تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال (ITC) الحديثة لتحقيق...

IAJFTH Volume 5, No.2, 2018

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1

الحديثة لتحقيق تطوير السياحة (ITC)تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال

الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة

الدكتورة. صورية شنبي الدكتور. السعيد بن لخضر

جامعة المسيلة الجزائر

ملخص

ومات واالتصاالت إلى تطور السياحة باعتمادها على هذه أدى التقدم الكبير في تكنولوجيا المعل

التجارية التقليدية االستراتيجياتالتكنولوجيا، حيث أن أثر تقنيات المعلومات واالتصاالت غير

للخدمات، مما يحقق تطوير وتحسين الخدمات السياحية، والتي تلعب فيها التكنولوجيا الرقمية دورا

رويج من أجل الجذب السياحي. حيث يعتبر النموذج الفرنسي للسياحة كبيرا خاصة فيما يتعلق بالت

الرقمية تجربة ناجحة في تطوير القطاع السياحي من خالل استخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة ألنظمة

الوطيدة بين مؤسسات قطاع السياحة وتهدف هذه الدراسة إلى إظهار العالقة االتصاالت والمعلومات.

منظومة البحث العلمي والتكنولوجي من أجل التطوير، والتي تشكل مدخال تنمويا والعاملين فيه وبين

يساهم في عملية تحديث وتطوير القطاع السياحي واستدامته. كما توضح الدراسة كيفية تطوير السياحة

هذه الدراسة على مصادر بيانات مختلفة تعتمد باستخدام أنظمة االتصال والمعلومات المتطورة . حيث

الكتب والدوريات والتقارير وغيرها من المراجع العلمية ذات العالقة. وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى ك

تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال األكثر حداثة الركيزة األساسية لذلك، حيث أدت إلى ظهور أشكال اعتبار

طوير وتحسين جديدة من السياحة المتطورة كالسياحة اإللكترونية وسياحة النقال، وهذا يعمل على ت

الخدمات السياحية التي تلعب فيها التكنولوجيا الرقمية دورا كبيرا للجذب السياحي. وقد ألقت الدراسة

الضوء على تجربة ناجحة في مجال السياحة الرقمية لفرنسا كانت من أهم أسباب تطورها وفق مبادئ

لتحقيق التنمية السياحية المستدامة.االستدامة واحتاللها الريادة العالمية، والتي يجب أن يقتدى بها

تطوير السياحة.-السياحة الرقمية-تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال الكلمات المفتاحية

مقدمة

الهائل في السنوات األخيرة على تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت في مجال السياحة االعتمادإن

حية للوصول إلى العمالء، خصوصا مع تخفيض أدى إلى خلق منافسة بين مختلف الشركات السيا

الحواجز، أمام عبور المنتجات ودخول عاملين جدد في السياحة الرقمية وكثرة المواقع السياحية،


الرقمية في فرنسا نموذج السياحة-

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2

وبالتالي قد نشأ وضعا جديدا في تسويق المنتجات السياحية عبر وسائل متطورة وبسرعة أكبر،

صاالت من خالل تسهيل تحفيز السفر وتنظيم اإلقامة فاعتماد السياحة على تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالت

والرحالت بتعيين الوجهات وتحديدها وشراء تذاكر النقل والحجز في الفنادق واألماكن األخرى

لإليواء، جعل االنشطة السياحية الرقمية تعوض تلك التقليدية ألنها تمس كل العاملين في السياحة من

سفر، مرشدين سياحيين وكذا الوسطاء وأصحاب الخدمات الفندقية دواوين سياحية ووكاالت وأعوان لل

وخدمات النقل والتسويق، في مختلف الدول التي تعمل على تطوير سياحتها والتي تتصدرها فرنسا،

حيث اغلب الفرنسيين يستخدمون هاته التكنولوجيا في رحالتهم السياحية.

: كيف يتم استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات مما سبق تظهر إشكالية الدراسة التي تتمثل في

واالتصاالت في تطوير األنشطة السياحية؟ وهل هناك نماذج ناجحة في هذا المجال؟

أهمية وأهداف الدراسة

هذه الورقة البحثية إظهار كيفية استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت في تطوير تحاول

جديدة همية هذه األنظمة في خلق خدمات ومنتجات سياحيةوتحسين الخدمات السياحية، وإبراز أ

تتجاوز المقومات التقليدية الثقافية والطبيعية، من خالل عرض نموذج ناجح تمثله السياحة الفرنسية

التي تحتل الريادة العالمية في الميدان.

استراتيجيةأوال: التطوير كحتمية

جديدة، ترتكز استراتيجياتلمتنوع، تتبنى المقاصد من أجل تلبية الطلب السياحي المستهدف وا

حول البحث واالبتكار والتوعية، حيث يرغبون في ترويج عروضهم من أجل تلبية توقعات وطلبات

السائحين، وبالتالي يبحثون في التكنولوجيات الجديدة لالتصال على الترويج والجذب في مناطق

1ووجهات جديدة.

إن البحث واالبتكار في القطاع السياحي هو لديناميكية الجديدة:االبتكار والبحث ضمن ا -1

حاليا غير واضح ومن الصعب تحديده، حيث أنه في القطاع السياحي يوجد االبتكار المسيطر وهو

مخصص لخلق منتوج جديد، عرض خدمة جديدة أو نشاط جديد، واالبتكار غير الكامل وهو مخصص

نت مقدمة مسبقا، حيث أن هذه التحسينات تكون حسب عدة لتحسين الخدمات والعروض التي كا

مستويات )أحسن تكوين للعمال، خدمة جد مناسبة، تجهيزات مريحة...( وبالتالي فإن االبتكار في

السياحة يتعلق بمجاالت متنوعة ومختلفة: االبتكار التكنولوجي، العملياتي، البيئي، التجاري

رض مع الطلب المقدم من قبل السياح.واالجتماعي، وهذا من أجل تكييف الع

Delphine Roussel, Innovation territorialisée et nouvelles dynamiques touristiques, article -1

de recherche, Marché et organisation N°07, 2008, PP.06-08.

. صورية شنبيد . السعيد بن لخضر د ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

3

ن البحث واالبتكار يساهم في تطوير إ البحث والتطوير واالبتكار النوعي في السياحة: -2

القطاع السياحي، وبالتالي االهتمام بالنوعية، من أجل تثمين الخدمات السياحية، حيث أن تحسين

واالبتكار في النوعية يتعلق بكل مكونات النوعية أصبح من األهداف المهمة لجذب السائحين، فالبحث

المنتوج السياحي، ومنه من أجل اقتراح منتوجات ذات نوعية، يحتم على المؤسسات متابعة

التكنولوجيات الجديدة لإلعالم واالتصاالت.

إن التكنولوجيات الجديدة لإلعالم واالتصال كعامل أساسي لالبتكار السياحي: -3

متسارعة التي تخص نهاية القرن الماضي، قد قامت بتغيير أنماط الحياة التغيرات التكنولوجية ال

اليومية، ومن ضمنها ما دخل على القطاع السياحي، مما يظهر أن السياحة قد تحولت من خالل

التطور التكنولوجي، حيث أن أثر اإلعالم واالتصال حول تقنيات التوزيع السياحي غيرت

دية للخدمات. خاصة ما يتعلق بأنظمة الحجز في الشركات الجوية التجارية التقلي االستراتيجيات

والفنادق والوجهات السياحية، األمر الذي استغله العاملون في السياحة من أجل تقديم منتجات وخدمات

جديدة وأنظمة ترويج وحجز جديدة.

ثانيا: السياحة كمستخدم لتكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال

احة تأخر في تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال عن باقي القطاعات، إال رغم أن قطاع السي

، حيث أن أغلب األعمال والخدمات استراتيجيةأنه اليوم أصبحت هذه التكنولوجيا بالنسبة له كرهانات

الموجودة أصبحت تستخدم التكنولوجيا، باإلضافة إلى الوسائل المستخدمة في الفنادق والنقل والترفيه

2ذا االتصال، وأصبحت الدراسات الجديدة في هذا القطاع كلها تعتمد على التكنولوجيا واستخدامها.وك

فإشكالية البحث والتطوير تعالج تحت زاوية أنظمة تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال في القطاع

ت، وكذا السياحي، حيث أن أغلب المشاكل المطروحة تتعلق بتحسين المنتوج وتنظيم مؤسسات الخدما

3إعادة تكوين الفروع، وذلك من خالل:

إن مشكل اإلنتاجية له حساسية خاصة فيما يتعلق بتكنولوجيا :األداء االقتصادي واإلنتاجية -1

اإلعالم واالتصال، حيث أنه في القطاع السياحي تطرح عدة إشكاالت نظرية، والتي تترجم في

ية التي تولد أرباح اإلنتاجية، باإلضافة إلى ضعف صعوبة اإلعالم في كل الوجهات واألماكن السياح

الترابط بين نفقات تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال وأرباح اإلنتاجية في السياحة وخاصة في الخدمات.

فمساهمة تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال في السياحة هي جد مهمة، حيث أن االبتكارات المقدمة

هيكلة.موجهة للخدمات أو للتنظيم أو ال

2 -Camel Gallouj and Erick Leroux, E-Tourisme, Innovation et modes d'organisation, article

sur revue management et avenir, N°42, Paris: France, 2011, pp. 214-215. 3- Camel Gallouj and Erick Leroux, idid , pp. 208-220.




4

إن انعكاس الصلة بين تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال والتنظيم تنظيم المؤسسة وتنظيم العمل: -2

تتركز حول جانبين: األول حول الدور الذي تلعبه تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال في حركة المركزية

م بها تكنولوجيا وعدم المركزية فيما يخص التنظيم في المؤسسة، والثاني حول التعديالت التي تقو

اإلعالم واالتصال في المهام وتوزيعها في المؤسسة السياحية. حيث أن مركزية وعدم مركزية بعض

الخدمات تظهر بأن تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال تلعب دورا هاما في توزيع المهام بين مختلف

ا تقود توزيع الوظائف وحدات المؤسسة األم أي بين الوحدات الجهوية والوحدات المركزية، حيث أنه

بين مختلف الوسائط والفاعلون في الفروع السياحية.

هناك الكثير من األعمال معنية باصطدام تكنولوجيا توزيع السلطات في الفروع السياحية: -3

اإلعالم واالتصال فيما يخص العالقات التي تعني السلطة داخل الفروع السياحية، وخاصة في إطار

الموجودة بين مختلف الفاعلين. وكون أن تطوير واستعمال التكنولوجيا بالنسبة للبعض العالقات القوية

منهم غير معروفة، إال أن استخدامها بالنسبة لهم قد سهل التعامل مع السائحين والفروع السياحية

خصوصا في توزيع المهام والسلطات. فبفضل تطبيقات تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال أصبح من السهل

بالنسبة للعاملين في النشاط السياحي مراقبة أذواق ومعلومات المستهلكين أو السائحين، كما أن المواقع

السياحية للوجهات والفنادق قد تطورت بتطور التكنولوجيا، مما سهلت التعامل بين األطراف.

لتحفيز االبتكار في إن لتكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال األثر الكبير االبتكار والطاقة االبتكارية: -4

الخدمات بصفة عامة وخاصة الخدمات السياحية، فدخول هذه التكنولوجيا على الخدمات السياحية

واحتكاكها بها خلق نوع من االبتكار المستدام بحكم الحركة والنشاط في القطاع السياحي وخاصة في

المؤسسات. لهاته االبتكاريةقطاع النقل السياحي، وبالتالي قد طور من الطاقة

ثالثا: العالقات المختلفة بين تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال والسياحة

توجد عدة عالقات تربط بين تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال والسياحة، قد تكون هاته العالقات

غير شاملة وغير حصرية على قطاع السياحة، وهي تتمثل في عالقة المبادلة، التعريف والترويج

4خيرا عالقتي التوزيع واإلنتاج، وذلك كما يلي:وأ

وهي ترجع إلى التبديل الكلي أو الجزئي لمكاتب االستقبال للخدمة أو تزويد :عالقة المبادلة -1

آلة"، وهذا ما -إنسان" بالعالقة الجديدة "إنسان -الخدمة بوسائل تقنية مبتكرة، أي تغيير العالقة "إنسان

والمطاعم بظهور محطات التوجيه واإلعالم وكذا محطات تسجيل الدخول تحقق بالفعل في الفنادق

والخروج منها، باإلضافة إلى الفحص الذاتي إلى غير ذلك من الخدمات اآللية. فعالقة المبادلة الكلية

4-Idid, pp. 221-223.


5

تعني إمكانية الزيارة االفتراضية لبعض المواقع السياحية والوجهات والمتاحف عبر موقع إلكتروني،

في بعض األحيان عدد الزيارات االفتراضية هو عدد الزيارات الجسدية.وقد يكون

وهي تعود لوضعيات تشكل فيها الخدمة قيمة لالستخدام التكنولوجي، وهي عالقة التعريف: -2

عالقة جوهرية بين الخدمة واألداة، وينجم عن هذه العالقة العديد من االبتكارات )وسائل إلكترونية،

لخ(. هذه العالقة من الصعب توضيح تطبيقها على النشاط السياحي مباشرة، وإنما شبكات رقمية... إ

تكون عن طريق العميل أو المستهلك أو السائح، وهو ما يطبق فعال خاصة في الفنادق.

إن االبتكار التكنولوجي يحدد ظهور الوظائف الجديدة للخدمة، حيث أن عالقة عالقة الترويج: -3

سياحة، خاصة -جيا المعلومات واالتصال والسياحة تتجسد بصفة خاصة في موبايلالتعيين بين تكنولو

فيما يتعلق بالخرائط والتطبيقات الخاصة بالمعلومات الدورية للمواقع الخاصة بالفنادق، والوجهات

السياحية الموجودة في جهاز النقال )الموبايل(.

عملية تحويل سلبي، وإنما عملية حقيقية لتجديد إن عملية التوزيع هنا ال تعتبر ك عالقة التوزيع: -4

االبتكار، وفي هذه الحالة االبتكار الصناعي ال يساهم فقط في بعض الخدمات، لكن يساهم في تحديد

إدارة التغيير التقني لهاته الخدمات، حيث أنه في المجال السياحي فإن عالقة التوزيع بين السياحة

واسعة، فالسياحة تلعب دورا أساسيا في توزيع االبتكارات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال

التكنولوجية، وهذا ما نلمسه من تطور بعض االبتكارات في الخدمات السياحية أكثر منها في الخدمات

األخرى.

المؤسسات السياحية تصمم وتنتج بنفسها ابتكارات تكنولوجية، لكن في الغالب عالقة اإلنتاج: -5

هي عالقة إنتاج مشترك، وهذا ما نلمسه من خالل بيع بعض المنتجات التكنولوجية فإن هذه العالقة

في النشاطات والخدمات السياحية، كأنظمة اإلعالم والتسيير في الفنادق النموذجية.

تلخص في أهمية ومزايا استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال في السياحة: -6

5النقاط التالية:

السياحية بمختلف أنواعها بشكل كبير على تداول المعلومات السياحية، وبالتالي اعتماد الخدمات -

يصعب قياس جودتها إال بعد التجربة، لذلك تعد االنترنت الوسط المناسب لها، من خالل صورة

على البيانات والمعلومات التفصيلية للمناطق السياحية المراد واالطالعتفاعلية مرئية تخيلية للموقع

رتها، وتمكن السائح من تخطيط ووضع برنامج لرحلته واختيار المناطق التي يرغب في زيارتها، زيا

وترتيب مواعيده باإلضافة إلى تخصيص ميزانية محتملة؛

شعوبي محمد فوزي، )دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال في تنمية قطاع وبختي إبراهيم، -5

.2010، 07السياحة والفندقة(، مجلة الباحث، جامعة قاصدي مرباح، ورقلة، العدد




6

إن استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال يؤدي إلى تخفيض تكلفة إنتاج الخدمة السياحية، مع رفع -

ى تخفيض حجم العمالة ورفع قدرات العاملين وتدريبهم على استخدام الترويج السياحي، مما يؤدي إل

االنترنت والتطبيقات والبرامج؛

التوسع في استخدام التكنولوجيا يؤدي إلى ظهور احتياجات كامنة لم تكن موجودة من قبل، وبالتالي -

.تطوير منتجات جديدة وتحسين الخدمات، مما يؤدي إلى الرفع من القدرة التنافسية

رابعا: تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال والتطوير في السياحة

6تشمل ما يلي:

فيما يخص النشاطات السياحية وخاصة الفنادق والمطاعم، والتي :تعاليم النهج التصنيفية -1

تكون ضمن فئة الشركات المهيمنة من قبل ممولي التجهيزات واألنظمة التقنية والتي تصنف على أنها

تكارا، بحكم التبعية وصغر الحجم، وبالتالي تم اقتراح النهج االبتكاري في الخدمات حسب أقل اب

الخصوصيات التالية: أداء الشركات في مجال االبتكار، طبيعة النشاط االبتكاري، قواعد المعارف

المستعملة في عمليات االبتكار، وأخيرا أشكال التفاعالت الكامنة لالبتكار.

ل على أربع مجموعات من خدمات التكنولوجيا هي خدمات تستخدم ومنه يمكن الحصو

التكنولوجيا، وخدمات متفاعلة ومعلوماتية، وخدمات تتموقع حول العالم والتكنولوجيا، وخدمات

التوجيه التقني.

دور االنترنت في تطوير السياحة واستدامتها: -2

إن ثورة االنترنت تولد استراحة بالنسبة االنترنت كقناة للتوزيع بأقل تكلفة وبأكثر مرونة: -2-1

لقطاع السياحة، عن طريق توزيع منتوجات السفر، وذلك بفضل التكنولوجيا غير المادية، فالعاملين

جديدة للتوزيع متعدد القنوات، لتضع جماال على صفحات شبكة استراتيجياتفي القطاع يتبنون

7االنترنت، ويكون ذلك كما يلي:

إن المنتوجات التكنولوجيا الجديدة والسماح بالتوزيع غير المادي وبدون وسائط: االنترنت و -أ

السياحية تكاد تكون غير مادية، حيث أن التوزيع في القطاع السياحي هو عملية منفصلة عن استهالك

الخدمة نفسها، حيث أن تحويل وثائق السفر إلى وثائق إلكترونية يسمح بتفادي نوعين من التكلفة:

ريف الطباعة ومصاريف اإلرسال، مما يسمح بأن تكون المؤسسات أكثر فاعلية وأكثر مرونة مصا

المرجع نفسه. -6

7- Kalfon. P, Tourisme et Innovation, l’harmattan, Paris: France, 2009, pp. 29-33.


7

على مستوى عروضها، ويسمح للزبائن باالتصال مباشرة في االنترنت دون وسائط ووثائق، لتصبح

عملية التوزيع أكثر بساطة وسهولة.

لك عن طريق تبني عدة ويتم ذاهتمام العاملون في السياحة بهذا النوع من التوزيع: -ب

التوزيع تتمثل في البيع باالتصال وعدم االتصال استراتيجيات، فبالنسبة للمنتجين فإن استراتيجيات

باستخدام وسائط وشبكات مادية، باإلضافة إلى البيع الحصري عن طريق االتصال، أما بالنسبة

تكنولوجيا، تسويق األدوات التقنية ألنظمة التوزيع الشامل فهي في تطوير متزايد ألنشطتها لتمويل ال

التي تسمح للمنتجين بضمان التوزيع بأنفسهم. أما بالنسبة للوكاالت السياحية التي تستخدم االنترنت

فتقوم بتوزيع المسافرين عبر االنترنت.

إن ثورة االنترنت هي عامل ضروري لالبتكار في االنترنت قناة جديدة لالتصال والمعلومات: -2-2

المعلومات، حيث أن أغلب الفاعلين يستخدمون مواقع االنترنت لإلبالغ عن عروضهم، ومما مجال

يساهم في تطوير ذلك:

تعميم التدفق العالي لتسهيل وصول المعلومة بأكثر سرعة وبالتالي المصادر الجديدة للمعلومة؛ -أ

احة، خاصة في المنتوج نفوذ ثورة االنترنت، حيث مقارنات السفر أصبحت ال مفر منها في السي -ب

الجوي؛

وسائل مبتكرة تسمح بزيادة الجذب نحو المواقع السياحية. -ج

خامسا: السياحة الرقمية كنموذج الستخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة لالتصال والمعلومات

في فرنسا

تعتبر السياحة هي أكثر القطاعات استخداما للرقمية، :السياحة الفرنسية في وقت الرقمية -1

%62من الفرنسيين يقومون بحجوزات عبر االنترنت و %45حيث في فرنسا نجد أكثر من

يستخدمون األدوات الرقمية خالل رحالتهم وإقامتهم. وسنتعرض هنا إلى:

على اعتبار أن السائح حسب المنظمة العالمية للسياحة هو الشخص السياحة كقطاع متغير: -1-1

ساعة وذلك ألي سبب من األسباب. 24يئته المعتادة لمدة أكثر من الذي يبقى في مكان غير إقامته وب

من 1910وهو تعريف عرف مع تطور النشاط السياحي، ففي فرنسا كانت أول إدارة سياحية سنة

خالل ما يسمى الديوان الوطني للسياحة، وخالل ما بين الحربين العالميتين تم إنشاء الغرض الفندقي

م تطوير المهنة خالل األربعينيات والخمسينيات في حين في السبعينيات تم كتنظيم لهذه المهنة، وت

إنشاء ما يسمى النظام اإلجمالي للتوزيع إلدارة النقل السياحي وهو نظام آلي من خالل الحجز عن بعد




8

كتجارة إلكترونية، ويعتبر كبداية للسياحة االلكترونية والتي تطورت في نهاية القرن العشرين لتصبح

8 احة رقمية على المستوى العالمي واألوربي وعلى المستوى الفرنسي.سي

إن استخدام السياحة للرقمية ليس صدفة وإنما إدخال الرقمية على العرض والطلب السياحيين: -1-2

9يعود للطلب المتزايد للسائحين على كل ما هو جديد ومبتكر من معروض سياحي، وذلك لكون:

تعتبر االنترنت اليوم المصدر الرئيسي للمعلومات التي يطلبها السائح عن :السائح مستهلك فعال -أ

الوجهات التي اختارها، ومع تطور الرقمية أصبح هذا المستهلك يلعب دورا في اتخاذ القرارات بشأن

تطوير نوع وحجم الطلب وبالتالي هو شريك في القرار.

ن توزيع العرض السياحي هي عملية منفصلة : إاالنفجار الكبير لقنوات توزيع العرض السياحي -ب

عن استهالك الخدمة السياحية، حيث أن تطور المبيعات عبر االنترنت قد أعطى زيادة لفرص

المنتجين، حيث يمكن أن يكون فندق واحد قد يتبع عدة مراكز حجز، فالسياحة الرقمية قد فتحت عدة

دة قنوات مثل الهواتف النقالة والشبكات عروض سياحية لنفس المنتج أو الخدمة السياحية عبر ع

االجتماعية.

من الصعب أن يتكيف الفاعلون التقليديون للسياحة الفرنسية في مواجهة الرهان الرقمي: -1-3

الفاعلون التقليديون مع التغيرات الكبرى التي أتت بها الرقمية خاصة على اعتبارها كاشفة لنقاط

ن مصلحتهم تقتضي التفاعل مع هذا المتغير الجديد خصوصا مع الضعف للفاعلين السياحيين، غير أ

10تزايد إيراداتهم عند استخدام هذه التقنية:

مؤسسة سياحية 200000: يوجد في فرنسا ما يقرب وضعية المنتجين إزاء العرض السياحي -أ

منها %53حيث أن سواء في الفندقة، اإليواء، النقل، اإلطعام أو النشاطات الثقافية، الرياضية...إلخ.

حاليا مجهزة بأدوات رقمية في خدماتها السياحية لكن األدوات الرقمية هي مجرد مرحلة أولى، فالبد

من فهمها واستخدامها على النحو األمثل في مواجهة العالم الخارجي وخاصة العمالء.

ة أو الهيئة حيث تعتبر اليوم الوكالوجهة نظر منظمي الرحالت السياحية ووكاالت السفر: -ب

المنظمة للرحالت السياحية التي ال تستخدم االنترنت سيئة وتجاوزها الزمن، فأقل شيء فرض تطور

وسائل النقل ودخول الرقمية على هاته الهيئات للتعامل بوسائل رقمية للحجز والحصول على التذاكر

وعبر عدة قنوات.

8- Assemblée National, Rapport d' information sur l'impact du numérique sur le secteur

touristique Française, IREST, Paris: France, 10/02/2015, pp. 29-33. 9 - Idem, pp.34-36. 10 - Assemblée National, Op Cit, pp.36-39.


9

وقت االنترنت مناسب للمؤسسات -ج

الهيئات اإلقليمية للسياحة: إن فرنسا تتمتع بشبكة منظمة سياحية إقليمية قوية تحتل مكانة ريادية على -

المستوى العالمي، مع التحول الرقمي ركزت هاته الهيئات على تحويل مراكز الحجز عبر االنترنت

ع عدم وجود بدال من إطالقها رغم وجود بعض الصعوبات في التوافق بين العديد من األنظمة وم

على تركيز القوى على الوجهات 2014موارد حقيقية للبحث والتطوير، حيث تم التركيز ما بعد

الجديدة والتحاور مع العمالء وتجاوز الحدود اإلدارية.

وهي إحدى الفاعلين في السياحة البيئية الرقمية الفرنسية: Atout Franceالدور المنوط بشركة -

هني السياحة من حيث المنشورات واللقاءات التقنية والمرافقة مع أصحاب وتهدف إلى ضمان دعم م

المشاريع والمشاركة في جميع األحداث المتعلقة بتطوير الرقمية في السياحة الفرنسية.

%95مليون زائر 4.5: وتستقبل سنويا أثر الرقمية على وكالء السياحة االجتماعية والجهوية -د

مالء ساهمت الرقمية أكثر في احتكاكهم بالجمعيات السياحية، حيث تم إنشاء منهم فرنسيين، هؤالء الع

للتبادل األوربي فيما يخص السياحة االجتماعية لتسهيل مشاكل 2012عام e-calypssمشروع

مليون أورو. 1.2وتم تمويل المشروع من قبل االتحاد األوربي بقيمة ،اإليواء واإلطعام للمعنيين

ونتطرق فيها لآلتي: برى األساسية للسياحة الرقمية في فرنسا:الرهانات الك -2

إن إدخال الرقمية على السياحة قد أعطاها استخدامات وحلوال ثورة ذات طابع غير مسبوق: -2-1

11 في عدة مجاالت وذلك تبعا لنوع السياحة، كما يلي:

ونية ومن ثم السياحة الرقمية حيث أن سياحة األعمال تعتبر المستفيد األكبر من السياحة اإللكتر -

سواء للتحفيز على السفر أو الحجز أو من ناحية الحصول على المعلومة؛

زاد التفاهم مع الهيئات والمنظمات السياحية من خالل الشبكات االجتماعية السائحين المستقلين حيث -

افة المعلومات المتعلقة والهواتف النقالة وتطبيقاتها، من خالل التفاعل مع المواقع والحصول على ك

برحالتهم السياحية وحجوزاتهم؛

سائحي المجموعات من خالل التفاعل والتعاقد مع مرشدين ومنظمين للرحالت السياحية باالتفاق -

على جميع الخدمات رقميا ربحا للوقت والتكلفة؛

الرقمية بالتواصل من السياحة السائحين األجانب فرغم حاجز اللغة إال أنهم وجدوا ضالتهم من خالل -

محل اإلقامة وتسيير رحالتهم وشروطهم المادية، كذلك تحديد الوجهات وبرامج الرحالت إلكترونيا.

11- Jaques Belin, Le tourisme numérique, Rapport présenté au conseil économique social et

environnemental régional, Paris: France, Novembre 2014, pp.13-15.




10

إن األدوات الرقمية موجودة في دخول الرقمية في كل مرحلة من مراحل دورة رحلة السائح: -2-2

12كل مرحلة من مراحل دورة حياة رحلة السائح الثالث:

إضافة للمواقع العالمية : قبل الرحلة أو السفر ) الحلم، التخطيط، المقارنة، الحجز...(مرحلة ما -أ

Promo vacances"موقع: " 1997وشبكات التواصل االجتماعي فإنه في فرنسا تم إطالق منذ

الذي يعتبر الموقع األول في فرنسا من حيث الحجز والمعاينة عبر االنترنت بكل ما يتعلق بالرحالت

لتوزيع Voyages-Sncf.com"سفار واإليواء واإلطعام والنقل، ومن ثم تم إطالق موقع:"واأل

السفر والرحالت عبر القطارات والطائرات من خالل الحجز وشراء التذاكر وحتى لكراء السيارات

الذي أطلق في مارس "a la carte" وإيواء الفنادق واإلطعام. وفيما يخص التسويق فإن موقع:

تكفل بكل ما هو موجود من سلع وبضائع تباع في فرنسا عبر الخط.ي 2014

تم إحصاء 2013في جوان أثناء الرحلة أو السفر )االكتشاف والتفاعل من خالل سياحة النقال(: -ب

سنة 11من عدد السكان )من %44.1مليون حامل لهواتف ذكية في فرنسا وهو ما اليقل عن 24.1

مليون 6فيما يتم إحصاء (GPS, Wifi, Ios, Androïd) م التطبيقات فما فوق( وبالتالي استخدا

حامل للوحة الرقمية، هاتين الوسيلتين قد سهلت للمسافر وكذا الفاعلين السفر والسياحة و سهولة

-codesأو ) (QR codes)التعامل والتحاور أثناء رحالتهم، وتم مؤخرا طرح قارئ الرموز

barres 2D Flash codeحدد هوية السائح وموقعه وكذا يسهل االشتراكات سواء في النقل أو ( لي

اإليواء أو اإلطعام.

حيث تم إنشاء موقع: بعد الرحلة )التواصل والمشاركة، الوالء، دور الشبكات االجتماعية(: -ج

wikis" لتطرح فيه كل الصور واألشرطة والملفات التي تتعلق بالتجارب السياحية بغية استفادة "

,facebook ):)مثل" إضافة إلى الشبكات االجتماعية Tripadvisorجمهور منها مثله مثل موقع: "ال

twiter, wayne, linkdin…..

إن الرقمية وتطورها في تحدي تكيف العاملين في السياحة مع المعطيات الرقمية الجديدة: -2-3

وة المنافسة خصوصا االسبانية، العالم قد أدى إلى ضغط على عاملي السياحة في فرنسا من خالل ق

وبالتالي تعرف السائحين على وجهات ومعالم سياحية غير فرنسية وما يتميز به من خالل ما هو

معروض على االنترنت، حتى أن الرقمية قد قامت ببعثرة للتسويق الفرنسي خصوصا مع حرية

13التجارة العالمية ودخول السلع والمنتوجات لألراضي الفرنسية.

12 - Jaques Belin, Op Cit, pp. 15-17. 13 - Ministère de l'économie des finances et de l'industrie, Pole interministériel de prospective

et d'interception des mutations économiques, prospective du m-tourisme, France, novembre

2011, pp. 23-28.


11

إن الوسائل الرقمية المطبقة على السفر والسياحة تدعو إلى قوة ثقافية، تراثية وترفيه سياحي: -2-4

تطوير أفضل تعبير ما بين الثقافة والتراث والترفيه السياحيين، مما يسمح للزوار بتحضير حلقات مع

قامت وزارة 2014م المواقع والمعالم الثقافية والسياحية خاصة بواسطة الهواتف النقالة، حيث في عا

مليون أورو لمشروع االبتكار الرقمي للتراث والثقافة 1الثقافة الفرنسية بتوفير غالف مالي قدره

الفرنسية، كذلك استطاعت بالتعاقد مع شركة قوقل لطرح قصر فرساي في االنترنت كتعريف بهذا

14مليون سائح سنوي. 6.7المعلم الذي يعرف ما يزيد عن

إن هذه البيانات الرقمية هدفها (: Open, Smart, Bigبيانات الرقمية في السياحة: )أهمية ال -2-5

تثمين قطاع السياحة الفرنسي، حيث تمكنت الهيئات السياحية الفرنسية من فتح قواعد بيانات

Taurinمؤطرة من قبل قواعد: " SIT)متخصصة أو ما أسمته قطاع المعلومات السياحية )

Franceيل تبادل المعطيات السياحية فيما بين الهيئات، من خالل خلق: " من أجل تسه (Big Data,

Smart Data, Open Data) .15كقواعد بيانات رئيسية للسياحة الفرنسية

تعد استغالل اإلمكانيات السياحية بشكل أفضل في عالم مفرط االتصال الرقمي: -3

رقية السياحة ضمن المخطط االستراتيجي آلفاق الرقمية أحد األشغال الستة المعرفة في إطار مجلس ت

16في فرنسا خصوصا في مجال النظام البيئي والشراكة وكذا اإلطار القانوني لمهنة السياحة. 2020

رقميتهالنظام البيئي السياحي الفرنسي يجب أن يكمل -3-1

رنسا اليوم تحدث : إن فتشجيع التنمية في فرنسا إلى قطاع صناعي حقيقي للسياحة اإللكترونية -أ

هيمنة من قبل الشركات األجنبية العمالقة وهو شيء ال جدال فيه، األمر الذي يدعوا إلى تشجيع

الشركات الفرنسية لتطوير التكنولوجيا الرقمية إلبراز تقدمهم واسترجاع الثقة في إمكانياتهم وتعاونهم

17السياحة االلكترونية من خالل: على االبتكار الرقمي، قصد إخراج صناعة محلية فرنسية في مجال

: حيث في المدى القصير تعتبر سياحة النقال كاألسلوب األفضل تطويره تحديد أصحاب المنافذ -1-أ

والسيطرة عليه محليا ومن ثم االبتكار فيه خاصة الستقطاب هذا النوع للسياح في جميع األوقات

ن تطويره والتمكن منه هو إنشاء قواعد والظروف، في حين في المدى الطويل يعتبر أهم عامل يمك

بيانات لتثمين قطاع السياحة الرقمية ومن ثم اكتساح على األقل السوق المحلي.

: من خالل خلق مشروع ودنية المخبر لتحفيز تشجيع ظهور العاملين في االبتكار السياحي -2-أ

قصد لإلبداع السياحي، االبتكار المتخصص في السياحة ولخلق اإلبداع السياحي وجعل فرنسا كم

14 - Jaques Belin, Op Cit, p 18-20. 15 - Ministère de l'économie des finances et de l'industrie Op Cit, pp. 29-32. 16- Assemblée National, op cit, pp. 83-84. 17 - Idid, pp. 85-89.




12

بتطوير أدوات السفر وبعث اإلنعاش في التراث المادي والثقافي، وطرح وتعزيز السياحة والسفر

الذكيين من خالل أدوات النقل الذكية.

من خالل توحيد آراء وأفكار وجهود الفاعلين هيكلة قطاع السياحة حول السياحة اإللكترونية: -3-أ

رقمية، وهذا يعتبر كوعي من قبل الشركات الكبيرة في القطاع لمواجهة الهيمنة في السياحة الفرنسية ال

مليون مسجل 20أكثر من 2013الخارجية في الرقمية، حيث أن موقع البيع الخاص قد استقطب عام

" قد تخصصت في االبتكار الترفيهي Finlacلشراء مواد ومنتوجات سياحية، كما أن مجموعة: "

ضمن الوجهات السياحية دون الخروج عن النقاط التالية: لأللعاب الموجودة

؛أن تكون على مستوى سوق متناهي أو مع توقعات نمو قوي في االقتصاد العالمي -

أن تعتمد في المقام األول على تقنيات فرنسية؛ -

احتالل موقع قوي في سوق الرقمية أو يكون لها نظام بيئي أكاديمي وتكنولوجي واقتصادي. -

التكوين في إن غيابتدريب أفضل ألصحاب المقاصد السياحية باستخدام األدوات الرقمية: -ب

ترقية وتطوير التسويق السياحي، بالتالي قد استراتيجيةاستخدام األدوات الرقمية قد أدى إلى غياب

ين في أدى هذا الوضع إلى البحث عن وسيلة لربط الصلة بين العارضين للمنتوجات السياحية والعامل

مجال االبتكار الرقمي، لهذا البد على الفاعلين االقتصاديين والهيئات السياحية أن يتعاونوا لتقديم

18تكامل أكثر في هذا المجال.

19عن طريق: تشكيل أساسي للشراكة مع السلطات العمومية: -ج

إن العاملين ة كقوة: تحديد الوجهة من خالل العالمة التجارية القوية والتي تدعمها دولة إقليمي -1-ج

في النشاط السياحي باعتبار أن لهم دورا في قطاع السياحة، فإنه البد لهم من شراكة فعلية وشاملة مع

السلطات المحلية على مستوى األقاليم الفرنسية ضمن مشروع شبكات سياحية إلكترونية فعالة، من

ة للعمل الجماعي.خالل تجميع الموارد وتحديد األهداف المشتركة وإعطاء أولوي

: إن الشركة تعتبر هي المزود للترويج الرقمي للوجهات السياحية Atout Franceريادة -2-ج

الرئيسي لكل عاملي السياحة بالمعلومات الرقمية للسياحة الفرنسية وفي الحكومة الفرنسية، لكن يبقى

ع هيئات رقمية عالمية في مجال الدعم المالي مشكال بالنسبة لهذه الشركة قصد إقامة شراكات دولية م

الصينية وهي متخصصة في الحجز عبر Trip.com"السياحة اإللكترونية مثل الشراكة مع شركة: "

االنترنت لألسفار من أجل تعزيز راحة وسالمة السياح الصينيين في فرنسا.

18 - Assemblée National, op cit, p90. 19 - Idid, pp. 91-92.


13

20: من خالل:ضرورة تحديد اإلطار القانوني لمهني السياحة -د

عياري لعاملي السياحة التقليديينالمتكييف اإلطار -1-د

لتطوير و عصرنة 2009/ 22/07: في إطار قانون على البيع في السفر والعطالت ونالقائم -

الخدمات السياحية، قصد تسجيل نظام موحد للقائمين على البيع في السفر والعطالت، من خالل إعطاء

كنولوجية في تقديم خدماتهم.تشجيع وأولوية للذين يستخدمون األساليب الرقمية والت

: من خالل تعديل أنظمة عرض وطرح األسعار في السوق اللوائح المطبقة على اإليواء السياحي -

عن طريق وسائل رقمية تسهل سرعة الوصول للمستهلك أو الزبون، وكذا ما يتعلق باألنواع المختلفة

لسابق ترتيب وتصنيف خمس سنوات في فرنسا حسب القانون ا اعتمدمن اإلقامات ومميزاتها، حيث

لكل منها.

على اعتبار أن تسويق العرض السياحي يزداد نموا عن إعالم وحماية السائح عبر اإلنترنت: -2-د

طريق الوسائل الرقمية، كما أن مكافحة الغش والتهرب الضريبي أصبح أكثر سهولة ، حيث في عام

من شكاوى القطاع ككل، %35.9اإلنترنت بلغت الشكاوى المقدمة لصناعة السياحة عبر 2013

، كما أن شكاوى القطاع كلها قد ارتفعت فقط بنسبة 2011في %20.7و 2012في %25.9عكس

، وبالتالي مصلحة السائح تتطلب اعتماد هاته الوسائل الرقمية التي 2012عنها في 2013في 5.8%

تعطي أكثر شفافية في تقديم الخدمات.

نتائج الدراسة

توصلت هذه الدراسة إلى أن أنشطة التطوير تعتبر المغذي الرئيسي لإلبداع واالبتكار في مجال

التكنولوجيا الحديثة ألنظمة االتصاالت والمعلومات، حيث تقترن هذه األنشطة بتحويل المعارف

أبعادها، والنتائج المتوصل إليها إلى خدمات سياحية متطورة تعمل على تحقيق تنمية القطاع بمختلف

والذي يعتبر من األنشطة الرائدة في ازدهار الدول، كما تثبته التجارب الناجحة في الميدان لبعض

الدول خاصة المتقدمة والتي تتصدرها فرنسا، والتي عملت على تطبيق أساسيات التطوير على

تصاالت، والتي األنشطة السياحية، من خالل أساليب التكنولوجيا المتطورة ألنظمة المعلومات واال

تساعد على تحقيق استراتيجيات فاعلو السياحة والقطاعات المكملة، حيث تتصدرها خدمات الفندقة

والحفاظ على البيئة، استدامة النقل، تحقيق األمن، وتطوير وكاالت ووسطاء السفر وفق أساسيات

تكنولوجيا اإلعالم واالتصال األكثر حداثة.

وجيا في مجال السياحة ينطوي على الميزات التي تشبه أو تختلف عن تلك إن االبتكار والتكنول

الموجودة في الخدمات األخرى، بمعنى تطوير المنتج السياحي يحقق ميزات فريدة من الخدمات

20 - Assemblée National, op cit, pp.93-95.




14

بالمقارنة مع غيرها، ليظهر فيها دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال، حيث أدى التقدم الكبير في

ت واالتصاالت إلى تطور السياحة باعتمادها على هذه التكنولوجيا، وأصبحت تكنولوجيا المعلوما

المشاريع والنشاطات تقيم بمدى اعتمادها على التقنيات المتطورة من اجل تحقيق وزيادة القدرة

التنافسية في السوق السياحية، وذلك يتطلب االعتماد على تقنيات المعلومات واالتصاالت لجذب

اح، مما يحقق تطوير وتحسين الخدمات السياحية، والتي تلعب فيها التكنولوجيا الرقمية العمالء أو السي

دورا كبيرا خاصة فيما يتعلق بالترويج من اجل الجذب السياحي. وقد تبين في الدراسة أهمية ودور

سا التكنولوجيا الجديدة وخصوصا الرقمية في هذا النشاط، حيث أن السياحة هي القطاع األول في فرن

الذي استفاد من التحول التكنولوجي والتحول الرقمي ويشكل نموذجا ناجحا لتطبيق األنظمة

التكنولوجية الحديثة للمعلومات واالتصاالت، ففرنسا إحدى الدول التي نجحت في تطوير سياحتها من

خالل االعتماد على االبتكار السياحي وخصائصه، حيث استطاعت أن تبرز ضمن قائمة الدول

لناجحة في مجال السياحة، والتي تمثل احد المصادر الهامة القتصادها، حيث اتسع فيها االعتماد على ا

السياحة الرقمية.

التوصيات:

من اجل تحقيق تطوير القطاع السياحي والسير به نحو االستدامة بأبعادها المختلفة االقتصادية

حديثة على أنشطة القطاع واألنشطة المرتبطة به خاصة االجتماعية والبيئية يجب تطبيق التكنولوجيا ال

ما يتعلق بأنظمة المعلومات واالتصال، من خالل:

استخدام التكنولوجيا المتطورة سواء بالنسبة للمنتجات والخدمات السياحية أو بالنسبة للخدمات -

المساعدة كالنقل واالتصال؛

بعا عن متطلبات تنشيط السياحة بصفة عامة وضع إطار قانوني وتشريعي واضح ودقيق، يكون نا -

والسياحة االلكترونية بصفة خاصة؛

تنمية وتطوير وسائل وتقنيات االتصال والمعلوماتية الحديثة؛ من اجل توسيع استخدام خدمات -

االنترنت والهواتف الذكية، مع تشجيع الوسطاء االلكترونيين في األنشطة السياحية، واستخدام شبكات

اقع االلكترونية لجميع العاملين في قطاع السياحة وخدمات الفندقة وكذا القطاعات المرتبطة من المو

بها، مع تنظيم العمل مع الوسطاء التقليديين؛

اعتماد أنظمة التجارة االلكترونية في مختلف المعامالت ونشر استخدامها في كل المجاالت، خاصة -

لحجز وخدمات الطيران مثال، والخدمات الفندقية وتأجير المرتبطة بالسياحة كالنقل فيما يتعلق با

السيارات وشركات النقل المختلفة والمطاعم.


15

قائمة المراجع:

، )دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصال في تنمية 2010بختي إبراهيم، شعوبي محمد فوزي، -1

.07، العدد قطاع السياحة والفندقة(، مجلة الباحث، جامعة قاصدي مرباح، ورقلة

2 - Assemblée National, 10/02/2015, Rapport d' information sur l'impact du

numérique sur le secteur touristique Française, IREST, Paris: France.

3 - Camel Gallouj, Erick Leroux, 2011, E-Tourisme, Innovation et modes

d'organisation, article sur revue management et avenir, N°42, Paris: France.

4 - Delphine Roussel, 2008, Innovation territorialisée et nouvelles

dynamiques touristiques, article de recherche, Marché et organisation N°07.

5 - Jaques Belin, 2014, Le tourisme numérique, Rapport présenté au conseil

économique social et environnemental régional, Paris: France, Novembre.

6 - Kalfon. P, 2009, Tourisme et Innovation, l’harmattan, Paris: France.

7-Rapport du ministère de l'économie des finances et de l'industrie, novembre

2011, Pole interministériel de prospective et d'interception des mutations

économiques, prospective du m-tourisme, France.



16

عقوبة اإلعدام " العقوبة العظمى"

دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية

منال اسماعيل توفيق

ملخص البحث :

هاكنا لقنق اإل وناى فن عقوبة اإلعدام أو الموت واحدة من أدند الوقوبنات اليد ينة ونوة والثن تم نل ا ث

ث عصر ا القندي ولننهنا م الوصور واسثمرت ح، وجدت تلك الوقوبة ف مصر القديمة منذ ا دالقياة

حث ا ن تنإ غلئااهنا فن ا سنرة ال امونة والولنري النوبينة، كمنا ف بوض الوصوررفض للتورضت

وجدت ف الوديد م القضارات ا خرى ومنها الروما ية.

ضنيقة عرفت اللنريوة المصنرية القديمنة الوقوبنة الو"من ب عقوبنة اإلعندامب ولنن فن حندو فقد

وحناتت مقندو ة ، فلنإ تننن عقوبنة اإلعندام تو ننط غت فن لناا ضنيق وعلنن الونرااإ ال لينرة والثنن

، فوولها جزاء الونرااإ الثني يننوى خلركنا كيينر القديإ بأ ها ع"م وتوثقق الموت وصفها المصرى

عل الدولة والموثمط وتم ل فوا ا كييرا ف ا رض.

ة ويمن تقويمها ف الوصر الفرعو غل سييي رايوي : الوني كاى لوقوبة اإلعدام أسياب عديد

، القاضن اتغثصناب، م نل القثنل الومندوذات ثناا مقندو ة بنا فرا ا ول: افوال د صية مرتيلنة

ننن بنناليمي علنن اعثيننار ا هنا جريمننة فنن حننق اهلهننة الثنن ا وننإ بهننا.. النذى يث لنن حنندو الونندل، القي

ة و "ننام القنننإ ، وكنن مننا يمننل الدولننم ننل ا ثهاكننا للققننوا الوامننةا : فأفوننال ت ، أمننا الونني ال ننوكنننذا

منن ا مننوال واتخنثس ، ومنهنا ال يا ننة الو"من ، سننر ة المقننابر، سنر ة الموابنند ، والممثلننات الوامننة

الوامة.

لر ينة و د اسث دم المصرى القديإ الوديند من ا سنالي لثنفينذ تلنك الوقوبنة ومنهنا : اإلعندام بقلنط ا

، واإلعدام باإلحراا.عدام بال ازوا، اإلعدام باإلغرااوكو أ دمها، اإل

اما ف روما فقد ع رفت عقوبة اإلعدام ف الوصري الومهورى و اإلميراطنورى علن حند سنواء،

ومدو نة جونثنياى من تونويل لوند من الونرااإ الثن يونثقق ذلك ما جاء با لواح ا ثن علنر ويؤكد

، ومنها اسياب ايضنا فر ينة م نل : القثنل الومند ، دنها ة النزور، ردنوة القضناة اإلعدامبة مرتنييها عقو

بهدف تضليل الودالة، الور ة، اإلضرار بمصالح الئير م ل لط مقصول الئير لنيس ، واخنرى عامنة

ر ينة ، و د تلابهت وساال اإلعدام فيما بي القضنارتي من لنط وكنذا، والمال الفوا اإل ارى م ل:

فيقمنال اسماعيل تو


17

واإلحراا واإلغراا، ولن زا عليها ف روما القاء المثهمي أحياء للقيوا نات المفثرسنة لثلنثهمهإ، او

لألفيال لثدكوهإ.

بني القضنارتي سنواء فن واتخثسفو د خل صت الدراسة لود م النثاا تضمنت أوج الثلاب

لواضح ف مدى ا ثلناركا، والثيناي اللنديد ا اتخثسفا سياب وراء الوقوبة او طرا تنفيذكا، وكذلك

ف تقيل الموثمط لها.

يوننثهدف كننذا اليقنن عمننل راسننة مقار ننة لمفننر ة منن مفننر ات الموثمننط فنن : هدددا الدراسددة

حضارتي م ثلفثي وك عقوبنة اإلعندام وتقنوم الدراسنة علن عقند المقار نة لنيل فقند بئنرض رصند

اسية وات ثصا ية واتجثماعية وال لقية الث تلننل بنيناى كنل الوقوبة ولن بوصفها مرآة للووا الوي

حضارة منهما م خسل الثورف عل مدى ا ثلاركا، اسيابها، وطرا تنفيذكا، مدى تقيل الموثمط لهنا،

و يود واحدا من أكنإ أسنياب واتجثماعيةمط تقليل تلك النقاط وكو ما ي رى موال الدراسات اإل وا ية

راسة الثاريخ.

–اإلحنراا -اإلغنراا – لط الر ينة -ال ازوا –الوقوبة الو"م –اإلعدام :الكلمات الدالة

مدو ة جوثنياى. -اتلواح اتثن علر - وا ي حور مق

كس م المنه الوصف و الثقليل المقارى واإلسثدتل وذلنك عن اسث دامتإ : منهجية البحث

الم ثلفننة منهننا، اتسننثنثاجات واسننثنياطة مقننل الدراسننةح وتقليلهننا، طريننق جمننط الييا ننات حننول المفننر

للوصول للنثاا الم يثة بنهاية الدراسة .

ضنم الوقوبنات الثن تضمنت وا ي القضارات الم ثلفة لدول ك ينرة عقوبنة اإلعندام: مقدمــة

ق فن تنفينذكا فهن ومنها القضارتي المصنرية القديمنة و الروما ينة، وتوند مصنر ا سني صت عليها،

الم لرع المصري ن كذه الوقوبة وجول تلييقهنا ولن بالرغإ م كذا ود اى اول م سول تلييقها،

، كمنا كنا وا يثوخنوى القنذر اللنديد في أضيق القاتت ولهذا لإ تن تو ط ك يرا فني الموثمنط المصنري

ققنااق والمولومنات وكنذلك اخثينار ف القضايا الث تنوى عقوبثها اإلعدام وخاصة فيما ي ثص جمنط ال

وأسا ذلك أى الوقوبة عند المصريي كا ت جزء ت يثوزأ م فنركإ Gray,2005,p.16)) القضاة

. القضننننناري، فنا نننننت اإل ونننننا ية وا خنننننسا والرحمنننننة ت تثونننننارض وتموننننننهإ بثققينننننق الوننننندل

(.189، ص 1978)المرصفاوى,

القوإ والقووة، تلك الدتال الث ي ود اإلعندام من أك ركنا كما اى القضارة الروما ية لإ تودم تال

بالوصر الومهنورى بدءاتأكيدا ، فقد تضمنت تلريوات روما القديمة عقوبة اإلعدام عل مر عصوركا

وا ثهنناء بالوصننر اإلميراطننورى، وكنناى تلييقهننا يثوننإ بالقوننوة والهمويننة، غذ كا ننت منن الوسنناال الثنن

القاء ا فرا احياء للقيوا ات المفثرسة، ويلير مناركو فناليريو غلن أى اول ت وث دم لثنفيذ الوقوبة

دراسة مقارنة بين الحضارتين الفرعونية والرومانية لعقوبة العظمى"عقوبة اإلعدام " ا ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

18

تنفيذ لوقوبة غعدام بثلك اللريقة كما سولث المصنا ر ا بينة ي نون فريننا و ا صنئر، وذلنك عنند

كزيمة رطاجة، ولننن ط ينق علن ا جا ن من سنناى الصنقارى من أعنداء الرومناى وكناى كنذا فن

(( Maximus, 1888,II,7,1بروما عرض عام

أهم الجرائم التى تستوجب عقوبة اإلعدام

فى الحضارة المصرية : (1

رأينا كيف عرفنت مصنر القديمنة الوريمنة والوقوبنة م لهنا م نل بنا دنووب الونالإ القنديإ، وحنوت

وظهنر بمثنوى وكنو فونل بمونن يوا ن issاللئة الوديد م ا لفاظ الدالة عل الوقاب بلنل عام ومنها

-hd (wb.II.130واسننننثمر فنننن الدولننننة الوسننننل وكننننذلك ا كننننرام منننننذ عصننننر الدولننننة القديمننننة

Zamdee,1969,p.282 ، ) وsdni الدولة القدي نة ف عصر CDME, 725) ،) وnik و كا نت

3y csb3yt أما عقوبة اإلعدام فقد أ طلنق عليهنا، URK.IV, 1081,3)) تللق عل المذ اللرير

n mwt بمون بعقوبة الموت النيرىب (Goedicke, 1963,p.89) .

اوال : جرائم شخصية تقترا فى حق األفراد

لنرع المصنرى المنوت او تود ت ا واع الورااإ الفر ية رغإ لثها بلنل عنام والثن وضنط لهنا الم

اإلعدام كوقوبة بلنل خاص ومنها :

الورااإ الث تونثوج الوقناب اللنديد فن مصنر ي ود القثل الومد كو اول واكإ : القتل العمد

م مننذ ا زل ، باعثيناره فونس يننإ عن خلنورة غجرامينة دنديدة لندى الونا ي ونري الفرعو ية فهذا الفول م

لنرع . فنناى الونزاء الونا ل من صننف الفونل اهثنإ، ولنذا وضنط لهنا توثلزم مو فا صارما م ينل الم

رأ الوقوبات اليد ية واددكا ووة ، كما أى اإلكمال الذى يؤ ى الم لرع عقوبة اإلعدام بوصفها عل

غل ازكاا الروح يوثير ثل عمد، وكا ت مهنة الل عند المصريي القدماء م المه المقدسة، وكاى

الليي الذي يرتن أخلاء فاحلة في عسج المرض والثي تؤ ي غل موتهإ ي وا بالموت، ذلنك أى

ء "روا غلي الل باعثياره أحد فروع علإ النهننوت، ومن ثنإ فنلى ال لنأ فني اللن المصريي القدما

يود بم ابة خلأ في ممارسة اللواار الدينية، أي أ ن ي وند من يينل النفنر باهلهنة ولنذا كا نت من ضنم

، ص 2008.) الفقدى، وا ي حور مق اى الليين النذى يثوني فن منوت المنريض ي وا ن باإلعندام

37)

لنرع المصنري أحند ال"نروف الملند ة للوقوبنة، وكني ثنل اإلبن بين ، حين كناى كما عرف الم

ي وا عليها اإلب بثقليط أصابو ، ثإ تقليط أجزاء م جوم ، ثإ ي قرا.

