TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATIONALINSTITUTIONS THROUGH HUMAN RESOURCEDEVELOPMENT: AN ANALYTICAL APPROACH

DR MD INTEKHAB UR RAHMANASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGYB.N.MANDAL UNIVERSITY

MADHEPURA-BIHARPIN-852113

E-mail: rahman3521@gmail.comAbstract

The present research paper focuses on ensuring total quality control throughmanaging and developing human resources in education. In this paperconcerted efforts have been made to reveal how the application of total qualitycontrol is relevant to educational institutions. It is assumed that organizationswill function more efficiently if the people who work in them are encouraged todevelop professionally and to use that approach to undertake organizationaltasks. It is observed that human resource management is being recognized ascrucial, not only to the individual but also to the promotion of effective andefficient organizations. This paper has reviewed all the literature which isrelevant to critical success factors of total quality management (TQM) and itsimplementation in educational institutions.This study concludes that TQM will leave an excellent impact on the institutionsgoals, and educational institutions can use the Human Resource Development toassess the current status of their human resource system, identify areas theyneed to strengthen, and take action to improve them.

IntroductionEducation plays a key role in an individual's life, both interms of career, and the economic. Educational institutionsare considered by society ‘models of innovation’. Achievingexcellence in education, training and research is the mainfactor that can ensure growth potential of theorganization's human resources. As a result, human resourcedevelopment is a necessary process, complex continuing andgreat responsibility, which involves concrete actions andactivities of the new staff selection and training andretraining of the existing. Higher educational institutions,whether public or private, and regardless of national

1

structures of finance and governance, are facing a number ofchallenges related to strategies for and management of humanresources. Due to commercialization India’s education centreis burgeoning and this is forcing a paradigm shift in theway schools are run. Today education is considered as asector to educate and prepare students with the aim ofemployability on a global scenario, and at a fast pace. TheGovernment of India has the avowed and articulated objectiveto ensure India reaches the goal of becoming the 4th largestworld economy, by GDP, in 2030. If the organization especially educational organizationwants to achieve its objectives and goals, there are threemajor resources to be managed. These resources are Humans,materials and financial resources. And out of these three,human resource is the most important and difficult tomanage. The reason being that every human being is bornunique and therefore, is bound to have differentcharacteristics– that is, the ways they think, feels, reasonand act. Secondly, human beings control and coordinate theother resources. They constitute the workforce of anorganization and are referred to as personnel. Since humannature plays a very major part in the overall success of anorganization, it is therefore important to have an effectiveworking relationship between the employee and theadministrator as this is essential for the success of theorganization.HRM, which involves the efficient and effective managementwithin an organization, is one of the vital functions ofEducational Administrators. This is because everyadministrator has a function to perform through his staffand his own abilities. Every educational institution likeother formal organizations needs human beings to execute itsprogrammes and achieve educational goals and objectives. Total quality management (TQM) implementation in highereducation institutions has potential to be explored andgenerate new knowledge, to improve the total qualitymanagement practices and outcome especially in highereducation institutions.

Concept of Quality

2

The word quality itself stems from the Latin qua litas, whichmeans “of what kind”. The concept is also often used in thissense: the quality of a particular fabric could be astatement about what kind of material it consists of.Another way of using the concept is to consider quality as‘good’ as opposed to ‘bad’. It connotes a variety ofmeanings and implies different things to different people.Deming (1982) defines quality as “a predictable degree ofuniformity and dependability at low cost and suited tomarket”. In general quality of customers as per specifiedstandards desire one, which satisfies customer needs andcontinuously keeps on performing its functions. Townshend(1990) talks about the “dual nature of quality”, there aretwo sub-concepts: “quality in fact” and “quality inperception”. He explains, “Quality in fact” as “the providerof goods and services who through dint of hard work andcapital expenditures performs up to its own specificationsachieves quality in fact.”

Total Quality Management (TQM)Total quality management (TQM) is a way of managing toimprove the effectiveness, efficiency, cohesiveness,flexibility and competitiveness of a business as a whole. Asdefined by British Standard Institution, Total qualitymanagement consists of a “management philosophy and companypractices which aim to harness the human and materialresources of an organization in the most effective way toachieve the objectives of the organization”. Someresearchers are skeptical of the idea of applying TQM tohigher education institutions. For instance, Chaston (1994)has identified obstacles, which include insufficient trustbetween departments and low confidence levels of ability tomanage the process: “Under these circumstances, it does notappear that, for the foreseeable future, Britishuniversities are in a position to adopt TQM philosophy.”Paradoxically, however, higher education institutions, whichresearch and teach TQM, lack credibility if they decline toembrace the TQM philosophy and practices themselves. BecauseTQM is universal and proven by many successful firms, itshould been used to formulate the mission statement for theservices provided by higher education institutions; a

