Significance of materials science for the future development of societies

Journal of Materials Processing Technology xxx (2005) xxx–xxx

Significance of materials science for the future development of societies

Leszek A. DobrzanskiDivision of Materials Processing Technology and Computer Techniques in Materials Science, Institute of Engineering

Materials and Biomaterials, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, ul. Konarskiego 18A, Poland

PRESENTED BY: The paper was presented in Polish at the meeting of the Permanent Conference of the Deans of the Faculties of MechanicalEngineering of the Universities of Technology in Poland in the framework of the 12th International Scientific Conference on “Achievements inMechanical and Materials Engineering AMME’2003 in Zakopane on 7–10 December 2003 and in English in the framework of the Eighth CairoUniversity International Conference on Mechanical Design And Production MDP-8 in Cairo, Egypt on 4–6 January 2004

Abstract

The paper emphasises the very significant role of materials selection for design and manufacturing processes of new needed products,having the highest attainable quality and performance at the optimum and possibly the lowest cost level. The engineering design processescannot be set apart either from the material design, being more and more often computer aided, or the technological design of the most suitablem se of thel r adjustedt es which arer hich appearo e specifiedi aterials andt cludes alsot ials sciencea out of them.T cience ande al materialss s concludedt engineeringa le and it isa ieve modernt©

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anufacturing processes. The review of the multi-millennia long history of human civilisation indicates that the significant increaevel of living and production is connected more often with the launching of new material groups with the properties better and betteo real requirements of customers getting more sophisticated nearly each day, and also the launching of the technological processelevant to them. The given reasons enable to forecast that the future of the market and products with the required properties, wn the market, are inseparably connected with the development of materials science and engineering. Two main priorities can b

n that area, that is: the continuous improvement of existing materials, and technological processes and the development of mechnological processes ensuring environment protection or/and improving conditions and extending of human life. The paper inhe description of the world developmental trends in that area in the first decades of the 21st century. The fundamental aim of maternd engineering is materials selection ensuring required functions and application properties of products, which are manufacturedhe tasks of that field of science in priority spheres of the world development are determined. Directions of activities of materials sngineering ensuring the achievements of strategic aims of the developments of societies include materials design, computationcience, advanced analytical methods, manufacturing and processing, nano-, smart and biomimetic materials are included. It ihat there is a humanistic mission which stands at the engineering circle, especially associated with materials and manufacturingnd its aim is to make products and consumer goods, deciding directly about the level and quality of human life, available to peoplso mentioned that current financing of scientific researches especially in the mentioned fields of science gives a chance to ach

echnological development and to ensure prosperity of societies in the future.2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

eywords:Quality of life; Prosperity of societies; Development of human civilisation; Advanced products; Engineering design; Materials design; Manuring;aterials science and engineering

. Introduction

Manufacturing processes feature the grounds for satisfy-ng the needs of contemporary societies. Manufacturing is therocess of transforming raw materials into products. Man-facturing consists in making products from the raw ma-

E-mail address:[email protected].

terials in various processes, using various machines aoperations organised according to the well-preparedTherefore, the manufacturing process consists in a propof such resources as: materials, energy, capital, and peNowadays, manufacturing is a complex activity merging pple working in various professions and carrying out misceneous jobs using diverse machines, equipment and tooltomated to a various extent, including computers and ro

924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.04.003

2 L.A. Dobrzanski / Journal of Materials Processing Technology xxx (2005) xxx–xxx

Manufacturing on a global scale involves many technolo-gies and pertains to a wide range of products. That refersto the traditional mechanical products, consumer goods, in-cluding those made from leather, wood, textiles and polymermaterials, and also to food, medicines, as well as to electronicgoods and information technology products (Fig. 1). Valueof that production reaches 4× 1012 EUR in the EuropeanUnion and its added value is 32%. Manufacturing providesjobs for about 40 million people directly and next 80 millionothers working in servicing of those products. About 25% ofthat production is mechanical products giving directly jobs to5–6 million people. One can name the main segments of thatproduction (look atFig. 1) as the automobile industry (39%)employing 1.8 million people, aircraft industry (11%) em-ploying 1.6 million people, and next, manufacturing of diesand moulds (11%), machine tools and technological equip-ment (9%), as well as microelements and miniature parts(8%). Other elements and mechanical devices total to about22%.

The goal of manufacturing is always to satisfy the marketneeds of customers, according to the strategy of a company oran organisation being engaged in manufacturing, employingavailable possibilities and equipment. The technical aspectsof introducing a product to the market by its manufacturingorganisation refer to industrial design, engineering design,manufacturing process planning, manufacturing, and service( us-t rod-u dea,e neralr ents.

