Teaching Chinese Hotel and Tourism Management Students: A Hong Kong Case Study

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 54, NO. 2, JUNE 2011 185

An Analysis of a Communication Training Program forChinese Managers—ELIZABETH A. TULEJA AND ELIZABETH ROBERTS

Abstract—This research is based on an analysis of a management communication training program used by onelarge US international hotel company to train newly promoted supervisors and managers in Hong Kong and mainlandChina. The key communication competencies emphasized in the training materials were listening effectively, givingand receiving feedback, using verbal language correctly, using effective nonverbal communication, and displayingempathy. Implications of this study indicate that planning and executing any communication training program mustbe done mindfully, which includes comprehensive follow-up through reassessment and coaching by the uppermanagers in order to support employees’ transfer of training.

Index Terms—Cross-cultural communication, hotel management, managerial communication, training, transferof training.

Quality service and customer satisfaction in anyindustry are crucial if a business is to succeed.Whether you sell cars, computers, or hotel rooms,strong communication and interpersonal skills aredirectly linked to the ability to serve and satisfycustomers. Since delivering quality service in anybusiness interaction is important, we know thatcommunication training in areas such as marketing[1]; manufacturing [2]; banking [3], [4]; andadvanced technology [5], becomes a central focus inhuman resource development. One service industryin particular—the hospitality industry—depends oneffective communication and professional trainingfor its employees [6]–[9]. However, little investigationinto this particular service industry has beenconducted to find out what type of communicationtraining is delivered and how this training is putinto place once the employees are back on the job.

In order to understand the what and the how ofthis phenomenon, this research study analyzedone international hotel’s communication trainingprograms for newly promoted supervisors andmanagers to find out: (1) what types of competencieswere taught and (2) how employees used thosecompetencies after their training. Subsequently,our first research question was this:

RQ1. What were the most importantcommunication competencies used in the

Manuscript received July 02, 2010; revised September 08,2010; accepted December 14, 2010. Date of current version May25, 2011.E. A. Tuleja is with the Fanning Center for Communication,Mendoza College of Business, University of Notre Dame, NotreDame, IN 46556 USA (email: [email protected]).E. Roberts is with the School of Hotel, Resort, and TourismManagement, Faculty of Business, Technology, and SustainableDevelopment, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland 4229,Australia (email: [email protected]).

IEEE 10.1109/TPC.2011.2121730

training programs for newly promotedsupervisors and managers?

With the first question, we were interestedin knowing what specific communicationcompetencies the senior management deemedimportant for their employees and how theydelivered these training programs. Our nextquestion was this:

RQ2. How transferable was this communicationtraining once employees were back on the job?

After determining what communicationcompetencies were important, we then were curiousto know what the employees’ take away messageswere—that is, what did they think was importantabout this body of knowledge and if/how they mighthave used this to improve their interactions withbosses, colleagues, and guests once back at work?

In this paper, we briefly explain the background andcontext of this study. Next, we explore the literatureand research taken from three key disciplines inthe field of communication, which are integralto our discussion on the subject (managerialcommunication, cross-cultural communication,and training development). Then, we examine themethods used for program analysis and surveydevelopment/administration; next, we look at thefindings that emerged from our data. Finally, wediscuss the results and implications as they relateto the area of managerial communication trainingin international organizations.

BACKGROUND

We devised a research plan that examined onefive-star international hotel chain in terms of itscommunication training programs, specificallylooking at the training that took place in 22 hotels

0361-1434/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE

186 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 54, NO. 2, JUNE 2011

throughout Hong Kong and mainland China. Thisparticular hotel chain takes great pride in itsselection and retention of its employees—fromfront-line hourly employees to the employees whowork in the executive suite—and believes thatthese training programs have a direct impact onthe employees and their service delivery. Theirmission statement specifically mentions the needto serve through proper attitude and effectivecommunication skills.

Since little research in the hotel industry hasfocused on entry-level managerial skills, wetargeted our analysis on a specific communicationtraining program for newly promoted supervisorsand managers who had demonstrated leadershippotential and were ready to take on higher-levelmanagerial and leadership responsibilities. Wewere given access to all of the company’s trainingmaterials, and after analyzing them, we determinedthat the content addressed communication issues,such as understanding diversity, developingeffective listening skills, giving feedback,understanding cross-cultural communication,using effective interviewing techniques, andmanaging the problem-solving process. We thenmet with several human resource directors todiscuss the content and purposes of this trainingprogram. They explained that when promoted, theemployees took a communication training program,which culminated with participants writing aself-development action plan based on theirprofessional objectives linked to the identificationof specific communication competencies that theywanted to develop. Based upon this information, wecreated a questionnaire that was distributed to theemployees who had most recently (within the last 18months) participated in the communication trainingprogram for new supervisors and managers; thequestionnaire asked them to explain what theylearned and what their future developmental goalswere.

PREVIOUS RESEARCH

While considerable research has focused on theskill development of hotel middle managers,there is a gap in the literature related to thetype of specific training (if any) new supervisorsand managers receive in order to enhance theircommunication competencies. In addition, whilemuch has been written about the importance ofand need for effective communication skills withinthis particular service industry [10]–[13], there isa gap in the hospitality literature related to the

specific training that hotel companies provide inorder to develop their employees’ communicationabilities. The entry-level employees were part of thevarious departments found in hotel management:front desk, housekeeping, food and beverage,engineering, sales and marketing, guest services,etc.

A review of hospitality journal articles publishedsince the 1990s reveals that the key competenciesrequired of effective managers have beenthe focus of interdisciplinary research in thedisciplines of managerial communication,cross-cultural communication, and humanresource management/training. Considering theglobalization of business and the importanceof management across cultures, it would makesense that any professional service organizationwould consider these three disciplines of utmostimportance to the training of its employees. A briefreview of each of these three disciplines is crucialto our discussion about managerial communicationused across cultures within the hotel industry.

Managerial communication research focuseson the language and behavior of managers inorganizational settings that include “all relevantforms and channels of communication thatmanagers may select in accomplishing theirpurposes, including written, oral, nonverbal,and mediated” [14, p. 41]. In an organization,all communication matters—from the corporatewebsite to the annual report to office memos tostories people tell about their work. This languageis the language of diversity, of leadership, oforganizational culture, of problem solving, and ofteam building. Researchers stress the importanceof a variety of communication skills (speaking,listening, asking questions, dealing with conflict)for on-the-job success [15], [16]. For example,one trend-setting management consulting groupconsistently reports that human resourcesdirectors rank interpersonal communication skillsand team-building skills to be among the mostimportant competencies [17], and other researchhas shown that a new area within managementcalled “compassionate communication” has cometo attention in the last few years [18].