3

generic mission statement could be “To provide qualityeducation, training, research and related services toconsistently satisfy stakeholders’ needs and achieveexcellence through TQM”. Fundamentally, schools (faculties)must live within their means, with cross subsidization onlyallowed for explicit strategic purposes”. According to thereports of United Nations Educational, Scientific, CulturalOrganizations (UNESCO) and the World Bank, social andprivate returns of the higher education are less than thoseof primary and secondary education. It is estimated thatsocial return of primary education is 25% while that ofhigher education is only 1%. This has led to the thinkingthat the returns of higher education are largely private andtherefore, subsidy on this should be reduced. There arethree generic approaches to Total Quality Management (TQM)in higher education (Harris, 1994). Firstly, there is acustomer focus where the idea of services to student arefostered through staff training and development, whichpromotes student’s choice and autonomy. The second approachhas a staff focus and is concerned to value and enhance thecontribution of all members of staff to the effectiveness ofan institution’s operation, to the setting of policies andpriorities. This entails a flatter management structure andthe acceptance of responsibility for action by definedworking groups. The third approach focuses on serviceagreements stance and seeks to ensure conformity tospecification at certain key measurable points of theeducational processes. Evaluation of assignments by facultywithin timeframe is an example. Sangeeta (2004) considers education system as atransformation process comprising of inputs of students,teachers, administrative staff, physical facilities andprocess. The processes include teaching, learning, andadministration. Output includes examination results,employment, earnings, and satisfaction. According to Roffe(1998), due to open competition, students are becoming morecustomers as well as consumers and expected to pay a growingshare of the cost of education. This leads to competitiveforces that generate different programmers for differentstudent groups. The conceptual problems include whether TQM

4

in higher education should be people or problem oriented,difficulty in introducing the application and acceptance ofTQM in higher education institutions, which have notembraced tenets of TQM, team versus individual orientationtowards TQM, and maintaining the rate of innovation amongstothers. In their model for TQM implementation in highereducational institutions, Osseo-Asare and Longbottom (2002)propose enabler criteria, which affects performance and helporganizations to achieve organizational excellence. These“enabler” criteria are leadership, policy and strategy,people management, resources and partnerships and processes.They also suggest “result” criteria including customersatisfaction, people satisfaction and impact on society andkey performance results for measuring the effectiveness ofTQM implementation. Non-implementation of TQM was due toinstitutions pre-occupation with funding agencies and non-embracement of continuous improvement culture. Propereducation and training of those involved in theimplementation process will help to mitigate this problem.

The Importance of TQMIn the competitive environment, organizations are forced toformulate and implement strategies within global context.Total Quality Management (TQM) has been described as amanagement philosophy and a way of thinking that has helpedmany organizations move towards achieving excellentbusinesses. TQM helps create a culture of trust,participation, teamwork, quality-mindedness, zeal forcontinuous improvement, continuous learning and eventually,a working culture that contributes towards a firm’s successand existence (Yusof and Aspinwall, 2000). TQM has beenwidely recognized and successfully implemented in many smalland large organizations, giving them the edge ininternational as well as local competitiveness through theproduction of high quality products to satisfy customerneeds (Dale and Plunkett, 1990). According to Quazi andPadibjo (1998), they proposed that TQM efforts in the USAand Japan highlighted the increasing importance of TQM andits impact on profitability. As Lakhal et al. (2006) arguesthat organizations with TQM systems in place consistentlyexceeded industry standards for return on investment.

5

Meanwhile, Saad and Patel (2006) conclude that byimplementing TQM, the companies gained in-depthunderstanding of the key factors associated with the qualitysupply chain performance practices in Indian automotiveindustries. They also showed that TQM in supply chain isimportant to improve key factors such as quality, deliveryand lead-time. Besides that, Jun et al. (2006) argues thatthe firms with human resources focused in TQM practices, canenhance employee satisfaction. The dramatic improvements inemployee satisfaction lead to a higher level of customerloyalty.

Concept of Human ResourceThe term ‘human resource development’ (HRD) has beensubjected to considerable debate. The concept is shrouded inmanagerial hype and its underlying philosophy and characteris highly controversial because it lacks precise formulationand agreement as to its significance. Nonetheless,definition of the subject matter is given according toBratton and Gold (1999:11) as:“That part of the management process that specializes in themanagement of people in work organizations. HRD emphasizesthat employees are critical to achieving sustainablecompetitive advantage, that human resources practices needto be integrated with the corporate strategy, and that humanresource specialists help organizational controllers to meetboth efficiency and equity objectives.” "Human resourcesdevelopment is the process of increasing the knowledge, theskills, and the capacities of all the people in a society.In economic terms, it could be described as the accumulationof human capital and its effective investment in thedevelopment of an economy. In political terms, humanresources development prepares people for adultparticipation in political processes, particularly ascitizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural pointsof view, the development of human resources helps people tolead fuller and richer lives, less bound by tradition. Inshort, the processes of human resources development unlockthe door to modernization (Harbison and Myers, 1964).

Review of the LiteratureTQM in Higher Education

6

Hasson and Klefsjo (2003) define TQM as “management strategythat has interrelated components, namely core values,techniques and tools”. Whereas according to Scrabec(2000),”TQM should be viewed as TQE (Total QualityEducation). This model moves beyond customers to includesociety and business beyond student”. However, Zairi andYoussef (1995) argue, “TQM must be viewed holistically byexamining management factors such as institutional goalstatements, long-range plans, and assessment techniques”.Owen (2001) states that “Total and continuous qualityimprovement is seen as a journey not as destination and assuch has no real beginning or ending”. Thus, it is acontinuous effort for the management to maintain a standardin the institutions. TQM has been seen as a managerial toolto fix the problems relating to services as well asapproaches in education industry and it can standardize theeducation industry (Venkatraman, 2007 and Peat, 2005). Theemphasis of quality maintenance in higher education hasincreased as the numbers of students are increasing and atthe same time, their expectations are increasing, as theyhave to pay the tuition fee, so they look for an appropriateoutcome (Becket and Brookes, 2005). Meanwhile, Symour (1992)has narrowed down the types of quality and applied themspecifically to the higher education institutions. According to the reports of UNESCO and World Bank, socialand private returns of higher education are less than thoseof primary and secondary education. It is estimated thatsocial return of primary education is 25% while that ofhigher education is only 1%. This has led to the thinkingthat the returns of higher education are largely personaland therefore subsidy on this should be reduced. Accordingto Harris (1994), there are three generis approaches to TQMin higher education, firstly there is a customer focus wherethe idea of service to students is fostered through stafftraining and development, which promotes student’s choiceand autonomy. The second approach has a staff focus and isconcerned to value and enhance the contribution of allmembers of staffs to the effectiveness of an institution’soperation, to the setting of policies and priorities. Thethird approach focuses on service agreements stance and