F manu-f

Fig. 2. Relations among factors connected with introducing a product to themarket[2,3].

Further stages include engineering design and manufacturingprocess planning.

The goal of that paper is to explain the very importantrole of materials selection in the design and manufacturingprocesses of new, needed products, having the highest at-tainable quality and performance at the optimum and rea-sonably set, possibly lowest cost level. In that context thefuture development of materials science and engineering is,as a very significant element connected with advanced designand manufacturing processes of those new products.

2. Significance of materials design in the engineeringdesign of products

Engineering design of a product is not a separated activity,as it influences all other phases of that process, on which it issimultaneously dependent. Engineering design of a productis to merge in itself three equally important and indivisibleelements, i.e.,Fig. 3:

• structural design, whose goal is to work out the shape andgeometrical features of products satisfying human needs;

• material design for the selection of the required physicaland chemical, as well as technological properties, ensuringthe expected life of the product or its elements;

• re-cularating, itswith

Fig. 2). The first stage of product design refers to indrial design connected with the general description of pct functions and with the development of its general incompassing its shape only, colour and eventual geequirements referring to connections of its main elem

ig. 1. Cost share of various technologies and products in the globalacturing industry[14].

technological design making it possible to impose thequired geometrical features and properties to the partiproduct elements, and also to ensure their correct mafter assembly, accounting for the production volumeautomation level and computer assistance, and alsoensuring the lowest possible costs of the product.

L.A. Dobrzanski / Journal of Materials Processing Technology xxx (2005) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 3. Relationships between elements of engineering design, i.e., struc-tural, material and technological designs[2,3,11].

Engineering design is connected with determining theshape of the product and its elements, the selection of ma-terials from which they are to be made, and the selection ofthe relevant technological processes. The designed product

has to meet the parameters pertaining fully to its function-ality, and also requirements connected with its shape anddimensional tolerances; moreover, the design has to includethe list of materials used, manufacturing methods and othernecessary information. One has to account for, among other,consequences and risk of product failure, resulting fromits foreseen, however probable misuse, or the imperfectionof the manufacturing process. Possible consequences ofproduct failure affect the evaluation of the significance ofits assumed reliability. Economical aspects do not imposeexcessively demanding reliability requirements if there is norisk of injuries or incurring losses due to product failure inuse. Each product shape version imposes some requirementspertaining to the material properties that can meet them, towhich one may include the relationships between stressesresulting from the product shape and its load, and the materialstrength. A change of a manufacturing process may changematerial properties, and some product–material combina-tions may be infeasible using some technological processes.Each manufacturing process is connected with the productshape range that may be made using that process. Shape isclosely connected with the manufactured product, and itscomplexity decides the feasible manufacturing process type.Increasing the product shape complexity limits the scopeof processes that may be employed and increases costs.

Fig. 4. Options of the product forming technological processes
depending on its shape complexity level and weight[2,3,12,13].


The main design principle is to ensure the simplest shapepossible. One can back out that principle if a more complexshape makes it possible to join several elements or if it lets useliminate even one stage in the manufacturing process only.The general goal of the actually employed technologicalprocesses is to make the net-shaped products that make im-mediate assembly possible, or - in case it is not feasible - thenear-net-shape products requiring limited finishing - usuallyby machining - before installing them into the final product. Itis not possible to make any element exactly, according to thedimensions assumed. It is possible to select the manufactur-ing processes of the product elements basing on the analysisof the relationship among the employed technologicalprocess, a size of elements, and a complexity of their shapes(Fig. 4).

Dimensions and weight of the element influence selectionof both its material and manufacturing process. Small sizedelements are made from a bar stock even in large volumeproduction, and the material cost may be then significantlylower than their manufacturing cost. It enables to use moreexpensive materials for small sized elements. However, dueto difficulties or no possibility at all of carrying out heat treat-ment, making a full use of mechanical properties of materi-als used for large sized elements gets impossible. There arealso limitations connected with sizes of elements that may beformed in particular technological processes. The examplesi madeu to af eni th tow

ses,c is av . Them rod-u f itse ctiono r pro-d tiono rial’sp plas-t rittlet ssesd ure.T dsr ity.A teriala ma-c singm per-t eriali gicalp omet-r ulare ible,a g the

Fig. 5. Relationships among some factors connected with material, pro-cesses and functions of a product[1–9].

expected mechanical, physical and chemical properties of theproduct (Fig. 5).

