Age Management.
Actual Challenges and Promising Solutions
Regarding the Ageing European Population.
Martina Rašticová et al.
Scientific editorial board:
Akademické nakladatelství CERM®
, s.r.o.
Reviewers:
prof. Faye J Crosby (University of California, Santa Cruz, USA)
Associate prof. Ram Mahalingam (Univeristy of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA)
prof. Ing. Zbyněk Pitra, DrSc. (Chairman of the Council of Experts of the Czech
Management Association, University of Hradec Králové)
doc. Ing. Lea Kubíčková, Ph.D. (Mendel University in Brno)
©Martina Rašticová et al., 2013
ISBN 978-80-7204-848-9
124
6. Conception of the Transition to Adulthood:
Bulgaria Case
Zornitza Ganeva
Introduction
Living apart from your parents. Contracting a marriage. Having a child. Which of
these vital and decisive events is most important for the individual’s development?
Which of them turns adolescents into adults? How do young people from Bulgaria fit
into in comparison with young people from other countries? It is the answers to those
questions that this paper is dedicated to.
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is an independent separate subjectively
specific period of young people’s development in the industrial society (Arnett 2000).
The majority of them do not feel adolescents already, they have passed their teenage
years, but, at the same time, they are not completely adult, have not entered entirely the
adults’ world and have not acquired an adult status. Basing on empirical studies
conducted mainly in the USA, Jeffrey Arnett (Arnett 2000, 2004) developed a theory of
the emerging adulthood period that characterises the young people’s development
between 18 and 28 years of age. Arnett (2004) acknowledges that emerging adulthood
may not be a universal period of human development, suggesting that this period exists
“only under certain conditions that have occurred only quite recently and only in some
cultures” (Arnett, 2004, p. 21). Despite this caution, recent research provides evidence
that many of Arnett’s features of emerging adulthood can be seen in young people in a
variety of nations and cultures.
According to the author (Arnett, 2004), the acquisition of an adult status is perceived
by many contemporary young people as a danger that has to be avoided because it
marks the end of independence and freedom. To them, the period of transition from
adolescence to adulthood gives them an unprecedented opportunity to explore in the
sphere of education, intimacy, labour and amusements and to accumulate various
experience of life. As a whole, besides the self-focus because of the few daily
obligations towards other people, this is both time filled with a number of opportunities,
high hopes and belief in future and time of instability in the personal and professional
life, of frequent change of the residence, of the labour position occupied or of the
intimate partner.
According to the author, during the period, the time to acquire higher education
increases, the instability in the workplace occupied grows and the women enter more
flexible roles. Because of the more efficient contraception on a worldwide scale, the
average age at which the young people conclude a marriage and become parents, steps
Zornitza Ganeva
125
that are historically related to the adult status, increases. Concluding a marriage and
giving birth to a child are also postponed in time because more and more young people
prefer to explore new opportunities in their career development, to satisfy their needs as
consumers and to emigrate in search of better economic and social opportunities. There
is a debate in the Eastern European countries whether the low birth levels are a result of
the economic uncertainty and instability or a symbol of the modern age (Paxson, 2005).
The fact that in more countries in Europe the childbirth is postponed by about 10
years in comparison with 50 years ago finds its logic explanation in sparing the time for
activities characteristic of the transition from adolescence to adulthood such as
completing education, leaving the parents’ home, looking for an appropriate job,
acquaintance with the world, finding an intimate partner, creating an own home, having
a family and children of one’s own (Douglass, 2007).
Arnett (Arnett, 2004) defined the distinguishing features of the period examined; the
feeling in-between, between adolescence and adulthood, the active exploration of the
own identity, more specifically in fields such as employment, intimate life and views of
the world, self-focus not in the sense of egocentrism, but for lack of obligations towards
the others, instability caused by intensive changes in the social status, in the
relationships with the intimate partner, in the labour positions occupied, in the choice of
a speciality for education, and many possibilities provided or an optimism to arrange the
own life in the direction desired.
Although the subjects that are of interest to the young people in transition between
adolescence and adulthood in Europe are similar as a whole: exploration of various
prospects for life, accumulation of experience, retaining the feeling of freedom, they
find their practical reflection in the social world in a different way. To young people
from Norway (Ravn 2005), the ideal before becoming parents is to have lived
independently for several years, to have completed their education, to have worked for
at least 1 year, to have cohabited with their intimate partner for a certain time, to have
accumulated experience in travels or other activities developing the own personality.
After all this has been accomplished, in their opinion, it is time for one to settle down
and have children. It is necessary that both women and men are independent,
individually give a meaning to their life and value the freedom to explore different life
choices and roads that the emerging adulthood offers.
