Zornitza Ganeva - Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case

Age Management.

Actual Challenges and Promising Solutions

Regarding the Ageing European Population.

Martina Rašticová et al.

Scientific editorial board:

Akademické nakladatelství CERM®

, s.r.o.

Reviewers:

prof. Faye J Crosby (University of California, Santa Cruz, USA)

Associate prof. Ram Mahalingam (Univeristy of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA)

prof. Ing. Zbyněk Pitra, DrSc. (Chairman of the Council of Experts of the Czech

Management Association, University of Hradec Králové)

doc. Ing. Lea Kubíčková, Ph.D. (Mendel University in Brno)

©Martina Rašticová et al., 2013

ISBN 978-80-7204-848-9

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6. Conception of the Transition to Adulthood:

Bulgaria Case

Zornitza Ganeva

Introduction

Living apart from your parents. Contracting a marriage. Having a child. Which of

these vital and decisive events is most important for the individual’s development?

Which of them turns adolescents into adults? How do young people from Bulgaria fit

into in comparison with young people from other countries? It is the answers to those

questions that this paper is dedicated to.

The transition from adolescence to adulthood is an independent separate subjectively

specific period of young people’s development in the industrial society (Arnett 2000).

The majority of them do not feel adolescents already, they have passed their teenage

years, but, at the same time, they are not completely adult, have not entered entirely the

adults’ world and have not acquired an adult status. Basing on empirical studies

conducted mainly in the USA, Jeffrey Arnett (Arnett 2000, 2004) developed a theory of

the emerging adulthood period that characterises the young people’s development

between 18 and 28 years of age. Arnett (2004) acknowledges that emerging adulthood

may not be a universal period of human development, suggesting that this period exists

“only under certain conditions that have occurred only quite recently and only in some

cultures” (Arnett, 2004, p. 21). Despite this caution, recent research provides evidence

that many of Arnett’s features of emerging adulthood can be seen in young people in a

variety of nations and cultures.

According to the author (Arnett, 2004), the acquisition of an adult status is perceived

by many contemporary young people as a danger that has to be avoided because it

marks the end of independence and freedom. To them, the period of transition from

adolescence to adulthood gives them an unprecedented opportunity to explore in the

sphere of education, intimacy, labour and amusements and to accumulate various

experience of life. As a whole, besides the self-focus because of the few daily

obligations towards other people, this is both time filled with a number of opportunities,

high hopes and belief in future and time of instability in the personal and professional

life, of frequent change of the residence, of the labour position occupied or of the

intimate partner.

According to the author, during the period, the time to acquire higher education

increases, the instability in the workplace occupied grows and the women enter more

flexible roles. Because of the more efficient contraception on a worldwide scale, the

average age at which the young people conclude a marriage and become parents, steps

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that are historically related to the adult status, increases. Concluding a marriage and

giving birth to a child are also postponed in time because more and more young people

prefer to explore new opportunities in their career development, to satisfy their needs as

consumers and to emigrate in search of better economic and social opportunities. There

is a debate in the Eastern European countries whether the low birth levels are a result of

the economic uncertainty and instability or a symbol of the modern age (Paxson, 2005).

The fact that in more countries in Europe the childbirth is postponed by about 10

years in comparison with 50 years ago finds its logic explanation in sparing the time for

activities characteristic of the transition from adolescence to adulthood such as

completing education, leaving the parents’ home, looking for an appropriate job,

acquaintance with the world, finding an intimate partner, creating an own home, having

a family and children of one’s own (Douglass, 2007).

Arnett (Arnett, 2004) defined the distinguishing features of the period examined; the

feeling in-between, between adolescence and adulthood, the active exploration of the

own identity, more specifically in fields such as employment, intimate life and views of

the world, self-focus not in the sense of egocentrism, but for lack of obligations towards

the others, instability caused by intensive changes in the social status, in the

relationships with the intimate partner, in the labour positions occupied, in the choice of

a speciality for education, and many possibilities provided or an optimism to arrange the

own life in the direction desired.

Although the subjects that are of interest to the young people in transition between

adolescence and adulthood in Europe are similar as a whole: exploration of various

prospects for life, accumulation of experience, retaining the feeling of freedom, they

find their practical reflection in the social world in a different way. To young people

from Norway (Ravn 2005), the ideal before becoming parents is to have lived

independently for several years, to have completed their education, to have worked for

at least 1 year, to have cohabited with their intimate partner for a certain time, to have

accumulated experience in travels or other activities developing the own personality.