: مت اللرطة، وبلئنت ور الودالنة وفني مقندمثها في مصر الفرعو ية "ي تخطى حدود العدل

فني اإلجنراءات وتققينق الودالنة، وكا نت بماعنتب الهنة للودالنة، ب ار حور النينرىب منثهن الد نة



19

وكاى المصريوى القدماء يوثيروى مهنة القضناء وممارسنث مهننة مقدسنة، يون علن من يمارسنها أى

يثوإ بالودالة والنزاكة، وأى أي غخسل م جا القاضي بمقثضيات مهنث يقابل ر فول عنينف سنوءا

لنرع غذ أعثيركنا من الونرااإ النينرى وعقوبثهنا م يل الموثمط باإلسثن نار والئض ، أو من ينل الم

، 1998المجدوو،، –) عبد العدال اإلعدام و د تإ غعدام اضيي بوييها ف عهد الملك رمويل ال ال .

(144ص

: بنناليمي ينننوى نند ا ثننرف جريمننة فنني حننق اهلهننة.نننباعثيننار أى منن يقي الحنددث بدداليمين

(31، ص1999سقا ،) ال

: وعا عليها فناى اإلعندام اتمثناععرف الم لرع المصري القديإ جرااإ جريمة اإلمتناع

المجددوو،، –) عبدد العدال جنزاء من ي لناكد د صنا يقثننل آخنر وت يثقندم لنودتن منط درتنن علن ذلنك.

(144، ص1998

أك نر دنووب الونالإ القنديإ ت ود مصر الفرعو ية من " :واالغتصا،" الزنا جرائـم العرض

تدينا ، فنرا وممارسنة وتلييقنا ، كمنا كناى المصنريوى القندماء يهثمنوى بنا خسا والقنيإ، ومن كننا جناء

لديهإ، و د فرا يدور الصقل ف كثاب بي فول الز ا وكثنك الونرض واتغثصابتوريإ فول الز ا

غثصابا مما يوثوج اللدة ف الوقوبة فنناى فيرى أى فول الز ا لو تإ بالئص اصيح ا اتغثصاباى

المئثص يوا بقلط عضوه الثناسل واحيا ا تصل غل حد موا ينة الونا باإلعندام ويؤكند ذلنك كنس

( 32، ص1999) السقا ،م بر يث لييد وبوتا وكذلك قوش مقيرة آ .

: موثمنط المصنري فني غى جريمنة بالثقنرش الونونيب الثني يونا منهنا الالتحرش الجنسى

الو ت الراك ، د حد لها المصري القديإ في تلريوات عقوبات را عة، تصل غل حد اإلعندام، فننرى

أى مصر بذلك سيقت ول الوالإ المثقضرة عندما عرفت أى للوريمة مفهوما اجثماعينا .

Diodoros, 1967,1,77) (

الحقوق العامة" انتهاكحق الدولة " ثانيا : جرائم عامة تقترا فى

لنرع : جريمة الخيانة العظمى غذا كا ت الورااإ الثن ت قثنرف فن حنق ا فنرا ند دنئلت الم

المصرى القديإ و فوث غل وضط وا ي لقماينة مقندرات ا فنرا ، فنلى الونرااإ الثن ت رتنن فن حنق

بل ا منر أجنل وأع"نإ خلنرا فهن ت ونرض أمن الوط ت ت ورض فر ا بوين لل لر او تنال م أمن ،

أم بأكملها لل لر بقي ي صيح الثهاوى ف أمركا بم ابة خيا ة، فاعث ير المثآمري عل "نام القننإ أو

المواو ي للموثومر او الملثركي ف الث نابر علن النوط والمفلني سنراره للوندو ممن ي ورضنوى

لنرع من الوط واتف ا فرا لل لر وعلي يوثققوى المقاكمة باسإ ال يا نة الو"من ، واعثيركنا الم


20

أدنند الوننرااإ خلننورة ولننإ يننن لهننا عقوبننة سننوى المننوت وذلننك بئننض الن"ننر عنن الوضننط اإلجثمنناع

( Golénischeff, 1913,p.9) للوا .

ة كما أى ال وض ف دئوى الفرعوى وغفلاء أسراره م الورااإ النيرى المصنفة تقت بناب ال يا ن

الو"م والث توثوج عقوبة اإلعدام و د ور ت أم لن لنذلك علن بونض ا وسنثراكا من عهند الملنك

O. Cairo 25556 (Černy, 1927, p.201, Gardiner, 1913, p.60) سث ا ول

نندبرة ضنند كمننا كا ننت ال يا ننة الو"منن تلننمل كننل مننا يمننل حنناكإ الننيس بننأذى ومنهننا المننؤامرات الم

لث وصلنا الوديد م النصوص الث ت لير غليها بالير يات، وخاصنة غذا منا وصنل المثنآمري الملوك وا

Pap. Millingen, 1, 11- Pap. Eritageلم ندع الملنك لوجنو أعنواى لهنإ اخنل القصنر ومنهنا

1116 A و "نرا ل لنورة تلنك الوريمنة وحواسنيثها كا نت ت وقند لهنا مقناكإ اسنث نااية يقنوم باخثينار ،

، كما حنإ الم لرع بنفل الوقوبة اى اإلعدام عل كل م سناكإ او سناعد فن (ااها الفرعوى بنفو اعض

(Yoyette, 1952,p.109 – Debuck,1937,p.154) كذه الوريمة م ل الوناة اتساسي .

أمنا الونندى ال نناا لوطنن والنذى يث لنن عن صنفوف الوننين او يمثننط عن تنفيننذ أوامنر اانده فننس

إلعدام وغ ما باللر م ال دمة وغعسى عمل الم ذى للوميط مما ي ورض للذل والمها ة وكن ي وا با

( 87، ص 1997) محمود،عقوبة فوية ولننها أدد غيسما م الموت.

: لننرع سننر ة الممثلنننات بلنننل عننام سننواء ال اصننة منهننا سددر ة الممتلكددات العامددة جننرم الم

وامة، ولنن دد ف الوقوبة عل سنر ة الممثلننات ال اصنة بالدولنة با فرا أو الثابوة للدولة أى ال

اخننثس م ننل يويننةسننواء كا ننت كننذه الممثلنننات مؤسوننات ينيننة م ننل سننر ة المقننابر والموابنند او

,Lurje, 1971 ) ا موال باإل ارات الم ثلفة، وكا نت الوقوبنة ت ئلنل غلن حند الوصنول ل عندام

p.157: )

:يوة إليماى المصرى القديإ الراسخ باليو فقند اكنثإ اكثمامنا كيينرا بالقفناظ ثسر ة المقابر

علن القينور و هن مقثوياتهنا والوين بالووند اتعثنداءعل الوود وحمايث سليما ، ولذا أعثير أى

م الورااإ النيرى وخاصة غذا كاى حد الملنوك والثن تونثلزم عقوبنة را عنة تصنل غلن اإلعندام

لوريمة او عل ا ل القد منها، وكا ت المقابر تضإ بي جنياتها أدياء ثمينة من النذك لمنط تلك ا

وغيره مما يئرى اللصوص با ثقامها والولو عليها وتسيما ف فثرات ضوف الوللة مما ع نرف

لنرع الوقوبنة علن من يثونرأ علن ا ثهناك حرمنة القينر باسإ ضايا سر ات المقابر، ولنذا دند الم

.Pap باإلعدام كما ور ف الثققيقات ال اصة بقضايا سر ات المقابر بالير ينات م نل حي ض

BM (( Peet, 1977, p.151 و ايضنا ، Pap. Mayer, A. (( Peet, 1920, p.145 ،

وغى كا ت بوض الوثااق ا خرى أدنارت غلن عقوبنة لنط اليند فن بونض حناتت سنر ات المقنابر



21

بور ة ا وات الموجو ة ف المقينرة بويندا عن الموميناء م نل أ وات الينناء وربما كذا فيما ي ثص

.Saltاو سر ة بوض لط احوار م مقيرة تسث دامها ف بناء مقيرة أخرى م ل ما جناء بير ينة

124,Rt (Allam, 1973, p.284 - Černy , 1929, p.245)

: الوصنور فقند ح"ينت بالوديند من كمينة الموابند كمؤسونات ينينة علن منر سر ة المعابد

، اعثنداءاتمثيازات، مما اسثدع اى توضط لها عدة وا ي خاصة لقمايثها والقفاظ عليها من أى

و نند ور بوضننها بمرسننوم الملننك سننث ا ول م ننل الئرامننات والولنند وجنندع ا ننف وصننلإ ا ذى

علن الموابند أو أمسكهنا اتعثداء، غذ كاى (Lurje,1971,p.158)وصوت غل الموت بال ازوا

تثوندأو موظفيها أو خدمها او الضراا المقدمة لها جريمنة لهنا طنابط خناص لمنا لهنا من داسنة غذ

عل الموابند ي وند نوع من الهرطقنة الدينينة ت ونرض صناحيها اتعثداءبم ابة أمسك غلهية، كما كاى

,Harari,p.60-Černy) دننننند أ نننننواع الوقوبنننننة وكننننن الوقوبنننننة الو"مننننن اى المنننننوت .

1937,p.186) الموروا وكل كو اخل المويند او ئف الوقوبة حو الل، وكاى ي راع الثدرج

م امسك أم خارج المويد او ملقق ب ، وكاى القا وى المصرى دديد القنرص علن سنرعة ضنيد

ة الموثنندي علنن أى منن امننسك الموينند لدرجننة ا نن وضننط عقوبننة للقاضنن الننذى يثياطننأ فنن مقاكمنن

(Griffith, 1927, p.201 ) الوارا.

: بقدر ما كاى الم لرع المصرى القديإ حنريص علن المؤسونات سر ة المؤسسات الدنيوية

الدينية المملوكة للدولة ومثلد منط منا تثونرض لن من سنر ات وفنرض لهنا عقوبنات را عنة ونده

، فنود وا ي حور مق تلير غلن ايضا دديد القرص عل حماية مؤسوات الدولة الد يوية أيضا

) كا ت –عدة عقوبات را عة ف رضت عل م توول ل فو سر ة ضراا الدولة أثناء توريدكا

الضننراا ت نندفط فنن دنننل مننوا خننام أولينن كا خلنناب والولننو وغيركننا وتومننط بواسننلة مننوظفي

ت عديندة تيندأ بوندع ا نف يثورض غل عقوبا -الدولة وت قمل عل سف لثيقر غل مقر القنومة (

(Griffith, 1927,p.205)والنف غل ثارو وصوت بالوقوبة غل حد الموت او اإلعدام.

عرفنت مصنر القديمنة "امنا غ ارينا مثقندما، ويرجنط ذلنك غلن اعثمنا : جرائم اإلدارة العامة

للونيلرة علن ميناه ات ثصا المصري عل الزراعة ومياه النيل، غذ كاى ت بد م تضنافر الوهنو

النيل واتسثفا ة منها، وت يمن الوصول غلن ذلنك غت عن طرينق تن"نيإ غ اري ينق وفونال، و ند

تميز الن"ام اإل اري المصري بالمركزية اإل ارية، وكاى عل رأ تلك الوللة الملك يواو جمط

سنيا جنزاء لننل من يقنناول من كينار المنوظفي واإل ارات الم ثلفنة، وعلين كناى الوننزاء عنيفنا و ا

اإلخسل بهذا الن"ام اإل اري باعثياره يهد مصلقة النيس ، فنوند نوا ي حنور مقن تثضنم صنا

، كما أى موظف الضراا الذي يرتن جريمنة ضراا الذي يرتلي يوا باإلعدامبأى موظف ال


22

ف سننوية عن غيرا اتن اتخثس يثورض لننفل الوقوبنة، كمنا كناى رب ا سنرة منلفنا بثقنديإ كلنو

وأموال وعد أفرا أسرت ، فلذا دم بيا ات كاذبنة وغينر صنقيقة غلن الوهنات اإل ارينة الم ثصنة

(144، ص1998عبدالعال ، المجوو، ،) كاى الوزاء كو الوقوبة الو"م

فى الحضارة الرومانية : (2

الوصنر اإلميراطنورى عرفت روما ايضا عقوبة اإلعدام منذ بنداياتها ولنن زا ت بلننل كيينر فن

عما كا ت علي ف الوصر الومهورى، وربما سي ذلك كنو منا دنهده كنذا الوصنر الوديند من أحندا

الوياسنن ، وكننذلك ظهننور اتسننثقرارجوننام منهننا مننا يوننثلزم الثئيننر الودينند منن فننرض يننو لثققيننق

مورسنت خسلن عقوبنة المويقية واصلدامها بود م ا باطرة ا واانل ومنا تيوهنا من فثنرة اضنلها

وم خسل ما جاء با لواح ا ثنن (Justinian,Digest.IV,XVIII,II)، م ثلفةاإلعدام بأدنال

علنننر فننن الوصنننر الومهنننورى و مدو نننة جونننثنياى القا و ينننة اللنننهيرة فننن الوصنننر اإلميراطنننورى

موت م جميط منا كثن ا سنسف من مثنوى يمنن حصنر ال (3، ص2005جستنيان،) ونرااإ والث ج

عل النقو الثال : (Justinian,Digest.1,IIX,11)الث توثوج عقوبة اإلعدام

اوال : جرائم شخصية تقترا فى حق األفراد

: لننرع وجوننل عقوبثهننا اإلعنندامالقتددل العمددد و نند حنند ، منن أولنن الوننرااإ الثنن اكننثإ بهننا الم

كن القثنل بال نناجر ويونرف أصنقابها باسنإ ب الم لرع ثس ا واع م القثل بناخثسف الوسنيلة بينهنا و

ال نوري ب، وحامل النينال، ومن يونث دموى الونإ ويورفنوا باسنإ ب الونماموىب، والونموم كننا تلنمل

الوإ ف اللوام واللراب أو الوزااإ الوقرية، كما أ اعثير غعلاء عقا ير مق"نور اسنث دامها و

بة الموت، و د تلد فن حالنة ثنل ا بنناء ل بناء سنواء تؤ ى غل الموت م الوموم مما يوثوج عقو

- 46، ص2015) حداف،،سرا أو جهرا باسث دام وسيلة دديدة القووة ف الثنفيذ كما سنرى فيما بود .

Justinian,Digest.IV,XVIII, 5)

: تورضت روما وخاصة بود القروب ا كلية بها لننوع الزنا ومرتكبى الفواحش مع الوكور

لثدكور ا خس واتجثماع وضياع القيإ، فناى تبد م وجو وا ي صنارمة ورا عنة لثققينق م ا

أغوننلل موموعننة منن القننوا ي تقننارب الز ننا وال يا ننة اإلميراطننوراإلصننسح اتجثمنناع ، فأصنندر

الزوجية، فومقت لألب بقثل ابنث الزا ية والرجل الث مارست مو الوريمة بلنرط ضنيلهإ مثليوني

(Levine, 2009, p.44- Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII, 4) ، ولنن بنالرغإ من ذلنك كناى

الرومنا فن تليينق تلنك الوقوبنة فنا نت الوقوبنة تونثيدل بوقوبنة أ نل أو ينثإ بالموثمط از واجيةكناك

م نال وأدنهر الثئاض عنها وخاصة فيما يرتيد بز ا المقنارم فن الليقنات الولينا من القننام والننيسء

كمننا كا ننت عقوبننة اإلعنندام لمرتنينن ، (Ginsburg,2006,p.119)زواج أجربينننا منن كسو يننو



23

الفواحن مط الذكور م الوييد الذي ينثإ خصنيا هإ ومنا يونثثيو من اسنثئسلهإ جنونيا وذلنك ن أمنر

( 44، ص2015) حاف،،اتدمئزازيناف اللييوة وي ير

: ا ثن علرة أى م ي ونثدع لللنها ة ويندل بلنها ة زور فنما جاء با لواحشهادة الزور

.وا باإلعدام جزاء ما ا ثرفتؤ ى غل تضليل الودالة وي نثلف أمره ي

:جناء أيضنا بهنا أى تنأليف منا ي وند ذمنا أو الثئنن بمنا التأليف والتغنى بما يعد إهانة للشخص

يوند جريمنة وحند لهنا عقوبنة اإلعندام -لينا فيمنا يلني الون والقنذف حا -ي ود غكا ة حد ا دن اص

كوزاء.

: اى يول القضاة للردوة وضيلهإ مثليوي بها بهدف تضنليل مونرى الودالنة رشوة القضاة

مما يؤ ى غل ا ثلار ال"لإ وكو ما يثوارض مط واجيهإ مما يود جريمة توثوج ا صن عقوبنة وكن

اإلعدام.

:اره ليس بهدف اإلضرار ب كناى ي وا ن باإلعندام فلى اطط مقصول ج اطع محصول جاره

(Johnson, 2003, pp. 4-11 ) ثإ ي قدم جوده كقرباى للربة كريل بود موت

: بوريمننة الثزويننر بنننل أ واعنن العبيدددي وا نن باإلعنندام كننل منن ي ي ننت تورطنن منن التزويددر

نط وتوظيف فنناى ينثإ األحدرارخثإ ، أما فن حالنة م أجل اإلسثفا ه من سواء بالنثابة أو النقن او بص

((Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII.7اسثيدال عقوبة اإلعدام بالنف .

: كاى ظهور المويقية واعثنا ها أحد أكإ ا ساب الث أ ت غلن غعندام الدخول فى المسيحية

ميراطورينة، الن يري سواء م الرومناى أ فونهإ برومنا أو من غينركإ من سنناى الوتينات الثابونة ل

فنود أى عد ا كييرا م الونندري راحوا دهداء ا ل الووننرية الروما ينة ، و ند ابثننر الرومناى لثلنك

.Mac Mullen, 1986,p.322 1990,p)الوريمة تقديدا ا واع جديدة م القثل منها ص اللمط.

359- Millar,1984,p.124) قوبنة أخنرى صنارت أك نر ولن بودكا بدأ اسنثيدال عقوبنة اإلعندام بو

(Davis, 1994,p.100) ديوعا وك ا دئال اللا ة ف المقاجر.

الحقوق العامة" انتهاكثانيا : جرائم عامة تقترا فى حق الدولة "

: وكنن منن الوننرااإ الوياسننية ال ليننرة ويثونناوى فيهننا الوننرم سننواء كا ننت الخيانددة العظمددى

أو "ام القنإ ود ص اإلميراطور فنسكمنا وجهناى لوملنة واحندة، وكنذلك ال يا ة بالثآمر عل الدولة

الوقوبنة فنا نت لنسكمننا اإلعندام، كمنا كا ننت فنل الوقوبننة ت قنرر ت ثهناك أو غكا ننة سنموة اإلميراطننور،

وكاى القا وى الروما دديد القووة ف تلييق الوقوبة ف كذه الوريمة لدرجنة ا ن طيقهنا علن المنثهإ

كاى د توف يل صدور القنإ فث ليق عل اسم وسموث وكو وع م أ واع الوقوبة المونوية حث لو

دديدة اإليسم حي ت"ل أسنرت تونا من الونار بونده، والققيقنة ا هنا جريمنة او بنا حرى تهمن ديمنة


24

ر حدي ة وجدت ف كل الوصور فقد كا نت فن الوصنر الومهنورى واسنثمر توظيفهنا سياسنيا فن الوصن

) حدداف،، ا بنناطرة ذريوننة للننث لص منن اعنندااهإ والموارضنني لن"ننام حنمهننإ . ليث ننذكااإلميراطننورى

( ,Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII,3 -42، ص2015

م وتيونن اإلميراطننور 37 ننام اإلميراطننور جننايو كنناليووت بللئنناء جريمننة ال يا ننة الو"منن عننام

وبلندة ومن بونده اإلميراطنور وميثينا و فن مهااسنث داكسو يو حث أعا كا يروى وأفنرط فن

(Bunson,1991,s.v.Maeistas) هاية القرى ا ول الميس ى.

: وك م وجهة الن"ر الروما ينة أحند الونرااإ الوقاادينة، فقند تسلق واجتياز أسوار المدينة

ق الثونلق أو أسنوار المديننة سنواء عن طرين اجثيناز صت اللريوة الروما ينة علن أى كنل من يقناول

وسناال أخنرى مونرم اسنث داماسث دام وساال موينة م ل الولإ لثواعده للوصنول غلن أعلن الونور أو

وم حق ا كال ا فونهإ أى ي رجنوا علين من بوابنات المديننة ويثوناملوا مون بنالونف ن يهند أمن

( Justinian,Digest. I,IIX,II )مدينثهإ، وك ما ة تهدف غل حماية المدى والروماى أ فوهإ .

منن خننسل المصننا ر الستينيننة لمننل كيننف أى القفنناظ علنن مددن أمددوال الدولددة : االخددت

ا مننوال الوامننة و ممثلنننات المقدسننات الدينيننة كنناى أمننرا يوننثقق الثقنندير واتحثننرام، وعلينن فقنند وضننط

ال الدولة المنلفي كإ بل ارتها الم لرع بندا ينص عل أى موا ية الموظفي الذي ي ثلووى ديئا م أمو

نثلل. , ص 2008)جنددى، بقنإ مناصيهإ باإلعدام كإ ودركااهإ وم يواعدكإ ف غخفناء المنال الم ي

175- Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII, 9 )

طرق ووسائل تنفيو عقوبة اإلعدام

فى الحضارة المصرية (1

غزكنناا الننروح أو سننليها كنناى امننرا بننال كنناى للقينناة عننند المصننرى القننديإ دسننية كييننرة ولننذا فننلى

ال لورة لذا ويها غل سللات غلهية، فنا ت عقوبنة اإلعندام كمنا أوضنقت النصنوص تصندر من ينل

كمننا أى تلننك الوقوبننة تقدينندا كا ننت (،Pap. Prisse, 9, 7-12 vaud, 1916, p.26)éDاهلهننة

) ل اإللنننن علنننن ا رضومم نننن (Ruiz,2001,p.86)مفوضننننة للفرعننننوى بوصننننف اضنننن القضنننناة

و د اتيط المصريوى القدماء طر ا م ثلفنة لثنفينذ عقوبنة اإلعندام، وكا نت (،187، ص1997محمود،

وسيلة الثنفيذ ت ضط لثقدير القاض ، وربما كاى ذلك وفقا للييوة الورم، ومنا ة الل ص اتجثماعينة،

، ولنذا توند ت (Bluche,1975,p.155)حث أ ن كا نت أحيا نا يصناحيها وسناال تونذي م نل القنرا

طرا ووساال الثنفيذ عل النقو الثال :

ود أ دم الوساال الثن اسنث دمها المصنرى القنديإ مننذ الوصنور ا ولن ، حين ت : طع الر بة

ي ينت -ربما بهنا دنفرة - مثقركةكاى المثهإ ي ولق ف عمو خلي م يت جيدا ف ا رض ول هاية



25

وعند جذبها تلينر النرأ فن الهنواء منفصنلة عن الووند لثونقد أرضنا فيلثهمهنا أحند بها رأ المثهإ

القيوا ات المفثرسة، وكو ما يلي الثهام الوموإ للقلن عنند مقاكمنة المنوت ، وكناى كنذا الوتند ال لني

اء تصوير تلك ا اة وكنذه ف اليداية يوث دم كأ اة توذي ثإ أصيح وسيلة لثنفيذ عقوبة اإلعدام، و د ج

اللريقننة بالنثنن الدينيننة ومنهننا علنن سننييل الم ننال الونناعة الوننابوة منن كثنناب باإليمنن واتب والنننص

علن إرؤوسنهالمصاح يؤكد ذلك ب القضاء عل أعداء رع ف كل مناى ف كذه المدينة ثإ يمرروى

390ووينننننذة ر نننننإ حنننند الونننننني ب ، كمننننا ظهنننننرت فننننن صننننوص ا كنننننرام ومثنننننوى الثوابيننننت بالث

(Helck,1977,Colm.1219; 1975,p.6 – Hornung,1968,p.17)

المقدسنات والونرااإ الماسنة بنأم وا ثهناكوكاى يونرى ذلنك فني الونرااإ الماسنة بالندي ، كالونقر

الفرعوى، م ل عدم الثيلي ع المؤامرات الثي ت قاك ضده، وعدم غطاعة أوامره، وأيضا جرااإ القثل.

م اإلغراق : ( أدد طرا تنفينذ عقوبنة المنوت فزعناStrauss,1977, Colm.17 حين ،)

كا ت ت وث دم لموخ وجو الوناة هاايا غذ كا ت القياة اتخرى وا بدية مركو ة بوجو الوود وبالثال

فلى غغراا الوود ليل موناه فقد حرماى المثهإ م حق القياة ف الد يا وغ ما أيضا حرما م القيناة

، لنذا كا نت Pap.Westcar, 4, 9بدية حي تقوم الثماسيح بالثهنام الووند كمنا جناء بير ينة وسنثنار ا

(Lorton, 1977, p.15, f.n.61- Erman,1913,1-9-11)واحنندة منن أ ونن أ ننواع الوقوبننة

وكا ننت تلننك الوقوبننة تننر فنن صنني القوننإ المصننرى القننديإ ب غذا رجوننت فنن أ ننوال فلثلقننوا بنن غلنن

وييندو أ هنا كا نت كوقوبنة ، Pap.BM10335,Vs.16-17 (Blakkman,1925,p.252)حب الثموا

تسحننق مرتنينن الوننرااإ النيننرى ومنهننا ال يا ننة الو"منن ، و نند وجنندت واسننثمرت علنن مننر الوصننور

فواءت عل لوحة من الدولنة الوسنل ب ت توجند مقينرة لللن ص النذى يرتنن جريمنة ضند جسلثن ،

، واوسثراكا م عصر الرعاموة ب سيدى سي أى تلقق الوقوبة بهذه الونيدة ج ما سي لق ف النهرب

الث سر ت كذا اإلزميلب، كمنا أ هنا ور ت بننص من ا سنرة القا ينة والولنري ، فنوندكا فنذت علن

م المدجاى خاضوا ف أمر الفرعوى وأفلوا أسراره، فأمر رجال بوضوهإ ف جوالي وغلقااهإ اثني

(Breasted,1962,p.784 – Gardiner, 1913,p.60)ف النهر .

ارتيلت النار فن فننر المصنرى القنديإ بثصنورات مثيايننة فنا نت ترمنز للثلهينر اإلحراق :

كوسنيلة للوقوبنة وكنذلك للثونذي ، اسنث دمتوالقماية وكذلك للفناء والودم فه تأكل كل ما توند، ولنذا

بالوقنناب الننذى يوننثقق مرتنينن اهثننام تننرتيداهخننر فهنن فنن فنننر المصننرى القننديإ والمننرتيد بالوننالإ

والمواص ، أما كو ها وسيلة لثنفيذ عقوبة ب الموتب فن القيناة اإلولن فقند ثينت اسنث دمها مننذ عصنر

ات ثقننال ا ول وغى كنناى كننناك منن ينننا ى بوجو كننا منن الدولننة القديمننة موننثندا لمننا جنناء بقصننة الملنننة

,Grieshummer)إ المنننننننؤرـ كيددددننننننندرو وت، يثنننننننوكريل با سنننننننرة الوا سنننننننة ومننننننننه

1977,Colm.206) وكاى غصدار حنإ بم ل كذه الوقوبنة ت يونن فقند منوت اللن ص وغفناان بند يا ،


26

ف الوالإ الد يوى والقياة ا ول وغ ما أيضا حرما م الوالإ اهخر حي يفن جوده ويثناثر الرمنا ،

-Strauss, 1977, Colm.17- Helck, 1975,p.6). وكنذه الوقوبنة مرتيلنة أك نر بوقوبنة الز نا

Pirenne, 1932, p.139- Kornfeld, 1950, p.105)

رتنن فنناى ي صناح عقوبنة اما فن حالنة ثنل ا بن بناه فنا نت الوقوبنة ت ئلعنل ليلناعة الونرم الم

ن اسنثهاى اإلحراا بل ويويقها لط اصابط يند الونا ثنإ حر ن حينا ، وذلنك ل لنورة كنذا الونا و

بأواصر الدم وصلة القرب ، وف حالة ما غذا كاى المثهإ م أحد النيسء فقد كاى ي ثنرك لن ا منر لينهن

حيات بنفو .

وكناك وع آخر من اإلحنراا حين كناى القنرا ينثإ فني غرفنة الرمنا ، وأخنذت كنذه الوقوبنة عن

وي ثرك وى طوام، ثإ بود ذلك ي هال علي اليلداى اهسيوية، فناى المقنوم علي يوضط ف غرفة الرما

(Bluehe, 1975,p.155)رما مثوك م أعل لودة أيام حث يموت.

: من اتغثيالأى او اإلعدام عل ال ازوا وموناكا الوضط فوا الوتد او ال ازواالخزو ة

صنوص النذي وجناء فيهنا ب الل Mayer. A و د ور ذكركا ف أك ر م نص من بينهنا بر ينة أسفل

لقوا حثفهإ فوا رأ ال نازوا ب وفن مرسنوم القماينة ال ناص بمويند سنث ال نا ب القنا وى سني ليق

علينننننن بلرحنننننن أرضننننننا ووضننننننو علنننننن ال ننننننازوا بوننننننوار الموينننننند، كننننننو سننننننرا ممثلناتنننننن ب

(Brunner,1939,p.161) ، خلد بينها وبي عقوبة لط الر ية فقد و د حد أحيا ا عند المؤرخي

وض اى الل ص كاى يقيد ثإ ي لنرح ويوضنط علن ال نازوا من منلقنة الر ينة ولنن ثينت فن ظ الي

,Edgerton,1974)النهايننة اى كننذا غيننر صننقيح خاصننة وأى عقوبننة لننط الر يننة كا ننت موروفنن

p.225,N.46 .وكا ت كذه اللريقة ت وث دم ف تنفيذ حنإ اإلعدام ف جرااإ سر ة القيور ،)

: إ تنن من اللنرا الموثنا ة أو المونث دمة فن مصنر الفرعو ينة فلنإ وند ييدو أ ها لن الشنق

قننات مننط أحنند المثهمنني يصننر الدولننة القدي ننة ور ت فنن الثققعنهننا سننوى غدننارة بوننيلة ت نونن غلنن ع

بوننر ات المقننابر ب ب صننوص القيننل الننذى سيوضننط حننول ر يننة كننذا الئننسم أ ننت أخننذت صننيي واهى

ن ربما يننوى تويينر وضنط القينل حنول الر ينة تويينر مونازى ي لنير عقوبث سوف تلقق ب غدا ب ، ول

( (Pap .BM. 10052 Peet,1977, p.145عل ا رجح غل اإل ا ة وليل الوقوبة،

فى الحضارة الرومانية (2

تود ت طرا تنفيذ عقوبة اإلعدام ف القضنارة الروما ينة ولننهنا تمينزت جميوهنا بنالونف والقونوة

و الثال : اللديدي عل النق



27

: وكنذلك ، وكو ضربها بالويف وك عقوبة كا ت ت ونث دم غالينا منط الووننريي طع الرأ

وكننذلك مننط المننزوري منن الويينند، فنن حالننة القثننل الومنند وخاصننة مننط فئثنن ال نوننريي وحملننة النيننال

Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII, 5,7) )

: عل اتل والدي ليلاعة الورم فيوضنط ك عقوبة صارمة و ت تليق غتالوضع فى كيس

فنن كننيل منن الولنند ويوضننط مونن يننك وكلنن وثوينناى و ننر وي نناط علينن موهننإ وي ثننرك لثنننهن تلننك

,Justinian,Digest. IV القيوا ات لقم حث الموت ثإ ي قمنل الووند وي لقن فن اليقنر أو النهنر

XVIII, 6) )

: وك عقوبنة غالينا منا تنرتيد بوريمنة الز نا، ءوكاى يثإ حرا المثهمي وكإ أحيااإلحراق.

(Ginsburg, 2006, p.121)

:(39، ص 2015. ) حاف،،ويثإ بللقاء المثهإ اخل غ اء كيير م النييذاإلغراق

: كا ت ت نفنذ غالينا علن ا سنرى من الونونيات الئينر اإللقاء للحيوانات المفترسة لتلتهمهم

تدخل ف حرب مط رومنا، وكنذلك علن موثنقن المونيقية من غينر روما ية م الوتيات واليس الث

فيمننا بونند عننند ظهننور الموننيقية وا ثلنناركا، فيننثإ غ خننالهإ غلنن حليننة لمصننارعة الوحننوش الرومننا يي

. الوااوننة فيلقننوى حننثفهإ وذلننك منن خننسل عننروض عامننة، وكنننذا أصننيقت عقوبننة ووسننيلة للثوننلية

(Melusky,2011, p.10- Adkins, 2004, p.39)

: ك عقوبة مرتيلة بالقروب كا ت ت نفذ أيضنا علن ا سنرى من الدهس تحت أرجل الفيلة

,Maximus)الونويات الئير روما ية، م لما حد عندما ا ثصر لوكيو بناولو علن بيرسنيو

1888, II ,7,1)

: لننهننا تلننك اللريقننة فنن المننوت باإلميراطوريننة الروما يننة منننذ اليدايننة و اسننث دمتالصددلب

مورسنت اضنلها زا ت بود ظهور المويقية واصلدامها بيوض ا باطرة الروماى وما تينط ذلنك من

خسل عقوبة اإلعدام ضد موثنق الديا ة الوديدة وخاصة م غير الروماى م سنناى الوتينات الثابونة

ا جنناء بمدو ننة ل ميراطوريننة الروما يننة ، أمننا الرومنناى فنا ننت الوقوبننة ت وننثيدل بقلننط الننرأ وكننو منن

ل القديل بلر ف رومنا جوثنياى، وخير م ال كو اسثلها كس م القديوي بلر وبولل فقد ص

وعلن النرغإ من كو همنا كوقوبننة - ن غينر رومنا بينمنا لونت رأ القنديل بنولل ن رومنا

ي ونند توننذييا امننا لننط مثونناويثي فنن النثيوننة وكنن المننوت غت أى الصننل أدنند غيسمننا للننول الفثننرة ممننا

، و نند تننإ غلئنناء تلننك الوقوبننة علنن ينند اإلميراطننور -الننرأ فوسننيلة سننريوة للمننوت ت لننو منن الثوننذي

((Justinian,Digest. IV, XVIII,2 ولنلي


28

إصدار العقوبة و تنفيوها

لونرااإ كاى الفصل ف القضايا ف الموثمنط المصنرى القنديإ ينثإ عينر القضناء المقلن ، فيمنا عندا ا

الث يوثقق مرتنييها عقوبة اإلعدام، فف كذه القالنة فقند ي صنيح الملنك الفرعنوى كنو المننوط د صنا

بالفصل النهاا فيها بوصف اض القضاة ومم ل اإلل عل ا رض، وكاى تنفيذ الوقوبة يثإ علنا وف

لوقوبنة بونوار المويند وكننذا. ص مويد يثإ تنفيذ ادرا د ددأماكنها وخاصة ف حاتت الور ة فلذا ما س

( Ruiz, 2001, p.86)

أما فن القضنارة الروما ينة فنلى الوموينة المئوينة كا نت كن اللرينق اللنرع الوحيند تسثصندار

، و فنن الوصننر اإلميراطننوري (Johnson, 2003, p.7)أحنننام اإلعنندام فنن الوصننر الومهننورى

نصنسى اجثماعاتهناة الولينا حين كناى ينرأ المينر أصيح مولنل الونناتو بم ابنة المقنمنة الدسنثوري

لمقاكمة المورمي بلنل عام ومرتني جريمة ال يا ة الو"م بلنل خاص، ثإ تلور ا مر وخاصنة

) حدداف،، للقضنايا الثنن تونثوج عقوبننة اإلعنندام فأصنيح اإلميراطننور كنو صنناح ننرار الفصنل فيهننا.

(43، ص 2015

فلسفة العقوبة العظمى "اإلعدام"

سيق يثضنح لننا أى مصنر عرفنت الوريمنة والوقوبنة مننذ عصنوركا اإلولن م نل بنا دنووب مما

الوالإ ومنها روما، غت أى الوج ا سنو سنوء للوريمنة حنال ارتنابهنا أو الوقوبنة حنال تلييقهنا ي ثلنف

بمصر ع غيركا م اللرااط القديمة، فه عنند كنؤتء فن منثهن القونوة، غت ا هنا فن مصنر وعلن

غإ من لثهنا غت أ هنا كا نت تثونإ باإل ونا ية فن اإلولن وال ا ينة، فقند ارتيلنت ارتياطنا وثيقنا بن"نام الر

القننإ وبلننئوى النندي ، فننلى كناى القنناكإ ويننا بننات ا من موننثثيا ، و نند عرفننت مصنر الودالننة فنن ابهنن

لنينرىب منثهن بماعتب، وبلئت ور الودالة وعل رأسها ب ار حور ا صوركا و يدت لها غلهة ك

الد ة ف اإلجراءات وتققيق الودالة، ولإ تن الوقوبة وخاصة الوقوبة الو"م ب اإلعدامب سيفا مونللا

علن ر نناب الوينا بقنندر منا كا ننت للثهنذي واإلصننسح، ولنذا ونندكا ارتيلنت بننا خسا فوولهنا عقوبننة

كمنا (،401، ص 1995)زنداتى، للز ا، واإل وا ية فنس تنفنذ علن المنرأة القامنل حثن تضنط مولو كنا

بنألإكاى تنفيذ الوقوبة يثإ بود غعلاء المقنوم عليهإ درابا م درا حثن يموتنوا فن كندوء وت يلنوروا

(33، ص1999)السقا،الثنفيذ وكو ما يم ل منثه اتحثرام إل وا يثهإ.

، كمنا أى تنفينذكا يثونإ أما ف روما فنا ت ا حنام أحيا ا تثوإ بالونف بمنا ت يثناسن وحونإ الونرم

باللدة والونف، في لق بالمثهمي أحياء للقيوا ات الوااوة لثفثرسهإ بمنثه القووة وفن عنروض عامنة

(39، ص2015)حاف،،أمام النا ، أو لألفيال لثدكوهإ بأ دامها.



29

عقوبة اإلعدام بين البقاء واإللغاء

عقوبننة اإلعنندام واسننثيدالها بللئنناءامننت حملننت مصننر لننواء الريننا ة منننذ الوصننور الفرعو يننة حنني

داباكاب أحد ملوك ا سرة ال اموة والولنري ببوقوبات أخرى أجدى وأ فط للموثمط، حي ا ى الملك

بللئااها واسنثيدالها بوقوبنة ا دنئال اللنا ة علن أى ت قضن مندة الوقوبنة فن فنل منناى الوريمنة الثن

مرا ملنيا صنريقا بللئناء عقوبنة اإلعندام علن اى يقنوم المنثهإ غذ وده أصدر أ، ي وا م أجلها المثهإ

(Herodotus,II, 137-بثوليننة موننثوى ا رض فنن بلننده اى اسننث دام فنن الملننروعات الوامننة

وبهذا تقول المقنوم علي م ميت غل يد عاملة منثوة وكو أجندى ،(191، ص 1978المرصفاوى,

ا ى بللئناء عقوبنة اإلعندام باسنإ اإل ونا ية و ينل ظهنور وأ فط للموثمط، وكنذا صارت مصر أول م

من"مات حقوا اإل واى بقروى.


و د خل صت الدراسة غل عد م النثاا الهامة عل النقو الثال :

تلابهت كأل م القضارتي المصرية والروما ية ف بونض الونرااإ الثن اسنثوجيت المنوت -

ة الو"م ، سر ة المؤسوات الدينية والد يوية، القثل الومد ، الز ا، ت لن حندو كوقوبة ومنها : ال يا

الودل ، زا ت عليها ف القضارة المصرية بوض الونرااإ وكن : القنن بناليمي ، الثقنرش الونون ،

و جننرااإ اإل ارة الوامننة، كمننا تضننمنت الثلننريوات الروما يننة جننرااإ أخننرى ومنهننا : توننلق اتمثننناع

أسننوار المدينننة، دننها ة الننزور، ممارسننة الفننواحن مننط الننذكور، لننط مقصننول الوننار بهنندف واجثينناز

اإلضرار ب ، الثزوير، الثأليف والثئن بما يود غكا ة للل ص، الدخول ف المويقية.

كمننا تلننابهت القضننارتي فنن بوننض طننرا تنفيننذ الوقوبننة ومنهننا : لننط الر يننة ، اإلغننراا، -

للرا فيينمنا اسنث دمت القضنارة المصنرية ال وز نة واللننق، عرفنت واإلحراا، واخثلفثا ف بوض ا

القضننارة الروما يننة طر ننا أك ننر تنوعننا وأدنند وننوة ومنهننا: اإللقنناء للقيوا ننات المفثرسننة فنن حليننات

المصارعة، الدكل تقت أرجل الفيلة، وضط الل ص حيا اخل كيل م الولد منط حيوا نات لثنهلن ،

والصل .

لنرع لهنا عقوبنة اإلعندام بالقضنارتي وتثينط مناذج م خسل عرض الورا - اإ الث وضط الم

لها بالير يات الم ثلفة يثضح جليا أ هنا تنرتيد ارتياطنا وثيقنا بنال"روف الوياسنية، فنلمنا اسنثث ا من

لت الوريمة، بينما تزيد ف فثرات الضوف والفوضن ، ممنا يونثلزم تئلنيل الوقوبنة كمقاولنة للقضناء

وغصسح الموثمط وغ امة الودل، كما سحل اسثقدا الم لرع ليوض الثهإ الثن لنإ تنن عل الفوض


30

موجننو ة م ننل ال يا ننة الو"منن برومننا فنن الوصننر اإلميراطننورى لثنننوى أ اة القنناكإ للننث لص منن

موارضي ، وكنو منا ينلنف الثواطنؤ بني ا بناطرة ومولنل الونيناتو النذى يوند صناح اليند الولينا فن

لريوات بموافقة اإلميراطور القاكإ.غصدار الث

كما ا م خسل اسثوراض الورااإ أيضا ومسح"ة أعدا كا ومدى تنوعها بي القضنارتي -

سحل لثها بل ويمن أى قول درتها بالقضارة المصرية مقار ة بالقضارة الروما ية، ممنا يؤكند أى

د ا خس ن أو الوياسن أو المنال ممنا يلنير روما لإ تن موذجا للموثمط المونثقر سنواء علن الصنوي

وبوضوح ت هيار ا خسا وا ثلار الفوا الوياس والمال .

ف القضارة المصرية كاى القضاء المقل كنو المونئول عن الفصنل فن القضنايا و غصندار -

ما ينة الوقوبات ما عدا عقوبة اإلعدام ل لورتها ت رك أمنر الفصنل فيهنا للفرعنوى، وفن القضنارة الرو

كا ت الوموية المئوية ك المنوطة بلصدار ا حنام ف الوصر الومهورى، حل مقلها مولنل الونناتو

ف بداينة الوصنر اإلميراطنورى بوصنف مقنمنة سنثورية، وفن النهاينة ت نرك أمنر الفصنل فن عقوبنة

اإلعدام ل ميراطور الروما فو .

تنفيذ القوا ي وخاصة عقوبة اإلعدام، اتفقت كس م القضارتي عل ممارسة الونصرية ف -

الوضننط القننا و للمننثهإ حننر ام عينند – اتجثماعيننةوكنناى للثمييننز ثسثننة أسننياب اساسننية وكنن : الليقننة

وأخيرا طييوة الوريمة، فف روما وند ا هنا مينزت بني –روما ام م سناى الوتيات الثابوة لروما

من بندتذلك النفن ل دل بوقوبة أخرى ف حالة ا حرار فقد وم ات ا حرار والوييد فنا ت الوقوبة ت وثي

اإلعدام ف عقوبة الثزوير، واسثيدال الصل بقلنط النرأ بني الرومناى وغينركإ فن جريمنة اعثنناا

كن الوني الرايون ولننهنا تمينز الفنر عنا ة فن اتجثماعينةالمويقية، أما فن مصنر فنا نت الليقنة

فقد . طريقة تنفيذ الوقوبة

اخثلفت فلوفة الوقوبة بي القضارتي فقد تميزت القضارة المصرية بالرحمنة والر ن حني -

ا ثهوت أسلوبا غ وا يا ف تنفيذ الوقوبة فنودكا ت تنفذ القنإ ف المرأة القامنل حثن تضنط حملهنا، كمنا

ا ف كدوء، بينما تمينزت أ ها تمنح المقنومي بالموت كمية م اللراب الم در يل تنفيذ القنإ ليموتو

القضننارة الروما يننة بالقوننوة والونننف فقنند كا ننت تثيننط طر ننا تم ننل توننذييا للمقنننومي مننط تنفيننذ الوقوبننة

كللقااهإ أحياء للقيوا ات المفثرسة .

أى مصننر سننيقت ول الوننالإ المثقضننرة عننندما عرفننت أى للوريمننة مفهومننا اجثماعيننا فوا يننت -

المثقرش جنويا باإلعدام.

عقوبنة بللئناءحملت مصر لنواء الرينا ة فن ا سنرة ال امونة والولنري النوبينة حني امنت -

اإلعدام واسثيدالها بوقوبات أجدى وأ فط للموثمط م ل ا دئال الوامة.



31

المراجع

أوال: المراجع العربية:

) أ ( الكتـب:

اإلعنندامبح عننالإ ةعقوبنن“الو"منن (: أضننواء علنن فلوننفة الوقوبننة 1999الوننقا، مقمننو ، ) -1

. 35 – 29النث ح الويزة، ص ص

( : الوقوبنة باإلعندام فن الثلنريط المصنرى تأصنيس وتقلنيس ، 2008الفق ، عمنا ابنراكيإ، ) -2

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تنناريخ القننا وى المصننري راسننة تقليليننة للقننا وى اليللمنني (: 1978المرصننفاوى، فثقنن ح ) -3

. 189 ار الفنر الورب ، القاكرة، ص ، والفرعو ي

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الموظفي فن مصنر غبناى الوصنر ا قرافات(: 2008جندى، غبراكيإ عيد الوزيز سليماى، ) -5

م ، مركز اليقو والدراسات الثاري ينة ، جامونة القناكرة، 284-ا.م 30الروما المينر

182-172ص ص

م : 284( : عقوبة اإلعدام ف روما منذ عصر أغولل وحث عام 2015حافل ، أحمد ، ) -6

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والقا و ية ف مصر، القناكرة، ص اتجثماعية( : تاريخ الن"إ 1995ز ات ، مقمو سسم، ) -7

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تنننناريخ الننننن"إ القا و يننننة ( :1998عينننند الوننننال، عنادننننة مقمنننند الموننننذوب، طننننارا، ) -8

. 144واتجثماعية ، الدار الواموية ، القاكرة ، ص

)،( الرسائل العلمية والدراسات:

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. 185: 76رسالة ماجوثير )غير منلورة(ح كلية اهثارح جاموة القاكرة، ص ص


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Against Ramsses III?", JEA 49, London, p.89.

21- Golénischeff,: (1913), Les Papyrus Hiératiques, Nos. 1115,1116 A et

de l,Ermitage Impérial à St. Petersbourg. Leipzig, p.9.

22- Gray, P. G: (2005), Death penalty on Trial:A Handbook with Cases ,

Laws, and Documents, U.S.A, p.16.

23- Grieshummer,R.:(1977), "Feuer", LÄ II, Wiesbaden, colm.206(1939)

24- Griffith, F. :(1927), " The Abydos Decree of seti I at Nauri", JEA 13,

London, pp.201-.205.

25- Harari, I., Le Principe Juridique de l,Organisation Sociale dans le

Décret de seti Ier à Nauri, p.60.

26- Helck,W.: (1977), "Hinrichtungsgerät", LÄ II, Wiesbaden,

colm.1219.

27- Helck,W. : ( 1975), Historisch Biographische Texte der 2.

Zwischenzeit und neue texte der 18 Dynastie ,Wiesbaden, p.6.

28- Herodotus, II, 137.

29- Hornung,E. : (1968), Altägyptische Hollen vorstellungen, ASAW 59,

Berlin, p.17.


34

30- Hornung,E. :(1963), Das Amduat oder die Schrift des Verborgenen

Raumes, Wiesbaden, 1, tf 8.\std., Nr. 589-597.

31- Johnson, A.C.,Coleman-Norton, P.R., Bourne,F.C,: (2003), Ancient

Roman statutes: A Translation with Introduction Commentary, Glossary

and Index, Lowbook exchange, New Jersey, Documents, No.8, pp. 4-11.

32- Justinian, Digest, IV, IIX, 2 ; IV, XVIII, 2-9 .

33- Kornfeld,: (1950), "l,Adultere dans l,Orient Antique",RB 57, Paris,

pp.105-106.

34- Levine, P. : (2009), Reforming the Humanities: Literature and Ethics

from Dante Through modern times , palgrrave Macmillan , p.44.

35- Lorton,D.: (1977), "The Treatment of Criminals in Ancient Egypt

through the New Kingdom", JESHO20, Leiden, p.15, f.n.61.

36- Lurje, I.M. : (1971). Studdien Zum Altägyptschen Recht des 16 bis

10. Yahrhunderts v.u.z Forschungen zum römischen Recht, 30

Weimar,p.158.

37- Maximus, V.: (1888), Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilum, II ,7,1,

Karl Friedrich Kempf, Leipsig.

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Empire , from Julio-Claudians to Constantine "PBSR (Papers of the

British School at Rome) 52, pp.124-147.

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11186 of the free public Museums , Liverpool, London, pp. 18, 145.



35

43- Pirenne, J.: (1932), Histoire des Institutions et du Droit Privé de

l,Ancienne Égypte, Bruxelles, p.139.

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Berlin, 1081,3.

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Conception, Leiden, p.282.



36

دراسة أثر اإلرهاب على نهب وتدمير التراث فى مصر

نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات أ شاهندا إمام

الملخص

التى كان لها بالغ ىاألمننفالت لحالة من الفوضى واإل ٢٠١١تعرضت مصر فى أعقاب ثورة يناير

عريقة. فقد انتشرت فى تلك الفترة العصيبة من تاريخ ما تملكه الدولة من مقومات تراثية ىر علاألث

الدولة كما نشطت جماعات طقمناتها المسلحة فى العديد من امصر الجماعات اإلرهابية وتنظيم

بعمليات من الشعب تهريب اآلثار الدولية وسماسرة التهريب والتنقيب فضال عن قيام بعض الفئات

وراء مصالحهم ا والحفر التنقيب بالمصلحة العامة للدولة وباتت آثار االعتبارلشخصية دون سعيا

الممنهج. وتهدف هذه الدراسة إلى عرضة لعمليات السلب والنهب والتدمير ىتراثها الحضارمصر و

ذلك من ىما ترتب علو ٢٠١6-٢٠١١التى شهدتها اآلثار المصرية فى الفترة من االنتهاكاترصد

الدولة فضال عما تكبدته صناعة السياحة المصرية من ىعلفية اقتصادية واجتماعية وثقاتداعيات

خسائر فادحة ال تزال آثارها واضحة حتى اليوم. كما توضح الدراسة دور صاالت المزادات ومواقع

لكترونى فى عرض اآلثار المسروقة والمنهوبة من مصر. وقد اعتمد الشق النظرى إلالعرض ا

الثانوية المتاحة من كتب وأبحاث لومات من كافة المصادرللدراسة على تجميع البيانات والمع

بينما تضمن الشق الميدانى االرتباطونشرات ودوريات وتقارير وغيرها من المراجع العلمية ذات

مع بعض الخبراء السياحيين واألثريين بكل من وزارتى نة مقن للدراسة إجراء مقابالت شخصية

شيط والمجلس األعلى لآلثار. كما تضمنت الدراسة أيضا زيارة السياحة واآلثار وكذلك هيئة التن

ميدانية لشارع المعز بالقاهرة. وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى إلقاء الضوء علي بعض المشكالت التى تواجه

المختلفة التى تعرض لها التراث المصرى منذ عام باالنتهاكاتقطاعى السياحة واآلثار فيما يرتبط

ى تلك المشكالت كما ألقت الدراسة الضوء على بعض الممارسات الجيدة عل وسبل القضاء ٢٠١١

التى قامت بها األجهزة الرسمية المعنية بالدولة فيما يتعلق بحماية اآلثار المصرية من السلب والنهب

فى ضبط عمليات تهريب العديد من القطع األثرية األثريةال سيما دور إدارة التقييم ومتابعة المنافذ

التى خرجت من مصر بطريقة غير أثريةالقطع ااستردادإدارة اآلثار المستردة بالوزارة فى ودور

مشروعة بالتعاون مع وزارة الخارجية المصرية.

تدمير التراث. –ثار نهب اآل -اآلثار -التراث الحضارى –اإلرهاب الكلمات المفتاحية

نشوة الشريف مانى الشحات ا شاهندا إمام ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

37

المقدمة

واالصالة التى تجسدها الهوية الوطنية واالعتزازخر يوحي التراث الحضارى المصرى بالف

(. ويلعب التراث دورا محوريا فى مستقبل األمم والشعوب لما له من دور محورى ٢٠١7)سعودى،

أحد الدعائم األساسية فى مجال البحوث باعتبارهالزمن عبر فى ترسيخ الهوية وتوثيق الجذور

العالم وتاريخها فضال عن دوره كأحد المقومات األساسية اإلنسانية وال سيما تلك المعنية بحضارات

(. أ٢٠٠9لصناعة السياحة فى العصر الحالى مما يستوجب العمل على حمايته والحفاظ عليه)سيد،

أنواعه وأشكاله، كان وال يزال مطمعا اختالفوهنا يجدر اإلشارة إلى إن التراث اإلنسانى على

وم بدعمهم وتمويلهم لتدمير اإلرث البشرى وطمث معالم لضعاف النفوس من اإلرهابيين ومن يق

الحضارات القديمة ، بما تحمله من معان القوة واألصالة والعراقة، متسترين خلف بعض الشعارات

( والفتاوى التكفيرية المحرمة لآلثار بدعوى أنها تعد أصناما واجبة ٢٠١3الدينية الزائفة )عطية،

اإلكتراث بالقيمة التاريخية والحضارية لما خلفته تلك الحضارات ( وذلك دون ٢٠١3اإلبادة )هجرس،

من آثار ودون النظر إلى االبعاد االقتصادية واالجتماعية لتلك المقومات التراثية والتى تعد من الركائز

السياحية. العديد من دول العالم األساسية لصناعة السياحة فى

العربية العديد من محاوالت طمث الهوية وتدمير وقد شهدت مصر كغيرها من المقاصد السياحية

للمعالم السياحية التراثية من جانب المختلفةالتراث إبان ثورات الربيع العربى من خالل االنتهاكات

( ٢٠١6والعمل على تشويه الصورة الذهنية للمقصد السياحى المصرى من جانب آخر )عبدالمقصود،

الحركة السياحية الوافدة ومن ثم انخفاض االيرادات السياحية حجم انخفاضعلى النحو الذى ادى إلى

(. ٢٠١5عديدة )عياد، واجتماعية اقتصاديةالمتحققة وما يترتب على ذلك من مشكالت

وتتناول األجزاء التالية عرضا لكل من مفهوم اإلرهاب وأنواعه ، ومفهوم التراث وأنواعه ثم شرحا

راث الحضارى المصرى، ورصد دور صاالت المزادات الت مبسطا ألثر اإلرهاب على تدمير

العالمية، وفتاوى تدمير اآلثار.

وأنواعهأوال: مفهوم اإلرهاب

العنف المنظم بقصد إيجاد حالة من التهديد الموجه ضد الدولة أو استخداميقصد بمصطلح اإلرهاب

يديولوجى يرتبط عمل عنف أ ( كما يقصد به أىTilly,2004) الجماعة لتحقيق أغراض سياسية

(. وقد أثار مصطلح Lizardo,2003) جميع الوسائل لتحقيق تلك األهدافبأهداف سياسية والعمل ب

الدول فى واختلفتاإلرهاب على المستوى الدولى جدال فقهيا واسعا من الناحيتين القانونية والسياسية.

