Truncated higher order sequences as responses to compressive intraplate tectonic events superimposed...

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Truncated higher order sequences as responses to compressive intraplate tectonicevents superimposed on eustatic sea-level rise

Zoltán Püspöki a,⁎, Ágnes Tóth-Makk b, Miklós Kozák a, Árpád Dávid c, Richard W. McIntosh a, Tamás Buday a,Gábor Demeter d, János Kiss e, Márta Püspöki-Terebesi a, Krisztina Barta a, Csaba Csordás a, Judit Kiss a

a Department of Mineralogy and Geology, University of Debrecen, H-4032 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, Hungaryb Geological Institute of Hungary, H-1025 Bufapest, Stefánia út 14, Hungaryc Eszterházy Károly College, H-3300 Eger, Eszterházy tér 1, Hungaryd Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformatics, University of Debrecen, H-4032 Debrecen Egyetem tér 1, Hungarye Eötvös Lorand Geophysical Institute of Hungary, H-1145, Budapest, Kolumbusz u. 17-23, Hungary

a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 8 May 2008Received in revised form 2 April 2009Accepted 15 May 2009

Keywords:Sequence stratigraphyMioceneCoalFalling stage systems tractTectonic tilting

High resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis of the lignite-bearing Miocene siliciclastic sequence of theSalótarján Lignite Formation (SLF) has been performed by lithostratigraphic dissection of more than 1350boreholes and by detailed analysis of well logs from more than 150 boreholes. Biostratigraphic data indicatethat the SLF represents a single 3rd order eustatic sequence, namely the Bur-4 of Vakarcs et al. [Vakarcs, G.,Hardenbol, J., Abreu, V.S., Vail, P.R., Várnai, P., Tari, G., 1998. Oligocene–Middle Miocene depositionalsequences of the central paratethys and their correlation with regional stages. SEPM Special Publication vol.60, 209–231]. As for facies conditions, facies models for sandy shorefaces and/or wave dominated deltas canbe applied.Twenty-six parasequences have been identified and mapped in the adjacent sub-basins from well-logcorrelations. The sharp-based sand bodies of ps. 10 and 17 were interpreted as the falling stage systems tract(FSST) of higher order sequences. The subsequent transgressive systems tracts (TST) are represented byretrograding sets of 2–3 parasequences (ps. 11–13, 18–19). Based on the regional unconformity at the base,and the regionally extended sharp-based sand bodies, three sequence boundaries (SB) were determined thatdissect the 3rd order sequence into three higher order sequences. One of the special features of the sequenceis that the FSSTs interrupt the rapid relative sea-level rises (ps. 9 and 16) and lie directly on the silty materialof nearshore environments, leading to the lack of the higher order highstand system tracts (HST) (‘truncatedtransgressive semi-cycles’). Another characteristic is the striking basinward fore-stepping of the sedimentarydepocentres and that of the facies belts of the lignite seams.The rapid relative sea-level falls implied by the two FSSTs are unexpected in the context of an overall eustaticrise, thus the possibility of tectonic origin of shallowing was investigated. This verification was basedprimarily on the observations that (1) the basin was united when parasequences 1 to 13 were developed,whereas (2) by the end of the sequence development the Palaeozoic basement protruded to the surface,dividing the basin, reflecting intense tectonic events simultaneous with sequence development.The FSSTs with the SBs above and the formation of higher order sequences can thus be regarded assedimentary responses to syn-sedimentary tectonic elevation and tilting of the basement. This elevation wasinduced by tectonic compression and associated imbrication along a regional reverse fault that was known asthe Darnó Line. The imbrication could have controlled not only the repeated relative sea-level falls but alsothe striking fore-stepping of the sedimentary depocentres and facies belts of the associated lignite seams.Tectonic tilting influenced not only the FSSTs, but the subsequent early TSTs as well, thus lignite seamsassociated with the tectonically counteracted TSTs are characterized by multiple seams with severalaccessory seams (Va, IIIa, b and Ia), while those associated with tectonically quiescent periods are aeriallyextensive and solitary.Comparison with other coal bearing formations enhanced the importance of the FSST in the interpretation ofstratigraphic truncations, coal seam geometry conditions, facies shiftings and stratal geometry, enabling amore accurate description of syn-sedimentary tectonic events.

© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Sedimentary Geology 219 (2009) 208–236

⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +36 52 512 900/2241.E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Püspöki).

0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.05.011

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1. Introduction and aims

1.1. Tectonic events and the relative sea-level changes

Relative sea-level changes and thus sedimentary sequence devel-opment can be controlled by the interaction between global—mostlyeustatic — and regional, dominantly tectonic causes, especially inmolasse foreland basins. Despite earlier concepts (e.g. Miall, 1978;Van Houten, 1981), there has been a long debate about tectoniccauses for the generation of sequence boundaries (reviewed byMiall, 1997). Well-established models (e.g. Posamentier and Allen,1993; 1999) and many well-documented case studies (e.g. Garcia-Garcia et al., 2006; Pascucci et al., 2006; Carpentier et al., 2007) haveshown the importance of tectonic influence on relative sea-levelchanges. The relationship between tectonics and sequence bound-aries (e.g. Embry, 1990), the different levels of subaerial erosionbeneath sequence boundaries (Yoshida et al., 1996), and conclusionsabout syn- versus post-tectonic expression of the sedimentaryresponse (Blair and Bilodeau, 1988; Heller et al., 1988) have beenreported.

Nevertheless, estimating eustatic effects on sedimentary basinsrequires careful tectonic analysis (Fortuin and de Smet, 1991).Observations on the formation of high-frequency tectonically drivencycles in shelf and shoreline depositional systems have beenreported (e.g. Hart and Plint, 1993; Plint et al., 1993). From atectonic point of view there are observations on unconformitiesrelated to intrabasin tectonic tilting (e.g. Leggitt et al., 1990; Dreyeret al., 1999; Egger et al., 2002), examples emphasizing theimportance of imbricate thrusting in parasequence progradation(e.g. Kamola and Huntoon, 1995) and emphasizing the role of buriedfaults (Hart and Plint, 1993) or basement heterogeneities (Pang andNummedal, 1995).

1.2. Importance of coal bearing deposits in sequence stratigraphy

The sequence stratigraphy of coal bearing successions hasdeveloped parallel with that of sequence stratigraphy itsef, followingthe milestone study of Vail et al., 1977. The distribution of coal instratigraphic successions has been interpreted by earlier faciesmodels (Woollen, 1976; Cecil et al., 1979; Horne 1979; Staub andCohen, 1979; Howell and Ferm, 1980; Ryer, 1983; Galloway andHobday, 1983). Key beds, like paleosoils or volcanic ash beds (Saxena,1976; Renton and Cecil, 1979; Ryer et al., 1980) and transgression-related geochemical proxies such as sulphur (Altschuler et al., 1983)have been investigated from a stratigraphic point of view. Theunderstanding of stratigraphic and facies relations from the aspect ofcoal seam geometry had significant economic consequences (Baganzet al., 1975; Horne and Ferm, 1976; Horne et al., 1978; Ryer et al.,1980).