Hotel companies do well to take notice of theimportance of communication skills, which arecrucial within service industries. Brownell andJameson [19] suggest that service excellenceis only achieved if managers are able to modeleffective communication competencies. Forexample, one important competency includes

TULEJA AND ROBERTS: ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION TRAINING PROGRAM FOR CHINESE MANAGERS 187

effective listening, which plays a crucial role inorganizational culture. The manager who developsstrong “listening environments” [20] with employeescreates opportunities for open communication.Brownell, in another study, considers a stronglistening environment to be a key to success in thehospitality industry. A strong listening environmentis one aspect of how a corporate culture caninfluence its employees in a positive way—or not—ifa manager creates an environment that welcomesand encourages open interaction among employeesby listening to them and participating in day-to-dayinteractions [20]. In addition, other scholarshave also called for managers to recognize theimportance of strong listening skills and practicethem accordingly [21], [22].

Cross-cultural communication research focuses onthe way people communicate based upon differingcultural norms—how they react to what is expectedand accepted in terms of their own communicationpatterns [23]. In the hospitality industry, Plog andSturman suggest that different cultural patternswill affect a manager’s decision making in thefollowing areas: centralized versus decentralizedcontrol, the amount of authority given to employeeswith front-line customer contact, and how todetermine what “quality” means in different culturalcontexts [24]. Multinational management cannotbe based merely upon knowledge of superficialcultural tidbits; rather, it is about gaining insightsinto cultural differences that affect how leadersin an industry will handle certain policies, suchas being able to adapt to governmental rules andregulations, as well as understanding legal issues.

For example, in most Western cultures, the conceptof a bribe is illegal and there are strong penaltieslevied against those found guilty of bribinggovernmental officials. However, while Westerncultures have had established rules and regulationsregarding expectations for ethics in businessdealings for many years, other cultures, such as inAsia, may not. As a recent example, China (sincethe late 1970s and then 1980s, when new economicreforms began) has only begun to develop itsrules for what business people can and cannot dowhen trying to negotiate a deal [25]. The meaningattached to giving gifts or favors is not considereda bribe to a Chinese businessperson—rather, sucha gesture can be perfectly acceptable (dependingon the size or nature of the gift)—it is a form ofbuilding trust and harmony in relationships.

Also, research in the field of interculturalcommunication often focuses on the “us and them

syndrome,” taking on a Western ethnocentricviewpoint. Perhaps this is because English, forbetter or worse, has become the lingua francaof international business. To try to lessen thiseffect, Kriegel [26] identifies the important skills fordealing effectively with international assignments ofexpatriates, which are cultural sensitivity, effectiveinterpersonal skills, flexibility, and willingness tolearn. For example, based upon her findings, shecautions would-be international business peoplethat “Western business conduct is neither universalnor superior; therefore, it is crucial for US-trainedmanagers to understand international businesscustoms, too” [26, p. 68].

Roberts and Tuleja stress the importance ofparticipating in a culture by trying to understandculture from the inside-out so that the expatriateadapts her or his ways to the host culture andnot the other way around [27]. Their researchexamines how to develop appropriate cross-culturalinstructional methods when teaching businessstudents about communication issues. SinceEnglish is the lingua franca of business, leadersfrom Western-based companies often expectothers to adapt to their Western methods ofcommunication—rather than the other way around.However, the current reality of a globalized worldmeans that we must approach instructional designand training from the local perspective, as hasbeen demonstrated in previous literature regardingcross-cultural communication and globalization[28]–[32].

Training within the discipline of human resourcemanagement is the third body of research relevantto the present study. Previous research hasaddressed the issue of employee development andthe identification of key competencies requiredby hospitality managers [33], such as patience,flexibility, emotional resilience, and personalempowerment. In addition, other research hasattempted to measure employees’ skill levels inorder to identify shortcomings [34], [35] and provideon-the-job training, whether it is developing readingand writing skills or leadership development.Other important research in the area of humanresource management relates to the importanceof ensuring the transfer of training once back onthe job in terms of work climate [36], [37], andsupport from one’s boss [38]. The importance ofrelevant training and the reluctance on the partof many organizations to provide it has long beena lament of academics [39], and it has only beenthe relatively recent skills shortage that has forcedorganizations, such as international hotel chains,


to invest in training in order to provide professionaldevelopment opportunities as a means of retainingmanagers [40].

Because of the international nature of hotels,there is an important need to train employeesin cross-cultural issues [29], [31], [32], [41]. Inmany organizations, it often has been a practicethat top-level managers, who have demonstratedeffective leadership skills in one area of the world,will be brought into another completely differentculture with the expectation that they will be ableto function from day one. Many times, these arepeople with significant expatriate experience whosucceed; however, they often do not [42]. Thereare multiple factors at play here—just because anexpatriate manager has been successful, say, in anAsian culture, does not necessarily mean that he orshe will be successful working in a Middle Easternculture—it is always wise to provide training abouta specific culture and its business practices to suchemployees, as well as support and information forthe manager’s family.

Now that we have discussed the background ofthis research project, examined the literaturerelated to three relevant disciplines of managerialcommunication, cross-cultural communication,and human resource management/training, we willfocus on the various methods used to answer ourresearch questions.

METHODOLOGY

Both qualitative and quantitative methodswere used. Qualitative methods includedcontent analysis of the communication trainingmanuals associated with the training programunder investigation and interviews with hotelemployees. This analysis created the contextfor this research study by understanding thecompany’s history, its emphasis on communicationskills, and the training programs it provided.Quantitative methods included the development ofa questionnaire instrument that was administeredto all of the employees who had taken thecommunication training program in the previous18 months. This questionnaire provided statisticalevidence that showed if and how the transfer oftraining—knowledge and skills gained from thecommunication training—was used once back onthe job.

Qualitative Methods We gained access to aUS-based, five-star hotel chain that operatesin Hong Kong and mainland China and were

allowed to examine the training materials relatedto communication training. The qualitativemethodology for this study included (1) interviewswith key industry informants, (2) a thoroughanalysis of the training programs using a contentanalysis coding schema (of the content withinthe training manuals) in order to identify the keycommunication competencies, and (3) interviewswith employees at one of the hotel properties inmainland China. We focused on the programthat dealt specifically with new supervisors andmanagers because it provided the most attentionto communication competencies. Therefore, thefollowing was our first research question:

RQ1. What were the most importantcommunication competencies used in thesetraining programs for newly promotedsupervisors and managers?

We were interested in knowing what specificcommunication competencies senior managementbelieved were important for their employees andhow they delivered these training programs.

We thoroughly analyzed the training manuals usinga coding schema to identify the key communicationcompetencies identified as important by thisorganization [43]–[45]. This research method helpsidentify the frequency of any terms related tocommunication competencies and yielded eightspecific themes that were repeated over and over inall of the training materials: listening, paraphrasing,asking questions, giving and receiving feedback,sharing important information, using nonverbalcommunication, understanding cross-culturalcommunication, and resolving conflict. Since wewere not allowed to take the company trainingmanuals off-site, we spent about 30 hours over athree-week period analyzing the manuals.