7

seeks to ensure conformity to specification at certain keymeasurable points of the educational processes. Durlabhji and Fusilier(1999) states that customerempowerment in education requires greater input fromstudents as well as from business community that willeventually employ them and this in term will streamlineeducation and eliminate any vestiges of the esotericacademic “ivory tower” that exist in business schoolcoursework. Gregory (1996) suggest four dimensions ofinstitutional leaderships symbolic, political, managerialand academic in his model of distributed leadership formanaging change in higher education institutions. Michael etal. (1997) recommended that top leadership is the key to anyTQM program and the driving force behind success andfailure. The TQM program must be sold and not forced on theemployees. Good communication, proper training, usingbenchmarking, and research on TQM philosophies and programcan enhance the success rate. In managing educationalchange, there has been general criticism. Iven (2000) arguesthat government initiatives are being pushed by a “narrow,employer-driven strategy”. Policy makers do have anobligation to set policy, establish standards and monitorperformance. According to Sangeeta et al. (2004), educationsystem as a transformation process comprising of inputs ofstudents, teachers, administrative staff, physicalfacilities and process. The processes include teaching,learning and administration. Whereby the output is includesexamination results, employment, earnings and satisfaction. In their model for TQM implementation in higher educationalinstitutions, Osseo-Asare and Longbottom (2002) proposesenabler criteria, which affect performance and helporganizations achieve organizational excellence. These“enabler” criteria are leadership, policy and strategy,people management, resources and partnerships and processes.They also suggest “result” criteria including customersatisfaction, people satisfaction and impact on society andkey performance results for measuring the effectiveness ofTQM implementation. Schminth and Finnegan (1993), viewsthat continuous improvement is able to elevate theperformance of an employee who is able to assist in the

8

implementation of TQM provided that the management shouldreduce the command and control. While the employee has tounderstand the organization as an interdependent system ofeach other. In TQM, continuous improvement assumes thateverything is going well and the value can be increasedeither slowly or in drastic. It requires the support of allparties because it can lead to progress in theirrelationship with customers, innovation and organizationaldevelopment. (Evans and Dean, 2003).

Human Resources development in Higher EducationThis section review and analyze the previous studies on thehuman resources development and higher education toestablish a ground for building a learning participationtheory for human resources development program. Learningparticipation theories are directly linked with learningmotivational theories because motivation to learn comesfirst before the full and effective participation intraining. An investigation of motivational theory in adultlearning was initiated by Houle (1961). Houle throughinterview technique of study adult education identifiedthree categories of learning motivation; goal oriented,activity oriented and learning oriented. Several researchessuch as Sheffield (1964), Burgress (1971), and Boshier(1971) further did n exclusive study on this subject oflearning motivation. Learning motivation typology wasexpanded into six motivating factors to explain the conceptof learning participation in adult education, these includessocial relationship, external expectations, social welfare,professional advancement, stimulation and cognitiveinterest. Several theories emerged following the researchdevelopment in motivational factors that explore anddescribe adult participation and involvement in the learningactivities. Miller (1967) applies the combination of Lewin(1947) force-field theory with Maslow’s theory of motivationhierarchy to identify the significantly influence differentlearning outcome. Their empirical investigation also confirmthat employee’s perception of managers and peer support forcareer development activities and the working environment

9

affects their participation in the training program. Inrecent years, an evaluation of training program wasconducted to examine the relationship between interest andparticipation in voluntary training program. Three groups ofconstruct were made, these includes, perceived environment,perceived incentive and outcome, and personal variables. Thestudy shows that individual personal characteristicsaccounted for the variation in training participation, suchcharacteristics includes career insight, skill development,self efficacy and job involvement(…Maurer (2002) has buildon previous theory and empirical studies on trainingparticipation and similarly, proposed an employee trainingand development orientation (ELDO) model. Being the firsttheoretical explanation of training participation, Maurer,states that ELDO examines the personal disposition totraining, and its relevance to employees’ careerdevelopment. He therefore concludes that learning isdirectly a product of motivation.An interesting finding on the studies of trainingparticipation is that it has shown similar pattern in thefactors influencing the behavior of employees regardingparticipation in training across different organization,industries and job functions (Maurer, 1994). The informationderived from the broad studies provides the basis forbuilding a comprehensive theory on training participation inhuman resources development program. It is observed thatresearch on training participation is very sparse given thefast changing business environment and the growing concernabout human resources development program participation andits effect in organizational performance. It is importantfor the human resources development scholars to developtraining participation theories to facilitate humanresources development program. Two major decisions are veryimportant in human resources development program, these are,the decision to participate and the decision whether tocomplete the train or drop out. The first decision isbasically made by the management and respective individual,even with respect to training seen as voluntary. Somedecisions must be reached by the management. In most cases,the decisions of the management are being informed by

