THE REGISTRAR - UQ eSpace

T H E 4 9 2 2 V . 2

3 4067 00059312 8

With the Compliments

o f

THE REGISTRAR

du^i^/^^P' ^AA UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND,

ST. LUCIA, QUEENSLAND, 4067

a^ *îli,. ^ STUDY OF THE THAAYORRE^^^LA|GUAGE

o f t h e

EDWARD^ J I V E R ^ ^ ^ T R I B E

Cape York P e n i n s u l a ,

Q u e e n s l a n d ,

B§ing_a_desGîpti£nôf^the^GRAMMAR

A l l e n Har ry H a l l

M.A., D i p . Tchg ( N . Z . ) , M.A. (Qld)

Thesis submitted in fulfilnent

of the requirements for

the degree of

D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y ,

L i n g u i s t i c s

Docenber

1 9 7 2

Volume II

The Department of English,

University of Queensland,

B r i s b a n e ,

'Punta a n i Clla Cj>\il4Yiart ani. -family WM \iAmrii ani. EiA.t ULKM

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319

6.1.3 Ad.iective phrases

Adjective, phrases comprise a nuclear head v/hich is an

adjective and a modifier which nay be before it or after it; this

modifier slot filler nay be one of two adverbs, /ninj/ 'very, truly'

or /mar)ir/ 'rather'. The former is often narked for emphasis by

suffix /-p/ and both may be present to nodify the same adjectival

head in sone phrases: av + aj + av.

166. Nul peln - an min minj wene - nan - ir. pn pn ob aj av vbs cs pc 'he t h e m good very become-cause-did'

Hd + Md /S 0 PA P /

"He blessed then very much."

167. Kurnt-urnt-ur ID ok - on ninj nar) - un. av aj av pn lo

' darkness none truly hin - in' Hd + Md

/S PiL L / "There was no darkness in Hin. "

The adjective phrase modifies the S-filler which is an adverb. In

the next example, another adverbial modifier appears which nay be

used in certain expressions: /nin waj-wajir/ 'absolutely fine':

168. Nul yup na:t_-nan kana nin ninj ; rjawoy, kana nin wa j-wajir . pn as vbs fu as aj av af as aj av 'he soon see-will has good - very yes, has good superbly'

Hd -h Md Hd + Md /S V ft' /

/P PA / In P PA / "He'll soon see that it's very good; yes, really superb]"

169. Ra:k ko:p yu:np - ir (nu)l wan - wa.iir ninj . nn nm vb pc pn aj av •places all nake-did he really superb'

/O" p 5 / Hd + Md /S PA / "Every place that He had nade was excellent."

170. Pornpur ta^ :-tarn ninj - 13; namir pinalan qanjn. nn aj av en av nn pn

'house full-up very - too rather three we' Hd + Md Md +- Hd

/& PA / PA S / "The house was very full up; with several of us."

In 169, /waj-wajir/ like other reduplicated adjectives, seems t(

switch its role from that in 168.

520

171. Hat gay wa:r minj p u : k - i r . Kuta uaiqlT nori i : i a n - an . nn pn aj av vb pc nn av nm ^v vbs rd 'fish I very many pull-did' 'dogs rather nany there sta-g

Md + Hd Md + Hd /O- S -0 P / S L P / "I pulled out loads of fishes. Plenty of dogs stanamg there.

172. Min, po:ro ul-nnanir nunjun; ra:k-unn i:-wal vfa;r-nin—ninj. nn nn dn av aj nn dr aj av

'black ducks those rthr nany sky this-way bad/good truly' Md + Hd Hd ^ Md

/S PA / L P S J "Plenty of those black ducks; really all sorts fly in sky. "

6.1.4 Adverbial ishrases

As adjectives were modified above by adverbs, so sone

adverbs are modified by adjective^ in lieu of adverbs.(Cf3£6, 168.)

173. Mini min ie:ri]-ar (r)a)y: Puy ri:j ninj min (n)unt.' av aj vbs pc pn ex vb av aj pn

'truly good hit - did I ' 'hey run truly good you' Hd + Md Sd + Md

/M P S / In P M a / "Good and hard I hit hin.»" "Hey, you run full rip.'"

174. In'n-ul ko:w - kanpa ninj 3Qay in'n wan - an - r. dm pn aj av pn dm vbs rd tn

'this-one f i r s t very I this tell-ing-am' Hd + Md

/O- m S -0 P / "This is what I was explaining at the very beginning."

175. Peln vu:w - naka torkr nasrin - na Kot - ant an. pn av lo a- pn el na el

'they far-n-away distant hin-fron God-fron' Hd + Md

/i PA M / "They are far removed from God. "

In the above exanple, a case-narked adverb is nodified by an adjec

tive /t.ork£/ which frequently functions adverbially itself.

176. Dan, (nu)nt na: 1 ninj ku:p - nar I pn pn av av vb nr 'me you slowly very nind - do'

Hd + Md /O S M P / "You nust slow right down and look after ne.'"

6.1.5 Pronoun lohrases

Closely related and often virtually identical to noun

phrases, these are listed separately here nerely because of their

321

connon occurrence and the feature of pronominalisation in Ttaayorre

clauses. The prononinal head cones obligatorily first in this kind

of phrase and any connon modifier nay follow that head, pronouns,

nunerals, denonstratives or adjectives.

Pronoun and numerals

177 Damp ko:io wa:r wene-y-r. Sur mori rirp-ir pul - r)un. pn nn aj vb ps pn nn vb pc pn al ^ »we all sick beeone-did' 'you all energe-did then-2-to Hd + Md Hd + Md ^ "We all got sick." "Many of you cane out to them2.''

178. Peln ko;p ka: 1-a: t-ir nai3-un. Peln num na:-w-r Doq-tr,. pn nn v b s pc pn da pn pn vb pc nn er

'they all t r u s t-did hin-in'they hin see-did nany Hd - Md. , Hd ... ,.+ ... Md /S P lo / S- 0 P -S J "They all believed in Hin." "Crowds of then saw Hm. "

179 Peln yi:r - vir - an - n nun ya: - ra t.e:ri] - ar. pn nn er pn dr vbs pc^ "they v a r i o u s hin a¥/ay kill - did' Md + Md j

/S Q^ ^- 1 "Sone of then did away with Hin.

Pronoun phrases nay have several nodifiers and these nay

be discontinuous but the order of pn -H- nd remains unchanged.

180 Danjn yi;r-yir-an ko;p naqn-mil kunanp - un - r -nan nar)-un. pn nm nn pn rx vbs cs rx fu pn da »we several all hinself report-self-mll hin-to' Hd + Md ^ ,

/S 0 P „ "¥/e nust all individually give an account of ourselves to Hin."

181. I3anp wark - ant - r non ku:lan naqn - man.

w a n d e r -do nany road his - in' » we Hd . . . -^ . . . Md

/ S - P -S L / "Yife a l l v/ander round each i n h i s ovm Yjay."

182 . Nul K o t - n t r p u l - nun k u M r y u : n p - i r p a r k - nat^a, ~ n na e r pn ob nn vbs pc vbs nf *he G o d t h e n - t w o b o t h nake - d i d s h i n e - to»

Hd + Md / S O P H /

"God made each of t h e two t o g i v e l i g h t . "

322

183. Nur pal ko:p wark - ant ra:k wa:r - an. "piT dr nn vbs en nn aj el 'you cone all repent things evil - fron' Hd .. + ... Md

/S_ P_ -S -P 1 / "You nust all turn away fron your sins."

A pronoun at the beginning of a sentence nay be phrasally associa

ted ¥/ith an adjective at the end of the clause.

184. Nur nant - ne:r ni'i - r ko;p . pn aj nn vbs re nn 3 ^-^^ ^^^ 'you snail eye take-eo all' ^ ^ ^j^ Hd ... + ... Md '

"You nust nultiiiy all of you."

Sinllarly with denonstratives, phrases are forned.

185. Dawoy, gay nip-lin naw-in'n re:k-ar nay ko:p ra:k - un. af pn pn ob dn vbs pc nn nn nn lo 'indeed I you-two this give-did food every earth-on'

H d + Md /'In S lo TO L /

Id + Md or: Hd ... +• ... Md "Yes, I gave, you tv o here every fruit on earth. li.

186. Nunt ulp par*r nerr)k r]atn ninj. Peln it_ yu:w ya: - n. ""pn dm nn nn pa av pn dm av vbs pr 'you that child son my very they those away go-do' Hd + Md Hd +•• Md "You there are ny very ovm son." "Those there go away. "•

Pronoun plus noun nodifier

Pronoun heads nay be followed by nouns which nodify then

and can thus be classified as endocentric.

187. Hul pan ninj wonp - r nanp-ul-nun pan wa;t. im nn aj pn nn aj 'he nan true die - did us - for men wrong'

Hd 4^ Md Hd -tt- Md Hd + Md Hd ^ Md

"He a righteous nan, died for us erring nen."'

It is sonetines debatable that the two elenents pn -H nn are invar

iably in iten-appositive confrontation. If the noun is added to

nodify the pronoun head because alone it is uJmble to bear the full

lexical connotation inherent in the substantive, then the phrase is

of a Hd + Md construction. Borderline cases of course VJill tend to

be included in both endocentric and exocentric sections herein.

323

188. gul Karayj tjDno - ko wonp - r ra:k vrasr - an, pn na nn or vb pc nn aj el

»he Christ once die - did deeds evil-fron Hd + Md

"He- Christ died for sins, once. "

189. Kiri nanp pan - t_a;w t_urna ya: - r aan^ as pn nn av vb nr pn

'go-on we friends together go-nust we' Hd + Md Hd

"Cone on we friends nust go together we nust." ti (I

190. Peln kul - punk nar) - un i:-wal pur)k - tetrk ... naqunp. •g». nn pn da dr nn vb av ^ 'they crowds hin - to this-way g a t h e r there Hd + Md „ "The whole crowd of then are gathering tm7ards h m there.

191. Peln 1ml - punk nori naiQ-narjal ni:n ra:kumn - ak. pn nn nn aj vb nn lo^ Hhey crowds nany happy stay heaven - m Hd + Md + Md "The whole vast crov/d of then are pleased in heaven. "

In this clause the extra nodifier expands the phrase as

Hd + Md + Md so that the S-tagnene stands out nore clearly as a

pronoun phrase, though an equivalent /pan kul-puqk noi]/ 'men-crowd-

many' as CI + Hd + Md would suggest that the pronoun /peln/ serves

as a classifier.

192. Peln Pariji yik - r nai] - un, "NakJ"' pn na vbs pc pn da nr

'they Ph risees say-did him - to look' Hd + Md "The Pharisees said to hin, 'Look.""

The nominalisation of pronouns nay also be discontinuous.

193. N l P^l - nuriun Po:njur yik - r, " M p qan pal wak.'" " lie then-2-to Lord say - did you-2 ne follow' pn pn da na vbs pc pn pn dr vbs Hd ... +• ... Md

"The Lord told the two of then to follow Hin. '

194 May - i nuj - nanj - n okun >peln pan - ^a;w narin. nn da vbs fu po as pn nn nn pa

'food--fco • o b j e c t e l l - c a n maybe they f r i e n d s h i s ' ' Hd Hd 4f Md

Hd -k Md Hd. -ir Mi-

/lo P S / "Can his friends refuse to oat? "

524

Ergative-

The ergative suffix on the modifying noun helps to clari

fy whether the pronoun is transitive or intransitive.

195-. Nul Kot - ntr pul - nun kut.ir yu:np - ir park - nat a . ~n na "er pn ob nm vb pc vb nf •he G o d then-two both nake-did shine-to' Hd + Md

"God nade them both for giving illumination."'

196 . Nul J i t a . i - n r a r j k - a q k - i r p e l n - a n "Nur w a i r t - a n t - a r k o : ? " •pn n " or vbs r d pc pn ob pn qn ex

"he J e s u s a s k - i n g - d i d t h e n you w h a t - a b o u t e h ? ' Hd + Md . / S P T-o 0 /

" J e s u s was a s k i n g t h e n , 'V/hat a b o u t i t e h ? ' "

197 . Nul T-epit - n y u : n p - i r . P e l n nun, wak-n nun^ pan nor] - t r . •pn •" na e r vb pc pn pn vb nf pn nn nm e r ' h e David m a k e - d i d ' ' t h e y him f o l l o w - i n g h i n nen n a n y ' Hd + Md Hd -^ Md-

Hd + Md "David w r o t e i t . " "Lo t s of t h e n f o l l o w e d H i n . "

1 9 8 . Nunt r )an jn-an pan ^ o n - t^r kunk t.an - an - n . •""pn pn ob nn nm e r a j vbs cs po 'you u s man o n e a l i v e s t a n d - c a u s e - c a n '

Hd + Md Hd + Md

/ S - 0 *S PA P / "Only you San r e s c u e u s . "

O b j e c t i v e

The object tagnene of a clause nay often consist of a pro

noun phrase, sinilar to noun phrases, in which a prononinal head is

nodified by a noun, noun compound or embedded noun phrase. Discon

tinuity is optional as one feature of these phrases.

1 9 9 . Nun n i n j - t a ; w pur)k r i : j - an - i r r a : k w a : r r)am.p y u : n p - n . •piT niT nn vbs cs pc nn a j pn vb nf

' h i n body b r u i s e c a u s e - d i d c r i n e s we d o - i n g ' Hd + Md .

/O P S / "He was b r u i s e d by our wicked d e e d s . ' *

200 . Nunt i j an jn -an pan naqkn n i n j - t _ a : w naiQ-narjal wene -nan - i i an . pn pn ob nn pa nn a j vb c s fu

' you u s nen your b o d i e s happy becone n k - w i l l ' Hd + Md

Hd + Md

/s' 0- ' P A P / "You will nake us your own folk happy. "

325

201. Nul peln-an pan mon nin wene-nan-r ruwun-anpa Kot - ak. pn pn ob nn nn aj vb cs pc re na lo "he then nen nany good becn-nake-did before God - at

Hd + Md Hd + Md ,

/s 0 PA p i / "He nakes nany righteous before God. "

202. Nun to; rrj-ar pan-ninj r)ul nanp-lin wan-ul ku:t ip r)e:y-n.an? ••pn •" vbs pc nn nn en pn ob qm or nn vbs fu ^ •hin strike-did body and us who story hear-wxU Hd ...+... Md Hd ... ^ ... Md

/O- P -0 / Cn 0- e - O P /^ "Ha was put to death physically and who will accept our story?"'

203. Nun kunk t_an - an - ir ne:nk nerp. •pn" .aj vb OS pc nn nn ^ ^ g^ y^^ »hin alive stand-cause-did spirit" ^ ^ H

CI - Hd Hd . . . +- ,... Md

"He was raised up in soul,

P ob ''Cl

II

204 Nunt nan •t7u:mp minj - ; a;w rirkir - m - an - n ? pn pn- qm nn aj vbz cs dz 'you me ? b o d y clean - se - make-wxsh •

Hd ... + ... Md "Do you wish to heal ny leprosy?"

6.1.6 Demonstrative phrases

The denonstrative adjective is frequently followed by re

duced third person pronoun /^ul/ which is phonologically joined to

it and virtually gram.natically fused to nake a conpound. This /-ul/

is not an ergative case marker, but does frequently act like the

full form to indicate a clausal subject. Although nonphrasal as a

conpound, its phrase structure origin is shown in a few examples:

205. In'n - (n)ul nin ninj. Ulp - (n)ul narjir nunjun. d n~ ~pn aj av dn pn av aj 'this - one p'ood very' 'that-one rather heavy" /a "PA / /S PA / Hd +- Md Hd + Md

"This one is finei'" "That one's rather heavy.'"

2D6. Daw-oy, rat in'n - ul - t_ - a nija 0:1 - ntam. ^f nn dn pn fo en na na el

'indeed book this-one -the- I Mr Hall - fron' Hd + Md

/in S PA / "Yes, this book right here is fron Mr Halx.

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S. 2 Endocentri.c phrases - nulti-headed

6.2.0 Introduction

Multi-headed endocentric phrases v/ill be divided into

those which are coordinated by nonsingular pronouns and those which

are iten-appositive. In the first, a dual pronoun /pul/ 'they-two',

or a plural pronoun /peln/ 'they', replaces 'and' of the English

equivalent translation, but in the second, mutual juxtaposition

links the two (or nore) heads by a zero connector. (See the con-

nont on interpretation of double connectors under ex. 59 inl3.2.2.)

6.2.1 Goordinatod phrases

Two heads of the one phrase are often joined by neans of

a nonsingular pronoun which gathers then together and coordinates

the conponent heads to unify then as one tagnenic unit , for exanple-,

on clause level as S or 0 and so on. Though /igul/ 'and, but', joins

clauses paratactically, it is seldon used on phrase level as a co

ordinator. Examples Y/ill now be exauined.

207. Jimi - ntr PUL Tom - tr r)ene na:-nat_ - r - r pul. na er pn na er qn rd vbs re tn pn

» J i n n y they-2 Ton why? look-ing-eo-do they-two' Hd + Ik + Hd

/S- Nt P -S / "¥hy are Jinny and Tom staring at each other? "

S = Hd, Ik Hd ... Ik

pn V, P'-an. ^ ntk

Read; This coordinated phrase consists of a head slot filled

by a proper noun marked ergatively, a link slot filled by a dual

pronoun and a second head slot filled by a proper noun also marked

ergatively, and discontinuously, a redundant recurrence of the link

slot post-verbally, filled by the nonsingular pronoun.

208. Pan j-fc PELN pam pinalam naqunp wun. nn dm pn nn nn av vbs 'nen those they nen three there stay' Hd +- Md Hd + Md

Hd + Ik + Hd "Those three nen live there."

209. Dan-p kal - rt, punkur-t_a:r nul PELN pam n.ann - nan ? qn en vb in aj pn pn nn pa er

»what-too carry-abt-to hungry he they nen his ' Hd -h Md

Hd + Ik + Hd "What v as He going to take virhen he and his nen hungered?"

210. Peln .^itaj-- ^ .u pan nann-nan Jita.! peln - an yik - an-n pn n^ er ^T^n^ P ^ ^ r na pn ob vb _ cs nf

'they Jesus they nen h i s Jesus then teach-mg Hd -(r Md + Md

Hd + Ik -tr Bead, Hd I a e a d .

/3 ' O f / "Jesus and his disciples were teaching then."

Read: This enbedded phrasal conplex consists of an iten-apposi

tive phrase of two heads, the second of which conprises an enbedded

Hd -)- Ik + Hd, and the second of these two coordinated heads consists

of an endocentric phrase Hd + Md + Md, the second nodifier being a

noun possessor. Both coordinated heads are in the ergative case,

the first ergative marker being that used when acconpaninent is al

so indicated, /-n/ rather than the suffix /-nt_r/.

211 Pan ra:k-rirkir pupk-te^rk-an-n non PELN pan kor -nal.. ' ' nn nn nn nn vbs cs nf nn pn nn av (jijjdr

"nen n o n e y gather-ing-were nany they nen outcast CI + Hd Md + Hd H,'! ,+- Md

Hd + M o d i f i e r , + Md H e a d -t- Ik -(- Head

/S "Many taxgatherers and outcasts ...

narjunp - nr - p vain - n . S = Hd 4r Ik -t-- Hd av In en vbs nf

I pn ,T 'there just-too stay-ing* ^1 ^2 L P /

... v/ere staying there."

In the above equation representing the overall phrase, N^ consists^

of a head slot filled by a noun, a nodifier slot filled by an ad

jectival clause and another nodifier slot filled by a numeral ad

jective. N consists of a noun head with a conpound nodifier.

212 Ton pul Motn !, pul ko:w-kanp ir 'n ya: - t £u2, ya:-ra. na pn na pn av dn vbs pc pn dr •Ton they2 Morton they2 before this go-did they-2 away' Hd - Ik + Hd Hd . . . Hd /^„ ^ " ' 1 P- ^t *-P /

"Ton and Morton v/ent right away long ago. "

Redundant use of the coordinating pronoun /pul/ is noticable here,

and since the verbal auxiliary is discontinuous fron the nain verb,

the pronoun is repeated for it as well, a connon practice.

The next exanple is sonewhat sinilar to 211, a reduced

clause filling a nodifier slot on phrase level. Finally, the

phrase, pattern appears as : S - Hd - Lk +- Hd, as also in 214.

328

213. Ra:k lono pnn mtk-rirkij—r.^lT3K-JLg;r?^-qn-n UQXi—EEM . . * nn nn nn nn nn nn vb cs nf nn pn

' t i n e one nen n o n e y ga the r - ing -were nany they 01 + Hd Md + Hd

/O P / Hd - Md + Md

H e a d -k l k •+-

/ T S

"Once t h e t ax - c o l l e c t o r s and :,,:*,

^^., pan r a ; k wa;r ymsnp-n y a : - t n,ai3-un J i i a j - a k kusk ne:y-nat .a . nn nn a j vb nf vb pc pn a l na a l im vb nf

'nen L a w w r i t - i n g go-did h i n - t o J e s u s - t o words h e a r - t o ' /O P /

Hd -b Md # Head

P L 1 ... lawyers went to hear Jesus speak."

214. Peln pan rat vu:np-n vi:r-an PELN pan Pariji. - ntan... pn nn nn vbs nf nn pn nn na el

'they nen books writ-ing sone they nen Pharisees-fron /O p / Hd -t-- Md .... (•<- Md)

Hd + Md + Md H e a d +- lk + H e a d

"Sone scribes and nen fron the Pharisees in the Synagogue ...

a =

pornpur Jinakok - ak na:-w-r nun. nn na lo vb pc pn

I -fr: lk Edl ^ house Synagoguo-at see-did Hin' -1- -_ ^1 ^ Z Md

P 0 / .., did see Hin , "

Embedding is a very narked feature of the nultiheaded phrases found

within a single tagnenic slot. ^QQ^dination and apposition go to

gether in linking up the phrase elenents.

2X5. Pan in'n-ul-t PELN pan i: [ peln ko;p ya:-n Prijpan - ak. nn n"~ pn To pn nn av pn nn vb pr na al 'nen these - the they nen there they all go - do Brisbane-to'

Hd-H Md Hd + Md + ¥d Hd -H- Md Hd -h- Md

H e a d + lk -t Hd H e a d 1 Hd

/S P L ^ / "All these nen here and those nen there go to Brisbane.'

The next exanple consists of a verbless clause shov/ing several feat

ures of the phrase constructions already referred to.

5if

216. .Danjn pan kun - va^kar kutir | Pita - n PUL Anturu - .n. pn nn nn (kn) nn nn na ac pn na ac

'we nales brothers two Petcr-with two Andrew-with'

CI 4- Hd Ci + Hd + Md Hd ^ lk + Ed

H e a d H e a d /S PA /

"w'e have two brothers, Pita and Andrew. "

Thus the filler of the PA-tagnene consists of Hd^ [ Hd^ .

217. Jini - nlr | Joni - n | pul rjeriQkan ^anp - r - r pul. na er na er pn av vb re pc pn

' Jinny Johnny they-2 Y'day punch -eo-did they'

Hd + Hd -Head I Hd ... Hd

/S- T P -S / "Jinny and Johnny were both sparring together yesterday."

218, Kunn neper - t. wal - koyle . . «. nn nn dn nn nn

'thigh quarter side - half

/o

pa:nt pil-we_te na^n-nan PUL nan ka;la nat_n-nan ni' i - r . nn nn nn pa er pn kn nn pn er vb pc

fenale ,,0-n-law ' ny they u n c l e ny take-did' 01 -f- Hd

CI -f Hd + Md CI +- Hd +" Md H e a d + lk + H e a d

B P / "My nother-in-law and big uncle took one forequarter of neat. "

S = Hd^ - lk H- Bd^

N^ i ^ ^2

The filler of the S-slot consists of two noun phrases linked by a

coordinative pronoun. Both phrases conprise a head modified by a

classifier before it and a nodifier after it.

219. Damp ak, nur-nr (k)a:r-p, rial:::riali:iL_-Pant j:i yup pentap. pn mr ^n Tm ng en rd pn In na ac as vbs 'we let you-just not-too we-two-only Panta-with soon paint

/S_ ^ P _ _ . / Hd + Md Hd ... - Md — — - -"

Hd + Md /S- p- -S -^ / "Let us all, not just you fellows, but Punta and ne too, soon

paint ourselves up for the corroboree."

In this exanple, an indication of the different parties involved,

is obtained by the use of /]Qamp/ 'we(nc) ' in focus clause-initially

and immediately follovred by the imperative particle, to assure the

hearer beforehand that Persons I -f II will perform the action of

the clause-final verb. Other heads are exclusive, /nur/, as subject

330

of its enbedded clause, "not just you chaps", and the dual pronoun

/r|al-r)ali-r/ 'just hin and ne', nust be interpreted therefore as

nodifying only, since the initial head /r)pnp/ is all inclusive and

senantically conciliatory since the nen addressed nay have had cause

to think that the Chief and the Chairnan night conpel then to nake

the effort of "painting-up"' while not thenselves assisting.

220. Mavkul - n PUL Kati - n ya-wo yik - r e:pil - ak. na er pn na ac ex vbs pc nn lo

•Michael they-2 Cathie goodbye say - di airfield-at' Hd -h lk + Hd

/S 0 P L / "Michael and Cathie said goodbye at the airstrip. "

In contrast to this sinpler exanple where the coordinating pronoun

occurs only once, sone clauses redundantly contain the nonsingular

pronoun twice or three tines.

221. Jek-ntr PUL Jini - n nit PUL lurna rirk. na er pn na er nn pn av vb ' Jack they2 Jimmy work they together do '

Hd + lk + Hd Head Hd

/S- 0 -S M P / "Jack and Jin work together. "

Y/hen the coordinating pronoun is repeated closer to the verb, it

nust then be regarded as a discontinuous head sunning up the prev

ious conponents into one concise unit.

222. May na;v: nusqk-nan DANJN Jon DANJN Morij-n (D)ANJN nay, nn pn vb fu pn na pn na er 'food I eat-will we John we Morris

Hd + Md Hd + Md or: Hd +

/O S- P "I'n going to have dinner later with John and Morris."

Since there are three parties involved in the S-phrase,

they are listed concisely, unanbiguously and clearly: /igay, qanjn

Jon/, /qay i anjn Morrij-n/ and /qay rjanjn rjay/. Since all three

are concerned in the rendezvous, /rjali/ 'v/e-two' nust give place to

/qanjn/ 'we (xc)' meaning that his hearer is excluded.

In the follo?7ing example, discontinuity and redundancy

are again noticable and three ergative suffixes occur as v/ell as

three signals of the duality of persons involved. The overall

Hd -f lk -f Hd is a simple structure, but the second noun phrase re

cursively contains the sane, with a classifier.

331

223. May min par'r kutir-nan PUL rint-r vMJ^.J^:2J^li^^LmLJMMl^iM' nn aj nn nn er pn vb tn nn na er pn na er 'food pood children two they cook-did chn Beverley they Michal"

Hd + Md Hd, + lk 4-- Hd ~~~~ ~~~ CI 4- Head

Hd +• lk . . . -t Head /o S- P -s /

"Good food those two girls cooked, Beverley and Michal."

The next example contains a series of heads with a nodi

fier, all within the 0-slot after a prononinalisod ergative S-head.

The coordinating pronoun precedes the itens at the head of the list.

224. Kot-ntr | nul yu:np-ir PUL-NUN nanan. panip. pan. pa:nt takir-min. na er pn vb pc pn ob nn nn nn nn nn aj f God He nake-did then-2 nother father nan wonan handsoue'

Hd + Hd Hd + Hd Hd + Md 4- Md

/S F 0 ' PA / "God nade then both parentally nale and fenale and handsone. "

225. Nul pul-nun Jenij-ak PUL Jon-tak na::b-nat PUL pan nernkJebjtir^. pn pn ob na ac pn na 'ac vb ps pn nn nn na ac 'he them-two Janes-with they J-v.dth see-did they nan son Z-with'

Hd 4- lk -h Hd 01 4- Hd 4- Md Head + ... Ik 4- Head

Hd 4- Modifier

/ s o - P -0 / "He saw Janes and John together, the two sons of Zebedeo.-'

This rather conplex enbedding together with nodifiers and

coordinating pronoun links conveys the neaning precisely and unan-

big-uously. The final exanple in this section shows the inportance

and function of the the narkers of accompaniment /-ak/ in addition

to /pul-nun/ the coordinating object pronoun. A difference ought

to be recognised bet¥/een the coordinating pronoun -v/hen it acts as

link between t\?o heads and the sane when it precedes or follows

then. In the latter case, it is senantically inclusive of both,

Y^hereas in the forner, it also links then paratactically.

226.

Nul J a v n o n - a k n_a:-w-r PUL-NUN En t ruw-ak I pan k u n - y a n k a r nannJaynon-ok. ^ n na ac v b s pc ~ pn "ob na a c " nn nn (kn) nn "pa na pv ' ho S i n o n - w i t h s e e - d i d t h e u 2 Andrew-wi th nan b r o t h e r h i s S i n o n ' s '

CI -f Hd 01 4r Hd 4- Md +• Md

Hd +- Md Hd . .. + lk 4- H e a d

/S 0- P -0 / "He saw Sinon with his brother Andrew, "

332

6.2.2 Iten - appositive phrases

Largely for lack of a coordinator, certain phrases are

deened iten-appositive, with tv o heads in nutual apposition, yet

inseparable because of a senantic affinity or zero connector. Eight

subsections conprise notional differences in head relationships.

6.2.2.1 The second iten supplenents the first.

227. Mavkul - n I nali yup kana nu:r)k - nan. na er pn as as vb fu ' Michael we-two soon have eat - will ' Hd I Hd

/S P / "Michael and I will soon have dinner we will. "

228. Dali I pa:nt natn - man piraw - r par'r. pn ' nn pa er vbs tn nn ''we-2 v/ife ny ration - did children'

/S P 0 / "My wife and I gave the kids tucker. "

S - Hd^ I Hd^ ^ *N = Ed Md

nn pa

229. ^on - tr j riali yak t.e:rr) - ar kay rjal - nant an - n. na er pn nn vb pc nn pn pv ns ' Ton we-two snake kill - did gun our-two's - witH

Hd I Hd /S 0 P N.S /

"Ton and I killed the snake with our gun. "

230. Dali i Epereni - n ko: - kope rump - un. pn ' na ac rd vbs nn lo

t - e-two Ephraim-with wait-ing beach-at' Hd I Hd

/S P 3, / "Ephraim and I were waiting o,t the beach."

231. Dali pal t.e;rk-r pornpur-n; i:-r-kaw t_e:rk-r nali | Mr OtI-tak. pn dr vbs pc nns al dr cp vbs pc pn na ac

'we-two cone return-did house-to E-wds return-did we2 Mr H.with' Hd ... ... Hd Hd

/S P 1 / (L) P S / "He and I returned to the house; Mr Hall and I went back E-wards."

232. Nip \ Ela - n A?3UW - r - nan Etwat - ripa - nak. pn na ac vbs re fu na na lo

''you-2 Ella -with neet-eo-will Edward River-at' Hd Hd

/S P .L / "You and Ella will neet each other at Edward R."

333

233. Danp I-at-u.ri. I namp ijeriikan nanp|-at;-un t.ar]kar-nan ra:k min-in. ~^^ ~n ac pn av pn pn ac vbs nf nn aj el i^e-ne-with we y'day we-with-ne laugh-ing thgs gd-fron Hd 4f Md I Hd Hd +- Md

/s- ' T. _S P K / "You and I were laughing about those fine nenories of ours. "

(Redundant repetition indicates the verbose and jocular nood of the

two speakers.) /Danp-aj^-un/ is analysed as Hd 4:-Md, not Hd | Hd.

234. Pan tone i wan we:^-on kar-yup-ka:r t_oi3k-r pornpur - n. nn "lam ' nn"' nn av vb pc nns al 'nan one ghost unclean quickly arrive-did house-into* Hd + Md 01 4T Hd

Hd I Hd /S M P L / "A spirit-possessed nan rushed into the house."

235. , Dul kar-yup-ka:r ninj-t a:w wi:yt. - ntr t ak -ar nun . cn av nn nn er vbs pc pn "and quickly b o d y sores leave-did hin'

Hd ... I ••• Hd /in M 0- S P -0 /

"And straight away the leprosy left his body, "

236. Peln ko;p rirp - ir nag - un ra:k Jutiya - iiak ... pn nn vb pc pn da nn na al 'they all energe-did hin - to place Judea - to' Hd Md

/S" ^ " P L 1 "They all cane out to Him to the land of Judea

pam i peln ko:p ra:k Jerujalem - tarn. , nn ' pn nn nn na el 'nen they all place Jerusalen-fron'

Hd 4- Md Hd 4r- Md Hd + Md

Hd I Head

-s (L) f all of them fron the city of Jerusalen. "

In this discontinuous S-tagneme, /peln ko:p/ is repeated since it

was in focus sentence-initially, but now recurs to carry the modi

fier /ra:k Jerujalen-tan/ in apposition.

237 Dul Kot - ntr juk t_a: -1 o: npu i] ana 1 yu;np - ir ... cn na er nn nn aj vbs pc 'and G o d things Y hales great nake - did /In s o - P

"And God nade the great whales

... nin kor-kanpa t_onkun nun wa:r-n - nan. nn av nn vbs aj vbz nf

"creatures everjrwhere ones novo sv/arn-ing' -0 /

... and all the creatures swarning everywhere."

334 0 = Hd^ ... I ... Hd^

*S *N_ = Hd Md nn iCl

N = CI Hd Md nn nn aj

2:38, Jon-t.r | pan pa:nt ku:-kurik-r, rirp - ir ra:k panpar - n. na er nn nn rd vbs tn vb pc nn nn al ' John man head splash-do energe-did place desert-to'

/O P / Hd 4- Md

Hd I Hd /S P L /

"JTohn, the baptizer, went out into the desert. "

239. Peln I pan j-t j peln nin. ka:r-p yanj - n wajQat, - ak, pn ' nn dn pn aj ng en vbs dz nn al 'they nen those they well not-too go-wish doctor-to'

Hd + Md /S PA / Hd 4- M d

Hd I Hd /s ' :p L / "It's not those nen who are well who want to go to the doctor."

240. Ejaya - n | propet - ntr kana yu:np - ir rat - an, na er nn er as vbs pc nn lo ' Isaiah the prophet has forite - did book - in' Hd i Hd

/S P L / "Isaiah the prophet wrote it in a book."

241. Kan nann Jitaj°ak |i pan nernk-nt r x]anp-lin rirkir-n-nan - r. nn pa na pv nn '" nn er pn ob aj vbz cs tn 'bl. od his Jesus's nan s o n us clean-se-does' Hd 4- Md 4- Md 01 4- Hd

Head | Hd /S O P /

"The blood of Jesus his Son cleanses us. "

6.2.2.2 First iten belonp:s to second iten

242. Ku;k nin nann | Jon Peptij - ak 130: - y - r (r))ay. nn aj pa na na pv vbs pc pn

•words good his John Baptist's hear - did I' Hd 4- Md Hd 4- Md

Hd 4- Md " (Hd 4- Md) Hd 4- Md

/o p i "I obeyed the preaching of John the Baptist. "

243. Retvo Reynon - ak j. peln-an pinalan - ak a3Qar ni'i-r - ay. nn na pv pn pv nn pv cn vbs pc pn

'transistor Raynond's theirs three's so-as get-did I' Hd + Md Hd + Md

Hd I Hd /O Cn P S/ "So I could get Raynond's transistor for the three of then."

335

244. May - i nuj - nanj - n_ okun ... nn da vbs fu po as 'food-to object-will-can naybe /lo P

"¥ill the friends of the bridegroon fast ...

. .. peln I pan-_ta;w nann | pan t_on - t_r nul pa;nt pit -r? pn nn pa nn nn er pn nn vb tn

'they friends his nan one he wife take-do' Hd 4- Md / S O P / Hd + Md Hd 4- Md 4- Md

Hd I Head Hd:; ~ ' Hd^

S # when he takes to hinself a wife?"

It nay well be decided that Head^ nodifies Head^ in the S-phrase;

at least they are in apposition and the first belongs to the second.

6.2.2.3 First iten a part of the second

245. Narjunp wun - n (n_)ul opital I Ke:nj . av vbs nf pn nn na

'there ly-ing-was he hospital Cairns' Hd |. Hd

/L P ' S L / "He was staying there in the hospital at Cairns."

246. Nur I rianp | pan nor) ya: - t. pn nn nn nn vbs pc 'you wo nen nany go - did'

Hd 4 Md Hd I Hd

Hd 4- Md /S P /

"You, all of us, lots went.'"'

247. Nunt nan.in-an | pan nankn ninj-t.a.w naq-naqal wene-nan-nan. pn pn ob nn pa nn aj vb cs fu 'you us nen your bodies happy becone-nake-will

Hd 4- Md Hd 4-- Md

/8 0 PA ^ / "You will nake us your own friends happy and contented,"-

6.2.2,4. Pronoun versus body-part

A conparison may be nade between this analysis and the

alternative given in section 6.1.5 (Pronoun phrases).

248. Hunt naii I n i n j - .ta;Y/ n i n wene - nan - r , pn pn nn aj vb cs t n

'you ne b o d y w e l l becone-nake-do ' Hd I Hd

/ S 0 PA P / o r J, / S 0 PA P /

"You h a v e hea, led ny b o d y . "

335

The problem i s to decide whether / n i n j - i a : w / belongs t o /rjan/ or t o

/ n i n / . I f t o the l a t t e r , the phrase has no s t r u c t u r e , but as t h e

express ion / n i n j - t a : w n a ^ - n a q a l / i s i d i o n a t i c a l l y u n i t e d , so p e r

haps here the sane i s f e a s i b l e .

249, Nun I nin.i- t_a;w purjk r i : j - a n - i r r a : k w a : r r)anp y u : n p - n . ~n~ nn" nn vb cs pc nn a j pn vbs nf

' h i n b o d y b r u i s e r u n - n a k e - d i d deeds e v i l we d o i n g - w e r e ' Hd I Hd J

/O ' P R ,, / "He v/as b r u i s e d by t h e e v i l t h i n g s we d i d .

6 . 2 . 2 . 3 S i n g u l a r v e r s u s p l u r a l pronou,n

250. I n ' n - 1 ku ta i : pul kut . i r | i : pul k u l i r | i : pul t_ono. dn fo nn av pn nn av pn nn av pn nn

' t h e s e - t h e dogs t h e r e 2 both, t h e r e they tv/o t h e r e they one hd ] Hd

/S L PA / L PA / L PA ^ / "These are the dogs there; they two, there two, there one."

As explained elsewhere, through the lack of an articulate nunbering

system, the itens are listed paratactically in a long phrase with

the dual /pul/ linking sone pairs of itens in binary fashion.

251. Pan nul | qali wal - kuiir ya: - n gali. nn pn pn nn nn vb pr pn •nan he we-2 side-by-side go - do he-and-I'

Hd j Hd , /S- M 1 '^ ,

"That nan (he) and I go side by side together."-

6.2.2.6 Noun plus alternative nodifiers

252. Nul ku:k t ono | kut_ir ka:r - p yik - r. pn nn nn nn ng en vbs tn •he words one two not ~ too say-does'

Hd 4-- Md / Md. • / S O P /

"He didn't say one single word."

253.

J i t j i j - n w a : r - n i n noi] yu:np-n (naqn-ma K o t - a n t a n ) ; jono ) k u t i r pokon-p. na er nn nn vb nf pn e l na e l nn nn a j

' J e s u s a l l - s o r t s nany doing h i n - f r o n God-fron one two none Hd Hd

/S PA /

/ S O P / "There wasn't a single thing Jesus didn't do at God's initiative."

It is not. really a choice between two alternative nuner

als; the whole phrase is idionatic as in 252 above.

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6.2.2.7 Mutually exclusive itens juxtaposed

254. Pan - iir I pa:nt. - nr i.:;-wal \™tur - n - at . nn In nn In dr aj vbz ps

" 'nen-only wonen-only this-vmy narrow-crowd-did' Hd^ j Hd^

/S 'P /„ "Men and v/onen too just cane crowding along."

255. Jfif uslnul pan kor-pallpan ra;k rirkir punk-te:rk-an-n na:v/-r. na pn nn aj ' nn nn nn nn vb cs nf vb pc •Jesus he men outcast nen n o n e y - gather-ing-were s.ee-did

Hd -h Md /O P / Hd 1 Hd 4- Md

/S 0 "Jesus sav7 the outcasts and taxcollectors. "

3 ' -W

6.2.2.8 First iten equates the second redundantly

256. Dal I kutir - nr ya: - n. pn nn In vb pr 'Y/e-2 both - just go-do' Hd I Hd /S F / "Just you and I will both go."

2571 Hul yup na:J - nan kana | nin ninj . pn as vbs fu aj aj av 'he soon see-will good good very'

Hd 4- Md Hd I Hd

/S f PA / "He'll find out it's good, very good."

258. Pan [ peln nun, ne:r wa:r - an na:t;-n. nn pn pn nn aj ns vbs nf 'men they hin eye bad-with look-ing' Hd I Hd

/S 0 M P / "The nen they glov s r d at hin. "

Many sinilar expressions occur: /panjrjanp/ 'nenjwe'; /peln | pan

kul-pui3k/ Hhey I crowds ' ; /peln . .. | .. .pan noi]-ir/ 'they-the lot'

and nany others. Sone exanples follov/ below.

I • '^

259, Hul peln - an [ pan non nin wene - nan - ir -. •pn pn ob nn nn aj vbs cs pc 'he t h e n nen nany good becone-cause-did*

Hd 4- Md Hd — ^

/ s o PA P I "He caused nany of then to becone well."

338

260. Dul ulp ninj-r)u:l, m^ ^IP rjeri kerrikan ... cn dn av cn dn av

'and that afternoon and that norning /In S PA / On S PA /

"And that was evening and that was norning ...

,. . ra:k yu:r l utir | yu:r kutir. nn nn nn ' nn mi

'tines(hand) two fingers tv/o' / S .. . PA /

Hd 4- Md Hd + Md CI + Hd j Hd

,, . a fourth day . "

A non-redundant way of saying this would be /ra:k yu:r kut_-kut.ir/,

but the pnrases with juxtaposed equivalent heads are connon.

6 •? Exocentric - noncentred phrases

6.3.0 Introduction

Being noncentred, exocentric phrases are recognised by

the presence of a relator which nay be bound or free in tying the

axis into the slot v/ithin clause structure. Bound relators nay oc

cur on nore than one of the words comprising the phrase. Free re

lators occur both prepositionally and postpositionally which latter

nay be single, double or triple. Thoy nay be sinilar or diverse.

It is also necessary to distinguish bet?/een possessive inflections

and syntactic relators when classifying phrases, for sone operate

entirely within the phrase while syntactic relators establish a re

lationship vj-ithin the clause.

Exocentric phrases Vv'ill be treated in three subsections,

those whose relator is preposition-like, those which have an option

ally nodified head plus a suffixial relater and those having a doub

le, iten-appositive head together with a suffixial relater. It will

becone clear in thdexanples that embedding of phrase types is con

non so that sone previous exanples recur.

6.3.1 Relator-axis phrases with free relators

6.3.1.0 Introduction

Different forn classes have membership within the free

class of phrasal relators. Exanples will noY7 follow to illustrate

the use of the preposition--like /kar/ 'like, as' which also funct

ions on a clause level, /ya:r/ 'go-do.'', dinensionals like/i:-kan/

'up-high', adverbs like /werjQka/ 'anong, between', others like the

339

conpound /j a:-lurna / 'anongst' and phrases like /pal-ya:r/*around'

6.3.1.1 /kar/ 'like'

pn re nn nn nn aj 'Y e like aninal sheep eye-bad-with becone-did'

01 4- Hd re 4* ax ,

/S M PA » / "Y/e strayed lost like sheep."

262. Nul kampi:nt-ir kar vuk nant an. kar vuk-unn r_a_ik—pot -em. pn as vbs pc re nn aj re nn nn aj el 'he has prow-did like plant snail like root ground dry-fron

Hd 4- Md Hd ^Md n- 4 re

re ^ ax Hd 4- _Md r..o 4r a x i s

/S P 1 " M / "He grew up like a small plant, like a root from dry ground.

Both M-slots are filled by RA-phrases in which the axis

comprises a modified head following the relater /kar/, but in the

second, double enbedding of nodified heads occurs. Meanwhile, the

suffixial relater /-en/ further conplicates the issue (See 6.3.2).

263 Kar waran yu^np (n)ur. Min t.alar nul nar kar yuk. re nn vbs pn nn nn pn nn re nn 'like Island-dance do you creature owl he fthrs like wood' re + ax ^^ ^- -

/M P S / S PiT / "You nust do an Island dance. The owl has feathers like bark.

Much enbedding of clauses occurs in the axis slot of RA phrases. In

the next exanple, the intransitive clause /S -H- L 4f p/ fills the axis

slot of the RA phrase conprising re + ax. In 263, a transitive

clause fills the axis slot: re 4- ax (S P L ) .

264. It rianp ra:k ni:q - 1 ni^n - n kar Nul -t ni-r] ni:-nin ... on pn nn nn fo vb nf re pn fo nn rd vbs 'if we place day-the stay-ing like He -the day stay-ing'

/S L P / re 4- axis M

"If we were staying in the light as He is in the light ... /Sr S L J? M .../

263 In'n-ul kar Eiava-n poroput-ntr kana yu;np -ir rat - an. "dn" pn re na er nn er as vb pc nn lo 'this like Isaiah prophet has do - did book-in'

re +- a x i s . . /S PA /

"This is like what Isaiah wrote in his scroll."

340

266. Ihy nip-lin pan katp-n yonpar-nan-r kar nat nip punk-te;rk-an-n. pn pn ob nn vb nf vbs cs tn re nn pn nn vbs cs nf

' I you-2 nen catch-g result-cause like fsh you gather-ing' /O S P /

re 4- a x i s /S 0 PA P M /

"I'll nake you nen-fishers as you caught fishers. "

6.3.1.2 /ya;-r/ 'go-nust'

This inperative form, of the verb /ya:-n/ 'walk' is in

cluded here because it is so connonly occurrent and easily gives

the inprossion of being lika a relator when act-Bially, it is not.

It seens to function as a free relater before the adverbial 'axis'

/i'i/ 'here' in an idionatic construction /ya:-r i'i/ 'like this'.

Pornally, the pseudo-phrase functions in a Manner slot in which it

is really an enbedded inperative clause: /ya:-r i'i/ 'go-nust here'

/P +- L/. However, it nay fill the axis slot of an RA phrase:

267. \7ant-ant-ar ya: - r i'i yik - r r)at. - un ? qm vbs mr av vbs pc pn da

'why-ever go-must here say-did me - to' /P L /

(not: re 4- ax ) /Nt M P lo /

"V/hyever did he speak like this to me? "

268. Day va: - r i'i petn pirk - r t.uyj - an. pn vbs mr av nn vb tn nns lo ' I go-nust here husk rip - do bush - in'

/S M (0)-F L / "I husk (the coconui) like this in the bush. "

269. Kar ya; - r i'i - t_ peln yik . re vb av fo pn vbs

'like go - nust here-the they say' /P L /

Hd 4- Md re 4- axis

/M S P / "Like this it is they speak.'"'

In the final exanple of this section, /yas-r i'i/ fills the nodif

ier slot of a noun phrase;

270. Danjn riok ra:k ya;-r i''i rjak ni^i - r. pn nn nn vb av nr vbs pc '• we water place go-nust here let take-do'

Hd 4- Md /S 0 L P /

"Let's take water in a place like this.'"

file:///7ant-ant-ar

341

6.3.1.3 Directionals like /i:-r-kan/

Most directionals nay fill the relater slot before or af

ter a noninal axis, thus relating that axis to its phrasal context,

271. Par'r nun ulup i:-wal pal ni'i-r is-r-kan ra;k Mijin. nn pn dn dr dr vb pc dr nn na

' boy hin that this-way cone take-did go-up place nission' CI + Hd

re 4- ax /O » L _ _ J

"They carried that boy up this \7ay towards the Mission."'

272. Pan i; - kan pornpur - n rok - ij - ar . nn di nns al vbs ur pc •nan up-there house - into enter-go-did'

ax 4- re re 4- ax

/S L P / 'The chap went and entered the house." nr

273. nul peln ak li:np - ir kor - kanpa ra;k-unn i:-l-nen. cn pn nr vbs ao av nn dr 'and they let shine-do everjrwhere heavens fron-above'

ax 4 re /In S P 1. M ^ /

"Also, let then shine everywhere fron space above."

6.3.1.4 /wernka/ 'between, anong'

Ulien the axis is plural, the phrase is sinple, but with

tvro single heads, a phrase becones conpounded. A plural head con

trasts etically in the next two exanples with separate heads.

274. Day yi:r-an nun yup re:k - r Y/ernka pan pork - ak. ,pn ni:i pn as vbs tn av nn aj ac "I sone hin soon give-do among nen chief-with'

Hd 4-- Md ax 4- re

re 4?- axis

/s ^ lo ;» M . i "I will soon give hin a share with the nighty."

275. Ra:k-unn ak Airan wernka nok ra:k-unn-ak nok ra;k - un. nn nr vbs av nn nn lo nn nn lo 3pc ' s p a c e l e t be betv/een w a t e r s k y - i n w a t e r g r o u n d - o n '

ax + r e aa: 4- r e Hd 4- Md Hd -fr Md-

Hd 1 Hd re 4'- axis

/g P L / "Let there be an atnosphore betT/een the rainclouds above and

the waters below on the earth."

342

6.3.1.5 /ta;-turna/ as relater type

Sonewhat similarly, other free relaters nay, supplenented

by suffixed relaters, govern their axes. One or nore heads are to

be found, and enbedding renders the phrases nore conplex;

276. Peln ra:k rant narjn yu:np - ir ta;-turna pan wair pil-un. pn nn nn pa vbs pc av nn aj pn lo 'they place hole his nake-did together men evil side-a-tf

Hd 4- Md ax 4fre ax re

re ± ax /S 0 F M /

"They nade his grave alongside the crininals."

277. Pan tjDno nin wene-y-r ruw-un-anpa nan-un | Kot - t ak... nn nn aj vbs tn av pn lo na lo 'nan a good becone-does before hin-at God - to*

ax - re ax - re Hd Hd

re 4- axis /S PA P L . . . f

"A nan becones righteous before (Hin,) God ..... "

The double-headed axis in this exanple cones as a result of the

feature of prononinalisation. Suffixed relaters occur freely.

An enbedded RA phrase nodifies a pronoun subject next;

278. Danp t_a:-lurna nari-un waj-wajir t_an - n,an Kot - tak. pn av pn ac aj vbs fu na ac •we together hin-with superb stand-will God-with'

ax 4-re re 4- ax_

/ E M PA ~P AC / "Yre, together with Hin, will stand righteous before God."

Other fillers of the relater slot have been identified,

/pal ya:-r/ and /kal/. The forner is SBonewhat akin to /ya:r/ above

(6.3.1.2), but /kal/ 'fron' seens to function rarely as a free re

later and is honophonous with two other words /nin, kal/ 'rat' and

/kal(-r)/ "take, carry'.

279. Day pu;k pal-ya:-r pornpur. Day in'n-ijtm kal Prijpan-tanya:t. pn vb dr vb nn pn dn al re na el vb 'I sweep cone-go house' »I this-to fron Brisbane-fr-cn'

/p / ax 4t- re re ax re 4- ax

"I sweep around the house." "I cane (to) here fron Brisbane."

A few niscellaneous words renain to be dealt with as relaters in

the final section following.

343

6.3.1.6^ \Tith others

Three words, an adverb, a directional and an aspectual

narker will be shown in the following exanples as having preposit

ion-like function as relaters before nouns or noun-like words.

280. Day nip-lin aw-in,»n, re:k-ar nay ko:p kor-kanpa ra:k - un. pn pn ob dn vb pc nn nn av nn lo 'I you-two this give-did food all everj^There carth-on'

H d 4- 1:1 d ax 4- re re 4- ax

Hd +- Md /S lo P 0 / , "I gave you two here every kind of food everyv^here on eartn.

281. Par'r nun ulup i:-wal pal ni'i-r f:-r-kan ra;k—Mijin... nn pn dn dr dr vb pc dr nn na «bcv hin that this-v/ay cn take-did up-wardsplace Mission

"' 01 4- Hd re 4- ax

/O t L "They carried that boy this way up to the nission area ...

N ta:-piri - nr - p te:rri - ar (n)un. (see 271 above) ^^ 3_ ^^ ^^3 p^ pn

RA = re 4- ax n e a r -just-too shoot-did hin' *N tCl L / N = Hd Hd + Md 4- Md /P 0 /

re + ax ... just near v/here he was shot."'

wd n

282. rn'n - T l na:t_ir kop - on.

,t'', P^ ; ^ , ^ \ ^° , /qa:tir/ is probably the 'this-one still below-at' / J _ /

ax 4- re filler of the P-slot and re 4- ax ,, „ , , , - therefore not a relater.

or;

/S P.4 /, /S P L / "There is still this below."

6.3.2 Head plus bound relater

Suffixed inflections relate their head by an RA construc

tion in singulary branching to the clause conponents. Several of

these have been included incidentally in recent exanples above.

283. Day ra:k - un t.e:rk - r (ri)ay t an - a - r. pn nns lo vbs pc pn nns ns «I ground-on return-did I foot - by'

ax 4- re /S- L P -^ M-Ns /

"I returned on foot by land. "

file:///Tith

344

Exa-nples following will now include nodifiers of the

axial 'heads', ^'hus, centred heads with, or without nodifiers, nay

fill axis slots, their suffix being the filler of a relater slot.

Exanples will be given also to show how lexical classifiers do not

disturb this RA construction. Finally, adverbs are found to occur

in exactly the sane kind of construction as fillers of the axis slot.

6.3.2.1 On nodifiod heads

284. Dan nul wal iTunp - an - ir warat nev;:er - ak. pn -pn nn vb cs pc nn "" aj lo 'ne he brow-put-cause-did grass green-in'

Hd + Md ax 4 re

/O S P L / "He caused ne to lie down in green pastures. "

285. Danj) wark - ant - r nor) ku:lan nar)n - nan. pn vbs cm. pc nn nn pa lo 'we wander - did nany track his - in'

Hd 4- Md ax 4- re

/S- P -& L / "w"e followed our ov/n trail, each of us."

286.

Nul yik - r "Dan (n)unt nit anar re:k" pan ton-tak ra:k nelen - ak. pn vbs pc pn p)n nn cn vb nn nn da nn aj lo 'he say-did Me you work so give nan one-to place own - on'

Hd 4- Md Hd -fr Md ax 4- re ax 4- re

/S P 6 . lo L / "Elo said, 'So you nust give ne v/ork.' ' to a m.an on his ov/n land. "

In the above three exanples, four nodified heads carry an

RA suffixed relater. In the next exaL.ple, we exanine example 262

again for its RA structure, v/ith endocentric enbedding.

287. Nul kana pi'nl-ir kar yuk r.antan, kar yuk-unn ra;k pot - en. pn as vb pc re nn aj re nn nn nn aj el 'he has gro¥/-did like tree snail like root ground dry-fron*

Hd 4-- Md ax 4- re

Hd 4- Md re 4- axis

/S P . 1 M / "He grew up like a snail plant, like a root fron dry ground."

Three nore exanples will be given, tv/o with the possess

ive adjective as nodifier and one v/ith the adjectiviser construct

ion in an Acconpaninent tagnene.

343

288. Nul wun pan. ra:k - rirkir - ok - on - ak. pn vbs nn nn nn ajz 0 ac 'he stays nen m o n e y - having - with'

C 4- Hd ax 4- re

TTfl +• Md axis + £,e

/S P Ac / "He stays with the wealthy nan.""

289. Ra:k jtorjkun werqka Kot n i : n - n a t n i t nann - nant a n . nn nn av na vb ps nn pa e l

' t i n e p iece between God s i t - d i d work h i s - f ron ' Hd +' Md

ax -^ re /T S P M /

"On the seventh day, (between), God rested fron his work."

290. ^ Peln pe:p pu:kan-p-un - n la:w - at, peln - antan - n.

pn nn aj vbz cs nf nn pn pa lo 'they nets re-new-ing-were boats their - in

Hd 4- Md ax 4- re

"They were nending nets in their boats."

6,3.2.2 On classified phrases

291 . Nul r a : k Y/a:r k a l - r pan kul - punk - a n t a n . pn nn aj vbs pc nn nn nn e l

' h e deeds e v i l c a r r y - d i d nen crox/ds - f r c o ' 01 4- Hd

ax + re /S 0 P Be /

"He carried crines for all nen. "

292, Nul ku:k nin yik - r nar)-un pan ra:k wa:r - ok-on -tan, pn nn aj vbs pc pn da nn nn aj pp el 'he words .-ood say-did hin-to nen deeds evil -having-fron'

Hd- +- Md ax 4 re

Hd 4 Md ax 4- re

/ S o F lo R / ,., "He prayed to Hin on behalf of the wicked."

293. 11 nunt ka:l-a:l-r nan ne:nk nankn-nan. nul nin kunk lan-an-r. cn pn vbs ""tn nn nn pa lo pn pn aj" vbs cs tn 'if you bel±.eve-do heart your - in He you alive raise-s'

01 4- Hd Hd 4- Md

ax,, 4- re /Sr S P " 1. / /Cd S 0 PA P /

"If you believe in your heart, He v/ill rescue you. "

346 294, Pan tone"wan we;t-01. : k a r - y u p - - k a : r xpr)k-r iiojrripur j i n a k o k p e l n - a n t a n - n . nn ni--i n n ' nn"'' e l av vb pc nn na pn ^ pv a l •nan one g h o s t d i r t y q u i c k l y a r r i v e - d i d house Syn. t h e i r - i n t o '

CI 4- Hd 01 + Hd \ax __+..JLe Hd +- Md. '" axis 4f re

/S Iff F £ / "And a nan with an unclean spirit rushed into their Synagogue."

Exanples show how often exocentric and endocentric phras

es are enbedded within each other in closeknit layering. The next

exanple gives also the clausal em_bedding v/ithin both types of phras

al construction v/hen the clause has becone a fused conpound word.

295. Nul r^k__ne^_^__nu:l - no.°nt - n .-a ni:n - nan. pn nn nn av vbs nf da vbs fu

'he tine eye later lack-ing - to sit-will'

A X _i_s ±,„_S.g. /S T " "' '" P /

"He will live for evernore, "

Reo^: This Tenporal slot filler consists of a relater-axis

phrase whose axis slot is filled by an endocentric phrase and whose

relater slot is filled by a dative suffix /-a/. The nodifier slot

of the endocentric phrase is filled by an intransitive clause.

The next exanple uses a double classifier construction in

v/hich one classified phrase is em_bcdded in another. In addition,

two suffixed relators occur,, one enbedded and an adverb of degree,

/ninj/ 'truly' nodifies a modifier, enclosing the relater.

296, Nul naknkat-am rirp-ir ITJJL .J ."i L.".."-•'': "-"' ^'^ ~ ^^ DJnJ . pn nn el vb pc nn nn nn np al av

'he camp -fron energe~d place nan-portion-less -to truly' _Cl^,._f_Jid

ax 4r re Hd _ 44 jld

" gd[ ^ , . . Md a X - r e - i s

/ S L P L / "He v/ent out f r o n t h e v i l l a g e i n t o a d e s e r t e d p l a c e . "

pn vb na na l o rra nn mi da ' I s t a y Edv/ard R i v e r - a t v/eeks t i n e two - f o r '

CI 44:. Hd ^"lld__ 4- Md

ax 4- r e / S P L T" /

" I s t a y a t Edward R i v e r f o r tv/o w e e k s , "

54^

The final classified sentence contains an enbedded intransitive

clause in the head slot v/ith a solitary /-n/ as relater, suffixed

to the clause-final verb. A lexical classifier precedes the head.

298.

Par ' r pa:nt wu:j ra :k ne : r -pa t -pa tp - r -n lowdt^an pur)-nr paj - ar . nn nn nn p.n nn rd vbstn da vbs nf nn In vb pc

'chn g i r l s dance time ©ye-canp-did-to play-ing sun-just r i s e - d i d ' /S P /

pi + Hd ax +, re

/S 0 E P M / "The girls didn't stop their corroboree till dav/n, at sun-up."

6.3.2.3 On nodified adverbs

It has already been pointed out that adverbs nay occur in

identical situations to nouns and are suffixed likewise for case

in sinilar mixed types of phrases, including the RA type.

299. Nul kanpa ra:k in'n-eman-am yanj-n Kot-lak kanankar-antannin.i. pn av nn dn el el vbs nf na ac av el av 'he first tine this-herc-fron go-ing God-to long-ago-fron true'

Hd 4- Md Hd ...4-. . Md ax 4- re ax re . -is.

ax 4 re /S T' P Ac M /

"He was living with God fron before this and fron olden tines."

300. Yuk wa:r-nin qay pur|k le:rk-an-ir ra:k yu;-kar - ontan. nn nn pn nn vbs cs pc nn av el 'things bad/good I g a t h e r -did tine future - fron'

CI + Hd azls 4- re

/O S P Pu / "I gathered up everything for the time to cone."

301. Dali ra:k kanpa - ntan - nr ni:n - n naka. pn nn av el In vb nf av ' we tine before - fron - just stay-ing here'

Hd 4- Md ax 4- re

lid + Md

/g M P L / "She and I have been sitting here right fron the start."

Tn the above example, v/e see an RA-phrase enbedded between two endo

centric phrases and the whole phrase fills a Manner slot in a tem

poral sense. It appears that a centred phrase is enbedded in an

RA phrase v/hich is itself enbedded within a larger endocentric

phrase. This kind of conplication now grov/s nore conplex when

double heads occur.

34a

6.3.3 Double-headed phrases v/ith bound relaters

6.3.3.0 Introduction

Two heads which rest uncoordinated in apposition nay have

one connon nodifier v/hich is suffixed by a relater. The parts of

the phrase nay be discontinuously dispersed through the sentence

and sometimes each head has its relater suffixed redundantly to one

of then. Again, a pair of heads nay be coordinated by such a pro

noun as /poln-rjun/ 'then-to, for' itself an R/i-phrasal in singulary

branching. Various conbinations also occur:

6.3.3.1 On iten-appositive heads

302. Nul iQamp - lin kunk Ian - an - ir .., pn pn ob aj vbs cs pc 'he u s alive raise - did /S 0 PA P-

"He raised us up alive ...

. . . ra:k I nit nin nanp-ul-ntan ka:r-p nanp r i : ran vu:np-ir. nn nn aj pn el ng en pn av vbs^^pc

'deeds v/orks good our - fron not-too v/e alone do-did'

^^^ I Hd ^ /S M P / Hd + Md + Md •

Head ... .4-. . ..____ M a X - 4-re - i s

M- _P -11 / ... n-ot fron any good qualities or deeds that we alone did."

Two parts of the axis phrase are discontinuous, and suff

ixed to the first is the relater /-ntan/ for the whole RA phrase.

The second part of the axis is a clausal modifier to the first half

of the axis which bears the suffixed relater for the v/hole. It also

includes two centred modifiers which nodify a double head, two

nouns in apposition. A sonewhat sinpler exanple follows.

303. Da-mp noi] - orjon - r ku;k | nit nanp-ul-ntan - n. pn rd vbs tn nn nn pa el lo 'we ly - ing - are v/ords deeds o u r - in'

Hd I Hd Hd +- Md

ax 4- re ax 4- re

/S r If ~~ 7 "\7e arc lying both in our words and our actions."

6.3.3.2 On double heads

These heads nay be prononinal and noninal respectively,

each with its ov/n inflection as relater, yet v/ithin the one phrase

and filling a clause-level tagnenic slot. The tv/o supplenent each

349

other for person, number and case, and the noninal head nay itself

be further subdivided naking three heads in all as required by the

context. Both heads stand in apposition.

304. Jilaj nul nay nuJrjk - n ... , na -^n nn vb nf 'Jesus ho food eat-ing-was

/S O P "Jesus v/as having a neal . . ,,

, .. pan kor-pal - ak | pan ra;k rirkir punk t e:rk - a n - n — z — S ^ . nn aj ac nn nn nn vbs cs nf ac 'nen outside v/ith nen n 0 n e y gather - cause-ing - with'

Hd 4f- Md 01 4- Hd Hd 4- Md /O P /

ax 4- re Hd 4- Md A x i s +- -^^

Hd^ I ^^2 Ac Ac • . /

with the outcasts and the taxcollectors."

The equation showing enbedded levels in the double Accon

paninent slot is:

Ac = Hd^ \ Hdg

*RA RA = ax 4- re *N /-ak/

*RA = ax 4-re *N /-ak/ N- = Hd 4- Md

/pan/ tCl K = Hd Md ^ '

/pan/ cn

303. Nur ku:k nin yik - r nar) - un | Kot - lak. pn nn aj vbs pc pn da na da 'you v/;ords good say-did hin - to God - to'

ax 4- re ax 4- re Hd 4- Hd

/S 0 P lo / "You all prayed to God. "

Either: Or; lo = ax re I ax ro lo = ax re

pn. da nn da pn/nn da 306. Ra:k yu:kara qanp ko:p nar)n-nul kunanp-un-r-nan nan-un t P.o:njur-ak. nn av pn nn pn rx vbs re fu pn da na da "tine future v/e all hinself report-self v/ill hin-to Lord-to'

ax 4- re j ax 4f re /T; S O P IO / "In the future, we nust all each give an account of self to God."

Relaters may vary almost as much as the number of cases.

Owing to the feature of pronominalisation, it night well be an op

tional choice as to whether these are analysed as double iten -

350

appositive heads or nerely prononinalised single heads.

307. Peln nun le:rr)-nan ra:k wa:r-an | pan natn - nantan. pn pn vbs fu nn aj el nn pa el

'they hin kill-v/ill deeds bad-fron nen ny - fron' Hd 4- Md Hd 4- Md . ax -fr re ax 4r re

. Hd 4- Md / S O P R /

"They v/ill punish Hin for the crines of ny people."

It is debatable whether the tv/o RA j)hrases are really in apposit

ion; they seen finally to unite as Hd 4- Md filling the R-slot.

308. Nul yik - r peln - i;]un j pan rat yu:np - n - ak. pn vbs pc pn da nn nn vb nf da 'he say - did then - to nen books writ - ing - to'

/O P J ax 4- re Hd + Md

axis 4- re Hd 4- Md

/S P lo / "He spoke to the auth.ors of the books."

309. Kusk ya:-r i'i rjanjn nun r)e:-y-r ... nn vb nr av pn pn vb pc

'words go-do here we hin hear-did /O- S -0 P

"A nessage like this v/e heard . ..

• • • na^n - na | Po:njur - antan |: pan rxeri]k - antan. pn el na el nn nn el 'hin-fron Lord - fron nan S.on - fron' ax 4- re ax 4- re 01 4- Hd

-0 ax 4- re / fron Hin, fron the Lord, fron the Son."

This exocentric phrase, triple-headed, fills a nodifier slot v/ithin

the 0-slot of the clause, being discontinuously connected to sone

other elenents, 0 = Hd ... Hd .. . Md

/ku:k/ /nun/ ph

6.3,3.3 On coordinated heads

310. Day yuk nev/er kana re:k -ar nay - i ...

pn nn aj as vb pc nn da ' I t r ee s green have give-did food-for / s o P R "I have given green foliage as food to every aninal..

(Enbedding in this exanple is conplex. If the second coordinated

half of the v/hole x hrase is interpreted as nodifying the first half,

then the whole is a centred i hrase in the lo-slot. The first RA

351

phrase is quite sir.ple, but the relater of the second is bound to

the coordinating pronoun /peln/ v/hich is then nodified by the brief

transitive clause /O 4- P/. )

ni,i kul-punk - tak PELN-DUN Ico :v/-ric:r]k wnp - r. " * nn nn da pn da nn nn vb tn

'aninals crov/ds-to then-to breath drav/-do' C 1 4- Hd / 0 - , I • /

ax 4- r o Hd . . . + M. — — o-x- ( r e ) - i s

¥d M o d i f i e r

i„ — / t o eve ry a n i n a l t h a t b r e a t h e s . "

6 . 3 . 3 . 4 O t h e r s

Various conbinations of phrase types occur in which al-

nost every phrasal feature is denonstrated by enbedding. The foll

owing long phrase fills a reason slot on clause level.

311. Peln kul - pur]k nor) nar)-nar)al ni:n pn nn nn aj vbs

'they c r 0 v/ d nany happy stay /S PA P

"The whole host of then rest happy

nan-un 1 pan ton - tantan PELN-DUl | pan ko:p ulp nin ni:-nin. ' In lo nn HH -^T pn lo nn nn dn aj TdjWs

hin-in nan one - fron then-in nen all those well stay-g Hd 4- Md /S . P^^—^——- /

ax 4- re " ax + re Hd_ . +__ . Md i ™, ax-(re) •-,-,_ _.

Hd j BM. ^ -^11^ lo ' ^ „ ...about the one solitary nan fron anongst those who are safe."

In this phrase filling the lo-slot, the structure is:

Hd I Hd 4- Md, and the Modifier slot is filled by an RA phrase in

which the relater /-i]un/ is suffixed to the head /peln/ while the

modifier of /peln/ is an intensive clause, /S PA P/. The double

heads each consist of an RA phrase with zero connection. It nay be

noted that the first head is filled by a locative pronoun, the sec

ond by an elative phrase and the third by a pronoun whose nodifier

is clausal.

312. Karayj wonp-r ra;k wa:r-an|ml pan min.i Inamp-ul-nun pam wa;r. na vb pc nn aj el pn nn aj pn da nn aj

•Christ die-did sins-from he man just us - for nen bad' Hd + Md Ed 4- Md Hd + Md

ax 4- re Hd ...4- Md

'^ P ^ _ / a x - ( r e ) - i s Hd . . . 4- Md

/ S - P R -S Be ^ / " C h r i s t d i e d f o r s i n s . He a j u s t n a n , f o r u s e v i l - d o e r s .

352

S-filler: /Karayj ... nul pan ninj./ 'Christ is a just nan.'

Be-f illor: /iQanp ... pan wa:r./ '¥e are evil nen.' (the axis)

Relaters; /-an/ and /-r)un/; the latter being infixed within the

intensive clause on to the S-fillor, thus relating the v/hole clause

as Be-slot-fillor to the nain verb /womg-x/.

5'*4 E n i c Conclusions

Enic phrase tj/pes and their features are sunnarised in

the follov/ing chart showing structure, to-gnemios, characteristics,

slots filled and fillers of their tagnenes: CHART 26

|Type -J S t r u c t u r e ^agnenef iFeatures i S l o t s f i l l e d i F i l l e r s

JENDOCJN {± ds) |(Cl)4-Hd(4-Md)|

ted4-Md I I S 0 PA T M i nn av pa nn |

n o d i f i e r s \ ; a j dn vb ( p n ) | d i ph c l fo I

'••Y ^(au)4-Hd(4-au); *i a u x i l i a r i e s

lAJ Rdp )4-Hd 4rdg I i n t e n s i t y \ n a r k e r s

AV Hd 4-- Md ': i n t e n s i t y i m a r k e r s

ng nn a t a j d r av a s d i

av a j av4-aj

av a j

^•ENDOClCoordinate? Hd4-lk-FHd

kiulti I

\ sane type S 0 lo I phrases I

Hd \ with(out) |S 0 PA -head \ \ I linking {

KPro)non-l: Hd....Hd \ pronouns jS 0 PA

fIten-Ajopos? Hd

(4- ds )

jEXOC iRA

I non- ;

\ cen- I ftered I

l+xe 4-ax +re } relater i \ class I ; wf^rds, J i suffixes

jMd M PA L

IT Be lo R

sAc Pu

j (re) ; j i av di dr /kar/; I (lixll j I nn av aj dn ^l ' cl \ pn pa nn ph \

Fillers in the chart neans (optional) fillers of nodifying and o.uxil-

iary slots. (Pro)non-1 in tho endocentric nultiplo-headed conpart-

nent neans the i^rononinalisation and noninalisation which goes on

Tiutually betv/een pronouns and noninals. Slots filled represent the

examples quoted in this chapter.

The Types column dividG3 Thaayorre phrases into their three

main categories of endocentric (Hd 4- Md), endocentric (multij)le -

headed) and exocentric (noncentred). Many combinations of these

types have been sampled in the examples of tho Phrase chapter.

353

Fillers of the m,ain slots found to bo nuclear in phrases

vary considerably. They are set out belo\/ in chart forn and those

v/ith a debatable presence appear in brackets. The nodifier slot is

not obligatory since a single word v/ith or v/ithout inflection nay

roisresent a phrase in this description.

CHART 27

Head Modifier axis \ relater

noun

adverb

adjective

noun

adverb

adjective

denonstrat-idenonstrative i

ivo

pronoun

possessive adjective

nuneral

di-aensional

directional

phrases

clauses

pronoun )

possessive adjective

nuneral

verb

dim.ensional

directional

l hrases

\clauses

''' focus

noun i

adverb \ adverb

adjective \

d e n o n s t r a t - ' j i v e \

pronoun j

possessive \ adjectivei

nuneral \

*(verb)

dinensional; dinensional

directional; directional

phrases \

clauses \

\ /kar/

I

(The fact of case inflections being identified on various kinds of

adverbs such o.s directionals and dinensionals nakes them possible

fillers of relator-axis slots.)

Tagmenic equations show concisely hov/ the various tag

nenes are arranged, v/hether they are nuclear or peri'pheral, oblig

atory or optional and v/hat their preferred order cf tagnenes is.

The array below indicates i/hat phrases are considered enic.

CHART 28

N = 4- Hd i Md^ + Md nii/pn aj/pa sx

+ Hd + Md^ as/ng vb as/ng

Endocentric AJ = -F Md

dg + Ed ± Md

aj dg

AV = 4-- Hd + Md av dp;

(other fillers in Chart 26)

354

Endocentric nultiple-headed

Coordinated 4- Hd +• lk 4- Hd N pn N^

Iten-appositive 4- Hd 4-- Hd

1 2

Prononinalisation 4- Hd ... 4- Hd. N/pn pn/N

Exocentric ± re 4- ax ± re /kar/ etc N sx -

Connents

Pernutations

1 Order in phrase tagnenes is rather strict.

2 Modifiers in a phrase may pernute fairly freely anong thenselves.

3 Enph a sis tagnenes nay occur as v/ord suffixes and usually func-

, tion on phrase level.

4 Auxiliaries in verb phrases pernute nore freely than others.

Restrictions

5 Tagnene order as shown in the enic equations v-aries little.

6 The nunber of nodifiers in endocentric phrases is seldon nore

than three.

7 Only nonsingular pronouns may link multiple heads.

8 The verb and adjective phrases are limited in slots they fill,

and tho adverb fills only L/T/M-slots.

Distinctive features

9 As noun phrases are usually recognised by adjectivals as modi

fiers, so verb phrases have 'auxiliaries'.

10 Intensity narkers of degree are a regular feature of both the

adjective and the adverb phrase, either be

fore or after or around the head.

11 Biultiheaded endocentric phrases are recognisable because their

heads have different referents when coordin

ated and the sane referent when in apposition.

12 Exocentric phrases are narked by the presence of relaters, either

free before the axis or suffixed and bound to

the axis. Both nay occur concurrently.

13 Thaayorre phrases are frequently of mixed types in which en

bedding and (pro)noninalisation both occur.

355

Chapter VII |=^=£==z===:===~

7.0 Introduction

Overt pronouns conventionally substitute for sone nenber

of a forn class but function independently fron that referent or

its abstraction. Thus, individual pronouns act v/ith reference to

single sectors of the persons or objects in the speaker's environ-

nont. Potentially, each substitute nay be orientated to the speak

er, the listener or observer. Perhaps the deeper levels of sub

stitute words have not yet been succinctly stated for any Aborigin

al vernacular. The overt pronoun replaces sone nenber of a specif

ic part of speech, a noninal word, being also independent cf the

referent, concrete or abstract. These pronouns in Thaayorre .are

found to bo personal, indefinite, possessive, dencmstrative, in

terrogative, numeric or negative.

PERSONAL pronouns have referents in persons, creatures,

or things in the speaker's environment and are orientated to hin,

or his hearer or a non-participant. Ex - lish pronouns having an an

tecedent are ternod anaphoric and those without, non-anaphoric.

This is pertinent for tho present study:

Jon yup rok-nan pornpur-n. Yo;r, nul yu:v/ ya:-t. 'John soon onter-v/ill house-into-. Today HE av/ay went.'

Contrastingly, the follov/ing pronoun has no obvious antecedent but

is understood because no alternative person intrudes:

Nul TjCT-Qkan werrjir pinalan - nr lak ~ ar . •he yesterday boom.erangs three-only leave-did' "Ho loft only three boonerangs yesterday."

It seens that the referent is well-known because the speaker nust

have given hin an order previously to construct nore than three of

the v/eapons. Only a stranger v/ould require an explanation. Eov/ever,

it is equally obvious that an antecedent nay be nentioned by sone

other particip.ant in the conversation.

PERSON in pr-nouns is usually FIRST, SECOND and THIRD.

This tripartite personal systen in Thaayorre is lexical rather than

grannatical and no sign of a fourth (obviative) person exists. Non-

specificity in the IlIrd person singular docs cause a neasure of

am.biguity as in English when reference back -v/ithin the utterance

neets with /nul ... nul ... nul .../ 'he'. '^c cope v/ith this, a

forn of demonstrative replaces the subject pronoun in the sense of

/ulp/ ~ /ul-p/ 'that (person already mentioned)', either singular

356

or plural, inplying repetition of the sane subject as before.

NUMBER divides pronouns up into singular and nonsingular.

Within the latter, a further division differentiates dual and plur

al, tv/o or nore than two. No word has been found v/hich v/ould sugg

est the presence of a paucal (trial) category. However, both dual

and plural do subdivide into inclusive (l 4- II) and exclusive (ap

parently I + III) though it is probably that inclusive is surely

I 4- 11 i III. If there is a rigid way of looking at nunber in pro

nouns, then it should be equally logical to say that thoy divide

into either singular or plural and that plural in turn subdivides

into dual and nondual. Assuning that the exclusive (xc) forn cuts

out the person addressed, then the simplest statement of all is:

a II III / I 4t II I +- III in five groupings.

CASE is so real a factor in pronouns, as in the noun,

that paradigmes v/ill be set out successively for:

Subject (and agent)

Object

Dative/allative/accompaninent

Possessive

Elative

Personal pronouns do not distinguish betv/een agentive and subject

ive though nouns have been shov/n to do so. Indefinite pronouns, as

well as possessive 'adjectives' do distinguish ergation by neans of

an additional inflection on the elative forn. It is identical to

the instrumental case, as with nouns and nodifiers in the endocen

tric pihrase.

Contrast of the subject fron the object pronoun is shown

fornally which distinction is lacking in noninals. Though in nouns

the objective is senantically the nost neutral case, yet in pronon

inal substitutes, it is categorically significant as goal of the

verbal action. Diachronically, it nay be that an object inflection

v/ill becone available for nouns. By the process of prononinalisat

ion, a pronoun nay redundantly follow a noun having the sane ref

erent. By the elision of C^ in the pronoun, a pseudo-suffix seens

to inflect such a noun:

Day pa:nl (n)un iqatp. wa: - wal "" . (spoken:) Day pa:nt-un natn v/a:-v/ai-r.

' I wife her ny seek-ing-an' / s o P /

"I'n looking for ny wife."

357

The locative case in pronouns is replaced largely by the

acconpaninent inflection and this is the sane as the allative forn.

The elative has its ov/n suffix which in the singular is a suffix

on the possessive forn.

Certain zero norphs are encountered in the affixation of

pronouns. These 'buffer' syllables are not entirely transitional,

in that the presence of an intrusive consonant gives rise to a vo-

coid which will harmonise with the vowel of the following syllable:

e.g. /nip-ul-r)un/ ~ [nip- l-rjun] 'you-two - to/for'.

Pronoun suffixes tend to undergo reduction in fast utter

ances causing loss of C in the suffix: e.g. /r)anjn-(n)an/ •us'(xc).

Hence in fast speech, the second /-n/ will be alveolar in point of

articulation, but in slov/ speech, it nay bo dental /n,-/.

In sone charts, free variation night have been sho\/n be

tween /-nan/ ~ /-nun/ as in /nur-nan/ ~ /nur-nun/ 'you (pi) ob.'.

Speakers of Thaayorre clan origin insist on the /-mxn/ version, but

nany others use /-nun/ v/hich seens to have arisen through tho con

ditioning of the back vocoid by the back vocoid in the first sylla

ble. Such conccord is a feature of Thaayorre.

The synnetry of natrices and prononinal paradigmes nay

suggest that rather nuch enphasis is placed on the dual layout in

differentiating one case fron another. If one treated English to

the same arrangement, listing h-o, h-i.s, h-er and h-in, then it nay

be inferred that h- signals the singular in personal pronouns. Or

in the-y, the-n and the-ir, that the- signals plural.

Thaayorre nouns may be redundantly pronominalised in mut

ual apposition: /Pan lonej nul .../ or /Pan lone ..,j...nul .../ 'nan one he '

and this is independent of the casenarkers carried by the pronoun.

Other pronouns such as the indefinite fill the sane slot as person

al pronouns: Yi:r-yir-an ya: - ra ya; - t. '& 0 n e av/ay go - did'

English relative pronouns do not find their counterpart

in this vernacular for relevant clauses tend to stand in paratactic

succession or disjunctive apposition having a zero connector. Other

ways of representing the relative pronoun are outlined in 13.5,

The prononinal nature of sone denonstratives is shovm in

chapter VIII and the sane nay occur for sone adverbs. Vvliere poss

essive adjectives like /lul nar n/ 'v/oonera his' are rendered pro

noninal in the absence of their noun head, these nay be termed

358

alternatively, possessive pronouns as they then occur in isolation

as substitute words. Indeed, the formal signal for these is diff

erent in Thaayorre, changing from /-na/ to /-na-ntan/fcr singular.

The paradignes follov/ing dononstrate the grannatical sys

ten of pronouns which is different from that of nonsubstitute sub

stantives; this closed class of lexemes consists of:

k o : p ' a l l '

kul -pur)k 'v/hole crov/d'

k u t i r ' t w o '

7 . 1 S u b s t i t u t e words l i s t e d CHART 29

r ja l -an tam ' f rom us two ( n c ) '

g a l l ' h e / s h e - a n d - I , we-two ( x c ) '

r ) a l - n a n ' h i n / h e r - a n d - n e ( o b , pv) '

r i a l - ( n ) a n - a k ' f o r / w i t h h e r / n y . . . '

naqkn ' y o u r ( s g ) ' i ] a l ( i ) - n a n t a n ' f r o n h i s / h e r . . . '

nai3kn-na ' f r o n y o u ' i i a l ( i ) - n a n t a n - n ' o u r - 2 ( e r , l o , n s ) '

nar)kn-nak ' t o / w i t h / f o r you ( s g ) ' q a l - l i n ' u s - 2 , o u r - 2 ' s ( p v , o b ) '

naqkn-nan ' y o u r ' ( e r , l o , n s ) q a l - l i n - a k ' t o / f o r / w i t h o u r - 2 '

r j a l - a n t a n - n ' o u r - 2 ( e r , l o , n s ) '

noil ' n a n y '

na i ]kn-nan tan ' f r o n y o u r . , . '

narjk-un ' t o / f o r / v / i t h you ( s g ) '

narjn ' h i s , h e r , i t s '

nar)n-na ' f r o n h i n / h e r / i t ' / ^^

naqn-nan ' h i s / h e r / i t s . . , ( e r , l o ,

naqn-nak ' t o / f o r / w i t h h i s . , . '

narjn-nantam ' f rom h i s / h e r . . . '

naiQ-un ' t o / f o r / w i t h h i n , h e r '

M.n, 'you ( s g ob) '

n i p ' you- two ( s u ) '

n i p - l i n ' y o u ( r ) - t w o (ob pv)

n i p - l i n - a k ' f o r , v / i t h , t o your

r)al-r|un 'to/for/with us-2 (nc) '

r ia l -n- r )un ' t o / f o r / v / i t h u s - 2 ( x c ) '

ijanp 'v/e (nc ) '

na i - ,p- l in ' u s , o u r ( s ) ( o b , pv , ne ; ) '

r)anp-lin-ak 'to/for/with our...'

r i a n p - u l - n t a n ' f r o n u s / o u r . . . '

r ) a n p - u l - n t a u - n ' o u r . . . ( e r , l o , n s ) '

r)anp-ul-r)un 'to/with/for us (nc) '

xjan 'no ( ob) '

qanjn 'we (xc)'

n.an jn- (n.) an 'us , our ( s) (xc, ob) '

/two...' qanj(n)-antau 'fron us/our ... ' nip-ul-ntan 'fron your-two ... / / .,, f \ ~ rianj(n)-riun 'to/for/with us (xcj nip-ul-ntan-n 'your-2 (er, lo, ns

n,ip-ul-i3un 'to/for/with you-2'

mil ' h e , s h e , i t '

nunt 'you ( s g s u ) '

nun ' h i n , h e r , i t ( o b ) '

nur 'you ( p i ) '

n u r - n a n ' y o u ( r ) ' ( p l ob , p v ) '

n u r - n a n - a k ' f o r / v / i t h y o u r . , . '

n u r - ^ ) - a n t a m ' f r o n y c u ( r ) — '

n u r - n - a n t a n - n ' i n / b y your , . . '

nur - r iun ' t o / f o r / w i t h y o u '

q a l ' ' you-a .nd-1 , we-two v n c ) '

x^anjn-an-ak ' t o / f o r / v / i t h our . . . '

r ) a n j n - a n t a n - n ' o u r . . . ( e r , l o , n s ) '

g a i n ' n y , n i n e '

r]Citp.-na ' f r o n n e '

r j a ln -nak ' t o / f o r / v / i t h ny . . , '

i ] a l n - n a n 'ny . . . ( e r , l o , n s ) '

r j a l n - n a n t a n ' f rom my . . . "

r j a l -un ' t o / f o r / v / i t h n e '

r)ay ' I '

p e l n ' t h e y '

p e l n - ( n ) a n ' t h e n , t h e i r . . . '

359

peln-antan 'fron then, t he i r . . . '

peln-antan-ak ' to / for /v/ i th t he i r . . .

p e l n - a n t a n - n ' t h e i r . . . ( e r , l o , n s ) '

peln-rjun ' to / for /v / i th then'

pinalan ' t h r e e , ( four ) '

pok-on 'no, none'

pul ' they two'

pul-nan 'them, the i r - two '

pul-(n).antan 'fron then-two'

pul-(n)antan-n ' t h e i r - 2 (e r , l o , ns)

pul-rian-ak ' to / for /v / i th then-two'

pul-nun (see x^iil-nan)'then-2'

'pul-(nu)-riun ' t o / f or/v/ith thn-2 '

p!ul-(nu)-ntan-n (see pul-(n)-antan-n)

lono(-ko) 'once, last, for one' ,

yi:r 'another, different'

(yu:w-n-untan)'fron what's it?'

yu:v/-nul 'V/hat' s i t ? '

yu:w-nun. 'what^s i t ? (ob) '

yu:w-nu-r)un ' to v/hat' s i t ? (da ) '

Prononinal suffixation

-a 'for' (duration)

-ak 'at, to, v/ith, on ...'

-an ~ -n,an 'ob/pv narker'

-antan 'fron'

-antan-ak ' to /v/ i th/ for . . . '

-antan-antan 'frori ( t h e i r ; . . . '

-ari(u)n ~ -rjun ' to(v/ards) ' (a l )

-ka 'for (dura t ion ) '

-ko ' f o r '

-lin 'ob and pv narker'

-na 'fron ... (sg)'

-na 'zero norph in (pa)'

-na-k 'to/for/v/ith ...' (pa)

-nan 'at, by and ergative on (pa)'

-na-ntan 'fron (their)... on (pa)'

-(n,)an ' ob and pv narker'

-(n)antan 'fron (after a vowel)'

-(nu)-r)un 'to/for/v/ith ... '

-ntan 'fron (after a vov/el *r -l)'

-gun 'to/for/v/ith ..,'

-1-ak 'at/to/for (after a stop etc)'

-tan 'fron (after ~n)*

-t-antan 'fron (after -r)) '

-1? 'ergative, instrunent narker'

-ul-r)un •to(v/ards) in Ixc and II du'

7,.2 Personal pronouns

All matrices v/ill follow in double arrays to facilitate

the vertical and horizontal conparison of ferns:

7.2.1 Subjective (focussing on nunber)

Person Sing-ular D u a l Plural

\ I 1 I 4

\ I I

\ I I I

I I

I I I

ii i •

li

rjay

min t

n u l

i jali

nip

pul

rjanp ]

rianjnj

nur j

peln i

360

Alternatively, focussing on person;

Nunb er III

Gomienlsj_

All first person pronouns begin with /r)a-/ and all third

person pronouns shov/ /-l/ in C„. The vov/el /-u-/ narks nost sec

ond and third person pronouns, while second persons begin v/ith the

dental nasal /n-/. Exanples now follow on below.

1.. Dai kU'iip ni'i-nar; nax, ri:ran yik r)ay-r)ay. 'I story tell-ing I alone speak nyself "I'n telling a story; only I nyself am- speaking."'

2. Nunl yuk ~ 1 -v/u.n-jp la:r)k i:r-kan rjul na:l (n)unt? 'hou tree-the clinb go-upv/ards and see you-"\7ill you c l inb up i n t o the t r e e and have a look?"

3. I J i i i e r p y a : - r a ; yup kana ya : - n ( n j n l . ' h e quic-: away-go soon nov/ g o - w i l l h e ' "He rushed off bu.t w i l l soon come back . "

4. JIal y o ; r r)aw-in'n - 1 (nj„al y i k . 'we2 today t h i s the we-2 speak' "You and I r i g h t nov/ a re having a yarn . "'

5. Jon i - n nciM p e t e t n na:r)k - rian n a J ^ . 'John we-2 h u r r i e d l y d r i nk -v / i l l h e - a n d - I ' "John and I v / i l l h u r r i e d l y swallow i t dov/n. "•

6. i ijD yak l e ; r ' , ' - - n a r (n)un_, 'you-2 snake k i l l - r i u s t i t "

"Y/hack t h a t snake you tv/o.'"'

7. Pul (r)).'ak nu:r)k - r .' ' t h e y - 2 l e t eat - do ' "They two nus t ea t i t , ' " '

8, Danp purjk-(k)o' o - r , n i : n r]anp, p a : n l pan nanp. 'we g a t h e r -do s i t we wonen nen we' "We a l l ga thered t o g e t h e r and s a t dov/n, nen and v/onen. "•

9. Danji (n)un n.ariunp l a k - a r (n.)uii; k u : l a n - n v/un - n Cnjjil, h in t h e r e l e a v e - d i d h in t r a c k - i n ly - ing F e ' 'we

"v/e left hin there; he lay on the pathv/ay.

10. Nur kor - o .' ¥an - r nur kor ' 'you outside eh' quarrel you outside]'

"You chaps outside there; you're scrapping out there.'"'

IT. Peln (r))ak ri:j, neln yi:r - an. 'they let run they s o n e ' "Let then run, sone of thenj"

file:///7ill

361

7.. 2. 2 Objective (focussing on nunber)

Person Singular D u a l

I

I 4- II

I 4- III

II

III

i]an_

nin.

nun

qal-lin

rial-rian

nip-lin

Xjul-n,an

Plural

r)anp-lin |

3Qanjn-an I

nur-nan l \

peln-an \

Alternatively, focussing on person:

Nunber I I 4- II I 4- III

\ Sg \ j Du

I PI \

II III

nun i]an j j \ nin r)al-lin \ rjal-nan \ nip-lin | pul-nan |

r)am-p-lin \ q a n j n - a n n u r - n a n ; p e l n - a n ;

Connen t s ;

A l l f i r s t p e r s o n s b e g i n w i t h / r j a - / . Every s i n g u l a r ends

w i t h / - n / . Most d u a l s c o n t a i n / - I - / i n C^; a l l d u a l s and p l u r a l s

end i n | - V n | , t h a t i s / - a n / ~ / - i n / and i n some s p e a k e r s / - u n / as

t h e back v o c o i d i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of / - u / i n V^. The

b a s i c o b j e c t m a r k e r s a r e / - n a n / and / - l i n / . P e r s o n s o t h e r t h a n

f i r s t b e g i n w i t h e i t h e r / n - / o r / p - / . Examples a r e :

1 1 , £ u n t nan q e : - y \ D ^ r e ; t J

15«

.M.»

•kf,-^-. ^

1 6 .

17 .

1 8 .

you ne h e a r ne 2:ive "Listen to n e ; g ive i t to n e j "

Day n in k a : r qe ; - rjen. ' I you not h e a r - i n g ' " I don ' t unders tand you . "

Day y o ; r nun l e : r r ) - i ian. ' i today h in s t r i k e - v / i l l '

" I ' l l k i l l h in t o d a y ] "

Nul n a l - l i n v/a - war - i n - r - p . 'he US-two chas - ing c a u s e - d o - t o o ' "He went and chased you and ne he did. '"

Dunan pork - n l ? r)al-(n)a.n ku:]Qk - n . ' s e a b i g h i n - n - n e s p l a s h - d i d ' "The rough sea drenched us tv/o."

