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Sedimentary Geology 17

Stratigraphy and sedimentology of fault-controlled backstepping

shorefaces, middle Pliocene of Crotone Basin, Southern Italy

Donatella Mellerea, Massimo Zecchinb,T, Chiara Peralec

aExxonMobil, Upstream Research Company, P.O. Box 2189, Houston, TX 77252-2189, USAbVia Ca’ Correr 138, 35013 Cittadella, Padova, Italy

cDipartimento di Geologia, Universitu degli Studi di Padova, Via Giotto 1, 35137, Padova, Italia

Received 29 July 2004; received in revised form 13 December 2004; accepted 19 January 2005

Abstract

The middle Pliocene sedimentary succession of the Crotone Basin in the Calabria-Peloritani terrane, southern Italy, was

deposited during extensional tectonism dominated by a system of horst and half-grabens. The studied succession (Spartizzo

lagoonal clays and Scandale shallow-marine deposits) is up to 250 m thick and represents a barrier-lagoon system that spans a

tectonically controlled transgressive phase. The succession is internally organised into six higher-frequency cycles, 20–80 m

thick. Most of these cycles are formed by transgressive lagoonal deposits separated from the overlying regressive shoreface

units by a wave ravinement surface. Lowstand fluvial deposits were recognized locally at the base of the last cycle. The

shoreface units are up to 50 m thick, and typically consist of a coarsening-upward succession of isolated to amalgamated

hummocky cross-strata that merge upwards into swaley and trough cross-strata. NE-trending synsedimentary normal faults

strongly controlled the deposition and enhanced subsidence and thickness expansion within the half-graben basins.

D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Backstepping shorefaces; Lagoonal deposits; Crotone Basin; Middle Pliocene

1. Introduction

Fault-bounded extensional basins have complex

subsidence histories which exert a marked control on

facies distribution, sediment transport pathways and

areas of erosion and deposition (Leeder and Gaw-

thorpe, 1987; Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993; Gawthorpe

0037-0738/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.01.010

T Corresponding author.

E-mail address: zecchin@aliceposta.it (D. Zecchin).

et al., 1994; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000). The

tectonics of such basins has a profound control on

accommodation development and sediment supply,

influencing the sequence stratigraphic development of

the basin fill. Rapid subsidence typically leads to

strong stratigraphic expansion and good preservation

of thick stratal units. Highly subsiding basins are

associated with the development of stratigraphic

sequences showing stratal architecture that commonly

deviate from that established for passive continental

margins (Posamentier and Vail, 1988).

6 (2005) 281–303

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303282

The study area, the northern Crotone Basin

(Calabria-Pleoritani terrane; Bonardi et al., 2001) is

characterized by Messinian–upper Pliocene marginal

marine sediments, now uplifted and deeply incised

providing excellent exposure. Sedimentation was

strongly controlled by extensional tectonics that

exerted a key role on facies and thickness distribution.

This area is ideal to study the tectonic control on

sedimentation and sequence development, as already

shown by previous studies on lower Pliocene stratal

units (Zecchin et al., 2003, 2004). The present work

aims to define the stratigraphy of the middle Pliocene

Spartizzo Clay and Scandale Molasse that together

form a backstepping barrier-lagoon system, in order to

demonstrate the relationships occurring between

extensional tectonic control, sedimentary environ-

ments and stratal architecture. The sedimentary

succession is organised into a series of higher-

frequency cycles of shoreface progradation and

lagoon aggradation deposited contemporaneously to

the activity of normal listric faults. Tectonics con-

trolled deposition, enhancing subsidence and thick-

ness expansion within the half-grabens and promoting

condensation, unconformities and bypass surfaces in

Fig. 1. (A) Structural setting of the Calabria-Peloritani terrane and locatio

major NW-trending shear zones (modified from Massari et al., 2002). (B) G

area (modified from Zecchin et al., 2004).

the horst. The Spartizzo–Scandale deposits illustrate

how sediment supply, eustasy and fault-controlled

subsidence interact to construct specific and predict-

able stratal geometries and facies stacking patterns in

a backstepping shallow-marine succession.

2. Geological setting

The Miocene–Pleistocene Crotone Basin is a

portion of the Ionian forearc region, located in the

eastern part of the Calabria-Peloritani terrane (also

called the Calabrian Arc), Southern Italy (Fig. 1A and

B). The Calabria-Peloritani terrane is a fault-bounded,

exotic terrane located between the Southern Apen-

nines (to the north) and the Sicilian Maghrebides (to

the SW) (Bonardi et al., 2001). The terrane is formed

by a pre-Mesozoic crystalline basement that shows

evidence of pre-Neogene tectonism. These character-

istics allow a distinction between the Calabria-

Peloritani terrane and the adjacent mountain chains

(Bonardi et al., 2001). Between middle Miocene and

middle Pleistocene time, the Calabria-Peloritani ter-

rane was influenced by strike-slip tectonics originated

n of the study area. The Calabria-Peloritani terrane is dissected by

eologic sketch-map of the Crotone Basin, with location of the study

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 283

by the development of oblique and convergent shear

zones (Van Dijk, 1991; Van Dijk and Okkes, 1991).

During late Pleistocene the entire area was uplifted,

whereas the southern Tyrrhenian Sea was subjected to

subsidence (Van Dijk and Okkes, 1991).

The basin is bounded by two major left-lateral

NW-trending shear zones, the Rossano–San Nicola to

the north and the Petilia–Sosti to the south (Meulen-

kamp et al., 1986; Van Dijk, 1990, 1991; Van Dijk and

Okkes, 1990, 1991) (Fig. 1A and B). Sedimentation

occurred from late Serravallian to middle Pleistocene

time and was controlled by variable tectonic activity

along the main NW-trending shear zones (Van Dijk,

1990, 1991), with a predominant extensional compo-

nent (Moretti, 1993). Extensional tectonics was

interrupted by compressional or transpressional events

recorded in the top of Tortonian (Moretti, 1993), the

base of middle Pliocene and in the middle Pleistocene

(Roda, 1964a; Van Dijk, 1990, 1991; Van Dijk and

Okkes, 1991; Zecchin et al., 2004). During the

Pliocene, deposition occurred within tilted half-

grabens bounded by listric faults (Zecchin et al.,

2004).