10

business consideration and are determined by the supervisorseither directly or indirectly.Moreover, when an employee have thoroughly engaged orenlisted in the training program, he or she is desired tofollow up the learning process till completion or eitherdecides to drop out along the way without completion. Thissecond level of decision is solely made by the employees’participating. According to Baldwin (1991) trainingparticipation in human development is conceptualized as amulti dimensional construct that could be of differentforms. These factors are inform of clusters and can bedepict by the followings, Individual, training process andorganizations. The mediating variables to these majorfactors are environment al factors. Environmental factorsmay be influenced under different circumstances by economicdownturn, high unemployment in some sectors. The effect ofthis moderating factor will be apparent by affecting one ormore of these factors. Based on the theoretical andempirical evidences from the literature, six factors areidentified in the individual factors; these includesmotivation, self –efficacy, personal qualities,technological affinity and cultural differences.Motivation:Several empirical studies have shown that employee’smotivation is a major variable of interest in finding thelevel of participation in training program (Allen, 1999;Farr, 1990; Kozlowiski & Farr, 1988; Maurer, 1994; Noe &Wilk, 1993). Motivation can be defined as certainpsychological characteristic which enables an individual tobehave in certain form in order to accomplish a specificpre- defined goal. This can be further expanded to includemotivation to learn, career insight, and job involvement.Motivation to learn refers to the effort required tocomplete a training task ( Machin & Forgarty, 1997). It isobserved to have a positive relationship with the rate ofparticipation in training activities (Noe & Wilk, 1993).Career insight refers to extent to which an employee possessan adequate understanding of the knowledge related to hiscareer, which includes strength and weakness as well ascareer goal plan(Maurer, 1994; Noe & Wilk, 1993). Job

11

involvement according Maurer (1994) is the extent to whichan employee’s views work as an important life pursuant.Admittedly, an employee with high consideration for work islikely to participate actively to completion in job relatedtraining program.Self efficacy:Empirical evidences have shown that self efficacy is animportant determinant of participation in training, learningand development program (Maurer, 2002; Maurer, 1994; Noe &Wilk, 1993). It is defined as the principle and assuranceexhibited in accomplishing a task or addressing a challengein training (Baudara, 1977). When an employee has selfassurance about training outcome there is likelihood thatsuch employee will participates actively in the training andlearning to completion.Organization membership:These include work title, tenure and organizational tenure.This has been found to have an important relationship withparticipation in training (Wang, 1997). In an environmentwith union activities, the union membership is an importantvariable in training participation (Kozlowski & Farr, 1988).Employee’s personal characteristics:Among the variable included in this clusters are age,gender, educational background, ethnic group and in somecases marital status. These are significant determinants oftraining participation (Wang, 1997). In some cases trainingprograms initiated by an organization often take too muchtime, in such case employee with children are likely to dropout than those ladies that are single and without nursingchildren. Cultural differences may also influence thetraining participation and whether the individual willcomplete the program or drop out. This is peculiar toMultinational Corporation that operates in differentgeographical locations.Learning style:This represents the cognitive and affective factor which isan indicator of how a learner perceives and respond to thetraining environment (Keefi, 1979). The cognitive style mayrepresent an information process model which depicts apersonal way of thinking, perceiving and solving problem. It

12

may not directly influence the initial decision toparticipate but may be very important in the decision as towhether the individual will complete the training or dropout of the process (O’Connor & Sceifert, 2003).Perceived learning needs:Training needs as describe by Noe &Wilk (1993) have twobasic aspect, awareness of training needs and the level ofagreement with the organizational training needs assessment.Employee who perceives the training needs assessmentconducted by the organization as accurate will more likelyto participate in the training program and actively tocompletion.Perceived benefits:According to Nordhang (1989), the perceived benefitscomprises of three facets that together increase the rate ofparticipation and completion of the learning program. (i)Development of training motivation, for instance, the desireto participate in future training program and the desire tolearn. (ii) In quest for career development (I e moretasking and interesting assignment and promotion). (iii) Thedesire for self actualization and improved ability toparticipate in extra mural activities, this is often refersto as psychosocial development. On the other hand, the thirdaspect is applicable to the traditional learning settingssuch as classroom, and it may negatively affectparticipation and completion of the technology enhancedtraining program.Learning technology orientation:Employee’s perceive attitude towards technology training isexamine and the aptitude or inclination toward technologysuch as internet. It is unimaginable for an individual thatis technology phobia, who cannot operate simple appliancesto attend and complete a multi- media online trainingprogram. This is an important variable that determines therate of completion or drop out of technology- based learningprogram.Cultural orientation:Cultural orientation influences individual behavior andattitude towards learning participation and completion ordrop out. Di Maggio (1997) identified culture as influencing

