Zelalem Gyohannes-in the Draft Proceedings of RiPPLE-HCS National Policy Engagement Workshop
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RiPPLE National Policy Engagement Workshop Draft Proceedings Report The role of water in community‐based adaptation 25 January 2011 Triangle Hotel Dire Dawa Leulseged Yirgu
Transcript of Zelalem Gyohannes-in the Draft Proceedings of RiPPLE-HCS National Policy Engagement Workshop
RiPPLE National Policy Engagement Workshop Draft Proceedings Report
The role of water in community‐based adaptation
25 January 2011
Triangle Hotel
Dire Dawa
Leulseged Yirgu
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Acronym
ARRA Refugees and Returnees Administration
BGR Benishangul‐Gumuz Region
CBA Community Based Adaptation
CBAA Community ‐based Adaptation in Africa
CBDRR Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction
CC Climate Change
CSOs Civil Society Organizations
CRS Catholic Relief Services
CV Climate Variability
DRMFSS Disaster Risk Management and Food Security Sector
ECC Ethiopia Catholic Church
ECS Ethiopia Catholic Secretariat
ECSNCC Ethiopian Civil Society Network on Climate Change
EH‐WRE East Hararegh Water Resources and Energy
EPA Environmental Protection Authority
EWE Extreme Weather Event
FGD Focus Group Discussion
FS Food Security
GICBA Global Initiative on Community Based Adaptation
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
ICT Internet Communication Technology
HCS Harargh Catholic Secretariat
HH Household
HU Haramaya University
LCA Linking Climate Change
MCA Multi‐criteria Assessment
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoCT Ministry of Culture and Tourism
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
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MFI Micro Finance Institution
MoH Ministry of Health
MoLSA Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs
MoST Ministry of Science and Technology
MoT Ministry of Transport and Communication
MoWE Ministry of Water and Energy
MoWUD Ministry of Work and Urban Development
MUS Multiple‐use water services
NAP National Programme on Adaptation
NAPA National Adaptation Plan of Action
NGOs Non‐governmental Organizations
NMA National Meteorology Agency
NRM Natural Resources Management
PA Primary Agent
PANE Poverty Action Network of civil society organizations in Ethiopia
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper
PSNP Productive Safety Net Programme
RAP Regional Adaptation Programme
R&D Research and development
RiPPLE Research‐inspired Policy and Practice Learning in Ethiopia and the Nile Region
SSI Small‐scale irrigation
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations International Children Emergency Fund
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
WAE Water Aid Ethiopia
WASH Water and Sanitation and Hygiene
WSS Water Supply and Sanitation
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Introduction
The document is a proceedings report of the Dire Dawa policy engagement workshop that held Introduction on 25 January 2011, at Triangle Hotel.
The major purpose of the meeting was to provide evidence for diction makers, development practitioners, etc on water‐based adaptation for uptake. With the following specific objectives, to: encourage sharing of information, knowledge and programme experiences on local level water‐based adaptation actions, raise awareness on the need of public support for community and household level adaptation actions to climate change, and present findings and lessons from research and different program experiences on issues that may inform planned adaptation.
It was a good opportunity to bring together the federal, regional and local level partners and stakeholders in the water sector to discuss on the policy issues and evidences. RiPPLE has able share its findings to divers and wide rage of stakeholders and partners, through different ways.
The entire body of the report divided into four sessions. The first part it refers to the workshop opening. The second parts focus on the policy aspects, the third on dealing with climate variability and change and the fourth on the way forward. Saying that I hope you will get informative our proceedings report which is attempted to organize hereunder.
Session 1: Opening
Ato Aneteneh Mengiste‐ RiPPLE Oromia Regional Coordinator‐ welcomed participants on the workshop by explaining the objective of the workshop. In his speech, he mentioned that the workshop was first designed to be a national workshop but because of budget constraint it was scaled down to be at this level. But still there is a national representation as we have participants from BGR (Benishangul‐Gumuz Region), SNNPR and Oromia regional and national levels as well as Dire Dawa and East Hararghe zone and two woredas level participants. On this workshop there are experiences from international and local on community adaptation on climate change for discussion.
Anteneh introduced the one day workshop agenda and invited Ato Bekele Moges to make an opening speech. Ato Bekele made points on the importance of the CBA workshop and its right place being organized at Dire Dawa where the impact of climate change is affecting the city through frequent flood. He also introduced RiPPLE and the HCS hosting issue of the WAE and then to HCS to the audience. He also explained that RiPPLE has been doing different researches through stakeholder and currently the focus is on dissemination of the findings through website, paper, CD, policy engagement workshops and others. Currently the project is also working on climate change. Currently policy engagement is the priority issue in RiPPLE to create awareness on government adaptation policy and to influence policy and practice. His concluded message for the audience was that the experiences and knowledge to be shared on this workshop will hopefully be used at different levels by the participants. He concluded his speech by acknowledging the organizers of this workshop and RiPPLE to bring this event to happen at Dire Dawa.
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Session 2: Policy presentation
Dr. Daniel Kelbessa, from ECS took the facilitation task and invited Hilina Getachew from Environmental Protection Authority to present the Government policy on adaptation. She updated the participants on the Ethiopian government’s policy on adaptation.
2.1. National policy on adaptation
Hilina Getachew, representative of Environmental Protection Authority, has started her presented on the National Policy on Adaptation, outline of the presentation having back ground, and national policies that include; Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, NAPA, National Programme on Adaptation, and project based interventions
As background she was mentioned that climate change is a problem that is set to continue growing and climate change will affect the whole area of the country, hence formulation and implementation of a climate change adaptation programme is a dictate of Ethiopia’s survival and solution must cover the whole area of the country. She also noted as Ethiopia is party to both the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol (1994 and 2005) and as EPA being a focal Institution.
National policies
Hilina under this component of her presentation noted about the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia has been adopted in 1997 and NAPA in 2007. With regard to the need for NAPA she stated that as Ethiopia is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate variability and change due to: low adaptive capacity (Low level of socio‐economic development, inadequate infrastructure, lack of institutional capacity, lack of awareness/information), high
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dependence on natural resource based socio‐economic activities which are highly climate sensitive, etc.