The main NW-trending strike-slip faults probably

drove the tectonic evolution of the study area and of

the entire basin, which periodically shifted from a

trastensional/extensional regime (represented by NE-

trending normal faults) to a transpressional regime

(represented by NW-trending folds), leading to the

formation of regional angular unconformities. Such

tectonic cyclicity was the basis for formulation of the

strike-slip cycles of Knott and Turco (1991) and Van

Dijk and Okkes (1991).

3. Stratigraphic setting

The stratigraphy of the Crotone Basin was

established by Ogniben (1955, 1962, 1973) and

more extensively by Roda (1964a, 1970, 1971) who

recognized three major sedimentary cycles bounded

by basin-wide unconformities linked to structural

basin reorganisations (Fig. 2). More recent studies

are those of Van Dijk (1990), Moretti (1993),

Massari et al. (1999, 2002), and Zecchin et al.

(2003, 2004).

The first tectono-stratigraphic unit of Roda (1964a)

starts with the Serravallian-Tortonian continental to

shallow-marine San Nicola Formation, the offshore

Ponda Clay, the diatomites of the lower Messinian

Tripoli Formation and terminates with the first

Messinian evaporitic cycle (Lower Evaporite Forma-

tion). The tectono-stratigraphic unit is bounded at its

top by an angular unconformity related to intra-

Messinian tectonics (Roda, 1964a). This unconform-

ity, recognisable throughout the Mediterranean region,

possibly originated by the isostatic rebound of the

Calabrian accretionary wedge after the drastic Messi-

nian base level fall and consequent reduction of water

load (De Celles and Cavazza, 1995; Cavazza and De

Celles, 1998).

The second cycle, of Messinian to lower Pliocene

age, began with deposition of the Messinian Upper

Evaporite Formation and the fluvial Carvane Con-

glomerate (Fig. 2). A widespread drowning of the

basin, accompanied by renewed extensional tectonic

activity (Roda, 1964a; Van Dijk, 1990, 1991;

Zecchin et al., 2003, 2004) is recorded at the top

of the coarse-grained Carvane deposits. The basin

was blanketed by the outer-shelf Cavalieri Marl,

followed by the shallow-marine Zinga Molasse

(Roda, 1964a). The latter unit was recently sub-

divided into three distinct formations called Zinga

Sandstone, Montagnola Clay, and Belvedere Forma-

tion (Zecchin et al., 2003, 2004; Fig. 2). Three lower

Pliocene stratal units (Zinga 1, Zinga 2, and Zinga 3)

bounded by major unconformities were recognized

by Zecchin et al. (2004). The dominant extensional

tectonic activity, linked to the activation of NE-

trending listric growth faults, and particularly intense

during deposition of the Belvedere Formation,

induced spectacular progressive unconformities in

the coeval sedimentary succession (Roda, 1964a; Van

Dijk, 1990, 1991; Zecchin et al., 2003, 2004). A

widespread angular unconformity marks the top of

the second tectono-stratigraphic unit of Roda (1964a,

Fig. 2). The unconformity was probably induced by a

generalized transpressional tectonic phase dated as

late lower Pliocene–early middle Pliocene (Roda,

1964a; Van Dijk, 1990, 1991; Zecchin et al., 2004).

Within the study area the consequence of the new

tectonic activity was the growth of N-to NW-trending

folds, on average perpendicular to the older synsedi-

mentary normal faults, and the activation of reverse

faults in the northern part of the basin, with

superimposition of the Messinian onto the lower

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic scheme of the sedimentary succession in the northern Crotone Basin, following Roda (1964a) and Zecchin et al. (2003,

2004).

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303284

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 285

Pliocene deposits (Van Dijk, 1990, 1991; Zecchin,

2002). The inferred transpressional tectonic phase

might be related to the indentation of the N and S

ends of the Calabria-Peloritani terrane against the

southern Apennine and Sicilian margins (Bonardi et

al., 2001). This process created strike-slip deforma-

tions and ultimately the oroclinal shape of the

terrane.

The third cycle encompasses the middle Plio-

cene to Pleistocene deposits (Fig. 2). The basin

recorded a long-term transgression that began with

a backstepping barrier-lagoon system (Spartizzo

Clay and Scandale Molasse) and culminated with

the complete blanketing of the basin by the offshore

to slope Cutro Clay. The transgressive phase was

then followed by a general regression, with deposi-

tion of the Pleistocene San Mauro Molasse in the

central part of the Crotone Basin (Massari et al.,

2002).

4. The Scandale Molasse

The Scandale Molasse, the main object of the

present paper, was described by Roda (1964a,b,

1965a,b,c) in the central part of the Crotone Basin,

in the type locality of Scandale (Fig. 1B). The

succession, up to 450 m thick, crops out along a 10

km long outcrop belt oriented NE-SW. The Scandale

Molasse interfingers landwards with the lagoonal

Spartizzo Clay and basinwards with the offshore

Cutro Clay, forming a continuum of facies tracts from

lagoon and barrier-island to offshore deposits (Roda,

1964a). The deposits thin northwestwards. They were

subdivided into two members (Roda, 1964a,b,

1965a,b,c): a lower member (Pedalacci), encompass-

ing shoreface tongues that pinch-out landward into the

lagoonal Spartizzo deposits, and an upper member

(Barretta) formed entirely by shoreface deposits and

offshore shales.