Cultural traditions in different countries form the attitudes towards the socially
embraced road of the life cycle to reach adulthood (Breen and Buchmann 2002). Social
attitudes predetermine the adopted different social policy towards family and young
people in each country.
The present Bulgarian emerging adults, similarly to young people in the Czech
Republic (Macek et al., 2007) were born in the 1980s, that is, in the period of the
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
126
totalitarian communist regime. The low level of personal freedom, a rather confined
right to express one’s own views, or even sanctions for breaching loyalty toward the
communist regime were compensated by the relatively high level of the fundamental
social security benefits. Young people’s opportunities and personal perspectives were
rather limited, the future did not offer many options. This way of entering adulthood
was experienced by a vast majority of the parents of today’s emerging adults.
The aim of the study conducted is to determine which of the examined
psychological characteristics for reaching adulthood are of greatest and, respectively,
least importance for the persons studied, with analysis having been made with respect
to following variables: gender, age, subjective development status, cohabitation and
presence of own children.
Method
Participants
The participants were 571 persons aged 16-55 (M = 21.9, SD = 5.5), including 193
adolescents (aged 16-19, M = 18.3, SD = 1.0); 330 emerging adults (aged 20-29, M =
21.8, SD = 2.2), and 25 young-to-midlife adults (aged 30-55, M = 37.3, SD = 7.2).
Women were 341 (M = 22.2, SD = 5.9), and men were 230 (M = 21.4, SD = 4.8). The
majority were single (82%) and did not have children (94%). Fifty-eight per cent of
participants were living with parents, 29% lived with somebody and 13% lived alone.
Seven per cent were married, 11% engaged and 82% single. Participants with basic
education were 9%, with college – 12% and university degree – 79%.
Measurement
The participants were asked to fill out a 52 items questionary (Arnett, 2004). There
were 43 items on the questionary participants were asked to “indicate whether you think
the following must me achieved before a person can be considered to be an adult”.
They could indicate one of four Likert-style rating scales from 1 – “very important”, 2 –
“quite important”, 3 – “slightly important” and 4 – “not at all important”. These 43
items form 7 emerging adulthood scales: Independence (6 items), Interdependence (5
items), Role Transitions (6 items), Norm Compliance (8 items), Biological Transitions
(4 items), Chronological Transitions (5 items if a men and 6 items if a women) and
Family Capacities (8 items).
Participants were asked on the questionary: (a) “What are the three most important
things for a person to be considered an adult? You may answer by writing in the
numbers of any of the 43 items above, or by writing in your own response”. (b) “Do
you feel like you have reached adulthood?”. Response options were “yes”, “no” and “in
Zornitza Ganeva
127
some ways yes, in some ways no”. (c) “Indicate how adult you feel when you are with
each of the following persons: father, mother, brother or sister (if you have any),
friends, romantic partner (girlfriend or boyfriend), co-workers (if you have a job) or
parents. Response options were in Likert-style: “fully adult”, “partly adult” and “not at
all adult”. (d) In addition, a variety of questions concerning background and
demographic information were included.
Calculation
The result of each of the 7 scales represents an average of all answers given and they
are between 0 (minimum) and 4 (maximum). For all scales, the higher values obtained
correspond to higher importance attached by the persons surveyed to the psychological
characteristics that are comprised in them.
Scale reliability
In order to explore if the 43 items form 7 reliable scales, Cronbach’s alpha was
calculated for each of them. The internal reliability of the Independence scale that
consists of 6 items (37, 1, 2, 14, 31 and 18) is α=0.61 for the whole sample; of the
Interdependence scale that consists of 5 items (17, 19, 38, 39 and 40) is α=0.50; of the
Role Transitions scale that consists of 6 items (3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 34) is α=0.76; of the
Norm Compliance scale that consists of 8 items (8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 35 and 36) is
α=0.75; of the Biological Transitions scale that consists of 4 items (26, 27, 28 and 33)
is α=0.55; of the Chronological Transitions scale that consists of 6 items (15, 16, 32,
41, 42 and 43) is α=0.69 and of the Family Capacities scale that consists of 8 items (20,
21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 30) is α=0.55.
Construct validity
Organization of the subscales was guided by theoretical criteria rather than by a
quantitative statistical approach such as factor analysis (Arnett, 2004). That is why, in
order to explore validity of the scale instead of confirmatory factor analysis (43 items
and 7 scales), Pearson’s linear correlation coefficients between the scales were
calculated (Tables 1). The correlations between scales were between 0.00 and 0.48 and
that is why scales could be interpreted rather as independent scales then as subscales.