NAPA
Moreover, she has discussed about the purpose of the NAPA, being to identify and communicate immediate and urgent adaptation activities that address current and anticipated adverse effects of climate change…, including the following NAPA findings:
- Trends: Warming trend has been observed in the country over the last 50 years, climate variability and Change have adverse impacts on many socio‐economic sectors, and there is a need for climate change Adaptation
- Causes for vulnerability of Ethiopia to climate change include: very high dependence on rain fed agriculture which is very sensitive to climate variability and change, under‐development of water resources, low health service coverage, high population growth rate, low economic development level, low adaptive capacity, inadequate road infrastructure in drought prone areas, weak institutions, lack of awareness, etc
- Major climate related hazards: drought followed by floods. Most vulnerable sectors: agriculture, water resources and human health. Most vulnerable groups: small holder subsistence farmers and pastoralists. Most vulnerable parts of the country: arid, semi‐arid and dry‐sub humid.
- NAPA‐ priorities: a total of 37 adaptation options were identified using selection criteria (level or degree of adverse effects; poverty reduction to enhance adaptive capacity; synergy with other multilateral environmental agreements; and cost‐effectiveness) and Multi‐criteria Assessment (MCA) was applied to prioritize the 37 projects , accordingly 11 projects were drawn out : promoting drought insurance programs, improving natural resource management, promoting irrigation agriculture and water harvesting, strengthening drought and flood early warning systems, strengthening malaria containment programs, capacity building on climate change issues, etc.
National Programme on Adaptation
In addition she talks about the revision of NAPA, having the name of National Programme on Adaptation and in line with the following considerations/principles:
- Climate change will affect all aspects of life, and adaptation to it has thus to be internalized by all sectors and all people,
- Climate change will affect the whole area of the country,
- Therefore, both when being formulated and when being implemented, the whole population, have to participate,
- With the participation of the whole population, Ethiopia’s aim of becoming “Carbon Resilient” will be achieved
The process review around 20 climate change (CC) related problems and their respective responsible countering agents are identified in Ethiopia and subsequently national stakeholders’ consultation was conducted to agree up on and consensus is reached. Based
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on the National Programme on Adaptation (NAP) 11 Federal Units of the country are working on their respective Regional Adaptation Programme (RAP). The NAP will be subject to further refinement by the input that will be obtained from the participatory process of the RAP. Saying that she discussed in detail on the problem identifies and proposed agencies for the countering interventions, as presented below.
National CC problems and the actors responsible for solutions:
1. Human diseases will increase. Responsible: MoH
2. Animal diseases will increase. Joint responsibility, MoA with MoCT with respect to PA are jointly responsible
3. Crop diseases and pests will increase. Responsible: MoA
4. Biodiversity loss will increase. Primary agents (PA): farmers and pastoralists, joint responsibility, MoA supported by the MoST and MoCT with regard to PA.
5. Land degradation will be exacerbated. Agents: farmers & Pastoralists, MoA
6. As urban centers grow (there will be a need to collect and use organic waste as compost/manure in agriculture sector). P. Agents: Municipalities and the private sector; At federal level the MoWUD and MoA
7. Factors that reduce agricultural production will proliferate. A: Farmers & Pastoralists, MoA
8. Water availability for both humans and animals will increasingly fluctuate. MoWE and MoCT (for protected areas)
9. It will become useful to induce clouds to give rain in times of drought. NMA with the support of MoST
10. The growing extremes in the weather will challenge the life of physical structures built by humans. MoWUD, MoWE , MoTC
11. It is necessary to store food and feed in good years for use in bad years (farmers & pastoralists). MoA and its counterpart offices at the respective level together with local governments.
12. Transportation networks for reaching disaster affected areas both to take supplies to them and to remove victims from them need to be in place. MoT, MoC & MoWUD.
13. Since disasters will increase owing to climate change, it makes sense to develop a disaster insurance system. Private sector, MoA, MoFED & MoLSA
14. The local communities at lowest administrative unit must be organized to deal with disasters (Agents: district administration). MoA in collaboration with Federal Units’ EPAs
15. Disasters from CC can be reduced through choice of settlement areas and homestead construction (Agents: district administration). EPA and MoA initiate the process
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16. It helps mitigate the damage from CC if kerosene, firewood and dried dung are no longer used for fuel (Agents: district admin). Use of renewable energy. MoA, MoWE
17. Use engines that run on renewable energy in transport and other economic sectors. MoT, MoWE
18. In the pressure for acting towards adaptation to climate change, gender equity and child welfare could receive reducing attention. Ministry Women, Youth and Children’ Affairs
19. The same pressure could also further weaken the already weak attention given by Ethiopia to the physically handicapped. MoLSA
20. CC is expected to increase the number of environmental refugees, especially from the countries just south of the Sahara Desert and north of Ethiopia. ARRA, MoA
Actions to be taken by adaptation programmes:
- Identifying the risks posed by CC and mapping the areas likely to suffer,
- An information network to minimize disaster when the risk happens,
- An early warning system to react to disasters soon enough,
- Awareness on CC must be mainstreamed into development and service activities to develop institutional capacity at all administrative levels,
- The educational curricula at all levels should integrate adaptation to climate change,
- Research and development (R&D) for an effective programme of adaptation to climate change must be enhanced
- Review of the draft programme at each administrative level for further improvement,
- Finding resources and technologies for the implementation of this AP.
NAP status: The programme is still a draft. The draft is expected to be reviewed and improved through workshops to be carried out at each administrative level. Each administrative unit will then….develop its own adaptation programme. It will be revised annually and implemented
Finally she has printout some key project based/level interventions. Then Dr. Daniel invited the next presenter‐ Ato Tameru Sebsibe from PANE to present on the “impact of Climate Change in the water sector.
2.2. Impacts of climate change in the water sector
Introduction and background
Tamiru Sebsibe, from Poverty Action Network in Ethiopia (PANE), he started his presentation mentioning objective and methodology of the overall study commissioned by PANE that
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entitled “The impact of climate change on PASDEP and MDGs implementation in Ethiopia” in 2009, as it was: analyze the impact of Climate Change on MDGs and its strategic implementation framework the PASDEP, assess the level of mainstreaming of climate change issues into PASDEP (GTP) and to identify the gaps and forward policy recommendations. Assessing different documents from various secondary sources and by visiting various government ministries, agencies and also various CSOs and collecting relevant articles, reports etc, CSOs views on the subject was obtained through a questionnaire survey, and validation workshop was organized on 2 December 2009 with the participation of relevant stakeholders to review the draft report, cited as methodology of the study and pursued procedure and finally as the summary and the main reports were published and distributed to Federal ministries, agencies, research and higher learning institutions, CSOs, donors, to all Regional states.