Near Casabona, on the northern part of the Crotone

Basin (Fig. 1B), the Scandale Molasse is mostly

coarse-grained, with quartz sandstones and conglom-

erates that unconformably overlie the lower Pliocene

Belvedere Formation. The succession is organised into

a series of backstepping shoreface sandstone tongues

(Pedalacci Member) that pinch-out north-westwards

into the Spartizzo lagoonal clays and expand basin-

wards into the open shelf siltstones and the fossilif-

erous blue clays of the Cutro Formation. The Barretta

Member consists of a sandstone tongue encased within

offshore deposits. Thickness expansion enhanced by

extensional synsedimentary tectonics allowed discrim-

ination of sedimentary cycles and the definition of the

landward pinch-out style of the transgressive sand-

stone tongues.

The age of the formation is not well constrained.

Foraminifera are not particularly significant, as the

markers for the Pliocene are missing. Analysis with

calcareous nanoplankton indicate that the top of the

formation probably lies in the upper part of the

Discoaster pentaradiatus zone, perhaps within the

Discoaster brouweri zone, indicating a late middle

Pliocene–earliest upper Pliocene age (following the

zonation of Rio et al., 1990).

5. Methods

At Casabona, the Scandale Molasse crops out

along an irregular outcrop belt oriented NW-SE, and

bounded by NNE- and NE-trending normal faults

(Figs. 3 and 4). A geological map of the area, some

25 km2, was made at scale 1:10,000 (Fig. 3) and with

particular detail around Casabona (Fig. 4). Twelve

stratigraphic sections were measured at scale 1:50 and

were synthesised in a correlation panel (Fig. 5). Good

outcrop conditions allowed reconstruction of geome-

try and sedimentary architecture. The transgressive

surface at the top of the studied succession was

chosen as a datum. This surface, which coincides

with the lithostratigraphic boundary between the

Scandale Molasse and the Cutro Clay, represents a

major drowning of the basin and marks the cessation

of coarse-grained clastic input. Facies and strati-

graphic analyses were combined with study of the

abundant macrofauna and with panoramic and

detailed photographs in order to identify major

stratigraphic surfaces, lateral and vertical facies

variations, and the role of tectonics on sedimentation.

Samples for biostratigraphic analysis (foraminifera

and calcareous nanoplankton) were collected through-

out the succession.

In the northernmost part of the basin, near the

Rossano–San Nicola shear zone, the Scandale

Molasse crops out in small tectonically disrupted

Fig. 3. Geologic map of the study area (modified from Zecchin et al., 2003).

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303286

outcrops that allow only a partial reconstruction of the

succession (section 14, Fig. 3). At Casabona, strati-

graphic sections were measured within the half-

Fig. 4. Detail of the Casabona area with location of the measur

grabens. The sedimentary succession on the horst

was preserved only in the northernmost localities

(section 13, Fig. 4).

ed sections. A–A’ is the geologic cross-section of Fig. 8.

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 287

6. Facies associations and depositional model

Four main facies associations were recognized: (A)

inner shelf; (B) shoreface; (C) lagoon; (D) fluvial.

6.1. Inner shelf deposits (A)

The inner shelf deposits are documented in the

upper part of the studied succession. The thickness

varies between 16 m, at section 1 (Fig. 5) to 24 m

eastwards (section 8, Fig. 5). At Casabona, the

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic correlation of the Scandale–Spartizzo deposits of the

lagoonal and shallow-marine deposits, were recognized. Sandstone tongu

expansion on the right related to the activity of a NE-trending growth fault

the deposition of the last (sixth) higher-frequency cycle.

deposits lie on the hangingwall of the NE-SW

Zoiaretto listric fault (Fig. 4).

6.1.1. Description

Facies A1 is characterized by poorly sorted, grey

siltstones with abundant fossils, fully preserved or

broken (Fig. 6). Body fossils are usually dispersed

in the sediment; at places they are concentrated

along lenticular layers or within erosional scours.

Stratification is planar, marked by subtle changes in

grain size from siltstone to claystone, generally

Casabona area. Six higher-frequency cycles, formed principally by

es pinch-out westward (landwards direction). Note the stratigraphic

(the Zoiaretto fault, see Fig. 4). Note that fault activity ceased during

Fig. 6. Measured section and photo details of facies associations A and B (from section 8). Inner shelf siltstones (Facies A1) are fossiliferous, poorly stratified and heavily bioturbated.

These deposits grade upward into shoreface–shelf transition fine-grained sandstones (Facies B1) and lower shoreface sandstones (Facies B2), characterized by the alternation of

bioturbated intervals and hummocky cross-strata. Up-section, the deposits coarsen and display swaley cross-strata in the middle shoreface (Facies B3) and trough cross-strata in the

upper shoreface (Facies B4). Troughs are paved by small pebbles.

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D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 289

poorly preserved due to intense bioturbation. Thick-

shelled oysters dominate the fossil assemblage.

Other bivalves and gastropods are also abundant.

The most common are Glycymeris, Dentalium,

Ditrupa and Turritella. Bioturbation, in places

completely pervasive, is represented by small (e.g.

Chondrites) and large (Thalassinoides and Paleo-

phycus) burrows.

6.1.2. Interpretation

Grain size, sedimentary structures, type of fossils

and style of bioturbation indicate a shallow-marine

depositional environment characterized by low to

moderate energy, in an inner shelf or in the transition

between offshore and lower shoreface, below storm

wave base, as suggested by the preserved planar

stratification and by the presence of accumulation of

shells along planar surfaces (Aigner and Reineck,

1982; Nelson, 1982). The high concentration of

shells, distributed along layers or concentrated in

lenses and scours, suggests accumulation by storms

and deposition after limited transport. Frequency of

storms able to rework the sea floor was relatively

low, as indicated by the high degree of bioturbation.

Storm events were likely followed by long periods

of quiescence favouring conditions for benthic

colonisation of the sea bottom (Sepkoski et al.,

1991).

6.2. Shoreface deposits (B)

These are the predominant deposits within the

Scandale Molasse. They commonly form coarsening-

and thickening-upwards regressive successions or

fining- and thinning-upward transgressive intervals.