We then met with the regional vice president (VP)of human resources (Asia Pacific) to gain a basicunderstanding of the goals and purposes of theorganization’s training programs. The regionalVP provided background information about thehotel chain’s vision, mission, and core valuesand explained that the training manuals areadjusted to deal with specific international needsand languages. For example, the manuals aretranslated into Mandarin, Thai, and Japanese. Toensure the accuracy of the cultural context, eachhotel property hired its own trainers from theregion, who adapted the materials accordingly.As the content analysis process evolved, we alsohad the opportunity to meet with the regionaldirector of training (Asia Pacific) to ask clarifying


questions about the content, focus, and purpose ofthe training manuals. This triangulation of datacompleted the qualitative portion of our researchstudy.

Quantitative Methods The quantitative portionof our study focused on creating a questionnaireinstrument to be administered to a sample of theemployees who had taken these training programs.This process included the development, translation,administration, collection, and analysis of a surveyinstrument (initially in English) with the input fromthe hotel chain’s regional VP of human resources.It assessed entry-level supervisors’ and entry-levelmanagers’ perceived values of the communicationskills taught in these training programs. Therespondents’ communication skill levels andcoaching behaviors in the eight key trainingareas were also assessed by their managers. Thequestionnaire included two types of questions.The first set was well-defined questions that werepreviously tested for validity and reliability fromthe field of organizational behavior asking aboutindividual and group-level performance (individuallevel relating to each employee’s responses andgroup level relating to their manager’s view of theircommunication abilities). The second set consistedof new questions, which were developed to matchthe specific focus of the eight communicationcompetencies that emerged from our contentanalysis of the training manuals (listening,paraphrasing, asking questions, giving andreceiving feedback, sharing important information,using nonverbal communication, understandingcross-cultural communication, and resolvingconflict).

Besides asking demographic information(nationality, age, and tenure), we focused on theimportance of each of these eight communicationcompetencies as related to the employees’performance at work. Following the methodologyof creating equivalent questions across cultures[46], [47], we then (1) created the questionsthat would elicit sought-after responses toour research questions developed for peoplefrom another culture [48]; (2) found competentmultilingual/multicultural colleagues to translatethese questions from English to Chinese; (3)spent time with the iterative process [49], [50] ofmaking sure that the cultural context matchedthe linguistic context; and (4) administered thesurvey, collected the data, and analyzed it. Thistranslation process focused on key principles tosurvey translations [47], paying careful attentionto the many aspects involved in creating a valid

survey instrument to be used across cultures.These principles included linguistic variables, suchas semantic, syntactic, and contextual [47]–[52], aswell as equivalence issues, such as context, bias,and validity [53]–[57].

To ensure that the respondents, who weremostly Chinese, understood the questionnaire,a graduate student and a faculty member whowere fluent in Mandarin, Cantonese, and Englishtranslated it into Chinese. The questionnairewent through several iterations between thetranslators for modification to ensure thatthe meanings of the items were semantically,syntactically, and contextually accurate aftertranslation. The questionnaires were distributedvia the corporate human resources departmentsat each property to individual department heads,managers, assistant managers, and supervisors in7 different departments at 22 different propertiesin mainland China and Hong Kong. (Thesedepartments included: sales/marketing; frontoffice; housekeeping; food/beverage service;kitchen/culinary; administration, general/finance,and human resources; and engineering.) A letterof explanation was sent with each informationpacket and attached to each translated survey inorder to ensure the employees, who voluntarilychose to participate, that this information wasconfidential and would not be used for work-relatedperformance evaluations.

An email reminder was sent to the individualproperty human resources directors afterthree weeks. There were 720 responses to thesurveys that were returned to us within eightweeks (98% response rate). Among all of thedata, 209 surveys were administrated in theindividual level to assess the respondents’perceived importance and performance of theeight key areas of communication competences;an additional 409 surveys were administratedin the group level to access the departmentalcommunication competences. By looking separatelyat individual and then group levels, we were ableto compare the context of their communicationperformance. Pair-sample -tests were performed,and no significant differences were found in anydemographic variables. Nearly all of the respondentswere Chinese (613 out of 618) with an almost equalmale/female split (299 males and 319 females).The sample had an average of 32.8 years of age, anaverage of 5.48 years tenure with the hotel chain,and had worked in the position for an average of4.23 years. About half of the respondents (288 outof 582 who responded to this questionnaire) had


TABLE IDESCRIPTIVE AND CORRELATION OF THE PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF EIGHT KEY AREAS OF COMMUNICATION COMPETENCY

completed the professional communication trainingprogram under investigation. Others were still inthe process of completing the multiple trainingsessions required in this program.

Our overall goal for this questionnaire was toassess how new supervisors and managers inHong Kong and mainland China put to use theircommunication training on the job. Consequently,our second research question was:

RQ2. How transferable was this communicationtraining once employees were back on the job?

That is, as a result of this company training,how effective was the communication behaviorperformance of these newly trained supervisors andmanagers and was there a transfer of knowledge[58] back into their workplace?

FINDINGS

As previously mentioned, our content analysisof the communication training program yieldedeight specific themes: listening, paraphrasing,asking questions, giving and receiving feedback,sharing important information, using nonverbalcommunication, understanding cross-culturalcommunication, and resolving conflict, which weasked about in the questionnaire.

The following discussion relates to the respondents’perceived importance of these eight specific areasof communication competencies. Table I shows themean and standard deviation and the correlationof the original eight key areas of communicationcompetencies. With five as the highest importancerating, seven out of the eight key areas received anaverage rating over four, showing that respondentsthought the eight key areas of communicationcompetency are important. As indicated in TableI, listening is one of the most important, ifnot the most important, communication skill.Respondents thought that listening skills werethe most important communication skills (with amean of 4.62). The skills giving feedback (with amean of 4.42), conflict resolution (with a meanof 4.39), sharing important information (witha mean of 4.30), and asking questions (with amean of 4.20) were also rated as important. Theother three skills—paraphrasing (with a mean of4.12), nonverbal communication (with a mean of4.00), and cross-cultural communication (with amean of 3.93)—received less attention from therespondents.

Table I also shows that the eight initial key areas ofcommunication competencies are highly correlatedwith each other. However, this correlation isexpected as all of the eight areas measure apart of important communication skills, perhaps


because they were constantly repeated throughoutthe training programs. In addition, the relativelyhigh mean score in perceived importance of theeight key areas of communication competenciesshowed that respondents basically agreed thatcommunication was important to their job.

Based on our analysis of the survey data,we collapsed the initial eight key areas ofcommunication competency into the fourmost-used skills—listening effectively, receivingand giving feedback, using verbal and nonverballanguage, and resolving conflict. These fourmost-used competencies became evident from thewritten portion of the survey where participantswere asked to list what they believed to bethe most important communication skills tothem. The following section will: (1) focus onthese four most-used skills, (2) include someindividual feedback from this written portion ofthe questionnaire, and (3) provide some actualexamples from the training manuals that reflecttheir general content.