According to the presenter, CC issues recently considered beyond the traditional categorization of climate change as an environmental issue, it has become evident that it is a development, poverty reduction, food security, economics, health, etc. issue. It is in general an MDG issue. Rising temperatures and increasing climate variability is already imposing a significant challenge to Ethiopia by affecting poverty reduction and sustainable development efforts. It also enhances natural resource degradation and natural disasters. This ultimately leads to challenges in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the implementation of poverty reduction programmes.
Also affects other sectors such as agriculture, health, urbanization, fisheries, etc. By affecting precipitation and runoff, a change in climate alter the spatial and temporal availability of water resources which may also exacerbate other environmental and social effects of water management. The supply of drinking water for humans and livestock depends mainly on river flow, so a decrease in the flow will have a severe impact. A study indicated that the impact of CC on Lake Tana is significant, if the temperature increase by 2° c and there is no change in rainfall the mean annual flow will decrease by 11.3%, but if the rainfall decrease by 10%, and 20% the flow will decrease by 29.3% and 44.6% respectively. Research on Awash River basin also indicated that the basin would be significantly affected by the changed climate. The impacts of CC on water at last enhance poverty, resulting in competition of scares resources, migration, etc. The impact of climate change on water supplies is likely to increase cases of diarrhoea which claims the lives of nearly 2 million children everyday (UNICEF, 2007).
Findings of the assessment
Ato Tamru after the above introduction and background, highlighted findings of the assessment as presented below:
- Climate change mainstreaming into the national developmental plans is at a very nascent stage;
- The vulnerability of Ethiopia due to the changing climate have been acknowledged in the PRSPs , however, the long term perspective is missing;
- Land use and land cover change together with land tenure issues including afforestation, deforestation have been addressed to some extent but not in the light of the changing climate;
- PASDEP considered precipitation as a factor in order to cope with changing climate;
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- Water and biodiversity issues including wildlife protection, development and utilization were also mentioned but not directly linked to climate change;
- Efforts towards improving overall water resources management, intensification of small scale irrigation and rain water harvesting are mentioned but little attention was given to the change in river flow and runoff due to impacts of CC;
- It was mentioned to prepare management plan for two wetlands, but its implementation is not yet reported;
- Rural water supply is also mentioned but not directly linked to CC impacts;
- The links between poverty and natural resource degradation has been addressed. However the linkages were not specifically addressed in relations to the impacts of climate change;
- Environmental health issues, those which could be exacerbated by climate change impacts such as increased incidences of vector borne diseases, were not given adequate attention.
In general climate change issues were not given much attention in the PASDEP.
Recommendation
Finally he forwarded the following two sets of recommendations including on the GTP:
Adaptation measures recommended: Strengthening water policy more than just increasing storage and improving water supply efficiency; conducting water resource assessment studies in order to develop proper use of water resources; introducing improved methods of water conservation, storage and rational use; construction of check dams, rain water harvesting schemes to meet water supply for domestic and irrigation use; implementing watershed management and water conservation programs and projects; introducing methods to tackle and prevent flood; improving water use efficiency; and capacity building
Policy recommendations
1. Research: On adaptation needs and measures in various sectors, and prospects and barriers to mainstreaming CC.
2. ICT: Use of ICT tools and proper flow of CC related information through effective institutional arrangements at all levels.
3. Institution: National Agency for Climate and Environment, and reorienting institutional structures and existing informal institutions at all levels.
4. Integration and mitigation: Mainstreaming and integration of CC into national development plans, sectoral policies and programs and projects.
5. Financing: Increase and diversify funding for climate change research and development, and strengthen the institutional mechanisms to absorb the global adaptation funds available so as to effectively utilize them.
6. Collaboration: Establishment of appropriate platforms for proper coordination and collaboration
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7. Participation: Putting in place proper mechanisms in order to enhance and institutionalize the participation of the local communities
8. Regional cooperation: Indicating in the national development framework, a road map for strengthening and improving the existing collaborations and partnerships and fostering new cooperation at the regional level
9. Capacity building of various stakeholders including policy makers and communities through awareness creation and information dissemination: towards obtaining quality climate data and to monitor the changing climate and its impacts; for effective CC adaptation program implementation; and aligning International capacity building programs with the national development framework.
Climate change in the GTP: The issue of climate change is given series attention more in GTP than in the PASDEP. The major goals from 2010‐2015 include to: build an economy resilient to the impacts of climate change; build carbon neutral economy; and follow up and implement existing local environmental laws and principles.
2.3. Discussion
The following are some of the questions forwarded from the participants of the workshop based on the above two presentations:
‐ It is know that NAPA was developed in 2007 and I wondered if it there is news that it is being implemented or is it totally discarded. Where is the status of NAPA?
‐ There are lists of projects identified under NAPA: what is the nature of the activities? ‐ NAPA is different from development in terms of it includes climate science like
forecasts: thus is that NAPA different from development projects? ‐ Most of the gaps identified by the PANE study on have considered in this document ‐ The policy says that to create an environment free of carbon neutral, can we have
reliable substitute for dry kerosene for 60 million people living in a rural area? If it is the strategy, it has t be attainable. Let alone the rural community, we‐who have access to electricity and living in a town couldn’t stop using charcoal.
‐ There is a strategy in the policy saying there will be resettlement from less rain fall, poor soil condition to better highland area where there is fertile land and good rainfall. Would this not create another disaster to the sub humid area of the country’s land? Because if we settle people in the sub humid area, we are going to lose our huge forest resource and will create another arid.
‐ When we say climate change mainstreaming in the development projects and activities, what that really mean? There must be a clear guideline and tools that would assist on how to integrate climate change issues in every development activities.
‐ You have explained in the presentation that the impact of climate change on environment, natural resources and health issues and so on but what about its cause for conflict over resources. Particularly in pastoral area water is becoming scarce and conflict over water resource is increasing even between the same clan. Especially in areas where there is small scale irrigation there is no peace.
‐ Now currently there is shift from crisis management to risk management which includes also the climate change issues. I am not clear with the distinction between the role of Environmental Protection Authority and Federal DPP. Where the difference lies?