Day n i p - l i n na ;w- r ; nar]-nar)al r)err)kan rjay n ip-u l - r jun . ' I you-two see -d id happy y ' day I you -2 -wi th '

"I sav/ you two: I was p leased with you tv/o y e s t e r d a y . "

Nul wan - m pul - nan: rak - ar pul - n a n . ' he r ebuk- ing then-two c u r s e - d i d then- tv /o ' "He was t e l l i n g then two off; he cursed those two. "

362

I I ,

SSUi

•f l . .

f t *

m-.

24.

°-y P^T - n^n kirk - a ke 'e - r (r)a)y. ' I then-two spear-with th rus t -d id I ' "I thrus t at those tv/o with a spear ."

Ya:-ra nun - r nul , l e : r k an r nanp - l i n . iv/ay ca l l -d id he return-nake-did us

"He sent us all away back after shouting to us."

Peln ko:w - i:nl -r nanjn - an peln - tan. 'they s a v e -did us then-fron'

"They rescued us fron then."

Day miT - nan nor) yorio - n.r - p le: rr) - r (r))ay, ' I you nany always strike-do I'

"I'm always hitting lots of you chaps. "

Day nur - nun ka: r - p ka: 1 - purr) - ur - m - r . ' I y o u not - too ear - burn - burn - do'

"I won't ever forget you all. "

Pan ku3r) - kar - n peln - an watp le:rr) - ar , 'nen north-side-fron then dead strike-did'

"Those nen fron the north got killed."

7.2.3 Possessive (focussing on nunber)

Person

I

I -fr II

I 4- III

II

III

1 1

if

Singular

ijaln

narjkn

riaqn

D u a l

q a l - l i n

rjal-nan

M p - l i n

pul-mm

Plural

r)anp-lin |

qanjn-an I

nur-nan j

peln-an \

Alternatively, focussing on person;

Nunber I I 4T II I 4- III I I I I I

igaln n a l - l i n \ nal-nan I r)anp-lin \ rjanjn-an |

n,ar)kn

nip-lin

nur-nan

I pul-nan \

i X3eln-an \

Gonnents:

All first persons begin with /qa-/ and all seconds begin

with /n-/. Every non-singular ends with j-Vn|, namely, /-in/ ~

/-an/ and in sone speakers /-un/ since the back vocoid is phonetic

ally conditioned by the presence of /-u/ in V^, Exactly as in the

objective case, basic object narkers are /-nan/ and /-lin/, but only

for the plural and dual. The three singulars have fornal sinilar-

ity and differ according to /-tj : /-(r)}k/ and /-^/ or /-r)/.

Exanples a re :

25. P a r ' r ulp - 1 peln kuta natn le : r r ) - a r . 'boys those-the they dog ny k i l l - d id '

"Those boys k i l l e d my dog."

fS, Pa r ' r narjkn yik - r , "T_erpr nankn (i])a]c p i : n l - i r . " child your say-did beard your l e t grov/-do'

"Your child said, ' l e t your beard grov/. ' "•

27. Pa:nt nar)n p a r ' r naqn v/uw - iian (n)ul . 'wife his child his -meet-will she '

"His v/if e wi l l neet her chi ldren. "

28. Pa r ' r iierrjk naqn - nar - 1 n i : - nin peln . . . ' chi ldren sons h i s - a l l - t h e s tay-ing they

"And a l l h is sons are s taying there . . .

iQul par ' r rjal. - un kut - net - nar yanj - n . and chi ldren ne-to good nates - a l l go-ing '

and they ' r e a l l good friends to ne . "

29. Pornpur i n ' n n a l - l i n ku l i r - nak. 'house t h i s our-tv/o both-belongs'

"This house belongs to the two of u s . "

50, Dali Rita ^ran lu rna ; p a r ' r nal - nan p ina lan . 'we-2 Rita stay together chi ldren our-2 's t h r e e ' "Rita and I l ive together and we have three ch i ldren ."

31. Pan nar)anip nip - l i n i : -wal ya: - n ( n ) u l . . 'nan father your-two this-way gon-does he ' "You two, your f a t h e r ' s coning t h i s way."

32. De;:3k pul - nun purp ka:r - p pi r - n . 'stonach t he i r -2 grab not- too snatch-can' "Their stonach can ' t be snatched av/ay fron those two."

33. B£in nanp - l i n wan - u l kal pal ? 'neat o u r who ? carry cone'

"Who v/ill be bringing our neat here?"

34. Dan .in - an i: , ninj ke'e - r (n)ul. ours there truly spear-did he' "It's ours there; he sure speared it]"

33. Kunanp - un - r - nar ra:k wa:r nur - nun nar) - un. 'report selves-riust deeds evil y o u r hin - to '

"Give an account of your crines to Hin."

36. 'food they give-did t h e i r friends t h e i r '

"They gave their friends their own food." Or: "They gave their friends sone food. "

""" Although the sane forn is used for two different tagnenes, they

are really quite different and need explanation. The first pelnan

is object in forn but the Indirect object of the clause since re:k

requires this forn; the second pelnan is a nodifier and possessive.

7.2.4 Dative/allative pronouns and also acconpaninent

364

Person

I 4T- II

j I -h III

i 1 III

Singular D u a l

r)al-un

nar)k-un

nar)-un

r)al-r)un

qal-nu-qun

nip-ul-r)un

pul-nu-rjun

P l u r a l

i3anp)-ul-riun

qan jn -u- r jun j

nur -nu- r )un \

pe ln -u - r )un |

A l t e r n a t i v e l y a l s o , fccEUSsing on p e r s o n ;

Nunber I I 4- I I I 4- I I I

f Sg \\ r ) a l -un \

Du

PI

na l - r )un

I I I

n.ar)k-un narj-un

r ja l -nu-r junl n i p - u l - r ) u n | pu l -nu- r jun

I qanp-u l - r j un \ r |anjn-u-r)uni- ^ u r - n u - r ) u n ^ p e l n - u - i j u n I.

Connents:

All singulars begin A-zith /iga-/ or /na-/ and end with /-un/,

v/hile all duals and plurals receive the suffix /-rjun/. Dual II and

Plural I receive / -ul-/ betv/een sten and suffix while other non-

singulars receive /-nu-/ in the sane buffer slot. The basic allat

ive suffix is /-(r))un/ in all cases. The transitional /-(n)u-/ be

tween sten and suffix is optional in fast speech, being probably

caused on analogy with sten-final /-n/ in /rjanjn/ and /peln/.

Exanples follow;

37.

38.

-p'^p^

4^.»

''^^ m

42.

Dal-un y ik - r ( p ) e l n , "Nunt v/airfcan - r)un rjorn? " me-to say-d id they you where-a t p u l l - u p '

"They sa id to me, 'Where did you come to a h a l t ? ' "

pok on none

Day narjk - un ko : - kope-y - r rjay; ' I you - for wai t - ing - am I

"I was w a i t i n g for you; but in v a i n .

Day rjerrjkan nar] - un wan - i r . ' I y 'day him-to g i v e - d i d '

" I gave i t t o him y e s t e r d a y . "

Dul Wetenste i: - wal ple;n ri:j - ar nal - nun, 'and Wednesday this-way plane run-did us-two-for' "And on Wednesday, a plane came this way for you and me."

mul -wunp - ar (nu)l nal-nu-nnn. jeep s e n d - did she us-two-for' "She sent a jeep for the two of us."

Ji ;p I

Daw-oy, r)ay pi ;nt-a;w mu;j - r nip-ul-nun lorjk-ko'o-n__ala. 'indeed I strongly refuse-do you-two-for arbitrat-ing' "Indeed, I absolutely refuse to judge between you two."

365

43. Nur nul - nu - nun qan - p wan - ir ? 'you them-two-for what-too say-did'

"What did you all say to them two?"'

44. Kormun i; - wal namp - ul - nun lurp - nan. 'storm this-way us - on to burst-will'

"The storm is going to pour down on us."'

45. I:l-aw-un nul le:rk - r i;-r-kuw nanjn nun la:w-at-ak. t

46.

'from-east he return-did go-west-ward us - to boat - in "From the east he returned westward to us in the boat."'

Dali nur - nu - nun Panta - n yil - r i:-r - kaw. ihe-n-I you - to Panta-with lead-do eastwards' "Punta and I will bring him westwards to you all."

47, Peln - nun kawnjela - nak ko; - kope r)ali. 'them-for councillors-for wait-ing-are he-and-I'

"We two are waiting for those councillors."'

7.2.5 Elative pronouns (with focus on number)

Person

• III I

i II \ III

Si

i'i

'i

Singular

r)aln-ma(ntam)

nar)kn-ma (nt am )

nar|n-ma (nt am)

D u a l

r ) a l - n - a n t a m

r ) a l - n - a n t a m

n i p - u l - n t a m

p u l - n - u n t a m

P l u r a l

\ r )amp-ul-ntai i |

\ r janjn-antam \ \ I

\ n u r - n - u n t a m |

\ p e l n - a n t a m |

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , f o c u s s i n g on p e r s o n :

Nmbr I 4- I I I -fr I I I I I I I I

i \ Sg P r)aln-ma ! \ \ naqkn-ma '' % ' \ * \ \ Du If \ n a l - n - a n t a m [ r j a l - n - a n t a m

1 r jamp-ul-ntam \ i j an jn -an tam

I naqn-ma

I PI I

nip-ul-ntam \ pul-n-untam \

nur-n~untam | peln-antam \

Comments;

The elative marker is /-ma/ in the singular and /-antam/

^ /-untam/ ~ /n-antam/ in the plural. When the pronominal form oc

curs as an auxiliary after a head: e.g. as a possessive adjective,

then /-ntam/ is added to the singulars above, ^or the nonsingul-

ars, /-antam/ may be optionally added to each, obligatorily for

plural heads and in emphasis: /peln-antam-antam/.

Buffer syllables are again /-ul-/ for /rjamp/ and/nip/,

while an optional /-nu-/, phonetically conditioned by a previous

back vocoid, occurs with /nur/ and /pul/. This elative form is us

ed to enlarge a derived stem when a second order suffix is added:

366

e.g. for the ergative/locative/instrumental cases.

Examples:

48. Pa:nl lono i: ya:-t pul-nu-nun, meyt xjaln - ma ya: - t. ''v/oman one there go-did them-2-to mate my-from go-did' "One woman went there to those two; my mate went from me."

49. Day nankn - ma ka:l-a:l - ir minj-minj pam lon-t-antam. ' I you - from believe-did truly man one - from'

"I trusted entirely in you, just one person."

50. Peln iiann - ma ko:\v - mi:r) re;p - on - r - nam. 'they him - from faces hide-cause-slvs-ing-v/ere' "They v/ere concealing their faces from Him."'

11. H.u;l - n.at nal-n-antam pam kur)-un nu :1 - ij - ar . "sniff-did us-two-from man smell sniff-v/ent-and-did' "(The dog) smelled human scent from us he did indeed."

If,, Nul i;-ra ya:-t ILa i anlam Aji-ntam Derek-antam pal nip-ul-nun. 'he that-way go-did us-from Archie-from Dere -from you-2-to' "He went this way from you and me, from D. and A. to you two."

53. Day r)e:r)k la: - ri; j - ar nip - ul - ntam. ' I stomach mouth-run-did you-2 - from'

"I was shocked about you tv/o. "

54.; Yup kana par'r kal -pul - n - antam qali. 'soon will child carry them~two-frem she-and-I'

"We two v/ill soon take the child from them two."'

55. Minjj nul minj - v/anj namp - ul - ntam kal - r . 'truly he sicknesses us - from carry - did'

"Truly, He bore our sicknesses. "

fi, II peln v/ark-na ra;k wa:r peln-antam-antam, r]u;l Day r)e:-y. 'if they repent-wish sins their - from later I listen'

"If they will repent of their crimes, then I'll listen."'

"S'f, May nur-n-antam kal - r rjanjn pal, pam l ono nanj n-antam. 'food you - from carry-did v/e come man one us - from'

"One of our men brought food from you. "

IB* May peln-antam kal - r qamp pal, pam - la:w nanjn-antam. 'food them-from carry-did we this-way friends our - from'

"We brought food from them, from our friends."

7. 5 Mu 11ic0ntrast^.PJL_P.grs^nal._pron^jns.

7.3.0 In lr_oj-Ticli 0 n,

In order to peruse and compare the complete set of forms,

I include a combined array belov/, first v/ith focus on case and num

ber and secondly v/ith focus on case and person. In this chart, al

though the orthography is basically phonemic, yet the few transit

ional vov/els are written down between hyphens contiguous to their

optional consonant as if they were phonemic.

http://JL_P.gr

7 . 3 . 1 Comparison of p ronouns f o r c a s e and number:

WT

CHART 30

I P e r s o n I Case S i n g u l a r D u a l I P l u r a l

su I qay ob i r)an pv I rjaln a l \ r ) a l -un e l ( r )a ln-ma(ntam)

I 4- I I su ob pv a l e l

r ial r ) a l - l i n r ) a l - l i n r)al-r)un r ) a l - n - a n t a m

I + I I I su ob pv a l e l

q a l i i j a l - nan r j a l -nan igal-nu-jQun q a l - n - a n t a m

I I I su \ nun t ; ob \ n.in \ pv \ n.ar)kn i a l I n_ar)k-un | e l I iiar)kn-ma(ntam) i

n,ip n i p - l i n n i p - l i n _nip-ul-r]un n i p - u l - n t a m

I I I su i n.ul ob I n.un. pv I n.ar)n a l i riar)-un e l f n,ar]n-ma(ntam)

( p u l \ p u l - n a n I p u l - n a n I pu l -nu- r )un I p u l - n - u n t a m

\ r)amp I r jamp-l in I q a m p - l i n I r)amp-ul-r)un I r) amp-u l -n tam

I q a n j n :• i j an jn -an i r jan jn-an i qan jn -u- r jun \ r janjn-antam

! nur I nur-^an \ nur-iian ; nur-nu-r)un I nuF-n-untam

I peln \ peln-an ; peln-an I peln-u-r)un I peln-antam

7,3'.2. Alternatively with focus on case and person;

iNmbr jCase I i———4-

I 4- II I -fr III II III

Sg

I Du

I PI

su ob pv al el

:riay j r)an_ \ rjaln l r ja l -un | r)aln-ma,^

> nun t I ndn, \ narjkn I narjk-un {nar)kn-ma

n u l nun, n,ar)n narj-un. iiar)n-ma

su ob pv a l e l

jrjal f q a l - l i n s r j a l - l i n r )a l -qun i ] a l - n - a n t a m

j r j a l i ^r)al-n.an

I \ su I ob \ V^ \ a l \ e l

^n ip \ ^nip-l in \

^r)a l -nan « n i . p - l i n ; | r i a l -nu- r ]un | n i p - u l - r ) u n \ Iqal-n-ant a m \ n i p - u l - n t a m ^

pul I p u l - n a n ^ p u l - n a n | pu l -nu- r jun | p u l - n u n t a m \

jrjamp f r jamp-l in r jamp-l in

j qan jn j r janjn-an Ir janjn-an

^ nur tnur-nan

J-^—^ ,^j ^„ „ „ ; n u r - n a n i | r | amp-ul- r iun , | r]anjn-u-r |un^n.ur-nu-r)un I j r ] amp-u l -n t am I r j an jn-an tam J n u r - n - u n t a m i

p e l n } p e l n - a n \ p e l n - a n I pe ln -u - r jun | p e l n - a n t a m |

7.3.3- Person morphs and pronoun stems

Singular person morphs and pronoun stems fall into 3 sets;

1 ' I I I I I

A

B

C

( s u )

( o b )

( p v a l e l )

/ID a y /

/ ^ a /

/ i ] a l /

/ r i u n t /

/ n i /

/ i i a r j k /

/ n u l /

/ n u /

/ n a r ] /

3 6 8

N o n s i n g u l a r s i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n a r e ;

D u a l P l u r a l

A

B and C

/ r j a l / ( n o )

/ i Q a l i / ( x c )

/ r j a l / ( n c )

/ q a l - n / ( x c )

/ r j a m p / ( n c )

/ r j a n j n / ( x c )

/ r j a m p - u l / ( n c )

/ r j a n j n / ( x c )

N o n s i n g u l a r s i n t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n ;

A

B

/ n i p /

/ n . i p - u l /

/ n u r /

/ n u r - n ( u ) /

In the third person;

A and B / p u l /

/ p u l - n ( u ) /

/ p e l n /

/ p e l n /

Morphs and s t e m s now f i l l t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r t : CHART 3 1

F s n N u n b e r | S e t A i

S e t B I S e t 0

I

I I

I I I

Sg \ Day

I n u n t i ~ I n u l

\ ria

I nu

i D a l ? n a n k ^ -

I iiarj

I

I I

I I I

T I

I I I

Du

P I

n c

x c

r ja l

r j a l i

r i i p

p u l

r i a l

r j a l i

n i p

p u l

n c

xc

I Damp

I r j an jn

i n u r

I p e l n

rjamp

r j an jn

I n u r

p e l n

I D a l

i r j a l ( i ) n I I n i p - u l

I p u l - n ( u )

r ) amp-u l

r j a n j n - ( u )

n u r - n ( u )

p e l ( n )

369

Comments;

In I du xc /rjali-/ undergoes loss of V^ before the suffix

/-mm/, but no ambiguity with /r)al-lin/ is incurred by the elision

of that /-i/. Again, a back vocoid in V tends to condition a back

vocoid in V : e.g. /pul-nan/ ~ /pul-nun/ and /nur-nan/~/nur-nun/

with different speakers, each maintaining his 'correct' form. Fur

thermore, transitional vocoids are phonetically conditioned by the

vowel in the first syllable, V : e.g.

/rianjn-(u).-]Qun/ ~. [qanjn rjun] and /nur-n(u)-r|un/ show concord.

7.4- E m p h a s i s

Two modifications of pronouns are common, the focus mor

pheme /-l/ which with transition vocoids may be represented morpho-

phonemically as |-(v)'l_j; and the limitive morpheme /-n,r/~ /-ur/.

The meaning of the first includes these glosses; 'the, it's this,

it's here..'' and of the second, 'only, just, merely'.

The focus morpheme /-l/

Although transitional vocoids appear before this marker,

I do not write them here in the phonemic presentation of data using

only hyphenation at morpheme borders. However, a back vocoid in

V conditions a back transitional vocoid before the focus marker

just as a front vocoid in C-, conditions a front transitional vocoid

before it. After a nasal, assimilation between close points of

articulation, the alveolar /-n/ and dental /-l/ obviates the vocoid.

In section 9.3 (iii) a supplementary comment will be made

about this morpheme, amongst others, to show hov/ finiteness may be

present in words other than verbs (Hockett 1958:239) as illustrated

by /Day-1.'/ glossed by one informant as "It really is me.'"

Subject pronouns suffixed by the focus marker:

5 Person H Singular \ D u a l \ Plural \

I Day - 1 I i f , I I I 4- I I I \ qa l - 1 \ qamp - 1 I

\ I 4t I I I I \ rjali - 1 \ rjanjn-1 \

I I I I nunt - 1 j n ip - 1 j niar - 1 \

t I I I !! nul - 1 \ pul - 1 I pe ln - 1 j

Allomorphs: [-ul] ~. [-el] ~ [-II].

370

Examples /Day-l.V "Tt was I.'"- /Hun-1.'/ ' I t was him (they hit). ' "

59. Dul pul - t min ke'e - r ; ka:mp - ar pul. 'and they-2-the animal kil l-did cook - did they-2' "And i t was them two v/ho killed the wallaby and roasted i t ." '

60. Day-t rje:2Qk ]rja:j aqar - p mu:r)k - r . •I-the stomach full so-as-too eat - do'

"It v/as I that v/as hungry so I had something to f i l l up."

61. Danjn r)e:-y-r; nul - t yik - r riarj - un, 'we hear-did he-it-was speak-did her-to' "We heard; i t was HE who spoke to her,"

6 2 . I n ' n - u l - t v/u:mp ? „ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^.. ' this-one-the ? '

63. Punt wuw - i r nin - j . „(^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^-^ yoU.'" 'arm meet-did you - the'

64. Kot - ntr pam yu:mp - ir kar yokun nul - t . ' G o d man create-did like same he - the '

"God created man in his ov/n very image."'

65. Ko: r)a:lir pam kml - puijk pam r|o;r)k - 0 - m nun - 1 . 'oh s t i l l men crowds man blind (/ vbz him-the'

"Really, s t i l l everyone didn't know i t was hin."

66. Peln - 1; peln - peln - ur r i rk - n . 'they - the they-all-they-only v/ork-ing-were'

"It was only then; only they were vr orking. "'

The limitive morpheme; / - (n ) r / ~ / -ur / 'only, just, merely'

The, suffix / -ur / nay be added to many reduplicated stems:

i7 . Damp-nanp-ur larjk-arjkar. "Only WE were al l laughing.'" 'we-we-only laugh-mg-were'

6fi. Day-nay-ur qak mu;rjk - r . ^^ ^^^ .^,„ ' I - I - only let eat-do' "^

111 69. Tone (nu)nt - ur. "You're only one person.' •one you - only'

m . Anl okun ^ay - ur - p le:rk. ^ ^^^^,,, 'try maybe I - just - to go back'

71. Nul - nul - ur ri • - rij - r. ..TT -, . • ir ' • —-— -—r-—~~T • -I He only is running."

''he he only run - nmg - is'

72, Peln - 1, peln - peln - ur rirk - m. 'they-the they-they-only work-ing-were' "Tis only then that's been working]"'

It v/ill be seen that the above suffix /-ur/ is

rather a completive device, usually on reduplicated forms, but some

times present without reduplication. This is consistent with a re

current pattern in the language: /melnk-elnk-ar/ 'tonorrov/' etc.

371

One Thaayorre speaker gave the following paradigm for the

morpheme /-(n)r/ which appears as /-r/ after /-n/; as /-nr/ after a

vowel and as /-r/ elsewhere. It signifies 'solitariness' for the

party substituted for by the pronoun, thus;

r Person Singular D u a l Plural

I I I U rjay-r | | f

I 4- II P j rjal - r | qanp - r \

I I 4- III I 1 r)ali-nr/-r j i3anjn-r/-r j

I II y nunt - r j nip - r j nur - r j

1 III 1| nul - r j pul - r !• peln-r/-r |

Comment;

In speech, it is normal for a transitional vocoid to ap

pear before the /-r/ or /-r/. This vocoid is a back vowel or a

front vowel before a corresponding back or front vowel in the prev

ious syllable and a sheva before /-r/ after a central vov/el accor

ding to vov/el harmony mentioned elsewhere. As /r)ali-r/ has been

heard from another speaker, it is nost likely that all three words

above may take /-r/ and that the speaker was confusing the paradigm

with the follov/ing morpheme /-nr/ of closely related meaning:

Person Singular D u a l Plural

t j

I I ji r ) a y - u r - n r i | | j I + I I jl \ rjal-ur-nr | rjanp-ur-nr j

I I 4- III I j rjali - nr j qanjn - nr j

j I I l| nunt-ur-nr I nip-ur-nr j nur-ur-nr I r ~ ' j ^ ' I III l| nul-ur-nr pul-ur-nr | peln-ur-nr J

Gomment;

The morpheme /-nr/ Eiay be suffixed to the pronoun stem of

su 4- -ur except in the case of /qali/ and /rjanjn/ which are of two

syllables and the first V-final. This redundancy in emphasis seems

to indicate that a three syllable rhythm is preferable for every

person and nunber. The retroflexed continuant [-r] phonetically

conditions the alveolar [n] from the expected dental [n] of the

morpheme in isolation or follov/ing some other form class exanple.

In the case of /r]ali-nr/, the dental allonorph is consistently [n],

the catalyst /-r/ being lost after a vowel. In fast speech, the

initial /n/ may undergo elision; phonemically only /n/ is written.

73. Jay - ur - nr yanj - m . "Only I v/ent there. "' 'I only-just walk-mg-was '

372

74. Danjn - ( n ) r y o : r ya : 7 t . -.Qniy our pa r ty v/ent t o d a y . " 'we only today go-did'

The non-emphatic form lacks the first order suffix /-r/:

75. Nur - nr ya: - r; rjay (n,)aka ni:n. 'you-only go -must I here stay' "Just you go; I'll stay."

76. Day pa:nl natn - nr" pit - r; yi:r - an ka;r - p. 'I v/ife ny-just keep-do another not - too' "I just cherish ny own v/ife; no other (v/onan) for me]"

77. Dal - nr ya: - t ; nanp - (n)r ya; - n rju:l. 'you-and-I only go-did v/e-only go - v/ill later' "Only you and I v/ent; but only all of us will go later."

78. Danp (rjiak, nur - nr (k)a:r - p; nal-nali - r Panta -n ' we let you-just not - too we-2-only Panta-v/th

"Let us, not just you chaps; just 1 yimp pentap - rirk - nan. Panta and I will paint up later." ''soon paint-up— de - will'

7»$ Numeration

The Thaayorre speaker is somewhat inarticulate in the

realm of counting precisely, though of general terns 3a© has no

lack. Tv/o categories of definite and indefinite occur.

Nunerals

/lono/ 'one' /panalara/

/kulir/ 'two' 'three, four, several'

Examples

79. Rirk - nar nunt tone ] 'v/ork-must you one'

"Get to work alone you; t n,

80., Daw-oy, in'11 - ul tone ke'e - r - ow .' 'indeed this-one one spear-did eh'

"'Yes, here's the wallaby we killed]"

II, II kutxr wa; r . ^those tv/o bad' ^ ^ j_ T__j, "Those tv/o are no good."'

82. Kutir pinalan yit - ir (n)ul. „TT , , „ ..^ ^^ 4.>, „„ o -_ ^ .ti-_ __ J T -, • -, T~ . He took away two or three." 'two three lead-did h e '

83,, Dal kutir okun ya; - n; nip kutir nit rirk - nar, 'v/e-2 two maybe go-v/ill you-2 two work do - must'

"You and I night go; you tv/o there get to work and do it."

By reduplication and repetition, other nunbers nay be

quite precisely indicated. The fingers of the hand or hands may

also be used fron tine to time, especially in the indication of

the numbers 5 and 10. Idionatic expressions are listed elsev/here.

JB Indefinite number

A limited and closed class of indefinite pronouns is:

/ko:p/ 'all, the lot'

/koyle/'half, other side'

/kul pur)k/ 'v/hole crowd'

/kernper puirt/ 'several, few'

/maqir nunjun/ 'rather nany'

/nor]/ 'nany, all'

/nor]-o;rn/ 'a great nany'

/nunt-un/ 'too nany, nuch'

/nanter/ 'plenty, lots'

/pok-on/ 'none, no one'

/porp-ern/ 'too nany, nuch'

/ra;k lorjkun v/err)ka/ 'part between'

/la:-yi:r-yir/ 'every, each'

/v/al-(k)ulir/ 'couple, pair'

/yi;r/ 'sone, another, different'

/yi:r-yir-an/ 'sone, several^each'

/yu:-n.ul/ 'so and so, v/hat' s it?'

/yu;r/ 'hand, fingers, five'

/yu;r-ko:v/ koyle-le/ '2 hands, 10'

CHART 32

Exanples

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

Yi:r lono rji yi:r p la; - pa:nt - an. 'another there one there another c o r n e r - on' "Another there, one there, another at the corner."

Morj ulp - 1? TQal - un ko:pe. 'nan those-indeed ne-for wait'

"Plenty there await ne."

Day pok-on v / a : l m; u Ip (r])ay pok - on. none search-ing those I none

"I found nothing; I got none of those."

May peln yi:r-an lak - ar; ko:p ka:r - p kal - r peln. 'food they sone leave-did all not-too carry-did they'

"They left sone food; they didn't take it all."

Kernper - punl kana ya; n . ' s e v e r a l nov/ :o - v / i l l '

Munt - un i n ' n - a k a , k o : .' ' t o o - n u c h t h e s e - h e r e e h '

"Sone of you v / i l l go s o o n . "

" S t a c k s h e r e e h ? "

(Pan) naiQir n u n j u n - I r k a l - r n u n . 'men s e v e r a l

S e v e r a l c a r r i e d hii."

Morj y u ; r - k o y l e - l e y a ; - t . 'many hands s i d e - s i d e go - d i d '

c a r r y - d i d h i m '

"Ten nen w e n t . "

Nur (pam) y u : r - k o ; r k o y l e - l e min v/ene-_nan- i r . 'you nen hands p a i n s i d e - s i d e good becone--nake d i d '

"You t e n were h e a l e d . "

P e l n kul -pur jk nor] nar i -nar ja l i i i s n i ; - k a n , ' t h e y crov/ds nany happy s t a y u p - t o p '

" T h e y ' r e a l l e x t r e n e l y happy up t h e r e . "

374

9 4 . Pan n.ul g a l - un r j a l i v/al - k u l i r y a : - n . ' n a n he n e - w i t h h e - a n d - I b o t h go - v / i l l '

"He and I v / i l l b o t h t o g e t h e r make t h e j o u r n e y . "

9 5 . P o r n p u r r a n t pul-nu-iQun p o k - o n ; ( p o r n p u r ) l a : - y i : r - y i r r ! e :l-£2'. ' h o u s e roon t h e n - 2 - f o r none house e a c h - e a c h - f i l l - d i d '

"There v/as no roon f o r t h e n t o s t a y i n t h e i n n ; each f u l l up."

9 6 . N a n t e r p i r k - a r ( p ) u l , q a t nor) , ' p l e n t y c a t c h - d i d t h e y - t w o f i s h n a n y '

"They caugh t p l e n t y of f i s h . "

Case r e l a t i o n s i n n u n e r i c p ronouns CHART 33

N u n e r a l s a r e i n f l e c t e d f o r ca se as shown be low.

Pronoun s u / e r l o a l ob pv da e l ac

l lpnvo) ' o n e ' i - l r | - l a k | - l a k

f k u l i r ' two ' ;;-nan ; - n a k j - nak

i p i n a l a n ' 3 ' | - l r ; - a k j - a k

i -

I " l a k I -ko

\ - n a k i - k a

- a k I - a

- t a n t a n i - t a k | I \ ~ I I-ntan I-nak f i I \ i-antan \ - a k |

1 """^—~—T | y i : r ' a n o t h e r ' | - a n \-c/-a | - a - q n |

I < ? ! |nori ' n a n y ' | - l n > - l a k j - l a k | 'i I . . !

lko;p ' a l l '

• a 1-an tan ^ -ak

H n t r I - l a k | - l a k

pok-on ' n o n e ' i - t r 1-ak

jjru: - m i l

$-ak

I - l a k I-talt ; - t a n t a n f - l a k l

- I " l ak

I - a k

"lak

-ak

•antam | - a k

- t am • a k

- m l ^ - n - r j u n | - n - r j u n ^ - n u n k o u l - a k i - n - r j u n ^ - n t a n I - a k I

p a r j i r n u n j u n ; - l ^ -t_r I - a k ! - a k

jkul purjk ; - n t r \ - l a k | - l a k

w a l - ( k ) u t i r ?-nan \ - n a k \ - nak

y a L : r - y i r - a n -n I -arjn •arjn

\ - a k

\ " l a k I I -nak I -ak

I - a k

I - l a k

I - k a

j - n

i - n a n • a k

I -antar.i ' - a k i

- n a n

- a n t a n

I - n a k \

• a k i

Comments;

Sone v/ords l i k e / k u l i r / ' t v / o ' nay a l s o t a k e / - n a a / ( e l ) ;

/ k u l i r / f o l l ov / s t h e s i n g u l a r p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e s i n r e q u i r i n g t h e

enp ty morph / n a / i n f i r s t o r d e r . / P i n a l a n / l o s e s i t s V and / l o n o /

i t s V i n f o r n s l i k e / p i n a l = n - a k / and / l o n - l a k / . / Y i : r / nay b e a r

e i t h e r / - e / or / - a / a s / n o r ) / nay b e a r e i t h e r / - I n / or /-tr/ ( e r ) ;

/ - l a k / t e n d s t o fo l lov / s t o p s and t h e v e l a r n a s a l / - J Q / .

Exanp le s

9 7 . Day l o n o - ko p a t p - i 'r Kov/en - ak . ' I one - f o r c a n p - d i d Coen - a t ' " I canped down f o r one n i g h t a t Coen . "

9 8 .

9 9 .

Nul k u l i r - ka p a t p - r . ' h e tv/o - f o r c a n p - d i d '

" H e ' s s t a y i n g f o r two n i g h t s . "

Yu: - nun. i l r)an n.ul y u ; n p - i r ? • s o - a n d - s o t h a t v/hat he do - d i d '

"What on e a r t h e v e r d i d ho do ?"

375 A special derivative /lono-(r))ko/ is often heard; 'last one',

100, Kana lono - r]ko rjay in'n yik nur - rjun. 'right one-for I this say you - to'

"Now I tell you all this last of all."

Many exanples appear throughout tho dissertation, nostly as Modi

fiers, but often without their head, as prononinals,

7.6 Multi-contrast of suffixation (v/ith focus on case/nunber)

-rjun -(n)-antan

]\ ob/pv % al H el

-li -nan

( nu) -rjun -(n)-antan

-np -lin

•(ul)-r)un •(ul)-ntan

-njn. -(n,)an

•(u) -r)un -antan

II su ob pv al el

-net -n

-(r))-kn -(rjk)-un -(r|kn)-na

-P -lin -lin

•(ul)-r)un: •(ul)-ntam

-r -nan { -rian \

-(nu)-]rjun \ -(n)-untan \

III su ob pv al el

-1 -n -qn

-(r))-un -(r)n)-na

-1 -nan -n_an

- (nu) -riun -(n)-untan

-In -nan -rian

•(u)-rjun -antan

Alternatively, v/ith focus on case and person;

l -nbr Case ;i i • u i i ^

I Sg

su ob pv

-y I -n \ -ln|

al I -(l)-un| el |-(tn)-na|

I 1 ^/f i T, I ob/pv

I ^ 1 al I el I

- 1 I -li -lin \ -_nan -rjun I -(nu)-r]un

\ -nt I -n I -(r))-kn I -(rjk)-un |-(r)kn)-na

-P -lin

-(ul)-r)un

-1 -n, -Dn

-(r])-un (]r)n)-na

i-(n)-antam| -(n)-antam| -(ul)-ntan

- 1 I -rian i

-(r!u)-r]un \ -(n)-untanj

r I PI

i su I I ob/pv I al I ! el I

i -mp I -njn I -lin I -(n,)an h(ul)-r]un I -(u)-rjun i-(ul)~ntam ; -antan

-r i -nan |

- (nu) -r)U.n \ -(n)-untani

-In j -(n,)an|

-(u)-r|un I -antan*

376

7.7' Miscellaneous rules

7.7.0 Introduction

Certain features require separate mention and exemplifi

cation. They are; elision, order, pronominalisation in apposition,

enphasis, reflectives, reciprocals and coordination.

7.7.1 Elision of initial consonants (and syllables)

In normal speech, especially fast speech, initial con

sonants may be elided, with or v/ithout the following vowel. In

phonological fusion, the final consonant of the preceding word

functions as the new C . Ended segments appear in brackets;

Examples

101. Kirk (n)aiQ-kn (i])av/-ii. "That's your spear."' 'spear your that'

102. Dan peln (r))ak le;rr) - r (r])an kanpa - 1, 'no they let strike-do ne first-the'

"Let then kill ne first of all]"

103. Dan (nu)nt (i])oi3kor le;ri3 „^^^,^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^, „ 'ne you don't kill'

104. Day qerrjkan yorp - nr - p (r))e:y - n (n_)un,. ' I y'day always -too hear-ing-was hin'

"I heard hin all the tine yesterday."

103. Kana nu;i3k - ar (nu)nt ? „ - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ dinner?" 'have eat - did you'

106. Pul ulp kana tek - .ar; lerp (r))al. 'they-2 those have leave-did quick you-ne' "Those two have left that (chap); let's hurry]"

7.7.2 Order of prononinal possessives

Possessive pronouns nay be attached to ond following a

head in a noun phrase, when they are better ternod possessive ad

jectives, or entirely alone as prononinal substitutes for referen

tial purposes. But no distinction exists in Thaayorre such as that

between 'ny ' and 'nine'( except /igaln-na/, 'fron ne '/qaln-na-ntan/

'fron ny ...'; /peln-antan/ 'fron then', /peln-antan-antan/ 'from

their ... ', in which the rt 4- el = new stem for additional suf

fixation as possessive adjective. )

107. Pcrmpur in.'n rjaln; pormpur il naqkn, 'house this nine house that yours' "This is my house and that's yours."

377

108. Kirk n,ar)kn ulp; in.'n - 1 gain, 'spear your that this-one mine' "That's your spear; this is mine."

109. In,'n r}amp-lin - nr - p; ulp narjn i:-ra. 'this o u r s - only-toe that his that-way'

This belongs only to us; that's his going off there."-

110. May ulp nip-lin; qalm ka^r-pj nu:rk, nip - lin. 'food that your-2's nine not-too, soneone's, your-tv/o's' "That food belongs to you two; it's not nine; it's yours]"

7.7.3 Pronominalisation of nouns

Pronouns often substitute for nouns whether the noun is

present or not. A pronoun nay be redundantly in apposition to its

referent, discontinuously, and for clarity of reference, or it nay

be redundantly repeated at the end or near the end of the clause.

One or nore pronouns may function virtually as suffixes in a re

duced forn, on the verb, though on slow repetition, they v/ill be

restated as free norphenes, not suffixially. Exanples follow.

n. In apposition to the referent

111 . Mayk I n u l i j a n a n a j i n r ja ln . f^. \ • n „ •Mike ' he u n c l e n f ' ^^^^^ ^^^^ i s ny u n c l e . " '

112. Nul |. E l a kanpa I a n - a n ; E l i j k o r narj - un | E l a - nak . ' s h e E l l a b e f o r e s t a n d - i n g A l i c e b e h i n d h e r - t o E l l a - t o '

" E l l a i s s t a n d i n g i n f r o n t and A l i c e i s b e h i n d E l l a . "

113 . Nul I J i n i Foo t p a ; n t n i ' i - r ( n u ) l . ' h e Jim.my Foo t head t a k e - d i d h e '

"Jimmy Foo t he go t t h e ( k a n g a r o o ' s ) h e a d . "

114. Pan I p u l iiaka wan - r - nan p u l r]err]kan. ' n e n t h e y - 2 h e r e t a l k - e o - i n g - v / e r e t h e y y e s t e r d a y ' "The tv/o nen v/ere t a l k i n g t o g e t h e r h e r e y e s t e r d a y . "

115. Me: re j nun t kanpa nan i ]a ;np - 1 (r))ak ^ a ; l - e ( n u ) n t . 'Mary you f i r s t p h o t o - t h e l e t s e e - s e l f y o u '

"Mary, you ought t o t a k e a l ook a t your p i c t u r e f i r s t . "

116. Mo: ton I _nul l e l e k o r ' narjk - u n . 'Mor ton he n e x t b e h i n d you - t o '

"Morton i s r i g h t b e h i n d y o u . "

t . Redundant r e p e t i t i o n l a t e r i n t h e c l a u s e

117. May rjay mu;r ]k-nan, rjanjn J o n ( r j )an jn M o r i j - n ( r ) ) an jn , igay. ' f ood I e a t - v / i l l we John we M o r r i s - w i t h we I ' '

" I ' n g o i n g t o have d i n n e r v / i th John and M o r r i s I a n . "

118. Danp p i n a l a n n i n i r y a : - n ( r j ) anp . ' we t h r e e r e a d y go - w i l l we '

"Tfe're r e a d y t o go u s t h r e e . "

378

119. Nunt k a : r - p ya : - n ( n u ) n t . 'you n o t - t o o go -wi l l you '

"You won' t be allov/ed t o go ] "

120. ôn pul Mo;ton pul ko:w-kanp i n ' n ya ; - t pul y a : - r a . 'Don they-2 Morton they before t h i s go-did they away'

"Don and Morton both v/ent away before t h i s they d i d , "

121. Day pan- la :w n i p - l i n ; rjay y a : - r a y a ; - n (rj)ay; rjay i i i p - l i n ' I f r i end y o u r - 2 ' s I av/ay go-v/ i l l I I you-two

" I ' n your f r i e n d ; I ' n going av/ay; I leave you b o t h . "

/ l a k - r (r])ay. ' l e ave -do I '

C, As v i r t u a l verb su f f ixe s

122. P a r ' r nantan punj - nat ( n u ) l ( r ) )a l -un. [ - n a t - 1 - a l - u n ] ' c h i l d s n a i l s e t t l ©.-did he n e - w i t h '

"The baby . s e t t l e d dov/n q u i e t l y v/ith n e . "

123. Pav/ n i ' i - r (r]a)y (n)un; ka l - r {r]a)j (n_)un,; pa l k a l - r , 'up p ick -d id I i t c a r r y - d i d I i t cone take "I picked i t u p , c a r r i e d i t and brought i t ; hung i t on t r ee . "

/ yo;rjk - er - y - un. ha.nd - did I i t '

124. Danip (i])aln-nan yil - ir (r))an, (nu)l. [yll-Ir-an-l] 'father ny lead - did ne he' "My father brought ne up he did."

125. îl (n)un ko^w ral - ir (p)eln (n,)un. •again hin nose chop-did they hin'

"They slashed his nose once nore."

126. Yup okun têtvx] - r (ri)an (n)ul. [t e :rn-r-an-ul] 'soon naybe strike-do ne he'

"He might hit ne bfore long."

Tlie'subject nay be omitted or transferred to the end of the clause.

127. Kana ke'e - r (n)un (k)irk - unj - ar (n)u^. 'now spear-did hin spear-jab - did hin' "Then (they) speared and jabbed at hin."

128. Ya : - r (y )u ; - kuw n u l ' ak - i r (n)ur) - urn ( p ) e l n . 'go-do f a r - west r i d g e fo l low-d id h in - to t h e y '

"They follov/ed h in f a r to the westv/ard along a r i d g e . "

7 .7 .4 Enphasis

Reduplication of pronouns for em^phasis occurs in con

junction v/ith the suffix /-ur/, thus: /qay-rjay-ur/ 'only me';

/nul-nul-ur/ 'only hin'; /i]anp-i3anp-ur/ ' only us' ; /pul-pul-ur/

'only then two' etc, using the subject forn, reduplicated;

129. Nunt - nunt - ur rirk - n pornpur - n. 'you you only work-ing house - in'

"Only you yourself were v/orking in the house. "

379

130. Danp-r)anp-ur-p larjk - aqkar ra :k nin - i n . •we we only-too laugh-ing things good-fron'

"Indeed i t v/as a l l of us laughing about those good th ings . "

131. Peln nin j i : p p i t - n yik - r pe ln-pel (n)-ur - nar. ' they aninal sheep keep-ing say-did they-they-only-group' "Those shepherds were a l l ta lking together in a group."

132. Pe ln-1 ; peln - peln - ur r i r k - n ; nip - nip - ur r i : j - n. rthey-the they- they-only work-ing you-tv/o-you-only run-ning' "I t was then; theyv/ere a l l working; you two ran off."

7 .7 .5 Pronouns affected by verbal action

B-oth ref lexive and rec iprocal Ipronouns occur in connect

ion with ac t iv i ty v/here the goal of the verb i s also the subject .

a. Reflexive pronouns /r]aln-r)ay/ ' n y s e l f /rLarjkn-nunt/ ' y o u r s e l f

/narjn-nul/ • h i n - / h e r s e l f

133. Day yo;r i n ' n k i ;n -a rjaln - qay pal - e - y - r . ' I today t h i s teeth-v/ith ny-self b i t e - s e l f - did '

"I b i t m_yself v/ith ny teeth t h i s norning.

134. Nunt r i : r a n naijkn-nunt ka^r-p kunk lan-an- r - nanj - n. 'you alone yourself not-too al ive ra i se-se l f -v / i l l~can '

"You'll never be able to rescue yourself ."

135. Nankn - (n)unt riene - p l e ;rr) - e - y - r ? 'your - self why - to s t r i k e - s e l f - did '

"Why ever did you. h i t yourself?"

136. (With enphatic repetition)

Nul narjn-(n)ul na; - n.al - e nai:)n - (n)ul ko;v/-ni;i3. 'he hin-solf see -ing-self hinself f a c e ' "He hinself is looking at his own face (in a glass)."

Benefactively, the sane reflexive may supplenent an objects

137. Day rjok ni'i - r naln-iQay „ ^ ^^ nyself water." ' I water get - did nyself

Prononinalisation of the agent occurs in the follov/ing exanple, to

gether v/ith the double object, body-part + pronoun;

138. Par'-an I nul yarjkar v/i:yl ta:-rint_-ir yu;r-u naqn - nul. 'boy he leg sore squeeze-did hand-v/ith hinself' "The boy squeezed hinself on the leg with his finger."

Plural reflexive pronouns are unaffected;

139. Damp moi] - 1? yorp - nr - p re:np - e. 'we nany (er) always-too scratch-self'

"We're always scratching ourselves, all of us."

38 0

140. Dali ri;ran re: - renr) - e. 'he-and 1 alone scratch-ing-selves' "Only us two are scratching ourselves"

141. Nur kenple katp - e - y - r. 'you separately touch-selves-do' "You're each touching yourselves."

142. Peln kenple re: - renq - e peln. 'they separately scratching-self they' (redundant repetition) "Each of then is scratching hinself."

b. Reciprocal use of pronouns is unnarked (in pronouns).

143. N_ip rjone - n pa:j - n, v/an-r-nan rjeri kan ? 'you-two what-fron fight-ing talk-eo-ing y'day'

"¥/hy were you tv/o fighting and arguing together yesterday?"

144. Mu:k - r pa:l - r - nan (p)ul. 'fraternise - v/ith-each-other - ing-v/ere they-tv/o * "They two were welconing each other affectionately."

145. Kirk - a v/ak - r - nan (pel-)n ra:k nanp - 1 I: - kan. 'spears-with fight-eo-ing they place nane-the "Hill-top"'

"They were fighting each with spears at a place called Hilltop."

7.7.6 Coordination

Linking pronouns of different persons is diverse v/ith

duals, inclusives and exclusives, as v/ell as with singular and plu

ral, but it is systenatic, unanbiguous and simple. Usually, the

subjective forn is fused (and hyphenated) with the dative or accon

paninent pironoun thus:

a« First person plus another;

146. Dal - al - un ku:k yik. 'v/e-two-ne-with language talk'

"You and I are speaking together in the vernacular."

147. Ra;k nin rjali-rjal-un wey rjerrjkan (n)ul larjkar - nan . 'things good we-2-ne-v/ith hey y'day he laughing-were' "Oh those good things he and I v/ere laughing about y'day."

148. Danp r)err]kan namp - (r])al - un larik,ar - nam ra:k min - m. 'we yesterday we - ne - with laugh-ing-were thgs gd-fron'

"All of us had a roaring good tine y'day fron those jokes with ne."

¥. Second person plus another;

149. Nunt ijal - rjun pan - l a : w . 'you us-2-v / i th f r i e n d s ' "You and I are good friends together."

150. N u n t - ( n ) u r - a pam; p a : n l n u n t - ( n ) u r - a ; orikor r e : p - o n , murk-1. fyou y o u - a l l - w i t h men v/omen you y o u - a l l - w i t h d o n ' t s t e a l ] '

"Every one of you nen ~ and v/onen - - d o n ' t steo,l what ' s ano ther ' s . "

581

151. Nip-(n)ur - a ya: - r; qay (n)aka ni;n. 'you-2-you-all-with away-go I here stay'

"Just two of you all go ; I'n staying here."

G. Third person v/ith another;

152. Peln - (r))al - un kanpa ya: - t. 'they ne - v/ith before go - did' "They and I all went previously."

153. Maykal - n rjali yup kana nu:r!k - nan. 'Michael(er) we-two soon nov/ eat - will' "Michael and I v/ill soon eat it up."

154. T_om - 1? qali yak le:rr) - ar ko.y ijali - n - antan - n. « Ton he-and-I snake kill-did gun our-tv/o' s - v/ith'

"Ton and I killed a snake with our gun."

a,. Using /pul/ 'they-two' as a copula or link;

155. Lu:k pul T_on yo:r - nr in'n ri; j - ar pul. 'Luke they-2 Ton today-just this run - did they-two' "Luke and Ton have only rushed off just nov/."

156. T_on - tr pul Jini - n yo;r lurna patp. 'Ton Tag) they-2 Jinny today together canp' "Ton and Jinny are canping together today."

157. Ton-lr pul Miki-ntr nelnk-elnk-ar na:l - r - nan, 'Ton they-2 Mickie tonorrov/ see-each-other-will'

"Ton and Micky will be seeing each other tonorrov/."

Chapter VIII i=i=:S;^£=i=:i=l=^====r=i=~i=i:

8,0 Introduction

Denonstratives are one kind of adjunct to the noun, and

also, in Thaayorre, to the pronoun. They follow the noun as one of

a class of nodifiers within the noun phrase. When its head is ab

sent, the denonstrative perforns the dual function of pointing and

substitution. In contrast to the adjective, the denonstrative in

troduces the factor of distance v/hich nay be locational or tenpor

al, relative to the speaker/hearer group (Hockett 1958:257). In

Thaayorre, nunber is not signalled but case is, restrictedly. As

v/ell as bearing case-endings, the denonstrative nay bear both focus

and enphasis narkers. These adjuncts to nouns are con-monly known

as deictic, because they show or point to sonething.

In addition to /in'n/ 'this, these' and /il/ 'that, those',

a third basic v/ord occurs: /ulp/ 'that, those (aforementioned)';

which nay also be used to point vocatively, to the hearer, or to

refer back to the previous subject or topic under consideration, and

382

is now to be reiterated as understood fron the context. Although

speakers of Thaayorre are sensitive to the visibility or absence

of a person, the distinction does not differentiate the three den

onstratives sharply. /ln,'n/ refers to v/hat is visible and in close

proxinity, but both /il/ and /ulp/ nay nodify a head v/hich is vis

ible or physically unseen or absent. As a substitute, /ulp/ freq

uently replaces the third person pronoun; /nul/ 'ho, she, it',,

referring back to the sane subject or topic,

8.1 Denonstro.tives listed

The denonstrative adjectives/pronouns are;

/in'n/"*"'this, thesse' /il/ 'that, those'

After a vowel, and also for rhythmic stress;

/riifn/ /-flil/

The enphatic forn is:

/rjaw-in'n/ /r)av/-il/

8.2 /Ulp/ •that (one) previously nentioned'

/Ulp/ has a nore general use than /il/. When no contrast

exists potentially betv/een /in'n/ and /il/, then /ulp/ is preferred;

/ulp/ 'that (one)' /rjulp/ 'that (one)' /r]aw-ulp/ 'that (there)'.

All three forns of denonstration include also the non-

singular, the dual and the plural;

/in'n/ 'these' /il/ 'those' /ulp/ 'those (before)'.

Any one of these nay equally nodify pronouns as nouns, but /ulp/ is

often preferred for this purpose, expecially in the first person.

/Ulp/ also nay fill a Reason-slot in a conpound sentence neaning:

'for that reason, because of that fact' and if so, it will cone

second or third tagnene in the dependent clause, probabljr after the

conjunction /qui/ 'and'. It is not to be confused with /qul-ul-p/

which is the enphasis narker on the III sg pronoun 'he, she,it'.

8.3 C a s e

Case narkers are not often used, with denonstratives. But

they sonetines appear, but occur rather on the head only tham on

Compare Behasa Melayu (Malay): /ini/ 'this' and /itu/ 'that'.

585^

the nodifier of the phrase. Occasional use is nade of the follow

ing endings, but bracketed suffixes are rare, CHART 35

. . _ ^ , ^ _ _ . ^ , -J— p- 1 dn p e r / n s 5 l o ! a l I e l d a / a c I pv Sen i fo*fo/en i

l i i i ' i i l l | - a k a *i-3rjun | - e n a n ( a n ) «n,ar)-un jnaign f " " P a i - l J - l - u l l I \\ i-riun I I ! pan i n ' n f pan in,'n.i f 1 * f

\ i t H - u l t - r a l l j i - mar | -un marjiai i i. -, I t •" I i Paa i t I pan i t r T 1 " \

I u l p U - u l I - I - I - a n t a n fnaq-un |narjn \ \\ " i n ! i I I pan u l p pan u l p | - p a | - l | - l - u l | I p - ± r i ! ( I I I ' U jf . i ^ i . ~J ~ =——'*-———. ( • — • — i ~

* The reverse is also current: /in,'n-ul-l/ 'this-one-the'.

8.4

Sentences containing nost of the above suffixes appear

below, with a five-fold description of each exanple.

8.4.1 /in.'n/ 'this, these'

1 . Dok i n ' n , p o k - o n . 2 . J e n t e l w u t i n ' n norj. 3 . :&i'Ka r j anp- l in - in^ -p . nn dn a j na dn nn dn pa I n en

' w a t e r t h i s n o n e ' 'Sandlewood t h i s n u c h ' ' t h i s ours-only .* ' / S PA / S PA / S PA E /

"No v / a t e r h e r e . ' " "These Sandlev/ood abound. '" "This i s j u s t ou r s . "

4 . May i n ' n p a r ' r p a n - a narjn. 5 . Nul r a : k r i r k i r i n ' n . r e ; k - a r . nn dn nn nns pv pa pn nn nn dn vb pc

•food t h i s c h i l d b o y ' s h i s ' ' *he t h i n g s s h e l l s t h e s e g a v e ' /S PA / s o P /

"This food i s t h e b o y ' s . " "She gave t h i s n o n e y . "

6 . Pil'lL Day n i n j y i k nur -n |un . 7 . Miii k i r k - p i k i j i ' ^ wuni. dn pn av vbs pn da nn nn dn vb

' t h i s I t r u l y say y o u - t o ' ' c r e a t u r e p o r c u p i n e t h i s s t a y s ' /O S M P l o / S P / "This I ' n t r u l y t e l l i n g y o u . " "Th i s p o r c u p i n e i s h e r e . "

8 . Yo: r i n , ' n - l ] 9 . D a v / - i n ' n - l kana ] 1 0 . In.'n, - 1 n i n ] av dn f o en dn fo a j dn fo a j

'nov/ t h i s - t h e ' ' h e r e - t h i s - t h e good ' ' t h i s - t h e good ' / T PA / S PA / S PA /

"Now i t ' s t h i s o n e . " " T h i s o n e ' s f i n e ] " "Th i s h e r e i s g o o d . "

1 1 . War) i n ' ^ i i - l rjerrjkan lorjk ( n ) u l . 1 2 . Pan i i i ' n - u l - 1 p e l n . nn dn f o av vb pn nn dn pn fo pn

' v / h i t e n a n t h i s - t h e y ' d a y a r r i v e h e ' *n«n t h e B e - o i i e s - t h e t h e y ' / S T P S / S PA / "This w h i t e f e l l a cane y ' d a y he d i d . " "These f o l k a r c the o n e s . "

384

13. Daw-in,'n-ul-l vm;np? 14. Ku;k par'r in 'n-l-ul pork yik-r. en dn pn fo qn nn nn dn fo pn aj vbs tn 'this he-the ? * 'voice boy this-the-he big talks'

/S PA-Nt / 0 S PA P ^ y "Is it this one right here?" "This boy here talks really loud;"

f It.

1 5 . P a : n t - r j a t narjkn i n ' n - l - u l ; r jaln i n ' n - u l . 1 6 . I r i ' n - u l k i r k , nn nn pa dn fo pn pa dn pn dn pn nn • h a t your t h i s - t h e - o n e n i n e t h i s - o n e ' ' t h i s - o n e s p e a r '

/PA S / PA S / S PA / ^ " T h i s one h e r e ' s y o u r h a t j n i n e ' s t h i s one ] " ' "This i s a spea r . "

17 . Day n u r - q u n i n ' n wan - r ; "Yuk v / a : r - n u : i ] k - a n - n i n ' n - u l r a ; k pn pn da dn vbs t n nn a j vbs dn e r dm pn nn

' I y o u - t o t h i s s ay -do w i d o w t h i s - o n e i t e m / S l o 0 P / S 0

" I ' m t e l l i n g you a l l t h i s ; ' T h i s widow r i g h t h e r e p u t

r i r k i r pork minj l a k - n a t . " 1 8 . Nur w a n t - a n t - a r r a ; k qaw -nn a j av vbs ps pn qn nn en

s h e l l b i g v e r y p u t - d i d ' 'you w h a t - a b o u t ? t h i n g s .' p / S Nt 0

i n a v e r y l a r g e anount of noney. ' " "Why a r e you a l l q u e s t -

- i n ' n - u l rar jk-ar jk-r nan rje;rjk n u r - n a n t a n - n ? 1 9 . 1±1 y u : n p dm pn vbs r d t n nn nn pa e l l o av vb

t h e s e ones q u e s t i o n - i n g h e a r t s y o u r - i n ' a g a i n b u i l d P L ^ , ^ ^ .

i o n i n g t h e s e t h i n g s i n your h e a r t s ? " "Bu i ld a g a i n

r a : k i n ' n - u l P o r n p u r - r a : w ; r a ; k r )anjn-an i n ' n - a k a . 2 0 . Pen nn dn pn nn na nn pa pv dn - l o nn

p l a c e t h i s - o n e P o r n p u r - r a a w p l a c e o u r s t h i s - a t ' ' p e n 0 L / P A S / „^ . t h i s p l a c e a t Pormpuraaw; i t ' s our l a n d h e r e . " "Th i s

i n ' n - aka v/un. 2 1 . Day i n ' n - aka k o ; p e - nan narjk - un . d n " l o vbs pn dn l o vbs nf pn da

t h i s - h e r e s t a y s • ' I t h i s - a t w a i t - i n g you - f o r L ;P / S L P Be / pen i s l y i n g h e r e . " " I was w a i t i n g h e r e f o r y o u . "

22 . Nul i n ' n - a k a r a n j - i r ( n ) u l . 2 3 . Danp p i n a l a n i i ^ ' n - a k a r i r k . pn dn l o vbs pc pn pn nn dn l o vb ' h e t h i s - a t j u n p - d i d h e ' ' we t h r e e t h i s - a t v/ork'

/ S - L P -S / S I. P / "He hopped on t h i s s p o t he d i d . " "We t h r e e work r i g h t h e r e . "

24 . Day i i i 'n-T]un l a k - a r . 2 5 . D a l i k u l i r p a l i n ' n - i ^ u n l e ; r k - r . p n dn l o vbs pc pn nm d r dm a l vbs pc ' I t h i s - a t l e a v e - d i d ' 'v/e-two b o t h cone t h i s - t o r e t u r n - d i d '

/S L P / S P- L -P / "I left it at this place." "Both she and I cane back to here."

385

26. Day pan in,'n-riun pi:nl-ir. 27. Pan in'r -i]un wanl-anl-ar pn nn dn"" lo vbs pc nn dm lo qn ' I nan this-at grow-did' 'nan this-at how-cone?

/S PA / S Nt "I'n one who grew up in this place." "How is it the fellow here

ya;-r i'i yik-r? 28. Day in'n - qun r i:-nin nip - ul - r]un. yb nr av vbs tn pn dn lo rd vbs pn du ac go-nust here say-do' 'I this- at stay-ing you - two - with' M P / S L P Ac ^ / can talk like this?" "I'n sitting right here v/ith you two."

29 Pan yi:r-an in'n-enan-nan mi'i-r. 30. In'n-eman-an ya;-t ya:-m. nn aj er dla" el el vbs pc dn el el vb pc dr •man another this-f ron-f ron take-did' ' this-here-f ron go-dad away /S L P / L ^ f^M "Another chap took it fron this place." "He went av/ay fron here.

31. Y/antan kerp - r par'r in'n - enan - nan ? 32. Nul i£,'n-qn vbs tn nn dn lo el pn dn

•where? lose - did boy this- here - fron' ' he thDs / L P 0 L / S L

"Where did ny boy get lost fron this place?" "He's gone

-enan - nan kana ya? - t. 33. Jentel- vut in'n - pa ] lo el as vbs pc na dn ex here - fron has go - did' 'Sandlewood this - indeed

/ PA S S / P away

fron this place here." "Sandlewood it is indeed] I I I

34, I f n - pa .' 35 . Dok ^.m;np? Dok (r j)aw-in 'n - u l - pa .' dn ex nn qn nn en dn pn ex

• t h i s - i n d e e d ' 'v/ater any? ' 'water t h i s -one - i ndeed ' / P A E / S Nt / PA S E / "This i s i t . ' " "Got sone wa te r?" "There' s water here eh] '

8 .4 .2 / I I /

36. II lorkr. 37. Peln il rjat-a yo;r yat - n. (IQ aj pn dn nns da av vbs pr

'that distant' 'they those fshg today go-do' / S PA / S L-Pu T P / "That's far away."' "Those nen go fishing today."

38 NiP il ne;r-on yo;r in'n. 39. Peln pan il peln nin ka:r-p " n dn nn cs av dn pn nn dn pn aj ng en 'you two those show today this' 'they nen those good not-too /S P T 0 / S P "You two show us these here now." "Those who are well do not

yanj - n warjal-ak i]ul peln il ninj-wanj-a:k kana ya:-n nag - un. vbs d2 nn al cn pn dn nn ajz as vbs fu pn .al p-o-wish doctor-to and they those sickness-hvg will gov/ill hm-to

L /Cn S P L _ / v/ant to go to the doctor, but those having sickness will go.

386

40. Pornpur pork il rjar oi kor ka:r - p kerp. 41. Pan naqn-nn aj dn as ng mr ng em vbs nn pa

'house big that yet don't not - too finish' 'men his

/O P / , "That big house hasn't yet been completed." "His assoc-

nan peln-an wan - ir pan il. 42. Nul ka;r na:-w-r mil ra:k er pn ob vbs pc nn dn pn ng vb pc pn nn

then rebuke-did nen those' 'he not see-did he tine 0_ p -0 / S P 0(nb/S T'

iates rebuked those people." "He didn't see at that tine what

an ( n ) a v / - i t n a n - p k a l - r l , p u n l a i r - l a ; r n u l . 4 3 . Yup i l - u l p en dn qn en vb i n a j pn av dn pn nn

t h a t w h a t - t o o t a k e - a b o u t t o hungry h e ' ' s o o n t h a t nan

O P PA S / T S he was abou t t o t a k e when he v/as h u n g r y . " "Wi l l t h a t nan b e

yup kana y a : - n? 4 4 . P a n - a l ± 1 - u l nay k a : r ' nu; i ]k - r . as as vbs fu nn e r dn pn nn ng vbs t n soon now g o - w i l l ' ' nan t h a t - o n e food no t e a t - d o e S P / S O P / go ing v e r y s o o n ? " " D o e s n ' t t h a t nan o a t any f o o d ? "

4 5 . P a : n t i l - u l r a ; k r i r k i r n a n t - a : k , k o : p l a k - a r . nn dn pn nn nn a j a j z nm vbs pc

'woman t h a t - o n e n o n e y s m a l l - h a v i n g a l l l e a v e - d i d ' S O P , "That woman, h a v i n g l i t t l e h a r d c a s h , gave h e r a l l . "

4 6 . Pam - a l i l - u l k u t a l a n p - a r ( n ) u l lam - a - r . nn e r dm pn nn vbs pc pn nns ns ' m a n t h a t - o n e dog k i c k - d i d he f o o t - w i t h '

/ S_ O P -S Ns / "That man k i c k e d t h e dog w i t h h i s f o o t . "

47 Dul p e l n nun pam pork k u : k ko r - kanpa yermpe - nan - i f cn pn pn nn a j nn av vbs ° % P°

•and t h e y him nan c h i e f words everywhere s p r e a d - c a u s e - d i d / I n S 0 - PA -0 L P "And t h e y caused t h e r e p o r t of h i s f a n e t o s p r e a d eve ryv /he re t o

r a : k y a : - r a i l - r a - 1 k u ; l i p naqn - na wan - an - i r . nn dr dn al fo nn pn el vbs cs pc places av/ay those-go-the story hin-fron tell-cause-did' L /O P / those places abroad with nev/s about hin."

Finally, exanples are given below to shov/ the nore spec

ialised use of /ulp/ as a denonstrative, and in back reference.

387

8 . 4 . 3 / U l p / ' t h a t , t h o s e '

.48, Ulp rjan okun? 4 9 . D a n a n - a t o u l p ] dn qn a s nn pa dn

' t h a t what n a y b e ' ' n o t h e r - n y t h a t ' / S FA P / P A S /

"Whatever i s t h a t ? " "Chat ' s ny n o t h e r ] "

50 . Ulp k i r k p a n - a r j i : . 5 1 . Ulp oxikor.' Ulp r jaln] Ulp naiQkn] dn nn nn pv av dn ng n r dm pa dn pa

' t h a t s p e a r n a n ' s t h e r e t h a t d o n ' t ] ' ' t h a t n i n e t h a t y o u r s ' / S PA L / O P / S PA S PA /

" T h a t ' s someone ' s s p e a r t h e r e ] " N o t t h a t ] T h a t ' s mine] T h a t ' s y o u r s ] I It

52. Ulp yi:r; ulp - pa] 53. Daw-ulp wanl (n)ul. dm aj dm ex em dm aj pn 'that different that-there' ' that stupid he' /S PA / PA E / S- PA -S /

"That's different, that there]" "That chap is silly]"

54. Kuta nant ulp - 1? 55. Dul nul Jojep naqunp ya:-t ra;k tav/n -nn aj dm. fo cn pn na av vb pc nn nn

'dog snail that-the' ""and he Joseph there go-did place town /PA S / In S L P L "Is that dog a pup?" "And Joseph went there to that

I -ak ulp. 5G. Pan ka:r ka;l - a:l - r ra:k Kot-lak kar par'r, al dn nn ng v b s tn nn na pv re nn

-to th'if • nan not t r u s t - do place God's like child ^ / S P 10 M /

town there."- "The nan who does not believe in the kingdon of

ulp naqunp rok - nan ka;r-p. 57. Dul ulp pan kul-puigk ra:k dn av vbs fu ng en cn dn nns nn nn that there enter-will not-too' 'and that nan crowds places /S L P / In (R) S L God as a child, that nan won't enter there." And for that, crowds

yi:r-yir-an-antan nar] - un ya:-t. 58. Dul ulp ku;lau-n iQe;l-ar aj rd el pn al vb pc cn dn nn lo vb pc

e a c h - fron hin-to cone-did' 'and that road-in block-did L P / In S L P

fron each place cane to Hin."' "And those on the road block-

pornpur la;w - an. 59. Dok ulp - 1 rjan - iQan - er ? nn- nns lo nn dn fo qn

house nouth-in' 'v/ater that-the how - m^uch?' L / S PA / ed the doorway of the house." "How nuch water is that there?"

In exanple 56, /-lak/ is in double function, being both dative

•in/to God's kingdom.' phrase-v/ise and possessive as nodifier.

?88

60. Dat non w;np la:w-al - ak ulp - 1? 61. Pik uant i]aw-ulp-i: nn nn' qn nn lo dn fo nn aj en dn fo

'fish nany "? boat - in that-the' 'pig snail that-the' / S Nt L / PA S / "Are those fish in the boat very nunerous?"That' s a snail pig.'"

62. Daw-ulp - 1 ni'i. Ulp - ul naiQunp ka:r - p. en dn fo vb dn pn av ng en 'that - the take' 'that-one there not - too'

/O P / 0 (L) P / "Take that one there.'" "No, not that one there]"

63. Nul want an - r]un okun ya; - t? Danjn pan i]o;i3k-0"n. pn qn al as vbs pc pn nn aj vbz ' he v/here - to naybe go - did' ' we nen blind-did'

/ S L F / S PA / "Where naybe has he gone to?" "We've no idea at all."

64. Min ulp-l-ul i:. Par'r ulp - In kuta lok pirk - ar . nn dn fo pn av nn dn er nn nn vbs pc

'rnimal that-the-one there'boy that aninal cat swipe-did' /PA L / S 0 P / "That aninal right there]" "That boy birched the cat.'"

65. Kuta-ku-^ulp-ln pa;l-ar rjan. 66. Day ka:r pan ulp-antan, nn er dn er, vbs pc pn pn ng nn dn el •dog"'"'that^^'^bite-did ne' 'I not nen those-fron'

/S p 0 / S P M / "That dog bit ne]" "I refuse it fron those nen]"

Chapter IX l|§:3===I=i=£i======2lll~=~il=^=i

9.0 Introduction

The verb has been introduced sinply in section 1.6 and

nost of its regular categories have been explained and exemplified

in chapter III.

Further connentary v/ill now be given concerning causation,

and its effects on verbs and other noninal tagnenes connected with

it in the clause. The topic of nonfiniteness nust be reviev/ed in

regard to subordination of clauses. Dependent clauses are treated

in chapter XVI. As a developnent fron this, finiteness in nonverbs

will be investigated v/ith regard to the verbless clause (ternod at

first the clause of the possessed object), verbalisers and sone

catalytic affixation.

Not only does the denonstrative bear an ergative inflection, but

it does this with enphasis when an ergative suffix already occurs.

389

Finally in this chapter, sone analysis v/ill bo given of

verbstrings and the unexpected cases in noninals governed by some

verbstems. This will be concluded by a few suffixial summaries.

9.1 Causation

9.1.0 Introduction

As this topic v/as treated as being aspectual, it has al

ready been referred to in section 3.5.3.2 and summarised |-(n)Vn|.

Each allonorph nay be suffixed to its verbsten according to class,

whereby it functions as a transitiviser of both transitive and in

transitive stens; in first order of suffixation;

/re:k-an/ •cause to give' /le:rk-an/ 'cause to return'

On reduplicated stens it sonetines nay seen anbiguous:

/lan-an-an-r/ 'stand-ing-cause-did' se 4- rd 4- cs 4- tn

/nun-un-an-r/ ' call-ing-cause-did' se 4- rd 4- cs 4- tn

Sone causative suffixes becone so fused to a sten that the newsten

can feasibly be regarded as an allosten, any causation having been

quite forgotten in either the utterance or the gloss;

/le:rk-=-an]/ 'give it back]' /lak-an]/ 'stop hin]'

/rok-an]/ 'put it on." /nu:nl-in]/ 'bath hin."

Thus, the causative suffix is rather different fron nost

other suffixes for it allov/s nodification of the sten rather than

indicating sone nicety of verbal nood or tense. However, owing to

the prevalence of the johonene /n/ in Thaayorre suffixes, and its

frequent elision in nornal speech v/hich may not be particularly

fast, the running into each other of verb suffixation, that is, the

telescoping of suffixes, did cause a measure of confusion initially

when /n/ both beg.an and ended different morphemes. With a distinc

tion also betv/een dental and alveolar phonenes, it has been found

necessary to bracket the full forns belov/, although in actual <

speech, the elision of C. nornally occurs in suffixes other th^in

the first order inflection.

-an-(n.)an -an-(n)at -an-(n)ar' -nan-(n) an -nan-(n^)at -nan-(n)ar -nan-(n)an -nan-(n)at -nan-(n)ar (cs 4- fu) (cs 4- ps) (cs 4- nr)

-an-(n^)ala -an-(n_)atal -an-(n)anj-ii -n.an- (n_) ala -n_an- (n) at al -n,an- (n_) an j -n, -nan-(n)ata -nan-(njatal -nan-(n)anj-n (cs 4r nf) (cs +- sp) (cs- 4- fu 4- dz)

390

A brief analysis.of tense, voice, nood and aspect will

now be nade when causation is present, relevant categories only

being exer.plified.

9.1.1 T e n s e

Previous treatment was included in section 3-.3f hut

past/present/future/tineless, with a causative sten appear thus:

Past tine 1. Nul rok - an - nat. 2. Hare nej pal "pn "¥bB: cs ps na nn dr

|-(n)Vn-natt 'she enter-nake-did' 'Harry natches cone /S P / S O P "She inserted them." "Harry sent the matches ( I t o IV)

l e : r k - an - n a t p o r n p u r r a n t - i n . 3 . P e l n k u ; k norj on - n ,an-vbs cs ps nn nns a l pn nn vbs (^s

r e t u r n - c a u s e - d i d house r o o n - i n t o ' ' t h e y v/ords l i e - make L / S O P

back i n t o t h e r o o n . " "They nade h i s n e s s a g e

- n a t r ) a l - u n . ps pn da

- d i d n e - t o ' l o /

f a l s e t o n e . "

4 , Day p u l - iian t^ov/ol - nan - n a t nar junp. pn pn ob vbs cs ps av^

' I t h e n - t w o p l a y - nake - d i d t h e r e ' • S O P L /

" I nade t h e n tv/o p l a y t h e r e "

P r e s e n t t i n e pn Po t - po t r i : - r i j - an - r i : - wal a j r d vbs cs p r dr

se 4- se 4- cs 4 / - r / ' p a r c h e d r u n - n i n g — nake— do t h i s - w a y /PA P "You nake t h e k i d r u n d ry f r o n t h e r e . "

p a r ' r m i n t . nn pn

c h i l d you* 0 S /

Day nun. y i k - i k - an - r . pn pn vbs r d c s p r ' I h i n t e a s - i n g - a n ' S O P /

" I ' n t e a s i n g h i n . "

7 , In.*Ii - 1 nur - nun pan nog na r j -naqa l wene-ne - nan - r . dn fo pn ob nn nn a j vbs r d c s pr

• t h i s - t h e y o u nen nany happy b e c o n - i n g - c a k e - d o ' ^ / s o PA P /

" T h i s i s n a k i n g a l l of you h a p p y . "

8. Nul y o ; r r i r k - n a t pan p o r k yonp - onpar - nan - r . pn av vb ps nn a j r d vbs cs p r ' h e nov/ nako - d i d nan c h i e f e f f e c t - i n g - c a u s e - d o '

/ S T P 0 / "He h a s nov/ e f f e c t e d y o u r b e c o n i n g a v e r y f a n o u s n a n . "

391

Future tine 9. Nul nelnk-elnk - ar le:ri] - an - nan. pn av vbs cs fu

j-(n)Vn-n,an| ^'he tonorrov/ kill-nake-will' , / S T P / "He'll have it killed tonorrow. *''

10. Pul yu:-ka-ra r a l iU'li ni;n - an - nan ra;k - un. pn av nn dn vbs cs fu nns lo

•they-2 one day seed th is p l a n t - wil l ear th-in ' / S T 0 P L /

"They'll plant this seed in the ground next nonth."

1 1 . Ku;k rjaln - nan p e l n - an ne ; r -kun-v /a ; r v/ene - nan - n a n . nn pa er pn ob a j vbs cs fu

'v/ords oy t h e n s o r r o w f u l b e c o n e - n a k e - v / i l l ' / S 0 PA P /

" l y n e s s a g e v / i l l so.dden t h e n . "

12 . Aqar-p pan kunk pan watp w a j - v / a j i r yonpar - nan - nan ( n ) u l . cn en nn a j nn a j a j vbs cs fu pn

' s o - t h a t - t o o nan a l i v e nan dead f i n e r e s u l t - c a u s e - w i l l h e ' / Cn E 0 PA P S /

"So t o o He w i l l r e j u v e n a t e b o t h t h e l i v i n g and t h e d e a d . "

T i i ne l e s s 1 3 . Dok kana r u j - n - ah - r r i r k - an - r k u t a - k u . nn as a j s aJE cs t n vb cs t n nns e r

j - ( i i ) V n - r | ' v /a te r h a s d i r t y - n a k e - d o do - c a u s e - d o d o g ' / O P S /

"The dog fouled up the vrater badly. "•

14. Nunt pan ko:p- purjk - le : rk - an - nan narj - un. pn nn nn nn vb cs fu pn da

'you nen a l l g a t h e r -cause-will hin - for ' /S. 0 P B-e /

"You'll get everyone gathered together for hin."

15. Danjn nun. ka;r - p yo:r)k-e - n,an - nan yuk - un . pn pn ng en vb rx cs fu nns lo

' we hin not-too hang-self-cause-will tree-on' / S O P L /

"We won't nake hin hang himself in the t r ee . "

16, Kirk igaln runpar - nan - ns.n yup nelnk-elnk-ar ruup - un. nn pa vbs cs fu as av nns lo

''spear ny break - cause-will soon tonorrov/ beach-on' / O P T L /

"My spear will soon be likely to get snapped tonorrov/ at beach."

9.1.2 V o i c e

Follov/ing on fron the previous statement in section 3.4,

only the niddle voice is relevant here, the reflexive and the

392

r e c i p r o c a l . The f o r n e r i s s e n a n t i c a l l y u n l i k e l y .

R e f l e x i v e 1 7 . [ Day rjaln - rjay nu;r ik - an - 1 - ( ^ ^ " ^ n e r e l e n . ] pn pn r x vbs cs r x /) ps nn

' I n y s e l f s w a l l o w - c a u s e - s e l f - d i d n e d i c i n e . " / S O P /

"I nade n y s e l f swal low t h e n e d i c i n e . "

1 8 . Nunt r i ; r a n nar)kn-nunt k a : r - p kunk l a n - a n - r - n a n j - n] pn av pn r x ng en a j vbs cs r x fu po

'you acne y o u r s e l f n o t - t o o a l i v e r a i s e - s e l f - w i l l - c a n ' •/ S M 0 P - PA - P /

"You c a n ' t p o s s i b l y r e s c u e y o u r s e l f a l l a l o n e . "

19 . P e l n nann - na ko;v/ - n i ; r j r e ; p - on - r - nan . pn pn e l nn nn vbs cs r x nf

' t h e y h i n - f r o n f a c e s h i d e - s e l v e s - i n g - w e r e ' / S M O P /

"They were h i d i n g t h e i r f a c e s f r o n h i m . "

20. Danp y i : r - y i r - a n nar jn-nul kunanp - un - r - nan narj - u n . pn nn pn r x vbs cs r x fu pn da

'v/e e a c h - e a c h h i n s e l f r e p o r t - c a u s e - s e l f - v / i l l h i n - t o ' / S (M) O P Io /

"We- each v/ill give an account of ourselves to Hin."

Reciprocal 21. Nul peln - an la:w - (w)ak - r - nan - i r . pn pn ob nn vbs rx cs pc

'he t h e n q u a r r e 1-eo - nake-did' / S O P /

"He inc i ted then to quarrel together ."

22. Pul - nan yup na:l - nan - r - nan (n,)unt ] pn ob as vb cs re fu pn ' t h e n soon see-cause-each-other-will you'

/ O P S / "You'll soon be naking then tv/o see each other]"

23. Nur rjanp pan norj yonpar -- nan - r - nar ka;l - a;l. pn pn nn nn vbs cs re nr v b s 'you we nen nany result~cause-eo-nust trust '

/ S O P PA / "You and v/e -nust cause us nany people to nake each other t r u s t . "

24. Pan yu ; r - a l -n -n l a ; t p i rk-r -nan - i r rjul pan v/ak-r-nan qok-en. nn nn vb nf er nn vb re cs pc cn nn vbs re fu nn el 'men policenan sides push-eo-cause-did and nen f ight liquor fron'

/S O P / C n S P R / "The police nade then a l l j o s t l e along and they foughtdrunkenly."

393

9.1.3 c o d

This topic has been treated in section 3.6. The relevant

categories with regard to the causative approach here are the pot-

ential/desiderative, the subjunctive and the inperative, and their

exanples now follov/ below.

Potential/^esiderative

L-Vn-nl- 23. Dul peln la:piri ka:r-p r|un-an-ii iiar]-un pan kul-tok. cn pn av ng en vbs cs po pn da nn nn lo 'and they close not-tooapproach-can hin-to in-crd*

/ In S M P M L / "And they couldn't get close to hin in the crowds of people too."

26. Kot-ntr |iuri rirk - an - n v/atp • na er pn vb cs po aj • G o d hin rise-nake-can dead • / S O P M

"God can raise hin up fron

an . el fron'

/ the dead. "

27. Ku;k-la;w kor-kanpa ra;k punt - lanpar - n yernp-e-n,an - ii. nn nn av nn nn nn lo vbs rx cs po ' w o r d everyv/here place country-side - in spread-slf-nk-can'

/O M L P / "The word was able to be spread everywhere in the whole land."

28. Nul yuk i]awil runpar - nan - n. pn nn dn vbs cs po 'he stick that break - nake-can'

/ S O P / "He can nake that stick snap."

With the future added:

•(n^)Vn-nanj-n. j

20 . Nul n i n yup kunk l an -an -ming-n . pn pn as aj vbs cs fu po

' h e you soon a l i v e raise-v/ill-<£in' /S 0 M PA P /

"He can soon rescue you a l i v e . "

30, Nunt n e l n k - e l n k - a r pai^'r n i n j - n u : n l - i n pn av nn nn vbs cs

'you tonorrov/ c h i l d s v/ i n - nake /S T O P

"You can ba th the baby tonorrow."

^anj - n. fu po will - can'

/

31. Pul yup po-:l ke:npe - nan - nanj - n_. pn as nn vbs cs fu dz

'they-2 soon fire extinguish-nake-v/ill-wish' /S M-T O P / "They'll soon want to be putting the fire out."'

594

3 2 . Wal pan kunk , poxi v/atp v / a j - w a j i r yonpar - nan - n a n j - n . pn nn a j nn a j a j r d vbs cs fu dz

' he nen a l i v e nen dead s u p e r b e v e n t u a t e - n a k e - w i l l - w i s h ' / s o PA P / " H e ' l l want t o r a i s e up t h e l i v i n g and t h e dead t o be g l o r i o u s . "

S u b j u n c t i v e 3 3 . Nul k u ; l i p v/an - an - n a t a l . p n nn vbs cs sp

| - ( n ) V n - n a t a l | ' h e s t o r y t e l l - n a k e - w o u l d - h a v e ' / S O P / "He v/ould have had the s t o r y t o ld . " '

34 . Nul nin, kolon yup ko 'o - nan - n a t a l , p n nn nn as vb cs sp

' h e wal laby soon spear -nake - v/ould' / S O P /

"He'd have go t t h a t wallaby speared in a f l a s h . "

35. Ra;k riu;l nul ko:pe - man - n a t a l ^"?a'ap - n . nn av pn vbs cs sp nn lo

• t i n e l a t e r he wai t-cause-v/ould-have r i v e r - a t ' / T S P L /

"Lo.ter, he would have had her v/a i t ing a t the r i v e r . "

36. Day nur - iian yokun-n-an wark - nan - n a t a l t r a k noi]. pn pn ob av vbs cs sp nn nn

' I y o u sane t u r n - nake - v/ould t rucks / S O M P n a n y ' /

" 'I 'd have had you d r iv ing m-any t rucks around l i k e w i s e . "

Imperat ive ^^^ ^^^ ^-^_^ ^^^^ l e ; r k - a n - ( n ) a r l i n i n ' n - a k a . |: / \ ^1 pn dn nn vbs cs nr nn dn lo |!-Vn,''vn-nar I .^^^ ^^^^ g a t h e r-nk-must t i n s t h i s - a t '

/ S P 0 L / "You there, there, get those tins gathered up."

38. Rok-an - n,ar rant - in ' 39. N unt yup miii noiQon-n.an-nar , vbs cs nr nn al pn as pn vbs cs nr ' insert-nust hole - into' *you soon him. lie-nk-nuat' /P L / S M 0 P / "Put it into the hole]" "You nust nake hin falsify it quick]"

4G»- Orjkor wark - nan - nar (n)uii. ng mr vbs cs nr pn ' don't turn-nake-nust hin' /F 3 ,/' "Don't nake it turn round]"

595

9.1.4 A s p e c t

This topic ha.s already been presented in section 3.5 and

sone of the relevant categories for this chapter are the inperfect,

the punctiliar, the urgent and the visible contenporaneous. A few

brief exanples of these with causation are;

Inperfect ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^-^ „ an - n. pn pn vbs cs nf

, ^ NT, I 'I you t e a c h - ing' |,-(n)Vn-n| /S 0 P /

"I was teaching you."

42. P i t rjerrjkan war - i n - n yarnan rp rk-n,in - n . na av vbs cs nf nn aj ns /e r

' P i t y ' day chase-nake- ing horse wi ld ' /O T P S /

"Pi t was chased yes t e rday by a v/ild h o r s e . "

-45•» Pan ne:r-kian-v/a:r-an rjan, pan n_arjanan rjata p i n i r n - nan - n . nn aj er pn nn nn pa vbs cs nf

'nan sorrowful ne no the r ny t h i n k - a b o u t - n k - g ' /S O P /

"The depressed nan v/as naking ne th ink about ny n o t h e r . "

44. Pay la t -mt r pleyn narjn n a ; l - n a l naqlc wark - nan - n . nn er nn pa av au vbs cs nf

' p i l o t plane h i s slowly round t u r n - n a k e - i n g - w a s ' /S 0 M P / "The p i l o t was t u r n i n g h i s p lane slov/ly round."

P u n c t i l i a r 45 . Mija Enan- l r pan puigk l e ; r k - an - i r . na na er nn nn vbs cs pc

| - (n)Vn- i r | i 'Mr Hannan nen g a t h e r - n a k e - d i d ' /S O P /

"Mr Hannan had the fo lk ga thered t o g e t h e r . "

46. Day nun rjat ko ' o - nan - i r wa 'ap - n narjk - u n , pn pn n n vbs cs pc nn lo pn da

' I h in f i s h s p e a r - c a u s e - d i d r i v e r - i n you - f o r ' / S O P L Be /

"I got h in to spear a f i s h i n the r i v e r fo r you ."

47. Nul pul-nan norjon-nain - i r . 48 . Daturjk - n yom^par-nan-ir-un^. pn pn ob vbs cs pc na er vb cs pc pn

'he them,-two l i e - c a u s e - d i d ' 'Ngatungk im.prove-mk-didhiri' / S O P / / S P 0 /

"He made then t e l l l i e s . " "Ngatungk nade h in b e t t e r . " '

/pan riarjanan rjaln/ and / r j a t / a re secondary , enbedded o b j e c t s .

I n n i n e n t 4 9 . Mul n in , l a k - an - r l a . pn pn vbs cs i n

| --(n^)Vn-rla j ' i h e you l e a v e - c a u s e - a b o u t t o ' / S O P /

"She was abou t t o s t o p y o u . "

50 . P a l l e : r k - an - r l a qaii (n^)ul . d r vbs cs i n pn pn

' t h i s - v / a y r e t u r n - c a u s e - a b o u t t o ne h e ' / P 0' B /

"He v/as abou t t o nake ne cone b a c k . "

5X., P e l n n u r - nan yup w u : l - nan - r l a . pn pn fu as vb cs i n

' t h e y y o u soon s h a r e - c a u s e - a b o u t t o ' / S O P / "They were about t o s h a r e out t o you a l l . "

52. Pan ^ar janan-n p e l n - a n p a r ' r w a n t a r - n a n - r t a pan narjn - n a k . nn nn e r pn ob nn vbs cs i n nn pa da

' p e r s o n n o t h e r them c h i l d r e n s h o u t - m a k e - a b o u t to man h e r - f o r ' / S O P Be /

"The n o t h e r v/as abou t t o nake t h e c h i l d r e n s h o u t f o r h e r n a n . "

5 3 . K a ; r - p n i n j n u : n l - i n - i j - a r (n_)ul (n)ur i . ng em. nn vbs c s u r pc pn pn

. - ( r i ) R n - ( ^ ) i j I n o t - t o o s w i n - c a u s e - g o - a n d - d i d he h i n '

( p u n c t i l i a r ) ^^ ^ ° ^ • "She d i d n ' t j o l l y w e l l go a.nd b a t h hin. '" '

54» Pu l p a r ' r norj y i k - an - i j - a r n^arjunp. pn nn nn vbs cs u r pc av

' ' t hey-2 c h i l d r e n nany t c a c h - g o - d i d t h e r e ' / s o P L /

"The two of t h e n v/ent and t a u g h t nany k i d s t h e r e . "

55. Nunt y o ; r v /a : r wene - nan - n.ij - a r (n )un , . pn av a j vbs cs u r pc pn

'you t oday s i c k b e c o n e - n a k e - g o - d i d h i n ' / S T PA P 0 /

"You v/ent and nade h i n s i c k t o d a y . "

5 6 , Nul l a r j k a r - nan - n i j - a r r ja l ~ nn . ion vbs cs u r pc pn da

' s h e l a u g h - nake - go - d i d me - a t ' / S P I o /

"She v/ent and r i d i c u l e d me v / i l f u l l y . "

The n e x t g roup of e x a n p l e s i s n o n - s p e c i f i c and t i n e l e s s i n t h a t t h e

s t e n on ly w i t h c a u s a t i v e s u f f i x i s u s e d v / i th or w i t h o u t / - r / whiehi

f u n c t i o n s a s an a e t i v l s e r , or i n t e n s i f i e r s u f f i x .

%ft'7'

With sten 4- (n,)an 4- (n)ij (4--r)

57. Day kana yo rjk-an-i j. 58. Nul yik-an-ij - r (n)un. pn as vbs cs ur pn vbs cs ur tn pn 'I have hang-cause-go' 'he teach~go - does hin'

/S P / S P 0 / "I've gone and got it strung uio. " "He's gone and explained it."

59. Nul yo;r rjat kenje-nan-nij-r. 60. Nip v/ur|ur-nan-nij-un rjal-un. pn av nn vbs cs ur tn pn vb cs ur pn pn da 'he today fish hook-cause-go-did' 'you2 shake~nk-go-hin ne-for'

/ S T O P / S P B e / "He went and got f i s h caught today. "'You-2 go shake h in up for ne."

V i s ib l e contenporaneous

| ,-(n,)Vn-(na)-nar I 6 1 . Day pul-n,an _3.a:-v/-r ka : r i : j , -an-nar ku;lan-ak. pn pn ob vb pc nn vb cs vc nn lo ' I t h e n - 2 see -d id car dr iv ' - ing road-on '

/ s o P PA ( L ) / " I saw them, tv/o d r i v i n g a c a r a long the road . "

6 2 . Pu l nun_ n a ; l , - i iat nin. k o l o n k o ' o -nan -na r ' y a t - l a k . pn pn vb ps nn nn vbs cs vc nn l o

' t h e - 2 h i n s e e - d i d w a l l a b y s p e a r - c a u s - i n g y a r d - i n ' / S 0 P PA /

"The two of t h e n saw h i n spe^aring t h e v /a l l aby i n t h e y a r d . "

6 3 . N_unt k a ; r i i a : -v / - r p u l - n a n r e ;nr]e-nan-n_anar p a r ' r k u l i r . pn ng vb pc pn ob vbs cs vc nn nm.

'you no t s e e - d i d t h e n - 2 s c r a t c h - c a u s - i n g c h i l d r e n two• /S P 0 PA /

" D i d n ' t JOVL s e e t h e n two k i d s b e i n g n a d e t o s c r a t c h t h e n /-selves."

64. Pul-nun narjk v/ark - nan - nanar' na;l - n pul - nun. pn ob au vbs cs vc vb nf pn ob

'then-tv/o around turn-nak - ing see - ing then-tv/o' /O- P _ -0 / "Those two kids v/ere observed revolving it."

Although described aspectually in 3.5.3.2, causation is partly in

the category of Voice, so that its connection with transitivity re

quires any second object to be analysed v/ithin the P-iDhrase.

9.2 Nonfiniteness in predication

9.2.0 Introduction

While Dependent clauses are not described until eiiapter

XIII, one nust point out at this juncture, that certain verbs are

directly connected v/ith the subordination of clauses, though at

398

tines, they nay be uttered as solitary nain verbs in a single

clause. Hockett points out that in classical languages, (1958:238)

paradigns often include the nonfinite forns having no tense/ node,

as pertinent in the learning of a language.

Thaayorre has an infinitive forn, a gerund, the present

participle and the visibly contenporaneous suffix, all of v/hich

will now be denonstrated by neans of exanples.

9.2.1 The infinitive.

This forn occurs alnost identically to its counterpart in

English and usually fills a tagnenic slot of Purpose. It lacks any

distinction for tense or nood and the subject is usually nissing

fron such a reduced clause-like string..

The suffix /-nala/ 'to ...' occurs on verbstens and var

ies only for case IV o.s /-nala/. Hov/ever, a dialectal variation,

which is quite coranon, /-nete/ originates fron the Snake language,

/Ku:k ¥ak/ and persists in Thaayorre am.ongst folk of Yak origin.

Exanples of the infinitive, dependent and independent, are:

/~S.ala/ 65. Nul yorp-nr-p rjerrjk-errjk-an ya;-n nit rirk - iiala. pn av en av vb pr nn vb nf ' he alv/ays early norning go-does work do-to'

/ S M T P Pu / "He always goes about 8 an to do his work,"

66. Nul kanarjkar yik-r peln - r)un porop)it - ak yik - alp, peln -pn av vbs tn pn da nn da vbs scf pn 'he long ago speak-did then-to prophets-to speak-to then /S T p Io Pu "He long ago spoke through the prophets to speak to all the

-rjun pan noiQ - lak. 67. Nul yik - r rjal-un pilar-mala par'r. da nn nn - da pn vbs pc pn da vbs mff nn to nen nany-to' 'she speak-did ne-to drean-to baby'

/ S P Io Pu / crov/ds of nen." "She spoke to ne about dreaning up a baby."