و قامت كل دولة بوضع التعريف مفهومه ومعناه مما ادى إلى صعوبة االتفاق على تعريف ملزم له

الذى يتناسب مع قوانينها الداخلية وما تتخذه من إجراءات قانونية ضده.



38

اإلقليمى العربى فقد سعت الدول العربية إلى مجتمع ونظرا لما يمثله اإلرهاب من خطورة على ال

ية لتعريف اإلرهاب االحترازية لمواجهته وذلك بموجب توقيع اتفاقية عرب اتخاذ مجموعة من التدابير

كل فعل من أفعال العنف أو التهديد أيا كانت دوافعه أو ( تنص على أن اإلرهاب هو٢٠٠9اهر،)الط

جماعى يهدف إلى إلقاء الرعب بين الناس أو ترويعهم أغراضه يقع لتنفيذ لمشروع اجرامى فردى أو

ئة أو بأحد المرافق أو األمالك حياتهم وأمنهم إلى الخطر وإلحاق الضرر بالبي أو تعريض حرياتهم أو

)عبد أحد الموارد الطبيعية إلى الخطر تعريض عليها أو االستيالءأو احتاللهاالعامة أو الخاصة أو

(.١995العال،

وقد شهد القرن الواحد والعشرون تصاعدا ملحوظا في وتيرة العمليات اإلرهابية وأصبحت الجريمة

( إذ أنها تنتقل بين الدول من حيث ٢٠١6برة للحدود والدول )نوار،اإلرهابية جريمة دولية وعالمية عا

العصر الحالى(. وتختلف أساليب و وسائل وأنواع اإلرهاب فى ٢٠٠6التخطيط والتنفيذ )العموش،

األعمال حيث أن (٢٠٠5سواء كان ذلك علي الصعيد الدولى أو اإلقليمى )الثقفى،عما كانت فيما سبق

تنوعا وتطورا فى تنفيذ هجماتها عما كانت من أهدافها باتت تتبع أساليبا أكثر اختالفاإلرهابية على

(.٢٠١٠قبل )الشهرى،

ويقصد به "جميع أعمال العنف وأعمال القمع األخرى اإلرهاب الدولىتتعدد أنواع اإلرهاب لتشمل و

(. ٢٠٠9ادى،)سع والحصول على حقها فى تقرير المصير د دولة تريد التحررالتى تمارسها دولة ض

اإلرهاب الدولى من أبشع أنواع اإلرهاب ضد اإلنسانية ألنه يعمل على تدمير الشعوب يعدو

( من خالل الصراع المسلح وفرض النفوذ والهيمنة علي الساحة الدولية ٢٠٠4)جعفر،

(Mesadieu,2013.) اإلرهاب الذى تتم هوو"إلرهاب المحلى أو االرهاب الداخلى اكما يوجد أيضا

تتجاوز حدودها مارسته داخل الدولة عبر جماعات ذات أهداف محددة داخل نطاق الدولة والم

بأى شكل من األشكال بعناصر خارجية دولية ويكون ارتباطوتستهدف تغير نظام الحكم وليس لها

(.كما يوجد أيضا ما يعرف ١١8،ص ٢٠٠8جميع منفذيها منتمين إلى جنسية نفس الدولة")حسانين،

"اإلرهاب التى تمارسه بعض األنظمة الحاكمة ضد شعوبها وعلى أراضيها وهوهاب الدولة إر باسم

مجموعة من األعمال والسياسات الحكومية التى الداخلية وهى أعمال اإلرهابية تقوم بها الدولة عبر

بهدف تحقيق األهداف التى ال تهدف إلى نشر الرعب بين المواطنين إلخضاعهم داخليا وخارجيا

والذى اإلرهاب الفكرى (.هذا باإلضافة إلى ٢٢5،ص٢٠١٠ستطيع الدولة الوصول إليها" )جمال،ت

" العنف المعنوى الذى يتضمن أعماال تصيب اإلنسان فى إرادته وتفكيره ووعيه لتغير يتمثل فى

( 3٠،ص٢٠٠3)حمزه، "وكبت الحريات وكل ما من شأنه مسلط على الفكر الوعى وخداع األفكار

البنية التحتية وتوقف تقويض لحركة التنمية االقتصادية وتدمير الذى يتضمن"ب االقتصادى إلرهااو

إلى تدمير المنشئات والمرافق األساسية وإشاعة حاله من باإلضافة االستثماريةكل أشكال التدفقات


39

ع على جمي الحالةهذه والطمأنينة فتؤثر تنتاب السوق من عدم االستقرار الرعب والفزع التى

والذى يعتمد عليه اإلرهاب اإلعالمى و( ٢٠١3)منصور، " القطاعات االستراتيجية االقتصادية

وبثها عبر المواقع اإللكترونية والمواقع عملياتهم اإلرهابية أفكارهم وتصوير رهابين تلك فى نشراإل

الصحفية لبث الخوف والرعب فى نفوس الشعوب وخفض معنوياتهم وتدمير مقاومتهم )جمال،

٢٠٠7 .)

ثانيا: مفهوم التراث وأنواعه

االمم ذات الحضارات ينبغى عليها أن تفخر بتراثها النه يعطى شعبها هويته وصفاته العريقة الممتدة

( .وقد ٢٠١٢بين األمم )المسافر، االزمان المختلفة، وتميزه عن الشعوب األخرى وتتفاخر به ما عبر

جتماعية بمجموعة متعددة من اآلراء عن حضارات الشعوب جاءت البحوث اإلنسانية والحضارية واال

( أن 3،ص٢٠١6(. وقد ذكر ديورنت )٢٠١١ومدى تأثيرها فى التاريخ اإلنسانى )التويجرى،

" نظام إجتماعى يعين اإلنسان على الزيادة من إنتاجه وأسلوب معيشى يدور حول إنسانية الحضارة

بمفهوم يميز األمة من العادات تاريخهختلفة من الم هفى حقب تطورهشعب من الشعوب برصد مدى

على التمسك بأخالقيتها األبداع فى مختلف الفنون وحرصها والتقاليد واسلوب حياة ومقدرتها على

محاوالت "أنها (الحضارة على٢٠،ص٢٠٠٢) خليل كما عرف ابو وقيمها الدينية مكونه حضارتها"

الطبيعة للوصول إلى مستوى استغاللتنظيم والعمل على وال والتفكير واالختراع لالستكشافاإلنسان

وعلومها فهى احدى مراحل وآدابهاحياة أفضل وهى حصيلة جهود األمة التى تأتى من رقى فنونها

التطور اإلنسانى فى عمارة االرض إلقامة حضارة عالمية تجعل األمة فى طليعة الشعوب

المتحضرة".

ال ان جميعها تتفق على كونه يمثل الذاكرة الجامعة للشعوب للحفاظ أما التراث فقد تعددت تعريفاته ا

عبر األجيال. و تأتي كلمة "التراث" فى صميم ينتقلروث على هويتها الوطنية من خالل المو

( على ١١١،صب٢٠٠9عرفة سيد ) قدو .ورثتهاإلنسان إلى الذى يخلفه اإلرثمن المصطلح اللغوى

صائص بشرية عميقة الجذور ويتناقل من جيل إلى آخر ويصمد أنه " شكل ثقافى مميز يعكس خ

على تشكيل وجدان الشعوب مكونا روحها الثقافية"، وهو قدرتهوينتقل عبر سلسلة زمنية ليعكس

( على انه ما خلفته اإلنسانية من ثقافة وعادات ٢٠١3المعنى األصلى للتراث" كما تناوله محمد )

ناتج عن عملية واالصطالحالسلف االجداد، وهو ما يرثه الناس عنهم، وتقاليد وسلوك نقلها أجيال عن

ألية أمة توارث موروثها ألجيال جيال بعد جيل لكى تحافظ على موروثها وشكلها واجتماعيةبيئية

الثقافى امام المتغيرات الزمنية.



4٠

إلى التراث التراثوتتعدد أنواع التراث لتشمل كال من التراث المادى والتراث الطبيعي. وينقسم

المعنوى. ويعرف التراث المادى على أنه هو" التراث الذى صنعه اإلنسان وكل ما يستطيع والمادى

لعامل التغير المستمر التى سعى اإلنسان إلى اكتسابهالمسه من عناصر واألشياء التى تخضع دائما

ارة بشكل عام كالمواقع األثرية حاجاته األساسية" ويتمثل التراث المادى فى العم إشباعمن أجل

وينقسم التراث المادى .(٢٠5،ص٢٠٠7والمدن المتبقية والمتاحف والمتاحف المفتوحة") حمادة ،

إلى باإلضافةليشمل التراث الثقافى الثابت مثل المدن والقرى والمدن التاريخية والمدن المندثرة

طرق الحج و والمحطات التجارية ت المالمل الخانات واالسواق وبيوالمبانى االقتصادية التى تش

(. بينما يشتمل التراث الثقافى المادى المنقول كما ٢٠١6والمسيحية )عزوق، المقدسة سواء االسالمية

( على ادوات الحياة المعيشية من اوانى الطبخ وانواع األثاث وادوات الزينة ٢٠١4) جاء به خفاجى

يل العلمية من احبار واقالم وااللواح الكتابية وجلود إلى ادوات التسج باإلضافةواشكال المالبس

الغزال والبرديات.

لهشاشتهأما التراث الثقافى )المعنوى( وهو احد انواع التراث المهدد باالنقراض بمرور الزمن نظرا

للحفاظ ٢٠٠3جاء التصديق على اتفاقية صون التراث المعنوى من قبل الدولة المصرية لعام وقد

تعريف التراث المعنوى فى تلك االتفاقية ليشتمل كافة " ث والهوية المصرية، وقد جاءعلى الترا

وقطع اآلالتوالمعارف والمهارات وما يرتبط بها من الممارسات والتصورات وأشكال التعبير

ومصنوعات وأماكن ثقافية تعتبرها الجماعات والمجموعات وأحيانا األفراد جزءا من تراثهم الثقافى

الجماعات والمجموعات من جديد بصورة مستمرة إبداعه ما تعيد المادى المتوارث جيل عن جيل رغي

بما يتفق مع بيئتها وتفاعالتها مع الطبيعة وتاريخها وهو ينمى لديها اإلحساس بهويتها والشعور

ث صون الترا اتفاقية) قافى والقدرة اإلبداعية البشرية"ويعزز من التنوع الث باستمراريتها

ومنها على سبيل المثال العادات والتقاليد الشعوب وهى األفعال والسلوكيات (.٢7،ص٢٠٠3الثقافى،

وتوديع، المراسيم المتعلقة باألكل والشرب، السبوع، الطهور، استقبالمثل، األعراس، االجتماعية

(. ١99١الجنازات )ابراهيم،

"ما المنظمات المعنية بالتراث الطبيعى على أنهأما التراث الطبيعى فقد جاء تعريفه من قبل احدى

ينطوى على ظواهر طبيعية منقطعة النظير أو يضم مناطق ذات جمال طبيعى إستثنائى وأهمية جمالية

فائقة النظير وبه أمثلة فريدة لمختلف مراحل األرض بما فى ذلك سجل الحياة األرض للعمليات

المعالم الفيزيوغرافية الهامة التشكيالت األرضية أو تطورالجيولوجية الهامة الجارية والمؤثرة فى

النظم البيئة األرضية والبيولوجية الهامة المؤثرة فى تطور األيكولوجيةويقدم أمثلة وفريدة للعمليات

العذبة ونظم األيكولوجية الساحلية والبحرية والجماعات النباتية المياهونظم

(.(Iunc,2008والحيوان"


4١

التراث الحضارى المصرى رهاب وأثر على تدميرثالثا: اإل

األمنى المصحوب بمجموعة من العمليات االنفالتحالة من ٢٠١١ناير شهدت مصر إبان ثورة ي

التكفيرى الفكر نشرتدمير التراث المصرى وطمث الهوية الوطنية و استهدفتاإلرهابية المنظمة التى

(. وقد نتج عن ذلك تدمير ٢٠١6، ياسين ٢٠١3يل ، قند٢٠١٢المتطرف تحت شعار الدين) القماش

العديد من المقومات التراثية التى تمتلكها الدولة فى مناطق عدة منها على سبيل المثال متحف ملوى

)نشرة وزارة ضم آثار تونة الجبل واألشمونيينكمتحف إقليمى ي ١963عام افتتاحهالذى تم

والنهب والتدمير فى منتصف شهر أغسطس عام والذى تعرض لعمليات السلب (٢٠١6اآلثار،

( من قبل إحدى الجماعات اإلرهابية ومن يتبعها من عصابات تهريب اآلثار ٢٠١3)الجندى، ٢٠١3

( حيث تم سرقة ألف وثالثة وأربعون قطعة من أصل ألف وتسعه وثامنون قطعة من ٢٠١3)الصقار،

فى مكانها نظرا لكبر حجمها )قطاع اآلثار المعروضات بينما تم تدمير ما تبقى من آثار المتحف

ستمائة ستة وخمسون قطعة من القطع المسروقة وترميم أغلبها استرداد(. وقد تم ٢٠١7المصرية،

(. ٢٠١7)قطاع المتاحف المصرية،

ومن األمثلة الحية أيضا على اإلرهاب السافر المدمر متحف الفن اإلسالمى بباب الخلق )دار اآلثار

سابقا( والذى بدأت فكرة إنشائه فى عهد الخديوى إسماعيل وتم افتتاحه في عهد الخديوى العربية

( ويحتوى على مائة ألف قطعة ليس لها مثيل كما ٢٠١5عباس حلمى )هيئة االستعالمات المصرية،

(. وقد تعرض ٢٠١7لغات )عزالدين، عدةيضم فى مكتبته ثالثة اآلف كتاب ومخطوطات نادرة من

التى كانت تستهدف مبنى من قبل احدى الجماعات اإلرهابية ٢٠١4للتدمير فى يناير عام المتحف

(. وقد أدى التفجير إلى تدمير واجهة المتحف ٢٠١4)المريدى، مديرية أمن القاهرة المقابلة للمتحف

للبيانات الصدرة عن قطاع ٢٠١4ومئات من القطع األثرية النادرة )صبرى، ( والتى تقدر وفقا

تم ترميم مائة تسعة وستون قطعة منها بينما ال أثريةالمتاحف بحوالى مائة وتسعه وسبعون قطعة

يستحيل ترميمها مرة أثريةتزال عمليات الترميم مستمرة لباقى القطع مع العلم أن هناك خمسة قطع

(. ٢٠١7أخرى )قطاع المتاحف المصرية،

١9٠٢خديوى عباس حلمى واكتمل بناءه عام كما تعرض المتحف المصرى الذى أنشا فى عهد ال

المصرية ذات شكل من الطراز المعمارى فريد خليط من بين اليوناني والرومانى كمتحف لآلثار

( إلى عملية سرقة ونهب ممنهجة من قبل عصابات فى يوم ٢٠١7) بوابة محافظة القاهرة، والفرنسى

ت محتوياتها وسرقة ستة وخمسون قطعة بتحطيم ثالثة عشر فاترينة عرض وبعثر ٢٠١١يناير ٢8



4٢

لبيانات الصدرة من قطاع المتاحف أثرية تم استرداد سبعة وثالثون قطعة والباقى مفقود وفقا

(.٢٠١7المصرية)

هذا وقد تعرضت أيضا العديد من مخازن اآلثار للسرقة والنهب من قبل العصابات المسلحة

( منها مخزن ميت رهينة بالبدرشين بمحافظة ٢٠١١)والجماعات اإلرهابية. فقد ذكر عبد العليم

الجيزة و مخزن أسوان بجزيرة فيلة ومخزن بعثة متحف المتروبوليتان بدهشور وكذلك مخازن تل

( إلى سرقة مخزن سليم ٢٠١١الفراعين وبنى سويف وسقارة وقنطرة شرق. كما أشار الدخاخنى )

ومخزن تل بسطة. هذا وقد افاد باإلسكندريةحسن بالهرم ومخزن المتحف الرومانى بمصطفى كامل

الدخاخنى أيضا إلى تعرض المقابر الفرعونية لعمليات السطو والسرقة كما هو الحال في مقبرة إيمبى

صير ومنطقة شبس ونخن بمنطقة ابو –كا ومقبرتى بتاح - بالقرب من تمثال أبو الهول ومقبرة حتب

( إلى تكسير قفل ٢٠١7كما افاد قطاع اآلثار المصرية )مقابر ابيدوس التى تعرضت للحفر خلسة.

والنبش العشوائى لها وتشوية جزء صغير فى أحد مناظر مائدة القرابين بالمقبرة وتكسير N20مقبرة

.حمر مع عدم العبث بهمااال أقفال مقابر كل من جبل الهجرسة بسوهاج وجبل الدير

( أن بعض Ikram,2013) فقد ذكر األثريةألراضى أما فيما يتعلق بالحفر خلسة والتنقيب فى ا

بحوالى واحد وخمسون فدان من على مساحة تقدر باالستيالءقد قاموا صير األهالى بمنطقة أبو

األراضي البكر التى لم يتم التنقيب فيها على اآلثار مسبقا والتى تحتوى على مجموعة من المقابر

( أن منطقة ميت رهينة قد تم التعدى عليها وانتشرت بها ٢٠١7األثرية الهامة . كما أوضح )عفيفى،

كما أوضح لحالة الفراغ األمني. استغالالعلى األراضى التابعة لآلثار واالستيالءعمليات التنقيب

(Eldorry,2013 أن عددا من المواقع المحفورة بمنطقة الليشت قد تعرضت لعمليات نهب ممنهج )

م تدمير العديد من المقابر المكتشفة من قبل المهربين وسرقة المقابر ومنظم بحثا عن اآلثار كما ت

على األراضى األثرية بمنطقة االستيالء( أنه قد تم Hanaa,2013وتهشيم المومياوات بينما ذكر )

دهشور وتم التنقيب والحفر خلسة فى منطقة المقابر األثرية من قبل االهالى الذين قاموا فيما بعد بإعادة

.تمت بالمنطقة تلك األراضى فى بناء مقابر جديدة بغرض التستر على عمليات النهب التى اماستخد

وقد تعرضت أيضا اآلثار االسالمية لعمليات سرقة وتدمير ممنهج إذ قامت عصابات مسلحة بالهجوم

. ٢٠١١أبان حالة االنفالت االمنى التى شهدتها مصر فى اعقاب يناير على مناطق اآلثار االسالمية،

ومن أمثلة ذلك حرق قسم جمالية اآلثرى وهجمات من افراد عصابات التهريب على كل من سبيل

ثرى وبوابته الحديدية كما شهدت الوكاالت ألبطنطا والذى نتج عنه تحطيم اثاثة ا محمد على الكبير

الحرمين والجداوى بأسنا و باإلسكندرية هجمات مماثلة مثلما حدث بوكاالت الناضورة األثرية

الفريدة األثريةبمنطقة الحسين كما تم تدمير خان الزكارشة الذى يضم مجموعة من البيوت االسالمية

(.٢٠١١)عبد العليم،


43

هذا وقد صاحب تعدد وتنوع السرقات وعمليات السلب والنهب والتنقيب غير المشروع والحفر خلسة

خالل فترة لتعاون مع الجماعات اإلرهابيةبا والسطو على المخازن من قبل عصابات تهريب اآلثار

سماسرة التهريب الذين اتخذوا من انتشارإلى Teijgeler,2013)) ٢٠١١ التى أعقبت ثورة االنفالت

خلفيا لتجارة اآلثار الغير مشروعة )المنسى، صاالت المزادات ومواقع العرض اإللكترونى بابا

المستردة بالتعاون مع وزارة الخارجية دارة اآلثارالظاهرة تقوم إ لهذهوفى إطار التصدى .(٢٠١7

المصرية بتتبع صاالت المزادات ومواقع العرض لوقف عمليات بيع اآلثار المسروقة من الدولة

فيها صاالت المزادات تقوم احقيتها، والسيما ان تلك الدول التى تنتشر ألثباتبتدعيمها بالمستندات

( وقد أفادت إدارة االثار٢٠١5ة بيع اآلثار على أراضيها )شوقى، بتوفير الحماية القانونية لسماسر

( بأسماء أشهر صاالت المزادات العالمية ومواقع العرض االلكترونى التى تقوم ٢٠١7المستردة )

، ومنها على سبيل المثال مواقع إى أباى وإينفية والمسروقةالمنهوب يةالمصر ثاراآل عرض وبيعب

الت المزادات العالمية مثل اليف لوكشينر وسوثبى ودانيال كولوس وويبدون البول اإللكترونية وصا

وبونهامز وكريستى وبركات جاليرى .

وما تالها من أحداث وتغيرات جمة على الصعيدين السياسى ٢٠١١كما شهدت مصر أيضا إبان ثورة

ظهور الجماعات واالجتماعى خاصة فى تلك الفترة التى إعتلى فيها التيار المتطرف السلطة و

المتطرفة والمتشددة فى المشهد وشيوع الفتاوى الغريبة بتحريم اآلثار وتحريم العمل فيها )العمرى،

( والتى تناولتها مجموعات مختلفة من التيارات اإلرهابية. والتى جاء منها على سبيل المثال ٢٠١7

تعد من االصنام ألنهاحف بالشمع الفتوى بتغطية التماثيل واآلثار التى تتواجد فى المعابد والمتا

. وبتسليط الضوء من جهة االعالم على تلك القضية الهامة لتغير الهوية الوطنية ببث (٢٠١٢)عزت،

. كما والفنادق والسياحة وتحريم العمل فى مجاالت معينة ومنها اآلثار الكراهيةالسموم التى تعمل على

كل من االهرامات وابو دميرع وغيرها توصى بتعن طريق البي ظهرت فتاوى التخلص من اآلثار

تنظيم داعش اإلرهابى (.هذا وقد انتهز٢٠١5،حامد، ٢٠١5تحض على الشرك )زكريا، ألنهاالهول

االهرامات وابو الهول بتفجير المصريةاإلرهاب االعالمى ببث فيديو يقوم فيه بتهديد السلطات

(.٢٠١6، ناسةتدمير)لرفع راية االبادة وال والمعابد القديمة كما فعلوا فى سوريا والعراق

الدراسة الميدانية واختبار صحة الفرض

تمثل الشق الميدانى من الدراسة فى القيام بزيارات لكل من وزارتى اآلثار والسياحة والمجلس األعلى

-Semiوتضمنت تلك الزيارات إجراء مقابالت شخصية مقننة سياحةهيئة تنشيط اللآلثار و

Structured) االعتماد( مع مجموعة من الخبراء المتخصصين بكل من تلك األجهزة المعنية. وقد تم



44

صياغة أسئلة المقابالت الشخصية على القراءات فى المراجع السابقة والتحليل للبيانات ذات فى

الصلة بموضوع الدراسة.

واقع عشرة خبراء من قطاع وقد بلغ عدد الخبراء الذين شملتهم عينة الدراسة خمسة عشر خبيرا ب

وتم تحليل البيانات المجمعة سواء من المقابالت الشخصية أو وخمسة من قطاع السياحة. اآلثار

ومنهم مدير األثريينكما تم مقابلة العديد من الخبراء أسلوب التحليل الكيفى. باستخدامالمالحظة

كما األثريةادارة االثار المستردة و المسئول الفنى لمكتب الوزير واحدى المسئولين عن إدارة المنافذ

إلى المسئول ادارة باإلضافةتم ايضا مقابلة الخبراء السياحين ومنهم مسئول المكتب االعالمى للوزارة

البحوث، كما تعذر مقابلة وزارى اآلثار والسياحة.

لدراسةفرض ا

على الركيزة يصاحبهإن اإلرهاب وما الذى األساسيةمن عمليات تدمير ونهب للتراث يؤثر سلبا

يعتمد عليها المقصد السياحى المصرى من تراث الحضارة المصرية.

ن إ وقد اثبتت نتائج التحليل الميدانى والتى سيتم عرضها في الجزء التالى صحة فرضية الدراسة من

يصاحبه من عمليات تدمير ونهب للتراث يؤثر سلبا على الركيزة األساسية الذى يعتمد اإلرهاب وما

عليها المقصد السياحى المصرى إذ أن التراث المصرى وما يعكسه من هوية الحضارة المصرية هو

أحد المقومات األساسية لصناعة السياحة المصرية وال سيما السياحة الثقافية التى تأثرت كثيرا من

األحداث السياسية الغير مستقرة التى شهدتها الدولة فى تلك الفترة العصيبة من تاريخها العريق اءجر

وتذبذب وضعها التنافسى على من الحركة السياحة العالمية نصيب مصر انخفاضوالتى ترتب عليها

خريطة العالم السياحية.


تائج يمكن تلخيصها فيما يلى: توصلت الدراسة الحالية إلى مجموعة من الن

أو رقمى لآلثار مما قد يسهل عمليات التعدى عليها بالسلب والنهب إلكترونىعدم وجود توثيق -

بعد محو السجالت الورقية التى تثبت ملكية الدولة لتلك اآلثار ومن ثم ضياع حقها فى

استردادها.

ومات بين اإلدارات المختلفة داخل عدم وجود قاعدة بيانات إلكترونية لتسهيل تداول المعل -

وخارج وزارة اآلثار.

وزارة اآلثار إلى البيانات الدقيقة عن حجم اآلثار التى تمت سرقتها بطريقة صريحة افتقار -

وواضحة عن حجم االعداد المنهوبة والمسروقة.


45

اآلثار بدور مشهود البرية( بوزارة والبحرية، )الجوية، األثريةقامت إدارة تقيم ومتابعة المنافذ -

االنفالتخالل فترة خروجها من مصر الهامة قبل األثريةفى منع تهريب العديد من القطع

األمنى وماتالها من فترات عصيبة.

قامت إدارة اآلثار المستردة بالوزارة بالتعاون مع وزارة الخارجية المصرية واالجهزة -

التى خرجت بطريقة غير مشروعة األثرية القطع استردادالسيادية بالدولة بدور هائل فى

والتى لديها سجالت و وثائق إثبات ملكية الدولة لها وذلك من خالل تعقب مواقع العرض

ورفع القضايا الدولية. لألثروصاالت المزادات وتقديم االوراق الثبوتية

األمنى وهى القوة االنفالتقامت القوات المسلحة المصرية بحماية اآلثار والمتاحف أثناء فترة -

أو وقوع حرب إذ جاءت نتيجة استثنائيةالحامية والفاعلة للحماية أثناء حدوث أحداث

على ان القوات المسلحة المصرية كانت لها الفضل فى حماية اآلثار باإلجماعالمقابالت

والمتاحف . وبالرغم مما حدث من عمليات السطو المسلح على مخازن اآلثار او المناطق

يقارن بما حدث فى بعض الدول العربية األخرى التى دخلت فى نطاق ما فإن ذلك ال ثريةاأل

يعرف بالربيع العربى.

هناك قصورا فى الدور الذى يقوم به خفراء اآلثار نظرا لضعف االمكانيات المادية لوزارة -

مين المناطق اآلثار وما يترتب على ذلك من عدم استخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة فى عمليات تأ

والمخازن وانخفاض مستوى التدريب الذى يحصل عليه الخفراء المعنيين بحماية األثرية

عن ضعف مستوى ما لديهم من أسلحة فى مقابل األسلحة ومخازن اآلثار فضال األثريةالمواقع

الحديثة التى تستخدمها عصابات السلب والنهب.

والتى لم يكن قد تم المهربةة استرداد اآلثار وزارة اآلثار مشكالت ملموسة فى عملي تواجه -

تسجيلها بعد سواء تلك التى تم العثور عليها عن طريق الحفر أو التنقيب او التى تمت سرقتها

وخرجت من مصر بطرق غير مشروعة حيث ال يتوافر لدى األثريةمن مخازن البعثات

استردادجبها إثبات احقية الدولة فى الوزارة فى هذه الحالة المستندات الثبوتية التى يتم بمو

. ويرجع ذلك إلى وجود عوار قانونى فى اتفاقية اليونسكو لحماية التراث واالتجار غير األثر

بتقديم ما األثرمشروع فى اآلثار والتى ينص أحد بنودها على انه يجب ان تقوم الدولة صاحبة

للدولة التى األثرول ؤل تعذر ذلك يفى حا. واستردادهالمراد لألثريفيد من صكوك ملكيتها

يوجد بها او يقع على اراضيها ويحتسب من التراث اإلنسانى الخاص بها.

المصرية العريقة قصور مستوى الوعى الثقافى لدى بعض فئات المجتمع المحلى بأهمية اآلثار -

قيام بهويتهم حاضرا ومستقبال مما يترتب عليه ارتباطهوالتراث الحضارى المصرى ومدى

البعض من ضعاف النفوس بالتنقيب والحفر خلسة عن اآلثار فضال عن انتشار سماسرة



46

التهريب المدعومين من جهات أجنبية باإلضافة إلي الدور الذى تلعبه صاالت المزادات

العالمية فى عرض اآلثار المهربة والتى تفسح المجال أمام للقائمين على سلب ونهب وتهريب

لتسويق وبيع ما لديهم من مقتنيات. اآلثار المصرية

اليونسكو لحماية التراث واآلثار فى وقت النزاع المسلح إذ اتفاقية التى تشير إليه دورالقصور -

للعمليات اإلرهابية وما تم من سطو واالستنكارفقط بالشجب واإلدانة اكتفتأن المنظمة قد

فعلى لحماية التراث المصرى ومقدراته.مسلح من قبل العصابات المسلحة دون تقديم العون ال

كنتيجة غير مباشرة لما شهدته الدولة من ضعف الموارد المالية المتحققة لوزارة اآلثار -

مستوى الطلب السياحى على مصر ومن انخفاضالعمليات اإلرهابية وما ترتب على ذلك من

التى تعتمد عليها ثريةاألمثل إيرادات المتاحف والمزارات اإليرادات السياحية فاضانخثم

وزارة اآلثار كأحد مواردها المالية فضال عن قيام العديد من وكاالت السياحة الدولية بإلغاء

برامجها السياحية الثقافية إلى مصر والذى أثر بشكل سلبى على الميزان السياحى وميزان

لى عدم قدرتها على شديد فى ميزانية الوزارة أدى إ انخفاضالمدفوعات بالدولة ومن ثم حدث

من عمليات األثريةوتغطية التكاليف االمنية التى تحتاجها المناطق األثريةاستكمال المشاريع

.هغيرتأمين و

التوصيات

توصلت الدراسة إلى مجموعة من التوصيات التى من شأنها حماية التراث واآلثار

ة تلك التى تأتى فى المصرية من التعديات المصاحبة لفترات االنفالت األمنى وخاص

صورة هجمات إرهابية وتهديدات بالتدمير من أهمها:

قيام وزارة اآلثار بالتعاون مع الجهات المعنية بإقامة مشروع تكنولوجى لربط البيانات اإلدارية -

الخاصة باآلثار والمتاحف على مستوى إدارات وربطها بمكاتب الوزارة فى المحافظات

ادل المعلومات وتحقيق الدقة والشفافية فيها. األخرى لتسهيل عملية تب

البصمة باستخدام األثريةالتقنيات الحديثة فى المسح الرقمى للقطع استخدامالعمل على -

توجد على األراضى المصرية. أثريةاإللكترونية لكل قطعة

ال سيما قيام وزارتى اآلثار والسياحة بوضع بروتكول تفاهم للتعاون والتنسيق فيما بينهما و -

حتى ال يؤثر ذلك األثريةفيما يتعلق بتغيير سياسات التسعير الخاصة برسوم زيارة المناطق

سلبا على عمليات بيع البرامج السياحة المصرية فى الخارج نتيجة لفروق األسعار الغير معلنة

مسبقا.


47

ولوجيا المحاكاة التكن باستخدامقيام وزارة اآلثار بالعمل على تطوير موقعها اإللكترونى -

غات المتعددة المستخدمة فى عرض محتوى الموقع.لبال

التراث المصرى من قيام الدولة بتبنى مشروع قومى بالتعاون مع كافة االجهزة المعنية لحماية -

االنتهاكات والتعديات التى قد يتعرض لها ليس فقط فى فترات النزاع بل أيضا فى فترات

السلم.

المراجع

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جديدة إلرهاب ،مجلة ألشكال،اإلرهاب الدولى واسلحة الدمار الشامل ٢٠١6نوار،شهرزاد، -

مجلة التواصل فى جامعة باجى مختار، كلية الحقوق، االدارة واالقتصاد والقانون،التواصل فى

.٢١-8، ص 45االدارة واالقتصاد والقانون ،الجزائر، ع

،العزب،الطيب، اثارنا التاريخية اعتزاز بالماضى ام نظرة حرام، ٢٠١3محمد الطاهر، هجرس، -

http://www.alyaum.com/articles/86 م.٢٢:4٠ابريل،س١4،صحيفةاليوم،السعودية

رئاسة تاريخ متحف الفن االسالمى، ،المتاحف القاهرة،٢٠١5هيئة االستعالمات المصرية، -

www.sis.gov.eg.. مصر الجمهورية،

، ١4٠ام، مصر، سيونيو، جريدة االهر 3٠، استرداد الهوية المصرية فى ٢٠١6ياسين، سيد، -

يوليو.7، 4733٠ع

http://www.gate.aharam.org.eg/

https://www.youm7.com/story/2011/3/3/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%25

http://www.alwafd.news/

https://www.dar.akhbarelyom.com/issuse/detailze.asp?mag=ak&

https://alwafd.news/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AD%25

http://www.ssrcaw.org/

http://www.alsabaah.iqhttps/

http://www.cairo.gov.eg/

https://www.elfagr.com/2169130

http://www.alyaum.com/articles/86



5٠

اإلنجليزيةثانيا: المراجع باللغة -Aldorry,m,2011,Why Do People Loot?The Case of The Egyptian

Revolution, Rawi Magazine Heritage,Egypt,No2.

-Hanna,M,2013,What Has Happened to Egyptian after The 2011 Unfinished

Revolution, Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage

,Penn Stat Unvi Pres, Vol1,No4, pp371-375.

-Ikram,S,2014,Cultural Heritage in Times of Crisis The View from Egypt,

Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies,Penn

Stat Unvi Press,vol1,No4 ,pp366-371.

-Kumar,R. S,2002,Impact of Usled War on Terrorism,Econmic And

Political Weekly,Vol37,No33,pp3414-3419.

-Lizardo,O,Bergesen,A,2003,Types of Terrorism by World System

Location, Hum Boldt Journal of Social Relations,Dep of Sociology, Hum

Boldt State Unvi, Vol27,No2,pp162-192.

-Mesadieu,J,2013,Is Terrorism Inver Table The Immortality of Terrorism,

Faculty of The School of Continuing Studies, Arts in Liberal Studies,

Georgetown University Washington, D.C, Published M.A .

-Teijgeler, R,2013, Politice and Heritage in Egypt One and a Half Years The

Lotus Revolution , Journal of The World Archaeological Congress, Owner of

Culture in Development

Tilly,C,2004,Terror,Terrorism,Terrorists,AmaericanSociological,Usa,Vol22,

No1, pp1-25.

Abstract

Since the 2011 Revolution, Egypt has witnessed several phases of chaos

and political unrest that has consequently resulted in various undesired

outcomes regarding the country’s tourism sector and heritage

belongings. During such period, a number of terrorist groups have

managed to spread in many areas of the country. Besides, international

smuggling groups as well as local smuggling and exploration brokers

became also active. As a result, the Egyptian cultural heritage was

exposed to a series of vulnerable and systematic looting and destruction.

The current study aims at exploring the violations that the Egyptian

antiquities have been subject to in the period between 2011 and 2016


5١

and its consequent economic, social and cultural repercussions on the

country in addition to the drawbacks that the Egyptian tourism sector has

encountered as a result of such violations. The study also highlights the

role of auctions halls and electronic display sites in the exhibition of

stolen and looting antiquities. The theoretical part of the study was based

on the collection of secondary data from various relevant sources

including books, published research articles, publications, periodicals,

reports and other related scientific references, while the field study

included the collection of rich qualitative data through the conduction of

semi-structured interviews with some tourism and archeological experts

in the Ministries of Tourism and Antiquities as well as the Egyptian

Tourist Authority and the Supreme Council of Antiquities. The study

also included a field visit to Al-Moez Street in Cairo. The study

highlighted some of the problems facing the tourism and archeology

sectors in relation to the various violations that the Egyptian cultural

heritage has been exposed since to 2011 and proposed some the means

of eliminating these problems. The study also highlighted the good

practices carried out by the official bodies concerned with protecting

Egyptian antiquities and retaining the ones that have been looted and

illegally sent outside Egypt.

Keywords Terrorism - Cultural Heritage – Archeology - Looting of

Monuments - Destruction of Heritage.

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Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis

A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt

Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi, Mohamed Hany Bahey, Tamer Abbas

Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University

Abstract: Hotel performance is the main driver behind profitability. Many factors contribute to this performance. The purpose of this study is to derive the underlying structure of hotel performance in a 5- stars hotel in Egypt using factor analysis. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartletts test of sphericity were used to test the appropriateness of factor analysis on the data. The sample size appropriateness was also discussed. Factor analysis was performed using seventeen hotel measurements to rank their relative significance. Principal Component Analysis was also used for component extraction and varimax method for rotation, four factors are selected based on Cattell's scree plot and on the conditioned extraction of the percentage of variance which accounted for 89.6% of the variations in the original variables. The analysis uses real hotel data from 2006 to 2015 and is highlighting the degree of importance of the customer segment factor that proved to be efficient in the hotel performance structure. This statistical implementation was done using SPSS version 20.

Keywords: Hotel Performance, Principal Component Analysis, varimax, customer segmentation, hotel internal drivers.

1 - Introduction: On picking up the Income Statement of any hotel operation, it can be noticed that, between 80% and 90% of Total Revenues are contributed by rooms and food and beverage departments. These two are the major revenue as well as profit contributors of a hotel operation. However, between the two departments there are very little similarities other than that they tend to complement each other in a hotel operation.

Identifying Hotel Performance Structure Using Factor Analysis A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel in Egypt


2

Rooms, as a product is less flexible than food & beverage. Rooms are a much more structured operation than food and beverage. Rooms operation has a limited number of products compared to food & beverage ones, which boasts a varied number of offerings.

Rooms and food and beverage functions differ significantly in cost elements. Although both have common categories of costs, there are costs that are unique to the food and beverage operation only which are: cost of food, cost-of beverage, operating equipment, live Entertainment, Rooms department costs tend to range between 15% and 25% of revenues. This is much higher in the Food & Beverage department between 50% and 60%. These have significant profitability implications. (Narasimhan, 2017)

Modern hotel management plays an important role in decision making and can be performed using statistical techniques applied to historical data.

The exploratory factor analysis method used discovers the number of factors representing the measured variables, this set of variables holds some patterns inside and the role of factor analysis is to discover these patterns and regroup variables into a limited set of factors based on the shared variance extracted that explores how much each factor contributed to the hotel performance variance, this reduces dimensionality into a smaller set of unobserved variables called factors that are used to represent variables (Bartholomew, Knotts & Moustaki, 2011).

Turning to hotel management elements, customer segmentation is one of the most fundamental concepts in modern management in general (Kotler and Armstrong, 2010). The importance of customer segmentation comes from the fact that some customer segments are highly profitable, some are moderately profitable, and some are unprofitable. This importance of hotel Customer segmentation as stated by (Olsen, 2005) grows even more in the context of developments in hotel management facing intense competition, sophisticated and increasingly demanding customers. Accordingly customer segmentation is considered as a powerful means to identify unmet customer needs. Hotels that identify underserved segments of customers can then outperform the competition by developing uniquely appealing products and services, this can have a great effect on hotel profitability in that, by dividing customers into different groups that share similar needs, the hotel can market to each group

Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

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differently and focus on what each kind of customer needs at any given moment. Large or small customer segments can be targeted depending on the hotel's resources or needs. Segments are often determined on the basis of customer similarities, such as personal characteristics, preferences or behaviors. Ideally, segments should correlate to behaviors that drive customer profitability (Epstein, Freidl and Yuthas, 2008).

In modern lodging industry, profitability analysis in general is a tool which enables managers to evaluate company’s performance. Although almost all hotels have processes for assessing the profitability of their products and services, most are far behind in assessing their customers’ profitability (Cross & Dixit, 2006). This explains the reason for which customer profitability analysis in modern lodging industry is becoming one of the most fundamental concepts in modern hotel management used to figure out the profitability of each customer segment, it is then obvious that customer segmentation and customer profitability analysis are two sides of one coin.

This study focused on main variables constituting hotel operation such as: Customer segments revenues RevCS1; RevCS2; RevCS3; RevCS4; RevCS5, Rooms Profit, Rooms Revenue, Room Variable Costs that are incurred when a unit of capacity is sold, for example, the additional energy, water, cleaning cost and the cost of breakfast (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012), Room Fixed Costs which are costs that must be paid regardless of the volume of units sold, for example cost of loans, wages, equipment, advertising, and energy regardless of its occupancy rates (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012), food and beverage profit, food and beverage revenue, food and beverage variable Costs that are the sum of payroll, benefits and training costs and maintenance (Kotas, 2014), food and beverage fixed costs are that spent in marketing, advertising, management salaries, office operations, wages and the associated benefits (Kotas, 2014), house Profit also called “gross operating profit” (GOP) is used primarily as a measurement of management’s ability to maximize revenues, control expenses and maximize profits (Hales, 2006), Management Fees also called “percentage fees” can be defined when the hotel owners rented out the property to a hotel company for management and the rental agreement was based on a percentage of total sales (Sungchon & Yu, 2012), FF&E are movable furniture, fixtures and other equipment that have no permanent connection to the structure of a building or utilities, for example desks, chairs, computers, electronic equipment tables, bookcases and partitions (Waymon, 98), and lastly incentive


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Fees also called “performance fees” are considered to induce fund managers to work harder on portfolio optimization as they participate in any excess return they are going to realize (Gregoriou, 2008) to clarify the role of customer segmentation and main hotel departments using factor analysis statistical method.

Customer segments are identified based on the management strategy and policy of the investigated hotel that has its own rule for guest categorization. Results obtained are interpreted through the percentage rotated variance that identifies how much each factor contributed to the hotel profitability structure.

2- Objectives:

This paper focuses on extracting factors constituting the structure of the hotel investigated using a set of the main observed variables in the main departments of the hotel which are Food & Beverage and Rooms departments in accordance with the Customer map variables that form the main revenue generators in hotel operation and some other expenses.

The research was conducted using purely quantitative statistical method to estimate the underlying structure of the hotel by first proposing drivers which are the seventeen observed variables defined as shown in table (1) such as: customer segment 1, customer segment 2, customer segment 3, customer segment 4, customer segment 5, rooms profit, rooms revenue, room variable costs, room fixed costs, total F&B profit, F&B revenue, F&B variable costs, F&B fixed costs, House profit, Management fees, FF&E, Incentive fees.

Descriptive statistics and correlations of the observed variables are introduced and followed by the Factor analysis used to identify the underlying structure of the hotel performance measures; principal component method is used for extraction and varimax method for rotation. This preliminary study was conducted using SPSS and results of the hotel structure are interpreted using statistical measures to understand the important dimensions of the hotel performance that can be relevant in defining policies affecting its profit.

3- Methodology and Results:

In this paper, Results are inseparable from the methodology as both of them are complementary to each other.

Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

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The internal drivers above mentioned used in this analysis were measured monthly during the period from 2006 to 2015 giving a total sample size of 120 months and customer segments are identified based on the management strategy and policy of the investigated hotel that has its own rule for guest categorization.

3-a) Investigating the sample size

The population of this study is the life time of the investigated 5star hotel since it starts working till now with a total of 276 months that represents the monthly measurements over 23 years, the working age of the hotel. The sample size collected and analyzed is 120 months that represent 43.5% of the total population that is the sampling frame of the data during 10 years from 2006 to 2015 representing 120 cases with no missing values of the measured drivers.

General recommendations for determining the minimum sample size in factor analysis relies on two main philosophies, one depends on determining the absolute number of cases (N), while the other depends on the subject-to-variable ratio (p). Arrindell and van der Ende (1985) used two large empirical data sets that have 1104 cases and 960 cases respectively to examine the minimum sample sizes and subject to variable ratios (STV) that can produce stable factor structure. By drawing sub-samples from the two large data sets, the authors found that: For the first data set, which had 76 variables, the minimum STV ratio that required to produce clear, recognizable factor solution was 1.3 and the corresponding sample size (N) was 100; and for the second data set, which has 20 variables, the minimum STV ratio was 3.9 and the corresponding sample size (N) was 78.

Kline (1979) stated that “There should be at least twice as many subjects as variables in factor-analytic investigations. This means that in any large study on this account alone, one should have to use more than the minimum 100 subjects”. Gorsuch (1983) recommended at least 100 cases.

Hatcher (1994) recommended that the number of subjects should be the larger of 5 times the number of variables, or 100. The subjects-to-variables ratio should be not lower than 5. (Bryant and Yarnold, 1995). Also, Fabrigar et al. (1999) determined that samples as low as 100 could yield stable solutions.


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Statistical Research Findings on Minimum Sample Size has shed light on the issue of establishing a minimum desirable level of sample size, these studies used either artificial or empirical data to investigate the minimum sample size or STV ratio, MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang & Hong (1999) conducted a Monte Carlo Study on sample size effects they obtained an excellent recovery (100% convergence) of population factor structure with a sample size (N) of 60 and 20 variables. However, this result was obtained only when the level of communality(over .7 in average or all communalities should be greater than .6)

Preacher & MacCallum (2002) concluded that: “researchers and reviewers should not be overly concerned about small sample sizes as long as communalities are high, the number of expected factors is relatively small, and model error is low (a condition which often goes hand-in-hand with high communalities)”. Garson (2008) stated that more subjects are needed when communalities are low and/or few variables load on each factor.

Jung and Lee (2011) analyzed the outcomes of the factor extraction methods maximum likelihood factor analysis (MLFA), principle component analysis (PCA), and regularized exploratory factor analysis (REFA) using sample sizes less than 50. They found stable factor-loading estimates with samples of 50 cases or less.

However, the main take-away message from recent simulation studies would probably be that the quality of the results vary so much depending on the communalities, on the number of factors or the factors-to-variables ratio, etc., and that considering the variables-to-observations ratio is not a good way to decide on the required number of observations. If the conditions are auspicious, the researcher might be able to get away with a lot fewer observations than old guidelines would suggest but even the most conservative guidelines are too optimistic in some cases. (Mundfrom, et al., 2005 and De Winter, et al., 2009).

3-b) Descriptive statistical data analysis

The pre-analysis of the standardized data show a great tendency to normality explored by the descriptive statistics measurements listed in table (1). All descriptive statistics in table (1) were found significant, skewness were bounded between ± 2; kurtosis between ± 3 and confirmed no major issue ofnon–normality of the data as well as an acceptable linearity relationship

Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

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CommunalitiesSkewness

with St. error = 0.221

Kurtosis with St. error =

0.438

Mean (Standardized)

St. Deviation (Standardized)

Correlations

CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4 CS5CS1 .956 1.028 1.573 -.00002 1.004169 1 0.961 0.945 0.871 0.400CS2 .967 1.069 2.156 -.00007 1.004191 0.961 1 0.951 0.895 0.384CS3 .950 1.775 2.717 .00001 1.004176 0.945 0.951 1 0.857 0.309CS4 .873 1.149 1.419 -.00002 1.004209 0.871 0.895 0.857 1 0.384CS5 .616 1.554 1.144 .00002 1.004137 0.400 0.384 0.309 0.384 1

Room ProfitRoom

RevenueRoom V.Cost

Room F.Cost

Room Profit .942 -.888 1.796 .00002 1.004177 1 0.883 -0.438 -0.912

Room Revenue .963 -.763 2.461 .00002 1.004180 0.883 1 -0.352 -0.844

Room V. Cost .827 .072 .647 .00002 1.004207 -0.438 -0.352 1 0.426

Room F. Cost .953 1.207 2.004 -.00002 1.004167 -0.912 -0.844 0.426 1

F&B ProfitF&B

RevenueF&B

V.CostF&B

F.CostF&B Profit .948 .496 .048 -.00002 1.004197 1 0.978 -0.84 -0.796

F&B Revenue .940 .469 .198 -.00001 1.004227 0.978 1 -0.867 -0.79

F&B V. Cost .820 .030 .342 .00002 1.004133 -0.84 -0.867 1 0.728

F&B F. Cost .747 -.064 -1.084 .00004 1.004229 -0.796 -0.79 0.728 1

House Profit Mgt Fees FF&EIncentive

FeesHouse Profit .914 .216 -1.272 .00001 1.004221 1 -0.826 -0.82 -0.807

Mgt Fees .953 .118 -1.256 -.00003 1.004208 -0.826 1 0.994 0.979

FF&E .947 .205 -1.230 .00001 1.004203 -0.82 0.994 1 0.987

Incentive Fees .927 .275 -1.188 .00003 1.004220 -0.807 0.979 0.987 1

* N◦ of valid data = 120 and zero missing values

between measured variables which can be seen in the matrix scatter plot shown in figures (2a), (2b), (2c) and (2d). The extracted communalities expressed in table (1) represent the proportion of each variable’s variance that can be explained by the factors.

Table (1) Descriptive and correlation statistics



8

Figure (2a) Figure (2b)

Figure (2c) Figure (2d) Figure (2) Aggregated Matrix Scatter plot for customer segments, rooms, F&B and profit in the studied hotel The measured data was statistically analyzed using factor analysis with principal component extraction and varimax rotation to relate observed variables into smaller number of components called principle components using Kaiser’s criteria, the result of this test as shown in table (2) is > 0.5 indicates that the sample size is sufficient and the p-value of Bartlett’s test that is < 0.05 is indicating that the correlation matrix is not an identity matrix and there is a need for factor analysis.

The KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity values are shown in table (2), where KMO=0.903 is accepted as a good measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity confirms rejecting the null hypothesis that the original correlation matrix is an identity matrix.

Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi Mohamed Hany Bahey Tamer Abbas


9

Table (2) KMO for Hotel Drivers segments

3-c) Factor Analysis model The hotel has income from different departments associated with different customer segments, profit and expenses in different departments. The problem is to associate group of variables to some factors that can conclude and describe hotel performance structure.

The idea is to start asking if there is unobserved variables affecting hotel structure and try to find the number of components that identify the underlying structure of the hotel.

Whereas the most commonly employed rule for determining the number of components is to retain those components with Eigen values greater than 1 according to Kaisar method (Kaiser, 1960 and Kaisar & Caffrey, 1965). However, this method was classified as a rule of thumb by many authors as follows: Gorsuch (1974) noted that many users employ Bartlett’s method to determine the number of components that is between one third and one fifth of the number of variables associated with this use that will be referred as Bartlett's concept this was also noted by (Horn, 1979) and (Velicer, 1976). It is also noted by Mote (1970) that rotation of a greater number of components resulted in more meaningful solutions. They implied that the relatively blind use of Kaisar method may sometimes lead to the retention of too few components and it is believed by some critics to sometimes underestimate the number of components.

Gorsuch’s (2014) argued that the number of factors is expected to be between V/3 and V/5 where V is the number of variables, he also argued that the latent root ≥ 1 criterion is an approximate method not a mathematical criterion but a rule of thumb of some approximate use. Accordingly, in order to predict factors explaining hotel performance measures in our case study the Bartlett's

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .903

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx.Chi- square 3625.09

df 136 Sig. .000



10

concept was combined with Cattell's scree test (Cattell R. B.,1966), (Cattell R. B.,1978) with conditioned extraction of the percentage of variance. So, having the number of variables V= 17 in our model, the lower and upper bound of number of factors will lie between 3 and 5. Plotting the roots for examining different numbers of factors as shown in fig (3) we can see the straight edge laid on the lower roots to determine the stopping point at the end of this straight line appearing on the scree plot that end at component No.6, this leads to exclude all the factors starting from this point which means that the upper bound of components that can be used in this model is 5, and putting a condition limiting the percentage of variance extracted to be > 5% will lead to identify the number of factors selected to be 4.

Fig (3) the Scree Plot

The extracted and rotated cumulated variance explained for each component of the factor model are shown in table (3a) from which it was found that 4 factors were responsible for 89.666% of the hotel variance in the case studied and the most important extracted factor is food and beverage department that explains approximately 63.096% of the variance extracted during the period of the study, followed by customer segments factor with 13.303% of variance then hotel profit Management factor that explains 8.111% of variance and then room department factor with 5.156% of variance in the model. Table (3-b) represents the highest correlations between variables and the components extracted neglecting factor loadings less than 0.5


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1 2 3 4

Rev.CS1 .851

Rev.CS2 .876

Rev.CS3 .900

Rev.CS4 .836

Rev.CS5 .758

R.Profit .867

R.Revenue .940

R.Variable.Cost -.871

R.Fixed.Cost -.835

FB.Profit .802

FB.Revenue .813

FB.Variable.Cost -.776

FB.Fixed.Cost -.600

HouseProfit .701

MGTFees -.816

FF_E -.819

Inc.Fees -.806

Rotated Component Matrixa

Component

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

Table (3a) Total variance explained

Table (3b) Rotated component matrix for hotel drivers

4- Discussions and Conclusion:

To interpret the underlying dimension obtained from the analysis, it can be seen from results in table (1) that communalities are greater than 0.6. So, none of the variable will be ignored when interpreting the solution and from tables (3a) & (3b) together it could be concluded that:

Total% of

VarianceCumulative

% Total% of

Variance Cumulative % Total% of

VarianceCumulativ

e %

1 10.726 63.096 63.096 10.726 63.096 63.096 4.411 25.946 25.946

2 2.262 13.303 76.400 2.262 13.303 76.400 4.017 23.629 49.575

3 1.379 8.111 84.511 1.379 8.111 84.511 3.969 23.344 72.920

4 .876 5.156 89.666 .876 5.156 89.666 2.847 16.747 89.666

5 .558 3.283 92.950

6 .317 1.867 94.817

7 .241 1.418 96.235

8 .170 1.000 97.235

9 .145 .852 98.087

10 .106 .622 98.709

11 .063 .368 99.077

12 .052 .308 99.385

13 .042 .245 99.630

14 .028 .164 99.794

15 .016 .097 99.891

16 .015 .090 99.981

17 .003 .019 100.000

Total Variance Explained

ComponentInitial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.



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a) The first component that groups the variables F&B profit, F&B revenue, F&B variable cost and F&B fixed cost explains 25.946% of the total variance which represent factor (1) with loadings 0.802, 0.813, -0.776, -0.66 respectively.

b) The second component explains 23.629% of the total variance using the variables revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4 and revCS5 which are strongly attached to factor (2) with loadings 0.851, 0.876, 0.900, 0.836, and 0.758 respectively. This means that customer segments have a strong impact on hotel performance.

c) The third component explains 23.344% of the total variance through some variables such as: House profit, Management fees, FF&E and Incentive fees which load together to represent factor (3) with loadings 0.701 , - 0.816 , - 0.819 , - 0.806 respectively.

d) The fourth component explains 16.747% of the total variance through its related variables such as: Room profit, Room revenue, Room variable cost and Room fixed cost which load together to represent factor (4) with loadings 0.867, 0.940, -0.871, -0.835 respectively.

