10

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Concept of Communication

2.1.1 Definition of communication

Here are some more definitions of communication as stated by former

researchers (Miller, 2005: 4):

1. Weaver (1949):

“Communication is all the procedures by which one mind can affect another.”

2. Miller (1951):

“Communication means that information is passed from one place to another.”

3. Hovland, Janice and Kelley (1953):

“Communication is the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmit stimuli (usually verbal) to modify the behavior of other individuals (the audience).”

4. Emery, Ault, & Agee (1963):

“Communication among human beings is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another.”

5. Gerbner (1966):

“Communication is social interaction through symbols and message systems.”

11

6. Miller (1966):

“Communication has, as its central interest, those behavioral situations in which a source transmits a message to receiver(s) with conscious intent to affect the latter’s behavior.”

7. Goyer (1970):

“Communication is the sharing of experience, observable as the extent to which the responses of a generator and perceiver (both of which are necessarily living organisms) are systematically correlated to a referent stimulus.”

According to the above definitions, the meaning of communication can

be concluded as: the process by which an individual (communicator) shares

his/her experience or transmits his/her ideas, information and attitudes in

order to stimulate or even modify other’s behavior (communicant) in

patterned space-time.

2.1.2 Communication effects

"Communication effect is any changes made within the receiver after

receiving information from the sender. These changes include: changes in

knowledge, attitude and behavior. The effect of communication is the most

important element of communication, because this is the result of the

communication process” (Rakhmat, 2007: 13). Communication is considered

to be effective if it generates effects or changes in attitude and behavior, or

all of them. The effects of communication are classified into 3 parts

(Wiryanto, 2000: 39):

12

1. Cognitive effect

It comes from communication that brings information and knowledge

to the communicant.

2. Affective effect

The purpose of this communication is more than just informing the

audience, but to bring the audience to feel something: sad, happy,

touched and pity.

3. Behavioral effect:

This effect is indicated by the change of behavior in the audience,

people do something because of the message.

Based on the above explanation, the researcher could conclude, that

when an effective communication happens, the communicant gets to know

something that he or she did not know before (knowledge, revelation), then

they feel something based on their knowledge and eventually they will do an

action as a result to their feelings.

2.1.3 Message

Definition of message stated by Prof. Deddy Mulyana, M.A., Ph.D

(Mulyana, 2007:70):

13

“Message is what is being communicated by the sender to the receiver. Message is a group of symbols, verbal and non-verbal, that represent feelings, values, ideas or intention of the sender.”

In the other hand, Bobbit and Sullivan define messages as “the basic

ideas that one wants members of audiences to remember as a result of

receiving a communication” (2005: 19).

Based on the above definitions, the researcher can combine and infer

the meaning of a message as: the basic ideas that is being communicated by

the sender to the receiver, which consists of a group of symbols, verbal and

non-verbal, that represent feelings, values, ideas or intention of the sender

that he or she wants the receiver to remember after receiving a

communication.

2.1.4 Verbal communication

Verbal message is all kinds of symbol using one or more words. A

verbal coding system is called language. Language can be defined as a

range of symbols that has rules to combine, which is used and

comprehended by a community. Verbal language is the main medium to

assert our thoughts, feelings and intention. Verbal language uses words that

represent various aspects of our individual reality. Consequently, these

words are the abstraction of our reality that cannot always represent the total

concept of the object (Mulyana, 2007: 92).

14

A newspaper, of course, uses verbal communication, in written

language, to share its ideas through its point of view. Therefore, what the

newspaper writes might not represent the total concept of an object or event.

In order to make a powerful message, the newspaper has to use effective

words to create comprehension and acceptance.

2.2 Government and Politics

2.2.1 Concept of Government

“Literally, the word ‘government’ means a person who drives the ship

or sees forward (the future). Then, ‘govern’ means looking forward, deciding

policies in order to achieve society-national goals, estimating the national

development in the future, organizing and directing the society to the

determined goals” (Nurtjahjo, 2005: 4).