68, May rjanj-an in 'ii nu;rjk-nala. 69. Wal ulp rjat ken jo - n_ele. nn pn dn vb nf nn dn nn vb nf 'food our this eat-ing-for' 'basket that fish catch-to'

/PA a PU / S PA / "This food is for us to eat." "That basket is for fishing."

70-, Minp ±1 rjay yu:np - ir la:v/-al - ak yanj - nele. nn dn pn vb pc nn lo vbs nf

'cover that I nake - did boat - in go - ing - for' / 0 S p Pu /

'"I nade that cover for travelling by ship."

399

71. Day wantan yik - n naq - un patp - nele ? pn qn say-can hin - to canp - to' ''I where? say-can hin - to canp - to*

/ S L P IO PU / "I'n longing to tell hin to canp down."

9.2.2 The gerund

The verbal noun has a certain United usage but is none

theless valid as a grannatical forn. It takes noninal inflections

and bears the narks of both noun and verb.

72. Day nu;rik-an ril? pirk-a. 73. Nul nu;rjk-an ya^-t nul. pn yb el nn aj-ns pn vb el vb pc pn 'I eating-fron fat big-g;ot' ' he eating-fron go-did he'

/S R PA / /S- M P -S / "I've got nudsb fat fron eating." "Fron eating he went away."

'74. Danp nit yup rirk -an ya:-n nay lina - nak. pn nn as vb el go-will food dinner-to' ' we v/ork soon do - fron go-will d i n n e r - t o '

/S M- P- -M _p L / "We'll soon go fron doing v/ork to eat our dinner."'

75. Pan lono nul nay nu:r)k - an okun ya: - n. nn nn pn nn vbs el as vb fu 'nan one he food eating-fron naybe go-will' /S R P / "One chap night go after having his dinner."

76. Pul nay mu:rjk - am pul ya: - ra ya: - t. pn nn vb el pn dr vb pc

'they-2 food eat-ing they-2 away go - did'

/ ^" M -S L F / "They two a f t e r d inner v/ant av/ay. "

77. Day wut-am r i r k - i r k - nat i ; - r - k o r may l i - l a k . pn vb e l vb rd ps dr nn nn - d l

' I s leep-from av/ake-did go-beyond food t e a - f o r ' /S M P / L Pu / "After waking from s l e e p , I went o u t s i d e fo r ny t e a . "

78. Nul rje;rjk-nr v/anj l a n - r l a : - l a r j k a r - n a n ; nankiy larjkar - nan -n . pn nn In aj vbs t n v b s e l nn vbs cs m.f

'he s t o n a c h - j u s t sore stand l augh ing- f ron nonkey l a u g h - n a k e - i n g ' /S PA P R / S P /

"He had a sore s tonach f r o n l augh ing ; the nonkey nake h in r o a r ] " '

I t v / i l l be seen f ron the above exanples t h a t t he gerund

has been used e l a t i v e l y , s o n e t i n e s i n a R e a s o n - s l o t , s o n e t i n e s i n

a Manner - s lo t , t he e l a t i v e s u f f i x being c a r r i e d hy the v e r b s t e n .

400

9.2,3 Present participle

In section 3.3.3, the reduplicated forns of nany verb

stens express the present continuous tense/aspect. Occasionally,

the sane forn nay occur in the presence of another verb filling the

predicate slot. In this case, the reduplicated forn is likely to

be a present participle and ancillarjr to the nain verb, perhaps in

a PA-slot or nodifying a noun. It has also been pointed out that

certain verbstens do not reduplicate, but undergo the lengthening

of their vov/el nucleus.

T-he participial forn df verbs is in one of these forns:

By reduplication; wa:-v/al - r 'search-ing'

n.i;-n in 'sitting'

i']orn-orn-r 'halting'

By vowel - length ; nu : : : r jk - r ' ' e a t ing ' w u : : ; n - r ' l y i n g dov/n'

By r e p e t i t i o n ; y a ; - n y a ; - n 'go go g o - i n g '

wak-r v/ak-r ' f ollow-f ollov/-ing '

Exanples

79. Day nin po:pn riu:-nul-r pa:l-un la; - lal - r. pn nn nn rd vbs co nns lo rd vbs co 'I aninal fur sniff-ing fire-on burn-ing'

/ s o P L PA / "I'n snolling the aninal fur on the fire, burning."

80. Day kunu lak - r (n)un v/a; - wal ~ r. pn nn vbs tn pn rd vb co ' I canoe leave-did it search - ing'

/S 0- P -0 PA / "T left the canoe, searching."

81. Par'r pa;nt-u ivu; j ra:k ne:r patp-atp~r - n lov/ol - (n)an. nn nn er nn nn nn vbs rd tn da vbs nf

'children girls dance tine eye v/ak - ing - to play - ing' /S 0 T P /

"The girls v/ere dancing all night until dav/n."

In the above exanple, the present participle is enbedded at phrase

level with the dative suffix attached phrase-finally.

82. Nul narjunp lan-n rje;rjk ranj-anj-r, ruw-un-anpa nar] - un. pn av vbs nf nn vbs rd co re pn da 'he there stand-ing heart junp-ing-do before hin - to'

/S L P PA L / "He was standing there before him -;/ith heart thunping."

pn pn

nn nn 0

rd rd PA

vbs vbs

vb vbs P

tn tn

/

401

83. Day nin lak - r; nunt par'r ku; - kup pit - v, pn pn vbs tn ' I you leave-do / S O P / S "I'n leaving you; you keep on ninding the baby."

84. Par'r joul ne:r-en na: - nan pit - it - r Joyj - lilr. nn pn vbs rd vbs vbs rd tn na er

'child she show see-ing nind-ing-do Joyce' /O S- P PA '•'I* _ ^ / "Joyce shov/s then the child, v/atching and ninding it."

This 'present participle' is fornally identical to the

present continuous, but by being an extra filler within the verb

phrase, it nust be analysed either as a second head in the verb

string, or be identified as filler of the attribute slot, unless

occurring on phrase level. Both alternatives may be feasible.

85. Nunt pil - un narj - un ni; - nin, ko; - kope. pn nn lo pn ac rd vbs rd vbs 'you side-at hin-v/ith stay-ing wait-ing'

/S L Ac- P PA / "You're sitting alongside of hin, waiting."

86. Day luj - in ni:n - nan (rja)y, ko; - kope. pn nn lo vb fu pn rd vbs ^I cotton-tree sit - will I wait-ing'

/S- L P -S PA / "I shall sit at the cotton tree waiting."

87. Man i3e;rjk pan - a norj - orjon - r ninj. nn nn nn pv rd vbs tn av ' hear nan ' s ly - ing - does very' /S PA / "The heart of nan is very deceitful."

Peln par'r ^i; - nin rja ka:l-purri-ur-n-r ka:r-p. pn nn rd vbs pn v b s tn ng en

'they children sit-ting ne forgetting - do not* / S P PA /

"The c h i l d r e n a r e s t a y i n g on no t f o r g e t t i n g n e . "

8 9 . Nul i : - w a l y a : - t w e ; - v / e r k - r rjan yuS: - u . pn d r vb pc r d vbs t n pn nns n s ' h e t h i s - v / a y c o n e - d i d j a b - b i n g ne s t i c k - w i t h '

/S P PA J "He cane along belabouring ne v/ith a s t i c k . "

t!

The present participle in this reduplicated forn nay have its ov/n

object and other tagnenes as in 89; P 0 Ns, thus yielding a re

duced participial clausal string.

i-

402

9.2.4 The visible contenporaneous participle

Already described in section 3.5.2.2, this verbal forn

may also be regarded as a kind of present participle. If inter-

reted in this way, then its formal signal /-(na)nar/ nay be ana

lysed as the inflection identifying it. Hov/ever, the aspectual

nature of this verb cannot be brushed aside, and its nonfiniteness

cannot be too strongly asserted since it is frequently the sole

filler of the P-slot in clauses. Sone exanples follov/ below; and,

subsequent to connents nade in sections 2.11 on the Enic Clause,

and 5.7.3 on Derived Adjectives, the interlinear analysis nay give

alternative abbreviations such as; adjectiviser, present participle

and so on.

90. Dali peln - an kal - na,r na;l - n. pn pn ob vbs vc/ajz vbs nf

'he-and-I then carry-ing see-ing-were' / S O P /

or: / S 0 PA P / "¥e tv/o watched then carrying it."

91, Kana v/e: ] T__a;w nurn nu:rjk - nar peln ] as ex nn av vbs vc pn fg. ,od-ovj] nouth under eat - ing they'

/PA E / M P S / "Good-ow] Are they sure hogging it there]"

92, Day lanur li :nl - nar ri:-rij - r; lanur v/anj. nn vbs vc/ajz rd vbs tn nn aj foot cranp - ing run-run-ning feet sore'

M P / S PA / PA P /

P / "I'n getting cramp in the legs running; they're sore.

93.

or

or; o r ;

pn ' I

/s /s /s

Nunt pn

'you

k i r i as

go -on

yuriar - n a r . vb vc

swim-ming' / S P / / S P PA / 'You keep g o i n g v / i th your swim.ning. "•

or;

94. Day par'r re;npe - nanar na;-- -- r (rja)y nun, yuk-un. pn nn vb vc/ajz vbs pc pn pn nns el •I child descend - ing see-did I hin tree-fron'

/s- -o~ p -s -Q- J- / /S- 0- PA P -S -0 L / "I saw the kid coning down fron the tree I did]"

403

95. Dali kulir la;jir - nanar na:l - n pul - nun. pn nn vbs vc/ajz vbs nf pn ob

'we-two two plot - ting see-ing-were then-two' /S PA P 0 /

: /S 0- P -0 / or or ; /S P 0

"He and I v/ere watching then two p l o t t i n g . "'

/

96. Day peln

n

an na:l - n v/an - r - nanar peln. ob vb nf vbs re vc/ajz pn

t h e n see-ing -was quarrel-ing they' /S 0 P PA /

"I watched then squabbling anong themselves."

pn i I

9.3 Finiteness in nonverbs

Many clauses lack a P-tagmeme and some clauses lack any

filler of the potential P-slot. In the absence of such a filler,

sone words bear affixation which seens to have a predicative elen-

ent closely allied to enphasis or exclanation.

Sone connents already occur elsewhere concerning the

predicative nature of sone nonverb suffixes; possessed objects in

sections 1.3.2, 4.7 and 4.12. (it could be said that the language

has a predicative device to equate thus what is called in English

the verb 'to have' and the verb 'to lack', but ny final judgnent

is that outlined in 4.12.)

Suffixes which fulfil this role consist of /-k-a;k/,

/-k-a:r/, |-Vn|, /~\J, /-p-a/, /-p-i(:)/, the negatives /ka;r/ and

/orjkor/, the inperative narker /(r))ak/ and nany directionals, (with

the ncvenent particles /l/ and /r/). Brief notes follov/, together

with sone exenplification.

(i) /-k-a;k/ '-possessor, do-hav-ing'

If the word bearing this suffix is analysed as a "poss

essed object", then the affix nay tentatively be analysed as filler

of the P-slot in that clause, though bound grannatically on word-

level. The /-a:k/ has been called 'present participle'and the /-k/

a'declarativiser' (section 1.1.3)

97. Katn kunk-an ne;r kulir - k - a:k. 98. Pan in'n nayp - k-a;k. nn dn nn dlz pp 'nan this knife-has' /s O P /

/S PA / "The long yanstick has tv/o edges." "This chap has a knife."

nn a j a j ' s t i c k yarn

/ » Or: /S

nn eye 0 PA

nn dlz pp tv/o-do-having'

P / /

As a phrase in isolation, /n,ayp-a:k/ neans 'knife-having'

404

but as soon as a subject is supplied, the /-k/ intervenes betv/een

noun and suffix to nake the sentence both active and declarative.

Fusion is both grannatical and phonological: [ "riayp - "ga:k ].

Negatively, v/hen an object is not possessed, the suffix

/-k-a:r/ 'lacks' behaves sinilarly but v/ith opposite polarity;

99. Pan ku;k - ko ;v/ - k - a:r. 100. Pan il nul pa:nl - k-a:r. nn nn nn dlz np nn dn pn nn dlz np

' n a n v o i c e — l a c k s ' ' n a n t h a t he v/ife - l a c k s ' / s o P / /S 0 P /

or; /S- PA /s PA / "The fellow is dunb."' "That nan is single."

As the feature of possessed object is noninal type in

flection, it participates in rather a full case inflection systen

and has been analysed as such and exemplified in The Noun (Oh. IV).

(ii) /-in/ 'has, have' (~ |-Vn|) : _,

Somewhat similarly, this suffix occurs commonly and in

dicates possession of a nominal object, thus:

101. Day ka:r-p ya;-n, kurm v/anj - in; qay yo:r ak v/un. pn ng em vbs fu nn nn/aj pv pn av mr vb 'I not-too go-will thigh ache-has I now let lie'

/ S P / S O P / S T P / or: /S PA /

"I won't go indeed; thigh has an ache; let ne lie dov/n."

It is possible that /wanj/ as an adjective is being verb

alised but that the verbaliser norphem.e /-m/ has been elided, so

that /-in/ then would be merely the causative inflection, (ais has

precedent in other words such as /me :r-iZ)-en/ 'show, demonstrate'.)

(iii) /-on/ 'has, have, possess'

This suffix occurs on the v/ord /pok/ 'nothing' v/hich us

ually occurs as /pok-on/'none':

102. Day pok; rjat noi] pa;l - r ? Pok - on ] Pok ninj ] pn nn nn nn vbs tn nn dn nn av •"l nothing fish nany b ite-did ' 'nothing-have nothing true'

/S 0 / S P / 0 P / 0 M / or:/S PA / / PA / PA M /

"I nothing; nany fishes bite? Nothing,' Absolutely nothing."

/-k°a;r-in/ 'do-having nothing'

Conbining /-k-a;r/ v/ith /-in/, the resultant suffix is

added (negatively) for the nonp)Ossession of nouns thus:

405

103. Dok pok-on Kotet-an; le:per nat - n, 1:10k nan-k - a:r - in. nn aj na lo nn vb nf nn nn dlz np 0 'v/ater none Kotet-at tongues stick-ing v/ater throat-lack-do' /S PA P / S P 0 P / "Got no v/ater at 10-nile; tongues stuck and throats parched]"

The final /-in/ nay be the instrunontal affix on phrase

level and would be: /S P Ns/ 'tongues stick-ing water-less - BY',

in place of /S P 0 p/.

(iii) /-t/ 'focus narker'

Although this suffix has often been glossed as 'the', it

is nore than this, for it contains also the predicative elenent by

v/hich it would appear sonetines to fill a P-slot, declaratively.

Thus /i]ay-l/ neans "It IS ne]", not just "(the) ne]"' in the absence

of a verb. The elenent of exclanation is also present.

104. Nunt kana yo:r - 1. Min - 1 wanlan? Wa:r - 1 ulp. pn aj av fo aj fo qn aj fo dn 'you p'ood today-the]' 'good-the v/here?' 'bad-the that'

/s 'PA T E / S E PA / P A (P) S / "You all right today?" "Where's the good one?"That's bad one]"'

105. Min - 1 i; - p] May ulp - 1 i]al-lin] Rat in'n-ul - 1 - a] aj fo av en nn dn fo pn pv nn dn pn fo en 'good-the there-too'food that-tho ours' 'book this-one-the]' /S (P). L E / S (P)PA / S (P) E/ "The good one's there]"That food's ours:"This book it is]"'

The negative auxiliary nay also bear this suffix;

106. In,'n - ul narjkn \/u;np ? Ka;r - 1 i' dn pn pa qn ng fo

'this-one yours ? ' 'not - the' /S PA Nt / P E / "Is this one yorars?" "It IS not]"

Although the feeling of predicationappoars to be represented in the

gloss of the above exanples, my real conclusion on several of the

above exanples is that;

(i) Predication seeming to be present is alien and otic.

(ii) Exclanation is hortatory intrinsically and should not be

nistakcn fornally for either finite or nonfinite activity.

(iii) The predicate attribute tagnene is v/idely used in this

language and does not require the predicate to be obligatory.

(iv) It is not typical of other constructions to have such a

P-filler suffixed to a substantive.

406

(iv) /-p-a/ and /-p-i(:)/

Just as /-I// nay sonetines becone /-1-a/ in 105 above, so

/-p/ nay becone /-pa/ and /-pi/ when clause enphasis is added as a

word suffix whether the P-filler is absent or present. But the

predicative elenent also seens present in conplenenting focal en

phasis;

107. Day in'n - p - a ] Kana - p - a ] Daturjk ninj - pa .» pn dn en en aj en en na av en 'I this - too-]' 'good - too ] ' 'Ngatungk truly-too'

/S PA E (P) /PA E (P) PA M (P) / "I really an here]" "That's good eh.'" "Ngatungk it is too.

108. Punlmr-la;r - pa ]' Pok - on - pi ] Dal-lin - p - i(:)] aj en aj en pa em av

'hungry -too-an' ' none - too-] ' ' ours - too - it is' /PA E-(P) / PA E-(P) / P A E L /

"I'n famished.'" "Fleeced am I]"' "Ours indeed eh]"'

(v) Auxiliaries

Three kinds of verbal auxiliaries nay function predicat-

ively in the P-slot, the negative /ka;r/, the inperative negative

/orjkor/ and any directional adverb v/hich is either ablative or elat

ive by neans of the particles prefixed to it: /l/'cone'; /r/ 'go;

109. lul ka:r; rjay ka;r - ov/.' Nunt ka;r ? Ka;r ninj .' T>n ng pn ng ex pn ng ng av 'she not I not - ey' 'you not' 'not truly' /& P / S P E / S P / P M / "She refuses; I refuse eh] "You don't vant it?" "No, really.'"'

110. Orjkor] Dar orjkor] Porpern oqkor.' Yorp oi]kor] ng nr as ng nr av ng nr as ng nr

» + f ' d o n ' t ' ' y e s t d o n ' t ' ' t o o - n u c h d o n ' t ' ' l i k e - t h a t d o n ' t /P / ( T ) P / M P / M ' P /

" D o n ' t ] " "Not y e t ] " ' "Not so n u c h ] " "Not l i k e t h a t ] "

1 1 1 . Nunt r ja l - un i ; - r a . Kornun rjanal i ; - l - u w - a n ; i : - r - kav/] pn pn ac d r nn a j d r cp d r cp

'you n e - w i t h t h a t - w a y ' ' s q u a l l b i g cone - f ron i^ ' ' g o - t o - E ' / S Ac L - P / S P-L / P - L / /S M P / S PA / PA / "You go t h e r e v / i th n e . " "A t e m p e s t f r o n t h o v /es t ] Going oas t . "

or;

9.4 Verbaliser catalysts

9.4.0 Introduction

Four suffixes have been encountered which are able to

change nonverbs into verbs. They are /-n/ and /-p(un)/ which can

407

verbalise nouns, adjectives and phrases, /-rirk/ which incorporates

loan verbs into the syntactic pattern, and /-nil/ "•''hich adjusts a

verbsten aspectually to froquentive actions. These four co,talysts

will now be itenised and exenplified.

9.4.1 /-n/

This suffix nay verbalise words v/hich then take nore re

stricted suffixation than nornal verbs. Dixon (l972:30) nakes a

reference to /-na/ and /-ri/ as verbalisers, the forner transitive.

On nouns 112.- Par'r i3aln rjay i-]e:r)k - m - m. nn pa pn nn vbz mf 'child ny I stonach-do-ing'

/O S. P / "I've been loving ny child."

113. Kot nul rje;r]k - n -(a)- n pan kul-purjk - ak ra:k - un . na pn " nn vbz 0 nf nn nn da nns lo 'God He stonach - do - ing nen crowds - to earth - on' /S p Io L /

"God yearns for the people on the earth. "

Although it is thought typical that /rje;rjk-n/ should be

followed by an indirect object or dative forn, exanple 112 shows

the apparent irregularity v/hich is sonetines observed.

114. Kana v/e:, ra;k-rak-ar - n - ar ] as ex nn rd dn vbz pc

'good eh place/ground - do - did' /PA E P / "Good eh, the place has cleared up now]"

115. Day nun kunjin - n - nan. Il6. Ulup rjay kasl-purrj-n-at ] pn pn nns vbz fu dn pn nn aj vbz ps 'I him pipe-in do -will' 'that I ear~blook-did'

/ S O P / /O S P / "I'll turn it inside out." "I forgot about that."

Noun phrases /-n/ ~ /-na/ ~ /-on/ ~ /en/

117. Nul wal - ne;r - (e)n nunt in'n v/un. pn nn nn /vbz pn dn vbs 'he brov/ - eye - do you this stay

/S P 0 / "He ronenbers you live in this place."

/m/ as suffix generates different allomorphs because of the dif

ferent stem-shapes by v/hich transitional vocoids appear viith it.

118 .

40 8

Pan naw - i t rjay nun pan n o ; n k - (o ) . :r_J^. nn en dn pn pn nn a j 0 vbz

' n a n t h a t I h i n man b l i n d - do - i n g ' / O - . . . -0 . . . P /

M 0 d i - (Hd) f i e r E t i c o r d e r ; (Day pam r)o;rjkon nun, pam r jawi l . / s 4- P A / )

/PA- S -PA / "That nan is quite unknov/n to ne. "

119. I.ul pi°nl - a - v/a;r - n - r nar)kn - na. -gn nn pv aj vbz tn pn el •'he t i r e d - do -- did you - fron'

/S P R / "He's quite v/orn out because of you. "

The renainder of the examples encountered consists en

tirely of verbalised adjectives, with or without a causative suf

fix or any other inflection;

120. Dul peln r)e;rjk wa:r - n (n)at narjn - na . cn pn nn aj vbz ps pn el '.nnd they stonach bad-do - did hin - fron' /In S P R / 'And He touched their conscience on the raw." t!

121. Jilaj nul la:-lar(n) - n - (n)at yanj - nafei Jerujalen-ak. na pn rd aj vbz ps vbs nf na al 'Jesus he hard-hard - do - did walk - toJerusalen-to'

/S P Pn / "Jesus hardened his face to go to Jerusalen."'

122. Nul link la:r - n - lal, 123. Y:o;r kurj - m - (a) - m. pn nn aj vbz im nn aj vbz 0 nf 'he wax hard - do - nearly" 'today cold - do - ing' /S P / /T P / "The wax was about to go soft."' "Today it got colder."

124. Jilaj - nlr pan v/i;yl - kn noi] rirkir - n - an - ir . na er nn nn pv nn aj vbz cs pe

'Jesus nan sores-v/ith nany clean-se - nake-did'

/ s o P / "Jesus nade the crowd of lepers clean fron sores."

125. In'n-1 ka-r yok-un - n - an; in'n - 1 pork, dn fo ng aj vbz cs dn fo aj

'this-the not like - do - nake this-the huge' /S P / S P ^ /

"This one here doesn't resenble it; this one's huge]"'

The following suffixes have been identified as occurring in second

order after the verbaliser norphene; /-at/ (ps); /lal/ (in); /-n/

(ps); /-an/ (cs); /-an-ir/ (cs 4- pc) ; /-n^an/ (fu) and /-ar/ (pc).

409

126 Donjn pan - nr pa:nl - r i; - wal wtur - n - at. pn nn Tn nns In dr aj vbz ps '•W© nen-just wonen-just this-v/ay crov/d-do-did

/S P / - "We nen and wonen only crowded tightly through."'

127. Ayj - kirin kana porpur - n - at. na as aj vbz ps

'ice - crea-n has soft - en - did'

/S P , ,, ' "The icecream has gone soft."

9.4.2 /-p-(un)/_

The following exanples show how adjectives nay be both

verbalised and transitivised by neans of the vbz_i:. cs ;

128 Nul nanli " P - ^ " i '' ^'^ ^""^ " ^^ nanti-p-un-ir. pn aj vbz cs pc pn pn da v b s P*; 'she cooked - nade - did she ne - for cooked-nake-did

/3 p / S Be ? / "She cooked it up; she cooked it ready for ne."

129. Pu'an - p - un - ir; toxTXi - ar peln (n)un. ai vbz cs pc vb pc pn pn

'wounded - nake - did kill - did they him'

/P / P ^ . ^ ' "They v/ounded and they slaughtered hin."

130. Pu:kan-p-un-r^an (T])ay. Peln nun yoton - p - un ir

ij vbz cs fu pn pn n aj vbz cs ' new - noke-v/ill I ' 'they hin stripe - nake - did

/p S / /S 0 P / "I'll fix it up new again." "They covered hin with stripes."'

131 Peln in'n-1 nurk-an-p-un-r peln in'n -1 Malriyut - n. -n dn fo nn dn vbz cs tn p-n dn fo na lo 'thev these-the break taboo-did they this-the Malriyul - at

/S ' P "S L / , "These nen here brought a taboo to conpletion here at Malriyuth.'

132 Day nun ka:r-p pan-(i3)al-ur - p - un - nanj - n. pn pn ' ng em nn pn In vbz cs fu dz 'I hin not-to nan-we-two-only- nake will-wish

/ S O P ^ ,, ' "I won ' t v/ant to be f r i end h in wi th a welcone.

9 .4 .3 L o a n wprd_s.

Verbs borrov/ed fron English and phonetically assinilated

into the language are sealed off fron the vernacular by a special

catalyst verb /rirk/ 'work, do, rise' which then bears any necessary

410

suffixation relevant to the clause containing it. Nunerous verbs

have been borrowed fron English and verbalised into Thaayorre by

means of /rirk/ which is a class II verbsten. It is not clear that

all of these are thought of as noninals and adjectivals enically,

though the suggestion is feasible.

irk/ -nr 1 3 3 . P a : l a Prav/n p a : n l kana n e r i t - r i r k - r .

na na nn as l o a n vb pc ( t v ) ' F a t h e r Brov/n w i f e has n a r r i e d - d i d '

/ S O I / " F a t h e r Erov/n h a s n a r r i e d a w i f e . "

134. K o l i n - r i r k - n a n j - n ( r j ) an jn , loi]k - nan j - n ( r ] ) a n j n . l o a n vb fu dz pn vbs fu po pn

( iv) . ' e a l l - i n - do - v / i l l - v / i s h we a r r i v e - w i l l - c a n we ' • / p S / P S /

"We v/ant t o c a l l i n on you 'v/hen v/e can g e t t h e r e . " '

135 Dok l e r n p (i}anjn n e n j i n - n - r i r k - n a n ; narj - un y i k - n a n . nn a j pn l o a n vbz vb fu pn da vbs fu

( t v ) ' l i q u i d sou r we n e n t i o n - do - w i l l h i n - t o s ay -wiH ' /O S P / Io P _ /

" I t ' s l i q u o r t h a t v / e ' 1 1 nake n e n t i o n of and d i s c u s s v / i th him." '

I n 135 t o 1 3 8 , t h e v e r b a l i s e r morpheme / - m / i s suff ixe .d

t o t h e E n g l i s h l o a n v e r b , t h u s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i t must be r e g a r d e d

as n o n i n a l or a d j e c t i v a l and n e e d i n g v e r b a l i s a t i o n i n s p i t e of t h e

v e r b s t e n / r i r k / . But i t i s no t so i n 133-4 though t h e r e s e e n s l i t

t l e p h o n o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n t o be nade be tween t h e l o a n v/ords .

136. Day k u l - u y i l - n, l u k a p t i r - n - r i r k - n . pn nn l o vbs po l o a n vbz vb dz

( t v ) ' I l a p - i n l e a d - c a n l o o k - a f t e r do - w i s h ' / S L " P /

"I can t a k e h i n i n iiy l a p f o r I v/ant t o n u r s e h i n . "

137. 1 5 8 . E l e n - l r l a y k - n - r i . r k P r i j p a n . Nunt rjan l e r n - r i r k - n k u ; l - l a k ?

na e r loanvbz vb na pn qn l o a n vb nf nn l o " A l l e n l i k e - do B r i s b a n e . " 'you what l e a r n - i n g s c h o o l - i n '

/S P 0 / /S 0 P L / "Allen likes Brisbane." "What were you learning in school?"

^ This is consistent with the statenent that Australian Aborigines

prefer to keep their clan languages separate, not jumbling or mix

ing parts of one intentionally into another, Dixon (l972;30) dis

cusses the assinilation of loan words into the noun/adjective class.

411

9.4.4 /-^il/ 'one v/ho . . . '

This suffix is attached to certain verbs and re

fers sonewhat aspectually to a characteristic which is habitually

attached to sone individual. Exanples follow to illustrate this:

139. Nul pan pu;nn - nil. 140. Pan rinj-nil nantan nul. pn nn vbs ajz nn vbs ajz aj pn 'he nan pity-one who' 'nan cranp-ing snail he'

/S PA / /PA S / "He's a synpathetic nan."- "He's a shrivelled nan."'

141. Tepi± £^1 P ' ko;-yil-nil n,a]Qn kanarjkar n,i:n - n Jojep. na pn nn vbs ajz pa av vbs nf na

'David he nan nose-lead-ing his before stay-ing Joseph' /S PA /

"David was Joseph's predecessor/ancestor living long ago."'

142. Nul pan ko:-yil - iiil rjatn . pn nn nn vbs ajz pa

'she nan nose-lead-ing m-y' /S PA / "She was one of ny ancestors."

Fron these exanples above, the suffix /-nltj appears to

change the verbsten fron its verbal role to an adjectival or at

tributive role so that it nay fill a PA-slot or a nodifier slot on

phrase level. Its head noun is usually the word /pan/ 'nan' so we

gloss it nostly as ' one-v/ho. . . , -ing' thus:

142. PA - Hd -h- Md + Md nn vba 4 /-n.il/ P ^

Read; This predicate attribute phrasjg, consists of a Head slot

filled by a noun, a nodifier slot filled by a verbsten rendered ad

jectival by the suffix /-nil/ and a nodifier slot filled by a

possessive adjective.

9.5 _

9.5.0 Introduction

Strings of verbs are not connon in Thaayorre. But sone

phrases have becone characteristic and perhaps idionatic in con

bining two or nore predicative elenents in the one P-slot, nost

ly v/ith a zero-connector.

The verb -phrase has been introduced in section 1.5, but

the juxtaposing of verbal lexenes has not been explained. The

different constituents v/ill nov/ be analysed;

http://-n.il/

412

Verb 4- verb

143. Peln rjalun ruw-an ri:j - r par'r rjato. pn pn al vbs cs vbs tn nn pa

•they ne-to neet-cause run-did children ny' /S- L M-Pu P -S /

"My children all run to m.eet ne they do."

In this exanple, since /r)al~un/ is not a direct object, it cannot

be object of the causative /rm/-an/ which night be regarded as a

kind of infinitive 'cause-neet/to-neet'. It seens better to ana

lyse it as filling a Manner or Purpose slot in this example, though

frequently tv/o verbs wr;uld be better treated as a multiple-filler

of the predicate slot.

144. ... kerp-r lowol - nan ... yuijar ya: - n ... vbs tn vbs cs vbs vbs fu

'finish-do play-cause' ' swin go - v/ill' "stop naking play" "will sv/in across"

... na:-w-r naqk wark - nat ... nurj ya; - n ... vbs pc av vbs ps vbs vbs pr 'see-did round turn-did' 'neve v/alk-do'

"sav/ circling round" "noving about"

... wunp lak - an ... yar)k - un (p)unj - n ... vb vbs cs vbs cs vbs nf 'put leave-cause' 'sponge-cause resid - ing' "place it there" "i.nposing on residents"'

... purjk le:rk-an-ir ninir-p-un-ir ... wak-m. (y)anj - n ... nn vbs cs pc aj vbz cs pc vbs nf vbs nf

' g a t h e r - cause-did ready-nake-did' 'follow-ing go - ing' "gathered then up ready" "following along'-''

145. Dat li;t ko:v/-pa:nt - p - on Ian nu:nl - r, ... nn nn nn nn vbs vbs tn

'fish dolphin nose-head -do-cause stand dive-did^ /S M P / "The dolphin did a nose-stand and dived down,

. . . r ju l ( n )u l kene-en l a ; - p o r n p - r rjul u lp ko-kop-on n u ; n l - r . cn pn d i / a v vbs tn cn dn av vbs tn

'and i t v e r t i c a l l y sno r t - does and t h a t belov/-at d i v e - d i d ' /Cn S M P /Cn S M F / . . . a n d i t up\/ards blov/s out v/ater and then dives r i g h t down."

P a r t i c l e 4- verb

Sone i n d e c l i n a b l e p a r t i c l e s acconpany t h e i r verb

head in c lose nexus;

. . . wut vrun . . . v/ut (ka^r ) rje;n . . . ' s l e e p l i e ' ' s l e e p not h e a r '

purp ka tp . . . narjk wark - ant - r . . . 'g rab c a t c h ' ' round t u r n - go - do '

413

Directional 4- verb

Other exanples of these v/ill be given in the

section 10.2.2.2. Most precede their verb head.

... i:-r-i-par ya: - n ... i:-l-urj-kar ya: - t ... 'go-S-wa rds go - will'' 'cone-fron N cone-did'

i:-r-kan le;rk - r ... i:-l-op-on yurjar - nan 'go-up-wards return-did'' ' cone-fron-below swin -niLng'

Infinitive 4- verb

... rint - iiala kal - al ... 'squeeze-to carry-ing'

"carrying and conpressing it"

9.6 S u f f i x i a l sunnary

The distribution of pertinent phonenes in the various

affixes on verbstens nay be stated sinply as follov/s:

(i) All five short vov/els occur in verb suffixes;

Long /a:/ occurs only in the adjectivisers;

object 4- -(k) - a: [ __„

(ii) Eifcht consonants begin and end suffixes;

/j/ /n/ /n/ /n/ /r/ /r/ /t/ /t/ ;

/y/ appears transitionally thus; /e-(y)-r/ ;

/w/ " " ** /na;(w)-r/ ;

/k/ " as stativiser with long /a;/ as above.

(iii) Suffixes are basically CVC in shape : e.g. /-nax/,

but other shapes occur: (c)VC CCV(c) CVCV(c) CVCC (n)ij rla(l) |iala(l) n.anj

(iv) A brief conpilation of suffixes reduces to this array:

T^enge; Sten-.r:.,;-.;;;;- r-') '"-± """"••- • r

Voice: Stenr- ;;- '- -'" " '•"~(y -.,r( or others)

Mood: Sten. -.™-- - j - a^™--r-

"'• tal

CHART 36

414

Aspect: Stenr • — -- -v

..-. " V)rC''"''' "••"1(a)

V-v.

\ •= >X... ^n(arj

"i.

% (y) Stress:

One syllabled verb suffixes receive secondary stress

Two syllabled verb suffixes receive secondary stress

on each syllable;

Suffixes of only one syllabic consonant have no stress;

Causative suffixes and reflexive /-e/ receive secondary

stress in both cases.

(vi) Conbinations of several suffixes have already been encount

ered in the various examples above.

(vii) All verb suffixes reduce to the follov/ing representation;

,^y^ \ . v ^ - " " j ,•-'••"'

^ ..--;;S.--i / • ,,.--"" l.. --- / ...<:::11'-' —^(^^ ' „^lem!^^^'. —•^^;'i^~~..^... _^j ^•^^^":™^—-^ n CHART 37

"'•'•'-....J""''-~-TZ \ ••• •••-..„. ! ••"-'••'...... " - " - - r

^^"^•-•(V)? ^^•"'^^/' ^'^•"•'•-ta(l)

Thus dental /n/ tends to occur syllable initially, as

also it consistently does lexically for all letters n beginning

words are dental only. Alveolar /n/ occurs either suffix-initial

ly or syllable-finally to the exclusion of the dental /n/.

(viii) In vorbclass I only, any vowel nay precede /n/ for the

causative suffix when that suffix is shaped -VC.

(ix) All suffixes will be used neticulously by infornants if

they sense the possibility of anbiguity, but noticable econony of

inflection is a trait of vernacular speech,

9.7 Case after verbs

Sone verbs appear to govern a particular case in nouns

and pronouns or in any phrase-final adjective which is involved.

I hesitate to say that subclasses of verbstens govern particular

cases, but sone specific exanples are available to suggest it.

/re;k/ 'give' takes the objective forn as indirect object:

415

/rjan, re;k-ar/ 'ne give-did' = "gave ne"

/pin-irn/ 'think about' takes the elative forn as object:

/Par'r r)aln-na i3ay pin-irm, - at yo:r. / nn pa el pn vbs ps av 'child my-from I think about-did today'

/ka;l-a:t/ 'trust, believe' sinilarly, takes the elative forn:

/pul yo:r ka;l-a:l-r pam nai]anoj.i rjaln - na - ntan./ ln av vbs tn nn nn pa el 'they-two trusted/obeyed nother ny - fron'

/ne:nk-n(a)n/ 'yearn for, love' in 113 above takes the dative.

Chapter X : d.yerbSjj__directionals and ^i56^gi£S£l§

10,0 Introduction

The Edward River tribal concept of environnental and

space relationship has produced a closed class of v/ords broadly ad

verbial. These fall into several fornal subsystens orientated by

neans of the cardinal points of the com_pass, the v/esterly flov/ of

nost rivers to the v/est\/ard ocean, the novenents of sun and -noon,

or the mere elements of dimension and direction. These v/ords show

a linkage \/ith demonstratives and pointing v/ords.

The v/hole agglomeration of v/ords permits expression of

rest at, motion towards or from, distance and visibility. This ap

proximate nensurational systen shov/s a close link between specific

norphenes and their semantic connotation whereby a single phoneme

nay nanifest D.eaning as a nininal norphene. Derivatives spring

fron conbinations of these together with prefixes and suffixes.

The boundary betv/een space and t ine is not alv/ays distinct as one

night expect when /ra:k/ connotes 'place', 'things' or 'tine' ac

cording to the contextual clues. This latter depends very nuch on

the relative position of the sun or the size and shape of the noon,

and tho state of the flora in an area during various seasons.

The ain of this chapter is to categorise several hun

dreds of words expressing dinension and environnental awareness in

such a nanner as to denand special treatnent because of fornal and

senantic characteristics. Aboriginals around Edward River clearly

distinguish certain categories v/hen describing the relativity of

their uilieu. The purpose energed to find whether the structural

patterning of dinensions and directionals reveals any degree of

precision v/hen speakers indicate uovenent fron point to point

416

within the locale of space, natter and tine.

A psycholinguistic approach seens reasonable v/hile avoid

ing the extrenos of the Sapir-Whorf controversy such as thought be

ing inprisoned language. In the dinensional norphenes one nay find

the relationship between lang-uage patterning and its real social

environnont. Thus the fornal system, should provide access to a cul

ture. Healey (l962:14) explains his purpose in presenting terns

"categorised by senantic and fornal criteria" regarding specific

T)roblens.

Findi-ng no sinple solution, he divided the terms, on that

basis, into six categories, thus attem.pting to fit a kinship system

into a typology. Sinilarly, in Thaayorre, clear correlation exists

between morphological and lexical features of these adverbial and

dinensional nateri.als. The lorocedure for synbolising direction is

organised logically with regard to direction, dinension, natural

phenonena and various facets of tine.

10.1 Directionals

The Edward River nomad knew v/ell the four main points of

the compass, and has built then into his language:

/kar/ 'north'

'west' /kuw/ /kaw/ 'east •

/par/ 'south'

Certain criteria help to exploit the potential of these basic ele

nents and forn paraneters of the systen.

10.1.1 Paraneters

Three concepts, direction, notion and distance, are pert

inent to the Aborigines of Cape York as they undertake and describe

their journeys in the hinterland. Fornal synbolisation has produc

ed a closed class of directionals which give quite accurately the

bearing, distance and novenents of the traveller. Recurring norph

enes conprise the cardinal points of the compass in such a v/ay as

to nake the N/S axis appear to be prinary.

10.1.1.1 Direction

(a) The follov/ing diagram shows how the secondary directions mid

way betv/een N/S/B/W are derived by adding suffixes for 'east' and

'west' to the 'north/south' stens:

41?

/i;-rj-kar/ 'there •- north'

/i: -r]-kar-uw/ 'there north v/est'

/i: -r]-kar-aw/ 'there north east'

/i:-kuw/ _ y „ _ _ „ /i:-kaw/ 'there west' """ » _ _ _ _ ; - | - - - - - - - - - - ithere east'

/i ;-par-ux7/ 'there south west'

f! /i;-par-aw/

'there south east'

/i :-par/ •there south'

CHART 38

Only in connection with the conpass norphene /-kar/ is

there any assinilation of the back stop /k/ by the velar nasal;

/i;-r]-kar/ 'there north •. The conpass directionals function as

locatives.

(b) Exanples

1. Rat i ; r ) - k a r vmn. 2 . Pornpur iQato i : - kuv/. nn l o vbs

•book north lies' /S L P /

nn pa lo 'house ny there west'

S PA / "The book is north of j;ie." "My house is in the W,

3. Dul i:q-kar-aw-l ni:n -nat pul, kerp - r, pal le:rk. on lo fo vbs ps pn vb tn dr vbs 'and in N-E - the sit—did they-2 lose - did this-v/ay return'

/Cn L P S / P / P / "And they two stayed in the north east, finished, v/ent back."'

4. Day i:-kav/ ni:-iiin. 5. Yuk i;-par il Ian - an. pn lo rd vbs nn lo dr. vbs rd •I in east stay-ing' 'tree in south that stand-ing'

/S L P / S- L -S P / "I'm staying in theeast." "That tree's standing in the south."

6. Pan i;-par-uw v/un. 7. Min ku;j i;-par-aw waral nu;iik - n. nn av vbs nn nn av nn vbs nf 'nanthere-S.W. lies' ' kangaroo in-south-east grass eat-g'

/ S L P / S L O P / "The nan's in the S.W."' "The kangaroo ate grass in the S-E,"

(c) The Thaayorre speaker adds one nore dinension to the conpass

terninology than does an English speaker, nanely the local river:

/-(k)op/ 'down/up river'. Thus, not tv/o, but three separate norph

enes nay be suffixed to derivatives ending with /ka?-/ and /par/;

418

I -aw 'east' \ -op 'at-rivor' I -uv/ 'v/est' |

-kar I 15

j 'north' Il 4- 4,.

j ' ir \ -par 1 ! 'south' h

(d) Exanples

'ii|.#;

4-

Nul yu:v/ ya; - t nin - a i;rj-kar-op, pn av vbs pc nn da lo rv

' he away go-did aninal-for in north-river' /S L P Pu L / "He xjont off hunting at the river, north."

-9* Pa:nt narjn rjat - a ya:-t i:-par-op. nn pa nns da vb pc lo rv

'wonan his fish-for go-did there-S-river' /S Pu P L / "His wife went fishing at the river in the south."

CB) River banks, north and south only, because rivers flov/ fron

east to v/est into the Gulf of Carpentaria, parallel the north and

south conpass points, Thoy are;

/-kan/ 'north bank' /-pan/ 'south bank' .

Together with the locative prefix / i:-/ ~- /i;rj-/, they forn;

/i:rj - kan/ •there-N-bank'(lo)

/ i : -kuv / / *v/est' / /vsKi'ap/ ' r i v e r ' -^ — / i : - k a v / / ' e a s t '

/ i t . - pan / *there-S-banlc '

( f) exanples 10. Peln ko:p \ran i : - pan .

pn nn vbs lo rv ' t hey a l l s tay t h e r e - S - b a n k ' /S P L /

'They all stay on the south bank."

II, Par'r nor] lo - lowol i:rj - kan. nn nn rd vbs lo rv 'boys nany play-ing-are there-N-bank'

/S P L / "Many boys play on the North bank. "

10.1.1.2 M o t i o n

The concept of novenent TO or FROM and tho absence of

notion AT a place brings liaison betv/een the directionals and case

endings. But instead of their being suffixes, these are prefixes.

419

and instead of being inflections like sinilar relaters suffixed to

an axis, the allative and elative are auxiliary to the verb having

their ov/n predicative particles prefixed to a directional root.

(a) Case

Though locative, allative and elative 'directionals' con

prise three cases found in noninals, approxim.atoly half the cases

identified, nevertheless, they serve to describe all the cases for

directionals. Four sinple norphenes supply the olenents v/hich sig

nal novenent, or lack of it:

elative locative allative

/l-/ ^ /k-/ 'at' /-r-/ 'go to' /-I-/ 'cone fron'

Together v/ith vowels which acconpany these consonants, the full af

fixation when prefixed to north/south roots is;

/li - par/ 'south side^ /kurj - kar/ 'north side'

/-ri - par/ 'go-to-south' /-rurj - kar/ 'go-to-north'

/-li - par/ 'cone-fron-south' /-lurj - kar/ 'cone-fron-north'

Assinilation to the velar stop causes /-rj/ to precede /k/: /-qk-/;

and it is highly probable that th® back velar 4- stop have condit

ioned the occurrence of the back vowel /u/ though nothing conpar-

able is to be seen in the southern counterpart, j-Ci-p .

(b) Char t showing n o t i o n CHART 39

- k a r ' n o r t h '

- p a r • s o u t h '

I i : - l i -I 'at* i i:-kurj-

\ i : - r i -i ' to' I i :-rurj-

\ i : - l i -i ' f ron ' I i : - lu r ] -

a : - l i - p a r I'on-S-side '

i:-kurj-kar 'on-N-side'

-kan 'N-bank'

i| i : -kurj-kan li 'on-N-bank'

p . : - r i -par i-I 'go-to-south ' I

i ; -rurj-kar .i 'go-to-north '|

-pan 'S-bank'

\ i : . - l i -pan I 'on-S-bank'

i ; - r i -pani \ I 'go-to-S-bk"!

; i;-rurj-kan \ \ ' g o - t o - N - b a n k ' j

j i : - l i - p a n \ i ' c n ~ f r - S - b k ' l

i : - l u r j - k a r ' c n - f r o u - N *

\ i : - l u r j - k a n ' c n - f r - N - b k '

( c ) Exanp les 1 2 . N_ul nerrjkan yurjar - nam i ; - l i - p a n p a l . pn av vbs mf e l r v dr •he y e s t e r d a y s w i n - n i n g - w a s f r - S - b k c o n e '

/ S T P ( L ) / "He sv/an t h i s way y ' d a y f r o n t h e s o u t h b a n k . "

420

13. Min kolon lono i:-lui3-kar, lono i:-li-par-p; pan peln weri]ka lan-n. nn nn nm el cp nm el cp en nn pn av vbs nf 'wallaby one fron-north one cn-fr-south-too nen they btwn std-g' /S P / S P / S L P / "One wallaby came from the north, one from south, men stdg between."

14, Nul i:-lur)-kan ya:-n; ko:-kope; kunu - lak ko: - kope. pn el rv vb pr rd vbs nn lo rd vbs 'he cn-fr-N-bk walk-does wait-ing canoe-at wait-ing-is'

/S P / P / L P / ^ "He's coming from the N-bank, and waiting, v/aiting at the canoe."

15. Day pal ya; - t i: - luq - kan. 16, Nul i;-luiQ - kar pn dr vbs pc lo rv pn lo cp 'I this-v/ay go-did cc me-from N-bank' 'he c-one-fron-Nth

/S P L / /S L "I cane down fron the north bank," "He cones fron the

ya:-n T_erjtey Aylan - tan. 17. In'n petetn ya; - n i;-ri - par. vbs pr na na el dn av vbs pr al cp go-does Thursday Island-fron' 'this quickly go - does go-to-south P L / S M P L north, from Thursday Island." "This chap rushes off to the south."

18. Pa:nl ya:-ra rji; ya:-t nakn i:-rur)-kan. 19. Par'r in/n nn av av vbs pc nn al rv nn dm

'wonan away there go-did camp go-to-N-bank' 'boy this /S- p- L -P L / /S "The woman went away there to the north bank."' "This boy

na:l ya:-n i:-ri-pan. 20. Day i; - rurj - kar minj le;rk - n. av vb pr al rv pn al cp av vbs dz slowly go-does go-to-S-bk' 'I go-to-north truly return-wish' M P L / S L M P / is dawdling to the south bank." "I'm longing to go back northwards."

21. Pul i: - ra ya: - t i:-ri - pan; peln mor) i; - ri - par, pn dr vbs pc al rv pn nm al cp 'they-2 that v/ay go-did go-to-S-bank they nany go-to-north /S (L) P L / S P-L /

"Two went to the south bank and nany went southv/ards. "

22* Day qerrjkan i: - kui] - kar patp - ir Aurakun naqunp. pn av lo cp vbs pc na av ' I yesterday there-side-north canp-did Aurakun there'

/ S T L P L . , „ / "I canped at Aurakun there yesterday on the north side."

23. Day i; -v/un - n (n)ar) - un i; - li - par ra:k Prijpan-ak. pn av vbs nf pn ac lo cp nn na lo 'I there stay-ing hin-v/ith there-side-south city Brisbane-at'

/S L P Ac L / "I stayed with him on the southern side in Brisbane city."

421

24 . K u ; l a n i l i : - k u r j - k a n . 2 5 . Day pul- r jun i : - l i - p a n k o : p e - n . a n , nn dn l o r v pn pn da l o r v vbs nf

• t r a c k t h a t t h e r e - s i d e - N - b k ' • I t h e n - 2 - f o r s i d e - S - b k v / a i t - i n g ' / S PA / S Be L P /

"That t r a c k ' s on t h e N - b a n k . " " I a w a i t e d t h e n tv/o on s o u t h b a n k . "

Cd3 / y a : - ( n ) / ' w a l k , g o . c o n e , n e v e '

¥fhen the direction of the notion is unknown or irrelevant,

the verb of general notion /ya:-n/ is enployed thus:

allative/elative /ya: - ri - par/ 'walk-go-to-south'

/ya; - rujQ - kar/ 'walk-go-to-north'

Sinilarly, in connection with rivers:

/ya: - ri - pan/ 'walk-go-to-S-bank'

/ya: - rurj - kan/ 'walk-go-to N-bank'

Exanples

26. Peln ya:-ri-pan narjunp. 27. Nur ya^-ri-par wu:np yo:r ? pn vb al rv av pn vb al cp qm av 'they go-to-S-bank there' 'you go-to-south ? today'

/S P L / /S ? Nt T / "They move about there on S-bank." "Do you v/alk south today?"'

28. Pul yu:w ya: - t min.-a ya:-rur)-kan wa;-wal - r. pn av vbs pc nn da vb al rv rd vbs tn

'they-2 away go-did prey-for v/alk-to-N-bk search-ing-do' /S L P ' Pu / L P / /S L P Pu PA / "They two went off hunting searching along the N-bank."

29, Day ya: - ruq - kar yup min - a. pn vb al cp as nn da 'I walk-to-north soon prey-for'

/S P (T) PU / "I'n off hunting northwards soon."

30. Nunt kar-yup-ka:r ya:-ri-par ya;-r; rjay ya:-rurj-kan yup ya:n. pn av vb al cp vbs nr pn vb al rv as vb •you quickly go-to-south v/alk-nust I go-to-N-bk soon go'

/S T-M P-L P / S L P / "You nust quickly walk v/outhv/ards; I'll do the N-bank soon."

10.1.1,3 Distance

Three norphenes give signals of relati've distance v/ithin

the v/hole systen of directionals. They are;

/i:/ 'there (close)' /pal/ 'there (niddle)' /yu:(w)/ 'far av/ay'

Together with other norphenes previously listed, these serve to re

late the directionals to the locality of the speaker.

422

Exanp le s

31-. Dok p a l - u r j - k a r (v/un) p a l - i - p a r v/un . nn l o cp l o cp vbs

•wa te r t h e r e n o r t h t h e r e - s o u t h s t a y s ' / S L P /

"V/ater l i e s t h e r e b o t h n o r t h and s o u t h s i d e s . "

32. Day i : -wun-n (n)a r ) -un i ; - l i - p a r r a : k P r i j p a n - a k . pn av vb nf pn ac l o cp nn na l o ' I t h e r e s t a y - i n g h i n - w i t h t h e r e - s i d e - S p l a c e B r i s b a n e - a t '

/ S L P Ac L / " I v/as s t a y i n g w i t h h i n t h e r e dov/n s o u t h i n B r i s b a n e . "

3 3 . Pornpur r jata i : - k u r i - k a r . 34 . a i : l a n i : lorjko k u : l a n i : - k u i ] - k a r . nn pa l o cp nn av av nn l o cp

' house ny t h e r e - n o r t h ' ' t r a c k t h e r e halfv/ay t r a c k the re -N ' / S PA / S- PA -S /

'My house i s on t h e N - s i d e . " "Tho t r a c k t h e r e ' s h a l f w a y , N - s i d e . "

35. Fein yu:r |-kan n i : - n i n ; rjanjn yu : -pan v/un; nur yu;}g-kar I a n - an , pn av rv rd vbs pn av rv vb pn av cp vbs rd

•they far-N-bk s t a y - i n g v/e fa r -S-bk s t ay you far-N s t a n d - i n g ' / S L P / S L P / S L P /

"They're s t ay ing on f a r N-bank, we on the S-bank; y o u ' r e i n f a r -N . "

36. P a l - l i - p a r riisn - n ( n ) u l . 37. Yuk i l yu: - l i - pan l a n - a n . lo cp vbs nf pn nn dn av lo rv vbs rd

' t h e r e - s i d e - S s t a y - i n g h e ' ' t r e e t h a t f a r - s i d e - S - b k s t d - g ' / L P S / / S L P /

"He s tayed on the south s i d e . " "That t r e e s tands i n f a r s o u t h . "

38. Min k u : j i l yu: - kuq - kan wut v/un - n . . . nn nn dn av lo rv au vbs m-f

'p rey ' roo t h a t f a r - s ide-N-bk s l e e p - l y - i n g - w a s ' /S L P / "That kangaroo v/as s l e e p i n g on the N-bank f a r away . . .

3 9 . . . n u t - a yu;w n i ; n yu; - l i - par . nn lo av vb av lo cp

' idge-on a f a r s t ay f a r - s i d e - s o u t h ' / L P L /

" . . . l y ing on a r i d g e on the f a r south s i d e . "

Note: / Y u ; - p a r / though expected i s not u s e d , f o r ' f a r s o u t h ' would

be a lnos t honophonous wi th / y u p ( y ) a ; r / ' s o o n - n u s t - g o ' which neans

( i d i o n a t i c a l l y ) "v/asting t i n e " .

10.1.2 D i r e c t i o n a l norphem-cs conbined

Sunnar i s ing and a s senb l i ng a l l norphenes nov/ i n t o the one

cha r t , v/e nay conpare the 80 t e r n s genera ted fron / k a r / , / p a r / j / i a n /

/ p a n / ; / aw / , / o p / , /uw/ ; / l i / , / ku r j / ; / r i / , / r u r j / ; / l i / , / l u i V ; / y a t /

423 COMPASS and RIVER directionals

I Case Gloss Distance | Motion D 0 n

CHART 40 -C 0 n p a Si s. R i v e r

T" n o r t h I s o u t h jj N - b a n k \ S - b a n k |

- a w \ - a w il I \

I

• t h e r e '

H k a r - o p ; - p a r - o p % - k a n \ \ -uv/ \ -uw i; \

1 ±i- i \ ^ i \

- p a n

4-

\ kur)- 4- n 4--L.

AT ' n e a r '

' f a r

p a l -

y u ; -

J

J

1 (i^i- I I (k)ur j -c ;

i l i - ii

\ k u r j - I 4-

4-

4-

' n e a r t ?

TO

"far

L____L—

1 : •

y u ;

- r i -

- r u r j -

4-

+

4-

4-

4-

? - r i - g i 4-

j - r u r j - i; 4- ^ 4-

4-

4-

4-

4-

' n e a r 'i

\ FROM

' f a r ' i v u : -

- l i -

- l u r j -

4-

4-

- l i - i!

- l u r j - I 4-

j To i F r o n

' w a l k '

'"?"

- r i -

4-

-t-

4-

4-

4-

4-

4-

y a : -\ - r u r j - •;• 4- 4-

1 0 . 1 . 3 E x a n p l e s

4 0 . Pu l y u : - k u r j - k a r - o p l a n - a n ; n i p q e r r ] k a n 3 r u ; - k u i ' ] - k a r - a w n i ; n - n . pn a v l o cp r v v b s r d pn a v av l o cp vb n f

• t h e y 2 f a r - s i d e - N - r v r s t d - g y o u - 2 y ' d a y f a r - s i d e - N - E s i t - t i n g ' / S L P / S T L P /

"They 2 s t o o d by a r i v e r on f a r N - s i d o ; y o u 2 y ' d a y i n f a r NE s a t . "

4 1 . Day yu ; - l i - p a r - u w -v/un. 4 2 . P e l n p a l - u r j - k a n I a n - n . pn a v l o K cp v b s pn l o r v v b s n f ' I f a r - s i d e - S ~ W s t a y ' ' t h e y n e a r - l - b a n k s t a n d - i n g '

/ S L p / S L P / " I l i v e on t h e f a r SW s i d e . " "They s t o o d on t h e n o r t h b a n k . "

424

4 3 . P u ; n po rk n i :n r j - r i : - lurj - k a r - uw. nn a j vb t n c l eg

'i//in s t r o n g blov/ - d i d comLe-f ron-nor th -v /es t ' /S P L-M /

"A g a l e b lew up f r o n t h e n o r t h - w e s t . " '

44 . Po.ln norj i : - rurj - k a r - op yu:v/ y a ; - t v /a 'ap - n . pn nn a l cp r v av vbs pc nn a l

' t h e y nany g o - t o - n o r t h - r i v e r av/ay go - d i d r i v e r - t o ' / S L P L /

"Lots of t h e n went away t o t h e r i v e r on t h e n o r t h s i d e . "

4 5 . I ; - r i - p a r - op J e p n a n Ripa - iiak y a : - n (3Q)anp r j a t - a . a l cp r v na na a l vbs p r pn nn da

'go - t o - s o u t h - r i v e r Chapman R i v e r - t o go - do we f i s h - f o r ' / L L P a PU /

"We're go ing f i s h i n g t o t h e Chapman r i v e r i n t h e s o u t h . " '

46 . Nunt i : - r i - p a r - uv/ i ; y a r - r ; nanunp n i : n - n^ar . pn a l cp av vb n r av vb n r

'you g o - t o - s o u t h - wes t t h e r e g o - n u s t t h e r e s t a y - n u s t ' / S L P / L P /

"You s i n p l y n u s t go t h e r e t o t h e SY/; t h e r e you n u s t l i v e . "

4 7 . Nul y u : - r i - pan yurjar - n a t w a ' a p - n . pn av a l r v vb ps nns l o •he f a r g o - t o - S - b a n k sv / in -d id r i v e r - i n '

/ S L-P ^ P L / "He sv/an a l ong way t o t h e s o u t h bank i n t h e r i v e r . "

4 8 . Kuta r j i rk - n i n y u : - r i - p a r y a : - t r i : - r i j - r . nn a j av a l cp vbs pc rd vbs co

'dog w i l d f a r - go - t o - S g o - d i d r u n - n i n g - w a s ' / S L P PA /

"The d ingo 'v/ent off t o t h e f a r s o u t h , r u n n i n g . "

4 9 . Pu l n e n j e r - n yurjar - nan yu ; - rurj - kan i ; - r a . pn nn ns v b fu av a l r v dr

' t h e y - 2 s t i c k - w i t h sv/in - w i l l f a r - g o - t o - N - b a n k t h a t - v / a y ' / S Ns P - L -P /

"They tv/o w i l l sv/in on a l o g t h a t v/ay t o t h e f a r n o r t h b a n k . "

50. Min k u ; t p e t - e t n y a ; - r a r i ; j - a r y u ; ~ rurj - k a r r j a l n - n a . nn nn av d r vbs pc av a l cp pn e l

' p r e y ' r o o q u i c k l y away r u n - d i d a f a r - t o - n o r t h n e - f r o n ' / S M P M /

"The w a l l a r o o q u i c k l y r a n away t o t h e f a r n o r t h f r o n n e . "

51. Pu:n i;-li-par-aw pu;n nant ra:k may nant-an kana ni;nri-r. nn el cp nn aj nn nn aj lo as vbs tn 'wind cone-fron-SW wind snail tine fruit-snall-in has blow-did' /S L PA T P / "A v/ind, just a breeze, blew from the SE, an April zephyr."

425

52. Pornpur narjn i: - par - op lan-an. 53. Pal-i-par-uw rint nur. nns pa lo cp rv vb rd lo cp vb pn 'house his there-south-rvr std-ing' 'near-S-V/ cook you'

/S L P / L P S / "His house stands there by the river S." "In the SW you can cook."

54, I:-li-par r)u:l-a:r le:rk] 55. Pal -±± - par ni:n - n (n)ul. el cp av ng vbs lo cp vb nf pn

*cone-fron-S later-not return' 'near-side-S stay-ing he' /L M-T P / L P S / "Return quickly fron the south.'" "He lived on the south side."

10.1,4 Derivative uses

Certain shortened forns occur in colloquial speech:

/i; - par/ 'there-south' /i ;-r]-kar/'there north'

/li:- par/ 'the side south' /kurj-kar/ 'side north'

/yu;- par/ 'far-south' /yu;r)-kar/ 'far-north'

These nay often refer to aliens or their country and are subject to

nodification for case: locative/allative/elative:

56. Pan kurj - kar - 1 wa:r nin^ lop pam. kurj - kar - 1. nn lo cp fo av nn aj nn lo cp fo •men side-north-the very animal clever non side-north-the' /S- PA -S /

I I I "The nen on the north side are great hunters they are]

57. Pan li; - par - n peln Elpret, Jan, T_on Kolnan, nn lo cp el pn na na na _ na 'm.en side-south-fron they Alfred, Cham., Ton Colenan'

/S PA / "The nen fron the south side are Alfred, Chan and TonColenan,"

58. Murjkan ? Ku;k pan kurj - kar - m. i: - lurj - kar. na nn nn lo cp el el cp

'Mungko.n language m.en side-north-fron cone-fron-north' / S PA L / "Munkan? The language of the nen of tho north, fron north."

59. Ra:k kurj - kar - n rjay ka:r - p ya: - n. nn lo cp al pn ng en vb fu

'place side-north-to I not-too go-v/ill' /L S P /

"To the place in the north I won't go.'"'

60. Dul ku:3-kar-n li:-par-n; ra:k v/o: j-or-n-an okun lak-ar in'n,-rjun. cn lo cp al lo cp al nn aj lo as vbs pc dn lo

'and side-N-to side-S-to tine legendary-in naybe leave-didhere' /in L T P L / "And to the N-side, and to the S-side; in dreantinenaybeiut it here."

426

6 1 . pan i : - par - op nn lo cp rv

'nan t h e r e - S - r i v e r ' "nan f i s h i n g southv/ard"

p a : n l i;rj - kar - op nn lo cp rv

'v/onan t h e r e - n o r t h - r i v e r ' "vr 7on :ian shell-fishing N-ward"

In this v/ay, travellers or hunters or fishers are often

described by neans cf conpass and river directionals rather than by

tribal or personal or place nanes because of close association of

the clans v/ith certain areas or haunts as well as for quick refer

ence to a specific locality. These environnental adverbs nay occur

in conjunction with any relevant verb including the general verb of

novenent, /ya;-n/ which nay occur with all allatives and datives

of the conpass/river natrix. But only the inperative forn, /ya;-r/

•v/alk-nust' nay bear the directional affixes.

Several deviations fron the norm have been found for di

rectional terminology. It is assuned that with the nixture of nore

than a dozen dialects at Edward River, an inadequate grasp of the

structure of the chart (40) has produced such alternatives as;

/pal-lirj-kar/, /yu:-lirj-kar/, /i :-liT]-kar-op/ and so on.

The use of directionals as nodifiers is connon. V£^rious

derivative expressions occur such as;

62. pan pal - urj - kar nn lo cp 'nen near - north "northern nan"

pa;nl po-l - i - par nn lo cp

'wonen near - south' "southern wom-an"

In previous examples, these have been analysed as locationals, but

their function is often adjectival as modifiers. In the exariples

fron 56 to 59, where the directional is used nominally, it is bet

ter to call the nouns (/pan/) classifiers and thn reduced direction

als /li:-par/ and /icurj-kar/ noninals.

63.

9T'

ra:k i;-par nn lo

'place south' Hd 4- Md Cl 4- Hd

"down south"

ra;k i :]Q - kar nn lo cp

'place north' Hd 4- Md Cl 4- Hd "up north"'

lav/n yu:r)-kar . . nn av cp

•town f a r - N o r t h ' Hd 4- Md Cl 4- Hd

"Darwin"

Well-known c e n t r e s tend t o be r e f e r r e d to according to

t h e i r d i r e c t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n . I 'hus, d i r e c t i o n a l s func t ion as sub

s t i t u t e s in a pronominal s ense ;

/ i ; - l i - p a r / ' t h e r e - s i d e - S ' "Nornanton"

/ i ; - l i - p a r - a w / ' t h e r e - s i d e - S . E. '

"Cairns"

/ i : - l i - p a r - o p / ' t h e r e - s i d e - S - r v »

"Chapr^an River"

427

The locational prefix /i:-/ is used for places v/hich are

rather distant, nanely, Nornanton and Cairns, although the Chapnan

River is but one nile south of the Edv/ard River connunity. This

would argue for the following dlassification of distance as;

/i:-/ 'there, anyv/hero' nonspecific,

/pal-/ 'there, near' close proxinity,

/yu:-/ 'there, distant' far av/ay.

10.2 D i n e n s i o n a 1 s

I n o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e f e a t u r e s of n e a s u r e n e n t t h a t a r e

t r a d i t i o n a l l y t e r n e d u p , dov/n; h i g h , lev/; i n s i d e , o u t s i d e ; beyond ,

b e h i n d , t h e Thaajrorre s p e a k e r s have s y s t e n a t i s e d a fev/ e l e n e n t s .

10. 2 . 1 R o o t s

Five roots occur \/hich function as noninals or locatives

depending on their affixation and context. The norphenes are;

/kan/ /kav// /kop/ /kor/ /kuv// 'above' 'east' 'below' 'behind' 'v/est'

/Kaw/ and /kuw/ have already appeared in the conpass systen, but

I nov/ reclassify then as honophonous mioriohemes and dinensionals.

Exanples

6 4 . Nunt kaw k a l - r ; ijay kuw y a : - n . gn d i vbs t n gn d i vbs fu

•you e a s t c a r r y - d o I w e s t g o - v / i l l ' / S L P / S L P /

"You t a k e i t i n t h e e a s t ; I ' l l go i n t h e v / e s t . "

65 . Ra :k kan I a n - -n ( r ) ) a l , r a ; k kan v /a 'ap n e : r - purjk - u n , nn d i vbs nf pn nn d i nn nn nn l o

' p l a c e above s t a n d - i n g - v / e - 2 p l a c e above r i v e r eye - brow - o n ' / L P S L L /

"You and I were s t a n d i n g up h i g h , on t h e h i g h r i v e r - b a n k . " '

66. Nul kav/ k a l - a l . 6 7 . Kuw (rj)anp kana y a ; - r . pn d i vbs r d d i pn as vbs n r

•she e a s t c a r r y - i n g - i s ' ' w e s t v/e nov/ go - n u s t ' / S L P / / L S P / " S h e ' s c a r r y i n g i t e a s t . " "We n u s t walk i n t h e w e s t . "

68 , Day y a : - n r a ; k kan p o t - e . 6 9 . Kan - kan yo:rjk - e r . pn vbs fu nn d i a j l o d i r d vbs pc ' I g o - v / i l l p l a c e h i g h d r y - i n ' ' h i g h - h i g h h a n g - d i d '

/ S P (M), L / / L P / " I ' l l v/alk up t o p , i n t h o d r y . " ' "On t o p , he hung i t u p . "

428

70, Ulp kop T,7un: l a : - p i r i narj-un v/un. 7 1 . T_i:r kop rjok ko:kon - n , dn d i vbs av pn da vb nn d i nn nn l o

' t h a t be low l i e s c l o s e h i n - t o l i e s ' ' g r a v e l b e l o v z w a t e r p o n d - i n ' /S L P / PA P / S PA L /

" T h a t ' s down b e l o w , l y i n g c l o s e t o h i n . " G r a v e l ' s deep i n t h e pond."

7 2 . Nul r j a l - un i : - wal k o r y a : - n . pn pn da dr d i vbs pr ' h e ne - t o t h i s - w a y beyond c o n e - d o e s '

/ S L P - L -P / " H e ' s con ing b e h i n d t o ne t h i s w a y . "

7 3 . Day n i n wak - n k o r . 7 4 . Kor" okun l a k - a r . pn nn vbs dz d i d i as vbs pc ' I a n i n a l c h a s e - w i s h b e y o n d . ' 'beyond naybe l e a v e - d i d '

/ S O P L / L P / "I want t o h u n t w a l l a b y b e y o n d . " " P r o b a b l y go t l e f t b e h i n d . "

1 0 . 2 . 2 P r e f i x e s

Prefixes occur before these five roots in order to sig

nal distance and notion. The word /pal/'(cone) this v/ay bears a

slight resem.blance to then in its function and shape.

10.2.2.1 Distance

Three norphenes function as locatives to indicate dis

tance fron the siDcaker: /i:-/ /p al/ /yu:(w)/

CHART 41 'there' 'near' 'afar^

I I /kan/ I /kaw/ \ /kop/

i 'high' I 'east' \ 'below'

/kor/ I /kuv// I

'behind' I 'v/ost' \

i:- I i:-kan | i:-kaw I i:-kop \ i;-kor I i:-kuw

Exanples

75 . Ivan i : - k a n i n ' n - 1 ^ y a ; - n . 7 6 . Pan i ; - k a n p e l n i n ' i i laiQk-arjkar. nn d i dn fo vb p r nn d i pn dn r d vbs

' a n i n a l o n - t o p t h i s - t h e g o - d o e s ' ' n e n o n - t o p t h e y t h e s e l a u g h - g ' / S - L -S P / S P / "This a n i n a l h e r e i s g o i n g on t o p . "These nen up t h e r e are laughing]'

7 7 . Kuta l o k i : 130; l o r k - r i : - k a w y a : - n , nn nn av ex a j d i vb pr

' dog c a t t h e r e oh a f a r i n - e a s t go - d o e s ' / S E PA L P /

" T h e r e ' s a c a t t h e r e eh f a r away i n t h e e a s t ] "

429

78. Pornpur rjaln i : -kaw. 79. Pan i : - k o p i : y ik p e l n . nn pa di nn di av vbs pn

'house ny t h o r e - o d s t ' 'nen below t h e r e t a l k t h e y ' /S PA / S- P -S / "My house i s eas t t h e r e . " "The nen down below t h e r e t a l k . " '

80, Kar pa :n t norj in 'n-rjun i ; - k o r nay k a p a t i - 1 yu ;np-nan . r e nn nn dn lo d i nn nn fo vb fu

• l i ke wonen nany t h i s - a t beyond food cup -o f - t ea n a k e - v / i l l ' / i n S L 0 P /

"All t he wonen l i k e w i l l nake a cup of t e a over t h e r e . "

81 . Nul rjok-eln n i : n - n i ; - k o p . 82. Layt i : -kuw i l park - r . pn nn lo vb nf d i nn di dn vbs t n

's-^he v /a t e r - in s i t - t i n g below' ' l i g h t west t h a t sh ine-d id* /S L P L / S- L -S P /

"She was s i t t i n g i n w a t e r , below." "That l i g h t W-ward s h i n e s . "

83. Day r a ; k i : -kuw n i : - n i n . 84. Nunt rjerrjkan pa l - kan n i ; n - n . pn nn d i rd vbs pn av d i vb nf ' I p lace west s t a y - i n g ' 'you y ' day u p - t h e r e s t a y - i n g '

/ S L P / S T L P / " I ' n s t a y i n g in the w e s t . " "You sa t up t h e r e y e s t e r d a y . "

85. Ra;k pal-kaw i]av/-i; r i r k nul r i ; r a n . 86. Ulp pa l - kor . nn d i en av vb pn av dn di

' p lace eas t t h e r e works he a l o n e ' ' t h a t behind]" ' /L P S M / S PA /

"Just in the east there he works alone."' "It's behind.'"

87. Pan il pul, Ipno (pal)kaw. lono pal-kuw; pal nun - r pul.' nn dn pn nn di na:i di dr vb re pn 'nen those two one east one west this-way call-eo they2' /S- (nb/S PA / S PA /) P -S. / "It v/as those two nen, one eastward,, one westward,; calling. "

88. Yak lerep pal - kop. 89. Mut pentij - k-a:k pal-kor. nn nn di nn nn stz pp di

'snake rock below' 'back bandage - possessor behind' /S h m / S PA L / "Snake, under the rock]" "His back has a bandage, behind."

90. Pal-kop rok-r ra:k rairt rjotn lorjk. 91. Yu;-kan ranj-ir pul, di vbs pc nn nn aj vb di vb pc pn

'below enter-dod place hole black cone' 'far-up junp-did they' /L P / L PA S / L P S / "Went down under; the cave got dark," "High-up they 2 junped."

92. Dat y i : r - an yu; - kop yorp - n r - p wun . pn aj dn d i av en vbs

' f i s h s o m e far-belov/ a l w a y s s t a y ' /& L M P /

"Some f i s h e s alv/ays s t ay deep down,"

430

9 3 , P a r ' r p e l n n i : n - n y u ; - kaw k u r k - a n . nn pn vb nf av d i nns l o

' b o y s t h e y s t a y - i n g f a r - e a s t f o r e s t - i n ' / S P ( M - P A ) L /

"Those boys s t a y e d f a r e a s t w a r d i n t h e f o r e s t , "

94 . Daturjk i ; - k a n y u : - k a n . 9 5 . Yu;-kuw k:o:p k a l - r . na d i d i d i nn vb pc

' c u l t - h e r o u p - t o p f a r - a b o v e ' ' f a r - w e s t a l l c a r r y - d i d ' /S PA L / L O P /

"Ngatungk i s p r e s e n t f a r a b o v e . " ' "Far wes tward a l l was b o r n e . " '

9 6 . Min k u : j w a r a l nu:rjk - r y u ; - k o r . nn nn nn vb t n d i

' a n i n a l ' r o o g r a s s e a t - does f a r - b e y o n d ' / S O P L / "The k a n g a r o o e a t s g r a s s f a r away b e y o n d . "

9 7 . T_a;v/-al y u : - kuv/ yu;v/ y a : - n . nn av d i av vbs p r

' s h i p f a r - v / e s t away g o - d o e s ' / S L P /

"The s h i p i n t h e f a r wes t s a i l s a f a r . "

1 0 . 2 . 2 . 2 Mot ion

Aswith directionals, notion nay be towards or away fron,

either allative or elative:

(a) Allative

Movenent tov/ards one of the five, spacial dinensions

is signalled by the norphene /r/ 'go-towards•, yielding these:

Ifean I kaw I kop \ kor kuv/ \ h i g h ' \ ' e a s t ' \ 'be low' l ' b eh ind ' \ 'wes t ' I

CHART 42: l ~ l f 1 T f ^ i "" > i ; - r f| i : - r - k a n ! i : - r -kawl i;-r-kop^ i : - r - k o r | i :-r-kuw|

;: I H — : — I — — r i — : : — i | 7u ; - r {j yu : - r -kan |yu : - r -kav / jyu ; - r -kop5 y u : - r - k o r ^yut-r-kuv/l

Exanples

98. Yuk la:r jk i : - r - k a n ; 99. I : - r - kav/ ya : - t ( i i )ul . nn vbs a l d i a l d i vbs pc pn

' t r e e c l i n b g o - u p - t o p ' ' g o - t o - e a s t go - d id h e ' /O P L / / L P S / "Glinb the t r e e , r i g h t up]" ' "He t ra .ve l l ed eas tv /a rds , "

100. Day i : - r - k a n y a ; - n ot- r janj i - n_ak. 101 . Yu; - r -kan oi]kor la:rjk'. pn a l d i vb fu nn a l av a l d i ng vb

' I upwards go -wi l l h i l l—- t o ' ' f a r - g o - u p d o n ' t c l i n b ' /S P L / L P /

" I ' l l go up t h e r e t o the m.ountain, "D-'on't climb up too h i g h ] "

431

102. I : - r - k a w l a k ; y a : - ^n l u n p j 103. Joyj i : - r - k o p r e : n p - e n . a l d i vbs dr vbs na a l d i vb cs

' g o - t o - e a s t leave av/ay throw' ' Joyce go-dov/n descend ' / L P / L P / S L P /

"Leave i t eas tward; throw i t o u t ] " "Joyce, go dov/n below'"'

104. Pul i ; - r - k u w l e ; r k - n i]ul pul i : - r - k u w nan-a:w r i r k - r . pn a l di vbs dz cn pn a l d i av vb t n

' t hey-2 go-to-v/est re tu rn-v / i sh and they go-W s t r a i g h t r i s e - d o ' / a L P /Cn S L M P /

"They both v/ant t o r e t u r n V/-v/ard and tu rned s t r a i g h t to tlie wes t . "

105. Day w o n t - r i : - r - k o p y u k - u n . 106 . Nul i : - r - k o r y a : - n p o r n p u r - n . pn vb pc a l d i nn e l pn a l d i vb fu nns a l ' I f a l l - d i d go-dov/n t r e e - f r o n ' ' h e g o - b e h i n d go-do h o u s e - t o '

/ S P M L / S L P L / " I f e l l down f r o n t h e t r e e . " "He goes b e h i n d i n t o t h e house."

107 . Yu; - r - kaw y a ; - t p u l ; p i : n l - a - w a : r . av a l d i vb pc pn a j

' f a r - go - o a s t g o - d i d t h e y - 2 b o n e - w e a r y ' / L P S / PA /

"They b o t h went f a r t o t h e w e s t ; d o g - t i r e d . "

106, Yu; - r - kop mu;nt - i r (n , )ul rjat wa; - w a l - r . av a l d i vbs pc pn nn r d vbs co

' f a r - g o - d o w n d i v e - d i d he f i s h s e a r c h - i n g - v / a s ' / L ^ P S PA /

"He d i v e d av/ay dov/n deep l o o k i n g f o r a f i s h . "

1^9 4 Nul r i r p - r pormpur - n ; y u ; - r - k o r y a : - t n i n - a . pn vbs t n nns e l av a l d i vb pc nn da •he e n e r g e - d i d h o u s e - f r o n f a r - go -beyond g o - d i d h u n t - g '

/ S P L / L P Pu / "He went out from t h e h o u s e ; v/ent off f a r away t o h u n t . "

110. Yu: - r - kuw y a : - t l a : w - a l po rk l o n o y u ; - w i r - n . av a l d i vbs pc nn a j nn av nn a l

' f a r - go - w e s t g o - d i d b o a t b i g one f a r - o c e a n - i n t o ' / L - M P S L /

"A b i g s h i p went f a r westv/ard t o t h e deep s e a . "

/Ya:-r-/ 'v/alk-go' also occurs in the sane kind of context;

/ya:-r-k-an/ /ya:-r-kav// /ya:r-kop/ /ya:r~kor/ /ya:-r-kuw/ 'walk up' 'walk east' 'walk down' 'walk' past' 'walk west'

111. Day ya:-r-kop ya; - t nan lir-nan - ak. pn vb al di vb pc nn nn al •I go-to-below go-did j)recipice - down'

/S P L / "I went down the steep precipice."

112, Ya:-r-kan la:r)k'-le yuk. 113. Ya;-r-kaw le;rk - r pul. vb al di vbs as nn vb al di vbs pc pn 'go-to-high clinb -go soon' 'go-to east return-did they2'

/L-M F 0: / L f i- / "Go on, clinb right up the tree.'" "Thoy walked away back east."

114. Ya:-r-kor lo;-lak nip] 115. Nunt ya:-r-kuw ya:-t runp - un . vb al di nn al pn pn vb al di vb pc nn al

'go-to-beyond door-thro you-2' 'you go-v/est go-did beach-to' /p L S / S L-M P L /

"Go out thro the door you two]"You went v/est down to the beach."'

(h) Elative

Movenent away fron one of the five dinensions of space-

is signalled by the norphene /l/ 'cone fron'; but the five are unex

pectedly curtailed, v/ith the loss of initial /k/ and only the bi

labial consonants preserve the vov/el which precedes then:

n I I CHART 43 ,(.^? , , 'high'

/kav// ' east'

/kop/ I /kor/ 'belov/' \ 'behind'

/kuw/ 'west •

-—¥

\ i:-l- I i — — - — \ \ >

i:-l-n-en ? i:-l-aw-un| i:-l-op~on \ i;-l-r-en| i:-l~uw-an5

I yu:-l Ij yu:-].-n-en <yu ;-l-aw-un lyu : -l-op-on|yu ;-l-r-en jyu ;-l-'uw-an

Exanples nat (r))anjn. ps pn

116, I:-l-n-en na:l el di vb

'cone-fron-high see-did we / M-L P S / "Fron up on top v/e observed. "

t

117. I : - l - a v / - u n n u l l e : r k - r i : - r - k u w rjanjn-rjun l a ; w - a l - ak . e l d i gn vbs pc a l d i pn a l nn l o

' f r o n - e a s t he r e t u r n - d i d g o - t o - v / e s t us - t o b o a t - i n ' / M S P L L M /

"He cane f r o n t h e - e a s t back a g a i n westv/ard t o us i n t h o b o a t . " '

118. Nul P o ; n j u r i ; - l - n - e n y a : - t r a : k - urin - n a n . pn na e l d i vbs pc nn nn e l ' he Lord c o n e - f r o n - h i g h g o - d i d h e a v e n - f r o n '

/ S M-L P L / "He t h e Grea t S p i r i t cane down f r o n t h e s k y . "

119. Nul i : - l - a w - u n y a ; - n Ken j -nan E t v / a t - r i p a - n a k . pn e l d i vb p r na e l na na a l ' h e c o n e - f r o n - E go-do Cai rns- f rom. Edv/ard R i v e r - t o '

/ S L P L L / "He coraes from C a i r n s i n t h e e a s t t o Edward R i v e r . "

433

120. I : - l - a w - u n p u : n kana y i k . 1 2 1 . P u : n y o : r i : - l - u w - a n y i k . e l d i nn as vbs nn av e l d i vb

' come- f ron -E wind has b low ' 'wind t o d a y cone -We - b l o w ' / L S P / S T L P /

"The v/ind b lew f r c n t h e e a s t . " "The v/ind blows nov/ f r o n W. "'

122. Day nayp rjok - en n i ' i - r i ; - 1 - op - on ( r ] )ay . pn nn nn e l vbs pc e l d i pn ' I k n i f e w a t e r - f r o n t a k e - d i d c o n e - f r o n - b e l o w I '

/ S 0 L- P -L -S / "I t o o k t h e k n i f e f r rm t h e v / a t e r , r i g h t up from be lov / . "

125. Day i ; - 1 - op - on p a l y a : - t r i r p r i r k - n a t . pn e l d i d r vbs pc vbs vbs ps ' I cone - f rem. - b e l o w come c o n e - d i d e n e r g e r i s e - d i d '

/ S L P - / " I cane r i g h t up and out fromi below t h e v / a t e r . "

124. Pu l i ; - 1 - r - en r o k - r r a n t - i n . pn e l d i vbs pc nn a l

' t h e y - 2 c o n e - f r o n - b e h i n d e n t e r - d i d h o l e - i n t o ' /S F L / "They tv/o e n t e r e d i n t o t h e cave f r o n r i g h t b e h i n d . "

125. Dok i : - 1 - uw - an p a l y a : - n r a ; k n i : ! ] . nn e l d i d r vbs pr nn nn

' w a t e r c o n e - f r o n w e s t t h i s - v / a y c o n e - d o e s t i n e d a y l i g h t ' / S M-L ¥ 1 /

"The t i d e cones i n f r o n t h e w e s t d u r i n g d a y l i g h t . "

126. l u l i : - r - u r ) - k a r y a : - t rjul n u l i ; - r - k a v / nan - a:v/ pn a l cp vb pc cn pn a l d i av

' h e g o - t o - n o r t h go - d i d and he g o - d o - e a s t s h o r t c u t / S P /Cn S L M

"He went on t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h and so round s t r a i g h t t o t h e

r i r k - r rjul ( n ) u l i : - 1 - av/ - un i : - r - kuv/ l e ; r k - r vbs pc cn pn e l d i a l d i vbs pc

t a k e - d i d and he go - f rom. -eas t g o - t o - wes t r e t u r n - d i d P / Cn S M P / e a s t and he r e t u r n e d v/estward f r o n t h o e a s t and he c o n t i n u e d

rjul ( n ) u l i ; - r - kuv/ n a n - a:w r i r k - r . cn pn a l d i av vbs pc

and he g o - t o - w e s t s t r a i g h t r i s e - d i d ' /Cn S L M P / t o t h e v/estv/a.rd a f t e r sv/ inging r o u n d , "

1 0 , 2 . 2 . 3 / P a l /

This norphene appears also i.n certain ccn]pounds as a

signal of proxinity, closeness or novenent towards the speaker. A

434

few conbinations renain v/hich nay be gathered up in a snail natrix

as significant for its lacunae as for its derivations;

i CHART Z14 i /pil/

I 'hip' /pal/ •here'

\ /kor/ I ' •beyond'

pal 'here'

l\ pal-pil ii' alongside'

pal-pal I pal-kor 'close-up' I 'on-a-bit'

•t^

kor 'beyond'

kor-pal 'outside'

kav/ ' e a s t '

k o r - k o r ' o n and o n '

k a w - or ' f r o n - e a s t '

kuw. ' v / e s t '

kuw- a l ' f r o n - w e s t '

lain ' b a s e '

k u n - k o r ' r e v e r s e '

Exam.ples

127 . Nun p a l - p i l wa\r. 128 . Ra ;k kaw - or y a : - t r j a l i . pn av vbs nn av vb pc pn

' h i n a l o n g s i d e n e e t ' ' p l a c e e a s t - b e y o n d went v/e' /O L '' P / L P S / "Meet h i n r i g h t h e r e . " "We two came f r o n the . f a r - E . "

129. P a l p a l - po-l orjkor n e : r - v /a : r - an - a k . d r av ng n r nn a j ns a l

' cone c l o s e - u p d o n ' t eye - e.vril - w i t h - t o ' / P - L • -P L /

"Don ' t cone up c l o s e t o o ld e v i l - e y e ] "

130 . P a ; n t - rjat r ja to p a l - k o r i n ' n v/un. nn nn pa av dn vbs

' h e a d - ho.t ny o n - a - b i t t h i s s t a y s ' / S L P /

"My h a t i s l y i n g t h e r e beyond sonev /ha t . "

1 3 1 . Pan i : - 1 p e l n k o r - p a l i ; v/anlan ? nn av fo pn av av qn

'men t h e r e t h e t h e y o u t s i d e t h e r e v / h e r e ? ' / S (mb/S PA L ) Nt /

"Where a r e t h e f e l l o w s o u t s i d e t h e r e ? "

132 . Nunt k o r - k o r l a ; l p i r k - r n a l - u n . pn av nn vb r e pn da

'you o n - a - b i t s i d e p u s h - e o ne - f o r ' / S L 1 Be / "Make roon y o u ; push a l o n g t h e r e f o r n e ] "

435

133. I:-l-aw-un nul pal kuw - al i anjn - iQun ya: - t (n)ul. el di pn dr av pn al vb pc pn ' cone-f rom-E he come from--west us - to go - did he'

/L S- P L L -P -S / "Cominr- fron the east he cane to us in the west."

134, Nunt kun - kor - e le;rk trak - ak. pn av al vbs nn lo

'you reverse-into return truck-in' / S M-L P L /

"You go into reverse there in the truck."'

10.2.3 Conparison of dimensiongJs

In sunnarised array, all dinensionals are:

CHART 4-5

i k - a n I 'high'

I k-aw ;' e a s t '

i : k a n | pa lkan jyu ;kanK :rkanj yu : rkan

i;ka^/ I palkav/lyu;kaw| i ;rkaw! yu;rkaw

i ; l n e n lyu ; lnen

i k - o p >.. . T L, , . ;! i ;kop rbelow"^ il

i ; lawun^yu;la\nin I

j I palkop^yu;kopi i : rkopSyusrkop | i ; l o p c n i y u ; l o p c n \

I k-or s'beyond' 0

i:kor I palkoriyu:korii;rkor1 yusrkor ;i;lfen jyu;lren

I k-uw y j^.]^^ I T)alkuw^yu:kuwj i:rkuw| yu:rkuw I i :luwan; yu ; luwan 'west' W \ ^ \ \ I \ \

This array condenses nost of the dinensionals of section

10.2 into one natrix which accounts for 40 lexenes available as

locatives, which in the absence of a verb, may serve as predicate

of clauses. Although they are distinguished fron directionals,

which are definite auxiliaries potentially to a verb head, the al

latives and elatives above may also function when required as aux

iliaries. However, their predication is ninor (and secondary on ac

count of the norphenes of notion /l/ and /r/ ),

Two lexenes above, /i;la-v7un/ and /i;luwan/ moy be includ

ed in another arrangement for compo-rative purposes belov/.

436

10. 2.4 East - v/est comparison

In order to clarify the east-west relationship and its

extra suffix |~Vnj, v/hich appears to be redundant, the locative and

elative only are juxtaposed and illustrated below; CHART 46

I Case H Gloss

li'there' \ i:

Distance] Motion Direction |

•i

- i k-aw

- u n - a n

- a n

Exanples 134 . Po rnpu r i ; - kaw - an Ron - l a k . nn d i na pv

' h o u s e t h e r e - e a s t Ron ' s ' / S PA /

"The house i n t h e e a s t i s R o n ' s . "

135. May rjanjn i : - k u v / - a n nu:rjk - nan Jon ( r j )an jn M o r i j - n . nn pn d i vb f u na pn na ac

' food we i n - w e s t e a t - v / i l l John we M o r r i s - w i t h ' /O S L P Ac /

" W e ' l l e a t d i n n e r t h e r e i n t h e v/est w i t h John and M o r r i s . "

136. P e l n nor] p a l - a w - u n I a n - a n . 137 . I ; - l - a w - a n y a : - t r j ay . pn nn d i vbs rd e l d i vbs pc pn

' t h e y nany n e a r - e a s t s t a n d - i n g ' ' c n - f r o n - E c o n e - d i d I ' / S L -P / L P S /

"Lots of t h e n a r e s t a n d i n g i n t h e e a s t . " I came from t h e E a s t . "

138. NLp p a l - a w - a n n i : n - n , a r ; l i n a n i p (n)ar]unp mu;r)k, n a n - u n pal-av/-an. pn l o d i vb n r nn pn av vb nn l o l o d i

•you-2 n e a r - e a s t s t a y - n u s t d i n n e r 3/ou2 t h e r e e a t l a g o o n - a t n e a r E ' / S L P / O S L P L /

"You 2 n u s t s t a y i n t h e e a s t ; e a t y o u r t u c k e r t h e r e at lagoon e a s t . " '

139. Pu:n p a l - u w - a n kana l i ; k - a r . 140. Peln i : - l - a v / - a n y o ; r l o r j k - r . nn l o d i as vb pc pn e l d i av vb pc

'v/ind i n - w e s t h a s b r e a k - d i d ' ' t h e y f r o n - e a s t t o d a y c o n e - d i d ' /S F / S M T P /

"The w e s t v/ind h a s e a s e d off . "They a r r i v e d h e r e t o d a y f r o n E . "

437

1 4 1 . Pur) r i r p - i r i ; - l - a v / - u n . 142 . Kornan i : - l - a w - u n kana y a ; - n . nn vb pc e l d i nn e l d i as vbs fu

' s u n e n e r g e - d i d f r o n - e a s t ' ' s q u a l l f r o n - e a s t now c o n e - v / i l l ' /S P L / S ' ( L ) P /

"The sun r o s e out of t h e e a s t . " "A s q u a l l v / i l l cone f r o n e a s t . "

143 . Nul rjan, i : - l - u w - a n l i : n p - i r l i t - I n . pn pn e l d i vbs pc nn ns ' h e me come-f ron-E d a z z l e - d i d l i g h t - v / i t h '

/ S O L F l a / "He d a z z l e d ne w i t h a l i g h t f r o n t h e v / e s t . "

144. Day runp - un narjk wark - a n t - r i : - 1 - uv/ - a n . pn nn l o au vbs cn pc e l d i

' I b e a c h - o n round v/ a n d e r - d i d f r o n - v / e s t ' / S L P M-L /

" I wandered round a t t h e beach f r o n t h e westv /ard . "

145. Pupur y u ; - l - u v / - a n k u r j , 146 , Puq i ; - l - a w - u n kana r i r p - n a n . nn e l d i a j nn e l d i a s vb fu

' c o l d f a r - c o n o - w e s t c o l d ' ' s u n c o n e - e a s t w i l l ene rge -v / i 1 1 ' /S PA / S L P / "The b l a s t f r o n far-W i s c o l d . "The sun v / i l l a p p e a r f r o n t h e E. "

147 , I : - l - u w - a n kana l i : k - r , p u : n p a l - uv/ - an . e l d i a s vb pc nn l o d i

' cone - f ron-w' has b r e a k - d i d wind i n - w e s t ' / L - S - p - s /

"Fron t h e v/est h a s e a s e d of f , t h e w e s t v / ind . "

148, Day pa'n y u ; - 1 - aw - un - nan n u j i l a n - n a n , pn nn av e l d i e l na e l ' I nan f a r - c o n e - e a s t - from. New Z e a l a n d - f r o n '

/S PA / "I'fci a nan f r o n t h e f a r e a s t , f r o n New Z e a l a n d . "

149. Nul pan y u : - 1 - -aav - an - nan O l r e l y a - n a n . pn nn av e l d i e l na e l ' he nan f a r - f r o n - v/est - f r o n . A u s t r a l i a - f r o n '

/S PA / "He ' s a nan f r o n t h e f a r w e s t , f r o n A u s t r a l i a . " '

150. T_^:'^7-al y a : - t i : - wal rjok i ; -kuv / - ak., nn vbs pc dr nn l o d i ac

' b o a t c o n e - d i d t h i s - w a y t i d e w e s t - w i t h ' / S P M /

"The b o a t cane t h i s v/ay v / i th t h e t i d e out w e s t , "

Th i s f i n a l e x a n p l e shows a l s o how a d i n e n s i o n a l n o d i f i e s a

noun and r e c e i v e s a n o r n a l s u f f i x n a r k i n g a c c o n | ) a n i n e n t . Both / i : r - /

and / y a ; - r - / nay be p r e f i x e d s i n i l a r l y t o / - k a v / - a n / and / - k u v / - a n / a s

438

above. The forn /i :-r-kuv/-ir/ has been encountered; it seens that

the final /-ir/ redundantly repeats the prefix, as it were predica-

tively, though it nust have been a conpensatory correction only.