The development of general sequence stratigraphic models (e.g.Haq et al., 1988; Posamentier et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1990;Galloway, 1989; Emery and Meyers, 1996; Miall, 1997; Posamentierand Allen, 1999) has been accompanied by models that interpret coalformation in a sequence context (Cross, 1988; Gastaldo et al., 1993;Kosters and Suter, 1993; Shanley and McCabe, 1993; Flint et al., 1995,among many others). The association of coal formation with thetransgressive and early highstand system tracts of high frequencysequences is well-established (Bohacs and Suter, 1997). Furtherdocumentation of coal deposition in relation to well-established syn-depositional tectonic activity (e.g. Diessel et al., 2000; Holz et al.,2002; Greb et al., 2004; Gibling et al., 2004; Pashin 2004) could helpthe development of more general sequence stratigraphic models ofcoal accumulation.

The necessity of defining a fourth ‘forced regressive’ or ‘fallingstage’ systems tract has been raised by several authors (Hunt and

Fig. 1. Paleogeographic position of the Borsod Basin in the Central Paratethys (Seneš 1967; Hámor 1997).

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Fig. 2. Structural geological sketch of the area surrounding the Borsod Basin (left) and the morpology of the Palaeozoic–Mesozoic basement in the Borsod Basin based on regional geophysical data (right) (the white points are the boreholespenetrating Palaeozoic–Mesozoic basement, the black ones are those used in Figs. 4 and 28).

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Tucker, 1992; 1995; Plint, 1988; Walker and Plint, 1992; Nummedalet al., 1993). Though it has been doubted by several authors (e.g. Kollaet al., 1995; Posamentier and Allen, 1999), a comprehensive overviewand detailed description of the ‘falling stage systems tract’ (FSST) hasbeen established (Hunt and Gawthorpe eds., 2000; Plint andNummedal, 2000).

Our present work aims to clarify the role of the FSST in coal-bearing sequences and its relation to syn-sedimentary compressionaltectonic events, to relative sea-level changes, and to the geometry ofassociated coal seams. The Tertiary (Lower Miocene) coal-bearingsiliciclastic sequence in the Borsod Basin (North Hungary) is anattractive locality to study these effects because it provides clearevidence of syn-sedimentary activity. To support our interpretation,we give a detailed documentation of the high-frequency coal-bearingsequences by compiling well-log correlations and series of contourmaps together with detailed facies reconstructions on the targetedlignite seams.

2. Methods

Lithostratigraphic dissection of more than 1350 boreholes hasenabled the palaeogeography reconstruction of basin physiography. Inaddition, Bouguer anomaly data and maps based on regional seismicreflection data from the Hungarian Geophysical Institute have beenutilised in order to outline the basin structure. Detailed analysis ofwell logs (spontaneous potential and resistivity curves together withnatural gamma data) in more than 150 boreholes has been performedin order (1) to typify the log motifs i.e. “electrofacies elements”, (2) toidentify the key sequence stratigraphic surfaces, parasequences andparasequence sets and finally (3) to outline the spatial extension,isopath contours and lithofacies changes of the systems tracts definedby well-log correlation.

The interpretation of log motifs was based on outcrop datacontaining sedimentological (i.e. bedding and grain size distribution)and ichnological data including complete ichnofacies reconstructions.

Surfer for Windows 8.0 with its default linear kriging interpolationwas used to create the maps presenting the facies changes.

3. General settings

3.1. Basin morphology and structural outline

Palaeogeographic maps of the Central Paratethys (Seneš, 1967;Hámor, 1997) (Fig. 1) indicate that the studied basin represents anarrowmarginal shelf of the Pannonian Basin surrounded by elevatedmassifs of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic formations like the Bükk Mts.,Uppony Mts., Szendrő Mts. and Aggtelek–Rudabánya Mts. Northwestis regarded as landward and southeast as seaward. Based on regionalgeophysical (i.e. gravitation) data of the surface of the Palaeozoic–Mesozoic basement (Fig. 2), the slope of the shelf was 3.6°; however,its apparent steepness could have been the result of post Miocenetectonic tilting. The first significant basin-ward breaking of the shelfslope is observed between Sajólászlófalva and Sajóbábony. The shelf isstructurally fragmented by tectonic lines striking NE–SW (parallel tothe main strike of the shelf), the development of which is associatedwith Miocene and post-Miocene structural movements. Thus, deepintra-shelf basins can be observed with similar strikes, like the West-Borsod sub-basin with a depth of more than 1000 m below sea levelseparated by the regional lineament, the Darnó Line, and a similardepression with a depth of about 600 m below sea level east of theDarnó Line.

The Darnó Line, separating the West Borsod sub-basin anddividing the originally united shelf into two regions, can be regardedas a regional intra-shelf high angle reverse fault with northwesternvergence on the basis of seismic reflection profiles across theUpponyMts. (Fig. 3) (Szalay et al., 1976, 1978). This kind of structuralbehavior of the line could be the result of a dominantly Miocenecompressional tectonic development of the area. This is in agree-ment with similar outcrop and borehole observations along thesame lineament proving the overthrust position of the Palaeozoic

Fig. 3. Reflection (vibration seismic) cross section across the Darnó Line and the Paleozoic massif of the Uppony Mts. (Szalay et al., 1978) (for the orientation see Fig. 2).



masses on the Cenozoic formations (Telegdi-Roth, 1951). Accordingto Zelenka et al. (1983), Balla (1987) and Csontos (1988) the DarnóLine served as a sinistral strike-slip fault in the Mesozoic associated

with significant horizontal movements of the basement units.However, its activity and magnitude in the Miocene are doubtful(e.g. Kozák et al., 2001).

Fig. 5. Miocene sequences of the Borsod Basin and their relationship to the global eustatic events and those of the Central Paratethys.

Fig. 4. General outline of the Miocene sequences in the Borsod Basin (for the position of the boreholes see Fig. 2).

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3.2. Stratigraphic settingA geological cross-section based on 66 deep boreholes across the

study area (Fig. 4) is presented to demonstrate the two-dimensionalgeometry of the studied sequence. The formation boundaries, themember boundaries within the related formation and the targetedlignite seams are shown. Considering the litho- and biostratigraphicdata available, the Miocene basin-filling sediments can be dissectedinto four formations representing separate stages and eustaticsequences of the Miocene (Fig. 5).

1. The age of the paralic Salgótarján Lignite Formation (SLF), based onthe occurrence of the mollusk Rzehakia socialis at the base (Radócz,1987), can be associated with nannoplankton zone NN4 accordingto Martini (1971), Horváth and Nagymarosy (1979) and to theKarpatian stage of the Central Paratethys. It coincides with the Bur-4 eustatic transgression of Vakarcs et al. (1998) (Püspöki, 2002).