Variety of materials available nowadays, makes it neces-sary to select them properly for the constructional or func-tional elements, tools and eventually other products or theirelements. That selection should be carried out basing on themulti-criterion optimisation. Functional properties of engi-neering materials are usually defined by their physical, me-chanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties.Various properties can be obtained in composite materials,sometimes opposite of that characteristic for materials usedas matrix or reinforcement of composite materials. Thoseproperties depend on structure and chemical composition ofthe material and on service conditions of the element. Cyclicloading, service in high or low temperature, as well as thepresence of media causing the general corrosion or cracksresulting from stress corrosion, all feature specific hazardsthat have to be considered in the material selection process.The reasons of some 90% failures caused by material fatiguein service are connected with the faulty design and manufac-turing faults, and only 10% result from material faults, its im-proper chemical composition or heat treatment errors. Eventhe seemingly insignificant reasons may result in serious con-sequences. In one case, for instance, the fatigue damage ofthe aircraft in flight was caused by the inspection stamp thatwas imprinted too heavily on one of its elements. One hast heirc ilure.T imbo houldn ign ap arm

nclude die-castings, investment castings or elementssing powder metallurgy whose weight is limited usually

ew kilograms. If the element weight is the critical factor, tht is often made from the material having the high strengeight ratio.The selection of the product manufacturing proces

losely related to the selection of materials for its parts,ery important stage of the engineering design processain criterion for those selections is a maximisation of pct quality with the simultaneous minimisation of costs olements. The selection of a material decides often selef feasible manufacturing processes that may be used foucing elements from the particular material. The selecf the technological process is connected with the mateerformance and limited by its hardness, brittleness or

icity and melting temperature. Some materials are too bo be plastic formed; others are inapt to casting proceue to their excessive reactivity or low melting temperathe possibility of using plastic forming is defined by loaequired during forging or rolling, depending on plastics cutting forces and temperatures of the machined mand tool during machining depend on hardness of thehined material, that feature decides the possibility of uachining in the manufacturing process. Functional pro

ies of a product are obtained only when the right mats used, manufactured in the properly selected technolorocess, imparting both the required shape and other geical features, including dimensional tolerances of particlements, making the final assembly of the product possnd also forming the required material structure, ensurin

o take into consideration the possibility of failures and tonsequences in analyses of the allowable product fahe failure modes that might directly endanger life or lr else damage or destroy products or their elements sot be allowed. However, the standard practice is to desiece of equipment so that when it fails then they do not h


its environment and protects the product from consequencesof more serious failures. The common example of that atti-tude, and connected requirements pertaining to the material,are fuses, in which the fuse-link melts because of the exces-sive electric current strength. Another example features theblowout plugs that are ejected when the hydraulic pressurein the circuit exceeds the allowed value. An example may bealso the overload protection of an earth-moving machine thatstalls when an attempt is made to load it above the allowablevalue.

The selection of the proper material along with the appro-priate technological process is vital, as it ensures the longestproduct life with the lowest costs, considering that one has toaccount for more than 100,000 engineering materials possi-ble and available on the market, and yet, the average engineerhas a detailed knowledge about the practical applications of50–100 engineering materials. Because of the significantlydiversified conditions of a use of various products, and alsotheir diversified design features, collecting many-detailed in-formation is required for proper material selection.

The vast majority of engineering materials are derivedfrom raw materials obtained from the crust of the earth, raisedin mines such as ores and then enriched to make possibletheir extraction or synthesis.Fig. 6 illustrates the relationof strength and the specific energy consumption of materi-als (defined as the product of energy required to make them ands rial,a e in-fl ationo owsl ationa nateda con-s

• stlymin-

• in oferand

• useom-

ngesf d byt heirs .01t bym se iso ibled ialsd ittle-n tation

for its use. Wood and polymers demonstrate the comparablebrittleness. Ductility of the porous ceramics is up to 10 timeslower.

All engineering materials are equivalent from theengineering design point of view, all that can guaranteethe required products’ properties and the multi-criterionoptimisation features the basis for the materials selectionwith the best functional and technological properties, andwith the lowest possible manufacturing, processing, andoperation costs of the material and product. So, the problemposed is: “what can the product of interest to the customeron the market be made from?” and not: “what can be madefrom the material we have at hand or which we know?”