10.2.5 Dinensional orientation

The five dinensional roots nay bo used in a nodified forn

to indicate general orientation to ones environnent. This is nain-

ly locative and allative in case inflection. Derivatives are:

/kan/ /kaw/ /kop/ /kor/ /kuw/ 'top' 'east' 'botton' 'beyond' 'v/est'

/ken-en/ /kaw-an/ /kop-on/ /kor-o/ /kuw-an/

/kaw-(k)or/ /kuw-(p)al/

Exanples

151. Ken - en yo:nk] 152. Danp ken-en ot-qanji-nak ya: - r. di Ic vb pn al nn al vbs nr 'to-to suspend' 'we top-to nountain-to go-nust'

/L P / /S L P / "Up on top hang it]"- "We nust go up on top of the hill.'-'

153. Lak (k)aw - or ot - rjanji la;-piri rjay wal - ne:r -(e)n. vbs di di nn cn aj pn ^^ ^^ ^^^

'leave east-beyond nountain close I brow-eye- do ' /P L (M) / S P /

or; /O S P / "I rem.enber nov/, leaving it out east close to the hill. "

154. Nul ra:k kaw - or wun. 155. Kop - on na:k ] pn nn . di di vb di al vbs 'he place east-beyond stays' 'belov/-to press' /S L P / L P / "He lives at a place out east," "Press it dov/nv/ards]"

156. Kop - on re:npe nul. 157. Kor - e rirp kil-a:l - r - n. di al vbs pn di al vb nns al

'below-to descend he' 'outside-to energe sunshine-to' /L P 8 / L F L / "He went down to the botton."' "Went outside into the heat."

158. Min rjay lil v/unp - r ko-kop - on ra;k - un. nn pn av vb tn rd di al nn lo

'prey I again i)ut - did below-to ground ^ on' /O S M P L / "I put the carcasG of the aninal dov/n on ground agn. "

159. Nul kor ya;-t; rjan kor-e v/unp-ar. 160. M .n kuw-an ya:-t (n)ul. pn di vbs pc pn di lo vb pc nn di lo vb pc pn 'ho beyond went me behind leav^e-did' 'lagoon V/-at go-did he'

/ S L P / O L P / L P S / "He cane behind; and left ne behind'" "He went lagoonwards, west."

439

161. Nunt lean - kor - e l e ; r k I r a k - a k , pn nn d i lo vb nn ac

'you bo t ton-beyond-a t r e t u r n t r uck -v / i t h ' /S M P Ac-Ns /

"You go back i n r e v e r s e with the t r u c k . "

162. Day pa :n t kuw - a l rjak vmn v/ut. pn nn d i lo nr vb au ' ' I head v/est- a t l e t l i e - s l e e p '

/S M P / "I l i k e to l i e down s l eep ing head v/estward. "

163. Dal l i n a n a n - u n kuv/ - a l nu;r]k - nan narjunp. pn nn nn lo d i lo vbs fu av

•you-n-I d inner l agoon-a t w e s t - a t ea t~v/ i l l t h e r e • / S 0 .L P i /

"V/e^ll ea t our tucker a t the lagoon in the w e s t . "

10.3 Loca t iona l adverbs

10.3.0 Introduction

Having dealt with the conpass and river directionals and

dinensionals, v/e require now to include v/crds which night nore trad

itionally be terned adverbials. These are inflected for case and

they have links with other parts of spoech such as denonstratives

and verbal auxiliaries. Derivative conpounds also feature in the

description, and their structure v/ill be exanined.

10.3.1 Positionals

As these three basic lexenes are inflected for case, they

can hardly be terned locationals for novem^ent is inplied, thus;

/naka/ /narjunp/ /nenan(p)/ 'here' '(to"7there' 'fron here'

Exanples

164. Day naka n.i;n kanpa; nunt naka lorjk. pn av vb av pn av vb 'I here stay before you here arrive'

/S L P T / S L P / "I v/as here previously; you arrive here after."

165, N_aka pok-on] 166. Nul naka vrnt v/un - n . av aj pn av vb vbs mf 'here none' 'he here sleep ly-ing'

/L PA / S L P / "Nothing here.'" "He v/as sleeping here."

440

167. '"Ur pinalan naka loqk - nat. 168. Nunt naiQunp la:-rak kirk, nn nn av vb ps pn av vbs nn 'years three here arrive-did' 'you there erect spear' /T L P / S L P 0 / "Three years ago arrived here."' "Stand the spear up there."

169. Kana pul nagunp v/un-n. 170. N arjunp - nr - p lak ] as pn av vbs nf av In en vbs

•right they-2 there sleep-ing' 'there-just-too leave' /in S L P / L P / "Indeed they slept there.'"' "Right there just leave it] I I!

1 7 1 . Nul n_enan r i : j - a r i ; - r a Kenj - n a . pn av vb pc d r na a l

' h e f r o n - h e r e r u n - d i d t h a t - w a y C a i r n s - t o ' / S L P L /

"Don^t you k i d s go p l a y i n g over t h e r e ] "

172. Nur n_arjunp orjkor l o - l o w o l . ' 1 7 3 . Pen nenan w a n - u l n i ' i - r ? pn av ng n r rd vbs nn av qn e r vb pc 'you t h e r e d o n ' t p l a y - i n g ' ' p e n f r o n - h e r e v/ho? t o o k '

/ S L P / O L S P / "Don ' t you go p l a y i n g t h e r e ] " "Who t o o k t h e pen f r o n h e r e ? "

174. Nenan y a : - t y a : - r a p e l n . 1 7 5 . T a : w - a i nenan yu;v/ y a ; - t . av vb pc d r pn nn av av vb pc

' f r o n - h o r e wont away t h e y ' ' b o a t f r o n - h e r e away g o - d i d ' / L P S / S ^ L L P /

"They went away f r o n h e r e . " "The b o a t s a i l e d ax/ay f r o n h e r e . "

10.3.2 Link with denonstratives

Exanples have been included elsewhere shewing hov/ the

following v/ords are used (sections 8.3 and 8.4):

allative and locative elative

/in'n-(n)aka/ /in'n-(u)-i3un/ /in'n-(il)euan/ 'this- here' 'this-(here)-to' 'this-(here)-fron'

The contrast between allative and locative is seldon consistent.

Exanples

176. Nul i^'n - aka. 177. Day in'n - qun v/un - n. pn dn av pn dn lo vbs nf 'he this - here' 'I this-at liv-ing' /S PA / /S L P / "It's right here]" "I lived at this place."

178, Yuk-rjat i;-wal Kenj-nan ya;-n; pal in'n - aka loigk - n an. nn nn dr na el vb pr dr dn av vb fu 'cyclone this-v/ay Cairns-fron cone-s this - here arrive-will'

/& P - L _p / p- L -P / "A cyclone is coning this v/ay fron Cairns and v/ill reach here."

441

179. Day in^'n-aka kanpa-nr ni;n-n. 180. Nunt rok-ij ii^'n-aka. pn dm"" av av In vb nf pn vbs ur dn av 'I this-here first-just stay-ing' 'you enter-go this-here'

/S L T P / S P L / "I've stayed here for a long tine."' "You get into this place."'

181. Ra:k in'n-enan-nan ya:-ra kal. 182. Day penjil in'n-iQun pit-r. nn dn av el dr vbs pn nn dn lo vbs tn

•place this-here-fron av/ay take' •! pencil this- at keep-do' / L P / S O L P /

"Take i t away fron t h i s p l a c e ] " "I keep the p e n c i l i n t h i s . "

10 .3 .3 / Y U ; W / ' f a r av/ay'

Locative, allative and elative case inflections occur with

this norphene which contributes so freely to directionals, dinen

sionals and locational tagnenes. The formes are:

/yu:-n.aka/ ~ /yu:-nu-rjun/ /yu;-nem.an/ •far-away-at' 'far-away-to' 'far-away-from' (locative) (allative) (elative)

Exanples

1 8 3 . E l a y u : - naka n i : - n i n Etwat Ripa l o r k r . na av av r d vbs na na a j

' E l l a a f a r - a t s t a y - i n g Edx/ard R i v e r a f a r ' / S L P L PA /

" E l l a i s s t a y i n g f a r away a t d i s t a n t Edv/ard R i v e r . "

184 . Day nuji y u ; - nu - rjun l a k - a r . pn pn av a l vbs pc ' I h i n f a r - t o l e a v e - d i d '

/ S 0 L P / " I l e f t h i n f a r av/ay f r o n h e r o . "

185. Par ' r r jaln y u : - n a k a l a k - a r rjay; y u ; -nu-rjun l a k - a r (i]) o,y. nn pa av av vbs pc pn av a l vbs pc pn

'Tboy ny f a r - h e r e l e a v e - d i d f a r - h e r e l e a v e - d i d I* /O L P S / L P S /

"My l a d I l e f t f a r av/ay; I l e f t h i n i n a f a r l a n d I d i d . "

186, Dal y u : - nenan y i k rjal k u l i r . pn av av vbs pn nn

•we-2 a f a r - f r o n - h e r e s-ay v/e tv/o ' / S - L-M p -S /

"You f r o n f a r av/ay a r e c h a t t i n g h e r e . "

187, Nul y u : - nenan r e : - r e k - r nay rjal - l i n J o y l - n l r , pn av e l r d vbs co nn pn pv na e r

' s h e a f a r - f r o n - h e r e g i v - i n g - i s food o u r J o y c e ' / S - L-M P 0 -S /

" Joyce i s p r e p a r i n g our food f r o n over t h e r e f o r u s tv/o h e r e . "

442

10.3.4 Relative distance

Three words indicate degrees of distance fron the speaker,

independent of the conpass direction. These adverbs are;

/i'i/ 'here' / i : / 'there' /yu;w/ 'far away'

As for denonstratives, so the prefixes,/rj-/ and /rjaw-/, may be add

ed for emphasis and pointing. It is clear that these three belong

to one set indicating relative distance because they are subject to

similar suffixation for case, as v/ith all directionals and dinen

sionals. Their inflections are: CHART 47

$ Gloss s % 'AT' "TO' "FROM'

I L o c a t i v e.

still f noving

I -wur'a

A l l a t i v e \ E l a t i v e 1—— ^

- r a

' h e r e ' »

\ ' t he r e ' \^

-wal

i ' i I i ' i - w u r a ^ i ' i - r a ( i ' i - w a l

1 :-v/ura i

• f 1 ; - r a

] ' a f a r ' I yu :w l y u : - t / u r a j y u : - r a j yu; -wal *

1 'walk ' I y a : - n ; - | y a : - r a j w a l - y a : - n . j

Exanples

. / i : i / _

188, Yo:r i ' i wuv/ - r - r r j a l . av asT vbs r e t n pn

'now here nee t - eo -do we-tv/o' / T L P S /

"You and I noet each other here t o d a y . "

189. I ' i i n ' n wun. 190. I ' i - v/ura y u : j - r ( i i )u l . av dn vb av lo vb t n pn

'here t h i s s t a y s ' ' he re -a round pain-does i t ' / L S P / L P S / "Here t h i s l i e s . " "All round here i t ' s a c h i n g . "

191. Day y u : r norj w a : r - n i n i ' i - r a 3m;np - r . pn nn nm aj aj av lo vb t n ' I f i n g e r s nany l o t s here-around n a k e - d i d '

/ S o L P / "I nade a l l s o r t s of t h i n g s around h e r e . "

192. Dal wirqka Q i ' i - ^ r a ya ; - r . pn av av lo vbs nr

'we-2 between here-around go - n u s t ' / S L P /

"You and I nus t go around about h e r e . "

443

193. Pul - nun pal i ' i - wal v/ark - nan - r ( n ) u l . pn ob dr av e l vbs cs t n pn

' then- two th is -way here-cone c i r c l e - n a k e - d o h e ' /O 1 S /

"He turned then two a l l round about h e r e . "

.ZiinZ 194. P a r ' r pormpur - n i : v/un. nn nn lo av vb

' boy house - i n t h e r e s t a y s ' /S L P /

"The boy s t a y s i n the h o u s e . "

195. Dak - p i : r a : k wa:r-am. 196. Nul pam i ; r e : k - a r . mr en av nn aj e l pn nn av vb pc ' l e t - too t h e r e thgs bad - f ron ' ' he nan t h e r e g i v e - d i d '

/P L R / /S Io L P / "Never nind those bad t h i n g s ] " "He gave i t to the n a n . "

197. Pal i ; y a : - n ( n ) u l . 198. Daw-i:-vaira i n ' n - u l okun. dr av vbs pr pn av lo dn pn as

•cone t h e r e go-do h e ' ' t h e r e - round t h i s - one naybe ' / p - L -X S • / L S . P / ,

"He's coning t h i s way t h e r e . " ' "Maybe the se n i l l i n g round about."

199. Pan i : - 1 pe ln kor - pa l i : v/ant an ? nn av fo pn av av av qn

'men t h e r e - t h e they ou t s ide t h e r e where? ' / S L Nt / "Whereabouts are those fellov/s ou t s ide t h e r e ? "

200. Kor'-kanpa l u n p - i r i : - r a y a ; - r a , rji: - r a l u n p - i r (n.u)l . av vb pc dr dr dr vbs pc pn

'everywhere throw-did that~v/ay av/ay that-v/ay throv/-did h e ' / L P / P S / "Everyy/here he threv/ i t , t h i s v/ay and t h a t , and t h a t way t o o . "

201. Hinu i : - r a p e t l we:-werk-r (r]a)y. 202. Njunt i : - r a lowol - na r . an dr nn rd vbs pn pn dr vbs nr

'canoe t h a t way paddle p l y - d i d I ' 'you tha t -way p l a y - n u s t ' / O L P S / S L P /

"I was paddl ing the canoe t h a t way."' "Go and play over t h e r e ] "

203. Pan - a l nin, kermiper n i ' i - n.an i ; - v/al. nn er nn nn vb fu dr ' mian a n i n a l f l e s h t ake - v / i l l t h i s - w a y '

/ S O P / "The nan w i l l b r i n g t h e beef h e r e . "

204. Pan kor y a : - n i ; - v / a l . 203. Nul rjal-un i ; -v /a l kor y a : - n . nn av vb pr dr pn pn da dr av vb pr

'nan behind cone-s t h i s - w a y ' 'he n e - t o th i s -way behind c o n e - s ' / S L P / S M P - M -P /

''One chap ' s coning beh ind , " "He's coning along behind n e . "

' 444

206. I : - w a l yuk l a p a r kana y a : - n . 207 . Mil p a l i : - w a l y a ; - n i : - v / a l . d r nn nn as vb p r pn dr dr vb p r d r ^

' t h i s - w a y l i g h t n i n g has c o n e ' ' h e cone t h i s - w a y c o n e - d o ' / P - S -P / S P /

o r : /PA S F / S PA ^ ,, . / "An e l e c t r i c a l s t e r n cones t h i s w a y . " "He ' s c o n i n g , a l o n g t h i s way.

Z iMI? / 208 . P o k - o n , yu;w iQa ; l i r ( n ) u l . ex av as pn

' No av/ay s t i l l he • / R U L P S /

"No, h e ' s s t i l l av /ay ]"

209. Tul q a n i p - n yu;w k e r p - r . 210 . P u l yu:w y a ; - t l o y k r . nn nn e r av vb pc pn av vb pc a j

'woonera dad away l o s e - d i d ^ • t h e y - 2 away g o - d i d a f a r ' / O S L P / S L P PA / ^ "Dad l o s t h i s woonera S'. nev /he re . " "They tv/o v/ent a longwEi.y off."

2 1 1 . Yu: - v/ura nurj y a : - n p u l n i n k o l o n . av l o vb vb p r pn nn nn

• f a r - r o u n d novo go-do t h e y - 2 w a l l a b i e s • / L P S / "The tv/o v / a l l a b i e s were n o v i n g round a f a r . "

212. Day y u : - r a l e : r k - i i a n y u : - k a r a . 2 1 3 . P e l n y u : - r a y a : - n n a q - u n . pn av a l vb fu av pn av a l vb p r pn da ' I a f a r r e t u r n - w i l l l a t e r ' ' t h e y a f a r go-do h i n - t o '

/ S L P T / S L P L / " I ' l l r e t u r n hone n e x t w e e k . " "They go hone t o h i n . "

214. Pan yu: - wal u lp - 1 ; oirjkor ya : - r (n)urj - un ] nn av l o dn fo ng r.r vb nr pn a l

'nan far-away t h a t - t he d o n ' t go-nus t h in - t o ' / S - PA _s / P L / "There ' s a nan f a r av/ay t h e r e ; d o n ' t go near t h a t f e l l o w ] "

215. Day y u : - r a narjk-un yup n a : l - n a n . 216. Nip yu; - r a r o k - n a n , pn av a l pn a l as vb fu pn av a l vb fu ' I hone- to you- to soon s e e - w i l l ' 'you-2 hone- to e n t e r - w i l l '

/S L P / 1 L P / " I ' l l be see ing you v/hen I get hone . " "You t w o ' l l get h o n e . "

217. Nip yu: - ka ra pa l i e : r k - nan yu: - wa l . pn av dr vbs fu av lo

'you-two l a t e r cone r e t u r n - w i l l a f a r - a t ' / S T P L /

"You tv/o v / i l l cone back l a t e r on f ron f a r away."

/Ya:-n/ 218. Nunt ya; - ra ya: - r. 219. Ya;-ra nul ™^P "" ^ ===- pn dr vbs nr dr nn vb pn

' you away go-nust' 'away send - he' /S L P / L-P P S/ "You nust go away." "He sent hin av/ay."

445

220. Pul ya: - r a ya; - t i]ok - en; ya: - ra l e ; r k - r . pn dr al vb pc nn e l dr' vbs pc

'they-two av/ay go - did water-fron away re turn - d id ' / s p L / L p y _

"Thoy tv/o l e f t the v/ater and went away back hone again,

221. Nip ku l i r ya : - r a r i : j - nar] pn nn dr a l vb nr

'you-2 both away run - nus t ' /S L P / "You tv/o nust both run off nov/.'"

222, Po.n i l (n)ul v/antan wal-ya:-n? nn dn pn qn - av vb

'nan that he where fron-v/alk' /S Nt P / "Where's that chap coning fron?"

10,3.5 Conpound locatives

Ten conpound lexenes of general location are:

/ i : - k a n / ' i n s i d e ' /putpan/ 'on top , above'

/kop(-kop)-ai]kar/ 'underneath ' / l a : - p i r - i / 'c lose up t o '

/ruv/-un-anpa/ ' i n fro t o f /kanp-anp-ar/ ' i n the f ron t '

/kor-kanpa/ •everywhere' /kor -kor / 'along fu r the r '

/rju:n-nar/ ' a l l over' /punt - tanpr / ' everjnvhere'

Due to a neasure of senantic and fornal overlap, a fev/

of these pa r t i c ipa te in other se ts of adverbials .

Exanples 223. Kot, nan rje:rjk ijanjn-an i : -kan r i r k i r - n - an.' na nn nn pn pv di aj vbz cs

•God hear ts o u r ins ide clean - se - nk' / I n 0 L P /

"Oh God, cleanse our hear ts v/ithin us] "

224. Min i]ay n i ' i - r ; putpan katp - r (13)ay yu:r - u . niT pn vb pc av vb tn pn nns ns

•animal I take-did on high catch-did I hand - wi th ' / o s p / L P S N S J "I picked up the meat and held it up high with my hands."

225. Kuta i ]a ln kop-kop-a r jka r wun. 2:26. Tepu l l a ; - p i r - i n i ; - n i n - a y . nn pa av d i vb nn av r d vbs pn

'dog my u n d e r n e a t h s t a y ' ' t a b l e c l o s e s i t - t i n g I ' / S L P / L M P S /

"My dog i s l y i n g u n d e r n e a t h . " " I ' n s i t t i n g c l o s e t o t a b l e . "

2Z7. Danjn n i n k e r n p e r r i n t - r ruv/ - un - anpa narjk - u n . pn nn nn vb t n r e pn da

' v/e a n i n a l f l e s h r o a s t - d i d i n - f r o n t - o f you - t o ' / S O I L /

"We cooked the beef right in front of you. "

446

228. Nul kanp - anp - ar Ian - an. pn av rd dn vbs rd 'he in-the-front stand-ing'

/S L P / "He's standing right up in front."

229. Ra;k in'n-1. yu;np-ir pul kor - kanpa, nn dn fo vb pc pn av av

'places these-the nake-did they everywhere' /O p S L / "These lands they tv/o nade, far and near."

2:30. N.unt kor - kor la:t pirk - r rjal - un. pn di rd nn vb rx pn da •you along-nore side push-self ne-for'

/S M-L O P Be / "You novo yourself along there a bit for ne."

231. Du;n - nar kornun nul la;f - n, av nn pn vb nf

'everyv/here stern it rain-ing' /L • S P /

"Everywhere tho rain v/as pouring down. "

232. De:rjk ni:nrj - an - r pan kul - puqk punl - lanpr. nn vb cs tn nn nn nn av 'stonoch fright-en-did nen crowds everywhere*

/,p S. L / "All nen were absolutely startled everywhere."

10.4 Structure of adverbial norphs

10.4.0 Introduction

Although nost werds in this chapter nay have the general

shape of prefix ^ root +- suffix, and although the fillers of this

affix slot nay be one or nore, yet the three slots nay be filled by

sone of the sane norphenes v/ith considerable overlap. That is, one

and the sane norphene nay occur in at least tv/o of the slots;

/kor - pal/ /i:-l-(ko)r-en/ /i:-r - kor/ 'beyond-at' 'cone-fron-beyond' 'go-to-outside'

In this arrangenent, /kor/ appears as prefix, root and suffix if

the first lexeme is not regarded as a conpound.

10.4.1 Roots

These are alnost exclusively of CVC shape such as:

kan kav/ kop kor kuw par kar pan kan yu:w ya:n .

447

Sone free norphenes conprise shapes such as the follov/ing:

naka

cvcv iiarjunj)

CVCVCC

11 en an

CVCVC

i ' i

VCV

i :

VV

10.4.2 Affixation

Prefixes have a tendency to take the shape of (c)v(c);

yu:(rj) ku(rj) rurj lurj pal yu;(w),

but when the initial consonant is lacking, it is connon for a word-

initial /rj/ to be inserted if elision is not inninent in that word;

(rj)i:r (rj)i;l (rj)i: (rj)i'i (rj)aw.

Otherv/ise, the CV shape obtains;

li ri li yu; ya; .

Suffixes are alnost invariably abbreviations of roots:

an av/ op or uw n r'

and those in final order are;

an un en on or and al .

10.4.3 Changes of vowel

By phonological conditioning, sone vowels change, and

this is consistent with v/hat has been encountered with other forn

classes described in other chapters;

kan ken - en (a changes to e)

i:-l-(ka)n-en (loss of a and a to e)

kor i:-l-(ko)r-en (loss of o and o to e)

kaw i;-l-aw-un (dissinulation of a to u)

kuw i:-l-uv/-an (dissimulation of a and u).

Conbinations of roots are connon lexically, as shown in

Chart 44, but tho pernutations in each case seen restricted;

kor-pal pal-pil pal-kor pal-pal and so on.

Chapter XI l_n_i_§_r_r_o_g_a_t_i_c)__n

11.0 Introduction

Questioning belongs to the category of riocd and is relat

ed to the psychological attitude behind an utterance. A query con

trasts in tyge with declaration or oonnand or supposition.

448

Interrogation is signalled by various kinds of m.arkers,

and together vrith a pitch-rise on the initial part of the question-

narker, or in its absence, of the focal v/ord, nood is expressed

directly or by inplication as a question. Such sentences do not

nornally nanifest a terninal rise in pitch as in about 40/ of Engl

ish questions. The focal v/ord is the peak of intonation.

Case is present in sone narkers though it is not proposed

to establish that class governs inflections on interrogatives. When

a narker of interrogation fills one of the nornal slots of the sen

tence or clause, it is terned nondisjunctive, and conversely, v/hen

it requires a special tagnenic slot of its own, it is called dis

junctive. However, the natter nay bo complicated because the head,

which sone interrogative nodifies is absent though inplied. in such

a situation, the question narker also fills a prononinal role.

In the analysis of interrogative clauses below, if the

interrogative is operating on phrase level, the enbedded clause nay

sonetines be analysed, but not invariably;

1., May nan nu:rjk - ar nunt? Nunt nan nu;rjk - ar? nn qn vbs pc pn pn qn vb pc 'food what? eat - did you' 'you what? eat - did' Hd + Md

f O" P S / S 0 F / "What tucker did you eat?" "What did you eat?"

In the first, the question-narker is on phrase level. Both are

nondisjunctive since they are fillers of nornal tagnenic slots.

Many questions display no fornal signal at all but rely

on the senantic inplication of the context. Thus, a sentence nay

be identical to the decl-arative forn and yet be uttered v/ith such

an inplied challenge-like intonation, that it nust be interpreted

interrogatively because of the attitude behind the utterance,

2. Peln nay norj kana nu«r]k - ar(?) pn nn nm as vbs pc 'they food nuch have eat - did'

/ S O P / "They ate l o t s of tucker ]"

"Did they eat very nuch of the food?"

The in ter rogat ive /norj/ would be one step higher in p i t c h - l e v e l ,

and night also be follov/od by a pause or sone degree of juncture .

Po la r i ty provides another s ignal of in t e r roga t ion . If the

speaker denies a fact which may be knov/n to tho hearer , then tha t

449

hearer's reply will probably seek to correct the error by answer

ing what was potentially a query in the first utterance;

f. Peln nay ka:r nu:rjk - ar . pn nn ng vb pc

'they food not eat - did* /S 0 r / 'They didn't eat the food." 'Didn't they oat any of the food?" in

The interrogative /ka:r/ v/ould be one stop higher in pitch-level

and other phonetic features -night be lengthening of the vocoid,

intensity of the voice quality, juncture and aspiration of [k J.

It is a feature in Thaayorre that many ordinary declarat

ive utterances in English become rhetorical in translation. A sig

nal like /vming?/ 'any?' or /wantan?/ 'v/here?' will be inserted,

and probably acco-npo.nied by a change in verb suffixation. These- two

tend to be the equivalent of the English "eh?", "won't it?" or "Do

I wish I ...", but not invariably so;

4. Peln pam pork - a wu;mp mu;rjk - n? (rhetorical) pn nn aj er qn vbs po

'they nen chief ? eat - can' /S Nt P /

"Only importo.nt people can eat it." (declarative)

11.1 Inflections on question-narkers

Question narkers and such inflections as they bear have

been assenbled in the follov/ing chart; CHidlT 48

r"case" / r ] a n ? / \ / r j e n - ( e ) ? / j /wa^i? /

' w h a t ? ' 'why? 9 >

l o :• i

H

- n

/ w a n l a n ? / | / y u : - / \ •who? ' 5 ' w h e r e ? ' ? * ' w h a t ' s - n a n e ? ' I

/-aka/- i / - r j u n / jj -n-r jun

| a l / ac . I — _ e l

pv

(~a) "t - e l t I ( - u l ) -rjun - n u n | - n u l - a k / - n - r ) u n l

• e n ( a ) i ( - u l ) - n t a n | - n e n a n p ( - n e n a n )

( - a ) I ( - u l ) - r j u n - a k i

bo - e \ ( - u l ) - r Qun

je r /ns

fen/rb ^ ( - a ) ;

-er(a) -ul

-P

-nun

(-a)

I (-nu-quir-ak)

-n-iQun)

-nul

-P

/rjen-/ is an allosten of /nan/ and their case inflections

ire nutually conplem.entary. The reason for this is tho t the final

450

/e/ of /rjene/ has conditioned the vocoid of the first syllable,

a connon feature of concord in the language.

11.2 Other question narkers

Several interrogatives, unnarked for case nainly, occur

in sonewhat parallel constructions to those of English. With a

rise in pitch-level, v/ord-initially, they signal interrogation:

/v/u;m]p/ 'do you? hav® you? is there? got any?'

/ka;r/ 'not' (see section 2.3.2) 'haven't you? didn't you?'

/zero/ 'vocal intonation v/ith pitch-rise on f ocal v/ord'

/okun/ 'maybe' (aspectual morpheme implying doubt)

/want-ant-ar/'what about? how about?'

/rjan-r)an-er(-a)/ 'how many? how -nuch?' (/-a/ for enphasis)

/v/ant-want/ 'hov/ nany? hov much?'

/wan-wan-ul/ 'whoever? whichever (person)?' (derivative of /waii/)

/yu:-nun/ 'so-and-so' being derived fron /yu:-nul/, a pronoun

derivative participating in the prononinal S/o trait.

The basic dichotony fornally, with interrogatives, is that

of disjunction or not. The disjunctives now follow;

11.3 Disjunctive interrogatives

Question-narkers filling a separate tagnenic slot of in

terrogation nay be divided into four categories, the Yes/no, the

others, the Idionatic and the Rhetorical. As there is no neat syn

chronisation thus with narkers in 11.1 and others in 11.2, exanples

/ill now be given for those four subgroupings :

11.3.1 'Yes/no' /v/u;np?/

5. Day vra;np teivr] - r (ii)un_? pn qn vbs t n pn ' I ? k i l l - d o h i n '

/ S Nt P 0 / "Did I k i l l i t ? "

6 . P ik nun t l e ; r r j - a r -t/u;np rjerrjkan? 7. Nunt v/u;np r ) e : - y - r (n)un,? nn pn vbs pc qn av pn qn vb pc pn

' p i g you s t r i k e - d i d ? y ' d a y ? ' 'you ? h e a r - d i d h i n ' /O S P Nt T / S Nt P 0 /

"Did you k i l l a p i g y o s t e r t i a y ? " "Did you h e a r h i n ? "

8. Pan i l - u l p a l v/u:np loi r ik-r? 9 . Pam. i n ' n . - l kana v/u:mp? nn dn pn d r qn vb t n nn dn fo a j qn ' n a n t h a t t h i s - v / a y ? a r r i v e - d i d ' ' n a n t h i s - t h e good ? '

/S E - Nt -P / S PA Nt / "Did t h a t nan a c t u a l l y a r r i v e h e r e ? " " I s t h i s nan h e r e a l l r i g h t ? "

451

10. Nul yuk v/u:mp p a : l - r payp-n? 1 1 . Kur)-un nun t \m-ng pn nn qn vb t n nn l o nn pn qn ' h e b a c c y ? b i t e - d o e s p i p e - i n ' ' s n e l l you ?

/ S 0 Nt P L / 0 S I t "Does he snoke t o b a c c o i n h i s p i p e ? " ' "Are you s n e l l i n g t h e

n u ; - n u l - r n i n k o l o n k o : - r i r k ; w a n t a n - n e n a n i : - wal y a : - n ? rd vbs t n nn nn vbs qn e l d r vbs pr s n i f - f i n g a n i n a l v / a l l aby a r i s e x/here - f r o n t h i s - v / a y c o n e - d o ' P - -0 -P / Nt P / s t e n c h of a w a l l a b y d r i f t i n g t h i s way f r o n sonev/here or o t h e r ? "

12 . I I •5m:np r a : k j e p e n wu:np r a : k j e p e l narjn P o : n j u r - ak dn qmi nn nn qn nn na pa na pv

' t h a t ? t i n e seven ? t i n e s a b b a t h h i s L o r d ' s / S - Nt -S NT PA

" I s n ' t t h a t s e v e n t h day t h e s a b b a t h of t h e Lord y o u r God,

K o t - a n t a n narjkn? 1 3 . Kana ( n u ) n t v/u:np n a : l - i j - r ? na e l pa as pn qn vb u r t n God - f r o n y o u r ' • r i g h t you ? s e e - g o - d o ' PA / P - S Nt - -P / i s n ' t i t?"^ "You d i d go and s e e i t d i d n ' t y o u ? "

14. Kanpa rjay nar j i r \-mng \mtug? 1 5 . P a : n t - rjat pork \ /u :np? av pn av vb qn nn nn a j qn

' f i r s t I r a t h e r pu t ? ' ' h a t b i g ? • /T S P Nt / S PA Nt /

" S h a l l I n e a s u r e i t f i r s t ? " " I s t h e h a t t o o b i g ? "

16. Pan i n ' n rjok m a n - l a ; r wu:mp? 17 . P u t u r i l w a : r wu:np? nn dn nn a j qn nn dn a j qn

' nan t h i s v /a te r t h i r s t y ? ' ' k n o c k i n g t h a t bad -? • / S PA Nt / S PA Nt / " I s t h i s m-an t h i r s t y f o r w a t e r ? " " I s t h a t knock ing bad ?''''

18 . Nunt \-/u. :mp r je : -y - r ? Day r ] e : - y - r - p a , p u t u r i : - kaw. pn qr; vbs pc pn vbs pc en nn fl.i

'you ? h e a r - d i d I h e a r - d i d - t o o . ' k n o c k i n g e a s t ' /S Nt P / S P E 0 /

"You h e a r t h a t ? I h e a r d i t a l l r i g h t ] Knocking i n t h e e a s t . "

19. Day rjerrjkan v/u:mp y a : - t a l n i n - a rjul ( n ) u l pan - l u ; n p pn av qn vb sp nn da cn pn nn ' I y'do.y ? go - v/ould h u n t i n g and he o l d - n a n

/S T Nt P Pu / Cn S " D i d n ' t I i n t e n d t o go h u n t i n g y e s t e r d a y and t h e o ld nan t u r n e d .

l o n k - n.at i n . ' n - a k a ? 20 . Day wu;np n u r - n u n rjok - e l n ku:i]k - a r ? vbs ps dn l o pn qm pn ob nn l o vbs pc

a r r i v e - d i d t h i s - a t ' ' I ? y o u - a l l w a t o r - i n s p l a s h - d i d ' P % / S N t O L F / up a t t h i s p l a c e h e r e ? " " D i d n ' t I b a p t i z e you a l l i n w a t e r ? ' I !1

file:///m-ng

file:///-mng

file:///mtug

452

2 1 ,

Day P o : n j u r rjul (13)ay min p u : l narjkn; qan v/u;np l o n o - n r v/an ? pn na cn pn nn nn pa pn qn nn I n vbs • I Skyrxan and I c h i e f your ne ? one - o n l y s a y '

/S PA /Cn S PA / 0 Nt PA P / " I^n t h e Lord and y o u r M a s t e r ; c a n ' t you c a l l on ly upon Me ? "

1 1 . 3 . 2 O t h e r s

/ W a n t - a n t - a r ? /

'how a b o u t ? ' 22 . Day r ju : l nuii w a n t - a n t - a r n u t wun-p - r ? pn av pn qn nn vb t n

' I l a t e r h i n how-abou t? s e n d - do ' / S T 0 Nt F /

"How a b o u t i f I s h o u l d send h i n l a t e r on?"

2 3 . Pan in 'n . - r jun v /an l - a_nt_ - a r y a : - r i ' i y i k - r ? nn dn l o qn vb av vbs t n

' n a n t h i s - a t how-abou t? g o - n u s t h e r e s p e a k - d o ' / S Nt M P /

"Why does t h i s f e l l o v / h e r e speak l i k e t h i s ? "

24. I I (n.)ul l o n - l r n u r - n a n t a n n i n j i : p r^orj p i t - m , n u l v/ant-ai i ' t -ar '? cn pn nm e r pn e l nn nn nm vbs mf pn qm

' i f he one you-f rom an ima l sheep many k p - g he h o w - a b o u t ' /Cn S 0. F / S Nt /

o r : /Cd S PA / " I f one of you k e p t a g r e a t f l o c k of s h e e p , v/hat abou t h i r i ? "

25 . Pan in . 'n . -u l 'want-o-nt -ar okun? N_unt w a n t - a n t - a r y u ; n p - i r ? nn dn x-n qn as pn qr vbs pc

' nan t h i s - h e hov/-about? maybe you hov/-about? n a k e - d i d ' / S Nt P / S Nt P /

"What abou t t h i s chap h e r e naybe? Hov/ d idyou nake i t ? "

26. Nunt y a : - n r j a l -un w a n t - a n t - a r okun, r a : k v/ant an ? pn vb pr pn ac qn as nn qri

•you go-do n e - w i t h -hovz-about? m.aybe p l a c e v/here? • / S P - AC Nt -P / S Nt /

"H ov/ abou t i f you go w i t h ne p e r h a p s ? "'.-/hat p l a c e ? "

27.: W a n t - a n t - a r okun y i k p e l n u l p - 1 ? qn as vbs gn dm fo

'how a b o u t ? maybe s ay t h e y t h o s e - t h e ' /N t P f /

" 'Thatever d i d the3'" say t h o s e nen t h e r e ? "

28 . Werrjir g a i n rjene x /u tu r -e : - r e k - r ? 2 9 . War rjene n i : n r j - o.r? nn pa qn v b s cn t n pn qn vb pc

•boonerang ny why? h a n d l - in/j-' ' you why? f e a r - d i d ' /Q Nt P ^ / S Nt P /

"Why a r e you h a n d l i n g ny b o o n e r a n g ? " "Why were you s c a r e d ? "

453

30. Nunt rjene? P u n k u r - l a : r (13)ay. 3 1 . Nunt rjene y a : - t pa l ? pn qn a j pn pn qn vb pc dr

•you v/hy? hungry I ' 'you why go-did h e r e ' /S Nt / PA S / S Nt P /

"Hov/ about you? I ' n hungry . " "V/hy did you cone here?"

32, Kokonat nunt iqene pe tn p i r k - r ? 33. Nunt pa l rjene ya : - n? nn pn qn nn vbs t n pn dr qn vbs pr

'coconut you v/hy? sk in r i p - d o ' 'you cone why walk - do ' /O S Nt P / S F - Nt -P /

"Why do you husk the coconut?" "Why have you cone he r e?"

/Den-e-p? / I'7hy_indeed? Why should? Shou ldn ' t h a v e ] '

34. Nunt rjene-p l e : r r j - ar? 35. Mani nunt u lp r j ene -pm ' i -na t? pn qn en vbs pc nn pn dn qn en vb ps

'you v/hy?-too s t r i k e - d i d ' 'noney you t h a t why t a k e - d i d ' /S Nt F / 0 - S -0 Nt P / "Why did you k i l l h in?" "You shouldn ' t have taken that noney]"

36, Par-'r nur naka rjene-p p a t p - i r ? 37. Nunt rjene-p te ; r r ) - r l ? nn pn av qn en vb pc pn qn en vb in

'boys you here why-too canp-d id ' 'you why?-too s t r i k e - n e a r l y ' / I n S L Nt P / _ S Nt P /

"Boys, v/hy did you canp he re?" "Why v/ere you about to k i l l ? "

38, Kor-urjkan nunt rjene-p lor jk-r? 39. Min rjene-p l e : r r j - a r nin, i l ? av pn qn en vb pc nn qn en vb pc nn d'm

' l a t e r - o n you why?-too a r r i v e - d i d ' a n i n a l why k i l l - d i d a n . t h a t ' / T S Nt P / 0- Nt P --Q /

"You shouldn' ' t have a r r i v e d l a t e ] " ' "Why k i l l THAT a n i n a l too?"'

11 .3 .3 I d i o n a t i c

/2nil_Q£n-ezE/ liZliZ-iS^SM^.-lS^^I^ Lucky you d i d n ^ t ] '

40 . Day wa'-ar - pa :n t n a : l - i i a t , pn nn nn vb ps ' I sea - wasp see -d id

/S 0 P "I sav/ a seawasp swim.ming a long ,

kar i]at-nr yanj -n ( n ) u l ; v/a:r rjanal, n)u;l rjene ko 'o - nan (r!a)yj re nn In vbs nf pn a j aj av qn vbs fu pn l i k e f i s h - j u s t going he very b ig l a t e r v/hy spea r -v / i l l I • M / PA / T Nt P S / jus t l i k e a f i s h i t was, enornous; lucky I d i d n ' t spear the t h i n g ] '

41 . Peln y u : r r a ; l - r , yuk p i t - r ; y u : r r a ; l - r riu;l rjene p i t - r ? pn nn vb t n nn vbs t n nn vb t n av qn vbs t n

' t hey hands c lap t h i n g nind-do hand c lap l a t e r v/hy n i n d - d o ' / S O P / 0 F / 0 P / T Nt P /

"They c lapped, watching sone th ing ; c lapp ing v/hatever f o r ? "

454

42. Nul rju;l rjene - p re:npe - no.tal, pn av qn en vbs sp • he later why?-too descend - v/ould' /S T Nt E P / "He was lucky he didn't go dov/n]"

43. Alen - tv r)u:l rjene - p nul "^rang - ar rjan? na or av qn en nn vb pc pn » Allen later why?-too s e n d - did ne'

/S T Nt (E) P 0 / "Just as well Allen didn't nake ne go]"'

44, Yak ulp yanj - n, rju:l qene pal - natal .' nn dn vb nf av qn vb sp 'snake that go-ing later why bite-v/ould' /S P / T Nt P / "That snake v/as noving; lucky he didn't bite.'"

The above exanples express relief in escaping danger and the enot-

ion is expressed in this idionatic clause conbining the interrog

ative and the subjunctive noods. (Conpare exanples in 2.3.2.1.)

11,4 Nondisjunctive

Most question-narkers fill one of the nornal slots of the

clause. The renaining interrogatives v/ill now be presented as the

fillers of clause and phrase-level slots; S 0 Io L Ns PA R Hd Md.

11.4.1 I'ig^ll^^LlMtl' 4 5 . Derrjkan rjay rjan okun p i l a r - nan ?

av pn qn as vbs nf ' y e s t e r d a y I wha t? naybe d r e a n - i n g - w a s '

/ T S 0 P / "Whatever d i d I d r e a n abou t y e s t e r d a y ? "

46 . Pan nunt rjan nu : i3k - a r ? 4 7 . May rjan nu;i3k - nan qanp ? nn pn qn vbs pc nn qn vb fu pn

'nan you v/hat? e a t - d i d ' ' f o o d v/hat e a t - w i l l we • / I n S 0 P / _° ^ ^ / "Hey you , v/hat d i d you e a t ? " "What food s h a l l v/e e a t ? "

48 . Dan y i k ? 4 9 . Yu: - n u l i l rjan ? Trak okun ? qn vbs n t pn dn qn nn as

•what s o u n d s ' ' v / h a t ' s - i t ? t h a t what t r u c k n a y b e ' /S P / / S PA / PA P /

"What ' s t h e n o i s e ? " "V/hat 's t h a t s o - a n d - s o ? Truck p e r h a p s ? "

50. I : - w a l r j aw- i l rjan p a r k - r ? 5 1 . Ra :k rjan k e ' e - r ? Aw en dn qn vb tn nn qn vb pc

'this-v/ay that what? shine-does' ' t ine what? k i l l -d id ' /P- ' S PA -P / /T P / "What's that shining this v/ay?" "What tine was he killed?'

455

52. Nunt r a ; k rjan lorjk - r ? 5 3 . ^^^l-p JQan ? pn nn qn vb pc dm qn

'you t i n e v/hat? a r r i v e - d i d * ' t h a t w h a t ? ' / S T P / S PA /

"When d i d you a r r i v e ? " "v/hat IS t h a t ? "

5 4 . Yu; - nun, i l rjan n u l y u ; n p - i r ? qn ob dn qn pn vbs pc

' v / h a t ' s i t t h a t what he nake - d i d ' / 0 PA S P / "Whatever i s t h a t t h i n g he c o n s t r u c t e d ? "

/Dan-a?/__;_What-indeod?'

55 . P a n - l u : m p y u : - n u l i : r j i l rjan - a? I I qan okun m i ' i - m a r ? nn av qm pn av dm qm em dm qm as vbs vc

' o ld -man w h c - e v e r t h e r e t h a t w h a t ' ' ' t h a t what naybe t a k - i n g ' /S PA E / 0 P /

i i r r h a t ' s t h a t old buffer up to t h e r e ? " "v/hat' s he p ick ing up ^ u

56. I I rjan \mn - a? 57. Ra;k nul rjan y a ; - n - a y a : - r a l e : r k ? dn qn vbs en nn pn qn vb fu en dr vbs

' t h a t what l i e - t o o ] ' ' t ime he 'v/hat go-v / i l l - too av/ay r e t u r n ' /S PA P E / T- S -T P E (PA) /

"V/hat's t h a t t h e r e ? " "At v/hat time w i l l he go back home?"

58. Min, rjan - a? Ulp y u : - n u l v/un, yuk l i : l . 59. Yuk in, 'n qan-a? nn qn en dn qn pn vbs nn na nn dmi qn en

' an ina l w h a t - t o o ' ' t h a t what-he l i e t h ing d o l p h i n ' t h i n g this-vtiat .' ' / P A E / S PA P / PA / S PA E /

"Whatever c rea tu re?"Tha t v /ha t ' s~ i t t h e r e , do lph in . "'"What' s t h i s ] "

/Den2§n?/_J_at_-what? to v/hat? i n wha t? '

60 . Pik u l p rjon -• en n a : l - iiat nunt ? nn dn qn lo vb ps pn

' p i g t h a t v/hat-in? see - did you' /O L P S / "At what p l ace did you see t h e p ig?"

6 1 . Den-en rok-an - i r (n.u)nt - a yuk na in ? qn a l vbs cs pc pn en nn pa ' w h a t - i n t o i n s e r t - d i d you - too s t i c k ny '

/ L P S E 0 / "In whatever p l ace did you hide m.y s t i c k ? "

62. Nunt rjen - en wunp - ar r a t rjaln ? pn qn lo vb p'C nn pa

'you v /ha t?- i n p l a c e - d i d book n y ' /S L P 0 / "In what p lace did you leave t h a t book of n i n e ? "

456

/Den2en?/__|_fron--f7hat? why-so? how c o n e ? '

Th i s q u e s t i o n - n a r k e r i s a r e a s o n - s e e k e r and o f t e n f i l l s

a r e a s o n - s l o t . I t i s f o r n a l l y e l a t i v e ;

6 3 . Den-en p a j - r ? 64 , Pan nun t i jen-en y a ; - n ( n ) u n t ? qn e l vbs t n nn pn qn e l vb pr pn

' w h a t - f r o n f u n e - d o ' ' n a n you w h a t - f r o n go-do y o u ' / R F / I n S - R P - S / "V/hy do you f u n e ? " "V/hy a r e you go ing o f f ? "

65 . Den - en n i : n n - a r n u n t ? 6 6 . Nunt p i : n t - a ; r n r)en-en? qm e l vb pc pn pn a j qn e l

' v / h a t - f r o n ? d e a r - d i d y o u ' 'you s t r o n g w h a t - f r o n ' / R P S / S PA R /

"v/hat nade you a f r a i d ? " "How i s i t y o u ' r e so s t r o n g ? "

67 . Pan nur i n ' n rjen - en kanpa k a : r purjk - ( k ) c ' o - r - n a n , nn pn dn qn e l av ng nn vb r e nf

' nen you t h e s e w h a t - f r o n f i r s t not, g a t h e r - i n g / i n S R T P

"V/hy w e r e n ' t you f o l k h e r o g a t h e r i n g y o u r s e l v e s up when t h e

kapanen y a ; - n rjanp - u l - rjun? 6 8 . Pan nunt rjan r |en-en wan - r ? na vb fu pn a l nn pn pn qn e l vb t n

."-overnnent c o n e - s uS - t o ' ' n a n you ne v / h a t - f r o n g r o w l - d o ' T / I n S 0 R P / governor cones t o s ee u s ? " "Hey, why a r e you t o l l i n g ne o f f ? "

/552Z®5z5l /_I?I25zY^2: tz i2^^®^2 / / h y - i n d e e d ? '

6 9 . Pan nun t rjai^ rjen - en - a l e : r r j - a r ( r j ) an? nn pn qm qm e l em vb pc pn

' n a n you ne v / h a t - f r o n - t o o ? s t r i k e - d i d n o ' / i n S 0 - R E V -0 /

"Hey, why d i d you b a s h n o , of a l l p e o p l e ? "

70, Pan mint r j en-en-a ? 7 1 . Pan nun t rjen-on - a rjerrjir - ak - a r ? nn pn qn e l en nn pn qn o l em. nn vbs pc ' n a n you w h a t - f r o n - t o o ' ' nan you v / h a t - f r o n - t o s h a k e s - h a v e - d o '

/ i n S R E / I n S R E P / "Man, why on e a r t h d i d y o u ? " "//hy d id you go t t h e s h a k e s ? "

/Den-er?/_^J^Ey^what? V i t h w h a t ? '

Th i s i n t e r r o g a t i v e f i l l s t h e i n s t r u n e n t o , l s l o t and nay

occur on p h r a s e or c l a u s e - l e v e l , v / i th or v / i t h o u t a h e a d :

72 , Den-er l e : r r j - r (ri)amp? 7 3 . Werrjir r jen-er k e ' e - r ? qn ns vb t n pn nn qn ns vb pc

'wha t -v / i t h k i l l - d o v/e' ' boomerang w h i c h - v / i t h k i l l - e d ' / N S P S / Ns r / "What s h a l l we k i l l i t w i t h ? " "Which boomerang k i l l e d i t ? " -

457

74 . Nunt rjen - e r ? 7 5 . Nunt p i k u l p kay r jen-er l e : r r ] - e r ? pn qn ns pn nn d n nn qn ns vbs p c

' you v /ha t -v / i t h ' ' you p i g t h a t gun wh ich -v / i t h k i l l - e d '

/S Ns / /^ ° ^^ ' / "Hov/ d i d y o u ? " "V/hat gun did. you k i l l t h a t p i g v/:ith?"'

/ D e n - e r - a ? / I P y _ E ^ a t _ i n d e e d ? How-on e a r t h ? '

Enj.7hasis on t h e i n s t r u n o n t a l marker can a l s o t r a n s f e r t o

o t h e r t a g n e n e s s i n c e t h e a f f i x / - a / i s a c l a u s e - l e v e l n a r k e r ;

7 6 , Min^ u l p nun t rjen - e r - a l e : r n - nan - a ? nn dm pn qn ns en vbs fu en

' a n i n a l t h a t yc^u v / h a t - v / i t h - t o o k i l l - v / i l l - t o o ' /O S Ns E P E / "What do yo-u t h i n k y o u ' l l k i l l t h a t w a l l a b y w i t h ? "

7 7 , K i r k u l p qen - e r k e ' e - r - a n i n n a n p i ? nn dn qn ns vb po en nn nn

• s p e a r t h a t v /ha t -v / i th s p e a r - d i d - t o o a n i n a l e n u ' /Ns P E 0 /

"V/ith which of t h o s e s p e a r s d i d you r e a l l y k i l l onus?"

1 1 . 4 . 2 /Wag.?/ _^ j;ho?^

Th i s q u e s t i o n - n a r k e r i s u s e d f o r humans, c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h

/ q a n / ' w h a t ? ' f o r non-hunan o b j e c t s .

7 8 . Pan kun - n e ; r - k o r wan ? 7 9 . Pan i l v/an ? nn nn nn d i qn nn dn qn

' n a n b a s e - e y e - b e h i n d v/ho' ' n a n t h a t who' / S PA / S FA / "V/ho's on t h o t a i l e n d ? " "V/ho's t h a t c h a p ? "

80. Pan i l - u l v/an y a : - n i ; - wa l? 8 1 . Nanp narjkn v/an? nn dn pn qn vb p r dr nn pa qm

' n a n t h a t - o n e who c o n e - d o e s t h i s - w a y ' •nane your - v/ho' / S - PA -S / / ^ ^ ^ /

"Who's t h a t man coming a l o n g h e r e ? " "Wha t ' s your name?"

82. K i r k nun t rjaln v/an r e ; k - a r ? 8 3 . V/an n a ; - w - r ? nn pn pa qm vb pc qm vb / pc

' s p e a r you my v/ho g i v e - d i d ' 'v/ho s ee - d i d ' / O - S -0 I o P / 0 P / "To whom d i d you g i v e m.y s p e a r ? " ' "V/hom d i d you see?" '

84. Pam v/an, l e : r r j - r (rj)ay (n)un? 8 5 . Pam n u l wan^ v/uw - i r ? nn qm vb t n pn pn nn pn qn v^bs pc

' n a n v/ho? k i l l - d i d I h i n ' ' n a n he who? n e e t - d i d ' / P A P S 0 / 0 - S - 0 P /

"V/hat nan v/as i t t h a t I k i l l e d ? " "V/hich nan d i d ho m e e t ? "

458

/Wa.n-a?/ 'who i n d e e d ? ' (em) / W a g - e y ? / 'V/ho e h ? ' ( e n )

0|^., P a r ' r u l p wan. a :nn d n qn en

' c h i l d t h a t w h o - i n d e e d ' /S PA E /

"VTho IS t h a t c h i l d ? "

17, P a : n l u l p wan - ey ? nn dn qn en

•woman t h a t w h o - i n d e e d ' / S PA E /

"Say, v/ho IS t h a t woman?"

/ V / a n - u l ? / ^Whc -? t ( e r )

8 8 . Nin, wa^ - u l r e ; k - a r ? pn qn e r vb pc

•you w h o g i v e - d i d ' / l o S P / "Who gave i t t o you?"'

89 . Min k o l o n u l p w a n - u l y u : n p - i r ? 9 0 . Pan wan,-ul l e : r i 3 - a r ? nn nn dn qn e r vbs pc nn qm_ e r vb pc

' a n i n a l w a l l a b y t h a t who n a k e - d i d ' ' n a n who? k i l l - d i d ' /O S P / S P /

"^Jho drew t h a t w a l l a b y ? " "Who k i l l e d t h e n a n ? "

9 1 , P a r ' r i n ' n w a n - u l p i r n p - i n - i r rjaln? 92 . Waii-ul-p n u : n p - a n - i r ? nn dn qn e r vb cs pc pa qn e r en vb cs e r

' c h i l d t h i s v/ho s w e l l - c a u s e - d i d n y ' 'who- too w i p e - m k - d i d ' / o - S P -0 / S P /

"Who s t u f f e d up t h i s k i d of mine w i t h food?"V/ho made a mess?"

/V/an;-riun?/__^To^whom? For whom?' ( d a ) ( b e )

(This i n t e r r o g a t i v e i s t h e s h o r t e n e d f o r n of t h e word which fo l lows . )

S3 , axnt y o ; r pan wan-rjun y i k - r ? 9 4 . Pan wan - rjun y u ; n p - r ? pn av nn qn da vb pc nn qn be vb t n

•you t oday nan who- to s p e a k - d i d ' ' n a n whom-for m a k e - d i d ' /S- T I o P / B e P / "V/hat p e r s o n d i d you t a l k t o t o d a y ? " ' "For whom v/as i t made?"

9 5 . Payp nun t u l p v/an_ - rjun n i ' i - n a t ? nn pn dn qm bn vb ps

' p i p e you t h a t whon- fo r buy - d i d ' / O - S - 0 Be P /

"V/ho d i d you buy t h a t p i p e f o r ? " '

/ W a n - u l - n u n ? / (da ) (pv ) 9 6 . K i r k i n ' n w a n - u l - n u n ?

' T o / f o r v/hon?' nn an qn da 'spear this who - for'

/ S B.e / "\/ho's this spear for?"

97. P a r ' r i n ' n wan-u l - i ]un? 9 8 . Kuta u l p - 1 wan - u l - rjun? nn dn~" qn d a - b e nn dn fo qn da

' c h i l d t h i s v/ho - f o r ' ' dog t h a t - t h e v/ho - f o r ' / S PA "V/hose kid is this?"

/ S FA / "Whose dog is that ?"

459

99. Nunt pan wan-ul-rjun yik-r rjerx]kan? pn nn qn da vbs pc av

'you nan whon-to speak-did y'day' /S Io F T /

"V/hat person did you speak to yesterday?"

/V/an-ul-rjun-ak?/ •belong-to-whon? To //hose?' (da) (be) (pv)

100. './an-ul-r]un-ak i l -u l? 101. Wan-ul-rjun-ak? Narjn Rajul-ak] qn da pv du pn qn da pv pa na pv

'who - for-belong tha t ' 'who-to-belong his Russel l ' s ' /PA S / PA / PA /

uhose is that?" /hose i s i t ? " "Russel l ' s ] fc. I "

102. Pan nunt v/an—ul-qan - ak ku;k yik - r ? nn pn qn da al nn vbs pc

'nan you v/ h o s e - to v/ords say-did' / l o - S -Io O P /

"To whose husband v/ere you t alking?"

/V/.gn-ul-ntan?/ 'Frcn_what? Fron when? Fron which?'

103-« Nunt pan wan-ul-ntan n i ' i - r yuk yo:r ? pn nn qn el vbs pc nn av

'you nan which-fron buy - did tobacco today* /S L P 0 T / "Fron v/hich person did you buy baccy today?"

104. Danin, wan-ul-ntan rat in 'n-ul v/an-ul-ntan n i ' i-nat (n)unt ? vo kn q-n el nn d'm pn qm el vbs ps pn

'Daddy, whom-fron l e t t e r th is v/hom - from buy-did you' / in L- 0 -L P S / "Daddy, fron when did you get th is l e t t e r ; v/ho was i t from?"'

A/antan?/ 'Where?'

105. Ray in nunt nankn v/ant an lak - ar -1? nn pn pa qm vbs pc fo

' f i shl ine you your where leave-did-the' /O- S -0 L P /

"Where'Id you have left your fishline?"

106. Want an v/un nunt? 107. Day min mxant-riant v/ant an le:rr]-n? qn vbs pn pn nn nn qn vb po

'where? l i e you' ' I b i r d s v/here k i l l -can ' /L P S / S 0 L P /

"Where do you stay?" "I 'n longing to k i l l a bird here]"

108. Pan lono v/arrfcan? 109. Day laqk-n i :r-kan wanlan ? nn nn qm pn vb dz a l d i qn ' n a n one w h e r e ? ' ' I c l i n b - v / i s h go-up v / h e r e '

/ S PA / S P L / "V/here 's t h e f e l l o w ? " " I want t o go c l i n b i n g h i g h u p . "

460

110. Nunt wanlan pa l na : -nan? 111. N;ant want an r e ; p - o n - i r? pn qn dr rd vbs pn qn vb cs pc 'you where cone l o o k - i n g ' 'you where h i d e - c a u s e - d i d •

/S L P / S L P / "What a re you looking a t t h i s way?" "V/here did you h i d e i t ? "

/VJ ant an -aka? / 'At where? '

112. Pan nunt lono v/antan-aka l a k - a r ? nn pn nn qm lo vbs pc

'nan you one v/here-at l e a v e - d i d ' /O - S -0 L P /

"V/hore did you leave the chap a t ? "

/Wantan-gun?/ ' A t / t o v/here?'

113. Min nunt wanlan-i-]un ko 'o - na t ? nn pn qn lo vbs ps

' a n i n a l you where-a t s p e a r - d i d ' / 0 S L P /

"V/here did you spear t h e wal laby?"

114. Wanlan-rjun n i ; - n i n nul? 115. Ra;k v/airtan-rjun y a : - t nul? qn lo rd vbs pn nn qn a l vb pc pn

•where-at s i t - t i n g h e ' ' p l a c e where?~to go-=did h e ' /L P S / L P S /

"V/here's he s tay ing?" ' ".-/here did ho go t o ? "

116. Pan nun t w a n t a n - n u n y a : - n ? P u t u r i l v/anlan - rjun ? nn pn qn a l vb p r nn dn qn l o

' n a n you w h e r e - t o g o - d o ' ' k n o c k i n g t h a t w h e r e - a t ' / I n S L F / S PA / "Hey, v / h e r e ' r o you g o i n g ? " "V/here 's t h a t k n o c k i n g n o i s e ? "

117. Fan wanlan-rjun n a ; l - n a t ( n ) u n ? 1 1 8 . Dal wan lan - rjun rjorn? nn qn l o vb ps pn pn qn l o vbs

' n a n w h e r e - a t s e e - d i d h i n ' 'we-2 v/here - a t p u l l up • / O - L P -0 / S L P /

"V/here d i d you s e e t h e n a n ? " "V/here d i d you and I h a l t ? "

/Want an -nenan? / ' F r o n v/hore? V/hence? ' ( e l )

119 . l a ; w - a l i^anal rjay i l w a n t a n - nenan n a : l - n a t ? nn a j pn dn qn e l vb ps

' s h i p l a r g e I t h a t v/here - f r o n s e e - d i d ' / O - S -0 L P /

o r : / S - FA -S / "V/here 's t h a t b i g s h i p cone f r o n t h a t I saw?"

120. Nul w a n t a n - n e n a n y a ; - t , lor jk - n a t ( n ) u l naka ? pn qn e l vb pc vb ps pn av

' s h e v / h e r e - f r o n c o n e - d i d a r r i v e - d i d she h e r e ' / S L P / F S L /

"Where d i d t h a t wonan cone f r o n t h a t a r r i v e d h e r e ? "

461

1 2 1 . Nunt wairfcan-nenan y a ; - t i : - v / a l ? 122 . Nenan w a n t a n okun y a : - t ? pn qn e l vb pc d r av qn as vb p a

' y o u w h e r e - f r o n c o n e - d i d h e r e ' ' f r o n - h e r e where nay g o ' / S L P / M L P /

"V/here d i d you cone f r o n t o h e r e ? " "V/herever h a s he gone t o ? "

123. Day nay w a n t a n - n e n a n v /a : l -n , ( y ) a n j - n , p a r ' r q a t a - n a k ? pn nn qn e l vb po vbs pn nn pa da ' I food where - f rom s e a r c h - c a n g o - c a n c h i l d r e n m y - f o r '

/ S O L P Be / "Where can I go and seelc food f o r my c h i l d r e n ? "

1 1 . 4 . 3 R e d u p l i c a t e d d e r i v a t i v ^ e s

Zi l^an-gan-er?/ lHow_nuch? How nany? '

124 . Puk i i i ' n - u l jgan-ioan-er? nn dn pn qn nn

'books t h e s e - o n e s h o w - n a n y ? ' / S PA / "Hov/ Uiany books a r e t h e r e h e r e ? "

125. Pan r jan-r jan-er l o r j k - r i ;~v /a l? nn qn vb pc dr ' n e n hov/-nany? a r r i v e - d i d h e r e '

/S P / "Hov/ nany -men a r r i v e d h e r e ? "

126 . Nunt ]gan-r)an-er r e : k - a r (ii.)un,? pn qn vb pc pn

'you hovz-nany? g i v e - d i d h i n ' / s o P Io / "How nany d i d you g i v e t o h i n ? "

127. Nunt u l p r jan-r jan-er - a p i t - i t - r ? pn dn get en vbs r d t n

' y o u t h o s e hov / -nany?- too k e e p - i n g - d o ' / s o P / "How m.any of those did yc-u hang on to for good?"

1 2 8 . Dok u l p - 1. nan - rjan - e r ? nn dn fo qm. nm

'v /a tor t h a t - t h e hov/ - r . uch? ' / S FA /

"How m.uoh w a t e r i s t h a t t h e r e ? "

129. Ra:k nun t rjan? Dan-r jan-er y a ; - n ( n u n ) t ? nn pn qn qm vb fu pn

' t i m e you w h a t ? hovz-rianj^? go- ' ' ; / i l l y o u ' / T - S - T / PA P S /

"V/hat t i n e do yc-u? Hov/ nany of you w i l l go?"

"*" /Dan- i ]an-Gr / 'how n u c h , m.any' h a s n o t b e e n s e e n t o o c c u r w i t h any

s u f f i x a t i o n e x c e p t e n p h a s i s . / p a ; n t - u r j a n - q a n - e r v /u ; j m i ' i - m p e l n ? /

'women4-er hov/-many? songs s i n g - i n g t h o y ? ' shov/s Ed 4- e r o n l y .

462

/V/an-v /an-u l? / 'V/hoever? '

I 3 0 . K i r i pam n u r v/an,-wan.-ul r a ; k v/a:r k a : r - l w a : t as nn pn qm rd e r nn a j ng fo a

' g o - o n nan you a l l whoever deeds bad n o t - t h e v/rong / i n S - ( n b / S 0 P - PA

"Cone on now, w h a t e v e r no.n anong you h a s done no

y u ; n p - i r , n u l l o n - l ? ak kanpa l e r e p l u n p - r narj - u n . vb pc pn nn e r n r av nn vbs t n pn da do - d i d he one l e t f i r s t s t o n e throv/-dod h e r - t o '

_p / ) -S P - T 0 -F l o / e v i l deeds i n e r r o r , l e t h i n a l o n e f i r s t t h row a s t o n e a t h e r . "

/ W a n t - w a n t ? / 'How_nany?'

1 3 1 . Nunt v/ant-v/ant k e ' c - r nun t r j a t? pn qn vbs pc pn nn

'you hov/-m.any? s p e a r - d i d you f i s h ' / S - 0 - P -S -0 /

o r : / S - FA P -S 0 / "And how nany f i s h d i d you s p e a r ? "

132. Min rjay l o n o v/ant k e ' e - r n i n j ? Daw-oy, l o n o k e ' e - r - ow] nn pn ni-j qn vbs pc av af mi vb pc ex

' a n i n a l I one how-m.any s p e a r - d i d t r u l y y e s one s p e a r - d i d e h ' / O - S - 0 (PA) P M / I n 0 P E / "How nany , was i t one I t r u l y s p e a r e d ? Indeed I go t one eh?"

1 1 . 4 . 4 By i n p l i c a t i o n

/ Z e r o ? /

1 3 3 . I3ok i n . ' n - 1 kana k e r p - r ? nn dn fo as vb pc

•v/ater t h i s - t h e h a s f i n i s h - d i d ' / O P / "Has all this v/ater been used up?"

134. Nunt na Dunp kirk la: - rak? 135. Kal " ar (n,)ul ? pn av nn vbs vb pc pn •you there spear stand up' 'bind-did he''

M L » f / /p s / "Did you stand the spear there?" "Did he bind it?"-

136. ... arjar katp - n, ? 137. Dat pork ke'e - r (nu)nt ? cn vb po nn aj vb pc pn 'so-as catch-can' 'fish big spear-did you'

/ Sr P / /O F S / "So he can catch it?" "Was it a big fish you speared?"

For the discussion on relative pronouns identified in Thaayorre,

see sections 13.1 and 13.5 in the Dependent Clause chapter.

4 6 3

ZKai r_? /_ lno t '

138. May y u : - n u n - l k a : r n i ' i - nar ? nn qn pn fo ng vbs vc

• f r u i t v/hat • s - i t ? not buy - i n g ' / O P /

" Y o u ' r e no t b u y i n g any f r u i t I see?" '

139. T_orkr k a : r ? I 4 0 . Ka:r lorjk ( n ) u l ? 1 4 I . Kokonat nun t k a : r ? a j ng ng vb pn nn pn ng

' f a r n o t ' ' n o t a r r i v e h e ' ' c o c o n u t you n o t ' /PA P / / ? 3 / / 0 S P /

" I s n ' t i t f a r ? " " D i d n ' t he cone?" "Don ' t you want a n u t ? "

14.2. P a : n l - u n u l i n , ' n - u l T,?U:J k a : r n i ' i - r ? nns da pn dn pn nn ng vb pc

'v /onan-for he t h i s - o n e song no t s i n g - d i d ' / B e - 3 -Be 0 P / " D i d n ' t he s i n g a c o r r o b o r e e f o r t h i s wonan h e r e ? "

/Okun?/_ _1Maybe_

1 4 3 . Nul okun y a : - t rjerrjkan ? pn as vb pc av ' h e maybe g o - d i d y e s t e r d a y '

/ S P T / "Did he go y e s t e r d a y p e r h a p s ? "

144. Dat nun t l a k - r okun ? 145 . May moq okun ? nn pn vbs t n as nn nm as

• f i s h you l e a v e - d i d maybe• ' f o o d p l e n t y n a y b e ' / o s p / S PA P /

"And d i d you l e a v e t h e f i s h ? " " P l e n t y of t u c k e r n a y b e ? "

11.4.5 Zlui.rIiHl2Z_-!- o-and-so_ (and inflections)

This word allows one to substitute interrogatively for a

nane v/hich is unknov/n or nonentarily forgotten. We connonly use a

variety of sinilar phrases like "What-do-you-call-it? Thinganejig,

So-and-so"; it occurs in various inflected forns:

Subject

146. Yu; - nul T_a:-yor-e re: - rek - r. qn pn na rd vbs tn 'So-and-so Thaayorre giv-ing-is'

/ S O P / "So and so is teaching Thaayorre."

147. Min, rjan - a ? Ulp yu: - nu l wun, yuk l i - 1 . nn qn en dn qn pn vbs nn nn

' c r e a t u r e what-eh t h a t v / h a t ' s - i t s t a y s t h i n g d o l p h i n ' / ( S ) FA E / S FA- F -FA /

"What's t he c r e a t u r e , eh? T h a t ' s a so-.and-so, a d o l p h i n ] "

464

Objec t

148 . Ulp i-jan? Yuk l i : 1 u l p - 1 l e :ri3 - a r ( n ) u n ; y u : - n u n i l - a r k o ] dn qm. nn nn dn fo vbs pc pn qn pn ex

• t h a t v/hat d o l p h i n t h a t - t h e k i l l - d i d i t s o - n - s o o h - d e a r ] ' / S PA / 0 - P - 0 / 0 E _ /

"What ' s t h a t ? That d o l p h i n t h e r e v/as k i l l e d i t was] T h a t ] Whew]"

L o c a t i v e

1 4 9 . Nul yu:-nu-3rjun wun, r a ; k l o r k r K e n j - n a . pn qn l o vbs nn a j na l o

' he w h a t ' s - i t - a t s t a y s tov/n f a r C a i r n s ' / S L F FA L /

" H e ' s s t a y i n g a t s u c h - n - s u c h a f a r , a t Ca i rn s . "

150. P a r ' r rjaln y u ; - nu - rjun l a k - a r ( r ja )y ; r a ; k n u j i l a n - a k . nn pa qn l o vbs pc pn nn na l o

' c h i l d ny s o - n - s o - a t l e a v e - d i d I Nev/ Z e a l a n d - i n ' . / 0 L P S PA-L /

"V/hat 's t h e p l a c e I l e f t ny c h i l d a t ? New Zea land . ' "

Elative

152.

1 131. Dal yu: - nenan yik rjal kulir.

pn qn el vbs pn nn •you-n-I what •s-it-fron talk w:e-2 both' / S-- L p -S / "You and I are both talking fron so-n-so."

Nul jru: - nenan re: - rek - r nay rjal - lin Joyt-ntr. pn qm. el rd vbs co nn pn pv na er 'shewhat's-it-fron giv - ing - does food our Joyce' /S L P 0 S /

"She^s giving out food fromi. the such-n-such for us is J."

Allative

153. Nul 3ru:w ya:-t yu:-nul - ak, ra:k lon-lak. pn av vb pc qn pn al nn nn al 'she av/ay go-did such-n-such-to place one-to' /S L P L (PA) / "She v/ent off to such and such a place or other. "

Chapter XII Adverbs of tine_j_ manner and__degree.

12.0 Introduction

The concept of tine in Thaayorre is different fron that

found in Australia anongst those of European thought forms, but it

is structured and able to be signalled linguistically v/ith much

1

The borderline betv/een the adverbs of section 10.3.3 and the in

terrogatives here seens unc-lear in the inflections on /yu:-nul/.

465

nore precision than night be inagined. A rather full continuun o-f

tenporals has been encountered, and for the sake of clarity in ana

lysis, these will be subdivided sinply into categories like historic

tine, calendar tine, clock tine and relative tine. Initially, we

nay recall the varied meanings of /ra;k/: 'tine, place, things,

deeds, soil, village, country'.

12.1 Tenporals

In exanple 97 within section 1,8,2, a sinple division of

the tine scale is given in which tine adverbials and aspectual aux

iliaries are conpared within the one array. I nake one connent to

clarify the aspectual terns /kanc/ and /yup/. Both are relative and

able to refer to both past and future tine sectors. Thus, /kana/,

with a future verb inflection neans 'will' but with a past verb in

flection neans 'has, have or had' and/yup/likewise nay 'float' along

the tine-scale neaning 'soon' in the past or in the future. This iS3

probably the chief distinction betv/een tenporals and aspectuals for

the forner tend never to be as relative as the latter. Sinilarly,

/kanpa/ and /rju:l/ have been found to 'slide' along the tine-scale

as nore tenporal adverbs of tine cannot.

12.2 Historic tine.

An approximate continuun of time is possible, beginning

fron very very long ago and reaching forward into the future;

CHiiRT 4-9

Ra;k ko:w - kanpa , nn nn av 'tine, nose before* Hd 4- Md "in the beginning"

Ra:k kanpa ninj nn av av

' t i n e before t r u e ' Hd 4- Md (4- dg)

"true beginning"

Ra:k kanarjkar n i n j nn av av

' t i n e long-ago t r u e ' Hd + Md (4- dg)

"long long ago"

Kanarjkar (av) "long ago"

V/u:r norj - l a k nn nn da

' f i n g e r s n a n y - f o r ' Hd 4- Md.

"for nany years" '

Karnan in.'n. - 1 kanpa nn dn fo av

'nonsoon-wet t h i s - t h e b e f o r e ' Hd 4- Md 4- Md + Md

"the p rev ious V/et"

Karnan (nn) " l a s t year"'

Ra:k karlam. kanpa nn nn av

' t ime v/et b e f o r e ' Cl + E£ 4- Md

"previous V/et season"-

Ra:k k a r t a n ' t h e wet nonsoon'

466

Ra;k w a : r - e : k - a n a kanpa nn a j vbs dn av

' t i n e bad g i v e b e f o r e ' Cl 4r Hd 4- Md

" the y e a r b e f o r e l a s t "

Ra:k w a : r - e : k - o x i a " l a s t y e a r "

Purj - uk kanpa av av

l a s t t i n e b e f o r e Hd 4- Md

" the t i n e b e f o r e "

Purj-uk " l a s t t i n e , l a s t n o n t h "

Ra ;k lorjkun v/errjka nn nn av

' t i n e p i e c e b e t w e e n ' 01 4- Hd 4- Md

" t h e day be tween" ( s a b b a t h )

y u : - k a r a '•next t i n e , n o n t h "

V/u:r y o : r ' n e x t y e a r "

Ra;k v/u:r y i : r - l a k nn nn a j da

' t i n e y e a r d i f f e r e n t - f o r ' Cl -f Hd 4- Md

" f o r d i f f e r e n t a n n u a l s e a s o n s "

Ra;k rjcrrjka pinalan-ak nurnt-urnt-ur Ra:k in'n pa;nj - r nn nn nn da av nn dn vb tn 'tine dark three-for by night' 'tine this pass-does' Cl 4- Hd 4- Md ( + Md ) "three or four nights ago"

/S ¥" / "This tine passes av/ay."

Derqka-n 'yosterday" (av)

Derrjka-n kanpa av av

'y'day before' Hd + Md

"day before y'day"

Derqka-n kanpa nurnt-urnt-ur av av av

'yesterday before night' Hd 4-- Md 4- Md

"night before last"

Ra:k yu:-kar-ontan nn av el

•tine future - fron.' Hd + Md "fron the future tine"

Wu:r y i : r i.vu;r y i : r nn aj nn aj

' f i n g e r s - o t h e r ' Hd + Md

"year a f t e r yea r"

Me;r - r]u;l rjo:nt - n - a nn av vb mf da

Derrjka-n n u r n t - u r n t - u r " l a s t n i g h t " ' e y e l a t e r n i s s - i n g - t o ' /S T. P /

Y0:R "today, nov/, p r e sen t t i n e " a X 1 a "for evernore"'

+ 3fe

Ra:k wu:r norj i n ' n - 1 nn nn nn dn fo

' t i n e years nany t h e s e - t h e ' Cl - Hd + Md 4- Md - Md

" a l l t hese ( t he ) nany y e a r s "

ne lnk-e lnk-a r ' tonorrow"

nelnk-ar "tonorrow, the m.orrov/"

Ra:k 3rju:l nn av

' t i n e l a t e r - o n ' Hd -h Md

"later on"

Ra:k lil "next tine" (nn 4- aj)

Ra:k yi:r "another tine"' (aj+nn)

Tono-nar (av) "for ever"

Mul - a - Ian nn lo vb •ridge-on stand' /L P / "eternally"

Melnk-elnk-ar iii'n-1 ak-p qui av dn f0 nr en cn

' tonorrov/ t h i s - t h e l e t ] and / '^ / ^ ^

r a ; k u l p - 1 r a ; k t i l - 1 - l e . nn dn fo nn a j fo as

t i m e t h a t - t h e t i m e n o r e - t h e - n e x f S PA F /

"Day a f t e r t c u o r r o w . "

Exanples

223 . Kanankar n i n j . k o : w - k a n p a , K o t - n l r r a : k r a ; k - u n n y u : n p - i r . av av nn av na e r nn nn vbs pc

• l o n g - a g o t r u n o s e - f i r s t G o d e a r t h heavens n a k e - d i d ' / T T S 0 ^ ,

"Long, l o n g a g o , i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , God nade h e a v e n s and e a r t h . "

224. Nul narjanip n e l e - n v/uv/ - i r r a : k k a n p a — n i n j . p n nn a j e r vbs pc nn av av •he f a t h e r ov/n n e e t - d i d t i n e f i r s t t r u l y

/B P T ^ y "He v/as b e g o t t e n cf h i s F a t h e r b e f o r e a l l h i s t o r y .

225 ' Ra;k k a n a n k a r n i n j naqunp , pan ke;r) - 1 ? r a t n u l ^^^P " ^^• nn av av av nn nn e r nn nn vb pc ^

• t i n e a n c i e n t t r u e t h e r e nan k i n g book s e n d - d i d ' / i l L S O F /

" In a n c i e n t t i n e s , t h e r e , t h e k i n g s e n t out an o r d e r . "

226. Danjn k a n a n k a r n i n k o l o n nu : r jk -n ; x o j r . n in , pu luk nu:rjk - r . pn av nn nn vb nf av nn nn vb t n

• we l o n g ago v / a l l a b i e s e a t - i n g t o d a y b u l l o c k s e a t - d o ' /S T 0 P / T O P ^ / "We l o n g ago u s e d t o e a t w a l l a b i e s ; t o d a y i t ' s b u l l o c k s . "

227. Wu:r non - t a k l e r n - r i r k - n p e l n rjul yuk l i : 1 u l p k a : l - p i : n l . nn nn da vb vb nf pn cn nn nn dn a j

' y e a r s n a n y - f o r l e a r n - d o - i n g t h e y and d o l p h i n t h a t c l e v e r ' /M " F S- /Cn S PA / ^

"For nany y e a r s , t h e y t a u g h t h i n and t h a t d o l p h i n i s t r a i n e d . "

228. Karnan i n ' n - t kanpa yuk-r ja t y a ; - t r j an jn -qun . nn dn fo av nn vb pc pn da

' y e a r t h i s - t h e b e f o r e c y c l o n e c o n e - d i d u s - t o ' / T S P L _ /

"The y e a r b e f o r e , a c y c l o n e cane upon us i t d i d ] "

229. Ra:k k a r n a n i n ' n k a n a y a : - t ( n . ) n l ; ijay v/u;r y o : r okun y a : - n . nn nn dn as vb pc pn pn nn av as vb fu

' t i n e y e a r t h i s h a s c o n e - d i d i f I y e a r n e x t naybe g o ' / S - P -S / S T P ^ /

"This wet s e a s o n he went o f f ; b u t I n i g h t go n e x t y e a r . "

230. Ra:k k a r t a n kanpa p e l n p a l k a l - r ; rjay r a : k k a r n a n - t a n y a ; t . nn nn av pn dr vbs pn nn nn e l vb

' t i n e nonsoon b e f o r e t h e y b r i n g - d i d I t i n e year-fronwen-tf /T S P / S T P / _

"The wet b e f o r e , t h o y b r o u g h t i t h e r e ; I went f r o n l a s t y e a r . "

231 . Ra :k k a r t a i i - a k rjay k o ; - k o p e ; gay kanpa w u ; r y i : r y a : - t . nn nn da pn r d vbs pn av nn a j vb pc

• t i n e n o n s o o n - f o r I w a i t - i n g , I b e f o r e y e a r dif f e r e n t v / e n t

/R S F / S T T P y "For the nonsoon season I'n waiting ; last tine v/as beiore.

468

232.. Pul wa;r'-e:k-ana kanpa ya; - t. pn nn av vb pc

'they-2 year-before before go-did' / T , P / "They tv/o v/ent the year before last."'

233. Day nun, wa:r-e ;k-ana na:-w-r (n)un. pn pn nn vb pc pn ' I hin last - year see-did hin'

/S 0- T E -0 / "I saw hin last year."

234. Nunt pun-uk kanpa yik-r n_a,rj - un. pn av av vb pc pn da 'you last week before talk-did hin-to'

/S T P Io / "You spoke to hin the tine before last."

235. Nul pun - uk ku:lip ni'i - n. pn av nn vb nf 'he last-tine story tell - ing'

/S T O P / "He was telling yarns last nonth."'

236. Kar ra:k rjergka lunp - r . re nn nn vb tn 'like tine dark blow-did' /M P / "It blev/ up dark as night."

237. Ra:k kana nernka lak - nan. nn as nn vbs fu •place has dark loave-will'

/S E- PA -P / "It's getting really dark nov/."

238. Day nernka-n i;-kur]-kar patp-ir (rja)y . pn av lo di cp vb pc pn 'I y'day side-north canp-did I'

/S- T L P -S / "I canped last night on the north side."'

239. Perp-erp-ar nun. rjerrjkan kanpa nul. vbs rd pa pn av av pn

'cover-cover-did it y'day before he' /P 0 T S / "He thatched it the day before y'day."

240. Peln ya:-t nernka-n nurnl-urnl-ur; ni:n-nat nar|-un pornpur-n. pn vb pc av av vb ps pn aa nn lo 'they go-did y'day dark-time sit- did him-with house-in

/S P T / P Ac L ^J "They went last night and sat dov/n with hin m the house.

241. Nul nernkan kanpa nurnt-urnt-uir nej ko;p pirk - ar. nn nn vb pc

'he yesterday before d; / S T 0 ^

"He struck all the natches the night before last."

469

242. Yo;r noq pi:nl - ir nur pan Ta: - yor - e. nn nn vb pc pn nn na

'today nany grov/-did you nen Thaayorre' /T PA P S / "Now you've becone numerous you Thaayorre people."

243. Ra:k \mir mon in'n - t nay (n)ui]k-un rirk - n. * nn nn nn dn fo pn pn da vb ^ nf

'tine years nany these-the I you-for work-ing' /T S Be P / ^ "These nany years indeed, I've been working foryou."

244. Nul yurjar ya:-n i:-ra; patp-ii-an nelnk-elnk-qr. pn vb vb fu dr vb fu av 'h- swin go-will that-way canp-will tonorrow' /S" P ~ (L) / P ^ / „ "He'll swin over that way; he'll canp till tonorrow.

245. Day ninj nelnk-ar nu:nl-n,an. pn av av vbs fu 'I truly tonorrow swin - will'

/S M T P / ^ "I'n going to have a swin tonorrov/."'

246. Derrjkan, yo;r qui nelnk-elnk-ar-t. Jilaj yokun-=n - an. av av cn av na aj ^

'y'day today and tonorrow - the Jesus the sane /T S PA /

"Yesterday, today and tonorrow, Jesus is the sane as ever."'

247. Kanpa pul naq-naqal qui pul mil. pi :st-a-wa;r - n- at. av pn aj cn pn av aj vbz ps 'before'"they-2 happy and they later tired-do - did

/T S PA / Cn S ^ P ^ / "First they two were happy but later they grew very weary.

248. Ra;k nu;l qanjn, qan yu:np - r qanjn - (n)an ? nn av pn qn vb tn pn pv •tine later we what do - will o u r s '

/T In 0 P PA / "'One day chaps, what will he be doing that's ours?"

249. Dul ulp ninj-nu:l qui ulp qernk-ernk-an. ra;k til. cn dm av cn dn av nn nn •and that afternoon and that norning day another

/S PA /Cn S FA / /in S ^^' '

"ilnd that was evening and that v/as norning, another day. "'

250. Dul ra;k tonkun wernka Kot-ntr nit naqn ko;p kerp-nan-ir. cn nn nn av na er nn pa nn vb cs- pc 'and day portion betv/een G o d work his all finish-did' /In T S 0 P _ ^ / "And on the day between, God finished everything He did."

470

251. Day ra;k yi:r na; - n . pn nn aj vbs se 'I tine another look'

/S T P / "I'll look another tine."'

252. Peln i:-v/al vu:-kara pal le:rk, pn dr av dr vb

'they this-way one-day cone return' /S P- T -P / "They'll be coning bock one day."

253. Hay vo;r ka;r-p na:-w-r; qay yu: - kara na; - n . pn av ng en vb ps pn av vbs •I today not-too see-did i one-day look'

/S T P / S T ^ ,/ "I didn't see them today; I'll see them next week."

254. Wu;r - vo;r okun le;rk (q)ali. a V as vbs pn

'next - year naybe return we-two' /T P S /

"He and I may go back next year."

255. Peln yi:r-yir-aia-n ak li;np-ir ra:k n£;r-en-nata. r.a:kwu:r-yi; lak. pn nn er nr vb ao nn vbs nf nn nn nn da 'thev severol let shine-do tines show - to tine yrsr.ore -to' /S F Pu T / "Let sone shine to show periods of tine and for different years."

256. Ra;k in'n pa:n.i-r; v/u:r yo;r wan-r; qay iono;: ar pit - r. nn c!n vb tn nn av vbs tn pn av vbs tn

'tine this pass-does year-next tell-do I for-ever cherish-do' /g p / T P / S M i' / "This year passes; next year I'll tell you; I cherishher always."

257. Yuk wa:r-nin noq qaln qay kana ninir-p-un-ir ra:k yu;-ka?-ontan^ nn nn nn pa pn as v b s pc nn av el

'things variety nany ny I have get-roady-did tine future-fron' /O S P Pu _ ^ /

'•All ny nany possessions I've got ready for the future tines.

258. V/u;r y i : r . v/u:r y i : r , r a :k n e : r - q u : l no;nt-n-a p i t - i t - r qay. nn aj nn aj nn nn av vb nf da vb rd tn pn

'year next year another t ino eye- la te r fade- ing- to keep-do I ' /T M P . '

"Year by year, year by year, for evermore I'll be keeping it."

239. Nul nin, pu:l qanal ra:k kanankar-antan ninj qui ra:k yo:rqul mlate.n. pn nn nn aj nn av el av cn nn av lk av •he chief big tine future-fron truly and tine now and ever' /S PA T lk T / "He is the p-reat chief fron very early tines, next year and evernore."

471

260. Peln ak v/un ra;k ne ;r-en-nala, ra:k pupur-ak-n-an, pn nr vbs nn vbs nf nn n n s da

'they let be tines shov/ - to tines winter - for /S- P Pu Pu "Let then be there to show the tines, the seasons and

ra:k ni:q-ak ra:k ni:q-ak. nn nn da nn nn da tine days-for tine days-for' Pu / for alternating daylight periods."

12.3 Calendar tine - /v/u;r/ 'the calendar year'

Predictable phenonena v/hich vary according to the tine

of the year in the environnent of any settlenent nay largely be

sunned up in the weather, by its seasonal variations, the phases

of the noon and the novenent of the tides. Although the terninol

ogy of these tends to be sonev/hat randon, grammatical structure is

involved in the words, i hrases and reduced clauses used to describ

the influence of the sun, the noon and. the elenents. Thus, the

following chart of tho annual cycle includes v/hat is pertinent to

Edv/ard River residents, beginning v/ith Docenber, pre-nonsoon.

12.3.1 Seasonal weather CHART 50

Season Month

Ra:k nin ko ' o-n,an : ra;k pa:-pal ninj Decenber nn nn vb fu nn rd nn av 'tine prey spear-will tine hot-hot very' Hd / O F / Hd 4- Md Hd. + Md (4- dg) "Hunting tine ., very hot tine"'

261. Kornun ko:v/-kanpa - le] nn nn av as

'squall f i r s t - eh] ' / E A P / "TFLO first squall-next]"'

262. V/aral quni rint - r nul-a-lan pok-on kerp - r, nn aj vb tn av aj vb tn 'grass clean burn-do for good none finish-do'

/O PA P M / FA. P / "Burn off the grass clean for good; nothing left."

263. ... ra:k pot-pot ... waral ±a: - quni nn aj nn aj

'place h o t ' 'grass clean' Hd 4f Md /S PA / "hot land" "grass is clean"'

472

264. K i l - a : l - r r a n j - n - a n ya : - t ; r i : j - n r a ; k p a : - p a l - u n . nn vbs lo vb pc vb nf nn a j lo

' h e a t r i s e - i n cone-did run -n ing t ine . hot - i n ' / T F / P L /

"V/ent i n the f u l l heat-v/ave; t r a v e l l i n g in. a hot l and .

265. Kornun pok-on; ra:k pa:-pal kil - a:l - r - n - nan. nn aj nn aj n n s el

' storn none place hot sunshine - fron' /S PA /S PA R / "There was no rain; the place v/as roasting fron the hot sun."

266. R i : j - n (q )an jn j i : p - a:k ; v/upur ( r ) i n t - n . vb nr pn nn pp nn vbs nf

' r un -n ing we jeep-hav ing sv/eat - p e r s . p i r - ing /P S M / 0 P /

"We went f a s t having t h e j e e p , and sv/oated sv/eat]"

267. Yuk l u j w i ' i n a : - v / - r ; l a : w k u j - an y a ; - r ( q ) a n p . nn nn nn vbs pc nn vb cs vb n r pn

' t r e e c o t t o n f l o w e r s s e e - d i d n o u t h c o o l go - n u s t v/e' /O P / M P S /

"V/e sav/ v /h i te c o t t o n t r e e f l o w e r s ; n u s t go i n t h e c o o l . "

268 , Day l u j - i n n i : n - nan ( q ) a y , k o : - k o p e ; n i n l e : r q - n a n . pn nn l o vb fu pn r d vbs nn vb fu ' I c o t t o n - t r e e - a t s i t - t i n g I v / a i t - i n g a n i n a l k i l l - w i l l '

/ S - L P -S PA / 0 P / " I ' l l s t a y a t t h e c o t t o n t r e e w a i t i n g t o shoo t a w a l l a b y . "

269. Yuk l u j v / i ' i n in , k o l o n mu;qk - r p e l n r a ; k p a ; - p a l - u n . nn nn nn nn nn vbs t n pn nn r d a j l o

' t r e e c o t t o n f l o w e r w a l l a b y e a t - w i l l t h e y p l a c e h o t - i n ' /O S - P -S L /

"The w a l l a b i e s e a t t h e w h i t e c o t t o n t r e e f l o w e r s i n D e c e n b e r . "

R a : k k a r l a n . r a ; k p a : - p a l n i n j , J a n u a r y nn nn nn a j a„v

' t i n e w e t t i n e h o t ve r j^ ' / S PA /

"The v/et s e a s o n i s a v e r y h o t t i n e , "

270. P a : l a r noq r i r p - r r a : k k a r l a n - a k . nn nn vb t n nn nn l o

' f l o v / e r s nany em.erge-do t i n e n o n s o o n - i n ' / S P T /

"Lo t s of f l ov /e r s bloom i n t h e monsoon s e a s o n . "

2 7 1 . Kormun q e r q k a n l a p a r - a ; k y a ; - t i ; - w a l . KB av nn pp vb pc d r

' s t o r m y ' d a y l i g h t n i n g - h a v i n g c o n e - d i d t h i s - w o . y ' / S T PA P ' /

" Y e s t e r d a y an e l e c t r i c a l s t o r n p a s s e d t h i s w a y . "

473

272. Puq putpan oqkor ya:-r; tanur yup la:l - r, nn av ng nr vb nr nn as vb tn 'sun on-top don't walk-nust feet soon burn-do'

/T P / O P / "Don't walk i n the noonday sun; i t ' l l burn your f e e t . "

273. P a : l a r v / i ' i ko ;p w o n t - o n t - r ; k i l - a : l - r - n i ; - k a n p a j - r q a : l i r . nn nn nn vb rd t n n n s d i vb t n as

' f lower co t ton a l l f a l l - i n g - d o ho t - sun up- top burn-does s t i l l ' /S P / S L P /

"Cotton t r e e flov/ers are a l l f a l l i n g ; the sun s t i l l b l azes dov/n."

