US-China Education Review 2015(1A)

US-China

Education Review

A

Volume 5, Number 1, January 2015 (Serial Number 44)

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Publication Information: US-China Education Review A (Earlier title: US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 240 Nagle Avenue #15C, New York, NY 10034, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review A, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-practice researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Asst. Prof. Dr. Güner Tural Associate Prof. Rosalinda Hernandez Prof. Aaron W. Hughey Prof. Alexandro Escudero Prof. Cameron Scott White Prof. Deonarain Brijlall Prof. Diane Schwartz Prof. Ghazi M. Ghaith Prof. Gil-Garcia, Ana Prof. Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Prof. Grigorios Karafillis Prof. James L. Morrison Prof. Käthe Schneider Prof. Lihshing Leigh Wang Prof. Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Prof. Michael Eskay Prof. Okechukwu Sunday Abonyi Prof. Peter Hills Prof. Smirnov Eugeny Prof. Yea-Ling Tsao Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 240 Nagle Avenue #15C, New York, NY 10034, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Copyright©2015 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing,

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US-China Education Review

A Volume 5, Number 1, January 2015 (Serial Number 44)

Contents Curriculum and Teaching

Constructing Choreography—A Transdisciplinary Challenge: Children’s Constructing

the Choreography of the “Dance of the Dinosaurs” 1

Ingrid Lindahl

The Influence of Web-based Intelligent Tutoring Systems on Academic Achievement and Permanence of Acquired Knowledge in Physics Education 15

Mustafa Erdemir, Şebnem Kandil İngeç

Design of an Arabic Spell Checker Font for Enhancing Writing Skills: A Self-learning Prototype Among Non-Arabic Speakers 26

Muhammad Sabri Sahrir

An Investigation About Misconceptions in Force and Motion in High School 38

Azita Seyed Fadaei, César Mora

Using Systems Thinking Strategy in an Environment Course 46

Li-Ting Cheng, Jeng-Fung Hung, Shiang-Yao Liu

Teacher Education

What Factors “Work” for Teacher Organizational Learning in Shanghai Middle Schools? A Grounded Theory Approach 52

Liu Sheng-nan, Feng Da-ming

Understanding Class Teaching Authority From a Feminism Perspective 67

Hu Bai-yun, Ma Cheng, Li Sen

US-China Education Review A, January 2015, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1-14 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2015.01.001

Constructing Choreography—A Transdisciplinary Challenge:

Children’s Constructing the Choreography of the

“Dance of the Dinosaurs”

Ingrid Lindahl

Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden

The aim of this study is to contribute to the understanding of the transdisciplinary exploration of children in

constructing the choreography of the “Dance of the Dinosaurs”, with mathematics being one of the disciplines used.

Central questions explored were: 1. What form did the children’s transdisciplinary exploration take? 2. What could

be learned about the mathematical understanding of the children? and 3. What problems emerged during the

process and how did the children respond to these? The study is an example of dialogical research, providing a

bridge between post-modern and modern theories and approaches. Deconstructive dialogue, imagination, and

rhizomatic thinking are central concepts in the theoretical framework. The empirical material consists of six-hour

video-taped material. The study found that the children explored and identified new problems, which they then

critically reflected and called in question. Time, space, shape, size, numbers, and patterns emerged in their

mathematical work. The children cooperated with each other during the problem-solving process and looked for

further challenges.

Keywords: transdisciplinary exploration, mathematical work, cooperation

Introduction

Recent educational steering documents have highlighted the mathematical ability of children and their way

of learning mathematics and using mathematics in different contexts (Swedish National Agency for Education,

1998). Today, there is much evidence suggesting that children do not explore the world by subject, but rather

create meaning through different “languages”—such as writing, reading, dancing, and movement—involving

all senses (Dahlberg & Moss, 2005; Lenz-Taguchi, 2010). The focus of this study is the transdisciplinary

cooperation between children, in which mathematics constitutes one of these “languages”. Kress (1997) refered

to the transdisciplinary exploration of children as “multi-modality”, which means that children apply a number

of different means of expression to communicate, and Deleuze and Guattari (1987) called it “rhizomatic

thinking”, i.e., learning and thinking where different disciplinary and verbal phenomena cooperate in a complex

and dynamic way.

This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the transdisciplinary exploration of children in

constructing the choreography of their own “Dance of the Dinosaurs”, where mathematics was one of the

disciplines used. The question posed was: What form did the transdisciplinary exploration of children take in

Ingrid Lindahl, Ph.D., senior lecturer, School of Education and Environment, Kristianstad University.

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CONSTRUCTING CHOREOGRAPHY—A TRANSDISCIPLINARY CHALLENGE

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the “Dance of the Dinosaurs”? Other questions were: 1. What could be grasped about the mathematical

understanding of children through studying their method of application? and 2. What problems emerged during

the process and how did the children respond to these?

Theoretical Framework

Dialogical Research—A Field of Tension Between Different Paradigms of Learning

The theoretical position of the study, which can be referred to as “dialogical research” (Alvesson & Deets,

2000), as applied to pedagogical investigation, was that the suppositions and theories of modernity, indicating a

difference between humans and the environment, subject and object, internal and external, and theoretical and

practical, are being avoided. “Dialogical research” also enables researchers to incorporate different theories,

including older ones. Hence, a possibility is to comment on parts of the cultural historical theories of Vygotskij

(1987; 1995), and concurrently turn to the post-modern and post-structural perspectives presented in Derrida

(1998; 2005), Levinas (2005), and Deleuze and Guattari (1987). Common to these perspectives is that they

question the dichotomies created between the individual and society, the internal and external, and the aesthetic

and the rational. Vygotskij (1987) chose to talk about dialectical relationships, while the post-modern theories

talk about complexity and multiplicity.

As in the post-modern perspective, Vygotskij (1987) showed how the created knowledge can never be a

reflection of factual circumstances. The conscious is dynamic and changeable and the process is dialectic in

constant movement between the internal and the external. This study turns to Vygotskij’s theory of “making

unfamiliar”, the role of the imagination in creating knowledge, and the theory of activity. At the same time, the

investigation is based on the post-modern and post-structural creation of theory according to Derrida’s theory

of deconstructive conversation (Derrida, 1998; 2005) and Deleuze’s concept of knowledge—“rhizomatic

thinking” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1987). In these perspectives, knowledge is not seen as something universal,

unchanged, and absolute. Consequently, teaching cannot be directed towards general ideals as this would make

the child into an object, as opposed to a subject in its own process of creating the subject and meaning. Rather,

the aim is for teachers to listen to children and try to identify their questions, theories, and hypotheses about the

surrounding world. These questions and theories then become the basis of teachers’ considerations on their own

attitudes and on how to meet and challenge the children in the exploratory process. How the process will end

and what course it will take, are open.

Making Unfamiliar, Deconstruction, and Ethics

Malaguzzi (1981) created the metaphor “A child has a hundred languages”, suggesting that children are

“fortunate”, worth listening to, taking seriously, and showing respect to. The acts of children and their

questions and problems they seek to solve become the focal point of teachers’ considerations. Using the

concept of “zone of proximal development” (here called “the development zone”), Vygotskij (1995) has shown

that children possess a rich potential for development. Play and exploration are described as activities that are

an integral part of the life of a child. A child’s actions are directed towards the goal of the activity and through

these goal-oriented actions, the child surpasses the current level of understanding and works within the

development zone.

Lindahl (2002) showed what happens when a teacher guides a child from the perspective of his/her own

goals but not those of the child: These conversations are called “reproductive” and are characterized by the


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child reproducing knowledge, instead of mainly producing something new of his/her own. The space allowed

for children’s own initiatives and “side issues” is restricted; children in this learning situation are stopped in

their own thinking and imitate each other in solving problems. To imitate each other’s solutions to problems is

regarded, in Reggio Emilia discourse, as one part of the exploration of children. In the context of exploration, it

is about testing the ideas of others to see if these can offer a different way of looking at a phenomenon (Rinaldi,

Giuchi, & Krechevsky, 2001). To Vygotskij (1987; 1995), imitation can also be a way for children to develop

an understanding of their own and create meaning. For example, children use the words of other people before

they comprehend the full significance of the words. Simultaneously, a dialectic process of interpretation starts

at the crossroads between the words of other people and the own thinking, significance, and meaning.

In reproductive conversation, imitation as matter of course emerges in a different way. To imitate each

other becomes a solution that children choose as an answer to the situation, created by the teacher, for example,

when they are constantly being interrupted in their own thinking and communication with their companions.

Thinking in a reproductive conversation loses its personal depth and the conversation ends up on the surface.

When a teacher fails to keep the goals of the children in focus, his/her guidance appears not to create

prerequisites for the children to operate in the development zone. The interpretation being made of the

development zone suggests that children have competence, thoughts, and ideas far beyond what can easily be

measured. Always, there is something “more” in the children, in the context, and in the presence, that cannot

see and certainly do not know anything about (Lindahl, 2002). This is an interpretation of the development

zone which can be compared to Malaguzzi’s (1981) metaphor of a child’s “hundred languages”, expressing a

strong humility towards the child and his/her inherent richness.

In shedding light on the role of art and the imagination in creating knowledge and meaning, Vygotskij

(1924/1971) turned to the Russian formalists and their conception of “making unfamiliar”. The rules of

everyday language are broken in poetry, which gives rise to “making unfamiliar”, as the poetry works in a

deautomatized way, according to the formalists. Thus, the evolution of literary history represents a constant

breach of ingrained conventions. When a new notion becomes convention, it loses its “unfamiliar making”

effect. This effect appears in the description by Vygotskij of how a child interprets his/her experiences and

creates something new, a meaning of its own through transforming exaggeration in a creative, narrative act.

The imagination, which Vygotskij termed the “combinatory ability” of the mind, plays a pivotal part in this act,

and is characterized by transformations, condensation, shrinkage, and exaggeration. If the role of the

imagination in the creation of knowledge is denied in teaching, understanding is put at risk of becoming barely

reproductive and not being as creatively productive, as Vygotskij considered desirable (Vygotskij, 1987;

Lindahl, 2002). This productive, creative, and variable way of regarding creation of knowledge and meaning,

described by Vygotskij (1987), has points of contact with the theory of Derrida (1998) concerning

deconstruction and deconstructive conversations. Deconstruction is often associated with text; however,

Derrida made it clear that deconstruction is equally about dialogical and living conversations. Deconstruction

as communication almost becomes a moment of non-understanding, of not knowing, insecurity, and somewhat

losing the self to the Other. Derrida endorsed the ethics of Levinas (2005) and his view of the Other and the

Other’s otherness to show how respect of the Other is basic in all communication. For example, one cannot

force his/her way of thinking and understanding of the world on the Other. Levinas emphasized that respect is

about the right to be different. It is through the presence of the Other that the subject is created. These ethics

could be regarded as implicitly present in all human relations, according to Levinas (2005). Prerequisites for an


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ethical meeting are openness towards the Other’s infinite otherness, a welcoming attitude, hospitality, and that

meeting the Other as an enigma.

Vygotskij’s (1924/1971; 1995) theory of “making unfamiliar” could be considered as having similarities

with the deconstruction theory of Derrida (1998). Vygotskij showed how the activity of the imagination is a

prerequisite for knowledge not to become reproductive but productive and creative, i.e., to lead to new

creations. Derrida (1998) spoke in a similar way about how a shift in meaning, a “difference”, occurs in the

reconsideration of given “assumptions”, and how it opens the way to something completely new or different.

“Differences” emerge in deconstructive conversations, also characterized by openness towards the otherness of

the Other. In this perspective, the view of the Other becomes central, as it will be decisive for whether the

conversation will lead to “differences” or merely allow recreation of already given “assumptions”. The

intention is not to agree in the sense of all thinking in the same way, but to enable differences to emerge, which

could create something new beyond ingrained conceptions of how things can be understood.

Rhizomatic Thinking—Escape Routes and Sidetracks

Philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari coined the metaphor “rhizome” or “rhizomatic thinking” to

stand for an image of thought and show how thinking emerges among people in tangled ramifications (Deleuze

& Guattari, 1987). “Rhizome” is a term derived from botany and refers to the stems of certain plants, which can

produce new shoots and root systems. These are often plants that are hard to root out, thanks to the rhizomatic

growth; that spread unpredictably in all directions. Instead of regarding the creation of knowledge as a linear

path, Deleuze and Guattari (1987) argued that the process can start at several points and move rhizomatically.

One follows new threads of roots to localize other nodes or clusters, pointing in other directions. In that way,

and through conceptual inventiveness rather than logic, an “escape route” can be created, an opening for the

flight of thought from what else limits creativity.

In studying children’s philosophical exploration of ethical dilemmas (Lindahl, 2010; 2011; 2013), it can

be noticed how children use the language creatively in describing grown-ups’ disinterest in playing with

smaller children, whom they described as “small as an earlobe”. The conversations between children and

teachers contained a playful element. For instance, making fun of things was important using known words as

well as creating new ones. “Sidetracking” could be perceived as taking winding “escape routes”. It provided

openness towards the unknown, which characterizes rhizomatic thought processes. In a Vygotskian perspective,

the “routes of escape” can be perceived as the imagination of children, including breaking boundaries, “making

unfamiliar”, and testing new perspectives.

Mathematics, Dance, and Transdisciplinary Exploration

Children and mathematics have previously been studied from a constructive perspective, in relation to

problem-solving. These studies focused largely on understanding of concepts, as well as on establishing what

environments create the best conditions for mathematical learning, such as ordering and grouping based on size,

form, and geometrical patterns (Clements & Sarana, 2007; Dienes, 1960; Reis, 2012). Further, the focus in

these studies was on the competence of children, competence development, and learning of mathematics. A

conclusion they all arrived at is that teachers should learn to discover how children use mathematics in their

play and other activities of their own choice, and take these insights as a starting point to challenge the further

use of mathematics. Reis (2012) suggested that the theory of variation (Marton & Tsui, 2004) could be used

together with the pedagogy of development (Pramling-Samuelsson & Asplund-Carlsson, 2003) in making


5

development models for how the work with mathematical learning of children can be pursued.

Based on transdisciplinary thinking, Palmer (2010) showed how children learn mathematics through the

body, the room, objects, and impulses from medial discourses in a transdisciplinary learning process. The

language of dance, expressions, and materializing becomes productive in connection with the concepts and

material of mathematics. Here, the interest lies in the mere process. The research question evolves from “What

does this mean?” to “What happens after this?”. Learning occurs both between individuals and between people

and the context of the discourse of the environment. Time and place become agents, like concepts and ideas

(Barad, 2007; 2008). Also, it is impossible to draw any clear lines between different kinds of bodies, human or

non-human, the material, and the discourse. However, one danger with this approach may be that the role and

responsibility are diminished in space, material, social media, etc.. If the enquiry and interest of children will

remain in focus, all pedagogical choices must be based on an ethical position about the Other and the otherness

of the Other. In this study, transdisciplinary exploration is based on the notion that everything is connected to

everything. The understanding of a certain act or phenomenon cannot be reduced to one aspect and exclude

others within a complex context. However, in the context of the preschool or school, a teacher must be given a

special significance as being utmost responsible for the Other and the otherness of the Other to be allowed

space and be treated within the totality of the complex situation. Based on the preschool or school he/she is

working in, it is the teacher who creates the spatial, material, and dialogical prerequisites for transdisciplinary

exploration; it is the teacher who interprets what is important for these specific children here and now in this

situation.

Teachers’ ability to interpret the situation has been described, based on the concept of “situational

sensitivity” (Lindahl, 2010; 2011; 2013). This includes teachers’ trust in the own ability to interpret the

situation and critically reflect upon both the own acts and those of the children. There is an acceptance that

there is no “right way”, that you simply have to trust the situation and the outcome, and to try to feel secure

despite uncertainty. Situational sensitivity is not a mystical feeling; it just appears in certain people with a

special ability for interpretation. By contrast, developed situational sensitivity is based on reflected experiences,

which in turn demand knowledge and education, Bildung. This type of situational sensitivity creates images of

how responsible meetings can be made possible and “otherness” can be welcomed, and is based on a

philosophy about the child (the Other), values, the world, and Bildung in its discursive and emancipated sense.

Situational sensitivity makes many options possible, including the option of more easily following children in

their unpredictable exploring.

To sum up, the theoretical framework of this study is based on Vygotskij’s theory of making unfamiliar, a

process in which the imagination, the creative ability, and a productive view of knowledge are highlighted. The

theoretical framework is further based on Derrida (1998; 2005) and Levinas (2005) concerning the

understanding of deconstructive conversations, how children create something new in these, and how they

respect the otherness of Others, as discussed by Levinas. All pedagogy has an ethical starting point, based on

how the subjects regard the Other. The view that knowledge and learning are rhizomatic, resembling the

growths of a tangled root, as proposed by Deleuze and Guattari (1987), is also part of the framework.

According to this, transdisciplinary exploration can be regarded as a way children learn, where nobody knows

where the exploration is heading or where it originates from. This study tries to find points of contact with both

Vygotskij’s theory (1987; 1995) and post-modern and structural theories. The theoretical position of the study

could be referred to as the field of tension between modern and post-modern structural approaches.


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Method

Before the dance project was put in stage initiated, the children dramatized how they believed the

dinosaurs moved. They made drawings, wrote down observations, and built three-dimensional dinosaurs. In

conversations with the children in one of the smaller groups, the question arose regarding how dinosaurs moved

and, if they could dance, what music they would have liked. This made the teacher ask the children: If

dinosaurs could dance, what do you think it would look like? Could you do a dinosaur dance? Together, the

children chose music for the dinosaur dance from the Office of Multi-media. The initial group consisted of five

children, all of them were girls: Alva, Isabelle, Agnes, Annabelle, and Elvira. The question which was later to

occupy the children was: “Can we draw the movements of the dance?”. The problem, jointly formulated by the

children, was whether they would be able to draw the movements of the dance. The first step in

problem-solving was to create movements suitable for the chosen music, and the second, to shape the

movements of the dance on paper.

The children dancing the “Dance of the Dinosaurs” all attended a preschool class. Their interest in the

exploration of dinosaurs led to a dance project involving a few groups of three to four children per group. The

exploration of the children was discussed with the teacher. The children participate in different exploratory

projects at the school. The project here studied was titled “the dance project”.

The empirical work consists of digital film recordings, altogether six hours of film, and diary notes.

Totally, 26 children aged from six to seven came to participate in the project including dance and

choreography. The group of children who introduced the project and who participated in the study consists of

five girls aged six to seven. They are Alva, Isabelle, Agnes, Annabelle, and Elvira. Ethical issues were

taken into consideration according to the guidelines of the Swedish Research Council. This means that all

the participating children’s parents, including the children themselves, have given their permission to the

study.

The method of processing the object of inquiry and analysing the data from a theoretical framework point

of view resembles what Patton (1990) called “orientational qualitative inquiry”. The knowledge drawn from

this method of interpretation is put in perspective. In this regard, the method of analysis differs from the

deliberate marked unconditionality usually associated with hermeneutical attempts. A number of excerpts have

been chosen from the transcribed films to illustrate the exploratory process. After every sub-section, the events

and their significance from the point of view of the theoretical framework are commented. Different possible

ways of interpretation are pointed out with the purpose of “inviting” the reader to make different interpretations.

Finally, summary of findings is presented in the “Conclusion” part of this reseach.

Children’s Exploration—An Infinite Adventure

The work starts when the children are given different tools to help them, such as a roll of paper, a CD

player, and music of their own choice. They place the roll of paper, or the “map” as they call it, on the floor.

Gradually, as they determine what movement goes with the music, they draw symbols, describing the order the

movements come in and writing their respective number. The children test out different movements, and they

draw symbols on the communal piece of paper they call “map” (see Figure 1). This is repeated time after time;

they dance, show each other, everybody is trying together, and then they sit down to draw. The process is

described below.


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Figure 1. The communal “map”.

Alva and Isabelle (turn around and say simultaneously): One, two, and three. (Then, they sit on the floor and continue to draw. Isabelle raises her hands and shows what they will do, and how to

do it.) Annabelle: Slap. Annabelle and Elvira (stand up and jump as they simultaneously say): One, two, jump, jump, one two, jump, jump.

We will do this twice, check it out. Elvira: How many times? Alva: One, two, three, eh... two, three, one jump, jump. We will do it twice, here.

One movement is followed by a number and then again by another number indicating the number of times

it will be performed. Movement one will be repeated twice, movement two six times, and so on.

Annabelle: How do you make a 9? (Elvira takes her own pencil and shows her. In the margin, Elvira writes her own 9.) Elvira: Like this. Let me show you! Annabelle: Is not that a “P”? Agnes (turns to Annabelle): If it is going to be a 9, should it be like this? (Agnes writes a new 9. Annabelle traces Agnes’ 9 with her pencil and then writes a 9 of her own.)

Children imitate and support each other, solving problems that come up. The teacher remains in the

background, but is present in the exploration of the children. When she sees Annabelle having a problem in

writing the number 9, she could have chosen to step in to “help” and show how it is done, or start explaining to

Annabelle. However, she chooses to wait and see what will happen in the group when Annabelle expresses her

problem. This could be regarded as an expression of “situational sensitivity”. It shows that she trusts the

children in the group, who apparently give Annabelle what she asks for and needs.