2. The Sajóvelezd Beds are present only in theWest Borsod sub-basin.They overlie the Karpatian Salgótarján Lignite Formation and areoverlain by the Baden Formation (see below). Thus, their age can bedetermined unambiguously as Upper Karpatian–Lowermost Bade-nian. The Sajóvelezd Beds are a thin terrestrial series of reworked

Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rock fragments derived from older rockselevated and exhumed along the Darnó Line.

3. The Baden Clay Formation is composed dominantly of grey, greenishgrey clay and clay marl of open marine facies. The age has beendetermined as Badenian, nannoplankton zone NN5 (Martini, 1971)based on foraminifera (Korecz-Laky, 1985) and nannoplankton(Nagymarosy, 1980) data. According to the eustatic chart of Vakarcset al. (1998), the Baden Formation represents the Lan-1 eustaticevent.

4. The Sajóvölgy Formation consists of fluvial sand, conglomerate bedsand in the easternmost, i.e. most seaward part of the basin, grey claysandclaymarls containingbentonite layersof tuffaceousorigin (Püspökiet al., 2008). It is divided by an extended andesite tuff horizon(Dubicsány Andesite Formation—DAF) into lower and upper sections.Considering the faunaldata fromthebaseof theupper section (Püspökiet al., 2005) its age is Sarmatian, related to the Ser-3 eustatic event.

4. Facies of the Salgótarján Lignite Formation

Considering the overall sedimentary conditions of the SLF, faciesmodels for sandy shorefaces (Walker and Plint, 1992; Reading andCollinson, 1996) and/or wave dominated deltas (e.g. Bhattacharya andGiosan, 2003) can also be applied similarly to ichnological models for

Fig. 8. Planar cross-lamination with silt draping foresets (tidal currents).

Fig. 9. Hummocky cross-bedding (wave energy) (ps. 12).Fig. 7. Cross stratificationwith pebbles along bed surfaces and foresets (strong currents)(ps. 8).

Fig. 6. Cross stratification with silt draping bed surfaces and foresets (shallow water)(ps. 8).



wave or storm influenced shallow marine sequences (Pemberton andFrey, 1984; Pemberton et al., 1992a, 1992b, 2001). The direct effect of anyneighbouring wave dominated river delta producing source material foralongshore sediment transport cannot be either confirmed or entirelyexcluded, and considering the geological conditions, i.e. the lack ofMiocene formations around the study area, this problem will be a greatchallenge for detailed facies investigations (e.g. Gingras et al., 1998; Bannand Fielding, 2004) in the future. The main facies are sand, lignite seams,shell-beds and siltstone sometimes with thin sandy interbeds.

4.1. Sand

Based on sedimentological and trace fossil data, the sandy faciesrepresents marine, wave-affected shoreface. Documented beddingtypes are (1) cross-stratification with silt draping bed surfaces andforesets (Fig. 6) reflecting shallow water conditions, sometimes withpebbles along the foresets (Fig. 7) indicating significant wave energy;(2) large, planar cross-lamination with silt drapes on foresets (Fig. 8)reflecting some effects of tidal cycles; and (3) hummocky cross-bedding related to storm events in shallowmarine conditions (Fig. 9).The Glossifungites and Skolithos ichnofacies have been identified, thelatter with abundant Ophiomorpha traces (Fig. 10) indicative of uppershoreface conditions. Cruziana ichnofacies reflecting middle andlower shoreface has also been determined (Dávid et al., 2006).

4.2. Lignite seams

Lignite seams have been the target of exploratory drilling, sedimen-tological and palaeontological investigations. The seams are numberedfrom I to V from top to bottom. Coal seams II and IV are the mostextensive and thickest in the basin, whereas I, III and V have theiraccessory seams namely Ia, IIIa–IIIb and Va–Vb. The fundamentalconclusionsof previous reports andpublications regarding lignite seamsand their sequence stratigraphic importance are summarized below.

Palaeontological data (Bohn-Havas, 1985; Korecz-Laky, 1985) sug-gest that, the succession of the swamp development in the Borsod Basincan be characterized by four steps beginning with a (1) brackish lagoon(alder — fern forest), (2) the culmination of swamp development withdominantly fresh water conditions but with periodical saltwaterincursions (Taxodium forests, Myrica swamps), (3) termination ofswamp development with increasing salt content, with decay of fresh-water vegetation and expansion of brackish fauna and (4) accelerationof transgression and the appearance of open marine fauna. The twolatter stages are also indicated by biometric measurements performed

on the persistent foraminifer Rotalia beccarii, the size of which increasesupward from the top of the lignite seam to the marine siltstones (Zelei,2008). Thus, lignite seams can be regarded as remnants of swampvegetation, the termination and preservation of which was associatedwith subsequent transgression. The marine influx on lignite formationwas further verified by isotopic investigations that detected depletedd34Spyrite values (−4.88‰) together with high total sulphur content(9.31%) (Hámor-Vidó and Hámor, 2007).

Because of the voluminous data generated during decades ofexploration, the lignite seams of the Borsod Basin provide a basis forfacies modeling based on coal petrology (Szádeczky-Kardoss, 1952;Hámor-Vidó, 2004). Coal petrology (Juhász, 1965) of the whole areahas revealed six characteristic facies zones including (1) marginalswamp forest (lignite dominantly xylith), (2) shallow swampproximal zone (lignite peryblinite), (3) shallow swamp transitionalzone (cuticuline lignite of leaf origin), (4) shallow swamp distal zone(lignite of root origin), (5) zone of slight currents (vitridetritic lignite)and (6) zone of moderate currents (collinitic clayey–sandy lignite). Asa result of the systematic investigations, maps at a scale of 1:25,000have been constructed (Juhász, 1970) demonstrating the faciesdistribution of each coal seam and confirming the basin-ward shift

Fig. 11. Ostrea shell-bed with reworked Ostrea shells (transgressive lag) (ps. 15).

Fig. 10. Highly bioturbated sandy upper shoreline (Skolithos ichnofacies withabundance of Ophiomorpha) (ps. 17). Fig. 12. Laminated silt with thin sandy intercalations (ps. 16).



of facies zones through time (see later in Fig. 25). The mapped faciesbelts have also been confirmed by additional, detailed coal petrologybased palaeoecological reconstructions (Hámor-Vidó, 1992).

4.3. Shell-beds

The interpretation of shell-beds,which lie above themost significantcoal seams (e.g. the IV and II) is also based on detailed, mainlypalaeoichnological investigations (Dávid et al., 2006). The material isdominantly composedof reworkedOstrea sp. or Crassostrea sp. valves asis observed clearly in outcrop (Fig. 11). Bioerosion is common andintense and corresponds to the Entobia ichnofacies (in details see Dávidet al., 2006). This facies is interpreted asconsistingof extensive andwell-preserved transgressive lag deposits.