The results of the factor analysis shown in table (3a) show that the 4 underlying factors of the hotel extracted can explain a proportion of 89.666% of the total variance, and that the underlying structure of the hotel is highly dependent on revenue from its different customer segments as can be seen from component No.2 which explains a proportion of 23.629% of the rotated variance and as found in table (3b) variables associated with this component which are revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4 and revCS5 are highly correlated to it.

Identifying the name of each component shown in table (3b) that represents grouping of variables with the amount of variance associated to each group of variables as shown in table (3a) will be listed as follows:

* Component No.1 “Food and Beverage Department” which is explained by the variables: F&B profit, F&B revenue, F&B fixed cost and F&B variable cost is responsible of 25.946% of the rotated variance.


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* Component No.2 “Customer Segments” which is explained by the variables: revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4, revCS5 is responsible of 23.629% of the rotated variance.

* Component No.3 “Profit Management” which is explained by the variables: House Profit, Management Fees, Fixed Furniture &Equipment and Incentive Fees is responsible of 23.344% of the rotated variance.

* Component No.4 “Rooms Department” which is explained by the variables: Rooms profit, Rooms revenue, Rooms fixed cost and Rooms variable cost is responsible of 16.747% of the rotated variance.

Hotel drivers such as: F&B profit, F&B revenue, Room profit, Room revenue, revCS1, revCS2, revCS3, revCS4, revCS5 and House profit that had contributed significantly to factors 1,2,3 are positively affecting the hotel structure. While F&B variable cost , F&B fixed cost, Room variable cost , Room fixed cost , Management fees, FF&E and Incentive fees that had contributed significantly to factor 1,3,4 are negatively affecting the hotel structure, this explains the effect of the negative correlations found in table (3b).

As a result, this study identifies fewer factors to explain the underlying structure of the hotel as listed in tables (3a ), (3b) that shows the percent of variance explained by each factor, the highest correlations between variables and factors, communalities as shown in table (1) and variance proportions explained by each factor.

5- Recommendations:

From the above results, it is recommended to recall the importance of customer segmentation in customer profitability analysis through a description of the hotel structure as nowadays this analysis appears as a powerful tool to allow the hotel management to consider the profit from a customer perspective. It is also recommended to repeat this analysis to other hotels to discover their underlying structures and use this approach in customer related decisions and marketing plans.



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References:

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industry. Routledge. p.22


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analysis. Educational and psychological Measurement Vol. 20, 141-151 Kaisar, H.F., and Caffrey, J. (1965). Alpha factor analysis. Psychometrica.

Vol. 30, 1-44 Kline, P. (1979). Psychometrics and psychology. London: Acaderric Press.

p.40 Kotas, R. (2014). Management Accounting for Hotels and Restaurants.

Routledge. p.28 Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2010). Principles of Marketing, 13th edition,

Prentice Hall, USA. MacCallum R.C., Widaman K.F., Zhang, S. and Hong, S. (1999). Sample

Size in Factor Analysis. Psychological Methods. Vol.4, No.1.84-99 Mote, T.A. (1970). An artifact of the rotation of too many factors: Study

orientation vs. trait anxiety. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia. Vol.4, 171.

Mundfrom, D.J., Shaw, D.G., and Ke, T.L. (2005). Minimum sample size recommendations for conducting factor analyses. International Journal of Testing, 5 (2), 159-168

Narasimhan, L., (2017). Rooms and Food & Beverage: Optimizing Revenues and Profits

Preacher, K. J., and MacCallum, R. C. (2002). Exploratory Factor Analysis in Behavior Genetics Research: Factor Recovery with Small Sample Sizes. Behavior Genetics, 32, 153-161.

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Waymon, L. (1998). Starting your own small business. Research and Education Association. p.50

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Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star

Hotel in Egypt

Rania Abdel Fattah El Kafafi, Mohamed Hany Bahey, Tamer Abbas Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University

Abstract:

The purpose of this study is to derive a relation between customer segments, different hotel departments and hotel profitability in a 5-star hotel in Egypt using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques applied by AMOS 20.

The sample size appropriateness was discussed. A confirmatory factor model was proposed using SPSS 20, validity and reliability coefficients of this model such as: average variance extracted (AVE), composite reliability (CR), maximum shared squared variance (MSV) and average shared squared variance (ASV) are computed, all are found above the recommended criteria demonstrating a high level of discriminant validity, giving a high evidence that the proposed factors and their related variables are valid for studying relationship among constructs.

The AMOS model fit parameters such as: Chi- square divided by degree of freedom (CMIN/df), Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index (PGFI), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Relative Fit Index (RFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) are found within the standard ranges identified. The weight estimates of the AMOS model and their probabilities indicate that the internal drivers studied are significant to hotel profitability at a confidence level greater than 95%. The structural model validity was assessed using the standardized residual covariate results that were found <│2.5│providing a good fit of the data model.

A remarkable significance of this study is of taking the initiative for applying SEM techniques in Egypt to test the proposed conceptual model for studying hotel profitability factor’s effect using real data from 2006 to 2015.

Studying the Impact of Internal Drivers on Hotel Profitability Using Structural Equation Modeling - A Case Study in a 5-star Hotel

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Keywords: Modern hotel management, hotel profitability, customer segmentation, customer profitability, confirmatory factor analysis, Structural Equation Modeling.

1 - Introduction:

Profitability is the key to the long-term survival and growth of any organization. In modern lodging industry, profitability analysis in general is a tool which enables managers to evaluate company’s performance; customer segmentation is one of the most fundamental drivers in hospitality management that can drive hotel profitability (Noone and Griffin, 1997).

The hospitality industry evolved into a global industry. For many people, hospitality services have become an integral component of business and social life, therefore hotel managers must incorporate services which customers demand. Customer profitability analysis CPA is a potent tool for marketing intelligence gatherers and strategic planners to understand how profitability is distributed within the customer base (Raaij, 2005).

Concerning hotel profitability Timothy (2013) stated that despite enormous variations in profitability, many hotels continue unprofitable relationships with customers, often providing them with pricing and service levels identical to those received by the most profitable ones. Why? In most cases, hotels simply do not know who the unprofitable customers are. As such, they cannot develop marketing strategies or manage costs accordingly.

Nowadays the use of customer profitability analysis appears as a powerful tool to allow management to consider the profit from a customer perspective. Customer profitability analysis CPA is the reporting and analysis of revenues earned from customers and the costs incurred to earn those revenues (Horngren et al. 2005).

There are several existing terms in the literature referring to customer profitability (Mulhern, 1999). Pfeifer et al (2004) used a definition where customer profitability is connected with the current understanding of the concept of accounting profitability. The design of the models in use can be customized by the company and even the characteristics of the customer relationship influence how the costs are assigned. However, the different


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approaches all measure customer profitability, i.e., the difference between revenues and costs, assigned to a specific customer relationship.

Hotel managers usually have two main sources of information: accounting information and market research. Traditional, accounting information is used to analyze past performance, evaluate departmental income and establish the budget. Market research is used to evaluate customer needs and satisfaction and forecast future business. There is a strong degree of interdependency between these two sources of information (Downie, 1997). Cross and Dixit (2006) stated that “poor managerial decisions related to pricing, activities identification, creation and other organizational issues are due to lack of awareness of customer profitability analysis that is why modern decision-making purposes rely on knowing which is which and refers to the process of dividing customers into groups in order to provide differential advertising or value propositions to different customer groups”.

The emphasis should be to develop accounting information and reports to support marketing decision making in hotels, to increase customer profitability. Customer profitability can be assessed in a number of ways. Assessment may vary from sales minus direct customer costs to budgeted lifetime sales minus direct and indirect costs (Van Raaij et al.2003).

According to Smith and Dikolli (2005), CPA management will at least be armed with information about unprofitable customers and can focus attention on developing innovations which might reduce the lack of profits from particular customers, without reducing customers’ satisfaction. An analysis of customer profitability measures the contribution to a firm’s profit per customer (Lind and Wedin, 2006). Also Vigerie (2007) stated that identification of customer segments is most effective when hotel management tailors offerings to segments of customers that are the most profitable and serves them with distinct competitive advantages. This prioritization can help hotels develop marketing campaigns and pricing strategies to extract maximum value from both high- and low profit customers.

The computation tool used in the present analysis is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using AMOS 20 as Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) stated that SEM is a powerful quantitative data analytical technique which estimates and tests theoretical relationships between variables and does not designate a single statistical technique but rather a family of relevant procedures including


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analysis of covariance structure, this combines regression and factor analysis as well.

SEM is a path analytical method for handling multiple relationships and assessing relationships from exploratory analysis to confirmatory analysis. SEM also estimates multiple regression equations simultaneously through specifying the structural model (Hair et al., 2010). The SEM approach starts with model specification that links the variables assumed to affect other variables and directionalities of those effects (Kline, 2011). SEM can also estimate and test theoretical relationships between observed endogenous variables and latent, unobserved exogenous variables (Bryne, 2010)

This study is concentrated on analyzing main factors of the hotel investigated, such as Rooms, food and beverage, and house profit in accordance with customer segments map which are the main revenue generators of any hotel operation. These factors were statistically derived and defined using an exploratory factor analysis model by (El Kafafi et al., 2018) in which the main hotel factors obtained and their related variables are defined as the major internal drivers affecting hotel profitability in a 5-star hotel in Egypt.

The selected drivers constituting hotel operation used in this study are: Customer segments revenues Rev CS1; Rev CS2; Rev CS3; Rev CS4; Rev CS5. Rooms Profit, rooms revenue, room variable costs that are incurred when a unit of capacity is sold, for example, the additional energy, water, cleaning cost and the cost of breakfast (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012), room fixed costs which are costs that must be paid regardless of the volume of units sold, for example cost of loans, wages, equipment, advertising, and energy regardless of its occupancy rates (Inkson& Minnaert, 2012). Food and beverage profit, food and beverage revenue, food and beverage variable costs that are the sum of payroll, benefits and training costs and maintenance (Kotas, 2014), food and beverage fixed costs are that spent in marketing, advertising, management salaries, office operations, wages and the associated benefits (Kotas, 2014). House Profit also called “gross operating profit” (GOP) is used primarily as a measurement of management’s ability to maximize revenues, control expenses and maximize profits (Hales, 2006).


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Management Fees also called “percentage fees” can be defined when the hotel owners rented out the property to a hotel company for management and the rental agreement was based on a percentage of total sales (Sungchon & Yu, 2012). FF&E are movable furniture, fixtures and other equipment that have no permanent connection to the structure of a building or utilities, for example desks, chairs, computers, electronic equipment tables, bookcases and partitions (Waymon, 1998). Incentive Fees also called “performance fees” are considered to induce fund managers to work harder on portfolio optimization as they participate in any excess return they are going to realize (Gregoriou, 2008). 2- Objectives:

The key research idea in this article is to provide an automated method to measure to what extent customer segments can affect main hotel divisions such as rooms and Food and beverage, and to study how much the overall hotel profitability can be affected by the selected hotel drivers mentioned above using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). In this study an analysis of the overall hotel profitability as well as room profit and food and beverage profit that are based on the effect of customer segments were performed using statistical methods to create a numerical relation quantifying each customer segment profitability. This leads to obtain assumptions as to how customer value analysis incorporate in the overall hotel framework to set out tools and measures that will attempt to calculate profitability in terms of customer segments. This creates an attempt to stimulate financial managers to take the lead to translate this analysis to actions and create the culture of value.

3 - Methodology:

The population of this study is the life time of the investigated 5star hotel since it starts working till now with a total of 276 months that represent the monthly measurements during 23 years, the working age of the hotel. The sample size collected and analyzed is 120 months that represent 43.5% of the total population that is the sampling frame of the data during 10 years from 2006 to 2015 representing 120 cases with no missing values of the measured drivers.


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Referring to the investigation of the sample size explained by (El Kafafi et al. 2018) in which it was concluded from several references listed there that the quality of results are no more depending on large number of cases as in traditional statistical analysis.

Hair et al.(2010) stated that: “As SEM matures and additional research is undertaken on key research design issues, previous guidelines such as: “always maximize your sample size and sample sizes of 300 are required” are no longer appropriate. It is still true that larger samples generally produce more stable solutions that are more likely to be replicable, but it has been shown that sample size decisions must be made based on a set of factors”. They also suggested the following for minimum sample sizes based on model complexity and basic measurement model characteristics as follows: Minimum sample size of 100 cases for Models containing five or fewer constructs, each with more than three items (observed variables) and with high item communalities (.6 or higher).

The research was conducted using purely quantitative methods to support Hotel Management in detecting changes in the mutual guest–hotel relationship and advice the suitable treatment for maintaining high level of profitability. The goal is to estimate the effect of each customer segment on hotel profitability through the main hotel division’s j and variables related to each division.

First, we refer to the exploratory factor model presented in (El Kafafi et al, 2018) for defining and analyzing the most important variables or the internal drivers used in this study such as: customer segment 1, customer segment 2, customer segment 3, customer segment 4, customer segment 5; rooms profit, rooms revenue, room variable cost, room fixed cost; food and beverage profit, food and beverage revenue, food and beverage variable cost, food and beverage fixed cost; House profit, Management fees, FF&E and Incentive fees.

Second, validity and reliability were checked using the confirmatory factor analysis model shown in fig (2) and finally the SEM model was derived as shown in fig (3) and results are discussed.


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The population of this study is the life time of a 5star hotel and the sampling frame is the hotel data during 10 years from 2006 to 2015 representing 120 cases with no missing values of the measured drivers. Analysis continued to derive a statistical relation based on increase or decrease of values in profitability in terms of the internal drivers identified.

Customer segments are identified based on hotel policy and management strategy, each hotel has its own rule for guest categorization and customer profit management strategy that is identified in the three recurring steps shown in fig. (1).

Figure (1): The customer profit management strategy

The measured data was first analyzed using factor analysis with principal component extraction and varimax rotation to relate observed variables into smaller number of components called principle components as derived from (El Kafafi et al. 2018). Validity and reliability results of the confirmatory factor model are computed using the following equations (a), (b), (c) and (d) and are shown in table (1) (Hair et al., 2010; Fornell, 1981). Average Variance Extracted formula Composite Reliability formula

AVE … (a) …(b)

Identify customer segmentation

Identify a relation between major hotel sectors and net profit

Identify a relation between customer segments and major hotel sectors



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MSV = (Corr)² …(c) ASV … (d)

Where λ = standardized factor loading n = number of items δ = error of variance m = number of constructs corr = correlation between constructs Table (1) Validity and Reliability of the overall factor model (Measurement theory ssessment)

Average Variance Extracted

(AVE)

Composite Reliability

(CR)

Maximum Shared Squared Variance

(MSV)

Average Shared Squared Variance

(ASV)

customer 0.76484 0.93736 0.4225 0.3721 0.3844 0.393

Rooms 0.714125 0.90213 0.2704 0.4225 0.2116 0.3015 Food and Beverage

0.8433 0.95372 0.6241 0.3721 0.2704 0.4222

Profit 0.90815 0.97528 0.6241 0.2116 0.3844 0.4067

The reliability and validity coefficients listed in table (1) are all fulfilling the recommended criteria as follows: CR>0.7, AVE>0.5, MSV<AVE, ASV<AVE indicating that the observed variables are reasonably good measurement of each latent factor and are reliable for measuring relationship in the model and demonstrated a high level of discriminant validity of the constructs. As can be seen from table (1) all composite reliability coefficients (CR) are higher than 0.7 showing an acceptable level of reliability (Bryne, 2010).

Explaining the discriminant validity we can find from table (1) that shared variances between latent variables ASV are less than AVE (Kline, 2011), AVE > 0.5 is explaining a convergent validity.

For nomological validity it was found that each latent variable behaves to an acceptable degree of significance as it should within the conceptual system, this can be also seen in table (3) where all the relationships are significant at 0.01 level providing evidence of nomological validity, such findings have been reported by Hair et al. (2010).

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The Confirmatory factor model was then created as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2) Confirmatory factor model

The SEM approach starts by visualizing a representation of the theoretical hypotheses and the measurement scheme is specified by linking the variables assumed to affect each other and determining directionalities of effects that finally develops a model in a way to extend the acceptance of modern hotel management techniques.

The structural equation model derived for hotel profitability analysis is shown in fig (3), it describes the relationship between Customer Segments, Rooms, food and beverage departments and profit, results of the model fittings are shown in table (2).

Table (2) Model Fit parameters (structural theory assessment) CMIN/DF P GFI AGFI NFI RFI CFI RMSEA 1.538 0.008 0.934 0.806 0.979 0.946 0.993 0.067

The conceptual model proposed used a theory based on the organizational literature and the collected data that might possibly relate hotel profitability to



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major drivers in the hotel, the model tests the hypothesis that customer segments can indirectly affect hotel profit through rooms and food and beverage departments as well as the direct effect of rooms and food and beverage departments on total profit and the effect of customer segments on rooms and food and beverage departments.

Figure (3) Structural Equation model The above model is a non-recursive SEM model in which relations between constructs are identified according to the direction that is assumed to affect the link between these hidden variables following the conceptual theory proposed by Hair et al., (2010). In summary, these results further suggest that customer segments are a major determinant in profitability analysis.

4- Results and conclusion

From the measurement model’s test results using confirmatory factor analysis shown in table (1) that are computed using equations (a), (b), (c) and (d) it was


26

found that CR > 0.7, AVE > 0.5, MSV < AVE and ASV < AVE which tell us that construct indicators are reliable and to enable the structural model to study relationships among the constructs with a high degree of evidence according to the standard criteria recommended for validity and reliability explained in (Fornell et al., 1981, Hair et al., 2010).

The model fit parameters shown in table (2) are found to fulfill the criteria of the standard AMOS fit results recommended and identified by (James, 2012) as follows: CMIN/df < 2, RMSEA < 0.08, GFI, NFI and RFI > 0.9 at level of significance p= 0.05 this can be proved by comparing these criteria to the results of table (2) that are the indicators of model fit parameters obtained from SEM model. Comparing these indicators with the standard AMOS fit indicators listed above we can see that RMSEA value computed is 0.067 < 0.08, p = 0.008 < 0.05, NFI, CFI and GFI were above 0.9, in addition to these indices X2 was within the threshold level (i.e. 1.0 < x2/df < 3.0), these results indicate that the structural model provides the good fit to the data.

Table (3): Factor loadings estimated by SEM model (*** p <0.01) Estimate P

Rooms <--- Customer .598 *** Food_And_Beverage <--- Customer .477 *** Profit <--- Food_And_Beverage .452 *** Profit <--- Rooms .660 *** Rev.CS1 <--- Customer .974 Rev.CS2 <--- Customer .983 *** Rev.CS3 <--- Customer .961 *** Rev.CS4 <--- Customer .890 *** Rev.CS5 <--- Customer .380 *** R.Profit <--- Rooms .934 R.Revenue <--- Rooms .715 *** R.Variable.Cost <--- Rooms -.341 *** R.Fixed.Cost <--- Rooms -.980 *** FB.Profit <--- Food_And_Beverage 1.000 FB.Revenue <--- Food_And_Beverage .976 *** FB.Variable.Cost <--- Food_And_Beverage -.881 *** FB.Fixed.Cost <--- Food_And_Beverage -.762 *** HouseProfit <--- Profit .801 MGTFees <--- Profit -1.000 *** FF_E <--- Profit -.989 *** Inc.Fees <--- Profit -.987 ***


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27

AMOS weight estimates and probabilities are presented in table (3), from these results we can see the relation between the proposed drivers and profit, the results are highly significant with p < 0.01 indicating that the internal drivers studied are significant to hotel profitability at a confidence level greater than 95%.

Moreover the path estimates obtained in table (3) show that our initial theory is leading to an empirical and theoretical evidence of the causal relationships between the identified components in the SEM model, so we can conclude from tables (2) and (3) respectively that the parameter coefficient obtained are reaching the standard AMOS values at a higher statistical level of significance > 95%.

From figure (3) we can conclude that rooms are affected by customers with loadings 0.6, customer segment 1 is affecting rooms by (0.97*0.60 = 0.582), customer segment 2 is affecting rooms by 0.588, customer segment 3 is affecting rooms by 0.576, customer segment 4 is affecting rooms by 0.534, and customer segment 5 is affecting rooms by 0.228.

Food and beverage is affected by customers with loadings 0.48, customer segment 1 is affecting food and beverage by (0.97*0.48 = 0.466), customer segment 2 is affecting food and beverage by 0.470, customer segment 3 is affecting food and beverage by 0.461, customer segment 4 is affecting food and beverage by 0.427, customer segment 5 is affecting food and beverage by 0.182.

Hotel Profitability is affected by rooms with loading 0.66 and by food and beverage with loading 0.45.

In assessing the structural model validity, it can be seen from standardized residual covariance results shown in table (4) that values are less than the acceptable range │2.5│ and providing good fit to data.

Both the goodness of fit indices and standardized residual covariance results were examined to test fitness of the structural model to the data as illustrated in tables (2) and (4) respectively.


28

Inc.Fees FF_E MGTFees HousProfit FB.F.Cost FB.V.Cost FB.Rev. FB.Profit R.F.Cost R.V.Cost R.Revenue R.Profit Rev.CS5 Rev.CS4 Rev.CS3 Rev.CS2 Rev.CS1

Inc.Fees 0.835FF_E 0.841 0.833MGTFees 0.898 0.904 0.971HousProfit -0.954 -0.997 -1.036 0.997FB.F.Cost 1.234 1.251 1.268 -0.89 0.819FB.V.Cost 0.775 0.82 0.87 -0.846 0.789 0.427FB.Rev. -0.986 -1.062 -1.126 1.22 -1.087 -0.683 0.906FB.Profit -0.942 -1.029 -1.089 1.241 -1.097 -0.736 0.954 0.983R.F.Cost 0.213 0.258 0.289 -2.029 1.689 1.098 -1.137 -1.213 0.198R.V.Cost 0.584 0.56 0.591 -0.732 0.048 0.514 -0.766 -0.807 1.706 0.258R.Rev. 0.23 0.135 0.217 1.855 -1.301 -0.779 0.693 0.792 -0.265 -1.662 0.384R.Profit -0.063 -0.063 -0.021 1.813 -1.59 -0.755 0.746 0.845 -0.144 -1.367 0.243 0.153Rev.CS5 -0.672 -0.827 -0.934 1.327 -1.501 -0.601 1.007 1.202 -0.209 -1.119 -0.305 -0.086 0.412Rev.CS4 -0.989 -0.939 -0.967 1.854 -1.843 -1.46 2.082 2.08 -0.754 -2.384 0.549 0.976 0.721 0.566Rev.CS3 -0.425 -0.369 -0.335 1.351 -1.417 -0.592 1.248 1.346 -0.626 -2.06 0.86 1.009 0.124 0.65 0.818Rev.CS2 -0.703 -0.708 -0.667 1.635 -1.682 -1.011 1.65 1.748 -0.89 -2.22 0.838 1.009 0.359 0.707 0.727 0.567Rev.CS1 -1.022 -1.075 -1.036 1.892 -1.836 -1.265 1.907 1.999 -1.206 -2.352 1.023 1.283 0.69 0.781 0.978 0.818 1.039

Table (4) Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

All the obtained measures are within the range criteria that would be accepted as a good fit and suggest that the structural model does a good job explaining the observed covariance matrix and relationships among constructs with high confidence level. This assures that the profit plan computed can be considered as a forward step toward continuous hotel financial performance refinement as well as in redefining customer segments characteristics according to new segmentation parameters discovered and the periodical evaluation implemented.

This can also lead to directed updates of marketing plans, prices, management process and profit and as hotels move forward in measurement and analysis of hotel profitability. Thus, the hotel may redefine customer segments after discovering new segmentation parameters related to customers’ needs that management should respond by increasingly turning to an oriented customer segment management for creating competitive advantage and achieving effective targeting.

Finally we can resume that the analysis applied includes lead and lag effects of the main internal drivers selected on hotel profitability and is testing the relationships between Profit and the income from Rooms and Food & Beverage departments through actual customer segments in the hotel, which proved its effectiveness on other drivers affecting hotel profitability. It can be also concluded that the above findings suggest that observations studied over the period of the study from 2006 to 2015 can act as a fundamental analysis for


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future short term prediction of hotel financial analysis under a similar external and internal environment.

5- Recommendations:

This model can be considered beneficial in assessing financial statement and forecasting future financial performance and outcome given new market segmentation strategy. The results can be applicable in decision-making process to support customer related decision and allow the management to reallocate hotel resources to meet changes in marketing policy, so the management can set the strategy to improve the hotel profitability. Application of this model to other hotels is also recommended.

References:

Bryne, B.M (2010). Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, Applications and programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associated: London

Cross, R.G and Dixit, A., (2006). Customer centric pricing: the surprising secret for profitability. Business Horizons (2005) 48, 483—491

Downie, N., (1997). The use of accounting information in hotel marketing decisions, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 16 (3),305-312

El Kafafi, R.A., Bahey, M.H. and Abbas, T., (2018). Identifying Hotel Performance Structure using factor analysis – A case study in a 5-star hotel in Egypt. International Academic Journal- Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management Helwan University (IAJFTH), Vol.5, No.2

Fornell, C. and David F.L. (1981). Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (February), 39-50.

Gregoriou, G. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Alternative investments. CRC Press. p.234

Hair, J., Black, W. and Babin, B. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis: A global perspective: (7th edition) Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education.

Hales, J. (2006). Accounting and Financial Analysis in the Hospitality industry. Routledge. p.22

Horngren, T., Foster, G., and Datar, M. (2005). Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis. 12th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education , Inc.

Inkson, C. and Minnaert, L. (2012). Tourism Management. Sage. p.127 James L. A. (2012) IBM SPSS Amos User’s guide


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Kline, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural Equation Modeling. The Guilford Press: New York

Kotas, R. (2014). Management Accounting for Hotels and Restaurants. Routledge. P.28

Lind, J. and Wedin, T., (2006). When do firms use customer accounting? Journal of Economic Literature, 23, pp. 48-90.

Mulhern, F.J., (1999). Customer profitability Analysis: Measurement, Concentration, and Research Directions.” Journal of Interactive Marketing 13(1): 25-40.

Noone, B. and Griffin, P. (1997). Enhancing yield management with customer profitability analysis, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 9 (2), pp.75-79,

Pfeifer, P.E., Haskins, M.E. and Conroy, R.M., (2004). Customer Lifetime Value, Customer profitability, and the Treatment of Acquisition Spending. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 2(9), 75-79.

Raaij, E.M., (2005). The Strategic Value of Customer Profitability Analysis. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 23(4), pp.372 – 381.

Smith, M. and Dikolli, S., (2005). Customer Profitability Analysis: An Activity-Based Costing Approach. Managerial Auditing Journal, 10(7), pp.3-7.

Sungchon, K. and Yu, L. (2012). The International hospitality business: Management and Operations. Routledge. p.142

Tabachnick, B.G. and Fidell, L.S, (2013). Using Multivariate statistics. Allyn and Bacon: Boston, Mass

Timothy, L.G Lockyer (2013). Global Cases on Hospitality Industry, Routledge, p 25

Van Raaij, F., Vernooij, M.J.A. and Van Triest S. (2003). The Implementation of customer profitability analysis: A case study. Industrial Marketing Management, 32, 573-583.

Vigerie, P., Smith S., and Baghai M., (2007). Making Choices That Drive Enduring Company Performance (New York: Cyan/Marshall Cavendish), 71-103

Waymon, L. (1998). Starting your own small business. Research and Education Association. p.50

IAJFTH Volume 5 , No, 2 2018


Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman Period

Dina Ahmed Ali Khediwy Noha Shalaby Khaled Gharib

Abstract

In ancient Egypt, people believed that human existence did not come to an

end with death, but they believed in afterlife.1 The belief in afterlife was

continued until the Graeco-Roman period, and some aspects of the Egyptian

funerary religion were retained as fundamental. When the Greeks arrived to

Egypt, they followed burial customs either through cremation or inhumation.

The ashes of the corpse were put into an urn. Then, this urn was buried either

in a loculus or in a Kline. Through time, the majority of the Greeks followed

the burial customs of the Egyptians like the mummification.2

The belief in afterlife led to a series of developments in burial customs

throughout the Pharaonic period and Greaco-Roman period. These centuries

witnessed all the attempts to preserve the bodies in better condition by

mummifying them or by drying them, putting the body inside a mummy

container to preserve it from the destruction, and finally burying the mummy

in a tomb after the funeral rituals.3 The religious and funerary beliefs were

vital forces, so many art works connected with them like the decoration of

mummies, coffins, or sarcophagi, and the use of mummy mask.4

1Germer, R., (et al.), Mummies: Life after Death in Ancient Egypt, (Munich; New York:

Prestel, 1997), 20. 2

.224،(1998 ،)االسكندرية ،اثار االسكندرية القديمة عزت زكي حامد قادوس ،3Lloyd, A. B., "Mummification", in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Vol.2,

Redford, D. B., and Spanel, D. B. (eds.), (Oxford: Oxford U Press, 2001), 440. 4 Amira Ibrahim Zaki Selim, The Iconography of the Coffins in the Graeco-Roman Period,

PH.D, unpublished, Helwan University, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, (Cairo,

2009). 177.

31



Keywords Loculus; Kline, Mummification; Sarcophagi, Hellenistic;

Klinai; Lenos

Introduction

The title of this article is (Garland Sarcophagi during Graeco-Roman

Period).A little number of sarcophagi which are decorated with two garlands

on the front side was found. The three sarcophagi are made of limestone and

divided into two parts according to the shape of the lid, the vaulted lid and

the gabled lid. One of these sarcophagi is unique, as it is decorated with floral

garlands on the three sides. The three sides are identical in decoration.5

This article is a part of the thesis which entitled (The Decoration on the

Greek Sarcophagi during the Graeco-Roman Period), and it is devoted to

the funerary iconography on the Greek sarcophagi and the religious and the

secular significances of these motifs during Graeco-Roman Period not only in

Egypt, but also in the neighboring countries.

1-Akheel Sarcophagus with Vaulted Lid:

Material: Limestone.

Provenance: Mina El Basal cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.

Present location: Kom El Shokafa cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.

Date: Ptolemaic period.

Dimensions: Height: 87 cm. Width: 93 cm. Length: 210 cm.

Bibiography:

- ابراهيم سعد ابراهيم، التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني، رسالة دكتوراه غير

منشورة، ، كلية اآلداب- جامعة طنطا، )الغربية،1992(، 247:237.

- Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo,

1961), 21.

ابراهيم، التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني،رسالة دكتوراه غير منشورة،، كلية اآلداب- ابراهيم سعد5

جامعة طنطا، )الغربية،1992(، 237.

32

Khediwy, D. Shalaby, N. Gharib, Kh.


Plate 1: The sarcophagus of Akheel.

After: Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo, 1961),

Tav.1, fig. 1.

Description

It is a rectangular box with a low vaulted lid which symbolized the dome of

the sky. The lid represents a continuation, in terms of vault figure, to wooden

sarcophagi lids in the Late Pharaonic period. Each long side of the lid has

three broad protrusions which end with carved lion rearing its head. These

three broad protrusions act as handle of the lid. the name of the sarcophagus'

owner is inscribed with Greek letters in bas-relief on the rectangular edge of

the lid as "ΑΧΙΛΑΕΥς ΕyΨΥΧΕI", Achillaeous. It is also engraved with

alphabetical error on the right short side of the lid as "ΑΧΙΛΛΛΕyΨΥΕI".6

The researcher suggests that the owner of the sarcophagus has a Greek origin,

as his name was written with Greek letters as Achillaeous, and not in Latin as

Achilles, although the inscription dates back to 1st century A.D.

6 Fraser, P. M., " Bibliography: Graeco-Roman Egypt Greek Inscriptions", JEA 43 (1957),

101.

33



The front long side is decorated with a long floral branch. The floral branch

is hanging above three bull heads forming two garlands in the middle. The

two ends of the branch are vertically falling down, one on each side. The two

garlands consist of different types of fruits as doum, pineapple, grapes, and

mainly laurel leaves. A triangular grape cluster is hanging from both

garlands. It is attached to each cluster an imitation of metal ring.

The three bull heads are depicted in front profile. Two strips are falling down

from each bull head, one strip at each side of the head. There is a high relief

semicircle between the two horns where the strip is passing through. The

eyes are carved in a shape of deep circle which edged with cilia. Each

garland is surmounted with a huge snake. The two snakes coiled and facing

each other.

The right snake is directing to left, while the left snake is directing to right.

The head of the two snakes is touching the upper edge of the sarcophagus.

The left snake is huger than the right one. Each snake is coiling around itself

twice. The space between the two rolls of the left snake's body is bigger than

that of the right snake's body. It is suggested that the right snake is referring

to Osiris, while the left one is referring to Isis.

In these garland-sarcophagi it is usual to find the space above the garlands

filled with masks, lions' heads, rosettes, portrait-busts, or Medusa-heads

which carved on the sarcophagi to protect it from any external danger, but

nothing unusual in finding snakes on funerary monuments. The snake was a

protector deity in afterlife, a symbol of resurrection and a spirit of the earth,

and it related to the underworld and death. The serpent is a symbol of

wisdom and consciousness in Greek civilization. It was associated with many

ancient myths, whether of God or of human.7 The researcher suggests that the

snakes replaced Medusa on this sarcophagus to do her role in protecting the

7Cormack, J. M. R., "A Garland-Sarcophagus in Beroea", in The Annual of the British School

at Athens, Vol. 41, (British School at Athens, 1940 – 1945), 116.

34



sarcophagus and the deceased. As a result, the snakes are depicted in attack

position to threaten the true snakes.

The sarcophagus dates back to Ptolemaic period, technically, but the style of

the Greek letters dates back to 1st century AD. So this inscription is probably

later than the style of the sarcophagus.8 Alexandrian sarcophagi aren't

inscribed, and it is the only sarcophagus having the name of the owner. He

may have wanted to confirm his ownership of the sarcophagus, as he took it

from one of the Hellenistic tombs. It indicates that this sarcophagus was

reused and inscribed in the imperial period.9

Plate. 2: Sarcophagus of Beroea.

After: Cormack, J. M. R., "A Garland-Sarcophagus in Beroea", in The Annual of the British

School at Athens, Vol. 41, (British School at Athens, 1940 – 1945), 115.

There is another identical garland sarcophagus in Beroea, Greece. It dates

back to 2nd century A.D. They are similar in their decoration, but with some

differences such as the position and shape of the two snakes, the two

8Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo, 1961), 21. 9 Fraser, P. M., " Bibliography: Graeco-Roman Egypt Greek Inscriptions", JEA 43 (1957),

101.

35



garlands' style, and the material of manufacture of the two sarcophagi. These

differences indicate that the Alexandrian sarcophagus is earlier than the

sarcophagus of Beroea.10

The right snake of Beroean sarcophagus is also smaller than the left one,

coiling around itself once, and extending its head to the beginning of the right

garland. While the left snake is larger than the right one, coiling around itself

twice, and extending its head at the beginning of the left garland. The right

snake is female, while the left one is male.11

2-Garland Sarcophagus of Unknown Person with Vaulted Lid:


Provenance: Anfushi cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.

Present location: Graeco-Roman Museum, Alexandria - Egypt.

Number: 24874.

Date: Ptolemaic period.

Dimensions: Height with lid: 80 cm. Height without lid: 64 cm.

Width: 93 cm. Length: 211 cm.

Bibiography:

غير رسالة دكتوراه ،يالتوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والرومان ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد

.252:248 (،1992،الغربية) ،جامعة طنطا -اآلدابكلية ، ،منشورة

- Adriani, A., Repertoio d'arte dell'Egitto Graeco-Romano, Vol.1, (Palermo,

1961), 21.

- Database of Anfushi cemetery.

Plate 3:The garland sarcophagus and its front side.


Tav.2, fig. 5.

10 Cormack, J. M. R., "A Garland-Sarcophagus in Beroea", in The Annual of the British

School at Athens. Vol. 41, (British School at Athens, 1940 – 1945), 116. 11 Loc.cit.

36



Plate 4:The left short side of the sarcophagus.


Tav.2, fig. 7.

Description

It is a rectangular box with a low vaulted lid which symbolizes the dome of

the sky. Each long side of the lid has three broad protrusions which end with

carved lion rearing its head. These three broad protrusions act as handle of

the lid. The front long side of the lid is decorated with two garlands of ivy

leaves which are carved in high relief and vertical position.

The left short side of the lid is centered with a high-relief mask of Medousa

that was carved in Hellenistic style of art. The Medusa is surrounded by a

branch of grapes which is coiled forming three spirals at each side. The first

two spirals have a grape leave, and the third one has a quadrilateral flower.

The long rear side and the right short side aren't decorated. The lid is broken

into two parts. It suffers from severe corrosion, especially on the right side.

The left short side of the sarcophagus is decorated with two garlands of wide

laurel leaves. The two garlands are connected by a high-relief circular knot in

37



the middle. A big triangular grape cluster is hanging from this knot. Each

garland is ended with a half triangular bull head, the other half of the bull

head is found on the front long side of the sarcophagus. There are two strips

hanging down from each bull head, one on the short side, and the other strip

on the long side of the sarcophagus.

The front long side is ornamented with two floral garlands. The floral

garlands are represented above two bull heads at the corners and a branch of

ivy leaves in the middle. The two garlands consist of different types of fruits

as pineapple, grapes, and ivy. A big triangular grape cluster is hanging down

from each garland, surmounted by a high relief round disk. In the center, a

feminine bust of the deceased is carved which appears as inserted in a

crescent. The crescent is opened up, and it has a small high-relief disk. This

bust is represented with a full face and long neck, in addition to wearing a

mantle.

This sarcophagus may date back to Ptolemaic period as it was found in the

Anfushi cemetery which is a Ptolemaic cemetery.

3-Garland Sarcophagus of Unknown Person with Gabled Lid:


Provenance: Kom el Shokafa in Western cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.

Present location: Kom el Shokafa in Western cemetery, Alexandria - Egypt.

Number: 81.

Date: Late Ptolemaic period.

Dimensions: Height with lid: 88 cm. Width: 96 cm. Length: 233 cm.

Bibiography:

غير رسالة دكتوراه ،التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد

.257-253 (،1992،الغربية) ،جامعة طنطا -اآلدابكلية ، ،منشورة

Database of Kom el-Shokafa cemetery-

38



Plate 5: Garland sarcophagus of unknown person with a gabled lid.

Description

It is a rectangular box with a gabled lid and it has a rectangular edge at the

two long sides. Each long side of the lid is penetrated by two cylindrical

prominences which act as handles. The front long side is decorated with two

floral garlands. Each garland is ending with a half bull head at the corner. A

high relief strip is hanging down from each bull head. Both half bull heads

are sculpted above a pillar, but the left pillar is wider than the right one.

39



The floral garland consists of laurel leaves, lotus, doum, and other flowers; it

is wrapped by a ribbon. The two garlands are knotted in the middle above the

naked child. A triangular grape cluster is hanging down from each garland.

The upper part of each cluster is covered by a small grape leave.

Each of the two garlands is surmounted with a Medousa-mask. It is carved

with round ugly and angry face. The left Medusa is represented with more

comfortable, less edgy face unlike the right one. Two plumed serpents are

protruded from her forehead. The tail of the two serpents is knotted below the

Medusa's chin. Medusa is carved with bas-relief thick curls, wide nose, and

slightly open mouth. The Medusa masks are carved here without Dionysus'

followers.

In the middle of the long side a naked fat child is situated who stands on

broad rectangular pillar and raises the two garlands with his arms. His face

appears in full and is directed to the left, and he is looking down. His hair is

carved in a shape of bas-relief round curls, the front curls are only found. A

part of his left arm is appeared raising the right garland, while the right arm is

disappeared behind the left garland. The way of depiction of his body is

referring to heaviness of the garlands. The right leg is bended, while the left

leg is taut, and the right shoulder is inclining. The features of depiction of the

Meduza masks and naked child date back to Hellenistic Period.

Analysis

1- Floral garlands

The decoration of floral garlands is of Graeco - Roman origin and it is always

used in the funerary context in this period.12 The front long side of

Sarcophagus no. 1 is decorated with a long floral branch. The floral branch is

hanging above three bull heads forming two garlands in the middle. The two

12 Amira Ibrahim Zaki Selim, The Iconography of the Coffins in the Graeco-Roman Period,

PH.D, unpublished, Helwan University, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, (Cairo,

2009). 202-203.

40



ends of the branch are vertically falling down, one on each side. The two

garlands consist of Sarcophagus no. 2 is decorated with two garlands of wide

laurel leaves. The two garlands are connected by a high-relief circular knot in

the middle. The front long side of Sarcophagus no. 3 is decorated with two

floral garlands. The floral garland consists of laurel leaves, lotus, doum, and

other flowers; it is wrapped by a ribbon. The two garlands are knotted in the

middle above the naked child. A triangular grape cluster is hanging down

from each garland of Assos and garland sarcophagi. The grape cluster and

vine bunches were symbol of god Dionysus.

According to Greek myth, Daphne, was a mountain nymph loved by Apollo,

and Leucippus who disguised himself as a nymph. When the nymphs

discovered his lie, they tried to kill him. Apollo continued to chase Daphne,

and her cry for help was heard by her father, the river god Peneus, who

turned her into a laurel tree. Apollo promised that the tree would be eternally

green and took the laurel as his symbol. The Greeks gave a wreath of laurels

to the victors of the games at Delphi, but the victors of the Olymbic games

had a wreath of wild olives. They believed that the laurel communicated the

spirit of prophecy and poetry, so the priestesses of the Python and poets were

crowned by laurel leaves to acquire the inspiration.13

2- The lion sculpture

Each long side of the lid of sarcophagi nos. 1 - 2 was depicted with three

broad protrusions which ended with carved head of sad lion. To the ancient

Greeks, lions symbolized power and wealth and were featured in many

ancient Greek myths. The story of Heracles of the Nemean lion is widely

13 Stewart, W., Imagery and Symbolism in Counselling, (Bristol: Jessica Kingsley, 1995),

250.

41

https://www.worldcat.org/title/imagery-and-symbolism-in-counselling/oclc/1037661320&referer=brief_results



known through Greek art and literature. The Nemean lion was killed by

Heracles who strangled it and afterwards wore the lion skin. The number of

lions in Greek sculpture is small. The oldest sculptured architectural

monument in Greece depicts the lion as a warder of the gate of the king.

Hellenistic art displays many lions fierce of aspect but mild of demeanor,

suffering themselves to be petted by cupids. The lion was the symbolic

guardian of a grave in Athens or in the surrounding countryside. So may be

the artist sculpted the lion on the sarcophagi to protect it from any danger. 14

3-The bull sculpture:

The front long side of sarcophagus no.1 is decorated with a long floral

branch. The floral branch is hanging above three bull heads forming two

garlands in the middle. The three bull heads are depicted in front profile. The

left short side of Sarcophagus no. 2 is decorated with two garlands. Each

garland is ended with a half triangular bull head, the other half of the bull

head is found on the front long side of the sarcophagus. There are two strips

are hanging down from each bull head, one on the short side, and the other

strip on the long side of the sarcophagus. The front long side is ornamented

with two floral garlands. The floral garlands are represented above two bull

heads at the corners and a floral branch a branch of ivy leaves in the middle.

The front long side of Sarcophagus no. 3 is decorated with two floral

quadrant garlands. Each garland is ended with a half bull head at the corner.

A high relief strip is hanging down from each bull head. Both half bull heads

are sculpted above a pillar.

There were two cults on Crete, the bull cult and the snake cult. Both of them

were devoted to worship of a goddess, and they represented antithetical

aspects of the fertile great goddess. The bull symbolized the earth's surface,

life, daylight, and physical power. The Greeks associated the bull with the

14 Rambo, E., F., Lions in Greek Art, Ph.D., Faculty of Bryn Mawr College, (Pennsylvania,

1920). V:VII.

42



sea god Poseidon because of the power of this god whom Hesiod called

"bull-like earth-shaker". The bull heads carved on the Greaco-Roman temples

serve a decorative purpose, but they maybe reflect earlier rituals which

terminated with the head of sacrificial animals displayed on temple wall.15 So

may be the artist sculpted the lion on the sarcophagi to protect it from any danger

or for a decorative purpose.

4-Medusa-Head sculpture:

The left short side of the lid of sarcophagus no. 2 is centered with a high-

relief mask of Medusa that was carved in Hellenistic style of art. The Medusa

is surrounded by a branch of grapes which is coiled forming three spirals at

each side. Each of the two garlands of sarcophagus no. 3 is surmounted with

a Medusa-mask. It is carved with round ugly and angry face. Two plumed

serpents are protruded from her forehead. The tail of the two serpents is

knotted below the Medusa's chin. Medusa is carved with bas-relief thick

curls, wide nose, and slightly open mouth.

Medusa is a recognizable figure from ancient Greek art. For Hesiod’s

Theogony, she was one of three Gorgon sisters born to Keto and Phorkys,

primordial sea gods; Medusa was mortal, while the others, Stheno and

Euryale, were immortal. According to Greek mythology, Medusa was

initially a beautiful girl, but she had sex with Poseidon in the temple of

Athens. This caused Athens to be angry, and she turned Medusa into an ugly

woman with a horrible face and writhing snakes instead of hair. If one looks

15 Werness, H. B., et al, The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art,

(New York: Continuum, 2003), 59.

43



directly at it he is turned to stone.16 The most common interpretation of

Medusa suggests she is an apotropaic symbol used to ward off the negative.

She represents a dangerous threat meant to prevent other dangerous threats,

an image of evil to repel evil. So the Medusa was sometimes carved on the

sarcophagi to protect it from any external danger and against enemies or

robbers.17

5-The snake sculpture

Each garland of the front long side of sarcophagus no. 1 is surmounted with a

huge snake. The two snakes are coiling and facing each other. It is usual to

find the space above the garlands filled with Medusa-heads, masks, lions'-

heads, rosettes, or portrait-busts, but it is unusual in finding snakes on

garland sarcophagi.

In Greek mythology, the snake symbolizes a guardian spirit and is inscribed

on many funerary monuments. Snakes represented wisdom; Athene, the

ancient Greek goddess of wisdom was associated with the serpent goddesses

of the Minoans. The ancient Greek art depicts Medusa and her sisters the

gorgons as serpent monsters.18 In Greek art the emblem of Aesculapius is a

serpent coiled round a staff. 19 For the Greeks, the snake represented eternity

and regeneration. As it is able to go dormant in winter then revive each

spring, as well as its ability to shed its skin and regenerate new self

representing the cycle of nature which dominate myth, birth, death, and

rebirth. The snake is usually depicted in Greek art as a symbol of the

chthonic, as the snake can be venomous causing almost instantaneous death,

and they are able to transgress into and out of the underworld. So the snake is

16 Miller, A. A., "An Interpretation of the Symbolism of Medusa," in American Imago, Vol.

15, (Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958) 389. 17 Madeleine, G.," Medusa in Ancient Greek Art", in https://www.metmuseum.org, in March

2017. 18 Eason, C.. Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A

Handbook., (California: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), 24.

19 Ovid, Fastorum libri sex., Vol.4, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014), 321.

44

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland

https://www.metmuseum.org/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California

https://www.worldcat.org/title/fastorum-libri-sex/oclc/898157540&referer=brief_results



a symbol of death, and they are depicted within myths as terrifying. Maybe

the snakes replaced Medusa on this sarcophagus to do her role in protecting

the sarcophagus and the deceased. As a result, the snakes are depicted in

attack position to threaten the true snakes.20

6- The child sculpture

Sarcophagus no. 3 is decorated with a naked fat child who depicted standing

on a broad rectangular pillar and raising the two garlands with his arms. The

representation of the child as naked is a feature of the ancient Egyptian art,

but his depiction without a sidelock of hair and without putting an index

finger in the mouth are features of the Greek art. Unlike the Egyptian child,

the Greek child was rarely represented placing his index finger in his mouth,

Also he is rarely depicted with a sidelock of hair, and he isn't completely

portrayed naked. The Greek artist depended mainly on the facial features and

the body to reveal the childhood features. Most of the child statues are made

of marble in Greek art, but in Egyptian art, most of the child statues are made

of white limestone, colored limestone, granite, alabaster, diorite, or bronze.21

Conclusions

The three garland sarcophagi are made of limestone. The front long side of

each sarcophagus is decorated with two floral garlands which ended with a

half bull head at the corners. They are divided into two parts according to the

shape of the lid, garland sarcophagi with vaulted lid as sarcophagi nos. 1-2

and garland sarcophagi with gabled lid without four pyramidal corners as

20 McCoppin, R., S., The Hero's Quest and the Cycles of Nature : An Ecological

Interpretation of World Mythology, (Jefferson, North Carolina McFarland et Company,

2016) , 72.

ر غير رسالة ماجيستي ،األطفال فى الفن المصرى القديم ومقارنته ببالد االغريقتمثيل ،زكريا محمود محمد الهادى 21

.127-126 ، (2014 ،)القاهرة ،ةجامعة القاهر -كلية االثار ،منشورة

45

https://www.worldcat.org/title/heros-quest-and-the-cycles-of-nature-an-ecological-interpretation-of-world-mythology/oclc/969534190&referer=brief_results

https://www.worldcat.org/title/heros-quest-and-the-cycles-of-nature-an-ecological-interpretation-of-world-mythology/oclc/969534190&referer=brief_results



sarcophagus no. 3. The vaulted lid: it symbolize to the dome of the sky

according the ancient Egyptian beliefs. It is used in the wooden sarcophagi

from the Late period to the Roman period. The gabled lid: it has pyramidal

shape, and it symbolize the facade of the Greek temple. The lid of the three

sarcophagi is penetrated with protrusions which act as handle of the lid. Each

long side of the lid of sarcophagi nos. 1-2 has three broad protrusions which

ended with carved lion rearing its head; while the lid of sarcophagus no. 3

has two cylindrical prominences at each long side.

Sarcophagi nos. 1- 3 are decorated at front long side only, but sarcophagus

no. 2 is ornamented at three sides, the front long side, and the two short sides.

So the sarcophagus no. 2 is a rare example and has other unusual features.

The first feature is the two short sides of this sarcophagus which are

decorated with two garlands, although the short sides of Alexandrian

sarcophagus are decorated with a garland, ended with a bull head at each

side.22 The Second feature is representation of two round disks which are

corrosive, and they may had a Medusa mask. The third one is the feminine

bust of the deceased. The face is eroded, and the facial features and hairstyle

aren't clear.23

The lid of sarcophagus no. 1 has a Greek inscription of the name of the

sarcophagus' owner (Akheel), and it is unusual in the Alexandrian

sarcophagi. Although the inscription dates back to 1st century A.D., the

sarcophagus was found in a Hellenistic tomb. Maybe the owner wanted to

confirm his ownership of the sarcophagus by inscribing his name on it, as he

كلية ، ،غير منشورة رسالة دكتوراه ،التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد 22

.249 .(1992،الغربية) ،طنطاجامعة -األدابكلية ، ،غير منشورة رسالة دكتوراه ،التوابيت في مصر خالل العصرين اليوناني والروماني ،ابراهيم ابراهيم سعد 23

.252.(1992،الغربية) ،جامعة طنطا -األداب

46



lived during 1st century A.D., and he took over this sarcophagus from a

Hellenistic tomb.24

Sarcophagi nos. 2- 3 are decorated with Medousa masks. The left short side

of the lid of sarcophagus no. 2 is centered with a high-relief mask of

Medousa that was carved in Hellenistic style of art. Each of the two garlands

of the front long side of sarcophagus no. 3 is surmounted with a Medousa-

mask. She is carved with round ugly and angry face.

The back of the sarcophagi is generally free of the decoration, as they were

usually placed against a wall inside a tomb.

24 Fraser, P. M.," Bibliography: Graeco-Roman Egypt Greek Inscriptions", JEA 43 (1957),

101.

47



The Mural Paintings at Deir El- Shuhada at Esna

Loris Tawfik Shaza Gamal Ismail Louay Mahmoud Saied

Abstract

Esna is located about 50 km to the south of Luxor at the west bank of the

River Nile.1 It has a very long history which started from the prehistoric

period and ended with the modern times.2 Its importance as a city goes back

to the ancient Egyptian times because it is located at the trade route between

Sudan and Egypt.3 It has many Coptic monuments, for example Deir El-

Shuhada and Deir El-Fakhory.4

This article focuses on Deir El- Shuhada and its different elements and on the

mural paintings which were executed in tempera.

Keywords

Deir-mural painting-Virgin Mary-martyrs-Esna-church-Jesus Christ

Introduction

Deir El- Shuhada is located about six km to the south-west side of Esna.5 It is

considered as one of Pachomius monasteries.6 It was built at the same place

where the martyrs were killed by Arianus during the reign of Diocletian (284-

305 AD).7

1 Depuydt, L., “Esna’s Triple New Year”, in: JARCE, vol. 40, 2003, p. 55. 2 Needler, W., Predynastic and Archaic Egypt in Brooklyn museum, 1984, p.49. 3 Basta, M., The Temple of Esna, 1987, p. 22. 4 Badawy, A., Guide de L’Egypte Chretienne, 1953, p.73; Sauneron, S.,”Les Neuvieme et

Dixiem Compagnes Archeogiques a Esna I”, in BIFAO.67, 1969, p.101. 5 Meinardus, O. F. A., Christian Egypt, Ancient and Modern, 2nd.ed., 1977, p. 440. 6 Munier, H., “L’Archeologie Copte et L’Oeuvre du Comitée de Conservation des

Monuments de L’Art Arabe, De 1933 A 1935”, in. BSAC, Tome VII, 1941, P.89-90. 7 Khater, Anton., Martyre des Citoyens d’ Esna, 1981, p. 66.

48



Fig. (1) The monasteries between Arment and Edfu

.114، ص 1990صموئيل السريانى، بديع حبيب جورجى، الدليل إلى الكنائس و األديرة القديمة من الجيزة إلى أسوان،

Deir El- Shuhada is rectangular in shape about 50 m long and 40 m wide and

it dates back to the eleventh century.8 The entrance of Deir El- Shuhada is

located at the southern side of the enclosure (fig. 2). It is decorated with a

semi-circle arch. The entrance leads to a rectangular court about 22.65 m

long and 4.10 m wide which separated between the old church and the

modern church.9

8 Meinardus, otto. & Rutschowscaya, Marie., Christian Egypt (Coptic Art and Monuments

Through Two Millennia), 2002, p. 247.

. 260 ، ص1988، مصطفى عبدهللا شيحة، دراسات فى العمارة والفنون القبطية9

49

Tawfik, L. Ismail, Sh. Saied, L.


Fig. (2) The entrance of the monastery (Photo by: The researcher)

The old church

Clarke mentioned that “The old church was built near to the east side of the

old enclosure wall of the monastery.”10 Nowadays, there is a space between

the enclosure wall and the old church as a result of building a new enclosure

wall. The church has two entrances; the old one which is located at the

western side which is the current entrance of the church. The modern

entrance is located to the east side of the old entrance (fig. 3). It may be dated

to 786 AD and was reconstructed several times after that date.11 The church

is rectangular in shape about 16.95 m long and 13.90 m wide. The main old

church of Deir El- Shuhada has another two churches beside it and maybe

they were built in the Fatimid period.12

10 Clarke, S., Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valle, 1912, p. 114. 11 Kamil, Jill., Coptic Egypt History and Guide, 1987, p. 133.