Dealing With a New Problem

But a new problem emerges in the group: The dance ends before the music is over.

Isabelle: But the music lasts longer than our dance? (A big discussion starts during which everyone talks simultaneously. They cannot match time with the movement.) Alva: Oh, it lasts a long time, and we danced so well. It was because we danced so fast. We have to do more because

the music lasts longer. What can we do?


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Annabelle: But if we do like this, twice, instead of once, like this, see, like this. One, two, three, slow. You know, like this ... one, two, three.

(The children think it over. They test a few more advanced moves and some gymnastic moves.) Alva: Then we have to draw more movements, to make the dance last longer. Up and down, up and down, it is from

the side. We need one (movement) between the eighth and the ninth (movement). Annabelle: Twelve, it will be the last one, so it has to be number 13. Alva: This, yes, that we should use at the end.

Alva shows with her body and draws a picture to illustrate a split (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Alva’s demonstration and drawing of the split.

The drawing is followed by a digit, for the number of the movement, and yet another digit for the number

of times the movement will be executed. The children get up and jump.

That the dance ends sooner than the music is a hard problem to solve, different suggestions are put

forward and discussed. Eventually, the group decides to include more movements to match the length of the

dance with that of the music. The children show with their whole bodies how the movement will be seen, and

this may be regarded as a “perception of space”—position and direction.

Alva: Up and down, up and down. It is from the side. We need one (movement) between the eighth and the ninth. No, it should be the last, so it must be number 13. This one, Annabelle is choosing, it should be number 12, we will have it at the end.

Annabelle: One foot forwards, one foot backwards, one foot to the side, one, two (jumps twice).

To find a solution to the problem, the children test different movements and rhythms simultaneously. They

are demonstrating and talking at the same time, but also listening to each other’s suggestions. After some

discussion, the children decide to create more movements, to be put after movement number 12. Thus, they

connect time with movement, which is noted as a form of “perception of time”.

From Common Ground to the Personal/Communal

From having made a drawing jointly, the children each want to create their own private “map”, or

schematic drawing, of the dance from movement 1 to movement 13 (see Figure 3).

Annabelle (points to her map): It looks like a Nintendo. (Elvira draws her map in three parts. She places the parts in order, beginning with number 6 instead of 1 (see Figure 4).) Annabelle (regarding it): But I wonder, look, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 comes in the middle, it becomes another dance (giggles

twice).


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Elvira (also laughs, and then she realizes her mistake and corrects it): Oops, it became a little wrong.

Figure 3. Part of Annabelle’s “map”, or schematic drawing of the dance.

Figure 4. Elvira’s schematic drawing in three parts.


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The exploration of the children also includes size and form. They create a pattern when they jump, while

at the same time showing awareness of the number of jumps: “How many times? One, two, three, two, three,

one, two, jump, jump. One, two, jump, jump. We must do it twice”. The children record their movements,

reducing them, while sometimes they create symmetry in the movements. Figure 5 shows a symmetrical

movement in the shape of a heart, drawn by Annabelle.

Annabelle: We shall start small and then grow and get bigger and bigger. (At the same time, Annabelle and Elvira both suggest that movement number five will grow (increase in size) and be

executed six times.) Alva: What shall we have? Can we use what Annabelle and Elvira said? Elvira: Yes, alright. That will be fine. Like… Annabelle: Look here, grow bigger and bigger, it lasts for four beats laps. (The teacher nods, smiles, and looks at Annabelle and the other children.)

The exploration of the children therefore appears to include beat and tempo. The number of each

individual movement, and their form and the number that each is performed are put on paper in order. Elvira is

the first to decide to draw the movements from left to right. The children use symbols, formal as well as

informal, to represent the movements of the dance. Informal symbols are constructed to represent different

movements communally in the group.

Figure 5. Symmetrical movement in the shape of a heart.

There exists an allowing climate in the group, with the children listening to each other and giving each

other space. One possible explanation could be that the common goal, the end they want to achieve, is very

important to them, shaping their behaviour. They turn towards each other and often ask their friends what they

think should be done to achieve that goal: “What shall we have? Cannot we do what Annabelle and Elvira

said?”. They all seem to enjoy the common exploration. They listen to each other, participate, and each

contributes to the common project to create a dinosaur dance. The children appear to “own” the question.

But Why Should It Be a Dinosaur Dance of All Things?

In later conversations with the children, the children said that the dance project has been fun and that they

have learned a lot about dance and making maps. One question arises, however:

Elvira: But why does it have to be a dinosaur dance of all things? Dinosaurs would not have applauded over their heads. The movements are not like dinosaurs make.


11

Sofie (teacher): Would you like to do a new dance? Elvira: Yes, but not about dinosaurs, not a song like that. We should have a song where they sing from YouTube.

Like Lady Gaga. Sofie: Would a map help you, then? Alva: Yes, but we would make it more carefully. Sofie: Mmmm, more carefully, what do you mean? Alva: Well, not like a draft, a map lengthwise.

The question remains. Why is it a dinosaur dance? Why not a dance for something other than dinosaurs?

In thinking back on their project, the children have almost abandoned all thoughts about dinosaurs. At the

forefront is the dance, the music, and the making of a “map”. All five children answered that they would use a

“map” again, but that next time they would design the map horizontally, i.e., with the paper in landscape

orientation.

The concept of a map was suggested by Elvira early on in the process. The making of the “map” became a

tool for the children’s choreography of the dance. It became a tool of communication and problem-solving,

formulated by the children, in their effort to draw the movements.

When planning their second dance project, not about dinosaurs, but with the dance itself in focus, the

group draws a combined map first, as a “draft”. Then, everybody wants to make his/her own. The children feel

that they cooperate well, but have problems in agreeing. When they eventually do agree, they have found a

movement that is so good that everyone is really satisfied.

Annabelle: It was hard to find dance steps that everybody wants to have. In the end, when we managed something good, everybody liked it.

Elvira: We learned to make maps of the dance, so we did not have to remember everything in our heads. Alva: It was hard to find a good song, this was not so good. … Elvira taught us to do a split, though I still cannot do

it. Elvira: I have practised since I was three. Annabelle: We learned how to move quickly, though we already knew it. Elvira: We learned how to dance to the beat of the music. Sofie: Mmmm (nods and looks at the children).

When the children talk about what they have learned, they mainly talk about what they have used in the

learning process. They also talk about the body, as they have explored the possibilities and boundaries of the

body.

A “Contagious” Interest

The interest in the dance is “contagious” both within and outside the class of children. It is this interest that

the researcher now continues to work on, looking for new questions, and so on. An interesting question is

whether the children use the experiences from the dinosaur dance in the process of designing a new dance. The

investigation shows that the children use the “map” as a natural tool in creating new dances. Those children

who were involved in the first project have been able to contribute their learning and experience to the

communal learning process. The other children in the class turn to them as experts.

Different groups differ in the amount of time they need for getting started. One group has run into great

difficulties and has really had a “struggle” in dividing the work-up among their members. Spending a lot of

time early on in the process helped them to get started in the long run. One member of the group said, when the

process was finally flowing, “Now dance for me, so I can draw”. In this group, the roles became very obvious:


12

One member asked questions, wrote down, organized, and structured the group dance on paper, while another

took responsibility for the music and the third created new dance steps.

One discovery was the emphasis the groups put on working closely together. For some children, it seemed

very important to visit other groups from time to time to see the work of others. Maybe was it to get inspiration,

impulses, and new ideas. When the dance steps ended, a teacher got the children to ask other groups questions,

and they usually turned to one of the “experts” from the original dance project.

Conclusion

Describing complicated processes and doing them justice is an almost impossible task. What happened

when the children encountered problems, discovered new materials, and met with other people is so much more

complex than can be recorded linguistically and observed from certain theoretical perspectives. This project,

which still continues in new configurations and with new variants, should be regarded as an attempt to show

something of the complexity in the transdisciplinary exploration of children. Even if the children themselves

constitute the “engine” in the process, there is a teacher present (in this study, Sofie) who offers the children

access to an allowing surrounding and exploratory tools, such as tape-recorders, paper, and drawing materials.

However, the teacher needs to take an entirely different position from a teacher in a reproductive conversation

(Lindahl, 2002). In a learning environment as described in the present study, the teacher identifies the goals of

the children and supports them in reaching these goals. Thus, from a Vygotskian perspective (Vygotskij, 1987),

the teacher acts within a zone of development. Also, characteristically, the teacher shows situational sensitivity,

for example, as she chooses to act when the children run into problems with the length of the music and the

number of movements they have drawn. She is ever present in the “doing” of the children, which is detectable

in her body language, for example, when she says “Mmm”, smiles, and so on.

In the present investigation, the children have expressed the wish to create more projects, such as the

dinosaur dance project. The dance project is “contagious” to the other groups in the school and from time to

time, the children in the first dance project take on the role of mentors to the new dance groups. Here,

transdisciplinary exploration emerges between the common and the concrete goal of the children, i.e., to create

a dance with a map of the dance. This is no longer an entirely unprejudiced exploration where nobody knows

how it will end. However, nobody knows anything about what will happen along the way in the process of

exploration and solving problems. Regarded from a Vygotskian perspective (Vygotskij, 1987), the children

realize and reach the goals of their activity, namely, to create a dinosaur dance where movement, timing, and

the beat are held together and rendered understandable by their choreography. The children act in the proximal

zone of development and create learning. To some extent, the exploration of dance, made by the children, can

be regarded as the tangled root system of “rhizomes” growing into different directions and shaped by what has

arisen between them. This is a completely different process to step-by-step, linear learning.

What could be learned about the mathematical comprehension of children through their method of

application? The language, expression, and putting on of dance moves rely on mathematical concepts and

symbols. The children learn something about mathematics through the body, reflection, and the combining

ability of the imagination. Every movement takes its time, must be adapted to the beat, and represents a special

image. Every new movement is a new experience, something new to explore with the body and in dialogue

with each other. The children engage in deconstruction and create a difference, something new.


13

Beats and tempi are explored, and new movements and rhythms are created and tested. The order, form,

and number of the movements become visible on paper. One child was uncertain of how to write the number 9,

but learned from another child, who showed her and explained to her, whereupon she tried over and over again

until she got it right. Symbols, both formal and informal, emerged in the map making. Informal symbols

emerged, constituting an “unfamiliar making” process through the changes and exaggerations of the children.

Description of position, direction, and sequence was a constant part of the process.

When encountering a problem, for example, when the music lasts longer than the movements for

their dance, the children are prepared to listen to proposals from others, which is basic for both an ethical and

a deconstructive conversation. They now connect time with movement, which could be regarded as a

perception of time. The map of the dance, being both the tool and the goal of the children, consists of numbered

symbols for the dance steps, and has emerged in combination with time, beat, and melody music. It may be

seen to resemble a tangled root system consisting of different thread-like roots to hold on to and further

pursue. “But why a dinosaur dance of all things?” is a question the children have posed in conversation with

the teacher. One possible answer is that the attention of the children has been revolving around the concrete

problems and the goal they have wanted to achieve. However, the children express eagerness to design

another dance, which they will do by creating a new, more precise dance map. The children already have the

experience of creating a dance map, which experience and learning they can contribute to making a new dance.

As with every learning situation, there will be new challenges and new problems that will need to be solved.

The dance will continue, but there will be new events, new challenges, and new explorations: an infinite

adventure.

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och form (Learning encountering aesthetics and rationality—Teacher’s guidiance and children’s problemsolving through art and form). Malmö, Sweden: Högskolan i Malmö.

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Marton, F., & Tsui, A. B. (2004). Classroom discourse and the space of learning. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum. Palmer, A. (2010). “Let’s dance”: Theorizing feminist and aesthetic mathematical learning practice. Contemporary Issues in Early

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playing and learning child in a pedagogical development theory). Stockholm, Sweden: Liber. Reis, M. (2012). Att ordna från ordning till ordning: Yngre förskolebarns matematiserande (From ordering to ordering: Preschool

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Daidalos.


The Influence of Web-based Intelligent Tutoring Systems on

Academic Achievement and Permanence of Acquired

Knowledge in Physics Education*

Mustafa Erdemir

Kastamonu University, Kastamonu, Turkey

Şebnem Kandil İngeç

Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey

This study aims to determine the influence of distance asynchronous teaching of Physics-I topics via intelligent

tutoring systems (ITSs) on academic achievement and permanence. A Web-based learning environment was

created by use of an ITS called “Turkish Intelligent Tutoring System” (TURKZOS) for such Physics-I units as

work, energy, and conservation of energy. The experimental group of the study consisted of 26 students who had

computer and Internet access and participated in the study voluntarily. The achievement test developed by the

researchers was used for collecting data. This test was conducted as pre-test and post-test before and after the

experimental procedure respectively. The same test was administered to measure permanence 45 days later

following the performance of the post-test. The obtained data were analyzed via paired t-test. Mean pre-test score

was found to be 23.88, and mean post-test score was found to be 73.80. Mean permanence test, on the

other hand, was found to be 71.88. When mean pre-test and post-test scores were compared, a significant

difference was identified in favor of the mean post-test score (p < 0.05). In addition, a significant difference was

detected between mean permanence test and pre-test scores (p < 0.005). The mean permanence test score was

higher than the mean pre-test score. It was concluded that intelligent learning environments created through

Web-based tutoring systems have a positive influence on academic achievement and permanence in physics

teaching.

Keywords: physics education, distance education, Web-based intelligent tutoring system (ITS), academic

achievement and permanence

Introduction

Lifelong learning has become one of the primary goals of education. Education has always been a main

issue since the start of humanity. Studies and research on learning and teaching existed in the past, exist now,

and will continue to exist in the future. Educational experts carry out studies and research in order to adapt

developments in science and technology to learning and teaching situations. Attempts are made to introduce

technological developments to teaching.

Education continues until death to improve both individual and social life quality. Continuous learning

* This paper is presented at The 2nd International Instructional Technologies & Teacher Education Symposium (ITTES2014, 20-22 May 2014, Afyonkarahisar-Turkey).

Mustafa Erdemir, M.A., lecturer, Faculty of Education, Kastamonu University. Şebnem Kandil İngeç, Ph.D., associate professor, Faculty of Education, Gazi University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

THE INFLUENCE OF WEB-BASED INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEMS

16

brings about a democratic improvement in economic growth, social welfare, and life (Derrick, 2003). Since

learning cannot be achieved in the classroom environment at every age, it sometimes takes place from distance,

through technology use and via interactions with the environment. Furthermore, institutions and organizations

turn to distance education in order to inform and train their target groups. Distance education refers to a

synchronous or asynchronous learning process involving the use of such teaching tools as technological

instruments, written materials, and printed materials when students and information source are at a physical

distance.

Distance education utilizes various techniques, such as virtual classroom, e-learning, m-learning,

Web-based distance education, online learning, and blended education. The improvement of these techniques

and the increase of their productivity in educational processes depend on technological developments. For

example, advancements in artificial neural networks have enabled more efficient use of computers in

educational activities and have contributed to the creation of intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs). Among

primary educational technologies are communication technologies, computer technologies, and artificial neural

network programmes. Today, studies on education mainly focus on these subjects. In this context, two

important fields of study are improving the productivity of computer-supported education and integrating

computer programmes, like ITSs into educational processes.

Developments in artificial neural networks have led to the birth of intelligent learning environments, and

the combination of these environments with computer-supported education has brought about ITSs. Being new

learning environments, ITSs allow the individualization of learning processes, the elimination of time and space

obligations, and the systematic access of many people to educational activities. This makes the use of ITSs in

education widespread. Moreover, ITSs are the programmes involving processes that are most similar to the

behaviors displayed by teachers in teaching processes. ITSs, which refer to an advanced educational approach,

offer lesson content to every student through adaptation and imitating teachers. ITSs perceive every student’s

knowledge level and decide on the next teaching situation to make them reach the maximum level as normal

(regular) education does (Jerinic, 2013).

According to Doğan (2006), ITSs are regarded as future’s teaching systems, and thus, many studies are

carried out in this field. Intelligent teaching systems are the teaching systems that are most similar to the

traditional classroom environment. ITSs are quite successful in comparison to other systems (Doğan & Kubat,

2008).

ITSs can adapt to the individual needs of students and the acts of teachers. They aim to achieve teachers’

acts. ITSs can provide students with flexible teaching materials, a one-to-one teaching environment, and

feedback (Moundridou & Virvou, 2000).

There are some question marks regarding how sensibly information provided in the virtual environment is

received and treated by individuals. According to Gustafsson (2002), students cannot complete their learning

processes through distance education, which uses technological teaching techniques, and it is difficult to inspect

students in this approach. In formal education, social communication among students encourages the

continuance of educational activities.

Socialization, group work, and face-to-face interaction in formal education improve achievement and

continuity. However, the importance of learning processes based on distance ITSs is undeniable, too.

Technological education must create awareness within the context of social content and influence.

Educators need to be prepared for this change. Thus, information environments should be created rapidly.


17

ITSs aim to imitate normal (regular) teachers by adapting to individuals’ (students’) strengths, weaknesses,

and other characteristics. As students use ITSs, their deficiencies are noticed. Such deficiencies may be

overcome by use of different teaching strategies. This brings a big convenience to teachers and students by

providing them with a flexibility to eliminate these deficiencies.

The Web-based ITS used in the present study offers a time and space independent asynchronous learning

process, which provides those people who cannot receive formal education with an educational opportunity. In

addition, it can be used for supporting in-class training. Students employ processes unique to themselves in

learning something new or recalling a piece of knowledge acquired beforehand, but such individuality is not

taken into consideration enough in the classroom environment.

Web-based ITSs provide students with an educational opportunity that is both time and space independent

and free from any problems caused by the Internet environment (İstanbul, 2003). Today, education and

technology are intertwined. Although there are already some common educational approaches (e.g.,

behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism), a new theory has been introduced by Siemens (2006) as a

learning theory for the digital age: the Connectivism Theory. This theory emphasizes that knowledge is in the

external word; it is consumed very fast; the process of reaching it continues for life time; developing digital

technology is required for reaching it; and for all these reasons, there is a need for such a theory.

Achievement and Permanence

Curricula and teaching and assessment processes of educational institutions focus on students’

achievement. However, students at the same age may have different learning processes and perceptional states.

Some students may learn very rapidly, while some others learn or reach learning tools very slowly. To improve

achievement and permanence, non-common states (characteristics) of students must be taken into consideration

when preparing and implementing curricula and teaching and assessment processes. It is quite difficult to use

learning environments that are made up of non-common states in normal (regular) education. In

classroom-oriented education, lesson contents and learning processes are created by assuming that a general

perception level prevails among students. In normal (regular) classrooms, learning environments cannot be

created based on non-common states (e.g., time, space, individual perception, and the number of students), and

learning can be achieved only through adaptable teaching states, which decrease overall achievement. This has

a negative influence on permanence because it is related to the continuity of achievement.

Teaching lessons via adaptive Web-based ITSs may provide advantages about time, space, individual

perception, the number of students reached, creation of a rich content, and navigational support. These

advantages may eliminate problems emerging in the classroom, allow offering individualized lesson contents,

and enhance overall achievement.

The use of technology in educational activities is undeniable. One of the primary tools used in education is

computer. It is reported that computer-supported education has a considerable influence on student achievement

because teachers use computers as an auxiliary tool to concretize abstract concepts (Güven & Sülün, 2012).

Time and space independence is one of the most important benefits of Web-based education, which is

considered to have a positive influence on enhanced performance (Demirel, Seferoğlu, & Yağcı, 2001).

ITSs

ITSs are a class of computer-based education systems that allow adaptivity at a certain level. As students


18

use these systems, teaching strategies are changed and adapted depending on students’ progress. Such systems

identify the strengths and weaknesses of students, and teachers continue teaching activities in the classroom

environment based on such identification, which allows doing necessary updates in these systems (Doğan,

2006).

ITSs allow shaping learning processes according to individuals’ needs, affective characteristics, like

learning style, and cognitive knowledge levels (Dağ, 2011). ITSs consist of several components for design and

conceptualization purposes.

According to Woolf (1992), ITSs are composed of the following four basic components:

(a) The student module;

(b) The tutoring module;

(c) The domain (expert knowledge) module;

(d) The user interface (communication) module.

The Student Module

It stores the information unique to each student. It monitors how well students do in learning situations.

The objective of this module is to collect information for the tutoring module and to make the expert use such

information.

While some student modules contain short-term information (i.e., valid for one session), some others make

use of long-term information. Short-term information is used for instant assistance. Long-term information, on

the other hand, can be used for selecting the best problem or topic appropriate to the student in pedagogical

actions (Suraweara, 2004).

Short-term student module. Model monitoring module and constraint-based student module are

examples of this module.

Long-term student module. Overlay student module, stereotypes tudent module, Bayes student module,

case-based student module, and agent-based student module are examples of this module. The short-term

student module is usually used for updating the long-term student module (Mayo, 2001).

The Overlay Student Module Used in the Study

It involves differences between the expert’s knowledge of the topic and the student’s knowledge of it. The

student’s domain knowledge is considered a subset of the expert’s knowledge (Stankov, 1996).

