint Menas as orant
After, Anonymous, A Milestone Exhibitions
فيكتور جرجس عوض هللا، اللوحات المصورة بالمتحف القبطي : األيقونات،)القاهرة،1965(،53 28
29 Van Moorsel., ed. catalogue general du musee Copte: The Icons, Leiden,1991, 53.
150
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Palace of Amir Taz, Coptic Art Revealed, Cairo, 2010-2011. fig XI
Bas-Relief figuring Saint Menas as orant.30
Date: Fifth century.
Material: Marble.
Province: Alexandria, now exhibited in the Greco- Roman museum, Hall 1.31
Dimensions: Height 69 cm, Width 58 cm.
Description: This relief shows Saint Mena as an Orant32 with short curly hair.
He is wearing a short belted tunic with a chlamys over it. Next to his feet
from the sides, there is a kneeling camel is carved.33
30 Perkins, J., The Shrine of St. Menas in Maryut, Papers of the British School at
Rome,V.XVII,(1949),26-71 31 Empereur, J., A Short Guide to the Graeco –Roman Museum
Alexandria,(Alexandria,1995),31 32 Orant positions is one the ancient eastern positions of prayers standing with arms
outstretched sideways or bent at the elbow, with the hands at shoulder level and palms facing
forward. 33Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to
Seventh Century, (New York, 1978),574
151
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Plate IX, Ivory plaque of Saint Mena.
After, Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third
to Seventh Century, New York, 1978, 578
Ivory plaque of Saint Mena.
Date: Sixth century.
Province: Alexandria, now Milan.
152
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Material: Ivory.Dimension: Height 10, Width 8.34
Description: Saint Mena is depicted in Orant gesture between two pilgrims,
raising his hands in praying, his head with short curly hair is surrounded by
the glory halo of Saints and martyrs. He is depicted wearing short belted
tunic and a long chlamys over it. Next to his feet from both sides two
kneeling camel are carved. The Saint is standing at the entrance to the
sanctuary of his church with shell35 top symbolizing his pilgrimage center,
flanked by two side bays. The bays are latticed closure slabs, a pair of
curtains, lamp and gables each topped by a cross.36
Ivory pyxis of Saint Mena
34 Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to
Seventh Century, New York, 1978, 578. 35 The shell either cockleshell or scallop is frequently used in Coptic art. It usage
symbolizing pilgrimage. 36 Weitzmann, K., The Ivories of the So-Called Grado Chair, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, V.
XXVI 1972, 43-91.
Plate X , Ivory pyxis of Saint Mena, (20th sept.2018),
Retrieved from http://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/pyxis-menas
153
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Date: Sixth century.
Province: Egypt, now exhibited in the British Museum.
Material: Ivory.
Dimensions: Weight 299.32 gram, Height 7.9cm, Width 11.3cm.
Description: This ivory pyxis37 represents different episodes from Saint
Menas’ life. The first episode was the scene of his judgment. The Roman
provincial is carved while seating on a stool with his foot on a footstool
raising one of his hands while holding a staff with his other hand. Next to
him from the left a guard is carved while on his right a figure of scribe is
depicted. The scribe is depicted while holding a diptych and standing before
a table with an inkpot upon it. Before them Saint Mena is shown kneeling
with his arms bend behind his back wearing a loincloth. His executor is
depicted wearing a short belted tunic and long trousers holding a sword in his
left hand while with his right one grapping the Saint’s hair. Above the Saint’s
head there is a depiction of an angel, whose veiled wings are ready to receive
the holy soul of Menas.38
The other side of the pyxis representing Saint Mena as an Orant raising his
hands as a sign of praying, standing between an arch, probably symbolizing
his pilgrimage shrine. The glory halo of Saints is surrounding his head. Next
to the arch from both sides a kneeling camel is represented. On his left a
group of two women is shown raising their hands in praying position, having
the same on the right but here two men are shown.39
37 The original usage of pyxis is unclear; it may have been used as an incense box or as a
reliquary. 38 Ivory pyxis of Saint Mena,(20th sept.2018), Retrieved from
http://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/pyxis-menas. 39 Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to
Seventh Century, New York, 1978, 575.
154
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Saint Menas’ flask in Louvre.
Date: late fifth, early sixth century.
Province: Maryut, now exhibited in the Louvre Museum.
Material: Terracotta.
Plate XI, Saint Menas’ flask in Louvre
After, Woodfin, W., An Officer and a Gentleman: Transformations in the Iconography of a
Warrior Saint ,Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 60 (2006), 111-143
155
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
Description: This ampulla is shaped like a flattened gourd with two small
handles on the side and a small spout. Its size and quality set it apart from the
usual flasks, although the images are typical: Saint Menas identified by his
name written in Greek.40This ampulla is bearing the figure of Saint Mena as
an orant raising his hands in prayer position with short curly hair. He is
depicted beardless wearing a belted short tunic and a long chlamys over it.
Next to him on both sides a kneeling camel is depicted.41
Plate XII, A pottery flask of Saint Mena
108(,2007جودت جبرة, المتحف القبطي و كنائس القاهرة القديمة,)القاهرة,
40 Saint Mena flask in Louvre, (20th sept.2018), Retrieved from
https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/pilgrim-flasks 41 Woodfin,W., An Officer and a Gentleman: Transformations in the Iconography of a
Warrior Saint ,Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 60 2006, pp. 111-143.
156
Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art
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A pottery flask of saint Mena.
Date: Fifth-sixth century.
Dimensions: Width11.8cm, Height13.6cm.42
Material: Pottery, terracotta.
Province: Coptic Museum, Old Cairo.
Description: this flask depicts Saint Mena as an orant wearing a short belted
tunic and a chlamys over it. He is shown with short curly hair. A kneeling
camel is carved on both sides of Saint Mena. Above his outstretched arms a
short inscriptions in Greek read as “Hagios Menas”43.
Conclusions
Through analyzing the scenes of Saint Mena in Coptic art, it could be
concluded that the Saint’s iconography varied in different forms. His
traditional iconography depicted him in Orant gesture between two kneeling
camels wearing a military short belted tunic with short curly hair. So his
figures were recognizable by these features and the camels that were depicted
with him refer to the episode of his legend when the camels refused to move
from a certain spot where the Saint’s body was buried.44 The Coptic works
from fifth to seventh centuries had depicted Saint Mena in orant position.45
There was another iconography of Mena’s in which he was depicted as
equestrian Saint related to his position in the Roman army while being
slaying a monster. Sometimes the monsters of his legend that emerged from
sea to attack the Saint’s body were depicted beneath him. So it could be
concluded through analyzing scenes of Saint Mena in Coptic art that he was
depicted with symbols and attribution related to his legend. He was also
depicted with different materials; among the works that were attributed to
42Eaton- Karuss & Gabra, G., The Treasures of Coptic Art: in the coptic museum and
churches of old Cairo,(Cairo& New York,2006),117. جودت جبره, المتحف القبطي و كنائس القاهرة القديمة,)القاهرة,2007(,108 4344 Delehaye, H., Les légendes grecques des saints militaires, Paris,1909,1. 45 Woodfin, W., An Officer and a Gentleman: Transformations in the Iconography of a
Warrior Saint, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. LX (2006), 111-143.
157
Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.
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Saint Mena were Pilgrims flasks (Ampullae) that were worn around the neck
by pilgrims while visiting the holy places. Originally those flasks contained
either oil from the lamps that was burnt in front of the shrine or water from a
miraculous source or a well connected to the holy place. Most of Saint
Menas’ flasks were stamped with his figure standing in orant posture. From
the fifth century several of Mena’s flasks were produced. Dozens of his
flasks were discovered at the district of Kom El-Dikka in Alexandria 46.
46 Anderson, W., An Archaeology of Late Antique Pilgrim Flasks, Anatolian Studies, Vol.
LV (2004), 79-9.
158
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
The Usage of Coptic Language and its Dialects
Marian Magdy Shaza Gamal Mary Missak
Abstract
The word ‘Coptic’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘Qubt’ which is the
Greek uttered it as "Aigyptios", and the Egyptians wrote it "Giptios". It was
derived from the Pharaonic word "Hi-kꜣ-ptḥ" meaning ‘The house of the
spirit of Ptah; an Egyptian God”, which was one of the names of the ancient
metropolis Memphis. Arabs took it ‘Qubt’ then the Europeans took it as
"Copts". This term corrects the misunderstanding of the meaning of the word
‘Qubt’ which doesn’t mean Christians but all Egyptians; however they played
an important role in the history of Christianity as a whole.1
Keywords
Egypt- Copts- Coptic- Greek- Coptic Language- Alphabets- Arabic
Language- Dialects- Manuscripts.
Introduction
Coptic language is the direct descend of Ancient Egyptian language. Ancient
Egyptians used it in their daily life and they recorded it in three forms;
Hieroglyphic "the sacred script", it is the earliest form of Egyptian pictorial
writing. It was carved by the artists on the walls of temples, tombs and
sarcophagi. The Hieratic "priestly" script which was modified form of the
hieroglyphic script that used by the priests in writing on papyrus, the state
laws, king’s decrees, commercial treaties and all official correspondence. The
1Murray, Peter, The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture, Oxford, 1996, p.
118.
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The Usage of Coptic Language and its Dialects
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Demotic "writing of people” script was used by the people in their daily lives,
especially for their private letters which is replaced the hieratic script.2
In fact, Coptic the final development of the last had written stage of the
ancient Egyptian language which the indigenous inhabitants had employed
for more than three millennia. It was the daily spoken language of the Copts
at the end of tenth or eleventh century until the Arab conquest of Egypt and it
began to be superseded by Arabic.
During the Ptolemaic period, approximately in the third century B.C., instead
of the still complicated demotic scripts, Egyptians began to adopt the Greek
alphabet which became distinguished as Coptic.3
Coptic Alphabets4
The Coptic language is composed of thirty-two letters in the Coptic alphabet;
the first twenty-five letters are modified from the Greek letters that have their
origin in the Hieroglyphic script. The last seven letters are modified from the
Demotic script. In the first few centuries of Christianity in Egypt, the Greek
language was the cultural language of the world similar to the English
language nowadays. Many of the Coptic fathers such as St. Athanasius the
twentieth Pope wrote mainly in Greek language so people worldwide would
understand. However, many Coptic fathers wrote in Coptic. Coptic language
is continued to be used in the Church with Greek as the second language.
2Ishaq , Emile, Maher, Coptic Language, Spoken, in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol.2, Atiya
Aziz S.ed., New York, 1991, p. 604-607. 3Kasser, Rodolphe, The Coptic Language(S), in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol.8, Atiya Aziz
(ed.) New York, 1991, p.145-151. 4Kriecher, Robert, the Coptic Alphabet, Oxford, 1996, p. 287.
160
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The Usage of Coptic Language
In the third century A.D, the Coptic language took its final shape. Copts used
their language with its dialects in their conversation, daily transactions,
religious texts, translation of the Bible, letters, stories, legal documents, and
the history of the Coptic Church.5 Many of them who lived in towns used
Greek language as well. However, many of the divine liturgy services and the
praises are in Coptic language and to a lesser extent are in Greek language.
Cyrus Gordon said that in his book "Forgotten Scripts", “The Coptic Church
still preserves the native Egyptian language written in Greek characters, so
that we have an unbroken tradition of Egyptian texts spanning about five
thousand years”.6
The Bible plays a role in every aspect of Coptic civilization. The Coptic
Church regards the Old and New Testaments as a single inseparable unit. It
was translated to Coptic language around the second century by the Egyptian
scholars of the theological School of Alexandria, who were very fluent in
both Greek and Coptic.
Parts of the Bible were translated from Greek to Coptic in the first part of the
third century, but the other parts were translated in the fourth century.7 After
the Arab conquest of Egypt, Coptic language was almost eliminated by the
new masters of the land. In two or three centuries, Coptic language was used
in certain villages in Upper Egypt, but very few could speak it. In 318 St.
5Posener, G. A Dictionary of Egyptian Civilization, London, 1959, p. 52. 6Gordon, Cyrus H., Forgotten Scripts: Their Ongoin Discovery and Decipherment, New
York, 1987, 23. 7Gabra, Gawdat, Coptic Civilization: Two Thousand Years of Christianity in Egypt, Cairo,
2014, p. 5.
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The Usage of Coptic Language and its Dialects
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Pachomius8 organized the life of his monks in every detail according to the
rules which he wrote in Coptic.