Effect size
The interpretation of effect size was calculated using Cohen’s η (eta) and was
interpreted as: >0.45 much larger than typical (>L), 0.37-0.44 larger than typical (L),
0.24-0.36 medium or typical (T), 0.10-0.23 smaller than typical (S), according to Cohen
(Cohen 1988).
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
128
The above results for Cronbach’s alpha and Pearson’s correlation show that
methodology “What does it mean to be an adult” (Arnett, 2004) is reliable and valid for
Bulgarian sample (N=571).
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis
The descriptive statistics and the results of the correlation analysis of the 7
adulthood scales are presented in Table 6. 1. Their mean values M (see the lower part of
Table 1) are lower than the mean value for the maximum range of variation M=2.50,
which shows that the respondents as a whole feel less adult with respect to each of the 7
scales indicated except for the Chronological Transitions scale. The standard deviation
SD is also approximately the same, which shows homogeneity in the respondents’
answers. Most homogeneous are their answers for Independence and Interdependence
SD=0.51, and most heterogeneous are their answers for Biological Transitions
SD=0.78. The observed range for six of the seven scales coincides with the maximum
possible range. This shows that the respondents have had maximum possible different
opinion.
The correlation between the 7 adulthood scales (the upper part of Table 6. 1) is weak
to medium positive, which means that there is medium positive association between
them.
The correlation between the seven rating scales and: (a) age, (b) gender, (c) own
children, (d) education, (e) development status and (f) if one lives with his/her parents
(see the upper part of Table 6. 1) is mostly weak negative, which means that the values
of the seven rating adulthood scales are weakly influenced by demographic
characteristics enumerated.
Two-way ANOVA by gender and age
Seven two-way between-groups ANOVAs were performed to explore the impact of
gender and age on level of scales. Subjects were divided into three groups according to
their age (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and young-to-midlife adults: 30-
55). The interaction effect between gender and age group was significant for Biological
Transitions: F(2,565)=4.34, p=0.01 with a small effect size, eta=0.12, however, it was
not significant for the remaining six scales: Independence F(2,565)=0.19, p=0.83,
Interdependence F(2,565)=0.32, p=0.73, Role Transitions F(2,565)=0.24, p=0.78, Norm
Compliance F(2,565)=0.64, p=0.52, Chronological Transitions F(2,565)=0.09, p=0.91
and Family Capacities F(2,565)=1.49, p=0.22.
Zornitza Ganeva
129
Table 6. 1: Sample correlation matrix, means (M), standard deviations (SD), observed and maximum
range for seven emerging adulthood scales.
correlation
between and scale for transition to adulthood
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. Independence 1
2.
Interdependence 0.23
*** 1
3. Role
Transitions 0.12
** 0.45
*** 1
4. Norm
Compliance 0.31
*** 0.37
*** 0.39
*** 1
5. Biological
Transitions 0.10
** 0.36
*** 0.48
*** 0.13
** 1
6. Chronological
Transitions 0.02
** 0.21
*** 0.21
*** 0.00 0.44
*** 1
7. Family
Capacities 0.49
*** 0.28
*** 0.20
*** 0.36
*** 0.21
*** -0.02 1
age -0.04 -0.07 -0.07 -0.10* -0.05 0.02 -0.05
gender -0.09* 0.11
** 0.13
** -0.13
** 0.20
*** 0.03 0.06
children -0.06 0.02 -0.06 -0.07 -0.07 -0.01 -0.02
education -0.09**
-0.03 -0.01 -0.07 0.03 0.10* -0.04
development
status -0.02 -0.09
** -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 -0.03 -0.04
living with parents -0.08* -0.02 -0.06 -0.06 -0.02 0.08 -0.05
M 1.66 2.33 2.38 2.04 2.45 2.72 1.73
SD 0.51 0.51 0.71 0.64 0.78 0.74 0.55
Observed range 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 3.8 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0
1.0,
4.0
1.0,
4.0
Maximum range 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0 1.0, 4.0
1.0,
4.0
1.0,
4.0 Note: seven scales and variables age, education (1-basic, 2-college, 3-university), development status (1-adolescent, 2-
emerging adult, 3-fully adult) were analysed using Pearson’s linear correlation coefficients; dichotomous variables
gender (1-men, 2-women), children (0-no, 1-yes), living with parents (1-yes, 2-no) were analysed using point-biserial
correlation; * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.