The objective of this module is to eliminate deficiencies or wrong knowledge of students and to make

them reach the expert’s knowledge. It is not approved that students have the knowledge that is not possessed by

the expert. The domain knowledge is divided into sections, such as rules, events, and concepts. The degrees to

what these sections are known are expressed by ranges. For instance, when the range “0” to “100” is used, “0”

demonstrates lack of knowledge, while “100” indicates that the topic is known perfectly. The beginning level of

a student is considered “0”, and his/her level changes dynamically depending on his/her behaviors (Suraweara,

2004).

ITS General Algorithm Used in the Study

The Web-based ITS used in the study was developed by Karacı (2013). Figure 1 presents the algorithm of

the ITS used in the study. After students study all the topics and pages in the related unit at the learning level

determined by the teacher and calculated via artificial neural networks, they can enter the exam page. The

learning levels of students entering the exam page are calculated based on the assessment method determined


19

by the teacher. If the calculated learning levels are equal to or higher than the level determined by the teacher,

students are directed to the unit or units meeting the requirement for moving up. If the learning level is not

enough, the pages in which students have problems are given to students as feedback, and students are

requested to study such pages again. If students want to take the exam again without studying these pages, they

are not allowed to do so. The above-mentioned procedures are conducted and repeated until students learn all

units at the learning level determined by the teacher (Karacı, 2013).

Figure 1. General algorithm of the ITS used.

All units arefinished?

Level of Learning at the desired

level?

Directed to the appropriate unit

Begin

Introduction to System

Does the unit havebeen left

incomplete?

Directed to the appropriate unit

Check the session information

Learning level, store-level student learning

Y

NH

Y

Level of Learning at the desired

level?

Y

NY Finish.

N

Students entering this the first

A preliminary test

N

YE

Work unit

N

Implementation E

Is the desired level has been studied in the

Y

H

The lack Detection

1

1


20

According to this algorithm, if a student enters for the first time, the first topic titles are opened. If the

student entered and studied some topics beforehand, the system directs him/her to the page he/she left off.

Those students who enter for the first time study the content including figures, formulas, animations, examples,

activities, and lectures prepared by the teacher as well as the links about the related topic and answer the

questions on activity pages. Students finishing a topic proceed to another topic. The same study method is

employed for each topic in the unit. After students study all of the topics in the unit, they take the end-of-unit

exam for moving up. To take this exam, students need to study each content page for a time determined by the

teacher. If a student has not studied content pages enough, he/she is directed by the system to relevant pages.

The Intelligence Features Used in the Study

The intelligence features used in the study are explained below.

Remembering the page left off. If a student leaves the page or closes the browser directly, the system

directs him/her to the last page visited when he/she enters the system again. When he/she enters the system,

he/she continues with the last page displayed.

Stating learning levels. The system reports a student’s learning level to him/her (he/she definitely does

not know; he/she most probably does not know; he/she possibly does not know; he/she may know; he/she

possibly knows; he/she most probably knows; he/she definitely knows; etc.).

Determining the topics in which individuals have deficiencies and directing them to such topics. The

system determines the concepts, topics, and pages in which students have deficiencies, directs them to such

concepts, topics, and pages, and makes suggestions.

Detecting reviewing situations and directing. When a student does not review the pages which the

system recommends him/her to do so, it detects it, prevents the student from proceeding to a new page, and

directs him/her to pages in which he/she has learning deficiencies.

Ensuring proper proceeding to new topics. When a student does not satisfy the learning level

determined by the teacher as a condition for proceeding, the system prevents him/her from proceeding to the

themes established by the teacher.

Opening topics to those who satisfy the conditions for proceeding. When a student satisfies the learning

level determined by the teacher as a condition for proceeding, the system brings the themes to which the student

can proceed into use and directs him/her by informing him/her of the themes to which he/she may proceed.

Monitoring the answers given. The system allows monitoring the answers given by students to

end-of-topic exam questions.

Monitoring students in the learning process. The system prevents students from proceeding to another

page before monitoring a page, hides activity answers, monitors the number of entrances of students and

duration of remaining on pages, and determines the pages that are monitored, that are allowed to be monitored,

and that are not allowed to be monitored.

Page monitoring level. The system determines the page monitoring levels (page study levels) of students

as “Good”, “Moderate”, and “Bad” and prevents those students who have not reached the requested level from

proceeding (The page monitoring level is calculated based on the number of entrances by students in pages and

duration of remaining there).

Navigation. The system determines the pages which can be entered by students and directs them to such

pages. It also provides navigational adaptation.


21

The Teaching Method Employed in the Study

The teaching method of the Web-based ITS used in the present study was implemented in the

experimental process. This teaching method is programmed instruction, which refers to ordered or programmed

arrangement of learning tools and materials to make students reach the related behavioral goals (Çağıltay &

Göktas, 2013).

The principles which the programmed instruction is built upon are presented below.

Principle of small step. Topics are presented to a student through division into sub-topics. Topics are

from simple to complex. The student proceeds to the work performed by the varying force after he/she

completes the work performed by the constant force. The student has to achieve the passing grade in the

end-of-unit exam determined by the teacher in order to proceed to a new unit. If this condition is not satisfied,

the system does not allow the student to proceed to a new unit.

Principle of active responding. The Web-based ITS is a learning system based on the interaction

between students and computer. Thus, there is a continuous interaction between the system and students. The

system monitors students, addresses questions to check whether or not knowledge has been acquired, and

ensures active responding by enabling students to answer such questions. It also contributes to active

responding by giving instant feedback to the answers of students.

Principle of immediate confirmation. Immediate feedback (i.e., true or false and in red color) is given to

students in regard to results. The Web-based ITS immediately reports as feedback whether the responses of

students to activities and end-of-unit questions are true or false. The teacher can see such responses and

feedback, too.

Principle of self-pacing. The Web-based ITS used in the study is an adaptive system and does not bring

any limitation to students in the learning process. They may reach the lesson content whenever and wherever

they want. This allows students who use the system to receive a free and individualized education.

Principle of correct answers. Whether or not the answers given by the students using the Web-based ITS

are true is immediately reported to them as feedback. Students can re-answer by reviewing what they have done

or the topics they have covered. If they cannot reach correct answers, they may obtain information by sending

the teacher an e-mail or using social communication tools. Furthermore, the teacher sees the pages studied by

his/her students as well as their responses to the activities. The teacher writes suggestions and comments as

feedback so that students can find the correct answers.

The intelligence features of the system used in the study overlap with the programmed instruction.

Although printed materials are used in the programmed instruction, instructional design theory is widely used

in the computer environment. According to Jonassen (1996), computer-based teaching is a practice developed

based on the programmed instruction.

Method

Scope

The present study involves the pre-tests, post-tests, and permanence tests of 26 students from the

Mathematics Teaching Program, Department of Primary Education, Faculty of Education, Kastamonu

University, who learned such Physics-I units as work, energy, and conservation of energy via a Web-based

ITS.


22

Limitation

The study is limited to the pre-tests, post-tests, and permanence tests of 26 students using a Web-based

ITS.

Significance

ITSs are regarded as future’s teaching systems. It is considered that examining the influence of a

Web-based ITS developed for contributing to physics education and making it effective, productive, and

interesting may contribute to the related literature.

Study Group

The study group consists of 26 students from the Mathematics Teaching Program, Department of Primary

Education, Faculty of Education, Kastamonu University, who are receiving the Physics-I course in the

2012-2013 academic year.

Research Model

“One-way repeated measures test”, which is a semi-experimental design, was employed in the study. After

the students’ knowledge of the lesson content was measured via the achievement test, which was developed by

the researchers as a pre-test before the experimental procedure, the students were informed about the adaptive

ITS named “Turkish Intelligent Tutoring System” (TURSOZ) developed by Karacı (2013). Then, they used the

system online for four weeks. The achievement test was administered to the students as a post-test after the

experimental procedure. The same test was conducted as a permanence test 45 days later following the

administration of the post-test.

Data Collection Tool

The academic achievement test was developed on such Physics-I topics as work, energy, and conservation

of energy. The achievement test comprising of 25 questions was administered to 35 students who had received

the above-mentioned course before. Six questions that were found to have low reliability in item analysis were

removed. Thus, the achievement test consists of 19 questions including concept and problem questions. The

achievement test was administered as a pre-test, as a post-test, and as a permanence test to measure the

knowledge levels of the students in the beginning, to determine the increase in their knowledge through the

experimental procedure, and to see the permanence of such knowledge.

Data Analysis

The data obtained through the experimental procedure were analyzed via the one-way repeated measures

test. Repeated measures are carried out to determine the difference between a categorical variable that has

minimum three sub-dimensions and continuous variables (Pallant, 2011). The dependent variable of this study

is a continuous variable. It is the progress scores of the pre-service primary school mathematics teachers

receiving the Physics-I course. The independent variable, on the other hand, is a categorical variable. It is the

tests performed in the experimental process (i.e., the pre-test, the post-test, and the permanence test). ω2

coefficient was calculated to find the influence quantity of the difference statistic conducted.

Findings

The pre-test, post-test, and permanence test results of the experimental group were compared. Table 1

shows the mean scores obtained besides standard deviation values. The sphericity of the data was violated


23

through the Mauchly test conducted for identifying sphericity, which is one of the assumptions of

repeated measures (x2(2) = 19.7; p < 0.05). The degree of freedom was confirmed via Greenhouse-Geisser’s

sphericity coefficient ( = 0.41). It was found out that the use of Web-based ITSs makes a significant

difference in teaching such units as work, energy, and conservation of energy to pre-service primary school

mathematics teachers receiving the Physics-I course and ensuring the permanence of the knowledge acquired

(F (1.67, 32.05) = 502.92; p < 0.05; 2 = 0.89). The omega square test, which was conducted to calculate the

influence quantity, showed that the coefficient was 0.84. Thus, it can be said that Web-based ITSs have a big

influence on teaching such units as work, energy, and conservation of energy to pre-service teachers and

ensuring the permanence of knowledge acquired (Pallant, 2011). This influence quantity explains more than

25% of the total variance (Cohen, 1988, as cited in Field, 2005).

Table 1

The Pre-test, Post-test, and Permanence Test Descriptive Statistics of the Experimental Group

Test type N M SD

Pre-test 26 23.88 6.62

Post-test 26 73.80 8.93

Permanence test 26 71.88 7.92

Figure 2 indicates the scores obtained in the tests, which are dependent variables, in the experimental

process. The lessons received by the pre-service teachers within the scope of the units work, energy, and

conservation of energy via the Web-based ITS had a big influence on their academic achievement scores. This

technique led to an increase of 50 points in the achievement scores of the pre-service teachers. The permanence

test, which was conducted 45 days later following the completion of the experimental process, demonstrated

that the pre-service teachers had high scores and there was just a slight fall in comparison to the scores

achieved by them in the post-test.

Figure 2. The pre-test, post-test, and permanence test scores of the pre-service teachers in the experimental group.

Based on the research findings, it was concluded that the Web-based ITS used in the study improves

academic achievement of pre-service primary school mathematics teachers in such Physics-I units as work,

energy, and conservation of energy and ensures the permanence of knowledge acquired in such units.

23.88

73.8 71.88

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Pre-test Post-test Permanence test

Study group


24

Discussion and Conclusion

Table 1 presents the arithmetic means of the pre-test, post-test, and permanence test scores obtained by the

research participants as well as relevant standard deviation values. According to the arithmetic means,

Web-based adaptive ITSs enhance achievement. In addition, the existence of a statistically significant

difference between pre-test and post-test scores (p < 0.05) demonstrates that the use of a Web-based ITS for

teaching such topics as work, energy, and conservation of energy has a positive influence on achievement.

Lack of any significant difference between post-test and permanence test scores shows that Web-based

ITSs have a statistical (p > 0.05) influence on permanence. Figure 2 also shows that there is quite a big and

statistically significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores. There is quite a small and statistically

insignificant difference between post-test and permanence test results. Based on all these data, it is realized that

Web-based ITSs improve academic achievement and ensure the permanence of the knowledge acquired.

Web-based ITSs can be used in physics education. The usage of these systems may provide advantages

about time, space, and individual perception. These systems may also contribute to the research in this field and

lessons taught in the classroom environment. Researchers may investigate the influences of similar techniques

on different courses and topics in the future and make contribution to the literature in this way.

Web-based ITSs may be used for improving the quality of distance education. In distance education, it is

quite difficult to monitor the study processes of students. It is teachers who monitor such processes in the case

of in-class training. Web-based ITSs, which act similarly to teachers, may be used for monitoring these

processes in distance education.

References Çağıltay, K., & Göktaş, Y. (2013). Öğretim teknolojilerinin temelleri: Teoriler, araştırmalar, eğilimler (Foundations of

instructional technology: Theory, research, trends). Ankara: Pegem Publishing. Dağ, F. (2011). Bireyselleştirilmiş öğretim sistemleri ve semantik Web’in etkisi (Individualized education systems and the

semantic Web effect). Eğitim Teknolojileri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(1). Demirel, Ö., Seferoğlu, S., & Yağcı, E. (2001). Öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal geliştirme (Instructional technology and

material development). Ankara: Pegem Publishing. Derrick, M. G. (2003). Creating environments conducive for lifelong learning. New Directıons for Adult and Continuing

Education, 100, 1-17. Doğan, B. (2006). Zeki öğretim sistemlerinde veri madenciliği kullanılması (The use of data mining in intelligent tutoring systems)

(Doctorial dissertation, Institute of Science and Technology, Marmara University). Doğan, N., & Kubat, B. (2008). Akıllı öğretim sistemleri için yeni bir bileşen: Düzenleyici modül (A new component for

intelligent teaching systems: Organizer module). Bilişim Teknolojileri Dergisi, 1(2), 5-9. Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS. London, U.K.: SAGE. Gustafsson, P. (2002). Physics teaching at a distance. European Journal of Physics, 23(5), 469-474. Güven, G., & Sülün, Y. (2012). Bilgisayar destekli öğretimin 8.sınıf fen ve teknoloji dersindeki akademik başarıya ve öğrencilerin

derse karşı tutumlarına etkisi (The effects of computer-enhanced teaching on academic achievement in 8th grade science and technology course and students’ attitudes towards the course). Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, 1, 68-79.

İstanbul, A. (2003). Biyomedikal mühendisliği eğitimi için yazılım geliştirme (Software development in biomedical engineering education) (Doctorial dissertation, Institute of Science and Technology, Gazi University).

Jerinic, L. (2013). Computer based education—Twenty years of promises. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/2546929/ Computer_Based_Education_Twenty_Years_of_Promises_But..

Jonassen, D. H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mind tools for critical thinking. Aeglewoods, N.J.: Merill/Prentice Hall. Karacı, A. (2013). Ses sentezleme ve tanıma teknolojilerini kullanarak Türkçenin ana dil olarak öğretimi için zeki öğretim sistemi

geliştirilmesi (The development of an intelligent tutoring system for teaching Turkish as a mother tongue through speech synthesis and recognition technologies) (Doctorial dissertation, Institute of Informatics, Gazi University).


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Mayo, M. J. (2001). Bayesian student modeling and decision—Theoretic selection of tutorial actions in intelligent tutoring systems (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Canterbury).

Moundridou, M., & Virvou, M. (2000). A Web-based authoring tool for algebra-related intelligent tutoring systems. Educational Technology & Sociey, 3(2), 61-70.

Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS (4th ed.). Australia: Allen & Unwin. Siemens, G. (2006). Connectivism: Learning theory or pastime of the self-amused. Retrieved from http://www/itdl.org/Journal/

Jan_05/article01.htm Stankov, S. (1996). Student model developing for intelligent tutoring systems. International Journal for Engineering Modelling, 9,

1-4. Suraweara, P. (2004). An intelligent teaching system for database modeling (M.Sc. thesis, Computer Science Department,

University of Canterbury). Woolf, B. (1992). AI in education. In S. Shapiro (Ed.), Encyclopedia of artificial intelligence (pp. 434-444). New York, N.Y.:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc..


Design of an Arabic Spell Checker Font for Enhancing Writing

Skills: A Self-learning Prototype Among Non-Arabic Speakers*

Muhammad Sabri Sahrir

International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

The use of modern technology in the process of teaching and learning the Arabic language has a very important role

in developing students’ performance and improving their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Students

of non-native Arabic speakers are in the high need of using modern technology in language learning, which

contributes to the development of the four basic language skills, since they are living outside from the original

Arabic environment. This technology contributes to the creation of an artificial environment to learn a second

language (L2) among them. With regard to the process of learning the Arabic language by using modern

technology in Malaysia, it has attracted academic discussions of research by various researchers and experts in this

area, such as the lack of utilization of Arabic language teachers for modern instructional technology and the lack of

creating innovative technology in teaching the Arabic language. However, it is found that there are several attempts

to invent modern technologies in teaching the Arabic language in Malaysia, such as the design of computer

language games in learning Arabic, the use of e-portfolio in Arabic language learning, and virtual tutor.

Consequently, this research seeks to study the possibility of designing and developing a prototype that specializes

in improving the writing skills in the Arabic language for non-native speakers through a program that is considered

as flexible and interactive. The program is expected to enhance learners’ self-motivation and improve their

language skills by self-monitoring in common writing errors by Malaysian students. The design of such an

interactive program aims to develop Arabic writing skills and eventually to evaluate this program among students

for further improvement in the future. This program is specifically designed to identify and correct morphological

errors by using the Microsoft Word program via a special font known as “Modaqqeeq Sarfiy” (morphological

checker). This research is following design phases of the ADDIE (i.e., Analysis, Design, Development, Implement,

and Evaluate) instructional design model in the design and development of this prototype among students taking a

course for computer applications in International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). The result of this study has

indicated high mean scores among the students towards this interactive spell checker, in addition to suggestions and

comments for further improvement. This research has definitely stressed on the importance of using advanced and

new emerging technologies as a means to enhance the teaching and learning of the Arabic language to non-native

speakers.

Keywords: learning Arabic, writing skill, designing programme, self-learning, formative evaluation

* Acknowledgement: This research project is funded by the Research Management Centre (RMC), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) under Research Endowment Type B, July 2013-November 2014. Title of the project: Designing Arabic Interactive Courseware for Enhancing Writing Skills: Self-Learning Prototype Among Non-Arabic Speakers in IIUM (MYR 20,000). Project ID: EDW B13-056-0941.

Muhammad Sabri Sahrir, Ph.D., assistant professor, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

DESIGN OF AN ARABIC SPELL CHECKER FONT FOR ENHANCING WRITING SKILLS

27

Introduction

Teaching Arabic as a second language (L2) in Malaysia has become popular due to the importance of this

language that it has been used as a medium of instruction in teaching Islam and its knowledge. According to

Tu’aimah (1989), learning a foreign language means that “An individual is be able to use the language,

including comprehend, communicate, and write as he/she does in his/her first language”. He further explained

that learning Arabic as a L2 must accomplish two levels of learning process: (a) acceptance of the language;

and (b) the use of this language. The significance of language utility was also discussed by Bygate (1987) when

he reminded teachers and educators to understand the goal of foreign language teaching and to initiate the effort

of preparing the subjects to achieve the desired goal as he said that “One of the basic problems in foreign

language teaching is to prepare learners to be able to use the language” (p. 3). On the other hand, several

studies have indicated that teaching Arabic as a second or foreign language is not isolated from teaching basic

language skills which are listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as stated by Tu’aimah (1989), El-Khuliy

(2004), Ahmed Mukhtar (2006), and Abdul Bari (2010). Furthermore, the most challenging skill of those skills

is writing skill, which requires higher thinking process and complex capability, including organizing of

thoughts and ideas, composing sentences, and then retaining those thoughts on paper as explained by Abdul

Bari (2010). The importance of Arabic writing skill acquisition is also discussed by many scholars, and they

agreed that written expression is the ultimate goal of teaching Arabic to non-native speakers and the mastery of

writing in L2 is considered as a significant achievement of measuring individuals’ language proficiency

(El-Khuliy, 2004; Majdi & Rosli, 2011; Tinggari, 2011).

Computer-Assisted Language in Teaching and Learning Arabic

The development of teaching methods in the field of foreign language teaching, especially in teaching

Arabic as a L2, has recently become a topical discussion among scholars and teachers. The major cause for

being that is the emergence of new technologies and the challenging of the Arabic language itself (Nashwan,

1993; Ahmed Mukhtar & Mohd Feham, 2007). Moreover, selection of teaching tools plays an important role in

transmitting knowledge and skills to learners. Many scholars believed that the use of computer technology is an

important integral tool in the foreign language teaching field, which can benefit to both students and teachers

(Ribhi & Abdel el-Dabbas, 2003; Ahmed Mukhtar, 2006; Nurkhamimi, 2009; Osman, 2009). Nurkhamimi

(2009), for example, discovered that Wiki helps in facilitating the acquisition of writing skills among the

non-Arabic students from the Department of Economics in Center for Foundation Studies, International Islamic

University Malaysia (IIUM), particularly in assisting them in generating their ideas during the initial phase of

acquiring writing skills. He also found that using Wiki as a tool can enhance the Arabic writing skills as students

are found to be highly motivated and engaged in the learning process which in turn contributes positively to their

learning outcomes. Another attempt is by Ahmad, Rusli, and Mat Daud (2011), who claimed that Internet, i.e.,

FaceBook, can develop students’ writing skills, and they found that the majority of students preferred using

FaceBook to enhance their Arabic writing skills. The utilization of these technologies is also supported by Md.