‐ There is a need to mainstream climate change issues in every development project activities. But what do we mean when we say mainstreaming? Is that coming up
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with new development projects by discarding the existing one or there is a strategy developed on how to integrate the in the existing development projects?
This has been followed by the EPA representative reaction on the questions… stated above:
‐ The status of the NAPA: it is a document where woreda and zone level will explain their need. The regional governments can amend it according to their situation. The document called Environmental Protection and Adaptation on Climate Change prepared based on NAPA. NAPA did not yet implemented,
‐ Now the risk is becoming frequently and increasing and for this every development activities should use the future forecasts in to consideration. For instance if we see the constructions being carried out in our country be it buildings or bridges or roads, the future flood impact need to be considered during designing the construction in a way that it will with stand the impact.
‐ The semi‐humid area will not be considered as a resettlement area. We will take this as a comment,
‐ Metrological agency will focus on generating scientific data but Environmental Protection Authority will monitor the data,
‐ Resource conflict management is there in the document. Out of the identified problems conflict is one of it. When we say there is scarcity of water because of climate change there is also conflict,
‐ Environmental protection authority is not going to implement activities by it self but its role is monitoring, coordination, facilitation, fund and capacity building activities. But the DPP is implementing activities and that is the difference,
‐ When we say mainstreaming climate issue under different sector we mean it should consider the environment. The environment has a carrying capacity and it should consider this as the resources are scarce. Till now the majority of the projects only focused on development but should consider the environment and its carrying capacity. As explained first constructions should consider flood effects,
Also the PANE representative in his turn responds on the remaining issues as follows:
‐ Mainstreaming climate change issues in all development efforts mean trying to plan and act to minimize risks. This could be done through enhancing adaptation capacity to minimize risks,
‐ PANE studied this research without field level data collection. It was done by referring to the important sources found at federal level,
‐ Previously malaria was only known to low land areas but now a days they are also found in the highland areas. This is the sign of climate change and so the current development plans should consider this change and should try to forecast the future risk to act on starting from now,
‐ The government plan of green economy by 2020 is a long term plan where efforts will be made to minimize our energy consumption through alternative energy sources (rural electrification).
Session 3: Dealing with climate variability and change
3.1. Water‐based adaptation actions at local level (Autonomous adaptation/coping strategies)
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Presentation was started with an introduction mentioning in different part of the county as local communities using wide range of coping strategies to deal with CC induced impacts.
The objective of the study is to asses the local coping strategies and their effectiveness of the strategies. And the method of the study is more of quantitative that includes also the perception of the farmers. In line with that a range of PRA tools have been used, including HH survey and secondary data. The study undertaken in Estern Hararghe Zone and Shinele Zones: Meta and Goro Gutu woredas: Bukelcha and Chefe kebeles, and Error woreda: Billa and Aiyadora kebeles.
A RiPPLE micro‐level study, assessed effectiveness of some the local autonomous adaptation actions (coping strategies) which on use, in reducing local level vulnerability or facilitate adaptation; in terms of, ‘create, enhance and/or protect’ household (HH) and community level asset bases, and this in turn, reduce exposure to CC (climate change) induced impacts and/or enhance the capacity to cope with climate shocks and stresses. In the study area, the following dominant coping strategies adopted by different wealth groups in the three livelihood zones, during extreme weather events (EWE) and climate variability (CV).
Extreme weather events
The following some of the key coping strategies on practice during EWE:
Pastoral migration (by all the better off/rich, middle and poor households): Assessed as a strategy that protects assets. Pastoral communities stated that through this strategy they are able to protect their asset base: able to reduce the number of livestock lost to EWE, avoid their livestock physical condition deterioration, to an extent that their market value declines, also they can avoid distress sale of their livestock. Thus able to protect their asset base in turn reduces exposure and builds the capacity of HH to cope with climate impacts.
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Asset diversification (often by the better off households): Assessed as a strategy that enhances the asset base. Asset diversification which include: diversification of livestock, diversification of crops (cash and food crops), and off farm income generating by Women Association.
- Diversification of livestock: In pastoral livelihoods, a diversified livestock base (camel, sheep, goats, donkeys) has traditionally enabled pastoralists to cope better with impacts of climate variability on fodder species. However, communities outlined that they are often faced with long term changes in the rangeland…, due to the increased intensity and frequency of climate impacts. As a result, pastoralists have changed the composition of their herd and in the process have lost the diversity.
- Crop diversification: In agriculture livelihoods, crop diversification, which include plantation of climate resilient crops and a more diverse crop mix in turn reduces exposure (e.g. increased uncertainty in seasons and prolonged droughts), also builds the capacity of households, for example better off households are able to save food crops in times of stresses, thus do not resort to sale of assets. However the option of asset diversification is accessible mostly to better off.
Climate variability: During climate variability there are supply side and demand side autonomous adaptation actions on use in the study sites. In relation to water supply side interventions that include using water point that uses ground water as source as the ground water is less exposed to climate change impacts. They also use donkeys to fetch water and water storage. From water ‐ demand side intervention, they use water management institutions by allocating quota system and prioritizing water use.
Maladaptation: In the study area a number of ineffective coping strategies identified, which are on use during extreme events and climate variability, especially by the poor and middle households that may actually lead to increased vulnerability or may have negative implications in the long term. This includes forced labour migration, sales of assets, reduced water use for hygiene and sanitation, travelling far distances to collect water from.
In conclusion, there are three trends which includes there is better capacity to deal with climate variability than extreme weather events, Relatively coping capacity of the better off wealth groups is better than that of middle and poor and better‐off groups rely more on supply side water resource management interventions. Further more, the poor households conflicting labour allocation may have negative implications on the household income and food production, in times of water stress communities tend to de‐prioritise hygiene and sanitation concerns, hence this may have negative health implication and some of the robust coping strategies have undermined due to the increased frequency and intensity of climate induced impacts. For the policy makers, the study has recommended that public supports are needed, both at community and household levels as local coping capacity is insufficient in the face of a changing climate.
3.2. Effectiveness of proxy‐planned adaptation options
The second presentation which was a follow up on the previous one indicated the types of intervention as an adaptation mechanism includes small‐scale irrigation (SSI) schemes, Multiple‐ use water services (MUS), Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) and Rangeland management.