After all this has been accomplished, in their opinion, it is time for one to settle down

and have children. It is necessary that both women and men are independent,

individually give a meaning to their life and value the freedom to explore different life

choices and roads that the emerging adulthood offers.

Cultural traditions in different countries form the attitudes towards the socially

embraced road of the life cycle to reach adulthood (Breen and Buchmann 2002). Social

attitudes predetermine the adopted different social policy towards family and young

people in each country.

The present Bulgarian emerging adults, similarly to young people in the Czech

Republic (Macek et al., 2007) were born in the 1980s, that is, in the period of the

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126

totalitarian communist regime. The low level of personal freedom, a rather confined

right to express one’s own views, or even sanctions for breaching loyalty toward the

communist regime were compensated by the relatively high level of the fundamental

social security benefits. Young people’s opportunities and personal perspectives were

rather limited, the future did not offer many options. This way of entering adulthood

was experienced by a vast majority of the parents of today’s emerging adults.

The aim of the study conducted is to determine which of the examined

psychological characteristics for reaching adulthood are of greatest and, respectively,

least importance for the persons studied, with analysis having been made with respect

to following variables: gender, age, subjective development status, cohabitation and

presence of own children.

Method

Participants

The participants were 571 persons aged 16-55 (M = 21.9, SD = 5.5), including 193

adolescents (aged 16-19, M = 18.3, SD = 1.0); 330 emerging adults (aged 20-29, M =

21.8, SD = 2.2), and 25 young-to-midlife adults (aged 30-55, M = 37.3, SD = 7.2).

Women were 341 (M = 22.2, SD = 5.9), and men were 230 (M = 21.4, SD = 4.8). The

majority were single (82%) and did not have children (94%). Fifty-eight per cent of

participants were living with parents, 29% lived with somebody and 13% lived alone.

Seven per cent were married, 11% engaged and 82% single. Participants with basic

education were 9%, with college – 12% and university degree – 79%.

Measurement

The participants were asked to fill out a 52 items questionary (Arnett, 2004). There

were 43 items on the questionary participants were asked to “indicate whether you think

the following must me achieved before a person can be considered to be an adult”.

They could indicate one of four Likert-style rating scales from 1 – “very important”, 2 –

“quite important”, 3 – “slightly important” and 4 – “not at all important”. These 43

items form 7 emerging adulthood scales: Independence (6 items), Interdependence (5

items), Role Transitions (6 items), Norm Compliance (8 items), Biological Transitions

(4 items), Chronological Transitions (5 items if a men and 6 items if a women) and

Family Capacities (8 items).

Participants were asked on the questionary: (a) “What are the three most important

things for a person to be considered an adult? You may answer by writing in the

numbers of any of the 43 items above, or by writing in your own response”. (b) “Do

you feel like you have reached adulthood?”. Response options were “yes”, “no” and “in

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some ways yes, in some ways no”. (c) “Indicate how adult you feel when you are with

each of the following persons: father, mother, brother or sister (if you have any),

friends, romantic partner (girlfriend or boyfriend), co-workers (if you have a job) or

parents. Response options were in Likert-style: “fully adult”, “partly adult” and “not at

all adult”. (d) In addition, a variety of questions concerning background and

demographic information were included.

Calculation

The result of each of the 7 scales represents an average of all answers given and they

are between 0 (minimum) and 4 (maximum). For all scales, the higher values obtained

correspond to higher importance attached by the persons surveyed to the psychological

characteristics that are comprised in them.

Scale reliability

In order to explore if the 43 items form 7 reliable scales, Cronbach’s alpha was

calculated for each of them. The internal reliability of the Independence scale that

consists of 6 items (37, 1, 2, 14, 31 and 18) is α=0.61 for the whole sample; of the

Interdependence scale that consists of 5 items (17, 19, 38, 39 and 40) is α=0.50; of the

Role Transitions scale that consists of 6 items (3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 34) is α=0.76; of the

Norm Compliance scale that consists of 8 items (8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 35 and 36) is

α=0.75; of the Biological Transitions scale that consists of 4 items (26, 27, 28 and 33)

is α=0.55; of the Chronological Transitions scale that consists of 6 items (15, 16, 32,

41, 42 and 43) is α=0.69 and of the Family Capacities scale that consists of 8 items (20,

21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 30) is α=0.55.