The definition of government can be seen in three (3) aspects

(Nurtjahjo, 2005: 5):

1. Activities: all organized activities and efforts, based on national

constitution, related to society and the national geographic area in

order to achieve national purposes.

15

2. Functional-structural: a set of national functions, which functionally

relate to one-another, they play their roles based on certain

constitution in order to achieve national goals.

3. Authority and role: means all roles and authority of the leaders.

According to the above definition and explanation, in this research, the

researcher will conduct a research about the ‘government image’, which

covers: the President; the House of Representative; government’s law and

justice enforcement institutions that established by the national constitutions

(Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, Corruption Eradication Commission,

the Directorate General of Penitentiary and the officials) or by the President’s

mandate (the Judicial Mafia Eradication Task Force); the government’s

activities, actions or efforts in order to accomplish its duties in enforcing the

law and justice towards the ‘luxurious prison case’.

2.2.2 Indonesian Law Enforcement Institutions

a. Attorney General

“Attorney general is a functional government that is given the authority

to act as a general prosecutor and executor of the final sentence. The

attorney general who acts as the prosecutor has to be independent and

uninfluenced by another party. He or she must not be under influence of

government officials. The attorney general, as the law enforcer, must uphold

16

the law supremacy; protect the public interest and human rights, and

eradicate corruption, graft, and nepotism” (Hartanti, 2005: 32).

An attorney, as the prosecutor in a criminal case, must know every

activity that has to be conducted by the investigators, from the beginning to

the end, all must be done based on constitution. The prosecutor will be

responsible for all treatments to the convict, from the preliminary investigation

to the session of the court, until the imprisonment period.

b. Investigator

“The investigator is the police officer or certain civil official whom is

given a special authority by the constitutions to conduct an investigation. The

investigation itself is a series of investigator activity, in constitutional

procedures, in order to find and collect evidence to reveal a criminal case

and find the suspect. In Indonesia, the institution that acts as the investigator

is Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia, as known as POLRI” (Hartanti,

2005: 38).

c. Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK)

In order to realize the law supremacy in Indonesia, the government

has put a strong fundament of policy to fight against corruption. All policies

are included in the constitutions. Thus, the Corruption Eradication

Commission or Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (KPK) was established

17

based on Constitution no. 20/2001. KPK has the authority to conduct the

investigation, prosecution, coordination and supervision with other law

enforcement institutions. The formation of the organizational structure,

working procedures and authority of each member are regulated by the

constitution.

The KPK has the authority to handle the following corruption cases

(Hartanti, 2005: 39):

The one that involves any government institutions and other people

related to the crime;

The one that absorbs people’s attention

The one that has caused national lost worth more than Rp

1.000.000.000,- (one billion rupiah).

2.2.3 Imprisonment

Prison is a specially-built place for the convicts to do their punishment

during a detention period according to the verdict. Prison consists of cage-

like cells that limit the inmates from communicating with each other. This

way, the convicts are isolated from society, thus they are expected to regret

their own mistakes and prevent themselves to do more crimes in the future.

However, lately the prisons are considered to give psychologically negative

18

impacts towards the prisoners, so that the Indonesian government changed

the main idea of the prison into a penitentiary.

“In a penitentiary, the convicts are put together into workshops, social

and spiritual development activities inside the penitentiary with certain

schedules. From the punishment period and activities in the penitentiary, the

government expects the convicts to return to the society with better behavior

and ability to get a proper employment. The imprisonment periods are

various from one day to a life time, according to how significant the crime that

they have done and the verdict of the judge” (Djamali, 2006: 189).

When someone is imprisoned, they lose some of their rights:

Rights to elect and to be elected in the general election

Rights to be in charge in any public position

Rights to be employed at any company

Rights to obtain certain permissions

Rights to have a life insurance

Rights to be in a marriage bond

Rights to get married

As stated in the Criminal Code section 277, article 1:

“pada setiap pengadilan harus ada hakim yang diberi tugas khusus untuk membantu ketua dalam melakukan pengawasan dan pengamatan terhadap putusan pengadilan yang menjatuhkan pidana perampasan kemerdekaan.”