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MUS incorporate both domestic and productive uses in their design and delivery and facilitate coordinated planning of water resources between different users and uses. In terms feasibility the water management could require more investment. The implication of MUS for Community Based Adaptation (CBA) is that it requires inter‐sectoral integration buy‐in from all stakeholders, coordinated management system and hence the organisation and training of beneficiaries and stakeholders and planning under MUS must focus on assessment of available water resources and invest in water resource management to enhance the availability of water.
Small scale irrigation as identified in NAPA as well it enhances agricultural productivity, contribute to income diversification which finally enhances asset base of some community members. The policy implication of small scale irrigation to CBA is that while introducing SSI, if it is accessible and feasible ground water sources have the potential to reduce exposure to climate change. However, issues of equitable access must be taken into account when promoting this option especially in addressing the poor, downstream users and those who are far from the main diversion.
3.3. Small‐scale irrigation as adaptation option
The third presentation was from focused on the study conducted in relation to SSI on Erere River that provides a range of benefits to agro‐pastoralist, pastoral, state farm, and town communities. How ever, the scarcity of irrigation water that resulted from the drought in the area has increased the complexity of governance.
The objective of the study of the governance of SSI scheme focusing on irrigation institutions, property right‐structures, the dynamics of interactions among user‐groups, and identifying the underlying constraints in improving the scheme’s governance system.
The study used the methodology of sampling and data collection that includes FG discussions with various irrigation water user‐groups (agro‐pastoralists and Erer State Farm), key informant interviews with Development Agents & agro‐pastoralist, field observations, descriptive analysis for the survey of 150 households.
The study result from historical evidence shows that historical evidence shows user‐groups have their own internal governance structures. However, the variability along characteristics of users (economic, ethnicity and power such as community‐state farm interfaces), the divergence between the formal and traditional institutions, geo‐political factors between neighboring regional states (as in Erer‐Karamille districts) and the interaction among these factors have contributed to the complexity of irrigation water governance. In addition, she State Farm plays critical roles in governance of the irrigations systems as it is engaged in negotiation with the highlanders even on behalf of the agro‐ pastoral communities. As a result of heterogeneity of users in political and geographical settings and increased frequency of droughts, extreme irrigation water scarcity has affected agro‐pastoral livelihoods (let alone enabling the pastoralists to cope with CC).
The study also showed three levels of monitoring and role of enforcement activities that relates to different levels of aggregation i.e. among households within a user‐group, among different user‐groups and among the actors (agro‐pastoralists) and highlanders and the state farm. And comparing the three levels, the task is easier at lower levels become easier and faster at lower level than at the higher level.
The challenge faced in use of irrigation system is to establish and maintain the physical design to reduce water loss and increase resource use efficiency at aggregate level. As
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collective action based on a user‐group, a diversion point or a canal shared commonly, problems experienced at each level require collective action involving some specific tasks.
In conclusion the study showed that governance of the irrigation scheme is often found to be dysfunctional and unsustainable. This is problem is attributed to the dynamics of social, political, historical, economic and climatic/environmental dimensions that has affected water availability, regional trans‐boundary nature of the river basin where its source is located in a different regional state of Ethiopia (location of the resource‐base) and the scheme lacks effective formal institutions governing inter‐group relations at a wider scale where competition to control the water resource.
The study finally recommends that institutional resilience in governing the scheme can be realized if the stakeholders (communities, regional government officials and local administrators) create a platform that provides opportunities for dialogue among contesting user‐groups, invest in the creation of institutions facilitating balanced inter‐group distribution of benefits and training on water resource management is essential where community‐based institutions could play greater role in transforming water‐use relations.
3.4. Discussion
- Participants have mentioned their due regard for the RiPPLE case study evidences and the potential to convince decision makers and influence the sector policies and NAPA.
- Responses have given the question in relation to wealth ranking, action research, to what extent as the research out put disseminated, etc.
- There was question raised by the participants in relation to usage of the water in Erer River which the speaker replied that there is bylaw which serves the system governance. The other point which was raised in relation to this irrigation system is the existence of problem between upwards and downward stream users. It was discussed though there is a problem between these users, it is being tried to resolve with discussion of the users, close monitoring of the water usage by elected community leader ‐ ‘Melaka’ and there is also bylaw to enforce order in the system.
- The other point which was asked was the study in the Erer River could have included the issue of food security in the area which was replied as the focus of the study is more on social aspects and on this and other topics, studies can be conducted by other professionals as well.
- The dynamics between the State Farm and the beneficiary local community has compelled the prior to look for other option like ground water in the area. In relation to this there was study conducted by other professionals on technicality (water requirement and water usage by different users) which can be complemented with this study that minimizes the existing water usage emanating from water allocation and the State Farm can look for other option for the remaining gap.
3.5. HCS programme experiences on water‐based adaptation
Approach to climate change adaptation: Fine tuning programming to CC
Ato Zenebe Tsegaw before he started his presentation directly he apologized for any inconveniency might occur as the presentation was prepared by his colleague Ato
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Belayneh Belete, as indicated on the schedule but due to unexpected forcing assignment he could not come and delegated him to present it.
As an introductory part he pointed out some of the impacts of climate change on people and livelihoods, particularly in their operational areas and based on long time lessons how the organization become developing climate smart programming and adaptive strategies from its context and the way forward will be main focus areas of presentation. Accordingly some of the impacts of CC on people’s livelihoods are: high seasonal variability of rainfall amount (unpredictability): moisture stress limits crop growth and productivity, water unavailability etc…; deviation from the practiced agricultural practices; erratic rainfall causes flooding and land slide; long dry spells lead to loss of vegetative cover ‐ land degradation and soil erosion ‐ lower yields; loses of livelihood assets: loss of productive assets; disease Outbreaks: malaria, water borne diseases (AWD), respiratory diseases; increasing frequency and intensity of floods and deteriorating water quality; and competition over increasingly scarce resource which increased risk of conflict, displacement and migration which in turn has increased the risk of food insecurity
Since the organization realized some of the existing experience and program package are not the best option/system and in line with the new way of thinking ‘’ in the face of a changing situation we need to do things differently to secure a better future and ascertain our livelihood’’ some of the current climate smart programming to CC was shared:
Areas of focus: Watershed management; MUS approach early warning system; application of disaster risk reduction and mitigation strategies, CBDRR; agricultural development; responding to different emergency needs; action research on community perception on CC; value chain development; linking poor community to MFI; etc are some of the key intervention options.