4.4. Siltstones

Siltstones are characteristic elements of the succession. Theirthickness is less than that of the sand, but their areal extent aids thewell correlation. Their facies interpretation is based on sedimentolo-gical, palaeontological (Bohn-Havas, 1985; Korecz-Laky, 1985; Sütő-Szentai, 2000) and ichnofacies (Dávid et al., 2006) investigations. Thesiltstones are characterized by laminated silt with common bioturba-tion, although occasional thin sandy intercalations reflecting stormevents do occur (Fig. 12) and are common in more proximalenvironments (Fig. 13). The siltstone facies represents lower shorefaceto nearshore conditions, and are regularly underlain by distincttransgressive surfaces (Fig. 14).

5. Results

5.1. Parasequence sets: their appearance and spatial distribution

The most representative key surfaces i.e. basin-wide floodingsurfaces and sharp bases of some areally extended sandbodies weremapped by well log correlation. Subsequently, parasequences (ps.)from ps. 1 to ps. 26 of the SLF were identified in more than 130

boreholes (Fig.15), 50 of which are illustrated in the sections shown inFigs. 16–22. The datum in the diagrams is the flooding surface at thebottom of ps. 9 (for explanation see below).

Section 1 (Fig. 16) is the most representative correlation diagramperpendicular to the strike of the shelf. The base of the overallsequence (i.e the SLF) is the flooding surface at the base of ps. 1 and isfollowed by a prograding then retrograding set of parasequences fromps. 1 to ps. 4, and capped by the silty material of ps. 5 representing amaximum flooding event. A subsequent prograding set of parase-quences can be observed from ps. 6 to ps. 8. Basinward downlap of ps.6 can be seen between Nb. 70 and Skz.194, that of ps. 7 between K.165and Sp. 102 (R. 42 shows the ambiguous ending of ps. 7). Ps. 8 can betraced all over the area and it is capped by silty material of a basin-wide transgression forming ps. 9. This transgression is associated withstrong back-stepping of the facies belts.

The rapid rise of relative sea level in ps. 9 is strikingly interruptedby a fast fore-stepping of sandy facies in ps. 10. This sharp-based sandbody is followed by a moderate landward shift of the facies beltsproducing a set of moderately retrograding parasequences from ps. 11to ps. 13. The gradual back-stepping of parasequences can be observedwell in boreholes Sp. 102, R. 42, K. 165 and K. 115. Although theflooding surfaces are restricted primarily to the eastern part of thearea due to gradual back-stepping, their effect can be traced updip, inthe landward sandy facies (e.g. boreholes from Skz. 194 to Sm. 55/a).

This retrogradation is succeeded by a strong but temporaryprogradation represented by ps. 14 that is repeatedly followed by astrong, basin-wide transgression in ps. 15 similar to that appearing inps. 9. This represents a repeated significant back-stepping of the faciesbelts resulting in the accumulation of silts and sandy silts (ps. 16).

This accumulation of open marine silty deposits was interruptedby a second fast fore-stepping of sandy fascies in ps. 17 similar to thatof ps. 10. Overlying the sharp-based sand body of ps. 17, a moderatelyretrograding set of parasequences (ps. 18, 19 and 20) can be observedsimilar to that from ps. 11 to 13. Subsequent parasequences upward(ps. 21, 22, 23, 25 and 26) represent progradations, though not sorapid, with a temporary retrogradation at ps. 24.

A similar range and appearance of parasequences can be seen insection 2 (Fig.17) parallel to the previous section. Figs.18–22 present aseries of cross-sections perpendicular to Figs. 16 and 17 and parallel tothe strike of the shelf. Section 3 is situated west (updip), whilesections 4, 5, 6 and 7 are east (downdip) of the Darnó Line. These crosssections indicate (1) consequent appearance of the mapped sets ofparasequences both parallel and perpendicular to the strike of theshelf, (2) satisfying correlation of ps. 1 to 13 updip, across even theDarnó Line, (3) strongly denuded appearance of ps. 14, 15 and 16, and(4) restriction of ps. 17 to 26 to the eastern, basinward part of the area.

Fig. 13. Laminated silt with common bioturbation and abundance of sandy intercala-tions (ps. 9).

Fig. 14. Field appearance of a basinwide transgression (FS of ps. 20).



Fig. 23 is a non-projected section of well-logs showing the realposition of the parasequences along the most representative orienta-tion (i.e. perpendicular to the strike of the shelf). Some fundamentalobservations that can be drawn from this cross-section are (1) thebasinward (eastward) dip of the whole sequence, (2) the erodedcharacter of the parasequences updip and (3) the strong effect of theDarnó Line on the vertical distribution of the parasequences betweenSm. 55/a and Nb. 98. However, (4) the effect of the Darnó Line cannotbe detected in the course of well-log correlations of the parasequencesfrom ps. 1 to 13 (compare with Fig. 16 section 1).

5.2. Sequence boundaries

Sequence boundaries (SB) in siliciclastic sequences are placed atsubaerial unconformities (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). However,several publications (e.g. Plint, 1988; Posamentier et al., 1992;Nummedal et al., 1993) note that it may be difficult to distinguishlowstand from highstand deposits in the case of sequences character-ized by rapidly prograding sandy shorefaces. This makes the detectionof the base of subaerial unconformities ambiguous.

The subaerial unconformity at the base of the coal-bearing series(hereafter called ‘SB 1’) is demonstrated by the various lithological andage relationships of the underlying formations ranging from the LateOligocene–Eggenburgian formations to Ottnangian rhyolite tuffs. SinceSB 1 is not only a sequence stratigraphic surface but a lithostratigraphicboundary as well, it was mapped in all of the investigated (i.e.lithostratigraphically interpreted) boreholes.

The distinctive sharp bases of the sand bodies in ps.10 and 17withinthe coal-bearing formation can be interpreted as basal surfaces of forcedregressions (hereafter called ‘bsfr 1’ and ‘bsfr 2’) of Hunt and Tucker(1992). Thus sand bodies of ps. 10 and 17 can be considered as forced

regressive wedge systems tracts (FRWST) of Hunt and Tucker (1992,1995) or falling stage systems tracts (FSST) of Nummedal et al. (1993),Plint and Nummedal (2000), and Plint et al. (2001). If the sequenceboundary corresponds to the surface that develops at the lowest point ofthe relative sea level (Hunt and Tucker, 1992), sequence boundaries canbe defined above the sand bodies of ps. 10 and 17 (‘SB 2’ and ‘SB 3’respectively). The sequence boundaries are overlain by sets of retro-grading parasequences reflecting subsequent transgressive deposition.