.262مصطفى عبدهللا شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص. 12

50



Fig. (3) Plan of the old churches of the Monastery of Martyrs

After: Grossmann, Peter., Dayr Al- Shuhada: Architecture, in: Ce, vol III, 1991, p. 870

The first church (The church of Saint Ammonius)

This church probably dates back to the eleventh or the twelfth century.13 It

consists of three aisles. The southern aisle is divided into four parts. The first,

second and third part covered with a cross vaulted roof, but the fourth part is

just a side room which covered with a semi-circle vaulted roof. The third part

contains a baptistery, which dates back to 1903 AD. Before this time, this

part contains of a tomb for one of the monks of the monastery.14

The main or the middle aisle consists of four parts. The roof of the first part

is covered with a dome. The second part (nave) is covered with a dome with

a small opening for light and ventilation. There is a small granite column

with a hallow about 93 cm high in the middle of the nave and pulpit with four

stairs at the south-west side of this part (fig. 4). The third part of this aisle is

covered with a cross vaulted roof. The fourth part is the main altar which is

dedicated to Saint Ammonius. The façade of the sanctuary is made out of

brick about 2.75m high and consists of two entrances with a semi-circular

13 Meinardus, otto. & Rutschowscaya, Marie., op. cit., p. 247. 14 Bock, de, W., Matériaux pour servir à l’archéologie de l’Égypte Chrétienne, 1901, p. 72.

51



arch and a small window with pointed arch in the middle. The roof of this

sanctuary is covered with irregular dome.15

Fig. (4) The pulpit and the granite column (Photo by: The researcher)

The northern aisle consists of four parts, these parts are separated from each

other’s by semi-circle arches. The first part in the western side has some

architecture restorations after 1903 AD. Before 1903, this part was covered

with a cross vaulted roof, but now it is covered with shallow dome. The

second part is covered with a cross vaulted roof. The third part is covered

with shallow dome. The fourth part is a side room which has the old

baptistery.16

The sanctuary of saint Ammonius is decorated with the scene of Jesus Christ

(fig. 5) which measures about 4 m wide and 1.65 m long.17 This scene dates

back to the eleventh or the twelfth century and was painted in tempera. On

this scene Jesus Christ is represented with his majesty sitting on the throne.

He is holding with his left hand a square Bible while he is raising his right

hand in blessing. He is depicted with short black beard, wearing dark red

.263مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص 15

16 Clarke, S., Op. cit., p. 115.


52



garment and there is a black halo around his head. He is surrounded by two

Archangels Michael and Gabriel who are bending towards him.18 Their arms

are raised and their wings are extended behind them. They are depicted with

red wings and there is a dark turquoise halo around their heads. They are

wearing a dark turquoise garment with red cloak.19

There is a representation of Saint Basil to the right side of the Archangel

Gabriel and the Bishop Gregory to the left side of the Archangel Michael.

Saint Basil is represented with long white hair and beard holding the Bible

with his left hand. He is depicted with a yellow halo around his head and he

is wearing a yellow garment. Saint Gregory is represented with black hair

and beard holding the Bible with his left hand. He is depicted with yellow

garment and yellow halo around his head. To the right side of Saint Gregory

there is a representation of a young man who is breadless which disappeared

nowadays.20

Opposite this painting, above the door there is a scene representing the Virgin

Mary with the child and surrounded with two angels and date 786 AD. This

painting and its date are only mentioned by De Bock but Leroy did not find

this painting in 1975.21

18 Capuani, M., Christian Egypt Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia, 2002,

p. 247. 19 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 4.

.277مصطفى شيحه، مرجع سابق، ص 20

Du Bourguet, Pierre., Dayr Al- Shuhada, Ce., vol. 3, 1991, p. 869. 21 Bock, de, op. cit., p. 76-77.

53



Fig. (5) The scene of Jesus Christ at the sanctuary of Saint Ammonius

After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p. 5

The second church (The church of the three men)

This church is located to the south of the northern aisle of the main church.

The entrance of this church is located to the north-west side from the main

first church. The entrance leads to the transverse hall, which is covered with

barrel vaults with four openings for ventilation and light purposes. There are

two entrances from the east side of the transverse hall which leads to two

sanctuaries.22 The north sanctuary is dedicated to Saint Bidaba and the south

sanctuary is dedicated to Saint Andrew and Saint Christodoulas.

These two sanctuaries are identical in their architectural style which is

different from the other churches at Esna. Each sanctuary is divided into two

parts by a screen wall which has two entrances and a small window in the

middle. The two entrances and the window are decorated with semi-circular

arch. From the east side of the wall there are the altars and from the west side

22 Clarke, S., op. cit., p. 114.

54



there is a small corridor.23 There is no mural painting on the wall of this

church.

The third church (The church of the Martyrs)

The entrance of this church is located to the east-north side of the main

church. This church consists of two aisles, each aisle consists of three parts.

The entrance leads to the southern aisle, the west part of this aisle is the

tombs of martyrs which is covered with cross vault.24 The middle part

covered with a little dome which is decorated with the stalactite niches (fig.

6). There are three openings in the dome for ventilation and light purposes.

The third part is the sanctuary from the eastern side which is dedicated to

Saint Aqladios. This sanctuary is characterized by six crosses on the wall

above its entrance.

The second aisle consists of three parts; the tombs of martyrs in the west side,

the middle part which is covered with a barrel vault and the sanctuary from

the eastern side.25 This sanctuary is dedicated to Saint Tawadros. The

architecture style of two sanctuaries is like the style of the sanctuaries of the

previous churches. Each sanctuary is divided into two parts; the west part and

the east part by screen wall. This screen wall has two entrances and a window

in the middle.26 The two entrances of Saint Aqladios’s sanctuary and the

window are decorated with pointed arches but the other entrances and the

window of Saint Tawadros’s sanctuary are decorated with pointed arches.


24 Van loon, G.J., “The Esna Monasteries: Dayr al- Shuhada and Dayr al- Fakhuri”,

Christianity and Monasticism in Upper Egypt, ed.by: Gabra, G. et, Takla, H.N., vol. II,

2010., p. 226.

.269مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص 25 26 Clarke, S., Op. cit., p. 115.

55



Fig. (6) The dome in front of saint Aqladios sanctuary (Photo by: The researcher)

The sanctuary of saint Claudius is decorated with different scenes, these

scenes are represented in the apse on the eastern wall. There are two scenes

placed one above the other. Also, there are another two scenes one on the

arch wall and the other one is on the southern wall of this sanctuary (exactly

on the southern wall of the corridor which is located before the alter). These

scenes were painted in tempera.

Scene of Jesus Christ (fig. 7)

This scene is decorating the apse of the sanctuary. Jesus Christ here is

represented seated on a bench without a back inside a mandorla. He is

holding with his left hand a square Bible while raising his right hand in

blessing. The cover of the Bible is decorated with a cross in the middle and

stars. There is a representation of the heads of the four evangelists from the

middle and lower parts on each side of the mandorla.27 From the side of the

mandorla there are a representation of two angels in profile position. They are

bending and raising their hands toward Jesus. Their wings are one raised and

27 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 3.

56



the other one is lowered. Under the mandorla there is a representation of two

persons praying and raising their hands above. Some parts of this scene are

damaged nowadays.28

Fig. (7) The scenes of Jesus Christ at the sanctuary of Saint Claudius


Scene of the Virgin Mary (fig. 8)

This scene is occupying the apse wall under the previous scene. The Virgin

Mary is depicted with the child surrounded by two Archangels Michael and

Gabriel. They are wearing a crown and holding a glob with their left hands.

The Archangel Michael is holding a long stick ends by a cross with his right

hand while the Archangel Gabriel holds a sword with his right hand. They are

wearing a red garment with decorated yellow cloak. The Virgin Mary is

wearing a dark green garment with red cloak but some parts of this scene are

damaged nowadays.29

واالقصر وأرمنت، عادل فخرى، نبيه كامل، تاريخ المسيحية والرهبنة وآثارها فى أبروشيتى نقادة وقوص،وأسنا28

.472-471 ، ص2008الطبعة االولى، 29 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 9-10; Capuani, M., op. cit., p. 247.

57



Fig. (8) Scene of the Virgin Mary


Scenes of the two saints

This scene is depicted on the wall of the arch of the sanctuary. The two saints

are Saint Peter and Saint Stephan. Saint Peter is represented in a standing

position, holding a group of two keys with his left hand while the other hand

is raising (fig. 9). He is depicted with white hair and beard. He is wearing a

dark red garment with white cloak and there is a yellow halo around his head.

Saint Stephan is represented in a standing position holding a cup with his left

hand while two fingers of the other hand are resting on a cup (fig. 10). Here

Saint Stephan is represented with black hair and beardless. He is depicted

with dark red garment and white cloak. In the middle of this arch there is a

representation of a black cross.30

30 Du Bourguet, Pierre., op. cit., p, 870.

58



Fig. (9) Saint Peter


Fig. (10) Saint Stephan


Scene of Saint Claudius (fig. 11)

This scene is painted on the southern wall of the sanctuary measures about

1.85 m wide and 3 m long and painted in tempera.31 The name of the Saint

has disappeared nowadays. This scene is represented with rich colors. Saint

Claudius is represented with short black hair, riding a horse and there is a

representation of two hands holding two crowns surrounding the face of the

saint. He is holding a saddle with his left hand while the right hand is holding

a spear. There is a representation of a cross below the scene of Saint

Claudius.32

279مصطفى شيحة، مرجع سابق، ص .31

32 Leroy, J., Op. cit., p. 15.

59



Fig. (11) Saint Claudius

After: Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975, p.41

The scenes of Saint Tawadros sanctuary

This sanctuary contains four scenes as follows:

Scene of Jesus Christ (fig. 12)

This scene is represented on the apse, the upper part of this scene is damaged,

and it is painted in tempera. Jesus Christ here is represented with his majesty

and like the scene of Jesus Christ on previous sanctuary except the Christ’s

feet are rested on a stool and the two Archangels Michael and Gabriel are

represented standing on one knee on the ground, their arms are stretched

forward and the wings are forming a right angle.33

33 Du Bourguet, Pierre., op. cit., p, 870; Capuani, M., Op. cit., p. 247.

60



Fig. (12) The scene of Jesus Christ at the sanctuary of Saint Tawadros


Scene of Saint Tawadros (fig. 13)

This scene is similar to the scene of Saint Claudius but here it is represented

on the western wall of the sanctuary. The name of the saint disappeared and

the scene is depicted with rich colors. He is represented riding a horse with a

short black hair and beard. He is holding a saddle with his left hand while the

right hand is holding a spear. There is a representation of a hand holding a

crown to the left side of his face. His head is surrounded by a white yellow

halo. Nowadays some parts of this scene are damaged.34


Van loon, G. J., op. cit., p. 230.

61



Fig. (13) Saint Tawadros


Also, there is another scene belongs to Saint Boktor in the northern wall of

the sanctuary (fig. 14). This scene like the previous scene but smaller in size.

He is represented riding a horse, holding a saddle with his left hand while his

other hand is holding a spear.35 Some parts of this scene are damaged

nowadays.

Fig. (14) Saint Bokter



62



There is a representation of the Archangel Gabriel (fig. 15). He is represented

in a standing position, holding a globe which is decorated with a rosette with

his left hand while the other hand is holding a stick ending by a cross. Near

his right foot there is building with three domes, probably a picture of the

church. This scene measures about 220 cm in height and was painted in

tempera. These scenes maybe date back to the beginning of the twelfth

century.36

Fig. (15) The Archangel Gabriel


The modern church

This church was built in 1931 AD.37 The church is dedicated to the Virgin

Mary. It is located to the south of the old churches. The roof of the church is

supported by twelve domes. The church consists of three aisles which ended

with three altars. The middle altar is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, the

northern altar is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and the southern altar is

dedicated to saint George. The baptistery is located to the south-west side of

36 Du Bourguet, Pierre., Op. cit., p, 871; Capuani, M., op. cit., p. 247; Leroy, J., Op. cit.,

p.,13-14. 37 Van loon, G.J., Op. cit p. 226.

63



the church.38 Now, this church is under restorations so, it is difficult to know

the measures of the church.

The well

The well has unhealthy water, the soldiers of Arianus washed their swords on

this well as what the people believe in. The well is located on the south-west

side of the monastery. Fig. (16)

Fig. (17) The well (Photo by: The researcher)

The cells

They are located to the north of the monastery. They consist of seven cells

with long corridor. These cells were built in modern times for nuns.

The base

It is a square base which used at Epiphany in old times, like the base of Abu-

Serga church in old Cairo. It is located to the southern side of the old

churches.

38 Meinardus, O, Op. cit 245.

64



The tombs

The monastery contains tombs of the people of Esna, which is located in

front of the main entrance of the monastery.

Conclusion

Deir El- Shuhada can be dated to the early eighth century according to the

date which was founded by De Bock on the wall of the old church while the

existing old churches date back to the eleventh century and the modern

church dates back to 1931 AD. This monastery has a great historical

importance so it was renovated and reconstructed several times. The

importance of this monastery is due to its location where the martyrs were

killed by Arianus. Nowadays, it became one of the monasteries of Nuns in

Upper Egypt.

This monastery is characterized by different mural paintings. Some of then

represent rare scenes compared to the churches in Esna such as the scene of

the Virgin Mary, Saint Bokter, Saint Tawadros, Saint Claudius, Saint

Stephan, Saint Peter and the scene of the Archangel Gabriel. Also, this

monastery is recognized with some elements like the column of oil, the

pulpit, the stalactite which is located in the nave of the church of Saint

Ammonius and the base which is located in the southern side of the old

churches.

Bibliography

Badawy, A., Guide de l’Egypte Chretienne, 1953.

Basta, M., The Temple of Esna, 1987.

Bock, de, W., Matériaux pour Servir à l’archéologie de l’Égypte

Chrétienne, 1901.

Capuani, M., Christian Egypt Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two

Millennia, 2002.

Clarke, S., Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valle, 1912.

65



Depuydt, L., “Esna’s Triple New Year”, in: JARCE, vol. 40, 2003.

Du Bourguet, Pierre., Dayr Al- Shuhada, Ce., vol. 3, 1991.

Grossmann, Peter., Dayr Al- Shuhada: Architecture, in: Ce, vol III, 1991

Kamil, Jill., Coptic Egypt History and Guide, 1987.

Khater, Anton., Martyre des Citoyens d’ Esna, 1981.

Leroy, J., Les Peintures des Couvents du Desert d’ Esna, 1975.

Meinardus, O. F. A., Christian Egypt, Ancient and Modern, 2nd.ed., 1977.

Meinardus, Otto. & Rutschowscaya, Marie., Christian Egypt (Coptic Art

and Monuments Through Two Millennia), 2002.

Munier, H., “L’Archeologie Copte et L’œuvre du Comitée de

Conservation des Monuments de L’Art Arabe, De 1933 A 1935”, in.

BSAC, Tome VII, 1941.

Needler, W., Predynastic and Archaic Egypt in Brooklyn museum, 1984.

Sauneron, S.,” les neuvieme et Dixiem compagnes Archeogiques à Esna

I”, in BIFAO.67, 1969.

Van loon, G.J., “The Esna Monasteries: Dayr al- Shuhada and Dayr al-

Fakhuri”, Christianity and Monasticism in Upper Egypt, ed.by: Gabra, G. et,

Takla, H.N., vol.II, 2010.

إلى الجيزة من القديمة األديرة و الكنائس إلى الدليل جورجى، حبيب بديع السريانى، صموئيل

.1990 ،أسوان

،وأسناو تاريخ المسيحية والرهبنة وآثارها فى أبروشيتى نقادة وقوص،عادل فخرى، نبيه كامل

.2008، الطبعة االولى، االقصر وأرمنت

،1988، دراسات فى العمارة والفنون القبطيةمصطفى عبدهللا شيحة.

66



The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on

Five-Star Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt

Eleri Jones Maher Fouad Hossny Nehal Mohamed Eltayeb

Abstract

Currently Egypt is experiencing a time of financial recuperation, with

tourism and accommodation at the forefront. The country’s economic status

saw a downturn in the near past because of market precariousness. Although

this has had a negative effect on the country’s tourism sector. The state of the

economy is expected to return to pre-2011 levels in the mid-term. The

shrinking of inbound tourism has resulted in a drop in occupancy rates,

revenues, and tourist arrivals in the past few years. This can be largely

attributed to hospitality constraints measures and certain destination

challenges influenced the tourism sector in the city of Alexandria. This paper

aims at investigating the influences of inbound tourism constraints (ITC) on

five-star hotel revenues and travel agencies companies by using a survey

questionnaire directed at five-star hotel chains and travel agencies in

Alexandria.

The results reveal that both seasonality and guest loyalty have significant

influences on hotel revenues from inbound groups, but this influence is even

more significant when structural and psychological empowerment are

combined. Furthermore, the results of travel agencies indicate that the

diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs, as well as negative

destination images, influence the choice of destination for inbound groups.

Keywords

Inbound Tourism, Hotel Revenue, Room Rates, Guest Loyalty, Seasonality.

67

The Influences of Inbound Tourism Constraints (ITC) on Five-Star

Hotel Revenues and Travel Agencies in Egypt


Introduction

Tourism is considered the backbone of the Egyptian economy and an

essential source of foreign currencies, pulling in investments, retaining work

power, and partaking in the main cities improvement. Tourism is additionally

a sensitive industry in light of security and economic issues, as it attracts

visitors from all over the world (UNWTO, 2016). Recently, Inbound Tourism

Constraints (ITC) have become an important challenge, particularly for large

cities, such as Alexandria. The literature focuses on narrowly-defined supply-

side and socio-demographic constraints. These include constraints to travel,

such as visas for inbound tourists (Edgell, 1988), distance to the destination

(McKercher and Lew, 2003), climate and seasonality (Baum and Hagen,

1999; Martin, 2005), lack of transportation and accommodation, safety and

security (Brijesh, 2003; George, 2003), and lack of tourism promotion.

The worldwide development of inbound travel represents a remarkable

chance to build cordiality incomes. According to Colliers International Hotels

(2014), Egypt's inbound visitors appearance diminished by 33% in 2011 and

17.9% in 2013, largely due to safety efforts and certain movement

confinements, which affected major cities, such as Cairo, Alexandria, and

Luxor. While Sharm El Sheik and Hurghada saw separate increments of 10%

and 6%, as these urban areas were seen to be more secure.

The concept of constraints has gained increasing attention in studies on

tourism and hospitality industry (Lee et al., 2012; Ayeni et al., 2009), since

identifying and surmounting such constraints is essential to ensure that

tourism encourages growth and physical development of destination areas.

This is true where development is planned and accomplished. However, the

development of tourism is being hindered by local constraints, which should

be comprehended and settled.

68

Jones, E. Hossny, M. Eltayeb,N.


In spite of the fact that the capability of tourism exists in Alexandria, there

are constraints that must be tended to in order to promote inbound tourism,

and also in order to persuade tourists of the uniqueness of this historic place.

These include hotel revenue constraints and destination constraints from the

prospect of generating revenue, and destination development in Alexandria,

which can also lead to the preservation and revival of the inbound groups to

the city. This study also provides scientific support for necessary action

considerations to further promote inbound tourism.

Literature Review

The worldwide development of inbound groups represents a remarkable

chance to expand marketing opportunities and increase hospitality revenues.

The World Tourism Organization (2013) identified inbound tourism as the

activities of the guest travelling to a place outside his standard condition for

not more than a year and at least for 24 hours. The movement is for

recreation, business, and not for permanent work and gaining money.

Inbound tourism is considered the backbone of the hospitality industry,

mainly for its revenue advantages. In hospitality industry, revenues literature,

and demand for international tourism have attracted predominant research

interests. El Haddad et al. (2008) defined revenue management as yield

management, which is considered a fundamental instrument for coordinating

free market activity by partitioning clients into various sections in light of

their buying goals and allocating capacity to the different segments in a way

that maximizes a particular industry’s revenues.

Kimes and Wirtz (2003) characterized revenue management as the utilization

of data frameworks and evaluating procedures to allocate the right capacity to

the right client at the right cost at the ideal time. This puts revenue

69




management practice into the domain of promoting management where it

assumes a key part sought after creation (Cross et al., 2009) and overseeing

purchaser behavior (Anderson and Xie, 2010).

Revenue management frameworks can be divided into two noteworthy

gatherings; the quantity control approach and the dynamic pricing

approach(Aziz et al., 2011; Ingold et al., 2001; Talluri and Van Ryzin, 2005).

The quantity control approach is sectioned by classifications, for example, by

rate, visitor composition, room type, or potentially length of stay. Every

classification has a settled cost. However, the quantity of rooms allotted to

the classification is progressively controlled in a way that augments income.

The dynamic pricing approach is set in order to augment income, considering

the hotel occupancy, and the present and expected demand.

A recent study by Falk (2014) revealed that weather and climate of a country

can be functioned as a push and a pull factor in motivating tourists to select a

country as their preferred destination to travel. Accordingly, decrease or

increase in hotel revenues depend on the impact of weather conditions on

tourism demand and hotels revenue. Colliers International's Hospitality

Division (2015) reported that the main cities and the primary leisure

destinations in Egypt witnessed a decrease in inbound international tourist

arrivals. This report shows that inbound tourism dropped by 33% during

2011. However, this figure increased by 17.1% the following year, with

Sharm El Sheik and Hurghada encountering high visitor increments. On other

hand, hotels in Alexandria saw a drop in universal appearance because of the

executed travel notices.

The sector of tourism and hospitality was more affected by the current

economic and political conditions. A decline of inbound tourism began in

the second half of 2012 and it got stronger in 2013 after several consecutive

years of growth. Figure 1 shows a sharp decline in tourist flows, length of

stay, tourist spending and increased restrictions on business travel expenses

70



that led to a significant contraction of inbound travelers. These impacts

resulted from increased unemployment, market volatility, economic and

social insecurity, and a significant decline in the average household income.

Table 1 Inbound tourist arrivals to Egypt through worldwide tour operators.

Source: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

ur

Figure 1: Inbound tourist arrivals to Egypt (during 2010-2016)

Source: Egypt Tourism Revenues

https://tradingeconomics.com/Egypt/tourism-revenues

Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Variable

Total international arrivals 9,800,000 11,500,000 9,500,000 9,900,000 9,327,804 5,398,934

Total

international

arrivals

Overnight

visitors

(tourists) 9,451,900 11,163,900 9,209,200 9,650,000 8,983,739 5,168,412

Same-day

visitors

(excursionists) 348,100 336,100 290,800 250,000 188,700 141,141

Top markets Germany 965,000 1,165,000 885,479 877,228 1,010,879 653,915

France 345,000 318,000 191,689 144,766 136,623 101,075

United

Kingdom 1,034,000 1,012,000 955,344 905,713 869,481 231,299

Italy 555,000 719,000 504,110 400,356 332,932 131,458

Russian

Federation 1,832,000 2,518,000 2,393,908 3,138,958 2,389,882 53,864

Nights in all types of

accommodation 114,200,000 137,800,000 94,410,000 97,256,000 84,127,586 32,712,186

71




Hausmann, Rodrik and Velasco (2005) reported that the key variable of

interest on the demand side is the consumption of domestic goods and

services by visitors.

Demand constraints could be increasing due to many reasons. One reason

may simply be a lack of desire to visit Egypt, which could be driven, for

example, by negative perceptions about the safety and security situation of

the country. Cost is another driving force behind the decision to vacation at a

given destination. Any country needs to be price competitive and

discriminating (i.e. offer different packages to appeal to different budgets) if

it is to promote its tourism sector.

Further indicators concerning the average occupancy percentage of hotels in

Egypt dropped to an average of 50% in 2013 precisely after the Arab

Spring’s political unrest. However, in 2014, the occupancy percentage of the

Egyptian hotels increased to 55% particularly in the hotels of South Sinai

while Alexandria had a lower occupancy rate of 29%. Figure 2 shows hotel

occupancy in the major tourist cities in Egypt in 2013 and 2014.

Figure 2: Average Occupancy Percentage in the Main Egyptian Tourist Destinations

Source: Colliers International Hotels, 2014. Egypt Hotel Market Overview.

72



Destination image was assumed to be a basic part in destination decision

matters, and a definitive objective of any destination to influence conceivable

tourists’ movement related decision-making and choice through marketing

activities. In spite of the fact that not all components adding to the

improvement of an image can be controlled, tourism marketers need to

deliberately build up, reinforce, and, if necessary, change the image of their

destination (Chi and Qu, 2008).

Advertising plays an important role in forming the typical image for tourists.

That image can become an unreal created differentiation, because it strongly

influences and creates beliefs about tourism products provided (MacKay &

Fesenmaier, 2000). In addition, destination image contributes to framing a

destination brand and more to its prosperity. “The beginning stage for

creating and keeping a solid brand image is the key comprehension of the

visitors' images of the destination and image considers are essential to a

general effective promoting procedure. . Hence, it is clear that image is

strongly related to tourism marketing issues and plays an incredibly

important role for the touristic success of a destination” (Tasci and Gartner,

2007, p. 413).

While a few people may have a constructive image about a destination, others

may have a negative one. Concerning destination choice, information

provision before visiting a destination basically performs three functions:

first, it creates an image; second, it minimizes the risks that the destination in

question might entail; three, it serves as a technique for the later justification

of the eventual choice made (Friás et al., 2008).

Seasonality was considered as a challenge and an issue that influences

numerous areas of activity, which does not cause reactions only at

73




government and tourism organizations, but also researchers and scholastics

that are searching for the reasons of seasonality in tourism demand as well as

strategies for combating the seasonal character of tourism stakeholders.

The general consensus of many researchers, such as Cellini and Giuseppe

(2010), Cooper et al. (2005), Goeldener and Ritchie (2003), Commons and

Page (2001), Butler (2001), Krakover (2000) and Butler (1994), is that the

seasonal nature of tourism implies a number of negative effects on the

economic, ecological and socio-cultural environment of the tourist

destination and so on tourism demand.

Seasonality can influence both the tourism industry and hospitality industry.

The negative impacts of seasonality are more than the positive but there is

also positive aspects to seasonality. Seasonality in tourism and hospitality

industry has several focal points which include the relationship of seasonality

to demand and visitation, particular destination which focuses only on

seasonality, the effect of seasonality on employment and the financial well-

being of tourism that has an impact on destination areas, policy implications

(Butler, 2001).

Research framework

In this study, there are six hypotheses, which were developed to define the

path and direction of the current study, as well as to give a proper

conclusion..

74



Figure 3 shows the summary of hypothesis used in this study

Research Methodology

Surveys of directors of rooms, revenue managers, sales and

marketing, and tour operators’ managers were conducted in five-star hotels

and travel agencies in Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt. The sample frame is

hotels division heads who deal with groups’ reservations, and travel agency

staff who arrange programs for inbound tourism to Alexandria city. The

sample size was 220 managers from five- star hotels and 180 travel agency

INBOU

ND

TOURIS

M AND

HOSPIT

ALITY CONST

RAINT

S

MARKETING

TOOLS

TOURISTS

PROGRAMS

NEGATIVE

DESTINATION IMAGE

HIGH ROOM RATES

LOYALTY AND

GUEST BEHAVIOR

SEASONALITY

DEMAND

HOTEL REVENUES

DESTINATION CHOICE

H1

1

H2

H3

3

H4

1

H5

H6

3

75




staff. A random sampling technique was used to select hotel managers and

travel agencies from the population.

A questionnaire was designed based on the research objective

consisting of four dimensions for hotels and four dimensions for tourism

companies. The eight dimensions used a 5-point Likert scale ranging from

1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree.

Objective of the study

- Examining the revenue constraints of inbound tourism groups in five-

star hotels in Alexandria, Egypt.

- Identifying the reasons behind inbound tourists’ lack of interest in

visiting Alexandria, from travel agents perspective.

Data Collection

The questionnaire was administered to hotel managers and travel agencies

staff in Alexandria. The data were collected using two types of structured

questionnaires.

The first survey was directed to Directors of Rooms, Revenue Managers, and

Sales and Marketing consisted of four clusters of questions that include the

following:

1. Revenue impact (10 variables).

2. Constraints of seasonality demand (10 variables).

3. Constraints of loyalty and guest behavior (10 variables).

4. Constraints of high room rates (10 variables).

The second survey was administered to travel agencies staff consisted of four

clusters of questions that include the follows:

1. Destination choice (10 variables).

5. Constraints of marketing tools (10 variables).

6. Constraints of diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs (10

variables).

76



7. Constraints of negative destination image (10 variables).

The questionnaire was developed based on the contribution of inbound

tourism arrivals through the travel agencies to Alexandria, hotels current

supply, hotels demand, the effect of negative destination image, and

destination constraints.

From the 400 copies of the questionnaire distributed to hotels and travel

agencies, 340 (170 from Hotels, and 170 from tourism companies) were

returned and used for the analysis after the data were screened, which

amounted to a response rate of 85%.

Descriptive statistics analysis and regression analysis were used to measure

the objectives of the study. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

program (SPSS) version 24 was used for analysis and reliability analysis.

Reliability

In relation to the internal consistency of the data, hotel managers’ and travel

agencies staff perceived aspects of the factors that influences hotel revenues

from inbound tourism arrivals through travel agencies programs in form of

questionnaire include four dimensions for each form of questionnaire.

Reliability test was used through the SPSS software to generate Cronbach

Alpha values for each of the eight variables of the study; six independent

variables for both hotel managers and travel agencies staff and two dependent

variables. Cronbach’s Alpha is the most commonly used method to test

reliability, through measuring internal consistency. Saunders et al. (2009)

considered 0.70 (or above) value of Alpha is an acceptable level of reliability,

with higher level of reliability as the value goes higher. Table 2 shows the

results of reliability test - all Cronbach’s Alpha values dimensions have

clearly exceeded the minimum recommended value (α = 0.70).

77




Table 2: Reliability test results

HOTEL DIMENSIONS Reliability

Statistics

TOUR OPERATORS

DIMENSIONS

Reliability

Statistics

Revenue impact .763 Destination choice .707

Seasonality demand .816 Marketing tools .751

Loyalty and guest

behavior .790

Diversity and

attractiveness of Tourists

programs

.700

High Room rates .791

Negative destination

image .728

Total Cronbach's Alpha .790 Total Cronbach's Alpha .720

Results

Descriptive analysis of study’s scales for hotels To measure the impact of inbound tourism programs on five-star

hotels in Alexandria, Egypt, descriptive statistics was used. A survey that

consists of four variables with forty questions reflecting the perceived

impacts of inbound tourism programs by five star hotels in Alexandria.

All questionnaire items employed a five-point Likert-type scale with

1 being “strongly disagree” and 5 being “strongly agree”. To aid in the

interpretation of these scales, the researchers have established an interpretive

scale for the results as follows: “4.5 or greater = Strongly Agree; 4.49 - 3.50

= Agree; 3.49 - 2.51 = Neither Agree nor Disagree; 2.5 - 1.51= Disagree;

1.50 or less = Strongly Disagree”. Table 3 presents the output of the

descriptive analysis.

Table 3: Output of the Descriptive Analysis

Scale Extracted Dimensions N Mean Std.

Deviation

Dependent

Hotels

constraints

Revenue impact

170

1.832 0.454

Independent

Overall constraints

Seasonality demand

Loyalty and guest behavior

High Room rates

3.57

3.71

3.89

3.56

0.380

0.300

0.332

0.479

Dependent

Destination

constraints

Destination choice

170

.901 0.360

Independent

Overall constraints

Marketing tools

Diversity and attractiveness of Tourists

programs

Negative Destination image

3.80

3.91

3.92

3.52

0.206

0.134

0.086

0.599

78



The Output of the Descriptive Analysis for hotels

From Table 3, it is necessary to note that all the scales in this research were

computed from the mean scores of its sub-scales. Therefore, the impact of

hotels from inbound tourism programs scale as three- Independent

dimensional was computed by summing up its 30 items. The mean score for

overall constraints scale is 3.57 with a standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.380.

The revenue impact (dependent variable) computed by summing up it is 10

items was 1.82 with a standard deviation (S.D.) of 0.454.

This shows that the hotels believed that the revenue impact of the leisure and

business groups who stayed in their hotels through travel agencies is

influenced by three important dimensions, namely: seasonality and demand;

loyalty and guest behavior; room rates. Those three dimensions had a

negative impact on hotel revenues from inbound tourism as they were

considered major constraints on inbound tourism.

At the dimensional level, the highest score was reported by hotel managers

for constraints of loyalty and guest behavior dimension with a mean score

3.89, and S.D at 0.332. This explains that hotel managers confirmed the

importance of loyalty and guest behavior to hotel chains. This loyalty plays

an important part in selecting hotels for inbound tourists. However, groups

are used to stay with a particular organization in other destinations, usually in

Cairo, Sharm Elsheikh and Hurghada. It will also result in not recommending

the destination and hotel to friends and other associates of the guest.

This was followed by the constraint of “seasonality and demand” with a

mean score 3.71 and S.D at 0.300. This indicates that seasonality is the

subject matter of fluctuations of demand or supply in the hospitality industry

79




in Alexandria which, are affected by weather conditions, public and school

holidays.

The third dimension was reported for “high room rates dimension" with a

mean score of 3.56 and S.D. of 0.479. This illustrates that hotel managers

agreed that increased room rates had a negative influences on the impact of

attracting the groups to Alexandria. Increased room rates were due to the

economic situation and price inflation.

Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for revenue impact from

inbound tourism programs with a mean score of 1.832 and S.D. of 0.454

which, indicates that hotel managers were not comfortable with the revenue

achieved from inbound tourism groups to Alexandria.

The Output of the Descriptive Analysis for travel agencies’

The results of tourism programs scale revealed that the mean overall score

was 3.80 with S.D. of 0.206. This means that, inbound tourism is considered

another market opportunity in Alexandria. Interestingly, inbound tourism is

not one of the high priority markets due to the challenges that this destination

encounters. Therefore, the challenge dimensions concerned the inbound

tourism industry indicate that, this important market has been in decline due

to a number of reasons such as, constraints of marketing tools, constraints of

diversity and attractiveness of tourists programs, and constraints of negative

destination image.

At the dimensional level, it can be noted that the highest score was reported

by the travel agencies staff for “constraints of diversity and attractiveness of

tourists programs dimension" with a mean score of 3.92 and S.D. of 0.086.

This explains that travel agencies highly agreed that the programs could be

more attractive, if the entrance fees of the tourist sites is lower than the

provided fees as it is not appropriate for all tourist segments . Unfortunately,

tourists lack interest in visiting Alexandria for many reasons, such as:

80



Alexandria airport is not a hub airport , which means that it doesn’t serve as a

transfer or stop-over point to get passengers to their final destination which

could hinder tourists to stay in Alexandria for 1 or 2 days. Alexandria is not

included in tourism programs organized by tour operators abroad. The

beaches in Alexandria are not equipped for receiving tourists. It is worth

mentioning that most western European countries, which represent the main

market, for exploring tourist, have very well maintained beaches, similar to

those in Alexandria. Non diversity of tourism attractions that is included in

tourism programs and concentrating on one or two of the tourists sites and

neglecting the other alternatives because the travel agents abroad are not

aware of the tourist attractions in Alexandria. They only include visiting the

library of Alexandria in their programs. Tourists coming from Europe are

usually scheduled to visit Jordon and Israel in addition to visit Egypt, this

agrees with the Brizzi (2005) report.

The second dimension is constraints of marketing tools with a mean score of

3.91 and S.D of 0.134. This indicates that there is a lack of destination’s

ability to achieve its marketing goals. Marketing tool constraints can affect

any element of the marketing mix -product, price, place, or promotion.

Constraints of marketing tools include budget limitations, products that do

not meet the market's needs, prices that do not adequately represent value,

and ineffective promotion.

The third dimension was reported for “negative destination image” with a

mean score of3.52 and S.D. of 0.599. This illustrates that travel agency staff

agreed that the development of destination marketing is a high-priority for

the inbound tourists and that can be achieved in different ways for example

conducting more conferences in Alexandria and not concerning only in

81




Sharm El Shiekh. This will build a positive destination image toward

Alexandria.

Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for destination choice

impact with a mean score of 0.901 and S.D. of 0.360. This indicates that

Alexandria city is not the popular destination for inbound tourism groups.

Although the city has many historic places, it has not evolved over the years

to become one of the world most prestigious and popular tourist attractions,

enticing visitors from different sectors to its shores to experience what the

destination offers.

Hypotheses testing

1- Hotel revenue constraints

Correlation and multiple linear regressions were used to describe data and to

explain the relationship between one dependent variable, revenue impact and

three independent variables: loyalty and guest behavior; room rates, and

seasonality demand in Alexandria hotels. On the other hand, the relationship

between one dependent variable destination choice and three independent

variables marketing tools, diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs,

and negative destination image for travel agency companies was shown in

table 4. The general form of the multiple linear regressions is defined as:

y=βₒ+β₁.Xᵢ₂+β₂.Xᵢ₂+…+βᴘ.Xᵢn for i=1…n

Table 4: Constraints for hotel revenues and travel agencies

Indicators/Variables Symbol

Revenue impact

Seasonality demand

Loyalty and guest behavior

High Room rates

Y

x1

x2

x3

Hotels

Destination choice

Marketing tools

Diversity and attractiveness of Tourists programs

Negative Destination image

Y

x1

x2

x3

Tourism companies

As displayed in Table 5, the relationships between the hotel revenues and

constraints of inbound tourism were based on Davis’ (1983) conventions for

82



interpreting correlation coefficients. Those conventions are as follows: 1.0–

.70 = very strong association, .50–.69 = substantial association, .30–.49 =

moderate association, .10–.29 = low Association and .01–.09 = negligible

association.

Table 5: Correlations Correlations

revenue Loyalty Rates Seasonality

Revenue Pearson Correlation 1 .311** .005 -.303**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .944 .000

N 170 170 170 170

Loyalty Pearson Correlation .311** 1 .299** .306**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 170 170 170 170

Rates Pearson Correlation .005 .299** 1 .465**

Sig. (2-tailed) .944 .000 .000

N 170 170 170 170

Seasonality Pearson Correlation -.303** .306** .465** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 170 170 170 170

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 5 shows that there was a moderate, positive correlation (r = 0.311)

between revenues of the hotel groups and loyalty. In addition, there was

moderate negative correlation (r = -0.303) between revenues of the hotel

groups and “seasonality. However, there was a negligible association

between revenues and rooms rates.

Table 6: Multiple Linear Regressions for hotels

Model R

R

Square

Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Change Statistics

R Squared

Change

F

Change df1 df2

Sig. F

Change

1 .529a .279 .266 11.66898 .279 21.445 3 166 .000

a. Predictors: (Constant), Seasonality, loyalty, Rates

b. Dependent Variable: Revenue impact

83




The outputs of table 6 show the model summary and overall fit statistics. The

adjusted R² of our model is 0.226 with the R² = 0.227. This means that the

linear regression explains 27.9% of the variance in the data.

Table 7: shows the regression coefficients, the intercept, and the

significance of two coefficients in the model.

Table 7: Coefficient

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig.

95.0%

Confidence

Interval for B Correlations

B

Std.

Error Beta

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Zero-

order Partial Part

1 (Constant) 55.460 7.229 7.671 .000 41.186 69.733

Loyalty .907 .149 .428 6.071 .000 .612 1.202 .311 .426 .400

Rates .257 .192 .102 1.340 .182 -.122 .636 .005 .103 .088

Seasonality -1.085 .171 -.481 -

6.335

.000 -1.423 -.747 -.303 -.441 -

.417

a. Dependent Variable: Revenue impact

The outputs of the linear regression analysis estimates the linear regression

function for the loyalty and guest behavior factor to be y = 55.460 + 0.907*

x. This means that an increase in one unit of loyalty results in an increase of .

.907 units of revenue. Thus the regression equation would be: revenue =

55.460 + 0.907* loyalty.

The linear regression analysis for seasonality factor estimates the linear

regression function to be y = 55.460 + (-1.085)*x. This means that an

increase in one unit of Seasonality would result in a decrease of 1.085 units

of revenue. Thus, the regression equation would be: revenue = 55.460+ (-

1.085)*seasonality.

Since we have multiple independent variables in the analysis, the Beta

weights compare the relative importance of each independent variable in

standardized terms. We find that seasonality has a higher impact than loyalty

y (beta = .481 and beta =- .428).

84



The t-test found that both intercept and two variables are highly significant (p

< 0.001) and thus are significantly different from zero.

The regression model is highly significant with p < 0.001. Thus we can

conclude that for every additional loyalty achieved the revenue will increase

by approximately .907 and decrease by -1.085 for every increase of

Seasonality. The previous result can be summarized using the following

multiple regression model:

y=55.460+(.907 X₁-1.085 X₃). Based on the previous results, the model

confirms Hypotheses 1, and 2 that hotel revenues influenced by seasonality

and loyalty and guest behavior.

2- Travel agency constraints

Table 8 shows the predicted initial hypothesis of a linear relationship

between the test results scored on the destination popularity and marketing.

That was administered to a sample of 170 travel agency staff.

Table 8: Correlations

Destinatio

n choice

Marketing

tools

Diversity and

attractiveness

of Tourists

programs

Negative

Destination

image

Destination choice

Pearson Correlation 1 .003 .066 -.603**

Sig. (2-tailed) .974 .392 .000

N 170 170 170 170

Marketing tools

Pearson Correlation .003 1 .370** .242**

Sig. (2-tailed) .974 .000 .001

N 170 170 170 170

Diversity and

attractiveness of

Tourists programs

Pearson Correlation .066 .370** 1 .378**

Sig. (2-tailed) .392 .000 .000

N 170 170 170 170

Negative Destination

image

Pearson Correlation -.603** .242** .378** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .000

N 170 170 170 170

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

85




Pearson's bivariate correlation coefficient shows a medium negative linear

relationship between: marketing tools and diversity and attractiveness of

Tourists’ programs dimensions (r = 0.370); destination choice and negative

destination image (r =-0.603); marketing tools and negative destination image

(r = 0.242); diversity and attractiveness of tourists programs and negative

destination image (r = 0.378). That is significant as (p < 0.001). However,

there was negligible association between destination choice and both of

marketing tools and diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs.

Table 9: Model summary

Model R

R

Square

Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

R Square

Change

F

Change df1 df2

Sig. F

Change

1 .684a .467 .458 7.97048 .467 48.556 3 166 .000 1.226

a. Predictors: (Constant), Hotels, Airports, programs

b. Dependent Variable: selling

The output of Table 9 indicates the model summary and overall fit statistics.

The adjusted R² of the model is 0.458 with the R² = 0.467. This means that

the linear regression explained 46.7% of the variance in the data. Therefore, it

can be assumed that there is no first order linear autocorrelation in the data.

Table 10: Coefficient

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.

95.0%

Confidence

Interval for B Correlations

B

Std.

Error Beta

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Zero-

order Partial Part

(Constant) 50.739 6.282 8.077 .000 38.337 63.142

Marketing tools .145 .142 .063 1.020 .309 -.136 .425 .003 .079 .058

Diversity and attractiveness of

Tourists programs

.646 .129 .322 5.011 .000 .392 .901 .066 .362 .284

Negative Destination image -1.536 .128 -.740 -

12.006

.000 -1.789 -1.284 -.603 -.682 -

.680

a. Dependent Variable: Destination choice

Table 10 indicates the regression coefficients, the intercept, and the

significance of two coefficients in the model. The result explains that the

86



linear regression analysis estimates the linear regression for Diversity and

attractiveness of Tourists programs function to be y = 50.739 + 0.646*x. This

means that an increase in one unit of diversity and attractiveness of tourist

programs results in an increase of 0.646 units of destination choice. Thus the

regression equation would be: destination popularity = 50.739+ 0. 646*

tourist programs.

On other hand the linear regression analysis for negative destination image

estimates the linear regression function to be y = 50.739 + (-1.536)* x. This

means that an increase in one unit of Negative Destination image results in

decrease of 1.536 units of destination choice. Thus, the regression equation

would be: Destination choice = 50.739 + (-1.536)*negative destination

image. Since there are multiple independent variables in the analysis, the

Beta weights compare the relative importance of each independent variable in

standardized terms. The results revealed that the negative destination image

has a higher impact than diversity and attractiveness of tourists’ programs

(beta = 0.740 and beta =- 0.322).

The t-test finds that both intercept and two variables are highly significant (p

< 0.001) and thus significantly different from zero. The regression model is

highly significant with p < 0.001. Thus it can be concluded that for every

additional tourist program achieved the destination popularity will increase

by approximately .646 and decrease by -1.536 for every increase of Negative

Destination image. The previous result can be summarized using the

following multiple regression model:

y=50.739+(646 X₂-1.536X₃).

87




Based on the previous results, the model confirmed Hypotheses 5, and 6 that

destination choice is influenced by diversity and attractiveness of tourists’

programs and negative destination image.

Discussion

This study aimed to examine the influence of Inbound Tourism Constraints

on hotel revenues and destination choice in Alexandria, Egypt. The results of

the survey administered to hotel managers, revealed that hotels believed that

the revenue impact of leisure and business groups, who booked their rooms

through travel agencies were influenced by important three dimensions,

namely: seasonality demand; loyalty and guest behavior; room rates. Those

three dimensions have a negative impact on hotel revenues from inbound

tourism as they are considered a major constraint for inbound tourism.

On the other hand, the results of the regression analysis in this study provides

a support for the significant effect of Seasonality and guest loyalty toward

particular hotel chain on Hotel revenues. The linear regression analysis

estimates the linear regression function to be y=55.460 + (0.907 loyalty -

1.085 seasonality). Thus we can conclude that for every additional loyalty

achieved the revenue will increase by approximately .907 and decrease by -

1.085 for every increase of seasonality.

These findings are consistent with previous empirical studies that showed

that Inbound tourism linked to international tourism demand which

influenced by many of constraints as concluded by Brown (2015) who

identified demand constraints for inbound tourism as a real exchange rate and

income level of the tourists’ home country, tourism price, travel cost, foreign

direct investment, warm weather and climate in the country, crimes against

tourists, and political instability at the tourist destination.

The results of the descriptive analysis for hotel managers indicate that loyalty

and guest behavior plays an important part in selecting hotels for inbound

88



tourists. However, groups are used to stay with a particular organization in

other destinations, usually in Cairo, Sharm Elsheikh and Hurghada. It will

also results in not recommending the destination and hotel to friends and

other associates of the guest.

Hotel mangers agreed that seasonality is the subject matter of fluctuations of

demand or supply in the hospitality industry in Alexandria, which, are

affected due to weather conditions, public and school holidays.

Hotel managers confirmed that seasonality is considered an issue for the

hospitality industry in Alexandria as it affects tourist attractions, tourist

accommodation, and the visitor experience. Seasonality brings negative

economic effects during the off-season for hotels in Alexandria. Moreover,

the location influences the level of seasonality, where seaside located hotels

has fluctuated the demand more than city based business because of weather,

habit and school holidays. In addition, it makes high demand on summer

when capacity is likely to be reached or exceeded. This means that the

attraction has too much capacity, and hotels overbooking. Therefore

seasonality is a major problem for the hotel industry. It can result in seasonal

employment for employees or overloading and business at times of peak

activity to compensate for low demand in off- season which leads to

overcrowding, overbooking, high prices and ultimately to customer

dissatisfaction and a bad reputation

The third dimension was reported for “constraints of high room rates

dimension" with a mean score 3.56 and S.D at 0.479. This illustrates that

hotel managers agreed that the increase of room rates have a negative

influences on the impact of attracting the groups to Alexandria. This increase

of room rates due to the economic situation and prices inflation

89




Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for revenue impact from

inbound tourism programs with a mean score of 1.832 and S.D. of 0.454

which, indicate that hotel managers are not comfortable with the revenue

achieved from inbound tourism groups to Alexandria.

The output of the descriptive analysis for travel agencies indicates inbound

tourism is considered another market opportunity in Alexandria.

Interestingly, inbound tourism is not one of the high priority markets due to

the challenges encountered in this destination. Therefore, the challenge

dimensions concerned the inbound tourism industry indicate that, this

important market has been in decline due to a number of reasons, such as:

constraints of marketing tools; constraints of diversity and attractiveness of

tourists’ programs; constraints of negative destination image.

The results revealed that concerning the diversity and attractiveness of

tourists’ programs that the entrance fees of tourist sites are not appropriate for

all travel segments. The tourists have lack of interest in visiting Alexandria

because of many reasons, such as: Alexandria airport is not a hub airport.

Alexandria is rarely included in tourism programs organized by tour

operators abroad. The beaches in Alexandria are not equipped for receiving

tourists as tourists coming from Europe are usually scheduled to visit Jordon

and Israel in addition to visit Egypt. This does not work in far or of

Alexandria since beaches in Jordon and Israel are cleaner and very well

maintained, unlike beaches in Alexandria. The travel agents abroad are not

aware of the tourist attractions in Alexandria.

The results of the marketing tools dimension indicate that there’s a lack of

ability for the destination to achieve its marketing goals. Constraints can

affect any element of the marketing mix -product, price, place, or promotion.

The third dimension was reported for “negative destination image" illustrates

that travel agencies agreed that the development of destination marketing is a

first-priority for the inbound tourists that can be accomplished by conducting

90



more conferences in Alexandria and not concerning only in Sharm El shiekh ,

which will build a positive destination image toward Alexandria .

Finally, the lowest score dimension was reported for destination choice

impact with a mean score of 0.901 and S.D. of 0.360. This indicates that

Alexandria city is not a popular destination for inbound tourism groups.

The results for the linear regression analysis estimated the linear regression

function to be y=50.739 + (0.646 Diversity and attractiveness of tourists’

programs -1.536 negative destination image). Thus we can also conclude that

for every additional tourist programs the destination choice will increase by

approximately .646 and decrease by -1.536 for every increase of negative

destination image.

The study’s findings were supported by previous studies, such as: Chi and Qu

(2008) and Kolomiets (2010), which confirmed that image not just influences

pre-visit conduct and destination choice, yet additionally the conduct amid

and after a visit. Image has the ability to impact the way toward picking a

specific destination, the accompanying assessment of the outing there, and in

addition the visitors' future aims (Chi and Qu, 2008).

A study by Kolomiets (2010) explains that the main causes of the unbalanced

distribution of tourism demand are natural and institutional factors. Natural

causes of seasonality include air and water temperature, precipitation,

cloudiness, sunshine, visibility and winds. These causes of seasonality are out

of control of decision-maker, tourist demand, and they repeat with relatively

small changes.

Conclusion and Implications

This study aimed at analyzing the impact of the current constraints on

inbound tourism arrivals to Alexandria, Egypt. Emphasis was placed on

91




inbound tourism over the period 2012-2016. Data were collected using two

types of structured questionnaires to explore the impact of inbound tourism

constraints on travel agency programs and hotel revenues.

The results identify four binding constraints to hospitality and tourism sector

in Alexandria, Egypt. The first constraint is the lack of adequate loyalty

programs, which negatively effects both of guests satisfaction and loyalty to

accommodate in particular hotel and in the destination. Loyalty programs are

considered an important part of a comprehensive marketing strategy to attract

tourists during periods of recession.

These results are consistent with Peiguss (2012) who explained that Loyalty

programs functioning as an impetus by giving advantages in light of

aggregate obtaining after some time. Loyalty programs encourage clients to

move from place to another place and accommodate in particular

organization. These programs support repeat reservation and enhance degrees

of consistency by giving motivators to clients to come back.

Singh and Khan (2012) pointed out that satisfaction is not sufficient to make

guests return to a particular organization. The organization needs to covert a

satisfied customer to a loyal customer. It is so important because it costs so

much to convince clients to reserve and so little to incite a re-reserve. Loyalty

is a consequence of a positive passionate experience, physical attribute-based

satisfaction, and perceived value of an experience during stay.

The second constraint is seasonality, which is considered a major factor that

affects the level of room demand. Most lodgings have busy periods, where

demand pushes up to full occupancy, and low periods with many empty

rooms. By managing the times of high and low demand, pricing and room

distribution can accomplish more proficient income enhancement

The third and fourth constraints encountered by tourism companies to attract

the inbound tourism to Alexandria are the diversity and attractiveness of

tourists’ programs and negative destination image. These results indicate the

92



importance of conducting complete and diverse programs that satisfy groups

through good marketing and promotional strategies so the destination can

experience sustainable growth in tourism.

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1PhD, Professor, Dean of Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Beni Suef University, Ex-Vice Dean of Post Graduate Studies and Research, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University. Address: 1, Abd el Aziz Al Suood, El Manial Cairo, EGYPT. 2 PhD, Professor, Head of Tourism Department, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University. Address: 1, Abd el Aziz Al Suood, El Manial Cairo, EGYPT. 3 MSc in Aviation Management, Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University. Address: 1, Abd el Aziz Al Suood, El Manial Cairo, EGYPT.

Evaluating Airlines' Dynamic Distribution Capabilities Case Study: Impact of NDC Implementation on Airlines

Ghada A. Hammoud1, Hala F. Tawfik2, Rasha S. Fahmy 3

Abstract

Airline distribution demonstrates different methods of enhancement

and implementation of new ideas related to airlines' products deployment to

achieve customers' satisfaction and loyalty. The objective of this research

paper is to assess airlines adopting patterns of the latest dynamic distribution

capabilities and evaluating the new perspective in allocating airlines’

products through the new distribution standards. The paper will be exposed to

the existing distribution challenges over studying the implementation of

IATA New Distribution Capability (NDC) on airlines. The assessment

encompasses two segments through a case study that targeted an overall

community population 343 of all industry parties. The total community of the

first segment is 143 and was highlighted using a broad analysis to all airlines

models and all related parties that already have applied NDC. The second

segment represents a community of 200 airlines and related parties without

specification to the implementation. They were tested over an electronic

questionnaire distributed via the Survey Monkey platform that captured the

answers of globally scattered respondents. The valid sample is 31

respondents equating 16% of the second total population segment composed

97



of: applied, in the process of application or yet to apply for NDC. Airlines are

recommended to develop their strategies and invest in high technology to

facilitate the integration of data transmission across partners and third party

contractors. IT-Providers are recommended to develop a new software to be

designed for airlines to convey the

opportunity to have direct control over all customer big data and alternative

payments.

Keywords Personalization, New distribution capability, Dynamic Pricing,

Retailing and Merchandising.

Introduction

Purchasing travel is debatably, the past 3 decades; it is developed to reflect

not only the rapid changes that were seen in technology and communications

tools but also the growing range of market offerings and an increasingly

sophisticated traveller. Indeed, the next few years will undoubtedly bring

continued transformation of the industry as it pursues to further unlock to the

opportunities offered by dynamic capabilities besides the great change in the

distribution scene. Dynamic distribution could help to present and boost

additional annual revenue for airlines that goes in parallel with the delivering

of a richer experience for the traveller. Industry studies evaluations showed

the treasures earned by airlines in annual revenues through the sale of

ancillary services, primarily through their direct channels, in addition to the

communication and technological revolution that can be realized at the same

time frame. New internet protocols expand the interactions between

passengers and airlines in all extents of pre- and in-flight services which

made IATA to adapt a new standard of New Distribution Capability (NDC)

to streamline the business and improve all kinds of collaboration between

industry suppliers and airlines using the new technology trends to Improve

98

Hammoud.G. Tawfik.H. Fahmy.R.


Airlines' Dynamic Capabilities (Malhartra, 2015; Thurston, 2016;

www.amadeus.com, 2017).

1. Practices of Dynamic Distribution Capabilities

The success of any particular airline distribution capability should depend on

the attributes of the differentiated product, brand, marketing and operations

strategies implemented by that airline. The remarkable shift in buying

patterns over the past decades demonstrate the reason behind customers'

seeking the optimal airline product that is specifically tailored to their needs.