Most people who were able to write were priests or monks. These
circumstances resulted in Coptic literature being almost exclusively of a
religious character.9 Consequently, the Orthodox Church had taken several
steps to revive Coptic language again, as Pope Cyril IV10 offered Coptic
language in all Coptic schools and started a Church-sponsored movement to
educate the clergy and the new generations in Coptic. Pope Cyril V11 allowed
him to access to the Patriarchal Library which enabled him to consult
invaluable Coptic manuscripts. Coptic language education was offered in all
schools that were built by Pope Cyril IV; Patriarch of Alexandria in the
nineteenth century. 12
8St. Pachomius (ca.292-346), also known as Abba Pachomius. He was born in 292 in Thebes
(Luxor) from pagan parents, who forced him to worship idols. He rejected and mocked this
worship, then became a monk with St. Balamon (Palaemon). Many monks gathered together
to him, and he built for them many monasteries and established for them a system of manual
labor, the times of prayers, and eating. He established his first monastery at Tabennisi on the
banks on Nile, where he lived in a cell, until the death of Palemon between 318 and 323 ca.
Later he established ten other monasteries for men and two nunneries for women. Before his
death, there were seven hundred monks in his houses and his Order in the East survived until
the eleventh century. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Saint_Pachomius
accessed in 12/9/2018 at 9:00 PM. 9Guppy, H., Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, vol.40, Michigan University, 1958, p. 233. 10Pope Cyril IV (110th Pope of Alexandria) was Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, called for
Christians to donate for building a scientific institute for the Coptic language. He was born in
the town of Sawamaa of the district of the city of Girga, to righteous parents in the year 1816
A.D. They gave him the name David after his grandfather. His father brought him up and
educated him well. When he was twenty-two years old, he went to the monastery of St.
Anthony, where he conducted himself virtuously and lived an ascetic life, which convinced
the abbot of the monastery, Father Athanasius), to clothe him with the garb of the monks. He
continued to read and to study the holy books. He died in 23rd Toba in 1577A.M., 1 January
1861 A.D. Anon, Coptic Synaxarium, Oxford, 2006, p. 196. 11Pope Cyril V (112th Pope of Alexandria) was born at the village of Tizmant in Bani Suef
Province, in 1824, and was known as Hanna al-Nasikh (the calligrapher) because of his
beautiful handwriting. At the age of twenty he entered Deir al-Baramus in Wadi al-Natrun.
He was also appointed member of the National Legislative Assembly. He died in one Masra,
seven August 1874. Shoucri, Mounir, Cyril V, New York, 1988, p. 679. 12Meri, Josef W., Medieval Islamic Civilization, Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle
Ages, New York, 2006, p. 173.
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A great attention was given to Coptic studies "Coptology" in every
Theological Seminary and even in many universities.13 At the end of the 19th
century, some priests began to pray the liturgy in Arabic after reading it in
Coptic. In the twentieth century, the usage of Arabic increased in liturgy.
Pope Shenouda III14 exerted many efforts to revive the language and have it
be spoken and pronounced correctly. He decided to prepare lots of Coptic
scientists to cooperate with foreign scientists in preserving Coptic heritage
and language. He established the Coptic language Institute in December 1979
in Saint Mark’s Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo, where Bishop
Demetrius was the head of Coptic language department that taught the Coptic
language, including its phonetics, grammar and script.
In addition to, a range of courses in all churches were organized for teaching
the language.15 In 1945, there was no doubt that the discovery of the Nag-
Hammadi16 gnostic library, with its manuscripts written in Coptic that
encouraged writing chapters or books on several aspects of Coptic heritage.
13Waston, John H., Among the Copts, Sussex Academic Press, 2000, p.39. 14Pope Shenouda III the 17th Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, was
born on August 3, 1923 in the city of Asuit in Upper Egypt; he was given the name of Nazir
Gayed. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree in History in 1947 from the University of
Cairo. Nazir Gayed was very active in his church and served as a Sunday School teacher,
first at Saint Anthony's Church in Shoubra and then at Saint Mary's Church in Mahmasha.
He worked as a high school English and Social Studies teacher in Cairo by day, and attended
classes at the Coptic Theological Seminary by night. Upon graduation from the seminary in
1949, he was chosen to teach New Testament Studies. He was appointed in 1953 as a teacher
in the Monastic School. He passed away on March 17, 2012 (Baramhat 8, 1728).
http://www.stmarkboston.org/pope-shenouda-iii/, accessed in 7/8/2018 at 8:00 PM. 15Gamil, M. Coptic: Ancient Language till spoken Today, Cairo, 2017, in:
https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/16207/Coptic-Ancient-language-still-spoken-today,
accessed in 13/8/2018 at 8:00 PM. 16The Nag Hammadi Library is one of the most valuable collections of ancient texts ever
found, providing a wealth of new information for specialists in the history of religion,
Coptology, philosophy, and the study of the external manuscripts in codex form and the
techniques of their manufacture and the history of manuscript collection. This library
consists of thirteen codices; all of them were purportedly discovered in a large jar by
Muhammad Ali al-Samman. Eaton –Krauss, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, , The Treasures of
Coptic Art: In the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 155.
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Beginning in 1950s, many scholars were specialized in different disciplines
learned Coptic to enable them to study Gnosticism17. A number of non-
canonical books are preserved only in Coptic.18
In the twelfth century Pope Gabriel II "Ibn al-Turayk"19 introduced Arabic
into the Church that was probably an attempt to show the Arabs that Copts
were not their enemies. In the tenth century, the first Coptic author to write in
Arabic was Sawirus Ibn al-Muqqaf, bishop of Ashmunayn.20 The Copts left
thousands of manuscripts, papyri, ostraca and stelae. These manuscripts and
papyri, which were originally written in or translated into Coptic, were very
important from the political, social, religious, and cultural aspects revealing
the situation in Egypt during the Greco-Roman period and Byzantine ages.
For these reasons, a number of amateurs, tourists, and scholars began
collecting Coptic manuscripts and papyri from the monasteries. Most of these
manuscripts and papyri now reside in different museums, universities, and
private collections in Europe and the United States.21
However, a substantial number of manuscripts are still in the Coptic
Patriarchate of Egypt. Coptic itself, or old Coptic, takes root in the first
century. The transition from the older Egyptian scripts to newly adapted
17The Coptic manuscripts represented the primary source for the study of Gnosticism.
Gnosticism spread from Alexandria throughout Egypt. During the second century, the
Christian strain of Gnosticism enjoyed great popularity. The first Christian writer to label
Gnostic teaching heretical was Clement of Alexandria. The Nag Hammadi Library shows
that Gnosticism continued to exist in Upper Egypt. Loc.cit., p. 156. 18Gabra, Gawdat, Coptic Civilization: Two Thousand Years of Christianity in Egypt, Cairo,
2014, p. 1. 19Pope Gabriel II is the seventy Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark who
was known as Ibn Turaik. This Pope was from the nobles of Cairo, and he was a writer and
scholar. He transcribed with his hand many Arabic and Coptic books. The elders of the
people and the clergy chose him for the Patriarchal Chair and his enthronement was on the
ninth of Amshir, 847 A.M/ third of February, 1131 A.D. His departure is on tenth of
Baramouda. Anon, Coptic Synaxarium, (Oxford, 2006), P. 296-297. 20Harder, Nelly van Doorn, and Vogt Kari (eds.), Between Desert and City: The Coptic
Orthodox Church Today, Novus Forlag, 1997, p. 23. 21Yanney, Rodolph, Coptic Church Review, In: Society of Coptic Church Studies (N.J.),
vol.21-23, University of Minnesota, 2000, p. 115.
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Coptic alphabet was in part due to the decline of traditional role played by the
priestly class of ancient Egyptian.
Old Coptic is represented mostly by non-Christian texts such as Egyptian
pagan prayers, magical and astrological papyri. Old Coptic texts employed
several graphemes that were not retained in the literary Coptic orthography of
later centuries. The oldest Coptic writings date to the pre-Christian era.22
Coptic literature consists mostly of texts written by prominent saints of the
Coptic Church such as St. Antony the Great,23 St. Pachomius and St.
Shenoute the Archimandrite24, who lived from 348 to 466 A.D., was able to
transform the Coptic language to literary language.25 Later, Arabic was
commonly used the liturgical books, replacing Greek in bilingual texts and
Arabic liturgical texts began to appear, indicating that Arabic was being used
in Churches. Nowadays, the Coptic language still lives on in hundreds of
words in colloquial Arabic spoken every day in Egypt.26
22Habashi Labib, The Coptic Manuscripts,Resalet Mar Min fi Aid al-Nirwz, Twt 1664,in:
Society of St. Mina the Meraculos, (Cairo, 1947), p. 8. 23St. Antony the Great is the star of the wilderness and the father of all monks. He was born
in the year 251 A.D. in the city of al-QimnEl-Arouse to rich parents and he had to take care
to his sister. St. Antony buried St. Paul the hermit after he had clothed him in a tunic, which
was a present from St. Athanasius the Apostolic, the twentieth pope of Alexandria. When he
departed, he gave his staff to St. Macarius to give one sheepskin cloak to St. Macarius and
the other to Abba Serapion. This saint lived fifteen years in the way of holiness and purity.
He departed on twenty-twoof Tubah. Loc.cit., p. 193 24St. Shenoute the Archimandrite was born in the city of Shandweil (Shenalote) in the district
of Akhmim. His father was a framer, who owned flocks of sheep. When Shenoute grew up,
his father entrusted him with the care of the sheep. He tended to sheep, he gave his food to
the shepherd, and spent his day fasting. When Abba Bigoul departed, he replaced him.
During his times, the number of the monks became 1800 monks in the monastery of the city
of Souhag. He built another monastery, the monks reached in it 2200 monks. He departed on
seven Abib. Loc.cit., p. 419. 25Crum, Wilter, Coptic and Its Value, (Oxford, 1993), p. 231. 26Guirguis, Pisenti Rizkallah, Coptic Words in Spoken Arabic Dialect, (Cairo, 1975), p. 1-
115. (Arabic Reference).
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Coptic Dialects
Coptic had six main dialects according to the name of regions in which each
was prevalent. There were three dialects in Upper Egypt; Sahidic, spoken in
the district of Thebes (Nowadays, Luxor), Akhmimic, spoken in Akhmim in
Upper Egypt, Lycopolitan "called Sub-Akhmimic", most likely spoken around
Assiut in Upper Egypt". Other three dialects in the Lower Egypt; Bohairic
which was spoken in Memphis and the Delta, Fayyumic, spoken in the
district around the Fayyum Oasis, Oxyrhynchite also known as "Mesokemic
or Middle Egyptian".27
The most important dialects were Sahidic and Bohairic, which eventually
became the dominant dialects of the Nile Valley and Delta. Sahidic became
the official language of the church in the ninth century.
In the eleventh century , it was replaced by the Bohairic which became the
liturgical dialect of the Church.28 There have been many earliest Coptic
versions of the Bible, including some of the earliest translations into any
language. Several different versions were made in the Old and New
Testaments in all of the major dialects; Bohairic, Sahidic, Fayyumic,
Akhmimic and Mesokemic.
Biblical books were translated from the Alexandrian Greek version. Sahidic
dialect was an early literary form of the language. It was the leading dialect in
the pre-Islamic period.29 After the eleventh century, Bohairic became
dominant and only used dialect of the Coptic language. It was kept alive first
by the strength of the monastic communities of Wadi al-Natrun which used it
extensively. Then, in the eleventh century, this dialect moves from the
27Kasser, Rodolphe, Dialects, in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, New York, 1991, p. 87-97. 28Allen, James P., The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge
University, 2013, p. 2. 29Barclay, Swete H., An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, Cambridge, 1902, p.
106.
166
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Patriarchate of Alexandria to Cairo. Bohairic was the dialect of the district,
and became the official dialect of the Church replacing Sahidic.30
During the 1960, with the encouragement of Pope Shenouda III of
Alexandria, Dr. Emile Maher studied the history of Coptic pronunciation and
in 1968; he announced that he had discovered the Old Bohairic
pronunciation. The Institute of Coptic Language, which studied and
promoted the Old Bohairic pronunciation, came under strong opposition from
some church leaders, but in1990, Pope Shenouda continued to support
support Dr Emil-Maher, and ordained him priest as "Father Shenouda". The
Old Bohairic pronunciation was used in the Monastery of St. Shenouda in
Rochester, New York, in which Father Shenouda Maher now serves.31
The Old Bohairic pronunciation was often inaccurately referred to as Shaidic
dialect. However, some European Coptologists commented on the fact that
the villagers of Upper Egypt retained a more authentic tradition, and wrote
disparagingly about Greek-influenced pronunciations. All modern books are
written on Coptic by native authors adopted more or less a mutilated form of
Greek pronunciation and apply it entirely to their language.32
30Eaton-Krause, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, The Illustrated Guide to Coptic Museum and
Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2007, p. 48. 31Fr. Maher, Shenouda, Coptic Language Spoken, In: The Coptic Encyclopedia, New York,
1991, p. 605-606. 32Stazinger, Helmut, The Pronunciation of Late Bohairic, In: The Coptic Encyclopedia,
Vol.8, New York, 1991, p. 60-65.