19

“During the execution of imprisonment period, the chief justice is in charge of supervising and observing the process, assisted by another judge. Regarding the main function of a penitentiary, which is to become a temporary residence for the convicts, the officers of the penitentiary are in charge of personal development of the convicts. The officers of the penitentiary are obliged to guide and develop the convicts, so that they will do virtue in society once they are released” (Djamali, 2006: 204).

Having seen the above explanation, the researcher can infer that:

when a convict lose their rights to be employed at any company, then they

are also not allowed to run their own business inside the penitentiary; if a

convict lose their rights to be in a marriage bond or rights to get married, then

they are also not allowed to get any conjugal visits nor get intimate; when a

convict lose their rights to obtain certain permissions, this should include the

rights to enter and exit the penitentiary without any guards.

2.2.4 Political Communication

Practically, the main actor in political communication is the

government, especially the executive institution (the president and his/her

assistants: vice president and board of ministry, who govern the country).

Communication itself is a part of governance management. There are four

functions of the management: planning, organizing, leading and controlling.

Communication is the attached instrument to all functions of the

management. A good result will be obtained when the right decision is taken.

The person who makes the decision is the leader (Nimmo, 1999:32).

20

The government is responsible not only in making the right decision,

but also in communicating the decision towards the society. When

communicating with the society, the government cannot do an interpersonal

communication. Otherwise, it has to do a mass communication through mass

media since it is objected to heterogeneous people in widespread area.

Through mass media, it is possible for the government to reach its target

audience.

2.3 Corruption

“Corruption is a symptom when the official government and the

institutions abuse their authority by conducting a bribery or manipulation”

(Hartanti, 2005: 8). Corruption can also be defined as:

Giving and receiving bribes (graft)

Money laundering or financial manipulation

Money embezzlement

Using his/her authority for personal interests

Misjudgments by officials in the public economies

Disguised payment in the form of gifts, legal fees, employment, favors

to relatives, social influence, or any relationship that sacrifices the

public welfare, with or without the implied payment of money.

21

Corruption is a depraved action that can affect many aspects of life in

the society. It does not only deprive other people’s rights but also threaten

social welfare. In the Artalyta’s surprise inspection case, the corruption took

place in the prison. The officers in the penitentiary might have taken the bribe

so they gave a special treatment towards Artalyta and some other convicts in

the penitentiary.

2.4 Concept of image

2.4.1 Definition of Image

Frank Jefkins (1998: 13) classifies image into five categories:

1. The Mirror image:

This image is the one people in an organization, especially its leaders,

believe to be the impression outsiders have of the organization.

2. The current image:

This is what is actually held by people outside the organization and it

may be based on experience or on poor information and

understanding. This image is usually a negative one, because public

opinions are full of prejudice, hostility, apathy and ignorance. The

current image depends on how much or how little people know, thus

their knowledge will be less perfect than those people within the

organization. The mirror and current image can be very different.

22

3. The wish image:

This is the desired image, the one management wish to achieve.

4. The corporate image:

The image of the organization, not of the products or services.

5. The multiple image:

A number of individuals, branches or other representations can each

create a particular image for the total organization.

This research will talk about the current image of the government,

especially those related to the law enforcement. After the surprise inspection,

the Indonesian law enforcement institutions of course, have to deal with

public outrage on their unfair treatment towards inmates at the penitentiary.

They might have lost their credibility and degraded their reputation as law

enforcers. Hence, it is a big duty for the government’s public relations to

shape the current image to be the best representation of the organization.

Before doing so, it is sure necessary to figure out what people think about the

Indonesian government, because it is important that people’s impression

about the government is correct.