Saad, Ismail, and Wan Abdullah (2005), who stressed the need of using new technologies in the foreign

language teaching field in Malaysia to achieve the desired learning objectives. They suggested teachers and

educators, especially those who teach Arabic as a L2, exploit the electronic tools and educational Websites that

are appropriate with the learning environment in Malaysia to enhance or replace their traditional teaching


28

methods. However, lack of using computer-assisted technology in the Arabic language classrooms was discussed

by Mohd Feham and Isarji (2000), Aladdin, Hamat, and Yusof (2004), Mohd Feham (2006), and Zawawi (2008).

Mohd Feham (2006) further indicated that there have been fewer inventions and innovations in the field of

Arabic language learning and several reasons have limited the numbers of educational software and courseware

in the Arabic language. A majority of Arabic language teachers were found incompetent in using computer and

courseware in the teaching process due to poor computer literacy especially among the veteran generations

(Zawawi, 2008) and lack of computer training (Aladdin et al., 2004). Furthermore, there is a difficulty to find the

Arabic courseware (Mohd Feham & Isarji, 2000; Mohd Feham, 2006; Zawawi, 2008). Thus, the development of

technological production of machinery for Arabic language teaching and learning is very important as it is

currently dominated by the American English language, whether it is software or hardware (Wahba, Taha, &

England, 2006). In the application of Arabic computer-assisted language learning, especially in Malaysia, there

are several research attempts that are trying to integrate the teaching of Arabic language with ICT, such as using

pedagogical agents (Mohd Feham, 2006), online games (Sahrir & Nor Aziah, 2011; Sahrir & Ghazali, 2012),

teaching writing skills via Wiki (Nurkhamimi, Mohd Feham, & Sahrir, 2011), and virtual tutor in learning

Arabic (Mahmoud, Sahrir, & Osman, 2013).

Challenges of Teaching Arabic Writing Skills Among Non-native Speakers

Malay students who learn Arabic as a L2 appeared to have many problems and challenges when writing in

Arabic (Rosli, 2007; Abdel Halim & Muhd Harun, 2011; Samah, 2012). These studies also revealed that

challenges in Arabic writing were caused by various factors, i.e., deficiency of vocabularies, composition of

multiple sentences, words choice, and grammatical errors (Samah, 2012). Abdel Halim and Muhd Harun (2011)

in their studies also identified that the biggest problems faced by Malaysian students in local universities, from

teacher’s point of view, are students reading few books and Arabic references, less of writing exercises,

followed by literal translation from Malay language to the target language, inappropriate use of Arabic

preposition, repetition of unnecessary nouns and pronouns, and lack of balance in using nominal phrase and

verb phrase, which still remain occurred when writing in Arabic at higher learning institutions (Rosli, 2007).

This fact may due to many aspects include subjects, methodology, and strategies of teaching Arabic, as well as

experience, attitudes, and motivation among the learners. Furthermore, according to Abdel Halim and Muhd

Harun (2011), methodology of teaching Arabic employed in Malaysia still does not be able to improve this skill

and it needs to be reviewed by a committee of higher learning education.

Research Objectives

This project will focus specifically on designing and developing a prototype of interactive Arabic writing

tool (INWRITE), which could enhance learners’ self-motivation, especially for non-Arabic speakers, and

develop their language skills as follows:

(a) Problems of teaching and learning Arabic among non-Arabic speakers, especially in writing skills;

(b) The need to design and develop a special courseware for teaching and learning Arabic among

non-Arabic speakers, especially in writing skills;

(c) To motivate learners of non-Arabic speakers in learning Arabic by using an interactive multimedia

courseware that enhances writing skills.

The existence of multimedia courseware that enhances writing skills is still limited compared to others.


29

For example, Microsoft Word Processor, which is available in English and Arabic, is an automated proofing

tool that will correct the grammatical and structure errors of phrases and sentences. But the available tool only

suggests several options of correct sentences without any specific justifications. The existing proofing tool in

Microsoft Word is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Auto proofing tool in Microsoft Word.

This new development will be specifically concerned on improving Arabic writing skills among

non-native speakers as well giving them justifications, which will allow learners to identify errors through

active trial and exploration. The sample students will be selected from the Department of Arabic Language and

Literature within Year 1 and Year 2. The tool will be enhanced with extra features, such as correcting any

phrases and sentences by showing the justifications of errors based on various aspects: morphology, grammar,

and semantics.

Research Methodology

The methodology will be determined based on the following phases as follows:

(a) Investigating learners’ problems in Arabic writing skills;

(b) Formulating the design principles that need to be catered in designing a special Arabic writing system

among learners of non-Arabic speakers of IIUM;

(c) Developing a specific learning prototype to enhance learners’ writing skills in Arabic by understanding

the language errors and justification of corrections;

(d) Conducting several sessions of trying-out the prototype for further improvement;

(e) Applying for patent of intellectual properties and commercialization from related bodies and ministries.

The design and development model will be based on ADDIE (i.e., Analysis, Design, Development,

Implement, and Evaluate) instructional design model, as shown in Figure 2.


30

Figure 2. Research phases based on the ADDIE model.

Phases of Design and Development of Modaqqeeq Sarfiy

Conducting Language Error Analysis (July-September 2013)

An analysis of morphological and grammatical errors has been conducted among students at the first phase.

The research population was selected from 24 students who were taking ARAB 2124 in the first semester,

2013/2014 between September 2013 and February 2014. The researcher has requested each of them to write a

one-page article related to computer-assisted language learning in the Arabic language. After that, analysis was

conducted to investigate the frequency and type of language errors found in their articles.

The results of language errors are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Sample of Language Errors in Writing Among Students Correction Sample of language errors Language errors - ...من الوسائل الترفيهية الرائعة في هذا العصر - ...مشاهدة األفالم العربية - ...ليقرأ األخبار أو القصص المفيدة

- ...من وسائل الترفيهية الرائعة في هذا العصر - ...مشاهدة األفالم العرب - ...ليقرأ األخبار أو القصص المفيدات

الصفة والموصوف(Adjectives)

- أن الفيس بوك ينشر األخبار والحوادث التي....

- ...بل يوجد الطلبة الذين...

- وهو من أعجب المخترعات الحديثة في هذا العصر..

- أن الفيس بوك ينشر األخبار والحوادث الذي....

- ...بل يوجد الطلبة الذي...

- وهو من أعجب المخترعات الحديثة في هذه العصر..

اسم الموصول واسم اإلشارة(Connective pronouns and demonstrative pronouns)

- ...في تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بغيرها - ...مستخدمي الفيس بوك - ...وإرسال الرسائل لجميع األعضاء.

- ...في التعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بغيرها - ...المستخدمين الفيس بوك - ...وإرسال رسائل لجميع األعضاء.

اإلضافة(Complex words)

- آثير من الناس يستخدمونه...

- يمكن الطالب أن يمارسوا...

- هذه الطريقة تؤدي إلى...

- آثير من الناس يستخدمه...

- يمكن الطالب أن يمارس...

- هذه الطريقة يؤدي إلى...

تذآير وتأنيث األفعال وعدم مطابقتها مع الفاعل(Mistakes in the use of gender in verbs)

- إن الفيس بوك من المواقع االجتماعية...

- سهولة التعارف والتواصل مع األصدقاء.. - ..بعض المقاطع اإلسالمية

- إن الفيس بوك من المواقع اإلجتماعية...

- سهولة التعارف والتواصل مع االصدقاء.. - ..بعض المقاطع االسالمية

آتابة همزتي القطع الوصل وعدم التفريق بينهما(Dictation errors in writing hamzah al-wasl and hamzah al-qata’)

- ...باستخدام الفيس بوك - ...في المجاالت المختلفة. - أي شرآة األخبار العربية.

- ...باستجدام الفيس بوك - ...في المجالت المختلفة. - أي شريكة األخبار العربية.

تهجئة الكلمات (Words spelling)


31

(Table 1 to be continued)

- ....في تدريب مهارة الكتابة - ...وبعد ازدياد مفرداتهم بطريقة مشاهدة األفالم - سيحصل الطالب على المفردات الحديثة

- ....في التدرب مهارة الكتابة - ...وبعد ازدهار مفرداتهم بطريقة مشاهدة األفالم - سينال الطالب إلى المفردات الحديثة

اختيار الكلمات أو المصطلحات غير مناسبة وسوء)خطاء أسلوبي(االستخدام

(Misapproappriate selection and misuse of words and terminology (stylistic errors))

يمكن أن نقرأ األخبار أو المجالت العالمية والمحلية - بسرعة - - نحصل على المعلومات عن اللغة العربية - وباإلضافة إلى ذلك... - بين األشخاص البعيدين...

يمكن أن نقرأ األخبار أو المجالت العالمية والمحلية - بسريعة - - نحصل إلى المعلومات عن اللغة العربية - وباإلضافة من ذلك... - بين األشخاص المبتعدين...

)خطاء صرفي(بناء األفعال واستعمال حرف الجر (Word structure (morphological errors) and the use of preposition)

The frequency results of language errors among the students are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

The Frequency Results of Language Errors Among the Students

Student No. Grammar Morphology Spelling Style

1 8 8 8 8

2 8 2 3 19

3 12 2 0 5

4 7 0 2 6

5 5 1 7 6

6 4 0 10 2

7 5 1 18 2

8 12 2 4 4

9 29 2 14 10

10 9 0 3 3

11 5 5 11 7

12 6 1 5 4

13 6 2 2 6

14 3 4 6 2

15 5 0 3 1

16 7 0 2 8

17 4 6 21 10

18 10 1 6 9

19 8 1 4 5

20 5 1 0 1

21 5 1 4 4

22 11 0 3 5

23 16 1 1 6

24 11 2 1 4

Total 201 (38.7%) 43 (8.3%) 138 (26.6%) 137 (26.4%)

Overall total 519 (100%)

Design and Development (October-December 2013)

Initial design of Modaqqeed® checker for enhancing Arabic writing skills. The idea of working on

using fonts, computerized doing some corrections in linguistic spelling in a special way, has been adopted in

the wording code on some of the rules of spelling which appeared in Arabic books, as well as research and

literature that dealt with common spelling errors, such as the books The Spelling and Punctuation in Arabic

Writing by Prof. Abdel-Alim Abraham, The Methods of Operation for the Treatment of Spelling Errors by Prof.

Rashid bin Mohammed al-Shalan, Learning and Teaching Spelling by Nayef, and others. The things that make


32

this method yield considerable, flexible programming, which can increase in those rules and improve them, and

add or delete them simply, which improves the performance of this line in the identification of spelling errors

and punctuation, as well as linguistic common errors. This method can contribute to solving the problem of

corresponding processors spelling and language that can amended in the texts directly; since the idea here is

that we know the user what mistakes offset when writing text language of Arabic, and what are the rules of

sound, language errors have decreased gradually. It is also the cooperation of auditors or auditors linguists in a

statement places some of the errors that can pass on the eye, during the review and correction.

Initial characteristics of Modaqqeed® checker. The initial characteristics of Modaqqeed® checker

include cases that represent some of the common mistakes in spelling writing, spelling and computer, as well as

some other linguistic signals, such as the followings:

(a) Checker for dictation, such as spelling of Hamzah and Tanween;

(b) Checker for syntax;

(c) Checker for morphology.

How to use the Modaqqeed® checker? Modus operandi of the this program is shown below:

(a) Placing the font file in the Fonts folder of the operating system;

(b) Trying to write some words that contain misspellings of the previous categories and see the result;

(c) Then, the line does not make amendments to the text, it will show wrong with placements caused by

pop-up comments of corrections.

Samples of corrective feedback in Modaqqeeq Sarfiy. A sample of corrective feedback in Modaqqeeq

Sarfiy is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Corrective feedback in Modaqqeeq Sarfiy.

Implementation and Evaluation (January-June 2014)

User testing session for the first prototype. The researcher and several lecturers have used this first

prototype (Modaqqeeq Sarfiy) and they found that some errors of spelling mistakes were mot detected. Thus,

this prototype has been resent to the company of prototype design to reproduce the second prototype. The latest

version of this prototype is known as Modaqqeeq Kitaby.

Results and findings from the formative evaluation of Modaqqeed® checker (second prototype). For


33

the formative evaluation of this improved prototype, 32 students who are taking the course of ARAB 2124 of

the second semester of the academic year 2013-2014 were selected to evaluate this prototype.

Students’ background. The background of students for this formative evaluation is shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Students’ Background (N = 32)

Gender Male 7 (21.9%)

Female 25 (78.1%)

Grade First year students 24 (75%)

Second year students 8 (25%)

Origin

Malaysians 29 (91%)

Thai 1 (3%)

Singapore 2 (6%)

With reference to Table 3, it can be found that the number of female students (N = 25; 78.1%) is more than

that of the male students (N = 7; 21.9%). The students were between 20 and 24 years old and they were divided

into first and second years students. Most of them are Malaysians except one student with Thai nationality and

two students from Singapore.

Characteristics of the program and performance. The students were asked about the characteristics and

performance for this prototype. The survey was conducted by the online mode via Google Survey through the

link: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1Ow_K5chowe8bLw_yg-DUXO25ZnagD5-ZUhc_brUN4rg/viewform.

The survey is in 5-point Likert Scale questionnaires for the characteristics and performance for this prototype

and the last part consists of an open-ended survey to explore students’ opinions on the strengths, weaknesses,

and suggestions for further improvement.

The results and findings are shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Performance of the Spell Checker Prototype

No. Item Mean score Interpretation

1 Interface design is attractive. 4.03 High

2 Font of feedback text is appropriate. 4.10 High

3 Size of feedback text is readable. 4.17 High

4 Graph used is attractive. 3.73 High

5 The quality of feedback text is good. 3.80 High

6 Colour used for feedback text is suitable. 3.43 High

7 Color used is adequate. 3.40 High

8 Feedback text provided is easy to understand. 4.37 High

9 User-friendly. 4.17 High

10 The overall performance of the application is excellent. 3.90 High

Table 4 shows that the average of the mean scores is between 3.40 and 4.37 out of 5 with the interpretation

of high score according to standard criteria by Oxford (1990).

Content delivery of the program. Table 5 shows that the average of the mean scores is between 4.06 and

4.40 out of 5 with the interpretation of high score according to standard criteria by Oxford (1990). The

interpretation of mean scores in this research is done based on Oxford (1990), as shown in Table 6.


34

Table 5

Content Delivery of the Spell Checker Prototype

No. Item Mean score Interpretation

1 Content of the feedback text is related to the morphological error. 4.19 High

2 This application is relevant for improving students’ morphological errors. 4.32 High

3 The feedback text is easy to understand. 4.40 High

4 The feedback text delivers most of the information you expected to learn. 4.27 High

5 The feedback text explains the corrections and concepts very well. 4.32 High

6 The feedback text shown is clear. 4.10 High

7 Feedback text provided for every morphological error is adequate. 4.06 High

8 The content of the module helps me to understand the topic very well. 4.10 High

9 The content of this application achieves the objective of self-learning. 4.13 High

10 The overall performance of application is useful and beneficial. 4.27 High

11 Delivery of the overall application is excellent. 4.16 High

Table 6

Interpretation of Scores by Oxford (1990)

Interpretation Mean score

Very high 5.0-4.5

High 4.4-3.5

Average 3.4-2.5

Low 2.4-1.5

Very low 1.4-1.0

Feedback From Open-ended Questions

The students involved in this survey were also asked about the strengths, weaknesses, and further

suggestions to improve this spell checker prototype.

Strengths of the programme. The students stated the strengths of the spell checker prototype as follows:

1. Students can see their morphological mistakes through this program, which means that students can

correct their mistakes through the explanatory note;

2. The program helps a lot to learn Arabic and understand it well;

3. The program helps a lot in understanding the errors through morphological observations presented and

perceived;

4. This program is useful for students to learn and develop writing skills.

Weaknesses of the programme. The students also discussed about the weaknesses of the programme:

1. The program needs to be developed in terms of the color and size of the font used in the feedback of the

spell checker;

2. Some remarks in the spell checker still need to be corrected because they are not clear;

3. This spell checker prototype is suitable for users with an Arabic language background.

Further suggestions. The students also talked about suggestions of the programme for further

improvement:

1. The program needs to be developed in terms of the color and size of the font used in the feedback of the

spell checker;

2. The size of the fonts in the original texts and the size of the font used in the spell checker feedback

should be differentiated.


35

Discussion

In general, the study found that there is an urgent need to design such a program in order to assist students

in learning the Arabic language, especially for non-native Arabic speakers. The results and findings have

indicated the high mean scores, which show the obvious need and acceptance of users for this spell checker

prototype in enhancing students’ writing skills. Somehow, the researcher still wants to improve this prototype

in order to assist Arabic learners in their four areas of language errors, as shown in the analysis phase

previously.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The results of the study in general showed the overall acceptance of learners towards this spell checker

prototype in learning Arabic, especially in assisting them to identify their spelling mistakes in their Arabic

writing. This prototype of Modaqqeeq Sarfiy is suggested to be further enhanced for different levels of

language errors in spelling, morphology, grammar, and semantic. This product will contribute to the explosion

of information and communication technology (ICT) in Arabic language teaching and learning among digital

generations in the world.

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations can be made:

1. A more advanced prototype in enhancing learners’ writing skills in four areas of language errors needs

to be designed;

2. There is a need to design new technologies as a means to enhance Arabic teaching and learning for

non-native speakers in their four language skills;

3. Experts, researchers, and lecturers in the field of Arabic language teaching should be encouraged to

explore creatively and innovatively in the development of educational material and learning aids, which

motivate the students towards continuous and self-centered learning;

4. Cooperation between educational institutions and companies should be established in funding the

projects in order to support the development of advanced teaching and learning aids, particularly in the field of

Arabic language;

5. A program for language error analysis for other devices needs to be designed, such as smartphones or

mobile devices, in order to enhance student performance in Arabic language learning.

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An Investigation About Misconceptions in Force and

Motion in High School

Azita Seyed Fadaei

The Union of Iranian Physics Teachers (UIPT),

Tehran, Iran

César Mora

National Polytechnic Institute,

Mexico City, Mexico

The purpose of this study is to realize students’ misconceptions of force and motion before and after formal

(traditional) teaching and their stability for high school students. The participants of the study were 20 10th grade

girl students from a secondary school located in Tehran, Iran. In the research, a standard diagnostic test with 30

multiple-choice questions probed student understanding of basic concepts in force and motion to achieve the

intended goal. To evaluate the stability of common misconceptions in each item of subjects, we explored and

investigated the wrong answered questions in test results for the study sample before and after the study and

compared them for every item of test. Analysis of wrong responses to tests mentions that some students’

misconceptions of force and motion are stable before and after instruction. Results from pre- and post- tests showed

that in some parts of the subject, the formal teaching method has been successful, but for others, has had a negative

effect on misconceptions in relation to students’ responses to test questions. Therefore, the details of wrong

answered questions in force and motion show similar misconceptions among students before and after instruction.

Results will help teachers and physics curriculum planners to revise the teaching method and contents of textbooks

for related unsuccessful parts in this subject.

Keywords: traditional teaching, misconception, force, motion, high school

Introduction

Every student begins physics with a well-established system of commonsense beliefs about how the

physical world works derived from years of personal experience. Over the last decade, physics education

research has established that these beliefs play a dominant role in introductory physics. One of the most

important subjects in exploring the physical world is mechanics. The most significant commonsense beliefs in

mechanics have been firmly held by some of the greatest intellectuals in the past, including Galileo and even

Newton. Accordingly, these commonsense beliefs should be regarded as reasonable hypotheses grounded in

everyday experience. They happen to be false, but that is not always so easy to prove, especially if they are

dismissed without a hearing as ill conventional instruction. These commonsense alternatives are commonly

labeled as misconceptions. Researches in some cases have focused on students’ misconceptions, from young

children to high school students in mechanics, especially in Newton’s laws. Newton’s laws of motion have a

special role in exploring the world. They are important when viewed in conjunction with other fundamental

Azita Seyed Fadaei, Ph.D., professor, head of the research group, The Union of Iranian Physics Teachers (UIPT). César Mora, Ph.D., professor, Research Center on Applied Science and Advanced Technology, National Polytechnic Institute.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

MISCONCEPTIONS IN FORCE AND MOTION IN HIGH SCHOOL

39

concepts in physics. Results from research on student understanding in Newton’s laws indicate that certain

incorrect ideas about the physical world are common among students of a wide variety of educational levels

and ages. A number of studies have been performed to gain a better understanding of how students think about

the real world. Most research about Newton’s laws is designed to detect student misconceptions or alternative

conceptions. Studies show that students have an alternative concept of force and individual students

consistently applied alternate concepts of force in different contexts about Newton’s laws (Brooke & Etkina,

2009; Viennot, 1979; Thornton, 1997; Champagne & Anderson, 1980; McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980;

Boyle & Maloney, 1991). Forming a meaningful understanding of Newton’s laws of motion is formidably

difficult for beginners. A variety of teaching approaches have been developed to try to assist students to

develop a meaningful understanding. In this study, we focus on students’ misconceptions in Newton’s laws at

the beginning and at the end of a formal teaching. The purpose is to evaluate the role of physics formal

instruction in high school to gain a better understanding of Newtonian world.