274. Pu:n pork n i : n q - r i : - l - u q - k a r - uw qanp - u l - qun . nn aj vb t n e l cp cp pn da

'•srind b ig blow-does f ron-nor th -wes t us - upon ' /S P L lo-L /

"A s t rong ga le blows on us f ron tho nor th w e s t . "

275, Karnan i n ' n - 1 kanpa, yuk-qa t y a : - t qanjn - qun . nn dn fo av nn vb pc pn da

• l a s t - y e a r t h i s - t h e before cyclone cone-did us -upon ' / T S P L /

"The year before t h i s l a s t , we had a cyclone h e r e . "

1 Wolorn 'very wet ' February

276. Ra:k loqkun werqka — - nan t -ku ;npur yuk -qa t . nn nn av nn nn

' t i n e p o r t i o n betv/een h u r r i c a n e cyc lone ' /T S PA /

" I n t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n , . . . a h u r r i c a n e i s a c y c l o n e . "

277 . Wanpn ken . . . v/oanpn j^aqkar v/orpern . . . nn a j nn nn a j

g r a s s s h o r t g r a s s l o g l o n g i s h ' Hd + Md Cl 4- Hd 4- Md

" g r a s s 3 f e e t " " g r a s s l i k e a l o n g l e g l e n g t h "

278. Wara l v/anpn n a q i r l o r k o f . 279 . F a ; l a r noq r i r p r a : k k a r t a n - a k . nn nn av a j nn nn vb nn nn da

' g r a s s Wanpn r a t h e r l o n g ' ' f l o w e r s many cn out \ / e t - i n ' / S PA / S F T / "The v/i ld g r a s s i s a b i t l o n g . " "Plany f l o w e r s b l o o n i a theWet. "

280. Ddc kana l a ; k - i r l a n k i r - n . 2 8 1 . I n ' n - u l r a : k p a : n t k a n a k u ; q k - a £ nn as vb pc nn l o dn pn nn nn as vb pc

' w a t e r h a s f i l l - d i d h o l e s - i n ' ' t h i s - o n e t i n e head has w e t - d i d ' / S P L / S PA /

" R a i n - w a t e r h a s f i l l e d Melon h o l e s . " T h i s i s a d r e n c h i n g t i n e , "

A c e r t a i n anoun t of c o n f u s i o n and o v e r l a p o c c u r s i n t h e n i n d s of

t he i n h a b i t a n t s be tween t h e ti/o s y s t e n s of e s t i n a t i n g t h e s e a s o n s .

Wolorn ' v e r y w e t '

474

March

282 . \ / u : r - i - p a n . . . n u l - kan . . . qok n a n t nn l o r v nn d i nn a j

l y e a r - S-bank» ' h i l l - h i g h ' ' w a t e r - s n a i l ' / S L / Hd - Hd Hd + Md

" a f t e r n o n s o o n " "d ry s p o t s " "not nuch r a i n "

283 . Dok w a ; r - n i n j mxn l a n k i r - n . 28-4. W a r a l wanpn l o r k o r karyukpunp . nn a j av vbs nn l o nn nn a j r e nn nn

' w a t e r l o t s s t a y s h o l e s - i n ' ' g r a s s V/anpn l o n g l i ke s r / amp ' / S P L / S PA (M) /

"The melon h o l e s a r e a l l f u l l . " "Wanpn g r a s s i s l o n g l i k e r e e d s . "

V/u ; r - i -pan ' a f t e r t h e w e t ' ^.P.^i.^

285. May nant-an pajar kana lan-r nay pa;r . nn an lo nn as vbs tn nn nn

•fruit snall-in flower has stand-did fruit lily' /T S P PA / /T S- P -a / "In Snail-fruit tine, the lily flower stands blooming."

May nant-an 'fruit-snall-in'

286. May nant-an, qok kijir ni:q kornun - a:r - in. nn aj lo nn aj nn nn np ns 'water snall-in v/tr dry daylight storns-lacking-by' /T S PA T R / "In April, the tide is low by day lacking sterns."

287. Ra:k karlan kana kerp-r; pu:n nant. nn nn as vb pc nn aj

'tine nonsoon has finish-did v/ind snail' /S F / S PA / "When the wet season has finished, the wind is light."

2 88. Ra:k wanpu ... nay pu;k-a:l ... v/aral pa:lar . nn nn nn nn nn nn

•tine wanpan grass• 'food lily tuber' 'grass flowers' Hd 4- Md Cl -h Hd Cl 4-- Hd

"Wanpan grass tine" "white food-stock" "grass flowers"

Mul - kaw 'hill-east'

289. Ra:k pot-e ya;-n (q)ay; ra;k porpur-n ya: - n. nn aj lo vb pr pn nn aj lo vb pr

'place dry-in go-do I i.iace dusty-in go-do' /L f S / L P /

"I'n v/alking on dry ground; and travel in soft dust."

475 290.

Pu:n i;-li-par.-aw pu:n nant ra:k nay nant-an kana ni;nq - r. nn el cp nn aj nn nn aj lo as vb tn^ 'wind fron south-east v/ind snail tine food snail in has blow-did' /S PA T F / "A light breeze fron the S.E. has sprung up in April,"'

291. Ra:k pot-pot yup kana waral wanpn rint - nan. nn aj aj as as nn nn vb fu

'tine dry-dry soon has grass wanpan burn-will' /T P- 0 -P / "In the hot dry period, v/e' 11 soon be burning off grass."

Ra:k Wanpu 'tine Wanpan grass•

292. Wa^ap Jepnan-ak, ra:k min ko'o-nan, pal-uq-kan ya;-n. nn na al nn nn vb fu lo rv vb fu

•river Chapman-to time anir.als spear-will at-N-bkge-will' /L T L F / "To the Chapman river, during April,v/ill go to N-bank."

Wu:r-i-pan 'after the Met' lL_a.

293. Puiaur yik - n - an ... kornun kerp nn vbs nf lo nn vb 'cold blov/-ing-in' 'storn finish'

/ S P / / S P / a x i s 4- r e

" i n t h e w i n t e r " ' "no n o r e s t e r n s "

294. Ra:k n u l " kaw p u : n i : - l - u w - a n n i : n q - r . nn nn d i nn e l cp vb t n

• t i n e h i l l - e a s t wind f r o n - v / e s t blow - d o e s ' /I S F /

"\/hen t h e e a s t e r n h i l l s a r e d r y , t h e wind i s v /es t . " '

Ra;k n i n k o ' o - nan ' h u n t i n g t i n e '

295. Nul v / a r a l waup-n ko;v/ i ; - r - k a w \ /un-an l o n o - n a r p u ; n - u . pn nn nn nn a l d i vbs cs ni-.i dn nn e r

' i t g r a s s wanpan nose g o - t o - e a s t l i e - n a k e f o r - g o o d v/ ind ' / S - 0 PA P M -S / ^ "The v/ind nakes t h e wanpan g r a s s l i e dov/n e a s t a r d s f o r g o o d . "

Ra;k k a ; l - f c u r j ' t i n e e a r s c o l d ' Jnne.

296 . Pupur i : - l - u v / - a n k u r j . . . pupur po rk k u r j . . a n e l d i a j nn a j a j

' c o l d f r o n - w e s t c h i l l y ' ' c o l d b i g c h i l l y ' / S FA / S FA / "The w e s t e r n b l a s t i s c o l d . " "South g a l e i s c o l d . "

476

297. Pupur-ak-n-an kurja; pa:l pork rint-r ninj park - n. nn vb nf lo aj nn aj vb tn av vb dz

'cold leav-g-in cold fires big burn-do truly clow-v/ish' /T PA / 0 F / M F / "In v/inter it's chilly; big fires are burnt and really blaze.''

298. Pupur yik-m.-an, nin ko'o - np.n palir la: - rann - r. nn vbs nf lo nn vb fu nn vbs tn 'cold blow-g-in aninals spear-will plains dry - out-do'

/T O P / F / "In t h e w i n t e r , a n i n a l s are hunted and p l a i n s d r i ed o u t . "

299. / / a r a l wanp-n p a : l a r p i : n l - i r pupur y i k - n - a n . nn nn nn vb pc nn vbs nf lo

' g rass v/ar.pan f lowers grov/-did cold b l o w - i n g - i n ' /S P T /

"V/aupan flowers grow on the g rass i n the cold w i n t e r . "

300. Waral riin kolon r i n t - np,n (n^)ul r a ; k nin_ ko 'o - n_an. nn nn nn vbs fu pn nn nn vbs fu

' g r a s s an ina l wallaby burn-v / i l l he t i n e an ina l s s p e a r - v / i l l ' / L 0 P S T /

" H e ' l l be burning out v /a l labios i n the hunt ing t i n e . "

Kurj-n-n ' g e t t i n g c o l d e r ' Ju ly aj4-vbz4-nf

' c o l d - i n g '

301. May qurp , nay p a ; r pul-nun nu:qk - r r a : k k a : l - k u r j . nn nn nn nn pn ob vbs t n nn nn aj

'food l i l y food l i l y then-2 ea t - do t i n o ears c o l d ' /O F T /

"Different spec ies of water l i l y a r e ea ten during w i n t e r . "

302. Wara l jQuni r i n t - r n u l - a - l a n pok-on k e r p - r - u l ( q ) u : l . nn a j vb t n av a j vb t n pn av

' g r a s s c l e a n b u r n - d o f o r - g o o d none f i n i s h - d i d i t l a t e r ' /O PA P M /pA P S T _ / "He b u r n s t h e g r a s s c l e a n f o r good and none i s l e f t l a t e r . "

303 . . . . k o r n u n k e r p . . . w o l o r n pok-on . . . v / a r a l l a ; - q u n i . nn vbs hh a j nn a j

' s t e r n s f i n i s h ' » v / a t e r - h o l e s n o n e ' ' g r a s s c l e a n ' / S P / / S PA / / S PA / "no n o r e s q u a l l s " " v / a t o r h o l e s d r y " " g r a s s i s c l e a n "

T a : - q u n i •c1e a n ' Angus t

304 . W a r a l p a n p a r - n l a : - l a l - r ; v / a r a l l o ; n p - ow] nn nn l o r d vbs t n nn nn ox

' g r a s s p l a i n s - o n b u r n - i n g - i s g r a s s snoke - a h o y ' / S (L) P " / S ( P A ) E / "The g r a s s i s b u r n i n g on t h e open p l a i n ; s c r u b smoke e h ] "

477

305. Day r a ; k k a : r n a : - n a n ; me ; r l o : n p - o n . pn nn ng r d vbs nn nns l o ' I p l a c e no t s e e - i n g eyes snoke - i n '

/ S O P / S PA / " I c a n ' t s e c a n y t h i n g anyv/hero w i t h snoke i n ny eyes ,

306. T_o:np-o qan n e ; r p a : l - r ; n e ; r qok - a ;k v/un. nns e r pn nn vb t n nn nns pp vbs

' snoke ne eyes b i t e - d o e s eyes w a t e r - h a v i n g s t a y ' / s o P / S FA P /

"Snoke i r r i t a t e s ny e y e s ; ny eyes a r e v / a t e r i n g . "

307, Yu: - kaw v/un r a : k panpa r - n ; l a n u r kanp n a : l - n . av d i vbs nn nn l o nn nn vbs nf ' f a r - e a s t s t a y p l a c e p l a i n s - i n f e e t t r a c k s s e e - i n g '

/ L P L / 0 » ^ / "S tayed f a r i n l a n d t o t h e e a s t and sav/ t r a c k s t h e r e . "

Ra:k p a : - p a l ' t i n e h o t ' S^Ete^^e^

308. Ra:k k a ; l - k u r j kana k e r p - r ; qay p a : - p a t r a n j - r . nn nn a j as vb t n pn r d a j s vbs t n

' t i n e e a r s c o l d h a s f i n i s h - d i d I h o t - h o t junp - d o ' /S P / S PA P /

"The w i n t e r h a s f i n i s h e d ; I ' n g e t t i n g h o t t e r now."

309. Yo; r wu;np kana p a : - p a l r a n j - r ; qay k u r j a k a : r - p . av qn as rd a j s vbs t n pn a j ng en

'nov/ ? has h o t - h o t j u n p - d i d I c o l d n o t - t o o ' /T Nt P - PA -P / S FA P E /

" I s n ' t i t g e t t i n g h o t t e r t o d a y ? I ' n no t c o l d a t a l l . "

Ra:k nay y u l u - kn Oc tober

310, May yulu - kn kana yonpar - r ; ak kor - e ya : - n q a l . nn nn er as vbs pc nr d i a l vb fu pn

' f r u i t apple has produce-did l e t o u t s i d e - t o g o - w i l l we-2'^ /O S ' P / P - L -P S / "The bush-apple has produced fruit; let's go outside us two."

311. Ra;k nay yulu-kn yo:r-l; nay yulu wa;r m.u:qk - n. nn nn nn lo av fo nn nn av vbs dz

•tine fruit-apple-in today-the fruit apple badly eat-wish' /FA ' S E / O M P /

f (1. "In bush-apple tine the now] I'n dying to eat apples.

312, Day ninj-la;w pa: - pal; kor - e rirp kil - a;l- r - n. pn nn rd ajs di al vbs n n s lo 'I body hot-hot outside-to energe hot-sunshine-in' /S PA / L P L / "My body's feeling hot; I'n going out into the hot sunshine."

478

Ra:k pa:-pal 'tine hot' Novem.ber

313. May qay ak la:-lunp - n,an nay yulu yuk - un. nn pn nr vbs fu nn nn nn ol

'fruit I let t h r 0 v/ - will fruit apple tree-fron' /O- S P -0 L / "I v/o.nt to throw down apples fron the bush-apple trees."

314. Day naka ni:n porm.pur - n; ra;k ul-p pa: - pal. pn av vb nn lo nn dn rd ajs » I here stay house-in place that hot-hot' /S L P L / S PA /

"I'm staying here in the house; that place is hot."

315. May yulu qa:lir v/un; lono-nar ra:k pa: - pal ranj-r. nn nn as vbs nn dn nn rd ajs vbs tn 'fruit apple still stays for-good tine hot-hot jmap-doos' /S P / M S (PA) F / "Bush apples are still there; but the heat's here for good]'

12.3.2. Lunar phases

Lunar terminology derives almost entirely from coPiments

on t he size, shape and position of the noon. Miscellaneous as the

expressions are, the follov/ing exanples successively illustrate the

continuun of the cycle fron new to full noon and at the sane tine,

highlight the idiorLatic phraseology:

(i) Phases

316, ,.. kapir ... kapirpu:kan „., kapir ko:w-kanl-in ... nn nn nn ol

'noon edge-scratch-fron' Hd 4- Modifier

"thinnest crescent"

317. Kapir kana pi:nl - ir; kapir naqir qanal yo:r. nn as vbs pc nn av aj av 'noon has grov/-did noon rather large today'

/S P / S PA T / "The noon has v/axed; the noon is rather big now."

318. Kapir yo:r penpan; kapir kana penpan wene - y - r. nn av aj nn as aj vb / pc 'noon today wide m.oon has wide becone - did'

/S T- PA / S P PA P / "The noon today is gibbous; the noon has grov/n big."'

k a p i r nn

' n o o n '

k a p i r i )u:kan nn a j

' noon nev/ ' Hd + Md

" t h e nev/ noon"

479

319. Kapir ne:r-puqk qanal; kapir ne:r nin-in. nn nn nn aj nn nn aj lo 'noon eye-brow large' 'noon eye - good-in'

/S BA / S PA / or: /S PA / S PA /

"The circle of the noon is big; completely round."

320. Puq nu;nl - n,an, kanpa nu:nl-r qui i:-v/al kapir nn vbs fu av vb tn cn dr nn 'sun dive - v/ill before dive-did and this-v/ay noon /S P / T P /On P- S "The sun v/ill set and goes down first and the noon cones

i:-law-un rirp-iian. V52l. Kapir -., penpan 'ninj... el cp vb fu nn aj av cone-east energe-v/ill' 'noon wide very' Ic ¥ / / S PA / up fron out cf the east." "It's gone third quarter."

322. Kapir kana ko:w - ri:q - a pal - ar . nn as nn nn ns vbs pc 'noon has nose - leaf-with bite-did'

/S P FA F / "It's really full noon now."

323. Yo;r kana nant wene-y-r; kapir kana v/a:r-(a)m - r. av as aj vb tn nn as aj ajz pc

'now has sm-all become-did noon has v/an - ed ' /T F- PA -P / S P /

"Nov/ the noon has becone snaller; it has waned."

The expressions /kapir pu;kan/ •noon-nev/' and /v/onp-r/

'die-did' are not considered to be genuinely vernacular, but only

borrowed terninology fr-m European speakers. General es anples,

describing the behaviour rather than the size of the noon, are;

(ii) General description

324. Kapir i: - kop, i: - kaw, qok la; - kan, nn lo di av di nn nn di 'noon there-down there-east water high-up'

/ S L PA / "With the moon right dov/n oast, it's full tide."

325. Kanpa nurnt-urnt-ur; qu;l kapir rirp - nan, av av av nn vb fu 'first night - time later moon em-orge-v/ill

/T FA / T S P / "First it's darkness; later the m.oon v/ill rise.

48C

qui r a : k park - ii^an, i : - v/al kana r i r p - n a t . cn nn vb fu dr as vb ps

and ea r th i l l u n i n e - w i l l this-v/ay has emerge-did ' /Cn 0 P / P /

md v/ i l l i l lumine t h e e a r t h , and has cone out nov/.'' a]

326. Peln yu:v/ ya; - t kapir - nr rirp - ir . pn av vbs pc nn In vb pc

•they av/ay go - did noon - just energe-did' /S L P T /

/S P / "They went off when the noon had just cone out."

327. Kapir qa;lir; yup kana nu:nl - nan. Kana nu:nl-ir i;r-kuv/. nn as as as vbs fu as vbs pc al di

'noon still soon now set - will has set-did W-wards' /S P / P / P L / "It's still moonlight; soon go down; it's gone, westward."'

328. Du:l qay qat-a ya: - t kapir kana m-u:nl - ir . av pn nn da vbs pc nn as vbs pc

'later I fish-ing go-did moon has set - did' /T S P U P T /

/S F / "Later on, I went fishing when the moon had gone down."

12.3.3 Tidal novenents

Precise description of tides depends on contrasting pairs,

of variables; low/high, westward/beachv/ard, day/ night, shallow/-

decp, full-tide/ dry ground, heavy/light, big/snail, bad/good and

to/fron the western side of Cape York peninsula. False tides are

those v/hich fail to cone right in; they are "bad", turning back un

expectedly to leave the beach and foreshore exposed.

Renembering that the coastline cf the Edv/ard River local

ity runs alnost exactly north and south with sea to tho v/est and

land to the oast, one sees this fact nirrored in the expressions

related to the neasurenent of the coastal waters. They fall into

the following categories: CHART 51

j D a y

j Night

JEither

if

w

H

4-

4-

4-

( 1 >

4-

4-

4-

!

i

i;

4-

4r

4f

\

\

1

481

1, Lev/ tides

These include phrases stressing the western location of

the tidal waters or the dry state of the foreshore and optionally

the direction of tidal movement:

(i) By day

329. Mi:q qok y u : - k u w v n i n ; qay y a : - n r a ; k p o t - e . nn n n av d i vbs pn vb p r nn a j l o

'dayli/.;-ht w a t e r f a r - w e s t i s I g o - w i l l ground dry - i n ' / T ' S L P / S P L /

"By day t h e v/ator s t a y s out v / e s t ; I v; a l k cn d ry g r o u n d . "

330. May m a n t - a n qok m a n t - a n , qok k i j i r n i : q , k o r n u n - a : r - i n . nn a j l o nn a j l o nn a j nn nn np

' food s n a i l i n v /a te r s n a i l w a t e r d ry d a y l i g h t s t o r n s - l a c k g - i n ' / I PA T PA / " I n A p r i l d u r i n g t h e d r y , i t ' s lev/ v /a ter by d a y , l a c k i n g s t e r n s . "

331 . Dok i : - r - k u w n i ' i - r q e r q k - e r q k - a n nay n a n t - a n . nn a l d i vb pc av nn a j l o

' v /a te r P 'o- to-v/est t a k e - d i d e a r l y - n o r n i n g food s m a l l i n ' /O L^ P T T / " In A p r i l , t h e w a t e r i s t a k e n f a r westv/ards a f t e r s u n - u p . " '

332 . Mi ;q qok y a : - r a y a : - t . nn nn d r vbs pc

' d a y l i g h t w a t e r oMay g o - d i d ' / T S L P /

"Dur ing d a y l i g h t h o u r s t h e v /a te r r e c e d e d . "

( i i ) By n i g h t

3 3 3 . Dok n u r n t - u r n t - u r y u ; - kuw - n r - p ( y a ; - t j . nn av av d i Im em vb

•v/ater by n i g h t f a r v / e s t - j u s t - t o o g o ' / S T L P /

"The t i d e by n i g h t j u s t v/ent out f a r v / e s t w a r d . "

334. Dok p i ; p - i r ; k a ; r - p y a : - n p i ; p - i r ; qok yu;w kana m i ' i - r . nn nn I n ng en vb p r nn In nn av as vbs pc

' w a t e r n u d - j u s t n o t - t o o go -do n u d - j u s t w a t e r av/oiy has t a k e - d i d ' /S PA / P R / 0 L P /

"The w a t e r ' s j u s t rmd; c a n ' t go f o r nud ; \ - / a t e r ' s t a k e n away back."

335. 336. Dur i i . t -u rn t -u r qok y a ; - r a l e ; r k . Dok n u r n t - u r n t - u r y a ; - r a y a ; - t .

av nn dr vb nn av dr vb pc 'by n i g h t w a t e r av/ay r e t u r n s ' ' v / a t e r by n i g h t av/ay go-d id '^

/T S L P / S T L P / "By night the tide went away back." "The tide by night went out."

482

337. Dok qurnt-urnt-ur v/u:mp okun ya; - n i:-l-uw-an. nn av qm as vb fu el di

'v/ater by night ? naybe cone-will fron-west' /S T " Nt P M /

"Don't you reckon the night t ide v/ill cone in fron tho west?"

( i i i ) By day or by night

338. Dok yu:-kuv/; qok wa:r ya:-n i;-l-uw-an . nn av di nn aj vb fu el di

' t ide far-west v/ater bad cone-will fron west' /S FA / S P L / "The t ide is out west; a false t ide will cone fronW."

339. Dok ya:-ra l e : r k ; qok nant-an ya: - t i ; - l -uw-an. nn dr vb nn aj vb pc el di

'water av/ay returns v/ater snai l cone-did fron-west' /S L P / S P L / "The sea went away back; a noagre t ide cane from the v/est.

340. Duiian 3ru:-kuw; qok p o t - p o t ; qok y a : - r a y a ; - t . nn av d i nn a j s r d nn d r a l vbs pc ' s e a f a r - w e s t v /a te r d r y - d r y w a t e r av/o.y g o - d i d '

/S PA / S PA / S L F / "The t i d e ' s av/ay o u t ; t h e b e a c h i s d r y ; t h e t i d e ' s r i g h t o u t . "

341, Dal i;-r-kuw ya: - r ra:k pot-e; re;npe-n,ar i:-kuv/ i : . pn al di vbs mr nn aj lo vbs nr lo di av

•we-2 go-to-W go-nust place dry-in descend-nust west there ' /S L ' F L / P L /

"You and I nust go out v/est on dry beach; nust go down west,"

342, Dok wa:r - aqn ka:r p a : l - r ; qat pok - on . nn aj lo ng vbs tn nn aj

'water bad - in not bite-do fish none' /L-T P / S PA /

"In the false tide, the fishes don't bite; no fish]"'

2. High tides

These are either of high level or very high, heavy or

deep, and in novenent either coning or returning to the observer:

( i ) By day 344 . Dok l a : w - kan k a n j i l p e r p - a r ,

nn nn d i nn vb pc ' w a t e r n o u t h - h i g h s h e l l c o v e r - d i d ' / S 0 F /

"The h i g h t i d e c o v e r e d up t h e s h e l l . "

345. Mi:q qok l a : w - kan y a : - n i : - l - u w - a n ; qok p i ; p - i r . nn nn nn d i vbs p r e l d i nn nn lui

' day v /a te r h i g h - t i d e c o n e - d o e s f r o n - v / e s t v /a te r r i u d - j u s t ' / T S P L / S PA / "By day t h e h i g h t i d e i s r u n n i n g from t h e wes t and u u d d y . "

483

346, Dok i:-l-uv/-an pal ya; - n ra :k ni :q . nn el di dr vb fu nn nn

' t i d e fron-west this-v/ay cone-v/ill t ime-dayl ight ' / s F T / "The western tide v/ill come in during the daylight."

347. Dok wal ya; - n; qok kana ri:j - r. nn dr vb pr nn as vb tn •water c-mes - d, es water has run - does' /S P / S P /

"The tide^s coming in; it's begun to run this v/ay."

(ii) By night

3 4 8 . Dok l a ; v / - k a n q u r n t - u r n t - u r p a l i : - l - u v / - a n y a ; n , nn nn d i av d r e l d i vbs

"wate r h i g h by n i g h t t h i s - v / a y fron-V/ c o n e s ' / S T P - L -P /

"The h i g h t i d e i s coming i n t h i s v/ay from t h e w e s t . "

349. Dok l a : ( w ) - kan k a p i r i : - k o p i : - kaw qok l a : v / - k a n . nn nn d i nn l o d i l o d i nn nn d i

'v /a te r h i g h - t i d e moon t h e r e - d o w n e a s t t i d e h i g h ' / S PA / T S PA / "The t i d e i s h i g h w i t h t h e noon down e a s t t h e r e ; t i d e ' s h i g h . "

350 . Dok n u r n t - u r n t - u r (qok) lp.;w - k a n . nn av nn nn d i

'xvater b y - n i g h t w a t e r h i g h - t i d e • / S T PA / "The t i d e by n i g h t i s h i g h . "

55.1, D u r n t - u r n t - u r qok i : - w a l l e : r k ; qok y a ; - n i : - v / a l , av nn dr vb nn vb p r d r

' by n i g h t w a t e r t h i s - w a y r e t u r n s w a t e r c o n e - d o e s h e r e '

/T S P / S P / "By night, the tide is coning back in; coning this way."

(iii) ByTday or by night

352, Dok la:w-kan runp-un wun-nat. nn nn di nn on vbs ps

'v/ater high-tide beach-on lie-did' / S L P /

"The hightide lay over the beach sand."

353. Dok kana ya:-t; qok pij - ar. nn as vb pc nn vbs pc 'water has ccno-did v/ater esplodo-did' /S F / S F / "The tide has cone in v/ith bursting rollers,"

354. Dok i;-wal ya:-n; qok nin; qok la;w nunjun. nn dr vbs pr nn aj nn nn^ " i 'water this-way come-s water good high-tide-heavy

/ S P / PA / PA ^ . n „ / "The tide's coning in well; it's a heavy tide. '

484

355. Dok ku:np-un ninj-nu:nl-ir (n)ul; qok in'n-ul - 1, ku;np. nn aj lo vbs pc pn nn dn pn fo aj •v/ater deep-in bathe - did he water this—the deep'

/L F S / S FA / "He's bathing in deep v/ater; this water is deep here,"

336, Dok i;-v/al le:rk; qok naqunp la:w - munjun mi'i - r. nn dr vbs nn av nn aj vb pc

•water this-way return v/ater there heavy-tide take-did* /S P / S PA P / "The tide's coming back in again; the tide's a heavy one."

357. Mut pir-pif v/al naqunp; qok nut nin , nn ajs rd nn av nn nn aj 'waves snooth level there v/ater waves good'

/ S FA L / S FA / "The waves are very caln there; the v/ater's snooth,"

3. Very high tides

These require the addition of only one word nainly, the

adverb of degree /ninj/ 'very', to indicate the extrene degree; but

exclanation or reference to sandhills or bigness of the tide serve

to show 'springtides'.

(i) By day

358. Woy, ra:k ulp ku:np; ni:q qok la:v/ - kan ninj. ex nn dn aj nn nn nn di av

'Hey place that deep daylight v/ater hightide very' /In S FA " / T S FA / "Hey, that water's deep; by day tide's very high,"

359. Mi:q qok la:w - nunjun ninj; qok ulp ku:np , nn nn nn aj av nn dn aj

'day water high-heavy very water that deep' /T S PA / S PA / "That's a real heavy tide by day; that water's deep."

(ii) By night

360. Dok nurnt-urnt-ur la:w - nunjun ninj . nn av nn aj av 'v/ater by - night tide - heavy very'

/s (T) FA / "The tide by night is extrenely heavy."

3 6 1 . Dok u l p k u : n p ; n u r n t - u r n t - u r qok l a : w - k a n n i n j . nn dn a j av n n nn d i av

' w a t e r t h a t deep by n i g h t v /a t e r h i g h - t i d e v e r y ' / S FA / T S PA /

"That w a t e r ' s d e e p ; t h e n i g h t t i d e i s v e r y h i g h , "

485

(iii) By day or by night

562. Dok in'n-ul-1 ku:np minj; qok la;v/ - kan m.inj. nn dm pn fo aj av nn nn di av 'v/ater this - the deep very v/ater high-tide, very' /S PA / S PA / "This water's very deep; the tide is very high."

363. Dok la;w-m-unjun minj; qok puqk qamal; qok pork, nn nn aj av nn nn aj nn aj 'v/ater tide-heavy very water knee big water big' /S FA / S PA / S PA / "The tide is very high; the, waves are huge; surf's big."

364. Dok la;w-kan ra;k nul-in; qunan qanal ya:-t i:-l-uv/-an. nn nn di nn nn lo nn aj vb pc el di 'v/ater high-tide place ridge-on sea big cone-did fron-v/est' /S PA / S P L / "The hightide is on the dunes; a big sea cones fron the west."

4r. General expressions for v/ater surfaces

363. Dok kana pirnp-in-ir; yuk lono kal - al . nn as vb ca pc nn nn vbs rd 'v/ater has sv/ell-nake-did tree one carry-ing' /S P / 0 P /

"The water has risen higher; one tree is being floated."

366. Dul nul Kot - rrbr ra:k pot-pot v/an - ir Ra;kj cn pn na er nn ajs? rd vbs pc nn

'and he G o d ground dry-dry call-did Earth' /in S O P FA /

"And God called the dry land earth;

qui nul qok puqk - le;rk-an-ir v/an - ir qunan, cn pn nn nn vbs cs pc vbs pc nn 'and he v/ater knee- return - did call-did ocean'

/Cn S 0 P PA / and He called the gathered-together waters Sea."'

367. Nul ya: - ra yanj - n qok la:w - an. pn dr al vbs nf nn nn lo-al •he away go-ing-v/as water-shore-on' S F L /

"He was going off along the beach of the lake.

368. Pu:n pork i:-wal ya: - t ko:kon-n qui la:w-al - ak nn aj dr vb pc nn lo cn nn lo

'wind big this-way cone-did lake-on and boat-in /S P L / Cn L "A gale came to the lake and waves filled up the boat ...

486

qok l a : k - i r ; qok - e l wal k u : q k - n ; q u : l qene p e l n nn vb pc nn er d r vbs nf av qn pn

•wa te r f i l l - d i d v /a ter cone f l o o d - i n g l a t e r why t h e y S P / S P / T N t S w i t h w a t e r ; t h e waves d r e n c h e d t h e n and t h e y v/ere i n

t a : w - n u : n t - n a n ? Dunan p o r k - n t r p e l n - (n,)an k u ; q k - n . nn vb fu nn a j e r pn ob vbs nf

n o u t h - d i v e - w i l l s e a b i g t h e n d r e n c h - i n g ' p / S 0 F

danger of s i n k i n g . A b i g s e a d renched t h e n . "

369. T_ur r a n j - i r q a t q o k - e n ; n u l qok - e l n n u : n l - i r . on vb pc nn nn e l pn nn a l vbs pc

' up junp - d i d f i s h v /a t e r - f rom i t v / a t e r - i n t o d i v e - d i d ' / p S L / S L P / "Up jumped a f i s h from t h e v / a t e r ; he d ived i n t o t h e s e a . "

370. Nul l o q k u n - ( k ) e ' e - r qok qunan p a l - kop qok kormun-nan . pn nn vbs pc nn nn l o d i nn nn e l

' he p i e c e s c u t - d i d w a t e r ocean dov/n- there w a t e r c loud- f ron ' / S P 0 M / "He d i v i d e d t h e oceans belov/ f r o n t h e w a t e r vapour above . " '

371 . Ak l o q k u n - ( k ) e ' e - r v/erqka qok y a : - r a qok - p . n r nn vbs ao av nn dr a l nn en

' l e t p i e c e s c l u t - d o be tween v/ater away-go v / a t e r - t o o ' / p M • /

"Let t h e w a t e r s be d i v i d e d f r o n t h e w a t e r s . "

372. Yuk l a ; - l o : n p u - n qok p e r p e l - en i : - r, - k a n nn nn e r nn a j l o dr d i

' t h i n g s p e r n - v/hale w a t e r c l e a r - i n go-up-v /ards S L P "The s p e r n - w h a l e f l o a t e d up i n t h e c l e a r w a t e r and

p i r n p - r qok l a : w - a l u n p - r . vb t n nn nn ns vbs t n

f l o a t - d i d w a t e r n o u t h - w i t h b l o v / - d i d ' / 0 Ns P /

s q u i r t e d w a t e r v/ i th i t s ' nou th t u.

12.4 Daily clock tine

Throughout the continuun of daily tine, estination is con

fined alnost entirely to connents on the sun's progress, visible

or invisible. Terninology is as follov/s, onitting punctuation:

CHART 52.

q u r n l - u r n l - u r q u r n t - q u r n l - u r n l - u r r t r t dn r t r t r t dn

' d a r k n e s s , n i g h t ' " b e f o r e da^vn, 3 - 5 an"

487

r a : k I p q k - o - n nn nn l o

" t i n e h a l f w a y - a t ' Cl 4- Hd

"near dav/n; a l l a s l e e p "

puq yup kana l e r p r v/unp-n,an nn as as nn vb fu ' s u n soon now g l a r e p u t - w i l l /S P - 0 ~P / "sun v / i l l soon b l a z e out" '

r a ; k kana p a t p - r ; nay n u ; q k - r i a n j - n , nn as vb t n nn vbs fu dz

' p l a c e h a s c a n p - d i d I e a t - w i l l - v / i s H / s p / O P / "It's daytine; oh for breakfast]"'

qerqlr - erqk - an rt rt dn "early norning''''

puq kana rirp - ir i:-l-aw-un nn as vb pc el di

ra;k nan kana Ian - n at 'sun has energe-did fron-east' nn nn as vbs ps /S- P L / 'place chest has stand-did' "the sun's up in the east" /S P / " b e f o r e da^/n, b r i g h t e r , 5 an" puq kana p a j - a r

nn as vbs pc :k k a n - n p a t - a l - e / p a : l - e - y - r ' s u n h a s r i s e - d i d '

nn ns vbs r d r x / S P / •p laao b l o o d - w i t h b i t e - s e l f - i n g ' " s u n ' s p r e t t y h o t now" /S Ns F /

puq kana n a t - a r nn as vbs pc ' s u n h a s s t i c k - d i d ' /S F / "sun's fixed higher now, 8 an"

r a nn

"red dav/n i s c o n i n g . n

puq kana l e r p r wunp - a r nn as nn vb pe ' sun has g l a r e p u t - d i d ' S P - 0 -P / " s u n ' s b l a z i n g out nov/"

r a : k kana p a t p - i r nn as vb pc

' p l a c e has s l e e p - d i d ' /S P /

"day has dav/ned"

puq kana r i r p - i r ; r a ; k n i : q nn as vb pc nn nn

puq l o q k - o - n nn nn 1o "sun h a l f v / a y - a t ' / S PA. /

" s u n ' s ha l fway u p , 10 an"

puq i : - r - kaw - an nn a l d i dn ' s u n g o - t o e a s t ' / S PA /

' s un has e n e r g e - d i d t i n e l i g h t ' " s u n ' s n o v i n g i n eas t " -/S P / PA / " s u n ' s u p , i t ' s d a y t i n e " ' P^D p u t p a n

nn av puq i:-kav/; puq paj - n.an 'sun on-top

nn lo di nn vb fu / „ , ^ ^ , n 'sun east sun rise-will' ' ^^'^ on top, noon /S 'A / S / " s u n ' s i n t h e o a s t , h e a t i n g up'^' ^^'^ l o q k u n werqka

nn nn av • t i n e p o r t i o n be tv /een ' Cl 4- "Hd

Md

puq i : - l - a w - u n r i r p - r nn e l d i vbs t n •sun c o n e - f r o n e a s t e n e r g e - d o ' /S L P " s u n ' s r i s i n g i n t h e e a s t " '

qerqk - e rqk - e r q k - an r t r t r t dn

' d a r k da rk d a r k ' " e a r l y n o r n i n g , 6 an"

Hd + I " p e r i o d betv/een"'

ra:k loqkun lil nn nn aj

'tine portion again' Cl 4- Hd.

Hd + Md "another day"'

488

ra:k lorkor" nn aj 'tine long' Hd 4- Md "a long tine"

puq i; -r -kuv/- an nn al di 'sun go-to-v/ost" /S PA / "sun's moving west; 1-3 pn"

yup - yup as as 'soon-soon'

av "later on; 3-4 pn"

qu:l (n.)aq - un av pn da 'later hin - to'

ax 4- _r_e re 4- axis "after that"

i;-r-kuw puq nu:nl - n_an al di nn vb fu 'go-to-west sun set-will' /L S F / "sun's about to set in the v/est"'

puq qa:lir; yup kana nu:nl;^an nn as as as vb fu 'sun still soon nov/ set-v/ill'

/S P / (T) P / "still sone sunshine; set soon"'

puq i : -r-kuw-nn a l d i "sun g o - t o - w e s t ' /S PA /

puq kana kun - a n i : n - r nn as nn lo vb t n ' sun now b o t t o n - a t s i t - d o '

"sun 's going down v/ost; 3-4 pn" / s P - L -P / "'Sun's going to go dov/n nov/''''

n in j - q u ; l av av

' t r u l y l a t e r ' av

"'afternoon, evening"

qu : l ~. q u ; l - q u l av av rd

' l a t e r l a t e r " / T /

" l a t e r , nuch l a t e r "

puq - louq - ul - u-nn nn dn lo ' sun - sun' rt 4- rt 4- dn

ne:r - a qerqka nn 10 nn 'eye. - at dark'

/ L S / "just before dark, dusk"-

ra:k ne:r qu:l nn nn a,y

' t i n e eye l a t e r ' ' Hd_ t^ l lc i

Cl +" " Hd " j u s t b e f o r e d a r k , l a t e r a f t e r n o o n " '

r a : k n e : r q e r q k a - n nn nn nn l o

" in t h e day , d u r i n g s u n l i g h t " ' ' t i n e eye d a r k - i n ' /S PA /

puq n o ; r - l e r n p - an Hd 4- Md nn nn a j l o " g e t t i n g r e a l l y d a r k nov/"' ' sun eye - sou r - i n ' / s o F / puq kana nusir t - i r " d a z z l i n g a f t e r n o o n s u n ; 2-4 pri" nn as vb po

' s u n h a s s e t - d i d ' n i ; q - n i q - ur '

nn rd dn ' l i g h t - l i g h t ' r t 4- r t -h dn

I ' r l .uring day l i gh t "

puq nu;nt_-r - n nn vb t n lo 'sun s e t -do - i n ' /S P /

in the s u n s e t ; 5 pn"

/S P / "'sun's gone dov/n now"'

ra;k kor m.i :r - i nn 'di nn pv

'tine beyond red-got' /S FA / "red sunset, gloaning"

II',-

489

ra;k kana qerqka lak - nan nn as nn vb fu 'tine has dark loave-will'

/p- 0 P / Hd 4- Md

"darkness has s e t t l e d dov/n"

ku;k y ik - n - an nn vbs nf lo

'voice s p e a k - i n g - a t ' /S.. P /

axis 4- re. "novie - t i n e , 8 pn"'

r a : k qu rn l -u r i r t -u r nil r t rd dn 'tine darkness' Hd 4- Md "night tine, darkness"'

v/ut - qu; 1 - n - an vb av vbz cs 'sleep-later - nake' rt 4- r t 4- dn "nid-night sleepiness"

ra;k loqkun werqka nn nn av 'tine portion between' Cl + Hd 4- Md "halfway through the night"'

ra;k ne;r patp - o,tp - r - n nn nn vbs ro. tn lo 'tine eye canp-ing-do - in

/S_, F._ ... _ , / Hd + Md

axis 4- re "till dav/n; up till waking"'

Examples

373. Kana lowol; wut v/un - nar qurnl-urnl-ur. as vbs vb vb nr av 'has play sleep lie - nust darkness"

/P / F /FA / "Play's ended; nust sleep now; it's dark] "'

374.

Dul nul ra:k qurnl-quTttt-urnt--ur, ratk ijurni-urnt-ur qa;lir rirk-r. cn pn nn a// nn av as vbs tn^ 'and he tine 3 to 4 an tine darkness still rise-did /in S T (PA) P "And he got: up during the night while it was still quite dark.'

/

375. Ra:k l o q k o - n nul p ina r -wun - n . nn nn pn aj vbs nf

H i n e ha l f -v /ay- in he av/ake l y - i n g - w a s ' /T S PA P / "Halfway through the n i g h t , he l ay awake."'

376. Ra:k kana p a t p - i r ; puq kana paj - ar qanp-u l - qun, nn as vb pc nn as vb pc pn da

'p lace has canp-did sun has r i s e - d i d us - on' /S P / S P L - Be /

"Day has dawned and t h e sun has begun to shine on u s . " '

377. Fein qe rqk-e rqk-e rqk - an pa tp - n a t . pn nn rd rd dn vb ps

' t hey d a r k n e s s - darkness canp - d i d ' / S T F /

"They broke cam.p about daybreak . "

490

378. Naka oqkor pe ln -an patp - i n ' 379. Ra:k kana pa tp - r . an ng mr pn ob vb cs nn as vbs t n

' he re d o n ' t them camp-cause' 'day has canp - d i d ' /L P- 0 -P / S P /

"Don't get then t o canp he re ] " ' "Day has dawned."'

380. Day qerqk-e rqk-an pik l e : r q - a r . 381 . Puq-nj paj - a r , p n av nn vbs pc nn In vb pc

' I e a r l y - n o r n pig k i l l - d id ' ' s u n - j u s t r i s e - d i ' / S T ' O P / S F /

" I shot a p ig i n the e a r l y norning," ' "Sun b lazed dov/n."

382. Ra;k loqkun werqka nul yu:w y a : - t , nn nn av pn av vbs pc

' t i n e p o r t i o n between he away go - d i d ' /T S L P /

"In the n i d d l e of the n igh t he went away."

383. Day qerqk-erqk-an p ik l e ; r q - a r . 384. Puq i:-m-kuw n u : n t - n a n . pn av nn vb pc nn a l d i vbs fu ' I ear ly-morning p ig s h o o t - d i d ' ' sun go-v/est s e t - w i l l '

/ S T ' O F / /S- L P / "I shot a p ig i n the ea r ly n o r n i n g . " " S u n ' l l s e t i n w e s t . "

383. Puq i : - l - a w - u n kana r i r p - n.an. nn e l d i as vb fu ' sun cone-fron-E now e n e r g e - w i l l '

/ S L P / "The s u n ' s going to appear fron the e a s t . "

386. Nul qan qerqk-e rqk-an n ,a ; l - nat puq i ; - r - k a w - a n . pn pn av vb ps nn a l d i

' he ne e a r l y - n o r n i n g see -d id sun g o - t o - e a s t ' /S 0 E P T / ^ "He spo t t ed ne i n the e a r l y norning v/ith sun eastv/ards .

387. Pe ln puq putpan .yu:w y a ; - t . pn nn av av vbs pc

' t h e y sun on-top av/ay g o - d i d ' / S T L P /

"They v/ent off v/ith the sun h igh u p , "

388. Ra;k loqkun l i l nip y a : - r a ya ; - t . nn nn aj pn dr vbs pc

" t i ne p o r t i o n another you-2 away g o - d i d ' / T S L P /

"Another t i n e , you two v/ent r i g h t av/ay."'

389. Day puq n e ; r - l e r n p - a n ak y a : - n n i ^ l a t p a r wa: r l e : r q - n . pn nn nn aj lo nr vb fu nn nn aj vb ^dz ' I sun eyes d a z z l e - i n l e t go goanna badly k i l l - w i s h '

/S T F Pu / "Between 2 and 4pn l e t ne go; I badly w a n t t o k l l l a goanna ."

491

390. Nunt k a : l - a ; l - i j ' yup-up] ' 3 9 1 . Nunt qan yup-yup n u : k - r pn nn vbs u r av pn pn av vb

'you e a r s - b u r n - g o l a t e r ' ' you ne l a t e r l o v e - d o / S F T / S Q f f P /

"You m.ust b e g i n t o b e l i e v e soon]"- "You n u s t alv/ays l o v e m.e

y o r p - n r ~ p wak - r r a ; k q u : l yup qay y a : - n k u ; l a m - n , av em. vb t n nn av as pn vb t n nn l o

always f o l l o w - d o t i m e l a t e r soon I go - do t r a c k - o n ' M P T ( n b / S- F L ) /

and eve r f o l l o v / ne d u r i n g t h e t i n e s I walk on t h e pathv/ay." '

392. Puq i : - r - k u w kana n u : n l - r . 3:93. Puq kana k u n - a n i ; n - r . nn a l d i as vb t n nn as nn l o vb t n

' s u n g o - t o - v / e s t h a s s e t - d i d ' ' s u n h a s b o t t o n - a t s i t ' /S L P / / S P - L - P /

"The s u n ' s s e t i n t h e wes t . " - "The s u n ' s r i g h t down l o w . "

394.. Dul p u l q u r n t - u r n t - u r m i n j - q u : l l a k - a r p u l . cn pn av av vb pc pn

' and t h e y - 2 d a r k n e s s even ing l e a v e - d i d t h e y - 2 ' / i n S- T P -S /

"And t h e tv/c of them l e f t l a t e a f t e r n o o n a f t e r da rk t o o . "

393 . M i n j - q u : l r i r p - i n - n , a n ^/u: j p u q - p u q - u l - u . av vbs cs fu nn nn - l o

' a f t e r n o o n e n e r g e - c a u s e - w i l l dance s u n s h i n e - i n ' / T P 0 L / "Dur ing t h e a f t e r n o o n , t h o dance w i l l be i n s u n s h i n e .

396-, Puq - puq - u l - u y a : - r (q)amp n a k n - k a t - a - n . nn dn l o vb m_r pn nn a l

' s u n s h i n e - i n go - maist v/e camp - ^^ ' / T - M P S- L /

"We must go t o t h e v i l l a g e i n t h e h o u r s of sunsh i ne . "

397 . Damp kana y a : - r , n i ; q - n i q - u r l o q k - n a n j - n . pn a s vb n r nn r d dn vb fu dz

' v/e now g o - n u s t l i g h t - l i g h t a r r i v e - v / i l l - v / i s h ' / S P ' Pu /

"V/e n u s t v/alk nov/ so as to a r r i v e i n d o . y l i g h t . "

398 . Dok qay q u ; l n u ; q k - n a n ; qay nay kanpa n u ; q k - r . nn pn av vb fu pn n n av vb t n

' v /a te r I l a t e r s v / a l l o w - w i l l I food f i r s t e a t - d o ' /O S T F / S 0 T P / " I ' l l h a v e a d r i n k l a t e r on ; I s h a l l e a t f i r s t . " '

399. P u : n p a : - p a l n i : n q - r i : - 1 - aw - un puq p u t p a n . nn r d a j s vb t n e l d i nn av

•'v/ind h o t - h o t blow - do f r o n - e a s t sun on t o p ' / S P L T /

"A h o t v/ind blov/s f r o n t h e e a s t a t n i d - d a y . " '

492

400. Min, qay puq-nar yup-up rint - r. nn pn nn dn av vb tn

'beef I always later cook - do' /O S M (T) F / "I'n always baking ny neat later on."

401. Day qerqkan yup-up yanj - n i: . •pn av av vbs nf av 'I y'day later walk-ing there' / S T P L / " I went t h e r e l a t e r on y e s t e r d a y . "

4i02. Nul r a : k k o r n i ^ r - i y a ; - r a y a : - t q a t - a . pn nn d i nn dr vb pc nn da ' s h e t i n e beyond r e d av/ay go - d i d f i s h - f o r '

/ S T L F Pu / "She went off f i s h i n g d u r i n g t h e glow of s u n s e t . " '

4 0 3 ; Ak y a ; - n k u ; k yikr- - n - an „ n r vb fu nn vbs nf l o

' l e t go - w i l l v o i c e t a l k - i n g - i n ^ /P T' /

" L e t ' s go a t 8 pn , n o v i e - t i n e . "

404. Day n i n j - q u : l y a : - t n e ; r - a q e r q k a . pn av vb pc nn l o nn ' I a f t e r n o o n g o - d i d e y e s - i n d a r k ' /S T P T / " I went i n t h e a f t e r n o o n b e f o r e d a r k . "

4 0 5 . D u ; l - q u l l o q k - n a t ( n ) u l q a l - u n . av vb ps pn pn da

' l a t e r - l a t e a r r i v e - d i d he n e - f o r ' / T P S Be /

"Very l a t e he a r r i v e d f o r ne.™

406. Puq n u ; n t - n a n kanpa n u : n t - r q u i i ; - w a l k a p i r i : - l a v / - u n r i r p . nn vb fu av vb t n cn d r nn e l d i vb

' t u n s e t - v / i l l f i r s t s e t - d o and t h i s - v / a y noon f r o n - E r i s e s ' ' /S P / T F /Cn P - S L -P /

The sun w i l l s e t and go down f i r s t and noon v / i l l r i s e f r o n e a s t . " ' 11

407. Nul ra:k lorkor ko;pe-n^an; ra:k loqkun lil . pn nn aj vb fu nn nn aj ' he tine long v/ait-will tine portion another' /S T P / PA / "He'll v/ait a long tine; another hour."'

408.

P a r ' r p a : n l v /u; j r a : k n e : r p a t p - a t p - r - n l o w o l - n a n , p u q - n r p a j - a r , nn nn nn nn nn vbs r d t n - d a vb nf nn I n vbs pc

' c h i l d r e n g i r l s dance t i n e eye w a k - i n g - t o p l a y - i n g s u n - j u s t rose-^ /S 0 T-M F EA-M ^ / "The g i r l s were p e r f o r n i n g t h e dance t i l l dawn, a t s u n - u p o n l y . "

493

409. Pu:n kar yuk-qat ni^nq-r; ka;l-kurj wut-qu:l-n - an , nn re nn vbs tn nn o.j nn lo

'wind like cyclone blov/-does cold nidnight - at' /S P / FA T / "A wind like a cyclone blev/; it v/as cold in the nidnight."'

12,5 Relative tine of aspectual tem-porals

A closed class of words and expressions occurs v/hich nay

be loosely divided into those v/hich are nerely tenporal, those

which are relo.tive and those with a durative connotation. The ones-

which are largely taiporal are;

/ynp/ 'soon'

/lo,: w- an/ ' unt i 1'

/lil/ 'again, once nore'

/lono-nar/ 'for good'

/kor-uqkan/ 'later on'

/lono-ko/ 'once'

/pinala-na/ 'thrice'

/yo:r/ 'now, today'

/kanpa/ 'before, first'

/lil ulp/ 'after that'

/nul-a-lan/ 'for ever'

/lono-qko/ 'finally, last'

/kulir -ka/ ' tv/i c e'

Sone of these 'tenporals'' are substantially adjectival^ or even

prononinal in function fron tine to tine, but they are not irrele-1

vant to the present array even though occurring elsewhere also.

Phrases v/here the head is optional aonetines occur thus:

(ra;k) lorkor 'tine long'

,ra:k) yi;r-yir-an 'tines several'

[ra:k (y)i:r] 'tine different'

Exanples

410. Day yup k o : p e ; qay yup q u r n t - u r n t - u r k a : r - p r i r k . pn as vbs pn as av ng vb ' I soon a i t I soon darkness not v/ork'

/ S P / S T P / o P— T '*'F /

"I'll wait soon; I'll not v/ork soon in darkness."

411. Yup - ow ] Yup nul kuta in'r n as p n nn dn

ul pn

10 ; rq ~ nan vbs fu as ex

'soon eh' 'soon he dog this-one kill - will' /p E / F- S 0 -P / "Not long eh? Very soon he'll be killing this dog."

9 412. Yo;r wu:np kanar av qn aj

'now 9 good' It FA

"Is today all right? /T

Day yosr le;rk. pn av vb ' I today return'

/S T F / I go back today."

^ Exanples following contain such as those functioning adverbially.

494

413 . Meneja pu:ko.n y o ; r - 1 Etv/at R ipa i l . n i : - l i i n , na a j av fo na na dn r d vbs

' n a n a g o r nev/ now- tho Ed\.-ard R i v e r t h a t s t a y - i n g -/S " T L P /_

'V/l new n a n a g e r i s s t a y i n g r i g h t now t h e r e a t Edward River , ,

414. Pan goln q e r q k - e r q k - a n - t a n r i r k l a :v /~an n i n j - q u ; 1 n i n j - l a k r i r k . nn gn av e l vb nn a l av a j da vb ' nen t h e y o a r l y - n o r n - f r o n work u n t i l a f t e r n o o n t r u e to work^

/ S M- P - -M ~P / "Those nen v/orked from d a y b r e a k r i g h t t h r o u g h ' b i l l even ing they dj.d, "

4 1 5 . N_ul kanpa kana k a l - ?" p n av as vbs pc ' h e b e f o r e h a s c a r r y - d i d

/ S T P / "He c a . r r i e d i t b e f o r e . "'

-1 -; A r

416. Day kana 3^a;-t k o : w - k a n p . 417« Day tono--nar p i t -- r „ pn as vb pc av pn av vbs t n ' i have g o - d i d b e f o r e ' ' l f o r - g o o d keep -do

/& P T / /S M-T P / " I v/ent p r e v i o u s l y / b e f o r e . " " I c h e r i s h ho r f o r o v e r . "

418, Dul l i l r a ; k p i n a l a n - a n u l i : - l - o p - o n ra-:k r a n t - i n r i r p ~ i r , cn a j nn nn da pn e l d i nn nn e l vb pc ' and agn t i n e t h r e e - f o r he f ron-be lov / p l a c e h o l e - f r o n energe-d

/ i n M S L P / "And on t h e t h i r d day He cane up out i r o n below from, g r a v e . "

419. (Ra ;k ) l i l - p p o : r l o q k - r ( p ) e l n . 420„ Kot n u l p i s n t - a s r n nn nn en av vbs pc pn na pn a j

' t i n e a n o t h e r h e r e a r r i v e - d i d t h e y ' ' 'God he s t r o n g /T-M L P S- / S FA

"Another t i n e t h e y a r r i v e d h e r e t o o . " "God i s s t r o n g on

naq-un i l pan k a : l - a ; l - r , kanpa pan Juv/-ak q u i l i l u l p pan pn da dn n n vbs t n av nn na da cn av dm h i n - t o t h a t man b e l i e v e - d o f i r s t man Jov/- to and a g a i n t h a t m n

Be M beha l f of t h a t nan v/hc b e l i e v e s , f i r s t t o t h e Jews and a f t e r t h a t

k o r - p a l y i ; r - a n - n , 4 2 1 . Kor-u.qkan nun t q e n e - p l o q k - r ? d i l o a j da av pn qn en vbs t n

o u t - c a s t sone - t o ' ' l a t e r - o n you why- too cane^ / / T-I-I S Nt F /

t o t h e v a r i o u s g e n t i l e s . " "V/hy d i d you cone l a t e? "^

422 . Kana l o n o - n a r y a : - t ; M l - l i l k a ; r - p 1^3 ; rk . as nn dn vb pc av ng en vb

' h a s f o r - g o o d c o n e - d i d r e p e a t e d l y n o t - t o o r e t u r n ' / P - M-T ^ P / M-T F /

"Gone f o r k e e p s ; c a n ' t keep c o n i n g back a l w a y s , "

494

413. Meneja ipu:kan yo;r - 1 Etv/at Ripa i l n_i: - nin. na aj av fo na na dn rd vbs

'nanager nev/ now-the Edward River that stay-ing-/S ' T L P /^

'V/i new nanager is staying right nov/ there at Edv/ard River,. "'

414. Pan goln qerqk-erqk-an-tan r i rk la:v/~o.n ninj-qu ; 1 ninj-lo.k rirk. nn pn av el vb nn al av aj da vb '•nen they oarly-mxorn-f ron work unt i l afternoon true to work ^

/ i M~ ? - -M ~F / Those nen worked from daybreak right through ' t i l l evening they di.d. " ft

415. Nul kanpa kana. kal - r . p n av as vbs pc 'he before has co.rry-did'

/ S T P / "He carried i t before."'

416. Day kana 3^a;-t ko:w-kanp. 417. Day tono-nar pit - r „ pn as vb pc av pn av vbs tn ' I have go-did before' ' I for-good keep-do'

/& F T / /S M-T P / "I v/ent previously/bef ore. " "I cherish hor for over. il

418, Dul lil ra;k pinalan-a nul i:-l-op-on ra:k ra:il-in rirp-ir, on aj nn nn da pn el di nn nn el vb pc 'and agn tine three-for he fron-below place hole-from emerge-d

/in M " S L P / "And on tho third day He came up out from below from grave."

419. (Ra:k) lil-p po:r loqk~r (p)eln. 420. Kot nul pi;nt-a:rn nn nn en o.v vbs pc pn na pn aj

'tine another here arrive-did they'' 'God he strong /T-M L P S- / S PA "Another tine they arrived here too,"' "God is strong on

naq-un il pan ka;l-a;l - r, kanpa pan Juw-ak qui lil ulp pan pn da dn nn vbs tn av nn na da cn av dn hin-to that nan believe-do first nan Jow-to and again that rian "Be M behalf of that nan v/hc believes, first to the J ev/s and after that

kor- pal yi:r-an-n, 421, Kor-uqkan nunt qene-p loqk-r? di lo aj da av pn qn en vbs tn out-cast sone - to'' 'later-on you why-too cane^

/ / T-M S Nt P / to the various gentiles." "V/liy did you cone late?"=

422. Kana lono-nar ya;-t; lil - lil ka;r - p le:rk. as nn dn vb pc av ng en vb 'has for-good cone-did repeatedly not-too return'

/P„ M-T ^ F / M-T F / "Gone for keeps; can't keep coning back always,"

4.93

4 2 3 . Hul y a : - r a puy nul_-a-l_an y a ; - t ( i i ) u l . pn d r on av vb pc pn ' h e away h u r r y f o r - g o o d g o - d i d he.'

/ S - L E M-T P -S / "He went off t h e n f o r good i n a g r e a t f l u r r y . "

424. Nul k o r - u q k a n p i ; n t - i r . 4 2 5 . Y i : r - y i r - a n r i r k qay . -fn av vbs pc s f vb pn

'he l a t e r g r o w - u p - d i d ' ' s o n e t i n e s work I'• /S M-T p / M-T P I /

"He grev/ up l a t e r on. " " S o n e t i n e s I v/ork. "

426. Day l o n o - q k o k a : r - p p i ; n l - a : w n u ; j - n naqk - un , p n nn da ng en av vbs nf pn da ' I once n o t - t o o s tubborn l j r o b j e c t i n g you - t o '

/S M-T P - M P Io / " I d i d n ' t eve r once r e f u s e o.nything you o r d e r e d . " '

4 2 7 . Kana l o n o - q k o qay in, 'n. y i k nur - qun . as nn da pn dn vbs pn da

'nov/ once I t h i s say you - t o ' / p - M-T S O -P Io /

"Now f i n a l l y I say t h i s t o you a l l . "

428 . Day r i t a r j o p n a n t a n y u : r - ( k ) u l i r - k a r i r p - i r , p n as nn a j nn nn da vbs pc •"l f o r - a - b i t shop s n a i l h a n d s - t w o - f o r e n e r g e - d i d '

/ S T - P - L M -P / " I went out t w i c e b r i e f l y t o t h e l i t t l e canteen . , "

4 2 9 . Day naka y u : r - ( p ) i n a l a n - a vrun - n , p n av nn nn da vbs nf •" I h e r e f i n g e r s - t h r e e - f o r s t a y - i n g '

/ S L M-T P / " I v/as s t a y i n g h e r e f o r t h r e e w e e k s , "

430. P e l n r a : k ( y ) i ; r r a ; k ( y ) i : r naqunp p a t p - n r a ; k k o r . pn nn n n nn nn av vbs mf nn d i

' t h e y t i m e - a n o t h e r t i m e - a n o t h e r t h e r e camp-ing p l a c e b e y e n d ' /S M-T L P L / "They camped there continually, day after day, out yonder,"

431, Day yi:r-yir-am V7u:m.p ni;-nin? 432, Nunt (ra:k) lorkor kotpe, pn aj-av qm rd vbs pn nn aj vbs 'I sonetines ? sitting' 'you tine long wait'

/S M-T Nt F / S M-T P / "Do I sonetines keep sitting on?"' "You wait a long tine?"

Many of the above exanples dononstrate how adjectives and nunerals

used prononinally without their heads present nanifest an adverbial

role and nay be analysed as Manner or Tenporal slot-fillers. A few

follow below based on /kanpa/, /kor/, /ko:v//, /wal/ and /yi;r/.

4-

4 3 3 . I n ' n - u l ko:w - kanpa n i n j qay i n ' n wan - an - r , dn pn nn av av pn dn vbs r d t n

' t h i s - o n e b e f o r e t r u l y I t h i s t e l l - i n g - d o ' /O T S O P /

" I "t/as t o l l i n g you t h i s a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . "

434. P a r ' r n a q - u n k a l ~ p a : r - r k,anpa-ko?v/ / ko:v/ ~ kanpa » nn pn da vbs loc av a j

' c h i l d - h o r - t o b o a r ~ c h i l d - d i d • - f i r s t ' /O Io P ' FA /

"She /".:-,yo . b i r t h t o h e r f i r s t - b o r n son . "

435. Day puquk-kanpa y i k - r n a q - u n , 436.- _Naqunp l a k k a n p a - 1 ivun-n „ pn av av v b s p c pn da av vbs av fo vb nf ' I l a s t - t . i n o - b e f o r e spoke h i m - t o ' H h o r o l e a v e b e f o r e l y i n g '

/S T P Io / L P PA / Hd + Md /T . P. /

"I spoke to him the time before last,"''"Leave it v/here it v/as 1 II.

' }.'

437. Dat qoy rint - m ko; - kanpa - nr , n n pn vb nf nn av In 'fish I cook-ing nose - before-just' /O S P T / "I've boon cooking this fish for ages."

438. Dali ra:k kanpa - ntan •- nr' n.i;n - n riaka , pn nn av el In vbs nf av 'we-2 tine before - fron-just stay-ing hero'

/S M-T P L / "\/o tv/o stayed here right fron the very first „"

439, Oqkor wak - r (ii. ur v/al - kor-e, wak--r nmr . ng nr vbs re pn av da vb ro pn 'don''t quarrel you any-nore quarrel you-/p S M-T / P S / "Don't fight any longer you chaps scrapping.'"'

-440, Ulp ra:k (y)i:r pormpur yuk ra:k ro;k - ar naqn - na. dm nn aj nn nn nn vbs pc pn ol 'that tjne-another house, things, land give-did him - from'

/S T 0 P M / "That chap another time loft house, home and possessions behind."

Adverbs of time show considerable overlap v/ith the

aspectual auxiliaries of the verb phrase. It is sometimes doubt

ful how to analyse them since thoy seem to sho.re membership in the

Tine, Manner and Predicate slots. As indicated above, adjectives

and adverbs merge in those temporal/aspectual roles and function as

a hyper-class where the border-line is sometimes vague. I now as-

sonblo connon tenporals with either /ya;-n/ or /v/un/for conparison.

CHART 53 497

kana ya: - n as yb fu 'now go - do'

/ p • /

"vdll walk"

yup (kana) ya: - n as as vbs fu 'soon (now) go-will'

/P / "v/ill go right shortly"

kana ya: - t as vb pc 'has go - did'

/ '•once v/ent"'

qa;lir' wun as vbs 'still stays'

/P / "still going on"

kanpa y a : - t av vb pc

' b e f o r e g o - d i d / ( T ) F / "v/ont b e f o r e "

q a r oqkor k a : r - p y a : - n as ng n r ng em. vb p r

' y e t d o n ' t n o t - t o o g o - d o ' / P /

"not y e t gone t o o "

l e l e y a : - n as vb fu

' nex t g o - w i l l ' /P / "v/ i l l go n e x t "

k o r - k o r y a ; - n av av vbs fu

' l a t e r - l a t e r g o - v / i l l ' / M - T ' P /

"go c o n t i n u a l l y " '

l e l e y a : - t as vb pc

' nex t go - d i d ' /P / "went n e x t "

puq - mar ya.; - n nn dn vb p r ' e v o r y - t i m e g o - d o ' / M - T ^ F / "a lways and o f t e n go"'

l i l y a ; - n aj vb fu

ll5 ' a g a i n g o - w l 1 1 ' Al / "go once more"

yo r i3 -n r -p y a : - n av I n en vb i^r

' a l w a y s go - d o ' /M P /

"alwaj/s g o i n g "

l i l - l i l y a ; - n av vb fu

' r e p e a t e d l y g o - w i l l ' / a ' p / "go again and again"

l a : v / - l a v / - a n y a : - n nn nn dn vb p r

' r e i o e a t e d l y g o - d o ' /M P /

"go ve ry o f t e n "

y o : r - n r ' y a ; - t av In vb pc

' t o d a y - j u s t g o - d i d ' /T-M P / "went f o r f i r s t t i m e "

r i t a r y a : - n o.s vb p r

' b r i e f l y g o - d o ' / » /

"go f o r a b i t " -

q u : l y a : - n av vb fu

' l a t e r g o - v / i l l /T P / "v/ i l l go l a t e r on'

l c a ; - y u ; r - y u r y a : - n nn nn nn vb p r

'mou th -hands g o - d o ' / M P / "go a t t h e same t i m e "

q u : 1 - y i : r y an j - r l a as vbs im

' n e a r l y g o - a b o u t t o ' /P /

"was about t o g o "

yup - yup y a : - n as as vb . fu ' s o o n - s o o n g o - v / i l l ' /T-M P /

"go r e g u l a r l y " '

498 1

Exanpiles of a s p e c t u a l t e n p o r a l s

4 4 1 , Nul nay kana n u : q k - n a n . 442 . Day kana n a : l - n . p n nn as vb fu p n as vb nf

' s h e food nov/ e a t - w i l l * ' I have l o o k - i n g ' /& 0 F / S F / " S h e ' l l e a t t u c k e r nov/." " I ' v e boon l o o k i n g . "

4 4 3 . Day nay kanx^a n u ; q k - a r n u l l o q k - n a t , p n nn av v^b pc p n vbs ps '' I food b e f o r e e a t ~ d i d he a r r i v e - d i d '

/ S 0 T P / S- P / " I ' d f i n i s h e d ny t u c k e r i;-/hen he a r r i v e d , "

444, .Tele naq~un y i k . 4 4 5 . ^ e l e pan 3 / i ; r - p y a ; - n okun , as p n da vbs a s n n a j em vbs fu as

' n e x t h i m - t o s p e a k ' "next m.an a n o t h e r - t o o g o - v / i l l naybe /T Io P / T S P /

"Speak t o h i n n e x t , " "Next t i n e , a n o t h e r nay be go ing ." -

446. 446 , Yak - a l e l e nun Icuta nuii p a l - o.r w a t p . n n e r as p n nn pn vbs pc a j ' s n a k e n e x t h i n dog h i n b i t e - d i d d e a d '

/ S P - 0 -P FA / "The snake t h e n nex t b i t t h e dog f a t a l l y . "

447. Day l e l e yup r i ; j - an - r n o l n k - e l n k - a r . p n as as vb cs t n av ' I nex t soon r u n - n a k e - d o t ono r rov / '

/S F T / " I ' l l soon bo h a v i n g m.y t u r n d r i v i n g t o n o r r o w .

448, T_il y i k ; qay l i l r o k - an - r r a i r t - i n p o k i j - ak , av vb a j / a v vb cs t n nn a l nn l o

' a g a i n t a l k I a g a i n i n s e r t - do h o l e - i n t o box - i n " . Ai P / S M ? L /

" T e l l h i n a g a i n , I pu t i t i n a g a i n t h r o u g h t h e s l o t i n b o x . "

449. l i l - l i l qan oqkor k a t p . 4 5 0 . T i l - t i l k a : r - p n i ; n ( q ) a y . av p n ng mr vb av ng em vb pn

" r e p e a t e d l y me d o n ' t t o u c h " ' r e p e a t e d l y n o t - t o s i t I ' / M O P / M P S /

"Don ' t keep t o u c h i n g me so much]" " I c a n ' t s i t h e r e f o r e v e r ] "

4 5 1 . Lu:k p u l Tjon y o : r - n r i n . ' n r i : j - a r p u l . na p n na av I n dm vb pc pn

'Luke and Tom j u s t - n o v / t h i s r u n - d i d they^ / S - M-T F -S /

"Luke and Tom have on ly j u s t r u n p a s t . "

I t i s somet imes o p t i o n a l l y p o s s i b l e t o a n a l y s e t h e s e t e n p o r a l s

as e i t h e r a s p e c t i n tho. P - p h r a s e , or a d v e r b s of Manner and T i n e ,

i Q 9

452. P e l n ( r a : k ) y o : r - n r y a : - t . 4 5 3 . Nul q u ; l y a ; - r a y a ; - n . pn nn av I n v b pc p n av dr a l vb

' t h e y t i n e t o d a y - j u s t g o - d i d ' "he l a t e r aw-ay g o - w i l l ' / S T P / S T ( L ) P /

"They on ly j u s t went ---oday,"' " H e ' l l go off l a t e r . "

454, Day k-anpa y a : - n ; nun t q-m;l y a : - n . Nip qu : 1 want-o,r-nan q a l - u n . pn av vb p r pn av vb fu pn av vbs fu pn da

' I b e f o r e go-do you l a t e r g o - w i l l You~2 l a t e r s h o u t w i l l ne-to /S T P ^ / S T P / S T F Io /

" I go f i r s t ; y o u ' l l go l a t e r . You tv/o w i l l s h o u t l a t e r t o me . "

4 5 5 . Day P u r u j q u : l - y i : r n a : l - n a t a l , p n na as vbs sp ^ I Bru.ce n e a r l y s ee - wou ld '

/ S O P / " I v/as abou t t o c l a p eyes on B r u c e . "

456. P a r ' r i n ' n - u l q u : l - y i ; r w o n t - r l a . 457 . Nul qan yup na:-nam. nn dm" pn as vb i n p n p n cs r d yl:

' c h i l d t h i s - o n e n e a r l y f a l l - n e a r l y ' ' h e me s o o n w a t c h - i n g / S P / S O P /

"This boy was v / i t h i n an ace of f a l l i n g , " ' " H e ' l l s e e me s h o r t l y . ' ' ' '

458. i'iiy yup r i i ' i - n i j - r , 459 , Darrp yup kana l e : r k , pn as vbs u r t n pn as as vbs ' I soon t a k e - g o - d o ' 'we soon now r e t u r n '

/& F / S P / " I ' l l soon go p i c k i t u p ] " " W e ' l l soon be g o i n g back now,"

460 , K i l - a : l - r - n i : - k a n p a j - r q a : l i r . nns ( e r ) l o d i vb t n as

' h o t - s u n u p - o n - t o p b l a z e - d o e s s t i l l ' / s (L) P /

"The ho t sun above i s s t i l l b l a z i n g down.' '

461.. D a : l i r ( n ) u l yu :w q o r - q o r m - r . 462 , Y i : r - am w : m p q a t l i r ? as pn av r d vbs t n a j nnz qm as

' s t i l l he away h a l t - i n g ' ' some ? s t i l l ' / P - S L - F , / S Pik F

"Still he's far away somewhere." "Are there still sone?"

463. M;.l q a r oqkor k a : r - p l a q k a r . 464 . Nul y o r p - n f - p n i : - n i n , pn as ng n r ng em vbs pn av I n en r d vbs ' h e y e t d o n ' t n o t - t o o l a u g h ' ' h e a l w a y s - t o o s i t - t m g /S P / S M P / "He c a n ' t r a i s e a s n i l e a s y e t . " ' " H e ' s alv/ays s i t t i n g down."

4 6 3 . May k o r - k o r r e : - r e k - r , n u : q k - r . nn av r d vbs t n vb t n

' f ood r e p e a t e d l y g i v - g i v - i n g - d o e a t - d o ' /O M F / P /

"For e v e r f e e d i n g u s up w i t h e a t i n g , "'

500

465. Kor - kor le:rq - ar (q)an. (n)ul, m vb pc pn pn

"repeatedly strike - did ne he •' /M-T P 0 S /

"He kept on bashing ne continuaLly,"

t

4 6 6 . Day qok puq--mar yup-up n i - i - m . a r k o r - k o r „ pn nn av as •-• av v b vc av ' I v /a te r a lways o f t e n g e t - - t i n g r e p e a t e d l y

/ S 0 M ^ ( T ) P M / " I ' n g e t t i n g - v / a t e r a l l t h e t i m e , eve r and o f t e n . "

4-67, Kuta qirk---nim puq--m-ar y a ; - r r a : k p u l u k - n v/aralvantan-qion nu;qk-r, nn a j av vb nn nn e r nn qm a l vb t n

^dogs v / i ld alv/ays g o - n u s t p l a c e b u l l o c k s g r a s s v / h e r e - t o e a t - d o ' / S M " F L /

"Dingoes alv/ays go t o t h e p l a c e v/here b u l l o c k s e a t g r a s s . "

468. Day min k o l o n yorp-~nr-p naka k a : n p - a r . pn nn nn av en av vb pc ' I w a l l a b i e s a l w a y s - t o o h e r e r o a s t - d i d '

/S 0 M-T L P / " I i n v a r i a b l y cooked v /a l l aby h e r e i n t h e ground oven.

469„ Nul u l p y o r p ~ n r - p r i r k . pn dm av vb •he t h a t alwa,ys v/orks"

/ S M~T P / " H e ' s v/orking a l l t h e t i n e t h a t f e l l o w , "

4 7 0 . Oil p u l qat^-a la ;w- lav/ '~an yanj-m., cn pn nn da av vb nf ' and t h e v 2 f i s h - g alv/ays g o - i n g '

/ I n S Pu M--T F / "And t h o s e tv/o u s e d t o f i s h a l l t h e t ime ,

4 7 1 . P e l n j o p i q l a : v / - l a w ~ a n yan j - n , pn l o a n av vbs mf

' t h e y s h o p p i n g a lways go-- ing-v/ere ' / S Pu M-T P / "They went s h o p p i n g a l l t h e t i n e . "•

472, ikit. r i t a r y a : - r ' » l r n u n t . 4 7 3 . Day y o : r r i t a r n a : l - n . as as vb mr en pn pn av as vb nf

" t r y a - b i t go -nus t^ - too y o u ' ' I t o d a y f o r - a - b i t l o o P : - i n g ' /P S 8 / S T P ^ / "You n u s t t r y and go f o r a b i t ! " ' " I wa t ched b r i e f l y t o d a y , "

474. Kanpa p e l n naqunp n i ; - n , i n r i t a r q u i p e l n yup ya;--n y a ; - r a q a t - a , av "pn av r d vbs as cn pn as vb fu . d r nn da

' f i r s t t h e y t h e r e s i t - t i n g a--bi t and t h e y soon go away f i s h - g ' / T S L P /On S P Fu /

" F i r s t t h e y s a t t h e r e f o r a b i t and t h e y ' l l soon go off f i s h i n g , "

301

475. T_a;-yu:r-3rur oqkor v/an ] 476. av ng nr vbs

'at-the-sane-tine don't talk' /T-M F / "Don't talk v/hen I'n talking]"

Yup - up ya; av - as vb

'soon-soon go (T) P "Must go later on."

- r ] nr nust'

/

477, Nunt yup-up pal le;rk - nan ra:k qan okun? pn av-as dr vb fu nn qm as •you later come return-v/ill tine what m.aybe'

/S (T-P) F T / "what tine do you think you'll return later on?"

12,6 M a n n e r

12.6.0 Introduction

Adverbs of nanner fall into two natural divisions, the

sinple and the conpound. About a score of the forner follow below;

they are not necessarily nononorphenic and nornally precede their

verb which they qualify. CHART 54

12.6.1 Sinple

lurna ya: - n av vbs pr 'together go-do' /Il P / "go together"

v/ut naqk v/un vbs av vbs •sleep deep lie' /P /

"sleep in"'

yorp y u : n p av vb

' l i k e - t h i s dlo / M P / "do i t l i k e t h i s " '

n i n i r r i n t aj vb

' r e ady c o o k ' /M-PA P / "cook i t r e a d y *

nurn yuqar av vbs

'under s w i n ' / L - M P / "sv/in underv/ater"

na:l ya: - n 'av vbs pr '.slow walk-do', /M P /

"dawdle"

ninj ya; - r av vb nr 'truly go-nust /M P / "really nust go"

tint r ok av vbs 'inside enter' Al-L P / "go right inside"

wajir yik - n aj-av vb nf •correct speak-ing' /M-PA P / "spoke, correctly"

lakir-p-on "tmn belly-down lie' nn av vbs

/M P / "lie stonach down"

p e t p a n r i ; j av vb

' f a s t r u n ' / M F / " run f u l l r i p "

k e : y v/un a V vb s

' a c r o s s l i e ' /M F / " l i e c rossv /ays"

kenple - p rak porpern ne:rt-pa:r av en vbs av v b s

'separate-too stand' 'too-nuch cry'

Aa p / Ai p / "stand then separately" ."cry too nuch"

ta: - lurna rak ri;ran ya; - t "• av vbs av vb pc 'together stand-up' 'alone walk-did

Al p / /^ ^ „ / "stand then together" "^ent alone"

penpr vrun av vbs

'on-side lie' /¥. F. •/ -r '''lie on the side''

ri:r-n-r lak - ar av vbs pc

'alone leave-did' /M P / "left hin alone"

502

rirk - an kunanp-un-ir la:ya;-ra lak - r - 1 av vbs cs pc av vbs tn fo

'clearly report-did' 'over leave-do-the' / M F / M P /

"gave a clear account" "left som.e over"

One or two of the above adverbs are adjectivals filling pA-slots

(as narked), but the difference is not always easy to identify.

Exanples

478. Dali Rita v/un lurna; par'r qal-nan pinalan. pn na vbs av nn pa pv nn

'we-tv/o Rita live together chn our-2's three' /S p M /S FA /

"Rita and I live together having three children. "-

479. Ple:n i;-wal naqk ya:-n. 480. Day yorp yu;np-nan (q)ay. nn dr av vb pr pn av vb fu pn

'plane this-way dov/n cone-does' 'I like-this do-will I' /S P- (M) -P / S- M F -S / "The plane's coning down here." "I do it this v/ay r ound."

481. Dok-eln nurn nu:nl - ir (n)ul. 482. Kuta wa:r na:l ri;-rij-r. nn lo av vb pc pn nn aj av rd vbs tn 'wster-in under dive-did he' 'dog bad slowly run-ning' / L M F S / S M F / 'He swan submerged in the v/ater." "The old dog runs slowly." IITT

483. Dul kana n i n j yonpa r - r , 484. ^ i n t oqkor rok; pa l r i r p .' cn as av vbs t n av ng vbs dr vb

'and has indeed happen-d id ' ' i n s i d e don ' t en t e r come emerge' / i n P- M -P / M P / P / "And i t r e a l l y did happen." "Don't go r i g h t i n ; cone o u t ] "

485. [v/ajir k a ; r k e r p - r . waj i r - nr (n.)ul]J aj ng vb pc aj In pn (Conpare t he se

•cor rec t not f i n i s h - d i d c a r e f u l - j u s t h e ' a d j e c t i v e s . ) / P A P / PA S / "•

" I t ' s not p roper ly done. He did i t j u s t r i g h t , I fi

486, Nul k e n p l e y a : - n ( n ) u l , 4 8 7 . £ a q k n - n u n t kemiple k a l . pn av vb p r pn pn r x av vbs

'he s e p a r a t e l y g o - d o e s h e ' ' y o u r s e l f s e p a r a t e l y t ake ' / S - U ? -S / S M P /

"He goes s e p a r a t e l y . " "You y o u r s e l f t a k e i t a l o n e . "

488. Nul l a ; - l u r n a y a : - n q a l - u n , 4 8 9 . Nunt penp r vmn , pn av vb fu pn ac pn av vb 'he t o g e t h e r go - v / i l l y o u - w i t h ' ' you o n - s i d e l i e '

/S M F Ac / S M P / " H e ' l l go t o g e t h e r w i t h y o u . " "You l i e on one s i d e . "

503

490. Dul p e l n moq l a ; - l u r n a I a n - n , r a q k - a q k - r - nan , cn pn nn av vbs nf vbs rd r o nf ' and t h e y miany t o g e t h e r s t a n d - i n g q u e s t i o n - i n g - e o - w e r e '

/ i n S M P PA / "And nany of t h e n were s t a n d i n g t o g e t h e r q u e s t i o n i n g t o g e t h e r . "

4 9 1 . T_akir-p-on oqkor v/un] P e t p - e t p a n r i ; - r i j ; puq pan n u ; n l - r . av ng n r vbs av r d vbs nn nn vb t n

' b e l l y - d o w n d o n ' t l i e q u i c k l y r u n - n i n g sun one s e t - d o e s ' ^ /M P / I'I I / S PA / "Don ' t l i e on your s t o n a c h ; q u i c k l y r u n on; s u n ' l l s e t s o o n . "

492 , V/a'ap naqk -un u l p k e : y wun . nn pn da dn av vbs

' r i v e r y o u - t o t h a t a c r o s s l i e s ' / S - M- -S -M P /

"That r i v e r l i e s a c r o s s your pathv/ay. "

493. P a r ' r k e ; y - k o y k a t p - i r ( n ) a y . 494 . Pan i n ' n l a : - l a q k a r p o r p e r n , nn av vb pc pn nn dn r d vb av

' c h i l d a c r o s s c a t c h - d i d I ' ' n a n t h i s l a u g h - i n g to c m c h ' / S M F s / S P M /

" I h e l d t h e c h i l d a c r o s s w a y s , " "This nan l a u g h s t o o n u c h . "

495. Dali r i ; r a n k a : r - p ivun, Nul naqn - nul r i r n r yik - r . pn av ng en vbs pn pn rx av vbs t n

'we-two alone n o t - t o o l i e he h i n s e l f a lone t a l k - d o e s /S M P / S Io M P / "Only he and I d o n ' t l i e dov/n. He t a l k s to h i n s e l f a l o n e , "

496, Day q e ; - y - r , r i r k - a n y ik - n ( n ) u l ; qay q e : - y - r nun. r i r k - a n . pn vb po av vbs nf pn pn vb pc pn av ' I hea r -d id c l e a r l y t a l k - i n g he I h e a r - d i d h in c l e a r l y '

/ S P / M F S / S P O M / "I heard him talk distinctly to himself; I heard hin clearly."

497. Dul nul la; - ya;-ra pok - on . cn pn av aj

'and he over none' /in S (M)PA /

"And he had nothing over."

12.2 Conpound

Many conpounds function adverbially. Most compon

ent parts are the body-part clitics found so commonly as lexical

classifiers before nouns. Examples are:

498. Pam wo;jorm ninj kanaqkar-antam la: - ri:ran minj ma:n-par. nn aj av av el av av av 'man ancient very long-ago-from alone very togetner /S T PA M / "He v/as always there from the beginning, with the ancient One]'

504

499. Pan peln i:-wal (mit) lono-qk-antam pal le:rk-r lentiq-ak. nn pn dr nn nm el dr vb pc nn al 'men they this-v/ay work one-gang-from come return-ed Indg-to' VS F- L-M -F L / "They were returning from work in a gang to the landing."'

500. N_ul me;r-rirk-an me:r~en - ir qamp-ul-qun n.un. pamnerqk naqn. pn av vbs pc pn da pn nn nn pa 'he clearly show - did us - to him man son his'

/S M F Io 0 / "He revealed his son clearly to us,"'

501. N_unt la:w - murm pa;l - e - y - r may - im . pn nn av vbs rx pc nn el

'you mouth-under bite-yourself-did food-from' /S M F R / "You really hogged into that food you did."'

502. Damp la;w yik. 503. Danjn man lono ka:r - p yik. p-n nn vbs pn nn run ng em vbs 'we mouth talk' ' v/e throat one not-too talk'

/ S M P / S M P / "We-talk falsely."' "We don't talk truthfully,"

504. Day lono-qko ka:r-p pi;^nl-a:w mu:j - m iiaqk - un. pn rjn avz ng em av vb mf pn da 'I once not-too stubbornly object-ing you-to'

/S M P- M -F Io / "I didn't once stubbornly refuse to obe;/ you."

505. Par'r, nur ku:k-a;r ni:n; Joni-n qali kar-yup~ka;rffla :qk-nan. nn pn nn np vb na er pn av vb fu

'children you word-less sit John we-two quickly eat-will' /in S PA F / S M F / "Children you sit quietly; Johnny and I'll eat smartly."'

506. Day naqunp la:-kok-on lak-ar -y; qay pet-et-an patp - nanj -n.. pn av av vb pc pn pn av vb fu dz 'I there together leave-did I I quickly camp-will-w.ish'

/S- L M P -S /l M P / "I left them mixed up together; I left camp in a flurry."

507. Puy, oqkor Ian yup- a:r] Danin, qan ya:r'-i'i-nr re;k v/a;r-min. ex ng mr vb av vo pn avs In vb nn

'hey don't stand wasting-time me like-this-just give all' /in P M(PA) / In Io M F 0 / 'Hey, don't stand wasting time; Dad, give me all, like this]"

508. Dul nul ya:-r - ya:-ra yik - r peln-qun pam moq - lak. cn pn vb dr vbs pc pn da nn nm da

'and he go-must-away speak-did thsE-to men many-to' /in S M F Io /

"And he went on and on to speak to them all,"

503

509. Nur pil-wajir, nur yu;r - maqk-a qoqkor yuk wa:r-min v/olol. pn av pn av ng mr nn nn vb 'you carefully you greedily don't things-all wipe'

/S- M- -S -M F- 0 -F / "You go carefully, you mustn't greedily scrape up all yousee."

510. Wa'ap kun-maqk-an i;-li-par-op ya:-t (n)ul. nn av al lo cp ro vb pc pn 'river below-to there-side-S go-did he'

/L M L P S / "He went right down to the Chapman River mouth."

311, Merri nul ra:k maqk minj min qe:-y-r, na pn nn av av aj vb pc 'Mary she things deeply-very hear-did'

/S 0 M P / "Mary thought deeply about these things,"

512, Peln kor-kanpa yu:r-me:r Ip.:-lul-r i;-kop ra:k - un. pn av av rd vbs pc av nn lo 'they everywhere hand-eye crawl-ing below earth-on'

/S L M P L / ^ "They were crawling about everywhere on the earth below on foot."

513. Kot, nunt kwi:n yu :r-ko :w-ma;l ku:p-nar'. na pn nn av vb mr 'God vou queen carefully keep-must."' /in S 0 M P /

"Oh God, preserve the Queen safely."

514. Me:r-ko:w-ma:l ya:-r; ri:j oqkorj nunt lak - wut-r ya:-r] av vb mr vb ng pn av vb mr

' carefully go-must run don't you straight go-do'

/m " P / F / S M P / "Go carefully; take it steady; you must go straight on."

515. Me:r - kun - ma:l ya: - n ple:n kulir. nn nn av vbs pr nn nm

1 Qje - base- slow go - do planes two' A' P S / ~

"The two planes travel close up together,"

516. Ra;k yu:-kara kun-me:r wark-ant. Dali kun~me:r pir-uw - nan. nn av SW v b s pn av vbs fu

'time future backivards change we-2 backwards change-will' /T M F / S. M P / ^ "In the future all will change round. She and I'll exchange,"

517, Peln yu:r-(l)akir-(p)okle;rk,lak-r-(q)o;qko me :r-l-pa;r-i j-ar. pn nn nn nn pn av v b s ur pc 'they hand-palm - nothingrtn leave-self-blind weep-go-did'

/S M P /M F / "They return empty-handed and they cried for nothing."

506

518 , Day y o r p - n r - p k u ; k moq wa: - w a l - r . pn av em nn nm r d vbs t n ' I a l w a y s - t o o words many seek - i n g '

/ S M O P / " I ' m alv/ays l o o k i n g f o r p l e n t y of v / o r d s . "

519, Munt -wa : r I a n - m ( n . ) u l . Danjn p u q k - q a : n p n.i :n-n_at pormpur-n. •av v b s mf p n pn av vbs ps nn l o

' q u i e t l y s t a n d - i n g i t ' v/e c r o s s - l e g g e d s i t - d i d house in.' / M ' F S / S M F L /

" I t s t o o d s u b m i s s i v e l y . We s a t c r o s s - l e g g e d i n t h e h o u s e . "

520. Bil puqk-umn i v u n - i j - a r r a ; k - u n . P u l m i n j - m i n j l e : r q - a r - u ^ . pn av vbs u r pc nn l o pn av vb pc pn

' he on -knees l i e - g o - d i d g r o u n d - o n t h e y - 2 t r u l y b a s h - d i d h i m ' / S M F L / S- M P 0 / "He c o l l a p s o i t o h i s knees on g r o u n d ; t h e y r e a l l y d i d a t t a c k him."

5 3 3 . Pam naqn-ma-ntam m a : l - m a l y a ; - r a y a : - n ( i i ) u l . nn pa e l av dr vb pr pn 'men h i s - f r o m s l o w l y away go - do he '

/ L M P S / "From h e r h u s b a n d , she g r a d u a l l y goes f a r t h e r away . "

534. P a r ' r rae:n-mr k e : y - k e y k a l n u n t . Ko:-ruv/-o p i t - r n u l . nn a j av vbs pn av vbs t n pn

' c h i l d s m a l l a c r o s s c a r r y you acrosswaji^s k e e p - d i d h e ' /O M P S / M P S /

"You can c a r r y t h e baby c ro s sv / ays . He c a r r i e d i t c r o s s v / a y s . "

535 . Nunt k u l i p i l w a j - w a j i r v/ark - nan - i r . pn nn d-m av vb cm pc

' you s t o r y t h a t p r e c i s e l y t u r n - r o u n d - d i d ' / S 0 M ( F A ) P /

"You s t r a i g h t e n e d up t h a t s t o r y p r e t t y w e l l . '

536 . Day q e r q k a n p i l - w a j i r y a : - t (qa)y . pn av av vb po pn ' I y e s t e r d a y v / a r i l y v / a lk -d id I '

/ S - T M F -S / " I 'v/ent o n - t h e - q u i - v i v e t h e r e y e s t e r d a y . "

537. K i rk wu;mp ( i i ) u l l e ; - l e r k - a n ~ i r ( n ) u l - l ko ;w-ken-en ? nn qm pn r d vb cs pc pn f o nn d i l o

' s p e a r ? he s e n d - i n g - b a o k - d i d h e - t h e p o i n t - u p ' /O Nt S- P -S" M /

"Did he r e t u r n t h e s p e a r h o l d i n g i t p o i n t - u p v / a r d s ? "

538. Damp k o : w - l i n - l r n a : - w - r ; m i l ma:n-m-an r i ; - r i j - r . pn (nn) av pn pc pn av r d vbs co

'we s u d d e n l y s e e - d i d he c l o s e - u p r u n - n i n g ' / S M 1' / S M P /

"We s u d d e n l y s p o t t e d him. r u n n i n g c l o s e up t o h i s p a r e n t s . "

507

5 3 9 . K e n j ~ e r q a l - u n k a : r , n u n t m a ; n - p a r m i ' i ] ' v b s pc pn _ a c ng pn a v yb

' c a t c h - d i d m e - w i t h n o t y o u c l o s e - u p s i n g ' / P M P / S M P / "You d i d n ' t c a t c h u p v / i t h me; s i n g c l o s e u p ! "

5 4 0 . P e l n pam Juv/ v / a l - ( l ) a k - a r y a n j - m . pn nn na nn v b s pc vb mf

' t h e y men Jew b r o w - l e a v e - d i d g o - i n g - w e r e ' / S M P /

"The J e w s u s e d t o t r e a t them w i t h h o s t i l i t y . '

541. Par'r, nur v/al - kor - e lowol; nn pn nn di lo vb •children you overmuch play /in S M P /

nur pal le:rk. pn dr vbs you come return' S P /

"You kids have been playing far too long; come back here.