As main program approach CBDRR (disaster risk reduction and mitigation strategies) are well applied with the two core principles:
- Community led process, based on community’s priorities, resources, knowledge and capacities, which should empower people to plan for and cope with the impacts of climate change.
- Traditional/indigenous knowledge can help to provide efficient, appropriate and time‐tested ways of advising and enabling adaptation to climate change in communities.
The presentation also shared the different types of water conservation method in adapting to responding to MUS which are area and local experience context: sand dam (Dire Dawa, Shinille zone, Jijiga zone etc…), rain‐water harvesting (urban and rural ferro‐cement reservoirs both at household, institution and community level), birka construction (Jijiga zone), hafire dam (Jijiga zone), ponds, adoption of inter‐kebele WASH project due to water source scarcities (e. g. Meta and Boke Woredas,), owning of drilling rig, and borehole drilling and owning water quality testing lab.
Some of their experience in adaptive responds to agricultural development and FS programs also shared with nice picture that shows the field level practices and
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functions of each newly adopted schemes which is well indicated on the annexed power point presentation: intercropping, crop diversification and mixed cropping; use of homestead gardens; diversification of incomes sources (apiculture, fattening, cash crops, small business development, fish pond etc…; working with research centres on seed multiplication for drought resistant crop varieties; dissemination of drought resistant new seed varieties produced by research centres (potato, sorghum, maize, sweet potato etc…;seed/grain bank development; training on IPM; soil fertility management; and rangeland management‐with suitable replacement species that can provide fodder as well as help to rehabilitate degraded rangelands. Several shrubs and drought tolerant species have already been successfully introduced, such as various grass species and spineless cactus.
The way forward, and on this part after putting some three key and basic remarks on the importance of water and how to manage it for better future: water is a precious commodity where it is said to be ‘’oil of the future’’, keep integrity of creation – conserve and use rationally the common good given by GOD, and “business as usual” can no longer be an option ‐ need for more coordinated action by all.
Finally the presentation was ended nicely with showing one puzzling picture and asking questions for three participants what they understood from the picture and based on their answers he stressed the importance of acting together but differently with the message, we need to act together! We need to act differently!
3.6. Discussion
Following the presentation discussion was made based on forwarded questions and ideas from participants, some of the raised questions and discussion points are:
Questions:
From the last point which says we need to act differently and from the whole listed program activities both accomplished and being accomplished are before CC becomes an agenda and, what unique activities are need to be addressed either by HCS or any actors?
Reinforcing the previous question and as we have agreed on there is no purely climate change planned interventions and most of them are designed to address the proxy once and if it is so and under the given scenario which one is your strategy, addressing the proxy and related it with CC or addressing impact of climate change particularly for future plan?
The experience is to build the resilience which should address either the demand or supply side therefore from what was presented by HCS which one is addressed most, demand or supply side? Which wealth groups are addressed well? And what specific rangeland management experience do you have?
What are some of your best practices which are sustainability and could be scaled up?
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What are the current experiences in carbon trade or related previously initiated activities by HCS or EPA supported one?
Answers:
The facilitator insisted the importance of re‐defining CC as most of the raised questions are reflecting the importance of linking the discussion accordingly therefore from the participant side a good explanation was given in terms of its variability (temperature and rainfall) and impact should be seen from the long time or extreme events of this variability.
As you have said since we have been in development and rehabilitation programs since long we got the chance to learn from the process and devised the approach that could addressing with changing situation and most of the intervention are designed based on good lesson and in a more scaled up manner. As an example the watershed program should be integrated with the WSS and bridging the research outputs or varieties which are resistance to drought/dry spell, pests and other stresses by academic and research institution with the community are some of it.
For the last points as most of the demand comes from the community and the strategy also more of need based with fully involving the community in the process I hope we addressed the demand side and, for the second point the water schemes and forage related ones are designed for rangeland supporting but it is not as easy as in the other agro climatic zones, and for the last point on which part of the community by wealth group is, usually poor of the poorest are the target for any intervention and the same is true for the CC smart adaptive program.
The carbon trade that has been initiated by CRS/HCS was a good effort but interrupted for unknown reason even after selecting the site and some starting up other activities and that is a point to be taken for the management.
In regards to scaled up experience there are a lot like credit system which benefits a lot of women and seed and diversified seedlings dissemination is also a good practices that could be scaled up.
The facilitator also reflected for some of raised issues the importance of looking in the points in t two aspects one is based on the current experience of MoWE which prove the good initiatives to scale up the small scale irrigation to middle scale (from HH to community based or intensified one. Secondly the current institutional arrangement and the capacity building effort is also indicative for addressing the WSS demand of lowland areas (which need deep well drilling tools).
As a concluding remark delegate from ECSNCC said CC issue should start from ourselves and based on the last time workshop they have a plan to collect and document it the different sector’s adaptation strategies and practices and for similar purpose workshop will be organized to display that will be a good opportunity to be explored by all.
Session 4: Way forward
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4.1. International experiences on CBA
The last session existing international/regional/local CBA experiences and initiatives for our concerted future efforts as a way forward
Ato Million Getnet, based on frequently raised questions from this forum and similar forums as well as global dialogues on the link between climate change adaptation and development he tipped for the forum by showing the different categories of adaptation and how it is linked with development. The three types of adaptation are:
1. “Serendipitous” adaptation: Because of the overlap of development and adaptation strategies, many activities undertaken to achieve development objectives have outcomes that incidentally may also support adaptation, which is the most common in our context 2. Climate‐proofing of development efforts: In this case additional activities were added to an ongoing development initiative to ensure its success under a changing climate. 3. Discrete adaptation: In this adaptation to climate change is the primary objective of a project or initiative.
A brief explanation was also given by the presenters on each type and linking the trend and some common experiences.
After this briefing and before he went into the main topic he further elaborated the process we went to come to today’s workshop as he was also the one involved in the process from the very beginning. In his explanation the first idea that had been planned to conduct international level workshop was failed because of fund problem regardless of the maximum effort we exerted. Adapting to climate change in the Water Sector by RiPPLE was the acknowledged as it was the starting point for calling such platforms. And the decision to conduct at least at this level was appreciated as it gives opportunity to consult each other and search options to make it more learning and in a continuous manner.