13

individual cognitive process. It be inferred from thesestudies that individual cultural orientation influenceslearning participation and whether such individual completeor drop out. This is of course relevant with the increasingglobalization and diversity; employee’s culture should betaken into consideration in the participation learningresearch.Learning process construct:Regardless of whether the previous research is based ongeneral adult learning or management based, most empiricalstudies have not considered the potential impact ofvariables associated with learning process. These variableidentified are found to be very potent in examining thelearner’s motivation and persistent during training program.As suggest in the recent studies Wang et al, (2003, 2004) onparticipation and completion of electronic based learning (elearning) program in United States, and similarly in otherinternational environments. As a result, a comprehensivetheory on participation could not be established in absenceof the learning process clusters. Learning process beginsonce the employees have shown interest in participating inhuman resources development program, it is now left foremployee to determine the relevance of the training programand this will impact on whether the employee will completethe training or drop out of it. The variable underlying thelearning process, not only determine the learningpersistence, but they in addition, influence the learningoutcome, attitudinal and behavioral changes and ultimatelybusiness performance. The following are the variables in thelearning process clusters, training needs assessment,instructional design, delivery platform or methods,technology –based learning environment and facilitators orinstructor. Each of these variables is explain below inrelation to the decision of the training participants eitherto complete or drop out.Training Need Assessment:Rothwell &Sredl (1992) describe training needs assessment asthe initial movement toward developing human resourcesdevelopment program, the subsequent learning instruction arebasically depend on proper identification or assessment of

14

the training needs. If the need assessment is inaccurate,the learners are most likely to drop out, no matter howmotivated they may be.Quality instructional design:Quality instructional design links training with content oftraining (Reigeluth, 1980) because it facilitates thelearning process and full understanding among theparticipants. An excellent quality design is likely toinspire, attract and retain learners till the completion ofthe program. A factor with quality instructional design isinteractivity, that is the capacity to control directactivity and coordinate communication among theparticipants, tutors and the training content (Driscoll,2002). Research has shown that inaccurate design ofinstructional interactivity could lead to boredom,frustration and overload (Berge, 1999) and this couldeventually leads to drop out rate in training programespecially in electronic training program.Learning delivery methodology, such as classroom settingsand internet based also influences behaviors regardingwhether a participants will complete or drop out. Recentempirical studies suggest that there is no significantdifference between technology-based and traditionalclassroom learning (Rusell, 1999). The critique of Rusell(1999) studies shows that the study samples are based onsample of participants who completed training programwithout given consideration to the drop-out participant.When considering the cost and consequences associated withdrop out, the difference will be significant.Instructor and Facilitator:Instructor makes the training program interesting to theparticipants. The delivery style of the facilitators plays avital role in retaining the learners to the completion ofthe training program (Siebat, 2000). The qualities of goodinstructor and facilitator are as given below; flexible andadaptable, responsive, accessible, having in-depth knowledgeof the subject matter, courageous and open , among severalother characteristics (Collisio, Elbaum, Salam, 2000; Haavid& Tinker, 2000). Facilitators or instructors that are notequipped with this attributes are not likely to motivate and

15

retain training participants to completion in bothtraditional and technology based training program.Organizational Cluster:Organization distinguished participants of learning betweenadult learning and human resources development motivatedtraining program. Some literature has identifiedorganizational factors such as organizational context,policies and regulation, and job content. Organizationalcontext: Comprises of the following variables,organizational philosophy, learning culture andorganizational social support. Organizational philosophyrefers to the extent to which employee are regarded as humancapital for both present and future achievement oforganizational objectives (Maurer, 2000). Learning culturerefers to sets principles, attitude, values and practicesthat supports and encourage continuous learning process forthe organization and its members (Conner & Clawson, 2002).Organizational support: is the combination of influencesfrom management, supervisors and peer group (feedback andfollow-up), these factors influences participation intraining program (Maurer, 1994). Employee in an environmentwith philosophy favorable to learning culture and receivesappropriate supports are likely to participate actively intraining program to completion. Organizational policies andregulation: as a matter of fact it could either encourage ordiscourage employees learning participation. Policiesseeking learning opportunity for employee will encourageemployees’ participation in the human resources developmenttraining program. Job content: may include variables likejob enrichment and job enlargement, challenges confrontingemployee’s on the job. This could influence participation inhuman resources development learning program in such a wayof affecting employee’s attitude and self-efficacy withrespect to the performance and competence, and eventuallymotivate them to participate actively to completion with theexpectation of acquiring more knowledge and skill needed forimproved job performance (Maurer, 2000).Environment factors:Two factors are identified has having direct impact onparticipation and completion of training program. The

16

factors are general economic condition and environmentaldisaster. Wang (1997) empirical study states that learningopportunity is negatively related to unemployment rate. Anincrease in unemployment rate appears to be directly relatedwith a higher decrease in the probability of organizationoffering training program to the employees. It may alsoconclude that high unemployment rate may boost participatoryrate. Adverse environmental variables such as uncontrollablenatural disasters can lead to unexpected outcome in trainingprogram regarding the full participation. One interestingillustration is the case of China electronic trainingprogram, participation have been rising to the highestlevel, especially among the multi-nationals, suddenly, theoutbreak of SARS in 2003 forced most company to closeoperation because of the concern for the spread of the virus(Wang, 2004).Factor influencing training participation:If an individual recognize that the content of training fitswell to his or her educational background or a personallearning needs, he or she will actively participate intraining program up to completion in order to maximize theadvantage offers by the training to acquire skill andknowledge that hitherto may be lacking. Similarly, if thetraining program is constructed in a way that followed awell structure learning theories and instructional designprinciples, learners may find it more interesting andinspiring to participate up to completion.Although variables in individual construct cluster may beassociated with organizational factors. Changes inflicted bythe challenges confronting organization either internally orexternally such as market competition and cultural changesmay induce training opportunity for employee to participatein different training program. Employees with requisiteskill and knowledge may reinforce and strengthened theorganizational factors and eventually create strongerorganizational commitment to human resources developmentprogram. The factors influencing training process could alsohave direct and indirect link with organizational variablesin the conceptual frame work because the training curriculumand objective are somewhat aligned with the business goal