Most-used Skills

Listening Effectively: The communicationcompetency most emphasized in the four-dayprogram was the need for managers to developeffective listening skills. As identified before, it isalso the skill that respondents perceived as mostimportant. The emphasis on listening skills duringthe training program showed that this part of thetraining program matched the need and expectationof the trainee. Brownell, an expert on the topicof listening [59], has identified listening as oneof the most neglected aspects of communication.Listening is not only a communication act, but isalso an organic, holistic entity that, when donecorrectly, becomes a vital aspect of organizationalculture. A strong listening environment [20] isone in which employees can express views openlywithout the fear of rejection from management,can share information freely, and can contributeto the ongoing dialog within the departmentalenvironment.

A majority of the communication training programwas devoted almost entirely to listening, withthe objective that all participants would be ableto “demonstrate effective communication skillsthrough active listening and questioning skills.”After a lecture on active listening skills, participantsread a short scenario about a controversial topic.They then engaged in a conversation with theirpartner and talked through a listening performance

checklist. (The checklist included the followingcriteria: focusing on the message, paraphrasing,clarifying, controlling distraction, summarizing themessage.) A follow-up group discussion was thenheld to address questions such as: “How did yourconversation go?” “What did you learn?” “How canyou apply your learning on the job?” “What is a keytake-away from this exercise?”

Part of the survey had a qualitative element toit, where associates could respond to a write-insection that asked how valuable communicationskills (from the training program) were to them. Weasked associates for an example or short story ofhow they have used the skill they deemed mostimportant. All responses were translated fromChinese to English. For listening, many of theresponses were related to creating a strong listeningenvironment. For example, an assistant managerfrom the engineering department said:

The communication training I had helps me alot. It changes my way to talk and improvesmy communication skills [to] be able to haveinformation exchange with guests and care formy employees Once there was an employeewho felt depressed. Through communication, Iunderstood; [I] listened to the difficulties andhelped to solve the problem and encouraged him.It made him have no more worries Afterward,he had a better mood, and worked happier. Thisis one of the advantages of communicating withemployees.

Receiving and Giving Feedback: According tothe respondents, the second most importantcommunication competency addressed inthe communication training program underinvestigation is the ability to effectively give andreceive feedback. Research suggests that when goodbehavior is ignored, future efforts of an employee todemonstrate further good behavior will eventuallybe extinguished [38]. This communicative actof giving feedback (even if negative) plays acrucial role in helping to motivate, empower, andretain employees. The observations from thisresearch reveal tension between what employeesseek (feedback on their performance) and whatmanagers are willing to provide. These findingssuggest that many managers feel inadequate aboutgiving feedback.

This particular hotel chain believed organizationsthat take responsibility for professionalcommunication training frequently instruct theirmanagers on how to give feedback. This instruction


includes: (1) feedback that covers specificinformation related to observable behaviors, (2)feedback that addresses employee performance notonly when performance is bad but also when itis good, and (3) an understanding that managershave a responsibility in their developmental roleof nurturing their employees. In this trainingprogram, the new supervisors and managers wereencouraged to develop and practice skills in how togive subordinates effective performance reviews.They were prompted to always choose a settingthat is private and respectful of the employee, andthen to (1) state their observations of behavior,(2) state the implications of such behavior, (3)confirm the employee’s viewpoint, (4) describe whatthey observed that was effective and ineffective,and (5) check whether the employee agrees withthe assessment. This exercise was followed by anactivity that presented several scenarios wheretwo participants engaged in role-play. Observersrecorded their observations and discussed therole-play.

Written responses to the write-in section aboutspecific feedback examples by one supervisor fromthe housekeeping department stated:

[G]iving feedback within a suitable time frame isvery useful [L]isteners can feel your care andconcern and minimize misunderstandings. Inthe past, when my supervisor assigned dutiesto me, I always said “yes,” accepted my dutiesand completed it. Now, when I assign duties,I present my suggestions so that the associatecan understand my opinions [also] givingfeedback to guests shows that the hotel valuesthis guest “attitude matters!”

Another assistant manager from the kitchendepartment talked about how giving feedback, interms of sharing information across departments,was important:

Communicating with people from differentcultures [and] backgrounds allows me to learnmore knowledge, job experience, and culturestandards. For example, when I teach colleaguessomething, or when they teach me something, Ican gain experience and improve job efficiency.

Using Verbal and Nonverbal Language Appropriately:The third communication competency pertainsto the need for managers to use verbal andnonverbal language appropriately (which includedparaphrasing, asking questions, and sharingimportant information). Previous research hasaddressed the issue of workplace discourse in

organizational settings [60]. The importance placedon all aspects of effective verbal communication,such as paraphrasing with clarity checks, handlingconflict, and asking good questions is coveredthroughout the training modules.

A significant proportion of the management-trainingprogram addressed the issue of service recoveryand the fact that hospitality managers typicallyfail to collect sufficient information before reactingwhen something goes wrong [61]. Participantshad engaged in experiential exercises designed toemphasize the importance of paraphrasing andrephrasing messages, as well as asking questions toclarify the verbal (or nonverbal) messages that theysend and receive. For example, much emphasis wasplaced on meeting customer needs via verbal andnonverbal communication and the power of bothwords and actions. One exercise posed the reflectivequestion: “What does hospitality look like?”

Displaying empathy was a large part of whathospitality looked like [62]. Displaying empathyencourages employees to see things through thelens of someone else—whether it is a customer, asubordinate, or a colleague. A critical componentof any service encounter is the employee’s abilityto display empathy by effectively communicatingboth verbally and nonverbally. Participants wereintroduced to the three important components ofall communication—visual (body language), vocal(tone of voice), and verbal (words spoken)—duringa lesson on guest service. One of the lecturesdealt with how a message can change meaningdepending on the emphasis one places on eachword. For example, the sentence, “I never said shebooked three people for lunch,” can mean differentthings based upon which word is emphasized.Saying, “I never said she booked three peoplefor lunch,” would make one wonder, “Then whodid?” But saying, “I never said she booked threepeople for lunch,” would make one challenge, “Butyou implied it.” Displaying empathy during aservice encounter requires that employees mustbe cognizant that their gestures, tone of voice, andactual words can affect how the message is receivedby a customer.

Written responses to the write-in section aboutspecific verbal and nonverbal examples revealedthat one supervisor from the front office departmentthought it was very important to communicatebetween departments. This supervisor said:

[T]he verbal communication skills [are] the mostimportant [to me]. For example, the skills used


in inter-department communication or otherdepartments are [a] necessary skill [S]haringinformation between departments increases themutual trust between colleagues and allows usto work better.