Teaching Strategy

Anecdotal evidence suggests that the general method of teaching introductory physics is often the

traditional didactic pedagogy in which the lecturer behaves as an expert who transmits knowledge to the

students. It is a teacher-centered approach in which the teacher plays the most significant role in the classroom,

students are obedient; they study by listening to the teacher and taking notes quietly. Teachers typically explain

the content according to the textbooks and give students notes to copy. The content is inflexible. There are very

few students who take part in arguing or discussing ideas in the class, consequently, students do not develop

good understandings of physics concepts, and students’ interest in physics is low and their development of

understanding of physics concepts is limited. In this study, traditional or formal teaching strategy is little or no

use of interactive teaching method, relying primarily on passive student lectures and algorithm problem exams.

The sample consisted of 20 secondary girl students in Somayeh High School in the region five of Tehran, Iran.

The sample was randomly selected from second year students (Level 10) undertaking an introductory

mechanics course. The course consists of two 20-minute lecture sections per week.

Research Instrument: Force Concept Inventory (FCI)

The FCI is an instrument used to assess students’ beliefs about force and Newton’s laws. It is one of the

most reliable and useful physics tests currently available for introductory physics teachers and is the best test

currently available to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction in introductory physics courses. Students have

many commonsense views about motion both before and after formal instruction. Questions on the FCI test

were designed to be meaningful to students without formal training in mechanics and target their

preconceptions on the subject. The first impression of most physics professors is that the inventory questions

are too trivial to be informative. This turns to shock when they discover how poorly their own students perform

on it.

Hestenes, Wells, and Swackhamer (1992) designed the FCI to probe student beliefs about force and how

their beliefs compare with the many dimensions of the Newtonian concept. Mazur has used the FCI at Harvard

University to evaluate the successfulness of peer instruction (Crouch & Mazur, 2001). The FCI is usually given

at the beginning and at the end of a course. Students tend to score higher on the test when it is taken the second

time, following instruction. FCI questions were articulated according to their appropriateness for real life


40

presentation of Newton’s laws. Most physicists would probably agree that a low score on the FCI test indicates

a lack of understanding of the basic concepts of mechanics. It is true, but as a rule, “errors” on the inventory are

more informative than “correct” choices.

For this study, we chose to use the FCI to guide us to highlight the addressed misconceptions in questions.

As a diagnostic tool, the inventory can be used to identify and classify misconceptions. It is especially valuable

for teachers to raise their awareness of misconceptions among their own students, also for evaluating

instruction; the inventory is a very accurate and reliable instrument.

The FCI is composed of 30 multiple-choice items. The FCI questionnaire is carefully translated to Persian

language by one of the physics teachers in Iran and reviewed by a group of experts. We gave the FCI as the

pre-test on the second week of class. We took great care that all question sheets and answer sheets are returned.

In order to promote serious effort on the pre-test by students, we explained that although their scores on the

pre-test will not count towards the course grade, their scores will be confidentially returned to them and will

assist both themselves and their instructors to know the degree and type of effort required for them to

understand mechanics. We gave the FCI post-test unannounced near the final week of classes, and preferably as

part of the final exam with significant course credit given for post-test performance. Giving course credit

probably motivates students to take the post-test more seriously and thereby demonstrate more adequately their

understanding, especially if time devoted to the post-test subtracts from time spent on the rest of the final exam.

FCI Analyzing Method for Misconceptions

The two analyses of pre-test and post-test provide information on different aspects of course effectiveness.

A cumulative analysis is used to determine that the instruction increases the likelihood of students acquiring

and retaining baseline knowledge. For survey classification and analysis purposes, most researchers define the

percentage of FCI correct answers analyzing items for pre- and post- tests.

The first set of data presented here (see Figure 1) provide information about the class average pre- and

post- test scores for individual FCI items. The class average (see Table 1) in post-test scores is higher than

pre-test scores in many questions (questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 26, 27, 29, and 30), but

there are six questions (questions 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 19, 23, 24, and 28) in which the post-test scores are actually

lower than the pre-test scores. This implies that the teaching has had a negative effect in relation to students’

responses to these questions. In these questions, the percentage of correctly answered questions in post-test

decreased. It shows that the amount of students with wrong answered questioned is increased; the percentage of

students with wrong answers is a sign to determine the misconceptions and their stabilities related to each

item.

In Figure 2, pre- and post- test correct answers (%) of FCI are shown. For example, item-1 of FCI is

improved from 0% to 15%, while for item-4, the improvement is from 0% to 40%.

FCI pre- and post- test results from other researches were determined. The results show the percentage of

students who answered FCI items correctly (Hestenes et al., 1992). For instance, in Wells Regular High School

with 18 students, 28% students answered correctly in the pre-test 64% in the post-test; for Wells Honor High

School with 30 students, the pre-test is 42% and post-test 78%. It shows that the result of FCI depends on the

level of students’ ability and knowledge. Analyzing the correct answers in pre- and post- tests shows students’

improvement in the teaching process. Results of our study show that the probability of guessing correct answers

for the FCI questions in the pre-test is about 15%. It can therefore be concluded that the students’ initial


41

knowledge and understanding of mechanics were very poor. This was by no means a surprise because the

students had received only limited instruction in mechanics in lower secondary school. But differences in

nominal value of post-test correct answers mentioned quantify the added ineffectiveness in traditional method

in this study because the average improvement in results after instruction is not very considerable. In this step,

we do not want to judge the benefits of traditional teaching; we are going to determine students’ stable

commonsense misconceptions.

Figure 1. Analyzing correct and incorrect answers in pre- and post- tests of FCI items (%) (Colored parts in the chart show the percentage of correct answers of students to each item).

Figure 2. Correct answers (%) of FCI items.

Table 1

Class Average in Pre-test and Post-test

Pre-test (%) Post-test (%)

Class average 15 21

SD 5 7

Count 20 20

Notes. Pre-test = 15% ± 5% SD; post-test = 21% ± 7% SD.

In the next steps, we focus on incorrect responses of FCI items in pre- and post- tests. We investigate

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Cor

rect

ans

wer

s(%

)

FCI items

Post-test

Pre-test

FCI items

Post

Pre


42

another comparison of results, considering the highest percentage of incorrect answers of each FCI item

to study the common misconceptions after and before instruction. FCI consists of 30 items which are

related to different parts of mechanics. Table 2 contains taxonomy of commonsense misconceptions probed

by the FCI (Hestenes et al., 1992). It lists distinct misconceptions along with corresponding inventory

items that suggest their presence when selected. They have been grouped into some major commonsense

categories, which correspond as closely as possible to the majors of Newtonian concepts (or concept

dimensions). Each commonsense category contains a set of misconceptions about the corresponding Newtonian

concept.

Table 2 Taxonomy of Misconceptions Probed by the Inventory. Presence of the Misconceptions Is Suggested by Selection of the Corresponding Inventory Item

Inventory item

20B, C, D K1. Position-velocity undiscriminated

Kinematics 20A; 21B, C K2. Velocity-acceleration undiscriminated

7C K3. Nonvectorial velocity composition

9B, C; 22B, C, E; 29D I1. Impetus supplied by “hit”

Impetus

4D; 6C, E; 24A; 26A, D, E I2. Loss/recovery of original impetus

5A, B, C; 8C; 16C, D; 23E; 27C, E; 29B I3. Impetus dissipation

6D; 8B, D; 24D; 29E I4. Gradual/deplayed impetus build-up

4A, D; 10A I5. Circular impetus

11B; 12B; 13D; 14D; 15A, B; 18D; 22A AF1. Only active agents exert forces

Active force

29A AF2. Motion implies active force

12E AF3. No motion implies no force

25A; 28A AF4. Velocity proportional to applied force

17B AF5. Acceleration implies increasing force

17A; 25D AF6. Force causes acceleration to terminal velocity

25C, E AF7. Active force wears out

2A, D; 11D; 13B; 14B AR1. Greater mass implies greater force Action/reaction pairs

13C; 11D; 14C AR2. Most active agent produces greatest force

18A, E; 19A CI1. Largest force determines motion Concatention of influences

4C; 10D; 16A; 19C, D; 23C; 24C CI2. Force compromise determines motion

6A; 7B; 24B; 26C CI3. Last force to act determines motion

4C, D, E; 10C, D, E CF. Centrifugal force

Other influences on motion

2C; 9A, B; 12A; 13E; 14E Ob. Obstacles exert no force

29A, B; 23A, B R1. Mass makes things stop

Resistance 28B, D R2. Motion when force overcomes resistance

28E R3. Resistance opposes force/impetus

9A; 12C; 17E; 18E G1. Air pressure-assisted gravity

Gravity 5E; 9E; 17D G2. Gravity intrinsic to mass

1A; 3B, D G3. Heavier objects fall faster

In this study, we consider the pre- and post- test incorrectly answered questions to investigate

commonsense misconceptions; we consider the most percentage of wrong answers to determine students’

misconceptions in the pre- and post- tests. For instance, in item-3, 11% students answered it correctly in the

pre-test and 35% in the post-test, but most of the students answered it incorrectly in pre-test (58%) and post-test


43

(45%) (they selected choice B). Depending on Table 2, choice B in item-3 is a sign of commonsense

misconception and it shows the wrong imagination that heavier objects fall faster. So, in item-3, we find a

misconception among students before and after instruction. In item-16, most of the students did not choose

choice A in item-16 (correct answer) but the other wrong selection; choice C shows a commonsense

misconception for average of the students. It is determined by physics education researcher as a wrong

imagination of impetus dissipation. Results show that about 21 items of the FCI are detected having

commonsense misconceptions after and before instruction.

To gain a more detailed idea about stabilities of commonsense misconceptions in mechanics in the

traditional teaching strategy, we divided FCI items to eight conceptual dimensions (see Table 3).

Table 3

Commonsense Misconceptions Detected in the FCI (Traditional Instruction) Misconceptions (Post-test) Misconceptions (Pre-test) FCI dimensions FCI items

- Impetus supplied by hit N2 29 Velocity-acceleration indiscriminating, only active agents exert forces

Velocity-acceleration indiscriminating, impetus supplied by hit, and loss/recovery of original impetus

N2, a 0 21, 22, 26

Impetus supplied by hit, force compromise determines motion, mass makes things stop, active force wears out

Impetus supplied by hit, obstacles exert no force, force compromise determines motion, only active agents exert forces, force causes acceleration to terminal velocity, mass makes things stop, active force wears out

N2, a = 0 9, 10, 11, 17, 23, 24, 25

Heavier objects fall faster Heavier objects fall faster N2, Free fall 3 Circular impetus, impetus dissipation, motion when force overcomes resistance

Circular impetus, impetus dissipation N3 4, 16, 28

Obstacles exert no force, air pressure-assisted gravity

- Projectile motion2, 12

Gravity intrinsic to mass, air pressure-assisted gravity

- Circular motion 5, 18

Force compromise determines motion, position-velocity indiscriminating

Force compromise determines motion, velocity-acceleration indiscriminating

Kinematics 19, 20

Depending on Table 3, the commonsense misconceptions are impetus supplied by hit, velocity-acceleration

indiscriminating, position-velocity indiscriminating, loss/recovery of original impetus, force compromise

determines motion, only active agents exert forces, mass makes things stop, force causes acceleration to terminal

velocity, active force wears out, heavier objects fall faster, circular impetus, impetus dissipation, motion

when force overcomes resistance, gravity intrinsic to mass, and obstacles exert no force. Most of misconceptions

are seen after and before construction and it shows that the instruction has no good effect on students’

commonsense misconceptions. In addition, some misconceptions that had not existed occurred after

instruction, for instance, obstacles exert no force, air pressure-assisted gravity, and gravity intrinsic to mass. It is

a very complicated situation to deal with effects of teaching on learners. These results indicate that traditional

teaching was not enough effective to modify commonsense misconceptions in relation to Newton’s laws and

motion. The percentage of incorrect responses (21 items) with misconceptions in FCI is more than correct

responses after and before instruction; it shows the stableness of misconceptions in traditional teaching. In the

traditional teaching method, most of the time concepts are mentioned by teachers and because of lack of time,

students are not allowed to interact with other aspects of concepts in the class. These types of concepts are


44

memorized by students and, with a little change in concepts, they are not able to analyze situation to achieve a

correct answer.

Conclusion

Investigating the commonsense misconceptions of force and motion in the traditional teaching strategy

requires measurement of students’ learning in high school. Traditional teaching method (in our definition)

entails four features or components, which overlap with each other to some extent: use of texts, memorizing

and algorithmic mathematical focus, no classroom interaction, and no use of lab and research-based materials.

Course exams and final grades typically measure lower-level educational objectives, such as memory of facts

and definitions rather than higher-level outcomes, such as critical thinking. In this study, we have examined

how the traditional teaching method is being able to investigate misconceptions in force and motion concepts

using the FCI diagnostic test. The suggestion is with the help of FCI, students’ misconceptions could be found

and it is a way to determine effects of traditional teaching method in several parts of the subject. We examined

class average FCI scores of 20 students in a formal instruction class. The method used to quantify changes in

performance is a definitive feature of any pre- or post- testing design. Average percentage reported here

suggests that the traditional approach was successful in promoting learning in some parts of subject, but in

other parts, it is not successful and we found unsuccessful cases of FCI items. Induction in the percentage of

incorrect responses shows that the traditional teaching method was not effective in promoting learning and

modifying misconceptions, so some commonsense misconceptions are independent to traditional instruction. It

seems that the problem can be linked to three aspects of the associated parts: the limitation in instructional time

and content of textbooks, no use of interactive teaching tests where an ongoing teacher’s lecture focuses on

development of conceptual understandings depending on context of text books, and the use of traditional

teaching strategy, such as lecturing and algorithmic problem-solving in assessments and final exams and no use

of lab and research-based materials.

It shows the real change necessity in curriculum. It could be a guidance to revise the physics curriculum

and plan new contexts to help students think like a scientist and explore the real-life phenomena in mechanics

situations.

The traditional mode of introductory physics instruction (passive student lectures and and algorithmic

problem exams) is relatively ineffective in promoting students’ conceptual understanding. To be more effective

to gain students’ conceptual understanding in high school, a big change must be occurred and using active

methodology in textbooks and class environments and teaching strategies is suggested.

References Boyle, R. K., & Maloney, D. P. (1991). Effect of written text on usage of Newton’s third law. Journal of Research in Science

Teaching, 28(2), 129-139. Brooke, D., & Etkina, E. (2009). Force, ontology, and language. Physical Review Special Topics—Physics Education Research, 5,

010110. Champagne, A., & Anderson, J. (1980). Factors influencing the learning of classical mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 48,

1074-1079. Crouch, C., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69(9),

970-977. Hake, R. R. (1988). Interactive-engagement vs. traditional methods: A six-thousand student survey of mechanics test data for introductory

physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64-74. Retrieved from http://www.physics.indiana.edu/~sdi/ajpv3i.pdf


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Hake, R. R. (2002, December 2-4). Assessment of physics teaching methods. Proceedings of The UNESCO-ASPEN Workshop on Active Learning in Physics, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Retieved from http://www.physics.indiana.edu/~hake/

Hestenes, D., Wells, M., & Swackhammer, G. (1992). Force concept inventory. Physics Teacher, 30, 141-158. McCloskey, M., Caramazza, A., & Green, B. (1980). Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: Naive beliefs about the

motion of objects. Science, 210, 1139-1141. Thornton, R. K. (1997). Conceptual dynamics: Following changing student views of force and motion. In E. Redish, & J. Rigden

(Eds.), AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 399, pp. 913-934). New York, N.Y.: American Institute of Physics. Viennot, L. (1979). Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics. European Journal of Science Education, 11, 205-221.


Using Systems Thinking Strategy in an Environment Course

Li-Ting Cheng, Jeng-Fung Hung

National Kaohsiung Normal University,

Kaohsiung City, Taiwan

Shiang-Yao Liu

National Taiwan Normal University,

Taipei City, Taiwan

This study deals with the development of students’ systems thinking skills in a college course. Data were collected

to answer the following research questions: 1. What are the factors influencing the development of students’

systems thinking ability? and 2. What kinds of relationships are existent among the cognitive components of

systems thinking? A general education course, Science and Environment, in which the objectives were established

to improve students’ abilities for making investigations, evaluating environmental information, and taking

environmental actions. Thirty-four college students from various technology-related majors participated in this

course. The study was situated in a classroom context; normal assessment practices were used to document

students’ perceptions about the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (the so-called Mad Cow Disease).

Analysis of individual student system maps revealed that most students were able to identify the elements of the

issue from different perspectives and recognize the operations of and interactions between elements at the

beginning of this teaching unit. Results of the post-course assessment showed that the students’ systems thinking

traits could be categorized in the Levels 4 and 5. In the interviews, the students reflected the drawing of system

maps, which could help them consider a complex issue comprehensively and be more considerate while making

decisions.

Keywords: Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), general education course, systems thinking

Introduction

One of the goals of university general education is to enhance students’ higher-order thinking.

Environmental education is the process of concept cognition and value clarification, which focuses on the

cultivation of attitudes and the problem-solving ability. Issues instruction features real-time and critical

characteristics, which involve the ethical, social, economic, and cultural aspects while the issue-based inquiry

process is the formation of value beliefs and the cultivation of problem knowledge and action strategies.

Systems thinking is to explore and analyze problems in order to find the problem-related factors and the

interactions among the factors. In addition, by exploring the operational and evolutionary processes of factors

as well as the interactions among the factors, system operation models and possible evolution models can be

established. Both the issue-based inquiry and systems thinking involve high-order thinking skills. Therefore,

through the systems thinking, the environmental issues can improve the thinking level. In this study, Bovine

Li-Ting Cheng, Ph.D. candidate, Graduate Institute of Science Education and Envirmental Education, National Kaohsiung

Normal University. Jeng-Fung Hung, Ph.D., professor, Graduate Institute of Science Education and Envirmental Education, National Kaohsiung

Normal University. Shiang-Yao Liu, Ph.D., professor, Graduate Institute of Science Education, National Taiwan Normal University.

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Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (the so-called Mad Cow Disease) incidents will be explored to observe how

students contemplate on and explore environmental issues through the system and assess whether their thinking

levels have been improved, which shall serve as a reference for teaching design amendments.

Unlike the systematic thinking, systems thinking is an extension from the system theory. The system

theory is an interdisciplinary theory used to study the abstract and independent contents that exist in the

organizational phenomena, size or space, time, and type. Kant mentioned holism, teleology, and category

theory in his critical philosophy, which explain the system characteristics of system structures and functions

used to adapt to certain intrinsic purposes. A system’s overall form not only displays regulated overall content,

but also presets the locations of the parts in the entire system. Kant further interpreted knowledge as an orderly

and layered whole made up of certain elements. Therefore, the function of thinking is to connect concepts and

classify them. That is, the concepts are first classified under the respective systems. In view of this, Ossimitz

(2001) summarized five characteristics of the system: 1. The system includes definable elements; 2. The

elements within the system exist for a common purpose and are therefore correlated; 3. Relative to the

environment available, the system should possess a boundary; 4. The system possesses a dynamic mechanism

that can be adjusted with changes in purpose; and 5. A certain element in the system can be regarded as the

whole of a sub-system. This being said, a system is a complex yet unified whole made up of a group of

interacting, interrelated, and interdependent parts.

Complex systems are an essential focus for science education, because they contain important ideas in

national standards and provide an integrating context across a number of science domains (Goldstone &

Wilensky, 2008). Checkland and Poulter (2006) indicated that we all live in the midst of a complex interacting

flux of changing events and ideas which unrolls through time. The complexity of problematical situations in

real life stems from the facts that not only are they never static; they also contain multiple interacting

perceptions of “reality”. Systemic thinking, as a conceptual framework of knowledge, principles, and tools,

enables observing within the interrelationship and the mutual connections necessary in order to determine

changeable patterns and repeated phenomena. Based on an extensive review of the systems thinking literature,

Ben-Zvi Assaraf and Orion (2005; 2010) summarized eight emergent hierarchic characteristics of systems

thinking in the context of earth systems as: (a) the ability to identify the components of a system and processes

within the system; (b) the ability to identify relationships among the system’s components; (c) the ability to

organize the systems’ components and processes within a framework of relationships; (d) the ability to make

generalizations; (e) the ability to identify dynamic relationships within the system; (f) the ability to understand

the hidden dimensions of the system; (g) the ability to understand the cyclic nature of systems; and (h) thinking

temporally: retrospection and prediction. It presents the development of systems thinking in the context of earth

systems education as occurring in three sequential levels, arranged in a hierarchical pyramid structure. The

three levels are: (a) analysis of system components (characteristic 1); (b) synthesis of system components

(characteristics 2, 3, 4, and 5); and (c) implementation (characteristics 6, 7, and 8). Each group of skills

(specific level) is used as the basis for the development of the next level’s skills.