17

and organization are continuously in search of best methodof delivery the impact points of the subject matter toachieve the stated business objectives. The practice oflearning management system (LCMS) and learning contentmanagement system (LCMS) lend credence to the practices.Technological factors are underlying the three clusters ofconceptual framework, an organization may apply technologyas a motivational mechanism for full participation intraining such as monitoring and tracking individual employeeinvolvement in training and learning program in such a wayto promote completion of learning process without drop-out.The practice is more prevailing in integrating the trainingprocesses within organizational factors.The conceptual framework and the construct were developedbased on the previous literature and could be applied to thevariety of human resources development program such astraditional classroom settings, mentoring program andelectronic learning program (e learning).The Importance of Human Resource Developments in Education

Workplace ReadinessHuman resources are moving into the classroom. High schoolsand colleges are putting more emphasis on workplacereadiness. Student jobseekers still need math, English andgrammar skills, but may fail in the workplace because theyare not ready for the harsh realities of a regular workschedule. Some colleges are forming career counseling andguidance cell, to help create programs based on the realityof everyday work.

Soft Skills TrainingA new employee may have graduated at the top of his class,but may not know how to compromise or effectively work witha team. He may not have any idea of how to manage time ormultiple work assignments. These soft skills are essentialwhen working with others to produce a common result. Thistype of essential human relations education teaches newemployees how to get along with co-workers and interacteffectively.

Interpersonal CommunicationThe Internet and communications technology such as Skype,webinars and video conferencing are quickly replacing the

18

stand-up two-day training session or corporate meeting.Public speaking, making proper introductions, presentationskills, and the use of media and visual aids are everydayrequirements in today's workplace. Human resources oftenconsiders experience and education in these skills a plus,giving one candidate an edge over another.

Work-Ready CommunitiesCentre and State governments are using education to gain thecompetitive edge. New policies have been introduced toassess and train and provide a skilled labor pool toencourage corporations and businesses. Through training,education and job-profiling, individuals, companies andcommunities can take advantage of training, assessments andcertification. Colleges can use the Ready to Work criteriaand testing to certify students as ready to work before theyseek employment. Certification gives human resources ameasure of comfort knowing that the candidate has alreadyqualified under this program.Human Resource Development for Total Quality Management in

Education SectorThere is strong advocacy that HR be viewed as a function ineducational institutions playing a critical andinterventionist role for total quality management ineducational institutions. The challenges are -1. Hiring – Strategies for recruitment for getting on

board good & adequate teachers, administrators andsupport staff (I like to call them, personnel) forexisting infrastructure and future expansion plans.

2. Vendor management skills - To manage service providersfor canteen, labs and sports training on campus,specialized coaching centres within campus, etc. whichare increasingly being outsourced to affect economies ofscale, optimum utilization of facilities, brandbuilding, etc. Management’s focus is on the corecompetency of teaching, and building competenciestherein.

3. Retention – To ensure personnel are not “poached” forhigher remunerations laterally. Awareness in teachingfraternity about what is happening outside the education

19

world is a reality; management of institutions shouldlive with.

4. Motivation of personnel on a continual basis. Teachingis now being increasingly looked upon as a career ofchoice, as opposed to it just being a love for teaching,from a noble perspective, alone. Administrators come inwith specialized qualifications and skills.

5. Training & Retraining – What opportunities are beingprovided to personnel to get trained and retrainedand/to acquire newer skills and proficiencies intechnologies, for example?

6. Career growth options for personnel so that potentialis recognized and rewarded. Are we building an effectivesuccession plan which will be quickly implementable incase of a situation that may have tectonic implications?For example, if suddenly 15 seasoned and good teacherswere to attrition at one time?

7. Performance driven assessments to ensure rewards andfeedback are given to teachers at periodic intervals.Remarkably, many teachers’ mindset about performancewallows in having taught so-and-so who was a brightstudent, 20 years ago!

8. Counseling services for students – for personal andcareer reasons. Earlier, core values of the schooland/or as imbibed via the practices within, served thepurpose of making students “fall in line”, so to speak.Teachers played a signal role, too, because of sheerdedication and love for teaching and students. This isnot so in today’s world of easier access to handheldgadgets, internet, the social media, etc. A lot ofhandholding is needed and HR can do a stellar turn here.

ConclusionEvery educational system at every level depends heavily onteachers for the execution of its programmes. Maintainingand improving educational standards is only possible throughteachers. The teacher, therefore, is the most indispensableentity in educational institutions. He is the greatest aidto learning.Thus as far as possible, he should be thoroughly trained andsupported in his work. Human resource management deals with