3. Materials science and engineering and theirhistorical evolution

The aim of materials science is to investigate the effect ofthe structure in various scales (electron, crystalline, micro,and macro) on materials properties. The numerous grades ofthe actually available materials yield new innovative potentialin implementation of products. Determining the relationshipsamong structure, technological process, and functional prop-erties, and also the selection of materials and technologicalprocesses forming their structure and properties for a use inc s ofm ate-r f theq

ch ofs hysi-c ningo ialst ence.L rialst nces,w esti-g nityf ento s ofc anye eredb ials.M , fordf wtho earg wthp sfor-m d thata out-c cheso the2 aread lines,

aterial, i.e., obtaining the raw materials, their refining,haping of the produced material, related to 1 kg of matend its density). That coefficient expresses indirectly thuence of the material manufacturing process on degradf the environment. The specific energy consumption sh

inear dependence on material strength. The present sitund current forecasts require from engineers the coordictivities aimed at saving the available raw materials,isting in:

designing with the economical use of materials, mothose hardly available and close to be depleted, withimisation of their energy consumption;using easier to acquire alternatives with the large margthe half-life of their raw materials depletion and with lowenergy consumption, instead of those hardly availableclose to be depleted;making a full use of energy saving recycling for their reand full recovery of materials in all possible and econically justified cases.

The character of ductility and fracture toughness chaor various groups of engineering materials (measurehe stress intensity factor) differ from changes of ttrengthFig. 7. That value is in a broad range from 0o 100 MPa m1/2. The highest ductility is demonstratedetals and their alloys. It seems that their common u

wed to the compromising merging of the highest possuctility with the very high strength. Composite materemonstrate similar properties. However, the definite bress of the engineering ceramics features a serious limi

omplex manufacturing systems, feature the main focuaterials engineering. Therefore, the development of m

ials engineering features an important determinant ouality of life of the contemporary societies.

Materials science appeared as an independent brancience at the end of the 1950s, continuing mainly the pal metallurgy traditions, which was created at the beginf industrial revolution, converted next smoothly to mater

echnology and in consequence to the materials sciinks were developed simultaneously between mate

echnology and materials engineering, and applied sciehich can be demonstrated by many examples. Invations of semiconductors have provided the opportu

or co-operation with solid-state physics. The developmf polymer materials demonstrated the effectiveneso-operation with polymer chemistry. There are mxamples of implementing numerous models discovy physics and chemistry for the development of materany mathematical models were used, among othersescribing phase transformations, conception ofJ integral in

racture mechanics, fractal geometry for describing grof clusters and colloidal systems, for solving the non-linrain boundary migration problem or Laplacian grorocesses in description of the morphological phase tranations. The end of the 20th century has demonstratechievements of materials engineering are usually anome of the significant integration among various branf science, which resulted in consequence in making1st century materials science an interdisciplinaryeveloped on the crossroad of many pure science discip


mostly of the solid-state physics, chemistry, mathematics,and process engineering, but also mechanics and mechanicalengineering, ecology, economy, management and appliedcomputer science, and even biology and medicine, takingadvantage of achievements of those scientific disciplinesto propose materials with the most advantageous set ofproperties and suiting higher and higher requirements posedto products and goods used by people in the best way, inconditions of the fierce market competition and with highrequirements concerning quality, reliability, life, and price.

The target of materials science is an investigation of theeffect of their structure in various scales (electron, crystalline,micro, and macro) on properties of materials. A great num-ber of material brands available nowadays offer new innova-tive possibilities in design, manufacturing, and implementingof products. The determination of dependencies among thestructure, technological process, and functional properties, aswell as materials selection and technological properties form-ing their structure and properties for employment in complexmanufacturing systems feature the core interest of materialsengineering.

Since the dawn of history people employed, and some-times processed, materials to acquire their meals, increasetheir safety, and assure a suitable standard of living. Follow-ing the history of human civilisation we may come to the

conviction that its progress is governed notably by the de-velopment of materials and the accompanying growth of theproductive forces. It is attested undoubtedly, among others,by naming various epochs in the history of humankind bymaterials deciding the conditions of living at that time, e.g.,Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age (Fig. 8).