23

Rachmat Kriyantono (2008:8) defined image as:

“a portrayal in public’s minds about a corporate, including its service, product quality, corporate culture, etc. Eventually, perception will influence public’s attitude towards the corporate (favorable, neutral and unfavorable). He also described having a positive image as being credible in public’s minds.”

Based on the above definitions and statement, we can conclude that

image is an impression received by public; it can be created intentionally in

order to be liked or disliked by the public.

2.3.2 Political Image

“In the modern political democracy, image is reality. Communication is

the most effective tool in establishing and destructing someone’s image. Any

publicity about former Indonesian government had a big impact on their

political career” (Dwidjowijoto, 2004: 60).

In Popular Images of Politics, written by D. Nimmo (1999: 27),

“creating a political imagery is mentioned to be the most crucial thing for a

politician. When a political imagery is well-established, then the social trust

will be founded.” This is very important for the government in order to

accomplish its duties effectively.

Therefore in conducting governmental actions, it is important to give

attention to some points (Dwidjowijoto, 2004: 62):

24

1. The image will determine the outcome in political actions, more than

the reality itself.

2. Communication is the core aspect of creation of an image.

3. In the creation of image process, mass media has the most significant

role.

4. “News” as the core of mass communication media is full of misleading

illusion.

5. The particular reality is shaped from the illusion games played by the

politicians, journalists (and editors) and on behalf of the media

business itself.

6. In the future, the government’s role in the battle of image on media will

be seen more distinctly; therefore the media management will have to

be the main issue in the government’s management.

Since mass media play the most significant role in building an image,

it is essential for a politician, especially the government, to check and

analyze publicities on mass media. By looking at what the media write and

publish, it is easy to figure out the public opinion about certain subject.

25

2.4 Mass communication

2.4.1 Definition of mass communication

“Mass communication is the act of communication through mass

media, both printed media (newspaper, magazine) or electronic media

(television, radio), with relatively high cost, managed by corporation, which is

intended to a huge number of people in various places, anonymous and

heterogeneous. The messages in mass media tend to be general,

transmitted rapidly and as one in one way (especially in electronic media).

Though the audience sometimes conveys messages to the corporation (in

form of suggestion that is often delayed), the process of communication is

dominated by the corporation, because it set the agenda of the media”

(Mulyana, 2007: 83).

“Mass communication refers to the process by which a complex

organization with the aid of one or more machines produces and transmits

public messages that are directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered

audiences. The source in the mass communication situation is a group of

individuals who usually act within predetermined roles in an organizational

setting” (Dominick, 1996: 37).

26

2.4.2 Functions of mass communication

There are several functions of mass communication as stated by

Karlinah (Ardianto & Erdinaya, 2005: 23):

1. To persuade

Mass communication is persuasive, it can alter people’s mind and

change their attitude toward something. Mass communication also

stimulates people to make decision and take action.

2. To confer status

When a person (political elite, celebrity or conglomerate) is reported to

do a charity or volunteer action, he is given a public status. The

articles on the media enhance their prestige. This is what is called

publicity in public relations.

3. To narcotize:

Mass communication through media has the ability to influence and

even narcotize people’s mind. When all media reported the news

about Michael Jackson’s death and the possibility of intrigues behind

it, people’s attention focus to the issue and they started to think that

MJ’s death is not very normal.

4. To create the feeling of unity:

Mass communication can make the audience feel like they are part of

the group or community.

27

In this research, the articles that analyzed by the researcher can

definitely narcotize the readers’ minds to focus on the issue of the luxurious

prisons and the officers treatment towards wealthy and average inmates

inside the jails. The articles could also persuade the readers by getting them

upset towards the government’s and eventually force the government to take

actions to stop the infringement inside the penitentiaries.

2.4.3 Characteristics of Mass Communication

There are some particular characteristics of this process such as

(Dwidjowijoto, 2004: 40):

1. Mass communication has a massive number of audience and

heterogeneous in separated areas.