12,7 Degree

12,7.0 Introduction

Adverbial morphemes expressing degree are fev/ but signif

icant. Four precede their head:

/v/al/ /wa:r/ 'temple' 'bad'

Eight follow their head:

/man-um/ /maqir/ 'throat-from' 'rather'.

/v/a:?/ /la:rn/ /minj/ /-nr-p/ /min/ /ka;r/ /v/al/ /wajil/ 'bad' 'hard' 'truly' 'just-too'good' 'not' 'brow' 'cute* .

One elative suffix probablj/ express degree functionally

as a derivative /porp-er-m/; and an aspectual marker functions as

a compound: /qu ; l-yi( : )r/ 'nearly/'.

Reduplication is a device for expressing degree in some

v/ords like /lorkr/, /la;piri/, /pal/ and /kor/.

In summarised form, markers of degree are:

1 2 . 7 . 1 T a b l e of morphemes r^r-.-nn n r — - CPi ART 5 5

d e g r e e ? h e a d - v/ord

k a m p u r - u q k ( a j )

wa; r •v/0.: r

w a : r w a ; r

munt y i k -mu: qk q a n j q a m a l q a n j moq (nm) p u q k ( a j .

Va j ) n ( v b ) - n ( v b (aT) ^ ( a j ) ' a j )

d e g r e e

w a ; r v/a: r '

l a ; r n minji l a : r n ( 1 ) 0 : r n ( t ) u : r n

0 s

' a b s o l u t e l j ' ' p e a c e f u l ' ' q u i e t l y / , p a s s i v e l y ' ' b a d l y -v/ant t o s p e a k ' ' b a d l y w a n t t o e a t ' ' e x t r e m e l y s a c r e d ' ' e n o r m o u s l y b i g ' ' v e r y t a b o o , v e r y s a c r e d ' ' a v a s t n u m b e r ' ' v e r y ov/n, p r i v a t e l y '

508

i

; degree

1

1 1 4

i

1 i" ' • " '

j man-um.

I maqir

1 maqir

1 maqir

\ maqir

\ maqir >

i maqir \ maqir

\ maqir

j maqir

1 maqir

; maqir

\ maqir

> !

1 marjk ]

I

i qu;lyir

1 \ wal 1 v/al

i {

I lork-

i la:p -

1 pal -

, maqar ? cf. ;

; maqir .•

head - v/ord

ila;-piri (aj) jlorkor (aj) ;min (aj) •qamal (aj) imoq (nm)

imoq (nm) wa;r

'lorkor (aj)

;pil-mayam (nn)

; pinalam (nm.)

munjun (aj)

ku1-puqk (nn)

Imoq (nra/aj)

; kenple (av)

ipork (aj)

; pil-un (aj)

<

'ranj - ir (vb)

:wan - m (vb)

ya; - n (vb)

v/unp (vb)

:minj (aj)

iminj (aj)

Iminj (aj)

lon(-on)-o (nm.)

'porp-e-r (aj;

yanj - rla (vb)

v/ajil (aj)

kor - e (di)

kor -

pir-pir (aj)

(l)orkr (aj)

la:piri (aj)

pal (dr)

Ian - an (vb +rd) (

degree ;

minj { ;min3 i 'minj i minj ; minj \

minj I

-nr-p ;

min i

min i

ka:r (ng)

-m ;

-kor ;

wal ;

g l o s s i

'very close' | 'very tall' J 'very fine' | 'very large' j 'very many' I

'a vast number' J

'very lanky' ;.

'rather youngish' I

'rather 3/4? several' f

'rather weighty, many' J

'rather a big crowd' f

'ra,ther many' ]

'rather separoute' :

rather large' 1

rather close-up' 1 < , , , , 1 1 , <

'rather jumped, amazed' [

'rather rebuked, growled' ;

•carry on gaily, callously' 1

rather put, measure' i

just really true, fine' \

'good and .hard' j

really deeply' \

not singly, plentifully' |

too much, overdone' |

nearly about to go' \

'reall3'- cute, smart' \

'too much, (any more)' <

'on and beyond, any more' {

''really smooth, slippery' \

^separately, at a distance' ;•

'closer and closer' J

right up closely' ;

standing too far off =

509

1 2 . 7 . 2 Examples

542 . Kampur-uqk w a ; r ak n i : n i : - k o p r a : k - u n . a j dg n r vb l o d i nn l o

' q u i e t - v e r y l e t s t a y be low e a r t h - o n ' / P A P L / "Let them s t a y i n peace dov/n below on e a r t h ] '

543. Munt -wa; r l a n - m ( n j u l . 544. J imyan m i l pam w a : r nama l . a j dg vb mf pn no pn nn dg a j

' c i u i e t ^ v e r y s t a n d - i n g h e ' 'Simeon he man v e r y b i g ' A f P S / S FA /

"He was s t a n d i n g p a s s i v e l y . " "S imeon ' s a h e f t y b i g c h a p . ' '

545 . Day k u : k n i n w a : r y i k - n naqk - u n . gn nn a j dg v^bs dz pn da

' I words good b a d l y s p e a k - w i s h y o u - t o ' / S 0 M P Io /

" I badlj '- want t o say a good -v/ord t o y o u . "

>46. ILul 'j^ay w a : r mu:nk - n a n j - n . p n nn dg vbs fu dz ' h e food b a d l y e a t - w i l l - w i s h '

/ S 0 M F / " H e ' l l be dy ing t o h a v e some t u c k e r t o e a t . "

547. F e i n r a t p o r k ianj t a : r n a j dg

yu. imp - i r , pn nn a j a j ag vb pc

' the j r book b i g s a c r e d v e r y w r i t e - d i d ' / S O P _ /

"They w r o t e a v e r y h o l y b i g b o o k . "

548 . Min v;a;r n a n i t a ; r n wun min mop-qun . nn" dg a j dg vbs nn nn

• c r e a t u r e rexy h o l y v e r y s t a y c r e a t u r e v / i ld g o o s e ' / S " P FA /

"il v e r y s a c r e d b i r d i n d e e d i s t h e pigmy g o a s e . "

549, (nju .,1

/O

Ku:k wa:r qanal ninj yik - r nn dg aj dg vbs pc pn 'word very big very speak-did he

F S

,q)al - U-n, pn da

me - to' X't ,/

"He gave me an extrenely taboo nessage,

550. Min v-utp non wa:r ninj ri;-rij-r qui wa:-.iaiptar, rn nn nn dg dg rd vbs tn on rd v bs 'creatures many very very run~ning-are and cry-ing' /S P / Cn P / _

•""Really vast numbers of storm-birds are racing and crying."

i51. Ku:k qan namal minj Ra:k-wa:r - ak ? im qm aj av nn lo

'saying what? big very Lav/ - in ' /S FA L / "What is the very greatest command in the Law?"

552, Peln pam. mon - o;rn ko;-kope n aqk - un . pn nn nm dg rd vb pn da

'they men many-strong wait-ing you - for /S P Io /

"Thousands of people are waiting for you,''

553. Oqkor me;r-wa:r-an nak peln - an pam-la:w vnr]k^_j2_^J^. ng mr nn aj ns vb pn ob nn nn nn aj 'don't eye-bad-with look t h e m friends own - strong' /p„ K -P 0 (FA) /

"Don't glare angrily at your very ov/n friends."'

554. Ta;-piri minj qal - un Rajul ya: - t. aj av pn da na vb pc

'close very ne - to Russell go-did' /M L S P ^ /

"Russell x/ent extrenely close to me."

-555.. Day 5a>.k torkor ninj na;-v/"r ra:k lorkr. pn nn aj av vbs pc nn aj •"l stick long very see-did place distant'

/ s o ^ P P ., / "I saw a very long stick in a distant place.'

or: "I sav/ a very tall tree in a distant place."

556. Pan lono ku;lip non minj mij - ij - r. nn nm nn nn av vbs r.d tn 'ran one stories many very shar-ing-out-was' / s o P /

"One chap was s h a r i n g out l o t s of h i s y a r n s ,

557. Damp n i n m i n i nay po rk yu ; m p - i r pam Imn-yaqka r naqkn-mak. x,n a j av nn a j vb pc nnn kn nn kn pa b e

'we good v e r y food huge make-d id man b r o t h e r y o u r - f o r /S PA R

"We d i d w e l l t o make a f e a s t f o r your b r o t h e r . '

558 K i p j o n - I r l e : r q - a r p i k n a m , r _ £ i k i m i : s n i r T O £ k , ;,a e r vbs pc nn av nn l o av a j

' G i b s o n k i l l - d i d p i g r a t h e r c l o s e r a t h e r b i g ' / S " P 0 L PA /

"Gibson k i l l e d a g o o d - s i z e d p i g r a t h e r c l o s e - b y . ' '

mal n i n j , 560. Pan i t n a n - u n t o r k o r .

' w a l l a b y t h i s - t h e l a r g e v e r y ' ^ ' n a n t h a t r a o n e r t a l l /S PA / S PA / "This w a l l a b y h e r e i s v e r y b i g . " "That nan i s r a t h e r t a l l . '

511

i imi

561 . Pam. n u l n a n i r pi l -may-am.. 562 . Nur mani r k u l - punk, nn pn av nn kn pn av nn a j

'man he r a t h e r j r o u n g i s h ' 'you r a t h e r many' / S FA / / S FA / 'The f e l l o w i s r a t h e r y o u t h f u l . " "You ' r e r a t h e r a c r o w d . "

5 6 3 . MiiSliX "" - an - m qan^ n u l want - u , av vbs nf pn pn nn ns

' r a t h e r r e b u k i n g ne he emi i -bone-v/ i th ' / M P 0 S Ns / "He t h r e a t e n e d m.e by p o i n t i n g t h e bone ." -

564. Ku:k i i i ' n maqi r kem.ple-p. 565„ Naq-un mani r r a n j - i r peln. nn dn av a j en pn da av vbs pc pn

'v/ords t h e s e r a t h e r s e p o r a t e ' ' h i m - f o r r a t h e r jump-ed they ' /S PA ~ / R M F S /

"These v/ords a r e r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t . ""They wereai iazed abou t him."

566. Nunt p a ; n t - u l a k - r - ( q ) o : q k o manir y a ; - n . gn nn da vb r x a j av vb p r

' yov. woman~for l e a v e - s e l f b l i n d r a t h e r g o - d o ' / s " Be PA M P / " Y o u ' r e g l a d to c a r r y on abou t t h i s wonan for no th ing ,"

567. Nul n i n . i - n i n j - n r ^ - p k u ; l i p n i n p u n l - o k - o n w a n - a n - i r pe ln -qun . pn a j dg en nn nn nn pp e r vbs r d pc pn da

'' he t r u l y - j u s t - t o o s t o r y a n g e l t e l l - i n g - d i d them t o ' /S PA /

" I t v/as j u s t as t h e a n g e l had t o l d them. "

568 . Kanpa qay ngr t i r wunp - r wu:mp ? av pn av vb t n qn

' • f i r s t I r a t h e r v/pu - do ? ' / T S M P ' Nt /

"Had I b e t t e r n e a s u r e i t up f i r s t ? "

r 569, Wa^ar - a l a n i i r minj min l a : l - i r v q J a n . nn e r nn av a j vb pc pn

' j e l l y f i s h l e g t r u l y good b u r n - d i d me' /S 0 - M P - 0 /

"The j e l l y f i s h s t u n g ny f o o t good and h a r d . "

570. Nunt porp-n-_nan; nun t oqkor P£rp^_::m. pn vbs mf pn ng av dg

' you s o f t e n - i n g you d o n ' t overm.uch' / S P / S P M /

"You were v /eaken ing ; d o n ' t you overdo i t . "

571. Nul r a ; k maqk n i n j n i n q e : - y - r . 572 . _To^noj-no k a : r n i ' i - r ~ u l . pn nn av av a j vb - po nn rd ng vb pc pn

' s h e t h i n g s deep v e r y good h e a r - d i d ' ' o n e - o n e - n o t t a k e - d i d h e ' / S O M " p / O p s /

"She thought d e e p l y abou t t h e s e t h i n g s , " "She b o u g h t p l e n t y . "

5ia

573. Day n u s l - y i r l a k i r p i r n p - r l a . 574. Par- 'r v/al w a j i l ya : - B . pn as/dg^~ nn vbs im nn aj vb pr ' I n e a r l y b e l l y f l o a t - a b o u t - t o ' ' c h i l d a t t r a c t i v e go-does '

/S F - 0 -P / S P / "I nea r ly got drov/ned." "Cute l i t t l e chap t h e r e . "

575. Day qok pun-nar yup-up n i ' i - n a r k o r - k o r . pn nn av av vb vc av i 'i v/ater a l l - d a y always g e t - t i n g t i m e - n - a g a i n '

/S 0 M M P M / "I 'm always g e t t i n g water , a l l day, t i n e and a g a i n . "

576. T_orkr, k a : r na:m, n a ( : ) q a r . 577. Ka: ko:p l o r k - o r k r ak y a : - r . aj ng vb av nn nn aj aj nr vb nr

• d i s t a n t not see f a r o f f ' c a r s a l l f a r - f a r l e t go-do ' /PA / p / P A / S M P / "Long way off, can't see, too far." "All cars keep their distance."

578. Ta:p - lapiri ya; - t (n)ul pornpur-n. aj aj vb pc pn nn al ' closer/close'r go-did he house-to'

/M P S L / "Closer and closer he came to the house."

579. Kana, qok mut pir-pir wal yompar - r. aj nn nn aj dg vbs pc 'good v/ater ridge smiooth-very result-did'

/in S PA F / "Good, the waves became as snooth as glass."

580. Nunt nunk wal - kor - e lanp - ar. pn nn nn di lo vb pc

'you phlegm brow-beyond-at kick-did' /S 0 M P / "You're really snorting too nuch there."

Chapter XIII 5=,i=,E=:if^=iz=I=i=l===2^S^I~

13.0 Introduction

Dependent clauses do not stand alone as najor sentences

in the language, but when they are ninor, they have final intonat

ion. They fill subordinate slots of najor sentences being enbed

ded as single constituents in a natrix, whether at sentence, clause,

phrase or some lower level like axis or modifier. For exanple, in

section 6.3.1.1 sone clauses fill axis slots of a phrase after the

relater /kar/.

A conplex sentence consists of a base slot filled by sone

independent clause and a dependent margin slot filled by any typo

513

of dependent clause and vocal intonation which is final. Both non

inal and adjectival clauses nay fill slots at clause or phrase lev

el in nonoclausal sentences v/here such slots are usually filled, by

single v/ords in parallel utterances,

Thaayorre nanifests a high degree of layering, both re

cursively and nonrecursively, as clause within clause. Recursive

means recurrence at a lov/er level as v/hen the sane sym-bol is to be

found on both sides of the = sign in a sentence equation.

1 . Pan lono yik - r, "Fan la:v/-ara want ar - r 'Nul ke' e.-r (n)un . ' " nn nn vbs pc nn aj vb pc pn vb pc pn 'nan one say-did nan cheeky shout - did he kill-did hin'

/S F 0 / /S P 0 /

/S F 0 / "One nan said, 'A cheeky nan shouted, "He killed hin."'"

tCl = S P 0 N tv tCl/pn

Fev/ clause-level subordinators exist for great reliance

is placed on juxtaposition and specific word contiguity at clo.use

borders, when clauses stand in precise meaningful appositional de

pendence. The English equivalent of these would have an introducer

conjunction as subordinator according to W.A.Cook (1969:74) with

regard to adverbial clauses;

after, before, until, when, v/hile (temporal),

whence, whither, v/here (location),

as, as if, like (manner).

Most of the material for this chapter is selected

fron a corpus of Scripture translation generated in Darwin during

January-February, 1971, By Mr Ton Foot of Edv/ard River. He dictat

ed the translations after nuch discussion and explanation. It v/as

entirely his own vernacular version of selected literacy passages

fron both Old and Nov/ Testanents. The corpus \-/as later typed on to

50 pages of typed foolscap and consists of sone hundred.s of depen

dent and independent clauses v/hich have revealed an astonishing

flexibility of the Thaayorre language only since their analysis.

Contrastive clause types are shov/n in the synopsis and variations

of these are subgrouped in the exanples. Layers of clause within

clause show the possibilities for extensive enbedding at all levels,

The description of clauses may be internal or external,

but since the independent clause in chapter II shows the internal

structures, the nain focus now v/ill be to describe the external

514

distribution of the dependent clause in various slots. The classi

fication v/ill be external, shov/ing the nominal, adjectival and ad

verbial clausal fillers together v/ith a few final connents on RA

and nonfinite constructions.

I consider it appropriate first te . sunnarise the subor-

dinative and coordinative conjunctions found in Thaayorre.

13.1 C o n j u n c t i o n s

13.1.0 Introduction

Conjunctions both link and subordinate clauses with each

other to forn sentences. The Sentence is not included in this dis

sertation as it is the subject of special study of the vernacular

corpus found in the Tape transcriptions volune, v/ith statistical

count of sentence types.

Coordination of clauses is achieved by the use of /qui/

'and, but, then'; /qui ulp/ 'and that'; /qui ya:-r i'i/ 'and like

this'; certain nonsingular pronouns or a zero connector.

Subordination of clauses is obtained by the use of cert

ain subordinators (Sr): /il/ 'if; /il ... ka:r/ 'if...not, unless';

/aqar/ 'so that, in order to'; /kar/ 'like, as', and /qui ulup/

'because, since'.

Correlatives do not occur v/ith the sane kind of construc

tions as night be expected fron the English pattern. They are re

placed by other constructions using pointing with denonstratives

and contradistinction with adverbs or inclusion v/ith pronouns, which

latter carry inflections of acconpaninent. The nuneral /imlir/ '2'

also redundantly supports the dual pronoun /pul/ 'they-2' in cor

relating double, slot fillers.

Relative pronouns have been found to occur, but v/ith sone

restriction: e.g. /wan-wan-ul?/ 'whoever?' in exanple 130, section

11.4.3 above. (Connents also follov/ in section 13.5.)

13.1.1 Cooordination

A brief explanation of the coequal joining of clauses in

to conpound sentences nov/ follov/s with exanples. Whereas phrases

tend to be coordinated by neans of nonsingular pronouns, clauses

are linked usually by /qui/ 'and, but, then'.

515

2. Dali yanj-n ya:-ra DUL qali nin qu:l v/uw - ir. pn vbs nf di al cn pn nn av vbs pc

'we-2 go-ing away and v/e-two aninal later neet-did' /S F (L) /On S 0 T P / "He and I were going off and later we net a wallaby."

3'. Derqkan nul pal ya: - tal ^^^ ka:r ya:-t (ii)ul pal. av pn dr vb sp cn ng vb pc pn dr

'y'day he cone walk-should and not cone-did he this-v/ay' /I! S P / Cn F- S -F ^ / "Yesterday he was supposed to come and he didn't come here."

4. Peln ko'o - r - nam pam - al qerqkan DUL yo:r pok - on. pn vbs re rif nns er av cn av aj

'they spear-eo-ing m e n yesterday and today none' /S P S T /- Cn T FA /

"They used to be spearing each other before but not nov/."

/Dul/ is frequently om-itted, not that it is understood or

assumed to be necessary to tv/o clo.uses in paratactic succession

with a zero connector.

5. Pam-al may nu:qk - r; qok nu:qk - r nul pa:nl - u. nns er nn vbs tn nn vb tn pn nn er ' man food swallow-did water sv/allov/-did she woraan'

/ S O P / O P S / "The nan ate the food and the wonan drank the v/ater."

6. Fan - al kirk lunp - r, nin ku:j ke'e - r. nns er nn vb tn nn nn vbs pc ' nan spear throw-did aninal 'roo kill - did'

/S O P / 0 P / "The nan threv/ a spear and killed tho kangaroo."

7. Day ya:-t qerqkan qurnt-urirt-ur ni:n - n,at naq-un pornpur-n. pn vb pc av av vb ps pn ac nns lo 'I go-did y'day darkness sit-did hin-with house-in'

/S P T " / P Ac L / "I v/ent last night and sat with hin in the house."

/Dul ulp/ 'and that' is used to coordinate clauses post-

initially with /ulp/ replacing /nul/ 'he' or /peln/ 'they.' because

the sane subject is intended as before. Later, v/e shall see that

when /ulp/ 'that one, that thing, that fact' substitutes for a pre

vious statement, it virtually glosses as 'because, for that reason'

and thus seems to qualify for a place among dependent clauses. How

ever, in mere coordination, /qui/ continues to join and /ulp/ fills

the S-slot or 0-slot; 'that/those acting or referred to before'.

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8.

Pan yi:r-yir-am ko:p lono-kowonp DUL ULP Kot-ntrko;v/-.t.ak-ar ko'o-r. nn aj nn nm or vb cn dm na er nn vb pc vb pc 'man s o m e all on-c-e die and that God j u d g e - does' /S m. F /Cn 0 S P /

"Everyone nust die once and then cones the judgment of God."

By means of repetition, a near approach may bo made to

the correlatives of English in /qui ulp ,,. qui ulp .../ :

9. DUL ULP minj-qu:l DUL ULP qerqkerqk-an ra:k yu:r kulir-ka. on dm av cn dm cav nn nn nm da

'and that afternoon and that norning tine fingers two-for' / Cn S PA /Cn S FA / /S FA /

"And that v/as evening and that v/as norning, a second day,"

By neans of /qui .., ya:-r i'i/ 'and .,, like this, so',

coordination is achieved connonly, but if the reference is back

ward, then it sonetines clearly takes up the meaning 'because' and

is virtually subordinative in intent if not formally. Otherwise,

/ya:-r i'i/ merely fills a Manner slot.

13.1.2 Subordination

Subordinative conjunctions fit the embedded clause into

a clause level slot in the same way as a relater preposition fits

its nominal axis into a clause level slot. The following double

exanple shows hov/ the distinction between a phrase relater and a

clause subordinator is really quite superficial for in one the axis

is em.bedded, while in the other the clause, into a clause level

slot of Manner.

10. Nunt re:k - nar kar pan nin. pn vb nr re nn aj (M)

'you give-nust like nan good' RA = re ax /S P M / /kar/ *N

Hd + Md re + ax *N - Hd Md

"You nust give like a kind nan." nn aj,

11. Nunt re:k-nar KAR Mojet-ntr kanaqkar yik-n Lo-lak Kot - antan, pn vb mr re na er av vbs nf nn lo na el 'you give-nust like Moses long-ago say-ing Law-in God-fron'

/S P M / /Sr J T P L y

re + a x i s "You nust offer sacrifices as Moses ordered in God's Law long ago."

M-slot f i l l e r is a Similarity clause; Sy-Cl = Sr Mg

/kar/ iCl

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Combining both; (M)

RA - re ax

/kar/ N/iCl

Speaking clause-v/ise, v/e may interpret the second (No. Il) as;

Sn = Base Margin

Main-Cl Subordinate-Cl.

Thaayorre subordinate clauses come under those heads:

Condition subordinated by /il/ 'if.

Purpose 'W " /(qui) .,. aqar/ '(and) ... so that'.

Reason " " /qui ulp/ 'because' and

Similarity " " /kar/ 'like, as' .

A somev/hat correlative use of /kar/ has been encountered

and some temporal adverbs have been found to function somexvhat as

subordinators to their clause. Samples now follow;

C o n d i t i o n 1 2 . IT_ (n_u)nt k a t p - n , q u ; l l i : k - r y n p .

cn pn vb dz av vb t n as ' i f you t o u c h - w i s h l a t e r b r e a k - v / i l l s o o n ' / S r 3 F / T P /

o r ; '/06i T P / " I f you v/ant t o t o u c h i t , i t ' l l soon g e t broken."

With t h e second tagmemic a n a l y s i s , t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e

f i l l s a C o n d i t i o n - s l o t on c l a u s e l e v e l b e i n g embedded and m i n o r .

The double f i l l i n g of such a s l o t may have one s u b o r d i n a t o r and t h e

u s u a l / q u i / t o j o i n b o t h c o n d i t i o n c l a u s e s ;

1 3 . 11^ qay q a t - a y a : - n DUL ( q ) a y l a : w - u wak-n,an, q a t u l p p o k - o n . cn pn nns da vb p r cn pn nns ns vbs fu nn dn a j

' i f I f i s h - f o r go-do and I n o u t h - w i t h f o i l ov/-wil l f i s h t h a t none ' / S r S R P /On S M P / S PA /

o r : / C d (Cd) S PA / " I f I go f i s h i n g and ( i f ) I yav/n, I ' l l c a t c h no fish a t a l l . "

Purpose

14 . Kot - n t r nu r - nun p i t - n nu r k a : r ADARwont-n.. na e r pns ob vb po pn ng cn vb po f God y o u k e e p - c a n you no t s o - a s f a l l can '

/ S O P Pu / /S P- Sr -P /

"God can keep you all so that you can't fall."

/Aqar/ is nostly in preverbal order and its verb-head 'irrealis':

15. Kar waran - n peln kal DUL peln ADAR n.a:l. - n. re nns lo pn vb cn pn cn vbs po 'like Island-dance-in they take and they so-as see-can' /m S F /On S Sr P /

"As in an Island dance, thoy carry a canera so others can see."

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With an alteration of tense and aspect, /aqar/ takes on the alter

native neaning of 'but' which is logical in past tense.

16. Min qay yup le:rq - rl DUL ADAR rirk - r. nn pn as vbs im cn cn vb pc

'creature I soon strike-abt to and so fly-did' / O S P /Cn Sr P /

or: / 0 S F R / "I was about to shoot the bird, but if flew off,"

In this exar^ple, the gloss is still 'so that' but as the causation

is in past tine and the verb suffix punctiliar, realis(and not ir

realis), the translation could be 'but' or 'when'.

/Aqar/ is also used as 'because' in a reason slot:

17. Kot-ntr ra:k loqkun werqka nin yu:np - ir (n.u)l ... na er nn nn av nn vb pc pn ' God tine portion between good nake - did He

/S- 0 PA P -S / "God blessed the Sabbath day He did ...

... aqar ra;k loqkun werqka, Kot ni:n-nat nit naqn-nantan. on nn nn av na vb ps nn pa el

'so-as tine piece between God sit-did work his-fromJ / Sr T S P M /

... BECAUSE on the sabbath, God rested fron his works."

The clue to this is not entirely senantic, for both verbs

are in past tine, the first punctiliar and thus nore specific. Fur

ther, 'so that' (future) becones 'because' for PAST filling of the

reason-slot. The nain clause thus is: /S- 0 PA P -S R/.

Reason

18. Danp i:-ra ya:-r ra;k yi;r-aqn DUL qay ADAS ku:k nin pn dr al vb nr nn aj al cn pn cn nn aj 'v/e that-v/ay go place another-to and I so as nessage

/S P L /Cn S Sr 0 We nust go on to other villages around here, I have to "W

n_aqunp yik-nan j-n DUL qay ULP i;-wal ya: - t rirp - ir. av vbs fu po cn pn dn dr al vbs pc vb pc 'there speak-will-can and I that this-v/ay cone-did energe-did'

L P /Cn S R P _ / preach in then also, because that is why I cane."

Here, /qui ... ulp/ signals reason. Both verbs in the

verb phrase are intransitive and thus /ulp/ cannot be an object. It

usually points back to a previous topic and in this case refers to

the whole previous statenent as a reason for 'coning'. Many other

sinilar exar.iples have been noted in the corpus. Further, if the

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/ulp/ nodified the pronoun head /qay/, it v/ould be /in'n/.

Sinilarity

This type, using /kar/ 'like, as', has already been dis

cussed. The translation of an ascription of praise now follov/s to

show the use of this subordinator for both phrase and clause:

19. Danjn naqk-un ku;k nin ak yik - nanj - n, Danip - n ,,. pn pn da nn aj nr vbs fu dz nns da 'we you-to v/ords good let speak-will~v/ish Father-to

/S Io- 0 P -Io "Let us give praise to the Father ...

... kar peln kanaqkar ya:-r i'i yik-n ... kar yo;r in'n nul-a-lan. on pn av vb nr av vbs nf re av dn av

•like they long-ago like this say-ing like now this for-ever' M ... M / /Sr S T M P / Hd + Md

re -t-- ax ... as they long ago like this were saying... as today and ever."

M = re ax

/kar/ iCl/N

The first /kar/ is called a subordinator and the second a relater,

the difference being that one axis has a clause filler and the oth

er a phrase filler. Though a tagnenic distinction night be high

lighted here, the enic view nust be that /kar/ is a relater and any

kind of filler nay fill the axis slot. (See also section 6.3.1.1.)

Correlatives

One exanple approxinating to what we think of as depen

dent and correlative now follov/s, /kar ... kar .../ ' as.. . so... ' .

20. Dul ulp KAR nanjn yik-nan-le, ICAR pan qanjn-n.ar, lan nant iirkan-ak-1. cn dn re pn vbs fu as re nn pn ac nn aj vb nnz acfo 'and that like we say-will-nxt like nen v/e-crowd nen snail grow\-ith' /in S M P M /

re -tr ax "And he'll speak like us next; like our young folk he's talking."

Tine

Exanples are hard to find v/hich correspond to what one

night call tenporal clauses, for reliance is placed on adverbs and

aspectual auxiliaries rather than tine subordination, thus:

21. Day naka ni:n kanpa nunt naka loqk. vb av pn av vb stay before you hero arrive' P /_T / S L P / F ~T7

/Sr S L. F / "I was staying here first, before you arrived here."

Day pn • I

/s /a

naka av

here L ,L

520

As it v/ould appear that /kanpa/ is in double function as subordin

ator and link between the tv/o clauses, one nust surely choose be

tv/een the two alternatives in order to come down on one side or the

other. If /kanpa/ were to be a T-slot filler in the first clause,

it wouild nost likely be clause-initial since another adverb /naka/,

fills the nornal adverbial slot before the verb. Another analysis

is to regard /kanpa/ as relater and /nunt naka loqk/ as axis:

Day naka iii:n kanpa nunt n,aka loqk. /S L P T /

/S L F / re -I- a x i s

**I here stay before you - here - arrive,"

22. Nul qu:l rirk - r kor qat - un. pin av vb pc av pn da 'she later wake-did after ne - to*

re a x i s /S T P T /

"She v/oke up after ne/ after I did."

Thus we see that tenporal phrases are preferred to clauses.

23. Kanpa qal ko: - kope, kor qal yug rok - n. av pn rd vb av pn as vb po

'before you-I v/ait-ing after we-2 soon enter-can* / T S F / T S P /

"First you and I v/ere waiting and later we'll soon get in."

These two clauses are separate, each with its own tenporal adverb

to show that the waiting precedes the entering, but they are coord

inated by a zero connector and senantically in sequence. The next

exanple avoids using any tenporal subordinator by putting an adverb

in the first clause and a future verb (suffix) in the second;

24. Day kanpa lov/ol qay \mt wun - nan. pn av vbs pn au vbs fu 'I first play I sleep lie-will'

/ S T F / /T S P /

"First I'll play and then I'll lie down and sleep."

25, Nul Lorenj-n qan. le;rq-ar KANPA qay nun qu:l le;rq - ar. pn na er pn vb pc av pn pn av vbs pc • he Lawrence ne hit-did first I hin later strike-did'

/ S O F T / /Sr S 0 T F /

or: re -t- a x i s "Lawrence h i t ne before I got hin l a t e r on,"

If the two clauses were nerely p a r a t a c t i c , then /kanpa/ v/ould be

c l ause - in i t i a l or before the verb / l e : r q - a r / , but as i t occurs at

521

the border betv/een the two clauses, it nust be transferred there

intentionally to establish a subordinative relation of the second

clause to the first. The next and finoJ exanple is sinilar in

structure, but the tine sequence is reversed.

26. Jila Makarita ya:-t nul kor-uqkun nunt kanpa ya: - t, na na vb pc pn av pn av/as vb pc

'Sister Marguerita go-did she afterv/ards you before go-did' /S- F -S T /

/Sr S F ^ / re + a x i s

"Sister Marguerita v/ent after you had already gone."

The adverb in the second clause of each of the above exanples is

not entirely redundant, but nay be interpreted aspectually as well

as tenporally. The first adverb /kor/ is suffixed with the norph

ene /-uqkun/, a dative inflection linking it to what follov/s.

A clausal relationship of subordination occurs also by

neans of the aspectual narker /qa:lir/ 'still, (v/hile)'. Contenp-

oraneity can undoubtedly be signalled in this way whereby /qa:li.r/

relates or subordinates its clause to the other, the nain clause.

In the third exanple, ov/ing to the use also of /qui/ 'because', by

implication unites reason with the contenporaneous.

27. Jilaj n.un rirnr lak-ar qa:tir lan-n naqunp pa:nt - ak. na pn av vbs pc as vbs nf av nns ac •Jesus hin alone leave-did still std-g there wonan-v/ith»

/O M P PA / / S r F L Ac /

ve +• a x i s "Jesus was left alone v/ith the v/onan s t i l l standing there."

or: "Jesus was left alone while standing there with the v/onan."

Here we have the Thaayorre 'passive' clause v/ith a subordinated

'while' clause in the PA-slot, the subordinator being aspectual -

narker / qa : l i r / at the clause border relating i t s clause to the

nain clause of the sentence.

The next exanple, / q a : l i r / , clause-finally, appears once

nore at the clause border between i t s ov/n subordinate tine clause

and the nain clause follov/ing, the gloss being 'v/hile'. The f i r s t

(subordinate) clause f i l l s a l / P - s l o t in the nain clause.

28. Dul peln naqunp Fetliyem na; t i r cn pn av na as 'ond thoy there Bethlehem s t i l l /In S L T-P . ,

/Sr . . . "And while they v/ere in Bethlehen,

522

... ra;k naq-un kana la:pir (l)oqk-r par'r kal - pa:r - nala. nn pn da as av vbs pc nn vbs nf

'tine her-to has closely arrive-did child produce - to' /S- lo-L P- M -F Fu / ... the tine cane for her to have her baby."'

29. Pam naqanip naqkn-man min ka:p min le;rq - ar nn nn pa er nn nn aj vb pc 'n.an father your animal calf good strike-did' /S O P

"Your father killed the prize calf ...

-#- • • DUL (n,)ul i; - wal le:rk - r kunk DA:T^lS. cn pn dr vbs pc aj as

'and he this-way return-did alive still' R /

/{S:e-) S P PA -Sr / ... BEC71USE he got him back safe and sound."

Here the second (subordinate) clause fills a reason slot in the

nain clause, but we note that both /qui ... qa:lir/ combine to sub

ordinate the clause they include betv/een t hem, and that both verbs

are punctiliar-past fornally.

Relative pronouns

These subordinators are conspicuous by their

absence, but the following sentence gives the nearest approach yet

encountered to this kind of construction. It is achieved by neans

of the interrogative question narker /v/an(-ul)/ 'who? (er)» v/hich

night be glossed as 'whoever?' and being prononinalised, transfers

its influence to the second clause, the nain one, (See also the

sections 11,4.3 and 13.5, for supplenentary connents.)

30. Kiri pan nur wan-ul ra:k wa;r (ka;r-l) wa;t yu;np - ir, ... as nn pn qn er nn aj ng fo aj vbs pc

'cone-on nen you who? deeds evil not-the wrong do - did* /in S 0 P- FA -F /

"Cone on then, v/hoever of you has done no wrong, ...

... nul t on-lr ak kanpa lerep lunp - r naq - un. pn nn er nr av nns vb tn pn da

'he one let first stone throw-do her-to' /S P- O - F Io / ... let hin alone first throw a stone at her."

/Wan-ul/ fills a modifier slot in the noun phrase filler of the

S-slot, /pam nur wan-ul?/ and definitely has sone subordinating in

fluence on its own clause while linking both into a sentence ac

ceptable to the vernacular speaker.

523

With these prelininaries exemplified, the renainder of

the chapter will now organise and dononstrate the nost common sub

ordinate clauses of the language, the nominals, the adjectivals and

the adverbials, finishing v/ith comments,

13.2 Nominal clauses

These dependent clauses occur at phrase and clause level,

filling slots nornally occupied by nouns. Thus, at the level of

the clause, they nay fill S-slots, 0-slots, PA-slots and Quotation-

slots. At phrase level, they fill the axis slot which is objective

by reason of its 'preposition' relater fron an etic point of view.

13.2.1 Clause level

Noninal dependent clauses at clause level often conprise

the Sijbject tagnene of a clause, being enbedded in it:

31. Wa:r - nin qay pit - it - r ulp naqkn, aj(nn)aj pn vbs rd tn dn pa 'bad-good I possess-ing-do that yours'

/S . PA / /o s P /

H e a d + Md "Everything I possess there is yours."

Ue-Cl = S FA *N pa N = Hd Md

*tCl dn

tci = 0 S P nn pn tv

Read This •intensive clause consists of a subject slot filled

^ noun phrase and a predicate attribute slot filled by a possess

ive adjective. The noun phrase consists of a head slot filled by a

transitive clause and a modifier slot filled by a demonstrative ad

jective (/ulp/). The r.nnsitive clause consists of an object

slot filled by a derived noun compound, a subject slot filled by a

pronoun and a predicate slot filled by a transitive verb.

, Two noninal clauses nay fill the subject slot when linked

by /qui/ 'and'; internally, these are both intensive clauses.

32. Dul ulp nln.i-nu:l m^ ^^^ qerqk-erqk-an, ra:k yu:r koyle. cn dn a7 cn dn av nn nn nn 'and that evening and that norning time hand side

; f ^ ^^ ^ ' ^^ / FA / "And it was evening and it was norning, the fifth day."

524

The next exanple shows a transitive clause in the S-slot:

/pan rat yu:np-n/ which nust be viewed as a Head filling clause

which lacks its ergative inflection; /pan-al rat yu:np-n/. Though

it could be analysed as /pan/ (Hd) nodified by /rat yu:np-n/ (Md),

this description v/ould forbid the clause-unit posited as noninal.

Deletion of ergative /-al/ is caused by the referential use of the

transitive clause in the Head-slot, and in this case, an ergative

narker /-n/ does nark the S-filler as a whole on /yi;r-ara-n/, final

v/ord of the transitive S. (in 13.3, the alternative analysis will

be given shov/ing /pan rat yu;np-n/-typo clauses as adjectivals,)

33. Dul pan rat yT3a;np - n yi;r-an - n naqunp v/ak - n. cn nn nn vbs nf aj er av vbs nf 'and nen books v/rit-ing s o n e there follov/-ing' /In S . L P /

/ S O P / Hd + Md

"And s e v e r a l s c r i b e s were f o l l o v / i n g Hin t h e r e , "

t C l = I n S L P cn *N av ttr

N = Hd Md * t C l a j

m. t c i = S 0 P

Brj, nn t v

34. P e l n pam i t p e l n min k a ; r - p y a n j - n w a q a i - ak . . . pn nn dm pn a j ng em vbs po nns a l

' t h e y men t h o s e t h e y v /e l l n o t - t o o go - can d o c t o r - t o ' /S P L /

/B FA / or: /S [ FA /

"Those people who a re v/ell c a n ' t go to the doc to r ,

. . . . . . qui pe ln i t min.i-wanj - a;k kana y a : - n iiaq - u n . cn pn dn nn pp as vbs fu pns a l

'but they those s i cknes s -hav ing nov/ go - w i l l him - t o ' /Cn S P L /

/S PA / ,,. but those having sicknesses v/ill go to Him,"

These two coordinated intransitive clauses, both /S F L/, have in

tensive clauses enbedded as their S-filler in this way:

Sn = Bs, Bs^ iCl = (in) S ^ ^ , 1 ^ cn *NeCl V nn/pn iCl^ iCl^

1 2 Ij Cl = S FA

N nn/aj

Read: This coordinated sentence consists of base one slot fill

ed by an intransitive clause and base two slot similarly filled.

The intransitive clauses both consist of a subject slot filled by

525

an intensive clause, a predicate slot filled by a verb phrase and a

location slot filled by a noun or pronoun. The first intensive

clause embedded as subject filler consists of a subject slot filled

by a (pro)nominal phrase and a PA slot filled by an adjective, while

the second intensive clause consists of a subject slot filled by a

pronoun phrase and a FA slot filled by an adjectivised noun.

Nominal dependent clauses at clause level often comprise

the 0-tagneme of a clause, being embedded in it,

55. Nul Kot-ntr n_a:-w-r In'n - ul min minj. pn nas er vbs pc dm pn aj av 'he G o d see - did this-one good very' /S F 0 /

/S TA / "God sav/ that this was very good. "

tCl = S F 0 N tv *NeCl = S FA

dn *AJ = Hd Md aj av

The enbedded noninal clause is intensive filling the 0-slot. But

noninal clauses in an object slot nay be chained sequentially as in

the following closely knit sentence, first noting that an alternat

ive description will follow at the end of this section.

36. Dul nul yik - r peln - qun . . . + oti.iect: cn pn vbs pc pn da •and he say-did then - to /in S P Io 0^ / "And He said to then , . .

0, ... nur ka;r mi,:-w-r rat - an ... -h object; pn ng vb pc nns lo 'you not see-did book-in

/S P L 0^ / •Didn't you see in the book ?

Op ... nul T epit - n yu;mp - ir ... + object: ffL. na er vbs pc 'he D a v i d do - did

/S F 0 '¥/hat David did ...

0 ... Mil ra:k (q)aw-il qan-p kal-rl ... + subject ^ pn nn en dn qn en vbs in

'he tine t h a t what?-too take-abt-to /S- T O P -S /

'what he was about to take that tine

-S ... punkur-la:r nul pan naqn - nan ? ajs pn nn pa er

'hungry he nen h i s ' FA S / he and his men v/ere f ani shed?"

526

The three object clauses are chained recursively, but the

final intensive clause linked discontinuously to the S-filler of

the third O-f idler, /nul/, night v/ell be a while/when tenporal

clause in the translation. But in Thaayorre, it is undoubtedly an

intensive extension of the subject of 0^ for it bears an ergative

suffix linking it v/ith the verb there /kal-rl/.

Thus the three noninal 0-fillers and one S-filler are:

tCl = S F Io 0^ jj_jjj clause pn tv pn tCl

tCl = S P L 0^ Subordinate clause pn tv nn tCl

tCl = S P 0„ Subordinate clause N tv - tCl

tCl = S- T 0 P -S „ m gn N qn tv *NeCl

NeCl = PA S Subordinate clause aj N

Read: This transitive clause consists of a subject slot filled

by a pronoun, a predicate slot filled by a transitive verb, an in

direct object slot filled by a dative pronoun and an object slot

filled by a transitive clause. Recursively, three object slots are

filled by transitive clauses, all noninal by this external distrib

ution, but the discontinuous subject slot of the third subordinate

clause is filled by a pronoun plus an intensive clause mth its PA-

slot clause-initial for focal linkage with the previous prononinal

co-filler.

An ob.iect slot nay be filled by a oonnand clause:

37. Dul nul yik-nat "Da^ (n)unt nit aqar re:k]" pan Ion - lak. cn pn vbs ps pn pn nn cn vb nn nn da 'and he say-did ne you work so give nan one - to

/in S F 0 lo / /lo S O R F /

"Then he said, 'So you'll have to give ne work' to one nan."

dt-Cl = In S P 0 Io cn pn dtv *C-C1 N

C»C1 = Io S 0 R F pn pn nn cn tv^^

A transitive clause with an enbedded nonfinite infinitive construc

tion nay fill the object slot of an Interrogative clause, v/ith its

interrogative narker being a subject nodifier on phrase level and

the predicate slot of the enbedded clause being filled, in the

527

absence of a v e r b , by a d i r e c t i o n a l :

38. Pan- la :w naiin waii-ul kanpa k a : l - u - q e : - y - r , , . + object nn pa qn er av v b s pc

' f r i e n d s h i s w h o before t h ink - did /S T F

"Who of h i s co l leagues would have thought beforehand . . ,

pe ln y i ; r - y i r - a n - n nun, y a : - r a l o ; r q - n.ala r a ; k naknkat-an? '** -pn a j er pn dr vbs nf nn nns e l

/ 'they s o m e Him away-go kill - to place camp-±rom

L „______ / /S O P Fu he would be struck dov/n fron the land of the living?"

Q_tCl = S T P 0 N av tv *tCl = S 0 P Pu L

^^ N pn dr nf N

The next exanple shov/s a transitive clause in which two

juxtaposed clauses fill the 0-slot, The first of these tv/o is a

transitive clause with an instrunontal tagnene and the second a

nonfinite clause in which the object slot of the infinitive is

filled by a transitive clause.

39. Dul nul Fo:njur wal - ne:r - (e)n ... -t- objecl: cn pn na v b s 'and he Poonchur renenbers

/in S P ... 0 / "And He the Lord knows how

0 . . . pan r a ; k v/a; r - nan n e ; r - e p i t - n . . ^ n n nn a j e l nn ns vbs nf

' n a n deeds e v i l - f r o n e y e - w i t h k e e p - i n g /O M Ns F / " . . , t o s a f e u a r d a nan frora e v i l . . .

0 pan il ra:k wa:r yu:np-ir yik - an - nala. 2. '" ^^ (i]-L nn aj vbs pc vbs cs nf

'nan that deeds evil do - did judge - to'

/O / ^ /S 0 F /

" ... and to punish crininals."

tCl = In S F 0 cn N tv *N = Hd Hd

*tCl *nfCl = 0 F tCl nf

*tCl = 0 M Ns F nn N nn tv

The following sentence has a transitive clause enbedded

in its 0-slot whose own 0-slot is filled by an adjectivised nn-Cl.

These nay also be classified externally as noninal clauses.

528

40. Kot yik - r . . . + object na vbs pc 'God say-did /S P 0 /

"God said ...

0 ... "Wey, n.ak, Day pan ku:k~a:k qaln nul "unp - r ... ex vb pn nn nn pp pa nn vb tn 'hey look] I man v/ords-having ny s e n d - do 0

/In S O F "Behold, look, I send ny messenger . . *;

kanpa ko:w-mi:q naqkn - m.an. av nn pa lo

tCl = S P 0 ' ' '^^" '^^ ^ " = == y o u r ' nn t v * t C l IJ /

b e f o r e your f a c e . "

=tCl = I n S O P L C-Cl pn *Fp-Cl V RA

Fp-Cl = S PA nm. nn

m

= Cr °^ *tci --= S -

.nn-0 ..nn

F tv

-S pn

An i n t e n s i v e c l a u s e may be embedded i n t h e o b j e c t s l o t of

a t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e v/hich i s i t s e l f t h e o b j e c t of a p r e v i o u s v e r b ,

whi le a t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e f i l l s i t s ov/n l o - s l o t . These a r e n o n i n a l :

4 1 . W a n t - a n t - a r r i r k - a n y i k - nan pan y a n k a r - i n t - u l - ak ? qn a j vbs fu nn nn vb pn da

' w h a t - a b o u t ea sy say - v / i l l nan l e g - c r u s h - h e t o ' /O P I o / /S FA / /S- 0 F -S /

"Which is easier to say to the paralysed nan?"

Q-tCl = 0 F Io *NeCl tv *nn

NeCl = S FA Iff aj

Read.: This question transitive clause consists of an object

slot filled by an intensive clause, a predicate slot filled by a

transitive verb and an indirect object slot filled by a conpound

noun. The Intensive clause consists of a subject slot filled by a

question narker and a predicate attribute slot filled by an adjec

tive v/hile the conpound noun consists of a core slot filled by a

transitive clause fused into a word conpound as shown. The two

clauses are thus enbedded noninally where one night expect nouns.

A oonnand clause nay be enbedded noninally in the 0-slot

of a noninal transitive clause v/hich itself is enbedded in the S-

-slot of an intensive clause.

529 42. Ra:k qan okun nunt yik-r "Onkor vu:mp" peln - qun pam - a ra:k-un, nn qm as pn vbs tn ng vbs pn da nn da nn lo 'tine v/hat maybe you say-do don't do then-to men-to earth - on' /T S F 0 Io (L) /

"Whenever you forbid sonething on earth anong nen,

... ulp-nr-p putpan (yokun-nan) ra:k-unn - ak, dn In en av aj nn lo 'sane-just above identical heaven - in'

/ S L PA L / " ... just that will be the sane in heaven."

If we regard /ra:k qan okun/ as a subordinator, then the clause seq

uence would be as indicated above, but alternatively, the conpound

/ulp-r^-p/ is prononinal meaning 'just-that-too' and substituting

for and representing the whole of the first line v/ithin the S-slot

of the (second) intensive clause.

/s(TSPOIoL)-i-L-i-FA-hL/ = Main intensive clause.

The following Gonnand-intensive-clause contains an indir

ect benefactive slot which is filled by an intransitive noninal

clause, and the dative suffix occurs redundantly both on the noun

in the nain clause and on the (relative) pronoun substituting for

it as S-filler of the dependent clause.

43, Fan in'n-ul ak ni:-nin (n)ul nin pu:l nin - a ... nn dn pn nr rd vbs pn nn nn nn da •nan this-one let stay-ing he b o s s aninals-to /S_ F -S PA Be

"Let this nan be the ruler over the aninals ...

,., peln - (qun) tu:-tut-r kor-kanpa ra:k - un. pn da rd vbs tn av nn lo

•then - to crav/1 - ing-do everjnvhere earth-on' (Be) /, /S F M F / " ... which are crawling evevywhexe on earth."

C-Ne-Cl = S- P -S PA Be 1 ? pn N *N = Hd Hd

nn iCl

The underlined intransitive clause is analysed as filler of a head-

slot because it is in apposition to /nin-a/ and its S-filler bears

the inflection /-qun/ relating it to the clause. Thus it can be

said that /-qun/ is relater and the clause is axis for it.

Clauses nay be analysed externally as noninal v/hen the

distribution occurs as noninal filler of a PA-slot. A truncated

transitive clause is enbedded noninally below:

530

44. Day nip-lin pan katp - n yonpar - nan - r. pn pn ob nn vbs nf vbs cs tn 'I you-two nen catch-ing eventuate-cause-will'

/S 0 FA F / / O P /

"I change you two into catchers of nen now."

Xn-tCl = S 0 FA F pn pn tCl tv

c s

This extensive transitive clause has as its nominal filler an em

bedded transitive clause, /O + P/.

The next example illustrates the way in which an embedded

clause now fills an object slot because the filler of the F-slot is

a special class of verb with a built-in attribute nade fron an ad

jective + verbaliser + causative, Otherv/ise, it would fill a FA-

-slot as a noninal clause filler.

45. Jitaj-ntr kanpa ninir-p-un-ir nin kunk Ian - an - nala. na er av aj vbz cs pc pn aj vbs cs nf "Jesus before ready-do-nk-did you alive stand-cause-to • /S T F 0 ,/

/O PA P / "Jesus previously prepared to save you."

tCl = S T F 0 SM m tv^^ Xn-Cl^^_^

An intensive clause fills the PA-slot of the next exanple, and a

sonev/hat gerundic forn class energes fron the noninal attribute of

'loving (us)', in the Connand reflexive nain clause;

46. Kot, nunt qanjn - qun qe;qfc - m - n me:r-en - r - nar. na pn pns da nn vbz nf nn cs rx mr 'God you us - to lov - ing show - yours elf-m.usf /in S FA ^ P /

/To F / "God, you must reveal yourself that you love us."

C-rx-tCl = In S FA F Iia, gji *iCl tv^^

iCl = Io F

P^da ^^

The follov/ing example is included to show a reflexive at

tributive clause filling the PA-slot of a transitive extensive

clause, the PA-filler being intensive. /T.an/ 'stand' is inherent

ly intensive, as also is /wene/ 'become', but /yom.par/ 'result, ev

entuate', like /pi:nt/ 'grow' may be extensive or processive verb

inherently. (See on Huddleston in 0.4.4)

s

531 47.

Nunt r i : r a n naqkn-nunt pam pork l . - ,n-an-r-nanj-n k a ; r - p yomparHian-r. pn av pn rx nn a j vbs c s r x fu po ng em vbs cs. t n

'you a lone yourse l f man chief r a i s e - s e l f - w i l l can ' t r e s u l t - m k - d o ' /S M 0 FA F /

, /FA F / "You alone can't engineer it to m-ake yourself becone a great nan."

Xn-t-Cl = S M 0 FA F pn av pn *NeCl V

rx NeCl = PA F

H» tv

rx

In vernacular narratives, whole series of nultiple object fillers

form a distinctive style of discourse, the following being usual: 48, Day leren - ak pinar ni:n - m i:-wal;

pn nn lo aj vb nf dr •I train-on awake stajz-ing this-way'

/S L FA F / "I just sat v/ide awake coning here by train..."

qui qerqk-erqk-an Ropin-ak qay yik - r ,.. + object cn av na da pn vb pc 'and early norning Robin-to I say-did /Cn T Io S P 0^ "... and early in the norning I said to Robin ...

0 ... ra;k kana patp - ir; nn as vb pc

'day has co,m.p - did' /S F / "... day has dawned ...

0„ ... puq kana paj - ar qamp-ul-qun; nn as vb pc pn da 'sun has rise-did us - on'

/S F Io / " ... the sun has risen upon us...

0„ ... naknkat-an kana le:rk i;-r-uq-kar; nns al as vb al cp dr

'camp - to now return go-to-north' /L F L / " ... v/ill go back northv/ards to the village. . .

0 ... qanip, qanan qal-lin qal na:l - nan, pan-la:v/, ^' nn nn pa pn vbs fu nn

'father, nother our v/e-2 see-will, friends' /O- S F -0 /

"... our fathers, nothers v/e'11 see, friends ...

qui loqko qanjn nay lina nu:qk - nat. cn av pn nn nn vb ps 'and halfv/ay we food dinner eat-did' /Cn L f O F / " ... and halfway we had a good neal."

These four noninal clauses forn a nultiple object-slot filler

532

between the coordinated clauses beginning and ending the utterance.

Longacre, discussing Quotation sentences (1968:166) saya

the Quotation is sinply a clause-level direct object and quotes El-

kins in his conclusion that "it seens preferable to regard the dir

ect quotation strings as portm.anteau manifestations of both clause

and sentence level structures." He discusses the fact that higher

level sentences nay not only conbine lower-level units (clauses) to

produce high-level units, but that they may sometimes restructure an

and reinterpret the lower-level units. I follov/ Longacre's equat

ion: Nonverbal quote sentence = + Quot formula; -t- Qn:

tCl iCl/Para and a sinple illustration of this fornula is shown below:

49. Danp ya:-r i'i ka:l-u-qe;-y-r ... -i- 2 objects pn vb av v b s - tn 'we go-nust here t h i n k - do ,„^ _ Q I\T -D n

/S M F Q / tCl - b M P 0 "We think this way ...

0- ... Kot - ntr le;rq - ar nuii; na er vbs pc pn ' G o d strike-did hin tCl = S F 0

/S F 0 / "God struck Hin down."

Op ... ka:l - ne:r kenje - y - r . nn nn vbs pc 'ear - eye crush - did' tCl = 0 F /O F / "crushed his spirit cruelly."

nvQS Qf

*tci

tci

+ Qn *AS =

= S M F

-1-

pn C-Cl tv

Read; This nonverbal quote sentence consists of a quotation

formula slot filled by a transitive clause and a quotation slot

filled by an amplificatory sentence. The transitive clause consists

of a subject slot filled by a pronoun, a nanner slot filled by a

connand clause and a predicate slot filled by a transitive verb.

The anplificatory sentence consists of base-one slot filled by a

transitive clause and base-two slot filled by a transitive clause.

The nonverbal quote sentence is illustrated in this Chap

ter to dononstrate the interclausal relations and vd.ll be dealt

T/ith at length under the Sentence (Tape Transcriptions Volune). For

http://vd.ll

533

focal emphasis, the order of slots nay be reversed, in which case,

the clause filling the 0-slot cones first and the main clause term

inates the whole utterance.

50.. Itil yu;r naqn-mantam waj-v/ajir yu:mp-nan Kot naq-un - yik - r. pn nn pn el aj vbs fu na pn da vb tn 'he hand his from superb(ly) do-v/ill God him-to say-did'

/S Ns-M PA F / /Q—~' S IO P / "He /ill work God's v/ill amazingly by his hand, God told him."

The quotation formula nay be repeated in variant forn;

51,. Yi:ram-n ka:r-p wan - ir peln - qun ... + .objjcl aj er ng en vbs pc pn da

' sone not too tell-did then - to /S P Io 0 /

"Soneone failed to tell then ...

0., ,,, peln yo:r - nr n.:i; - nan; pn av In rd vbs

'they today-just see - ing' /S M F / "what they're nov/ seeing ...

qui kanpa ka:r-p ka:l - a;l - ir ... + object cn av ng en nn vbs pc

'and before not-too ears-burn - did /Cn T F 0 / "and previously never believed

Op ... yo;r (q)aw-in'n-ul qe: - y - nan. av en dn pn vbs fu 'today this-one hear - v/ill'

/ T O P / " ,.. this today that they'll be hearing."

nvQS - Qf Qn Qf Qn tCl stCl stCl tCl

The quotation fornula type of construction nay hold a series of

clauses together with nutual cohesion and interdependence so that

the border between paragraph and sentence/clause is blurred.

52, Jilaj ya;r-yara yik - n: 'Jesus on-and-on say-ing-was

Fan lono nul pam nerqk kulir - k - a;k. 'man one he nan son tv/o - possessor'

Nul pan nerqk qu:l-an yik - r naq-un pan naqanip - n 'he nan son younger say-did hin-to nan father-to

Danin, qan ya:-r i'i-nr re:k wa:r-nin qal-un ]^ ' Dad ne like this-just give everything ne-to'

Kana - nr nij riaqkn - na ] 'nov/-just share you - fron'

534

A double quotation fornula nay precede a series of nut

ually successive and dependent clauses thus, v/ith noninals in non

inal slots by external distribution.

53. Ji^aj lele yik - r naq - un ... -i- p_b_j_ecl Qf na as vbs pc pn da 'Jesus next say-did hin-to' (tCl)

/S P Io 0 / "Jesus then said to hin .,.

Day ninj-m.inj yik . . . + object Qn - Qf pn av vbs 'I truly say (tCl)

/S M P 0 / "Truly I tell you ,..

11 pan lono ka:r-p lil kal - pa:r, Qn on nn nn ng en av v b s

(Cd-Cl) 'if nan one not-too again be-born /Sr S-0 P- M -F / "If a nan is not indeed born again ,..

nul ulp ra:k naqn Kot - lak ka:r-p na:n. pn dn nn pa na pv ng en vb

(tCl) "he that place his God ' s not-too see(ing)' / S O P / "he'll never get a sight of God's kingdon,"

nvQS = Qf Qn tCl *AS = Qf Qn

tCl CdCl -f tCl

13.2.2 Phrase level noninal clauses

The follov/ing exanple shov/s a transitive clause as nonin

al filler of the head slot of a noun phrase in a nominal transitive

clause itself filling the 0-slot after a transitive verb of a non

verbal quotation sentence.

54. Nul yik - r: "Fan nor, nit rirk - n qanip qato - nak pn vbs pc nn nn nn vb nf nn pa pv 'he say-did nen nany v/ork do-ing father ny - of

/S P 0 /S O F / Hd + _Md

H e a d Md / S -

"He s a i d : 'Many h i r e d workers of ny f a t h e r ' s . . . .

. . . nay noq n i n j pe ln nu ;qk - r l a : - y a : - r a l a k - r - 1 . ' nn nm av pn vb t n av vbs t n fo

'food nuch very they ea t -do o v e r l e a v e - d o - t h e ' a -s p K /

/M_ F _., E / ... have stacks of food they can eat with plenty over too] "

/

535

tCl = S F 0 pn tv *tCl = S- 0 -S F M

*N N pn tv stCl

N = Hd Md „ ^ ^ *tCl N = Hd Md

=!tCl = S 0 F „ , nn pa N nn tv

The next exanple shov/s a transitive clause as nominal

filler of the axis slot in a relater-o.xis phrase within a causative

attributive clause;

55. (See ex. 266 in 6.3.1.1, the Phrase.) Day nip-lin pan katp-n yonpar-nan-r kar nat nip puqk te:rk-an-n. pn pn ob nn vb nf vbs cs tn re nn pn nn vbs cs nf 'I you-two nen catch-ing result-cause-do like fish you catch-ing' /S 0 PA F M /

/O S F / re -f a x i s

"I'll nake you nen-catchers as you used to be catching fish." Xn-tCl = S 0 PA P M

pn pn tCl tv *RA = re ax °^ /kar/ *tCl = 0 S F

nn pn "V

Next, a transitive clause fills the axis slot of an RA

phrase nanifesting a double-headed dative, each head with its dat

ive inflection, o,nd the second being a clause:

56. Dul nul yik-r peln-qun | pan rat yu:np - n - ak. cn pn vbs pc pn da nn nn vbs nf da 'and he say-did then-to nen books v/rit-ing - "to' /in S P Io > '

/ S O P / a,x + re ax +• re

Hd I Hd "And He spoke to then v/ho were scribes. "

stCl - In S P Io cn pn tv , *N = Hd Hd

'' M *RA = ax re *t-Cl da

*tCl = S 0 P

'tm. 'ian ^Pf

The enbedded transitive clause /S 0 P/ though analysed as a noninal

filler of the juxtaposed head slot has a deeper significance also

in the nodification of the rather neaningless /peln/, but ov/ing to

the double relater construction, Io = Hd +_JM.

Next, I cite a sinilar exanple of a transitive clause

filling the axis slot in an RA phrase which functions as FA of an

intensive clause. (See ex. 265 in section 6.3.1.1, "tle Phrase.) Its

tagnenic equation shows the enbedding, but not the double ergative.

536

57. Ne-Cl = S FA dn *RA= re ax

/kar/ *tCl = S P L N V nn, er lo

A transitive clause nay fill a head slot within a double-headed S-

tagnene in an intransitive clause having an intransitive S,

58.

Pan ra:k rirkir puqk te:rk-an-ra noq peln pan kor-pal i; v/un - n. nn nn nn nn vbs cs nf nn pn nn av av vbs nf 'nen n o n e y g a t h e r -ing nany they nen oustide there stay-g' /S 1 ^ /

/S Q „, —»P ^ — _ _ _ / Hd + Md H e a d + Md — — "

Hd -t- CO + Hd "The tax-collectors and the outcasts v/ere there. "

This exanple, like raany previous, not only shows a transitive claus

al filler of the noninal slot, but demonstrates a deeper signific

ance, namely, that, by separating the S from its clause, /pam/ be

comes head of a phrase with /O + P/ as modifier, of its own S if it

v/ere independent.

Pari I ra:k rirkir punk .te;rk-an-ni | moq . . . Hd + m o d i f i e r -i- Md

Hov/ever, this interpretation cannot be established at this point,

but the structure is represented herewith;

iCl - S L F *N av iv *N = Hd Co Hd

*N pn N

*N = Hd Md *tCl nm *tCl = S O F

nn N V

An identical process may occur within a transitive clause.

59. Peln pam rat yu;mp-m yi;r-am peln pam Pariji - antam ... pn nn nn vb mf aj dn pn nn na el

'they men books writ-ing some they men Pharisees-from

/S "Some scribes together with men from the Pharisees ...

... pormpur Jinakok - ak n_a: - w - r .nun. nn na lo vbs / pc pn

tCl = S P 0 ' house Synagogue at see - did him'

*N tr pn ^ „° at the Synagogue caught sight of Him."

*N = Co Hd Co Hd pn '''N pn N

=-N = Hd Md *tCl aj

tCl = S 0 F nn nn tv

537

It seems better to interpret /peln ... peln/ as a double manifesta

tion of the coordinating pronoun than to establish juxtaposed heads

within each of the juxtaposed heads, though this interpretation has

been given in sone sinilar exanples in other chapters.

One final exanple in this section shov/s an intransitive

clause filling the axis slot of an RA phrase in the M-slot of a

clause in the S-slot of an intensive clause.

60. Dul Fo:njur-ntr ra:k v/a:r qanp-lin nut naqk - an ... on na er nn aj pa nn av lo 'and L o r d deeds evil o u r back lev/ - on /in S 0 L

"And the Lord laid on Hin the heavy burden of

kar vuk - werk - wa:r lak - ar, nunjun naq-un. re nn vb aj vbs pc aj pn da 'like thing rubs bad leave-did heavy hin-to' M F / PA Io /

/S P M / re + ax "our evil deeds which v/eighed Hin down. "

Ne-Cl = S PA Io *N aj pn ,,jj ^ g^

*tCl = In S 0 L M P on nn N N *RA tv

*RA = re ax /kar/ *iCl = S F M

nn iv aj

This final iCl conprising /S P M/ has becone a fused conpound noun

neaning "an awk?.7ard burden" idionatically established.

13.3 A d j e c t i v a l c l a u s e s

13.3.0 Introduction

These dependent clauses occur also at phrase and clause

level, filling slots nornally occupied by adjectives. Thus, at the

level of the clause, they nay fill any 'stative' kind of nodifier

slot analysed as PA. At phrase level, they fill nodifier slots.

13.3.1 Clause level

Clauses filling a PA-slot, if not nominals replacing a

noun, are nost probably aljectivals replacing an adjective as at

tribute within the tagnene sequence of the clause.

The first exanple denonstrates an intransitive clause

filling the attribute slot of an intransitive intensive clause.

338

61, Dul peln pan kul-puqk naq-un i:-wal puqk le;rk ... cn pn nn nn pn da dr nn vbs 'and they nen crowd hin-to this- i/ay g a t h e r /in S L P

"And the whole crowd of people returned gathering around

... ra:k lono-qkn naqunp, pormpur yin ta:w - an ko:pe - v - r. nn nm al av nn nn nn lo vb tn

place one-to there house door mouth-in wait - do ' m m . /

/L ^ , / Him in one assembly there, waiting at the door of the house."

The embedded clause, /L P/ is attribute to /peln .. puqk

le:rk/, 'they ... gathered' and might be replaced by /pi :^-a-wa;r/

'tired' or /minj-wanj-a:k/ 'sickness-possessing' as it replaces an

adjectival PA.

The second example has a double adjectival filler in its

PA-slot, the first positive and the second negatively stating the

same thing, both jointly embedded in the intransitive clause.

62. Minj, pam min ka:r-p ni:-iiin ra:k-un nul mit min yu:mp - r. av nn aj ng em rd vb nn lo pn nn aj vbs tn 'truly man good not stay-ing earth-on he work good do-does

/in ""s P L FA / S O F y

"Truly, there is not a good man living on the earth doing

nul aqar ra:k wa;r ka:r yu:mp - n. pn cn nn aj ng vbs po ' he so-as things bad not do - can' (FA) / /S Sr 0 F / good works to the exclusion of bad ones."

The first adjectival filler of the PA-slot might be replaced by the

adjective 'holy' and the second by 'not faultless'. The second is

dependent also on the first filler by reason of its subordinator,

/aqar/, but this serves rather to facilitate the semantic denial of

the opposite of /min/ 'good', /wa;r ka:r/ 'bad not'.

Ne-iCl = In S P L FA av N V nn *N = Hd Md

tCl tCl

Formally, the second clause fills a Result-slot in the first.

FA *N = Hd

tci = s O P R pn N tv -HOI = S Sr O F

pn cn N V

From this equation, the first FA-filler is adjectival and the

539

embedded second one is an adverbial clause of reason.

Next, a brief transitive clause fills the PA-slot which

modifies an object attributively.

63. Ra;k loqkun werqka Kot -n t r mit naqn ko;p kerp-xian- i r nul i t yu;mp-lr..

nn nn av na er nn pa nm vb cs pc pn dm vb pc ' t ime p iece between God work h i s a l l f in ish-make did he t h a t do -d id ' /T S 0 P PA /

/ S O P / "On the sabbath day, God finished all his works, his own."

English can barely translate this PA-filler as one adjective, but

prefers to use a relative clause like "that He did" instead."'

A transitive intensive clause m.ay fill the PA-slot in an

other transitiVT-e intensive clause, adjectivally.

64. Dul nun yu:r - (l)ak - r (p)ok lak - ar . cn pn nn vbs ps nn vbs pc 'and him hands -leave-did nothing leave-did'

/in 0 FA P / /O F FA /

"And he v/as left em.ptyhanded,"

Although the verb inflection is unchanged, the main clause is in

the Thaayorre 'passive voice', 0 first and S omitted.

Pas-NeCl = In 0 PA P on pn *NeCl tv

NeCl = 0 F FA

nn tv aj

The expression /yu;r-ak-r-ok/ has been condensed by elision into a

compound meaning 'empty-handed', but its clause structure is clear.

A transitive clause having its referential object in focus

clause-initially may modify the previous object as PA,

65, Day min ji;p qaw-il kana wuw-ir it (n)ay we;r-e-k - ar . pn nn nn em dm as vbs pc dm pn vbs pc *I s h e e p that have meet-did that I bad - give-did'

/ s o P PA / / o s p /

"I have found that sheep I lost track of."

The embedded clause may be replaced by 'lost, misplaced, astray or

wandering' as an adjectival filler of the PA-slot. /ll/ 'that' is

demonstrative(and not a relative pronoun) restating the previous

/qav/-il/ pronominally and not unlike the function of an English

relative pronoun.

The following example shows an adjectival intens

ive clause filling an attributive slot, but because the head noun

540

of the S-filler is repeated discontinuously, it is formally nominal.

66 PAIJI qaln-man wa;r-min wal-me:r-e-m (PAM) minj;::minj tono-nr nul, nn pa er nn v b s nn aj nm Im pn^ 'man ra y everything k n o w s man superb unique-just he' /S 0 F FA /

/FA ^ S / "My servant understands all things being unique."

Ne-tCl = S 0 P PA N nn tv *Ne-iCl = PA S

AJ pn

Without the repeated /pam/, the embedded clause is adjectival as PA,

but because of the disjunction, the nominal /pam/ version is better.

The follov/ing embedded clause is adjectival but different

from the filler of a PA-slot. It is a disjunctive repetition of the

head of the S-slot with the addition of a modifier v/hich happens to

be an intensive i-Cl embedded in the intransitive clause:

t7, PELN KO:P rirp-ir naq-un ra:k Jtltift - nak ... -ph nm vb pc pn da nn na lo 'they all emerge-did him-to place Judea - in

/S P L L "They all came out to Him in Judea ...

. -., nam' PELN KO:P ra:k Jerujalem-tam. nn pn nrii nn na e l

'men they a l l p l ace Jerusalem-froiil At / /S FA /

" . all of them from Jerusalem city." iCl - S P L At

PN iv N *Ne-iCl = S PA N SA

The next filler of the PA-slot is adjectival and by one

interpretation present participial. Hence the analysis below:

68. II minj-la;w qe;qk iierp ~(k)- a:r - in, nul wonp - n; cn nn nn nn stz np pn vb po 'if body s o u l do-lacking it die- can' /Sr S FA / S F /

/O P / "If the body has no spirit, it can die."

(in'n - ul yokum- man - nr - p ; ) dm pn aj Im em 'this-one similar - just - too' (comment)

/S PA E / "This is identical too."

II qamp ka:l-a:l - n - nx mit - a:r - in. qamp v/onp. cn pn V b s po Im nn np ns pn vb 'if we b e 1 i e V e-can-just v/orks-lacking-by we die' /Sr S P PA / S F /

/O F Ns / "If we only believe, lacking any v/orks, we shall die."

541

Filling a PA-slot, the following underlined clause virtu

ally begins with a present participle, clause-initially, and func

tions adjectivally in its distribution.

69. Ku:k i n ' n qanjn nun q e : - y - r naqn-ma wan-an-r nanjn qav/oy Kot nul mi: q.

nn dm pn pn vb t n pn e l vb rd t n pn af na pn nn 'v/ord t h i s we i t hea r -do him-from t e l l - g - d o we yes God h e H g h t /O- S -0 P « PA / ^ /P S 0 —rJ,

Tl^I S FA / "A word like this we heard from Him, saying as v/e do, Yes Godis light."

Efe-tCl = 0- S -0 F M PA N pn pn tv pn^^ *tCl

*tCl = P S O tv pn *Ne-iCl = In S FA PP av na nn

The example above shows how a reduplicated continuous verb form may

fill the normal P-slot, but by being placed clause-initially, it

has the specially subordinating function of fitting its clause as a

relater, into the PA-slot of the main clause.

Another participial construction follov/s, this time, one

which (i) uses the same subject as the main verb, (ii) may be in

transitive while the subject and main verb are transitive, (iii)

expresses continuity in its verb suffix and (iv) modifies the sub

ject adjectivally.

70, Dul pam rat yu:mp-m yi:r-am-n naqunp ni:n - n on nn nn vb mf nm dn er av vb mf

'and men books writ-ing some there sit-ting /In S L P

"And several scribes were each sitting there,

kempte-p rank-ank-m man ne:qk peln - antam - n... av em vbs rd mf nn nn pa lo

'separately-too question-ing hearts t h e i r - in' PA /

/M F L / "...separately questioning in their hearts ,,,

"Pam in'n-qun want-ant-ar ya:-r i'i yik-r ku:k v/a:r naq-un Kot-lak?" nn dm lo qm vb av vbs tn nn aj pn da na da 'man this-at how-about? like this say-do v/ds bad him-to God-to'

/S Nt M F 0 Io _ / "V?hy is this man here saying evil things before God?"

Ne-iCl = In S L P FA cn N av iv *tCl = M F M 0

av tv N *Q-tCl PP

• Q-tCl = S Ft M P 0 Io I qm C-Cl tv N FN

542

Thus a transitive clause fills the PA-slot (centre line of text,)

of the initial intensive intransitive clause. This PA-filler ad

jectivally functions attributively to the first clause. Notice

that /pam rat yu:mp-m yi:r-am-n/ v/ith its ergative inflection, is

also S of the FA-filler clause v/hixh has a transitive verb.

Another example of v/hat is virtually another participial

adjectival clause confirms the following points: (i) it uses but

omits the same subject as the main verb, (ii) it modifies the sub

ject attributively, (iii) its verb is suffixed for continuity, (iv)

its absence does not affect the independence of the main clause,

71, Dul qe:qk nerp naqn Kot-lak nul munt-wa:r yanj-m putpan ... on nn nn pa na pv pn av vbs mf av 'and spirit his God's He hovering go-ing above

/In S M F L "And the Spirit of God was hovering above ...

... i;-kan qunan i;-r-kop na:t - m. di nn dr vb mf

'on-top ocean go-dov/nwards look-ing' L FA /

/O L P / »,.. on top looking dov/nv/ards at the sea."

Ne-iCl - In S M P L L FA pn N av iv av di *tCl = 0 L F

nn dr tv CO

Briefly, a transitive clause /O L P/ adjectivally fills the PA-slot

of the main intensive intransitive clause and the imperfect aspect

of the subordinated verb has a somewhat participial relationship

with the main clause.

13 .3 .2 P h r a s e l e v e l

Clauses v/hich fill modifier slots on phrase level are ad

jectival by external distribution. One such filler is intensive:

72. In'n - ul kanpa ya;-r i'i ... dm pn av vb av

'this-one first go-must here ... /S T M "First of all this is the account ...

.. . ku;k min Jitaj Karayj - ak nul pam n_erqk__Kot_-..lak. nn aj na na pv p n nn nn na pv

'story good Jesus Christ's he man son God's' ' FA " /

Hd + Md Hd + Hd /S PA / ax + re

H e a d + Modifier Hd + Md

" ... of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, God's Son."

/

543

Thus, /nul pan nerqk Kot-l.ak/ fills a modifier slot on phrase level

to /Jilaj Karayj-ak/ within the FA-phrase-filler.

A dependent clause may modify the nominal filler of an

object slot in a transitive clause.

73 Nul mun-r pam-ta:w naqn pil-pa:nt-an la:-pir-i - t v/un - m. •Jn vbs tn nn"- pa av lo av fo vbs mf 'he call-did friends his alongside-to close - the stay-mg

/s P 0 •?' 5j P /

Hd + Md + M o d i f i e r "And he called his neighbouring friends. "

tCl = S E 0 •nn tv *N = Hd Md Md

nn pa *iCl = L M F '^^ nn av iv

The title of a story may be interpreted as a noun head supported

by an adjectival phrase lacking its S.

74. "' Pam nerqk yu:w kerp - r . " nn nn av vb pc 'man son av/ay lose-did' /O L F /

o r : Cl + Hd / L P / Hd + Md

"The L o s t S o n . "

A s e m . i t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e may modify t h e head of an RA

p h r a s e i n t h e M - s l o t of a t r a n s i t i v e i n t e n s i v e c l a u s e .

fg Nul Kot - n t r qamp - l i n kunk I a n - a n - i r . . . pn na e r pn ob a j vbs cs pc i h e G 0 d u s a l i v e r a i s e - d i d '

/ S ^ 0 PA F "God s a v e d u s . . .

r a ; k mi t min qamp-u l -n t am k a : r - p namp^xLLTan yii:mp - i r . * " nn nn a j pa e l ng em pn av vb pc

' d e e d s works good out - from n o t - t o o we a l o n e do - d i d M- -P -^ / Hd .Hd / 1 _ . M _ _ 1 _ _ /

Hd + Md + Md " H e. a d ' . .. + . ..-^ lL^-±-i,X-l,g^

a X - ( + rej - i s not from our o vn individual v/orks. "

Ne-tCl = S 0 FA F M- ~F -SI PN pn aj tv^^ N ng *stCl - S M P

• cs pn av tv

Thus the discontinuous M-slot contains in its first part the Heo.d

and in its second part the Modifier v/hich is an erabedded semitran-

sitive clause functioning adjectivally.

A transitive intensive clause may modify the double head

of a Manner-slot in an intransitive intensive clause.

76. P e l n y u ; w - n a k a l o r k r naqn-ma Ko t - an t am n u l pam kunk t a n - a n - n a n j - n .

pn av l o "" a j pn e l na e l pn nn a j vbs cs fu po ' t h e y f a r - h e r e d i s t a n t h im-from God-from he man a l i v e r a i s e - w i l l can' / S FA M /

/S 0 FA P / Hd -f Hd + Md

"They a r e f a r and av/ay removed from t h e s a v i n g God."

N e - i C l = S FA M pn AV *N = Hd Hd Md

pn , na , *Ne~tCl -- S 0 FA. F • pn nn aj t v

An i n t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e may f i l l t h e m o d i f i e r s l o t w i t h i n

t h e S of an i n t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e v/hich i s i t s e l f a nomina l 0 - s l o t

f i l l e r a f t e r / y i k - r / ' s p o k e ' :

77. Min, y i ; r -y i r -am tak i r -p-on t u ; - t u t - r ak p i : n l - i r ra :k - un . nn aj nn lo rd vbs tn mr vb ao nn lo

'animal some belly-on crav/l-ing~do l e t grow-do earth-on' /S P L /

/M F 7 Hd +- Md + Md "Let animals v/hich creep on their belly multiply on earth."-

C-iCi = S F L *N V nn *N = Hd Md Md

^^ nn aj *iCl = M P nn iv ra

An intransitive clause may fill the modifier slot in the

PA-slot of an intensive intransitive clause;

78. In'n-ul ku;k-la;w pam lon-fcik nul wa:-wantar ra:k panpar - n. dm pn nn nn nn nm pv pn rd vbs nn nns lo •this-one voice man one's he shout-ing place desert - in' /S FA /

Hd + Md /S F L / Hd -ir Md + Md

"This is the voice of a man shouting in the desert."

A brief intransitive intensive clause and a participial

noun construction may modify a noun head, adjectivally;

79. Fein pam il peln min ka:r-p yanj - n waqal - ak, pn nn dm pn aj ng em vbs dz nns al

'they men those they well not-too go-wish doctor - to" /S F L /

Hd 4rMd /S FA / Hd + Md -f- Md "Those folk who are v/ell don't v/ant to go to the doctor ...

!?45

... qui peln il minj-wanj - a:k kana ya:-n naq - un. cn pn dm nn pp as vb fu pn^ al 'and they those sickness-having now go-will him-to'

/On S P L / /O P /

or: /PA / Hd + Md + Md

but those who are sick vill go to him." ti •.,

A transitive clause may modify the head filler of a sub

ject tagmeme in an intransitive clause.

80, May-i nuj - nanj - n. okun pe ln pam - la :v/ naqn . . . . nn da vb fu dz as pn nn nn pa

' f ood - to ob jec t -v / i l l -v / i sh maybe they f r i e n d s h i s / R F S

"Will the friends of the bridegroom refuse to eat .,.

. . . pam Ion - I r | nu l p a ; n t p i t - r . nn nn er pn nn vbs t n

'man o n e he v/ife mar ry-do ' (S) /

/S (S) 0 F / " ..". v/hen he has taken a "wife to himself."

iCl - R P S nn V *N = Hd Md Md

PN pa *tCl = S 0 F I. im tv .

/pam lono/ actually belongs to the main Question clause and would

rightfully bear the inflection /-lak/ 'possessive marker', but this

has been displaced by the ergative inflection of the modifying

clause /nul pa;nl pit-r/ S -+r _g -f F, v;hich is transitive, ojid the

real modifier of /pam/.

An intransitive clause may modify the filler of a head

slot v/hich already has tv/o different kinds of modifier:

81. Kot-nlr .. yu;np-ir .. nin punl-a:k vi :r-vir-ampuntvjun-m peln. na er vbs pc nn nn pp aj nn vb mf pn ' God make-did creatures v/ing-ed some wings ly-ing the;

/S F 0 / /M F _ S /

Hd + Md + Md + Md "God created v/inged birds severally that fly."

tCl = S P 0 na tv *N = Hd Md Md Md

nn nn nm *iGi = B/I F S ^^ nn iv pn

An intransitive clause may modify the dative pronoun

substituting for the noun filler of an indirect object slot in a

relater-axis phrase;

546

82. Day yuk newer kana re:k - ar may - i ... pn nn aj as vb pc nn da ' I plants green have give-did food-for

/ S O F P^ "I have given green plants for food ...

.,, min kul-puqk-lak peln-qun ko:w ne:qk vmnp - r. * * nn nn da pn da nn nn vb tn 'creatures crowds-to them-to nose-belly put-do'

01 -I- Hd Cl -{- Hd I _..Hd_.. /O P , /

H e a d + Md " . . , t o a l l a n i m a l s t h a t draw b r e a t h . "

t C l = S 0 F Pu I o pn N V nn *N = Hd Md

N * t C l = 0 F Ni t v

An i n t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e may modify t h e p r o n o m i n a l 0 - f i l l e r

s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r a p r e v i o u s o b j e c t p h r a s e :

8 3 . Dul Kot-rrbr yuk l a : - l o ; m p - u qamal y u ; n p - i r p e l n - an . . . on na e r nn nns dn a j vb pc pn ob

' and G o d c r e a t u r e v/hales g r e a t n a k e - d i d t h e n / I n S O - P - 0

"And God c r e a t e d g r e a t w h a l e s

. . . min^ k o r - k a n p a t onkun nun w a : r - m - nam, nn av nn vbs a j vbz mf

' c r e a t u r e s everyv/here ones move swarm - ing*

"" (0) , / /S F /

/S- L -S P / ... v/hich swarmed about everywhere."

tCl = S O - F -0 nn N tv *N = Hd Md

pB *iCl = S'-, L -S P nn av iCl iv

/T oqkun nuq/ 'part, piece, section, portion, ones-move' comprises

a near approach to what one calls a relative pronoun; thus 'which'

m_ight easily substitute for any of these glosses.

An intransitive clause may nodi.fy the head noun of a

phrase filling an 0-slot when two- other nodifiers already enclose it.

84 Fan naqn-man ^^^^ - 1 n^gn n a n t r i r k - a m w i : t lu;l-^.m k u ; l a m - a k . nn ""pa e r nn nn a j a j a j vb mf nn l o 'men h i s g r a s s g r a i n s n a i l s p r o u t g whea t p l u c k - g r o a d - o n '

/ S 0 P L / /S FA F /

a X i s + r e Hd + Md -t- Md

"His d i sc ip les v/ere plucking ears of wheat grain on the road."

547

tCl e» S 0 P L N *N tv nn

N = Hd Md Md nn *RA nn

RA = ax re *Ne-iCl el

Ne-iCl = S PA F

nn aj iv

A truncated transitive clause may modify its own object

v/ithin the 0-slot of a transitive clause v/here the 0 is the S-filler

of its intensive intransitive clause. The embedded clause is :

/ra:k ko;p yu;np-ir nul/ but its structure changes from O P S on

clause level to /ra:k | ko:p [ yu:mp-ir - ul/ Hd +• Md - Mdj.

85, Nul Kot-ntr iia:-w-r kor-kanpa ra:k ko:p yu:mp-ir (n)ul min minj . pn na er vb pc av nn nm vb pc pn aj av 'he G o d see-did everywhere lands all make-did he good very' /S P L 0 /

/P S / Hd -\^ Md +- Md

on /O W S / "God sav/ everywhere that all He had created as splendid. "

tCl = S F FN tv

Alternative

S N

L 0 av *Ne-iCl = S FA

^HCl *AJ = Hd Md aj av

tCl = 0 F S N tv pn

= Hd Md *N *st-Cl = F S

tv pn

N = Hd Md /ra;k/ /ko:p/

A nonfinite construction nay nodify the axis filler of an

RA phrase which it renders discontinuous by separating the relater

fron its axis which is consistent v/ith the final modifier's bearing

an inflection affecting the whole phrase;

86. Nul ku:k min yik-r naq-un Kot-ak pam ra;k wa;r - ok - ontan. pn nn aj vbs tn pn da na da nn nn aj pp el 'he words gd say-did hin-to God-to men crines - having-from'

/ s o F Io Be-R / Be-

/A-or: /S or :

Hd

•R Hd 0 FA FA

-t- Md

Md

F / /

_ /

a x i s -f re 'He prayed to God for (fron) the crininals."

548

tCl =- S O P Io Be/R pn N tv FN *N = ax re

*N /-ontam/

N = Hd Md nn *N©C1 = PA

nn , ajz

This exanple shows hov/ the /PA/ clause modifies its ovm S as Hd-lrMd,

as the nominal case-marker /-ontam/ shows.

An intensive intransitive clause may nodify the indefin

ite pronoun filling the head slot of an RA phrase in the M-slot,

ono of the tagnenes in an intransitive intensive clause. This ex

ample also contains a nodified relator /kar yokun-n-an/ which cor

responds to the English 'exactly like' or 'like-same-as'.

87. Damp wa:r v/ene-y-r kar yokun-man yi:r-an nul minj-ta;v/ ruj-uj-a. pn aj vb pc ro aj pn pn nn aj 'we bad become-did like same someone he body grubby' /S PA F E -/

Hd + Md /S PA / a_x Hd -t- Md

-f- axis "We all became evil exactly like so-neone grubby in body,"

Ne-iCl = S PA P M FN aj iv *N = re ax

*RA *N = Hd Md pn *n^iCl=S FA

*RA = Hd »d pi ^. /kar/ aj

88-.

Pam minj-la;w petn v/i:yl-a:k ya:-t naq-un la:-larn yik-n Jilaj-ak. ttS. nn nn nn pp vb pc pn al aj vb mf na da 'nan body skin soros-hvg go-did hin-to strong talk-g Jesus-to' /S F L PA /

/ S O P /

, °^' /^ P^ i /PA F Io / or; /S FA / / _ _ -Hd + Md

Hd -+- 14 "The leper went to Hin talking loud to Jesus."

iCl = S P L PA *N iv pn *Ne-stCl = FA F Io

aj tv ^ nn N = Hd Md ^

nn *Ne-Cl = S FA nn *NeCl = S PA

ELji n n . ajz

Here are two kinds of fornal adjectivity, a participial adjectivis

er fitting its noun into a PA-slot in an intransitive intensive

clause and a semitransitive intensive clause filling a PA-slot in

the nain clause.

549

Another complex exanple shov/s how an intensive clause nay

nodify the pronoun filler of an RA slot which is fourth in a series

of RA constructions:

89. Peln kul-puqk moq naq-maqal n.i:n i:-kan ra:kumn-ak (naq-un)... pn nn nm aj vb av nn lo pn rs

•they crowds many happy stay above heaven-in him-about' /S PA F L R "The hosts of then are happy up in heaven about hin

... n.aq-un pan lon-lantan peln-qun pan ko;p ulp min iii:-nin. pn rs nn nm el pn ac nn nra dm aj rd vbs

'him-abt man one - from them-v/ithnen all those good stay-g' R / ax +re Hd + Md /S FA F / Hd + Md Hd .. + Md

ax -I- re ax-(-fre) - i s Hd + Md

" ... from anongst all those v/ho are enjoying good fortune."

Ne-iOl = S FA P L R PN aj iv RA *N = Hd Md

*RA., *RA, 1 c

RA = ax re *N /-Iantam/ "••••--.„. RA = ax re

N = Hd Md ""--... ""^ /-^^^/ RA *N = Hd Md •\._ N = Hd Md.

nn nm "••"-..., /peln/ *Ne-iCl

Ne-iCl = S PA P *N aj iv

*N = Hd Md Md /pam/ /ko:p/ /ulp/

A transitive clause may simply modify the head of o-n

S-slot filler in an intransitive clause;

90. Jon-lr pam pa:nt ku:-kunk-r rirp - ir ra;k panpar - n. na er nn nn rd vbs tn vb pc nn nn al 'John man head splash-ing energe-did place deaert-into'

/S E L / /(S) ... 0 F /

or: Hd -fr Md "John, the baptist \/ent out into the desert."

iCl = S P L *tCl iv N

tCl = N = Hd Md na *tCl = 0 F

nn *V - Au Hd nn tv

This exanple shows again the separation of the S from its clause to

stand alone as Head of the noun phrase while its /o -^ P/ functions

as modifier to that head. The ergative /~tx'/ indica,tes that /Jon/

is transitive S in the enbedded clo.use but since it stands in double

550

function also as intransitive S of the main clause, it is both erg

ative and non-ergative at the same time. Hence tCl » N as above.

Further embedding is quite clear if we wish to assert

that as /pan pa;nt ku:-kuqk-r/ is said to nodify /Jon(-lr)/, so

does /pa:nt ku:-lcuqk-r/ nodify /pan/, both as Hd -fr Md in ex. 90,

and it then follows that /Jon [ pan/ are in apposition as Hd -ir Hd

Finally, as already described in clause level, titles,

captions and headings nay use clauses in the modifier slot to des

cribe a head filler in sone isolated reduced clause:

9 1 . Ku;k nin_. | ^Ma_^k_-_^r__yu_|np_-_ir . nn a j nn e r vbs pc

'v/ords good M a r k v / r i t e - d i d ' Hd + Md /S F /

Hd +- Md o r : /O S P /

"Mark ' s g o s p e l . " T i t l e = Hd Md

*N * s t C l = S P ^ ^ ^ c ^ ^ (O) s p ^^ " (N) na t v

N = Hd Md nn a j

The 0 - f i l l e r i s t a k e n as t h e t i t u l a r Head and S -f P n o d i f i e s i t .

13 .4 A d v e r b i a l C l a u s e s

13.4.0 Introduction

Adverbial dependent clauses fill clause level slots v/here

adverbs v/ould usually go. They are enbedded at that level funct

ioning as tagnenes of location, tine, nanner, reason, purpose,

result and condition,

13.4.1 Location

Owing to the fact that places are generally introduced by

neans of the lexical classifier /ra:k 'place, land, country, area',

any follov/ing clause tends to nodify this noun and be adjectival.

For this reason, adverbial clauses of location are few. The fol

lowing exanple illustrates tho reason for a sparse supply:

In the next example, If uo analyse tho clause ac ;

/L- S O -L P/, then it is adverbial, but if we regard the reduced

clause /Puluk-n wara.t-. ... nu:qk-r/ as an entity, then it nodifies

the locational RA phrase /ra;k wantan-qun?/ 'place v/here-at?' and

551

the d i s c o n t i n u i t y adds no confusion to e i t h e r . Deciding i n favour

of t he f o r n e r , t he embedding v/ould be a d v e r b i a l ;

92, fiitaqerknim puqmar y a : - r RA;K puluk-n v/arat WiiNTM-DUNmu:nk-r. nn a j av vb mr nn nn er nn qn lo vbs t n

'dogs v/ild alv/ays go-do p lace bu l locks g rass v/here a t e a t - d o ' /S M F L /

/ L - S 0 -L P / or: Hd . . . + . . . Md

a x i s + re /S 0 ^ /

"Dingos alv/ays go to the place where bullocks eat grass]'

iCl = S M F L 1 av iv *Q-tCl - L- S 0 -L P

* RA nn nn -RA tv

RA = ax re * N /qun/

N = Hd Md

nn qn

The question narker is enbedded nondisjunctively at phrase level as

nodifier to the head /ra:k/ and ov/ing to the nature of the sentence,

interrogation is not in focus but rather a neans to an end of fit

ting the adverbial clause into the L-slot of the nain clause.