Someone from the food and beverage departmentsaid:

We need to respond proactively For example,when making decisions on how to handle anevent, we encourage colleagues to suggestquestions, ask for their opinions, and proactivelyemploy their opinions in practical use. Currentlythere are a lot of opportunities with colleaguesfrom other hotel properties. When communicatingwith them, listening carefully, it enable[s] meto learn about their working experience and,hence, increase my own knowledge.

Conflict (and Cross-Cultural Relationships): Thefourth competency deals with conflict resulting fromcross-cultural miscommunication. The trainingrelated to this competency pragmatically reviewedall of the previous training in communication andsegued into conflict management by explainingthat even though new supervisors and managersdeveloped strong communication skills (listening,paraphrasing, asking questions, and givingfeedback), conflict still would occur. Therefore, thetraining sessions on conflict focused on definingconflict and identifying sources of it. It offeredinformation on how to explore one’s reactions toconflict and then how to discover individual stylesof conflict management. The particular moduleassociated with conflict provided participants witha five-step process for conflict resolution and endedby encouraging all associates to respond to conflictand expect positive results.

Due to the international nature of hotels, much ofthe discussion on conflict was in conjunction withcross-cultural issues. In one exercise, employeeswere encouraged to directly address conflict bytalking about the issues with one’s subordinatesand then giving immediate feedback. From across-cultural communication perspective, thedirect approach is very much valued by Westerners,as it is considered to be efficient and objective;however, employees from other cultures maynot react to conflict in the same manner basedupon the norms or rules of conduct in theirsociety. For example, ignoring conflict may bethe more appropriate way to deal with it froman Eastern perspective. Much has been writtenabout the differences between Western thought,based upon the teachings of Aristotle (striving

for order, objectivity, and logical rationality),and Eastern thought (striving for harmony andbalance with nature and people), based uponteachings of Confucius [63]–[66]. Because of thesetwo fundamentally different philosophical worldviews, people from the West and East have beenconditioned to have different ways of viewinglife’s events, the importance of interpersonalrelationships, and the need to maintain harmony.How one demonstrates conflict resolution will beinfluenced by his or her cultural norms.

Written responses to the write-in section aboutconflict examples showed how a supervisor fromthe kitchen handled problems:

[W]hen restaurant guest[s] complain aboutthe dish, we will [try to] understand carefullybut not just say, “This is not the fault of thekitchen.” [W]e ask for details [to] communicatewith the restaurant manager and prevent anyunnecessary unhappiness [W]e must firstunderstand the reasons of the complaint [to] pickthe right solution to the problem and solve theproblem effectively.

Someone from the front office wrote aboutdealing with problems while trying to understandcross-cultural issues:

I used to escape from problems or solve them myown way [H]owever, now I understand howto talk with others and discuss the problemsfor interpersonal harmony [M]y abilitiesin communicating with people from differentcultural backgrounds have improved [F]orexample, employees are usually from differentprovinces and towns. They have differentcultures, customs, and habits. They use differentdialects. As [a] management team, we have tojudge them based on their unique personalities.

Value of the Training Program We askedrespondents to evaluate the value of the training.This evaluation included three aspects abouttheir training: the overall value of the trainingprogram, whether the training program improvedcommunication skills, and whether the trainingprogram improved cross-culture dealings. Table IIshows that the perceived value of the three aspectshas a score from 2.18 to 2.25. With five as the mostvaluable, results show that respondents did notperceive the training as valuable.

Transferability of the Training Program Whilethe training program appeared to be theoreticallysound (based upon Western standards), thetransferability of communication skills back into


TABLE IIDESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF TRAINING COURSE VALUE

the workplace was even more important to ascertain.Therefore, we used an independent sample -testto check if the respondents, who completedthe training program, could communicate moreeffectively than the respondents who did notcomplete the training program. In this survey,we defined communication effectiveness as therespondents’ actual communication performanceand the respondents’ communication coachingbehavior (based upon the eight communicationcompetencies). In order to avoid self-response bias,the respondents’ direct supervisor evaluated thecommunication performance. We also conducted acorrelation analysis to investigate the relationshipbetween perceived importance and communicationeffectiveness.

As shown in Table III, there is no significantdifference between the communication effectiveness(both communication performance andcommunication coaching behavior) of the eight keycommunication areas and whether the employeestook the training or not. Completing the trainingdid not necessarily enhance the communicationeffectiveness of respondents.

To further understand the variation ofcommunication effectiveness between respondents,we conducted a correlation analysis between theperceived importance and the communicationeffectiveness. Table IV shows the correlationbetween the perceived importance and thecommunication effectiveness (communicationperformance and communication coachingbehavior) in the eight key areas of communicationcompetencies. The results support that asrespondents’ perceived importance of thecommunication competency increases, they havebetter communication performances.

DISCUSSION

In the initial findings of the communicationtraining programs used by this hotel, we found

that eight general communication competenciesseemed to be the most important, which includedlistening, paraphrasing, asking questions, givingand receiving feedback, sharing importantinformation, using nonverbal communication,understanding cross-cultural communication,and resolving conflict. Once we administered,collected, and analyzed the questionnaire, wedetermined what the employees believed to be thefour most important competencies to them. Basedupon our survey data, when asked what the mostimportant communication skills were, respondentschose listening, giving feedback, resolving conflict,sharing important information, and using verballanguage correctly (specifically, paraphrasing andasking questions).

Strengths of the Program The primary strengthof the four-day training program was that thekey communication competencies were explicitlystated throughout the training materials andreinforced through experiential exercises includingdiscussions, simulations, and role-play. Thelecture notes, the participant information, andthe activities were based on a relatively soundtheoretical framework relevant to communicationtheory and practice. (In Western cultures, however,this posed a concern and is also a weakness of theprogram.) Another strength of the training programwas the repeated emphasis on the company’score values in relation to its commitment toemployees. This simple but powerful messageto the participants was that a company shouldtreat its employees well (phrases in the trainingmanual emphasized “taking care of the associates,”and “empowering and growing people withinthe company”) and that the company wanted tohire employees who had a strong desire to treatcustomers well—to share quality service. It was aholistic message.

Weaknesses of the Program While the trainingprogram appeared to be relevant, there wereseveral apparent weaknesses that emerged from theanalysis of the course content. One shortcomingconcerns the cross-cultural communicationcomponent. The notes section in the participants’manual on cross-cultural communication wasinadequate as it lacked sufficient explanationsand examples. Concepts surrounding whatconstitutes culture and how to interact withpeople from different cultures were oversimplifiedand lacked relevant meaning. While conceptuallythe definitions of the words “diversity” and“intercultural” differ, these terms were usedinterchangeably and might not be understood in


TABLE IIIINDEPENDENT �-TEST OF COMPLETENESS OF FOL TRAINING AND COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS

cultures outside North America. An importantquestion would be: What do these terms meanto someone in Hong Kong or mainland China, ifanything? It is interesting that the quantitativedata showed respondents basically disregardedthe importance of cross-cultural training, as it isthe area that respondents perceived as the leastimportant out of all eight competencies.