2. Mass communication is a one-way communication. Since the

receivers are in large number when there are limited period of time,

space, technology and psychology, so that interpersonal

communication cannot occur.

3. The sender/communicator is not an individual, but an

institution/organization. Even though a person is delivering a speech,

he/she is not speaking on behalf of her/him, but on behalf of the

organization/institution/company.

4. The message is public. When the news is about private life of a

celebrity/president, they are considered as a public figure who are to

28

be exposed for a marketing/public relations campaign or having a

legal case related to public interest.

5. Mass communication creates synchronization. When something

happens in a particular area, the news can be spread by various

media in other part of the world, so the news coverage becomes even

wider and the world will be a global village.

2.5 Mass media

2.5.1 Definition of mass media

Definition of mass media according to Agee, Ault & Emery (1997: 4):

“The mass media are the messengers, distributors of news, and entertainers for the world. Mass media stimulate our emotions and give us pleasure. Without the mass media, contemporary society could not function. The messages they deliver influence the course of government, affect our behavior and attitudes, and popularize trends in our culture.”

From the above definitions of mass communication and mass media, it

needs to be distinctly differentiated that:

1. Mass media is the media, the tool or the channel of the mass

communication process.

2. While mass communication is the process of communication through

mass media.

29

2.5.2 Functions of mass media

There are several functions of the media according to Wright (Baran,

2009: 18):

a. Surveillance:

Certain media specialize in providing information updates to alert

people when something important is coming and affect them directly.

For example: typhoon or hurricane prediction, and when the country is

under threatening attack. The media alert the audience to beware of

anything threatening things coming.

b. Interpretation:

We usually process the information we get by interpreting and

correlating it with our knowledge and ideas. This process is affected

by ourselves, the group we belong to, and the media. The newspaper

editorial page usually helps us interpret the headlines.

c. Values transmission/socialization:

An idea is passed one from one person to another by the use of

language. The media also use language to socialize ideas to society,

particularly their audience. It means, the media do not only give out

information, but also introduce people to new ideas or educate them

with cultural values.

30

d. Entertainment:

Besides giving out information, media also entertain people with their

programs and special columns or pages. Television and radio mostly

consist of entertainment programs, while newspapers and magazines

usually have special section for lifestyle and sport events.

2.5.3 Roles of Mass Media in Political Communication

This world is too large to reach entirely by one person. Therefore

media has come to give us information about social and politic. “Every

message that has political material can establish or maintain political image

and public opinion” (Ardial, 2009: 160).

Briefly, the roles of mass media in political communication are as

follows (Ardial, 2009: 165):

1. Mass media give information to its public. This information gives us

knowledge about our country and also the other part of the world that

we need to know as a comparison to our country.

2. Mass media help us to set up our agenda or arrange our schedule.

There might be important events that we need to know or participate

such as the national election.

31

3. Mass media help us to interact with the other groups of people in

different area. Through the mass media, we get to know people of

other culture and understand their lifestyles.

4. Mass media help to socialize human’s behavior. Through the media,

people disseminate new values and culture, the media can educate

people what to accept, believe or reject.

5. Mass media persuade people (audience) to agree about something or

to do an action. For example: after the latest bombings, the media

came up with the “Indonesia Unite” movement to fight against

terrorism.

6. Mass media as an entertainment. Through an entertaining program,

media can bring a political message to spread and influence audience.

For example: Republik Mimpi program on Metro TV.

2.6 Newspapers

Newspaper is the oldest form of mass media. The newspaper has

been published since Johann Guternberg innovated the printing machine.

“The newspapers had been ‘lapdogs’ for years as they published all

the ‘established’ news without being critical. But since 1960s, the journalists

in The United States have set a critical stance toward the status quo. They

32

have revealed political secrets and confidential documents of the government

and become ‘watchdogs’ since then” (Straubhaar, 2004: 105).