Construct validity

Organization of the subscales was guided by theoretical criteria rather than by a

quantitative statistical approach such as factor analysis (Arnett, 2004). That is why, in

order to explore validity of the scale instead of confirmatory factor analysis (43 items

and 7 scales), Pearson’s linear correlation coefficients between the scales were

calculated (Tables 1). The correlations between scales were between 0.00 and 0.48 and

that is why scales could be interpreted rather as independent scales then as subscales.

Effect size

The interpretation of effect size was calculated using Cohen’s η (eta) and was

interpreted as: >0.45 much larger than typical (>L), 0.37-0.44 larger than typical (L),

0.24-0.36 medium or typical (T), 0.10-0.23 smaller than typical (S), according to Cohen

(Cohen 1988).


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The above results for Cronbach’s alpha and Pearson’s correlation show that

methodology “What does it mean to be an adult” (Arnett, 2004) is reliable and valid for

Bulgarian sample (N=571).

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

The descriptive statistics and the results of the correlation analysis of the 7

adulthood scales are presented in Table 6. 1. Their mean values M (see the lower part of

Table 1) are lower than the mean value for the maximum range of variation M=2.50,

which shows that the respondents as a whole feel less adult with respect to each of the 7

scales indicated except for the Chronological Transitions scale. The standard deviation

SD is also approximately the same, which shows homogeneity in the respondents’

answers. Most homogeneous are their answers for Independence and Interdependence

SD=0.51, and most heterogeneous are their answers for Biological Transitions

SD=0.78. The observed range for six of the seven scales coincides with the maximum

possible range. This shows that the respondents have had maximum possible different

opinion.

The correlation between the 7 adulthood scales (the upper part of Table 6. 1) is weak

to medium positive, which means that there is medium positive association between

them.

The correlation between the seven rating scales and: (a) age, (b) gender, (c) own

children, (d) education, (e) development status and (f) if one lives with his/her parents

(see the upper part of Table 6. 1) is mostly weak negative, which means that the values

of the seven rating adulthood scales are weakly influenced by demographic

characteristics enumerated.

Two-way ANOVA by gender and age

Seven two-way between-groups ANOVAs were performed to explore the impact of

gender and age on level of scales. Subjects were divided into three groups according to

their age (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and young-to-midlife adults: 30-

55). The interaction effect between gender and age group was significant for Biological

Transitions: F(2,565)=4.34, p=0.01 with a small effect size, eta=0.12, however, it was

not significant for the remaining six scales: Independence F(2,565)=0.19, p=0.83,

Interdependence F(2,565)=0.32, p=0.73, Role Transitions F(2,565)=0.24, p=0.78, Norm

Compliance F(2,565)=0.64, p=0.52, Chronological Transitions F(2,565)=0.09, p=0.91

and Family Capacities F(2,565)=1.49, p=0.22.

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Table 6. 1: Sample correlation matrix, means (M), standard deviations (SD), observed and maximum

range for seven emerging adulthood scales.

correlation

between and scale for transition to adulthood

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

1. Independence 1

2.

Interdependence 0.23

*** 1

3. Role

Transitions 0.12

** 0.45

*** 1

4. Norm

Compliance 0.31

*** 0.37

*** 0.39

*** 1

5. Biological

Transitions 0.10

** 0.36

*** 0.48

*** 0.13

** 1

6. Chronological

Transitions 0.02

** 0.21

*** 0.21

*** 0.00 0.44

*** 1

7. Family

Capacities 0.49

*** 0.28

*** 0.20

*** 0.36

*** 0.21

*** -0.02 1

age -0.04 -0.07 -0.07 -0.10* -0.05 0.02 -0.05

gender -0.09* 0.11

** 0.13

** -0.13

** 0.20

*** 0.03 0.06

children -0.06 0.02 -0.06 -0.07 -0.07 -0.01 -0.02

education -0.09**

-0.03 -0.01 -0.07 0.03 0.10* -0.04

development

status -0.02 -0.09

** -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 -0.03 -0.04

living with parents -0.08* -0.02 -0.06 -0.06 -0.02 0.08 -0.05

M 1.66 2.33 2.38 2.04 2.45 2.72 1.73

SD 0.51 0.51 0.71 0.64 0.78 0.74 0.55

Observed range 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 3.8 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0

1.0,

4.0

1.0,

4.0

Maximum range 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0

1.0,

4.0

1.0,

4.0 Note: seven scales and variables age, education (1-basic, 2-college, 3-university), development status (1-adolescent, 2-

emerging adult, 3-fully adult) were analysed using Pearson’s linear correlation coefficients; dichotomous variables

gender (1-men, 2-women), children (0-no, 1-yes), living with parents (1-yes, 2-no) were analysed using point-biserial

correlation; * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.