20

the establishment of procedures for the employment andpayment of workers or staff. It is the arrangement ofconditions which make possible greater self direction bystaff in the performance of their duties. It is, therefore,an important function in the general context of alladministrative responsibility of managing staff.However, in recent years University Grants Commission aswell as State Governments are very much involved in a numberof policies affecting teachers. Areas of such involvement,for example, include recruitment, staff development,transfers and promotions, staff evaluation, dismissal andgeneral discipline, salaries and pensions. Thus, the life ofthe teacher is affected by the activities of officials inthe Ministries of Education or their agencies. Consequently,the interaction of the two becomes essential if teaching isto become effective. It should also be remembered that themajor premise of staff or human resource management ineducational institutions is that the end results of theeducative process will be determined by the effectiveness ofthe teachers. In dealing with staff or human resourcemanagement in institutions, we are essentially concernedwith three major issues namely: assessing, the need forstaff, satisfying the need for staff and, maintaining andimproving staff services.There is a need to facilitate the improvement ofeducational institution’s performance through approachescharacterized by partnership, collaboration, mentoring andguidance. It is emphasized that educational institutionsshould enhance the basic conditions necessary to functionefficiently and effectively to realize their educational andsocial goal; to evolve effectiveness in leadership andmanagement at various levels in the management structures;to establish ways of improving the quality of teaching bydesigning qualitative professional development programmes;to develop sound curriculum programmes that match the needsof learners, which are in line with national and localrequirements. Enhancement of learners' knowledge, skills,attitudes and values are necessary to improve the overallperformance in communication skills, problem solving skills

21

and the ability to work in groups and to make responsibledecisions.

SuggestionsFrom the above discussions based on previous studies, thefollowing suggestions related to maintaining and improvingquality through HRD in educational institutions can be madeby following;The first element of faculty development is the need to haveclearly defined roles and job descriptions. It is only whenthese are developed and accepted that development andcapacity building of faculty within the context of theseroles can be carried out. Training needs analysis (TNA) offaculty needs to be an ongoing process that is continuouslyassessing the competence of the faculty in relation to theirevolving roles. The TNA should also include mechanisms forimplementation of the training including identification ofappropriate institutions, timeframes, budgets, etc. If studytours and exposure trips are to be used as facultydevelopment tools, they should be developed with clearobjectives, careful selection of participants and adequatefollow up.Good teamwork across faculty disciplines and hierarchies iskey to a healthy organizational climate in these trainingand educational institutions. Internal divisions amongfaculty and between faculty and senior staff are common,thereby weakening both the image and the impact of theinstitutions. Mechanisms need to be created which make itmandatory for faculty and staff to work together on jointinitiatives.All individuals need incentives to help motivate them andimprove and enhance performance. Dessler (2000) mentionedthat incentives are usually paid to specific employees whosework is above standard.Development of an HR-strategy; Adequate Career Path Models;implementing Human Resources Development; Leadership SkillsDevelopment; Professorial Appointment Procedures; PromotingYoung Researchers and The Professionalization ofAdministrativeFunctions are current challenges of HR-Management atuniversities and these should be taken up seriously.

22

ReferencesAllen, D. (1999). Desire to finish college: An empiricallink between motivation and persistence. Research for HigherEducation, 40(4), 461-485.Baldwin, T. M. (1991). The perils of perception effects ofchoice of training on trainee motivation and learning.Personal Psychology, 44, 51-66.Becket and Brookes(2005) in “Critical Success Factors ofTotal Quality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsBerge, Z. (1999). Interraction in post - secondary web-basedlearning. Educational Technology, 39(11), 5-11.Boshier, R. (1971). Motivational orientation of adulteducation participation: A factor analysis exploration ofHoule's typology. Adult Education, 21(2), 3-26Bratton, J. & J. Gold (1994). Human Resource Management:Theory and Practice. McMillanBratton and Gold (1999:11) in “Critical Success Factors ofTotal Quality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsBull, P. 1984. Bo4J Movement and InterpersonalCommunication. Norwich: John Wiley and Sons. Burgress, P. (1971). Reason for adult participation in groupeducational activities. Adult Education, 3 29.Chaston (1994) in Evans, J.R and Lindsay, W.M (1999). Themanagement and control of Quality. New York, WestPublishing. Collison, G. B. (2000). Facilitating on-line learning. WI,Atwood: Madison. Conner, culture:

23

Dale and Plunkett (1990) in Evans, J.R and Lindsay, W.M(1999). The management and control of Quality. New York,West Publishing. Deming, W.E. (1982). Quality, productivity and competitionposition. MIT Institute for Advanced Engineering Study,Cambridge Di maggio, P. (1997). Culture and cognition.Annual Review of Sociology, 23, pp. 263-288.Dessler, G. (2000). Human resource management. U.S.A.:Prentice Hall.Durlabhji and Fusilier(1999) in “Critical Success Factors ofTotal Quality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsEvans and Dean (2003) in “Critical Success Factors of TotalQuality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsFarr, J. (1990). Enhancing motivation to participates inprofessional development. In S. D. Willis, Maintainingprofessional competence (pp. 195-213). San-Fransisco: Jossy-Bass Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers Education,Manpower and Economic Growth: Strategies of Human ResourcesDevelopment (McGraw-Hill, USA, 1964) p.2.Gregory (1996) in Drucker, Peter (1974). Management: Tasks,Responsibilities, Practices. New York: HarperCollins.Harris (1994) in Evans, J.R and Lindsay, W.M (1999). Themanagement and control of Quality. New York, WestPublishing. Hasson and Klefsjo (2003) in “Critical Success Factors ofTotal Quality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;