Airlines are now focusing on delivering a great value of dynamic offers using

new practices of retailing and merchandizing capabilities that will positively

impact the increase in revenue. The augmentation of information technology

and data transmission allows new opportunities for distribution. Depending

on new protocols, such as Extensible Markup Language (XML), they expand

the interactions between passengers and airlines in the areas of pre-, in-flight

and post-flight services. These practices allow IATA to combine them and

adapt a new standard of New Distribution Capability (NDC). This helps to

simplify the business while improving the collaboration between industry

suppliers and airlines that employ new technology trends in deploying their

rich content. (Thurston, 2016; Malhartra, 2015).

1.1. Merchandising and Retailing Platforms

Merchandising and retailing concepts provide the airline industry a great

opportunity to sell more services that go beyond selling a seat; airlines can

now offer many options that can make a trip more comfortable and exciting

for travelers and more helpful for corporations with travel suppliers. The

evolution of airline merchandising services encompasses extra bag fees, in-

flight Wi-Fi, airport lounge access, extra legroom, preferred seating with

99



extra fees and more (farelogix,2010; www.businessdictionary.com, 2017).

These services are applied on smart phones where new applications are

designed to offer ancillary services on mobile devices with better

accessibility to the world of add-on choices whether pre or post -trip

regardless their location. (farelogix, 2010, Tanija, 2011). For several decades,

airlines were concerned most by developing their Passenger Service Systems

(PSSs) as a core system and improving the integration with passenger touch

points systems. The PSSs of today lack the flexibility that airlines necessitate

for new adaptation of full retailing platforms, as they are no longer

satisfactory for more flexible and dynamic sales environments that airlines

will require. Currently, airlines are adapting Full Retailing Platforms (FRPs)

that enable them to take the control of obtaining the required data and

technological capabilities through any distribution channel (harteveldt, 2016).

Technology augmentations and advanced customer intelligence enable new

opportunities for expanding and enlightening retail business in air travel.

Even though airlines deal with smart customers with extensive knowledge

and awareness, they are still controlled and limited by their traditional selling

tactics.. Digital applications enabled airlines to stimulate the smart

entertaining in-flight retail opportunities that should not only be integrated

and combined with airport technology to have a bundled service, but also

with the same level of technology throughout the travel journey

(www.futuretravelexperience, 2017).

Ancillary sales are the only area in airline business that is significantly

growing every year. Moreover, the third-party contractors that offer products

and services to be sold separately or in association with the air ticket -

through airlines' websites - are commission-based. Furthermore, airline

partnerships of co-branded frequent flyers with banks having credit and debit

card holders are also commission-based on every customer transaction

(Tanija, 2016). Despite the continuous enhancements and developments of

100



airlines business utilities and Information Technology infrastructure, airlines

are still in the preliminary stages in choosing the effective IT-providers. In

many cases the retailing aspects are having organizational challenges through

the current sales and marketing funnels. Finally, retailing margins will

increase in the case of effective big data utilization. Following that the smart

revenue management operations should focus on optimizing total customer

value, which in return, will improve airlines value preposition. (Cronrath,

2017).

1.2. The Power of Personalization

The advanced digital stage of development has led to a fundamental shift

towards personalized connectivity or else airlines will be in risk of losing

their current and potential customers. Amazon.com comes first to mind when

mentioning personalization. This giant online retail store’s personalized

endorsements have enabled their customers to find and select the desired

product fast and easy with a reliable assembly of the overall user shopping

experience in a smooth and pleasant method. They want convenience and

tailored value that touch their own interests and needs which can be easily

attained through personalization. In the aviation field, studies show that 83%

of customers expect relevant information and that the products recommended

to them are based on their personal preferences

(www.sabreairlinesolutions.com, 2017). Personalization is unlike

customization, customization is a customer activity that is done by his/her

states of preference and receives information or a product that matches those

interests. On the contrary, personalization takes a step ahead by using

customers' big data to understand, assess and predict customer behavior and

act accordingly in constructing the exact suitable offer to build brand

101



relationship and loyalty. This application will differentiate those airlines from

rivals that will help with the alteration of customers’ priority from price to

real value obtained from their trips (Piller and Tseng, 2010).

1.3. Dynamic Pricing and loyalty

The dynamic pricing system depends on customer’s profile and historical

data stored at airlines with all related circumstances of purchasing pattern and

subject to the demand during high and off-peak times. This provides

optimum flexibility and revenue potential with extreme cross sell and would

enrich selling opportunities (Tanija, 2014: www.sabreairlinesolutions.com,

2017). Analyzing customers' big data leads to efficient dynamic pricing as it

increasingly allows airlines to predict where their passenger will be flying

next to be able to match their choices and preferences. Airlines can integrate

this tailored pricing kit with marketing and promotions in real time to

optimize bidding (Christ, 2009). Synchronized loyalty programs could

become a point of difference in the market place for any airline; they are a

very good source for airlines to collect a wide range of customers’ exact

personal data. It is considered to be the backbone of airlines' customer data

centers when integrated with analytical tools, while also taking into

consideration that this data should be well managed and secured with privacy

measures to comply with all necessary authorities and restrictions. Customers

will be retained if they are well rewarded through promotional discounts and

special offers (Cowen, 2017; www.mycustomer.com, 2017).

2. Case Study: Impact of NDC Implementation on Airlines

The International Air transport Association (IATA) usually searches

for the best practices that are beneficial to all industry parties and provides

the suitable timeframe for airlines and other related industry parties. This aids

to implement and adjust their strategies accordingly. Right up until very

recent times, it takes too much effort to deliver new airline products such as

102



preferred seating and lounge passes through indirect channels. Moreover,

applying the differentiation and personalization concepts were limited to

airlines interfaces and website only. Due to the enhancement of application

programing interface and current new technological distribution architecture,

the existing technology and processes finally have ascended customers’

expectations. Todays' customers ask for more transparency and choice of

offers and products. After recognizing the need to address these limitations,

the IATA approved the NDC Program as a Simplifying the Business

initiative in early 2012 as declared by Hoyles, (2015); Spanos, (2009);

(www.iata.org, 2017 a).

New Distribution Capability (NDC) is a travel industry-supported

program designed and launched by IATA for the development of market

adoption to a new, XML-based data transmission standard according to the

resolution 787 in early 2012. Initially, it was based upon the objective to

enhance basic standard to enable airlines to move to a dynamic content

distribution model. At the present time, customers are in need of more real

time dynamic interaction through all travel suppliers: airlines, distributors

and travel agents. Travel supply chain is able to offer an intelligent reaction

for product rich content based on customer personalization and preferences.

This process should be well integrated, controlled, examined and managed to

watch over the development of new passenger distribution platform and

standards (www.iata.org, 2017 b).

2.1. Statistical Analysis and results of Airlines' NDC Adoption

The case study focused on studying the impact of new distribution

capability (NDC) on airlines in general, to solve the existing distribution

challenges over the implementation on two segments. The targeted overall

103



community is 343 of all industry parties for the two segments of study; the

first segment was emphasized via a broad analysis to all airlines models

(Legacy, Low Cost, and Regional) and related parties as IT providers,

Aggregators and Sellers that already applied NDC of total community 143,

and the other segment represents a community of 200 airlines and related

parties without specification to the implementation, they were tested over a

questionnaire distributed through Survey Monkey tool to capture the

respondent answers and evaluate airlines' level of deployment directly and

via travel agents using NDC and how the availability of rich content using

the new

technology affects their performance in terms of cutting cost, generating

profit and customer satisfaction.

2.1.1. Airlines Applied NDC

The information and data of this part of the study has been collected from the

IATA website, the data analysis and results shows that the total community

of a population were 143 of companies that are NDC certified consists of a

Valid Sample Population: 58 Airlines that adopt NDC encompass all Airlines

Business Models (Legacy, Regional and Low Cost), 53 IT-Providers, 15

Aggregator, 17 sellers. The study time horizon: single cross sectional analysis

(snapshot of time) April, 2018.

104



Table 1: Airline Business Model and Level of NDC Certification

Ser. Airlines

Level

Business

Model

Ser. Airlines LevelBusiness

ModelSer. Airlines Level

Business

Model

1Aegean

Airlines2 Legacy 21

Etihad Airways P.J.S.C.

1 Legacy 40Qatar

Airways3 Legacy

2 Aer Lingus 1 Legacy 22 EVA Air 1 Legacy 41Rotana Jet

Aviation3 LCC

3 Air Austral 3 Legacy 23 Finnair 3 Legacy 42 S7 Airlines 3 Legacy

4AIR

CANADA3 Legacy 24 Fly Egypt 3 LCC 43

Saudi Arabian

3 Legacy

5Air China

Limited3 Legacy 25 Flybe 3

Regional/LCC

44Shandong

Airlines Co., LTD

3 Regional

6 Air France 3 Legacy 26 flydubai 3 LCC 45Shenzhen

Airlines3 Legacy

7American

Airlines3 Legacy 27

Gol Linhas Aereas

3 LCC 46Sichuan Airlines, Co. Ltd.

3 Regional

8APG

Airlines3 LCC 28

Hainan

Airlines3 Legacy 47

SunExpress

Deutschland GmbH

3 Regional

9Austrian Airlines

3 Legacy 29Hong Kong

3 Legacy 48SunExpress

Güneş 3 Regional

10British Airways

3 Legacy 30Iberia

Express3 Regional 49 SunExpress

XML-Capabl

e

Regional

11Brussels Airlines

3 Legacy 31Iberia L.A.E

S.A.

3 Legacy 50Swiss

International

Air Lines

3 Legacy

12Cathay Pacific Airways

3 Legacy 32 InselAir 3 LCC 51TAP Air Portugal

1 Legacy

13China

Eastern Airlines

3 Legacy 33JIANGXI AIR CO.

LTD2 LCC 52

Thomas Cook

Airlines Belgium

3Regional/Charter

14China

Southern

Airlines

3 Legacy 34KLM Royal

Dutch

3 Legacy 53Thomas

Cook

Airlines

3Leisure/C

harter

15Colorful

Guizhou Airlines

3 LCC 35Korean

Air1 Legacy 54

Turkish

Airlines1 Legacy

16Condor

Flugdienst GmbH

3 Legacy 36 Lufthansa 3 Legacy 55United Airlines

3 Legacy

17Emirates

Airline2 Legacy 37

Norwegian Air

Shuttle 3 LCC 56

Vueling Airlines S.A.

3 LCC

18Ethiopian

Airlines1 Legacy 38

Public Joint

3 Legacy 57WestJet Airlines

2 LCC

19 Olympic Air 2 Regional 39China

Airlines

XML-

CapaLegacy 58

Shaheen

Air

XML-

CapablCharter

20Xiamen Airlines

3 Legacy

Source: adapted from www.iata.org, 2018.

Table no. 1 illustrates all NDC adopted airlines, some of them are

early adopters since December, 2015 and over the years more airlines have

105



joined the program consecutively till the time horizon of the study

April,2018. A general analysis has been made to the above mentioned

airlines and will be considered as part of the aviation sectors that adopt NDC.

Airlines under this part of study are classified and analyzed according to

several factors that will help in the analysis of the overall population of the

study.

The latest numbers of airlines that have already mentioned and implemented

NDC are 58 airlines at the time horizon of the study and are containing 4

airlines business models:

62% 21%

12%

5%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Legacy

Regional


Figure 1: Total number of Airlines Implementing NDC

Figure no. 1 shows the variety of airlines business models that implement

NDC, Legacy carriers are representing the majority by 62% as a trial to

overcome the current difficulties in distribution capabilities, Low Cost

Carriers are 21%, they already have less pressure concerning distribution

capabilities and cost, Regionals are 12% and 5% are Charter/Leisure, this

percentage is suitable to their business size.

5%

12%

9%

74%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

XML Capable

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3


Figure 2: Airlines Certification Level

106



Figure no. 2 indicates that 74% of all airlines business models that

implemented NDC are certified level 3; that are capable to deploy their full

products and services rich content through offer and order management. 64%

of NDC airlines are not yet assigning any aggregators for distribution and

deploying their product that would be integrated in the NDC API-

Architecture throughout the past years since the early adoption in 2015.

Airlines that assigned one IT-Provider reached 50% of all implemented

airlines; IT-Providers are responsible for the merchandizing interface and

product display when using NDC.

1

28

52 57

010

2030

4050

60


Figure 3: Trend of Airlines Adopting NDC

Figure no. 3 illustrates the trend of airlines that adopt NDC over the past

years till the study time of horizon, year 2016 shows a strong start that was

booming of rate of increase27% for 2015-2016, another increase of 24

airlines in the third year 2017 with a rate of increase for 2016-2017 is 86%

which is a remarkable result that point towards the airlines that are keen to

develop their distribution capabilities, the first quarter of 2018 shows a rate

of increase 10% which is a good sign to end a year of successful

implementation rate. This proves Roger's Innovation-Adoption Model

(Spanos 2009), airlines had passed by many stages through the journey of

107



adoption from being doubtful, uncertain and unaware of NDC to the

implementation phase and by time airlines tendency to adopt will increase

with a prediction to realize a great increase to the year end in December and

ever after.

2.1.2. The Statistical Analysis and Results of the Questionnaire

The results and analysis of this part of the study came out of the

primary data and information that has been collected only for the purpose of

this study. An electronic questionnaire has been distributed on a population

of almost 200 respondents of the overall environment in the aviation sectors

through the SurveyMonkey Tool. The total valid sample were 31 equating

almost 16% of the total population. The sample respondents are a

combination of: applied, in the process of application or yet to apply NDC

that consists of all airlines business models (Legacy, Regional and Low

Cost), IT-Providers, Aggregators and Sellers. It was very hard to collect

respondents as some airlines and other parties cannot easily disclose their

distribution strategies and objectives. They consider it a matter of

confidentiality. Accordingly, the sample design is stratified random sample

of grouping. The Survey Design Consists of 31 questions of which: 5

Nominal Yes/No, 16 Ordinal closed Questions and 10 Likert scale. The

sample data illustrates that 51.6% of the respondents have not applied NDC,

the reasons behind this were figured out that some of them were not

proactively responding as they fear the change; others are lacking the vision

of competent distribution strategies for the implementation. The statistical

analysis used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version.20.

The analysis results consist of 4 main parts beside the first part of personal

data that will be classified as follows:

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2.1.2.1 Part 1: Airlines Vision, Strategy and Objectives

When analyzing the most significant results in the part of vision, strategy and

airlines objectives, it was obvious that airlines prioritize their strategies and

objectives differently.

2.1.2.1.1 Airline Strategy in Adopting New Distribution Capability NDC

Airlines' vision and strategy in general depends first on their business model

as mentioned by Cronrath (2017), airlines are setting their action planes

accordingly to reach their objectives.

Source: adapted from SPSS Data Analysis, 2018.

Figure 4: Airlines strategy in adopting NDC

Figure no. 4 shows that 39% of respondents indicate that airlines' vision and

strategies of implementation were heading towards the additional sales of

ancillaries that come in the first rank, then in the second rank the product

diversity in Omni-channel of distribution by 32%, and the least priority of

objectives were focusing on OTAs, TMCs and corporations sales by 19% and

the disintermediation and digitalization by 10%. These results coincidently

approve harteveldt, (2016);

109



2.1.2.1.2 Ranking the Importance of Different Dynamic Distribution

Capabilities

There is a great importance to the dynamic distribution capabilities that

enhances the deployment of airlines product and services as concluded by

Christ, (2009) that will have a positive impact on the end user.

3

1

2

4

Personalization

Dynamic pricing

Rich content

Standardization


Figure 5: Personalization, Dynamic pricing, Rich content and

Standardization Ratings

Figure no. 5 shows the importance of; personalization, dynamic pricing, rich

content and standardization once airlines adopt NDC. Dynamic pricing came

in the 1st rank, deploying rich content is the 2nd and personalization is in the

3rd place and finally standardization the last rank. They were rated as

supportive factors from all respondents (industry suppliers) point of view as

approved by Piller and Tseng, (2010); www.sabreairlinesolutions.com,

(2017). These factors indicate that using NDC will address more ancillary

services and guarantee extreme deployment with satisfactory content that fits

all type of customers and meet their preferences.

2.1.2.1.3 The Opportunities of NDC Application for Airlines

Arguments are always accompanied by any new technological innovations

that diversify the opportunities of applying this new technology as coincides

with Tanija, (2014). NDC is considered to be one of the latest technological

distribution means that have impacted airlines positively.

110




Figure 6: Diversity of Opportunities When Using NDC

Figure No. 6 Shows the biggest advantage of using NDC, it is offering great

opportunities; 1) Big data usage and personalization is the first choice as per

52% of the respondent answers, 2) Cost savings by 29%, 3) maximum

deployment by 13% and 4) PNRs Ownership by 6% so this analysis revealed

to Piller and Tseng, (2010); IATA, (2016 b). Airlines will control customer

data and be able to compete in the market and get rid of the current passive

behavior towards customer preference and anonymous offers and will be

more flexible to the ongoing process of active distribution without complete

dependence on other suppliers in the supply chain.

2.1.2.1.4 The challenges Confronting Airlines NDC Application

From the same prospective that any new technology has opportunities, it also

has challenges Hanke, (2016), that may face the adequate application of NDC

to achieve all parties' objectives.

111



32%

16%

48%

4%

Not yet tested its downsides

GDS opposition

Less experienced in choosing the…

Vision dilution


Figure 7: Obstacles of Adopting NDC

Figure no. 7 illustrates the percentages of the challenges that may oppose

airlines when applying NDC; 1) 48% of all respondents answers' refer to

airlines' less experience in choosing the effective IT provider and aggregator,

2) 32% stated that NDC is not yet tested its downsides, 3) 16% of the sample

justifies that GDSs will have some concerns and opposition, 4) Airlines

vision dilution is one of the least challenges in the application of NDC. These

results claimed Tanija (2011); www.openaxisgroup.com (2017); Cronrath,

(2017). Other challenges may confront airlines are the possession of GDSs to

their PSS systems; Amadeus Altea considered to be the dominating GDS in

many markets in different areas and will be highly affected by the diversion

of airlines to NDC.

2.1.2.2. Part 2: NDC functionality

The functionality of any proposed information and communication system is

considered to be one of the top priorities of all industry parties as added in

www.eyefortravel.com (2017), its capability to combine fares and ancillary

services and propose bundled and a la carte offers will access the level of

efficiency to meet the customer preference.

2.1.2.2.1 NDC Ability to propose bundled and a la carte offers

Nowadays, Customers are becoming more technologically advanced; Hoyles,

(2015) they prefer to shop the entire travel itinerary with all its collective

ancillary services not only as a bundle or package but also as a la carte.

112



Airlines are doing their best to gather customers' information to be able to

personalize a suitable offer that matches every individual customer.


Figure 6: NDC Proposition to Bundled and a la Carte Offers.

The above figure no. 6 shows that 59% of total respondents indicate the

excellency of NDC to propose bundled and a la Carte offers as per the

customer preference for ancillary requirements is answers as per previous

studies of Tanija, (2014); Belobaba, Odoni and Barnhart, (2016); IATA,

(2012). Since a long time, airlines had been depending on the frequent flyer

program and Customer relationship database on building a personalized offer

tailored to those customers only, and according to the availability of the big

data and automation tools they construct a good offer. This indicates that

airlines when adopting NDC will be able to alter offers as per their

customers' profile and preference more efficiently that lead the process of

selling their products more effectively based on actual customer data rather

than anonymously.

2.1.2.2.2 NDC Supports Airlines to Deploy Rich Content via Social Networks and OTAs. Airlines kept for many years focusing on the deployment through social

networks, OTAs and Meta-search using the dynamic distributions

113



capabilities. Schaal, (2015), that were very beneficial for their presentation

especially in the markets that can be hard to reach.


Figure 7: NDC Helps Airlines in deploying the rich content.

Figure no. 7 indicates that 52% of total sample respondents approved that

NDC will be extremely helpful in allowing airlines to position their rich

content (pictures, videos, audio, virtual and augmented reality experiences…)

through social media, OTAs, meta-search in an extraordinary service level as

agreed with IATA, (2016)b; Cowen, (2017) which will stretch the

deployment with high technology trends and get the advantage of the internet

from time and cost savings compared to the traditional way of distribution

through GDSs. Besides the direct control of airlines to their PNRs' ownership

and possession, they will be able to control and monitor the purchases to

secure them and reduce fraud transactions through the use of suspected cards.

In addition, the digital innovations in payment environment will enhance the

customer shopping experience whether using web services, mobile

application and new entrance methods of payment such as; instant bank to

bank transfer, e-wallet like Alipay, etc…as proven by Hoyles, (2015); Hanke,

(2016); IATA, (2016)b.

2.1.2.3. Part 3: Airlines Technical Level

The continuous development of information and communication technology

provided airlines the opportunity to enhance their information and

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communication infrastructure as examined by Cook and Billig, (2017). They

started to integrate their core operation systems with other related systems to

present a quality product.

2.1.2.3.1 Airlines' Technical Challenges with Relevant Applications'

Interfaces

Integrating relevant applications and systems interface had been a challenge

that affects the level of efficiency of any airline operating system for many

years as found by www.forbes.com, (2016). For an adequate integration

airlines have to build a strong Application programs Interface (API) to

overcome this technical challenge.

2

3

4

1

Passenger Touch Points (e-…

Retailing systems (pricing, ancillary …

Core Service and PSS( Inventory,…

Related Functions (Loyalty, CRM,…


Figure 8: Rating the Technical Challenges for Airlines to Establish Interfaces with Third parties via NDC Figure no. 8 illustrates that NDC will face in the first rank some technical

challenges in the area of related functional systems like loyalty programs,

customer relationship management and revenue management systems,

followed by that in the second rank the Passenger Touch Points systems (e-

commerce, GDS, OTA,….) and the third rank the retailing systems and

finally the core service systems and PSS. These results may allow airlines to

adjust the technical challenges and dis-integration for airlines to establish

interfaces with all relevant application databases, solutions and other third

115



parties but first they have to enhance their IT- Architecture and Application

Programs Interface API through using the XML-data base transmission

language as agreed with (Airline ticketing Report, (2003); Triometric,

(2014); www.quora.com, (2016); Belobaba and others, (2016);

www.amadeus.com, (2016), www.consortiuminfo.org, (2017). Airlines need

to substitute their data warehousing systems and use relational databases only

when desired and preferred to be by hosting the NDC platform on fully

managed applications whatever the regular storage or archival storage needs

through IBM, or Google Cloud. This should be done through one IT-Provider

to focus on the development of information technology and content

standardization to avoid any inconsistency via all channels in layouts and

simplify the process of the technical support in the diversity of markets and

choose more than one aggregator in different areas to aggregate their data for

concentrated distribution to each market according to its culture and

preference.

2.1.2.4. Part 4: Airlines Financial Capability and Billing System

Financially, the application of NDC adds extra financial burdens on the

airline as any new technology deployment because it needs a lot of

investments and funding especially in the initial stage and during the start-up

program. Managing the transition process effectively will reduce the risk

factor and guarantees that the benefits will cover and exceed the cost after the

implementation phase. The integration of airlines' payment system (online /

offline), Revenue accounting system and the travel agents' financial reports

through Billing and settlement plan (BSP) after the application will be likely

the same as before the application of NDC as BSP is a strong billing system,

but there may occur some issues that disturb any of the related functional

systems that could decrease the level of efficiency. The shifting to the

internet environment through NDC will reduce the distribution cost as shown

through Hanke, (2016); IATA, (2012). This reduction may not be promptly

116



happening, but on the long run through a proper transformation strategy in

addition to the appropriate control of other related costs to the sales process.

2.1.2.4.1 Airlines Savings in Global Distribution Systems (GDSs) Cost

The increase in distribution cost represents a huge stress on airlines that is

becoming a threat Tanija, (2011), they kept trying to use other distribution

capabilities in order to minimize GDSs usage of for the sake of cost

reduction.

8%

84%

0

8%

Not at all

Less than 10%

from 10 - 30%

more than 30%


Figure 8: Results of NDC Enhancement in GDSs Cost Savings

Figure no. 8 shows that 84% of the sample respondent results agreed that

NDC reduced GDSs cost by less than 10%, where these airlines has been

passed by the critical phase of all the technical and functional transition

phases safely. 8% have been reduced the GDSs cost by more than 30% which

is a great percent indicates that these airlines are capable of all functional and

financial preparations besides the advanced IT- infrastructure and

architecture they own, while these savings should be addressed gradually on

the long term as presented by Cook and Billig, (2017); www.lek.com, (2017).

GDSs will be in trouble and have to adjust their business model in order to

maintain as strong as before and offer new solutions to cope with the new

technology enhancements.

117



2.1.2.4.2 Sellers' Segment Productivity on GDSs

Travel agents and sellers in general are commission seekers; they usually

obtain incentives for their bookings on airlines and also for segment

productivity from GDSs as stated by Tanija, (2011). For these reasons, sellers

preferred to use GDSs most generate profit.

10%

90%

0

0

Not at all

decreased by 10% or less

decreased from 10 – 30%

more than 30%


Figure 9: Results of NDC Reduction to Sellers Segment Productivity on

GDSs

Figure no.9 shows that 90% of the respondents of the sample data approved

that sellers that applied NDC decreased their segments' productivity and

GDSs incentives by 10% or less within a fiscal year, while 10% did not

recognize any decrease. The sample result approves Hoyles, (2015). This

could not be very pleasant to travel agents as they used to obtain certain

amount of incentives from GDSs that heavily depend on in running their

business. Airlines have to find a way to offset this decrease in revenue for

travel agents or else the later will search for another substituting channel to

gain and guarantee such incentive (Accenture, 2016).

3. Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations

It has been proved that airlines' vision, strategy and objectives in distribution

have been achieved through dynamic distribution and NDC implementation.

It provides airlines the disintermediation in distribution which focuses on

product diversity and deployment through Omni-channels. Airlines’ adoption

118



of the dynamic distribution capabilities and NDC in specific will provide

opportunities through the total control and usage of passenger data and

personalization. Although being faced with remarkable challenges such as

the lack of experience in choosing the effective IT provider, aggregator and

GDSs opposition, the airlines' application of dynamic distribution capabilities

and NDC will enhance proactively in offering their rich content and bundled

or a la carte offers which are tailored to every customer. These offers are not

anonymously based on his/her preference and shopping experience for

ancillary requirements via social networks. Therefore, there will be a great

improvement in the interaction resulting in building strong relationships with

customers. There is a correlation between airlines information and

communication technology infra-structure, PSS systems, API architecture

and all related functional systems with relevant application databases,

solutions and other third parties and IT capabilities. Airlines will not be able

to implement NDC and integrate with such new standards without the

satisfactory enhancement of their IT structure.

Airlines started to enhance their merchandising capabilities to be able to

interact proactively with their customers through offering additional ancillary

services to elevate the level of satisfaction and loyalty within the provided

technological capabilities. The development of dynamic trends in

communication technology and distribution capabilities influenced the

process of airlines distribution in general and customer interaction in specific

which is known as Active Distribution.

These trends will permit airlines to have a personalized service as per

customer profile and travel pattern which facilitates the opportunity of using

a dynamic pricing and loyalty system. This supports the customers’ to

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reallocate their priorities of searching for the best price to obtain a real value

and benefit that last. The results of the first part of the case study show that

legacy carriers are more willing to adopt NDC. The general trend throughout

the past three years for airlines adoption show a rate of increase 2016 over

2015 by 27% and 2017 over 2016 by 86% and 2018 over 2017 by 10% for

the first quarter which indicates further increase till year end. The second part

covers the adoption pillars; vision, strategy and objectives, functionally,

technically and financially of NDC. 39% of airlines main strategy and

objective was to motivate more additional ancillary sales with respect to the

importance of offering a dynamic pricing method to the rich content. 49% of

airlines are poorly experienced to choose the adequate IT provider and

aggregator to fulfill their vision and it is considered to be the biggest

challenge that faces them when applying NDC.

Functionally, 59% of the sample results approve that NDC will tolerate

airlines to deploy bundled, a la carte and personalized offers built on the

customers’ preference for ancillary requirements. Technically, it is essential

for airlines to make further developments to their ability of managing data

center infrastructure in general and the integration process with third party

suppliers in specific. Last but not least the financial level which is very

important and so is the billing system. NDC will add extra financial burdens

on airlines as the other side of innovations, as they need to invest heavily in

the enhancement of their technology capabilities and the transition period not

to mention the periodic technical support and updates. The significant

advantage of implementing NDC was interpreted to a decrease in GDSs cost

as 84% of implemented airlines reduced their GDS cost by 10% or less in

their previous fiscal year. Sellers and GDSs so far were gaining the lower

privilege of implementing NDC as 90% of the applied sellers decreased their

productivity on GDSs by 10% or less in their previous fiscal year while

airlines and IT- providers are the winners.

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Airlines are recommended to focus on their vision and strategy to adapt

dynamic distribution capabilities and invest heavily on the enhancement of

their IT-infrastructure to be able to apply the IATA initiative of deploying the

new distribution capability NDC and integrate between partners through a

common standard shared among them. By using the high technology in data

transmission via Application Programing Interfaces APIs across partners and

third party contractors. IT-Providers are recommended to develop a software

designed especially for airlines to raise the opportunity to take direct control

over all alternative payments. It is highly recommended for airlines to set an

incentive strategy and schemes for sellers to offset the decrease in GDSs'

segments productivity that they used to depend on in their budgets for

decades. In the near future, NDC will be considered the baseline of

technological dynamic distribution capabilities platform that other new

technological trends and enhancements will depend on.

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how travel agents see NDC impacting their business, Atmosphere research

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a_technology.pdf,retreived,23oct2017.

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better-integrate-retail-business-future,retreived,14Oct2017.

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system.aspx,retrieved,24Jul2017,b.

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planning-for-the-long-haul-retreived,20oct2017.

124



Old Kingdom Royal Letters and its Political Significance

Radwa Ahmed Mousa Ali Omar Mey Zaki

The Old Kingdom was famous with stability in all fields and flourishment in

industry, construction and art, in which resulted a great civilization depended

mainly on its internal resources.1

The social and economic conditions had developed during the old kingdom

and especially the fifth dynasty, that’s because the kings of the fifth dynasty

realized that they rule in different circumstances from their predecessors.

They increased the financial benefits to the high priests of the sun temples

and exempted some temples from paying the taxes which were levied on

them in order to guarantee their loyalty and effect on the people.

The fifth dynasty kings allowed dignitaries of people to take positions in the

government although these positions were only for the princes of the royal

house since the time of king Senefru2. Democracy could be determined easily

in which the gap between the kings and the high officials did not exist

anymore3, in addition to the members of the royal family who left the high

offices to regular people4. It has been noted that all the viziers and high

officials of the fifth dynasty were from regular people, this is completely

different from the fourth dynasty as the control used to be in the hands of the

1Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt And The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,

Vol. 1,(London, 1962), 45. 2Maher, G., Autobiographies in Ancient Egypt From The Old Kingdom to The End of The

Second Intermediate Period, (Cairo, 2006), 217. 3Shaw, I., Nicholson, P., Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (Cairo, 2002), 160. 4id., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000), 110.

125



king's family5. This was considered a remarkable development in the

Egyptian administration during that period6.

Very few letters have survived from the Old Kingdom, as the oldest letters

known were hieroglyphic copies of letters sent by king Djedkara-Izezi (2414-

2375 BC), to the officials Senedjemib and Rashepses dates back to the fifth

dynasty7 .

Several courtiers and officials from the reign of Djedkare Izezi are known

through their autobiographical texts that inscribed in their tombs in Giza,

Saqqara and Abusir, while the king's pyramid is located at southern Saqqara.

Most of these tombs consisted of topics, show the relationship of the tomb's

owner with the king, and also give insights about the administrative reforms

that carried out by Izezi during his reign, this trend continued throughout the

end of the old kingdom8.

There were four letters sent during the fifth dynasty by king Djedkare-Izezi,

It seems that king Izezi enjoyed writing letters as he sends a letter to his

vizier Rashepses in addition to another three letters sent by him to

Senedjemib9. Copies of these letters were inscribed in their Mastabas which

located in Saqqara and Giza.10

The first letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier

Rashepses: This letter was sent by king Djedkare-Izezi to Rashepses in order to praise

him. Rashepses held many titles recorded on the walls of his tomb11 such as:

5Smith, S., The Old Kingdom In Egypt and The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,

Vol. 1,(London, 1962), 45. 6Shaw, I., op.cit., 110. 6Shaw, I., Nicholson, P., Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (Cairo, 2002), 160. 8Shaw, I., op.cit., 111- 112. 9Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas, Vol. 7, ( Boston, 2001), 89. 10Shaw, I., Nicholson, P., Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, (Cairo, 2002), 160. 11Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt In The Old Kingdom The Highest Titles And

Their Holders, (London, 1985), 94.

126

Mousa, R. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

chief justice, overseer of scribes of royal documents and vizier12 who lived

during the middle of the reign of king Izezi13. Rashepses was buried in his

tomb which located to the north of the enclosure wall of the step pyramid at

Saqqara.

This letter reads:

"Royal decree of the chief justice and vizier, the overseer of scribes of royal documents,

Rashepses:

My Majesty has read at court this very fine letter that you sent on this fine day of very truly

gratifying Izezi with what he very truly likes. It was more desirable to My Majesty than

anything else to read this letter of yours for you surely know how to express what My

Majesty likes above all these, and your diction is surely more pleasing to me than anything

else. My Majesty knows full well that you desire to say everything that My Majesty likes.

O Rashepses, I say to you innumerable times as follows: O you who are beloved of your lord

praised of your lord, who are favorite of your lord and who are privy to your lord's secrets,

it is because Re has given you to me that I know full well that he must love me. As truly as

Izezi lives forever, you should express immediately any wish of yours in a letter from you

today so that My Majesty might have it fulfilled immediately14".

Second letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier

Senedjemib:

This letter was sent by king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier Senedjemib Inti

concerning a construction of a lake. Senedjemib Inti was a very important

and powerful official15 who lived during the end of the reign of king Izezi, he

was the successor of Rashepses as a vizier16. He showed his close relation

12Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 18. 13Strudwick, N., Op. cit.,95. 14Wente, E., Op. cit., 18. 15Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas, Vol. 7, ( Boston, 2001), 89. 16Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt In The Old Kingdom The Highest Titles and

Their Holders, (London, 1985), 95.

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with the king by recording three letters he received from his lord in his

mastaba at Giza, the letters are inscribed in sunk relief17.

This letter reads:

"Royal decree to the chief justice and vizier, the overseer of all works of the king and

overseer of scribes of royal documents, Senedjemib:

My majesty has reviewed this ground plan which you sent to be considered at court for the

(pool?) area of the broad court (?) belonging to the jubilee palace of "Lotus-of- Izezi." Now

you can say unto My Majesty that you have made it to a [length] of 1,000 cubits (523 meters)

and to a [width] of 440 +cubits (230+ meters) in accordance with what was commanded to

you at court. How well you surely know, how to express what Izezi likes above all else. It is

indeed for Izezi's delight that the god has produced you.

My Majesty knows that you are more skillful than any overseer of works who has ever been

in this entire land. I am doing on your behalf something far greater than I ever did for [you].

You have indeed achieved distinction (?) innumerable times, so [you] shall serve as overseer

of all works of the king.

O Senedjemib Senior, it is with me that I want you to be, for you know full well that I love

you.

Year of the six [teenth(?)] count, fourth month of the third season, day 2818."

Third letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier

Senedjemib: This letter was sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier Senedjemib

concerning the decoration of the sacred marriage chapel.

This letter reads:

"Royal decree to the chief justice and vizier, the overseer of scribes of royal documents and

overseer of all works of the king, Senedjemib:

My Majesty has read this letter of yours which you wrote in order to inform My Majesty of

everything that you have done in the drafting of the inscriptional (?) decoration for the

sacred marriage chapel of Izezi, which is in the (lake?) area of the palace. Isn't it truly so

that I am gratified thereby? It is not a case of saying something merely by way of gratifying

17 Brovarski, E., Op. cit 89. 18Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 18.

128


Izezi. May My Majesty be informed immediately of the truth of the matter? Will it in fact get

accomplished? 19

You are one who says what Izezi likes better than any functionary who has ever been in this

land. Since My Majesty knows full well that every ship is on an even keel, I know in what way

you are surely very useful to me. [Really] pleasing to me is the diction of the overseer of all

works of the king.

It very truly is to Izezi's gratification. If only [you] might come to [me! But] it means that you

are working at this very assiduously. You have acted innumerable times so that [My Majesty]

should love you, and you know full well that I love you20."

Fourth letter sent from king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier

Senedjemib: This letter was sent by king Djedkare-Izezi to his vizier Senedjemib

concerning the king's jubilee.

This letter reads:

"[Consideration has been given to the substance of this letters of yours which you directed to

the king] at the palace in order to inform My Majesty that a command of the king was

delivered to you regarding [… Now you can say] unto my majesty that you are going to make

the lake in accordance with what was said at court […] without you. And you say that you

are going to […] the jubilee. My Majesty has very much liked hearing these words of yours

[…] beside you. The Ka of Izezi did not appoint you for just any sort of thing in your (?) […

You are one] for whom My Majesty [will do] anything which is known [to] My Majesty

because the overseer of all works of the king is immediately mentioned whenever I inspect a

project at court, for you are […] that where of My Majesty commands them to give to him

while under the king according as I retire (?) in order to [read] each letter [which arrives

from you] every day. It is because Re has given you to me that I know full well that he must

love me21."

19Ibid., 92. 20Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 19. 21Ibid., 20.

129



The Comments

During the fifth dynasty the relation between the kings and the high officials

took a different shape, this can be noticed easily from the compliment words

that king Izezi used in his letters to glorify his viziers in an exaggeration way.

He was very humble and down to earth as he used to praise and appreciate

anything they have done to him although he is the king and that is part of

their work22, like when he said to Rashepses in his letter: ''I know that Re

must love me because he gives you to me''23.

The three letters sent from the king to Senedjemib shows his importance and

close relation with the king who used to praise him even much more than

Rashepses. This reflects the king's great respect and satisfaction with his

achievements24. One of these three letters has been written by the king

himself. It talks about a lake of 1,200 cubits length25. The king expresses his

gladness and satisfaction with that plan and promoted Senedjemib to be the

overseer of all works of the king26.

The king's praises was source of pride of Rashepses and Senedjemib, that’s

why Senedjemib's son (Senedjemib Mehi) inscribed the letters that were sent

from the king to his father on the wall of his father's tomb, same as Rashepses

who included the letter that he received from the king in his tomb as well.

22In some funerary chapels from that period, small biographical details light up the daily life

of the court during that time. Rewer in his tomb in Giza describes how he was accompanying

king Neferirkare as a Sem-priest in the course of a ceremony, when the king struck him

accidentally upon the leg with His staff. The king hastened to assure him that he must not

regard this action as a blow but as a honoring.

Another case it is not exactly clear what kind of accident happened to the Vizier Washptah,

who seems to have been working on a new building to king Neferirkare. The court physician

was called and writings consulted but at the end the vizier died. The apologies of the king

and his concern for the stricken vizier shows the humility and modesty of that king and may

be that was a feature of the kings of that period. 23Loc. Cit. 24Ibid., 19- 20. 25Breasted, J. H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988), 121, 122. 26Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas, Vol. 7, ( Boston, 2001), 89.

130


Another main feature can be noticed during the fifth dynasty, was the

expansion of sending trade and foreign campaigns by land and sea. The reign

of Userkaf was considered the beginning of Egypt's contacts abroad27.

Expeditions were sent to Wadi maghara and Wadi kharit in Sinai to bring

turquoise and copper28.

Inscription carrying two or more of Izezi's names found in the copper and

turquoise mines at Wadi Maghara in Sinai, in addition to a graffito mentions

his name at Tumas 150 km south of Aswan. Actually the Egyptian relations

with its neighbors was not peaceful all the time during the reign of Izezi, a

scene found in the tomb of Senedjemib Inti represents Egyptian troops

storming and sacking an Asian fortress29. There is evidence to an expedition

sent to Punt during the reign of King Djedkara Izezi, as the god's seal bearer

Werdjededkhnum brought back a dwarf from Punt to the king30. This was

mentioned in the letter sent by king Pepi II to his official Herkhuf in the six

dynasty about 100 years later31.

The Sixth dynasty

During the Sixth dynasty the king's authority and influence started to

decrease gradually while the statesmen had many privileges and the province

rulers became as kings in their nomes. This period also had been known for

27Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt And The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,

Vol. 1, (London, 1962), 38. 28Shaw, I., The Oxford History Of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000), 111. 29Baker, D., Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs, vol.1, (Cairo, 2008), 84. 30Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt and The Beginning of The First Intermediate Period,

Vol. 1, (London, 1962), 45. 31Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 20.

131



the large number of trade expeditions which was sent to the south while had

been guarded by armed garrisons32.

The political relations between Pharoanic Egypt and Nubia had an important

role in the foreign policy of ancient Egypt in most of its eras. The importance

of Nubia was due to its strategic location, the second cataract had been

considered the natural southern border of ancient Egypt, in addition to the

economic importance in which the Egyptian economy relied on getting the

raw materials and minerals especially gold from Nubia and other southern

lands. This was the main reason that makes the Egyptians keen on keeping

those regions under their control33.

Nubia was considered the only road that leads to the rich southern Sudanese

nomes where Egypt used to import gold, ostrich feather, ebony, panther skin

and ivory. That’s why Egypt pharaohs cared so much from the early

beginning of the dynasties on controlling the commercial convoy roads and

defeat raiders who used to threaten the safety of those convoys, in addition to

the constant fear on Egypt's southern borders as the Egyptians felt danger

from some Nubian tribes34.

The most famous traveler of that period was Herkhuf who recorded the

details of his expedition in addition to his autobiography on the walls of his

tomb in Aswan. It's considered the most famous biography from the old

kingdom which contains 58 lines carved on the outer façade of his tomb; it's

now in a very bad state of preservation35.

Among his tales about the expeditions Herkhuf included a letter that he

received from the boy king Pepi II in his autobiography. This letter is

32Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and

Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23. 33Smith, G.E., Jones, F.W.,The Archaeological Survey of Nubia, Vol. II, (Cairo, 1910),15-36. 34Breasted, J.H., A History of Egypt, Part IV, (New York, 1905), 922. 35Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature a Book Of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and

Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23.

132


considered the only complete royal letter from the old kingdom. Herkhuf's

tomb is the only tomb in Aswan which has inscriptions36.

The tales and considerations of Herkhuf about these expeditions are

considered the main source of information about Egypt's relations with Nubia

at that time37.

The letter sent from king Pepi II to Herkhuf:

This letter was sent by king Pepi II to Herkhuf, in order to look after the

pigmy he haunted. Herkhuf was the governor of Upper Egypt; he lived and

worked during the time of king (Merynra) and (Pepi II), he led four

expeditions to Nubia38. He was an important person who held many titles.

This letter reads:

"Royal decree to the role companion, lector priest, and commander of Nubian auxiliaries

Harkhuf:

Consideration has been given to the substance of this letter of yours which you directed to

the king at the place to let it be known that you have come back down safely from Iam along

with the expeditionary force which is with you. You mentioned in this letter of yours that you

have brought back all sorts of great and fine gifts which Hathor, lady of Imaau, has given to

the Ka of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Neferkare (Pepi II), may he live forever and

ever.

You mentioned in this letter of yours that you have brought back a dwarf of the god’s dances

from the land of the horizon-dwellers, one like the dwarf which the god’s seal-bearer

Werdjededkhnum brought back from Punt in the reign of Izezi. You mentioned unto My

Majesty that one like him has never been brought back by anyone else who had previously

traveled through Iam.

36Breasted, J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988), 159. 37Lichtheim, M., Op. cit., 23. 38Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature a Book Of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and

Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23.

133



How well indeed you know how to do what your lord loves and praises! If you continue day

and night being concerned with doing what your lord loves, praises, and commands, his

Majesty will fulfill your many worthy aspirations so as to benefit the son of your son forever,

so that all people will say whenever they hear of what My Majesty has done for you, “Is it

like that which was done for the sole companion Harkhuf as he was coming back down from

Iam, because of the vigilance he displayed in order to do what his lord loves, praises, and

commands?”

Come sailing north to the Residence at once! Cast off, bringing back with you this dwarf

whom you have brought from the land of the horizon-dwellers, alive, prospering and healthy,

for the god’s dances in order to amuse and delight the King of Upper and Lower Egypt,

Neferkare, may he live forever.

When he goes with you aboard the ship, assign able men so as to be round about him on both

sides of the ship lest he fall into the water. When (he) sleeps at night, also assign able men so

as to sleep round about him in his tent. Inspect ten times during the night, for My Majesty

wishes to see this dwarf more than the products of Sinai or Punt. If you arrive at the

Residence with this dwarf still alive, prospering and healthy in your charge, My Majesty will

do for your something greater then was done for the god’s seal bearer Werdjededkhnum in

the reign of Izezi, reflecting My Majesty’s yearning to see this dwarf.

Orders have been delivered to each chief of a new town and to each companion and overseer

of priests to command that provisions be exacted from the charge of each: from every estate

of the department of supplies and from every temple respectively. No exemption has been

made therein.

Sealed by the king personally in Year 2, third month of the first season, day 1539."

The Comments:

The time of Pepi II was famous with the large number of expeditions that he

used to send to the south leaded by the rulers of Elephantine, as the most

well-known one was Herkhuf40.

During the second year of king Pepi II reign Herkhuf was sent by the king to

Yam while he was collecting products from there he hunted a pygmy from

39Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 20-21. 40Breasted, J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988), 159.

134


the land of the horizon dwellers this term was used to refer to the people from

the remote regions east and southeast of Egypt41.

This was not the first pigmy brought from a foreign land, another one had been

brought to king Izezi from Punt by the god's seal bearer Werdjededkhnum, The

pygmies used to dance in order to honor and entertain the gods42.

Herkhuf sent a letter to inform the king with the latest news and

achievements including the pygmy in his letter43. He was smart enough to make

the child king excited by telling him that he got a pigmy that one like him has never

been brought back by anyone else travelled to Iam. The king was a child not more

than eight years old; he couldn't hide his childish enthusiasm44.

Herkhuf received a letter from the king expressing his happiness and showing

how much the boy king was excited to see the dancing pygmy that Herkhuf

has bringing back with him, as he cared for the safe arrival of the dwarf more

than anything else about the expedition45.

It seems that dwarfs were rarely found because of the king's excitement and

happiness with the news of bringing a pigmy, as he promised him to fulfill his

aspirations to benefit the son of his son forever.

Finally the king had practiced his authority at the end of the letter, when he

informed Herkhuf with the latest orders concerning the provisions, as this was a part

of Herkhuf's responsibilities46.

41Anon, Egypt, (Australia, 2005), 33. 42Wente, E., Op. cit., 20-21. 43Anon, Egypt, (Australia, 2005), 33. 44Wente, E., Op. cit., 20-21. 45Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature a Book Of Readings, Vol. 1, the Old and

Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973), 23. 46Wente, E., Op. cit., 21.

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Herkhuf was so proud with that personal letter sent to him by the king as he

included it in his tomb autobiography; also this shows that he delivered the

dwarf safe to the king unless he would never copy this letter in his tomb.

The Conclusion:

The fifth dynasty kings were not from royal origins and then they became

rulers as Westcar papyrus47 stated48. This could also mean that the fifth

dynasty rulers were not used to be treated as kings. May be diplomatic ways

and sweet words were used to praise and describe the high officials in order

to gain their loyalty and honesty to the king all the time. King Izezi used

almost the same words to praise Rashepses and Senedjemib in his four

letters.

During the late Old Kingdom Egypt had a strong and good relation with its

southern neighbors, such as Iam and Punt 49. Herkhuf succeeded to defeat the

revolting tribes in the south and forcing them to pay heavy tributes loaded on

300 donkeys as he mentioned and as a result the influence of the pharaoh had

been extended as far to the second cataract50.

At the end it can be said that the political and economic status during the late Old

Kingdom was stable, as there were no battles or famines existed. This can be

noticed easily from the letters that survived from the fifth and sixth dynasty, which

shows that they used to send many expeditions to different foreign lands in addition

to the constructions such as the pool and the chapel in the royal palace; this reflects

the luxury and stability which Egypt enjoyed at that time.

47Petrie, F., A History of Egypt from the Ist To The XVIth dynasty, (London, 1916), 69. 48According to Westcar papyrus legend which dates back to the fourth dynasty specially time

of King Khufu, a prophecy was narrated to King Khufu by a magician named Dedi who was

brought by prince Hardjedef son of Khufu. He predicted that Radjedet the wife of a priest of

god Re at Sakhbu(in the delta) will give birth to a triplet who are going to be the first three

kings of the Fifth Dynasty, named as: Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare whose considered the

seed or production of Re as a result of her union with him.This prophecy caused Khufu's

depression because the birth of this triplet will replace his own descendants on the throne of

Egypt. 49Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990), 20-21. جيمز هنري برستد, كتاب تاريخ مصر منذ اقدم العصور الي الفتح الفارسي, الطبعة االولي, )القاهرة, 1929(, 50.89

136


List of References

1. Baker, D., Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs, vol.1, (Cairo, 2008).

2. Breasted, J.H., A History of Egypt, Part IV, (New York, 1905).

3. Breasted, J. H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, (U.S.A, 1988).

4. Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex, Part 1, Giza Mastabas,

Vol. 7, (Boston, 2001).

5. Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings,

Vol. 1, The Old and Middle Kingdoms, (London, 1973).

6. Maher,G., Autobiographies in Ancient Egypt From The Old Kingdom

to The End of the Second Intermediate Period, (Cairo, 2006).

7. Sethe, K., Urkunden Des Alten Reichs,(Leipzig, 1903).

8. Shaw, I., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, (New York, 2000).

9. Smith, G.E., Jones, F.W., The Archaeological Survey of Nubia,

Vol. II, (Cairo, 1910).

10. Smith, S., The Old Kingdom in Egypt and The Beginning of The

First Intermediate Period, Vol. 1, (London, 1962).

11. Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt in The Old Kingdom The

Highest Titles and Their Holders, (London, 1985).

12. Petrie, F., A History of Egypt from the Ist to the XVIth dynasty,

(London, 1916).

13. Wente, E., Letters from Ancient Egypt, (U.S.A, 1990).

بعة االولي, , الطكتاب تاريخ مصر منذ اقدم العصور الي الفتح الفارسيجيمز هنري برستد, .14

.(1929)القاهرة,

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Scenes of Saint Wonder-Worker in Coptic Art

Shaimaa Ahmed Afifi Aly Omar Abdallah Shaza Gamal Ismail

Abstract

Saint Mena was a famous martyr of Christianity, his life and martyrdom was

kind of legendry story. His iconography was highly attested to several

materials of Coptic art. He was depicted with various iconographies each had

a related attribute with his legend. He was glorified by a healing cult and had

a great pilgrimage center. His cult was translated into flasks with his

iconography as orant found in different places and scattered within several

museums around the world. This article discusses the different gestures of

Saint Mena in Coptic art.

Keywords: Saint, Halo, Iconography, Equestrian, Orans, chlamys.

Introduction

Saint Mena

Saint Mena’s birthplace was Qetwa in the land of Egypt. He was the only

heir to his wealthy family, and was a Christian by birth. His father was a high

officer in the government service. His family soon died leaving him an

orphan, and then he joined the army and became an officer. He was martyred

in Phrygia, at the end of third and the beginning of the fourth century. His

sufferings were recorded in several languages such as Latin, Greek, Coptic

and Syriac. His famous reputation was gained due to the rumors that had

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spread all over Egypt about the supernatural powers of the Saint and his

ability to cure. 1

The passion of his martyrdom is recorded in Greek language. According to

this account Saint Mena had lived under the authority of joint-rule of the

Roman emperors Diocletian and his Colleague Maximinus. It was during that

time confessing Christianity was a crime, due to the issued imperial edicts

against Christianity. Mena was a soldier at Kotyian alongside with his

fellows after receiving the edicts, he flew to the desert. After a while he made

a presence in the city again at the performance of the games at one of the

great festivals. He was seized and presented in front of the prefect, Pyrrhus.

After confessing Christianity, he was chained and thrown into jail. On the

following day the prefect ordered him to insult Jesus and to make a Roman

religious sacrifice. It was upon his refusal to obey the orders, he was severely

tortured. Finally he was beheaded outside the city and his body was burnt.

However, faithful mob had successded in wrapping the ashes in fine linen in

order to get him back to his native country.2

According to the Arabic account in the Jacobite Synaxarium, there is more

details account upon saving the Saint’s life. The troops of Mareotis saved the

body with them in their way to Pentapolis. It was during their sea voyage a

tame creature attacked them. The body was saved as flames came out from it.

When the Mareotis reached Alexandria, the camel carrying the holy body

refused to move anymore. Upon this incident another camel was brought, but

acted the same way despite being severely beaten to move. It was realized

that the body has to be buried there upon this divine will. This pitch is now

housed the monastery of Saint Mena at Mariot near the city of Alexandria. It

1 Wilber, D., The Coptic Frescoes of Saint Menas at Medinet Habu, The Art Bulletin,

Vol.XXII, No. 2, Jun., 1940, 86-10 2 Budge, W., TEXTS RELATING TO SAINT MENA OF EGYPT AND CANONS OF NICEA

IN THE NUBIAN DIALECT,California,1909, 23.

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Afifi, Sh. Abdallah, A. Ismail, Sh.


is worthy to point that the Saint’s tomb is a holy place to visit for hundreds of

years. 3

There were several miracles attributed to Saint Mena which took place in his

own shrine. These miracles were recorded in different languages, Greek,

Latin, Ethiopian, Nubian and Coptic. The miracles attributed to Mena fall

into two categories either punishing or healing. One of miracles was the egg

miracle. According to it, a pagan woman who lived near Alexandria lived a

luxurious life owned everything except fertility. All her household had no

children even the animals. Her house was close enough to the river which

allowed her to notice the people crossing the river to reach Mena’s church.

Hearing about the miracles of this Saint, she said" If only one of my hens

would lay, I promise that I will sent the first egg over to Saint Mena’s

church”. The miracle did occur and the hen laid one egg. The woman took

the egg alongside with her maid went to the shore searching for a boat. 4

After finding the boat, its sailor asked her about the reason of her voyage; she

told him about the miracle and told him she would be a Christian if she

herself would be pregnant. The man affords to deliver the egg to the church.

He did not only forget to take the egg to the church but also cooked and ate it.

When he went to the church to receive the sacrament, he had a vision of Saint

Mena with a hunting spear. He committed his sin. Again Saint Mena

appeared near to him and kicked the man against his head and suddenly the

egg he had eaten turned into a chicken under him, Saint Mena took the egg

and went to the woman’s house. He gave her the egg and told her to let it

amongst the cattle and they would all give birth. She herself would give birth

and to call the kid Mena. After they had given birth , she and her households

3 Ibid, 24. 4 Gaselee, S., Stories from the Christian East, London1918, 35-38

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and cattle, she went to church alongside with her family in order to be

baptized.5

The Monastery of Saint Mena in Maryut

It was the incident of the shepherd and his ill lamb that led to discover the

Saint’s body relics, as the shepherds’ ill lamb descended into a lake next to

the Saint’s body. Then, he came out to bury himself in sand and finally he

was totally healed.6 When the emperor Constantine learned of his fame and

since this emperor had an only daughter who was ill, he sent her to the

shepherd. The daughter of Constantine asked the shepherd what he did to

cure all the sick people and animals, and the shepherd told her. She took dust

from the ground of this place, wet it with water, and anointed with it all the

parts of her body, and having passed the night in this place, Saint Menas

appeared to her and said, 'When you arise in the morning, dig in this place

and you will find my body. She arose and gave orders to dig, and when she

had found the body of the Saint, she rejoiced greatly and sent someone to her

father to tell him what had happened. The emperor erected a monument over

the body of Saint Mena and a beautiful church constructed in this place.7

When the fame of the healing miracles was spread, the place that was

originally just a small village turned into a great pilgrimage healing center.