Source: The author´s own investigation

“Gender” analysis

To compare the two groups: men and women, seven one-way between-groups

ANCOVAs were performed with gender as the independent variable and score of scale

as the dependent variables and age as the covariate. There was a significant effect of the

covariate for Role Transitions [F(1,568)=4.00, p=0.046, eta=0.12] and Norm

Compliance [F(1,568)=4.56, p=0.03, eta=0.14]. There was no significant effect for the

other 5 scales: Independence [F(1,568)=0.78, p=0.38], Interdependence

[F(1,568)=3.30, p=0.07], Biological Transitions [F(1,568)=2.50, p=0.11],

Chronological Transitions [F(1,568)=0.15, p=0.70] and Family Capacities


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[F(1,568)=1.71, p=0.19] and in this case one-way between-groups ANOVAs were

performed (last two columns in Table 6. 2).

To compare the seven scales, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed

with difference contrasts. First, there was a significant effect for the repeated measures

for a whole sample: Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,565)=179.08, p<0.001, eta=0.81; group

of men: Wilks’ Lambda=0.40, F(6,224)=56.27, p<0.001, eta=0.78 and for the group of

women: Wilks’ Lambda=0.29, F(6,335)=137.34, p<0.001, eta=0.84 (last two rows in

Table 6. 2). Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences

among the measures were significant.

Table 6. 2: Average of scales, for a whole sample and for men and women

scales

transition to adulthood

All gender statistics

men women sig. η

Independence 1.66a 1.71

a 1.62

a * 0.10,S

Interdependence 2.33c 2.26

b 2.38

c * 0.11,S

Role Transitions 2.38cd

2.26b 2.47

cd * 0.14,S

Norm Compliance 2.04b 2.14

b 1.98

b * 0.13,S

Biological Transitions 2.45d 2.26

b 2.58

d * 0.21,S

Chronological Transitions 2.72e 2.69

c 2.74

e - -

Family Capacities 1.73a 1.69

a 1.76

a - -

significance * * *

effect size: η 0.81,>L 0.78,>L 0.84,>L

Note: low scores represent low relevant importance, and high score represent high relevant importance; (1-minimum, 4-

maximum); where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of measurements, an asterisk * appears beneath the

relevant column of seven figures and the specific location of the significant difference within the column is shown using

superscript letters (a, b, c), with mean scores which do not differ significantly from one another sharing the same

superscript letters; means with different superscripts differ significantly between samples i.e., means with (a) are

statistically significantly smaller than means with (b), which are statistically significantly smaller than means with (c);

and (ab) indicates that the mean falls between those indicated by (a) and (b) but does not differ statistically significantly

from either mean; where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of two groups (men and women), an asterisk *

appears in the final column; data analyses using one-way repeated measures ANOVA (by columns) and one-way

between-groups ANCOVA (by rows).

Source: The authorˈs own investigation

The results presented in Table 6. 2 show that to all persons studied of greatest

importance is Biological Transitions, and of least – Independence and Family

Capacities. Both to men and women of greatest importance is Chronological

Transitions. As a whole, the women studied attach greatest importance to

Interdependence and Biological Transitions.

“Age group” analysis

To compare the three age groups (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and

young-to-midlife adults: 30-55), seven one-way between-groups ANCOVAs with

Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with age group as the independent

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variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and gender as the covariate.

Gender was covariate, because some of the items on the questionary were gender-

specific and there were separate items for men and women. If covariate gender was not

significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were performed.

There was a significant effect of the covariate gender for five scales: Independence

[F(1,567)=4.41, p=0.04, eta=0.10], Independence [F(1,567)=6.73, p=0.01, eta=0.11],

Role Transitions [F(1,567)=10.55, p=0.001, eta=0.13], Norm Compliance

[F(1,567)=9.45, p=0.002, eta=0.13] and Biological Transitions [F(1,567)=24.10,

p<0.001, eta=0.20], however, the independent variable age group was not significant

(last two columns in Table 6. 2).