Source: The author´s own investigation
“Gender” analysis
To compare the two groups: men and women, seven one-way between-groups
ANCOVAs were performed with gender as the independent variable and score of scale
as the dependent variables and age as the covariate. There was a significant effect of the
covariate for Role Transitions [F(1,568)=4.00, p=0.046, eta=0.12] and Norm
Compliance [F(1,568)=4.56, p=0.03, eta=0.14]. There was no significant effect for the
other 5 scales: Independence [F(1,568)=0.78, p=0.38], Interdependence
[F(1,568)=3.30, p=0.07], Biological Transitions [F(1,568)=2.50, p=0.11],
Chronological Transitions [F(1,568)=0.15, p=0.70] and Family Capacities
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
130
[F(1,568)=1.71, p=0.19] and in this case one-way between-groups ANOVAs were
performed (last two columns in Table 6. 2).
To compare the seven scales, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed
with difference contrasts. First, there was a significant effect for the repeated measures
for a whole sample: Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,565)=179.08, p<0.001, eta=0.81; group
of men: Wilks’ Lambda=0.40, F(6,224)=56.27, p<0.001, eta=0.78 and for the group of
women: Wilks’ Lambda=0.29, F(6,335)=137.34, p<0.001, eta=0.84 (last two rows in
Table 6. 2). Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences
among the measures were significant.
Table 6. 2: Average of scales, for a whole sample and for men and women
scales
transition to adulthood
All gender statistics
men women sig. η
Independence 1.66a 1.71
a 1.62
a * 0.10,S
Interdependence 2.33c 2.26
b 2.38
c * 0.11,S
Role Transitions 2.38cd
2.26b 2.47
cd * 0.14,S
Norm Compliance 2.04b 2.14
b 1.98
b * 0.13,S
Biological Transitions 2.45d 2.26
b 2.58
d * 0.21,S
Chronological Transitions 2.72e 2.69
c 2.74
e - -
Family Capacities 1.73a 1.69
a 1.76
a - -
significance * * *
effect size: η 0.81,>L 0.78,>L 0.84,>L
Note: low scores represent low relevant importance, and high score represent high relevant importance; (1-minimum, 4-
maximum); where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of measurements, an asterisk * appears beneath the
relevant column of seven figures and the specific location of the significant difference within the column is shown using
superscript letters (a, b, c), with mean scores which do not differ significantly from one another sharing the same
superscript letters; means with different superscripts differ significantly between samples i.e., means with (a) are
statistically significantly smaller than means with (b), which are statistically significantly smaller than means with (c);
and (ab) indicates that the mean falls between those indicated by (a) and (b) but does not differ statistically significantly
from either mean; where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of two groups (men and women), an asterisk *
appears in the final column; data analyses using one-way repeated measures ANOVA (by columns) and one-way
between-groups ANCOVA (by rows).
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
The results presented in Table 6. 2 show that to all persons studied of greatest
importance is Biological Transitions, and of least – Independence and Family
Capacities. Both to men and women of greatest importance is Chronological
Transitions. As a whole, the women studied attach greatest importance to
Interdependence and Biological Transitions.
“Age group” analysis
To compare the three age groups (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and
young-to-midlife adults: 30-55), seven one-way between-groups ANCOVAs with
Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with age group as the independent
Zornitza Ganeva
131
variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and gender as the covariate.
Gender was covariate, because some of the items on the questionary were gender-
specific and there were separate items for men and women. If covariate gender was not
significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were performed.
There was a significant effect of the covariate gender for five scales: Independence
[F(1,567)=4.41, p=0.04, eta=0.10], Independence [F(1,567)=6.73, p=0.01, eta=0.11],
Role Transitions [F(1,567)=10.55, p=0.001, eta=0.13], Norm Compliance
[F(1,567)=9.45, p=0.002, eta=0.13] and Biological Transitions [F(1,567)=24.10,
p<0.001, eta=0.20], however, the independent variable age group was not significant
(last two columns in Table 6. 2).
There was not a significant effect of the covariate gender for two scales:
Chronological Transitions [F(1,567)=0.47, p=0.49] and Family Capacities
[F(1,567)=1.99, p=0.16]. In this case one-way between-groups ANOVAs were
performed and the independent variable age group was not significant (last two
columns in Table 6. 2).
To compare the seven scales, three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with
Wilks’ Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed.
There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for: adolescents Wilks’
Lambda=0.30, F(6,187)=73.85, p<0.001, eta=0.84, emerging adults Wilks’
Lambda=0.37, F(6,327)=91.74, p<0.001, eta=0.78 and midlife adults Wilks’
Lambda=0.26, F(6,39)=18.24, p<0.001, eta=0.86 (last two rows in Table 6. 3). Post hoc
contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the measures
were significant.
The results presented in Table 6. 3 show that the three age groups are unanimous
that Independence and Family Capacities are of least importance for reaching
adulthood, and Chronological Transitions is of greatest importance.