Thickness is highly variable, from 10 m in the most

proximal area where the clastic wedges pinch-out into

the lagoonal deposits of association C, to 40–60 m

basinwards.

They consist dominantly of medium-to coarse-

grained sandstone, with heterolithic units of sandstone

and siltstone limited to the most distal, basinward

reaches of the shoreface. Four main facies were

recognized (Fig. 6): (B1) alternations of bioturbated

and hummocky cross-stratified sandstones; (B2)

amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified sandstones;

(B3) swaley cross-stratified sandstones; (B4) trough

cross-stratified sandstones and conglomerates.

6.2.1. Description

Facies B1, up to 10 m thick, characterizes the base

of the uppermost sandstone tongue (sections 5 and 8,

Fig. 5). It gradationally overlies the offshore to

transitional deposits of Facies A1, it is sand-prone

and consists of bioturbated fine-grained sandstones,

locally poorly sorted, grey-yellow in colour with

hummocky cross-strata. Low-angle and hummocky

cross-strata are marked by coarser-grained sediments

and are preserved particularly within cemented

horizons. Bioturbation is diffuse, often pervasive

throughout the deposits or concentrated on the top

of cemented horizons (thin Skolithos and other

vertical traces) (Fig. 6). Gastropods and bivalves are

abundant, mostly concentrated in lenses or along the

cemented layers.

Facies B2 is made of amalgamated hummocky

cross-stratified sandstones, up to 10 m thick, which

gradually overlie facies B1 (Fig. 6). Low-angle and

hummocky cross-bedded sets, 10–30 cm thick, are

bounded by shale rip-up clasts, or by shale laminae

reaching 2 cm in thickness. Faunal content is low,

with few bivalves concentrated along set bases or

within the sets, along thicker laminae. Bioturbation is

absent to moderate, and present on the top of the

hummocky sets.

Swaley cross-stratified sandstones of Facies B3

form units up to 10 m thick characterized by very low-

angle cross-strata up to 50 cm deep and 2 m wide. In

the most proximal reaches, the swales are paved by

small pebbles, granules and fossil fragments. Bio-

turbation is very low to absent.

Trough cross-stratified sandstones and conglomer-

ates (Facies B4) dominate the upper part of the

prograding shoreface interval. This facies gradation-

ally overlies the amalgamated swaley cross-strata of

the middle shoreface (Fig. 6). Thickness varies

between 8 m (sections 1, 2 and 3, Fig. 5) and 30 m

(section 7). It consists of sandstones and granule to

cobble conglomerates with dominant high-angle (up

to 308) trough cross-stratification. Trough cross-

stratified sets are up to 1.5 m thick. Set bases are

paved by fragments of bivalves and outsized clasts up

to 10 cm in diameter, rounded shale rip-up clasts and

broken volcanic ash layers. Conglomeratic, planar to

very low-angle cross-strata are intercalated with the

trough cross-bedded sets, especially on the top of the

sandstone tongues where clast diameters increase

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303290

considerably (up to 10 cm). Planar cross-strata and

scour and fill structures up to 2 m deep are locally

present (sections 6, 7 and 10, Fig. 5). Bioturbation is

very low, usually concentrated along widespread,

cemented layers that might reach 50 cm thick. It is

characterized by vertical Skolithos and Ophiomorpha

burrows (sections 1 and 8, Fig. 5).

6.2.2. Interpretation

Facies association B displays the typical facies of

a storm- and wave-dominated shoreface. Facies B1

represents deposition in the transition between off-

shore and lower shoreface settings characterized by

moderate energy, and subjected episodically to storm

events as indicated by the hummocky cross-strata

(HCS) and by the high degree of bioturbation (Harms

et al., 1975; Leckie and Walker, 1982). The vertical

ichnofabric recognized at the top of the cemented

layers indicates high-energy condition in a loose or

shifting substrate where the organisms constructed

deeply penetrating dwellings (Pemberton, 1992).

Repetitive vertical traces may represent escape

structures. The concurrence of cementation with

highest fossil contents suggests post-depositional

diagenetic dissolution of the shells with formation

of nodules and carbonate-cemented layers. Within the

regressive shoreface setting, the upward transition

from bioturbated sandstones with isolated hummocky

sets to amalgamated hummocky cross-stratification

(Facies B2), associated with low bioturbation rate,

suggests higher energy conditions and deposition in a

lower shoreface environment (Harms et al., 1975).

The overlying swaley cross-strata (SCS, Facies B3)

are characteristic of a storm-dominated, middle to

upper shoreface environment. In such a setting storms

would create shallow scours (elliptical to circular in

plan view) filled by flattening upward laminae

conforming to the shape of the swale (Leckie and

Walker, 1982).

The gradual merge of the swaley cross-strata into

the dominant high-angle trough and planar cross-

stratification suggests transition to a shallower, higher

energy upper shoreface setting where storms and

longshore currents were able to form and migrate

three-dimensional crescentic dunes (Plint and Walker,

1987). A high-energy setting is also implied by the

presence of erosive scours and shale rip-up clasts

paving the trough base. The erosive power of the

currents was able to break lithified ash horizons. The

Glossifungites ichnofabric dominated by small Skoli-

thos, Ophiomorpha and other vertical traces suggests

that the bioturbated layers may be associated with

high-frequency pause and flooding events (Van

Wagoner et al., 1988).

6.3. Lagoonal deposits (C)

Lagoonal deposits form high volumes in the

studied succession and are up to 150 m thick (Fig.

5). Thickness decreases upwards and eastwards where

the lagoon interfingers with the shoreface tongues.

Three main facies have been distinguished (Fig. 7):

(C1) massive mudstones; (C2) fossiliferous, planar to

low-angle cross-stratified sandstones; (C3) wavy and

lenticular sandstones.