167
The Usage of Coptic Language and its Dialects
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Manuscripts
MS.1. The Four Gospels, Paper, Serial No. 92, 324 folios, 34 x 25 cm, Bohairic dialect, , AM
988/AD 127, The Church of the Holy Virgin “Al-Mu’allaqa”.
After, Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic
Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2006), p. 123.
Many Coptic manuscripts of the New Testament in Bohairic dialect and the
four Gospels in particular are preserved in the Egyptian churches and
monasteries, as well as in museums and libraries all over the world.
Illuminated Coptic manuscripts of Gospels are comparatively few. The two
folios represent the first pages of the Gospel of St. Mark; the frontispiece is
covered with geometric patterns enclosing foliate ornament. On the facing
page, the title of the Gospel is framed by an elaborated floral design.
The coloring of the large initial letters is enhanced by the addition of gold.
Undulating floral scrolls comprise the marginal decoration. This valuable
manuscript, and others like it from thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, proves
that Coptic scriptoria were capable of producing magnificent manuscripts. 33
33
Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic
Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 123.
168
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MS.2. Two Pages from Codex II, Papyrus, Inv. No. 10544, 324 folios, 28.5 x 15 cm, Sahidic
dialect, 3rd quarter of the 4th century, Jabal al-Tarif.
After, Robinson, James, The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 3rd Edition, New York, 1988,
p. 1-29.
The left-hand page of this manuscript shows the end of the Apocryphon of
John and the beginning of the Gospel Thomas. The right page is part of the
composition “On the World”. Such works originated under influence of
Gnostic theology and were apparently translated from Greek into Coptic. 34
MS.3. Lectionary for Holy Week with Homilies, Paper, Inv. No. 1017, 435 folios, 50 x 39,
Bohairic dialect, AM 1342/ 1625 AD, Church of the Holy Virgin at Haret Zuwayla, Cairo,
After, Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic
Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 128.
34
Robinson, James, The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 3rd Edition, New York, 1988, p.
1-29.
169
The Usage of Coptic Language and its Dialects
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This lavish liturgical manuscript of readings for the services during the Holy
Week presents a Coptic and Arabic bilingual text in adjacent columns.35 The
frontispiece, facing the opening page of text, features a cross illuminated in
gold and blue pigment. Initial letters and decoration are embellished with
elongated graceful motifs. The effect created by interweaving calligraphy and
ornament is characteristic for the design of the manuscript. 36
MS. 4. Investiture of St. Michael Archangel, Vellum, Inv. No. 614, 329x 257, Fayumic
dialect, ninth / tenth century, Illuminated, Monastery of St. Michael “Dayr al-Malak
Mikhail”. https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/77462, accessed in 16/8/2018 at 9:00 P.M.
Manuscript of the Book of the Investiture of St. Michael Archangel has been
attributed to John Evangelist (St. John the Apostle); written and illuminated
in Egypt, ca.822/23-913/14. It is found in 1910 near the village of Hamuli,
Fayyum Province, Egypt, at the site of the Monastery of St. Michael;
purchased in Paris in1911. It contains 16 leaves “2columns, 37-40 lines”,
bound, vellum, 329 x 257 mm. Its decoration; headpieces, signatures and
page numbers are in green, red and yellow colors. 37
35Both the Coptic and Arabic texts were autographed by a priest named Joseph who served in
the Church of the Virgin Mary at Haret Zuwayla at Cairo while the otherwise little-known
Patriarch John XV (1619-1634) resided there. 36Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic
Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 128. 37https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/77462, accessed in 16/8/2018 at 9:00 P.M.
170
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MS.5. Psalter, Parchment, leather and bone, No. 6614, 17 x 13, Oxyrhynchitic dialect, 4 th
/5th century, Al-Mudil (near Beni Suef). Gabra, Gawdat, Zur Bedeutung des Koptischen
Psalmenbuches im Oxyrhynchitischen Dialket,(Gottingen,1986), p.37.
This priceless manuscript represents the earliest complete Coptic psalter38. Its
two original polished covers, remnants of leather spine, thongs and small
bony peg, shaped like the key of life, are all preserved. 39
38Psalter or Psalterium is a volume containing the book of psalms used for liturgical
purposes. Many psalters were richly illuminated and they included some of the spectacular
surviving examples of medieval book art. Non-illuminated psalters written in Coptic include
some of the earliest surviving codices or bound books altogether. The earliest Coptic psalter
predates the earliest western one to more than a century. The oldest complete Coptic psalter
dates to the fifth century, it was found in the Al-Mudi.
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Psalterium, accessed in
16/9/2018 at 9:00 P.M. 39Gabra, Gawdat, Zur Bedeutung des Koptischen Psalmenbuches im Oxyrhynchitischen
Dialket, (Gottingen, 1986), p. 37.
171
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Fig.1. Gospel Casket, Silver, wood and glass, 49 x 38.4 x 10 cm, Old Cairo, 1140 A.M./
1424 A.D, Church of the Virgin Mary “Qasriat al-Rihan”.
After, Benazeth,Gabra (ed.), L’Egypte Copte: Chefs-d’oeuve de tous les temps Exhibition,
(Paris, 1989), 76.
Rectangular wooden Gospel casket covered with silver sheets embossed with
rich foliate ornamentation. The central cross is decorated with glass
cabochons; above and below runs a Coptic text from beginning of the Gospel
of John. 40
Conclusions
It is remarkable that Coptic communities were able to read and write Coptic
language. In every Coptic theological seminary, as well as many universities
worldwide, there were great attentions paid to Coptic studies. Coptic
manuscripts are considered valuable treasures. The oldest and accurate
40
Benazeth,Gabra (ed.), L’Egypte Copte: Chefs-d’oeuve de tous les temps Exhibition, Paris,
1989, p. 76.
172
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manuscripts for the Bible and the other non-biblical manuscripts paint a vivid
picture of the life of the early church in Egypt and the culture of that time.
The Copts acquired great skill in the manufacture of manuscripts from paper,
parchments and papyrus for writing upon them. The oldest manuscripts in the
Coptic language were the Gnostic codices written on papyrus discovered in
Nag-Hammadi in Upper Egypt. The Coptic Gnostic Papyri dating to the
fourth century are considered the most valuable collections of papyri in the
world.
Modern Copts make great effort to revive their language as its glory which it
is considered part of their cultural heritage. Coptic language is described by
Professor Rodolphe Kasser of the University Geneva, Switzerland as, “One
of the beautiful, cleverly structured and most musical in the world”.
173
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018
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Pain-Relief of Complicated Surgeries
Mina Adeeb Gamal Fouad S. Zaki Mona M. Raafat
Abstract
Several prescriptions recorded in the medical papyri which represent
complicated surgeries were accomplished with the aid of analgesic methods.
This article focuses on pain-relief of complicated surgeries.
Keywords
Child-birth, incantations, fractures, soothing effect.
Child-Birth (msi)
Child-birth of the Egyptian woman often occurred normally every two or
three years; as the years of breastfeeding protected them hormonally from a
new pregnancy. Interestingly, child-birth in ancient Egypt probably took
place at home, in special shelter which was prepared in the garden or on the
roof of the house, followed by a special purifying procedure performed by
the woman before returning to her community. 1
The operation of child-birth is depicted on a birth-brick which is discovered
in the Abydos temple of king Seti I. The scene of birth-brick depicting a
woman in labor and supported by other two women (Pl. 1). 2
1Strouhal, et al., 2014: 168. 2Silverman, et al., 2009: 472.
174
Pain-Relief of Complicated Surgeries
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Pl. 1 A scene is depicted on the birth-brick shows a woman in labor and supported by two
women. (After Silverman, Archaism and Innovation 2009: Fig.7)
Some scholars suggested that ancient Egyptian women gave birth on their
knees as contemporary women do in the Egyptian villages. 3
Pain-Relief during Child-Birth
In ancient Egypt, physicians did not attend normal childbirth, but were called
only in complicated child-birth (bmd), therefore, the medical papyri include a
great number of herbal ingredients and mineral ingredients, which have
positive effect in the course of childbirth, but the major part of these
ingredients is unknown. Thus, it is not possible to evaluate their real medical
efficacy.
Along with the herbal and the mineral ingredients, the medical papyri
recorded the use of strong beer (dṧr-beer) and wine, which contain alcohol
that could lower the pain of child-birth and diffuse through the pores.
Berlin Papyrus is a medical text shown in the Berlin Museum (3038).4
Manniche records prescription 151 in the Berlin Papyrus as an excellent
example showing the ancient Egyptian understood the penetrating quality of
aromatic oil that was not inhaled through the nose but was diffused through
pores of the skin and affected the inner hidden part. 5 Prescription 151 in the
3Strouhal, et al., 2014: 168. 4 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 16, 172-173. 5Fukagawa, 2011: 37.
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Adeeb, M. Zaki, G. Raafat, M.
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Berlin Papyrus is a bandage that contains dried Acacia leaves (Acacia
Nilotica) ground and mixed with oil or fat, heated to finger warmth and used
as bandage.6
Ebers Papyrus is a medical papyrus in the University Library in Leipzig
(Voẞ 2009). This papyrus records several bandages and mixtures applied to
the private part of women composed of beer or wine and other ingredients,
which is diffused through pores of the skin to pain-relief the woman in labor,
such as prescription 807 for a woman in labor, which includes equal amounts
of Cedar-oil which worked as antiseptic, strong beer (dṧr-beer) for relieving
pain, 7(nis) of tortoise and wings of beetles.
"(Njs)-part of tortoise 1, (ḫkwn)- beetle8 1, pine-oil (sft) 1, (dṧr)-beer 1,
oil/fat 1, ground into a mass, bandage therewith".9
Another mixture recorded in prescription 805, for a woman in labor includes
equal amounts of (iṧd)-fruit which probably indicates that the Persea-tree
(Mimusops schimper) contains laxative effects, in addition to, a strong beer
for reducing pain.10
"(iṧd)-fruit 1,( dṧr.t)- beer 1, poured into her vagina (iwf)". 11
Additionally, prescription 797 to cause a woman to give birth or probably to
ease the beginning of childbirth after the beginning of labor pains, by
allowing the woman to sit upon a plant called (Nj3j3), which was given, to
relax or to release the fetus from the womb.12 (Nj3j3-plant) or (Njwjw-plant)
is probably identified with seed of Peppermint (Menthe Piperita ).
6 Manniche, 2006: 73. 7 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 14, 175-176. 8 (ḫkwn) means the wings of scarab, see (Ghalioungui,1987 : 205 ). 9Ghalioungui,1987 : 205. 10 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 172-173. 11Ghalioungui,1987 : 205. 12 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 174.
176
Pain-Relief of Complicated Surgeries
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"(Nj3j3- plant), let the woman sit on it while she is naked''.13
Prescription 803 in the Ebers Papyrus is a mixture composed of equal
amounts of incense and oil to massage the belly of the woman.14
"Terebinth-resin(snṯr) 1, oil/fat 1, anoint (wrḥ) the belly therewith".15
Ebied states "Attempts were made to speed birth by burning Terebinth-resins
or by massaging the abdomen with saffron powder in beer or marble dust in
vinegar".16
Interestingly, the Ebers Papyrus records two beverages prepared for the
women in labor or for easing the childbirth, such as prescription 799 which is
about a beverage for easing the childbirth that includes dates, salt and oil, all
these components were cooked at finger warmth, and drunk entirely to
provide the woman with pleasant feeling.
"Date-juice in state of (mṧṧ), Lower Egyptian salt, oil/ fat, cooked, drunk at
finger warmth".17
Furthermore, prescription 804 is a beverage drunk for four days, prepared for
a woman in labor, and includes equal amounts of (Nj3j3- plant) and (ḳsntj)
which was probably a mineral ingredient possessing analgesic effects,18 and
wine for relieving pain.
"Nj3j3-plant 1, ḳsntj 1, wine 1, strained, drunk on 4 days"
Finally, the Ebers Papyrus records remedies in the form of suppositories for
relieving pain of parturient such as prescription 802 which includes equal
amount of fennel (Foeniculum vulgar) which was used formally as
carminative, incense, resin, strong beer which diffuses through the pores of
skin for giving sedative effect, along with (bsbs)-plant probably identified
13 Ghalioungui,1981: 271, 203. 14 Strouhal, et al., 2014 : 174. 15 Ghalioungui,1981: 204. 16 Ebeid, 1999:112. 17 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 203. 18 Sanchez and Meltzer, 2012: 282.