The pre-historic man might use only the natural raw or-ganic and inorganic materials, including, e.g., leather, wood,rock, flint, that he processed into the useful articles makingit possible for him to get food, improving his safety and liv-ing conditions. Up to now it is hard to decide which metalwas processed by humans first. It is sure that metals occur-ring in their raw native states, like gold (Near East, Caucasus,Egypt–Nubian desert, the Eastern desert), silver (north-eastAsia Minor, the district associated with Hittites), copper (AsiaMinor, Armenia, Elam, from which the Sumerians receivedit as early as 3500b.c., Eastern Alps, Egypt up to c. 2000b.c., Cyprus) and iron obtained from meteorites (Greenland,utilized by Eskimos for more than a century). The signifi-cant progress was made only after mastering the methods ofobtaining metals from their ores. This has happened – mostprobably by chance – c. 4000b.c., in pottery manufacturing,during glazing with the hot flame and pulverized minerals.Since that time, apart from the attempts to find the metals intheir raw native forms, utilization of ores is carried out in-

Fig. 6. Strength and specific energy cons
umption of various materials[2,3,12,13].


Fig. 7. Stress intensity factor and density of various materials[2,3,12,13].

Fig. 8. Diagram presenting the significance of various epochs of the human civilisation development, with dates of introduction of new materials[2,3,12,13].


Fig. 9. Fragment of a picture on the western wall of the Redmere tomb in Thebes (c. 1450b.c.) showing metal processing scenes in ancient Egypt (chargepreparation, melting, casting, finishing)[7].

cluding two independent processes, i.e., separation of metalsfrom other chemical elements with which they are chemicallybounded and working-up of metals into useful articles. Theworking properties of articles made from metals were inferiorto those of stone tools and a landmark was manufacturing ofcopper alloys–bronzes, with arsenic at first, and next with tin.Traces of getting of copper ores and its processing were foundin settlements of farmers and herdsmen in valleys of Kura andAraxes rivers in Transcaucasia, in the eastern Anatolia, As-syria and Mesopotamia, as early as in 4000 and 5000b.c. In4000b.c. the Cu–As bronze was used quite consciously, notby chance, that was later – at the turn of 3000 and 2000b.c.replaced by the Cu–Sn bronze. At the cemetery of the Sume-rian kings of the Ur state that reined at c. 2600b.c. decorativearticles were get out made from bronze containing both Asand Sn. Also in Central Asia by Indus river and in Europe, aswas used earlier than Sn as a bronze addition. The civilisationof the Bronze Age initiated in the middle of the third millen-nium b.c. in Asia Minor and Egypt (Fig. 9), embraced theentire Mediterranean basin and Southern Europe by c. 2000b.c. (Figs. 10 and 11), and at about three centuries later alsoCentral Europe. Metal blooms became the objects of com-mercial exchange, took over the role of money, and becamethe objects of accumulation (Fig. 12). Works of art and craft,weapons, ornamentations, and cult objects, remaining fromthe Bronze Age attest to the good knowledge of properties of

F turyb

Fig. 11. Picture on a bowl from Troia (V centuryb.c.) showing a Troianforging [7].

Fig. 12. Fragment of a picture in the temple no. 100 in Thebes erected duringthe reign of Tuthmosis III (1490–1436b.c.) showing gifts in the form of thecopper ingots from Crete submitted to the Egyptian Pharaoh[7].

ig. 10. Picture on the vase from Attica found in Orvieto (VII–V cen.c.) showing a Greek blacksmith[7].


Fig. 13. Dirk with an iron blade found in the Tutenkhamon’s tomb in Egypt(c. 1350b.c.) [7].

copper and bronze of their contemporary makers, from vari-ous – even located far away from each other - geographicalregions. Many engineering works appeared also at that time,e.g., the 3 km long pressure water line erected at c. 180b.c.by the King of Pergamum, Eumenes II, supplying water bythe cast bronze pipes from the Hagios-Georgios mountain.As early as in the Bronze Age weapons and tools began to bemade from iron, better suited for this purpose.

A sword with a golden grip made from the meteoritic irondated from 3100b.c. was found in the archeological exca-vations in the city of Ur in Mesopotamia, and also a daggerwith the iron blade was found in the Tutankhamen tomb from1350b.c. (Fig. 13). The first steel was obtained–most prob-ably in China c. 2220b.c. by the long annealing of the ironpellets mixed with chunks of charcoal with no air access,which turned out to be just the first known case of employ-ing cementation. This process was used a little bit later inIndia in manufacturing weapons. Obtaining iron from its oreby the direct reduction with the charcoal took place in themiddle of the second millenniumb.c. south of Caucasus, be-ginning of the Iron Age in the Middle East was c. 1200b.c.,in the countries of the Mediterranean basin c.1000b.c., inCentral Europe c. 750b.c., and in IV–II centuryb.c. it wasin common use already. Making of iron axes (7000b.c.), sawand woodworking tools, as well as scissors used for shear-ing sheep fleece (500b.c.), anvils and dies (200b.c.) area thodo withoi d byo r andb coldf ingo thee ande

” ofAs on-s atedh al tod ltingp yieldst ver-t therh hiche ce-m er byt

the ancient iron metallurgy reached its height, and even thenit could not provide cast iron that was virtually unobtainablewith the small furnaces and low temperatures of that period.At the turn of VIII and VII centuryb.c. Homer describedquenching of steel in water, which is recognized as the firstliterary description of this process. Just these discoveries gaverise to the contemporary heat treatment.