There was not a significant effect of the covariate gender for two scales:


[F(1,567)=1.99, p=0.16]. In this case one-way between-groups ANOVAs were

performed and the independent variable age group was not significant (last two

columns in Table 6. 2).

To compare the seven scales, three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with

Wilks’ Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed.

There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for: adolescents Wilks’

Lambda=0.30, F(6,187)=73.85, p<0.001, eta=0.84, emerging adults Wilks’

Lambda=0.37, F(6,327)=91.74, p<0.001, eta=0.78 and midlife adults Wilks’

Lambda=0.26, F(6,39)=18.24, p<0.001, eta=0.86 (last two rows in Table 6. 3). Post hoc

contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the measures

were significant.

The results presented in Table 6. 3 show that the three age groups are unanimous

that Independence and Family Capacities are of least importance for reaching

adulthood, and Chronological Transitions is of greatest importance.

Table 6. 3: Average of scales for age groups (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and midlife

adults: 30-55)

scales


age groups statistics

adolescents emerging adults midlife adults sig. η


a 1.54

a - -


c 2.30

bc - -

Role Transitions 2.41c 2.38

c 2.31

c - -


b 1.90

ab - -

Biological Transitions 2.51c 2.41

c 2.47

cd - -

Chronological

Transitions 2.71

d 2.72

d 2.77

d -

-


a 1.66

a - -


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significance * * *

effect size: η 0.84,>L 0.78,>L 0.86,>L Note: low scores represent low relevant importance, and high score represent high relevant importance; (1-minimum, 4-

maximum); where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of measurements, an asterisk * appears beneath the

relevant column of seven figures and the specific location of the significant difference within the column is shown using

superscript letters (a, b, c), with mean scores which do not differ significantly from one another sharing the same

superscript letters; means with different superscripts differ significantly between samples i.e., means with (a) are

statistically significantly smaller than means with (b), which are statistically significantly smaller than means with (c);

and (ab) indicates that the mean falls between those indicated by (a) and (b) but does not differ statistically significantly

from either mean; where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of three groups, an asterisk * appears in the

final column and the specific location of the significant differences within the row of three figures is shown using

superscript numbers (1, 2, 3), with mean scores which do not differ significantly from one another sharing the same

superscript number; means with different superscripts differ significantly between samples i.e., means with (1) are

statistically significantly smaller than means with (2), which are statistically significantly smaller than means with (3);

and (12) indicates that the mean falls between those indicated by (1) and (2) but does not differ statistically significantly

from either mean; data analyses using one-way repeated measures ANOVA (by columns) with Wilks’ Lambda

multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison and one-way between-groups ANCOVA with Bonferroni pairwise

comparison (by rows).


“Development status (Reached adulthood)” analysis

“Do you feel like you have reached adulthood?” Response options were “yes”, “no”

and “in some ways yes, in some ways no” and formed groups of Reached adulthood:

adolescents (answer “no”), emerging adults (answer: “in some ways yes, in some ways

no”) and adults (answer “yes”).

To compare the three group of reached adulthood, seven one-way between-groups

ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with reached

adulthood as the independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and

gender as the covariate. Gender was covariate because some of the items on the

questionary were gender-specific and there were separate items for men and women. If

covariate gender was not significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were

performed.

There was a significant effect of the covariate gender for five scales: Independence

[F(1,567)=6.73, p=0.01, eta=0.32], Role Transitions [F(1,567)=7.73, p=0.006,

eta=0.11], Norm Compliance [F(1,567)=10.68, p=0.001, eta=0.13], Biological

Transitions [F(1,567)=19.62, p<0.001, eta=0.18] and Independence: [F(1,567)=4.65,

p=0.03, eta=0.09<0.10 and that is why we consider it as a not significant effect of the

covariate]. The independent variable reached adulthood was significant for three of

above five scales (last two columns in Table 6. 4).

There was not a significant effect of the covariate gender for two scales:


[F(1,567)=1.44, p=0.23]. In this case one-way between-groups ANOVAs were

performed and the independent variable reached adulthood was not significant (last two


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There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the three groups of

reached adulthood: “no” Wilks’ Lambda=0.40, F(6,121)=30.69, p<0.001, eta=0.77;

“yes/no” Wilks’ Lambda=0.30, F(6,285)=113.13, p<0.001, eta=0.84 and “yes” Wilks’

Lambda=0.36, F(6,147)=43.63, p<0.001, eta=0.80 (last two rows in Table 4). Post hoc

contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the measures

were significant.