The emergence of other news media forces newspapers to bring out

their strength in order to compete. When radio and television offer more

current headlines, the newspapers can give in depth analysis on investigative

reports, complex government programs and economic crises.

2.6.1 Characteristics of newspapers

These are characteristics of newspaper, presented by Drs. Elvinaro

Ardianto & Dra. Lukiati Komala Erdinaya (Ardianto & Erdinaya, 2005:104)

1. Publicity:

Messages can be received by many people in various places, as the

message is important or interesting to be noticed by public. Therefore,

any human activities related to public concern or interests are eligible

to disseminate.

2. Periodicity:

It is crucial for a media to have a certain periodicity, especially for a

newspaper. People need information everyday, so the newspapers

exist to fulfill people’s needs of information.

33

3. Universality:

The content of the newspaper covers all aspects of human’s life:

social, economy, culture, education, entertainment, etc. Moreover,

newspapers must also report activities/events in its region, country

and the whole world.

4. Actuality:

The report in the newspaper has to be fresh and up to date.

5. Documented:

Articles on the newspaper can be assorted and filed into the

documents archive. This archive is compiled by PR staff in a company

and used as a reference to make new policies and programs in the

future.

In order to understand the content of a newspaper, a certain level of

intelligence is required. People, who cannot read, of course will not be able to

get the message from a newspaper. People with low education level will also

meet difficulties when reading the articles, as there are many terms used in

the language of newspaper. However, this may not apply to radio and

television broadcast. The audience of television and radio is not limited, even

those who are illiterate and low-educated can receive the message, even not

entirely.

34

2.6.2 Functions of newspaper

There are three fundamental and three secondary functions of

newspaper (Agee, Ault & Emery, 1997:109). The three fundamental ones

are:

1. To inform readers, objectively about what is happening in the

community, country and world.

2. To comment on the news in order to bring the developments into

focus.

3. To provide the means whereby persons with goods and services to

sell can advertise their wares.

Newspaper’s secondary roles are:

1. To campaign for desirable civic projects and to help eliminate

undesirable conditions

2. To give readers a portion of entertainment through such devices as

comic strips, cartoons and special features

3. To serve the readers as a friendly counselor, information bureau, and

champion of their rights.

The printed words on the paper last longer than those spoken words

on television and radio. Therefore, people prefer to save the copy of the

35

articles to re-examine the event in the future. The investigative reports are

commonly found in the newspapers as the written word is more suitable to

explain in-depth analysis in details.

“There are three types of newspaper’s content which is used as a

mean of campaign communication: featured news, editorial and

advertisements. All these contents help to establish image and present

cases. However, establishing an image is the main concern. Newspapers

present stories that bring impressions about the significance, credibility,

character, style and reputation of the politician through positioning of the

article, title, content, and the quantity of report about a particular person”

(Nimmo, 1999: 202).

2.7 Agenda setting theory

This theory was invented by McComb and Donald L. Shaw in around

1968. “They believe that the mass media have the ability to transfer the

salience of items on their news agendas to the public agenda” (Griffin, 1997:

376). “Agenda setting describes the power of media to tell people what is

important and what is not. What the media say is what is important and being

talk of the town” (Kriyantono, 2007: 220).

36

This theory has been developed by conducting researches to prove

the hypothesis of the theory, and the results have proven that the articles in

the media have indeed become determining variables that influence the talk

of the people.

There are broad-scope and narrow-scope definitions of agenda setting

theory (Miller, 2005:270). “The broad-scope definition of agenda setting

involves the consideration of three related agendas: the media agenda, the

public agenda, and the policy agenda.” Each agenda consists of topics that

are considered important:

1. The media agenda: the set of topics addressed by media sources

(newspapers, radio, television).

2. The public agenda: the set of topics that members of the public

believe is important.

3. The policy agenda: represents issues that decision makers

(legislators, government) believe are particularly salient.

Each of these three agendas can be seen as dependent variable in a causal

equation. The media agenda can affect the public agenda then the public

agenda brings impact to the policy.