Table 6. 3: Average of scales for age groups (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and midlife
adults: 30-55)
scales
transition to adulthood
age groups statistics
adolescents emerging adults midlife adults sig. η
Independence 1.65a 1.67
a 1.54
a - -
Interdependence 2.39c 2.31
c 2.30
bc - -
Role Transitions 2.41c 2.38
c 2.31
c - -
Norm Compliance 2.05b 2.06
b 1.90
ab - -
Biological Transitions 2.51c 2.41
c 2.47
cd - -
Chronological
Transitions 2.71
d 2.72
d 2.77
d -
-
Family Capacities 1.74a 1.73
a 1.66
a - -
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
132
significance * * *
effect size: η 0.84,>L 0.78,>L 0.86,>L Note: low scores represent low relevant importance, and high score represent high relevant importance; (1-minimum, 4-
maximum); where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of measurements, an asterisk * appears beneath the
relevant column of seven figures and the specific location of the significant difference within the column is shown using
superscript letters (a, b, c), with mean scores which do not differ significantly from one another sharing the same
superscript letters; means with different superscripts differ significantly between samples i.e., means with (a) are
statistically significantly smaller than means with (b), which are statistically significantly smaller than means with (c);
and (ab) indicates that the mean falls between those indicated by (a) and (b) but does not differ statistically significantly
from either mean; where there is a statistically significant effect at p<0.05 of three groups, an asterisk * appears in the
final column and the specific location of the significant differences within the row of three figures is shown using
superscript numbers (1, 2, 3), with mean scores which do not differ significantly from one another sharing the same
superscript number; means with different superscripts differ significantly between samples i.e., means with (1) are
statistically significantly smaller than means with (2), which are statistically significantly smaller than means with (3);
and (12) indicates that the mean falls between those indicated by (1) and (2) but does not differ statistically significantly
from either mean; data analyses using one-way repeated measures ANOVA (by columns) with Wilks’ Lambda
multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison and one-way between-groups ANCOVA with Bonferroni pairwise
comparison (by rows).
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
“Development status (Reached adulthood)” analysis
“Do you feel like you have reached adulthood?” Response options were “yes”, “no”
and “in some ways yes, in some ways no” and formed groups of Reached adulthood:
adolescents (answer “no”), emerging adults (answer: “in some ways yes, in some ways
no”) and adults (answer “yes”).
To compare the three group of reached adulthood, seven one-way between-groups
ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with reached
adulthood as the independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and
gender as the covariate. Gender was covariate because some of the items on the
questionary were gender-specific and there were separate items for men and women. If
covariate gender was not significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were
performed.
There was a significant effect of the covariate gender for five scales: Independence
[F(1,567)=6.73, p=0.01, eta=0.32], Role Transitions [F(1,567)=7.73, p=0.006,
eta=0.11], Norm Compliance [F(1,567)=10.68, p=0.001, eta=0.13], Biological
Transitions [F(1,567)=19.62, p<0.001, eta=0.18] and Independence: [F(1,567)=4.65,
p=0.03, eta=0.09<0.10 and that is why we consider it as a not significant effect of the
covariate]. The independent variable reached adulthood was significant for three of
above five scales (last two columns in Table 6. 4).
There was not a significant effect of the covariate gender for two scales:
Chronological Transitions [F(1,567)=0.25, p=0.62] and Family Capacities
[F(1,567)=1.44, p=0.23]. In this case one-way between-groups ANOVAs were
performed and the independent variable reached adulthood was not significant (last two
columns in Table 6. 4).
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133
To compare the seven scales, three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with
Wilks’ Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed.
There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the three groups of
reached adulthood: “no” Wilks’ Lambda=0.40, F(6,121)=30.69, p<0.001, eta=0.77;
“yes/no” Wilks’ Lambda=0.30, F(6,285)=113.13, p<0.001, eta=0.84 and “yes” Wilks’
Lambda=0.36, F(6,147)=43.63, p<0.001, eta=0.80 (last two rows in Table 4). Post hoc
contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the measures
were significant.
Table 6. 4: Average of scales by Development status (Reached adulthood), three groups: “no”, “in
some ways yes, in some ways no” and “yes”
scales
transition to adulthood
Reached adulthood (development status) statistics
no yes/no yes sig. η
Independence 1.68a 1.65
a 1.65
a - -
Interdependence 2.36c12
2.37c2
2.23c1
* 0.32,T
Role Transitions 2.35c12
2.46cd2
2.26c1
* 0.32,T
Norm Compliance 2.10b 2.05
b 1.99
b - -
Biological Transitions 2.41
c12 2.56
d2 2.27
c1
* 0.13,S
Chronological
Transitions 2.71d 2.76
e 2.66
d
- -
Family Capacities 1.74a 1.75
a 1.68
a
significance * * *
effect size: η 0.77,>L 0.84,>L 0.80,>L
Note: see notes to Table 6. 3: Average of scales for age groups (adolescents: 16-19, emerging adults: 20-29 and midlife
adults: 30-55)
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
The results presented in Table 6. 4 show that the three groups of persons studied
attach least importance to reaching a degree of adulthood to the Independence and
Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions. On the
other hand, however, least importance is attached to the Interdependence, Role
Transitions and Biological Transitions scales by the persons studied who determine
themselves as having reached adulthood, and those, who are in the middle, attach
greatest importance to them.