Table 6. 4: Average of scales by Development status (Reached adulthood), three groups: “no”, “in

some ways yes, in some ways no” and “yes”

scales


Reached adulthood (development status) statistics

no yes/no yes sig. η


a 1.65

a - -

Interdependence 2.36c12

2.37c2

2.23c1

* 0.32,T

Role Transitions 2.35c12

2.46cd2

2.26c1

* 0.32,T


b 1.99

b - -

Biological Transitions 2.41

c12 2.56

d2 2.27

c1

* 0.13,S

Chronological

Transitions 2.71d 2.76

e 2.66

d

- -


a 1.68

a

significance * * *

effect size: η 0.77,>L 0.84,>L 0.80,>L

Note: see notes to Table 6. 3: Average of scales for age groups (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and midlife

adults: 30-55)


The results presented in Table 6. 4 show that the three groups of persons studied

attach least importance to reaching a degree of adulthood to the Independence and

Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions. On the

other hand, however, least importance is attached to the Interdependence, Role

Transitions and Biological Transitions scales by the persons studied who determine

themselves as having reached adulthood, and those, who are in the middle, attach

greatest importance to them.

“Living with” analysis

Scales transition to adulthood, by “Who are you living with?”, were analysed in two

ways: (a) two groups: with parents and without parents (Table 6. 5); (b) five groups:

alone, parents, own family, friends, partner (Table 6. 5). In both cases one-way

between-groups ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with

living with as the independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and


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age as the covariate. If covariate age was not significant, one-way between-groups

ANOVAs were performed.

The results from ANCOVA (Table 6. 5) show that there was not a significant effect

of the covariate age for all the seven scales: Independence [F(1,568)=0.18, p=0.68];

Interdependence [F(1,568)=2.21, p=0.14]; Role Transitions [F(1,568)=1.67, p=0.20];

Biological Transitions [F(1,568)=1.07, p=0.30]; Chronological Transitions

[F(1,568)=0.003, p=0.87]; Family Capacities [F(1,568)=0.79, p=0.37] and Norm

Compliance [F(1,568)=3.95, p=0.04, eta=0.08<0.10 and that is why we consider it as a

not significant effect of the covariate]. The results form ANOVA show that there is a

significant difference between the two groups only for scales Independence and

Chronological Transitions (last two columns in Table 6. 5).



There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the two groups of living

with parents: “yes” Wilks’ Lambda=0.36, F(6,324)=96.83, p<0.001, eta=0.80 and “no”

Wilks’ Lambda=0.32, F(6,235)=84.36, p<0.001, eta=0.83 (last two rows in Table 6. 5).

Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the

measures were significant.

Table 6. 5: Average of scales by living with parents: “yes” and “no”

scales


living with parents statistics

yes no sig. η


a * 0.11,S


c - -

Role Transitions 2.42c 2.33

c - -


b - -

Biological Transitions 2.47c 2.43

c - -

Chronological Transitions 2.67d 2.79

d * 0.10,S


a - -

significance * *

effect size: η 0.80,>L 0.83,>L

Note: see notes to Table 6. 2.


The results presented in Table 6. 5 show that the two groups of persons studied


Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions. On the

other hand, however, the Independence and Family Capacities scales are more

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important to the studied persons who live with their parents in comparison to those who

do not live with them.

The results from ANCOVA (Table 6. 6) show that there was a significant effect of

the covariate age for Interdependence [F(1,565)=6.41, p=0.01, eta=0.32] only,

however, there was not a significant effect of the independent variable living with (last

two columns in Table 6. 6).

There was not a significant effect of the covariate age for scales: Independence

[F(1,565)=0.18, p=0.67]; Role Transitions [F(1,565)=3.19, p=0.07]; Norm Compliance

[F(1,565)=2.15, p=0.14]; Biological Transitions [F(1,565)=0.56, p=0.46];


[F(1,565)=2.74, p=0.10]. The results form ANOVA show that there was not a

significant difference between two groups for all the six scales (last two columns in

Table 6. 5).