Transgressive silty facies in ps. 9 and 16, underlying ‘bsfr 1’ and‘bsfr 2’ form distinctive log-motifs, making the well-log correlationsquite unequivocal. Thus it was straightforward to choose floodingevents truncated by basal surfaces of forced regressions as correlationhorizons. However, due to subsequent denudation, only the FS of ps. 9underlying ‘bsfr 1’ can be mapped all over the basin. Thus the floodingsurface at the base of ps. 9 was chosen as the datum for each of the logcross-sections.

5.3. Flooding surfaces

Flooding surfaces can be classified into two groups based on theircorrelation as (1) basin-wide flooding surfaces characterized byrapid landward facies shift related to ps. 5, 9, 15 which provide un-ambiguous correlation horizons and (2) flooding surfaces with limitedextent and more gradual facies shifts, such as those that boundretrograding parasequences 11–13 or ps. 18–19, the mapping of whichis uncertain updip.

The FS of ps. 5 is present over thewhole area, where it is associatedwith lignite seam IV, and it is overlain by an extended Ostrea shell-bed. The FS of ps. 9 can also be mapped all over the area, andrepresents a fast back-stepping of parasequences. The FS at the base ofps. 15 is also extensive and can bemapped accurately. It represents the

Fig. 15. Position of the wells interpreted lithostratigraphically (small points) and sequence stratigraphically (large dots) and the orientation of the well log correlation diagrams onFigs. 16–23.



Fig. 16. Well-log correlation Section 1 perpendicular to the strike of the shelf, across the Darnó Line (for location of section see Fig. 15).

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Fig. 17. Well-log correlation Section 2 perpendicular to the strike of the shelf, east of the Darnó Line (for location of section see Fig. 15; for legend see Fig. 16).

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Fig. 18. Well-log correlation Section 3 parallel to the strike of the shelf, west of the Darnó Line (for location of section see Fig. 15; for legend see Fig. 16).

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Fig. 19. Well-log correlation Section 4 parallel to the strike of the shelf, east of the Darnó Line (for location of section see Fig. 15; for legend see Fig. 16).

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abrupt back-stepping of parasequences and is underlain by ligniteseam II, representing the acceleration of relative sea-level rise with anextended shell-bed as a transgressive lag. It is also overlain by openmarine silty facies. The FS at the base of ps. 20, similar to that of ps. 15,represents accelerating relative sea-level rise and is overlain by openmarine silty materials (Fig. 14). However, it is found only in theeastern part of the area due to the limited extent of the upper part ofthe sequence (see Figs. 16, 17 and 22).

The FSs in ps. 11, 12 and 13 are related to the moderate back-stepping of the parasequences thus they confirm the existence of a TSTand lead to the appearance of multiple lignite seam III with theaccompanying IIIb and IIIa. The FSs related to ps. 18 and 19 are alsoassociated to a moderate back-stepping of parasequences related to aTST and to lignite seams I and Ia.

5.4. Maximum flooding surfaces

Maximum flooding surfaces can be identified at the boundarybetween retrograding and prograding parasequences (‘mfs 1’ related tops. 5 and ‘mfs 3’ related to ps. 20); however, due to the lack of progradingparasequence sets above ‘mfs 1a’ in ps. 9 and ‘mfs 2’ in ps 15, positiveidentification of this surface is equivocal. In this case, the tools ofidentification were (1) electrofacies indication by minimum resistivity,and (2) indication by maximum natural gamma curve values (cf. Plintet al., 2001).

5.5. Isopach, facies, and geophysical parameter maps

The easily-mappable flooding surfaces of ps. 5, 15, 13, 24, thesequence boundary below the whole sequence (‘SB 1’) and the basalsurfaces of forced regression (‘bsfr 1’ at the bottomof ps.10 and ‘bsfr 2’ atthe bottom of ps.17)were the basis for creating isopachmaps (Fig. 24 A,B, C, D, E)whereas the faciesmaps of the lignite seams are adopted fromJuhász (1970) (Fig. 25A, B, C, D, E). Themainpurpose in creating isopachmaps was to present the spatial appearance of parasequence sets toanalyze their geometry and to illustrate their spatial relationship to eachother. The facies maps of the lignite seams enclosed within the givenparasequence sets illustrate their relative position independent of theisopach data.

The prograding then retrograding set of parasequences fromps.1 to4 bounded by SB 1 below and the FS of ps. 5 above, is presented inFig. 24A. The parasequence set encloses lignite seam V (Fig. 25A). Themaps reflect the most landward position of the sedimentarydepocentres and the lignite facies belts. The marginal swamp foresthad been situated presumably far updip related to the Darnó Line. Thesubsequent prograding parasequence set containing ps. 5, 6, 7 and 8togetherwith lignite seam IV at the base of ps. 5 is presented in Figs. 24Band 25B. The sigmoid character of the parasequence set is demonstratedby the thinning of the set updip and seaward, while the relativeprogradation related to the underlying set can be seen clearly on thelignite facies map.





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Fig. 23. Well-log correlation Section 8 (non projected) perpendicular to the strike of the shelf, across the Darnó Line (for the legend see Fig. 16, for the location of section see Figs. 15, 24, 25 and 26).

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Fig. 24. Isopach maps of the parasequence sets.



Fig. 25. Facies belts within the main lignite seams (Juhász 1970).



Fig. 26. Spatial distribution of the resistivity log values in the FSST of sq 1 and the TST of sq 2. A–B–C: averages, D–E–F: standard deviations.

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The retrograding parasequence set of ps. 10, 11, 12 and 13, and theassociated lignite facies belts of lignite seams III and II can be seen inFigs. 24C and 25C. The sigmoid character of the parasequence set andthe significant basinward shift of the lignite facies belts over the DarnóLine can be seen clearly. However, the simultaneous thinning of theshallow swamp facies belt can also be observed on facies maps. Theretrograding character of this parasequence setwas alsomappedbasedon the spatial changes of the average and standard deviation of electricresistivity related to ps.10 (Fig. 26A, D),11 (Fig. 26B, E) and 12–13 (Fig.26C, F). The gradual landward extension of the lower average valuestogether with the higher standard deviation reflect the landwardextension of clayey or silty interbeds. To eliminate the instrument-dependent effects such as the resistivity of the drilling mud etc., theresistivity values were expressed in each log as a percentage of theaverage value of the relatively homogeneous sand of ps. 10.

The subsequent retrograding parasequence set from ps. 17, 18, and19 is presented in Fig. 24D. It differs markedly from the previous ones

because of the limited spatial extension and a striking lack of sigmoidcharacter due to the sharp ending of the set updip. The associatedfacies map of the embedded lignite seam I (Fig. 25E) indicates furtherbasinward shift of the facies belts, and some repeated widening of theshallow swamp facies. The prograding parasequence set from ps. 20 to23 (without lignite formation) is presented in Fig. 24E. It has nosigmoid character either; however, some additional basinward shift ofthe sedimentary depocentre can also be observed.