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with fennel (Foeniculum vulgar), fresh trigonella, and fly drops, afterwards
the mixture is made into a suppository and introduced into vagina. 19
"(bsbs)- plant 1, Terebinth- resin1, (dṧr.t)-beer1, fresh (ḥm3i.t)- legume1,
fly’s excrement1, made into a suppository, introduced into her vagina"20
Additionally, prescription 806 in Ebers Papyrus for easing the child-birth
includes equal amounts of juniper berries (Juniperus) which have an aromatic
resinous flavor and gives the woman a stimulant and laxative effect21,
afterwards made into suppository and introduced in the vagina for relieving
pain.
"Juniper (w’n) berries 1, (nj3j3)- plant 1, pine resin (‘ḏ)1, made into
suppository, introduced in her vagina (iwf)"
Magical Methods for Easing Child-birth
Several magical methods appeared in ancient Egypt to accelerate (ṡḫ3ḫ) the
child-birth such as incantations whether oral incantations or visual
incantations, along with magical objects such as a piece of clothes placed
upon the statuette of Taweret. This statuette is shown in the Egyptian
Museum (229).22
Interestingly, several Egyptian gods and goddesses were invoked to
accelerate the child-birth, for giving the protection to the mother, and her
child, such as Hathor23 (Goddess of women, female sexuality and
19 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 174-175. 20 Ghalioungui,1981: 271, 204. 21 Manniche, 2006: 116. 22Strouhal, et al., 2014: 75. 23Ikram, et al., 2015: 56.
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motherhood)24, who was often associated with Bes (God of joy, sexuality,
dancing and music)25 for relieving pain of child-birth.26
Visual spells
Best example of visual spell was depicted on a birth-brick made out of
unfired mud-brick measuring 17cm. in width and 35 cm. in length. It was
discovered South of the Abydos temple, in building A. The birth-brick is
decorated with the scenes of Hathor, the goddess of fertility, maternity and
birth (Pl.1). The decoration of the birth-brick includes divine imagery and
scenes depicting the mother and new-born child.
The side of the brick is decorated with the scene of a seated woman holding a
new-born baby in her arms and the mother sits on a solid-based chair, the left
arm of the mother supports the foot of the baby with her right arm behind the
baby. Mother and baby are flanked by two attendant female figures. A
woman is kneeling in front of the mother with her arms outstretched in an
attitude of receiving the new-born child. Another woman is depicted behind
the mother, and her hands support the shoulders of the mother.
Furthermore, two Hathor-headed figures are standing on either side of the
scene and behind the two female attendants.
According to the decoration of the birth-brick, the scene is considered a
visual spell of child-birth because the mother herself is symbolically
transformed into goddess Hathor due to the color of her hair is blue as the
color of the goddess of Hathor. Moreover, the two women who aid the
mother to accelerate her delivery represent Hathor because the color of their
hair is blue as the color of the figures of goddess Hathor.
Obviously, the scene in this case was a visual spell to invoke Hathor to attend
the delivery procedures. Probably this visual spell was reinforced by the use
24 Wilkinson, 2003: 141. 25 Hawass, 2000: 137. 26Ikram, et al., 2015: 56.
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of oral spells which would be spoken by the mother herself or other women
who attended this event.27
Oral incantations
Oral incantations were used along with the visual incantations in childbirth to
invoke Hathor to attend the delivery process.
Two spells recorded in the Leiden Papyrus displayed in the British Museum
(BM 10059).28 These spells invoke Hathor to participate in the delivery
process and to induce pain-relief for the woman in labor.
Spell 33 is the first oral incantation recorded in the Leiden Papyrus to invoke
Hathor to accelerate the delivery process.29
"Rejoicing, Rejoicing in heaven, birth giving is accelerated comes to me
Hathor my lady in my pavilion in my happy hour".
Furthermore, spell 28 in the Leiden Papyrus should to be recited by the
woman in labor to transform herself into Hathor, and to accelerate the
delivery process and relieve her pain during the labor.
"Open for me. I am the one whose offering is large, the builder who built the
pylon for Hathor, lady of Dandara, who lifts up in order that she may give
birth. It is Hathor the lady of Dandara who is giving the birth. This spell is to
be said by a woman".30
According to Silverman, the mother in both spell 28 and the scenes of
Abydos birth-brick transforms herself into the goddess Hathor, and creates a
divine model to be able to survive the child-birth.31
27Silverman, et al., 2009: 449, 450. 28Strouhal, et al., 2014: 15. 29Silverman, et al., 2009: 455, 460, 470,475, 471. 30Borghouts, 1970: 30,28. 31 Silverman, et al., 2009: 470.
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Spell 34 in the Leiden Papyrus is an invocation to Goddess Isis (Goddess of
great magic)32 to accelerate the child-birth.
"Oh Ra and Aton, oh gods who are in (heaven gods), who are in the land of
Amente and council of Gods who judge this entire land, council of Gods who
are in the Palace (?) of On and who are in Leto-polis, come you! Isis is
suffering from her back part, being pregnant- but her mother(s) have been
completed, according to the (set) number in pregnancy – with her son,
Horus, the protector of his father! But if she spends (her) time without giving
birth, you will stand dumbfounded, oh Ennead! For then there will be
heaven, for then there will be offering for any of the Gods of On, there will
arise weariness in the Southern heaven, a disturbance will break out in the
Northern heaven and lamenting in the chapel! Shu will not rise, Hapi will not
flow when he should flow forth at his time! For she spends (already) a time
without her son being born, Horus, the protector of his father! Be careful
with the birth giving of nn, daughter of nn, in the same manner!"33
Spell 30 represents the role of Bes who is sent by Ra to protect the woman in
child-birth, along with the role of Hathor who presents the aid to the woman.
Moreover, the author of the Leiden Papyrus recommended placing the dwarf
of clay on the brow of a woman who is suffering while giving birth. Finally,
the author recommended reciting this spell four times over this dwarf.
Dawson states that, probably the Egyptian woman gave birth in a squatting
position, not laying on her back, therefore the amulet could be laid on the
brow.34
"Another spell, of the dwarf. Oh good dwarf, come, because of the one who
sent you for that is Pre, the one who stands upright while Thoth is sitting
down, his feet on the bottom which Nun embraces, his hand on the (roof)-
32 Wilkinson, 2003: 147. 33 Borghouts, 1970: 31. 34 Dawson, 1936: 106-108.
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beam. Come down, placenta, come down, placenta, come down. I am Horus
who conjures in order that she who is occupied with birth giving becomes
better than she was, as if she were (already) delivered. Separatenes wife of
Horus, Nechbet, the Nubian , the Eastern one, Unut, mistress of Unut come to
do what you can do. Look, Hathor will lay her hand on her with an amulet of
health. I am Horus who saves her. To be recited four times over a dwarf of
clay placed on the brow of a woman who is giving birth while suffering'' 35
Finally, incantation 2 in the Ebers Papyrus utterance to loosen the bandage of
anybody, probably this spell is related to child birth because the mother is
loosened (sfḫ) from the child, put on par with prescription 800 to loosen (sfḫ)
a child from the belly of a woman.
"Loosen is one who is loosened by Isis. Horus was loosened by Isis from the
evil done to him by his brother Seth when the latter killed his father Osiris. O
Isis, Great in Magic, may you unfetter (wḥ‘) me of a god, a Goddess, of a
dead man or woman, of a male enemy, a female enemy that is made to act
against me: even as you were unfettered (wḥ‘), as you were released (sfḫ)
from your son Horus. For I have entered the fire, I have come out of the
water. I shall not enter into accident of this day. I spoke when I was still a
child (ḫ), when I was still small (ḫ3). Oh Ra, speak over your body (ḏ.t),
Osiris calls over what came out of him. You have indeed (isk) saved me from
all wicked, evil, red things, from the doing of a god, of a Goddess, from a
dead man or woman, really excellent, million times.36
Orthopedics
Surgery of the bones flourished in ancient Egypt, in particular concerning the
injuries of battles probably because of the extension of the Egyptian Empire.
35 Borghouts, 1970: 29. 36 Ghalioungui, 1987: 10.
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Therefore, fractures of the bones were found in three percent of 6000
mummies, which were examined by X-ray. Thus, X-ray reported that the
fractures of the upper part of the arms occupied the major part, whereas the
upper part of the arms would be broken through the protecting of the head
from strikes in the battle. 37
Interestingly, principals of diagnosing and managing bone-fracture in ancient
Egypt relied on methods of closed treatment which did not require surgical
intervention, but requires an application of a device such as a splint to
maintain the reduction until healing occurs.38
Edwin Smith Papyrus is the unique papyrus specialized in orthopedics which
is displayed in New York Academy of Medicine39. It gives a record of
several injuries. However, Kamal Hassen states that the rest of the Edwin
Smith Papyrus is lost, which contains the first aid and the treatment of the
bone fractures on the sites of battles and the sites of construction.
Interestingly, the construction-site of the Great Pyramid is considered the
best example to attest the injuries of the workplaces, where skeletons have
been excavated in cemeteries on the Giza Plateau which date back to the Old
Kingdom.40 Probably, these skeletons were of those workers who built the
pyramids which contain a very high incidence of fractures, 90 percent of
which showed signs of complete healing with good alignment. Therefore,
several archeologists suggested that the Edwin Smith Papyrus dates back to
the period of construction of the Great Pyramid.41
37Bucaille, 1990: 286-297. 38 Estes, 1989: 62. 39 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 13. 40 Ghalioungui, 1963: 66. 41 Estes, 1989: 62-65.
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Pain-relief of orthopedics
There were several methods for relieving the pain of orthopedics shown in
the mummies such as two mummies found in rock-cut tombs at Nagaa El-
Dair which date back to the Fifth Dynasty.42
The first mummy of a girl aged about fourteen years, and has a set applied to
a fracture of the middle of the femur. The set is comprised of four wooden
splints padded with bandages of linen (Linum usitatissimum) for giving a
soothing effect. Finally, the whole set was bandaged in place and secured
with a reef knot.
The second mummy had a set applied to compound fracture of the radius and
ulna (forearm). The set is comprised of three pieces of bark probably of
acacia (Acacia nilotica) that contains astringent characters and gives a
soothing effect; the pieces of bark were wrapped in linen and bandaged to the
arm. Probably, the death of the second mummy had occurred before there
were any signs of union of the bones.43
Interestingly, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains widespread
Palaeopathological evidence of well-healed fractures. 44
Case 34 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus recorded a treatment and pain-relief of
dislocation of two clavicles.
"When you examine someone who has dislocation collarbone and find that
his shoulders are dropped while the head of his collarbone is closed to his
face"
42 Smith, 1908: 732. 43 Nunn, 1997: 177. 44 Morkt, Tyldesley, 2016: 134, 271.
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The author recommended repositioning the bones back into their place, and
fixing the bones by the use of solid linen rolls and applying oil and honey to
collarbone for relieving pain. 45
Case 35 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus was about a fracture of the clavicle, "If
thou examine a man having a break in his collar-bone, (and) thou should find
his collar-bone short and separated from its fellow"46
The author recommended laying down the patient on his back, and spreading
both shoulders till the extension of the clavicle was achieved and the broken
fragments repositioned. Finally, a linen cushion applied under the inner side
of the upper part of the arm, and another one on the underside of the patient’s
fixed forearm.47
"Thou should place him prostrate on his back, with something folded between
his two shoulder-blade; thou should make for him two splints of linen, (and)
treat it afterward (with) honey every day, until he recovers."
The author recommended a bandage for relieving pain of the patient
composed of honey mixed with alum48 (Aluminum potassium sulfate) which
gives astringent effect to the patient49.
"You must wrap it (with a bandage with) alum and then you treat it every day
with honey until he feels better"50
Case 42 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus discussed sprain of the sterno-costal
Articulations,
"If thou examine (a man having a sprain in the ribs of his breast), (and) he
suffers in the ribs of his breast, not having a dislocation, (and) it is not
broken, while that man continues to suffer with it and should exceedingly"
45Strouhal, et al., 2014: 34,69 . 46 Breasted, 1930: 350. 47Strouhal, et al., 2014: 68-70. 48Breasted, 1930: 350-352. 49 Estes, 1989: 139. 50Breasted, 1930: 350-352 .
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The author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus recommended the use of bandage.
This bandage is composed of honey 51and alum (Aluminum potassium
sulfate) to provide the patient with astringent effect.52
You must wrap him (a bandage with) alum and then every day you will treat
him with honey until he feels better.53
Interestingly, the Hearst Papyrus recorded four mixtures for relieving pain
and cooling of the broken bones.54 Prescription 219 describes a bandage
composed of set-milk and flour of fresh barley for giving soothing effect to
the patient.