The transferability of communication skills backinto the workplace is challenging enough. Thecross-cultural implications of taking a trainingprogram developed by a US organization forChinese employees who hold a different set of

values and beliefs is an even tougher challenge forany multinational organization. While the trainingmaterials were described as the “internationalversion” for any training outside the US, andthis was verified through interviews with theorganization’s senior managers, we caution thatall training is culture bound and needs to becarefully examined as such. Management practicesin Asian cultures, such as China, may notcontextualize training information in the same wayas management practices in Western cultures [51],[64], so it is crucial that appropriate measures,based on sound research, be employed in theprocess of transferring training materials from


TABLE IVCORRELATION OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE AND COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS

one culture to another. Just how these conceptswere presented to employees was not clear duringthe initial interviews with key informants at theheadquarters.

However, upon visiting one of the properties inmainland China, the human resources directorat that particular hotel explained that such“international” concepts were put into context byusing local professionals as trainers. Knowingthis bit of information is helpful; however, we donot know if this practice was used for each hotelproperty, and we were not able to observe anyof the training sessions at this hotel property.Any concept that is created in one culture andtransferred to another culture must be analyzedin terms of the other culture—for example, takingthe Western concept of conflict and imposing it ona society that holds different values based uponConfucianism will yield very different results.

Although our survey data showed that the trainingprogram covered the topics that respondentsperceived as important, it also revealed thatrespondents did not perceive the training programto have a high overall value. They did not thinkthat the training helped them improve theircommunication skills or cross-cultural dealings. Ingeneral, respondents were not satisfied with thetraining program. We found this puzzling sincethere had been mostly positive comments in thewritten feedback section of the survey. Perhaps

only those who found the training helpful took thetime to respond in writing, or maybe the writtenfeedback was a result of giving socially acceptedresponses. Nevertheless, this finding supports theneed for quantifiable data in order to help assesswhat was truly useful or not to the trainees.

Even more problematic was that there wasno significant difference in communicationeffectiveness (both communication performanceand communication coaching behavior asrevealed by the managers’ and department heads’assessment of their associates) after the completionof the training program. The knowledge thatrespondents learned in their training courses wasnot necessarily transferred to the job. This findingshows that there is a need for this particularorganization to modify its training program so thatrespondents can be more satisfied with the trainingand that the knowledge respondents learned can betransferred back to work.

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICE AND

FURTHER RESEARCH

Given the nature of this study, it is difficult tomake broad generalizations; however, what didemerge from the analysis of the training materialis that key service industry leaders are providingentry-level employees with explicit trainingdesigned to enhance their communication andmanagerial effectiveness for better professional


communication. Generally, it is a commonly heldbelief that people are effective communicators aslong as they can physically hear and speak. Giventhe cost of service recovery, hotel companies arewell aware that this view is often not the case.Whether selling an automobile or a hotel room,professional communication skills are critical togood business.

Another important implication is about the transferof training. Previous research has identified theimportance of investigating the transfer of trainingand its direct impact on employees [58], goalorientation [67], mentoring [68], and team climate[69], to name a few. Studies show that whenplanning for employees’ professional training anddevelopment, what satisfies the trainee must bedistinguished from what satisfies the company.The company delivering the training must makesure that it is not only relevant to the employee,but that the employee perceives it as relevant. Itis this perceived practical relevance that is crucialfor motivating employees to transfer those skillsonce back on the job [70]. Also, it matters thatthe company knows what types of barriers [71] totraining and transfer are necessary for success intheir particular environment, such as a supportiveculture and manager at work [72], [73], and thereasons for sending people to be trained in thefirst place. Based upon this research, it appearsthat the challenge for any organization is to ensurethat trainees understand the motivations behindwhy they have to participate in training, and thatthey have appropriate support and encouragementto actually use the new knowledge and skillsonce back on the job. Identifying those trainingprograms aimed at improving service quality thatactually produce better service is still an open areafor investigation.

Overall, our data show that while the employeeswe surveyed believed that communication trainingwas important and valuable, the actual trainingprogram itself was not valued. Knowing how (and if)participants actually apply the principles learnedthrough comprehensive communication trainingwould enhance our understanding of the transferof knowledge and its relevance on managementpractice regarding professional communicationin the service industry. Finally, knowing morespecifically if and how the participants’ managersgave additional support once back on the job wouldprovide a more solid understanding [72], [73]. It isnot enough simply to provide this type of trainingif there is no motivation from upper management

to oversee and mentor its subordinates in order tohelp them become more competent professionalcommunicators.

Another implication is that the findings suggestthat we need to engage in further research toexamine if Western cultural frames of referenceare meaningfully transferable within an Easterncontext. The research could be comparative innature based on the demographic profile of theparticipants (for example, a comparison betweenmainland Chinese and Hong Kong Chinese) withthe aim of identifying cross-cultural differencesin communication behaviors that would perhapsprovide a more grounded and relevant approach tomanagerial communication training [74], [75]. Itis not enough to take training programs createdin one culture/language and transport them toanother without considerable thought, research,and planning—these programs must be localized,the concepts must be put into the proper culturalcontext, and the language translations must beperformed systematically.

SUMMARY

Previous research has shown that effectivecommunication skills may be the most importantskills required of managers operating withinthe professional communication context. Thisstudy looked at how professional communicationskills were taught within an internationalhotel-management context. Given the gap in ourunderstanding of how international hotel chainstrain entry-level supervisors and managers tobecome better communicators, the findings fromthis study contribute to our knowledge of the keycommunication competencies considered importantfor service delivery in this particular company’straining program. It showed that the employeesbelieved professional communication training wasimportant, but more needs to be done to improvethe actual training program, transfer the trainingback to the workplace, and then engage upper-levelmanagers with more deliberate mentoring of theirsubordinates. In addition, this study underscoredthe emphasis of understanding the promises andthe pitfalls of taking culture-specific materials andtransporting them to a different cultural frame ofreference.

Developing effective communication skills maybe the most important competency requiredof managers operating within an internationalcommunication context today. Understanding


how communication information and training iscreated, presented, and then applied on the jobcan shed light into helping organizations optimizetheir employees’ productivity and satisfaction. Inaddition, planning and executing any professionalcommunication training program must be donemindfully, and following up through assessmentand reassessment are crucial steps for such

training programs that aim to satisfy employees, thepurposes of the organization, and the customers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Cass Shum of HongKong University of Science and Technology, for herassistance with the quantitative data analysis.

REFERENCES

[1] N. Sharma and P. G. Patterson, “The impact of communication effectiveness and service quality on relationshipcommitment in consumer, professional services,” J. Services Market., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 151–175, 1999.