24

Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsHoule, C. (1961). The Inquiring mind. Madison: University ofWisconsin press.Jun et al. (2006) in “Critical Success Factors of TotalQuality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsIven (2000) in “Critical Success Factors of Total QualityManagement Implementation In Higher Education Institution: AReview” by Norhayati Zakuan; Shalini Muniandy;MuhamadZameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff; Sapiah Sulaimanand Rozita Abd Jalil, International Journal of AcademicResearch in Business and Social Sciences December 2012, Vol.2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 / www.hrmars.com/journalsKeefe, J. (1979). Learning style: An overview. In NASSP:Student learning style: Diagnosing and prescribing programs(pp, 1-9). National Association of Secondary SchoolPrincipals. VA: Reston.Kozlowski, S. & Farr, J (1988). an integrative model ofupdating and preference. Human Preference, 5-29.Kozlowski, S. J. (1987). An exploration of climate fortechnical updating and preference. Personal Psychology, 40,539-564.Lewin, K. (1947). Frontiers in group dynamics: Conceptmethods and reality in social science. Human Relation, 1, 5-41.Machin, M. &. (1997). the effects of self-efficacy,motivation to transfer, and situational constraints intransfer intentions and transfer of training. Performanceimprovement quarterly, 2, pp. 93 -115.Maurer, T. (2002). Employee learning and developmentorientation: Toward an integrative model of involvement in

25

continuous learning. Human Resources Development Review,1(1), 9-44.Maurer, T. (1994). Investigation of perceived environment,perceived outcome and personal variable in relation tovoluntary development activity by employees. Journal ofApplied Psychology, 79(1), 3-14.Michael et al. (1997) in “Critical Success Factors of TotalQuality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsNoe, R. & Wilk (1993). Investigation of the factors thatinfluencing employee's participation in developmentactivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(2), 291-302.Osseo-Asare and Longbottom (2002) in “Critical SuccessFactors of Total Quality Management Implementation In HigherEducation Institution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan;Shalini Muniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki MdAriff; Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil,International Journal of Academic Research in Business andSocial Sciences December 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 / www.hrmars.com/journalsOwen (2001) in “Critical Success Factors of Total QualityManagement Implementation In Higher Education Institution: AReview” by Norhayati Zakuan; Shalini Muniandy;MuhamadZameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff; Sapiah Sulaimanand Rozita Abd Jalil, International Journal of AcademicResearch in Business and Social Sciences December 2012, Vol.2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 / www.hrmars.com/journalsPeat (2005) in “Critical Success Factors of Total QualityManagement Implementation In Higher Education Institution: AReview” by Norhayati Zakuan; Shalini Muniandy;MuhamadZameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff; Sapiah Sulaimanand Rozita Abd Jalil, International Journal of AcademicResearch in Business and Social Sciences December 2012, Vol.2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 / www.hrmars.com/journals

26

Quazi and Padibjo (1998) in “Critical Success Factors ofTotal Quality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journals Lakhal, L., Pasin, F., and Limam, M. (2006). Qualitymanagement practice and their impact on performance.International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management.23(6), pp. 625-646.Reigeluth, C. (1983). Instructional design theories andModels: An overview of current status. Hillsdale, N.J:Lawrence Erlbaum.Roffe (1998) in “Critical Success Factors of Total QualityManagement Implementation In Higher Education Institution: AReview” by Norhayati Zakuan; Shalini Muniandy;MuhamadZameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff; Sapiah Sulaimanand Rozita Abd Jalil, International Journal of AcademicResearch in Business and Social Sciences December 2012, Vol.2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 / www.hrmars.com/journalsRothwell, W. & Sredl (1992). The ASTD reference guide toprofessional human resources development role and competence(2 ed.). Amherst, M.A: HRD Press.Saad and Patel (2006) in “Critical Success Factors of TotalQuality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsSangeeta (2004) in Muraid Ali and Rajesh Kumar Shastri(2010). Implementation of TQM in Higher Education, Journalof Business Management. Schminth and Finnegan (1993) Drucker, Peter (1974).Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices. New York:HarperCollins

27

Scrabec (2000) in “Critical Success Factors of TotalQuality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsSeibert, A. (2000). Teaching adult student the way theylearn: The instructor's role in retaining adult learners andincreasing the chances of success. Paper presented at theNational conference on the adult learners.Sheffield, S. (1964). The orientation of adult continuinglearners. In D. Soloman, The continuing learners (pp. 86-98). Chicago: Center for the study of Liberal Education forAdults.Symour (1992) in “Critical Success Factors of Total QualityManagement Implementation In Higher Education Institution: AReview” by Norhayati Zakuan; Shalini Muniandy;MuhamadZameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff; Sapiah Sulaimanand Rozita Abd Jalil, International Journal of AcademicResearch in Business and Social Sciences December 2012, Vol.2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 / www.hrmars.com/journalsTownshend (1990) in Evans, J.R and Lindsay, W.M (1999). Themanagement and control of Quality. New York, WestPublishing. Venkatraman (2007) in “Critical Success Factors of TotalQuality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journalsWang, G. D. (2002). A system approach to measuring returnson investment for HRD program. Human Resources DevelopmentQuarterly, 13(2), pp. 203-224.Wang, G. W. (1997.) Internet-based learning in China, Russiaand the USA: a Cultural Comparison (Final research report

28

grant submitted to the international Research and ExchangeBoard). Harrisonburg, V.A: James Madison University.Yusof and Aspinwall (2000) TQM implementation Issue: Reviewand case study, International Journal of Operation andProduction Management, Vol 2Zairi and Youssef (1995) in “Critical Success Factors ofTotal Quality Management Implementation In Higher EducationInstitution: A Review” by Norhayati Zakuan; ShaliniMuniandy;Muhamad Zameri Mat Saman; Mohd Shoki Md Ariff;Sapiah Sulaiman and Rozita Abd Jalil, InternationalJournal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesDecember 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12 ISSN: 2222-6990 /www.hrmars.com/journals

***

29