6.3.1. Description

Massive, grey-green mudstones (Facies C1) with

abundant body fossils form the bulk of the lagoonal

deposits. Although most of the mudstones are

structureless, planar stratification and breccia lenses

of shale rip-up clasts are locally present. Body fossils,

extremely well preserved, are dispersed and are

characterized mostly by Cerastoderma sp. and Pota-

mides tricinctus.

Fossiliferous, planar to low-angle stratified sand-

stones (Facies C2) can form beds up to 20 m thick that

may be completely encased in the massive mudstones

of facies C1. More often they mark the landward

reaches of the shoreface deposits. In this case the

deposits of Facies C2 are truncated by the landward

migration of the shoreface. The facies consists of

coarsening- and thickening-upward, grey-yellow,

medium-to fine-grained sandstones with planar to

very low-angle stratification. Beds are 20–30 cm

thick. Bases are sharp and erosive; tops are usually

bioturbated (Fig. 7). Fossils, as entire shells or

fragments, are commonly concentrated along layers

or within erosional pockets. Body fossils, mostly

represented by Cerastoderma, Potamides and a few

other bivalves (e.g. pectinids), are often fully pre-

served with both valves closed. Landwards, planar

cross-stratified beds are separated by the finer-grained

lenticular and wavy-bedded sandstones of facies C3.

Facies C3 interfingers with Facies C2. Its thickness

is modest, rarely reaching 1 m. It consists of

Fig. 7. Measured section and photo details of facies associations C and D (from section 1). Massive mudstones dominate the lagoonal deposits (Facies C1). Washover and tidal-

reworked washover deposits (Facies C2 and C3) were locally recognized within the Spartizzo lagoon. Planar to low-angle lamination of Facies C2 is marked by shell debris.

Generally, these deposits are heavily bioturbated. Lenticular bedding (Facies C3) merges into undulating and flaser bedding in a restricted sand flat around the Spartizzo lagoon. These

three facies merge into each other, due to the decreasing velocity of tidal currents. The fluvial deposits (Facies D1) are channellised, with a surface marked by a pebble lag. Channel

fill is defined by trough and laterally inclined cross-strata, probably representing downstream accreting bars in a braided river system.

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heterolithic units of dark-coloured mudstones and

lenticular to wavy-bedded sandstones. Markedly

asymmetric ripples are the dominant sedimentary

structures, with current direction oriented westwards.

A subordinate, reverse current has also been noted.

Sandstone layers and lenses often have load casts at

their base. Burrows with sand infill cross the dark–

light alternations of shale and sandstones. Load casts

and bioturbation can mask original sedimentary

structures, preventing a correct interpretation of this

facies.

6.3.2. Interpretation

Facies association C reflects deposition in a

tidally influenced lagoonal environment periodically

flooded by storm events. Facies C1 shows homo-

geneity and an oligotypic faunal assemblage that

indicate deposition in a brackish, extremely low-

energy setting. The breccia layers rich in shale rip-

up clasts indicate erosion of mud-crack horizons

formed by the lowering of the water table (Roda,

1964a).

Episodic storm events were able to transport fine-

grained sands into the lagoon to form washover fans

(Facies C2). Each washover is represented by a single,

fine-grained and fossiliferous bed (Horne and Ferm,

1978; Hobday and Jackson, 1979). Sand deposition

was rapid; and the re-establishment of normal

sedimentary conditions is testified by bioturbation at

the top of the beds. The presence of marine bivalves,

e.g. Pectens, in an environment dominated by

brackish water species such as Cerastoderma sp.

and Potamides sp. indicate that storms transported

organisms from the shallow coastal marine environ-

ment into the lagoon. Shells with upward-oriented

concavity suggest rapid deposition after high-energy

suspension. The distal washover fans interfinger with

the bioturbated and finer-grained deposits of the

backbarrier environment (Facies C3). Lenticular and

wavy bedding with asymmetric ripples and one

dominant current direction reflects the influence of

tidal currents (Reineck and Singh, 1980; Nio and

Yang, 1991). During slack water, sediment concen-

tration was high enough to allow fall-out mud

deposition. As there is no clear evidence of ripples

formed by the subordinate current, only sandy

laminae, the second mud drape deposited during the

intertidal period was very close or completely

amalgamated to the first one. This suggests that the

subordinate current was too weak to generate bed-

forms.

Considering the lack of clear tidal structures within

the succession and the dominance of muddy lagoonal

deposits, the wavy and lenticular beds here described

could belong to a kind of washover flat rather than

being ascribed to a tidal-dominated sand flat. Wash-

overs are typical of microtidal coastal regimes (Boot-

hroyd et al., 1985; Nichols, 1989), as probably was

the Scandale coastline. Washover deposits extended

within the lagoon forming fine-grained sand flats. In

such a shallow environment even the subtlest tidal

currents would have been amplified, able to rework

the distal washover deposits, giving them a tidal

overprint.

6.4. Fluvial deposits (D)

6.4.1. Description

Fluvial deposits, characterized by coarse sand-

stones and conglomerates with planar to high-angle

tabular and trough cross-stratification (Facies D1),

crop out within sections 1 and 2 with very limited

thickness. They consist of massive to fining-upward

lenticular bodies up to 10 m thick (Figs. 5, 7). Bases

are erosive, channelled, marked by conglomerates

(Fig. 7), and locally by green shale (section 1, Fig.

5). Azimuth of channel axes is 1608. In channel

thalwegs, the deposits are dominated by trough

cross-strata 0.5–1 m thick or appear structureless.

Near the lateral pinch-out the deposits tend to be

finer-grained, more organised, and characterized by

large-scale planar cross-stratification. Conglomeratic

foresets tangentially downlap the channel base at

208 towards N 70 E (Fig. 7). At section 1 the

channel is multi-storey, with the uppermost scour

filled by structureless massive mudstones (Fig. 7).

Unbioturbated and planar-laminated fine-grained

sandstone and siltstone beds, up to 20 cm thick or

massive mudstone drape channel top (i.e. section 1,

Fig. 5).