To compare the seven scales, five one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with


There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the five groups of living

with: alone Wilks’ Lambda=0.26, F(6,68)=32.27, p<0.001, eta=0.86; parents Wilks’

Lambda=0.36, F(6,324)=96.83, p<0.001, eta=0.80; own family Wilks’ Lambda=0.19,

F(6,36)=25.07, p<0.001, eta=0.89; friends Wilks’ Lambda=0.31, F(6,77)=29.05,

p<0.001, eta=0.83 and partner Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,36)=11.17, p<0.001, eta=0.81

(last two rows in Table 6. 6). Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed

that differences among the measures were significant.

The results presented in Table 6. 6 show that the five groups of persons studied


Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions.

“Education” analysis

Scales transition to adulthood were analysed by level of highest education: three

groups: Basic, College and University (Table 6. 7). One-way between-groups

ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with education as the

independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and age as the

covariate. If covariate age was not significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were

performed.


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Table 6. 6: Average of scales by “living with”

scales

transition to

adulthood

living with statistics

alone parents own family friends partner sig. η


a 1.51

a 1.61

a 1.64

a - -

Interdependence 2.26bc

2.34c 2.36

bc 2.33

c 2.33

bc - -

Role Transitions 2.38

c 2.42

c 2.31

b 2.27

bc 2.38

bc

- -

Norm Compliance 2.06

b 2.08

b 1.87

a 1.99

b 2.03

ab

- -

Biological

Transitions 2.54c 2.47

c 2.33

b 2.37

c 2.44

cd

- -

Chronological

Transitions 2.86d 2.67

d 2.78

c 2.71

d 2.82

d

- -

Family Capacities 1.68

a 1.75

a 1.70

a 1.65

a 1.83

a

- -

significance * * * * *

effect size: η 0.86,>L 0.80,>L 0.89,>L 0.83,>L 0.81,>L




the covariate age for two scales: Role Transitions [F(1,567)=5.70, p=0.02, eta=0.10]

and Biological Transitions F(1,567)=5.27, p=0.02, eta=0.10. The results form

ANCOVA show that there was a significant difference between three groups for both

scales (last two columns in Table 6. 7).


[F(1,567)=0.004, p=0.85]; Interdependence [F(1,567)=3.27, p=0.07]; Chronological

Transitions [F(1,567)=1.14, p=0.29]; Family Capacities [F(1,567)=1.62, p=0.20] and

Norm Compliance [F(1,567)=4.39, p=0.04, eta=0.09<0.10 and that is why we consider

it as a not significant effect of the covariate]. The results form ANOVA show that there

was a significant difference between three groups for all the five scales (last two




There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the three groups of

education: basic Wilks’ Lambda=0.30, F(6,43)=16.98, p<0.001, eta=0.84; college

Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,447)=136.32, p<0.001, eta=0.80 and university Wilks’

Lambda=0.20, F(6,63)=42.10, p<0.001, eta=0.89. Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni

adjustment revealed that differences among the measures were significant.

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Table 6. 7: Average of scales by “education completed”

scales


education completed statistics

basic college university sig. η

Independence 1.71a2

1.67a12

1.52a1

* 0.10,S

Interdependence 2.53cd2

2.30c1

2.41c12

* 0.14,S

Role Transitions 2.67d2

2.33c1

2.57c12

* 0.17,S

Norm Compliance 2.29bc2

2.02b1

2.06b12

* 0.12,S

Biological Transitions 2.66cd12

2.39c1

2.70cd2

* 0.16,S

Chronological Transitions 2.67d1

2.69d12

2.96d2

* 0.12,S

Family Capacities 1.96ab12

1.69a1

1.82ab2

* 0.15,S

significance * * *

effect size: η 0.84,>L 0.80,>L 0.89,>L



The results presented in Table 6. 7 show that the three groups of persons studied



“Children” analysis

Scales transition to adulthood were analysed by level of highest education: three

groups: Basic, College and University (Table 6. 8). One-way between-groups

ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with children as the

independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and age as the

covariate. If covariate age was not significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were

performed.


the covariate age for scale Interdependence: [F(1,568)=5.91, p=0.02, eta=0.10] only,

however, there was not a significant effect of the independent variable children (last

two columns in Table 8).


[F(1,568)=0.04, p=0.82]; Role Transitions [F(1,568)=1.27, p=0.26]; Norm Compliance

[F(1,568)=2.66, p=0.10]; Biological Transitions [F(1,568)=0.04, p=0.84];


[F(1,568)=1.61, p=0.210. The results form ANOVA show that there was a significant

difference between two groups for all the five scales (last two columns in Table 6. 8).