“Living with” analysis
Scales transition to adulthood, by “Who are you living with?”, were analysed in two
ways: (a) two groups: with parents and without parents (Table 6. 5); (b) five groups:
alone, parents, own family, friends, partner (Table 6. 5). In both cases one-way
between-groups ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with
living with as the independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
134
age as the covariate. If covariate age was not significant, one-way between-groups
ANOVAs were performed.
The results from ANCOVA (Table 6. 5) show that there was not a significant effect
of the covariate age for all the seven scales: Independence [F(1,568)=0.18, p=0.68];
Interdependence [F(1,568)=2.21, p=0.14]; Role Transitions [F(1,568)=1.67, p=0.20];
Biological Transitions [F(1,568)=1.07, p=0.30]; Chronological Transitions
[F(1,568)=0.003, p=0.87]; Family Capacities [F(1,568)=0.79, p=0.37] and Norm
Compliance [F(1,568)=3.95, p=0.04, eta=0.08<0.10 and that is why we consider it as a
not significant effect of the covariate]. The results form ANOVA show that there is a
significant difference between the two groups only for scales Independence and
Chronological Transitions (last two columns in Table 6. 5).
To compare the seven scales, three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with
Wilks’ Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed.
There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the two groups of living
with parents: “yes” Wilks’ Lambda=0.36, F(6,324)=96.83, p<0.001, eta=0.80 and “no”
Wilks’ Lambda=0.32, F(6,235)=84.36, p<0.001, eta=0.83 (last two rows in Table 6. 5).
Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the
measures were significant.
Table 6. 5: Average of scales by living with parents: “yes” and “no”
scales
transition to adulthood
living with parents statistics
yes no sig. η
Independence 1.69a 1.61
a * 0.11,S
Interdependence 2.34c 2.32
c - -
Role Transitions 2.42c 2.33
c - -
Norm Compliance 2.08b 1.99
b - -
Biological Transitions 2.47c 2.43
c - -
Chronological Transitions 2.67d 2.79
d * 0.10,S
Family Capacities 1.75a 1.70
a - -
significance * *
effect size: η 0.80,>L 0.83,>L
Note: see notes to Table 6. 2.
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
The results presented in Table 6. 5 show that the two groups of persons studied
attach least importance to reaching a degree of adulthood to the Independence and
Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions. On the
other hand, however, the Independence and Family Capacities scales are more
Zornitza Ganeva
135
important to the studied persons who live with their parents in comparison to those who
do not live with them.
The results from ANCOVA (Table 6. 6) show that there was a significant effect of
the covariate age for Interdependence [F(1,565)=6.41, p=0.01, eta=0.32] only,
however, there was not a significant effect of the independent variable living with (last
two columns in Table 6. 6).
There was not a significant effect of the covariate age for scales: Independence
[F(1,565)=0.18, p=0.67]; Role Transitions [F(1,565)=3.19, p=0.07]; Norm Compliance
[F(1,565)=2.15, p=0.14]; Biological Transitions [F(1,565)=0.56, p=0.46];
Chronological Transitions [F(1,565)=0.11, p=0.74] and Family Capacities
[F(1,565)=2.74, p=0.10]. The results form ANOVA show that there was not a
significant difference between two groups for all the six scales (last two columns in
Table 6. 5).
To compare the seven scales, five one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with
Wilks’ Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed.
There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the five groups of living
with: alone Wilks’ Lambda=0.26, F(6,68)=32.27, p<0.001, eta=0.86; parents Wilks’
Lambda=0.36, F(6,324)=96.83, p<0.001, eta=0.80; own family Wilks’ Lambda=0.19,
F(6,36)=25.07, p<0.001, eta=0.89; friends Wilks’ Lambda=0.31, F(6,77)=29.05,
p<0.001, eta=0.83 and partner Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,36)=11.17, p<0.001, eta=0.81
(last two rows in Table 6. 6). Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni adjustment revealed
that differences among the measures were significant.
The results presented in Table 6. 6 show that the five groups of persons studied
attach least importance to reaching a degree of adulthood to the Independence and
Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions.