The unquestionable achievement of the craftsmen’s artremains up to our time the Damascus steel, attesting to theirhigh skill of the thermo-mechanical treatment. During theconquest of India by Alexander the Great in 327b.c., swordsmade from this steel were used, with very good properties,which were later forgotten, albeit began to be widespread inEurope in III centuryb.c. This steel was first made by Hindutribes by forging together the sintered bars from the steelcontaining 1.2/1.8%C at a temperature of about 750◦C, an-nealing and repeated forging, which ensured its high hardnessand elasticity, although it was not quenched, with the corru-gated lines visible on its surface, originating due to its nat-ural etching throughout ages in natural conditions. Weaponmade from this steel with good properties appeared in an-cient Rome, samurai swords were also known in Japan atthat time. This production was improved in IV–XI centuriesa.d. by Arabs, mostly near Damascus, and then in CentralAsia, Syria, and Persia, to appear again in Europe at the turnof XIV and XV centuriesa.d., as the Damascus steel thist tem-p eatt

H ingi ingt ons,i e de-v ent,a g( 63),M fun-d h theeas theirc turya theh ma oft orldh e. In1 s itsh stud-i byR y outo ntin-u uresw etal-l n byL ined

mong many achievements of the craftsmen’s art. A mef refining of the drained cast iron purged repeatedlyxygen in Huainan was described about 120b.c. The newly

ntroduced iron, first from meteorites, and then obtainere reduction, was processed in a similar way as copperonze, forming the products on the required shape by

orging and applying soft annealing in fire. Manufacturf iron tools with the satisfactory properties, e.g., withdges sharp enough, required cementation to 0.15/1.5%liminating of slag.

Invention of cementation, apparently by the “Chalybessia Minor, a subject-tribe of the Hittite empire, at 1400b.c.olved the problem only in part. Manufacturing of iron cisted in a process for steeling wrought-iron bars by repeammerings and heatings in direct contact with charcoiffuse carbon into the surface of the metal. If the smerocess is sufficiently elaborated, then some iron oresteel directly. This phenomenon was exploited c. 500b.c. inhe central European region of Styria and Carinthia. Neheless, it was still not known that steel required to be furardened by quenching the hot article in cold water, wffect upon copper or bronze was to make it softer. Theentation process was followed some two centuries lat

he tempering process. As late as in the last millenniumb.c.

ime, that was most probably in addition quenched andered.Table 1presents the historical development of the h

reatment technology.The VI centurya.d. in China and in X centurya.d. in

artz Mountains in Europe brings an invention of obtainron in its liquid state, which took place before develophe iron blast furnace. In Mediaeval times, in many regincluding also Europe, metals processing methods wereloped, along with the necessary technological equipmmong others for minting (Fig. 14) and for armour makinFig. 15). Inventions of Bessemer (1856), Siemens (18artin brothers (1865), and Thomas (1877), created theamentals of the modern, mass production of steel witngineering methods. In the second half of XIX centurya.d.nd in the first 50 years of XX centurya.d. most of theteel groups known now were worked out as regardshemical composition and technology, and the XX cen.d. witnessed emerging of the metal alloys theory fromands-on practice. In 1722, Reaumur presented a sche

he internal structure of steel. For the first time in the we investigated this structure using the light microscop799 Clouet and de Morreau found out that iron obtainardness due presence of carbon. The first systematic

es on fusibility and crystallisation of alloys were begunodberg (1831). Sorby, in 1864, was the first one to carrbservations of the etched steel, and this work was coed by Martens (1878). The first alloy microscopic structere obtained by Osmov and Werth (1885), and the m

ographic investigations of the microstructure were begue Chatelier in 1890–1905. In 1867 Matthiessen expla


Table 1Historical development of the heat treatment technology[7]