6. Discussion

6.1. Sequences and systems tracts of different orders

Fig. 27 shows the chronostratigraphic chart and two versions of theresulting geological profiles. Based on the sequence boundaries at thebase of the coal-bearing sequence (‘SB 1’) and immediately above thesand bodies of ps. 10 and 17 representing FSST (‘SB 2’ above ps. 10 and

Fig. 27. Chronostratigraphic chart (A) and geological profiles of the SLF without (B) or with (C) tectonic tilting along the Darnó Line of the SLF (for the orientation of the profile see thepalaeogeograhic maps in Figs. 24, 25 and 26).



‘SB 3’ above ps. 17) the whole succession can be divided into threesequences. Sq 1 contains TST 1 (ps. 1–4), MFS 1 and an early HST 1 (ps.6–8); however, the prograding parasequence set is followed by a rapidtransgression and significant back-stepping of facies belts related tops. 9. The silty material accumulated in the course of acceleration ofsea-level rise at ps. 9 is abruptly truncated by the sharp-based sandbody (ps. 10) that represents the FSST of sq 1 (‘FSST 1’), with asequence boundary (‘SB 2’) above.

‘TST 2’ is represented by ps. 11–15 with a temporary progradationat ps. 14 and with the acceleration of sea-level rise at ps. 15 leading tothe appearance of ‘MFS 2’. Early ‘HST 2’ is represented by ps. 16 and itis truncated by the sharp-based sand body of ps.17, that represents theFSST of sq 2 (‘FSST 2’) with the sequence boundary (‘SB 3’) above.

‘TST 3’ is represented by ps.18–20 and is capped by the siltymaterialenclosing ‘MFS 3’. ‘HST 3’ is represented by ps. 21–26, however, with atemporary back-stepping of facies belts related to ps. 24.

Considering that the SLF was formed within nannoplankton zoneNN4, and coincides well with the Bur-4 eustatic cycle (Vakarcs et al.,1998), the overall retrograding and aggrading character of the seriesappears to coincide with the late lowstand–transgressive systemstracts of a 3rd order (eustatic) sequence. The subaerial unconformityat the base of the 3rd order sequence is covered by silty strata of theTST, therefore the 3rd order LST cannot be detected in the area. Thelower order TST is represented by sq 1, sq 2 up to ‘MFS 3’ (i.e. fromps.1to 20), whereas the lower order MFS is represented by ‘MFS 3’, and theearly HST by ‘HST 3’ respectively. Late highstand was presumably

Fig. 28. Dip-oriented cartoon to illustrate the Miocene structural-stratigraphic development of the Borsod Basin with special focus on the Karpatian development, based on datapresented in Figs. 2 and 4.



denuded in the course of subsequent lowermost Badenian LST (seelater in Fig. 28D).

6.2. Tectonic affects on basin- and sequence development

The rapid relative sea-level falls implied by the two FSSTs areunexpected in the context of an overall eustatic rise in the lower (3rd)order sequence. This is similar to the marked simultaneous fore-stepping of higher order sequences verified by the downdip fore-stepping of sedimentary depocentres and by the basinward shift of thelignite facies belts (Ádám, 2006).

To interpret this seeming contradiction it is necessary to reconstructtheMiocene tectonic developmentof theDarnó Line and its effect on thedevelopment of theMiocene succession (cf. Fortuin and de Smet, 1991).Fig. 28A shows that at the beginningof thedevelopmentof the sequence(Early Karpatian), a single basin existed and parasequence developmentall over the shelf was not affected by any tectonic disturbance at theDarnó Line. This is demonstrated by the fact that parasequences from 1to 13 can be easily correlated over the studyarea (see Fig.16). By the endof sequence development (Late Karpatian–Early Badenian), the Palaeo-zoic basement protruded to the surface along the Darnó Line, and itsreworked Palaeozoic fragments accumulated on the eroded surface ofthe coal-bearing Karpatian sequence (‘Sajóvelezd Beds‘) (Fig. 28D).

The pre-Badenian exhumation of the basement along theDarnó Lineis shown by the fact that the ‘Sajóvelezd Beds‘ are overlain by thetransgressive sediments of the subsequent Miocene eustatic sequence(Badenian Lan-1) (Fig. 28E). The isopach data of the ‘Sajóvelezd Beds‘can be seen in Fig. 29provingwestward transport, contrary to that of theentire Miocene succession, indicating terrestrial accumulation of thereworked material of the exhumed basement into an intrashelf basin.Other evidence of the pre-Badenian exhumation of the Palaeozoicbasement along theDarnó Line is providedby sectionswhere Palaeozoicformations are capped directly by Badenian sediments (e.g. Nb. 103)(Fig. 28H).

Thus it is reasonable to assume that periodic and gradual tectonicuplift occurred (rather than a single catastrophic tectonic event as this

would overprint the appearance of all of the enclosing formations),and that this occurred simultaneously with sedimentary sequencedevelopment. The consequences of this assumption are seen in Figs.28B and C illustrating at least two episodes of syn-sedimentary (i.e.syn-sequential) tectonic compression.

6.3. Sequence development model

The development of the 3rd order sequence together with relativesea-level changes is illustrated in Fig. 30. Fig. 30A presents thedevelopment of the retrograding parasequence set (‘TST 1’) with theappearance of multiple lignite seam V, the intermittent progradation ofps. 3 and appearance of the overlying ps. 5 with ‘MFS 1’ and the relatedextensive lignite seam IV. Fig. 30B illustrates the prograding parase-quence set fromps. 6 to ps. 8 (earlyHST1)downlappingonto the surfaceof the silty material of ps. 5. Fig. 30C emphasizes the repeatedacceleration of relative sea-level rise and the significant back-steppingof the facies belts related to ps. 9. All three Figures illustrate that thedevelopment of ps. 1–9 was not affected by significant tectonic tilting.

Fig. 30D shows the formation of ‘bsfr 1’ due to tectonic tilting alongthe Darnó Line and the accumulation of the ‘FSST 1’ (ps. 10). Fig. 30Erepresents the subsequent retrogradation of ‘TST 2’ (ps. 11–12)counteracted by the prolonged tectonic tilting leading to theappearance of themultiple lignite seam IIIb, IIIa, III. Fig. 30F representsthe acceleration of relative sea-level rise (ps. 13–15) due to thetermination of tectonic tilting, with temporary progradation (ps. 14).The appearance of ‘MFS 2’ is associatedwith the extended lignite seamII and the early ‘HST 2’ (ps. 16).

Fig. 30G represents the repeated tilting along the Darnó Line leadingto the formation of ‘bsfr 2’ and the appearance of ‘FSST 2’ (ps. 17).Fig. 30H shows the subsequent tectonically counteracted ‘TST 3’ (ps.18–19) togetherwith the formation of themultiple lignite seam Ia, I. Fig. 30Irepresents the subsequent sea-level rise leading to the appearance of‘MFS3’ and theMFSof the 3rdorder sequence (ps. 20), togetherwith thesubsequent progradations of ‘HST 3’ (ps. 21–26) with the temporaryback-stepping at ps. 24. Finally Fig. 30J represents another tectonictilting event that terminated sequence development and was followedby subaerial erosion.