Methods

Research Questions

The purpose of this study deals with the development of systems thinking skills at college. It deals with

the following research questions:


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1. What are the factors influencing the development of students’ systems thinking ability?

2. What kinds of relationships are existent among the cognitive components of systems thinking?

Sample

The subjects under observation in this study include students that took the Science and Environment

course. A total of 34 students who were enrolled in this class engaged in group discussions, practical surveys,

and teaching activities. The students majored in optics and communication engineering, software engineering,

electronic engineering, industrial design, biotechnology, and chemistry at universities of technology and

institutes of science in technology.

Systems Thinking Assessment Standards

According to the assessment standards formulated based on the teaching goals, the eight classes of systems

thinking proposed by Ben-Zvi Assaraf and Orion (2010) served as a reference, which were amended into five

classes to meet the demand for this course:

(a) The ability to identify the components of a system and processes within the system—To find the

elements of the Mad Cow Disease incidents and the connection among the elements;

(b) The ability to identify relationships among the system’s components—To describe the connection of

the elements that constitute the Mad Cow Disease incidents from different aspects, such as the biological aspect,

economic aspect, and policy aspect;

(c) The ability to organize the systems’ components and processes within a framework of

relationships—To identify the scope of the Mad Cow Disease incidents under discussion and the operational

methods and interactions among the factors;

(d) The ability to understand the hidden dimensions of the system, such as the influence of the media on

the incidents;

(e) Thinking in a time dimension—To understand that the interactions within the system had taken place

in the past and that the interactions at present may lead to future events, for example, based on the inspiration

drawn from Kuru Disease that had taken place in the past, predicting the influence of the approaches adopted at

present to deal with the Mad Cow Disease incidents on the future, and so on.

Data Analysis

The sources of data included teaching journals, videotapes of teaching, students’ assignments and

drawings, and interviews. The preliminary analysis data in this study focus on the students’ outputs, such

as individual and group discussion and note-taking, system analysis diagrams, and so on during learning

activities.

Findings and Discussion

Overall, the students communicated with their peers throughout the activity stages to exchange their ideas

on the Mad Cow Disease related problems and record the group discussion results. It has been found from a

view of the contents from the systems thinking classes that if the students had independently completed the

tasks, they could take into consideration the elements that constituted the Mad Cow Disease incidents from

multiple perspectives and find the connection among which (see Table 1). In addition, the elements could be

divided into economic, diplomatic, political, scientific, environmental, and media dimensions. Furthermore, the

group discussions allowed the students to explore the operational methods and interactions that took place in


49

their discussion of the Mad Cow Disease incidents and plot diagrams (see Figure 1), which would allow the

peers to understand the incident-related viewpoints under discussion.

Table 1

Students’ Understanding of the Mad Cow Disease Incidents Systems thinking classes Group discussion results

The definition of the elements that constitute the Mad Cow Disease incidents and the connection among the factors

The Mad Cow Disease cannot be prevented or controlled and is difficult to diagnose;import and export restrictions; the communication and coordination among countries;edible offal; affect the development of other industries; changes in economicstructure; the probability of infecting other animals; the human self-interest; media;feed; processed products; politics; medical technology; medical resources; sense ofcrisis; public panic; latency; quarantine methods; bureaucracy; sheep scrapie; newCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD); Kuru disease

The description of the connection of the Mad Cow Disease incidents based on different aspects

(a) Economy and free trade factors; (b) Diplomatic and political factors; (c) Scientific factors; (d) Environmental factors; (e) Media factors.

The organizational system parts, operational processes, and interactions under the same framework

See Figure 1

Finding the system’s hidden dimensions

(a) Cosmetics, animal gelatin found in foods; (b) Difficulty in determining the sources of processed foods; (c) Misleading media; (d) In violation of the natural laws.

Finding the effects of the interactions that take place within the system in terms of time and space

In violation of the natural laws

Figure 1. The organizational system parts, operational processes, and interactions under the same framework.

As for the hidden problems in the system that had not been revealed, the groups proposed different

problems, many of which included animal gelatin used in foods or other products. However, the effects of the

animal gelatin remain unknown. In addition, some groups mentioned the media’s “fear the world is not messy


50

enough” way of reporting lead to the public’s shallow knowledge of the Mad Cow Disease, and thus, the misled

public may not be able to make the right decisions. It is worth noting that a group of students said that many

technologies are fundamentally in violation of the natural laws in the era of biotechnological advancement and

that the Mad Cow Disease is simply a small part of it. As human beings, we ought to think about how we can

make a choice between technology and the environment. This viewpoint has also raised questions regarding the

effects of the interactions within the system on the past, present, and future time and space, that is, the worry

that had been neglected at the time of biotechnological development has resulted in social and environmental

problems in the modern times. The effects of these alarming problems on the future ought to be pondered upon

during decision-making.

Systems thinking involves many high-order thinking skills, such skills involve a cluster of elaborative

mental activities requiring nuance judgment and analysis of complex situations according to multiple criteria.

Students should therefore demonstrate abilities to organize the relevant components stated in the organization

learning contents and integrate the dynamic processes and interactions. If students have misconceptions about

the learning contents (such as the confusion over the concepts of and CJD), they may not be able to

successfully explain the connection among the parts within the system. However, through group member

interaction, the extent of the students’ understanding of the learning contents can be improved.

In the final stage of the learning activities, students had to choose the action strategies for real life. The

strategies discussed can be divided into two aspects: For individuals, most of the students chose to stay away

from meat while a few students said they only stayed away from the meat parts they had doubt about (such as

organs and bone-in beef). In terms of the policy aspect, most of the students believed restricting imports as a

feasible approach while some of the students said variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) had to be

extensively studied to develop vaccines as soon as possible. In addition, the students also deemed the public’s

correct understanding of the Mad Cow Disease as a feasible solution.

Conclusion

Contemporary educators have highlighted the importance of environmental education for science and

technology education in a broader scope. Growing educational efforts have been paid to prepare

environmentally literate students who can make informed decisions on environmental issues and take

environmental friendly actions. Considerable research has been carried out in regarding to students’

understanding of science concepts related to environmental issues (e.g., Gambro & Switzky, 1999; Palmer,

1995). Yet, many controversial environmental issues not only have important scientific content associated with

it, but also involve non-scientific aspects including social, political, economic and ethical issues (Gayford,

2002). In this study, students reflected that drawing of system maps could help them consider a complex issue

comprehensively, and be more considerate while making decisions. Systems thinking strategy could be focused

on helping students better deal with the complex, controversial issues, and engaging them in active

participation and discussion on the environmental debates.

References Ben-Zvi Assaraf, O., & Orion, N. (2005). Development of system thinking skills in the context of earth system education. Journal

of Research in Science Teaching, 42, 518-560. Ben-Zvi Assaraf, O., & Orion, N. (2010). System thinking skills at the elementary school level. Journal of Research in Science

Teaching, 47, 540-563.


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Checkland, P., & Poulter, J. (2006). Learning for action: A short definitive account of soft systems methodology, and its use practitioners, teachers and students. Chichester,U.K.: John Wiley & Sons.

Gambro, J. S., & Switzky, H. N. (1999). Variables associated with American high school students' knowledge of environmental issues related to energy and pollution. Journal of Environmental Education, 30(2), 15-22.

Gayford, C. (2002). Controversial environmental issues: A case study for the professional development of science teachers. International Journal of Science Education, 24, 1191-1200.

Goldstone, R. L., & Wilensky, U. (2008). Promoting transfer complex systems principles. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 17, 465-516.

McGregor, D. (2007). Developing thinking; developing learning: A guide to thinking skills in education. New York, N.Y.: Open University Press.

Ossimitz, G. (2001). The development of systems thinking skills. Retrieved from http://www.uniklu.ac.at/users/gossimit/sdyn/gdm _eng.htm

Palmer, D. (1995). The POE in the primary school: An evaluation. Research in Science Education, 25(3), 323-332.


What Factors “Work” for Teacher Organizational Learning in

Shanghai Middle Schools? A Grounded Theory Approach

Liu Sheng-nan, Feng Da-ming

East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Teaching quality has long been regarded as a key factor in the success of education reform. Teacher organizational

learning in China has been regarded as an important factor to the high-quality teaching and the outstanding

academic performance of students. However, there is a dearth of research regarding teacher organizational learning

in China. This small-scale study investigated the factors affecting teacher organizational learning in Shanghai. The

grounded theory approach was conducted in nine middle schools and 25 selected teachers participated. The three

main themes as emerged in our studies include leadership for learning, school climate of enhancing learning, and

teacher agency. Compared with the existed literature, the findings offer some new ideas about how educational

cultural and educational administration contexts in China filter teacher organizational learning.

Keywords: teacher organizational learning, influencing factors, Shanghai, grounded theory approach

Introduction

Since the mid-1990s, concerns have been raised regarding education quality and student performance

delineated as “the Swords of Damocles” suspended at the head of primary and secondary schools. Massive

school reform movements swept across the world, such as school restructuring, school-based management, and

school improvement. Unfortunately, all these reforms related to accountability, curriculum, standards, and

assessments are only the starting points of school improvement and unlikely to lead the expected results

(Darling-Hammond, 1996; Higgins, Ishimaru, Holcombe, & Fowler, 2012). Teacher quality influences students

directly and plays an important role in the success of school reform (Darling-Hammond, 1999;

Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). In this regard, understanding how to

motivate teachers to become active and cooperative learners, and then facilitate the professional development

of teachers is a crucial step to improve student performance (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Hattie, 2013).

Since the last three decades, organizational learning has been an emerging topic in business and education

realm and has drawn considerable attention of researchers and practitioners. There is an agreement on the

positive relationship between organizational learning and organizational performance in the business field

(Lopez, Peón, & Ordás, 2005; Chen & Zheng, 2005; García-Morales, Jiménez-Barrionuevo, &

Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, 2012). China has a long tradition of valuing collectivism, which emphasizes on strong

collaboration. Middle schools in China have abundant experiences in teacher organizational learning, such as

Liu Sheng-nan, Ph.D. candidate, Department of Educational Administration, East China Normal University. Feng Da-ming, Ph.D., professor, Department of Educational Administration; executive vice dean, Open Learning and

Education College; exective director, Center for Teacher Development, East China Normal University.

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observe and teach demonstration lessons, teaching-study groups, school-based learning, teacher group

mentoring, and collective lesson preparation. After investigating the basic education in Shanghai, Organization

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) concluded that the subject-based “teaching-study” in

mainland China, a form of organizational learning, was one of the key elements to the outstanding performance

on the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) of Shanghai (OECD, 2011). Also, it is an

important lesson for teacher education of Western countries (Strauss, 2013). However, substantial and rigorous

empirical studies about teacher organizational learning are thin in mainland China (Zhang, Lu, & Peng, 2011).

In Western countries, teachers’ autonomy is grounded in the norms of privacy (Little, 1990). Organizational

learning was often criticized as organizational control “in disguise”, whose purpose was to

deprofessionalization of teachers (Hairon & Dimmock, 2012). It is not surprising that teacher organizational

learning practices have been restrained to some extent. As a field, teacher organizational learning mechanism

was poorly understood (Geijsel, Sleegers, Stoel, & Krüger, 2009). Theoretical foundations of teacher

organizational learning still lag behind the practice. So, this study responds to recent calls to action for teacher

organizational learning.

Literature Review

We begin with a brief review of influence factors on organizational learning both in business and

education fields. Many efforts have been done to identify the factors affecting organizational learning in

business circles and can be divided into structural level, people level, and cultural level (Popper & Lipshitz,

1998; Jyothibabu, Farooq, & Pradhan, 2010). The elements of structural level mainly referred to

institutionalized structural and procedural arrangements designed to encourage organizational learning, such as

the size of the organization, functional specialization, time, forums for learning (Collinson & Cook, 2004),

accountability system (Popper & Lipshitz, 2000), and issue orientation that related to democratization, power

equalization, and participation (Popper & Lipshitz, 2000). Studies on people level referred to the personal

attitudes and disposition which related to belief in reciprocity, sharing, and desire to learn (Collinson & Cook,

2004). Studies on cultural level pointed that trust, shared values, and organizational climate that encouraging

adventure, innovation, difference, and experiment will improve organizational learning (Silins, Mulford, &

Zarins, 2002; Garvin, Edmondson, & Gino, 2008).

Teacher organizational learning is an effective method to improve the quality of teachers and promote the

success of educational reform (Schechter & Qadach, 2012). It is essential to investigate the key factors

influencing teacher organizational learning. Available researches about the factors affecting teacher

organizational learning are as follows: Leithwood, Leonard, and Sharratt (1998) conducted a multiple-case

study by selecting 114 teachers in 14 schools from British Columbia, Newfoundland, Ontario. The findings of

the study identified nine key variables that fostered teacher organizational learning. These variables were

divided into three levels: out-of-school variables (district, community, and ministry), transformational

leadership, and in-school variables (vision, culture, structure, strategy, policy, and resources). They emphasized

transformational leadership as the most important condition. After surveying 1,197 teaching staff from 67

schools in Hong Kong, Lam and Pang (2003) pointed that there were two main categories affecting school

organizational learning: external environment (political, economic, social, and cultural) and internal school

organization (transformational leadership, positive culture, and supportive structure). Compared with the

contextual conditions, internal school conditions make more contribution to the organizational learning. The


54

research findings confirmed the conclusions from Leithwood et al. (1998). Zhang et al. (2011) carried out a

case study to identify the influence factors and obstacles to teacher organizational learning. They pointed that a

supportive management structure, with a clear goal of school development, effective channels in information

sharing and exchange, supportive culture for innovation and creation, and high degree of trust and collaboration

among staff members, has a positive impact on teachers’ organizational learning ability in Shenzhen middle

schools. However, the case study sample was small (N = 4). We need more samples to confirm the findings. In

Hong Kong, Cai (2010) carried out a study by quantitative and qualitative methods. The findings showed that

obstacles to teacher organizational learning could be categorized into three levels: personal level, school level,

and education bureau. Among these, personal level includes teacher cognitive power, confidence to work, and

work mindset; school level covers the culture of expressing opinions, sharing, organization structure, and

school leadership; and education bureau refers to the positive influence of policy-makers of education.

The rest of available literatures mainly focus on supportive organizational learning culture (McCharen,

Song, & Martens, 2011), collective efficiency of teachers (Schechter & Qadach, 2012), learning time and

platform available (Collinson & Cook, 2004), shared mental models (Fauske & Raybould, 2005), psychological

safety, and experimentation that reinforces learning (Higgins et al., 2012). The findings of these earlier studies

have been very helpful in conducting the current study in China.

Although researchers have learned a great deal about the factors influencing teacher organizational

learning, most of the studies contextualised in Anglo-American and Hong Kong contexts. Less is known about

the factors influencing teacher organizational learning in mainland China (Zhang et al., 2011). Actually,

differences exist among the schools in mainland China, Western countries, and Hong Kong in terms of

organizational structure, institutions, and culture (Cheng, 2010). Those factors will lead to the difference in

teacher organizational learning.

Method

Design

The current study has been conducted by using qualitative research and the grounded-theory approach to

analyze the viewpoints of teachers regarding the factors affecting teacher organizational learning. As noted at

the outset, the primary aim of this research is to identify the factors affecting teacher organizational learning in

Shanghai middle schools, the education hub of China.

Study Sample and Data Collection

In order to draw a more distinct boundary of study, the nominators were provided with the following

working definition of organizational learning before the interviews: In order to improve student performance,

teachers acquire new knowledge initiatively, share with each other, analyze and integrate knowledge together,

and preserve useful knowledge into organization by using all kinds of methods so that other members can

acquire and use it again (Schechter & Qadach, 2012). This definition was chosen since it is more conductive to

establish a broad yet bounded understanding for the interviewees. Given the purpose of the study, random

sampling and purposeful sampling methods were used to collect data. Interviews were conducted until no more

new themes emerged from the analysis. We finally selected 25 teachers who came from nine middle schools in

Shanghai as the objects of the in-depth interview (at least 50 minutes per person). All these selected

case-schools represented different educational quality of middle schools in Shanghai, including key schools,


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general schools, and weak schools. Gender, years of teaching experience, and educational background of the

teachers were also considered during the interviews to acquire useful information (see Table 1). The questions

focused on their experiences about organizational learning as follows:

1. What factors will influence the willingness of teachers to participate in organizational learning

activities?

2. What reasons will lead to different results of teacher organizational learning?

3. What measures can be improved by your school to enhance the willingness of teachers to participate in

organizational learning?

Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of Participants and Schools

Name (Pseudonym) Gender Years of teaching experience Educational background Key school

Connick Huang Male 2 Bachelor No

Lee Li Male 12 Bachelor No

Jack Wang Male 2 Master No

Nancy Liu Female 5 Master Yes

David Li Male 2 Doctor Yes

Anna Liu Female 10 Bachelor No

Andy Chen Male 15 Bachelor No

Henry Zhao Male 11 Bachelor Yes

John Liu Male 7 Bachelor Yes

Helen Li Male 25 Bachelor Yes

Amber Li Female 2 Master No

Beata Liu Female 1 Bachelor No

Jora Hu Male 3 Master No

Rose Xia Female 9 Master Yes

Kevin Lu Male 10 Bachelor Yes

Jacob Hu Male 2 Master Yes

Zoey Chen Female 4 Master Yes

Benjamin Li Male 9 Master No

Lisa Ou Female 20 Bachelor No

Joseph Mi Male 7 Bachelor Yes

Cindy Wu Female 4 Bachelor Yes

Paul Ma Male 13 Master Yes

Diana He Female 9 Bachelor Yes

Edith Liu Female 21 Bachelor No

William Qian Male 15 Bachelor No

Data Analysis

Nvivo™ 8 software was used to code, retrieve, and organize the transcripts in order to analyze the

semi-structured interviews. A research team was organized (including one professor, one assistant professor,

and two doctoral students from the educational administration) to discuss the codings, themes, and key findings.

Material collected was coded according to the procedures put forward by Corbin and Strauss (1998). Firstly, we

studied the interview with the microscopic examination and “Data are broken down into discrete parts, closely

examined and compared for similarities and differences” (Corbin & Strauss, 1998, p. 102). Any passages

related to the factors influencing organizational learning were identified and labeled with adequate codes (open


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coding). The process of grounded theory building is shown in Figure 1. After conducting 25 interviews, we

obtained 307 codes totally. Secondly, in order to seek for a higher level of conceptual abstraction, these codes

were reassembled to generate code properties. Then, we assigned the 307 codes into 18 distinctive concepts

(axial coding). After that, three themes were emerged: (a) leadership for learning; (b) school climate of

promoting learning; and (c) teacher agency (selective coding). Compared with the available literature, some

new elements have been identified. Theoretical framework has been shown schematically in Table 2.

Figure 1. Grounded theory building process (Adapted from Rodon & Pastor, 2007).

Table 2

Factors Affecting Teacher Organizational Learning in Shanghai Middle Schools Research topic Selective coding Axial coding Open coding

Leadership for learning

Give priority to teaching affairs

The principle values teaching research activities

Set a good example of learning;

Pay attention to teacher organizational learning;

Supervise teacher organizational learning;

Participate in teacher organizational learning;

Offer incentives to teacher organizational learning.

Other work serves the need of teacher organizational learning

Provide needed resources for teacher organizational learning;

Improve teaching condition; Provide sufficient time and platform for teacher organizational learning.

Encourage the empowerment of teacher leaders

Manage teacher organizational learning

Make on-going teacher organizational learning plans;

Establish fair evaluation systems;

Arrange teacher organizational learning activities;

Monitor teacher organizational learning process; Provide timely feedback on teacher organizational learningoutcomes.

Provide a good role model for teacher organizational learning

Excellent interpersonal communication skills;

Have a good professional quality;

Willing to share personal experience.

If no theoretical

saturation

Identify the research questions

Sampling

Data collection

Open coding

Memoing

If no theoretical

saturation

Theory

construction

Research

conclusion

Phase one: Data analysis

Phase two: Data integration

Phase three: Data extraction

Axial & Selective

Coding


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(Table 2 to be continued)

Leadership for learning

Motivate teachers by the shared organizational vision

Put forward school development vision

Put forward aclear, measurable, and time-based school development vision; Associateschool development vision to teacher organizational learning.

Promote the school visions to be recognized

Communicate the development visions to teachers;

Associate teacher development with school development;

Inspire teacher organizational commitment.

School climate of promoting learning

Commitment of teachers to organizational learning

Effectiveness of organizational learning activities

Practicability of teacher organizational learning content;

Diversified forms of teacher organizational learning;

Organize teacher organizational learning in an efficient way. Harmonious interpersonal relationships among colleagues

Harmonious interpersonal relationship among teachers;

Harmonious interpersonal relationship between leaders and teachers.

Similar ideas of educational value

Similar attitude to the teaching work;

Similar ideas of education.

Satisfied communication atmosphere

More convenient and diversified directions of communication

Promote the communication methods among teachers moreconvenient; Make the communication channels among teachers more diversified.

Diversified content of communication

Value the supportive communication content;

Directive communication is clear

Organizational justice

Distributive justice Proper learning rewards;

Equal salary.

Procedural justice Establish the transparent evaluation in professional title system;

Have equal opportunities for teachers to career development.