"Set-milk of cow, flour of fresh barley, is combined to a paste and used as a
bandage for four days"55
Another bandage for the broken bones recorded in prescription 220 is
composed of coriander (Cariandrum sativum ) which contains essential and
volatile oils giving a cooling effect,56 along with fermented juice which
contains soothing properties for pain-relief.57
"Coriander, fermented plant juice and an unidentified plant, honey pounded
to a paste and applied for four days"
Moreover, prescription 223 is about a bandage for healing and relieving pain
of the broken bones,58 it possesses an astringent effect provided by leaves of
acacia and gum.59
"Acacia leaves1, gum 1, water1, is used as bandage for four days"
51 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 69-70, 35, 72. 52 Estes, 1989: 139. 53 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 45. 54 Morkt and Tyldesley, 2016 : 271. 55 Manniche, 2006: 100,113-114. 56 Bircher, 2000: 122. 57 Halioua and Ziskind, 2005: 37. 58 Manniche, 2006: 100,113-114, 73. 59 Sanchez and Meltzer, 2012: 282.
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Finally, prescription 23460 in the form of a bandage is composed of leaves of
willow (Salix suberrata wild) which contains astringent and antipyretic
properties,61 and leaves of Sycamore (Ficus sycamorus ) for giving analgesic
effect on patient,62 along with leaves of acacia (Acacia nilotica ) and gum
which contains astringent effect.63
"Leaves of Acacia, leaves of Willow, leaves of Sycamore, Emmer grain, gum,
water, and then bandage for four days".64
Pain-relief of orthopedics by magic
The Egyptian believed in magic and supernatural influence for healing
critical diseases, whereas the expectation of cure by the use of magic, leads to
pain-relief and a curative value in the healing procession.
Additionally, magic, religion and supernatural influence were regarded by
the ancient Egyptian as major controlling factors in the events of daily life, as
a result of the little distinction between magic, religion and supernatural
influence.
As time passed there was a general trend for magic and magical practice
more than medical practice, in addition to religion and religious practices
transformed into magic. 65
Interestingly, the ritual power which was used along with the medical
treatment was not only recitation, but involved a wide range of practices
described explicitly by the texts,66 such as the recitation of the magical
incantation prescribed when applying the medicine.
"Driving out the enemy within the wound (and) causing the hostile force that
is within the blood, robber of Horus, to tremble. The protection of the
60 Manniche, 2006: 73, 153-154. 61 Halioua and Ziskind, 2005: 39. 62 Sanchez and Meltzer, 2012: 282. 63 Estes, 1989: 146. 64 Manniche, 2006: 110. 65 Nunn, 1997: 79. 66 Ebeid, 1999: 254.
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Adeeb, M. Zaki, G. Raafat, M.
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utterance of the Beneficial Effective Goddess Isis: This temple will not
collapse. The blood vessel(s) therein have not sickened (?), for I am in the
beneficial/ effective goddess’s protection. The son of Osiris is saved! "
The incantation refers to the ancient myth of the Goddess Isis and her son
Horus, and the protection of Goddess Isis for her son against the danger of
God Seth. Invoking the magical power of Isis in the treatment of diverse
diseases was popular in ancient Egypt, in particular when the physicians were
unable to help the patient. Moreover, Case 9 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus
describes a fracture in the outer table and a wound in the forehead is the best
example for the use of treatment along with magic for healing the fracture of
the bones.
According to Strouhal, the author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus recommended
applying ground Ostrich-eggshell with oil into the mouth of the wound. 67
You must prepare for it/ him: the egg (shell)68 of an Ostrich69, ground with
ointment and placed in the mouth of his wound"
The treatment of Case 9 was completed by the use of ritual power recitation
recited over the wound, when the prognosis was hopeless, and to enable the
patient to receive the help of the gods to reduce his suffering, therefore the
spell is used by the physician which contains the term of (ḥk3w) to indicate
the magic or ritual power which is related to the healing process. 70
67 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 60-92. 68 Ostrich Eggshell is 2 mm thick and strong enough to stand a force of 55kg. The mineral
matrix of eggshell constitutes 97 percent of its weight and is formed by calcium carbonate
97. 4 percent, magnesium 1.9percent, and Tricalcium Phosphate 0.7 percent, see(Sanchez, et
al., 2012 : 99). 69 Ostriches, lived in Egypt during the prehistoric time , and in the New Kingdom
particularly in the Ramesside Period, see (Sanchez, et al., 2012 : 100). 70Nunn, 1997: 79.
188
Pain-Relief of Complicated Surgeries
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Finally, the author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus recommended applying a
bandage of the physician medical kit to the wound.
"You must apply to (it) or (him) the cloth bandage of the physician medical
kit over it. You must uncover it the third day. How you find (is): how it joins
together the bony plate of the brain Case (is) with the condition similar to the
egg (shell) of the Ostrich"71
Conclusion
The ancient Egyptians knew anesthesia because several surgeries
were performed by that time. These surgeries needed to be
anesthetized to protect the patient from death by shock.
Ancient Egyptians relied on a plant called (Nj3j3) for relieving pain
caused by Gynecological Diseases, for easing child-birth.
The ancient Egyptians understood the penetrating quality of
substances which diffuse through skin pores. Therefore, several
bandages, ointments and suppositories were recommended in the
medical papyri.
Orthopedics and its methods for relieving pain were flourished in
ancient Egypt. Furthermore, the ancient Egyptians knew the first aids
which were presented in the constructions and battles sites.
The treatment of arm fractures relied on the use of splints along with
linen, acacia coriander, fermented juice, willow and leaves of
sycamore to provide the patient with soothing effects.
List of References
1-Borghouts, J., The Magical Texts of Papyrus Leiden, Leiden, 1970.
2-Breasted, J. H., The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, 2 Volumes, Chicago,
1930.
71 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 60.
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3-Bucaille, M., Mummies of the Pharaohs; Modern Medical Investigation,
New York, 1990.
4-Dawson, W., 'Some Observations on the Passages in Ch. Beatty Papyrus',
JEA 22, (1936), pp. 106-108.
5-Estes, J., W., The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt, Weston, 1989.
6-Fukagawa, S., Investigation into Dynamics of Ancient Egyptian
Pharmacology: A Statistical Analysis of Papyrus Ebres and Cross-Cultural
Medical Thinking, Oxford, 2011.
7-Ghalioungui, P., The Ebers Papyrus, Cairo, 1987.
8-Halioua, B. and Ziskind, B., Medicine in the Day of the Pharaohs,
Cambridge, 2005.
9-Hawass, Z., The Discovery of the Temple and the Statue of the God Bes at
Bahria Oasis, in: Abd-El-Ghani, M. et al., (eds.) Alexandria studies II,
Alexandria, 2000, pp. 137
10-Hilton, S., M., Arab Medicine Surgery, London, 1922.
11-Manniche, L., An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, London, 2006.
12-Nunn, J., Ancient Egyptian Medicine, London, 1997.
13-Sanchez, G., M. and Meltzer, E., S., The Edwin Smith Papyrus Updated
Translation of the Trauma Treatise and Modern Medical Commentaries,
Atlanta, 2012.
14-Silverman, D., P. et al., Archaism and Innovation, Pennsylvania, 2009.
15-Smith, G., E., 'The Most Ancient Splints', BMJ 1, (1908), pp. 732-734.
16-Strouhal, E. et al., The Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians, Cairo, 2014.
17-Wilkinson, R., H., The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt,
Cairo, 2003.
190
IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
The role of Interpretation in Enhancing Visitor's Experience in
Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel
Ali O. Abd-Allah Mayada H. Belal Nancy M. Abd-Elrahman
Abstract
Enhancing visitor experiences is arguably the primary and most important goal
for interpretation by many heritage sites managers and tourism industry.
Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel were inscribed on the World Heritage List,
Up till now, no surveys have been conducted to assess neither visitors' profile,
nor their expectation, the level of their satisfaction with the interpretation tools
used at the site. This paper aims at studying the concepts of interpretation and
visitor's experience at heritage sites. In addition, it studies the visitor's
experience cycle and the factors that influence the visitor's experience during
the visit. The field study of this paper was designed to understand Abu Simbel
Temple's visitors much better and examine the effectiveness of interpretation
tools delivered to them, for the aim of enhancing visitor experience. Finally,
some recommendations concerning interpretation tools are suggested to
enhance visitors’ experience
Keywords Heritage Interpretation, Edutainment, Visitor Experience,
Satisfaction, Abu Simbel, Motivation.
Introduction
The earliest attempt to establish heritage interpretation as a standalone field was
undertaken by Freeman Tilden, who had defined interpretation as "an
educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through
the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media,
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This definition described the interpretation as the process of uncovering what is
not explicitly mentioned by the objects, and what the visitors cannot realize with
their regular senses, by offering them something from the capturing realities that
are hidden behind the objects. While Fyall et al (2008, P: 239), defined
interpretation according to the approach of describing its goals and key
characteristics as "a set of information-focused communication activities,
designed to facilitate a rewarding visitor experience that encourages visitors to
be receptive to a management or sustainability message". So heritage
interpretation can be defined as "a communication tool used to communicate to
visitors, as per their requirements, in a recreational context, cultural, historical
and environmental messages, in so as to enhance visitor experiences, assuring
visitors' satisfaction, positively affect visitor behavior, and keep the site in well-
preserved condition". Barrow (2016) stated that the main potential benefits of
well-planned and well-managed interpretation include; Increasing visitor
satisfaction and enjoyment, Improving understanding of the site or area being
visited, enhancing visitor management through encouraging visitors to follow
particular routes and visit particular places, generating volunteers and supporters
for the organization providing the interpretation service.
1. Visitor's Experience at Heritage Sites
According to the (Encyclopedia of Tourism, 2000, p: 215), experience is defined
as "an inner state of individual brought about by something which is personally
encountered, undergone or lived through”. According to Stange and Brown
(2017), some people think that the experience is one of the tourist components,
but no single product can provide an experience yet; it can only provide an
opportunity to have an experience. Only the visitor can create the experience
based on certain factors.
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2.1 The visitor experience cycle:
2.1.1 The visitor pre-visit experience (motivations and promotion)
While looking at the visitor's pre-visit experience, it is essential to examine
how easy the site is to find online, how it is promoted and the key motivations
of heritage visitors, all, among others, are important parts of the experience at
any attraction.
Visitor classification
Visitors to heritage sites can be classified to different categories, based on their
characteristics, their levels of knowledge and motivation. In this context
Colquhoun (2005) classified visitors to heritage sites according to the
following:
I. Desire for knowledge at a site: Visitors are interested in some topics and
sites more than others.
II. Purpose of visit: Why visitors visit the site will influence how receptive
they are to interpretation.
III. Travel Mood: Visitors may visit the site in groups of family or friends,
as individuals, couples, on organized tours or part of a school group.
IV. Demographics: Age, gender, education, income levels and place of
origin.
V. Levels of knowledge and motivation: Ireland (2012) identified three broad
categories of visitors to heritage sites, based on their levels of knowledge
and motivation:
Motivated Visitors: These visitors have probably sought out the site as
part of a holiday which largely planned around culture and heritage. They
are often well traveled, having internationally experience of culture and
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significance. Their expectations may be high in terms of how the story of
the site is presented.
Inspired Visitors: These visitors have made their holiday choice inspired
by the range of cultural opportunities associated with a destination.
Although they are interested in culture and sightseeing, their historical
knowledge can be quite superficial.
Incidental Visitors: These are visitors with low levels of interest in culture
and heritage, they visit the site for non-heritage related reasons, like
someone else in their group is interested, or they are on a walk that goes
through the site.
VI. Visitors' needs: According to Colquhoun (2005) and Ireland (2012),
there are other visitors with specific needs, so they need different
approaches; all could contain Motivated, Inspired and Incidental
Visitors, they include: Special needs visitors, Families, Children, Schools
and formal education groups.
So we can see that there are differences amongst groups of heritage sites,
visitors vary in their motivations and learning about heritage itself may not
always be a primary motivating factor. Visitors who are interested in
culture and heritage are expected to have more meaningful experience while
visiting a heritage site.
2.1.2 The visitor experience during the visit (interpretation)
There are some factors in heritage sites that influence the visitors' experience
during the visit and impact on their behavior. The following section discusses
the role and importance of interpretation in building a visitor memorable
experience:
I Welcoming and orientation: According to Laws (2001) visitors begin to
evaluate their experience before the actual visit starts; he identified factors
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influencing visitors’ perceptions and expectations, such as opening times,
parking facilities, the quality of the paths and physical accessibility of the site,
welcoming and orientation, the state of the toilets, places to sit and talk, the
attitude of staff and signage.