[2] D. Vest, M. Long, L. Thomas, and M. E. Palmquist, “Relating communication training to workplacerequirements: The perspective of new engineers,” IEEE Trans. Prof. Commun., vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 11–18, Mar.1995.

[3] E. Galanou and C. Priporas, “A model for evaluating the effectiveness of middle managers’ training courses:Evidence from a major banking organization in Greece,” Int. J. Training Develop., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 221–246,2009.

[4] S. Liebermann and S. Hoffmann, “The impact of practical relevance on training transfer: Evidence from aservice quality training program for German bank clerks,” Int. J. Training Develop., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 74–86,2008.

[5] Y. H. Lien, Y. Y. Hung, and G. N. McLean, “Training evaluation based on cases of Taiwanese benchmarkedhigh-tech companies,” Int. J. Training Develop., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 35–48, 2007.

[6] J. Brownell, “Perceptions of effective listeners: A management study,” J. Bus. Commun., vol. 27, no. 9, pp.401–415, 1990.

[7] J. Brownell, “The management development program: A competency-based model for preparing hospitalityleaders,” J. Manage. Educ., vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 124–146, 2001.

[8] C. P. Chang, “A multilevel exploration of factors influencing the front-line employees’ service quality ininternational tourist hotels,” J. Amer. Acad. Business, Cambridge, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 285–293, 2006.

[9] B. G. Chung-Herrera, C. A. Enz, and M. J. Lankau, “Grooming future hospitality leaders: A competencymodel,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 17–26, 2003.

[10] E. Huettman and J. Brownell, “An ethnographic approach to understanding service quality,” FIU Hospital.Rev., vol. 15, pp. 63–74, 1997.

[11] J. Brownell, “Middle managers: Facing the communication challenge,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart.,vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 52–59, 1991.

[12] J. Brownell and D. A. Jameson, “Problem-based learning in graduate management education: An integrativemodel and interdisciplinary application,” J. Manage. Educ., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 558–577, 2004.

[13] E. Huettman, “Writing for multiple audiences: An examination of audience concerns in a hospitality consultingfirm,” J. Bus. Commun., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 257–273, 1996.

[14] J. Brownell, “Applied research in managerial communication: The critical link between knowledge andpractice,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 39–49, 2003.

[15] M. Bambacas and M. Patrickson, “Assessment of communication skills in manager selection: Some evidencefrom Australia,” J. Manage. Develop., vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 109–120, 2009.

[16] M. Symonds. (2009, Jun. 19). B-Schools’ big challenge: Developing leaders, not just managers. Forbes.[Online]. Available: http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/19/business-schools-innovation-leadership-careers-education.html

[17] K. Blanchard. (2008). Corporate issues survey. [Online]. Available: http://big5.51job.com/gate/big5/images.51job.com/im/51newslettle/images/Blanchard-2008-Corporate-Issues-Survey.pdf

[18] K. I. Miller, “Compassionate communication in the workplace: Exploring processes of noticing, connecting,and responding,” J. Appl. Commun. Res., vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 223–232, 2007.

[19] J. Brownell and D. A. Jameson, “Benchmarks for excellence: Cornell’s management-development program,”Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin., vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 87–92, 1995.

[20] J. Brownell, “Creating strong listening environments: A key hospitality management task,” Int. J. Contemp.Hospital. Manage., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 3–11, 1994.

[21] Z. Ahmed, F. Shields, R. White, and J. Wilbert, “Managerial communication: The link between frontlineleadership and organizational performance,” J. Organiz. Culture, Commun. Conflict, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 107–120,2010.

[22] P. Barwise and S. Meeha, “So you think you’re a good listener,” Harvard Bus. Rev., vol. 86, no. 4, p. 22, 2008.[23] E. A. Tuleja, Intercultural Communication for Business. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning, 2009.[24] S. C. Plog and M. C. Sturman, “The problems and challenges of working in international settings,” Cornell

Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 116–124, 2005.[25] J. Kivela and L. F. L. Leung, “Doing business in the People’s Republic of China,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant

Admin. Quart., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 125–152, 2005.


[26] U. Kriegl, “International hospitality management,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 41, no. 2,pp. 64–72, 2000.

[27] E. Roberts and E. A. Tuleja, “When West meets East: Teaching a managerial communication course in HongKong,” J. Bus. Tech. Commun., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 474–490, 2008.

[28] J. J. Clark and A. Arbel, “Producing global managers: The need for a new academic paradigm,” Cornell HotelRestaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 83–89, 1993.

[29] J. Christensen-Hughes, “Cultural diversity: The lessons of Toronto’s hotels,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin.Quart., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 78–87, 1992.

[30] J. Jafari, “Multicultural strategies in tourism,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 35, no. 6, pp.72–79, 1994.

[31] C. G. Lee and K. S. Chon, “An investigation of multicultural training practices in the restaurant industry: Thetraining cycle approach,” Int. J. Contemp. Hospital. Manage., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 126–134, 2000.

[32] A. Roper and M. Brookes, “The multicultural management of international hotel groups,” Int. J. Hospital.Manage., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 147–159, 1997.

[33] T. Baum, “Skills and training for the hospitality sector: A review of issues,” J. Vocat. Educ. Train., vol. 54, no.3, pp. 343–364, 2002.

[34] T. Baum, “Unskilled work and the hospitality industry: Myth or reality?,” Int. J. Hospital. Manage., vol.15, no. 3, pp. 207–219, 1996.

[35] H. Magd, “Management attitudes and perceptions of older employees in hospitality management,” Int. J.Contemp. Hospital. Manage., vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 393–401, 2002.

[36] J. B. Tracey, S. I. Tannenbaum, and M. J. Kavanagh, “Applying trained skills on the job: The importance ofthe work environment,” J. Appl. Psychol., vol. 80, no. 2, pp. 239–252, 1995.

[37] J. B. Tracey and M. J. Tews, “Training effectiveness: Accounting for individual characteristics and the workenvironment,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 36–43, 2004.

[38] T. R. Hinkin and C. A. Schriesheim, “If you don’t hear from me you know you are doing fine: The effects ofmanagement non-response to employee performance,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 45, no.4, pp. 362–372, 2004.

[39] W. B. Chapel, “Developing international management communication competence,” J. Bus. Tech. Commun.,vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 281–296, 1997.

[40] C. Jayawardena, “International hotel manager,” Int. J. Contemp. Hospital. Manage., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 67–69,2000.

[41] B. S. Subedi, “Cultural factors and beliefs influencing transfer of training,” Int. J. Train. Develop., vol. 10,no. 2, pp. 88–97, 2006.

[42] J. Shay and J. B. Tracey, “Expatriate managers: Reasons for failure and implications for training,” CornellHotel Restaurant Admin. Quart., vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 30–35, 1997.

[43] R. C. Bogden and K. S. Biklen, Qualitative Research for Education: Introduction to Theory andMethods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

[44] F. Erickson, “Qualitative methods in research on teaching,” in Handbook of Research in Teaching, M. C.Wittrock, Ed. New York: MacMillan, 1986, pp. 119–161.