Period Type Geographical region

c. 2220b.c. Cementation of iron in the presence of charcoal ChinaVIII/VII Century b.c. Quenching of steel by heating to the red heat and immersing in water Mediterranean basinc. 530b.c. Soft annealing with the subsequent forging of the steel bars welded together IndiaIII Century b.c. Annealing of castings to obtain malleable cast iron China100b.c. Nitriding or carbonitriding of steel by burning of soya in the presence of the red hot steel ChinaI Centurya.d. Employment of olive oil for quenching of steel RomeXI Centurya.d. Manufacturing of Damascus steel EuropeXV Centurya.d. Annealing of castings France1924 Gas nitriding Germany1930 Bath and glow discharge quenching Germany1938 Heat treatment—heating with the electron beam Germanyc. 1965 Laser heating in heat treatment Europe, USA

presence of impurities and intermetallic compounds in met-als, and Guthrie in 1884 gave the definition of the eutecticalloy.

Fundamentals of the knowledge about the phase transfor-mations in iron alloys were created by Chernov (1868) work-ing on the carbon-iron phase equilibrium diagram, Abel, whoin 1888 has found out occurrence of the F3C cementite iniron alloys, as well as Osmov (1895–1900) who discoveredmartensite as a separate phase in the quenched steel. Laterresults of works of Bain and Davenport (1929) concerned ki-netics and mechanism of transformations of the super-cooledaustenite, creating fundamentals of the theory of heat treat-ment of iron-base alloys. The exceptional significance haddiscoveries of Wilm (1906), as well as of Guinier and Preston(1935) concerning processes of supersaturation and ageing.Development of the physical chemistry, physics and chem-istry of the solid body, as well as of physics of metals, electron

F as rB

theory of metals and quantum mechanics, theory of defectsof the crystal structure, physics of plastic deformation andcracking, as well as of grain boundaries, developed in XXcenturya.d., have provided the comprehensive cognitive ba-sis for development of the contemporary heat treatment the-ory of metal alloys. Research methods introduced in parallelturned out to be very useful, mostly discovery made by vonLaue (1912) and employed by Bragg brothers (1913) of theX-ray diffraction, designing by Knoll and Ruska (1931) ofthe electron microscope, and also development of spectralmethods, mostly WDS and EDS, which – equipment and re-search methods alike – were improved and modified in thenext decades and their use for the contemporary materialsscience and engineering has been invaluable. The historicalreview presented above indicates that only after three millen-nia of the practical use of iron and its alloys and 5000 yearsof using copper and its alloys, and also of other metals, the

F sp

ig. 14. Striking coins from XII centurya.d. – Norman carving (currentlyymbol ofJournal ofMaterialsProcessingTechnologypublished by Elsevie.V., The Netherlands)[7].

ig. 15. Armourer’s workshop of the XVI centurya.d. Showing some of itroducts and the tools used in making them[7,15].


roles were learned of the chemical composition and phasetransformations occurring during heat treatment, in formingof the structure and properties of these alloys. Science andtechnology developed in time as different and separate activ-ities. The science used to be a field of speculation practicedmostly by philosophers, while the technology was a matterof practical concern to craftsmen of many types. The fields ofinterest of scientists and technologists remained different inthe ancient cultures. This situation began to change as late asduring the medieval period of development in the West whenboth technical innovation and scientific understanding beganto interact being stimulated by the commercial expansion anda growing rapidly urban culture. Looking at this process fromthe contemporary perspective we can see that it was not justa one-way influence of science on technology. It was a syn-ergy of these two activities as technology created new toolsand machines with which the scientists were able to achievebetter insight and understanding of phenomena.

The practical application of many inventions was madepossible only since proper materials had become available. Asan example we may mention the draft sketch of a helicopterthat was found in works of Leonardo da Vinci from the 15thcentury[16], however, the first helicopter was made in the1940s. Space ships were described in the literary works longtime ago, and the necessary calculations were made alreadyin the first decade of the 20th century, nevertheless, the firsta endo chedi

anu-f theyc ther con-t adef aver-a as thep entsA alsob l now.A r thes at arev ongm ifica-t ility,m reas-i

ari-o thatt crafta rials)i , al-b byp biq-u ivelyl alsob hich

does not exceed 300/400◦C. Porous ceramics belongs to thebuilding industry domain, albeit glass finds numerous appli-cations in household and also in car production. Some brandsof ceramics, especially of the glass type, are used even in ma-chine design. Metals and their alloys are the main materialsin machine design, automobile industry and shipbuilding, inmachine-building, household consumer goods industry, toolindustry and in many other ones, but they are also important inbuilding industry, albeit in many cases engineering ceramicsand also some composites compete with those materials.