“Education” analysis
Scales transition to adulthood were analysed by level of highest education: three
groups: Basic, College and University (Table 6. 7). One-way between-groups
ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with education as the
independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and age as the
covariate. If covariate age was not significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were
performed.
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
136
Table 6. 6: Average of scales by “living with”
scales
transition to
adulthood
living with statistics
alone parents own family friends partner sig. η
Independence 1.62a 1.69
a 1.51
a 1.61
a 1.64
a - -
Interdependence 2.26bc
2.34c 2.36
bc 2.33
c 2.33
bc - -
Role Transitions 2.38
c 2.42
c 2.31
b 2.27
bc 2.38
bc
- -
Norm Compliance 2.06
b 2.08
b 1.87
a 1.99
b 2.03
ab
- -
Biological
Transitions 2.54c 2.47
c 2.33
b 2.37
c 2.44
cd
- -
Chronological
Transitions 2.86d 2.67
d 2.78
c 2.71
d 2.82
d
- -
Family Capacities 1.68
a 1.75
a 1.70
a 1.65
a 1.83
a
- -
significance * * * * *
effect size: η 0.86,>L 0.80,>L 0.89,>L 0.83,>L 0.81,>L
Note: see notes to Table 6. 3.
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
The results from ANCOVA (Table 6. 7) show that there was a significant effect of
the covariate age for two scales: Role Transitions [F(1,567)=5.70, p=0.02, eta=0.10]
and Biological Transitions F(1,567)=5.27, p=0.02, eta=0.10. The results form
ANCOVA show that there was a significant difference between three groups for both
scales (last two columns in Table 6. 7).
There was not a significant effect of the covariate age for scales: Independence
[F(1,567)=0.004, p=0.85]; Interdependence [F(1,567)=3.27, p=0.07]; Chronological
Transitions [F(1,567)=1.14, p=0.29]; Family Capacities [F(1,567)=1.62, p=0.20] and
Norm Compliance [F(1,567)=4.39, p=0.04, eta=0.09<0.10 and that is why we consider
it as a not significant effect of the covariate]. The results form ANOVA show that there
was a significant difference between three groups for all the five scales (last two
columns in Table 6. 7).
To compare the seven scales, three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with
Wilks’ Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed.
There was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the three groups of
education: basic Wilks’ Lambda=0.30, F(6,43)=16.98, p<0.001, eta=0.84; college
Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,447)=136.32, p<0.001, eta=0.80 and university Wilks’
Lambda=0.20, F(6,63)=42.10, p<0.001, eta=0.89. Post hoc contrasts using Bonferroni
adjustment revealed that differences among the measures were significant.
Zornitza Ganeva
137
Table 6. 7: Average of scales by “education completed”
scales
transition to adulthood
education completed statistics
basic college university sig. η
Independence 1.71a2
1.67a12
1.52a1
* 0.10,S
Interdependence 2.53cd2
2.30c1
2.41c12
* 0.14,S
Role Transitions 2.67d2
2.33c1
2.57c12
* 0.17,S
Norm Compliance 2.29bc2
2.02b1
2.06b12
* 0.12,S
Biological Transitions 2.66cd12
2.39c1
2.70cd2
* 0.16,S
Chronological Transitions 2.67d1
2.69d12
2.96d2
* 0.12,S
Family Capacities 1.96ab12
1.69a1
1.82ab2
* 0.15,S
significance * * *
effect size: η 0.84,>L 0.80,>L 0.89,>L
Note: see notes to Table 6. 3.
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
The results presented in Table 6. 7 show that the three groups of persons studied
attach least importance to reaching a degree of adulthood to the Independence and
Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions.
“Children” analysis
Scales transition to adulthood were analysed by level of highest education: three
groups: Basic, College and University (Table 6. 8). One-way between-groups
ANCOVAs with Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed with children as the
independent variable and score of scale as the dependent variables and age as the
covariate. If covariate age was not significant, one-way between-groups ANOVAs were
performed.
The results from ANCOVA (Table 6. 8) show that there was a significant effect of
the covariate age for scale Interdependence: [F(1,568)=5.91, p=0.02, eta=0.10] only,
however, there was not a significant effect of the independent variable children (last
two columns in Table 8).
There was not a significant effect of the covariate age for scales: Independence
[F(1,568)=0.04, p=0.82]; Role Transitions [F(1,568)=1.27, p=0.26]; Norm Compliance
[F(1,568)=2.66, p=0.10]; Biological Transitions [F(1,568)=0.04, p=0.84];
Chronological Transitions [F(1,568)=0.63, p=0.43] and Family Capacities
[F(1,568)=1.61, p=0.210. The results form ANOVA show that there was a significant
difference between two groups for all the five scales (last two columns in Table 6. 8).