The narrow-scope definition of agenda setting, stated by Zhu & blood,

is “the process whereby the news media lead the public in assigning relative

importance to various public issues” (Miller, 2005:271). In conclusion, agenda

37

setting of the media takes a significant role in building its public agenda.

“Stanley J. Baran even mentioned that this especially occurs in political

communication through printed media. The previous studies and research of

agenda setting have proven the agenda setting of the printed media impact

towards its public agenda” (Baran, 2009: 188).

At the second level, agenda settings do not only suggest people what

to think about, but also influence how people should think about the issue.

This is where the framing concept takes the role.

“In the context of agenda setting, framing is a process through which

the media emphasize some aspects of reality and downplay other aspects”

(Miller, 2005: 275). This is the reason why one similar event can be narrated

in different ways and presented in positive, negative or neutral tone.

“According to Winter and Eyal, the strongest correlation between the

media agenda and the public agenda occurs between the fourth to sixth

week. In addition, Stone and McCombs stated that it takes 2 to 6 months for

the media agenda to result the intended public agenda” (Gerbner et al., 1969:

47). However, since the first report on the surprise inspection was on 12th

January 2010, and the researcher could not find any more news reports

relevant to the analyzed case after 27 January 2010, so the research period

38

would be from 12th January (one day after the surprise inspection) to 27th

January 2010.

2.8 Mass Media Research Perspectives

“There are two perspectives in mass media research: the audience is

actively involved in receiving messages and structuring the reality, and the

audience is passive and easily influenced by the media. The first perspective

considers media to have a limited effect to their audience, in contrary; the

second perspective believes that media have a powerful effect towards their

audience behavior” (Kriyantono, 2006: 201).

Dennis McQuail, as quoted by Rachmat Kriyantono, defines audience

as “a group of people who are being the readers, listeners and viewers of

various media and its contents. There are two types of audience: general

public and specialized audience. General public audience refers to television

viewers and specialized audience shares the same interest” (Kriyantono,

2006: 202).

“The people that are most affected by the media agenda are those

who have the willingness to let the media shape their thinking; they have a

high need for orientation because of a high relevance and uncertainty”

(Griffin, 1997: 381). This comes to a conclusion that the perspective of this

39

mass media research is that the audience is passive and easily influenced by

the media. The type of audience targeted by the Jakarta Globe is the

specialized one, as they come from educated and higher social class

background, or are foreigners who can read and understand English well.

2.9 Content Analysis

Definition of content analysis stated by Charles R. Wright (1986: 125):

“Content analysis is a research technique for the systematic classification and description of communication content according to certain usually predetermined categories. It may involve quantitative or qualitative analysis, or both. Technical objectivity requires that the categories of classification and analysis be clearly and operationally defined so that other researchers can follow them reliably. However, content analysis itself provides no direct data about the nature of the communicator, audience, or effects. Therefore, great caution must be exercised whenever this technique is used for any purpose other than the classification, description and analysis of the manifest content of the communication.”

James Deese stated that “most schemes for content analysis take the

view that the purpose of content analysis is to determine some underlying

themes in the message intended by the author that reflects the personalities

and motives of the producer” (Gerbner, 1969: 40).

40

2.10 Hypothesis of research

In relevance to the background case of the research, the background

study of the Jakarta Globe’s president and editor in chief, Wim Tangkilisan,

and the theories of communications, media and governmental law

enforcement institutions, a hypothesis can be pulled out as: the major tone of

the sentences/quotation related to the government institutions is neutral.

While the H1 is: the major tone of the sentences/quotation of the government

institutions is either favorable or unfavorable.

2.11 Conceptual Framework

This is the concept of the research:

Agenda setting

of the Media

Surprise

inspection at

Pd. Bambu

(10th January

2010)

News on

the paper

Content

analysis

The projected image of The

Indonesian Government:

favorable, unfavorable, or

neutral.