II Information: Calver and Page (2013) stated that one of the core purposes of
heritage attractions is to educate visitors through the provision of information
which enables visitors to obtain new or expand already existing knowledge.
Guidebooks, brochures available at the heritage sites play an important role in
the acquisition of the primary information. Moreover the accuracy, clarity and
authenticity of information may have an impact on its value as well as visitors’
perception, experience and overall satisfaction (Ho and McKercher, 2004).
III Communication: Another vital factor affecting visitor experience is the
way in which information is communicated and how it is interpreted by the
visitor at each site. Cunnell and Prentice (2000) and Leighton (2007)
highlighted the value of interpretation and stated that it's not only stimulate
visitors' learning process but also make their experience more memorable.
Well-planned interpretation is the ongoing commitment to providing
uncompromising quality for the visitor’s experience in terms of encouraging
them to ask for more information, making visitors' experience richer and more
relevant, engaging visitors in activities and giving information that provokes
their emotions, imagination and understanding, shedding light on culture, past
and present, and provoking questions and dialogue.
IV Engagement: Chhabra et al (2003) stated that interpreter's performance
and participatory activities not only stimulate learning process but also engage
visitors in ways that can positively affect their experience then affect their
behavior. Rojas and Camarero (2008) emphasized the vital role of visitors'
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the social context within the heritage site and visitor experience, While
Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004) highlighted that the ‘co-creation experience’
enables visitors to personalize their experience thus providing added value and
ensuring quality, it also can be perceived as a competitive advantage.
As an effective communication tool in heritage sites aims to meet market needs
and deliver a contemporary visitor experience, every site should know his
visitors and their needs, so it can provide the most suitable and effective
interpretation programs for each category; Generally speaking, interpretation
according to Housego (2006) needs to: Be engaging, personal, immersive, and
immediate, Generate enjoyment through opportunity for discovery and the
chance to be captivated in a distinctly different environment, Enable social
opportunities, Be themed to provide access to insight and connections, Give
opportunities to interaction, and also Enable visitors to talk to locals.
2.1.3 The visitor post visit experience
Calver and Page (2013) stated that the post visit stage is an inseparable part of
the experience when visitors take into consideration pre-visit expectations,
assess various elements of their experience and the overall satisfaction.
I Satisfaction: According to Chen and Chen (2010, P: 30), "In tourism
context, satisfaction is primarily referred to as a function of pre-travel
expectations and post-travel experiences". The attraction quality besides the
performance of attraction providers in terms of providing service to their
visitors make the final image and satisfaction about the visit. This is why
visitor satisfaction should be the central premise of heritage management
(Middleton, 1996; Smith, 1994). Two main aspects were considered while
designing interpretation for achieving visitor satisfaction the first one is the
communication with well-educated people who need quality insight
experience, while the second is the communication with public who have
different categories which might need explanation of meaning with clear and
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easy terminology that perfectly matches with their preferences (Gándara,
2015). Moreover, it was highlighted that overall visitor satisfaction often plays
an important role in tourist post visit behaviour and visitors' intentions, word of
mouth (WOM) and development of expectation (Johns 1999)
II Revisit: The outcome of the visitors' evaluation and reflection upon their
visit to a heritage site is directly linked to the probability of revisiting the site,
recommending it to others and spreading positive or negative word of mouth
(Harrison and Shaw 2004; Rashid 2013). So it is crucial to create a
meaningful, memorable and satisfying experience in order to increase visitors'
loyalty and gain a competitive advantage. Moreover, the rapid rise of social
media positive word of mouth may play a significant role in influencing a
visitor's decision to visit an attraction (Leask, et al, 2013).
2. Research Methods
Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel present the most familiar image of ancient
Egypt to the modern traveler and reader. Not only are the two temples at Abu
Simbel among the most magnificent monuments in the world but their removal
and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. In addition to that the solar
phenomenon which happens only in two special days all over the year is
considered a miracle too. The extraordinary beauty and uniqueness of the
temple attract tourists from the entire world. In this study, questionnaire has
been designed to assess the role of interpretation in enhancing the visitors’
experience in Abu Simbel. The Questionnaire was distributed randomly to a
total of 120 visitors of different nationalities, 91 forms were received and only
86 forms are valid. The first section of the questionnaire was designed to
gather demographic information addressing the profile of temple's visitors. The
second section of the questionnaire investigated the pre-visit experience by
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focused on the educational and entertainment experience during the visit.
3. Data analysis
Table 1: Visitors' profile
Demographics of respondents F %
Gender Male 42 48.8%
Female 44 51.2%
Age category
15-24 4 4.7%
25-34 38 44.2%
35-44 26 30.2%
45-59 9 10.5%
Over 60 9 10.5%
Origin National 26 30.2%
International 60 69.8%
Level of education
secondary education school 7 8.1 % Bachelor’s degree 58 67.4% post grade degree 21 24.4%
Current employment status
Household. 4 4.7%
Unemployed. 4 4.7%
Student. 5 5.8 % Part-time paid work. 10 11.6%
Retired. 8 9.3 %
Full-time paid work. 49 57%
Others 6 6.9%
Annual income range
≥ 18,000 $ 29 33.7%
18,000 – 24,000 $ 9 10.5%
24,000 – 34,000 $ 6 7%
34,000 – 49,000 $ 20 23.3%
49,000 – 69,000 $ 15 17.4%
70,000 – 100,000 $ 4 4.7%
≤ 150,000 $ 3 3.5%
Mode of travel
Alone 14 16.3%
With Family 30 34.9%
With work fellows 3 3.5%
With Friends 34 39.5%
Others 5 5.8%
Frequency of visiting First time visitor 68 79.1%
Repeated visitor 18 20.9%
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Table 2: Sources of information about Abu Simbel
Valid Frequency Percentage %
Never heard about it. 3 3.5%
Friends or relatives. 20 23.3% Internet. 23 26.7%
Tourist information Centre. 19 22.1% Guiding books. 9 10.5%
Others 12 13.9%
Table 3: Motivation of Visit
Statements F
To visit a place you have not visited before. 57
To spend a day out for enjoyment and entertainment. 38
To improve general knowledge about Egyptian history and cultural heritage. 41
The temple is already included in your trip itinerary. 16
The temple is listed as one of world heritage sites. 43
Seeking contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience. 47
Others 3
Possibility of more than one choice
Table 4: Interpretation facilities in Abu Simbel
Valid Frequency Percentage %
Guided tours. 80 93% Information panels. 15 17.4% Printed materials. 4 4.7%
Possibility of more than one choice
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Statements TD D N A TA
F % F % F % F % F %
I developed a keener awareness and appreciation of the Temple.
0 0 6 7 10 11.6 30 34.9 40 46.5
I get attached to the site and acquainted with its significance
0 0 2 2.3 13 15.1 41 47.7 30 34.9
The brochures are attractive and including all the information I need.
43 50 11 12.8 18 20.9 9 10.5 5 5.8
I learnt something new 0 0 1 1.2 5 5.8 34 39.5 46 53.5
The knowledge I acquired encouraged me to come and visit the site again
4 4.7 10 11.6 14 16.3 21 24.4 37 43
The knowledge I acquired stimulated my curiosity to read more about the ancient Egyptian history
0 0 7 8.1 6 7 29 33.7 44 51.2
I would recommend the site for others to visit
1 1.2 1 1.2 3 3.5 12 14 69 80.2
*TD = totally disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, TA = totally agree
Table 6: Assessment of the impact of interpretation on entertainment
experience
Statements TD D N A TA
F % F % F % F % F % The physical access to the site is in a good quality.
1 1.2 8 9.3 10 11.6 45 52.3 22 25.6
The orientation upon arrival provided me with better understanding of the visit rout.
2 2.3 7 8.1 10 11.6 45 52.3 22 25.6
Our interpreter let us guess some parts of the story.
8 9.3 34 39.5 22 25.6 18 20.9 4 4.7
Our interpreter considered our opinion. 5 5.8 11 12.8 27 31.4 34 39.5 9 10.5 Our interpreter provided meaningful and supportive body gestures.
4 4.7 7 8.1 13 15.1 25 29.1 37 43
Our interpreter promoted a social and happy group environment.
1 1.2 4 4.7 13 15.1 31 36 37 43
My visit entertained me. 0 0 4 4.7 3 3.5 23 26.7 56 65.1
*TD = totally disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, TA = totally agree
200
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5. Results and Discussion
The study revealed that females (51.2%) represented a larger proportion of the
surveyed visitors than males (48.8%) Similar results relating to a distribution
of gender within sample were presented in heritage tourism market research
(Mintel 2010). However, according to characteristics of respondents in
research by Poria et al (2004) and Apostolakis and Jaffry (2005) males were
the dominant group that visited heritage attractions. The majority of visitors
were aging between 25-34 years old (44.2%), while results highlight those
aged fewer than 24 accounted for the smallest group visiting the temple, with
similar results were presented by Shore (2010) in study on heritage market
characteristics. The majority of visitors completed higher education, the study
findings shows that (67.4%) of the visitors hold bachelor’s degree and 24.4%
of the total population have a postgraduate degree, which supports the work of
Timothy and Boyd (2003) who argue that heritage visitors tend to be better
educated Moreover, a majority of visitors (39.5%) visited the site with friends
while (34.9%) visited it with a family member.
5.1 Motivations and pre-visit decision-making
The majority of surveyed visitors (79.1%) visited the temple for the first time
while a previous visit to the temple was another key factor influencing the
decision- making of 20.9% of the visitor to come and revisit the site. Findings
showed that Internet was most significant source of information that influenced
participants’ decision-making process as 26.7% of the visitors used it. With
this in mind it is essential that heritage attractions evaluate their investment in
the pre-visit experience to ensure that are effectively targeting the right tourist
and are maximizing their opportunity to attract wider market segments,
especially the younger tech-savvy generation (Leask et al, 2013b), while
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of (de Rojas and Camarero 2008) who stated that word of mouth
recommendations from family and friends played a vital role in visitors’
decision-making when planning a visit. Often these types of recommendations
are considered as the most reliable, trusted and powerful source of information
which often influences a visitor’s expectations. This study revealed that
participants were mainly motivated by recreational needs as well as curiosity
toward finding out what the attraction has to offer; findings indicated that the
most common motivation of visiting the temple for (66.3%) of surveyed
visitors was visiting a place they have not visited before and find out what the
site has to offer. At the same time 50 % of the visitors visited the temple
because it was listed as one of world heritage sites.
To measure the impact of interpretation facilities on educational and
entertainment experience, participants were asked to indicate the importance of
a variety of items from their own perspective on a tabular form ranging from
totally disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and totally agree.
5.2 The impact of interpretation facilities on educational experience
Engagement
Findings showed that interpretation facilities helped 81.4% of the visitors in
developing a keener awareness and appreciation of the Temple, while only 7%
of visitors disagree. In addition, interpretation facilities helped 82.6% of the
visitors in getting attached to the temple and its significance, while only 2.3%
disagree. Having considered these finding, it indicates that interpreters in Abu
Simbel play a vital role in engaging visitors in ways that can positively affect
their experience then affect their behavior. Findings also suggest that visitors
seek and value the opportunity to be actively involved in the experience and
interact with the heritage setting.
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Information
This factor consisted of three items associated with the availability and
accessibility of information. As shown in Table 5, the ability of learning
something new had the highest percentage, as the majority of visitors 53.3%
totally agree that they learnt something new, while 39.5% of visitors agree. In
addition to stimulating visitors' curiosity about the Egyptian history, finding
showed that the knowledge visitors had acquired stimulated the curiosity of
84.9% of the visitors to read more about the Ancient Egyptian history. Besides
the lack of the attractive brochures as decelerated by 62.8% of the visitors, so it
indicates that interpreters in Abu Simbel play a crucial role in providing
information and are a valuable ‘source of knowledge’. Having considered these
findings, it could be argued that information and authenticity are highly valued
factors affecting visitors’ experience.
Satisfaction and Revisit
The results showed that higher levels of satisfaction meant visitors are more
likely to revisit and recommend the heritage site; the visit entertained the
majority of visitors (91.8%), while it didn't entertain only 4.7% of them.
Findings also showed that the majority of the visitors 94.2% will recommend the
temple for the others to visit, while only two visitors will not recommend it to
others. The tabulated data also shows that 67.4% of them were encouraged to
come again and revisit the site, while 16.3% of the visitors were neutral. Similar
findings were noted by Cronin et al (2000) who highlighted the positive
relationship between satisfaction and intentions to return.