Two exanples nov/ follov/ in v/hich nonfinite constructions

occur, the first positive and the second negative. The analysis of

both depends on the interpretation that /-a:k/ ~ /-o( : )k-on/ and.

its negative counterpart, /-a:r/ ~ /-a:r-in/ are participial.

93. Dul peln la:w-o:k- - on lunp - ir pan v/a:r - ak. cn pn nn pp al vb pc nn aj ac

'and they nouth-having-into throw-did nen evil-with' /in S L F Ac /

/O P. /

ax + re "And they cast in their lot v/ith the offenders."

stCl = In S L P Ac ss. pn *RA stv N

RA - ax re *ppCl /-on/

ppCl = 0 P nn pp

94. Nul naknkat-an rirp - ir ra;k pan tonkun - a;r - in ninj. pn nn el vb pc nn nn nn np al av 'he canp - fron energe-did place nen part-lacking-to truly'

/S L F L / /O P .... M /

Hd ^ Md ax + re

"He went out fron the canp into a solitary place."

552

iCl = S L F L pn nn iv *RA = ax re

*I: /-in/

*N = Hd Md nn *ppCl = 0 F ... M

N pp av

The L-slot clausal filler is not on clause level, but on phrase

level v/ithin an RA construction. Temporal clauses occur readily.

13.4.2. Tenporal clauses

Wh.en a clause fills the T-slot nornally filled by a ten

poral adverb, it is an adverbial clause of Tine by external dis

tribution. The following intransitive clause does this:

93, Day (n)un n.a:-w-r nul yu;w- ya: - t . pn pn vb pc pn av vb pc *I hin see-did he away go - did'

/ S O P T: / / S L P /

"I saw hin v/hen he v/ent away."

tCl = S 0 P T pn pn tv *iCl = S L P

pn av iv

Thus the clause /S L P/ is adverbial filling the T-slot in /s 0 P T/

which is the nain clause, the T-filler being subordinate and like

wise dependent.

96.

Minj -qu ; l , pun kana n u : n t - i r . pe ln naq-un pan v/a:r ko:p ka l - n . av nn as vbs pc pn pn da nn aj nn vbs nf

' a f te rnoon sun has s e t - d i d they h i n - t o nen s i c k a l l c a r r y - i n g ' / T T S Io 0 F /

/S P / "In the evening, when the sun had set, they carried all sick toHin."'

tCl = T T S Io O F av *iCl pn pn N tv

iCl = S F nn *V = Au Hd

SP- iv

This intransitive clause fills a T-slot and is adverbial.

The lack of tenporal subordinators in a dependent clause

is conpensated for by the insertion of a tenporal adverbin the nain

clause. The purpose for this is to clarify the verbal sequence of

events as usually required for tine clauses.

In the next exanple, v/ithout /kanpa/, these tv/o clauses

would be coordinated by /qui/ into a conpound sentence, but /kanpa/

553

has been inserted intentionally into the first clause only because

there is a second clause, thus subordinating the second to it as

nain clause.

97, Peln KANPA nun Jon katp-ir DUL Jitaj pal tonk-r Keliliy - ak . pn av pn na vb pc cn nn dr vb pc na al

'they first hin John hold-did and Jesus cn arrive-did G-into' /S T 0 F T /

/Cn S F L / "They arrested John BEFORE Jesus cane into Galilee."

"Jesus cane into Galilee ilFTER John's arrest."

Interpreting /kanpa/ as subordinator, the tagnene sequence is:

tCl = S T 0 F T pn av FN tv *iCl - Cn S P L

/qui/ na V RA .

The transitive clause tagnene sequence could be written as:

/S -fr Sr -I- 0 -1- P -f T/ since /kanpa/ is signalling nore than just

being filler of the T-slot, It is so netimes optional as to which

clause we call subordinate as seen in the two translations: either

'before' or 'after'.

Time sequence may be signalled in unusual v/ays, this time

by means of a demonstrative in the Sr-slot innediately follo^ving

the connector /qui/. This frequently glosses as 'after',

98. "Du;l qay nin, kay - a yup le:rq - r," ... av pn pn nn ns as vbs tn

'later I you gun-v/ith soon shoot-do' /T S 0 N S P / "Later, I night shoot you v/ith the gun ...

... nul ulp par'r - 1 ni-n - nat (n)ul . on dn nn fo vb ps pn

'and that boy-the sit - did he' /Sr S- P "S / re + ax

"... and after that, the boy sat down."

/Ulp/ can refer back only to the previous clause which is a direct

quotation prononinally represented in /ulp/ which nornally restates

a previous noninal filler. The enbedded RA unit analysed as Sr,

nakes the second clause subordinate and can feasibly be translated:

"after which, the boy sat down."

A sonewhat sinilar tine-clause occurs in this conplex:

99. Ka;l-u-qe:-y-r (n)ul; "Fulut - k-a:r, pok - on - nr okun ... v b s pc pn nn stz np pn In as

• think - did he 'bullet-lacking nothing-just naybe /p S 0 /

"Thought he, 'There's no bullet, just nothing perhaps, ...

554

.. . riul_ulp (n)ul te:rn - ar (n)ul . "cn "dn" pn vbs pc pn 'and that he strike-did he' /Sr S- P -S / re -I- ax

" .,, AFTER WHICH he shot hin he did."

Once again, /qui ulp/ refers back to the previous clause while also

joining both clauses, but the second is subordinated by neans of

the conpound subordinator /qui ulp/ 'after that/v/hich'. Three in

terpretations night be placed on the clausal relationship in these

two exanples. Because of the closely linked double subordinator,

the dependent clause night be called a relative clause v/ith /ulp/

as the relative (denonstrative) pronoun, secondly, it night be an

adverbial clause of reason for the subordinate clause follows logi

cally fron the thought of tho first, and thirdly, it night be ana

lysed as a tenporal clause because of the verbal sequence of /ka:l-

u-r|e:-y-r ... le:rq-ar/. If the latter, then the translation night

rather be: "He thought there's just no bullet whatsoever in the gun

WHEN he shot at hin."

The sane subordinator nay also be said to introduce a

clause with tenporal relationship glossed as 'until' for while the

paratactic succession of one clause after the other has its copular

link in /qui/ again, its link back to the previous clause is /ulp/,

in this case, the nissing aninal.

100. Nul ya:-n okun wa:1 - nan nin ji:p lono we;r-e:k - ar ... pn vb fu as vb fu nn nn nn v b s pc ' he go-will naybe seek-will sheep one lose - did /S P Pu

"He'll go naybe and search for that sheep he had lost ...

nul ulp ninj v/uw - nan. cn dm av vbs fu

'and that truly find-will' T / /Sr (o) M F / UNTIL he truly finds it."

iCl - S F Fu T pn V *tCl -tCl - Sr (o) M F

RA (dn) a.v tv

*tCl, = F 0 tv *N = Hd Md

"1

N ^tCl = 0 P

/lono/ tv

Thus it is concluded that the underlined subordinate clause is a

dependent transitive clause filling a T-slot, clearly adverbial.

555

A conp le te absence of subo rd ina t i ve s i g n a l s nay be r e

placed by j u x t a p o s i t i o n a l a f f i n i t y v/here the v e r b a l sequence i s un

anbiguously t e n p o r a l in r e l a t i o n s h i p .

101. Wa;l - n,ar nuri nunt y o : r nun wuv/ - nan; vb nr pn pn av pn vbs fu

' seek - nus t h in you now h in f i n d - w i l l ' / P O T /

/ S T O P / "Search for Hin WHILE you can find Hin^

v/ant ar n.aq - un nul ta:-pir-i tan - an. vb pn da pn av vbs rd

'shout hin - to he close-by stand-ing' /F Io T /

/S L F / " ... shout out to Hin WHILE he stands near."

C-tCl = P 0 T tv pn *tCl = S T 0 P

pn av pn tv

C-stCl = P Io T tv pn *iCl = S L P

pn av iv

Sinultaneity of relationship between clauses glossed us-

uallj^ by 'while, during' depends largely on the relative positions

of two verbal actions on the tine scale, though their overlap is

partial.

102. Nul rok-nat pornpur Kot~lak Apyatar nul pan nin pu;1 naqunp. pn vbs ps nn na al/pv na pn nn nn nn av 'he enter-did house God's-into Abiathar ho nan chief there'

/S P L T /

"He entered the house of God WHILE/WHEN Abiathar was ruler."

i C l =: s pn

P i v

L N

T *Ne-Ol --= S

N PA

N L

av

102. Nul null n a q i r l a : w wa : r - n - n a n - i r . . . pn pn av nn aj vbz cs pc 'he him r a t h e r nouth h a r n - c a u s e - d i d '

/S 0 M P "He has put Him to grief ...

... nul naqn-nul re;k-r-r yu:r-v/ut-an ra:k wa':r-aix. pn pn rx vb rx pc nn vb da nn aj el 'he himself give-self-did hand-sleepthgs bad-from' T / / s o P M /

... when He gave Hinself as an offering for sin."

tCl = S 0 M P T pn jn av V *tCl = S 0 P M

pn pn tv N J. •' r x

556

The v/hole of the second c lause above, enbedded i n t h e T - s l o t , i s

a d v e r b i a l and dependent but with no f o r n a l s u b o r d i n a t o r . ,

103. Ku:k qanjn-an v/ajir qe : -y qanjn naqk - un w a n t a r . nn pn pv av vbs pn pn da vbs

'words our c a r e f u l l y hear v/e you - to s h o u t ' /O M P T /

/S Io P / "And nercifully hear us WHEN we call upon You."

C-tCl = 0 M P T N av tv *stCl = S Io P

pn pn tv^^

Sinilarly, the dependent clause fills a T-slot, adverb

ially. So too in the following exanple;

104. Dul ya:r i'i Po ;njur-ntr v/al-ne:r-e-n pan kun - kunanp ... cn vb nr av na er v b s Pi. rd. ajs; 'and go-do here L o r d knows nan righteous /in M S P 0

"And so God knows hov/ to rescue the good nen

,. . kunk Ian - an - iiala Van v/a:r-an nul kul-ul-e:k-r. aj vbs cs nf nn aj er pn v b s tn 'alive stand-cause-to ghost evil he tenpt - does'

f /

... WHEN Satan tenpts hin."

tCl = In M S P 0 T cn C-Cl nn tv nfCl *stCl = S F

N tv

105. Nul wun naq-un pan r a : k r i r k i r - o:k - on - ak nul i-/onp. - .r. pn vb pn ac nn nn nn pp pv pn vb t n ' h e s t ay hin-v/ i th nan v/ealth - having - v/ith he d ie - die?

/S P Ac T - / /S F /

"He was with a nan of wealth WHEN He died,"

iCl = S P Ac T pn iv N *iCl = S F

pn iv

106. Dul nul J i t a j _na:-w-r, nu l y i k - r pan y a q k a r - i n t - u l - ak, cn pn na vb pc pn vbs pcnn nn vb pn da

•and he Je sus s ee -d id he say-d id nan l egs crush-he - t o ' / T S P IO /Cn S F /

"And WHEN Jesus saw i t . He s a i d t o the c r i p p l e d nan . . .

"Dolon, r a ; k v/a:r iiaqkn kana v /o lo l -e r . kn vo nn aj pa as vb pc •son deeds e v i l your have v/ ipe-did '

'0 /. / i n 0 P /

. . . "Son, your s i n s have been b l o t t e d o u t . "

557 tCl = T S F Io 0

*tCl pn tv RA *FasCl = In O F kn N tv

tCl - Cn S F

/qui/ PN tv

/D U I / is the sane fornal introducer conjunction as in nany other

kinds of clause, but the relationship of its clause is so clea,rly

dependent and tenporal by juxtaposition and by order, that the

gloss 'when' is fully justified, and unanbiguously valid. Thus,

the underlined transitive clause fills a T-slot and is o-dverbial.

13.4.3 Manner clauses

Adverbial clauses filling a Manner slot by external dis

tribution are dependent clauses subordinated to their nain clause

in vrhich they undergo enbedding on clause level. Many such clauses

have been identified as such and ap)pear below:

107. Po:njur qanjn - qun nunt qe;qk - m - n ni:n. na pn da pn nn vbz nf vb 'Lord u s you lov - ing - w-ere stay' /in Io S M P /

"Lord, you must continue graciously tc' /ards us]" "Lord, have nercy upon us]"

iCl = In Io S M P na pn pn *iCl iy

iCl = F iv

As /qe:qk-n-n/ is interpreted as being adverbial, the slot is of

manner and not attributive.

The following exanple shows hov/ a fused clause has be

cone a conpound adverb by usage in /kar-yup-ka:r/ 'quickly',

108. Dul riul kar-yup-ka:r ^a:-v/-r ra:kunn qapar ri: j - ar. cn pn re as ng vb pc nn nn vb pc 'and he like-soon-not see-did heaven split run - did' /in S M F 0 /

-ypJ-^P / /S FA P /

"And he immediately saw the heavens split open."

tCl = In S M P 0 cn pn *NeCl tv Ne-Cl - S PA F

nn nn iv

NeCl = FA F *RA ng

RA - re ax /kar/ /yup/

The present meaning of the conpound /kar-yup-ka;r/ 'quickly' has

558

cone about in a nanner found to be connon, by denying the opposite,

yielding 'not-like-later on' but 'now.*'.

109. Kot - nl? ka;r ko:v/ - tak - ar ko'o - r nun. na er ng nn vbs pc vbs pc pn • G o d not noso-leave-did spear-did hin

/S F- M -F 0 / / O F /

"God did not judge hin. "

tCl - S F- M -F 0 na ng *tCl tv pn

tCl = 0 P nn tv

This is idionatic and part of the idion fills the Manner-slot.

110. Pan noq nay noq ninj peln nu:qk-r ta;-ya:-ra tak - r - t. nn nn nn nn av pn vbs tn av vbs pc fo 'nen nany food nuch very they eat-do over leave-did - the' /S- 0 -S F M-(PA) (E) /

/M P / "Crowds ate loads of food with plenty over. "

tCl = S» 0 -S P M (E)

N N pn tv *stCl fo

stCl = M P av tv ,

st

This brief senitransitive clause fills the M-slot of a transitive

clause and the focus narker fills an E-slot on clause level in the

nain clause, though this night be analysed as sub-clause-level.

Next, an intensive intransitive clause fills an M-slot:

111. Kirk wu:np (n)ul le :-lerk-an-ir (n)ul-t ko :v/-kow (k)en-en ? nn qn pn rd vbs cs pc pn fo nn rd aj lo

'spear ? he re-turn-ing-did he-the point upwards' /O Nt S- P -S M /

/S PA / "Did HE nake hin return the spear vertically?"

Q-tCl = 0 Nt S F S M im -ta gm tv *P5 *Ne-Cl = S PA

nn aj PN := Hd Md

pn f 0

In the following exar.iple, two interpretations are poss

ible for the filler of the M-slot. If /ka:r-p/ 'not' is included

with the nain clause, then the M-filler is an RA phrase, but if

/ka:r-p/ is included with the M-filler, then the v/hole nay be re

garded as an Intensive intransitive clause in the M-slot. IT'he

transitive clause now follows;

559

1 1 2 . N_ul K o t - n t r q a n p - l i n kunk I a n - a n - i r pn na e r pn ob a j vbs cs pc ' he G 0 d u s a l i v e r a i s e - d i d

/ S 0 FA F -"God saved us . . . ( n o t ) . . .

. . . r a : k n i t n i n n a n p - u l - n t a n KA:R-P nanp r i ; r a n y u ; n p - i r . nn nn an pn e l ng on pn av vb pc

' d e e d s good our - f r o n n o t - t o o v/e a l o n e d o - d i d ' M ( -F ) /

Cl + Md +Ud +- Md /S M F / +

A+re) Hd Md

cf; /PA- TPT 1

-FA ... (not) fron our ovm works that v/e did. "

If we infer that /ka:r-p/ belongs to the enbedded M-slot filler,

then that filler is an intensive intransitive clause structured

/PA- P -PA/ as in the follov/ing equation, and thus adverbial:

tCl = S 0 FA F FN pn aj tv

M *Ne-Cl = PA- -PA

*RA- /ka:r-p/ *-RA

*RA *N.

N

re -ax /-nt an/ *-N

Hd *N

K

Md *stCl

= 01 nn

= S pn

Hd nn

M av

Md aj

P tv

Md

pa

However, if we infer that /ka:r-p/ is a discontinuous negation of

the nain transitive clause, then the M-filler is an RA phrase as

shown in the second step of the above equation.

13.4.4 Reason clauses

A neasure of overlap occurs when a laere choice of tense

in the verb distinguishes reason fron purpose. Hov/ever, -v/hen a

clause fills a reason slot on clause level, and sone adverb night

have replaced it, the enbedded clause is both subordinate and ad

verbial, being dependent on the nain clause. Exanples follov/;

113. Day nin-lr ka:r-p nurp-nan| tanur pu:t workr naqn yerk-n-an-r . pn aj dg ng en vb fu nn nn nn pa vb vbz cs tn ' I good-very not bend-v/ill foot shoe string his loose-nk-do' /S PA P R /

/P Fu /

Cl + Hd Cl + Hd + Md

"I'n not good enough to bend down and loosen his shoe-laces."

Because the degree signal /-tv/ is suffixed to the PA-fillcr in a

560

Negative intensive transitive clause, a Reason-slot is added to ex

plain the senantic restriction. Further enbedding of a Purpose

clause in the Reason clause is supplenented by the enbedding of a

transitive clause v/ithin the Purpose clause.

Ne-R-iCl = S PA P R pn aj . ng =" 101 = P Pu

^^ iv *tCl = 0 P

*N = Cl Hd Md • *N nn po.

N = Cl Hd nn nn

Thus the underlined clause is both dependent and adverbial by its

external distribution.

The next exanple shows hov/ an enbedded R-clause is depen

dent on a brief intensive clause in the 0-slot of a transitive

clause, the overt subordinator being /aqar/ 'so that':

114. Nul yup na;l-nan kana nin ninj nul ADx R nan-nanal ni;n-nanj-n. pn as vb fu as aj av pn cn aj vb fu po 'he soon see-will now good very he so-as happy stay-will-can'

/S P 0 R / /p PA /S Sr FA F /

"He will shortly see that indeed it was good and be satisfied."

R-tCl = S P 0 1 pn V *Ne-iCl *R-iCl = S Sr FA P

pn cn aj iv

Ne-iCl = P PA as *AJ = Hd Md

aj av

Alternatively, one night include the R-slot in the enbedded

0-filler : /p PA R/ .

Next, in a double exanple, the enbedded R-clause is sig

nalled partially by the degree signal /ninj/ 'very', just as the

sane adjective /nin/ 'good' v/as nodified in 113 above.

115. Nul ninj-la:v/ nin ninj ka:r-p qanp ADAR n.a:l°nanj-n nu^ ... pn nn " aj av ng en pn cn vb fu po pn 'he body good very not-too we so-as look-v/ill-can hin

/S PA P R /S Sr P 0 /

"His body v/asn't so excellent that we could v.-atch hin ...

-,., lakir nin ka:r-p qanp ADAS, yanj - n nag - un . nns aj ng en pn cn vb po pn da

'front good not-too we so-as go-can hin - to' FA F ,E / Hd + Md /S Sr P L /

,t, so handsone that v/e can go to Hin. "

561

R-Ne-iCl = S PA P R , PA F R pn N ng *RtCl 1 N ng *RiCl

*R-tCl = S Sr F 0 pn cn tv pn | *R-iCl = S Sr F L

pn cn iv pn

This repeated intensive intransitive clause of reason, sharing the

one S_fiiier /nul/, has its two R-slots filled first by a transit

ive and then by an intransitive clause of reason. Thus, both are

adverbial being dependent and subordinated by /aqar/.

ii double filler of the R-slot no-.; follow on, the first

adverbial clause being intransitive and the second intensive in

transitive v/ith a double FA nanifestation:

116. Ra;k wa:r qanp-lin kal-r Krayj-ntr ninj-la;v/ naqn-nak yuk-un, nn aj pa vbs tn na er nn pa lo nn lo

'deeds bad o u r oarry-did Christ b o d y his-in tree-on' /O P S M L

"Our offences were carried by Christ in his body on the tree

nanp iiDAfi wonp - nanj - n ra;k wa:r - an. pn cn vb fu po nn aj el 'v/e so-as die-will - can deeds evil-fron' S /S Sr F M /

Hd + Md ax -f re

" ... so that wo can die to sins . . .

qanp ADAR kun-kunanp Ian-nan j - n, pan nin. pn cn rd aj vbs fu po nn aj •we so-as straight stand-will-can nen good' T / /

/ S Sr FA- F -PA / Hd + Md

" . . . so t h a t we can s t a n d as r i g h t e o u s n e n . "

R - t C l = 0 P S M L R R N t v na RA r a * i C l *Ne- iGl

* i C l = S Sr F M pn cn i v *RA = ax r e

*N e l

=^Ne-iCl = S Sr FA- F -FA N = Hd Md pn cn a j i v *N = Hd Md nn a j

nn a j

A senantically justified "because" may seem the best gloss for a

zero-subordinator when sone clause fills an R-slot:

117. Danp noq naq-D.aqal iii:n qal - un ... pn nn rd ajs vb pn ac 'v/o nany happy stay me - with

/S FA "" P Ac "Let us all be really happy together ,.,

562

. .. gay nin, ji:p qav/-il kana v/uw - ir il (q)ay we;r-ek -ar, pn nn nn en dn as vbs pc dn pn v b s pc •I s h e e p that have neet-did that I lose-did*

R / /S 0- F -0 /

Cl - Hd + Md • /O S F / Head ... -fr ,.. Modifier

.., BECAUSE I have found that sheep THAT I lost,"

C-Ne-iCl = S PA F Ac R FN aj iv pn *tCl = S 0- P -0

pn *N tv *tCl

*tCl = 0 S P

dn pn tv

The R-slot in this connand intensive intransitive clause is filled

by a transitive adverbial clause \/hose discontinuous 0-filler con-

prises a Head filled by a noun phrase and a nodifier filled by a

transitive clause T/hich begins with a denonstrative pronoun used

exactly like a relative pronoun v/hich it virtually is, the sugges

ted gloss being 'that' rather than 'which', for 'that' is both

denonstrative _arid_ relative pronoun,

118, Pan moq qe;qk ni:nq-an-ir nun^ ninj-la;v/ naqn v/a;r v/ene-y-r . nn nn nn vbs cs pc pn nn pa aj vb pc 'nen nany body-fright-cause-did hin body his bad becone-did' /S P O R /

/S FA F / Hd -fr Md

"Many becane astonished at Hin because his body v/as narred. "

tCl = S P 0 R N Y pn ••Ne-iCl = = 8 PA F

*N av iv

N = Hd Md

nn pa

The adverbial clause underlined fills an R-slot and is dependent,

though the subordination is effected by a zero connector.

The follo\/ing exanple is sinilar requiring BECAUSE as

gloss for a Reason clause, but /aqar/ is subordinator.

119. Nul yi;r-an nij - nan pan pi:nl-a;rn - ak ... pn pn vbs fu nn aj ac 'he sone share-will nen strong - with'

/ s o P Ac "He will share sone (spoil) with the nighty ...

,,. ADAfi nul qe:qk n.erp naqn re:k - ar DUL nul v/onp-r. cn pn nn nn pa vb pc cn pn vb pc

'so-as he s p i r i t his give-did and he die-did' R / /Sr S 0 F /Cn S F /

01 +- Hd + Ed ... BECAUSE He gave up his soul unto death."

563

t C l = S 0 F Ac R pn pn t v RA *R- tC l H- ^^iCl = Cn S P

cn pn i v

R - t C l = Sr S O P / a q a r / gn *N t v

^N = Cl Hd Md / J / ^

nn nn pa

I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t / a q a r / cones c l a u s e - i n i t i a l l y r a t h e r t h a n

p r e - v o r b a l l y v/here i t t e n d s t o be p r e f e r r e d . Anothe r s i n i l a r a d - ';.

v e r b i a l c l a u s e b e g i n s w i t h / a q a r / ' b e c a u s e ' r a t h e r t h a n ' s o t h a t ' :

120 . Kot - irbr r a : k l o q k u n werqka n i n y u ; n p - i r ( i i ) u l . . . na e r nn nn av a j vbs pc pn »• G 0 d t i n o p o r t i o n betv/een good no^ko - d i d he

/ S - 0 PA P -S "God b l e s s e d t h e s a b b a t h day . . .

. . . ADAR r a ; k l o q k u n werqka Kot n . i ;n - .nat n i t n a q n - n a n t a n . cn nn nn av na vb ps nn pa e l

' b e c a u s e day p o r t i o n betv/een God s i t - d i d v/ork h i s - f r o n '

/ S r T S P M / Cl + Hd + Md Hd + Md

ax -fr re ... BECAUSE on the sabbath day, God rested fron his works."

R-He-tCl = S- 0 FA F -S R nn N aj tv pn *R-iCl

*R-iei = Sr T S P M

/aqar/ N na iv RA

When the tine sequence of the t\/o verbs is reversed, that is, when

the subordinate action occurred before tho nain action, then the

subordinator, /agar/ should be glossed as 'because', but the clause

is still adverbial as R-filler in the nain clause.

Several follov/ing exanples include subordinate adverbial

clauses filling the R-slot of a nain clause, and in each case, the

subordinator, /qui ulp/ should be glossed 'because', by reason of

the sequence of the two verbs and the senantic factor, but also,

because the Sr-conponent /ulp/ refers back to the nain clause;

121. Nul ni:n - n ra:k panpar - n - nr ,,. pn vb nf nn nn lo In 'he stay-ing place dcsert-in - just'

/S P L "He v/as staying just in the desert

*.. DUL ULP pan kul-puqk ra;k yi ;r-an-yir-an°antan np,q-un ya:-t. cn dn nn nn nn aj el pn al vb pc 'and that nen crowds place sone-sone - fron hin-to go-did' R /.

/Sr a I F / 01 + Hd Hd + Md

axis -fr re ... because crov/ds of folk fron various places cane to Hin."

564

iCl :: = S pn

P iv

L N

R *iCl --= Sr

*CN

CN

S L P RA pn iv

= Hd Md cn dn

Not only do v/e have a conposite subordinator of conjunction plus

denonstrative, but also the first verb is imperfect continuous

while the second is punctiliar, inplying that the subordinate verb

is contingent on the nain verb,

122. Ra;kil la:-lo!.rn ninj-p DUL ULP lou; lan-n. qe :t-ar pornpur ta;v/-an. nn dn rd ajs av en cn dn nn lo vb pc nn nn lo

•place that full very-too and that road-on block-didhouse door in' /S PA R /

/Sr S F • L / "That area v as crowded out BECAUSE those on the road blocked door"

Ne-iCl = S PA R N AJ *tCl = Sr S F L

cn DM tv Rxi

/Dul ulp/ is different here fron that in 121. The forner /ulp/ is

'for that reason^ but the latter /ulp/ fills the S-slot, though the

back reference holds equally for both, and thus, the adverbial

clause above is analysed as subordinate.

123, Nul ka:r nul ^ vunp-ii peln-an waq wa;r - a yik - nanj - n . . gn ng nn vb dz pn ob nn aj er vbs fu po •he not s e n d -wish then donons bad speak-will-can

/S P 0 "Ho didn't v/ish to allov/ the evil spirits to say a word...

• • .DHL ULP peln nun, v/al - ne;r-o-n. cn dn pn pn v b s •and that thoy hin renenber '

^ / / S r S O P /

" . . . BECAUSE t h o y know H i n . " t C l = S P 0 R

pn Y PN * t C l = Sr S O P *CN pn pn t v

CN = Hd Md cn dm

A r e a s o n c l a u s e nay f i l l a r e a s o n s l o t w i t h / q u i . . . u l p /

as d i s c o n t i n u o u s s u b o r d i n a t o r of t h e a d v e r b i a l c l a u s e :

124. Dhy k u : k n i n naqunp y i k - n a n j ~ n DUL qay ULP i ; - v / a l y a ; - t r i r p - i r . pn nn a j av vbs fu dz pn pn dn dr vb pc vb pc ' I words good t h e r e s a y - v / i l l - w i s h and I t h a t cn cane energe d i d ' / S 0 L F R /

/ S r - S - S r P / " I w i sh t o p r e a c h t h e r e BECAUSE t h a t i s v/hy I cane h e r o . "

565

tCl = S 0 L F R pn N av tv *iCl = Sr- S -Sr F

cn pn dn Y

Alternative to /qui ulp/ being analysed as a conposite subordinat

or, it could equally well be identified as /Sr + R/ v/ith /ulp/ in

the enbedded R-slot referring back.

Where there is no anbiguity between two S-ffilers, the

nornal pronoun /nul/ nay not necessarily be replaced by /ulp/ as

•previous noninal S/o'. The sane conposite subordinator /qul-ul/,

sinilarly subordinates its clause in the R-slot.

125. Pan naqanip naqkn-nan niii ka:p nin le:rq - ar ... nn nn pa er nn nn aj vb pc 'nan father your c a l f fine kill-did /S O P

"Your father killed the best calf ...

... DUL (n)ul i;-wal le:rk - r. cn pn dr vbs pc

'and he this-v/ay return-did'

R / /Sr F / Cn -f S

"... BECAUSE he cane back here."

tCl = S 0 P R N N tv *iCl = Sr P

*CN *V = au hd dr Iv

*CN = Hd Md

cn pn

Another sinilar exanple follov/s to show how /qul-ul/

functions as subordinator to fit its clause into the R-slot:

126. Nul peln-an pan noq nin v/ene-n.an-r ruw-un-anpa Kot-ak ... pn pn ob nn nn aj vb cs tn re na lo 'he then nen nany good becn-nk-do before God-at

/ s o PA F L "He v/ill nake many righteous before God ...

. .. DUL - UL ra:k v/a;r peln - an kal - nan, on pn nn aj pn pv vbs fu 'and he deeds evil their carry-v/ill'

1 / , / S r 0 P /

Cn Hr S Hd + Md + Md " . . . BECAUSE He w i l l c a r r y t h e i r s i n s . "

N e - t C l = S 0 FA F L R pn FN a j t v RA * t C l = S r O F

• CN N t v

CN = Hd Md c n pn

*

566

Continuing this subsection of Dependent clauses of Reason,

we nov/ include certain clauses v/here it is virtually inpossible to

distinguish fornally betv/een Reason and Purpose. The nonfinite pur

pose clause containing the infinitive with /-nala/ is a surer in

dication of purpose, but sone exanples herov/ith are either, caused

no.inly by tho inflections used on their verb stens;

127. Damp i:-ra ya: - r ra;k yi:r - aqn pn dr vb mr nn aj al • v/e that-way go-nust place another-to'

/S F L "We nust go that way to another area ...

...DUL nay ADAR ku;k n in nanunp y i k - n a n j - n . cn pn cn nn aj av vbs fu po

'and I so -as words good t h e r e say-v / i l l -v / i sh '

/Cn S -Sr 0 L P / . . . so t h a t I co.n preach t h e r e . "

C-iCl = S P L R pn V RA =;'R-tCl - Cn- S - S r ^ 0 L P

/qvi l / pn / a q a r / N av t v

128.

Kiri ya:-r nunt ne;r-en-r - nar pan pork-lak | pornpur Jinakok-ak. as vb nr pn v b s rx nr nn aj da nn na al

'go-on go-do you show-self-do nen chief-to house Synagogue- ' /in F Pu-R L /

/S P (O) Io / "Go on, you nust go and show yourself to the ruler of tho S. O SI

C-iCI - In P FU/R L as iv *rxCl *RA = ax re

1 al

*rxCl = S F (O) Io pn tv rx RA ^ nr

Here, a reflexive transitive clause fills the Pu/R-slot as an

adverbial and dependent filler.

Several clauses now follov/ on to show how the P/Pu-slot

nay be filled by a dependent adverbial clause in \/hich the F-slot

has a nonfinite filler, the infinitive:

129. Peln nun ya:-ra yil-ir puqk pir-iiala, | qui nuri yik-an-n. pn pn dr vbs pc nn vbs nf cn pn vbs cs nf 'they hin away lead-did bruise - to and hin condenn-g'

/S 0 P R-Pu / Cn 0 P / /O F /

"They led Hin av/ay to bruise Hin, and condenned Hm."

R-tCl S 0 F R/PU pn pn T *nf-tCl = 0 F

nn nf

56n

130. Lkjr nay v/ant an nu:qk-n no:r)k i i a ; j - a r e : k - n a t a nay pik - antan? pn nn qn vbs po nn aj da vb nf nn nn e l 'I food \. hore? eat-can belly full-for give-to food pigs-fron'

/S 0 L F R-Pu ./ /Be F 0 /

"Whore can I got tucker for a bellyful fron the pig troughs?"

Q-tCl = S 0 L P R/PU pn nn qn tv *nf-tCl = Be P 0

RA nf N

131. Kar nin ji'P nant yil - ir nuri le:rq - |ial_a. re nn nn aj vbs i)C pn vbs nf

'like aninal sheep young lead-did hin kill - to' /M F R-PU /

/O P / "Like a lanb they led Hin away to be killed."

stCl = M P R/FU. RA tv *nfGl = 0 P

pn nf

132. Day pal ya' - t pan wa:r nun - naj:a . pn dr vbs pc nn aj vbs nf ' I cone v/alk-did non evil call ~ to '

/S F R-Pu / /C P /

"I cano to call sinners."

iCl = S P R/PU

pn V *nfCl = 0 P N nf

133. Dan nunt qan re:k - n ? Min, kol lono pok - on - p ... pn pn qn vb nf nn nn nn nn en ' ne you what giv - ing aninal goat one none - too'

/lo S 0 P / 0 E / "¥/hat did you used to give no? Not a single goat indeed]"

.., nay pork nu;nk-nata pan-ta:v/ natn - nan] nn aj vb nf nn pa er 'food big eat - to friends ny (by)' R-Pu / /O P S(Ns) /

... for a feast to be eaten by ny friends."

Double filling of a Reason/purpose-slot occurs herewith

as a dependent adverbial subordination using infinitives:

134. Peln null wip-u kark - n qanp-lin yonpar - nan - nata ; pn pn nn ns vb nf pn ob vbs cs nf 'they hin v/hip-with lash-g us iuprove-cause - to'

/S 0 Ns P R-Pu / /O F /

"They scourged Hin with v/hips to cause our healing;

R/Pu-tCl = S 0 Ns F R/PU pn pn nn tv *nf-tCl

M R/PU

RA *Ne-nf-tCl

568

*nf-tCl = 0 F *Ne-nf-tCl = 0 FA P pn nf pn aj nf

,., ninj-la :w kant naqn-nantan qanp-lin kunk Ian - an - nala. nn nn pn el pn ob aj vbs cs nf

'body scars his - from us alive raise - to' M R-Fu /

Cl -h Hd + Md /O PA F ____„ / ax axis + xc

... by his stripes to save us alive."

The next exanple consists of a sinilar enbedding, but the

adverbial clause is coordinated by /qui/ after a discontinuous nod

ifier to the C-filler v/hich also facilitates tho inclusion of the

S as well as tho 0 in the nonfinite adverbial filler of R/Pu-slot.

135. Daw-oy, qay n.ip-lin qaw-in'n ro;k-ar nay ko:p ral-a:k kor-af pn pn ob en dn vb pc nn rin nn pp av 'yes, I you-two this give-did food all sds-hvg every-

/in S Io P 0- L "Yes, I give to you two here every fruit having seeds ...

... -kanpa ra:k-un, yuk ko:p ral-a:k nul nip nay ulp nu:rik-nata. av nn lo nn nn nn pp cn pn nn dn vb nf

-where earth-on trees all sds-hvg and you food that eat - to' -0 R-Pu /^

/Cn S 0 P // ,,. everywhere on earth, seedbearers, and for you to eat that."

Pu-R-tCl = In S Io F -0 L -0 R-Pu af pn FN tv N RA N *rif-tCl

*nf-tCl = Cn S O F cn pn N nf

13.4.5 Purpose clauses

Dependent clauses nay fill Pu-slots in nain clauses,

though the subordination is not alv/ays fornally narked as such but

rather to be inferred fron conparison of the tv/o verb tenses, jux

tapositional relationship at clause bound.aries and the nature of a

subordinator if present or implied. They are adverbial:

136. Kot-ntr peln-an re;k-ar ra:kunn-ak ti;np-ir ra;k i^-r-kop. na er pn ob vb gc nn lo vb ao nn a.l dr ' G o d then give-did space-in shine - do earth belov/'

/S 0 P L Fu / /P L . /

"God gave then in space to illuninate the oarth below.'''

Fu-tOl = S 0 P L Fu nn pn tv RA *tCl - T L

tv *N = Hd Md nn dr

It is debatable whether /li;np-ir/ could be analysed as punctiliar

(v/hich seens nostly past tine) or aorist, v/ith future reference.

569

1 3 7 . Peln ak l i ; n p - i r k o r - k a n p a r a ; k u n n i : - l - n - e n r a : k i : ° k o p p a r k - a r . pn n r vbs ao av nn e l d i nn d i vb pc

' t h e y l e t s h i n e - d o eve rywhere s p a c e f r o n - t o p e a r t h be lov/ l i g h t - t o ' / S P M L Pu /

/O F / "Let t h e n s h i n e everyv/here f r o n i n s p a c e t o i l l u n i n e t h o e a r t h . "

C -Pu - iC l = S F M pn V av

L N

Fu *tci = 0

*N P

tv N = Hd Md

nn d i

The fact that both verbs arcpunctiliar in aspect should be noted;

since the v/hole action v/as in the past, its purpose for the future

then has since becone history, but the use of the inperative a.ux~

iliary /ak/ rather -militates against the tern 'result'.

Purpose is often signalled by neans of the subordinator

/aqar/ 'so that' -t- irrealis verb, v/hich clause is adverbial:

138. Ka;l-a:l naq-un Po:njur Jilaj-ak nunt aqar kunk lan-n. v b s pn da na na da pn cn aj vb po

' trust hin-in Lord Jesus-in you so-as alive std-cn' /p Io Pu /

/S Sr FA F / "Trust in the Lord Jesus so you nay be rescued."

C-dt-Cl = P Io Pu tv RA *R-Ne-iCl = S Sr PA F

pn cn aj iv

139. Fo:njurmnt qanjn-anku:kre;k DUL nanjn nank-un ku:k nin an cr yik-n. na pn pn ob nn vb cn pn pn da nn aj cn vb po

'Lord you us v/ords give and we you-to wds gd so gv-cn' /in S Io 0 P Fu /

/Cn S Io 0 Sr P / "Lord , you open our n o u t h s so w e ' l l be a b l e t o p r a i s e You."

C-tCl = I n S I o 0 P Pu pa pn pn nn t v * P u - d t C l

* F u - d t C l = Cn S I o 0 Sr F cn pn pn N cn t v

The d i t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e above f i l l s a P u - s l o t i n t h e Con

nand t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e and i s d e p e n d e n t on i t as an a d v e r b i a l e n

bedd ing s u b o r d i n a t e d by / a q a r / and c o o r d i n a t e d by / q u i / .

140. Nul KotyLk- r p u l - q u n "Nip n ,an t -ne : r n i • i n u l r a ; k a g a r n e ; t - n . " pn na vb pc pn da pn a j nn vb cn nn cn vb po ' h e God s a i d t h e n - t o ' y o u - 2 s n a l l - e y e - t k and e a r t h so f i l l - c a n '

/a F Io 0 Fu / /Cn 0 Sr F /

"God said to the two of then. Reproduce to fill the earth]"

570

dtCl - S P Io 0 Pu PN tv pn *C-iCl *Pu-tCl = Cn 0 Sr F

cn nn cn tv C-iCi = S P

pn V

The above example shov/s ho.w Purpose is closely related to Result,

the latter being often tho description after fulfilnent of action.

141. Nunt kunan-p-un-r-nar pan pork - lak ... pn vbs cs rx nr nn aj da 'you report-self-do nen chief - to

/S P Io '•You nust go and rex)ort to the chief nen . . ,

peln aqar na'l-n pan noq - Ir nunt kana kunk Ipin-r. pn cn vb po nn nn or pn as aj vb tn

'they so-as see-can nen nany you have alive std-did'

Fu I /S- Sr F . -§ 0 / ~ —-- — — ~ ~ . /s p- PA -F /

... so they can all see that you have been raised up alive."

C-Rx-dtCl = S P (O) Io Pu pn tv sx RA *tCl

*tCl = S- Sr F - S O pn cn tv N *Ne-iOl

*Ne-iCl = S P- PA -P pn as aj iv

142. Kot - ntr yup lak - an - nan Waq - wa;r ... na er as vbs cs fu nn "» God soon block - v/ill Satan

/S P 0 "God v/ill shortly prevent Satan

• • • nul agar ka:r niii v/ont-gn-ii nin. v/e:r-e:k - n. pn cn ng pn vb cs po pn v b s po ' he so-as not you fall-nk-co.n you har-n - can' Pu ./

/S Sr P - 0 -F ft / " ' ' — ~ — — /Q p - /

, . . so t h a t he w o n ' t t r i p you up and -^vreck your l i f e . "

P u - t C l = S P 0 Fu nn V nn * P u - t C l - S Sr P - 0 -P R

pn cn ng pn t v t C l

Th is doub le enbedd ing shov/s a R - c l a u s o f i l l i n g t h o R - s l o t i n an

ombedded a d v e r b i a l f i l l e r of t h e P u - s l o t of a t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e .

1-45. Krayj l o n o - k o wonp-r n u l aajar q a n p - l i n y i l ~ nan Kot - t^ak. na nn or vb t n pn cn pn ob vb fu na a l

' C h r i s t o n - c e d i e - d i d he s o - a s u s l e a d - w i l l God - t o ' /S M P Pu /

/ S Sr 0 P l o - L / " C h r i s t d i e d once so t h a t ho migh t l e a d u s t o God,"

571

Pu-iCl = S M P Pu nn nn iv *dtCl = S Sr 0 P Io

pn cn pn tv RA

Recursive slot-filling is not unconnon:

146, K i r i qanp l u r n a v / c n ( ^ y - r q a n j n - q u n q a n p £3qarpam°la:v/ y o n p a r - n a , as pn av vb t n pn ac pn cn nn nn vb po

•go-on v/e t o g e t h e r b e c n - d o u s - w i t h we s o - a s f r i e n d s r e s u l t - c a n ' / i n S M P Ac P i

/S Sr PA P / "A l l r i g h t , we becone u n i t e d t o g e t h e r so as t o becone f r i e n d s . , ,

. . . n u r a q a r q a n j n - q u n l a ; v / - o : k - o n lunp-n^ l u r n a pan N_aqanip-npo.nrBrqk-a. pn cn pn ac nn a jz ns vb av nn nn ac nn nnac

'you s o - a s u s - v / i t h u n i t e d t h r o w - c n t g t h r f a t h e r - v / t h s o n - w t h '

^ // /S Sr Ac L F M / ,,. so that you can join in v/ith us and v/ith the P-ather and Son,"

Ne-iCl = In S M P Ac Pu 1 as Pn av iv pn *Ne-iCl *tCl

*Ne-iCl = S Sr PA P pn cn nn iv

-tCl = S Sr Ae L P M

pn cn pn RA tv RA

Here, the two adverbial slots are filled by dependent clauses, the

Pu-slot by an intensive intransitive clause and the R-slot by a

transitive clause, the R-clause being partly dependent on the Pu-

clause as well as on the nain clause.

Another sentence with double filling of adverbial slots

is ditransitive and both dependent clauses fill Pu-slots but de

pend on the nain clause, v/hich is sentence-initial.

147. Kot-lit r nin yup ku:lan ne;r - en - r ... na er pn as nn v b s tn ' God you soon tra.ck shov/ - v/ill

/S Io T 0 P "God v/ill soon show you a way ...

... nunt ya:-ra ri;j - n. nunt ka:r agar wont - n. pn dr vb po pn ng cn vb po 'you away run - can you not so-as fall-can' Pu Pm /

/S L P / S P- Sr -P / ... so you can escape, and so that you-^/on't fall."

dtCl = S Io T 0 F Pu Pu nn pn as nn tv *iCl *Pu-iCl

*iCl = S L P *Pu-iCl = S P- Sr -P pn dr iv pn ng cn iv

572

Next, sonewhat sinilarly, a sentence contains tv/o depen

dent clauses of purpose, the first in apposition and the second,

subordinated by /aqar/, both with future tense no.rkers, filling ad

verbial slots, and both subordinate clauses linked by /qui/;

148, Kot - nlr nun, nul '"•np - ar ra;k wa;r kal - r . . . na er pn nn vbs pc nn aj vbs tn ' God hin s e n d - did deeds evil carry-do

/S O F Pu /O P ,. /

"God sent Hin to carry off iniquity ..,

• • • DUL qanp la;-lurna naq-un ADAR waj-x/ajir lan-ii Kot - lak. cn pn av pn ac cn aj vbs po na lo

'a.nd v/e together hin-with so-as righteous std-cn God-at' Fu / /Cn S M Sr PA F L /

... and so that v/e night stand together with Hin before God,"

Pu-tCl = S 0 P Pu Fu nn pn V *tCl ^tCl^

*tCl - 0 P *tCl - Cn S M Sr PA P L N tv CO pn AV cn aj iv RA

13.4.6 Result^ clauses

The distinction betv/een purpose and result is based on

senantic factors rather than fornal, alnost the sar.ie as any dis

tinction between reason and purpose is etic only, apart fron con

trast in verb tenses of the clauses involved. Again, the nornal

subordinator is /aqar/ 'with the result that'. These clauses fill

an adverbial slot, the Result-slot in clauses, and are adverbio.l

and dependent, with or without a subordinator.

149. Danjn na;-xv-r ADAR qanjn yik - n nuii ... pn vb pc cn pn vbs po pn 'we see-did so-as we toll-can him

/S F R "We saw Hin so that we can describe Hin ...

• • .qui ganjn nur-gun agar kunan-p-un-n nul tono-narne:r-kananni;-mn. cn pn pn da cn vbs cs po pn nn dn aj rd vb 'and we you-to so-as report-can he forever ancient stay-g' R / /Cn S Io Sr P 0 /

_ y - — — ^ PA P / ... and so we can report to you that He v/as pre-existent alv/ays."

This double enbedding of o.n intensive clause in the 0-

slot of the enbedded adverbial clause filling the R-slot of the

senitransitive nain clause is counterbalanced by the double filling

of the R-slot itself. Both dependent clauses are joined typically

573

by /gul/ v/hich appears to displace the subordinator /agar/ to its

connon alternative slot pre-verbially.

150. Ku:lan in'n nin pan lono yik - r ... nn dn aj nn nn vbs tn

'tra.ck this good na,n one say-did /O S F / /S FA / "There is a v/ay that seens right tea nan . „ .

... qui ku:lan-n nun, yil - ir nul aqar v/onp-n. cn nn er pn vbs pc pn cn vb po

'and track hin lead-did he so-as die-can' /Cn S 0 P R /

/S Sr P / ... and so it leads hin on to death."

Cn-Sn = Bs.| + Bs^

=HC1 *tCl = Cn S 0 P R cn nn pn tv *R-iCl

-tCl = 0 S F *NeCl N tv *R-iCl = S Sr F

pn cn iv NeCl = S PA ^

N aj

Next, an overt subordinator nay be lacking but understood

with the R-clause standing juxtapositionally in the R-slot:

151. Nul qanp-lin qe:qk-n-n nul kunk tan - an - r qanp-_lin. pn pn ob v b s nf pn aj vbs cs tn pn ob 'he us lov-ing-was he alive raise - did us '

/S 0 F R / /S FA F 0 /

"He treasured us so nuch as to save us alive."

RtCl = S 0 P R pn pn tv *Ne-tCl - S PA P 0

pn aj tv pn

Result nay be signalled by a realis verb in the nain

clause together with an irrealis in the dependent adverbial clause

which nay optionally be introduced by /qui/:

152. Danjn in'n-ul yu;np-r DUL qamp maq-maqal minj ni:n-n. pn dn pn vbs tn cn pn aj av vb po 'v/e this-one write-did and we happy very stay-cn'

/ s o P R /. /Cn S PA P , • _ /

"¥/e v/rote this and so we can renain contented,"

tCl = S 0 P R pn dn tv *Ne-ei = On S PA i-

cn pn AJ iv

574

While two clauses nay appear to be in such an adverbial

relationshii)., if the 'subordinated' clause is nerely coordinated

by /qui/ and no dependence or enbedding is signalled by any other

factor such as juxtaposition or a subordinator, then the tv/o are

co-equal and paratactically sequential, relying only on senantic

inference to say that one action is consequent on the other.

Three dependent adverbial clauses nay fill R-slots, re

cursively or othorv/ise, by neans of /aqar/ as subordinator, placed

clau.3e-:'.nitlally or before its verb. /Dul/ is absent in both the

lollov.'ing exaniDles, but tho clauses have a chained coherence:

153= Kot nul qe:qk-n~n pan kul-quqk - ctk ra:k - un ... n.a pn v b s nf nn nn da nn lo 'God he cherish-ing nen crowds - to earth - on /S P Io L "God was affectionate to the people on earth ...

... n.ul .oipar F, pan nerqk iiaqn lono - n.r re:k - ar, p?i cn en nn nn pa nn In vb pc 'he so-as nan son his one-only give-did R /S Sr 0 F „.. so that He gave his only Son ...

-» «-« .ariar. peln ko;p ka:l-a:l-n naq - un ka:r vrong - n, cn pn nr.i v b s dz pn da ng vb po

'so-as they all trust-wish hin-hin not die-can (R) K /Sr _ 5_ P , ___

""/S PA "" -J——' ' , s , so tho.t a l l v/ishing to b e l i e v e in Hin c a n ' t d ie . . .

. , . pe ln oqaF n u l - a - l a n ku.nk i i i ;n - n.. pn cn av aj vbs po

Hhey so -as f o r - e v e r a l i v e s t a y - c a n ' (R) I (R) / / I / / S Sr M PA P /

. . . . . . so t h a t t h e y can r e n a i n l i v i n g f o r e v e r , "'

R - t C l = S P Io L R N i v RA nn - R - t C p = S Sr O P R

pn cn N t v * i C l

- i C l = Sr S P R c a -NeCl V *R-Ne-Cl = S Sr M PA P

pn cn av a j i v

-NeCl = S PA PN i C l

The t h r e e R - c l a u s e s a r e i n t u r n , t r a n s i t i v e , i n t r a n s i t i v e and

i n t e n s i v e .

51^5

154. Fein kenp-kenple-p ya:-r' i'i-nr raqk - aqk - n ... pn rd avs vb mr av In vbs rd nf

*they separately-too go-nust here-just question-ing-were /S M F "They were each separately thinking like this ...

... nul aqar yik - r peln - qun "Nur v/ant-ant-ar?" pn cn vbs pc pn da pn qn 'he so-that say-did then - to you what-about-it?' R / /S Sr F Io 0 /

/S Nt / ... so that he said to then 'What's up?' "•

R-iCl = S M P R pn AV iv *dtCl = S Sr P Io 0

pn cn tv pn *Q-iCl

*Q-iCl = S Nt

pn qn

The ditransitive clause above fills a Result-slot and is dependent-

ly adverbial, being both subordinated and in apposition.

155. Danp ne:r-kun-wa:r nul qanp-lin pu;n-n - ir . pn aj pn pn ob vbs po ' v/e sorrov/ful he us pity - did'

/S PA R / /S 0 P

"W/e were depressed so He took pity on us."

R-Ne-iCI s pn

FA c i

R *tci = '- S

pn 0

pn P tv

Juxtaposition and phonological continuity nake. this clause above

dependent on the nain intensive intransitive clause as adverbial

filler of the Result-slot. A final exanple below nov/ follov/s to

show how the adverbial clause is both enbedded by a subordinator

and coordino.ted by a connector, but subordination is unquestioned

in the R-slot of the nain intransitive clause;

156.

Pan noqJ_a;-lurna q u q k l e : r k - r qui pe ln aqar pornpur-nkai-r-p la-U-n. nn nn av nn vb pc cn pn cn nns lo ng en vb po 'nen many t o g e t h e r g a t h e r - d i d and they so -as house - in not s t d - c a n ' /S M P R /

/Cn S Sr L P / "Many people ga thered t o g e t h e r l eav ing no s tdg roon i n t h e h o u s e . "

R-iCi = S M P R N av V *R-iCl = Cn S Sr L P

cn pn cn RA V

13.4.7 Conditional clauses

Although English analysis traditionally includes 'if and

'unless' as subordinative conjunctions for these enbedded adverbial

576

clauses, Thaayorre uses /il/ 'if* alnost exclusively. As the bulk

of the exanples belov/ exenplify /il/, one exanple of what approxin-

ates to 'unless' will be explained first. As with sone tenporal

clauses, a tine adverb is placed in fecus clause-initially, at the

border of the nain and dependent clauses to serve as subordinator.

157. Yi;r-an ka;r-p ya:-n Danip - n | KMPA qal-un yanj - n,. pn ng em_ vb pr nn al av pn al vb po

'soneone not-too go-does Father-to before ne-to go-can' /S F L Cd /

/Sr L F _y "No one can go to the Father unless through Me."

Cd-iCl - S P L Cd gn V RA *iCl = Sr L P

av^ RA iv tn

Alternatively, this dependent clause night be analysed as a tenpor

al filler of the T-slot in the intransitive nain cla.use.

Conditional clauses begin nornally with /±t/ 'if as the

subordinative conjunction v/hich fits then into a Cd-slot of the

container clause. The nain clause usually cones second;

158. II nul la;-lurna qa;lir wun peln-qun, peln ka:r-p nuj-nan. cn pn av ^ as vbs pn ac pn ng en vbs fu 'if he together stillstays then-with they not-toorefuse-w' /Cd • S P /

/Sr S M P Ac / "If he continues to stay v/ith then, they won't object."

Cd-iOl = Cd S F *iCl pn V I *iCl = Sr S M P Ac

/il/ pn av V pn

The structure of these dependent adverbial clauses is very sinilar

to the English translation with the independent intransitive clause

filling the Condition slot of the nain clause which cones secend.

159. II nur ka;r-l wark-ant, nur qu:l ko:p yup v/onp. •on pn ng fo vb cn pn av nm as vb 'if you not-the repent you later all soon die'

/Cd S- T -S P / /sr S P / •If you never repent, you'll all be dying later on]"

Cd-iCl - Cd S- T -a F *iCl pn av nn Y

iCi = Sr S P /il/ pn V

As /il/ nust cone clause-initially, /ka;r/ is enphasized alternat

ively by neans of the focal /-t/ yielding 'never'.

01 pn

Ac M RA av

-RA =

P iv

= re /kar/

ax *N = Hd Md

nn aj

577 160.

I I pan lono naq-un Krayj-ak na :n - nan y a : - n , nul kar pan pu;kan. cn nn nn pn ac na ac av vb pr pn re nn aj ' i f nan one hin-v/ i th Chr i s t -v / i th neekly go-does he l i k e nan new' /Cd S PA / /Sr S Ac M ^. ^ "If a nan goes close with Christ, he is like a new person."

Cd-iCl = Cd S PA *Ne-iCl

*Ne-iGl = Sr S cn N

A conditional clause nay be pulled to a posterior posit

ion when a quo.lifying clause attached to it v/ould intrude between

it and its conplenent. Two exanples follov/:

161. Pan lono v±n wene-y-r ruwun-anpa naq-un Kot-lak ... nn nn aj vb tn re pn lo na lo 'nan one good becone-does before hin-at God-at /S PA P L "A nan is put right with God only through ..,

• •• li Il''l n o.q-un Jilaj Krayj - ak ka:l-a:l - n ... cn pn pn lo na na lo vbs dz 'if he hin-in Jesus Christ-in trust-v/ith Cd /Sr S L F " ... having faith in Jesus Christ ..."

ra:k nin naqn - nantan pok-on ka:r - p. nn aj pa el aj ng en

'things good his - fron none not - too' (Cd) / .M- ./ /S FA F /

a X - (-1- re) - i s : " ... never by doing what the Law requires."

Ne-iCl = S PA P L Cd N aj iv RA *iCl = Sr S L F M

/il/ pn RA iv *RA

*RA = ax- re -is /S.., /-nantan/ ... FA p/

Thus an RA phrase fills the M-slot of the Conditional clause v/hich

is itself dependent and adverbial in the Cd-slot of the nain in

tensive intransitive clause.

162. Pan qanp wu;np ri;j - n ... nn pn qn vb po 'nan we ? run - can

/in S Nt P "How then can we escape ... ?

578

• • • i l qanp k a : r w e n e - y - r n u l q a n p - l i n kunk l a n - a n - n,? cn p.n ng vb t n pn pn ob a j vb "cs po

' i f v/e no t b e c o n e - d o d he u s a l i v e r a i s e - c a n ' Cd / / S r S F PA /

^ J- - _ _ - _ - y " ...if v/e pay no attention to such great salvation?"

Q-iOi = In S Nt F Cd nn pn qn iv *Ne-tCl = S 0 PA P

pn pn aj tv

In this second exanple, the m ain clause cones sentence-initially,

and a transitive intensive clause fills the PA-slot of the Cd-Cl

which is intensive but intransitive and adverbially dependent on

the nain Question-intransitive clause.

More complex em.bedding may often occur, but the condit

ional clause structure follov/s the sane pattern in the next;

163, II qanp yik "Ra :_lc_ w_o. £r_ qanp__kQ : r-p yu :iip -.,Jx» " • • • cn pn vbs nn aj pn ng en vb pc 'if we say things bad we not-too do—did

/Cd /Sr S F 0 /

"If we say that we connitted no evil ...

, . , qanp nun n i ; n q - an - r . pn pn vbs cs t n

'we h i n shock - do S O P / . . . v/e a r e d e f y i n g H i n . " !l

Cd- tC l = Cd S O P 'HCl pn pn t v

t C l = Sr S P 0 / i l / pn t v * t C l = 0 S P

N pn V

H e r e , a t r a n s i t i v e c l a u s e i s enbedded i n t h e 0 - s l o t of t h e Cd-Cl

v/hich i s t r a n s i t i v e and s u b o r d i n a t e d a d v e r b i a l l y by t h e c o n j u n c t i o n

/it/ ' i f , i n t h e C d - s l o t of t h e n a i n c l a u s e ,

164. I I qanp r a ; k n i : q - l n i : n - n k a r n u l - 1 n i : q n i : - n i n , cn pn nn nn fo vb nf r e pn fo nn r d vbs

' i f we p l a c e l i g h t - t h e s t a y - i n g l i k e H e - t h e l i g h t s t a y - i n g '

/ S r S L F 1 / Cl -f Hd+Md /S L P /

xe + ax " I f we walk i n t h e l i g h t a s He i s i n t h e l i g h t . . .

. . . k i r i qanp p a n - l a ; v / l u r n a y a : - r qanp , as pn nn av vb n r pn

' r i g h t we f r i e n d s t o g e t h e r g o - n u s t we ' P - S_ PA M -F -S /

" . . . t h e n we go as f r i e n d s t o g e t h e r v/e d o ] "

579

Ne-iCl = Cd P- &- FA M -F -S *iCl as pn nn av iv pn

iCl - Sr L P M /il/ *N iv *RA = re ax

/kar/ -hiCl

*N = Cl Hd Md *iCl = S L P nn nn I-tj ^^ ^^ ^^

In the above sentence, enbedding occurs within tho conditional

clause on phrase level, an intransitive clause being enbedded as

axis v/ithin the M-slot, but the whole Cd-clause is dependent and

and adverbial.

The following exanples contain a double nanifestation of

the Condition tagnene v/ith /qui/ as coordinator and /ixj as the re

peated subordinator within external adverbial slots,

165. II pan lon-lr yuk wa:r-nin ko;p ni'i-r ra;k - un, cn nn nn er nn nn nn vb pc nn lo 'if nan one things everything all get-did earth-on

/Cd /Sr S 0 F L /

HcS. + Md Cl -f Hd -fr Md "If a nan should gain every inaginable possession on earth,

• • • Dul il ulp qe;qk n.erp iiaqn kerp - n,an HIel - lak, on cn dn nn nn pa vb fu na lo •and it that s o u l his lose -will hell - in'

^^ /

/Cc Sr S 0 F L / ... and if that nan shall lose his soul in Hell ...

. . . k o : a q a r ak v/un ] ex cn n r vbs

' oh so l e t s t a y ' / E Sr P /

" . . . a l l r i g h t , l e t w e l l a l o n e ] "

C-iCI = Cd Cd E Cn P n C l , - t C l ^ ex cn *V = Au Hd

• 2 nr IV

* tC l = Sr S O P L / i l / N N t v nn

=HC1^ = Co Sr S 0 P L ^ /qui/ /il/ dn N tv nn

Next, the second /±tj is understood, not repeated:

166. II (n,)ul Ion - 1? nur-antan nin ji;p noq pit - n, cn pn nn er pn el im nn nn vb nf 'if he one you - fron sheep nany keep-ing /Cd /Sr S 0 P /

"If any one nan of you were keeping nany sheep ...

580

q u i [ i l ] (n^)ul l o n o v / e : r - e : k - a r , g u l n u l v/ant a n t a r ? cn cn pn nn v b s pc cn pn qn

' a n d i f he one l o s e - d i d and he what a b t ' Cd ^ /

/Co Sr S 0 P /Cn S Nt / " . . . and i f l o s t one of t h e n . . . v/hat would he do?"

Q_iCl = Cd CdL Cn S Nt *tCl "tClg /gul/ pn qn

*tCl - Sr S 0 P /il/ PN N tv ., ^ c^ (g- ) S 0 p

/gul/ ^ pn nn tv

The follov/ing exanple shows a double nanif estation of the

Cd-slot and also a double use of the denonstrative pronoun /il/

'that'; but no anbiguity occurs anongst the fourfold occurrence of

the honophonous norphene /il/.

167. II pan yi;r-an ku:k gate ge:-y-nan DUL IT nul nag-un ... cn nn aj nn pa vb fu cn cn pn pn -lo •if nan sone words ny hoar - will and if he hin-to /Cd Cd /Sr S 0 F V.Cc Sr S Io _

"If sone nan v/ill hear ny w ords and if he'll trust in . ..

ka:l-a:l-nan nul il qan nul v/ump-ar, P^^ il_ lono-nar n i;n-r. v"T"^ fu" pn dm pn nn vb pc nn dm nn dn vb tn

believe-will he that ne s e n d -did nan that ever live-do' S M F /

P 0 / / S O P /

Hin that He did send Me, that nan shall live for evernore."

Cd-iCl =. Cd Cd S M P *tCl *tCl2 N av iv

*tCl - Sr S O P /il/ N N tv

>HC1„ = Co Sr S Io P 0 " /qui/ /il/ pn pn tv tCl

Both transitive clauses filling Cd-slots are dependent and adverb

ial, subordinated by /itj and coordinated by /qui/.

13.5 Relative clauses

A few connents have already been nade on the close app

roach to the relative pronoun which has been identified. Though no

fornal part of speech has been identified as a relative pronoun,

the function does occur and several words are listed herewith which

fill such a slot or forn class...

Ex. 34 /peln/ 'who' Ex, 43 /peln(qun)/ 'which'

581

Ex. 83 /peln-an/ 'Avhich' /loqkun/ 'ones which'

Exx 98-9 /qui ulp/ 'after which' Ex. 117 /il/ 'that'

Sec also section 11.4.3 Ex. 130 /wan-wan-ul?/ on p. 462.

Chapter XIV The^^ J^^£^^r^^d

14.0 Introduction

In Thaayorre, the word is a linguistic forn carrying

meaning by means of monomorphemic or polymorphemic lexemes in which

the morpheme is a minimally mioaningful grammatical unit in the lang

uage. As truly bound forms can as such never be free, we take for

granted the distinction between such t erms as bound and free, stem

and affix or between phonological and grammatical words, the latter

being written without a space but optionally with a hyphen.

Bloomfield's definition (1933:178) that the word is a mini

mal free form which does not consist of two or more lesser free

forms was rejected by Longacre who calls that a root. His own def

inition (Longacre 1964:lOl) is "a class of syntagmemes of a compar

atively low hierarchical order ranking below such syntagmemes as

the phrase and clause and above such a syntagmeme as the stem,"

He divides them into single-/double-/non-centred subclasses point

ing out the rigidly ordered linear sequence in words which can ex

press numerous complex relationships, and he sees them as being stem-

affix strings with rigidly ordered components and information-affixes.

Words may be grouped simply by internal structure into nouns,

verbs and particles filling slots on word level, but in practice,

this is superficial, for the v/ord comprises morpheme constituents,

and the constitute is a minimally free form v/hich may have a wide

variety of class membership. Hockett (l958:224) referred to the

absence of noun inflections in Chinese and the presence of its five

word classes, the noun (and substantive), the pronoun, the demon

strative, the numeral and the measurement. At the other extreme,

many Arnhem land languages have up to a dozen suffixes on one stem.

Thaayorre word classes might be limited to five if the ad

jective is kept separate from the noun:

noun verb adjective adverb, particle

pn/ci dr/vb/au aj/dm/nm av/d± ex/cn/re/on

Elson and Pickett (1964:99) said the word could be recognised by

582

its distribution in a larger structure, with the inference that the

tho phrase and clause delineate v/ord differences. Capell (1966:136-

7 ) , spoke of specific word domination in a language: e.g. noun (ob

ject) domination or verb (event) domination. Thaayorre shows noun

domination by its case markers and verb domination by its affixat

ion for various features of tho clause. Peripherally, it manifests

a fair degree of adverb domination.

Parallel to the phrase, the Thaayorre word demonstrates the

processes of relation, coordination and subordination which will be

exemplifiod later in the chapter. Hockett (l958;22l), speaking about

parts of speech, says that the different form classes may be recog

nised by noting the similarities and differences of behaviour of

words with regard to inflection and syntax. Thus a complete system

of form classes can be discovered by classifying all stems accord

ing to those vectors. Thaayorre words might be divided simply into

those inflected for case, the nouns, adjectives, pronouns and some

adverbs, those inflected for tense/m.ood/aspect, the verbs and an

auxiliary or tv/o, the remainder being uninflooted, namely, the re

laters, the conjunctions, the exclamations and some adverbs.

Bloomfield (1933:178) spoke of free forms being compound

ed and receiv^ing something extra which unified it as a v/ord. This

establishment of compounds as v/ords in Thaayorre may be illustrated

by three examples:

/ka:l-kurj/ /kermper-puirt/ /kul-pa:l/ 'ear-cold' 'flesh - arm' 'lap-fire' nn aj nn nn nn nn "chilly" "not many" "sv/eet"

Informants v/ill frequently deny the meanings of the parts because

those parts have become a unified whole v/hose concept dominates the

mind of the speaker. This is not alv/ays so obvious in derivatives

where the original stem is not so compounded.

/waj-wajir/ /yi:r - am/ /ma:l-mal/ 'correct' 'strange' 'slov/ly' aj aj av

"superb" "some(one)" "sluggishly"

The compound functions in v/ord-level constructions, and

comprises potentially two or more v/ord level tagmemes filled by

morphemes. Besides such single morphemes, word slots may bo filled

by inflected forms like /pama-a/ 'for a man', /qanip-n/ 'Dad's';

derived forms like /mant-am/ •small-one-ish', /puq-mar/ 'always,

583

ever'; and compounds like /pam-la:w/ 'friend' or the longer avoid

ance language word /yuk-v/a:r-mu:qk-am/ 'v/idov/'.

The chapter will nov/ be subdivided to deal first v/ith a

general approach omtlining the Thaayorre v/ord, then to illustrate

inflections, derivations and compounds.

14.1 General approach

A fev/ examples of v/ords in the main form classes will

help to clarify some of the comments m.ade above and prepare for

explanations to be presented below:

nouns

kuta 'dog'

kunn-int-a 'a lizard'

kuta lok 'cat•

yuk-u .:. 'by a tree'

verbs

mu°qk 'eat'

ka;l-a:l-ir ' trusted'

ak le:rq-r 'let hit'

l_a : -ri : j-ar 'shocked'

adjectives

mev/er ' g r e e n '

p o r p u r - u q k 'meek '

punkur-la:r 'hungry'

men etr

adverbs

minj •truly*

minj-pa 'absolutely]'

minj - 1 'it's true]'

kor - kanpa 'excellent' \ 'ev^ery-where'

This array shov/s that some words may stand alone, others are joined

with different morphemes, some seem not to be able to occur v/ithout

some other associated v/ord while still others undergo a change in

combining v/ith others.

Stens carry the basic meaning of v/ords and affixes; the

bulk of Thaayorre inflection adds meanings to these stems. A root

is one single building block of words, a morpheme. Another array

of words will show additional features to be discussed in detail:

yuk-(k)umn 'sky'

ku:k-la;w 'voice'

la;r-mulur 'pelican'

wark-ant 'wander'

pot-pa:1 ' shiver'

lak-r-qo:qko 'for nothing'

qe :qk-(k)u;l 'angry'

ta:w~kunk alive

kampur-(p)uqk 'peaceful'

pal-kor ' outside'

ko;w-kanpa 'original'

kor-pal ' outoast'

Thaayorre stems and roots may bo bound or free, but af

fixes by definition are alv/ays bound as prefixes, infixes, suffixes

or suprafixes. Exanples now follov/;

Prefixes Infixes Sufflxi3S_

yu;-kan 'far-above'

ta:-rak 'erect'

naknkat-a-n 'in-camp' |ra:k-un 'ground-on'

loqk~o-n 'in-a-bay' v/unp-rla 'abt to put'

i:-r-uq-kar 'go-to-N'werq-a-r 'v/ith boomerang' pa;l-lr 'by fire

ko:-kanpa 'original qal-u-n 'to/for-me jyo:r-nr 'just today'

584

The suprafix occurs in the form of phonemic stress:

"pant-CL 'nan's name

"Ka:l- a 'uncle"

"kan- a 'have'

"pa:nt-'ak 'v/ith a head'

"ka;l-'u 'in the ear'

"kan-'am 'elder'

"pa:nt-"a:k 'having a head'

"ka:l-"kurj 'chilly'

"kan(a)"ant 'now try'

An initial problem consists of sorting different kinds of

words into similar classes, Bloomfield (1933:209) suggested primary

and secondary, the primary to include single free morphemes or de

rived words with a bound stem and affix. His secondary words in

cluded the derived word v/hich v/as a free sten plus affix or cora-

pound. Sapir (l921;29) classed v/ords as sinple, derived or com

pound. Cook has discussed this kind of classification (1969:118),

Coordinating these three approaches, one night classify the word in

Thaayorre according to their conbined typology.

CHART 56 single fi ee morphemes Primary A simple

pam 'man'

ku:n 'to m.iss'

ken 'short'

yup 'soon'

pa:nl 'woman'

le:rk 'return'

mant 'small'

yorp 'this way'

p ornpur 'hunpy'

lernp 'sour'

petn 'skin'

v/uqur 'shake'

-1- b derived v/ords. bound sten and affix

i:q-kar 'in-north'

na;n-nan 'slavishly'

kug-kar 'north side'

yu.;-par ' f a r - sou th '

l i : - p a r 'south s ide '

yuaQ-k.an 'far-N-bank'

i : - l - n - e n ' f ronontop' ken-en ' v e r t i c a l '

i ; - l - r - e n 'on froi beyond'

yu:q - kar ' f a r -nor th '

Secondary A -f- B / b -f A derived words. free stem and affix

yi:r-am 'some(one)'

v/a:r-an 'poor chap'

puq-nar ' for ever '

kunk-unk-ar ' l i v i n g '

ner-en 'proninent '

rant-i 'n 'hole-from'

moq-orn 'very ov/n'

ra:k-un 'ground-on'

qu : l - a r ' ou t -o f - s igh t '

punkur-la;r 'hungry'

l u l - u n ' e l d e r '

ko:v/-nij ' cold , nucus'

yaqkar-rot 'bov/ed'

pa:nl-u 'v/ife ( e r ) '

n e ; r - l a ' shark '

nay-i ' food-for '

585

A + A com.pound words. two free stems

ka:l-a:l 'believe' \-/al-(k)ulir 'paired'

qu:l-yi:r 'nearly' yuk-qat 'cyclone'

pa:l-(l)e:per 'tongue' pam-lu:mp 'old ma,n'

ra:k-(k)unn 'sky' \/a:r-nin 'various'

ninj-qu;1 'evening'

According to Cook (1969:118), in analysis at word level, v/ords

nay be divided into sinple, conplex and conpound. Since sir.ple

\/ords are nononorphenic and free, thoy nay be listed as lexenes,

but are not grannatical constructions. ^hus, words conprising one

or nore norphenes, having in Thaayorre sone accent other than the

usual word-initial strong stress, are conplex and poly-norphic,

having for exanple, a sten + an affix.

Affixes nay be either inflectional or derivational.:

. .. pan yi:r-an - Ir ... pan pok-on - t_x ... nn aj dn nx^ nn nn dn nx 'nen s o n e (er)' 'men none (er)'

rirk-ir - n - nan - r ... a.j dn dn nx nx 'clean - se - nake - did'

.... pan kan - a n - n ... qat la: - lo:np - u - ntr ... nn av dn nx nn dn nn dn nx 'nan elder - (er)' 'fish hole snoke - (er)'

"spern-v/hale"

Conpound v/ords are polynorphenic, having nore than one

sten or root: rt -f rt (-1- rt ,,.)

... pal - pil ... ko:w - qe:qk ... nunt - wa:r dr nn nn nn vb aj 'close-side' 'nose-stonach' 'tie - bad' "alongside" "snore" "quiet"

ka:l - a:l ra:k - kunn pa:nt - qat nn vb nn nn nn nn

'ear - burn' 'ground-thigh' 'head - fish' "trust" "space" "hat' . IT.

pa:i - le:per wal - (k)uiir wa;r - nin nn nn nn nn aj aj

'fire - tongue' 'tenplc - two' 'bad - good' "Plane" "pair" "everything"

Both kinds are found in conbination:

. .. kil - a:l - r - n ,.. qal - al - u - n ... katn - kay - a nn vb xn xn pn pn xn nn nn xn 'heat burn-do in' 'we-2 I with' 'stick - pipe-by "in hot sun" "you and I both" "v/ith a pipe"

586

pan - al - ur - p - un - n ... lono - no - ka:r nn pn dn dn dn xn nn dn ng

'nan-v/e-2-only vbz cs nf 'one rd not' - do -nak-ing' "not just one"

"velcone, befriend" "plenty"

Conpound words nay be conpounded;

ne;r - kun - v/a:r ... yu^r - ko:w - koyle - le nn nn aj nn nn m rd

'eye base bad' 'hands nose half half " sad " "• t ^ ^ "

kar - yup - ka'-r ne:r - ko;w - na:l

re as ng nn nn av 'like soon not' *eye nose slow'

"innediately"' "carefully"

yu:r - ne;r - ni:n nant - ne:r - ni'i-r rn nn vb aj nn vbrc

'hand eye sit' 'snail eye take-eo' "be fascinated" "reproduce"

Conpound x/ords nay also be conplex:

ninj - nu:nl - n ... kul - (l)akir - n ... pan - la;w-an rn vb nf nn nn lo nn nn al

• 'body bathe - ing' 'lap front - on' 'nan nouth to^ "'on the lap" to a friend" "swinning'

pan - ta:w - (w)a:r - a - n ... la:r - nulur - nlr ... nn "nn aj dn er vb nn er 'nan nouth bad xn 'rain ^ ird xn " "an oneny did ..." "pelican did ... '

kul - ul (r)e:k - r yuk la:(v/) - lo:np - ^ - ^ rd vbs tn nn nn nn dn xn

nn ra VDB txx •— — ^ / •, \ , nap lap give -do. '^^^''^ °.™l^..r„!!^i-al"

" e n t i c e " the r ainb ov/ ( did) "

Phrase and clause derivatives nay becomo a single word:

;nt ^ tu;r nen - el? ... yuk - wa:r - nutqk - an ~-.- -. dp- nn a J vb dn

d i d 0 v/ "

nn nn aj -& - , ^ , '•head narrow good-very' ' thing bad eat^^- person

"• b r a i n y "

Various com.binatlons have occurred such as rt_J_rtJ_dn.. All the rt + dji -r rt

above exanples are sunned up in: — - -

/ \ , .L (c n) (rt) (rt -fr ) rt + rt - ^^^^^ + ( ,) + ^ .

14.2 I n f l e c t i o n s

14.2.0 Introduction

Thaayorre inflections occur always to the right of the

sten as suffixes so tho.t they nay bo called outer fornations. These

587

outer forns must be used as criteria for deternining the najor forn

classes of v/ords for they relate the word to its cont.ainer unit, the

phrase or clause, '.Liolping it to fit into the syntactic construction.

Derivations are al\/ays found to the left of these inflections, form

ing an inner layer of affixes. Roots or sinple nononorphic v/ords

forn tho core layer being basic lexenes fron vrhich conplex and con

pound v/ords are built up.

14.2.1 Noun inflections

Thaayorre nouns have no inflections for gender and for

nunber but they are inflected for case as they fit into noninal

slots of S/o/Hd tagnenes. Little distinction is nade for aninate

and inaninate contrast as is nade in sone Aboriginal languages, nor

again for subclasses of inalienable possession. Virtually no dis

tinction is nade between ncass oaid count nouns, though proper nouns

are nininally distinguished and kinship terns have a vocativo case.

The noun is closely related to the adjective and the nun

eral likewise has case inflections. The noun nay fill a locative

slot \:hen its structure becones rt + xn;

... ra;k - un ,.. rani - in ... qok - eln ... nn lo nn ol nn al

'earth - on' 'hole-fron' 'v/ater-into'

These three are RA phrases: ax + xe or: rt + sx.

nns lo/el/al

But if the inflection is ergative, the construction is different,

Toeing rt + sx in forn only but transitive S of the clause, v/ith the

suffix fitting the filler of the S-slot to perform an action on a goal v/hich is the object.

pan-al ,.. qunpur - an ... yak - a ... nns er nns er nns er 'nan .., ' 'old lady ,,. ' 'snake ... '

S S s.

More conplioated nouns nay function in the sano x/ay:

pan nerqk pan - an - ak ... pan kul - puqk - nlr

nn nn nn dn pv nn nn nn er 'nan son nan-fron ' s ' 'nan lap - crowd ... '

rt + dn + xn rt -f rt -I- xn "' the Son-of-nan's " " the crov/d ... (!

While derivational affixes are nunerous in English but each has a

very United sphere of occurrence, in Thaayorre, the opposite holds

good. Few derivational affixes occur but there o,re inflections in

588

great nunber having nany allonorphic forns. Syntactic inflections

are general throughout the noun v/ord class and used as criteria for

distinguishing then fron verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Moreover,

inflections have a high frequency of occurrence right through their

class, but derivational affixes a United to a snail nunber of class

nenbers.

Inflections are relational affixes fitting tho syntax and

restricting it to certain positions in syntactic constructions.

Such relational identification is syntactically relevant but does

not change the forn class of tho inflected nouns;

ninp pan - a ... korl naqn ... laral Jon - lak ... nn nn pv nn pa nn nn pv

'garnent nan's' 'dress her' 'trousers John's' ,

nn = nu nns

nn = nu nns

nn - nu nns

-r

+

4-

lo /-un/

pv /-lak/

el /-nan/

Just as nouns (and adjectives) are inflected in a noun -

like nanner, so other parts of speech have their typical suffixes

which distinguish then for v/hat they are. While nouns are inflec

ted as Heads for case, verb stens are inflected for tense, nood and

aspect. By this neans one can sift out the nounstens fron the verb-

sten_s. The n_pun fornula is;

/ra:k-un/ 'ground-on'

/jon-lak/ ' J ohn' s '

/kuta-nan/ 'dog-fron'

Elson and Pickett (l962:76) point out that inflectional construct

ions consist of tv/o or nore tagnenes, one manifested by a sten or

root and another by an inflectional affix; /yak-a/ 'snake-by' or:

nns + er. Tv/o kinds of tagnene occur thus: the NUCLEAR filled by

stens and the affix filled by inflectional affixes;

/pu:n-u/ 'wind-by' nns -+- ns .

14. 2.. 2 Verb , inflections

A verb sten is one which takes typical verb inflections

filling predicate slots -//hich refer to events. Transitivity is

narked only for the niddle voice of reflexive and reciprocal, not

the active or the passive kind of action.

One special kind of verb occurs in Thaayorre which is con

cerned v/ith what Elson and Pickett call "possessive verbs" in the

Sierra Popoluca (l964:100) but v/hich has been called the "possessed

589

object" elsewhere (l.l.3, 4.7, 4.12 and 5.7.3). They clain that

a verbalising suffix is added to nouns in a sinilar way to one in

terpretation of possessed objects: /NUI kay-k-a;k./ 'he gun-has'.

The verb fornula varies for sone kinds of clause:

/ .,. pan le';rg-ar .../ tv = nu + as "... nan kill-did ..." vbs pc

/ ... te;rn-e(y)-r/ rx vb = nu + x^: + ts "hit self" vbs /-e/ /-r/

/ ... wak - r - r .../ ro vb= nu + re + ^s ''chas-ed-eo" vbs /-r/ /-r/

/ ... v/un-nat . . . / iv vb = nu -f- ts "..lie dov/n - did" vbs ps

/te:rk-an-ij-ar .../ tv ^ nu + cs -- ur -fr as vbs tzz /-ij/ pc

'return-nake-go-did' ... "nade hin go right away back again"

Auxiliaries are a subclass of verb, uninflectod with the

exception of/(g) ak(-na)/ 'lot (can)' v/hich is rt + fx Or:

^u + ^s „ ^^^ 3_g can ..." nr dz/po

14.2.3 Adjective inf lecti.oiis

The adjective sten is a sten taking adjectival (noninal)

inflections, but it is particularly distinguished by being a filler

of nodifier slots and being able to take the comparative suffix :

/-air/ 'very' and the adverb of degree /ninj/ 'very'. 'This part of

speech nay substitute for the Head in a noun phrase, and it usually

bears the phrase case-narker fitting that phrase into one of the

slots on clause level.

It is pertinent that Dixon (l972;24) refers to the above-

nentioned possessed object as being an adjective in one Aboriginal

language so that /NUI gok-k-a:k./ would nean by his interpretation,

"he water-possessing" or, "He is quenched." This is counterbalanced

by tho negative polarity: /Nul gok-k-a;r-in./ 'he water-less' or,

"Ho is thirsty." This v/ould -nake a special kind of derived adject

ive. However, the structure of tho nornal adjective is:

.,, lerp-alr ,.. nin - nen - elr ... kana - ^-U^' aj ca aj aj ca aj ca/dg

'fast-very' ' good - very ' 'right - very

and the equation is: a j = nu -I- ca / ,~ / ajs "* /-air/ ~ /-etx/ ~ /-tx/ .

590

14.2.4 The Adverb inflections

As sone adverbs take case endings with United ro.ngo of

case, the structure nay be thus:

/ ,,. kanpa - ntan . , . / av = tn ^ " , / "from before" avs /-ntan/

/ , .. kor - 0 . . . / av = lo H- al

m» /-o/ "to outside"

14.2.3 Pronoun inflections

Pronouns boing a subclass of the noun, are likov/iso prone

to bear inflections sinilar to those of the noun. The distinction

is contrastive between S and 0, not as in the noun between the tran

sitive and intransitive S. Alternatives in paradigns- are but posit

ional variants or allowords fitting the syntactic roquirenents of

tho particular clause.

A special feature of the pronoun as a word, is that it

varies for person, distinguishing botv/een the person speaking, the

person spoken to and the person spoken about, but apart fron this,

its case endings are sonewhat related to the noun endings. Hov/ever,

the sten-SETS vary for person: o.g, /gal/ ~ /nagk/ ~ /nag/; and

/ganp/ ^ /ganj/ ~ /nur/ ~ /pel/. An indefinite pronoun occurs v/hich

is actually a noun phrase, v/ith a special suffix /-nil/ •

/pan rinj-nil/ nn -f vb -f ajz 'nan thin-ONE' .

14.2.6 Single norphene po.rticlos

As these are not constructions they do not conprise a seq

uence of norphenes filling tagnenic slots. A few exanples however,

consist of v/ords like the follov/ing; CHART 57

affirnative /gav/oy/ 'yes, indeed' /koje/ 'no'

conjunction /gul/ 'and, but' /agar/ 'so that'

aspect /anl/ 'try' /yup/ ';

relater

soon'

adverb

introducer

/kar/ 'like' /kal/ 'fron'

/qu:l/ 'later on' /kaw/ 'east'

/ko;/ 'ny word]' /ge;/ 'oh]'

14.3 D e r i v a t i o n s

14.3.0 Introduction

Sinple roots nay be changed into conplex stens having a

nodified meaning by various methods. Derivational affixes are an

591

inner formation, stem-adjacent, and on the left of syntactic inflec

tions \'/hich are an outer formo.tion on v/ord level. When a derivation

al affix is added to a root, it nakes a sten:

rt + dn = se /yi;r-an/ /yi:r-an - n/ .^^^^^^^^.

aj -t-dn aj -f-dn -fror

word - stem, -f inflection {+ inflection )

A derivational affix is one v/hich is not a syntactic inflection:

... pan v/a:r - an ... nin ku: j nant - an - o.k ... nn aj dn nn nn aj dn da 'nan sick - one' 'aninal 'roo snall-ono - for'

Syntactic inflections do not change the forn class of a

word but consist of suffixes like: /ri:j-ar/ 'run-did'; /lc:rk-n/

'rcturning-was'; /ni'i-rla/ 'take-about to'; /pornpur-n/ 'house-in';

/pan-a/ 'nan-for'. But derivational affixes nay change the forn

class of v/ords and nerely establish a word as a nenber of that fom

class if this is so:

pu;kan - p - un - r ... qe:qk - n - n ... aj vbz cs tn nn vbz nf 'new - do - nake-did' 'stonach-do-ing' "repaired, nade new" "cherish-ing-v/as"

kurj - m - n menjen - m - rirk - r aj vbz nf loan vbz vb tn

cold - do - ing' 'nention - do - do - did "was-oooling-down" " nentioned "

The division of affixes nay bo clearcr in a diagran;

CHART 58 .Affixes

DERIVATIONS IKFLECTIONS

goverhing restrictive

(change forn class) (forn class sane)

The distribution of derivations is restricted and liD.ited

to a few nenbers only in a v/ord class, the functional load being

light and random. These derivations consolidate a form in a specif

ic class so that words can be recognised thereby as nenbers. Though

English has over sixty connon ones, Thaayorre has fev/. Sone are;

/tono-nar/ /qu;n-nar/ /yuk v./a:r-nu:qk-an/ /Muqk-^ 'for ever' 'everywhere' 'a widow' 'placenane

A derivational affix or pattern nay be very connon, but nany are

restricted to only two or three cases. Derivational affixes con

solidate a forn within a particular forn class. Hockett describes

(1958:243) tv/o types:

592

1. Governing derivational affixes v/hich can change the forn class

of a v/ord: /nurkan - p - un - r/

aj vbz cs tn adjective becones verb, 'free do-nake-did' "— '^ "~

"break, cancel a taboo"

/kan - kan - u/

nn rd dn noun becones adjective 'blood-blood' " — — _ _ _ _ " r o d "

2. Restrictive derivational affixes \/hich do not change the forn

class, but only tho neaning of the root.

/punt/ 'elbow' (nn) /nin punt-il/ 'brolga' (nn)

/kanpa/ 'before' (av) /kanp-anpa-r/ 'first of all' (av)

/kunk/ 'alive' (aj) /kunk-unk-ar/ 'living' (aj)

When a derivative has been established, it retains its nenbership

in that forn class, and shares the affixation therein.

Nida (1949:99) discussing inflections, describes then as

outer, less nunerous, used throughout the class and fitting stens

into the syntax. They never change forn class, but -are syntactical

ly relevant and their paradigns are clear and honogeneous for tho

najor forn classes. This is consistent with what I find in the data

illustrated in various paradignatic arrays. Nida goes on to des

cribe derivations as inner, nore nunerous. United to a subclass,

but establishing words in that class. They nay change forn class,

are norphologically p-ortinoiit, but paradigns are inadequate for nore

than single v/ords.

Thaayorre derivations are bound forns v/hich differ fron

the regular inflections: e.g. in /rirkir-n-an-r/ 'clean-sc-did',

the sten neans 'clean', being adjectival, /-n/ is a verbaliser con

verting the adjective to a verb, /-an/ is a c-ausative or transitiv-

ising affix, both derivation and inflection perhaps, v/hile /-r/ is

a verbal suffix of nonspecific tonse. Thus, /-n/ and /-an/ nay be

classified as dn and /-an/ and /~x/ as xn. Only /-r/ is non-sten.

14.3.1 Restrictive type

These derivations when added to the stor forn an -augment

ed sten v/hich remains in the same form class as before. If a caus

ative suffix |-(n)anl is added to a verbsten as a transitiviser, it

renains a verb and continues to take verb affixation;

/le;rk/ 'go back, return' /le:rk-an/ 'return-make, send back vbs vbs cs

593

In this way, a sinple root is changed into a conplex sten having

nodified neaning: tvs - ox dn iv tzz

Read: This transitive verbsten consists of a core slot filled

by an intransitive verb and a derivation slot filled by a transit

iviser /-an/. The causative suffix is undoubtedly tho nost prod

uctive derivation in the language.

By reduplication and a derivational suffix, nany x/ords

receive a nodified neaning: CHART 59

kunlc 'alive' (aj)

la:rn 'strong' (aj)

rankin 'crooked' (aj)

noq 'nany, nuch' (nn/aj)

yi:r 'different' (aj)

kunanp 'straight' (aj)

kon 'short, round' (aj)

pot 'dry, arid' (aj)

tone 'one' (aj)

kunk-unk-ar 'living'

la:-larn 'full up'

raiik-ankin 'really crooked'

noq-orn 'very nany indeed'

la:-yi:r-yir 'assorted'

kun-kunanp 'vertical, erect'

ko-kon-un 'circular'

pot-pot 'parched, arid'

lono-qko 'last of all'

tono-no - ka:r 'plenty'

As the adjectives above renain adjoctives in the derivat

ive forn, so NOUNS nay renain nouns likev/ise;

nan lir-nan 'steep cliff

ka;l-kal-u 'in the ears'

3/uk-yuk-un 'in tho copse'

lir 'gravel"

ka:l 'ear'

yuk 'tree'

puq 'sun'

pil 'hip'

kul 'lap'

nin. liqk 'bandicoot'

yuk lirnt 'pipe tree

rerqk 'coolibaPi'

puq-puq-ulu 'in sunshine'

pil-pil-u 'having (sore) hip'

nin kul-kul-u 'Pied oyster Calcen'

nin l i : n - l i q k - i r ' sna i lwhi tebi rd '

nin l i r n t - i r - n a n 'blue v/ren'

gat rorgk-an 'big fresh-viator so.rdine'

Adverbs reduplioated nay generate derivative adverbs:

na:l 'slowly' na:l-nal 'sluggishly'

nelnk-ar 'future'

kanpa 'before'

gergka 'dusk'

kan 'on top'

nelnk-elnk-ar 'tonorrov/'

kanp-anp-ar 'beforetino'

gergk-ergk-an 'early norn'

kan-agkar 'originally'

kan-pa 'first'

594

kop 'lev/ down'

lil 'again'

gu:l 'later'

ke;y 'across'

kop-kop-agkar 'underneath'

lil-lil 'repeatedly'

gu:l-a:r 'quickly'

ke;y-key 'across~v/iso'

Verbs nay forn derivatives v/hich are verbs still:

tak 'leave' lafc-ak-ar 'clearing, leaving'

gorn 'stay away' qorn-orn-ur 'continuing afar'

ya:r 'go off ya:r-yar-a 'going off further'

More nouns renain nouns in derivative forn:

pa:nt 'head, top'

nan 'throat'

lu.1 '\/oonera'

nan 'throat'

kunn 'thigh'

punt 'am'

waq 'ghost, denon'

nurk 'stone, rock'-

yu:r 'hand'

kurp •stone axe'

Pru:r 'ripple'

pa;nt 'head'

neper ' shoulderblado'

may 'food'

pa:nt 'head'

no:r 'cyG(s)'

(ni;r) 'rod'

na y 'food'

la:-pa:nt-an 'at tho head, at top, corner'

pan nan-u 'initiated nan'

p an lu1-un 'elder'

nan-ur 'silence'

kunn-int-a 'a l i z a r d '

puiit-irp 'young nothor'

v/aq - a l ' 'v/hi t e doctor '

nurk-n 'flint-stone'

yu:r-al 'policenan'

kurp-n, 'flea'

nin]£u;r-in 'stone curlew'

pa:nt-un 'accident'

nin neper-1 'black stork'

punl nay-al 'relative'

pa;nt-an 'cuts of corner neat'

qat ne:r-la 'shark'

ne:r-t 'tears'

ni:r-n 'red ochre'

ni:r-i 'sunset glow'

pil-nay-an '-in-lav/'

Restrictive derivations with forn class unchanged have a derivat

ional slot which is narked as optional, but narked for function:

nns = + cr 1 nnz nns dn

(nin) nop er(-l) 'black stork'

nns would be regarded as a class-2 noun, but the filler of the core

slot is a class-1 noun. All fornulas apply equally to uninflocted

words as tho process cf derivation is independent of inflections.