Thousands of pilgrims came every year to be healed. The great basilica that

was erected at the end of fifth beginning of sixth century is one of Egypt’s

greatest churches. Many guest houses that were functioned to host the

pilgrims were built. Emperor Zeno (474-491) sent a military garrison to

secure the military movement. After that, the monastery suffered from some

disasters for several circumstances, such as the Persian invasion (619A.D)

5 BROWNE, G., "GRIFFITH'S MIRACLE OF ST. MENAS", The Bulletin of the American

Society of Papyrologists, Vol.XX, No. 1/2 1983, 23-37 من اقوال أباء الكنيسة السكنية القبطية األرثذوكسية، تاريخ حياة الشهيد العظيم مارمينا العجايبي،)القاهرة،1906(،75 67 Wilber, D., "The Coptic Frescoes of Saint Menas at Medinet Habu", The Art Bulletin, Vol.

XXII, No. 2, Jun., 1940, 86-103.

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and the Arab conquest (639-41A.D). Then it was revived during the reign of

the Patriarch Mark III (799-819A.D), but again suffered a great drop due to

the Bedouin attacks. For a few decades the pilgrimage center was rich

treasures for thieves.8The monastery enjoyed both prosperity and suffered

from abounded periods until it was finally declined. Despite that, it was when

Kyrillos VI became the Patriarch and Pope of Mark seat; he erected a new

monastery cathedral to restore the glory of Abu Mena cult center. The

original monastery consisted of three main separated buildings, connected

directly with each other: the Basilica, Martyr- church and the Baptistery. 9

The Importance of Saint Mena pilgrimage center stood behind the countless

miracles attributed to him. So Pilgrims came to his center in order to be

healed and get the Saint’s bless. After finishing their religious journey, they

took a souvenirs carved with Saint’s iconography to their native lands. So a

great number of preserved pilgrims’ ampullae were scattered around the

world indicating the how much Mena’s cult was of great importance to

pilgrims.

8 Grossman, P., ABU MINA: A Guide to the Ancient Pilgrimage Center, Cairo,1986, 8-14. 9 Grossman, P., The Pilgrimage Center of Abu Mina, Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late

Antiquity, V.CXXXIV, Leiden,1988,281-302.

Fig. 1, Saint Mena Pilgrimage center in sixth century, ABU MINA:

After, A Guide to the Ancient Pilgrimage Center, (Cairo, 1986), fig. 1

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Plate I, Saint Mena dressed Roman military uniform,

After, Rutschowscaya, M., La peinture copte, (Paris, 1992), 49

Plate II, Saint Mena dressed Roman military uniform.

After, Zibawi, M., Images de l’Égypte chrétienne : Iconologie copte,(Paris, 2003), 95

Saint Mena dressed Roman military uniform

Date: Seventh-eighth century.

Material: Painting on tempera.10

Dimensions: Height 67 cm, Length 79 cm.

Province: Chamber XXXIV Kellia, Now exhibited in the Louvre Museum.11

Description: Saint Mena is depicted on praying posture raising his hands

while wearing the traditional Roman military uniform consisting of a red

10 Ziegler, Ch., The Louvre Egyptian antiquities, Paris, 2006, 92. 11 Rutschowscaya, M., La peinture copte, Paris,1992, 49

143



short belted tunic and a chlamys12 over it. His head with short curly hair is

surrounded with the glory halo of Saints and martyrs13, right to his head this

is an inscription bearing his name.14

Plate III, Saint Mena in the martyrs dome

After, Lyster, w., ed. The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Paul,

Egypt, Cairo, 2008, 220

Saint Mena in the martyrs dome.

Date: 13th century.

Province: Monastery of Saint Paul,Red sea.

Descritption: Saint Mena is depicted riding a brown horse wearing a belted

tunic with a chalmys over it. Beneath the horse, there is a representation of

aquatic camel monasters, probably the monasters of his legend. Accroding to

the legend, while transfering the Saint’s body to Egypt beastes with necks

12 The chlamys was a type of an ancient Greek cloak. 13 Halo or Nimbus is a zone of light, generally represented in different form; circle, square or

triangle. It was frequently used in Coptic art behind the head of divine or sacred personage to

identify their great identity. 14 Zibawi, M., Images de l’Égypte chrétienne : Iconologie copte, Paris, 2003,198

144



raised a loft and faces like camels attacked the relics but fire flames emerged

from the Saint’s body and

saved it.15 Beneath the Saint’s figure, there is an Arabic inscription read as

"الشهيد العظيم ماري مينا العجايبي"16

Plate IV, Saint Mena receiving the crowns

After, Bolman, E., The Early Paintings, chapter III in Bolman, E., ed. Monastic Visions:

Wall Paintings in the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea,Cairo,2002,42

Saint Mena receiving the crowns.

Date:18th century.

Province:Western wall of the nave,Monastery of Saint Antony, Red sea.17

15 Lyster, w., ed. The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Paul, Egypt,

Cairo, 2008, 219 16 Moorsel, P., Le monastère de saint- Paul près de la mer rouge, Cairo, 2002,105

145



Description: The scene represents Saint Mena as an equastrian18 riding his

yellow horse. His head is surrounded by the glory halo of Saints. Beneath his

horse, there is a representation of two camels and a man between them

whipping one of the camels. These two camels refres to the legend of Saint

Mena, the two camels that refuse to move the Saint’s body. Next to the

camel, there is a a domed structure of mudbrick with a cross on its top,

symbolising th shrine that was built to house the Saint’s body. Next to

Mena’s head , a divine hand offering him the crown of martyrdom on both

sides.19 Beneath the scene there is an Arabic inscription read as اذكر يارب "

ره عبدك الخاطئ المسكين الغارق في بحار الخاطايا الذي ال يستحق ان يدعي شماسا من اجل كت

خطاياه..."

17 Moorsel, V., Les peintures de monastère de saint –Antoine près de la mer rouge,

Cairo,1995,160 18 Equestrian saints iconography was a matter of interest in Egypt. Their cult was attested in

several documents such as: papyri, inscriptions and carvings. Coptic art preferred to depict

equestrian saint as horsemen riders, probably drawing them from the tradition of slaying the

dragon horseman. The depiction of slaying the dragon is believed to be the continuation the

ancient Egyptian legend, in which god Horus overcome evil. Equestrian saints iconography

was portrayed on different materials as early as third century, while being spearing a demon

of various shapes: dragon, crocodile, serpent and scorpion. Equestrian saints iconography

symbolize victory over evil in coptic art 19 Bolman, E., The Early Paintings, chapter III in Bolman, E., ed. Monastic Visions: Wall

Paintings in the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea,Cairo,2002,42.

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Plate V, Christ and abbot Mena from Bawit

After, Mathews, Th., The Christian Dawn of Christian Art: in Panel Paintings and Icons,

New York, 2016, 23

Christ and abbot Mena from Bawit.

Date: six-seventh century.

Province: Monastery of Saint Mina in Bawit, Middle Egypt, Now exhibited

in louver Museum.20

Material: Fresco Painted on sycamore wood.

Dimensions: Height.57 cm, width.57cm.

Description: The two figures are represented in frontal gesture, on the right

Jesus Christ standing and stretching his arms around Saint Mena as a gesture

of protection.21 He is represented taller than the other figure, wearing a tunic

and scarf while holding one of the Gospels books in his hands. On the left

side, Saint Mina standing wearing a tunic and a scarf, making a blessing sign

of his right hand. The two figures heads’ are surrounded by halos bearing an

20 Bolman, E., The Early Paintings ,Chapter III in in Bolman, E., ed. Monastic Visions: Wall

Paintings in the Monastery of St. Antony at the Red Sea, Cairo, 2002, 21 Ziegler, Ch., The Louvre Egyptian Antiquities, Paris, 2006, 93.

147



inscription, but Jesus halos distinguished with a cross sign in-between it22.

The halo of Jesus bears the inscription “Savior”, while Saint Mina’s halo

bears “Ape Mena Superior”23.

Plate VI, Saint Mena slaying a monster.

After, Shafik, M., ed. The Coptic Icons St. Mina Monastery in Fum Al-Khalig Cairo, Cairo,

2008, 87

Saint Mena slaying a monster.

Date: 18th century signed by Ibrahim the scribe and Yuhanna al Al- Armani.24

Province: Saint Mena Monastery, Fum al-Khalig.25

Dimensions: Height 61.8cm, Width 43.5cm.

Material: Tempera on wood.

Description: The icon depicted Saint Mena on a brown horse slaying a

monster with his cross ended spear while holding the lance with his other

hand. The yellow background is decorated with dark green trees from both

22 Christ and Abbot Mena,(20th sept.2018), Retrieved from https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-

notices/christ-and-abbot-mena 23 Rutschowscaya, M., Le Christ et l'abbé Ména, RMN-Louvre, Solo (11), 1998. 24 The production of the Coptic icons witnessed a renewal trend at the second half of

eighteenth century in Ottoman Egypt. Many produced icons were signed by Ibrahim the

scribe and Yuhanna al Armani. Yuhanna al Armani al Qudsi was a famous Coptic artist. His

name was attributed with the renewal trend in the eighteenth century; despite the fact of

being not a Copt. Ibrahim the scribe was a famous Egyptian artist an d their names were

connected since they have worked on many pieces together. 25 Anonymous, Coptic Icons part I, Cairo,1998,141.

148



sides. Saint Mena depicted wearing a tunic and a chlamys over it. His head is

decorated with a golden crown and surrounded with the halo of glory. The

winged dragon beneath the horse is depicted lying on his back with sharp

nails and teeth grabbing with his claws. An Arabic inscription is found above

the monster read as "26"عمل ابراهيم و يوحنا األرمني

Plate VII, Saint Mena mounted a horse.

After, Van Moorsel., ed. catalouge general du muse copte: The Icons, Leiden,1991, PL.D2

Saint Mena on a horse.

Date:18th century attributed to Yuhanna al Armani according to characteristic

of his style.27

Material: painted on panel.

Dimensions: Height 33cm, Width 5.57 cm.

26 Shafik, M., ed. The Coptic Icons St. Mina Monastery in Fum Al-Khalig Cairo, Cairo,

2008, 87. 27 Despite the fact that icons of both artists Yuhanna al Armani and Ibrahim the scribe

shared a number of distinguished formal features. They depicted figures with almond shaped

eyes against a flat background; there are several properties that would help to identify the

difference in style between the two painters. For instance: the heavy horizontal black lines

that referred to trees foliage painted by Ibrahim were contrasting to the delicate vertical lines

of Yuhanna. Despite these properties, sometimes it is hard to differentiate their works,

particularly as they collaborated so closely that they sometimes signed the same work

together.

149



Description: The icon is representing Saint Mena while riding his brown

horse, slaying the dragon with his cross spear .His crowned head, with half

long grey hair is surrounded by a golden halo. Next to his head to the right

his name is written in Arabic.28 He is depicted wearing a short brown tunic

and a brown chlamys. Bottom right there is two small figures of Jews raising

their hands. At the center of the landscape there is white church with dome

and windows is depicted, and to the right another domed building, perhaps a

chapel. 29

Plate VIII, Bas-Relief figuring Saint Menas as orant

After, Anonymous, A Milestone Exhibitions

فيكتور جرجس عوض هللا، اللوحات المصورة بالمتحف القبطي : األيقونات،)القاهرة،1965(،53 28

29 Van Moorsel., ed. catalogue general du musee Copte: The Icons, Leiden,1991, 53.

150



Palace of Amir Taz, Coptic Art Revealed, Cairo, 2010-2011. fig XI

Bas-Relief figuring Saint Menas as orant.30

Date: Fifth century.

Material: Marble.

Province: Alexandria, now exhibited in the Greco- Roman museum, Hall 1.31

Dimensions: Height 69 cm, Width 58 cm.

Description: This relief shows Saint Mena as an Orant32 with short curly hair.

He is wearing a short belted tunic with a chlamys over it. Next to his feet

from the sides, there is a kneeling camel is carved.33

30 Perkins, J., The Shrine of St. Menas in Maryut, Papers of the British School at

Rome,V.XVII,(1949),26-71 31 Empereur, J., A Short Guide to the Graeco –Roman Museum

Alexandria,(Alexandria,1995),31 32 Orant positions is one the ancient eastern positions of prayers standing with arms

outstretched sideways or bent at the elbow, with the hands at shoulder level and palms facing

forward. 33Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to

Seventh Century, (New York, 1978),574

151



Plate IX, Ivory plaque of Saint Mena.

After, Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third

to Seventh Century, New York, 1978, 578

Ivory plaque of Saint Mena.

Date: Sixth century.

Province: Alexandria, now Milan.

152



Material: Ivory.Dimension: Height 10, Width 8.34

Description: Saint Mena is depicted in Orant gesture between two pilgrims,

raising his hands in praying, his head with short curly hair is surrounded by

the glory halo of Saints and martyrs. He is depicted wearing short belted

tunic and a long chlamys over it. Next to his feet from both sides two

kneeling camel are carved. The Saint is standing at the entrance to the

sanctuary of his church with shell35 top symbolizing his pilgrimage center,

flanked by two side bays. The bays are latticed closure slabs, a pair of

curtains, lamp and gables each topped by a cross.36

Ivory pyxis of Saint Mena

34 Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to

Seventh Century, New York, 1978, 578. 35 The shell either cockleshell or scallop is frequently used in Coptic art. It usage

symbolizing pilgrimage. 36 Weitzmann, K., The Ivories of the So-Called Grado Chair, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, V.

XXVI 1972, 43-91.

Plate X , Ivory pyxis of Saint Mena, (20th sept.2018),

Retrieved from http://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/pyxis-menas

153



Date: Sixth century.

Province: Egypt, now exhibited in the British Museum.

Material: Ivory.

Dimensions: Weight 299.32 gram, Height 7.9cm, Width 11.3cm.

Description: This ivory pyxis37 represents different episodes from Saint

Menas’ life. The first episode was the scene of his judgment. The Roman

provincial is carved while seating on a stool with his foot on a footstool

raising one of his hands while holding a staff with his other hand. Next to

him from the left a guard is carved while on his right a figure of scribe is

depicted. The scribe is depicted while holding a diptych and standing before

a table with an inkpot upon it. Before them Saint Mena is shown kneeling

with his arms bend behind his back wearing a loincloth. His executor is

depicted wearing a short belted tunic and long trousers holding a sword in his

left hand while with his right one grapping the Saint’s hair. Above the Saint’s

head there is a depiction of an angel, whose veiled wings are ready to receive

the holy soul of Menas.38

The other side of the pyxis representing Saint Mena as an Orant raising his

hands as a sign of praying, standing between an arch, probably symbolizing

his pilgrimage shrine. The glory halo of Saints is surrounding his head. Next

to the arch from both sides a kneeling camel is represented. On his left a

group of two women is shown raising their hands in praying position, having

the same on the right but here two men are shown.39

37 The original usage of pyxis is unclear; it may have been used as an incense box or as a

reliquary. 38 Ivory pyxis of Saint Mena,(20th sept.2018), Retrieved from

http://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/pyxis-menas. 39 Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to

Seventh Century, New York, 1978, 575.

154



Saint Menas’ flask in Louvre.

Date: late fifth, early sixth century.

Province: Maryut, now exhibited in the Louvre Museum.

Material: Terracotta.

Plate XI, Saint Menas’ flask in Louvre

After, Woodfin, W., An Officer and a Gentleman: Transformations in the Iconography of a

Warrior Saint ,Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 60 (2006), 111-143

155



Description: This ampulla is shaped like a flattened gourd with two small

handles on the side and a small spout. Its size and quality set it apart from the

usual flasks, although the images are typical: Saint Menas identified by his

name written in Greek.40This ampulla is bearing the figure of Saint Mena as

an orant raising his hands in prayer position with short curly hair. He is

depicted beardless wearing a belted short tunic and a long chlamys over it.

Next to him on both sides a kneeling camel is depicted.41

Plate XII, A pottery flask of Saint Mena

108(,2007جودت جبرة, المتحف القبطي و كنائس القاهرة القديمة,)القاهرة,

40 Saint Mena flask in Louvre, (20th sept.2018), Retrieved from

https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/pilgrim-flasks 41 Woodfin,W., An Officer and a Gentleman: Transformations in the Iconography of a

Warrior Saint ,Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 60 2006, pp. 111-143.

156



A pottery flask of saint Mena.

Date: Fifth-sixth century.

Dimensions: Width11.8cm, Height13.6cm.42

Material: Pottery, terracotta.

Province: Coptic Museum, Old Cairo.

Description: this flask depicts Saint Mena as an orant wearing a short belted

tunic and a chlamys over it. He is shown with short curly hair. A kneeling

camel is carved on both sides of Saint Mena. Above his outstretched arms a

short inscriptions in Greek read as “Hagios Menas”43.

Conclusions

Through analyzing the scenes of Saint Mena in Coptic art, it could be

concluded that the Saint’s iconography varied in different forms. His

traditional iconography depicted him in Orant gesture between two kneeling

camels wearing a military short belted tunic with short curly hair. So his

figures were recognizable by these features and the camels that were depicted

with him refer to the episode of his legend when the camels refused to move

from a certain spot where the Saint’s body was buried.44 The Coptic works

from fifth to seventh centuries had depicted Saint Mena in orant position.45

There was another iconography of Mena’s in which he was depicted as

equestrian Saint related to his position in the Roman army while being

slaying a monster. Sometimes the monsters of his legend that emerged from

sea to attack the Saint’s body were depicted beneath him. So it could be

concluded through analyzing scenes of Saint Mena in Coptic art that he was

depicted with symbols and attribution related to his legend. He was also

depicted with different materials; among the works that were attributed to

42Eaton- Karuss & Gabra, G., The Treasures of Coptic Art: in the coptic museum and

churches of old Cairo,(Cairo& New York,2006),117. جودت جبره, المتحف القبطي و كنائس القاهرة القديمة,)القاهرة,2007(,108 4344 Delehaye, H., Les légendes grecques des saints militaires, Paris,1909,1. 45 Woodfin, W., An Officer and a Gentleman: Transformations in the Iconography of a

Warrior Saint, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. LX (2006), 111-143.

157



Saint Mena were Pilgrims flasks (Ampullae) that were worn around the neck

by pilgrims while visiting the holy places. Originally those flasks contained

either oil from the lamps that was burnt in front of the shrine or water from a

miraculous source or a well connected to the holy place. Most of Saint

Menas’ flasks were stamped with his figure standing in orant posture. From

the fifth century several of Mena’s flasks were produced. Dozens of his

flasks were discovered at the district of Kom El-Dikka in Alexandria 46.

46 Anderson, W., An Archaeology of Late Antique Pilgrim Flasks, Anatolian Studies, Vol.

LV (2004), 79-9.

158



The Usage of Coptic Language and its Dialects

Marian Magdy Shaza Gamal Mary Missak

Abstract

The word ‘Coptic’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘Qubt’ which is the

Greek uttered it as "Aigyptios", and the Egyptians wrote it "Giptios". It was

derived from the Pharaonic word "Hi-kꜣ-ptḥ" meaning ‘The house of the

spirit of Ptah; an Egyptian God”, which was one of the names of the ancient

metropolis Memphis. Arabs took it ‘Qubt’ then the Europeans took it as

"Copts". This term corrects the misunderstanding of the meaning of the word

‘Qubt’ which doesn’t mean Christians but all Egyptians; however they played

an important role in the history of Christianity as a whole.1

Keywords

Egypt- Copts- Coptic- Greek- Coptic Language- Alphabets- Arabic

Language- Dialects- Manuscripts.

Introduction

Coptic language is the direct descend of Ancient Egyptian language. Ancient

Egyptians used it in their daily life and they recorded it in three forms;

Hieroglyphic "the sacred script", it is the earliest form of Egyptian pictorial

writing. It was carved by the artists on the walls of temples, tombs and

sarcophagi. The Hieratic "priestly" script which was modified form of the

hieroglyphic script that used by the priests in writing on papyrus, the state

laws, king’s decrees, commercial treaties and all official correspondence. The

1Murray, Peter, The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture, Oxford, 1996, p.

118.

159



Demotic "writing of people” script was used by the people in their daily lives,

especially for their private letters which is replaced the hieratic script.2

In fact, Coptic the final development of the last had written stage of the

ancient Egyptian language which the indigenous inhabitants had employed

for more than three millennia. It was the daily spoken language of the Copts

at the end of tenth or eleventh century until the Arab conquest of Egypt and it

began to be superseded by Arabic.

During the Ptolemaic period, approximately in the third century B.C., instead

of the still complicated demotic scripts, Egyptians began to adopt the Greek

alphabet which became distinguished as Coptic.3

Coptic Alphabets4

The Coptic language is composed of thirty-two letters in the Coptic alphabet;

the first twenty-five letters are modified from the Greek letters that have their

origin in the Hieroglyphic script. The last seven letters are modified from the

Demotic script. In the first few centuries of Christianity in Egypt, the Greek

language was the cultural language of the world similar to the English

language nowadays. Many of the Coptic fathers such as St. Athanasius the

twentieth Pope wrote mainly in Greek language so people worldwide would

understand. However, many Coptic fathers wrote in Coptic. Coptic language

is continued to be used in the Church with Greek as the second language.

2Ishaq , Emile, Maher, Coptic Language, Spoken, in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol.2, Atiya

Aziz S.ed., New York, 1991, p. 604-607. 3Kasser, Rodolphe, The Coptic Language(S), in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol.8, Atiya Aziz

(ed.) New York, 1991, p.145-151. 4Kriecher, Robert, the Coptic Alphabet, Oxford, 1996, p. 287.

160

Magdy, M. Gamal, Sh. Missak, M.


The Usage of Coptic Language

In the third century A.D, the Coptic language took its final shape. Copts used

their language with its dialects in their conversation, daily transactions,

religious texts, translation of the Bible, letters, stories, legal documents, and

the history of the Coptic Church.5 Many of them who lived in towns used

Greek language as well. However, many of the divine liturgy services and the

praises are in Coptic language and to a lesser extent are in Greek language.

Cyrus Gordon said that in his book "Forgotten Scripts", “The Coptic Church

still preserves the native Egyptian language written in Greek characters, so

that we have an unbroken tradition of Egyptian texts spanning about five

thousand years”.6

The Bible plays a role in every aspect of Coptic civilization. The Coptic

Church regards the Old and New Testaments as a single inseparable unit. It

was translated to Coptic language around the second century by the Egyptian

scholars of the theological School of Alexandria, who were very fluent in

both Greek and Coptic.

Parts of the Bible were translated from Greek to Coptic in the first part of the

third century, but the other parts were translated in the fourth century.7 After

the Arab conquest of Egypt, Coptic language was almost eliminated by the

new masters of the land. In two or three centuries, Coptic language was used

in certain villages in Upper Egypt, but very few could speak it. In 318 St.

5Posener, G. A Dictionary of Egyptian Civilization, London, 1959, p. 52. 6Gordon, Cyrus H., Forgotten Scripts: Their Ongoin Discovery and Decipherment, New

York, 1987, 23. 7Gabra, Gawdat, Coptic Civilization: Two Thousand Years of Christianity in Egypt, Cairo,

2014, p. 5.

161



Pachomius8 organized the life of his monks in every detail according to the

rules which he wrote in Coptic.

Most people who were able to write were priests or monks. These

circumstances resulted in Coptic literature being almost exclusively of a

religious character.9 Consequently, the Orthodox Church had taken several

steps to revive Coptic language again, as Pope Cyril IV10 offered Coptic

language in all Coptic schools and started a Church-sponsored movement to

educate the clergy and the new generations in Coptic. Pope Cyril V11 allowed

him to access to the Patriarchal Library which enabled him to consult

invaluable Coptic manuscripts. Coptic language education was offered in all

schools that were built by Pope Cyril IV; Patriarch of Alexandria in the

nineteenth century. 12

8St. Pachomius (ca.292-346), also known as Abba Pachomius. He was born in 292 in Thebes

(Luxor) from pagan parents, who forced him to worship idols. He rejected and mocked this

worship, then became a monk with St. Balamon (Palaemon). Many monks gathered together

to him, and he built for them many monasteries and established for them a system of manual

labor, the times of prayers, and eating. He established his first monastery at Tabennisi on the

banks on Nile, where he lived in a cell, until the death of Palemon between 318 and 323 ca.

Later he established ten other monasteries for men and two nunneries for women. Before his

death, there were seven hundred monks in his houses and his Order in the East survived until

the eleventh century. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Saint_Pachomius

accessed in 12/9/2018 at 9:00 PM. 9Guppy, H., Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, vol.40, Michigan University, 1958, p. 233. 10Pope Cyril IV (110th Pope of Alexandria) was Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, called for

Christians to donate for building a scientific institute for the Coptic language. He was born in

the town of Sawamaa of the district of the city of Girga, to righteous parents in the year 1816

A.D. They gave him the name David after his grandfather. His father brought him up and

educated him well. When he was twenty-two years old, he went to the monastery of St.

Anthony, where he conducted himself virtuously and lived an ascetic life, which convinced

the abbot of the monastery, Father Athanasius), to clothe him with the garb of the monks. He

continued to read and to study the holy books. He died in 23rd Toba in 1577A.M., 1 January

1861 A.D. Anon, Coptic Synaxarium, Oxford, 2006, p. 196. 11Pope Cyril V (112th Pope of Alexandria) was born at the village of Tizmant in Bani Suef

Province, in 1824, and was known as Hanna al-Nasikh (the calligrapher) because of his

beautiful handwriting. At the age of twenty he entered Deir al-Baramus in Wadi al-Natrun.

He was also appointed member of the National Legislative Assembly. He died in one Masra,

seven August 1874. Shoucri, Mounir, Cyril V, New York, 1988, p. 679. 12Meri, Josef W., Medieval Islamic Civilization, Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle

Ages, New York, 2006, p. 173.

162



A great attention was given to Coptic studies "Coptology" in every

Theological Seminary and even in many universities.13 At the end of the 19th

century, some priests began to pray the liturgy in Arabic after reading it in

Coptic. In the twentieth century, the usage of Arabic increased in liturgy.

Pope Shenouda III14 exerted many efforts to revive the language and have it

be spoken and pronounced correctly. He decided to prepare lots of Coptic

scientists to cooperate with foreign scientists in preserving Coptic heritage

and language. He established the Coptic language Institute in December 1979

in Saint Mark’s Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo, where Bishop

Demetrius was the head of Coptic language department that taught the Coptic

language, including its phonetics, grammar and script.

In addition to, a range of courses in all churches were organized for teaching

the language.15 In 1945, there was no doubt that the discovery of the Nag-

Hammadi16 gnostic library, with its manuscripts written in Coptic that

encouraged writing chapters or books on several aspects of Coptic heritage.

13Waston, John H., Among the Copts, Sussex Academic Press, 2000, p.39. 14Pope Shenouda III the 17th Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, was

born on August 3, 1923 in the city of Asuit in Upper Egypt; he was given the name of Nazir

Gayed. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree in History in 1947 from the University of

Cairo. Nazir Gayed was very active in his church and served as a Sunday School teacher,

first at Saint Anthony's Church in Shoubra and then at Saint Mary's Church in Mahmasha.

He worked as a high school English and Social Studies teacher in Cairo by day, and attended

classes at the Coptic Theological Seminary by night. Upon graduation from the seminary in

1949, he was chosen to teach New Testament Studies. He was appointed in 1953 as a teacher

in the Monastic School. He passed away on March 17, 2012 (Baramhat 8, 1728).

http://www.stmarkboston.org/pope-shenouda-iii/, accessed in 7/8/2018 at 8:00 PM. 15Gamil, M. Coptic: Ancient Language till spoken Today, Cairo, 2017, in:

https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/16207/Coptic-Ancient-language-still-spoken-today,

accessed in 13/8/2018 at 8:00 PM. 16The Nag Hammadi Library is one of the most valuable collections of ancient texts ever

found, providing a wealth of new information for specialists in the history of religion,

Coptology, philosophy, and the study of the external manuscripts in codex form and the

techniques of their manufacture and the history of manuscript collection. This library

consists of thirteen codices; all of them were purportedly discovered in a large jar by

Muhammad Ali al-Samman. Eaton –Krauss, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, , The Treasures of

Coptic Art: In the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 155.

163

http://www.stmarkboston.org/pope-shenouda-iii/

https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/16207/Coptic-Ancient-language-still-spoken-today



Beginning in 1950s, many scholars were specialized in different disciplines

learned Coptic to enable them to study Gnosticism17. A number of non-

canonical books are preserved only in Coptic.18

In the twelfth century Pope Gabriel II "Ibn al-Turayk"19 introduced Arabic

into the Church that was probably an attempt to show the Arabs that Copts

were not their enemies. In the tenth century, the first Coptic author to write in

Arabic was Sawirus Ibn al-Muqqaf, bishop of Ashmunayn.20 The Copts left

thousands of manuscripts, papyri, ostraca and stelae. These manuscripts and

papyri, which were originally written in or translated into Coptic, were very

important from the political, social, religious, and cultural aspects revealing

the situation in Egypt during the Greco-Roman period and Byzantine ages.

For these reasons, a number of amateurs, tourists, and scholars began

collecting Coptic manuscripts and papyri from the monasteries. Most of these

manuscripts and papyri now reside in different museums, universities, and

private collections in Europe and the United States.21

However, a substantial number of manuscripts are still in the Coptic

Patriarchate of Egypt. Coptic itself, or old Coptic, takes root in the first

century. The transition from the older Egyptian scripts to newly adapted

17The Coptic manuscripts represented the primary source for the study of Gnosticism.

Gnosticism spread from Alexandria throughout Egypt. During the second century, the

Christian strain of Gnosticism enjoyed great popularity. The first Christian writer to label

Gnostic teaching heretical was Clement of Alexandria. The Nag Hammadi Library shows

that Gnosticism continued to exist in Upper Egypt. Loc.cit., p. 156. 18Gabra, Gawdat, Coptic Civilization: Two Thousand Years of Christianity in Egypt, Cairo,

2014, p. 1. 19Pope Gabriel II is the seventy Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark who

was known as Ibn Turaik. This Pope was from the nobles of Cairo, and he was a writer and

scholar. He transcribed with his hand many Arabic and Coptic books. The elders of the

people and the clergy chose him for the Patriarchal Chair and his enthronement was on the

ninth of Amshir, 847 A.M/ third of February, 1131 A.D. His departure is on tenth of

Baramouda. Anon, Coptic Synaxarium, (Oxford, 2006), P. 296-297. 20Harder, Nelly van Doorn, and Vogt Kari (eds.), Between Desert and City: The Coptic

Orthodox Church Today, Novus Forlag, 1997, p. 23. 21Yanney, Rodolph, Coptic Church Review, In: Society of Coptic Church Studies (N.J.),

vol.21-23, University of Minnesota, 2000, p. 115.

164



Coptic alphabet was in part due to the decline of traditional role played by the

priestly class of ancient Egyptian.

Old Coptic is represented mostly by non-Christian texts such as Egyptian

pagan prayers, magical and astrological papyri. Old Coptic texts employed

several graphemes that were not retained in the literary Coptic orthography of

later centuries. The oldest Coptic writings date to the pre-Christian era.22

Coptic literature consists mostly of texts written by prominent saints of the

Coptic Church such as St. Antony the Great,23 St. Pachomius and St.

Shenoute the Archimandrite24, who lived from 348 to 466 A.D., was able to

transform the Coptic language to literary language.25 Later, Arabic was

commonly used the liturgical books, replacing Greek in bilingual texts and

Arabic liturgical texts began to appear, indicating that Arabic was being used

in Churches. Nowadays, the Coptic language still lives on in hundreds of

words in colloquial Arabic spoken every day in Egypt.26

22Habashi Labib, The Coptic Manuscripts,Resalet Mar Min fi Aid al-Nirwz, Twt 1664,in:

Society of St. Mina the Meraculos, (Cairo, 1947), p. 8. 23St. Antony the Great is the star of the wilderness and the father of all monks. He was born

in the year 251 A.D. in the city of al-QimnEl-Arouse to rich parents and he had to take care

to his sister. St. Antony buried St. Paul the hermit after he had clothed him in a tunic, which

was a present from St. Athanasius the Apostolic, the twentieth pope of Alexandria. When he

departed, he gave his staff to St. Macarius to give one sheepskin cloak to St. Macarius and

the other to Abba Serapion. This saint lived fifteen years in the way of holiness and purity.

He departed on twenty-twoof Tubah. Loc.cit., p. 193 24St. Shenoute the Archimandrite was born in the city of Shandweil (Shenalote) in the district

of Akhmim. His father was a framer, who owned flocks of sheep. When Shenoute grew up,

his father entrusted him with the care of the sheep. He tended to sheep, he gave his food to

the shepherd, and spent his day fasting. When Abba Bigoul departed, he replaced him.

During his times, the number of the monks became 1800 monks in the monastery of the city

of Souhag. He built another monastery, the monks reached in it 2200 monks. He departed on

seven Abib. Loc.cit., p. 419. 25Crum, Wilter, Coptic and Its Value, (Oxford, 1993), p. 231. 26Guirguis, Pisenti Rizkallah, Coptic Words in Spoken Arabic Dialect, (Cairo, 1975), p. 1-

115. (Arabic Reference).

165



Coptic Dialects

Coptic had six main dialects according to the name of regions in which each

was prevalent. There were three dialects in Upper Egypt; Sahidic, spoken in

the district of Thebes (Nowadays, Luxor), Akhmimic, spoken in Akhmim in

Upper Egypt, Lycopolitan "called Sub-Akhmimic", most likely spoken around

Assiut in Upper Egypt". Other three dialects in the Lower Egypt; Bohairic

which was spoken in Memphis and the Delta, Fayyumic, spoken in the

district around the Fayyum Oasis, Oxyrhynchite also known as "Mesokemic

or Middle Egyptian".27

The most important dialects were Sahidic and Bohairic, which eventually

became the dominant dialects of the Nile Valley and Delta. Sahidic became

the official language of the church in the ninth century.

In the eleventh century , it was replaced by the Bohairic which became the

liturgical dialect of the Church.28 There have been many earliest Coptic

versions of the Bible, including some of the earliest translations into any

language. Several different versions were made in the Old and New

Testaments in all of the major dialects; Bohairic, Sahidic, Fayyumic,

Akhmimic and Mesokemic.

Biblical books were translated from the Alexandrian Greek version. Sahidic

dialect was an early literary form of the language. It was the leading dialect in

the pre-Islamic period.29 After the eleventh century, Bohairic became

dominant and only used dialect of the Coptic language. It was kept alive first

by the strength of the monastic communities of Wadi al-Natrun which used it

extensively. Then, in the eleventh century, this dialect moves from the

27Kasser, Rodolphe, Dialects, in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, New York, 1991, p. 87-97. 28Allen, James P., The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge

University, 2013, p. 2. 29Barclay, Swete H., An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, Cambridge, 1902, p.

106.

166



Patriarchate of Alexandria to Cairo. Bohairic was the dialect of the district,

and became the official dialect of the Church replacing Sahidic.30

During the 1960, with the encouragement of Pope Shenouda III of

Alexandria, Dr. Emile Maher studied the history of Coptic pronunciation and

in 1968; he announced that he had discovered the Old Bohairic

pronunciation. The Institute of Coptic Language, which studied and

promoted the Old Bohairic pronunciation, came under strong opposition from

some church leaders, but in1990, Pope Shenouda continued to support

support Dr Emil-Maher, and ordained him priest as "Father Shenouda". The

Old Bohairic pronunciation was used in the Monastery of St. Shenouda in

Rochester, New York, in which Father Shenouda Maher now serves.31

The Old Bohairic pronunciation was often inaccurately referred to as Shaidic

dialect. However, some European Coptologists commented on the fact that

the villagers of Upper Egypt retained a more authentic tradition, and wrote

disparagingly about Greek-influenced pronunciations. All modern books are

written on Coptic by native authors adopted more or less a mutilated form of

Greek pronunciation and apply it entirely to their language.32

30Eaton-Krause, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, The Illustrated Guide to Coptic Museum and

Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2007, p. 48. 31Fr. Maher, Shenouda, Coptic Language Spoken, In: The Coptic Encyclopedia, New York,

1991, p. 605-606. 32Stazinger, Helmut, The Pronunciation of Late Bohairic, In: The Coptic Encyclopedia,

Vol.8, New York, 1991, p. 60-65.

167



Manuscripts

MS.1. The Four Gospels, Paper, Serial No. 92, 324 folios, 34 x 25 cm, Bohairic dialect, , AM

988/AD 127, The Church of the Holy Virgin “Al-Mu’allaqa”.

After, Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic

Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2006), p. 123.

Many Coptic manuscripts of the New Testament in Bohairic dialect and the

four Gospels in particular are preserved in the Egyptian churches and

monasteries, as well as in museums and libraries all over the world.

Illuminated Coptic manuscripts of Gospels are comparatively few. The two

folios represent the first pages of the Gospel of St. Mark; the frontispiece is

covered with geometric patterns enclosing foliate ornament. On the facing

page, the title of the Gospel is framed by an elaborated floral design.

The coloring of the large initial letters is enhanced by the addition of gold.

Undulating floral scrolls comprise the marginal decoration. This valuable

manuscript, and others like it from thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, proves

that Coptic scriptoria were capable of producing magnificent manuscripts. 33

33

Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic

Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 123.

168



MS.2. Two Pages from Codex II, Papyrus, Inv. No. 10544, 324 folios, 28.5 x 15 cm, Sahidic

dialect, 3rd quarter of the 4th century, Jabal al-Tarif.

After, Robinson, James, The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 3rd Edition, New York, 1988,

p. 1-29.

The left-hand page of this manuscript shows the end of the Apocryphon of

John and the beginning of the Gospel Thomas. The right page is part of the

composition “On the World”. Such works originated under influence of

Gnostic theology and were apparently translated from Greek into Coptic. 34

MS.3. Lectionary for Holy Week with Homilies, Paper, Inv. No. 1017, 435 folios, 50 x 39,

Bohairic dialect, AM 1342/ 1625 AD, Church of the Holy Virgin at Haret Zuwayla, Cairo,

After, Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic

Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 128.

34

Robinson, James, The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 3rd Edition, New York, 1988, p.

1-29.

169



This lavish liturgical manuscript of readings for the services during the Holy

Week presents a Coptic and Arabic bilingual text in adjacent columns.35 The

frontispiece, facing the opening page of text, features a cross illuminated in

gold and blue pigment. Initial letters and decoration are embellished with

elongated graceful motifs. The effect created by interweaving calligraphy and

ornament is characteristic for the design of the manuscript. 36

MS. 4. Investiture of St. Michael Archangel, Vellum, Inv. No. 614, 329x 257, Fayumic

dialect, ninth / tenth century, Illuminated, Monastery of St. Michael “Dayr al-Malak

Mikhail”. https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/77462, accessed in 16/8/2018 at 9:00 P.M.

Manuscript of the Book of the Investiture of St. Michael Archangel has been

attributed to John Evangelist (St. John the Apostle); written and illuminated

in Egypt, ca.822/23-913/14. It is found in 1910 near the village of Hamuli,

Fayyum Province, Egypt, at the site of the Monastery of St. Michael;

purchased in Paris in1911. It contains 16 leaves “2columns, 37-40 lines”,

bound, vellum, 329 x 257 mm. Its decoration; headpieces, signatures and

page numbers are in green, red and yellow colors. 37

35Both the Coptic and Arabic texts were autographed by a priest named Joseph who served in

the Church of the Virgin Mary at Haret Zuwayla at Cairo while the otherwise little-known

Patriarch John XV (1619-1634) resided there. 36Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra Gawdat, The Treasures of Coptic Art: In: The Coptic

Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, Cairo, 2006, p. 128. 37https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/77462, accessed in 16/8/2018 at 9:00 P.M.

170

https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/77462

https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/77462



MS.5. Psalter, Parchment, leather and bone, No. 6614, 17 x 13, Oxyrhynchitic dialect, 4 th

/5th century, Al-Mudil (near Beni Suef). Gabra, Gawdat, Zur Bedeutung des Koptischen

Psalmenbuches im Oxyrhynchitischen Dialket,(Gottingen,1986), p.37.

This priceless manuscript represents the earliest complete Coptic psalter38. Its

two original polished covers, remnants of leather spine, thongs and small

bony peg, shaped like the key of life, are all preserved. 39

38Psalter or Psalterium is a volume containing the book of psalms used for liturgical

purposes. Many psalters were richly illuminated and they included some of the spectacular

surviving examples of medieval book art. Non-illuminated psalters written in Coptic include

some of the earliest surviving codices or bound books altogether. The earliest Coptic psalter

predates the earliest western one to more than a century. The oldest complete Coptic psalter

dates to the fifth century, it was found in the Al-Mudi.

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Psalterium, accessed in

16/9/2018 at 9:00 P.M. 39Gabra, Gawdat, Zur Bedeutung des Koptischen Psalmenbuches im Oxyrhynchitischen

Dialket, (Gottingen, 1986), p. 37.

171

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Psalterium



Fig.1. Gospel Casket, Silver, wood and glass, 49 x 38.4 x 10 cm, Old Cairo, 1140 A.M./

1424 A.D, Church of the Virgin Mary “Qasriat al-Rihan”.

After, Benazeth,Gabra (ed.), L’Egypte Copte: Chefs-d’oeuve de tous les temps Exhibition,

(Paris, 1989), 76.

Rectangular wooden Gospel casket covered with silver sheets embossed with

rich foliate ornamentation. The central cross is decorated with glass

cabochons; above and below runs a Coptic text from beginning of the Gospel

of John. 40

Conclusions

It is remarkable that Coptic communities were able to read and write Coptic

language. In every Coptic theological seminary, as well as many universities

worldwide, there were great attentions paid to Coptic studies. Coptic

manuscripts are considered valuable treasures. The oldest and accurate

40

Benazeth,Gabra (ed.), L’Egypte Copte: Chefs-d’oeuve de tous les temps Exhibition, Paris,

1989, p. 76.

172



manuscripts for the Bible and the other non-biblical manuscripts paint a vivid

picture of the life of the early church in Egypt and the culture of that time.

The Copts acquired great skill in the manufacture of manuscripts from paper,

parchments and papyrus for writing upon them. The oldest manuscripts in the

Coptic language were the Gnostic codices written on papyrus discovered in

Nag-Hammadi in Upper Egypt. The Coptic Gnostic Papyri dating to the

fourth century are considered the most valuable collections of papyri in the

world.

Modern Copts make great effort to revive their language as its glory which it

is considered part of their cultural heritage. Coptic language is described by

Professor Rodolphe Kasser of the University Geneva, Switzerland as, “One

of the beautiful, cleverly structured and most musical in the world”.

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Pain-Relief of Complicated Surgeries

Mina Adeeb Gamal Fouad S. Zaki Mona M. Raafat

Abstract

Several prescriptions recorded in the medical papyri which represent

complicated surgeries were accomplished with the aid of analgesic methods.

This article focuses on pain-relief of complicated surgeries.

Keywords

Child-birth, incantations, fractures, soothing effect.

Child-Birth (msi)

Child-birth of the Egyptian woman often occurred normally every two or

three years; as the years of breastfeeding protected them hormonally from a

new pregnancy. Interestingly, child-birth in ancient Egypt probably took

place at home, in special shelter which was prepared in the garden or on the

roof of the house, followed by a special purifying procedure performed by

the woman before returning to her community. 1

The operation of child-birth is depicted on a birth-brick which is discovered

in the Abydos temple of king Seti I. The scene of birth-brick depicting a

woman in labor and supported by other two women (Pl. 1). 2

1Strouhal, et al., 2014: 168. 2Silverman, et al., 2009: 472.

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Pl. 1 A scene is depicted on the birth-brick shows a woman in labor and supported by two

women. (After Silverman, Archaism and Innovation 2009: Fig.7)

Some scholars suggested that ancient Egyptian women gave birth on their

knees as contemporary women do in the Egyptian villages. 3

Pain-Relief during Child-Birth

In ancient Egypt, physicians did not attend normal childbirth, but were called

only in complicated child-birth (bmd), therefore, the medical papyri include a

great number of herbal ingredients and mineral ingredients, which have

positive effect in the course of childbirth, but the major part of these

ingredients is unknown. Thus, it is not possible to evaluate their real medical

efficacy.

Along with the herbal and the mineral ingredients, the medical papyri

recorded the use of strong beer (dṧr-beer) and wine, which contain alcohol

that could lower the pain of child-birth and diffuse through the pores.

Berlin Papyrus is a medical text shown in the Berlin Museum (3038).4

Manniche records prescription 151 in the Berlin Papyrus as an excellent

example showing the ancient Egyptian understood the penetrating quality of

aromatic oil that was not inhaled through the nose but was diffused through

pores of the skin and affected the inner hidden part. 5 Prescription 151 in the

3Strouhal, et al., 2014: 168. 4 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 16, 172-173. 5Fukagawa, 2011: 37.

175

Adeeb, M. Zaki, G. Raafat, M.


Berlin Papyrus is a bandage that contains dried Acacia leaves (Acacia

Nilotica) ground and mixed with oil or fat, heated to finger warmth and used

as bandage.6

Ebers Papyrus is a medical papyrus in the University Library in Leipzig

(Voẞ 2009). This papyrus records several bandages and mixtures applied to

the private part of women composed of beer or wine and other ingredients,

which is diffused through pores of the skin to pain-relief the woman in labor,

such as prescription 807 for a woman in labor, which includes equal amounts

of Cedar-oil which worked as antiseptic, strong beer (dṧr-beer) for relieving

pain, 7(nis) of tortoise and wings of beetles.

"(Njs)-part of tortoise 1, (ḫkwn)- beetle8 1, pine-oil (sft) 1, (dṧr)-beer 1,

oil/fat 1, ground into a mass, bandage therewith".9

Another mixture recorded in prescription 805, for a woman in labor includes

equal amounts of (iṧd)-fruit which probably indicates that the Persea-tree

(Mimusops schimper) contains laxative effects, in addition to, a strong beer

for reducing pain.10

"(iṧd)-fruit 1,( dṧr.t)- beer 1, poured into her vagina (iwf)". 11

Additionally, prescription 797 to cause a woman to give birth or probably to

ease the beginning of childbirth after the beginning of labor pains, by

allowing the woman to sit upon a plant called (Nj3j3), which was given, to

relax or to release the fetus from the womb.12 (Nj3j3-plant) or (Njwjw-plant)

is probably identified with seed of Peppermint (Menthe Piperita ).

6 Manniche, 2006: 73. 7 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 14, 175-176. 8 (ḫkwn) means the wings of scarab, see (Ghalioungui,1987 : 205 ). 9Ghalioungui,1987 : 205. 10 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 172-173. 11Ghalioungui,1987 : 205. 12 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 174.

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"(Nj3j3- plant), let the woman sit on it while she is naked''.13

Prescription 803 in the Ebers Papyrus is a mixture composed of equal

amounts of incense and oil to massage the belly of the woman.14

"Terebinth-resin(snṯr) 1, oil/fat 1, anoint (wrḥ) the belly therewith".15

Ebied states "Attempts were made to speed birth by burning Terebinth-resins

or by massaging the abdomen with saffron powder in beer or marble dust in

vinegar".16

Interestingly, the Ebers Papyrus records two beverages prepared for the

women in labor or for easing the childbirth, such as prescription 799 which is

about a beverage for easing the childbirth that includes dates, salt and oil, all

these components were cooked at finger warmth, and drunk entirely to

provide the woman with pleasant feeling.

"Date-juice in state of (mṧṧ), Lower Egyptian salt, oil/ fat, cooked, drunk at

finger warmth".17

Furthermore, prescription 804 is a beverage drunk for four days, prepared for

a woman in labor, and includes equal amounts of (Nj3j3- plant) and (ḳsntj)

which was probably a mineral ingredient possessing analgesic effects,18 and

wine for relieving pain.

"Nj3j3-plant 1, ḳsntj 1, wine 1, strained, drunk on 4 days"

Finally, the Ebers Papyrus records remedies in the form of suppositories for

relieving pain of parturient such as prescription 802 which includes equal

amount of fennel (Foeniculum vulgar) which was used formally as

carminative, incense, resin, strong beer which diffuses through the pores of

skin for giving sedative effect, along with (bsbs)-plant probably identified

13 Ghalioungui,1981: 271, 203. 14 Strouhal, et al., 2014 : 174. 15 Ghalioungui,1981: 204. 16 Ebeid, 1999:112. 17 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 203. 18 Sanchez and Meltzer, 2012: 282.

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with fennel (Foeniculum vulgar), fresh trigonella, and fly drops, afterwards

the mixture is made into a suppository and introduced into vagina. 19

"(bsbs)- plant 1, Terebinth- resin1, (dṧr.t)-beer1, fresh (ḥm3i.t)- legume1,

fly’s excrement1, made into a suppository, introduced into her vagina"20

Additionally, prescription 806 in Ebers Papyrus for easing the child-birth

includes equal amounts of juniper berries (Juniperus) which have an aromatic

resinous flavor and gives the woman a stimulant and laxative effect21,

afterwards made into suppository and introduced in the vagina for relieving

pain.

"Juniper (w’n) berries 1, (nj3j3)- plant 1, pine resin (‘ḏ)1, made into

suppository, introduced in her vagina (iwf)"

Magical Methods for Easing Child-birth

Several magical methods appeared in ancient Egypt to accelerate (ṡḫ3ḫ) the

child-birth such as incantations whether oral incantations or visual

incantations, along with magical objects such as a piece of clothes placed

upon the statuette of Taweret. This statuette is shown in the Egyptian

Museum (229).22

Interestingly, several Egyptian gods and goddesses were invoked to

accelerate the child-birth, for giving the protection to the mother, and her

child, such as Hathor23 (Goddess of women, female sexuality and

19 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 174-175. 20 Ghalioungui,1981: 271, 204. 21 Manniche, 2006: 116. 22Strouhal, et al., 2014: 75. 23Ikram, et al., 2015: 56.

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motherhood)24, who was often associated with Bes (God of joy, sexuality,

dancing and music)25 for relieving pain of child-birth.26

Visual spells

Best example of visual spell was depicted on a birth-brick made out of

unfired mud-brick measuring 17cm. in width and 35 cm. in length. It was

discovered South of the Abydos temple, in building A. The birth-brick is

decorated with the scenes of Hathor, the goddess of fertility, maternity and

birth (Pl.1). The decoration of the birth-brick includes divine imagery and

scenes depicting the mother and new-born child.

The side of the brick is decorated with the scene of a seated woman holding a

new-born baby in her arms and the mother sits on a solid-based chair, the left

arm of the mother supports the foot of the baby with her right arm behind the

baby. Mother and baby are flanked by two attendant female figures. A

woman is kneeling in front of the mother with her arms outstretched in an

attitude of receiving the new-born child. Another woman is depicted behind

the mother, and her hands support the shoulders of the mother.

Furthermore, two Hathor-headed figures are standing on either side of the

scene and behind the two female attendants.

According to the decoration of the birth-brick, the scene is considered a

visual spell of child-birth because the mother herself is symbolically

transformed into goddess Hathor due to the color of her hair is blue as the

color of the goddess of Hathor. Moreover, the two women who aid the

mother to accelerate her delivery represent Hathor because the color of their

hair is blue as the color of the figures of goddess Hathor.

Obviously, the scene in this case was a visual spell to invoke Hathor to attend

the delivery procedures. Probably this visual spell was reinforced by the use

24 Wilkinson, 2003: 141. 25 Hawass, 2000: 137. 26Ikram, et al., 2015: 56.

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of oral spells which would be spoken by the mother herself or other women

who attended this event.27

Oral incantations

Oral incantations were used along with the visual incantations in childbirth to

invoke Hathor to attend the delivery process.

Two spells recorded in the Leiden Papyrus displayed in the British Museum

(BM 10059).28 These spells invoke Hathor to participate in the delivery

process and to induce pain-relief for the woman in labor.

Spell 33 is the first oral incantation recorded in the Leiden Papyrus to invoke

Hathor to accelerate the delivery process.29

"Rejoicing, Rejoicing in heaven, birth giving is accelerated comes to me

Hathor my lady in my pavilion in my happy hour".

Furthermore, spell 28 in the Leiden Papyrus should to be recited by the

woman in labor to transform herself into Hathor, and to accelerate the

delivery process and relieve her pain during the labor.

"Open for me. I am the one whose offering is large, the builder who built the

pylon for Hathor, lady of Dandara, who lifts up in order that she may give

birth. It is Hathor the lady of Dandara who is giving the birth. This spell is to

be said by a woman".30

According to Silverman, the mother in both spell 28 and the scenes of

Abydos birth-brick transforms herself into the goddess Hathor, and creates a

divine model to be able to survive the child-birth.31

27Silverman, et al., 2009: 449, 450. 28Strouhal, et al., 2014: 15. 29Silverman, et al., 2009: 455, 460, 470,475, 471. 30Borghouts, 1970: 30,28. 31 Silverman, et al., 2009: 470.

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Spell 34 in the Leiden Papyrus is an invocation to Goddess Isis (Goddess of

great magic)32 to accelerate the child-birth.

"Oh Ra and Aton, oh gods who are in (heaven gods), who are in the land of

Amente and council of Gods who judge this entire land, council of Gods who

are in the Palace (?) of On and who are in Leto-polis, come you! Isis is

suffering from her back part, being pregnant- but her mother(s) have been

completed, according to the (set) number in pregnancy – with her son,

Horus, the protector of his father! But if she spends (her) time without giving

birth, you will stand dumbfounded, oh Ennead! For then there will be

heaven, for then there will be offering for any of the Gods of On, there will

arise weariness in the Southern heaven, a disturbance will break out in the

Northern heaven and lamenting in the chapel! Shu will not rise, Hapi will not

flow when he should flow forth at his time! For she spends (already) a time

without her son being born, Horus, the protector of his father! Be careful

with the birth giving of nn, daughter of nn, in the same manner!"33

Spell 30 represents the role of Bes who is sent by Ra to protect the woman in

child-birth, along with the role of Hathor who presents the aid to the woman.

Moreover, the author of the Leiden Papyrus recommended placing the dwarf

of clay on the brow of a woman who is suffering while giving birth. Finally,

the author recommended reciting this spell four times over this dwarf.