6.4.2. Interpretation

The lenticular channelised form with an erosive

base paved by coarse conglomerate, the lack of

bioturbation, and the trough and tabular cross-

stratification indicate the deposits of a fluvial

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 293

channel fill. The coarseness of the deposits and the

presence of trough cross-strata and structureless

conglomerates in the channel thalweg suggest a

braided river system dominated by three-dimensional

dunes (Facies Gt of Miall, 1978), and localized

debris flows. The planar cross-stratification observed

at the channel margin, with foresets oriented 908 to

the direction of the channel axis, suggests the

accretion of a lateral or transverse bar in a braided

river system where the bar surface slopes gently into

the channel without a break in slope or clast size

(Allen, 1983; Miall, 1985). The massive mudstones

observed in the uppermost scour of section 1 indicate

abandonment, fall-out deposits of channel. Lami-

nated sandstones and siltstones at the top of the

channel fill are interpreted as overbank deposits. The

massive unbioturbated mudstone, recognized at the

top of the fluvial channel fill at section 1, may

represent a channel plug.

Fig. 8. Approximately NW-SE oriented geologic cross-section of the Casab

stratigraphic expansion within the half-grabens and the absence of a clear

7. Sequence stratigraphy

The Scandale Molasse comprises at least six

backstepping sandstone tongues of shoreface origin

(Figs. 5 and 8). Each tongue is thinner to the NW,

where it pinches out into the lagoonal deposits of the

Spartizzo Clay. Maximum thickness, up to 50 m, is

observed more distally on the hangingwall of the

Zoiaretto fault, a major NE-trending listric fault that

offsets the eastern part of the outcrop belt (Fig. 5).

South-eastwards of the fault the succession expands

and then thins basinwards.

The backstepping architecture of the package

formed by the Scandale Molasse and the Spartizzo

Clay suggests the occurrence of a long-term, trans-

gressive event in the middle Pliocene. Scandale

Molasse and Spartizzo Clay in fact form the lower,

transgressive part of the middle Pliocene–Pleistocene

tectono-stratigraphic unit of Roda (1964a).

ona area showing horsts and half-grabens (see Fig. 4). Note the great

higher-frequency cyclicity on the Casabona horst.

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303294

The occurrence of lagoon-barrier systems is typical

of transgressive coastal successions, as evidenced by

several authors (e.g. Reinson, 1992; Ravnas and Steel,

1998; Cattaneo and Steel, 2003). The preservation of

back-barrier facies during transgression is favoured

when the shoreline trajectory diverges upwards from

the pre-existing topography (Helland-Hansen and

Gjelberg, 1994). The shoreline trajectory is defined

as the bcross-sectional shoreline migration path along

depositional dipQ (Helland-Hansen and Gjelberg,

1994), and is controlled by relative sea-level change,

sediment supply and basin physiography.

7.1. Higher-frequency cycles

The shoreface sandstone tongues, together with the

lagoonal deposits landwards and the inner shelf shales

basinwards, form six transgressive–regressive cycles,

20–80 m thick (Figs. 5 and 8). Cycle thickness is

influenced by the synsedimentary activity of the NE-

trending listric faults. Most of the cycles are incom-

plete, being formed principally by the lagoonal and

the shoreface deposits (Figs. 5 and 9). Only the last

cycle shows a complete organisation with fluvial

deposits overlain by marine facies (Fig. 5).

Fig. 9. The fourth, fifth and sixth higher-frequency cycles within the South-

cycles 4 and 5) or shelf (Facies A1, cycle 6) mudstones. Note the regress

succession of cycle 6.

7.1.1. The lowstand systems tract and the sequence

boundary

Deposits associated with relative base level fall

have been recognised only at the base of cycle 6,

where they are represented by the fluvial channel fills

of facies association D (sections 1 and 2, Fig. 5). The

bounding surface that sharply cuts the underlying

upper shoreface deposits, eroding completely the

foreshore deposits, is interpreted to represent a

sequence boundary (Vail et al., 1977; Van Wagoner

et al., 1988) and marks the base of the cycle. The

basinward shift of facies tracts at the base of cycle 6

indicates that much of the innermost part of the shelf

was transformed into an alluvial plain crossed by

rather shallow braided river systems. No traces of

palaeosols are present. Laterally (sections 3 and 4,

Fig. 5) the sequence boundary coincides with the

transgressive surface.

7.1.2. Transgressive surface, wave ravinement surface

and the maximum flooding surface

The transgressive surface is the most prominent

surface within the succession. At almost all localities

it defines the base of the transgressive–regressive

cycles and coincides with the sequence boundary

Casabona half-graben. The vegetated slopes are lagoonal (Facies C1,

ive surface of marine erosion (RSME) at the base of the shoreface

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 295

(Figs. 5 and 9). The transgressive surface is easily

identifiable in outcrops, being located at the top of the

regressive shoreface tongues in the most distal areas

(cycle 6, sections 1, 2, 3 and 4, Figs. 5 and 9). The

surface is marked by a transgressive lag formed by

shells and reworked pebbles that pass upwards into

very fine-grained sandstones (Facies B1). In section 1

(cycle 6, Figs. 5 and 7), the lag sharply overlies the

top of the lowstand fluvial channel fills (Facies D1). It

consists of a few centimeters-thick layer of broken

shells and marks the first appearance of inner shelf

marine siltstones. The transgressive surface inside the

lagoon is more difficult to trace, particularly where no

fluvial deposits are preserved. Inside the lagoon, the

transgressive surface seems to mark the outbuilding of

washover fans (Facies C2) in the immediate back-

barrier regions. It sharply overlies the massive lagoon

mudstone (Facies C1) and represents the first expres-

sion of wave erosion inside the lagoon.