So too for other forn classes.

ajs = -f cr 1 ajz lono(-qko) 'last one'

ijs dn

595

¥/ith reduplication, the equation is nodified:

nns = cr. cr nnz ^ ,. , , _, , puq-puq-ulu 'm hot sun' nns. nns dm -^ •J -^ •'

ajs = cr or ^ aja rank-ank-in 'crooked, winding' ajs ajs dn

Reduplicated core fillers are subject to reduction by elision. The

derived sten nay have nenbership in a snaller subclass v/hich is

syntactically capable of bearing inflections but would bo classi

fied as a Stcn-class-2 word v/hilo the core stem is sten-class-1

with an obligatory derivation affix.

14.3.2 Governing type

Where a v/ord bears a derivational affix -which changes its

forn class, this derivation acts as a catalyst in fitting the sten

into another kind of slot v/ithin a construction, so that a word

then becones a noun, or a verb, an adjective or an adverb. Those

affixes are terned noninalisers, verbalisers, adjectivisers and

adverbialisers. Exanples follov/; CHART 60

Noninalisers on verbs

nu:qk''eat, drink, swallow' yuk v/a:r-nu:qk-an 'widow'

ya:-r 'go, walk' ya:r-nan 'horso'

pi;nl 'grow' nin pi;n-pinl-ir 'big old goanna'

rinj 'get cranp' pan rinj-nil 'the thin one'

pu:nn 'pity' pan pu:nn-nil 'the pitying one'

yil 'lead' pan ko :w-yil-nil 'leading ono, ancestor'

nat 'paralyse, stick" pan nat-nil 'the sticky one'

kal-pa:r 'be born' kal-pa:r-nan 'birth place'

qe;y 'hoar' nan qe:y-nan 'guess, intuition'

rint 'squeeze' kunn-int-a 'sleepy lizard'

lak 'leave' pupur-ak-nan 'v/inter'

yik 'speak, talk' nin puirt-ik 'whistling tree duck'

kunp 'fune, get angry' ru:r kump-an 'sting honey ants'

pa:r 'cry' par'r 'child'

Noninalisers on adjectives

kunp 'deep' Icunp-unp-un 'deep pond'

lerp 'fast, quick' ru:r lerpin 'eager red beef ants'

yl'.x 'another, different' yi:r-yir-an 'sone(one)'

wa:r 'bad, sick' wa:r-an 'poor sick fellow'

596

nant 'small, young'

kunk 'alive'

yokun 'alike, same'

mole '(his) ov/n'

nant •snail, young'

qo.nj 'holy, taboo'

pork 'big'

rorqkor ' light-v/eight'

lerp 'fast'

lono 'one'

nant 'snail'

(v/al) qu:.nt 'covetous

Noninalisers on adverbs.

kan 'on top, above'

qu:l 'later'

kar 'north'

ke:y 'across'

Verba l i s e r s on nouns

qe:qk 'abdonen, s tonach '

r a : k ' e a r t h , p l a c e , t i n e '

p u : n 'v / i ]

k a : l eo.r ta :w ' n o u t h '

ne:r 'eye' nant 'snail'

pan 'nan' qal-ur 'just

pupur 'firestick'

ne;r 'eye'

nul ' t a i l '

V e r b a l i s e r s on ad jec t iy .es

v/a:r ' b a d '

r i r k i r ' c l e a n '

n i n i r ' r e a d y '

kun anp ' s t r a i ght

n a n t - a l ' Joey kangaroo '

yak Inank-an ' s h o r t g ra s s snake '

yokun-nan ' r e p l i c a '

Mole-nan 'River nane'

nant-an 'youngker'

ot-qanj-e 'nountain, hill'

qat pork-ol 'Hanner-head shark'

waq rorqkor 'nountain goblin'

la:v/-lerpir •spittle'

nin lono-npe •Bronzowing pigeon'

nin nant-nant 'bird(s)'

yak qu ;nt-ur 'venonous black sn.'

pan kan-an 'elder child'

pan qu:l-an 'younger child'

ra:k ka,r-nan 'Monsoon season, year'

•' kar-lcin 'Monsoon wet'

yuk ke:y-ir 'Leichart tree'

CHART 61

qe;qk-n 'to love, cherish'

ra:k-rak-r-nar 'sky clearing'

pu:n-n 'to pity'

ka:l-la:v/-p-in-r 'concentrate'

ue;r-nant-pun - n 'fertilise'

we-2' pan-al-ur-p-un~n 'welcone'

pupur-ak-nan 'to chill'

ne:.r-(e)n 'renenber'

pan ne:r-en-n-a 'Lawronee Foot's

bush-nane' nul-aka-nat. 'wagged the tail'

wa;r-v/ar-r 'to worsen'

wa:r-(a)n-r 'to deteriorate'

ka:l v/a:r-(a)n-r 'worry about'

rirkir-n-an-r 'to clean-se'

ninir-p-un-r 'to prepare'

kunanp-un-r 'to nake straight'

http://adjectiy.es

597

nanti 'cooked, ripe'

pu;kan 'new'

murk-an 'taboo-fron'

la;rn "hard'

porpur 'soft, boggy'

pi:nl-a-v/a;r 'tired'

wulur ' cr o\/d o d'

ruj-uj-a 'dirty, nurky'

kanpur 'quiet'

yerk 'free'

qo:qk 'blind'

no.nti-p-un-ir 'cooked'

pu;kan-p-un-r 'to renew'

nurkan-pun-r 'break a taboo'

la:r(n)n-(n)at 'to go hard'

porpur-n-nan 'v/ill nelt'

pi : nt-a-v/a; r-n-nan-r 'to bore'

v/ulur-n~at ' crov/ded'

ruj-n-an-r 'to foul up'

ka-npur-n-an-r 'to pacify'

yerk-n-an-r 'to nake free'

qo ;g.c-0' -n 'be ignorant of

Verbalisers on a.dyerbs

wut-qu:l 'sleep later' v/ut-qu: l-m-an 'at nidnight'

(This forn class cannot be verbalised.)

" '"erbaliser on nn + aj

ka:l 'ear' purq 'block' ka:l-purq-n-at 'forget'

CHART 62

Adjectivisers on nouns

ruji 'cold ashes'

kan 'blood'

yu;r 'hand'

- - ? ?

qe;qk 'abdonen, stonach'

la;w 'nouth'

nan 'throat' (See nn)

lul 'woonera'

ne:r 'eye' (See nn)

pil 'hip' (See nn)

pok 'nothing'

pa;nl 'wife, wonan'

qok 'v/ater'

pa:nl 'wife, spouse'

kun 'base, rear, seat'

Adjectivisers on verbs

punl-nu:qk 'eat hand'

pir 'grab'

( P

ruj-uj-a 'dirty, grubby'

kan-kan-u 'red, purple'

la:-yu:r-yur 'neddlesone'

uaq-naqal 'happy'

qe:qk-en 'silly, stupid'

la;v/-ara 'cheeky, frosh'

nan-u 'initiated nan')

qok Fa:nt-v/a'an-n lul-un 'Placenane'

pan ne:r-en-n-a 'L's bushnane'

pil-pil-u 'having (sore) hip•

pok-on •none'

pa:nt-a:k •narried'

qok-a:k 'quenched, hvg water'

pa:nl-a:r 'wifeless, single'

Icun-par ' c r ipp led '

punl-nu:qk-a 'gr e e dy'

p i r -pir -v/a l ' snooth '

598

lanp 'push, touch, hit'

pu:k 'sv/eep'

pirk 'to swipe'

nu:nt 'so s ew'

le:rq 'strike'

lanp-anp e-nat 'spotted'

pu:k-an 'nev/, fresh'

pirk-irn 'naked'

nu ;nt-un (m.unt -un? ?) 'too nany '

le;-lerq-e-nat 'spotted, striped'

Adjectivisers on adverbs

yup 'soon' yup-a:r 'v/asting tine'

kan 'up high' (See adverbs) ko.n-an 'elder'

qu;l 'later on' (See adverbs) qu:l-an 'younger'

kuqkar 'north-side' kuqkar-n 'northern'

ti;par 'south-side' li:par-n 'southern'

CHART 63

Adverbialisers on nouns

puq 'sun'

nan 'throat'

la :v/ ' nouth '

qerqk(a) 'darkness, dusk'

ni;q 'daylight'

Adverbialisers on verbs

(No exanples have been identified.)

Adverbialisers on adjectives

puq-nar 'alv/ays, every tine'

puq-uk 'last tine, last v/eek'

nan-un 'very, extrenely'

la: v/-law- an ' alv/ay s , d ai ly '

qerqkcon 'yesterday'

qerqk-erqk-an 'early norn'

ni:q-niq-r 'by day'

la:rn 'hard, strong'

v/ajir 'v/ell'

petpan 'lively*

lono 'one'

qu:n 'clean, cleared'

lono 'ono'

porpur 'soft, squelchy'

l a ; r - a r n ' s t rong ly '

v/aj-wajir ' superbly ' (aj ??)

pet petpan 'q,uickly'

lono-nar 'for ever'

qu;n-nar 'everywhere'

lono-qkun 'in one group, unitedly'

lono-qko 'last of all'

porper-n 'too nuch, overdone'

14.3.3 Structure of derivatives

Word level fornulas have to do with derivatives. After all

syntactic inflections have been renoved and explained, stons can

then be analysed for derivation and conpounding. When bound forns

599

are found to be bound to roots which are not inflections, they are

derivatives: root + derivation = yi;r - an 'sone(ono)'. These

derivational constructions conprise tv/o or nore tagnenes, a core

filled \)y a sten or root o.nd a derivation slot filled by a nonin-

flection. Thus a conplex sten = Gore + deriyation(s). A concise

array of Thaayorre derivairional affixes nov/ follows:

VERB i

S t e n - c l a s s T o a NOUN (To

I ne:r(e)n

; To an ADJECTIVJ To an ADVERB

N o u n jpunt-irp pan -nan-ur ^aq-al

jpan - an [ qe:qk-n 'nan-ur

V e r b

••pok - on

; kan-kan-u i pu;n-n \ ruj-uj-a • ka:l-la;w-p-l qe ;qk-en

puq -a - -nar nan-un ni:q-niq-r ta:w-taw-an

kunn-inl-a \ ; rinj-nil ;punt-ik

hi :r'r

Adjective ilerp-in 5nant-al jot-qanj-e jpork-ol

Adverb ijruk ke :y - i r ?kar-lan ;qu;l-an

qorn-orn-ur I pu;k-an lak-ak-ar I p i rk - i rn ya : r -ya r -a | nunt-un yay-p-un-ir \ lanp-anp-e-n_at \

wa:r-a-n-r ; kunk-unk-ar ninir-p-un-r j rank-ank-in vTulur-n-at ; ko-kon-un qo:qk-o-n I noq-orn

'I yup-a;r ; kan-an \ l i : - p a r - n

\ l a : r - a r n \ pet-petpan • lono-nar

porp-er-n

qu: ' l -a:r na:1-nal kop-kop-aqkar

N or do ad-Apparently adverbs do not becone verbs and vice versa,

verbs convert so easily to other parts of speech, perhaps because

they have a snaller class nenbership.

Fron a perusal of the previous lists, it nay be con

cluded that the core slot n-ay be filled by a root or sten and that

the core slot filler plus the derivation slot filler nake a derived

sten which is able then to be optionally enlarged by other derivat

ions or inflections. The CORE is a functional tern v.iiore the first

layer of tagnenes occurs whereas derivational tagnenes are second

layer in word constructions. As the core is a slot filled by stens

and roots, the derivation slots are filled by derivational affixes.

Because governing derivations cause a change in forn class, both

slots are obligatory, that of the core and that of tho derivation

v/hich changes the part of speech.

Analysis of word structure in this study usually works

fron stens: e,g. rirkir-n-nan-nanj-n aj vbz cs fu pc

'clean-do-nake-v/ill-can' but equations for

derivations seen better with two constituents:

6G0

nns - cr nnz nnr dn

vbs = cr vbz nnr dn

ajs = cr ajz nns -, dn rd

avs = cr av2 nns dn

/punl-irp/ 'young nother'

/qe:qk-n/ 'love, cherish'

/kan-kan-u/ 'red-coloured'

/puq-nar/ 'for evernore'

14.4 C o n p o u n d s

14.4.0 Introduction

Compound words are core fornations and each sten filling

a core slot carries its own basic lexical neaning:

/kar-yup-ka;r/ ' re as ng 'like-soon-not' "immediately"'

avs ~ cr or cr /kar/ /yup/ /ka:r/

But these constituents are not necessarily like a -fr b -t- c for v/ith

in the three tagnenes b nay be closer to a than to c, shov/ing the

necessity of evaluating the innediate constituents for internal

enbedding or layering.

A sten ninus any affix nay be a sinple root: /yuk/ 'tree';

or it nay be conplex when consisting of root -t- derivation; /pan-an/

'nan-fron'; /yi:r-an/'sonebody'. If it is conpound. it nay consist

of root -i- root: /pan-la;w/ 'nan-nouth' = "friend";

/ne;r-kun-wa:r/ ' eye-botton-bad ' - "sorrov/ful"'.

Elson and Pickett (l964:ll) renind us that a single root norphene

bears basic lexical neaning, A root is a single norphene with lex

ical connotation and if a sten has only one norphene, it is not a

construction but a root. Stens having nore than one m-orpheme v/ill

consist of more than one root;

/me;r - ke:.w - ma;l/ /yu:r - ko;w - wa:r/ /mant-ne:r-ni'i/ 'eye nose slowly' 'hand nose bad^ 'snail eye take'

"thoroughly" "slovenly"' "reproduce"

Analysis requires that conpounds be reduced to their correct roots

and stens layer by layer if there happens to be enbedding. It is

easy to see that /pan-la:v// above consists of root + root, but is

it not possible that it is a phrase and should not be hyphenated?

Phonological clues help one to nake the decision. Patt

erns of consonants and vowels and their allophones, together" with

601

stress and the absence or iDresenco of glottal juncture are to be "h

considered. Phonetically, the word is a conpound ["p an"da:wj in

v/hich 1 becones a voiced interdental fricative and no juncture sep

arates the two constituents. No elision of the 1 over occurs and

the conpound is inflected as a single unit.

Syntactically, conpounds contrast with phrases in that

they possess nonsyntactic features v/hich do not natch phrase pat

terns. Conpounds often have a word-order v/hich is irregular, un

expected but firnly nonintorruptible. One cannot change the con

pound /yu:r-ko:v/~koyle-lo/ 'both hand = ten' for its order is ir

revocably chosen by usage. And if a nodifier wore follov/ing, that

nodifier v/ould nodify tho whole conpound and could not refer to

any one of its conponents singly. It is so idionatically stabal-

ised that it could not be changed to /lanur-rko :v/-koyle-le/ for the

counting is done v/ith tho fingers, not toes. Sinilarly, /m.ay-qok/

'food-water• means "snoko" whether the workers gather for tea/cof

fee/coo onut /ion onade.

Besides tho phonological and syntactic features of the

conpound, it is necessary to exanine the senantic concept of the _

parts in their relation to tho whole. Thaayorre conpounds are sel

don the sun of their parts in neaning for a cohesive entity seons-

to enter the conpound and unify it;

ra;k loqkun werqka ,.. yuk - wa:r - nu;qk - an . 'tino piece between' 'thing bad eat person' "the sabbath day" " a v/idow"

Conpounds nay be sorted out initially according to the

forn class of their first conponent, these boing alnost exclus

ively United to the four parts of speech studied in the previous

section oncbrivations, tho noun, verb, adjective and adverb.

Noun-initial conponent CHART 65

/ku:k-pa;nt/ 'voice' /kirk-kay/ 'radio' 'word-head' 'spear-wcapon^

Verb-initial component

/ l ak - r -qo :qko / ' for nothing' ' l e a v e - s e l f - b l i n d ' ^

/kumn-ma;k - r / ' boas t ' ' t h i g h - p r e s s - s o l f

Adjective-initial component

/qanal-katp/ 'enbrace' 'large-hold' /punkur-la:r/ 'hungry'

I rain'

602

/pot - pa;l/ »3i,i^3^., 'dry - bite'

Adverb-initial conponent

/qu:l - yi:r/ /naqk - nexg/ /kor - kanpa/ 'later-different' ' low - side' 'beyond-bofore'

"nearly" "soft-underside" "everyv/here"

The second elenent is sonetines conplex; /na:k-r/ vbs+rx.j

though the first elenent is also likely to be so: /lak-r/ vbs + rx.

/qu;np-v/a:l-ir/ 'jealously envious' /yuk-v/a;r-nu;qk-an/ 'v/idow'

/pa:nl-ne:r-(e)n/ 'girl-friend' /naqk-loqk-un/ 'v/aist'

It is necessary to nake the right IC cuts v/hore nore than

tv/o conponent parts forn a conpound:

/ne :r-kun-wa;r/ /qe :nk-nan-ruv// /ko :w-nut-pirk-a/ nn nn aj nn nn nn nn nn aj pv

'eye base bad' 'stonach-throat-chest' 'nose-ridgc-big-got' Hd + Md 01 + Hd 01 + Hd

/S' FA / 01 + Hd Hd + Md "downcast'; sad" "the heart" "with a big beak"

(or; /S PA /)

/yu;r-ko;v/-koyle-le/ /nin yankar'^ru;nn-runn-ni ;r-n/ nn nn nn rd nn nn nn rd aj pv

•fingers - side - s' 'creature-legs - feathers - red-got' Cl + Hd Hd + Hd Hd + Hd

Hd + Md 01 +- Hd or: Cl + Hd 01 +- Hd _ L,_Md

"Ten"" "('finger si " " cassowary bird ^ t?

This enbedding shows how /nin/ as lexical classifier,

nodifies the v/hole fused phrasal conpound, how /yaqkar/ serves as

classifier to identify tho feathers of the leg, how /ni;r-n/ nodi

fies these leg-feathers, and how /ru;nn-runn/ is reduplicated for

duality and plurality conbined;

N - Cl Hd hn *cn = Cr cr

*cn ajs

Read;

cm = cr cr nns nns rd

This fused noun phrase is composed of a nodifier slot filled by a

lexical classifier and a Head filled by a conpound. The conpound

consists of a core slot filled by a conpound and another core slot

filled by an adjective sten. The conpound consists of a core slot

filled by a noun sten and a core slot filled by a reduplicated

noun sten.

Different types of conpound systens occur and this can

only be clarified by the fornal analysis of the constituents in a

603

synnetrical array. The conpounds nay be studied by the analysis .

of their internal conponent parts, but the v/hole conpound nay also

be referred to by its external distribution in a clause or phrase

slot, according to its ov/n forn class therein. Thus, three iden

tifications nust be nade, the forn class of the constitute, the

forn class of the roots and their order.

Syntactic relationships are usually nodified in the con

pound, being condensed to essential words of the four connon forn

classes. If the gramaatical relationships are obscure, the type

is a-syntactic. But syntactic relations can be either endocentric

or exocentric.

14.4.1 A - syntactic

In a conpound like /ka:l-pi:nl/ 'ear-bone' nn +• nn. or

/pi;nl-a-wa:r/ 'bones-by-bad' neaning "sharp-eared" and "v/eary"

respectively, the syntactic order is not obvious. Other such are;

CHART 66

/la:w-p an/ /p i-nl-la:w/

nn nn nn nn ' nou th-ba i t ' 'bone-nouth'

iVomit" "v/hole body" /puqk-kul/ / n u l - ( l ) u : n p /

nn nn nn aj 'knee- lap ' hiapo - grey '

" s i t on foot" "bull-roarer"

/kut a-yu;r / /n e:r-nu;qk/ nn nn nn vb

'dog-hand' 'oye - ea t ' "nirage" "dazzle"

/no : r - l i : k/ /v/upur-int/ nn vb nn vb

'eye-break' 'sweat-bake' "copy" "sweat"

/ n a ; n - u n j / / p i l -v / a j i r / nn vb nn aj

'follow-sip' 'hip-well' "how" "look-out]"

14.4.2 Syntactic compounds

Where the grannatical relationship is clearly phrasal or

clausal, the reduced tagnenes of the conpound nay often be expan

ded into a full clause or a full phrase fron which it originated

by an idiono.tic reduction to the bare essentials which fused into

one econonic v/ord unit.

604

Endocentric conpounds are those having one or nore head

roots v/hen the conpound is the sane as one of the roots. Should

tho two roots bo coordinate, we have conpounds like;

CHART 67 Double-headed and equal;

/la;v/-ku:l/ /ko :w-noper-n/ /ku:lan-la;v7/ nn aj nn nn lo nn nn

'nouth-angry' 'nose-shoulder-on' 'track-nouth' "irritable" "on the edge" " a way"

One head root doninant

/pan-pork/ /nin kunj-(l) orkor/ /Waq-v/a:r/ nn aj nn nn aj nn aj 'man-big' 'croature-pipo-long' 'demon-bad' "an official" "Butcher-bird" "Satan"

These latter consists of two roots, the second nodifying tho first.

Exocentric conpounds are those in which neither root is

head and the conpound unlike one of its roots. The two roots nay

be entirely unrelated v/ith an alien neaning intruding, sone being:

/lak - r - qo;qko/ /yuk v/erk - v/a:r/ vb rx " aj nn vb aj 'leave-self-blind' 'thing-rubs-bad(ly)'

II m vain !i "burden"

14.4.3 Features of non-conpounds

Thaayorre com.pounds occur in every conbination of the

four najor parts of speech, but their frequency rate varies consid.

erably. It is essential in recognising conpounds fron the linit-

less nass of lexical possibilities, to exclude any of the follow

ing types of construction, all of v/hich nerit treatnent elsewhere

than this chapter; CHART 68

Reduced clauses

/wenet ni:nq - r/ /punl vnin/ A/ut naqk/ n n ~ vb tn nn vb vb av 'feor fear-do' ^7ing lie' 'sleep low

"be afraid" "in flight" "sleep in

(These are nornal phrases filling a clause level tagnenic slot.)

Reduced phrases

/puq putpan/ /ra:k nay nant-an/ /imn qanal/ nr av nn nn aj lo nn aj 'sun on-top' ^tine food snall-in' 'gut large

.-noon" "off season" "guts

605

(Those above do not functionas single undivided grannatical units.)

Lexical classifier constructions

/la:w petn/ /kuta ka:l/ /qe;qk lakir/ nn nn nn nn nn nn

'nouth skin' 'dog oar 'stonach front' "lips" "dog ears" "tunny"

(v/hich have already been explained in 1.2.4 as 01 + Hd unfused. )

Idionatic sayings in terse style

/la;v/ yik/ nn vb

'nouth say' "tongue in cheek'

/yu:r noq - on/ nn nn pv 'hands nany-v/ith'

"busy"

/ q e : q k v /a : t / nn aj

' s tonach wrong' "shocked"

Derivative expressions

/pan nerqk pan - an/ nn nn nn el 'nan son nan-fron'

"Son of nan"

/punl nay - al/ nn nn vb 'arn food- tie' "nother-in-law"

/kun - par/ nn dn 'gut - sx' "crippled"

The follov/ing array shov/s how Thaayorre conpounds con

sist of all conbinations of noun, verb, adjective and adverb. They

forn a sam.ple of v/hat occurs as a connon feature of the vocabulary

listed in the lexicon;

Conpounds in forn classes CHART 69

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

: • i. • '

inn |niri, Ip,:w-pinj |ka:l-u-qe:n | pi :nt-a-wa:r \ ko;w-kanp \ 'frognouth'

5ka:l-pi:nt ; 'sharp-eared

'renenber' \ , ~

\ ne;r-t-pa;r I 'weep'

Ivb lak-(n)anp ( wark-(y )an-t \ \ 'enroll' ; 'wander round'

I iqat pirk-(k)unjf vmt - wun I I 'catfish' i 'sloep-lio'

iaj | n a n t - n e ; r - n i ' i \ got - p a : l 5 ' r e p r o d u c e ' I ' s h i v e r '

i p i : r - p i r - w a l 1 l a ; r n - ( r je :k \ ' s n o o t h ' i ' s t r e n g t h e n '

iav inaqk-n_erp ' s o u l '

k e rnp 0 r -pun t ' s p a r s e '

naqir-v/unp ' n e a s u r e '

q a p a r - ( p ) i r k ' r i p o f f

' e x h a u s t e d ' a

' a t f i r s t '

10:r pa : l -v / i rn j -vni;?" - y o : r ' pup i l of e y e ' I tnext year'-^

lak-r-qo:qko | ruw-un-(k)anpa 1 h " • '

a 'placid'

'for nothing' ^ .in front of I

nunt - wa:r l yuk lul-putpan?

v/a:r - n m 'everything'

' a l i z a r d

; v / a : r -n in j \ ' hundreds '

lono - k u l i r \ q a n j - l a : r n ' h and fu l ' i ' s a c r e d '

qu:l-yi:r 'nearly'

wa:r-qanal 'enornous'

kor - kanpa 'everywhere'

ninj - qu;l 'afternoon'

Of the above conpounds, nany prototypes also occur, but as the

606

first elenent is a lexical classifier, those are not considered so

valid as conpound words but are phrasal (though SOME classifiers

are fused to their head). The category conprising noun plus verb

though less nunerous than the noun plus noun, does in practice,

provide about as nany exanples. Conpounds of noun plus adjective

are nore scarce but nore nunerous than noun plus adverb.

Bushnanes are an interesting category for they tend to

function as a single unit though often phrasal and clausal;

/May-la: j-werqka/ 'f ood-honey-betv/een' "honeycomb betv/een"

(One of the bushnames of Mr Joe Holroyd.)

Everyone has an assortnent of such no,nes and their study at a later

stage would be advantageous as a subsection of conpounds.

Verb-initial conpounds are United v/hen one excludes the

vb + vb type of phrase which is not a connon practice. Conpounds

beginning v/ith an adjective have nostly verbs following and tend to

be attributive in character. If ono excludes the nany directional

conpounds of av + av, then the adverb is followed nostly by verbs

infused pairs of words. As such conpounds are grannatical units,

their affixation for case is well exonplified elsewhere. /Wut wun/,

/nagfc wark/ and /ninj nu:nt/ are a special type v/here I have left

then unhyphenated, but they behave like a conpound, being very in-

tinately connected, but able to becone discontinuous v/hen aspect

narkers, for exanple, intrude between:

/wut kana wun-n.an/ /ninj kana nu:nl-ir/ 'sleep now lie-will' ^body have dive-did'

"going to sloep"' "have bathed" .

14.4.4

The analysis of conpound stens into roots night be des

cribed as the third layer of word-level analysis (Cook 1969:136).

Thaayorre conpounds consist of two or nore core tagnenes nanifested

by roots: (conpound) sten = Core-j + Core^

root root .

It is connon for a core slot to be filled by a root, but v/hen that

slot is filled by a sten, the sten being enbedded at the root lev

el, nay then be broken down into roots at the next level. The bulk

of conpounds conprise rt + rt /ku;k-la:w/ 'word-nouth' = "voice"-.

In a-syntactic constructions, conprising exocentric and

coordinate types, both cores are obligatory as Hd + Hd, but with

607

endocentric subordinate constructions of the Hd/Md type, the head

is obligatory but the nodifier optional.

In a-syntactic or exocentric structures where both roots

are obligatory, it is necessary to analyse each by forn classes:

/lak - r - go:gko/ vbs rx ajs nns = cr^ CT ^

'leavo-y our self-blind' ^^ ^•^. /p PA / rx "for nothing, in vain"

In endocentric coordinate structures v/here both roots are obligat

ory and coordinate, the structure is sinilar;

/pan lono-kulir ka;r-p/ nn nn nn ng en ajs - cr^ cr^ 'nan one - two- not-too' '\^.^ j., /PA P / ' aj ^ ""aj

" 0 r 0 v/ d s "

Endocentric subordinate structures nay have the follov/ing kind of

structure; /pan - la:v// nn nn nns = cr-j_ cr^ 'nan-nouth' ^^^ 3_.nr Hd -f . Md

"friend''''

As juncture is lacking in a conpound, the tv/o arc fused

together and phonetically described as ono word: ["p an"|a:w] with

the voiced fricative interdental allophone for /tJ.

Chapter XV E x c l a n a t i o n

15.0 Introduction

Exclanation and ononatopoeia show a neasure of overlap in

Thaayorre. Although the forner is not necessarily ononatopoeic,

the latter usuoJly has an elenent of exclanation or interjection in

its connotation. Sinilarly, exclanation nakes considerable use of

denonstrative pointing words both overtly and covertly. Tagnenic

slots sunnarised as E in sone clause equations nay nean either ex

clanation or enphasis and they nay also include ononatopoeia. The

fillers of these E-slots (and frequently tho Introducer-slots v/ith

in clauses) are distinctive in wordshape and often very short, for

brevity is an essential feature of exclanation when v/hole clauses

tend to be in a reduced forn with optional tagnenes nissing. It is

feasible to regard sone of these clauses as Exclanative, in M.00D.

608

The phonological pattern of the v/ords dealt v/ith in this

chapter is heavily narked by glottal stops, several v/ord-initial

[t]'s, alveolar in point of articulation, and extrenos of pitchrisc

and fall. Sone of the lexenes are bound while others are free. The

chapter will have three nain divisions, first the exclanatory, sec

ondly the ononatopoeic, and connents finally on tho CV-structurc of

the words listed. The illocutionary force of these speech utter

ances is very largely nodal in assertion, question, order and ex

clanation,

15,1 Exclo.nation

Subclasses of exclanation can be very diverse senantic

ally, covering a wide range of 'snippets' of infornation v/hich use

every part of speech in a nost econonic fashion:

Pure exclanation nakes use of extrenely short words like

/a'/ 'what's that (noise)?' or /ju'/ 'shoo (to -aninals)'; /ge:/

'oh indeed (surprise)' or /yuy/ 'oh dear, help] (fear)'.

Enphasis is nade nainly by suffixed norphenes like /-o/

in /Day-o,'/ 'It's ne oh]'; /l:-p]/ 'There it is]' with /-p/, the

enphasis narker, or /Nul-l-a.'/ 'It's hin there]' using /-a/, tho

E-narker on clause level.

Greetings are easily recognisable and rather stereotyped

as in /Nunt kana?/ 'You all right?'; /Par'r petpan nin?/ 'Children

lively good?' and /Day ko,na]/ 'I'n well,' or /Y.a:-v/-o/ 'Goodbye'.

Query nakes an extensive use of question narking lexenes

like /Ra:k gan?/ 'What tine? When?'; /Dan-gan-er?/ 'How nany?' ;

/WaM.an?/ 'Where?' and /Wanl-anl-ar?/ 'What about it?' v/ith vary

ing degrees of exclanation inplicit.

Answers to questions enploy an assortnent of forn class

es and verbless utterances: /Danjn petpan nin]/ 'We're lively good.

We're fine."; /Min kolon tone./ 'One v/allaby.'; /Day pan go:gkon]/

'I don't know]'; /Dawoy]/ 'Yes indeed]'; /Daw-i; yokun./ 'Maybe.'

or /Pok-on]/ 'No, nothing!'.

TjlP.pt-ification of objects relies heavily on denonstrativ

es in the enphatic and shortened forns; /ifn?/ 'This?'; /IIJ/

'That]''; /Daw-in'n-1?/ 'this one right here?'; /Ulp gate./ 'That's

nine]'; /NUI aw-i'i]/ 'He's right here]'.

Instructions and exhortations include all activities fron

eating food to sv/eeping the area or hunting v/allaby: /Ja, kuta,/

609

'Hey, dog]'; /Ja:y, ja:y]/ 'Rebuke to a dog'; /Kiri ya:-r - nt]'/

'Get going, you there]'; /Wo]/ 'Hunt there]'; /Tak-an]/ 'Block-in]'

and A"ac ya:-n]'/ 'Lot it go]'. /Yorp ogkor]/ neans 'Not like that] '

Casual dis.c.o.ur.se, being nore relaxed, nay even use con

junctions in stereotyped sayings: /Agar ak]/ 'So let it be]'; /KO:

kana-lr (r)e:k]/ 'Oh, very good, give ne]'; /Kana kerp-r,/ 'Finish

ed now]; /Kaf/ 'Rotten]'; /Ku:k yik (q)al]/ 'You and I have sone

gossip.'; /Day qo:-y-n]/ 'Let ne listen]'; /Wa:r; ya:-ra lunp]/ 'It

is bad, throw it away]'; /Te;rk (q)al]/ 'Let's go back us two]';

/Eal re:k]/ 'Give it along hero]'

Comments are common and very disjointed; /ll-arko ya]/

'Surprise and disapproval'; /Je:r]/ 'Sorry, excuse no]'; /E;y,

lunp-nat - e:y]/ 'Lucky throw eh]'; /ija-p-lo]/ 'Good job oh]';

/Kij/ 'Look out; just nisscd]'; /KO;, qeja-le]/ 'Oh lucky you got

it now]'; /Pan-la:w qal-lin-p i; l/ 'That's our friend there too]'

Aspectual narkers., bound and free, are connonly used in

exclanatory utterances: /Dar oqkor.'/ 'Not yet]'; /lup-ow]/ 'Later

on eh]'; /Ant okun]/ 'Try it naybe?'; /Dal kana ya:-n]/ 'You and I

go right now]'; /Kiri ya:-r (nu)nt]/ 'Cone on, get going you]';

/lele nunt-f/ 'It's you next]'; /Wiiit-ij]/ 'Block hin]'

Other vague categories night be isolated, but the list of

exclanatory expressions v/ill nov/ be given: CHART 70

a' 'What's that noise?'

a: 'Is that so oh] '

a'a 'Hnn; v/hat' s that? Sonething dead round here?'

-a 'Emphasis' (clausally)

'a'ke' 'Ouch](pain)'

ake' 'disnay'

ak 'let hin' ~ qak

ant 'try'

aqar 'so (that)'

aqar ak 'So let it be] '

arko] 'Oh dear!(chagrin)'

a'v7-i; 'There now]''

aw-i'i 'Sere too] '

e' 'surprise'

o: 'Oh yes, very (big) eh?'

e; il-arko] 'Oh indeed]'

eja! 'Lucky, good]'

eja-p-le] 'Good job eh]'

e;y lunp-nat-o:y] 'Lucky throw

i'i! 'Hero]' i: ] 'There]'

in'n ] 'This]'

in'n-1? 'This one here?'

in'n-1 kana] 'This one's good]'

i:-p 'There too]'

'i' 'Whew." (cat junped close)

J \

i'qc' 'So good] Look here you]

i j a 'Lucky, thanks]'

ija-p-le! 'Good job ehj

'Oh] • ir

i;-ra] 'That way]

it 'That]'

1 1

610

i : - r a y a : - r 'Must go t h a t v/ay]'

i l-arkro] ' ' s u r p r i s e and d i snay '

il-arko ya]] 'surprised disap-, . , / provo^l'

i;-ya] 'Oh, ouch]'

ja kuta.' 'Hey, dog] ''

ja:y 'rebuke to dogs'

je je 'dog call'

jo:r 'sorry, excuse ne]' (avoidance of forbidden relative

or at toilet) ji; kuta 'Hey dog, cone here]'

jolo/jo-lo." 'Ahoy there (afar)]'

ju ju ' S h o o ] ' ( v / a l l ab i e s , p igs )

h a : "yes '

ka ' ' 'Missed] '

kana." 'Good, fine, thanks]'

P a : n l qa ln kana." 'My v / i fe ' s v/el l . '

kana? 'How are you, v /e l l ? '

kana ko: 'Good e h ] '

kana q e : 'Good y e s ] '

kana- le ] ' 'Good, get going] '

kana k e r p - r ] ' F i n i s h e d ! '

kana, l e : r k - a y ] ' I ' n going b a c k ] '

k a : r , qay ka ; r . ' 'No, I w o n ' t ] '

kal.] ' R o t t e n ] '

ko] 'Oh ny v/ord] '

ke : ' I s t h a t s o ? '

Kejo.' "No]'

ki' 'look out, just nissed] '

key.' 'Missed, too bad] '

kiri.' 'Go on] '

kiri ya:-r] 'Get going] '

kiri: 'Good, oh, carry on]'

ki:y 'Oh dear, just nissed]'

ko' 'surprised disnay'

ko: 'disnay'

ko: qeja - le.' 'Oh lucky, got it]'

Ko: kana-lr (r)e:k] 'Oh very good you gav/e i t ] '

ko-v/i / ku-wi 'Goo-ey

key] 'Hoy t h e r e ] '

ku;k y i k - a l ] ' 'You and I cha t ]

Ku:k-a ; r n i : n ] ' S i t q u i e t ] '

k u : l i p n i ' i qa l ' L e t ' s t e l l sone s t o r i e s . ' '

Icu-v/i 'Coo-ey ( c l o s e ) '

k u : - w i : 'Coo-eyi ( d i s t a n t ) '

kuy gay] 'Here I an]'

nin I 'Good]'

ne' 'Oh dear]'

ni I ! Oh dear]'

1 I

t I

ninj] 'Tru(ly)]'

ninj-li 'Astonishing oh]'

nak] 'Look]'

naka] 'Here]'

nagkn] 'Yours] For you]'

nagn] 'His, hers, for hin]'

nul aw-i: 'Hin there]'

nul av/-i'i 'Hin hero]'

nunt i'i] 'You here, hollo]'

nunt yo;r kana? 'You ok today?'

nunt petpan nin? 'You full of energy ?'

ga] II ya:n] 'Listen, v/hat's that noving?'

qan] 'What]' ulp nanp qan? 'What's its none?'

qa: 'Yes.'

qa:-ha 'Oh yos.'

qan-qan-er? 'Hov/ nany? '

qan r e ; k ] 'Give i t t o n e ] '

qar oqkor 'Not y e t ] '

qaw-i : ] 'Got in r i g h t t h e r e ] '

q a w - i ' i ] 'Got i n r i g h t h e r e ] '

qaw-i; 'yes'

qav/-i: yokun 'Yes, naybe.'

qav/oy 'Yes indeed.'

qo] 'Oh dear, look]'

qe: 'Hin there (surprise).'

qo; 'Yes.'

Par'r ge: 'Heh kid, listen]'

ge:y] 'Listen]'

^^^j qe;-y-n 'I v. ant to listen]'

qene? 'Why? How cone?'

611

q u : l qene? 'Why cou ld y o u ? ' u l p q a t o . ' T h a t ' s n i n e ] '

qe q e 'Oh d e a r ] S e e ] ' v / a j i r ] 'Take c a r e ] '

q e y - j a 'Lucky e h ] ' ( p a l ) wan ] 'G ive i t h e r e ] '

q e y - j a q a l n ] 'Lucky f o r n o , t h a n k s ] ' van^? 'Who?'

q i ' i ' T h i s o n e ] ' q i : ' T h e r e ] '

q i : - p ' 'That one t h e r e ] '

q i : pan wan tan? 'Hey, w h o r e ' s h e ? '

qo] ' D o n ' t do t h a t ] '

-0 ' - o h -ow' D a y - o ] ' ' I t ' s no]

pa pa pa] ( p a l y a ; - r ) 'Cone , c o n e , l i t t l e o n e ] '

p a l i : 'Hoy t h e r e ] '

1 t

want i : ' T h e r e he i s . ' '

v/antan? 'Where? '

n in , warrfcan? ' W h e r e ' s wal 1 aby? '

yuk wantan? 'Y/here ' s t h e b a c c y ? '

wan lan -qun? ' ( A t ) v / h e r e ? '

w a n l - a n l - a r ? 'What abou t i t ? '

( n u n t ) w a n t - a n t - a r y i k ? 'What do you r e c k o n ? '

wan-wan- r? 'Who on e a r t h ] ' p a r ' r q e : - y ] ' K i d , you l i s t e n ] '

P a r ' r p e t p a n n i n ? 'K ids a l l v /e l l?« w a ( : ) r ] 'Bad , no g o o d ] '

- p a , k a n a - p a ] ' I ' n ok t o o ] '

- p - i ; , q a l - l i n - p i : 'Ours t o o ] '

p i : r t ' p a s s v / ind '

( p a : n t ) p i : y . ' ' S w i s h ] (of s t i c k ) '

pok-on] 'None , n o t h i n g ] '

y a : - r a l u n p ' Throv/ i t cut ] '

v/a: t 'Wrong] '

v /a : t i n ' n 'Wrong h e r e . "

we v/e v/e ' b i r d c r y '

wo:y] 'Hey nan ] t I

-pr' Min napn-pr] 'pleasure (eggs)' V7e:y qay kana ya:-n ] ^ ' ~ — ^ 'Well, I'n off now]'

prl] 'There it goes]' . . ,^^^ ^ child]' psi psi 'apology avoiding no-in-law'

purt 'pass v/ind' v/o.

nunt wi: 'Hey, son]

' 'Hunt over there."

puy] "Hey, cone along]' v/i;nt-ij.' 'Go block hin] '

puy, kiri ya:-r] 'Quick, get going."^^.^ 'alas]'

' h o y ] • woy r a : k qan? 'When? What t i n e ? '

( p a l ) r e ; k ] ' G i v e i t h e r o ] ' v /antar v/oy] 'Shou t out .

(qan) r e ; k ] ] ^ 'G ive i t t o n e ] ' y a ] ' d i s a p p r o v a l '

l a k ] 'Leave i t ] ' i t a ? k o y a ] 'Too b a d ] S o ] '

(Day n i n ) l a k - r ] ' ( i ' n ) l e a v i n g y o u ] ' nun t y a : - r - l r ] 'Off you go]

l a k - a n ] ' S t o p h i n ] '

l e l e ' n e x t '

l^ole n u n t - 1 ] ' Y o u ' r e n e x t ] '

l e : r k ] ' 'Go back nov / ] '

t e ; r k - a l ] ' L e t ' s b o t h go b a c k ] '

! »

ya:-wo] 'Goodbye]'

ye: 'yes'

yi: 'oh dear]'

yik] 'speak'

lil 'again' lil yik' 'Say again]'

nin lop 'Good hunter]'

lanur lop 'Good clinber]'

lup rok 'Wont in]'

ulp kana] 'That's good]'

ulp - le] 'That one next]'

y 0 : r i ' i w u w - r - a l ] 'So v/e b o t h n e e t up eh] '

( r a : k ) y o : r p a : - p a l 'Hot

yo rp ' l i k e t h a t , t h a t v / ay ] '

y o r p oqkor 'Not l i k e t h a t ] '

yoy] ' c r y of f r i g h t '

y u ; n p ! 'Do i t ] '

now.' <? J

612

yu:np-lo]' 'Do it next ! » yup > t Later on, soon]' yuy.' 'fright'

15.2 Ononatopoeia

This section lists about 60 v/ords of CVC shape v/hich occur

with verbs and have a sonewhat onom.atopoGic effect besides nodify

ing the verb as an auxiliary in the P-phrase, A fev/ of these are

bracketed and listed only to have then as participants in tho array

for conparative and lexical conpleteness, They either stand in

their ov/n right as verbs thenselves or they possess tho CVC and

ononatopoeic quality but do not nodify a verb head. Sono few of

then thus occur therefore in the list of cxclanations o.bove;

CVC v/ords CHART 71

j o,n y 0 : qk ' ug ha,ng'

jat ke'e-r 'prick spear'

(ja:y) 'rebuke to dogs'

(je:r) 'excuse ne, sorry'

jir ' ?? '

jir loqk 'out arrive'

jir rirp 'out energe fron bush'

jo l ya:-n ' splash v/ade'

jun rak-ir 'up stood it'

jup ko'e-r 'v/hack speared'

jur yuqar 'splash swin'

jur ke'o-r 'sv/ish speared'

jut ke'e-r 'v/hack speared'

kal ya:-t 'fron cane'

kat l e : r q - a r 'thud struck h i n '

kok r a t - i r ' thud axed neck'

key wantar 'aloud shouted'

Icuk louk kuk 'b i rd cry of the

nin, purp C ono gl '

kup le;rq-ar 'v/hack, got hin'

nan werqk 'in peep'

nu£: lak-ar 'sound loft, (nan dies)'

nuq yo.:-n 'novo v/alk'

(pal ya:t 'cone novo') dr -I- vb

paw ni'i-r 'up picked it'

nor (nan-u) wak-ir 'followed in-

tuitionaltickle in throat'

(qak ya;-n 'let him go') nx + vb

qan qan yik 'humming game'

(takir)-pon ri:j 'run and fall

belly do-'Z/nv/ards '

(pi:y) 'stick noise, swish'

(qaw-) 'before denonstratives'

pok ya:-t 'nothing v/ont'

pup v/ont-r 'plop fall'

pup ral 'took chop, down cut'

per loqk-nat 'here arrived'

(pir) 'snatch'

pur la:-lunp 'push against'

-p(u)r nu:qk 'good oaf

kur kanl-ir 'ugh, only scratched (pu:r 'down throw'

hin; he got away'

ku:t ya;-n 'sulky went off'

lak ke'e-r' 'v/hack, killed it'

lak runj-ar 'slap, bashed hin'

lav/ li;k-ar 'crack, broke it'

pur(p) v/ont-r 'plop fall'

puy ri;j 'quick run'

ro:p ni'i-r 'sneak take'

ruw lak-a r 'behind l e f f

nan rat-ir tak] 'throat cut slit'

1 T , ~, . . T I • 1 J. • I -fnV t p ° r n - c i r 'v/hack s t r u c k ' l u p r o k l u r t ' s w i s h v/ent r i g h t i n ' ^an ±^'J-i-.i --

613

l a l l i ; k - a r ' c r a c k b r o k e ' l u : w l a k - a r ' b e h i n d l e f t h i n '

l a l runpar - ' smash b r e a k on r o c k s ' v/ar ' b a d ' ^ v/a : r

t a t k o ' e - r ' s w i s h s p e a r e d ( f i s h ) ' w i r w i r I c u n - u l - a r ' o u t p u l l '

t o p n i . :n ' q u i e t s i f woy y a n - l - o : y ] ' s h o u t g o '

l o k p i r k 'v/hack sv/ipe ( s t i c k ) ' (v/un)

(n in , t o p ) 'good h u n t e r ' vnar r i r k , vmr k u n - u l , , ' up r i s e , out p u l l '

t u k k o ' e - r ' p h t t go t w a l l a b y ' v/ut v/un ' s l e e p l i e '

t u p k e ' e - r ' t v /ang , go t h m ' , . ,\ , (yoy ' f e a r e x c l a n a t i o n ' ]

t u : r t e ; r q - a r 'whack , h i t n a p e ' . ~ ~ , y u l t a k - n a n 'dodge av/ay ( s p e a r ) t u ; r l e : r q - a r "bang , s h o t h i m ' - -

. , ^^. •, \ (yup yan ' s o o n g o ' ) t u r r a n j 'up jumped a g a i n ' ( f i s h ) ' ^

• (3ru;v/ ya:-t 'av/ay far go') (tu.:r 'leap' J , . .~

yu:y (v/atp) ni:nq-an-ir tut Ian 'up stand' 'scare to death'

Bracketed words like ja:y and iejl, vox and pujl can doubt

less bo paired with another suitable word. Pal and kal are else

where classed as directionals, kal also boing perhaps preposition

al; nin lop. has no verb v/ith it, yup is tenporal and aspectual,

and nok the froe inperative -marker. However, the pattern is con

sistent throughout different layers of grannar and the above list

therefore represents all recorded exanples fron the lexicon.

Onitting any doubtful exanples, we now assenblo the auxil

iaries in a natrix to nake conparisons and study their structure.

15.3 CV structuxG__oP ^'^'^ abo.ve words

The first array shov/s tho sure auxiliaries with C^ as

one vector and C^ the other (horizontal) vector. Tv/o alien sounds

occur in tho above data, [h] and [ps]. Tho first night be defined

as a fortis aspiration and the second as a bilabial click, connon

enough anongst hunan randon sounds. The first array lists CVC

v/ords under 0 and V : 1 CHART 72

j j j j a t j a n ; j e ; r | j i r j i r j j o l j J u l j un jup j j u r j u r j u t |

j k l k a t ( k a l ) j I jkok key ( kup k u r k u t j kuk j

il j lak law { I j i l^P - i j Ip ipaw ( p a l ) I i p i : y (p i r ) jpon pok p e r j pup pur pu r j pu rp puy p u : r |

i l l t a k | t o p i l i : k j lok ( l o p ) I :hik t u p t u r j t u t tuii)x lu;v/j

^wk/ar 1 l w i : r jwoy | wut wur | ly 1 ! ! I 1 y ^ ° ^ yup I y u l yu:v^

The second array lists words under C and 0,

614

^ ]£ \ 1 n

'I 3 J j o l p a n Ijul I

5 k ;ikok i, ., I ; iJ, , s k a l ; i ;ikuk I i

i i a k

\n/n/xjl

I p ' 'pok I p a l

i r

w

y

j u n p u p J i r j u r

| kup

s l u p

n a n

p e n spup p i r t

JL

i t ' t a k H a l j .tok ) I i tuk I

jwum

i y u i

spu rp ^pur I I p u r t

I I

i r e :p

j y u p

v/ y I D

j o r j j a t j j i r s j u t \ j u r I I

k u r

n u ; r

n o r

p u r p u r p p i r p e r p u r

i k a t I iknt \

K j a : 3 ^ l

\ k e y I

a aw

igav/ I nuq

Ipaw : p i : y I I Ipuy \

| t e p | l u : r ^ l u r | l a t ^ l o p \ J l u : r ^ l u t j t u p i \ \

ruw

t u :w \

\ wax \vnit

I ' " ' i r I I wur )

yu :w

woy

yoy yuy

(End of P a r t Two)

file:///vnit

615

Chapter XVI £=£=^=£—===1=1====

16.0 Introducti.oji.

Dixon (1972:1-35), in the duplicated revision of his

Ph.D. dissertation on Dyirbal, pending publication by the Cambridge

University Press, has given a simple but succinct summary of many

of the main features of Aboriginal languages across the continent

of Australia, this approach being his first chapter in the book.

I intend to discuss the relation of many facets of the

Thaayorre grammar as they resemble or differ from the common Aust

ralian patterns of morphology and syntax. The phonological and the

lexical data will be touched on more briefly as being subsidiary to

the present volume. In his thesis, Dixon mentions the surveys by

Schmidt, Ray, Capell and Wurm, noting the shrewd inferences of the

former on data from the past v/hich now is linguistically naive,

the great value of much of Capell's field-notes a'nd Wurm's compre

hensive work of expanding and updating what has been accumulated

by pioneer linguists..

Traditional grammatical terms have not been jetisoned by

Dixon and this is helpful to my own approaoh from a basically Tag

memic model. As the linguistic insights summarised in Fart I of

this study bear directly on different parts of the analysis in the

second part, so the relation of Thaayorre to wider Australian Abor

iginal grammar follows in the Conclusions of 16,2,

Although the morphology and sj/ntax have been kept separ

ate in the research on this language, the arrangement of chapters

in Part II has been intentional following on from the first Over

view chapter which is meant to give the elements first, not a cross-

section of the language. Once that initial approach has been ap

preciated, th© rest of the dissertation is developmental from the

simple start v/hich ignores many aspects in the launching process.

16.1 D i s c u s s i. ._Ii

16,1,0 In.t.r_oduction

Pertinent topics have been selected so that main feat

ures and debatable decisions may be exanined. The division of the

whole language into a hierarchical system of form and word classes

requires subclasses to be delineated from step to step downv/ards,

Thaayorre lexical items belong always to one and only one part of

616

speech and all derivational extensions are usually quite clear mor

phologically. The one exception to this broad statement is that the

adjectives and adverbs sometimes seem to overlap as in the case of

/minj/'very', /minj/ 'true', /minj/ 'really'; /wajir/ 'correct',

/wajir/ 'superb', /wajir/ 'superbly' and so on. In reduplicated

forms, /minj-minj/ 'true, truly' and /waj-wajir/ 'superb(ly)', ap

art from being fillers of PA-slots, can be confusingly ambiguous

as to whether they are adjectival or adverbial.

But the main parts of speech do not arbitrarily inter

change for they have specific inflectional and derivational poten

tial regulated by form class catalysts. Nouns and adjectives bear

virtually the same inflections for case and when a phrase head is

absent, the adjective is thereby clearly pronominal. Some adverbs

similarly replace the noun though their ability to inflect is less

than that of the adjective.

Pronouns are somewhat similar to nouns in their case -

markers, but instead of the ergative/nonergative distinction, they

differentiate subject/object. A whole range of particles occurs

which remain unchanged at all times apart from a few clause-level

and clitical suffixes.

The morphology of Thaayorre shows a wide span of word -

shapes made entirely from the eight basic syllable types in which

the single vowel segment remains the nucleus, and the syntax of the

language demonstrates the ways in which word relations have become

systematised in contrastive structures economically fitting v/ords

into the phrase or into the clause.

In the attempt to reveal and exemplify this structure, I

do not claim that all distinctions are emic, for it seems necess

ary in a grammar of this type, to draw many distinctions for the

benefit of the expatriate onlooker which are obviously etic, but

helpful to his fuller understanding of the way in v/hich those etic

differences may be united as far as the indigenous informant is

concerned in generating utterances which contrast..

This thesis has attempted to probe all data v/ith a view

to exposing the pattern by neans of the matrix, the paradigm and

the more general arrays presented above. Although the Sentence is

excluded from the dissertation, it has been reserved together v/ith

Paragraph and Discourse analysis for subsequent description emanat

ing from the Taped Transcriptions volume.

617

16.1.1 Morphology

Form classes v/ill now be discussed beginning with the

noun and the adjective, and also the numerals and the pronoun.

Then the verb, the adverb and the interrogative will bo discussed,

finishing v/ith the particles. In the synopsis of the dissertation,

the Clause, the Adverb and the Verb are divided chapters, and the

Demonstratives and Exclamation have been kept apart in t heir ov/n

division by reason of the spate of examples available in the corpus

and their specialised functional independence.

The Noun and the Adjective

Six cases have been found to be virtually the same for

both noun and adjective, though the adjective has certain limitat

ions and the kinship nominal may have an additional vocative. This

makes Thaayorre rather average betv/een the extremes of 4-8 mention

ed by Dixon in most areas apart from Arnhem Land, Verb profixes do

not identify subject or object, but in this ergative-type language,

the intransitive S and the transitive 0 are unmarked or alternat

ively may be said to undergo ergative deletion from the lexically

fuller forms. Occasionally /(n)un/ 'him, her, it' may follow noun

stems in pronominalised redundancy, but this could not be said to

represent an objective suffix to the noun: /pa;nl-un/ 'woman (ob)'

as it is merely a case of elision of /n-/ in contiguous words.

Ergative affixation is not so simple as in the cases cit

ed by Dixon as section 4.5 has shown, and owing to the unpredicta

bility of the dominant marker of the agent, lexical forms are con

sidered to be the full stem -f- ergative and the stem only as the

apocopated form. Sometimes as with /-ku/, conditioned vowels may

be lost as in /-k/ or gained transitionally as in /-ok/. The num

ber of syllables in a stem is thought to be a minor influence in

most types of ergative allomorph, though Dixon cites Walbiri and

Walmatjari in this regard, for other languages.

However, the locative does coincide partially with the

ergative : /qaln-man/ 'my ...' (pv+ er/lo), /naqkn-man/ 'your...'

and /naqn-man/ 'his, her, its ...', although /-mak/ may sometimes

be used for the locative/allative extension. Also, the lo/al suf

fix does sometimes occur as /-a/ in Thaayorre, (but /-lu/ and /-la/

do no t occur). It may be true that phonological change has neut

ralised the er/lo contrast, as cited for Kalkatungu and Arabana.

618

T-he instrumental suffix is always identical to the erga

tive in spite of the wide range of' alloMorphic alternativee.

/-gu/ never marks an indirect object though /-ku/ is ergative for

/kuta-lou/ 'dog'.

Thaayorre has sepa.rate locative, allative and ablative

(elative) forms but locative is often identical to allative and

allative is frequently similar to the possessive/dative v/hich may

also coincide v/ith the locative v/here that case is different.

Dixon mentions languages having multiple affixation in "Tho man's

son hit you," man -f pv -f er or man + yv + ^ + ex where an empty.

morph intervenes.

Unlike Fitjantjatjara, Thaayorre does commonly allov/ the

augmented genitive form by adding the elative form to the pronoun

stem and then suffixing the locative, ergative or instrumental to

it, thus: /qaln-ma-ntam-n/ 'my-from-in/by' with /-ma/ as the em-pty

norph for possessive adjectives and numerals. Sinilarly, /qato-ma-

k/ 'my-to' and /peln-antam-ak/ 'their-to' showing singular and plu

ral allomorphs, for al/be/ac forms. Thus little resort is had to

v/ord order in view of this clear affixation. Thaayorre shows dif

ferentiation for number between sg/non-sg, but no nouns or pronouns

inflect for tense.

No stem-forming affixes precede case inflections apart

from the ones just cited above and /-n/ and /-ul/, /-u/ and /-nu/

in tho pronoun paradigms of section 7.2.5 ff and /-t/ after a nasal

in 7'. 2.3, but this has been regarded as an allomorphic difference.

Dixon cites /guthara/ for dual and this is probably the

normal numeral for 'two': /kulir/ complementing 'one': /lono/. The

conitative and privative derivational affixes occur in Thaayorre,

and have already been given three different interpretations. Dixon

calls them adjective stems made from noun roots and this is prob

ably the best analysis for his /papa-qarni/ corresponds to Thaa

yorre /qok-a;k/ 'water-possessing' and /papa-pati/ to /qok-a;r-in/

'water-less'. O'Grady speaks of this (l966;87). But this appar

ently bypasses the additional /-k-a;k/ and /-k-a:r/, both taking

all case inflections, in which the /-k/ has been analysed as stat

iviser or declarativiser plus present participle, negative possess

ive participle and so on in chapters III, IV and IX.

Thaayorre has produced no affix to turn male into female

nouns, nor is there any system of noun or gender classes with class

619

prefixes or suffixes on the noun or by concord with verb affixat

ion. Noun classes may indeed be 'recent•.

The pronoiin

Thaayorre demonstrates the common distinction of singular,

dual and plural v/ith no indication of trial. It also preserves the

inclusive/exclusive distinction of approximately I -I- II and alter

natively I -I- III, but no obviative distinction of III and III, The

pronouns are used freely for coordination of heads and relative

substitution (see 13.5), It is notev/orthy that /qali/ is exclusive

and /qal/ inclusive, that /qa-/ denotes first person throughout all

pronouns, /p-/ begins -all dual and plural third person pronouns,

the others beginning with /n-/.

Possessive pronouns are formed by adding /-tn/, /-qkn/

and /-qn/ to /na-/Vga-/ in the singular and the dative adds virt

ually an infix /-u-/ to the possessive pronoun, before the final

/-n/; the elative adding only /-ma/ to the possessive form for the

pronoun, and /-ma-ntam/ for the adjectivo. The full form is used

sparingly in the plural v/hich may potentially be /peln-antam-antam/

'from their ..c'. /Ulp/ is the demonstrative pronoun replacing

/nul/ 'he, she, it' or /pul/ 'they-two' or /peln/ 'they' for prev

iously mentioned referents. No alternatives exist for near/middle/-

far/invisible referents or for distinctions of gender.

Surprisingly, /pul/ is the dual pronoun 'they-2) as v/ell

as being used to coordinate two heads, (both singulai) like 'and',,

/Dali/ 'v/o-2 (xc)' and /qanjn/ 'we (xc)' are both used similarly.

The reduced (decapitated) forms of pronouns nay be used as pseudo-

suffixes on verbs, but their use is fleeting and disappears on slow

repetition. Their analysis is thus not as suffixes, but as free

pronouns undergoing elision of C-j (V ) optionally.

Pronominal cases are Subject, Object, Possessive, Elat

ive and Dative/Allative, v/ith the special combination of Reflexive

(/ggtn-gay/pv + .s.u) and redundant repetition in plurals.

The verb

Dixon finds the transitive/intransitive difference of

verbs parallel to the mutually exclusive class membership of nouns,

verbs and adjectives. But Thaayorre verbs are not marked for tran

sitivity, though the transitive stem may be derived from the in

transitive verb root but not vice versa. He cites verbal conjug

ations being from 2-7, some very small closed classes of irregular

620

verbs, and sone criteria being stem-final /-l/, /-r/, /-y/ ox /-//,

This does not obtain in Thaayorre, though some allomorphs of past

tense do occur as /-nat/ ^ /nat/ ~ /-at/ and /-datj alternates v/ith

/-rla/ for tho 'imminent' aspectual verb suffix 'about to'.

Thaayorre class I is open, having its own set of suffix

es, and Class II is sonewhat similar but closed and irregular or

defective. Classes III and IV have the same suffixation but III

prefers the dental allophone and IV the alveolar /n/. Reciprocals

transfer into IV and Reflexives in /-e/ into III; reflexives also

in /r/ transfer to IV, which is probably phonological conditioning.

Ill and IV have a closed membership of less than a score each,

Tlie verb is the most complex form in Thaayorre and it is

narked also by its having past, present and future tenses as well

as the nonspecific tense (tn). Past/nonpast and future/nonfuturo

rarely seem to apply as also do not ronote/imnediate past. Markers

of aspect have already been anply illustrated, both suffixes on tho

verb sten and free norphenes sone overlapping with adverbs of tine.

Tense, aspect and nood all interact, but can usually be specifical

ly identified as shov/n in sections 3.3 to 3,6. It is a mere seman

tic necessity that fewer tense distinctions occur v/ith negative im

perative and some other modal predications.

Thaayorre does not have additional auxiliaries to carry

inflections for number, tense, mood and aspect, as in Ngarinjin or

Gunwinggu. It rather resembles Walbiri perhaps, in which tense,

nood and aspect are represented discontinuously in the clause, not

by elements in an auxiliary word, but by suffixes on the verb stem

and froe aspectual or nodal auxiliaries, uninflooted except for one

only /(g)ak(-na)/ 'let him', the free inperative narker.

English nodal auxiliaries do not occur as such, but are

represented approxinately thus: 'nay/ night' /ant okun/; 'can/could'

/-n(a)/; 'will/shall' /-nan/; 'would' /-natal/; 'should' /ak-p/;

'must' /-nar/; 'need' /ak/ and 'be' /vmn/ or /ni:n/.

Imperative verbs have a wide range of syntactic potential

with second and third as v/ell as first person subjects. Tho nornal

suffix is /-nar/ ~ /-nar/ unless the vorbstem is unmarked, but no

indication of nunber is ever narked fornally in the verb, though

reduced pronouns nay frequently appear as pseudo-suffixes on verbs.

The continuous form of the imperative may be indicated by using the

sten alone or nore enphatically by reduplicating it or when a sten

621

does not reduplicate, by phonologically lengthening the vov/el nuc

leus of the verb syllable(s). In fact, Thaayorre, by using /gak/

•let (hin),,.' can have almost any future or irrealis suffix added,

to the verb sten, optionally. It has no 'continuative imperative'

like W, Torres as a single affix, bui can be followed by the pot

ential suffix on either verb stem or auxiliary /gak(-na)/. It can

be followed by tho punctiliar suffix, equivalent to an aorist (in

cluding future), and one case occurs of the adjectival comparative

morpheme being suffixed to the imperative: /Wa:r-minj gak-alrgam^-

lin.'/ 'everything let-very ours' though if the /-a/ is transition

al, then/-tr/ is merely the emphatic marker,

Dixon speaks of the important common purposive /-ku/ like

the dative inflections on nouns. This is nost probably /-nala/ .

/-nala/ ~ /-nele/, the infinitive described in 9.2,1 as purposive.

The adve.rb

As this forn class is not stressed by Dixon, passing

reference only is node to the large closed class of adverbs and

directionals found in Thaayorre, sone incorporating the cardinal

points of the conpass -and river terminology. Terns like direction,

motion and distance, roots, prefixes and suffixes, locatives, ela

tives and allatives, directionals, dimensionals and positionals are

convenient within the description of parameters and subclasses, but

throughout the dissertation, only directionals (dr) and location

als (lo) are used to distinguish movomont from nonnovenent, apart

fron the nornal use of allative, elative and locative in several

forn classes.

Adverbs of tine, nanner and degree are described in a

separate chapter and the v/ide range of expressions for these cate

gories is not too surprising when one considers the journeys under

taken by nost Aboriginal clans in every kind of weather and var

iant seasonal conditions.

The Interrogative

Dixon refers to sone basic prononinal question narkers

for 'v/ho' and 'what', 'how nany', 'where' and 'why'. Thaayorre

has nost of those, each narked for case (ll.l) hut has no norphene

for v/hcn? Instead, they say /ra:k qan?/ 'what tine?' It raay seen

a little strange to have a clear /qan-qan-er?/ 'how nany?' when

the counting potential of the language is so inarticulate, but

622

general concepts of nunber are clear even if nunerals exist only

for 1, 2, 3-4, 5 and 10.

Thaayorre interrogatives are either disjunctive in con

nection with 'yes/no', idionatic and other-types of question, or

nondisjunctive v/ith regard to /qan?/ «v/hat?', /wan?/ 'who?', sone

reduplicated derivatives or interrogation by inplication using oth

er norphenes or zero v/ith or without case narkers. The connon

•yes/no' question narker is /v/u:mp?/.

Particles

Including clitics, Dixon refers to a closed class of per

haps a score of elements that nodify the neaning of sentences or

coordinate or subordinate. Thaayorre has relaters like /kar/ 'as,

like', /(y)okun/ 'sane', conjunctions like /qui/ 'and, but, because',

/aqar/ 'so that' and /il/ 'if. Only /kar/, /aqar/ and /il/ can

positively subordinate a clause, but /qui/ and nonsingular pronouns

nay coordinate phrases and clauses, Thaayorre expresses sone as

pectual, nodal and logical distinctions by neans of these indeclin

able norphenes which have all been analysed under one traditional

classification or other, A few post-clitics are the enphasis nar

kers /-a/ and /-p/, the focus narker /-tJ and special enphatie

predicators /-pa/ and /-pi/ v/hose predicative potential is dubious-.

16.1,2 S y n t a x

Tagnenic practice has led to the handling of such ques

tions under the headings of the Word, Derivations, Conpounds, the

Phrase and the Clause. Tagnenic theory has proved reasonably con-

potent for the handling of v/idely diverse data by neans of a clear

definition of the functional slots and the span of fillers v/hich

conplete the tagnene by filling a slot.

The word

Dixon suns up syntax by listing the inportant noninal

division of noninative/orgative patterns and subject/object in pro

nouns. This has already been noted above in reference to a single

zero-case narker for intransitive subjects and transitive objects,

but the ergative case for transitive subjects.

In pronouns, the ergative case v/as thought at first to be

present, for a whispered final vowel v/as often heard and written,

but later jettisoned as nondistinctive; /qay-l/ 'I', /nunt-U/ 'you

6Z5

and /nu.l-U/ 'he, she, it'. It was explained by the over-enunciat

ion of the consonants to an expatriate fieldworker, with fortis

aspiration of the consonants to counteract outdoor noises. One

might wonder v/hether or not it could be a v estigial remains of an

ergative distinction in the pronoun. But there is no sign of it

in fast speech where transitional vowels are prone to occur ,

Word order is generally rather free for inflections in

dicate the various pa.rties involved. Denonstratives tend to have

few inflections which in phrases go rather on the head in prefer

ence, though /in'n/ has more inflections than /itj or/ulp/ 'that'.

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and pronouns all carry

considerable affixation with prefixes also in the directionals

and locationals. Some verbstens C8.rry a prsclitic CVC component

which is not a prefix (see 3.7.2). Numerals also share suffixes.

Derivations and compounds occur on v/ord level also.

Herivations

lerivations in Thaayorre, as in most languages, may be

restrictive or governing and their structure is quite stereotyped.

Dixon refers to the reflexive affix on transitive verb stems de

riving a form to finction as an intransitive stem.. Similarly, a

reciprocal affix may do the sane. His causative derives a tran

sitive from an intransitive verb stem as also occurs in Thaayorre.

His fourth reference is to an intransitive verbaliser added to a

noun or an adjective that derives an intransitive verb. This is

quite true too with the verbaliser /-n/, but thoughihe bulk of

exanples show it up as intransitive, a limited num ber of clauses

do have an object tagmeme by means of the same morpheme v/hich is

as a consequence, independent of transitivity. The other verb

aliser, /-p-un/ is positively transitive or semitransitive most,

if not all of the time, and as it tends to be suffixed to adjec

tive stens, it has a strongly attributive result vri.thin the sent

ence. In fact, the verb stem very often requires that the analy

sis be ajr = FA and /-p-un/ = P;tzz, unless the whole verb be an

attributive type filler of the F-slot, which is preferable.

Dixon refers to Gunbaiqgar as using em_phatic pronoun ob

jects for the reflexive and no verb affix. Thaayorre has both

/-e/ and /—r/ with an emphatic pronominal compound of PV + su as

mentioned elsewhere.

e24r

Loan words have been analysed in 9.4.3 as being accepted

as adjectives and bearing the verbaliser /~m/ + /rirk/ 'do, work'

though some lack the vbz, having only the /rirk/, yet this can

hardly de-adjectivise them.

Compounds

Word order, or rather, root order, is very rigid in com

pounds which are common. Dixon says few conpounds occur, but in

this language, there nust be hundreds besides m.any compound verbs.

If v erbs with a proclitic on their left are conpounds, then the

nunber of modified verbs is very great. Dixon quotes O'Grady,

(1970:849) as saying that Nyangumarda dictionary count gave 100

simple monomorphemic verbs, and many more compound verbs, but in

the text count, the opposite held good with the simple outnumber

ing the conplex.

Thaayorre would probably be identical in this respect,

but an actual count has not yet been carried out. Thaayorre has

a set of what he calls 'productive prefixes' yielding many com

pounds. These are made from body-parts like /la;w/ 'mouth^ and

/ko;w/ 'nose', /wal/ 'temple' and so on, being regarded as com

pound components rather than prefixes, or proclitics, as in Gum-

baiqgar and Gabi and West Torres.

The phrase

Dixon does not develop this topic, but in Thaayorre, it

is a most inportant construction, there being endocentric phrases

with single or multihead, the latter either coordinated or item-

appositive and exocentric with relater-axis structure with or

vdthout either a bound or a free relater or both, as well as be

ing single or double headed. Word order is rigid in the noun

phrase, but rather loose in the verb phrase. Only the phrase-

final word is normally inflected for case, though occasionally,

both may bear the suffix, especially in the phrase where a demon

strative pointer modifies the head.

The Glause

Clause equations have been reduced to a minimum in this

dissertation, with slots in capitals across the page and fillers

subset in small letters unless phrasal, onitting + and - signs,

although in a few cases, these are intentionally supplied for ad

ded clarity. The colon too is omitted between slot and filler.

6-25

In the clause, many important topics are encountered so

that terms like voice, mood, tense and aspect are needed almost

as much as intension and extension, polarity and attribution, fo

cal emphasis and indefinite threat, response utterance and the

all inclusive transitivity.

Relative clauses are postulated with reserve in 13.5, as

also are Passive transforms of the active clause. Order is very

strict in idionatic clause structures but free elsewhere. However,

a preferred order generallj^ for declarative clauses is S T O P Io

and L often clause-finally,

16,2 C_o_n_c_l_u_s_i_o_n_^

6.2.0 Intr o_d.uct.i n,

At the completion of the analysis, some features of a

language becone and re'main proninent. These features will be de

tailed below. Furthermore, the status of the Thaayorre language .

in relation to other Aboriginal languages and to neighbouring

dialects must be established if at all possible. An attempt v/ill

be made to clarify these in the overall language picture across

the continent or at least across Cape York peninsula.

16.2.1 F e atur e s en.cp.un.t_eiie d_

The main aspects of the language fall into four categor

ies, all of which ought to be considered briefly in spite of the

fact that this study embraces only the Grammar. They are the

phonological features, the lexical, morphological and syntactic.

The Fh.o.nol_o.g /

Although the phonological features have been taken for

granted as being already described in ny M.A. thesis, they are

nonetheless intrinsic to the grammar materials and have becone

nuch nore clearly understood thereby. All five vowel qualities

are clearly phonenio and as each nay be long or short contrast-

ively, there are ten vowels which nay bear three degrees of stress

as nuclei of the syllables of the language. However, words be

ginning with a vowel-initial segment are fewer than those begin

ning with a consonant. The degrees of stress are recognised be

cause of conpounding of roots into single words. The prinary

stress is on the first syllable., but when two words fuse together,

62£

the second component retains a stress which is subordinated to

the first rectus stress. But if one of those two words had an

unaccented sylla.ble being disyllabic, then the unaccented syllable

renains unaccented and subordinate to both the other two which are

already of tv/o degrees of stress.

By means of hyphenation, showing clearly all morpheme

cuts in the vernacular text, the need for writing stress marks

has been obviated. Not all suffixes receive an equal stress.

Sixteen consonants have been identified as phonemes, in

cluding the glottal stop which bears a light functional role. - >

Five nasal consonants counterbalance the five stops at the same

points of articulation, bilabial, dental, alveolar, alveopalatal

and velar. Fricative allophones, also voiced, occur for each of

the stops. Dental and interdental differences are allophonia.

The laminals are not a common kind of articulation; the tip of

the tongue touches the roots of the lov/er teeth while the blade

of the tongue contacts the alveolar ridge and top teeth and the

alveopalatal area respectively for different allophones.

The alveolar trill [r] and nasal [n] cannot occur word-

initially, but alveolar [t] does initiate some rather tense CVC

ononatopoeic words like [tak^] 'whack of spear' and [tsp" ] ''be

quiet]' The retroflexed stop has not been set up as a phoneme,

for both it and the corresponding nasal are phonetically condit

ioned from the alveolar allophone following the phoneme /r/ which

is phonetically retroflexed: [r], and occurs without restriction

in any part of a word. Only one lateral occurs instead of three

encountered in many other languages of the continent. The semi

vowels include not only the commonly found y and w, but also the

retroflexed /r/ phoneme; several other consonants including /n/

may occur as syllable nuclei or syllabic consonants..

Roots often consist of only one syllable, but inflected

roots cannot normally be only one syllable. Words like /i:-p/

'there-too]' form only one syllable however. The singular objec

tive pronouns forn only one syllable: /qan/ 'ne', /nin/ 'you' and

/nun/ 'hin'. Consonant clusters may not be syllable-initial, but

over syllable borders, four OCCCs may be a sequence. Homorganic

as v/ell as nonhomorganic sequences occur freely; liquid + nasal -i-

stop; /-Ink/; r -F- nasal: /mi:rn/ 'red ochre'; nasal + nasal: in

/mi:ng/'fear'. Neither /l + w/ nor /r + w/ have been encountered,

but vowel harmony is extremely common and transitional vowels .

commonly take on the flavour of the nearest vowel, usually before

them in the previous syllable.

The Lexicon

Dixon mentions a high rate of language replacement, but

this is not so common now at Edward River community. When some

resident dies, their name nay not be mentioned until a certain

period has elapsed when their house too will be freed by having

the taboo terminated by a special ceremony /murk-an-p-un-r/. The

common words associated with that person's name cannot be freely

used and an alternative sub-lexicon of words has been obtained

which are used as substitutes. These are called poison words,

and must be used by the near relatives or to them. Thus the com

mon core words of the language continue to be used as usual, for

other matters and people.

The same writer also mentions the three score words of

common Australian selected by Capell (1956:80-94) (1962;a:10-14)

and updated by Wurm, Dixon and O'Grady. Dixon mentions bula(y)

for 'two' and /guthara/ 'dual', which in Thaayorre are /pul/'they

two' and /kulir/ 'two' the nuneral, just the opposite.

Thaayorre does not have the hundreds of avoidance words

found in Yanyula and Wik Me?n, but seens to be like Walbiri with

a restricted sublexicon. But Thaayorre does have 'unknown' cog

nate dialects which are used constantly in Corroborees and iden

tified as Thaayorre by the singers, but are abstruse original

forns of the language and untranslatable today in some instances.

This is somewhat similar to the Tjiliwiri discussed by Hale-(l97l)

as a men»s initiation language replacing grammatical and lexical

items by antonyms. Hale and Capell have both discussed this kind

of lexical diversion in their survey work.

The Lexicon of Thaayorre is alphabetised with every sort

of morpheme fron prefixes, infixes, suffixes; roots, stens, deri

vations, compounds, words, derivatives and idioms. The part of

speech is codified, the class nunber given and the ergative suf

fix is hyphenated to nouns and adjectives.

The .Morphology and the Syntax

Words are very short in this language and derived words

have quite short derivational affixes, though most conpounds have

628

two, three or four conponents in different layers of embedding.

The morphology is characterised by the presence of the ergative;

as the dominant case, and by the presence of both noun, adjective

and verb classes. Adverbs are extremely diverse and categorised

by the incorporation of the eight cardinal points of the compass

and the north and south axis of river banks in Cape York. Move

nent is also included in most of the directional adverbs.

Only four or five affixes nay occur simultaneously on

any one word, but hundreds of suffixes and many prefixes are to

be found in the lexicon. Onomatopoeia and interjection are rich

in the language and use a wide span of sounds and exclamation.

Complexity of phrases is very great and several types of

phrase combine in the one example where clauses may be embedded,

at word level in any kind of construction. Clauses are very con

plex in their embedding and there is practically no limit to the

way in which clause v/ithin clause can be used as fillers of every

kind of tagmemic slot.

Homophonous morphemes occur freely and sometimes it is

difficult to interpret which morpheme is meant out of two or

three feasible solutions.

Clause types show a quite adequate coverage of all the

usual types plus some v/hich are idiomatically supplenentary. They

are all available too as dependent clauses when the right subor

dinator fits then into the syntax of a container main clause.

The verb is a conplex part of speech and no limitation

has been found in its use from the predicative suffix on nonverbs

to the infinitive or the gerund or the present participle or the

pseudo-passive construction. However, by an alternative descrip

tion, predication markers nay be identified as adjectivisers and

the clauses thereby are rendered intensive or extensive, broadly,

equational or topic-comment in type. No past participle has been

identified.

Adjectives are freely used in every kind of attribution

and demonstratives with numerals participate in the formation of

m.ost possible types of phrase construction.

Pronominalisation of nouns by pronouns is a common feat

ure of the language and by this means the deficiencies of the

noun are fully conpensated apart from gender.

6:29

Juxtaposition of clauses is a device which makes for sur

prising efficiency with economy of arrangement. The sparsity of

subordinators is fully compensated by the use of nonsingular pro

nouns which function as relative pronouns so that even in their

absence, the zero connector effects the cohesion in sentences.

Every necessary kind of interrogation has been recognis

ed. Case inflections nake the question markers efficient as they

fit into the syntax of phrase and clause. The ambiguity of /ra;k/

seens fully obviated by the generous supply of idiomatic express

ions which leave ne doubt about the intention of the speaker.

Particularly germane is the tagmemic adaptability to

spontaneous translation up to Sentence level as evidenced by the

exanples in the Dependent Clause..

16.2,2; T.he status of Thaayorre as a language

About 300 people understand this language in the Edward.

River community. Most of these folk speak at least two other lo

cal languages, some being fluent in six or seven. They use this

language as a vernacular lingua franca. Individual language var

iation can be recorded only by painstaking research in company

with informants who unwittingly supply the raw materials for ana

lysis and description.of the structure. But the common linguistic

features across the whole continent of Australia are hard to sum

marise and correlate concisely.

The genetic relation of Thaayorre to other clan languag

es will becone clearer as nore studies in depth are completed. So

can words be traced back towards proto-Australian. The direction

of past growth is pertinent. It seens that Thaayorre is noving

towards pronominal suffixes on its verbs; it also has some suffix

ation on one verbal auxiliary. Its many body-part 'prefixes' and

classifiers are a closed class of potential gender-markers. Great

flexibility is seen in the ease with which native speakers can ab

sorb and handle modern concepts.

Dixon says that if all Australian languages are gene-tic-

ally related, proto-Australian was at the isolating end of the

agglutinative type with some affixes, some case infleetions, but

less complex than now, and moving to the inflectional pole. As

traces of Malay can be found in Thaayorre, so English expands its

pot-antial for technical description, if literacy keeps it alive.

APPENDIX__A S2ecimen^_|;arrative__dis2ourse

I have found certain'genire' or syntagmemes, to exist ina

the various kinds of disccurse, and these are not jumbled indis

criminately. Their tagmemes are expounded by paragraphs/sentences^

and phrases/morphemes or by embedded discourses of any genre. The

Thaayorre discourses fall into foTir main types, B:arrative, recoun

ting some- kind of story, Procedural, telling how something is done.

Expository, expounding a subject and Hortatory, an attempt to in

fluence another's conduct. Other discourse genre such as Dramatia,

Activity and Epistolary, may also occur as Longacre suggests: from

wide research (l968:l).

The following story told by the late Vincent Goleman to

a meeting of Edward River elders in November, 1967, required ade

quate terminology for describing the parts of the discourse. This

led to the acceptance of various technical nomenclature which must

of necessity be descriptive, succinct, functional and simple. The

story is basically NARRATIVE, but formal signals for every divis

ion are few and boundaries may be unmarked except by the pause

and the pitch-change. New actors are sometimes introduced at the

beginning and sometimes at the end of paragraphs,

Bividing up the story has required the positing of vari

ous segments like Title, aperture, stage, episode, denousnent, an-

tidenouement, summary, closure and finis in the Biarrative dis- *'

cours©. S-e;tting, build-up, speech remark, comment and terminus

comprise the parts of a narrative paragraph, while in cycling, the

terms includ© repetition, amplification, explanation, parallelism,

contrast, result, reason and negative amplification.

The story is structured thus:

TITLE: with authentification of speaker.

APERTURE: with temporal and spacial setting.

S3?AGE: the two old men / repetition of aperture / repetition

of self-authentification.

EPISODE 1: fighting with spears.

DENOUMENT: exhortation and motivation by three speakers.

explanation about old Bow-legs.

EPISODE 2: crowd fighting with spears on Hilltop.

RESULT: the dying gasp.

amplification that Hilltop was a taboo place.

explanation about men and women lireaking that taboo.

631

EPISODE 3/

EPISODE 4 :

S.UMMARY:

EPISODE 5:

CLOSURE;

FINIS:

a result of the incitement by three speakrs.

explanation about withdrav/ing spears and Bora ground,

repetition of Title and Aperture,

amplification of the speaker's participation.

how they followed the ridge.

recapitulation climax - repetition of the killing.

amplification about choppi.ng his nose finally.

left h.in, struck his neck and buried him.

explanation of the cv/anp still knov/n today.

bashod, left and buried the corpse, probably in open.

(in English only:) "That's the lot]"'

A.boriginal disco'urse em_aiiatos from the- enic logic of a

people living the open-air clan life. It shows how they think in

the unified flow of language. The linguist examines this flowing

thought to breiik it up into spectrum-like sectors, the phonologi

cal, grammatical c lexical and semantic. B-iyision descends from a

:Discourse level to Paragraph^ to Sentence„ to Clause, to Phrase,

to Word; morphem_e and phone. Certain discourse si-gnals make the

whole story cohere. Thus the techninun ox analysis is to prepare

the text v/ith interlinear lit-oral-to-'freo translation, and to type

at least five copies, ono for Discourse;- another for Paragraph, an

other for Sentence/Clauso analysis^ and ethers may be used for en

circling pronouns, verb suffi.veg;, semantic themes or phonological

clues like pitch-levelsj pausos (and oonjnnctions).

As a larger volivna is envisaged lat-3r on, I give here a

short narrative only as a specinen in practical orthography using

hyphenation at morpheme breaks:

TITLE: 0.: Kuuthip irdi * nh-th-ul

'story this-the-one oh

Comment of authenticitj":

knuthip story'

Kuuthip ngay kaar-p mon 'story I nox-too t e l

gom-nhan inh"nh- th (nL)uq-un. l ~ l i e s - w i l l t h i s - t h ' e him (AEH) '

APERTURE;

&TAGE:

Ngan nge the ngathn yilc-m (njul^ "grandfather ny t e l l - i n g 'vitj h(

"Fan-thuump mant n u l , [Bushnane Tiny, he and h i s "man - old s n a i l they- two" g r a n d f a t h e r , f a t h e r of Eoko

and J e r r y Niorman.J

S32

Pam thuump k u t h l r r i n h ' n h - t h p u l , raak inh^nh-ngun."' 'men old two t h e s e - t h e both p lace t h i s - a t *

R e p e t i t i o n ;

Ngan mokr (ng)a thn yik; - m. ' aun ty -unc l e my s a y - i n g - u s e d ' (pause)

Nguumpurr ngan mokr (ng).athn nul y ik - m; ' o l d - l a d y aunty my she say - ing-was '

Ngan mokr (ng)a thn y ik - m. . »aunt ie my saying^

[Ulp yik - m.] "that say-ing' (William chips in authenticating.;

Explanation of authenticity;

Kuuk inh'nh-th-ul ee ke thak-rr - (ng)oongko kaar-p '•words these-the-one oh eh for - nothing not - too

mongom - nlian. *falsify-will'

Ngay ngan mokr (ng)athn ngee-y-m. 'I a u n t y my obey - ing"

Pam thuump mant-a pul-nhun ngan ngethe-rr (ng}athn-mani, 'men old small-to them-2 fa-in-law my - to'

ngee-y-m (nga)y , 'obey-ing I'

EPISODE 1: "=" Kirk-a-th [Thap yangkarj wak - rr - nat pul Ii-kan

»spears-with-the Name fight - did they-2 Hilltop ("tailing swamp") i^.^h.^i.

''this-here-one'

Kirk-a wak-rr-r ii pul — peln. •spears-with fought there they-two — they all'

DENOUEMENT:

Exhortation: (Speaker l)

"Kuul-in kar-yup-kaar (th)eerng (n)unh]"' 'in-big-mob qmickly kill him'

(Speaker 2)

Nul pam yiirr yik - m, »he man different say-ing'

"Yangkar-rot-k-aak, kar-yup-kaar theerng (n)unh.' 'Bow - legs quickly strike him»

Yup-jmp-aarr ongkorr , pung kana yaan; ' w a s t e - t i m e d o n ' t sun w i l l go (dowmj;''

Nunh ka r -yup -kaa r t^veerng.'"' "him quick ly s t r i k e '

(S'peaker 3)

Nul pam ngeengk-(k),aiul y i k - m, *he; man a n g r y s a y - i n g '

"Yangkar - ro t -k-aak "waarr. " ^Bowlegs bad ( b a s t a r d ) '

Explanation:

Waarr Yangkar-rot-k-aak wun - m (n)iaLL. *rubbish Bow - legs ly-ing-was he*

Punth Yangkar-rot-k-aak ; *arn legs - bow - having-do*

Punth koyle yangkar-rot-k-aak - p "arm other-side bow e d - having-too'

Inh'nh-ul kumn - punth, yangkar-rot-k-aak. 'these-ones thigh-arm bow- - do - having*

EPIS,ODE 2:

¥ak-rr-r pul (n)angunp peln ii kuul-in-th. 'fight-ing-do they-2 there they there crowd-in-the'

Kuul-in wak-rr-r ii peln. *crowd-in fighting-there they all'

Eirk-a wak-rr-nam - n raak namp - th li-kan. 'spears-with fight-ing-at place name-the Hilltop Forest*

Result; (poison-word now whispered); (aside)-

[Wach-nam] kaar-p - le » ,„^^^,^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^„. 'dying - not-too next'

Angarr yorrp - nhrr yik. *So-as that-way-just speak'

Amplification:

Raak "Kirk-a - wak-rr-nam" - n li-kan - thrr; 'place spears-with fight-ing-at Hill-top - indeed**

Raak nganch, (ng)ak vmn ' „, ^ Malriyu"' 'place taboo let-it be]'

Explanation; Kgul peln inh 'nh- th murrkam-p-un-r peln inh*nh-th, "and they these- the break-a-taboo-did they these - the '

Malrijru-th-unh. 'Malr iyu- the- i t *

Raak murrk-an-pun-r (p)eln, paanth-u, pam-al-nhrr. *place release-taboo-did they women men - only'

Minh waarr nganch - thaarrn vran minh mopngunh. .. 'bird-. evil taboo - very stays wild goose'

(longish pause) EPISODE^|:

Result:

Kana ke'e-rr (n)unh, (k)irk-unch-arr (n)unh. *did spear-did him spear-jab-did him'

Pam nunh thono kirk-unch-arr. "man him one spear-jab-did*

Explanation:

Kar inh*nh-th ngamp rirp-in-irr (n)unh inh*nh-th; 'like this-here we pull-out-did it this - the*

(kun-uth-arr pam minch-mam) 'pull-out-did b o d y - from'

654

W i t h i r - m a n g i n h ' n h - t h (ng)amp w i t h i r - m a - t h w a n - r , ' b o r a - g r o u n d t h i s - t h e we h o l y - g r o u n d - t h e c a l l - d i d '

Aperture repeated:

Kuuk ngay thak-rr-oongko kaar-p mongom - r; 'words I for - nothing can't falsify-do'

Ngan ngethe ngathn yik - m, * aunty ay say-ing-used to'

Pam thuump kuthirr, yik - m . 'men-gr^-old two saying-were'

Amplification of stage;;

Ngay parr*r pork - p; ' I boy big-too'

Ngay pan inh'nh-ngun piinth - irr 'I person this-at grow-up - did*

Parr''r mant - (nh)rr niin - m (nga)y. 'boy small - just stay-ing 1'

Nganip Cng)athn-man yith - irr (ng)anh. 'father my rear - did me*

( p a u s e ) EP|SODE^^:

Y a a r r - kuw muth wak - i r r - (n )unh p e l n , "walk - w e s t n a p e (neck)= fol low-chaseE-him they*

SUMMARY; Recapitulation and CLIMAX;

Re-petition: Thil (n)unh kirk-unch-arr - p, *again him spear-jabb-ing-did-too'

Niin - marr (k)irk-unch - arr (n)unh ii, "sit - ting spear-jab - did him there'

Thil ke'e - rr- (n)unh .* Thil ke'e - rr (n)unih*

Thil ke'e - rr (n)unh» Thil kirk-unch - arr. 'again spear-did him again spear-jab-did*

Amplification:

Thil Cn)unh koow rath-irr (p)eln lach - wan * 'again, him nose chop-did them last - one*

EPISODE^I

Thak (n)unh (n)aka-th - p - le ; "leave him here-the - too - next'

Muth theerng-arr (n)unh; kok J 'nape strike-did him whack]'

Pak - un - irr (n)unh . 'bury-cause-did him'

CLOSURE:

Explanation;

Raak t h a k i r u l p M a l r i j r u - t h - a n , ' p l a c e swamp t h a t M a l r i y u - t h e - a t *

63?

Repetition;

Koow theeirng-arr (n)unh; •nose strike-did him/it'

Thak - arr (n)uhh nangunp - nhrr-p; 'l®ave-did him there - just-too*

Pak - un - irr okun (n)unh; 'bury - did maybe him*

Con.iecturet

Korr okun thak - arr . 'outside maybe left (him)'

F_I N_I_S2

"That's the lot .* " (in English for:) Kana kerp - r .

The feature of cycling

The constant back reference to previous ideas

and thoughts establishes the following sequence;

A A B C C D D D D A E C-B-E P F G-H J H H H J K K K K K F-G F-G; F

L L M M N N M H H H O A B C P P P F Q H H H H H H R H S M H R S R .

A This story is not falsified for nothing is told now for AHHall,

B Wife's father used to tell it.

C Ther© were two little old men at this place; I believed them.

D My auntie spoke and told us about it.

E I believed my aunt.

P Thos© two fought with spears on Hilltop, in the crowd.

G They were in a big crowd.

H Spear him quickly. Bowlegs, don''t waste time before darfe. They

jabbed and jabbed him, one man did, pulling out spear like this,

while he lay there, and chopped his nose repeatedly, hit his neck,

and gashed his nose finally.

J One angry man gpoke:

K Bowlegs is done for, lying finished, all limbs bent.

L "I'm dying; can't go on (whispered)."' Just like this he spoke,

M The place where they fought was Hill-top and would be a taboo-

place, where the sacred wild-goose lived. That jramp is Malriyu.

E These men here released the taboo at Malriyu, men and women.

0 We called this sacred bora ground the Withirma.

P I was a big boy too then and grew up here, reared by my father.

Q They followed hin far westward along a ridge.

R They left him right here too, just there, perhaps in the open.

S They buried him, maybe they did.

Cycling includes slight variation and amplification andl

the second person is virtually excluded with space/time merging.

6-36

B_i_b_l_i_o_g_r_a_p_h_2;

(only works quoted have been listed below.);

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Introduction to;, tagmemic analysis. Transatlantic series

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Coordination, its implication for the theory of general

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The Dyirbal language of Nerth Queensland; Ph.D. thesis,

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