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Welcoming and orientation
Findings showed the majority of visitors (77.9%) pointed out that the orientation
upon arrival provided them with better understanding of the visit rout. Also the
quality of the physical accessibility of the site is in a good quality as declared by
(77.9%) of the visitors. Some finding were noted by laws (2001) who identified
welcoming and orientation and physical accessibility as factors that influence
the visitors' expectations and perception
Communication
Since the majority of the visitors (93%) could not identify any other kinds of
interpretive facilities aside from the guided tour, so the assessment of
communicating visitors in Abu Simbel consisted of four items related to the
interpreter's performance. The tabulated data showed that 48.8% of visitors
stated that their interpreters didn't let them guess some parts of the story, while
25.6% of them were neutral. Findings also showed that 50% of visitors
mentioned that their interpreters considered their opinions, while 31.4% of them
were neutral and only five were totally disagree. The majority of visitors
(72.1%) assured that their interpreters provided meaningful and supportive body
gestures, while 12.8% of them didn't support this opinion. The majority of
visitors (79%) stated that their interpreters promoted a social and happy group
environment, while 5.9% of them didn't support this opinion. Having
considered these finding, it highlights the need for further research into how to
personalize visitor's experience in order to add value and ensure the experience
quality.
Conclusion
This paper aimed to examine visitors’ experiences at heritage sites. A review of
literature highlighted the role of heritage interpretation in communication with
visitors, as per their requirements, for the purpose of enhancing their
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experiences and assuring their satisfaction. As such this paper evaluated the
importance of heritage interpretation in Abu Simbel as one of the world heritage
sites, besides, it explored the dimensions of visitors experience, and investigated
the visitor experience cycle at heritage attractions (pre, during and post visit).
An investigation of visit's motivations revealed that the most common reasons
for visiting the temple were the desire to visit a place not visited before, Seeking
contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience and listing the temple as one
of world heritage sites. In addition, the study revealed that word of mouth
recommendations play a vital role in the pre planning decision of temple's
visitors. The research identified four factors which enhance the experience of
the heritage visitors during their visit (welcoming and orientation,
communication, engagement, information). Moreover, the study identified a
relationship between knowledge acquisition and satisfaction which subsequently
would lead to a word of mouth referral or a return visit to the site. Having
considered the complexity and potential of the heritage market, further research
into the field is essential to gain a better understanding of how to effectively
target the temple's visitors and provide them with a meaningful and memorable
experience.
Recommendations
This study suggested many recommendations to enhancing visiting experience
in Abu Simbel, which can be illustrated in the following:
Having considered the complexity and potential of the heritage market, further
market research into the field is essential to gain a better understanding of how
to effectively target the heritage visitor and provide them with a meaningful
and memorable experience.
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ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ It is vital importance to managers and marketers to get an in depth
understanding of the sources of information that influence visitor’s decision-
making process before visiting a heritage attraction.
An examination of visitors’ expectations prior to the visit and post visit could
also be beneficial in providing further insight into whether the expectations of
the temple visitor are being met and indeed fully catered to.
Visitor's segment that's aged fewer than 24 is an opportune market within
heritage tourism. Employing tactics like edutainment may provide a means to
engage this type of visitor during the visit experience.
Develop a web-based, and CD-ROM, educational pack for the temple, which
includes updated information about the geography, geology, landscape,
significance.
Develop animations, possibly in ‘cartoon’ form, for use on the website and in
educational material. Such animations could also be available for access by
mobile phone.
Apply the 'timed ticket' access to the temple so that there are fewer people
inside at any one moment, so visitors can have the time and space to appreciate
the breath-taking art and it will help in reducing noise and controlling visit
duration and numbers of visitors inside the temples.
Further investigation into how heritage attractions could be promoted to
younger generations to encourage visitation should be considered.
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in a Heritage Context: Evidence from an Interpretation Center”, Tourism
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IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
The influence of interpretation on visitors’ behavior in Nubian
Monuments in Abu Simbel
Ali O. Abd-Allah Mayada H. Belal Nancy M. Abd-Elrahman
Abstract
Interpretation aims to stimulate interest, promote learning, guide visitors in
appropriate behavior for sustainable tourism and encourage enjoyment and
satisfaction in the same time. Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel were inscribed
on the World Heritage List. Although Egypt, under the terms of World Heritage
Convention, has the primary responsibility to ensure the protection, conservation
representation for future generations, up till now, no surveys have been
conducted assess neither visitors' profile, nor their expectation. Also nothing has
been done to precisely evaluate what is the effectiveness of the interpretation
tools in the temples, and are they achieving the affective attachment between the
temple and its' visitors? This paper aims at studying the concepts of
interpretation and visitor's behavior at Heritage Sites, and the factors that
influence the visitor's behavior during and after the visit. The field study of this
paper was designed to understand the temple's visitors much better, examine the
effectiveness of interpretation tools delivered to Abu Simbel Temple's visitors in
making visitors get attached with the temple and its significance and
conservation issues. Finally some recommendations concerning interpretation
tools are suggested to influence visitor attitude and shaping visitor behavior.
Keywords Heritage Interpretation, Visitor Behavior, Place Attachment, Pro-
Environmental behavior, Environmentally responsible behavior,
Environmentally significant behavior.
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Introduction
The earliest attempt to establish heritage interpretation as a standalone field was
undertaken by Freeman Tilden, who he had defined interpretation as "an
educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through
the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media,
rather than simply to communicate factual information" (TILDEN, 1977, p. 8).
This definition described the interpretation as the process of uncovering what is
not explicitly mentioned by the objects, and what the visitors cannot realize with
their regular senses, by offering them something from the capturing realities that
are hidden behind the objects. While Court (2014) has defined interpretation as
"a vehicle which transforms the passive activity of visitor to active by engaging
them through interpretation, and achieves conservation by using this
interpretation tools to raise the awareness of visitors and community about the
values of the heritage sites". So heritage interpretation can be defined as "a
communication tool used to communicate to visitors, as per their requirements,
in a recreational context, cultural, historical and environmental messages, in so
as to enhance visitor experiences, assuring visitors' satisfaction, positively affect
visitor behavior, and keep the site in well-preserved condition"
1. Visitor's Behavior
In order to talking in details about the role of interpretation in modifying
visitor's behavior for better conserved sites, we must talk first about some terms
of visitors' behaviors that aim to conserving the environment- which refers here
to culture heritage sites-, such as:
Environmentally responsible behavior: It's more focused on visitors'
actions that are directed to reduce environmental impacts, participate in
environment conservation, support a more sustainable use of resources and
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minimize any negative impacts during their activities (Lee et al, 2013;
Chiu et al, 2014).
Environmentally significant behavior: It highlights the changes in the
behavior of visitors who decide to take more sustainable actions and
decisions to improve the environment (Stern, 2000).
Environmentally concerned behavior: It focuses more on the
commitment of visitors towards environmental actions (Axelrod &
Lehman, 1993).
Sustainable behavior: It's more related to a major awareness and
behavior by visitors who take into consideration future outcomes and
behave in a more sustainable manner (Meijers & Stapel, 2011).
Pro-Environmental behavior: It's more focused on the engagement and
emotional link between visitors' actions and the environment to protect the
environment and minimize the negative impacts (Kollmuss & Agyeman,
2002).
All these terms have the same aim, and towards achieving this aim they should
be related to raising visitors' awareness about historical and natural values of
the site and enhancing their participation in conservation efforts, that when
interpretation can be useful.
2. The role of interpretation in affecting Visitor Behavior positively
Munro et al. (2008) stated that interpretation is considered an important tool in
impacting visitor knowledge, attitudes and behavior. While Moscardo (2014)
contended that changing visitor behavior is the second important role of
interpretation, she also indicated that current research supports the idea that
interpretation can assist the management of negative visitor behaviors.
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damage, changes to the site behavior, pollution and vandalism caused by
visitors, through providing visitors with information about alternative sites,
routes, or activities. Interpretive programs can also enhance visitors’
understanding of conservation issues and consequences of not conserve it then
develop a positive attitude. In turn, interpretation can help visitors to modify
their behavior generally and specific to the culture heritage sites (Ballantyne
&Packer, 2005).
Effecting behavioral change is not easy, it usually happens slowly. There is a
sequential process for affecting change in visitor's behavior and managing their
impacts; Firstly, interpretation can affect where visitors go and use the features
of the interpretive activities to get the visitors' attention. Secondly,
interpretation can assist the management of visitor impacts through raising
visitor awareness about the site, its significance, its critical issues and the
important role of tourism in the conservation of local environment and culture.
If visitors can relate to these issues, they will start to form feeling about it.
Thirdly, let visitors know what the consequences are, so they form an
emotional opinion and relate their behavior to it. Finally visitors choose to
adopt proper behaviors based on their new information. (Archer and Wearing,
2002 ; Komatsu and Liu, 2007) On broader context, researchers called these
steps as "place attachment".
Place attachment has been identified as one of the motivations of visitors to
behave in an environmentally responsible way in culture heritage sites. It is
also described as “destination attachment” and linked to visitors’ loyalty to
places, behavioral intentions and pro-environmental behavior. (Ramkissoon et
al, 2013) Place attachment is constituted of four dimensions:
Place identity: refers to the cognitive link between the personal self and a
site, representing the identification of the visitor with a certain site or with
its unique value.
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Place dependence: refers to describing the importance of a specific site for
specific activities and needs by visitors.
Affective attachment: refers to the strong feeling tourists feel towards a
place.
Social bonding: relates to the social relations a specific place enhances
(Chen et al, 2016).
Effecting behavioral change can also happen when a combination of
techniques is use, For example, regulatory signs, landscape or engineering
solutions such as barriers or re-routing tracks, contact with uniformed staff,
and clear on-site and pre-visit information including environmental care codes
(Colquhoun, 2005).
For many people the information they encounter at leisure may offer the only
opportunity to learn about their bonds to the environment, or to their history.
Because of interpretation, visitors have this opportunity to learn about history,
environment, and culture. With these kinds of visitors, the visiting sites
probably have less negative impacts. When visitors know the value of the site,
they might appreciate it and help to protect its heritage. These visitors always
behave in appropriate ways because they understand the impacts caused by the
visitors. This process of learning also may encourage them to visit the sites
again which leads to economic sustainability (Moscardo, 1998)
Interpretation enhances building on the rewarding experiences to encourage
visitors to be receptive to a sustainability messages. There are three types of
these management and sustainability messages; first, such messages play
traditional role of encouraging visitors to behave in ways that minimize their
negative impacts on the site. Second, messages related to global conservation
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sustainability practices of the attraction itself. (Fyall, et al, 2008)
Interpretation can serve multiple purposes in modifying behavior and ensuring
the long term sustainability in heritage sites, it depends on:
1. Raising awareness on heritage values among tourists, thus encouraging their
responsible behavior during visits and their collaboration for conservation
efforts .
2. Creating an added value and high quality learning experience for visitors .
3. Creating services and goods using innovative techniques that will enhance
the maintenance and preservation of heritage sites and features.
4. Controlling visitors in heavily visited and popular heritage sites, thus
minimizing negative impacts of tourism (Safwan,2011).
So we can say that, if the effective interpretation is combined with an
appropriate total visitor management program, so that the outcomes of the
visitor interaction should be minimal impacts on the site and satisfied visitors
with an increased awareness of conservation issues and actions. Visitors who
enjoy an interpretive program are usually more likely to learn from it and to
change their attitudes and behaviors toward the site and the environment
generally.
3. Research Methods
Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel present the most familiar image of ancient
Egypt to the modern traveler and reader. Not only are the two temples at Abu
Simbel among the most magnificent monuments in the world but their removal
and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. In addition to that the solar
phenomenon which happens only in two special days all over the year is
considered a miracle too. The extraordinary beauty and uniqueness of the temple
attract tourists from the entire world.
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Data collection: In this study, questionnaire has been designed to assess the
influence of interpretation on Abu Simbel visitors’ behavior. The Questionnaire
was distributed randomly to a total of 120 visitors of different nationalities, 91
forms were received and only 86 forms are valid. The first section of the
questionnaire was designed to gather demographic information addressing the
profile of temple's visitors. The second section of the questionnaire investigated
the pre-visit experience by addressing motivational and decision-making factors.
The third section focused on the influence of interpretation on visitors' behavior
during the visit, while the last section focused the influence of interpretation on
visitors' behavior after the visit.