[45] M. Hammersley and P. Atkinson, Ethnography: Principles in Practice. New York: Routledge, 1989.[46] R. Brislin, “The wording and translation of research instruments,” in Field Methods in Cross-Cultural Research,

W. J. Lonner and J. W. Berry, Eds. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1986, pp. 137–164.[47] J. A. Harkness, F. J. R. Van de Vijver, and P. P. Mohler, Cross-Cultural Survey Methods. Hoboken, NJ:

Wiley, 2003.[48] T. W. Smith, “Developing comparable questions in cross-national surveys,” in Cross-Cultural Survey Methods,

J. A. Harkness, F. J. R. Van de Vijver, and P. P. Mohler, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003, pp. 69–91.[49] R. Brislin, Understanding Culture’s Influence on Behaviour. 2nd ed. New York: Harcourt, 2000.[50] R. K. Hambleton and L. Patsula, “Adapting tests for use in multiple languages and cultures,” Social Indicators

Res., vol. 45, pp. 153–172, 1998.[51] A. S. Tsui, “Editorial: Contextualization in Chinese management,” Manage. Organiz. Rev., vol. 2, no. 1, pp.

1–13, 2006.[52] E. H. Weiss, “Technical communication across cultures: Five philosophical questions,” J. Bus. Tech. Commun.,

vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 253–269, 1998.[53] J. Singh, “Measurement issues in cross-national research,” J. Int. Bus. Studies, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 597–619,

1995.[54] B. Thatcher, “Issues of validity in intercultural professional communication research,” J. Bus. Tech. Commun.,

vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 458–489, 2001.[55] F. J. R. Van de Vijver, “The nature of bias,” in Handbook of Cross-cultural and Multicultural Personality

Assessment, R. H. Dana, Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000, pp. 87–106.[56] F. J. R. Van de Vijver, “Bias and equivalence: Cross-cultural perspectives,” in Cross-Cultural Survey Methods,

J. A. Harkness, F. J. R. Van de Vijver, and P. P. Mohler, Eds. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003, pp. 143–155.[57] F. J. R. Van de Vijver, S. M. Breugelmans, and S. R. G. Schalk-Soekar, “Multiculturalism: Construct validity

and stability,” Int. J. Intercultural Rel., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 93–104, 2008.[58] D. Burgess, “What motivates employees to transfer knowledge outside their work unit?,” J. Bus. Commun., vol.

42, no. 10, pp. 324–348, 2005.


[59] J. Brownell, “Teaching listening: Some thoughts on behavioral approaches,” Bus. Commun. Quart., vol. 57,no. 4, pp. 19–24, 1994.

[60] A. Koester, Investigating Workplace Discourse. New York: Routledge, 2006.[61] D. Cranage, “Plan to do it right: And plan for recovery,” Int. J. Contemp. Hospital. Manage., vol. 16, no.

4, pp. 210–219, 2004.[62] B. Sparks and V. J. Callan, “Communication and the service encounter: The value of convergence,” Int. J.

Hospital. Manage., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 213–224, 1992.[63] D. Ding, “An indirect style in business communication,” J. Bus. Tech. Commun., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 87–100,

2006.[64] R. E. Nisbett, The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently � � �and Why. New

York: Free Press, 2004.[65] F. Xing, “The Chinese cultural system: Implications for cross-cultural management,” SAM Adv. Manag. J.,

vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 14–18, 1995.[66] A. S. Tsui, H. Wang, and K. R. Xin, “Organizational culture in China: An analysis of culture dimensions and

culture types,” Manage. Organiz. Rev., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 345–376, 2006.[67] J. K. Ford, E. M. Smith, D. A. Weissbein, S. M. Gully, and E. Salas, “Relationships of goal orientation,

metacognitive activity, and practice strategies with learning outcomes and transfer,” J. Appl. Psychol., vol.83, pp. 218–233, 1998.

[68] M. J. Lankau and B. G. Chung, “Mentoring for line-level employees,” Cornell Hotel Restaurant Admin. Quart.,vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 14–20, 1998.

[69] K. A. Smith-Jentsch, E. Salas, and M. T. Brannick, “To transfer or not to transfer? Investigating thecombined effects of trainee characteristics, team leader support, and team climate,” J. Appl. Psychol., vol.86, pp. 279–292, 2001.

[70] D. H. Lim and S. D. Johnson, “Trainee perceptions of factors that influence learning transfer,” Int. J. Train.Develop., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 36–48, 2002.

[71] T. C. Brown and M. McCracken, “Building a bridge of understanding: How barriers to training participationbecome barriers to training transfer,” J. Eur. Ind. Train., vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 492–512, 2009.

[72] A. I. Gumuseli and B. Ergin, “The manager’s role in enhancing the transfer of training: A Turkish case study,”Int. J. Train. Develop., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 80–97, 2002.

[73] M. Van der Klink, E. Gielen, and C. Nauta, “Supervisory support as a major condition to enhance transfer,”Int. J. Train. Develop., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 52–63, 2001.

[74] A. Graf and M. Mertesacker, “Intercultural training: Six measures assessing training needs,” J. Eur. Ind.Train., vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 539–558, 2009.

[75] K. Morical and B. Tsai, “Adapting training for other cultures,” Train. Develop., vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 65–68, 1992.

Elizabeth A. Tuleja received the M.S. degree in InterculturalCommunication and the Ph.D. degree in Education from theUniversity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Currently, she isan associate professor of teaching at the Mendoza College ofBusiness, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN. Previously,she was an assistant professor at the Wharton School, Universityof Pennsylvania, and an assistant professor at the ChineseUniversity of Hong Kong, where she developed a managerialcommunication program for the Business School. Her studiesand research focus on issues of intercultural communicationand managerial communication, and she is responsible fordeveloping, teaching, and leading cross-cultural immersionprograms for MBA students in China and EMBA students inSouth America. She also studies the Chinese language andtravels extensively throughout China.

Elizabeth Roberts received the Ph.D. degree from PurdueUniversity, West Lafayette, IN. Currently, she is Head ofSchool, School of Hotel, Resort, and Tourism Management, andAssociate Dean of Development, Faculty of Business, Technologyand Sustainable Development, at Bond University, Gold Coast,Queensland, Australia. Prior to her work in New Zealandand Australia, she was on the faculty at the School of HotelAdministration at Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, for 16 years. Inaddition to her academic work, she has been actively involvedas a consultant to international hotel clients throughout NorthAmerica, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Australia. Her areasof research are human resource management, multiculturalmanagement, managerial communication, and hospitalityeducation.

Teaching Chinese Hotel and Tourism Management Students: A Hong Kong Case Study

Documents

Transcript of Teaching Chinese Hotel and Tourism Management Students: A Hong Kong Case Study