The wave ravinement surface marks the migration

of the barrier island inside the lagoon as a conse-

quence of base level rise (Nummedal and Swift,

1987). The wave ravinement cuts the washover

deposits and the coeval lagoonal shales (Figs. 5 and

9). The surface climbs up the lagoon and backbarrier

Fig. 10. Detail of the regressive surface of marine erosion (RSME) show

higher-frequency cycle.

and shows up to 10 m of relief. At the paleocoastline

and further basinwards, the transgressive surface and

the wave ravinement coincide and merge into a rather

flat composite erosional surface. Inside the lagoon, the

washover fan deposits and the coeval lagoon shales

form the transgressive systems tract. Basinwards, the

transgressive systems tract is formed by a fining-

upward succession of bioturbated siltstones (Facies

A1). The transgressive shoreface units were not

preserved, probably due to active erosion and bypass

during transgression. The maximum flooding surface

is picked in the field at the base of the first storm

layers (within Facies A1) in the base of the overlying

coarsening-upward shoreface deposits (facies associ-

ation B) (Figs. 5 and 9).

7.1.3. The highstand systems tract

The regressive shoreface deposits traditionally

dominate the highstand systems tract, that is partic-

ularly developed in cycle 3 (Fig. 5). They show a

continuous facies transition from bioturbated to

isolated hummocky cross-strata (Facies B1) to amal-

gamated hummocky (Facies B2), swaley and trough

cross-strata (Facies B3 and B4). The regressive

shoreface attains a thickness of 10–30 m. In the most

n in Fig. 9, at the base of the shoreface deposits of the last (sixth)

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303296

distal reaches, the deposits gradationally overlie inner

shelf bioturbated siltstones (Facies A1). However, in

the most proximal areas the contact between shelf

shales and amalgamated hummocky strata is very

sharp (between sections 1 and 2, Figs. 5, 9 and 10).

The characteristics of this contact indicate a marked

basinward facies shift, with consequent sharp contact

between inner shelf and middle shoreface deposits.

This contact is interpreted to represent a surface of

forced regression (Posamentier et al., 1992; Hunt and

Tucker, 1992), formed by the basinward migration of

the coastline as a consequence of falling base level

(Plint, 1988). Laterally the surface of forced regres-

sion merges into a conformity, marked by a rapid

increase in grain size of the deposits (Fig. 5). Such a

surface therefore does not bound the base of a

highstand, but rather a forced regressive systems tract

(Hunt and Tucker, 1992; Helland-Hansen and Gjel-

berg, 1994), or falling stage systems tract (Plint and

Nummedal, 2000).

8. Relationships between tectonics and

sedimentation

The extensional tectonic regime that controlled

deposition of the lower Pliocene succession (Zecchin

et al., 2004) affected also the middle Pliocene units.

However, after a probable transpressional phase at the

lower-middle Pliocene boundary, the activity of the

lower Pliocene growth faults was interrupted and new

structures were activated, with a complete reorganisa-

tion of the northern Crotone Basin (Zecchin et al.,

2004). The transgressive Scandale Molasse was

deposited within half-grabens bounded by NE-trend-

ing listric normal faults that dissected the previous

structures.

8.1. The middle Pliocene succession around Casa-

bona village

Deposition of the middle Pliocene was controlled

by NE-trending normal faults that dissected pre-

viously formed half-grabens. The South Casabona

and Zoiaretto half-grabens lie south-eastward of

Casabona, whereas the Spartizzo half-graben was

farther north (Fig. 8). The area between Casabona

and Montagna Piana (Fig. 3) was transformed into a

NE-SW oriented horst (Casabona horst), dissected

by a series of minor NE-trending normal faults

(Figs. 8 and 11).

This tectonic setting strongly controlled the thick-

ness and facies partitioning of the Spartizzo Clay and

the Scandale Molasse. The succession is up to 250 m

thick in the hangingwall of the Zoiaretto half-graben,

and only 30 m thick on the Casabona horst (Figs. 8

and 11). Intermediate thicknesses were recorded

within the South Casabona and the Spartizzo half-

grabens (Fig. 8). The Casabona Fault controlled

deposition of the entire Spartizzo Clay/Scandale

Molasse. Fault activity ceased approximately with

deposition of the overlying Cutro Clay. The Zoiaretto

Fault was active during deposition of the basal part of

the sixth higher-frequency cycle (Fig. 5). Along this

fault, the lower and uppermost parts of the Scandale

Molasse (cycles 1-5 and upper part of cycle 6) show

constant thickness along an E-W direction. Deposition

of the offshore Cutro Clay attests to local tectonic

quiescence and marks the post-extensional phase in

the Casabona area.

On the Casabona horst, the Scandale Molasse is

about 10 m thick (section 13, Figs. 4 and 12) and

consists of very fine-grained sandstones that grade

upwards to siltstones of the Cutro Clay. The contact

with the underlying Spartizzo Clay is not exposed.

The sandstones of section 13 are burrowed and locally

flat-laminated and hummocky cross-stratified. Storm

structures and mollusc shells decrease upwards.

Small-scale cycles are not recognizable. Section 13

therefore records a generalized transgressive event on

the Casabona horst, as testified by the transition from

lagoonal muds to shelf siltstones (Fig. 12). This

sedimentary succession is interpreted to represent part

of the transgressive systems tract of the middle

Pliocene–Pleistocene tectono-stratigraphic unit of

Roda (1964a), and is equivalent to the much more

expanded backstepping succession deposited within

the half-grabens.

8.2. The middle Pliocene succession north of Zinga

village

Northwards, near the northern margin of the basin,

the Scandale Molasse is highly deformed. E-trending

listric faults and a series of minor imbricate faults led

to a considerable tilting of the succession up to 608

Fig. 11. The abrupt thickness change in the Scandale Molasse between the Casabona horst (on the left) and the South Casabona half-graben (on the right). Here the Spartizzo Clay was

deposited within a minor graben developed on the main horst (see Fig. 8).