Teacher agency

Teaching efficiency

Support for teachers from parents and colleague

Parents will do their best to support the teachers’ teaching work;

Teachers seek help from colleagues when they need.

The efficiency about students learning

Learning capacity of students;

Learning attitude of students;

Teachers’ influence on students.

Work orientations

Job orientation Wage drives;

Task drives.

Career orientation

Career development;

Job qualification;

Working responsibility.

Calling orientation

Incentive by the inner meaning of work;

Love for work;

Moral imperative to work hard.

Ethical and Rigor Considerations of the Study

In order to protect the confidentiality and autonomy of the participants, all participants were informed

about the purpose of the study. Audiotapes were given pseudonyms in order to protect their privacy and

they were deleted after transcribed. Member checking (sending the written records back to the interviewees)

was done to avoid bias and misunderstanding. Triangulation was attained through field observation in their

schools.

Results

The purpose of this research was to identify the key factors influencing middle school teacher

organizational learning in Shanghai. Table 2 illustrates the key findings of the study. For the purpose of the


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study, data analysis of 25 interviewed teachers yielded three central themes. These themes include leadership

for learning, school climate of promoting learning, and teacher agency.

Leadership for Learning

Many significant studies on organizational learning conducted in various settings have revealed that

school principals hold the keys to the effectiveness of organizational learning (Garvin et al., 2008). Without the

support from principals, the implementation of teacher organizational learning seldom succeeds.

Transformational leadership is the most frequently mentioned in the literature (Leithwood et al., 1998; Lam &

Pang, 2003). In this study, we found that principals give priority to teaching affairs, encourage teacher leaders

to participate in teaching affairs, and put forward school vision related to teaching learning. These methods

have a positive influence on creating and sustaining a supportive environment which is helpful for teacher

organizational learning. We labeled the theme “leadership for learning”. Compared with transformational

leadership, leadership for learning is more focused on the specific learning behaviors of leaders associated with

facilitating teacher organizational learning.

Giving priority to teaching affairs. China is conceived as a high power distance (Geert & Jan, 1991) and

strong hierarchy commitment society. In China, people have a high acceptance of unequal power and often take

it for granted. Being an official is the life goal and value pursuit of many people in China. The value idea is

deeply rooted among people and makes teachers producing a worship and awe for the principals. So, they are

very concerned with the attitude of leaders. Since 1985, “principal responsibility system” was introduced to

primary and secondary schools in China. School principals were authorized direct responsibility and required to

deal with lots of school issues, such as instructional activities, teaching researches, and managerial decisions

(Wilson & Xue, 2013). Conditioned by the rank prestige bestowed up the leaders in the Confucian culture (Lam

& Pang, 2003), it is not surprising that school leaders play a central role in supporting teacher organizational

learning and have undoubtedly authority in the perspective of teachers. Many teachers are used to respecting

and obeying the leadership authority, in hope that they can perform the expected and recognized behaviors in

front of the principals to seek their recognition. If principals are role models of learning, participating in teacher

organizational learning actively and providing needed resource, then it will affect the enthusiasm of teachers to

participate in organizational learning. These activities are likely to flourish. Lisa Ou commented how the

principals influenced the willness of teachers to participate in organizational learning:

Guidance from principal is very important. Our principal often participates in teachers’ learning activities. He gives us some advice and monitors the implementation of the activity. Also, the principal cares the examination results and gives timely feedback. All these will create academic pressures on us and motivate us to work more conscientious. Some of us want to give the principal a positive impression.

School leaders who actively identify and remove the factors hindering teacher organizational learning in

the schools and reduce too much red tape unrelated to teaching will promote teacher organizational learning.

When it comes to the resource allocation in the schools, leaders will give priority to the teaching needs and

make all the other school works in the service of teacher organizational learning. In the words of Kevin Lu:

Our principal signals the importance of spending time on problem identification, knowledge sharing, and knowledge integration among teachers. In order to guarantee sufficient learning time, she will reduce the frequence of meetings. She rarely asks teachers to hand in material unrelated to teaching just response to administrative departments of education. Therefore, our teachers have more time for reflection and can arrange time more freely compared with other schools.


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Jacob Hu added:

My principle provides time, resource, and venues for teacher learning. The high proportion of office expenses of school is dedicated to teachers’ learning activities. Every teacher has 200 yuan to buy books per year. We often invite professors to give lectures to teachers and almost every teacher has the opportunities to participate in the in-service training programs. So teachers can access more new knowledge and broaden their horizons.

Encouraging the empowerment of teacher leaders. One of the factors mentioned repeatedly by teachers

in the interviews was the model demonstration role played by teacher leaders, who not only be good learners

themselves but also organize teacher organizational learning activities and facilitate other teachers’ learning.

Teacher leaders in this study mainly referred to the assistant principals for curriculum and instruction,

department heads, and subject leaders in the schools or those teachers who have an influence on other teachers

though without official roles. In primary and secondary schools in China, principals as the key person need to

perform a variety of political, managerial, and instructional affairs for the purpose of maintaining effective

functioning of schools (Jiang, 2006; Hallinger, 2009). On one hand, many principals have already been far

away from classroom teaching. On the other hand, disciplinary knowledge becomes harder in middle schools.

So, it could be unrealistic to expect that principals overcome great pressure and focus too much on the teaching

of all disciplines while ignoring management affairs (Hallinger, 2005; 2009). Actually, this is not beneficial

toward the betterment of schools and it is one of the important reasons that instructional leadership is still a

controversial issue (Feng, 2012). However, teacher leaders are accommodated as classroom teachers at the

same time. They communicate more often with classroom teachers and possess more expertise in the subject

area compared with principals. So, principals have to invite teacher leaders to participate in the

decision-making of teaching affairs and expand the school leadership influence more widely. In the words of

David Li:

The director of our teacher training office works very hard. He organizes activities well, and he gives us notices of training activities in advance, coordinates teaching arrangement of teachers, and monitors the process of training activity. When the program finishes, he asks for advice and provides the school leaders timely feedback. Therefore, everyone can benefit a lot from the learning activities and flung themselves into it.

Henry Zhao, an assistant principal for instruction, noted the importance of empowerment in the

schools:

Although our principal does not usually stay in school, the teaching work is arranged in a perfect order. Our principal is good at encouraging teacher leaders to devote themselves to the development of the school. In other words, he is a leaders’ leader. Empowerment is a kind of motivation which makes teacher leaders feel that they own the power to handle school issues.

Motivation of the shared vision of the organization. When teachers share a strong vision of the

organization, it is helpful to formulate the expected behavior norms of teachers and creat positive outcomes

(Higgins et al., 2012). So, it is an important responsibility of school leaders to put forward developmental

vision which is beneficial to make the cultivation of students as the focus of work, reflect high academic

performance expectation from students, and hold moral power which can inspire teachers beyond the

self-interest. Besides, vision itself should be feasible and according to the personal developmental goal of

teachers. In China, many schools use slogans that are well-designed, memorable, and easily accepted to

popularize the vision content, for the purpose to motivate, understand, and accept by teachers quickly. Beata


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Liu works at a new middle school, just as she said:

As a newly established school, many slogans are put forward by our leaders to reflect expectations of school on teachers. For example, our school raises such a slogan this year: “Recognition from parents, praise from government, and commendation from society in five years”.

However, just put forward the vision is not enough. It is important for leaders to promote teachers’

commitment to school vision. Teachers interviewed put forward many useful measures to promote teachers’

work together in the realization of organizational vision, among which are the implementation of rewarding and

punishment measures, appropriate working pressure, and combination of personal development goal and school

vision. They thought that these measures contribute significantly to guide teachers’ behaviors and enhance their

commitment to the vision. In the words of Zoey Chen:

Our principal often said that interests of teachers and school are related to each other. Only when we work together to improve student performance, can teachers be given better wages and higher job status. So, we are united to create a better learning atmosphere both for the development of school and ours.

School Climate of Promoting Learning

Commitment of teachers to organizational learning. Practicability of learning content, harmonious

interpersonal relationships among colleagues, and similar ideas of educational value are useful to promote

the commitment of teachers to organizational learning. Because of large class size (more than 50 students

per class) in Chinese middle schools (OECD, 2012), teaching tasks are heavy for many teachers. They are

overly stressed because they have to spend most of their school hours on giving class, marking pupils’ work,

etc.. Only when organizational learning activities are organized effectively and learning content is very

practical will the teachers be interested in it and participate actively. Organizational learning is a kind of

cooperative behavior, which refers to the interaction among organization members. Strong colleague

relationships lead to positive attitude towards work, job security, and job satisfaction, and the efficiency of

organization improved. Quality of interpersonal relationship is a crucial factor in determining the organizational

commitment in China (Chen & Zheng, 2005). Thus, it affects the willingness of teachers to participate in

organizational learning.

Just as Lisa Ou said:

Sometimes, we are too busy to invest time in organizational learning. So, the point is that how to organize learning activities more effectively and teachers can benefit a lot from activities instead of just coping with demands from superiors.

William Qian added:

Our leaders often said that we should treat the school as our homes. All of us are families that support each other. Leaders are very nice to teachers. They often invite us to have a chat in their offices. This is a kind of trust and respect for teachers. Then, our teachers feel emboldened to put forward good advice initiatively and are pleased to care for school.

Family culture is supreme in the value system of China. It can be found in the interviews that school

leaders are good at employing the emotional strategy of family culture which featured Chinese heritage to

promote the interpersonal relationship among teachers in the organization and expand the emotions of family

relationship into schools. It is useful to increase the loyalty of teachers to the schools rather than considering

rewards from material or pursuing fame. Meanwhile, a harmonious relationship also decreases the transaction


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cost of school management.

Teachers’ perception on organizational justice. Based on the data obtained through interviews, teachers’

perception on organizational justice mainly focuses on the distributive justice and procedural justice.

Procedural justice refers to the transparency and coherence of organizational policies which are related to the

personal interest of teachers in the schools. Distributive justice refers to the perception of teachers on the

positive feedback to their efforts in teaching accordingly.

Rose Xia was unsatisfied with the teacher evaluation system in her school and pointed out that:

School policies are constantly changed. They are often decided by the will of leaders. In our school, the promotion system of teachers changed every year in order to give priority to the privileged. Such unfairness leads to the accumulation of teachers’ negative emotion, worsening the relationship among colleague, and then affects enthusiasm of teachers in organizational learning.

In the words of Benjamin Li:

To those teachers who participated in the organizational learning actively, school should give timely rewards. For instance, in the activity which is named master-prentice mode, the team with better performance can get material rewards or honorary awards. It is a kind of incentive for the master-teachers and novice teachers. Both of them would put more passion on learning activities.

To properly handle teachers’ feeling of fairness is a kind of complex management. Since teaching work is

implicit sometimes and cannot be measured with the principle of more pay for more work. The overemphasis

on the pay and repay among members of the organization will lead to the excessive competition, which is

unbeneficial to cooperation of the organization. However, it is not possible to ask opinions of every teacher

when it reaches to the policy-making process within the schools. So, it is necessary for the leaders to ease and

balance the contradiction caused by the unfairness of the organization by all kinds of artistic ways of

management. For example, in order to enhance the transparency and coherence of organizational policies,

school leaders can take more time to ask and listen to suggestions from teachers. It is not only to make teachers

feel valued but also a good way to seek their understanding during the implementing of new policies.

Meanwhile, leaders can distill teachers’ feeling on personal gains and losses by emphasizing collective

interests.

Satisfied communication atmosphere in schools. Organizational learning is a socialized process, the

process of collecting, sharing, analyzing, integrating, extracting, and reusing knowledge is closely related to

communication between members of organization. The channels of communication which relate to teacher

organizational learning include formal meetings, bulletin boards, handbooks, and diversified informal

communications. The content of communication can be divided into supportive communication and directive

communication. Supportive communication includes such emotional support as the constructive opinions,

positive feedback, trust, and friendship between superiors and teachers, and directive communication mainly

appears during transmission of information between leaders and the subordinates.

Beata Liu is a novice teacher with one year’s working experience. She emphasized the value of

communication among novice teachers.

As a novice teacher, I often feel discouraged by the difficulties encountered in the daily teaching experience. Sometimes, those feelings may not be understood by senior teachers. Fortunately, there are many novice teachers in my subject-based research group and the problems we encounter are similar. So, we often encourage each other and solve


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problems together. We benefit a lot from the communication.

Jora Huadded that:

The school principal is so kind that he often shows concern for teachers and helps to deal with the difficulties teachers encounter in teaching or in the life. Just entering this school, I reported my life difficulties to the principal and he handled it very soon. I was impressed by his courteous help. It will encourage me to work hard in return.

Teacher Agency

The available studies on the factors affecting teacher organizational learning mainly focus on the

intervention from external environment while caring less the role of teachers’ attitude toward organizational

learning (Riveros, Newton, & Burgess, 2012). Actually, the key to the success of educational reform is not

simply the need to change the organizational structure, but also the change of behaviors, attitudes, and

thinking modes of teachers toward the reform (Riveros et al., 2012). Many interviewees mentioned that

teaching efficiency and working value orientation of teachers affect their willingness toward organizational

learning.

Teaching efficiency. Human motivation is primarily derived from the outcomes of expectations. Learning

attitudes and academic performance of students will affect teachers’ enthusiasm for participating in

organizational learning. In the words of Jack Wang:

There are many migrant children in our school. These kids come from poor family background and they get less care of their parents. They did not develop good behavior and habits from childhood. So, their academic performance is very poor. Their dropout rate is high every year because of the strong mobility of their parents. It is hard to get the sense of achievement from those students. So, the learning climate among teachers in our school is not good.

Diana He works at a key school and students in his school are all very outstanding. So, her feeling of

teaching efficiency is strongly different from Jack Wang:

I think students affect the learning attitude of teachers. Our school is a key school. Students’ qualities are excellent and they have high learning initiatives. Sometimes, these students will raise difficult questions which teachers are unable to satisfy them with suitable answers. So, teachers in our school have a strong sense of crisis which inspires them to learn something new with colleagues.

The value orientation of work. Teachers with different work orientations have different working attitude

and behavior. Teachers with a job orientation toward work are primarily interested in the material rewards from

work. The primary purpose of work is merely a way to make a living. Teachers with a career orientation work

to achieve the prestige, power, recognition, and professional development. There are also some teachers with

the orientation of calling who have a deep love for the work itself. They care about the meaning of work itself

and the enjoyment from the work. In the words of Andy Chen:

To be frank, rather than spending time on communicating with colleagues about teaching to improve students’ academic performance, it would be better to play cards with my friends or spending more time with family. I have got high academic title and many honors in my work. Now, my attention centered on my home gradually and I have less enthusiasm in my work.

Jora Hu has leaded a study group of flipped classroom in his school for three years. They have no financial

support from school. However, it does not affect their passion:

Only when you have a deep love for education and concern about the growth of students definitely will you throw


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yourself into the work. In my school, teachers who interested in flipped classroom organized a learning team three years ago. We met together once per week to communicate with the latest information. Many teachers quitted after their fresh feelings fading. Those adhering to the present are teachers who love education sincerely.

It can be found in the interviews that teachers with the orientation of making a living or profession are

mainly prompted by the expectations or pressures from the external environment. Their main purpose of

working hard is the improvement of life quality or better career development prospect. However, teachers with

the orientation of career regard learning as a way of life. Sometimes, their behaviors of learning or

organizational learning occurred unconsciously and they created learning opportunities actively even without

external support. Therefore, the duration of such dynamic is much longer and the learning effect is more

outstanding.

Discussion and Conclusion

The primary purpose of this study was to generate the factors influencing teacher organizational

learning in Shanghai. Like most studies about organizational learning, premise of this study was “The

organizational learning has a positive correlation with organizational efficiency”. In fact, organizational

learning is not equal to organizational improvement. Interviewees in our study also mentioned that sometimes

teacher organizational learning in the schools are still superficial. It not only occupies extra time and energy of

teachers, but also wastes the educational recourse of schools. So, it should only be considered when the costs

are really worth pursuing and mental preparation has been done by the schools and teachers (Huxham &

Vangen, 2005). Previous studies on organizational learning mostly focused on the positive effects and regarded

it as a panacea to increase the efficiency of the organization while ignoring the resource-consuming activities

during the process of organizational learning. It could be concluded that such studies were biased to a certain

extent. Further, empirical research is needed to examine the negative effects of organizational learning. By

comparing the findings of grounded theory and available literature researches, research implications are

discussed below.

In this study, it has been found that work of teacher leaders, especially the middle-level leaders, who had

the formal position and were in charge of teaching affairs in the schools, was vital to the well functioning of

teacher organizational learning activities. So far, limited numbers of studies and few targeted professional

development opportunities have aimed especially at the middle-level leaders in mainland China. Most of

middle-level leaders were selected from excellent classroom teachers who had outstanding performance in

teaching while ignoring the effective knowledge, skills, personality characteristics, and psychological quality of

positions needed. Many schools lack the clear role definitions about middle-level leaders, so some teachers

complained that sometimes middle-level leaders could not maintain a well balance in the complex position that

neither fully classroom teachers nor full-time administratorsand still spend most of their time on classroom

teaching. In consideration of the important role played by middle-level leaders, both practitioners and theorists

need to pay more attention to this field in the future.

In Western literature, teacher empowerment, job autonomy, and sharing decision-making have a

statistically significant direct impact on teacher organizational learning, which has reached consensus. They

were closely link to the sense of efficacy which is helpful to motivate teachers to participate in organizational

learning (Leithwood et al., 1998; Geijsel et al., 2009; McCharen et al., 2011; Marks & Louis, 1999). However,

interviewees in this study have rarely mentioned those factors which were related to the shift of power and


64

influence relationships within the schools. It further confirmed the research findings conducted in Singapore

and Hong Kong schools of Confucian cultural circle (Lam & Pang, 2003; Hairon & Dimmock, 2012). Some

interviewees expressed that they have full freedom in their classrooms and they did not care about the decisions

which were not directly related to their self-interest or their classroom teaching. On one hand, Confucian

culture has been emphasizing on the respect for teachers in East Asia. According to the “2013 Global Teacher

Status Index” (Dolton & Marcenaro-Gutierrez, 2013), China ranked number one in terms of respecting their

teachers, comparing with all other European and Anglo-Saxon countries. Under this faith, teachers in China

win more esteem and trust than Western societies. On the other hand, according to an old Asian saying that

“The nail that sticks out gets hammered down”, Asians are typically used to obeying decisions of superiors

instead of voicing their own opinion in public.

Based on the ideas generated from interviewees in this study, motivations on organizational learning were

basically extrinsic, which have been mainly promoted by the attentions from superiors and reward systems.

Genuine interest in learning per se and the intrinsic motivation stem from the orientation of career were less

referred by the interviewees. However, that extrinsic motivation had limited impact. This would be useful in

explaining why some teachers reach their highest academic titles while they have not usually driving forces to

learn continually. Of course, it was not easy to get a comprehensive conclusion through 25 interviewees from

nine middle schools in Shanghai. In future, more empirical and broad level studies are needed to confirm our

findings.

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Understanding Class Teaching Authority

From a Feminism Perspective

Hu Bai-yun

Southwest University,

Chongqing, China

Ma Cheng

Guizhou Nomal University,

Guiyang, China

Li Sen

Southwest University,

Chongqing, China

Class teaching authority (TA) refers to teachers’ authority to choose, manage, and judge the factors which are

concerned in the process of teaching. Under the influence of traditional Chinese hierarchical social class and feudal

ruling ideology, teachers’ behavior in China generally exhibits controlling and restraining. It is the common pursuit

of feminism to care for the weaker groups and to realize equality of sexes. Therefore, from the perspective of

liberation, feminism endeavors to liberate those who are suppressed in education and to raise their awareness of

equality, hence, promote their self-consciousness in development. Following this principle, there are three ways to

achieve the feminist TA: 1. Students should be empowered to share authority with teachers; 2. A learning

community should be built; and 3. A caring relationship should be created between teachers and students.

Keywords: feminism, teaching authority (TA), liberation, empower

Introduction

The classroom authority of teachers is a special one which would make teaching go smoothly in the

process of teaching. The proper wielding of authority would balance the rights between teachers and students. It

could reflect the democratic degree of teaching. However, most teachers have misconceptions about teaching

authority (TA) according to our investigation. They have conceived that TA meant control and restriction. Thus,

their misconceptions and practice convert the classroom into a place of controlling students. Their practice

could not let students play the preponderant role and inspire their initiative. Therefore, TA must be re-examined

and reviewed in order to form a new conception and improve the undemocratic phenomenon of teaching.

Analysis of TA in the Classroom

During the whole process of classroom teaching, teachers wield authority all the time. The proper wielding

of authority would basically guarantee the efficiency of teaching. Thus, what is TA in the classroom? How

many types of TA? These are the must-be answered questions to understand TA.

The Conception of TA

The consensus of TA is the inferior conception of teachers’ authority. Some scholars divided teacher’s

authority into several categories in accordance with different objects of imposing the authority: the authority

targeting students, the authority towards courses, the authority of teaching, the authority regarding evaluation,

Hu Bai-yun, Ed.D., lecturer, School of Marxism Studies, Marxism Theory Research Center, Southwest University. Ma Cheng (Corresponding author), M.Ed., lecturer, School of Education Science, Guizhou Nomal University. Li Sen, Ed.D., professor, Faculty of Education, Southwest University.