One of the most important and economically relevant conse-quences of this tectonic history is that the tilting influenced not onlythe formation of FSST, but that of the subsequent TST as well. Thus thelignite seams associated with that period of the TST when tectoniccounteraction took place are multiple seams with several accessorialseams (IIIa, b and Ia), whereas the seams associated with atectonically quiescent period of the same TST are areally extensive.

6.4. Facies shifts

One of the most marked elements of the eastward progradation inthe sequence is the seaward shift of the lignite facies belts. Themechanism and interpretation of its tectonically induced character isdemonstrated in Fig. 31, with the help of the geological profile adoptedfrom Fig. 30E. Some details are from representative well-logs of Fig. 16and facies data from Fig. 25A, B and C (Juhász, 1970). The blockillustrates a snapshot from the development model with theformation of ‘bsfr 1’ and ‘TST 2’ enclosing lignite seam III. The sharpbase of the ‘FSST 1’ can be seen clearly on the well-log motifs, and theassumed role of the tectonic tilting in the formation of ‘bsfr 1’ can alsobe observed.

The tectonically faulted lignite seams are the lowermost seam Vand the overlying seam IV. Both of these seams havemarked landwardpositions with wide belts of slight and moderate currents. Themarginal swamp forest of lignite seam V can be traced updip, outsidethe study area. The forest of lignite seam IV appears at the westernedge of the area and in the case of coal seam III it shifts seaward due toFig. 29. Isopach data of the Sajóvelezd Beds (Püspöki 2002).



the relative sea-level fall associated with the tectonic tilting along theDarnó Line.

It should be noted that the seaward shift of the marginal swampforest of lignite seam III was not associated with the simultaneous

shift of the shallow swamp facies but with the thinning of it (see alsoFig. 25C and D), while the zone of slight currents also remained in thearea. This can be explained by the shift of the swamp facies near theshelf/slope break that limited the extension of the lagoon. Facies

Fig. 30. Dip-oriented cartoon to illustrate the development of the SLF based on the data of Figs. 16–22 and especially those of Fig. 23 (for the orientation of the section see thepaleogeographic maps of Figs. 24, 25 and 26; for the detailed explanation see the text; for legend see Fig. 27).



distribution of lignite seam I reflects a repeated forestep of themarginal swamp forest and the renewed seaward extension of theshallow swamp facies belts with the disappearance of the zone ofslight currents from the area (see Fig. 26E). This can be explained bythe infilling of the deeper foreland, basinward of Sajóbábony, thatenabled seaward extension of the lagoon.

6.5. Connection with other studies related to the underlying Oligoceneformations

The results discussed here are strongly related to the tectonic activityof the Darnó Line and the sequence development of the Miocene SLF inthe Borsod Basin. The structural and associated sedimentary sequencedevelopment of the wider surroundings, the so-called North HungarianPalaeogene Basin (see in Fig. 1) is well known from a series ofpublications and shows more similarities with the phenomena pre-sented here.

A late Kiscellian (Early Oligocene) regression associated with thestructural elevation of the basement has been detected in the southernforeland of the Bükk Mts. (Báldi and Sztanó, 2000a). An intra-Egerian(Late Oligocene) denudation due to the imbricational upthrust of theTisza structural unit onto the basement of the Palaeogene Basin(Csontos and Nagymarosy, 1998) was also observed in the Oligoceneseries north of the Bükk Mts. (Sztanó and Tari, 1993). There are alsoobservations on the northeastward shifting of the Oligocene sedimen-tary depocentre interpreted as the effect of tectonic movements (Tariet al.,1993). Special observations of gravitymassmovements related tothe tectonic activity of the Darnó Line in the Oligocene LowermostMiocene have also been published (Báldi and Sztanó, 2000b).

All these data confirm that the tectonic influences on the Miocenesequence development demonstrated in this study have their ante-cedents in the more open marine conditions of the Oligocene se-quences. The appearances of regional unconformities and shifting ofdepocentres (Tari et al., 1993) can be regarded as analogous in the two

periods. The presence of gravity mass movements (Báldi and Sztanó,2000b) is characteristic only in the more open marine environmentsof the Oligocene sucessions, while the clearly-recognizable basinwardfacies fore-stepping seems to be characteristic especially for the farmore coastal Miocene sequence.

6.6. Importance of the FSST in stratigraphic modeling of coal bearingsequences

Because coal formation has commonly been related to the TST andearly HST (Bohacs and Suter, 1997), and coal deposits are commonlyhosted by foreland basins, application of the FSST concept to theinterpretation of coal bearing strata may have significant consequences.

6.6.1. Interpretation of truncationsThe FSST lies above the highstand and below the lowstand systems

tracts. The recognition of the base of the FSST is usually difficult inwell-logs, whereas its upper boundary can clearly be identified by thesubaerial erosion surface landward or by shoreface successions withmarine erosion on their base downdip (Plint and Nummedal, 2000).In contrast, the sequences discussed here are characterised by a FSSTthat lies above the late TST. The sharp base of the FSST provided aneasily-correlated surface in the well-log cross-sections.

This feature emphasizes a special character of the FSST, namely itcan appear above any systems tract as a response to the relative sea-level fall. The reason of this seeming independence is that the eustaticsea-level curve can be superposed on any systems tract by the tectonicinitiation of relative sea-level falls. In the case discussed here, thelower (3rd) order sequence is represented by the TST and early HSTand the TST has been divided into higher (4th) order sequences withHSTs replaced by FSSTs. This phemomenon can be termed as‘truncation', and can be interpreted as the effect of syn-sedimentarytectonic events. The comparable juxtaposition of extended, forcedregressive shoreface sandstones on offshore mudstones has already

Fig. 31. Schematic block diagram illustrating the facies shifting in relation to the syn-sedimentary tectonic tilting.



been reported in other tectonically enhanced forced regressionsregardless whether the sedimentary basin was an extensional orcompressional one (Gawthorpe et al., 2000).

This type of truncation has been observed in other stratigraphicsuccessions of coal bearing deposits. In detailed sequence stratigraphicanalysis of the Lower and Middle Pennsylvanian coal-bearing deposi-tional sequences in the Central Appalachian (Greb et al., 2004) it wasobserved that “in many cases”, the “midformation shale continuesbetween the lower and upper quartzarenite” for some distance before“being truncated by the upper quartzarenite”. Consequently, inaddition to the well-established sequence boundaries, three “possiblemidformation sequence boundaries requiring further investigation”have been identified at the levels of ‘Middle horsepen coal' in BottomCreek Formation, of ‘Jawbone coal' in Alvy Creek Formation and of‘Hagy rider coal' in Grundy Formation (Fig. 18. in Greb et al., 2004). Inthe absence of other compelling evidence, this interpretation could besimplified by the application of the FSST model described above. Thelower quartzarenite beds could represent early higstand progradation,whereas the coal beds, together with the overlying shales, could beregarded as flooding events in the early HSTs that were subsequentlytruncated by the FSSTs composed by the upper quartzarenite,comparable to ps. 9 and 16 in the Borsod Basin.