To compare the seven scales, two one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with Wilks’

Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed. There


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was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the two groups: without

children Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,531)=166.70, p<0.001, eta=0.81 and with children

Wilks’ Lambda=0.20, F(6,28)=18.58, p<0.001, eta=0.89. Post hoc contrasts using

Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the measures were significant.

Table 6. 8: Average of scales by children

scales


own children statistics

no yes sig. η


a - -


bc - -

Role Transitions 2.39cd

2.23bc

- -


ab - -

Biological Transitions 2.46d 2.24

bc - -

Chronological Transitions 2.72e 2.69

c - -


a - -

significance * *

effect size: η 0.81,>L 0.89,>L



The results presented in Table 6. 8 show that the two groups of persons studied



Discussion

Which are the criteria for reaching adulthood according to young people in

Bulgaria? Which of them make them “psychologically” adult? Do they feel mature

enough to take independent decisions and to bear the responsibility and consequences

of them, to believe in their own powers, assessment, talent and potential? Besides the

biological reaching of a certain age, what matters for the successful entry into the

adults’ world? It is the answers to those questions that the study presented is dedicated

to.

The result from the methodology applied show that both men and women attach

greatest importance to Chronological Transitions such as being 18 and coming of age,

which allows obtaining a driving licence, permission to smoke cigarettes and drink

alcohol, and Biological Transitions such as reaching full height and presence of

biological ability to have and bring up own children. On the other hand, the persons

studied attach least importance to scales such as Independence, financial, leaving the

parents’ home and establishing equal relations with them and Family Capacities such as

founding own family and taking care of its members, keeping house, etc.

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139

Immanuel Kant is the first to draw a parallel between Enlightenment and majority.

The Enlightenment is the age of most intensive spiritual development, of flowering of

sciences and arts. The Enlightenment is the age that gives rise to cultural prerequisites

for the development of the modern world. Kant calls this age “civil majority” –

reaching a certain age after which one is in a position to take decisions himself, to bear

responsibility himself for own acts, to assess himself and rely himself on own reason,

experience and values. The Enlightenment is an expression of the belief in reason and

science. It is an age in which revolt against tyranny of inertia, of authorities, of

hierarchy, of prejudices is observed. The Enlightenment is a longing for freedom,

independent life, personal realisation.

Logically, the results obtained show that young people in Bulgaria, probably

because of financial difficulties and standard in the county, are hardly allowed to take

independent decisions and feel independent to a low extent both of their parents and the

society as a whole. They are similar to the results of the study conducted (Schlegel,

Barry, 1991) on development of adolescents from 186 cultures different from the West

European one, which show that the transition and entry into the adults’ world are not

characterised by individualistic criteria such as financial and emotional Independence

of the parents, leaving their home and establishing equal relations with them,

characteristic of the American society. To the persons studied with the same

methodology in the USA (Arnett, 2004), most important is the financial and emotional

independence of the parents, leaving their home and living independently. This trend

could find its explanation in the fact that the Bulgarian society is more collectivist in

comparison to the American one.

Another trend that is observed in the persons studied from Bulgaria, who are not an

exception from the same generation in Western Europe, is that young people do not

wish to found a family and to have children up to the age of 35, they postpone in time

the commitment to a matrimonial partner, and when this happens, they are assisted in

the bringing-up of the offspring by their parents. It is an indisputable fact that the birth

of a child also provokes the increased attention of grandmothers and grandfathers to

everything in the life of the young parents who do not feel independent and self-

dependent. Although in the modern world the role of grandmothers and grandfathers in

the life of their heirs changes over the years, they devote their labour, support, time,

worldly knowledge accumulated and assistance, staying invariably next to their children

and grandchildren. No matter what changes in the relations between the generations, the

grandmother and the grandfather in Bulgaria continue to be a symbol of stability,

tradition, customs, collective memory, of tranquillity and security. Their images

personify the traditions in the penumbra of the newly formed familial nucleus.

In conclusion, the results obtained from the study conducted show that the entry into

the adults’ world is not a process that happens to the young person, but takes place


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inside him/her. They confirm the necessity of conducting further investigations in the

cases where one is forced to act as an adult before feeling as such and how this affects

the identity formation.

Zornitza Ganeva - Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case

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