To compare the seven scales, two one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with Wilks’
Lambda multivariate test and Bonferroni pairwise comparison were performed. There
Conception of the Transition to Adulthood: Bulgaria Case
138
was a significant effect for the repeated measures for all the two groups: without
children Wilks’ Lambda=0.35, F(6,531)=166.70, p<0.001, eta=0.81 and with children
Wilks’ Lambda=0.20, F(6,28)=18.58, p<0.001, eta=0.89. Post hoc contrasts using
Bonferroni adjustment revealed that differences among the measures were significant.
Table 6. 8: Average of scales by children
scales
transition to adulthood
own children statistics
no yes sig. η
Independence 1.66a 1.54
a - -
Interdependence 2.33c 2.36
bc - -
Role Transitions 2.39cd
2.23bc
- -
Norm Compliance 2.06b 1.86
ab - -
Biological Transitions 2.46d 2.24
bc - -
Chronological Transitions 2.72e 2.69
c - -
Family Capacities 1.73a 1.70
a - -
significance * *
effect size: η 0.81,>L 0.89,>L
Note: see notes to Table 6. 2.
Source: The authorˈs own investigation
The results presented in Table 6. 8 show that the two groups of persons studied
attach least importance to reaching a degree of adulthood to the Independence and
Family Capacities scales, and greatest importance to Chronological Transitions.
Discussion
Which are the criteria for reaching adulthood according to young people in
Bulgaria? Which of them make them “psychologically” adult? Do they feel mature
enough to take independent decisions and to bear the responsibility and consequences
of them, to believe in their own powers, assessment, talent and potential? Besides the
biological reaching of a certain age, what matters for the successful entry into the
adults’ world? It is the answers to those questions that the study presented is dedicated
to.
The result from the methodology applied show that both men and women attach
greatest importance to Chronological Transitions such as being 18 and coming of age,
which allows obtaining a driving licence, permission to smoke cigarettes and drink
alcohol, and Biological Transitions such as reaching full height and presence of
biological ability to have and bring up own children. On the other hand, the persons
studied attach least importance to scales such as Independence, financial, leaving the
parents’ home and establishing equal relations with them and Family Capacities such as
founding own family and taking care of its members, keeping house, etc.
Zornitza Ganeva
139
Immanuel Kant is the first to draw a parallel between Enlightenment and majority.
The Enlightenment is the age of most intensive spiritual development, of flowering of
sciences and arts. The Enlightenment is the age that gives rise to cultural prerequisites
for the development of the modern world. Kant calls this age “civil majority” –
reaching a certain age after which one is in a position to take decisions himself, to bear
responsibility himself for own acts, to assess himself and rely himself on own reason,
experience and values. The Enlightenment is an expression of the belief in reason and
science. It is an age in which revolt against tyranny of inertia, of authorities, of
hierarchy, of prejudices is observed. The Enlightenment is a longing for freedom,
independent life, personal realisation.
Logically, the results obtained show that young people in Bulgaria, probably
because of financial difficulties and standard in the county, are hardly allowed to take
independent decisions and feel independent to a low extent both of their parents and the
society as a whole. They are similar to the results of the study conducted (Schlegel,
Barry, 1991) on development of adolescents from 186 cultures different from the West
European one, which show that the transition and entry into the adults’ world are not
characterised by individualistic criteria such as financial and emotional Independence
of the parents, leaving their home and establishing equal relations with them,
characteristic of the American society. To the persons studied with the same
methodology in the USA (Arnett, 2004), most important is the financial and emotional
independence of the parents, leaving their home and living independently. This trend
could find its explanation in the fact that the Bulgarian society is more collectivist in
comparison to the American one.
Another trend that is observed in the persons studied from Bulgaria, who are not an
exception from the same generation in Western Europe, is that young people do not
wish to found a family and to have children up to the age of 35, they postpone in time
the commitment to a matrimonial partner, and when this happens, they are assisted in
the bringing-up of the offspring by their parents. It is an indisputable fact that the birth
of a child also provokes the increased attention of grandmothers and grandfathers to
everything in the life of the young parents who do not feel independent and self-
dependent. Although in the modern world the role of grandmothers and grandfathers in
the life of their heirs changes over the years, they devote their labour, support, time,
worldly knowledge accumulated and assistance, staying invariably next to their children
and grandchildren. No matter what changes in the relations between the generations, the
grandmother and the grandfather in Bulgaria continue to be a symbol of stability,
tradition, customs, collective memory, of tranquillity and security. Their images
personify the traditions in the penumbra of the newly formed familial nucleus.
In conclusion, the results obtained from the study conducted show that the entry into
the adults’ world is not a process that happens to the young person, but takes place
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