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UNDERSTANDING CLASS TEACHING AUTHORITY FROM A FEMINISM PERSPECTIVE

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etc. (Li, 2008, p. 11). However, during the whole teaching process, teachers’ activities simultaneously involved

students, courses, teaching, evaluation, etc.. Therefore, TA in the classroom is a systematic adjustment in order

to unfold teaching activity effectively.

Regarding the conception of TA, foreign scholars explored it in different perspectives. For instance, an

American education-sociologist, Mary Haywood Metz, defined TA as a unique game relationship of control

and anti-control in the teaching activity between teachers and students (Metz, 1978). Such relationship is bound

by the social ethic and the pattern of education and teaching. This relationship is led by teachers in teaching

activity which guides students’ learning and promotes their development.

According to sociologist Christopher Hurn, TA should be transformed from the traditional hierarchical

system to a progressive teaching professional dominated type (Hurn, 1985). Freire’s (1990) Pedagogy of the

Oppressed advocated that teachers and students possess equal power. Giroux (1986) regarded TA as a

reverse-thinking relationship. To him, this relationship does not require students to accept teachers’ authority.

On the contrary, teachers request students to delay the trust process of TA and share TA together with students.

The post-structurist Patti Lather recommended that teachers borrow and pursue the liberation interest of

post-modernism practice trend (Lather, 1991). The traditional classroom TA should be discarded. New TA

equal relationship would include reconstruction, participation, dialogue, pluralism, declassification, no stratum,

and discarding knowledge-power centered way.

From several foreign scholars’ discussions of TA, we may conclude that TA is a conception influenced by

ideology of society. Based on different backgrounds of social culture and study perspectives, TA would have

different interpretations. But one thing is universal of their viewpoints: An equal and jointly applicable pattern

of TA is emphasized. Teachers’ objective of TA itself is no longer to control and restrain, but to create an

atmosphere of teacher-student equalization and democratic participation. A teacher can maximize his/her

professional dominance, personal charisma, and soft management to shape unique TA in order to influence

students and reach the goal of student development.

Some domestic scholars defined TA as a preponderant force of teacher in the time-space atmosphere of

classroom functioning with combined factors of teaching profession, social culture, self situation, and students

in order to promote student development as an essential goal (Liu, 2010). This definition of TA has its

rationality because of its boundary over the function of TA, but it is not concrete and operational regarding the

exercise process of TA.

From the perspective of how to use TA, we define TA as the teacher having the authority of selection,

decision, management, and evolution in the teaching process of a variety of factors. It includes teachers’

selection and decision regarding the content of teaching, the method, the means of teaching, as well as the

management and evolution of the classroom and students. These authorities of a teacher are entrusted and

endowed by the social culture, school system, and the professional level. As the subject of TA, teachers’

understanding of TA and their skills of wielding authority affect the state of exercising TA in the classroom.

Four Types of TA

The methods of Metz are worth considering while we define types of TA. Metz (1978) categorized TA

into four types in accordance with their sources: traditional authority, extraordinary charisma, legal authority,

and professional authority. After our investigation, these types of TA have been in China.

Traditional TA. Metz regarded it as the acknowledgement of ancient none traceable origin and the


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observation of sacred customs. Teachers expect students to obey simply because they are teachers with

patriarch style of traditional sanctity. This authority is endowed with the teaching profession. Teachers were

highly respected. “Heaven”, “earth”, “emperor”, “father”, and “teacher” were worshiped in the shrine of every

family in ancient China. It is still well-known that whoever is being a one-day teacher for students and he/she

would be the “father” of the students for the rest of their lives. Nowadays, the social status of teachers is being

degraded, but the favorable tradition of respecting teachers is still being preserved in China. Teaching

profession itself signifies that teachers have the authority of teaching and cultivating students.

Extraordinary charisma. Metz (1978) said:

Students are aroused by the personal charisma of teachers without attachment to any regulations and system. Also, it has nothing to do with mighty stifling. More often, it comes from the teacher’s humorous style, erudite, and profound mind which affect students naturally. (pp. 42-52)

This authority originates from the personal charisma and teaching style of teachers. The unique personal

charisma, wit, erudite, sagacity, etc. would be an attractive force subduing students who are willing to comply

and cooperate with arrangement and management of teachers.

Legal authority. Metz (1978) wrote:

Legal authority is implemented by the trust of school regulations and terms with effectiveness and objectivity. It is an authority of none personalization. Whatever conforms to regulations in the execution of duty is expected to obey. (pp. 45-52)

Teachers are managers and leaders in the organization structure formed by teachers and students.

Teachers must be backed up by certain policies and regulations whenever manage students. Policies and

regulations themselves have possessed certain authority. When teachers act in accordance with policies and

regulations—coerced management means—they simultaneously have the executioners’ authority.

Professional authority. In Metz’s opinion, supposedly, teachers are learned persons with professional

specialty. With their knowledge and capability, they can train students, teach them some skills, and clarify their

puzzled minds. Besides, the UNESCO’s (1996) “The Proposals of Teacher’s Status” clearly defined the role of

teachers: “Teachers should play the decisive role in the selection and revision of textbooks, the review and

evaluation of textbooks and the practical application of teaching methods” (pp. 1-6). In other words, teachers

have the authority to select and make decisions regarding relevant aspects of majors. In classroom teaching,

teachers have the authority of professional autonomy. They can arrange concrete teaching activities to

guarantee the teaching going smoothly with their professional capability under the guidance of professional

theory in accordance with their understanding of teaching and students.

The Reality of TA: Controlling and Restraining

The Chinese cultural tradition for thousands of years habitually defers to authority and adjoins to others or

organ of authority. Under the influence of such cultural tradition, teachers as an authority become objects

students defer and adjoin to. At the same time, students following teachers are regarded as manifestation of

respecting teachers and steadily strengthened. Eventually, the authority of teachers is solidified and the rights of

students are weakened. When the disparity between teachers and students becomes too great, the exercise of

TA inevitably leads to controlling and restraining.


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Four Aspects in Control and Restriction of TA

According to some scholars:

The essence of authority is force. In an authority structure, the subject of authority is a preponderant force over the object of authority; their relations often become order-obey relation. Generally speaking, the authority object does not have the force counterbalancing the subject of the authority. Thus, the authority object only temporarily or permanently is restrained and controlled by the subject of authority. However, if the authority structure changes (through revolution, reform, etc.), their status of subject and object may be altered. (Wu & Li, 2011, pp. 80-85)

Therefore, the interpretation of authority as a preponderant force determined by status has certain

enlightening significance regarding TA in the classroom.

Although TA is a special authority, but it has the characteristics of general authority. Teachers and

students constitute the subject and object of the authority. Teachers’ superiority in knowledge, experiences, and

other factors dominates the control-restrain, order-obey relationship between teachers and students:

1. Teachers have the authority to evaluate and assess the effectiveness of students’ learning with pre-set

standers due to their authority designated by traditional culture and their mastery of knowledge beforehand.

Under such circumstances, students have to accept TA passively;

2. The ensured TA gap between teachers and students endows teachers’ force of controlling and

restraining students;

3. TA is safeguarded by disciplines and a series of reward-punitive measures. Teachers have the authority

to manage students with standardization;

4. TA can supervise, transform, and cure students. It makes teachers believe that they are disseminators or

interpreters of correct, good behavior or lifestyle. Students must accept it.

In a word, traditional and legal TA is superfluous and excessive. TA of extraordinary charisma and

professional are insufficient. Teachers’ view of teacher-student relations is still lingered in the teacher-centered

long-gone past. They have not realized the change of students’ status and the necessity of exerting rights of

students.

The Origin of Control and Restriction in TA

TA has formed by several jointly factors with its core of social and cultural factor of school. For thousands

of years of feudal ruling, the value thinking way of social stratum and ruling logic has influenced the

consciousness of people profoundly and lastingly. As successors and disseminators of such culture, teachers

naturally follow this cultural consciousness.

The value thinking of hierarchy. “The so-called value thinking of hierarchy is top and bottom way. It

gives higher value (status and prestige) to whoever is on the top, not those at the bottom. Under such way of

thinking, different groups are given different stratum” (Han & Zhang, 2005, p. 195). This value thinking of

hierarachy unconsciously shapes the educational pattern of teachers highly above students who are always at

the bottom. According to Buber (1966), “me-it” relationship is not a true one at all. The true relationship

happens between the two and mutually two-way relationship. This pattern of teacher-student relationship is

alienated from “me-you” to “me-it” one-way relationship: Students become the educating and processing

objects. They are passive objects, and teachers possess undoubtedly authority.

The ruling logic. “The so-called ruling logic is make-a-point structure. Such structure makes subdued

status be proved as rational and justified. The ruling logic is the most essential characteristic” (Du, 2010,


71

p. 277). In this logic frame, different groups and their characteristics not only have social stratum and also

oppressive. It contains such logic: To A and B, if A is superior to B, then B is subordinate to A. For example,

human beings are superior to nature, animal, and other organisms, so it is rational for human beings to oppress

nature, animal, and other organisms. Based on this viewpoint, teachers are naturally superior to students

because of their training in advance, knowledge, and experiences, together with the mission endowed by the

society of educating students. Furthermore, teachers can impose supremacy on students who are in

subordinated status.

The Feminist Perspective of TA: Liberation and Freedom

From the angel of liberated feminist analysis, different groups or individuals have their value and should

be respected. They would deserve equal opportunities of development. Such opportunities are not given by

others, rather to be fought by the vulnerable groups themselves, the only way leads to liberation and freedom.

The Liberation Perspective of Feminism

Ever since the beginning of feminism, a variety of theories have coexisted. But one basic premise is that

women belong to the oppressed and decimated stratum all over the world. Women are the “secondary gender”

as Simone de Beauvoir described. Concerned about the vulnerable groups of women, the realization of

men-women equality would be the common pursuit and objects of feminism.

Paulo Freire, who advocated the notion of liberating education, is the most influential educator of the

critical theory of education and practice in the 20th century. His main idea is that education is liberation, hope

and eventually leads to freedom (Freire, 1990). Having influenced by his liberated education thought, the

feminism represented by Freire emphasized that through liberating the oppressed in the process of education,

the equality mentality must be awakened in order to realize their own development self-consciously. Their

analysis model of women problem is labeled as “liberation analysis model” (Xu & Zhang 2004). Such sort of

models focuses on the combination of gender, nationality, classes, and age, which form a privileged system

oppressing vulnerable groups. In the educational field, the “liberation analysis model” is concerned about the

macro level of the influence on students’ learning by the social structure of oppression and privilege. On the

other hand, it pays attention to the rationality of the knowledge teachers passing on over micro teaching, for

instance, how the knowledge is selected and who decides what to choose. All these are questions of query and

these questions are habitually acquiesced and accepted.

Analysis of TA

The essence of TA. Regarding the interpretation of authority, Michel Foucault, a famous French

philosopher, defined it uniquely:

Authority is not suppressed by the outside control but a practice of predictability. The authority can never be held in someone’s hand; neither property nor wealth could be owned. It exists and conducts by the execution of individual and through entity. (Wang, 1999, p. 189)

Foucault emphasized that the authority always manifests in the relations of different influences and such relations exist in a series of events. The authority is formed in such events and the process of interacted events.

In other words, Foucault regarded authority as the interacted relations of different influences, not a

quiescent force of suppression and control.

“The different influences” in the classroom are teachers and students. The interacted relations exist


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between teachers and students; such relations shape the TA. Therefore, the essence of TA is the relationship of

interacted process between teachers and students. Specifically speaking, it exists among mutual information

exchange, influence, and complement between teachers and students. The mutual interaction between teachers

and students is a dynamic process of information exchange. Such information consists of knowledge, emotion,

attitude, need, interest, value, life experience, and behavior standard. The goal of executing TA is to ensure the

information communication go smoothly. Through such extensive interaction of information communicating,

“syntony” effect and true join forces will be produced and formed in order to promote the initiative

development of students.

The premise of executing TA. During the teaching process, all activities of teaching are based on

students. Without the participation of students, the external factor of teaching cannot function at all. Due to the

TA of traditional, charisma, legal, and professional, the authority of the teachers obviously outweighs the

students who are in comparative weak status. Thus, the unequal relations reveal more about control and

restriction. Under control and restriction, the thinking of students is imprisoned and their behaviors are

standardized. Students lose their consciousness and capability of executing rights in the classroom. Thus, the

key of reasonable implementing TA is how to motivate the initiative of students, not controlling and restraining.

Reference to the liberating perspective of feminism, the execution of TA is to reach the ultimate goal of

teaching, and in the process of achieving the goal, students’ ultimate goal is the subject. Excessive control and

restriction only make teaching become one-person show or monodrama. Students could not play a leading role

in the process of learning. In order to make students—the disadvantaged—develop well, teachers must liberate

students, give them freedom, awaken their subject consciousness, and be aware of their rights. Students have

the capability to implement their rights and participate in the teaching process democratically.

The Ways of Implantation of Feminist TA

The feminist TA focuses on the development of students, cares for the active participation of students in

the classroom, and stresses the enhancement of students’ subject status through liberation in order to transform

the passive study of students.

To implement TA rationally, teachers need to empower students, build a learning community, and create

an equal teacher-student relation.

Empowering Students

The transformation of TA from control-restriction to liberation-freedom is essentially the transformation

of authority conception. Nowadays, TA has already transformed from the past authority-held conception to

authority-sharing one (Hu, 2009). The former regards authority as a predominating relationship in which a

certain individual or group possesses capacity to control other individuals or groups. In this authority structure,

competition provokes result. Controlling others is a glory. Utilizing hierarchy relationship and external imposed

administrative force influences policy-making with frequently used words: controlling, compelling, threatening,

manipulating, sanctioning, obeying, and yielding. But latter authority conception incarnates a equal relation in

which joint action of different individuals and groups is stressed.

In the process of authority transformation conception, a related terminology “empowerment” has emerged.

TA was teachers’ patent in the educational field for the past. According to authority-sharing conception, TA

should be jointly act under the premise of equality between teachers and students. From the essence of teaching,


73

teachers’ teaching is to promote students’ learning. If students do not cooperate without initiation, teachers’

teaching is invalid without any effect on students. Thus, empowering students should be done to let students

acquire power and participate in teaching initiatively. By doing so, students can fully voice their ideas and

thought in order to make decisions over their own study and accomplish self-development.

One thing must be clarified is that the realization of empowerment does not necessarily mean to deprive of

someone’s rights and eliminate others’ rights and replace it, but to seek the mutual development of cooperation

and sharing. At the same time, empowerment is neither obtaining authority externally, nor giving authority

passively by someone else. It is the authority originates and develops internally. Authority comes from inside,

not from the outside. It is the self-decision of teachers and students with spontaneousness and voluntary.

Authority always exists in the process of practical actions of teachers and students. Thus, let students secure

strength, not let teachers give part of authority to students. Through liberation of students, students obtain the

freedom of thinking and behavior. They would execute the authority of subject and participate in the process of

teaching with teachers.

Building a Learning Community

Professor Sato Manabu at Tokyo University once predicted that schools would be learning communities

(Manabu, 2004). Classrooms are the main place for students to learn. Naturally, each school also should be a

community of learning. In this learning community, dissimilarity and similarity exist between teachers and

students. Such situation would form competition and cooperation among members of the community and

mobilize students’ enthusiasm, initiative, and creativity in order to safeguard the learning rights of students.

Three things must be done in building a learning community:

1. An atmosphere of security and sense of belonging should be created. In the community, security can let

members voluntarily strive for the common goal with other members. Sense of belonging makes members feel

their pertaining to this community at any moment and accepted and needed by all members. They have their

own values and regard the interests of the community as their interests. Having a sense of security and

belonging in the community, members appreciate competition and help each other because they are associated

by friendly and mutually dependent emotions;

2. Sharing and interaction should be emphasized. Experience-sharing and interaction are the main ways of

community activities. Interactions among members would promote their information communication, share

wisdom and experiences collectively, reach consensus over some issues, and impel them to rethink profoundly

in order to enhance individuals’ capability of perception activity;

3. A common vision should be built. A common vision is the common goal of community members who

are willing to strive for it. It is a power of moving and inspiring. It functions to agglomerate, impel, and clarify

the goal. As the common vision is established, it can associate members closely and agglomerate powers of all

to reach the goal of individuals and the organization. Generally speaking, the common vision is not stipulated

by the community authority, but by the interaction of members spontaneously and naturally.

Building a Mutually Caring Teacher-Student Relationship

According to feminists, the teacher-student relationship is inevitably influenced by the relations of

systemized authority and oppression. In traditional teaching, teachers possess privileged authority by the

knowledge authority, truthful and theoretical. They ignore the individuality of students, style and discriminate

the experiences and feelings of students in an unfavorable situation without the mutual caring between teachers


74

and students. In the opinion of feminism, caring is defined as “unselfish caring”. It has the aspiration, action,

and inclination to enhance the happiness of the cared. It signifies unselfish caring for the cared, not for the

self-interest of the care-giver (Noddings, 2003). In such sense, caring has such characteristics: “The

relationship between the caring subject and the cared object demands care-giver to be in the position of the

object with trouble and fragility to handle the relationship of the cared object” (Manabu, 2004, p. 272). Such

caring towards others with concern and sympathy is originated unselfishly and spontaneously from the heart.

According to Manabu (2004), education is to “respond to the behavior of the object with fragility, sadness, call,

and trouble. It existed in the relation of the cared and a behavior of worrying about the object of concerned” (as

cited in Noddings, 2003). Such caring is needed and lacking between teachers and students. The original

meaning of caring in education has lost.

Based on this caring, mutual caring should be established between teachers and students in order to create

a better accommodating atmosphere between them.

First of all, the “me-it” relation would be replaced by the “me-you” one in order to discard “me-it” relation

between teachers and students. “Me-you” relation is an equal one. The equal dialogue and mutual respond can

be done between teachers and students. The real responsibility between teachers and students is to respond.

Responding to someone is responsible for someone.

In mutual responding, the essential teacher-student relationship happens. Only when such relation takes

place, are students not objects of teachers any more, but teachers’ students. And teachers can experience the

spoken truth of students. In the irrefutable truth, teachers and students’ souls collide, resulting in a true concern

for reciprocity. The mutual responding between teachers and students is the real mutual caring (Du, 2010).

Secondly, circumstances of the opposite side should be understood. Looking at the problem from the

opposite perspective, not in self stance with self standards, but in the side of the opposite, can help understand

the behavior and idea of the other side. Under such premise, teacher-student interactions can unfold and invoke

deep caring of both sides.

Conclusion

From the feminist perspective, unequal power between teachers and students caused by students’ sense of

equality has not been awakened.

Teachers and students sharing power, liberation, and freedom is the primary condition to achieve the

feminist TA. Teachers can use the following ways to achieve it: to empower students, to build a learning

community, and to create a caring relationship between teachers and students .

References Buber, M. (1966). Between man and man. New York, N.Y.: The Macmilan Company. Du, E. M. (2010). The construction of the education world harmony under feminism perspective (p. 280). Chengdu: Sichuan

University Press. Freire, P. (1990). Pedagogy of the oppressed (p. 23). Harmondsworth: Penguin. Giroux, H. A. (1986). Authority, intellectuals, and the politics of practical learning. Teachers College Record, 88(1), 22-40. Han, H., & Zhang, J. (2005). Introduction to women’s studies (p. 195). Beijing: Education Science Press. Hu, S. (2009). Upgrade from the control of power to individual ability—On American teacher empowerment movement “view of

power” changes and implications for teachers’ professional development. Contemporary Educational Sciences, 11, 31-34. Hurn, C. (1985). Changes in authority relationships in schools: 1960-1980. Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization,

5, 31-57.


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Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and pedagogy with/in postmodern. New York, N.Y.: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc..

Li, Q. (2008). Research on teacher power in basic education (Unpublished M.Ed. thesis, Northeast Normal University). Liu, W. (2010). Effects of classroom teaching authority of their teaching methods. Education Exploration, 8, 70-71. Manabu, S. (2004). Pleasure of learning: Toward dialogic practice (p. 272). (Q. Q. Zhong, Trans.). Beijing: Education Science

Press. Metz, M. H. (1978). Classrooms and corridors: The crisis of authority in desegregated secondary schools (pp. 45-52). Berkeley:

University of California Press. Noddings, N. (2003). Learned concerning: The other mode of education (pp. 23-39; p. 191). (T. L. Yu, Trans.). Beijing:

Education Science Press. Wang, Y. (1984). Suggestions for teachers’ status. Foreign Education Information, 4, 1-5. Wang, Z. R. (1999). Foucault (p. 189). Changsha: Hunan Education Press. Wu, W., & Li, S. (2011). Teacher understanding authority in classroom: A review of sociology of education and ideologies in

USA. Comparative Education Research, 254(3), 80-85. Xu, H., & Zhang, G. J. (2004). A study of the fanatical models of feminist education theory. Studies in Foreign Education, 168(6),

18-22.

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US-China Education Review 2015(1A)

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Transcript of US-China Education Review 2015(1A)