Therefore the next presentation focus on what are the available resources and initiatives that help to start such intervention as a reference and after the purpose and rationale was presented. Hence the purpose of the presentation is:
- To frame the concept of community based adaptation,
- To explore possible sources of information on community based adaptation,
- To facilitate discussion on what all us can do within our jurisdiction and the way forward for CBA in Ethiopia,
Plus the rationale for the presentation is:
- Climate change impacts on developing countries are well recognized,
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- Poor communities are disproportionately affected,
- Helping them to adapt to climate change is vital, but identifying steps to take and ensuring that this information reaches communities at risk is a major challenge,
- CBA: a community led process based on communities priorities, needs, knowledge and capacities which should empower people to plan for and cope with the impacts of climate change (IIED, 2009),
- What make it different is that it factors in the current and potential impact of climate change on livelihoods by using local and scientific knowledge of climate change and its likely effects,
Therefore any CBA program should incorporate both the two basic information types to be considered as climate change oriented one:
- Scientific information: Long‐term predictions from climate models, seasonal forecasts, information on trends, and
- Local knowledge: About trends and changes experienced by communities, copping strategies.
As the main agenda of the workshop is what can we make and what supporting materials/experiences are available as we are expected to do some individual or collective action points after this workshop as it has been sited at the opening remark and main objective of the workshop. There are five possible sources for further reference and learning which contacted or accessed are:
1. Global Initiative on Community Based Adaptation (GICBA)
- It is pioneered by IIED and launched in Tanzania
- Steering committees from NGOs, UN agencies, academic institutions
- Aimed at promoting knowledge exchange about CBA
- Holds annual international conference on CBA
- Check on www.iied.org
2. Linking Climate Change (LCA):
- A community of more than 900 parishioners, researchers, stakeholders, and policy makers
- Aimed at exchanging information on climate change adaptation research and practice around the glob via network email list
- Membership is free: Send email to [email protected] with the message ‘subscribe LCA’
3. CBA in Africa (CBAA)
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- Carrying climate change adaptation pilot projects at community level in Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Malawi, Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa
- Its aim is to identify ways of communicating climate information to poor and vulnerable communities and from communities to other stakeholders,
- Check on:
www.acts.or.ke/index.php?option=com_contentandview=article&id=60&Itemid=53
4. Community Base Adaptation Exchange:
- Is shared online resource designed to bring together and grow the CBA community
- It provides news, events, case‐studies, tools, policy resources and videos
- Check on
http://community.eldis.org/cbax
5. WikiADAPT
- It is a platform that offers a wealth of experience, data, tools and guidance to develop sound strategies and actions on climate change adaptation
- Check on http://wikiadapt.org
In addition to these some international organizations also has better information like: Oxfam, CARE, tearfound, actionaid, CLACC, Practical action and WWF
4.2. The way forward
After consultation was made on how to move on this part‐ group or plenary, as the first idea was to make group discussion but due to shortage of time both agreed to the second option and accordingly based on the following discussion points:
- What can we do to help communities to adapt to climate change?
- What kind of collaboration is needed among stakeholders in our jurisdiction to help communities adapt to climate change?
- What policy options are essential to help communities to adapt to climate change?
- What can be done to ensure knowledge exchange on CBA in Ethiopia?
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Accordingly delegates of institution in the workshop promised to give the required level of attention and mainstream their development intervention with CCA measures.
Haramaya University‐ linking it with courses for students to be aware and act.
M fur M‐ In all NRM program which mainly focus on fuel saving stoves, mud breaks for house construction, gully control with sisal rather than gabion etc to make it more climate change oriented as it is related to deforestation
PANE‐ Though they are not implementer they can assist CSOs can play a key role in the strategy development through their network members in the strategy development similarly with ECSNCC.
EH‐WRE Office: As they are close to the community they can invest what they gained in such forums and share to the community using the opportunity to work with the community in line with the regular development activities
SNNPR FS Office‐ In their PSNP and Settlement program it can be possible to share what they know about CC and make efforts to prevent the new environment from getting similar fate and make effort to treat the environment from degradation and impact of similar problem
CCRDA‐ they have program package in CC to organize awareness creation workshop and training for their members and plan to intensified the same
ECC‐ in the church based activities CC is well mainstreamed like ‘’justice to nature that God created it for human being with conserving and keep an eye not to be unnecessarily explored/embezzled can be scaled up to any other church based organizations. In then social and development program also there must be main national adaptation strategy plan
DRMFSS ‐ addressing the cause root will be one of main focus area as there are plenty opportunities to attend different forums raising the agenda to be taken by others and sharing the experiences and lessons gained here will be shared, soliciting funds also for different similar programs can be strengthened. Facilitate platforms, networks and forums etc.
ECC‐SADCOH added on what has been said by ECC and listed current program activities in the presentation will be intensified and documentation and sharing will be also strengthened particularly water harvesting, draught resistant research outputs to be reached at the community, awareness creation market day and places with role play and children centered slogans and songs also will be considered well. The started but interrupted carbon trade related efforts will be assignment of the management and rejuvenate
MoWE‐ The directorate has similar initiations and ready to revise w/out waiting its term to revise and policies as well as the door is open for any research challenges and support any water and CC researches
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ECSNCC‐ devises mechanism to collect best practices, documentation and display. They have also regular radio program for awareness creation particularly CBA on CC for community. In collaboration with PANE they have initiations to test/examine policy effectiveness
HU‐ can assist the planned documentation program with video and as they have best practices with students, ready to support or lead any community based researches. There must be document process (different time experiences by time serious) in the way it shows the trend. Collaboration among actors should be strengthened
NMA‐ focus to work on the change of climate and crop calendar for specific crops
Ato Million the facilitator of this section also added his recommendation emphasizing the importance of such regular but purposely organized forums to monitor progress of commitments, ECS, RiPPLE can take the responsibility. To put action we can take one woreda like Goro‐gutu and keep communicating and some group can sit for five‐six days and come up with specific proposals.
4.3. Closing remarks
Finally Ato Tamene Chaka on behalf of RiPPLE closed the workshop after he made closing remarks by summarizing some key terms and action points and forwarding special thanks to all for their active participation, the organizers and presenters, particularly for those who came from other regions like Benshiangul Gumz and SNNPR, Addis Ababa and Oromia Region.