D.Mellere

etal./Sedimentary

Geology176(2005)281–303

297

Fig. 12. Section 13 measured on the Casabona horst (see Fig. 4). Very fine-grained sandstones of the shoreface-shelf transition (Scandale

Molasse) abruptly overlie lagoonal mudstones (Spartizzo Clay). The sandstones grade upwards into shelf siltstones (lower part of the Cutro

Clay). The modest thickness of the Scandale Molasse should be noted. (TST: transgressive systems tract; WRS: wave ravinement surface).

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303298

(Fig. 13). The intense normal faulting obscures the

precise thickness of the succession, but several lines

of evidence suggest a thickness similar to that in the

south Casabona area. The succession deposited north

of Zinga was therefore probably deposited within an

area subjected to strong subsidence, as in the South

Casabona and the Zoiaretto half-grabens.

A section measured on the lower interval of the

Scandale Molasse located north of Zinga (section 14,

Figs. 3, 13 and 14) shows lagoonal dark mudstones

with oligotypic fauna overlain by washover and

transgressive shoreface deposits. The latter are formed

by tabular and trough cross-stratified sandstones and

conglomerates that merge upwards into swaley cross-

strata (Fig. 14). The contact between the shoreface and

the lagoonal deposits is marked by a wave ravinement

surface. The lack of precise data prevents a comparison

with the succession of the Casabona area.

9. Eustasy versus tectonics: the controls of cyclicity

Age determinations with calcareous nanoplankton

indicate that synsedimentary normal fault activity in

the study area ceased during the middle to late

Pliocene. The initiation of the extension is not well

Fig. 13. The Scandale Molasse north of the Zinga village. Note the normal fault system that generated a series of tilted half-grabens. This sedimentary succession was deposited within

an area of rapid subsidence (see text).

D.Mellere

etal./Sedimentary

Geology176(2005)281–303

299

Fig. 14. Section 14 located north of the Zinga village (see Figs. 3 and 13). Lagoonal mudstones with oligotypic fauna (Spartizzo Clay) are

overlain by washover and shoreface deposits (Scandale Molasse). The contact between shoreface and lagoonal deposits is marked by a wave

ravinement surface. (TST: transgressive systems tract; WRS: wave ravinement surface).

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303300

D. Mellere et al. / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 281–303 301

constrained. It may coincide with, and be the main

cause of, the beginning of the middle Pliocene trans-

gression (Roda, 1964a). The coincidence between the

long-term transgressive event and the beginning of

extension along the NE-trending listric faults influ-

enced the architecture of the sedimentary succession in

the sense that extensional tectonics accentuated the

amplitude of the transgressive event with consequent

increase in the accommodation space.

Tectonics seems therefore to have controlled the

lower-frequency cycle. The origin of the higher-

frequency cycles is more problematic. This cyclicity

might have originated from high-frequency eustatic

variations, possibly driven by orbital forcing; but local

tectonics may also be invoked, as subsidence varia-

tions linked to episodic fault activity may generate

cycles (e.g. Dorsey et al., 1997). Following this

hypothesis, deposition of the transgressive part of

the higher-frequency cycles might be related to phases

of rapid subsidence due to intense normal fault

activity (i.e. the Casabona Fault, Fig. 4); whereas

during phases of slow subsidence, the prograding

shorefaces were deposited. Autocyclic processes have

been also considered for generation of the observed

cyclicity. However, the lack of age-equivalent shifting

delta lobes and extensive fluvial deposits in the

region, despite the coarseness of the shoreface here

described, makes the autocyclic hypothesis unlikely.

The available evidence and the lack of adequate

chronological control prevent a definite conclusion on

the origin of the observed higher-frequency cyclicity.

10. Discussion and conclusions

Facies analysis indicates that the Scandale Molasse

was deposited in a shallow marine coastal environ-

ment, where a brackish lagoon (facies association C)

with an abundant but oligotypic faunal assemblage

was separated from open marine conditions (facies

association A) by a barrier system (facies association

B). Storm waves, particularly powerful during trans-

gressive phases, were able to erode the upper shore-

face and the foreshore deposits, bringing sands into

the lagoon as washover fans. The microtidal coastal

regime prevented development of tidal channels and

large tidal flats. Instead, it favoured a slight reworking

of the washover deposits and the formation of

lenticular and wavy beds (Facies C3). Further land-

wards, the alluvial plain was crossed by shallow,

coarse-grained braided river systems (Facies D1).

The Scandale Molasse lying within the Casabona

and Zoiaretto half-grabens is organised into a series of

transgressive–regressive cycles that show, in a vertical

succession, a progressive backstepping pattern. Six

cycles were recognized in the studied area. They

reflect higher-frequency relative base level variation

within a long-term, middle Pliocene–Pleistocene

lower-order transgressive tract. On the Casabona

horst, the Scandale Molasse consists of a relatively

thin, fining-upward succession without an internal

higher-frequency cyclicity.

The higher-frequency cycles are formed by fluvial

lowstand deposits, recognized only locally, by trans-

gressive lagoon and inner shelf deposits, and by

regressive shoreface units. The easiest recognizable

surface within the cycle is the transgressive wave

ravinement marked by a shell lag. Where the lowstand

deposits are not preserved, the ravinement coincides

with the sequence boundary.

Sedimentation was strongly controlled by a system

of NE-trending listric normal faults. Tectonics was

mainly responsible for the widespread transgression at

the base of the studied sedimentary succession that

coincides with the base of the middle-Pliocene–

Pleistocene low-order cycle of Roda (1964a). Eustatic

fluctuations or episodic subsidence events are thought

to be the primary cause of the higher-frequency cycles.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Eliana Fornaciari

(University of Padova) for biostratigraphic analysis

of some samples and to Francesco Massari (Univer-

sity of Padova) for his suggestions during the earlier

phase of the research. Reviews by William Cavazza,

an anonymous reviewer, and the Editor Keith A.W.

Crook significantly improved the manuscript.

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