4. Data analysis
Table 1: Visitors' profile
Demographics of respondents F %
Gender Male 42 48.8%
Female 44 51.2%
Age category
15-24 4 4.7%
25-34 38 44.2%
35-44 26 30.2%
45-59 9 10.5% Over 60 9 10.5%
Origin National 26 30.2%
International 60 69.8%
Level of education
secondary education school 7 8.1 %
Bachelor’s degree 58 67.4%
post grade degree 21 24.4%
current employment status
Household. 4 4.7%
Unemployed. 4 4.7% Student. 5 5.8 %
Part-time paid work. 10 11.6%
Retired. 8 9.3 % Full-time paid work. 49 57%
Others 6 6.9%
Annual income range ≥ 18,000 $ 29 33.7%
18,000 – 24,000 $ 9 10.5% 24,000 – 34,000 $ 6 7%
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≤ 150,000 $ 3 3.5%
Mode of travel
Alone 14 16.3% With Family 30 34.9%
With work fellows 3 3.5% With Friends 34 39.5%
Others 5 5.8%
Frequency of visiting First time visitor 68 79.1% Repeated visitor 18 20.9%
Table 2: Sources of information about Abu Simbel
Valid Frequency Percentage %
Never heard about it. 3 3.5%
Friends or relatives. 20 23.3%
Internet. 23 26.7%
Tourist information Centre. 19 22.1%
Guiding books. 9 10.5%
Others 12 13.9%
Table 3: Motivation of Visit
Statements F
To visit a place you have not visited before. 57
To spend a day out for enjoyment and entertainment. 38
To improve general knowledge about Egyptian history and cultural heritage. 41
The temple is already included in your trip itinerary. 16
The temple is listed as one of world heritage sites. 43
Seeking contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience. 47
Others 3
Possibility of more than one choice
Table 4: Interpretation facilities
Valid Frequency
Guided tours. 80 Information panels. 15 Printed materials. 4
• Possibility of more than one choice
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Table 5: Assessment of visitors’ opinion about the effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior during the visit
Statements Yes No
F % F % I’m encouraged to keep the site clean as it was before. 85 98.8 1 1.2 I’m encouraged to preserve the site and not to take pictures inside the temples.
55 64 31 36
I’m encouraged to keep calm and to speak loudly. 40 46.5 46 53.5 I’ve been informed how much sensitive the colored paintings of the temples are
79 91.9 7 8.1
I’ve been informed how much fragile the inscriptions on the on the walls are
74 86 12 14
The accompanying kids were delicately banned from climbing statues.
49 57 37 43
Table 6: Assessment of the effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior after the visit
Statements TD D N A TA
F % F % F % F % F % a. I will talk with others about the temple's significance and the importance of conserving it.
1 1.2 2 2.3 5 5.8 25 29.1 53 61.6
b. I would recommend the site for others to visit
1 1.2 1 1.2 3 3.5 12 14 69 80.2
c. I will convince my friends to act responsibly during visiting it.
1 1.2 1 1.2 5 5.8 21 24.4 58 67.4
d. I have intention to donate to support the conservation of the temple.
8 9.3 9 10.5 39 45.3 10 11.6 20 23.3
e. I have intention to join in community efforts dedicated to protect the temple.
9 10.5 6 7 38 44.2 13 15.1 20 23.3
f. I have intention to join in voluntary actions that help in the protection processes.
10 11.6 5 5.8 46 53.5 8 9.3 17 19.8
g. I’m willing to pay much higher entrance tickets to support protecting the temple.
2 2.3 20 23.3 25 29.1 22 25.6 17 19.8
h. I’m in favor of limiting the number of visitors to protect the temple
3 3.5 28 32.6 18 20.9 15 17.4 22 25.6
i. I’m in favor of putting more restrictions on the visitors to minimize their negative impacts.
0 0 1 1.2 5 5.8 25 29 55 64
*TD = totally disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, TA = totally agree
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6. Results and Discussion
The study revealed that females (51.2%) represented a larger proportion of the
surveyed visitors than males (48.8%) Similar results relating to a distribution
of gender within sample were presented in heritage tourism market research
(Mintel 2010). However, according to characteristics of respondents in
research by Poria et al (2004) and Apostolakis and Jaffry (2005) males were
the dominant group that visited heritage attractions. The majority of visitors
were aging between 25-34 years old (44.2%), while results highlight those
aged fewer than 24 accounted for the smallest group visiting the temple, with
similar results were presented by Shore (2010) in study on heritage market
characteristics. The majority of visitors completed higher education, the study
findings shows that (67.4%) of the visitors hold bachelor’s degree and 24.4%
of the total population have a postgraduate degree, which supports the work of
Timothy and Boyd (2003) who argue that heritage visitors tend to be better
educated Moreover, a majority of visitors (39.5%) visited the site with friends
while (34.9%) visited it with a family member.
6.1 Motivations and pre-visit decision-making
The majority of surveyed visitors (79.1%) visited the temple for the first time
while a previous visit to the temple was another key factor influencing the
decision- making of 20.9% of the visitor to come and revisit the site. Findings
showed that Internet was most significant source of information that influenced
participants’ decision-making process as 26.7% of the visitors used it. With
this in mind it is essential that heritage attractions evaluate their investment in
the pre-visit experience to ensure that are effectively targeting the right tourist
and are maximizing their opportunity to attract wider market segments,
especially the younger tech-savvy generation (Leask et al, 2013b), while
23.3% of the visitors asked their friends and relatives, which supports the work
of (de Rojas and Camarero 2008) who stated that word of mouth
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Omar, A. Belal, M. Abd-Elrahman, N. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
recommendations from family and friends played a vital role in visitors’
decision-making when planning a visit. Often these types of recommendations
are considered as the most reliable, trusted and powerful source of information
which often influences a visitor’s expectations. This study revealed that
participants were mainly motivated by recreational needs as well as curiosity
toward finding out what the attraction has to offer; findings indicated that the
most common motivation of visiting the temple for (66.3%) of surveyed
visitors was visiting a place they have not visited before and find out what the
site has to offer. At the same time 50 % of the visitors visited the temple
because it was listed as one of world heritage sites.
6.2 The effect of interpretation facilities on visitors’ behavior during the
visit
To measure the effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior during the visit,
participants were asked to indicate the importance of a variety of items from
their own perspective on a tabular form with two choices (Yes) (No). As
showed in table 5, the majority of questionnaire respondents (98.8%) confirmed
that they were encouraged to keep the site clean as it was before and only one
ticked (No). Findings also showed that the majority of questionnaire
respondents (64%) confirmed that they were encouraged to preserve the site and
not to take pictures inside the temples, while 36% of them were not encouraged
to preserve the site. In addition, the majority of questionnaire respondents
(91.9%) confirmed that they were informed how much sensitive the colored
paintings of the temples are and only 8.1% of them ticked (No). The majority of
visitors (86%) confirmed that they were informed how much fragile the
inscriptions on the on the walls are, while 14% of them ticked (No). Having
220
The influence of interpretation on visitors’ behavior in Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel
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guided tours, promoted visitors' self-reported behavior through influencing
increased knowledge, raising their awareness about the critical issues of the site
and encouraging them to take more sustainable actions during their visit. This
supports the premise that influencing visitors actions require specific belief-
based or feeling based information about the consequences of the actions and
the basic human emotions of fear and anxiety when management issues are
targeting site-specific responsible behavior (Ballantyne and Packer, 2005;
Monroe, 2003; Roggenbuck 1992). As decelerated by (53.5%) of the visitors
who denied that they were encouraged to keep calm and speak loudly, while
46.5% of them confirmed that they were encouraged to keep calm and speak
loudly. In addition 57% of questionnaire respondents confirmed that the
accompanying kids were delicately banned from climbing statues, while 43% of
them ticked (No). Having considered these finding, it also seems clear that
interpretation tools that are currently used in the site are not enough to minimize
visitors' negative impacts especially in peak seasons
6.3 The effect of interpretation facilities on visitors’ behavior after the visit
To measure The effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior after the visit,
participants were asked to indicate the importance of a variety of items from
their own perspective on a tabular form ranging from totally disagree, disagree,
neutral, agree and totally agree.
Place attachment
As findings showed the majority of questionnaire respondents (61.6%) totally
agree with talking about the temple's significance and unique value and the
importance of conserving it with others, while 29.1% of them agree, two
respondents disagree and only one totally disagrees. The majority of visitors
(80.2%) totally agree with recommending the temple for the others to visit,
while 14% of them agree, only one disagrees and another respondent totally
disagrees. The majority of visitors (67.4%) are totally agree with convincing
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Omar, A. Belal, M. Abd-Elrahman, N. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
others to act responsibly during visiting the temple, while 24.4% of them agree,
only one disagrees and another respondent totally disagrees. These findings
support the previous researches that stated that Place attachment is one of the
motivations of visitors to behave in an environmentally responsible way in
culture heritage sites, it also encourages visitors convincing others to act
responsibly during visiting; through representing the identification of the visitor
with a certain site or with its unique value, describing the importance of a
specific site and enhancing visitors' feelings towards the site.
Long term conservation behavior
The study findings showed that there is a weakness of the current interpretation
in promoting certain types of long-term conservation behavior; the tabulated
data shows that 45.3% of visitors neutral about having intention to donate to
support the conservation of the temple, while 23.3% of them totally agree,
11.6% of respondents agree and only eight respondents totally disagree.
Findings also showed that 44.2% of respondents neutral about joining in
community efforts dedicated to protect the temple, while 23.3% of them totally
agree, 15.1% agree, nine respondents totally disagree and only six respondents
disagree. In addition, the majority of questionnaire respondents (53.3%) neutral
about joining in voluntary actions that help in the protection processes, while
19.8% of them totally agree, eight respondents agree, 15 respondents disagree
and totally disagree. The tabulated data showed also that 29.1% of respondents
neutral about paying much higher entrance tickets to support protecting the
temple, 25.6% of them are agree, 23.3% are disagree, while 19.8% of them are
totally agree and only two respondents are totally disagree. Which consistent
with the findings of previous research (Beaumont, 2001) who stated that there
222
The influence of interpretation on visitors’ behavior in Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel
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‘giving donations’, ‘volunteer work’, and ‘membership of environmental
organization’), so that strategies should be considered for these.
Abu Simbel specific visitors' Sustainable behavior
The tabulated data showed that 32.6% of respondents disagree with limiting the
number of visitors to protect the temple, 25.6% of them totally agree, 17.4%
agree, while only three respondents totally disagree, which reflect visitors'
satisfaction and their desire to improve the opportunity for every visitor to visit
the temple, while The majority of them (64%) totally agree with putting more
restrictions on the visitors to minimize their negative impacts, 29% agree, which
reflect the awareness about the importance to behave in a more sustainable
manner.
Conclusion
This paper aimed to examine visitors’ behavior at heritage sites. A review of
literature highlighted the role of heritage interpretation in communication with
visitors, as per their requirements, in recreational, historical and environmental
messages, for the purpose of positively affecting their behavior, and keeping the
site in well-preserved condition. As such this paper evaluated the importance of
heritage interpretation in Abu Simbel as one of the world heritage sites, explored
factors that influence the visitor's behavior during and after the visit. An
investigation of visit's motivations revealed that the most common reasons for
visiting the temple were the desire to visit a place not visited before, Seeking
contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience and listing the temple as one
of world heritage sites. In addition, the study revealed that word of mouth
recommendations play a vital role in the pre planning decision of temple's
visitors. The research approved that the range of both general and site-specific
dimensions of sustainable heritage behavior could be usefully leveraged by
interpretation; encouraging visitors to keep the site clean, preserve the site and
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Omar, A. Belal, M. Abd-Elrahman, N. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
not to take pictures inside the temples, also getting visitors attached with the site
significance and its critical issues. Filed study also approved that effective
interpretation can also influences general sustainable visitors' behavior after visit
by talking with others about the temple's significance and the importance of
conserving it, recommending the site and convincing them to act responsibly
during visiting it. The study findings showed also that there is a weakness of the
current interpretation in promoting certain types of long-term conservation
behavior (donation and volunteering work), so that strategies should be
considered for these.
Recommendations
Undertaking a pre- and post- survey on visitors' intentions to adapt more
appropriate behavior might be one way of testing the effectiveness of
interpretation programme.
Develop a web-based, and CD-ROM, educational pack for the temple, which
includes information about its significance, transformation process and
conservation issues in order to raise visitors' awareness and controlling their
behavior easily during the visit.
Apply much higher entrance tickets to support protecting the temple .
Putt more restrictions on temples' visitors to minimize their negative impacts.
Apply the 'timed ticket' access to the temple so that there are fewer people
inside at any one moment, so visitors can have the time and space to
appreciate the breath-taking art and it will reducing noise and controlling
visit duration and numbers of visitors inside the temples.
Audio tours, video tours, mobile phone tours, all are recommended to
encourage visitors to be calm during visit and not to speak loudly.
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The influence of interpretation on visitors’ behavior in Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel
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