Dawson states that, probably the Egyptian woman gave birth in a squatting

position, not laying on her back, therefore the amulet could be laid on the

brow.34

"Another spell, of the dwarf. Oh good dwarf, come, because of the one who

sent you for that is Pre, the one who stands upright while Thoth is sitting

down, his feet on the bottom which Nun embraces, his hand on the (roof)-

32 Wilkinson, 2003: 147. 33 Borghouts, 1970: 31. 34 Dawson, 1936: 106-108.

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beam. Come down, placenta, come down, placenta, come down. I am Horus

who conjures in order that she who is occupied with birth giving becomes

better than she was, as if she were (already) delivered. Separatenes wife of

Horus, Nechbet, the Nubian , the Eastern one, Unut, mistress of Unut come to

do what you can do. Look, Hathor will lay her hand on her with an amulet of

health. I am Horus who saves her. To be recited four times over a dwarf of

clay placed on the brow of a woman who is giving birth while suffering'' 35

Finally, incantation 2 in the Ebers Papyrus utterance to loosen the bandage of

anybody, probably this spell is related to child birth because the mother is

loosened (sfḫ) from the child, put on par with prescription 800 to loosen (sfḫ)

a child from the belly of a woman.

"Loosen is one who is loosened by Isis. Horus was loosened by Isis from the

evil done to him by his brother Seth when the latter killed his father Osiris. O

Isis, Great in Magic, may you unfetter (wḥ‘) me of a god, a Goddess, of a

dead man or woman, of a male enemy, a female enemy that is made to act

against me: even as you were unfettered (wḥ‘), as you were released (sfḫ)

from your son Horus. For I have entered the fire, I have come out of the

water. I shall not enter into accident of this day. I spoke when I was still a

child (ḫ), when I was still small (ḫ3). Oh Ra, speak over your body (ḏ.t),

Osiris calls over what came out of him. You have indeed (isk) saved me from

all wicked, evil, red things, from the doing of a god, of a Goddess, from a

dead man or woman, really excellent, million times.36

Orthopedics

Surgery of the bones flourished in ancient Egypt, in particular concerning the

injuries of battles probably because of the extension of the Egyptian Empire.

35 Borghouts, 1970: 29. 36 Ghalioungui, 1987: 10.

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Therefore, fractures of the bones were found in three percent of 6000

mummies, which were examined by X-ray. Thus, X-ray reported that the

fractures of the upper part of the arms occupied the major part, whereas the

upper part of the arms would be broken through the protecting of the head

from strikes in the battle. 37

Interestingly, principals of diagnosing and managing bone-fracture in ancient

Egypt relied on methods of closed treatment which did not require surgical

intervention, but requires an application of a device such as a splint to

maintain the reduction until healing occurs.38

Edwin Smith Papyrus is the unique papyrus specialized in orthopedics which

is displayed in New York Academy of Medicine39. It gives a record of

several injuries. However, Kamal Hassen states that the rest of the Edwin

Smith Papyrus is lost, which contains the first aid and the treatment of the

bone fractures on the sites of battles and the sites of construction.

Interestingly, the construction-site of the Great Pyramid is considered the

best example to attest the injuries of the workplaces, where skeletons have

been excavated in cemeteries on the Giza Plateau which date back to the Old

Kingdom.40 Probably, these skeletons were of those workers who built the

pyramids which contain a very high incidence of fractures, 90 percent of

which showed signs of complete healing with good alignment. Therefore,

several archeologists suggested that the Edwin Smith Papyrus dates back to

the period of construction of the Great Pyramid.41

37Bucaille, 1990: 286-297. 38 Estes, 1989: 62. 39 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 13. 40 Ghalioungui, 1963: 66. 41 Estes, 1989: 62-65.

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Pain-relief of orthopedics

There were several methods for relieving the pain of orthopedics shown in

the mummies such as two mummies found in rock-cut tombs at Nagaa El-

Dair which date back to the Fifth Dynasty.42

The first mummy of a girl aged about fourteen years, and has a set applied to

a fracture of the middle of the femur. The set is comprised of four wooden

splints padded with bandages of linen (Linum usitatissimum) for giving a

soothing effect. Finally, the whole set was bandaged in place and secured

with a reef knot.

The second mummy had a set applied to compound fracture of the radius and

ulna (forearm). The set is comprised of three pieces of bark probably of

acacia (Acacia nilotica) that contains astringent characters and gives a

soothing effect; the pieces of bark were wrapped in linen and bandaged to the

arm. Probably, the death of the second mummy had occurred before there

were any signs of union of the bones.43

Interestingly, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains widespread

Palaeopathological evidence of well-healed fractures. 44

Case 34 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus recorded a treatment and pain-relief of

dislocation of two clavicles.

"When you examine someone who has dislocation collarbone and find that

his shoulders are dropped while the head of his collarbone is closed to his

face"

42 Smith, 1908: 732. 43 Nunn, 1997: 177. 44 Morkt, Tyldesley, 2016: 134, 271.

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The author recommended repositioning the bones back into their place, and

fixing the bones by the use of solid linen rolls and applying oil and honey to

collarbone for relieving pain. 45

Case 35 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus was about a fracture of the clavicle, "If

thou examine a man having a break in his collar-bone, (and) thou should find

his collar-bone short and separated from its fellow"46

The author recommended laying down the patient on his back, and spreading

both shoulders till the extension of the clavicle was achieved and the broken

fragments repositioned. Finally, a linen cushion applied under the inner side

of the upper part of the arm, and another one on the underside of the patient’s

fixed forearm.47

"Thou should place him prostrate on his back, with something folded between

his two shoulder-blade; thou should make for him two splints of linen, (and)

treat it afterward (with) honey every day, until he recovers."

The author recommended a bandage for relieving pain of the patient

composed of honey mixed with alum48 (Aluminum potassium sulfate) which

gives astringent effect to the patient49.

"You must wrap it (with a bandage with) alum and then you treat it every day

with honey until he feels better"50

Case 42 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus discussed sprain of the sterno-costal

Articulations,

"If thou examine (a man having a sprain in the ribs of his breast), (and) he

suffers in the ribs of his breast, not having a dislocation, (and) it is not

broken, while that man continues to suffer with it and should exceedingly"

45Strouhal, et al., 2014: 34,69 . 46 Breasted, 1930: 350. 47Strouhal, et al., 2014: 68-70. 48Breasted, 1930: 350-352. 49 Estes, 1989: 139. 50Breasted, 1930: 350-352 .

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The author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus recommended the use of bandage.

This bandage is composed of honey 51and alum (Aluminum potassium

sulfate) to provide the patient with astringent effect.52

You must wrap him (a bandage with) alum and then every day you will treat

him with honey until he feels better.53

Interestingly, the Hearst Papyrus recorded four mixtures for relieving pain

and cooling of the broken bones.54 Prescription 219 describes a bandage

composed of set-milk and flour of fresh barley for giving soothing effect to

the patient.

"Set-milk of cow, flour of fresh barley, is combined to a paste and used as a

bandage for four days"55

Another bandage for the broken bones recorded in prescription 220 is

composed of coriander (Cariandrum sativum ) which contains essential and

volatile oils giving a cooling effect,56 along with fermented juice which

contains soothing properties for pain-relief.57

"Coriander, fermented plant juice and an unidentified plant, honey pounded

to a paste and applied for four days"

Moreover, prescription 223 is about a bandage for healing and relieving pain

of the broken bones,58 it possesses an astringent effect provided by leaves of

acacia and gum.59

"Acacia leaves1, gum 1, water1, is used as bandage for four days"

51 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 69-70, 35, 72. 52 Estes, 1989: 139. 53 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 45. 54 Morkt and Tyldesley, 2016 : 271. 55 Manniche, 2006: 100,113-114. 56 Bircher, 2000: 122. 57 Halioua and Ziskind, 2005: 37. 58 Manniche, 2006: 100,113-114, 73. 59 Sanchez and Meltzer, 2012: 282.

186



Finally, prescription 23460 in the form of a bandage is composed of leaves of

willow (Salix suberrata wild) which contains astringent and antipyretic

properties,61 and leaves of Sycamore (Ficus sycamorus ) for giving analgesic

effect on patient,62 along with leaves of acacia (Acacia nilotica ) and gum

which contains astringent effect.63

"Leaves of Acacia, leaves of Willow, leaves of Sycamore, Emmer grain, gum,

water, and then bandage for four days".64

Pain-relief of orthopedics by magic

The Egyptian believed in magic and supernatural influence for healing

critical diseases, whereas the expectation of cure by the use of magic, leads to

pain-relief and a curative value in the healing procession.

Additionally, magic, religion and supernatural influence were regarded by

the ancient Egyptian as major controlling factors in the events of daily life, as

a result of the little distinction between magic, religion and supernatural

influence.

As time passed there was a general trend for magic and magical practice

more than medical practice, in addition to religion and religious practices

transformed into magic. 65

Interestingly, the ritual power which was used along with the medical

treatment was not only recitation, but involved a wide range of practices

described explicitly by the texts,66 such as the recitation of the magical

incantation prescribed when applying the medicine.

"Driving out the enemy within the wound (and) causing the hostile force that

is within the blood, robber of Horus, to tremble. The protection of the

60 Manniche, 2006: 73, 153-154. 61 Halioua and Ziskind, 2005: 39. 62 Sanchez and Meltzer, 2012: 282. 63 Estes, 1989: 146. 64 Manniche, 2006: 110. 65 Nunn, 1997: 79. 66 Ebeid, 1999: 254.

187



utterance of the Beneficial Effective Goddess Isis: This temple will not

collapse. The blood vessel(s) therein have not sickened (?), for I am in the

beneficial/ effective goddess’s protection. The son of Osiris is saved! "

The incantation refers to the ancient myth of the Goddess Isis and her son

Horus, and the protection of Goddess Isis for her son against the danger of

God Seth. Invoking the magical power of Isis in the treatment of diverse

diseases was popular in ancient Egypt, in particular when the physicians were

unable to help the patient. Moreover, Case 9 in the Edwin Smith Papyrus

describes a fracture in the outer table and a wound in the forehead is the best

example for the use of treatment along with magic for healing the fracture of

the bones.

According to Strouhal, the author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus recommended

applying ground Ostrich-eggshell with oil into the mouth of the wound. 67

You must prepare for it/ him: the egg (shell)68 of an Ostrich69, ground with

ointment and placed in the mouth of his wound"

The treatment of Case 9 was completed by the use of ritual power recitation

recited over the wound, when the prognosis was hopeless, and to enable the

patient to receive the help of the gods to reduce his suffering, therefore the

spell is used by the physician which contains the term of (ḥk3w) to indicate

the magic or ritual power which is related to the healing process. 70

67 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 60-92. 68 Ostrich Eggshell is 2 mm thick and strong enough to stand a force of 55kg. The mineral

matrix of eggshell constitutes 97 percent of its weight and is formed by calcium carbonate

97. 4 percent, magnesium 1.9percent, and Tricalcium Phosphate 0.7 percent, see(Sanchez, et

al., 2012 : 99). 69 Ostriches, lived in Egypt during the prehistoric time , and in the New Kingdom

particularly in the Ramesside Period, see (Sanchez, et al., 2012 : 100). 70Nunn, 1997: 79.

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Finally, the author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus recommended applying a

bandage of the physician medical kit to the wound.

"You must apply to (it) or (him) the cloth bandage of the physician medical

kit over it. You must uncover it the third day. How you find (is): how it joins

together the bony plate of the brain Case (is) with the condition similar to the

egg (shell) of the Ostrich"71

Conclusion

The ancient Egyptians knew anesthesia because several surgeries

were performed by that time. These surgeries needed to be

anesthetized to protect the patient from death by shock.

Ancient Egyptians relied on a plant called (Nj3j3) for relieving pain

caused by Gynecological Diseases, for easing child-birth.

The ancient Egyptians understood the penetrating quality of

substances which diffuse through skin pores. Therefore, several

bandages, ointments and suppositories were recommended in the

medical papyri.

Orthopedics and its methods for relieving pain were flourished in

ancient Egypt. Furthermore, the ancient Egyptians knew the first aids

which were presented in the constructions and battles sites.

The treatment of arm fractures relied on the use of splints along with

linen, acacia coriander, fermented juice, willow and leaves of

sycamore to provide the patient with soothing effects.

List of References

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2-Breasted, J. H., The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, 2 Volumes, Chicago,

1930.

71 Strouhal, et al., 2014: 60.

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3-Bucaille, M., Mummies of the Pharaohs; Modern Medical Investigation,

New York, 1990.

4-Dawson, W., 'Some Observations on the Passages in Ch. Beatty Papyrus',

JEA 22, (1936), pp. 106-108.

5-Estes, J., W., The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt, Weston, 1989.

6-Fukagawa, S., Investigation into Dynamics of Ancient Egyptian

Pharmacology: A Statistical Analysis of Papyrus Ebres and Cross-Cultural

Medical Thinking, Oxford, 2011.

7-Ghalioungui, P., The Ebers Papyrus, Cairo, 1987.

8-Halioua, B. and Ziskind, B., Medicine in the Day of the Pharaohs,

Cambridge, 2005.

9-Hawass, Z., The Discovery of the Temple and the Statue of the God Bes at

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Alexandria, 2000, pp. 137

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11-Manniche, L., An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, London, 2006.

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15-Smith, G., E., 'The Most Ancient Splints', BMJ 1, (1908), pp. 732-734.

16-Strouhal, E. et al., The Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians, Cairo, 2014.

17-Wilkinson, R., H., The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt,

Cairo, 2003.

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The role of Interpretation in Enhancing Visitor's Experience in

Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel

Ali O. Abd-Allah Mayada H. Belal Nancy M. Abd-Elrahman

Abstract

Enhancing visitor experiences is arguably the primary and most important goal

for interpretation by many heritage sites managers and tourism industry.

Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel were inscribed on the World Heritage List,

Up till now, no surveys have been conducted to assess neither visitors' profile,

nor their expectation, the level of their satisfaction with the interpretation tools

used at the site. This paper aims at studying the concepts of interpretation and

visitor's experience at heritage sites. In addition, it studies the visitor's

experience cycle and the factors that influence the visitor's experience during

the visit. The field study of this paper was designed to understand Abu Simbel

Temple's visitors much better and examine the effectiveness of interpretation

tools delivered to them, for the aim of enhancing visitor experience. Finally,

some recommendations concerning interpretation tools are suggested to

enhance visitors’ experience

Keywords Heritage Interpretation, Edutainment, Visitor Experience,

Satisfaction, Abu Simbel, Motivation.

Introduction

The earliest attempt to establish heritage interpretation as a standalone field was

undertaken by Freeman Tilden, who had defined interpretation as "an

educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through

the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media,

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The role of Interpretation in Enhancing Visitor's Experience in Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel

ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ rather than simply to communicate factual information" (TILDEN, 1977, p. 8).

This definition described the interpretation as the process of uncovering what is

not explicitly mentioned by the objects, and what the visitors cannot realize with

their regular senses, by offering them something from the capturing realities that

are hidden behind the objects. While Fyall et al (2008, P: 239), defined

interpretation according to the approach of describing its goals and key

characteristics as "a set of information-focused communication activities,

designed to facilitate a rewarding visitor experience that encourages visitors to

be receptive to a management or sustainability message". So heritage

interpretation can be defined as "a communication tool used to communicate to

visitors, as per their requirements, in a recreational context, cultural, historical

and environmental messages, in so as to enhance visitor experiences, assuring

visitors' satisfaction, positively affect visitor behavior, and keep the site in well-

preserved condition". Barrow (2016) stated that the main potential benefits of

well-planned and well-managed interpretation include; Increasing visitor

satisfaction and enjoyment, Improving understanding of the site or area being

visited, enhancing visitor management through encouraging visitors to follow

particular routes and visit particular places, generating volunteers and supporters

for the organization providing the interpretation service.

1. Visitor's Experience at Heritage Sites

According to the (Encyclopedia of Tourism, 2000, p: 215), experience is defined

as "an inner state of individual brought about by something which is personally

encountered, undergone or lived through”. According to Stange and Brown

(2017), some people think that the experience is one of the tourist components,

but no single product can provide an experience yet; it can only provide an

opportunity to have an experience. Only the visitor can create the experience

based on certain factors.

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Omar, A. Belal, M. Abd-Elrahman, N.


2.1 The visitor experience cycle:

2.1.1 The visitor pre-visit experience (motivations and promotion)

While looking at the visitor's pre-visit experience, it is essential to examine

how easy the site is to find online, how it is promoted and the key motivations

of heritage visitors, all, among others, are important parts of the experience at

any attraction.

Visitor classification

Visitors to heritage sites can be classified to different categories, based on their

characteristics, their levels of knowledge and motivation. In this context

Colquhoun (2005) classified visitors to heritage sites according to the

following:

I. Desire for knowledge at a site: Visitors are interested in some topics and

sites more than others.

II. Purpose of visit: Why visitors visit the site will influence how receptive

they are to interpretation.

III. Travel Mood: Visitors may visit the site in groups of family or friends,

as individuals, couples, on organized tours or part of a school group.

IV. Demographics: Age, gender, education, income levels and place of

origin.

V. Levels of knowledge and motivation: Ireland (2012) identified three broad

categories of visitors to heritage sites, based on their levels of knowledge

and motivation:

Motivated Visitors: These visitors have probably sought out the site as

part of a holiday which largely planned around culture and heritage. They

are often well traveled, having internationally experience of culture and

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ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ heritage and usually know what they are looking for and understand its

significance. Their expectations may be high in terms of how the story of

the site is presented.

Inspired Visitors: These visitors have made their holiday choice inspired

by the range of cultural opportunities associated with a destination.

Although they are interested in culture and sightseeing, their historical

knowledge can be quite superficial.

Incidental Visitors: These are visitors with low levels of interest in culture

and heritage, they visit the site for non-heritage related reasons, like

someone else in their group is interested, or they are on a walk that goes

through the site.

VI. Visitors' needs: According to Colquhoun (2005) and Ireland (2012),

there are other visitors with specific needs, so they need different

approaches; all could contain Motivated, Inspired and Incidental

Visitors, they include: Special needs visitors, Families, Children, Schools

and formal education groups.

So we can see that there are differences amongst groups of heritage sites,

visitors vary in their motivations and learning about heritage itself may not

always be a primary motivating factor. Visitors who are interested in

culture and heritage are expected to have more meaningful experience while

visiting a heritage site.

2.1.2 The visitor experience during the visit (interpretation)

There are some factors in heritage sites that influence the visitors' experience

during the visit and impact on their behavior. The following section discusses

the role and importance of interpretation in building a visitor memorable

experience:

I Welcoming and orientation: According to Laws (2001) visitors begin to

evaluate their experience before the actual visit starts; he identified factors

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influencing visitors’ perceptions and expectations, such as opening times,

parking facilities, the quality of the paths and physical accessibility of the site,

welcoming and orientation, the state of the toilets, places to sit and talk, the

attitude of staff and signage.

II Information: Calver and Page (2013) stated that one of the core purposes of

heritage attractions is to educate visitors through the provision of information

which enables visitors to obtain new or expand already existing knowledge.

Guidebooks, brochures available at the heritage sites play an important role in

the acquisition of the primary information. Moreover the accuracy, clarity and

authenticity of information may have an impact on its value as well as visitors’

perception, experience and overall satisfaction (Ho and McKercher, 2004).

III Communication: Another vital factor affecting visitor experience is the

way in which information is communicated and how it is interpreted by the

visitor at each site. Cunnell and Prentice (2000) and Leighton (2007)

highlighted the value of interpretation and stated that it's not only stimulate

visitors' learning process but also make their experience more memorable.

Well-planned interpretation is the ongoing commitment to providing

uncompromising quality for the visitor’s experience in terms of encouraging

them to ask for more information, making visitors' experience richer and more

relevant, engaging visitors in activities and giving information that provokes

their emotions, imagination and understanding, shedding light on culture, past

and present, and provoking questions and dialogue.

IV Engagement: Chhabra et al (2003) stated that interpreter's performance

and participatory activities not only stimulate learning process but also engage

visitors in ways that can positively affect their experience then affect their

behavior. Rojas and Camarero (2008) emphasized the vital role of visitors'

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the social context within the heritage site and visitor experience, While

Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004) highlighted that the ‘co-creation experience’

enables visitors to personalize their experience thus providing added value and

ensuring quality, it also can be perceived as a competitive advantage.

As an effective communication tool in heritage sites aims to meet market needs

and deliver a contemporary visitor experience, every site should know his

visitors and their needs, so it can provide the most suitable and effective

interpretation programs for each category; Generally speaking, interpretation

according to Housego (2006) needs to: Be engaging, personal, immersive, and

immediate, Generate enjoyment through opportunity for discovery and the

chance to be captivated in a distinctly different environment, Enable social

opportunities, Be themed to provide access to insight and connections, Give

opportunities to interaction, and also Enable visitors to talk to locals.

2.1.3 The visitor post visit experience

Calver and Page (2013) stated that the post visit stage is an inseparable part of

the experience when visitors take into consideration pre-visit expectations,

assess various elements of their experience and the overall satisfaction.

I Satisfaction: According to Chen and Chen (2010, P: 30), "In tourism

context, satisfaction is primarily referred to as a function of pre-travel

expectations and post-travel experiences". The attraction quality besides the

performance of attraction providers in terms of providing service to their

visitors make the final image and satisfaction about the visit. This is why

visitor satisfaction should be the central premise of heritage management

(Middleton, 1996; Smith, 1994). Two main aspects were considered while

designing interpretation for achieving visitor satisfaction the first one is the

communication with well-educated people who need quality insight

experience, while the second is the communication with public who have

different categories which might need explanation of meaning with clear and

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easy terminology that perfectly matches with their preferences (Gándara,

2015). Moreover, it was highlighted that overall visitor satisfaction often plays

an important role in tourist post visit behaviour and visitors' intentions, word of

mouth (WOM) and development of expectation (Johns 1999)

II Revisit: The outcome of the visitors' evaluation and reflection upon their

visit to a heritage site is directly linked to the probability of revisiting the site,

recommending it to others and spreading positive or negative word of mouth

(Harrison and Shaw 2004; Rashid 2013). So it is crucial to create a

meaningful, memorable and satisfying experience in order to increase visitors'

loyalty and gain a competitive advantage. Moreover, the rapid rise of social

media positive word of mouth may play a significant role in influencing a

visitor's decision to visit an attraction (Leask, et al, 2013).

2. Research Methods

Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel present the most familiar image of ancient

Egypt to the modern traveler and reader. Not only are the two temples at Abu

Simbel among the most magnificent monuments in the world but their removal

and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. In addition to that the solar

phenomenon which happens only in two special days all over the year is

considered a miracle too. The extraordinary beauty and uniqueness of the

temple attract tourists from the entire world. In this study, questionnaire has

been designed to assess the role of interpretation in enhancing the visitors’

experience in Abu Simbel. The Questionnaire was distributed randomly to a

total of 120 visitors of different nationalities, 91 forms were received and only

86 forms are valid. The first section of the questionnaire was designed to

gather demographic information addressing the profile of temple's visitors. The

second section of the questionnaire investigated the pre-visit experience by

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focused on the educational and entertainment experience during the visit.

3. Data analysis

Table 1: Visitors' profile

Demographics of respondents F %

Gender Male 42 48.8%

Female 44 51.2%

Age category

15-24 4 4.7%

25-34 38 44.2%

35-44 26 30.2%

45-59 9 10.5%

Over 60 9 10.5%

Origin National 26 30.2%

International 60 69.8%

Level of education

secondary education school 7 8.1 % Bachelor’s degree 58 67.4% post grade degree 21 24.4%

Current employment status

Household. 4 4.7%

Unemployed. 4 4.7%

Student. 5 5.8 % Part-time paid work. 10 11.6%

Retired. 8 9.3 %

Full-time paid work. 49 57%

Others 6 6.9%

Annual income range

≥ 18,000 $ 29 33.7%

18,000 – 24,000 $ 9 10.5%

24,000 – 34,000 $ 6 7%

34,000 – 49,000 $ 20 23.3%

49,000 – 69,000 $ 15 17.4%

70,000 – 100,000 $ 4 4.7%

≤ 150,000 $ 3 3.5%

Mode of travel

Alone 14 16.3%

With Family 30 34.9%

With work fellows 3 3.5%

With Friends 34 39.5%

Others 5 5.8%

Frequency of visiting First time visitor 68 79.1%

Repeated visitor 18 20.9%

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Table 2: Sources of information about Abu Simbel

Valid Frequency Percentage %

Never heard about it. 3 3.5%

Friends or relatives. 20 23.3% Internet. 23 26.7%

Tourist information Centre. 19 22.1% Guiding books. 9 10.5%

Others 12 13.9%

Table 3: Motivation of Visit

Statements F

To visit a place you have not visited before. 57

To spend a day out for enjoyment and entertainment. 38

To improve general knowledge about Egyptian history and cultural heritage. 41

The temple is already included in your trip itinerary. 16

The temple is listed as one of world heritage sites. 43

Seeking contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience. 47

Others 3

Possibility of more than one choice

Table 4: Interpretation facilities in Abu Simbel


Guided tours. 80 93% Information panels. 15 17.4% Printed materials. 4 4.7%


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Statements TD D N A TA

F % F % F % F % F %

I developed a keener awareness and appreciation of the Temple.

0 0 6 7 10 11.6 30 34.9 40 46.5

I get attached to the site and acquainted with its significance

0 0 2 2.3 13 15.1 41 47.7 30 34.9

The brochures are attractive and including all the information I need.

43 50 11 12.8 18 20.9 9 10.5 5 5.8

I learnt something new 0 0 1 1.2 5 5.8 34 39.5 46 53.5

The knowledge I acquired encouraged me to come and visit the site again

4 4.7 10 11.6 14 16.3 21 24.4 37 43

The knowledge I acquired stimulated my curiosity to read more about the ancient Egyptian history

0 0 7 8.1 6 7 29 33.7 44 51.2

I would recommend the site for others to visit

1 1.2 1 1.2 3 3.5 12 14 69 80.2

*TD = totally disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, TA = totally agree

Table 6: Assessment of the impact of interpretation on entertainment

experience


F % F % F % F % F % The physical access to the site is in a good quality.

1 1.2 8 9.3 10 11.6 45 52.3 22 25.6

The orientation upon arrival provided me with better understanding of the visit rout.

2 2.3 7 8.1 10 11.6 45 52.3 22 25.6

Our interpreter let us guess some parts of the story.

8 9.3 34 39.5 22 25.6 18 20.9 4 4.7

Our interpreter considered our opinion. 5 5.8 11 12.8 27 31.4 34 39.5 9 10.5 Our interpreter provided meaningful and supportive body gestures.

4 4.7 7 8.1 13 15.1 25 29.1 37 43

Our interpreter promoted a social and happy group environment.

1 1.2 4 4.7 13 15.1 31 36 37 43

My visit entertained me. 0 0 4 4.7 3 3.5 23 26.7 56 65.1


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5. Results and Discussion

The study revealed that females (51.2%) represented a larger proportion of the

surveyed visitors than males (48.8%) Similar results relating to a distribution

of gender within sample were presented in heritage tourism market research

(Mintel 2010). However, according to characteristics of respondents in

research by Poria et al (2004) and Apostolakis and Jaffry (2005) males were

the dominant group that visited heritage attractions. The majority of visitors

were aging between 25-34 years old (44.2%), while results highlight those

aged fewer than 24 accounted for the smallest group visiting the temple, with

similar results were presented by Shore (2010) in study on heritage market

characteristics. The majority of visitors completed higher education, the study

findings shows that (67.4%) of the visitors hold bachelor’s degree and 24.4%

of the total population have a postgraduate degree, which supports the work of

Timothy and Boyd (2003) who argue that heritage visitors tend to be better

educated Moreover, a majority of visitors (39.5%) visited the site with friends

while (34.9%) visited it with a family member.

5.1 Motivations and pre-visit decision-making

The majority of surveyed visitors (79.1%) visited the temple for the first time

while a previous visit to the temple was another key factor influencing the

decision- making of 20.9% of the visitor to come and revisit the site. Findings

showed that Internet was most significant source of information that influenced

participants’ decision-making process as 26.7% of the visitors used it. With

this in mind it is essential that heritage attractions evaluate their investment in

the pre-visit experience to ensure that are effectively targeting the right tourist

and are maximizing their opportunity to attract wider market segments,

especially the younger tech-savvy generation (Leask et al, 2013b), while

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of (de Rojas and Camarero 2008) who stated that word of mouth

recommendations from family and friends played a vital role in visitors’

decision-making when planning a visit. Often these types of recommendations

are considered as the most reliable, trusted and powerful source of information

which often influences a visitor’s expectations. This study revealed that

participants were mainly motivated by recreational needs as well as curiosity

toward finding out what the attraction has to offer; findings indicated that the

most common motivation of visiting the temple for (66.3%) of surveyed

visitors was visiting a place they have not visited before and find out what the

site has to offer. At the same time 50 % of the visitors visited the temple

because it was listed as one of world heritage sites.

To measure the impact of interpretation facilities on educational and

entertainment experience, participants were asked to indicate the importance of

a variety of items from their own perspective on a tabular form ranging from

totally disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and totally agree.

5.2 The impact of interpretation facilities on educational experience

Engagement

Findings showed that interpretation facilities helped 81.4% of the visitors in

developing a keener awareness and appreciation of the Temple, while only 7%

of visitors disagree. In addition, interpretation facilities helped 82.6% of the

visitors in getting attached to the temple and its significance, while only 2.3%

disagree. Having considered these finding, it indicates that interpreters in Abu

Simbel play a vital role in engaging visitors in ways that can positively affect

their experience then affect their behavior. Findings also suggest that visitors

seek and value the opportunity to be actively involved in the experience and

interact with the heritage setting.

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Information

This factor consisted of three items associated with the availability and

accessibility of information. As shown in Table 5, the ability of learning

something new had the highest percentage, as the majority of visitors 53.3%

totally agree that they learnt something new, while 39.5% of visitors agree. In

addition to stimulating visitors' curiosity about the Egyptian history, finding

showed that the knowledge visitors had acquired stimulated the curiosity of

84.9% of the visitors to read more about the Ancient Egyptian history. Besides

the lack of the attractive brochures as decelerated by 62.8% of the visitors, so it

indicates that interpreters in Abu Simbel play a crucial role in providing

information and are a valuable ‘source of knowledge’. Having considered these

findings, it could be argued that information and authenticity are highly valued

factors affecting visitors’ experience.

Satisfaction and Revisit

The results showed that higher levels of satisfaction meant visitors are more

likely to revisit and recommend the heritage site; the visit entertained the

majority of visitors (91.8%), while it didn't entertain only 4.7% of them.

Findings also showed that the majority of the visitors 94.2% will recommend the

temple for the others to visit, while only two visitors will not recommend it to

others. The tabulated data also shows that 67.4% of them were encouraged to

come again and revisit the site, while 16.3% of the visitors were neutral. Similar

findings were noted by Cronin et al (2000) who highlighted the positive

relationship between satisfaction and intentions to return.

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Welcoming and orientation

Findings showed the majority of visitors (77.9%) pointed out that the orientation

upon arrival provided them with better understanding of the visit rout. Also the

quality of the physical accessibility of the site is in a good quality as declared by

(77.9%) of the visitors. Some finding were noted by laws (2001) who identified

welcoming and orientation and physical accessibility as factors that influence

the visitors' expectations and perception

Communication

Since the majority of the visitors (93%) could not identify any other kinds of

interpretive facilities aside from the guided tour, so the assessment of

communicating visitors in Abu Simbel consisted of four items related to the

interpreter's performance. The tabulated data showed that 48.8% of visitors

stated that their interpreters didn't let them guess some parts of the story, while

25.6% of them were neutral. Findings also showed that 50% of visitors

mentioned that their interpreters considered their opinions, while 31.4% of them

were neutral and only five were totally disagree. The majority of visitors

(72.1%) assured that their interpreters provided meaningful and supportive body

gestures, while 12.8% of them didn't support this opinion. The majority of

visitors (79%) stated that their interpreters promoted a social and happy group

environment, while 5.9% of them didn't support this opinion. Having

considered these finding, it highlights the need for further research into how to

personalize visitor's experience in order to add value and ensure the experience

quality.

Conclusion

This paper aimed to examine visitors’ experiences at heritage sites. A review of

literature highlighted the role of heritage interpretation in communication with

visitors, as per their requirements, for the purpose of enhancing their

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experiences and assuring their satisfaction. As such this paper evaluated the

importance of heritage interpretation in Abu Simbel as one of the world heritage

sites, besides, it explored the dimensions of visitors experience, and investigated

the visitor experience cycle at heritage attractions (pre, during and post visit).

An investigation of visit's motivations revealed that the most common reasons

for visiting the temple were the desire to visit a place not visited before, Seeking

contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience and listing the temple as one

of world heritage sites. In addition, the study revealed that word of mouth

recommendations play a vital role in the pre planning decision of temple's

visitors. The research identified four factors which enhance the experience of

the heritage visitors during their visit (welcoming and orientation,

communication, engagement, information). Moreover, the study identified a

relationship between knowledge acquisition and satisfaction which subsequently

would lead to a word of mouth referral or a return visit to the site. Having

considered the complexity and potential of the heritage market, further research

into the field is essential to gain a better understanding of how to effectively

target the temple's visitors and provide them with a meaningful and memorable

experience.

Recommendations

This study suggested many recommendations to enhancing visiting experience

in Abu Simbel, which can be illustrated in the following:

Having considered the complexity and potential of the heritage market, further

market research into the field is essential to gain a better understanding of how

to effectively target the heritage visitor and provide them with a meaningful

and memorable experience.

205


ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ It is vital importance to managers and marketers to get an in depth

understanding of the sources of information that influence visitor’s decision-

making process before visiting a heritage attraction.

An examination of visitors’ expectations prior to the visit and post visit could

also be beneficial in providing further insight into whether the expectations of

the temple visitor are being met and indeed fully catered to.

Visitor's segment that's aged fewer than 24 is an opportune market within

heritage tourism. Employing tactics like edutainment may provide a means to

engage this type of visitor during the visit experience.

Develop a web-based, and CD-ROM, educational pack for the temple, which

includes updated information about the geography, geology, landscape,

significance.

Develop animations, possibly in ‘cartoon’ form, for use on the website and in

educational material. Such animations could also be available for access by

mobile phone.

Apply the 'timed ticket' access to the temple so that there are fewer people

inside at any one moment, so visitors can have the time and space to appreciate

the breath-taking art and it will help in reducing noise and controlling visit

duration and numbers of visitors inside the temples.

Further investigation into how heritage attractions could be promoted to

younger generations to encourage visitation should be considered.

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209


The influence of interpretation on visitors’ behavior in Nubian

Monuments in Abu Simbel

Ali O. Abd-Allah Mayada H. Belal Nancy M. Abd-Elrahman

Abstract

Interpretation aims to stimulate interest, promote learning, guide visitors in

appropriate behavior for sustainable tourism and encourage enjoyment and

satisfaction in the same time. Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel were inscribed

on the World Heritage List. Although Egypt, under the terms of World Heritage

Convention, has the primary responsibility to ensure the protection, conservation

representation for future generations, up till now, no surveys have been

conducted assess neither visitors' profile, nor their expectation. Also nothing has

been done to precisely evaluate what is the effectiveness of the interpretation

tools in the temples, and are they achieving the affective attachment between the

temple and its' visitors? This paper aims at studying the concepts of

interpretation and visitor's behavior at Heritage Sites, and the factors that

influence the visitor's behavior during and after the visit. The field study of this

paper was designed to understand the temple's visitors much better, examine the

effectiveness of interpretation tools delivered to Abu Simbel Temple's visitors in

making visitors get attached with the temple and its significance and

conservation issues. Finally some recommendations concerning interpretation

tools are suggested to influence visitor attitude and shaping visitor behavior.

Keywords Heritage Interpretation, Visitor Behavior, Place Attachment, Pro-

Environmental behavior, Environmentally responsible behavior,

Environmentally significant behavior.

210

The influence of interpretation on visitors’ behavior in Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel


Introduction

The earliest attempt to establish heritage interpretation as a standalone field was

undertaken by Freeman Tilden, who he had defined interpretation as "an

educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through

the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media,

rather than simply to communicate factual information" (TILDEN, 1977, p. 8).

This definition described the interpretation as the process of uncovering what is

not explicitly mentioned by the objects, and what the visitors cannot realize with

their regular senses, by offering them something from the capturing realities that

are hidden behind the objects. While Court (2014) has defined interpretation as

"a vehicle which transforms the passive activity of visitor to active by engaging

them through interpretation, and achieves conservation by using this

interpretation tools to raise the awareness of visitors and community about the

values of the heritage sites". So heritage interpretation can be defined as "a

communication tool used to communicate to visitors, as per their requirements,

in a recreational context, cultural, historical and environmental messages, in so

as to enhance visitor experiences, assuring visitors' satisfaction, positively affect

visitor behavior, and keep the site in well-preserved condition"

1. Visitor's Behavior

In order to talking in details about the role of interpretation in modifying

visitor's behavior for better conserved sites, we must talk first about some terms

of visitors' behaviors that aim to conserving the environment- which refers here

to culture heritage sites-, such as:

Environmentally responsible behavior: It's more focused on visitors'

actions that are directed to reduce environmental impacts, participate in

environment conservation, support a more sustainable use of resources and

211

Omar, A. Belal, M. Abd-Elrahman, N. ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

minimize any negative impacts during their activities (Lee et al, 2013;

Chiu et al, 2014).

Environmentally significant behavior: It highlights the changes in the

behavior of visitors who decide to take more sustainable actions and

decisions to improve the environment (Stern, 2000).

Environmentally concerned behavior: It focuses more on the

commitment of visitors towards environmental actions (Axelrod &

Lehman, 1993).

Sustainable behavior: It's more related to a major awareness and

behavior by visitors who take into consideration future outcomes and

behave in a more sustainable manner (Meijers & Stapel, 2011).

Pro-Environmental behavior: It's more focused on the engagement and

emotional link between visitors' actions and the environment to protect the

environment and minimize the negative impacts (Kollmuss & Agyeman,

2002).

All these terms have the same aim, and towards achieving this aim they should

be related to raising visitors' awareness about historical and natural values of

the site and enhancing their participation in conservation efforts, that when

interpretation can be useful.

2. The role of interpretation in affecting Visitor Behavior positively

Munro et al. (2008) stated that interpretation is considered an important tool in

impacting visitor knowledge, attitudes and behavior. While Moscardo (2014)

contended that changing visitor behavior is the second important role of

interpretation, she also indicated that current research supports the idea that

interpretation can assist the management of negative visitor behaviors.

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ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Interpretation can help to manage the negative impacts of visits such as onsite

damage, changes to the site behavior, pollution and vandalism caused by

visitors, through providing visitors with information about alternative sites,

routes, or activities. Interpretive programs can also enhance visitors’

understanding of conservation issues and consequences of not conserve it then

develop a positive attitude. In turn, interpretation can help visitors to modify

their behavior generally and specific to the culture heritage sites (Ballantyne

&Packer, 2005).

Effecting behavioral change is not easy, it usually happens slowly. There is a

sequential process for affecting change in visitor's behavior and managing their

impacts; Firstly, interpretation can affect where visitors go and use the features

of the interpretive activities to get the visitors' attention. Secondly,

interpretation can assist the management of visitor impacts through raising

visitor awareness about the site, its significance, its critical issues and the

important role of tourism in the conservation of local environment and culture.

If visitors can relate to these issues, they will start to form feeling about it.

Thirdly, let visitors know what the consequences are, so they form an

emotional opinion and relate their behavior to it. Finally visitors choose to

adopt proper behaviors based on their new information. (Archer and Wearing,

2002 ; Komatsu and Liu, 2007) On broader context, researchers called these

steps as "place attachment".

Place attachment has been identified as one of the motivations of visitors to

behave in an environmentally responsible way in culture heritage sites. It is

also described as “destination attachment” and linked to visitors’ loyalty to

places, behavioral intentions and pro-environmental behavior. (Ramkissoon et

al, 2013) Place attachment is constituted of four dimensions:

Place identity: refers to the cognitive link between the personal self and a

site, representing the identification of the visitor with a certain site or with

its unique value.

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Place dependence: refers to describing the importance of a specific site for

specific activities and needs by visitors.

Affective attachment: refers to the strong feeling tourists feel towards a

place.

Social bonding: relates to the social relations a specific place enhances

(Chen et al, 2016).

Effecting behavioral change can also happen when a combination of

techniques is use, For example, regulatory signs, landscape or engineering

solutions such as barriers or re-routing tracks, contact with uniformed staff,

and clear on-site and pre-visit information including environmental care codes

(Colquhoun, 2005).

For many people the information they encounter at leisure may offer the only

opportunity to learn about their bonds to the environment, or to their history.

Because of interpretation, visitors have this opportunity to learn about history,

environment, and culture. With these kinds of visitors, the visiting sites

probably have less negative impacts. When visitors know the value of the site,

they might appreciate it and help to protect its heritage. These visitors always

behave in appropriate ways because they understand the impacts caused by the

visitors. This process of learning also may encourage them to visit the sites

again which leads to economic sustainability (Moscardo, 1998)

Interpretation enhances building on the rewarding experiences to encourage

visitors to be receptive to a sustainability messages. There are three types of

these management and sustainability messages; first, such messages play

traditional role of encouraging visitors to behave in ways that minimize their

negative impacts on the site. Second, messages related to global conservation

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ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ or sustainability messages. Third, messages related to supporting the

sustainability practices of the attraction itself. (Fyall, et al, 2008)

Interpretation can serve multiple purposes in modifying behavior and ensuring

the long term sustainability in heritage sites, it depends on:

1. Raising awareness on heritage values among tourists, thus encouraging their

responsible behavior during visits and their collaboration for conservation

efforts .

2. Creating an added value and high quality learning experience for visitors .

3. Creating services and goods using innovative techniques that will enhance

the maintenance and preservation of heritage sites and features.

4. Controlling visitors in heavily visited and popular heritage sites, thus

minimizing negative impacts of tourism (Safwan,2011).

So we can say that, if the effective interpretation is combined with an

appropriate total visitor management program, so that the outcomes of the

visitor interaction should be minimal impacts on the site and satisfied visitors

with an increased awareness of conservation issues and actions. Visitors who

enjoy an interpretive program are usually more likely to learn from it and to

change their attitudes and behaviors toward the site and the environment

generally.

3. Research Methods

Nubian Monuments in Abu Simbel present the most familiar image of ancient

Egypt to the modern traveler and reader. Not only are the two temples at Abu

Simbel among the most magnificent monuments in the world but their removal

and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. In addition to that the solar

phenomenon which happens only in two special days all over the year is

considered a miracle too. The extraordinary beauty and uniqueness of the temple

attract tourists from the entire world.

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Data collection: In this study, questionnaire has been designed to assess the

influence of interpretation on Abu Simbel visitors’ behavior. The Questionnaire

was distributed randomly to a total of 120 visitors of different nationalities, 91

forms were received and only 86 forms are valid. The first section of the

questionnaire was designed to gather demographic information addressing the

profile of temple's visitors. The second section of the questionnaire investigated

the pre-visit experience by addressing motivational and decision-making factors.

The third section focused on the influence of interpretation on visitors' behavior

during the visit, while the last section focused the influence of interpretation on

visitors' behavior after the visit.

4. Data analysis

Table 1: Visitors' profile

Demographics of respondents F %

Gender Male 42 48.8%

Female 44 51.2%

Age category

15-24 4 4.7%

25-34 38 44.2%

35-44 26 30.2%

45-59 9 10.5% Over 60 9 10.5%

Origin National 26 30.2%

International 60 69.8%

Level of education

secondary education school 7 8.1 %

Bachelor’s degree 58 67.4%

post grade degree 21 24.4%

current employment status

Household. 4 4.7%

Unemployed. 4 4.7% Student. 5 5.8 %

Part-time paid work. 10 11.6%

Retired. 8 9.3 % Full-time paid work. 49 57%

Others 6 6.9%

Annual income range ≥ 18,000 $ 29 33.7%

18,000 – 24,000 $ 9 10.5% 24,000 – 34,000 $ 6 7%

216


ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 34,000 – 49,000 $ 20 23.3% 49,000 – 69,000 $ 15 17.4% 70,000 – 100,000 $ 4 4.7%

≤ 150,000 $ 3 3.5%

Mode of travel

Alone 14 16.3% With Family 30 34.9%

With work fellows 3 3.5% With Friends 34 39.5%

Others 5 5.8%

Frequency of visiting First time visitor 68 79.1% Repeated visitor 18 20.9%

Table 2: Sources of information about Abu Simbel


Never heard about it. 3 3.5%

Friends or relatives. 20 23.3%

Internet. 23 26.7%

Tourist information Centre. 19 22.1%

Guiding books. 9 10.5%

Others 12 13.9%

Table 3: Motivation of Visit

Statements F

To visit a place you have not visited before. 57

To spend a day out for enjoyment and entertainment. 38

To improve general knowledge about Egyptian history and cultural heritage. 41

The temple is already included in your trip itinerary. 16

The temple is listed as one of world heritage sites. 43

Seeking contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience. 47

Others 3


Table 4: Interpretation facilities

Valid Frequency

Guided tours. 80 Information panels. 15 Printed materials. 4

• Possibility of more than one choice

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Table 5: Assessment of visitors’ opinion about the effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior during the visit

Statements Yes No

F % F % I’m encouraged to keep the site clean as it was before. 85 98.8 1 1.2 I’m encouraged to preserve the site and not to take pictures inside the temples.

55 64 31 36

I’m encouraged to keep calm and to speak loudly. 40 46.5 46 53.5 I’ve been informed how much sensitive the colored paintings of the temples are

79 91.9 7 8.1

I’ve been informed how much fragile the inscriptions on the on the walls are

74 86 12 14

The accompanying kids were delicately banned from climbing statues.

49 57 37 43

Table 6: Assessment of the effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior after the visit


F % F % F % F % F % a. I will talk with others about the temple's significance and the importance of conserving it.

1 1.2 2 2.3 5 5.8 25 29.1 53 61.6

b. I would recommend the site for others to visit

1 1.2 1 1.2 3 3.5 12 14 69 80.2

c. I will convince my friends to act responsibly during visiting it.

1 1.2 1 1.2 5 5.8 21 24.4 58 67.4

d. I have intention to donate to support the conservation of the temple.

8 9.3 9 10.5 39 45.3 10 11.6 20 23.3

e. I have intention to join in community efforts dedicated to protect the temple.

9 10.5 6 7 38 44.2 13 15.1 20 23.3

f. I have intention to join in voluntary actions that help in the protection processes.

10 11.6 5 5.8 46 53.5 8 9.3 17 19.8

g. I’m willing to pay much higher entrance tickets to support protecting the temple.

2 2.3 20 23.3 25 29.1 22 25.6 17 19.8

h. I’m in favor of limiting the number of visitors to protect the temple

3 3.5 28 32.6 18 20.9 15 17.4 22 25.6

i. I’m in favor of putting more restrictions on the visitors to minimize their negative impacts.

0 0 1 1.2 5 5.8 25 29 55 64


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6. Results and Discussion

The study revealed that females (51.2%) represented a larger proportion of the

surveyed visitors than males (48.8%) Similar results relating to a distribution

of gender within sample were presented in heritage tourism market research

(Mintel 2010). However, according to characteristics of respondents in

research by Poria et al (2004) and Apostolakis and Jaffry (2005) males were

the dominant group that visited heritage attractions. The majority of visitors

were aging between 25-34 years old (44.2%), while results highlight those

aged fewer than 24 accounted for the smallest group visiting the temple, with

similar results were presented by Shore (2010) in study on heritage market

characteristics. The majority of visitors completed higher education, the study

findings shows that (67.4%) of the visitors hold bachelor’s degree and 24.4%

of the total population have a postgraduate degree, which supports the work of

Timothy and Boyd (2003) who argue that heritage visitors tend to be better

educated Moreover, a majority of visitors (39.5%) visited the site with friends

while (34.9%) visited it with a family member.

6.1 Motivations and pre-visit decision-making

The majority of surveyed visitors (79.1%) visited the temple for the first time

while a previous visit to the temple was another key factor influencing the

decision- making of 20.9% of the visitor to come and revisit the site. Findings

showed that Internet was most significant source of information that influenced

participants’ decision-making process as 26.7% of the visitors used it. With

this in mind it is essential that heritage attractions evaluate their investment in

the pre-visit experience to ensure that are effectively targeting the right tourist

and are maximizing their opportunity to attract wider market segments,

especially the younger tech-savvy generation (Leask et al, 2013b), while

23.3% of the visitors asked their friends and relatives, which supports the work

of (de Rojas and Camarero 2008) who stated that word of mouth

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recommendations from family and friends played a vital role in visitors’

decision-making when planning a visit. Often these types of recommendations

are considered as the most reliable, trusted and powerful source of information

which often influences a visitor’s expectations. This study revealed that

participants were mainly motivated by recreational needs as well as curiosity

toward finding out what the attraction has to offer; findings indicated that the

most common motivation of visiting the temple for (66.3%) of surveyed

visitors was visiting a place they have not visited before and find out what the

site has to offer. At the same time 50 % of the visitors visited the temple

because it was listed as one of world heritage sites.

6.2 The effect of interpretation facilities on visitors’ behavior during the

visit

To measure the effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior during the visit,

participants were asked to indicate the importance of a variety of items from

their own perspective on a tabular form with two choices (Yes) (No). As

showed in table 5, the majority of questionnaire respondents (98.8%) confirmed

that they were encouraged to keep the site clean as it was before and only one

ticked (No). Findings also showed that the majority of questionnaire

respondents (64%) confirmed that they were encouraged to preserve the site and

not to take pictures inside the temples, while 36% of them were not encouraged

to preserve the site. In addition, the majority of questionnaire respondents

(91.9%) confirmed that they were informed how much sensitive the colored

paintings of the temples are and only 8.1% of them ticked (No). The majority of

visitors (86%) confirmed that they were informed how much fragile the

inscriptions on the on the walls are, while 14% of them ticked (No). Having

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ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ considered these finding it indicates that interpretation in the site, featured in

guided tours, promoted visitors' self-reported behavior through influencing

increased knowledge, raising their awareness about the critical issues of the site

and encouraging them to take more sustainable actions during their visit. This

supports the premise that influencing visitors actions require specific belief-

based or feeling based information about the consequences of the actions and

the basic human emotions of fear and anxiety when management issues are

targeting site-specific responsible behavior (Ballantyne and Packer, 2005;

Monroe, 2003; Roggenbuck 1992). As decelerated by (53.5%) of the visitors

who denied that they were encouraged to keep calm and speak loudly, while

46.5% of them confirmed that they were encouraged to keep calm and speak

loudly. In addition 57% of questionnaire respondents confirmed that the

accompanying kids were delicately banned from climbing statues, while 43% of

them ticked (No). Having considered these finding, it also seems clear that

interpretation tools that are currently used in the site are not enough to minimize

visitors' negative impacts especially in peak seasons

6.3 The effect of interpretation facilities on visitors’ behavior after the visit

To measure The effect of interpretation on visitors’ behavior after the visit,

participants were asked to indicate the importance of a variety of items from

their own perspective on a tabular form ranging from totally disagree, disagree,

neutral, agree and totally agree.

Place attachment

As findings showed the majority of questionnaire respondents (61.6%) totally

agree with talking about the temple's significance and unique value and the

importance of conserving it with others, while 29.1% of them agree, two

respondents disagree and only one totally disagrees. The majority of visitors

(80.2%) totally agree with recommending the temple for the others to visit,

while 14% of them agree, only one disagrees and another respondent totally

disagrees. The majority of visitors (67.4%) are totally agree with convincing

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others to act responsibly during visiting the temple, while 24.4% of them agree,

only one disagrees and another respondent totally disagrees. These findings

support the previous researches that stated that Place attachment is one of the

motivations of visitors to behave in an environmentally responsible way in

culture heritage sites, it also encourages visitors convincing others to act

responsibly during visiting; through representing the identification of the visitor

with a certain site or with its unique value, describing the importance of a

specific site and enhancing visitors' feelings towards the site.

Long term conservation behavior

The study findings showed that there is a weakness of the current interpretation

in promoting certain types of long-term conservation behavior; the tabulated

data shows that 45.3% of visitors neutral about having intention to donate to

support the conservation of the temple, while 23.3% of them totally agree,

11.6% of respondents agree and only eight respondents totally disagree.

Findings also showed that 44.2% of respondents neutral about joining in

community efforts dedicated to protect the temple, while 23.3% of them totally

agree, 15.1% agree, nine respondents totally disagree and only six respondents

disagree. In addition, the majority of questionnaire respondents (53.3%) neutral

about joining in voluntary actions that help in the protection processes, while

19.8% of them totally agree, eight respondents agree, 15 respondents disagree

and totally disagree. The tabulated data showed also that 29.1% of respondents

neutral about paying much higher entrance tickets to support protecting the

temple, 25.6% of them are agree, 23.3% are disagree, while 19.8% of them are

totally agree and only two respondents are totally disagree. Which consistent

with the findings of previous research (Beaumont, 2001) who stated that there

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ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ are limitations in interpretation effects on long-term conservation behavior (e.g.

‘giving donations’, ‘volunteer work’, and ‘membership of environmental

organization’), so that strategies should be considered for these.

Abu Simbel specific visitors' Sustainable behavior

The tabulated data showed that 32.6% of respondents disagree with limiting the

number of visitors to protect the temple, 25.6% of them totally agree, 17.4%

agree, while only three respondents totally disagree, which reflect visitors'

satisfaction and their desire to improve the opportunity for every visitor to visit

the temple, while The majority of them (64%) totally agree with putting more

restrictions on the visitors to minimize their negative impacts, 29% agree, which

reflect the awareness about the importance to behave in a more sustainable

manner.

Conclusion

This paper aimed to examine visitors’ behavior at heritage sites. A review of

literature highlighted the role of heritage interpretation in communication with

visitors, as per their requirements, in recreational, historical and environmental

messages, for the purpose of positively affecting their behavior, and keeping the

site in well-preserved condition. As such this paper evaluated the importance of

heritage interpretation in Abu Simbel as one of the world heritage sites, explored

factors that influence the visitor's behavior during and after the visit. An

investigation of visit's motivations revealed that the most common reasons for

visiting the temple were the desire to visit a place not visited before, Seeking

contemplation, inspiration, and spiritual experience and listing the temple as one

of world heritage sites. In addition, the study revealed that word of mouth

recommendations play a vital role in the pre planning decision of temple's

visitors. The research approved that the range of both general and site-specific

dimensions of sustainable heritage behavior could be usefully leveraged by

interpretation; encouraging visitors to keep the site clean, preserve the site and

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not to take pictures inside the temples, also getting visitors attached with the site

significance and its critical issues. Filed study also approved that effective

interpretation can also influences general sustainable visitors' behavior after visit

by talking with others about the temple's significance and the importance of

conserving it, recommending the site and convincing them to act responsibly

during visiting it. The study findings showed also that there is a weakness of the

current interpretation in promoting certain types of long-term conservation

behavior (donation and volunteering work), so that strategies should be

considered for these.

Recommendations

Undertaking a pre- and post- survey on visitors' intentions to adapt more

appropriate behavior might be one way of testing the effectiveness of

interpretation programme.

Develop a web-based, and CD-ROM, educational pack for the temple, which

includes information about its significance, transformation process and

conservation issues in order to raise visitors' awareness and controlling their

behavior easily during the visit.

Apply much higher entrance tickets to support protecting the temple .

Putt more restrictions on temples' visitors to minimize their negative impacts.

Apply the 'timed ticket' access to the temple so that there are fewer people

inside at any one moment, so visitors can have the time and space to

appreciate the breath-taking art and it will reducing noise and controlling

visit duration and numbers of visitors inside the temples.

Audio tours, video tours, mobile phone tours, all are recommended to

encourage visitors to be calm during visit and not to speak loudly.

224



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