6.6.2. Coal seam geometryConsidering coal seam geometry as a sedimentological proxy in

sequence stratigraphic models, it is generally recorded that thick,extensive coal seams are related toflooding surfaces or even to theMFS(e.g. Flint et al., 1995; Bohacs and Suter, 1997; Holz et al., 2002; Giblinget al., 2004), while other publications that focus on syndepositionaltectonics usually report multiple seams or seam splits (e.g. Johnsonet al., 1989; Titheridge, 1993; Banerjee et al., 1996; Holz et al., 2002).These observations concur with those documented here.

However, the example of the Borsod Basin shows that the multiplecharacter of a seam above a higher order FSST can be related to thetectonic origin of the FSST and is closely related to the tectonicallycounteracted status of the subsequent higher order TST. In contrast, anextensive seam refers to the lack or termination of tectonic counter-action that enables the development of a higher order MFS. Similartendencies have been reported from the Upper Carboniferous–LowerPermian sequences in the Sydney–Gunnedah–Bowen Basin complex —

Australia (Van Heeswijck, 2004), where the renewed uplift in thehinterland resulted in the erosion of part of the TSTand the entire HSTofthe lower sequence. Moreover in the upper sequence a reduction inrelative sea-level rise have been detected.

6.6.3. Stratal geometry and facies shiftingTectonically enhanced forced regressions of the compressional Ainsa

piggyback basin in the Eocene of the Pyrenees have been reported byGawthorpe et al. (2000). The “angular difference (2–5°) between thesuccessive forced regressive sand bodies due to the tilting of thebasement”, the “completely removed HST and TST deposits near theanticline crest” and “vertical amalgamation of individual forced regressivesandbodies” interpreted as “the result of the tectonic enhancement offorced regression” are clear analogies of the model presented in Fig. 30.

In the case of the Borsod Basin the interpretation of this stratalgeometry is also supported by the striking basinward shift of therelated lignite facies belts emphasizing the importance of theassociated facies investigations. Similar basinward displacement ofhigh-frequency sequences interpreted to have been controlled by aregional uplift has been observed in the Periadriatic Basin—centralItaly (Cantalamessa and Di Celma, 2004).

6.6.4. Sediment supplyThe accumulation of coal (Calder and Gibling,1994; Calder,1994) is

fundamentally the result of the almost complete lack of detrital

sediments (Nemec, 1992) somewhat similar to volcanic ash preserva-tion (Huff et al., 1999; Ver Straeten, 2008).

The sensitivity of this ‘coal window’ is related to changes in thesediment supply/accommodation ratio, which in turn is related to thechanging relief in the hinterland. According to the sequence develop-ment discussed here, in compressional settings the tectonically inducedrelative sea-level fall can be associated with increased sediment supplydue to the elevation of the adjacent dry terrains. In their sequencestratigraphic interpretation of the Carboniferous Sydney coalfield ofAtlantic Canada Gibling et al., 2004 stated that “dryland facies locallyunderlie sequence-bounding calcretes” and “although boundary selec-tion in these cases is difficult, the stratamaybeplaced in the falling stagesystems tract.” At the same place they suggest that “these thin intervalsof better-drained sediment may reflect slight landscape elevation”.

7. Conclusions

Twenty-six parasequences have been identified in the lignite-bearing Miocene siliciclastic sequence of the SLF. The whole sequence,according to biostratigraphic data, represents a single 3rd ordereustatic sequence, namely the Bur-4 according to Vakarcs et al. (1998).Based on the regional unconformity at the base of the sequence and onthe sharp-based regionally extensive delta-front sand bodies, threesequence boundaries can be identified, thus the sequence can bedissected into three higher order sequences. The first is composed ofps. 1 to 10, the second from ps. 10 to 17 and the third from ps. 18 to 26.

The sharp-based sand bodies of ps.10 and 17 represent the FSSTof thehigher order sequences, the subsequent TSTs are represented byretrograding sets of 2–3 parasequences (ps. 11–13, 18–19). It is a specialfeature of the sequences that the FSSTs truncate the sediments of rapidrelative sea-level changes (ps. 9 and 16) and lie directly on the siltymaterial of nearshore environments replacing the related HST. Anotherspecial feature of the sequence is the striking fore-stepping of thesedimentary depocenters and the facies belts of the embedded ligniteseamsrelated to the falling stage systems tracts andsequenceboundaries.

To interpret the sudden relative falls of sea level within the overallrelative rise, and the observed fore-stepping related to higher ordersequences, the possibility of tectonic effects was investigated. Theresults of this investigation are: (1) at the beginning of the developmentof the sequence the whole basinwas a single depocentre and (2) by theend of the sequence development the Palaeozoic basementwas uplifteddue to compressional tectonic movements that divided the basin intotwo sub-basins. Thuswe can infer that periodic tectonic effects occurredsimultaneously with the development of the sedimentary sequence.

The FSSTs of higher order sequences can be regarded as sedimen-tary responses to the simultaneous tectonic elevation and tilting of thebasement that was induced by tectonic compression and associatedimbrication along the Darnó Line as a regional reverse fault. Dividingthe originally united basin into two sub-basins, this imbricationcontrolled not only the repeated relative sea-level falls, but also thesignificant fore-stepping of the sedimentary depocentres and thefacies belts of the associated lignite seams.

Tectonic tilting influenced not only the FSSTs, but also those of thesubsequent early TSTs. Lignite seams associated with these tectoni-cally modified early TSTs are characterized by multiple seams withseveral accessory seams (Va, IIIa, b and Ia), whereas those associatedwith TSTs of the tectonically quiescent periods are areally extensiveand solitary.

Comparison with other coal bearing formations showed that the‘falling stage systems tract concept’ can be successfully used tointerpret coal bearing deposits. The FSST seems to have an importantrole in the interpretation of stratigraphic truncations, coal seamgeometry, facies shiftings and general stratal geometry in coal bearingsucessions that were deposited in basins affected by syn-depositionaltectonic movement.



Acknowledgements

Thanks are expressed to A. G. Plint (Department of Earth Sciences,University ofWestern Ontario, Canada) for his encouragement to publishour results, and constructive efforts to steer the manuscript towards anacceptable form, allowing us to improve the interpretation andpresentation of the data. We also thank an anonymous referee andDavid Jowett for their detailed comments and suggestions given in orderto improve themanuscript andW.D.Huff (UniversityofCincinnattiU.S.A.)for his help in English grammar and style.

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