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Annexes
Annexes‐1: List of participants
No. Participant Name Organisation Position Phone number Email address
1 Helina Getachew EPA Representative 0911‐113964 [email protected]
2 Mahilet Tadess FfE‐ECSNCC Representative 011552 1662 [email protected]
3 Leulseged Yirgu RiPPLE Policy Officer 0911‐137593 [email protected]
4 Dr Daniel Kelbessa ECS Ass. Exe Director 0911‐228745 [email protected]
5 Million Getent HU Lecturer 0913‐3379474 [email protected]
6 Berhanu Hirpo Oromia BoWR Socio‐econ Officer
0911‐450800 [email protected]
7 Ayeneaddis Ziru SNNPR FSO FS Expert 0911‐821620 [email protected]
8 Tameru Sebsibe PANE Unit Leader 0911‐470234 [email protected]
9 Chaka Nati NMA Agro meteorologist
0910‐496834 [email protected]
10 Areba Abdella WFP Field Monito. 0911‐452601 [email protected]
11 Henok Pawelos WASH Coordinator BG‐BoWR 0917851441 [email protected]
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12 Rahel Asfaw DRMFSS Senior DM Expert 0911‐318376 [email protected]
13 Samson Eshetu HU Instructor 0911‐084779 [email protected]
14 Zelalem Gebeyehu HU Instructor 0911‐342943 [email protected]
15 Refera Wolkeba Oromia FSO Expert 0911‐10021 [email protected]
16 Mekbib Tadesse CISP M&E Officer 0912‐002142 [email protected]
17 Sooraa Adam GG WFEDB Expert 0910‐337769 ‐
18 Nardis Mengesha CCRDA Coordinator 0912‐393000 [email protected]
19 Demlia Mogs HCS WASH Coordinator
0915‐158426 ‐
20 Jarso Tesfaye HCS Geologist 0915‐737483 ‐
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No. Participant Name Organisation Position Phone number Email address
21 Agunachew Reta MfM D/P/Manager 0912‐710422 agunachew mfm@gmail
22 Zegeye Tesfaye EHWRO Expert 0913‐505049 [email protected]
23 Zinabu Kebede EHWRO Expert 0910‐553464 ‐
24 Beweket Amdu HU Lecturer 0911‐333356 [email protected]
25 Mohammed Abedela GG WRI V/Head 0913‐349299 ‐
26 Tibebu Kebede FBC Reporter 0911‐775624 ‐
27 Solomon Tamene ZHO Process Owner 0915‐734409 [email protected]
28 Rahel Asfawe Public Relation Secretary 0910‐577438 ‐
29 Zelalem Tamerate HIS‐IPAS Researcher 0911‐9713060 [email protected]
30 Endale Atenafu ZFEDD Expert 0915‐751394 ‐
31 Mehad Abdulah ZFEDD Expert 0913‐287632 [email protected]
32 Fahmi Musa ZFEDD Expert 0913‐332263 ‐
33 Gezahgn Tal HCS Agr. Sec. 0915‐73082 ‐
34 Endalkachew Awelu HCS EU‐P. 0915‐742142 ‐
35 Tamirat Mulat ODA‐GRET Coordinator 0911‐989140 [email protected]
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36 Samuel Haile WAO Expert 0921173090 [email protected]
37 Solomon Sabesbew HU Instructor 0913‐254794 [email protected]
38 Asfaw Senbto ReD Crosse Coordinator 0910‐601644 [email protected]
39 Abity Getaneh MoWE R&DD Director 0911‐670313 [email protected]
40 Solomon Metaferia DDPA Expert 0911‐839906 ‐
41 Desta Worku EAWRO Expert 0912‐089966 ‐
42 Yeshitela Alemu AAE Programme Coordinator
0911‐‐925981 [email protected]
43 Chali Dereje HU Ass. Lecturer 0912‐935215 [email protected]
44 Ababa Kinfe CCRDA AFO 0915‐763722
45 Zenebe Tsegaw HCS FS Dep 0915‐731809 [email protected]
46 Zelalem Lema RiPPLE WC 0911‐725449 [email protected]
47 Eskedare Tizazu Wator Office Process Owner 0911‐046869
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Annex 2: Agenda of the meeting
Workshop Schedule on the Role of Water in Community‐based Adaptation
January 25, 2011 at Triangle Hotel, Dire Dawa
Time Agenda Presenter Facilitator Minute
Session 1: Opening
8:30– 8:45 AM Registration Participant
8:45– 9:00 AM Welcome and introduction on the objectives of the workshop Anteneh Mengesta Dr Daniel ZL
9:00 – 9:10 AM Opening remarks Bekele Moges ,, ,, ,, ,,
Session 2: Policy presentations
9:10– 9:30 AM Government policy on adaptation … Helina Getachew, EPA ,, ,, ,, ,,
9:30– 9:50 AM Impacts of CC in the water sector… Tameru Sebsibe, PANE ,, ,,
9:50– 10:20 AM Discussion Participant ,, ,, ,, ,,
10: 20–10:35 AM Tea break RO
Session 3: Dealing with climate variability and change
10:35– 10:50 AM Adapting to climate change in the water sector ( Adaptation at national level, effectiveness of planned adaptation options …)
Million Getnet , HU Mahilet Tadess, ECSNCC
TC
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10:50– 11:05 AM Water‐based adaptation actions at local level ( Autonomous adaptation/coping strategies)
Leulseged Yirgu ,, ,, ,, ,,
11:05– 11: 35 AM Discussion Participant ,, ,,
11:35– 11:55 AM Programme experiences on water‐based adaptation of HCS Belayneh Belete ,, ,, ,, ,,
11:55‐12:30 Discussion Participant ,, ,, ,, ,,
12:30– 14:00 PM Launch RO
Session 4: Way forward
14:00– 14:20 PM SSI as adaptation option… Zelalem Tameru Abity Getaneh, MoWE
AM
14:20– 14:35 PM International experiences on CBA Millon Getnet , HU ,, ,, ,, ,,
14:35– 15:35PM Group work Participant ,, ,, ,, ,,
15:35– 15:50 PM Tea break RO
15:50– 16:30 PM Group work presentation, discussion and a way forward Millon and Participant ,, ,, ,, ,,
16:30–16: 45 PM Closing remarks Zemede Abebe Zemede Abebe ,, ,,