Nobel Prizes awarded in the area of physics and chem-istry in the last decades for the outstanding achievements,which have changed the technical reality in the world mayattest to the dynamics of materials engineering development.May it be enough to mention transistors, integrated circuits,fullerens, superconducting materials, electric current con-ducting polymers, semiconductors, and other materials.

One might attempt to present a vision of the future andevaluate the development trends of various fields of activ-ity and manufacturing processes basing on visions proposedby eminent bodies consisting of scientists and futurologists.Certainly, they are connected with forecasts pertaining thedevelopment of various engineering materials. Many peo-ple, even today, do their work at home, without leaving it.Houses will have to be organised and furnished in a totallyother way within several years’ time span. Towns, transporta-t thann ed ina temsc ars,r tions madea iousi arti-fi rials.F sedo newp , anda ringi sseso ento hight anicm fight-i gesc oita-t zonel es.S toringt willb der-w willm ovelt arketp nd tos

rtificial satellite of the Earth was launched only in thef the 1950s, and the first space shuttle orbiter was laun

n the 1970s.Modern products could not be often designed and m

actured without employing many materials, just as thatould not operate in required service conditions and withequired very high reliability. One has to realise that theemporary product is composed of a host of elements mrom materials varying a great deal. As an example, thege car is composed of about 15,000 elements, whereassenger aircraft consists of more than 4,000,000 elems modern materials are worked out and deployed, theyecome the substitutes for the ones being employed untis an example, materials developed and introduced fopace or aerospace technology may be mentioned, thery often employed in other areas, including sport. Amany reasons for that attitude one may name the simpl

ion of the design, extending the life and increasing reliabaking assembly and engineering easier, along with dec

ng the material, manufacturing and operation costs.Analysing the contemporary development trends of v

us material groups one can find out, which is evident,he mass portion of the ultramodern products (like the airnd space technology products or even biomedical mate

n the total volume of products manufactured by peopleeit growing, is not big. Gaining widespread presenceolymers in our environment (which only seem to be uitous) is neither possible so far, because of their relat

ow abrasion resistance and other types of wear, andecause of their limited operation temperature range, w

.

ion, and telecom systems will be organised differentlyowadays. Towns and transport system will be organisnother way, including novel urban transportation sysonnecting the sky high buildings, electrically powered cobotised safety systems and municipal wastes’ utilizaystems. Health care system will be based on diagnosest home, non-allergic nutrition, an early detection of ser

llnesses and their prevention, and also on implanting ofcial organs - heart, and of a new generation of biomateuture agriculture, forestry, and fish industry will be ban genetic engineering achievements, mastering farminglants, employing other processes than photosynthesislso comprehensive robotisation. Mining and manufactu

ndustries will be based on a total robotisation of procef industrial recycling of water and air, on the developmf the ultra-microprocessor technology, and also on the

hroughput power transmission systems employing orgaterials substituting copper. Earth protection systems

ng climatic effects, implementing recovery from damaaused by torrential rains, fighting droughts, and explion of the tropical forests, as well as decreasing the oayer discontinuity effects, will undergo significant changystems for surveillance of oceans and seas and moni

heir contamination, and for observations of earthquakese developed, moreover, robots will be introduced to unater service. Space technique employing solar energyake space flights more common and will give rise to n

echnologies and the setting up of space factories for mroduction, the setting up of lunar observation bases apace journeys to Mars.


Table 2Area of interest of materials science and materials engineering[1–10]

Range of topic Goals to pursue and methods of action

Synthesis and processing of materials The arrangement of atoms and constituents in a bigger scale in materials into systems withthe required configuration

Chemical composition and microstructure of materials The assessment of the chemical composition effect and microstructure on materials’behaviour

Phenomena and properties of materials The investigation of mechanisms active in materials during the technological processes andoperation for explaining the phenomena and their effect on materials’ properties

Behaviour of materials in operating conditions The assessment of the usefulness of materials for various applicationsMaterials design and prediction their durability and/or life Predictionthe chemical composition, properties, and durability of materials in their work-

ing conditions using the theoretical methods and with computer assistance, including theartificial intelligence methods

Even if not everything, according to those forecasts,will come true or be slightly delayed, one has to take intoaccount that nearly all of the forecasted projects will requirethe relevant manufacturing technologies and above all -relevant materials. Many of those materials are alreadyavailable nowadays; some of them should be developed soonaccording to the outlined requirements. It is good to realisethat many venturous projects will be made possible if thosenew materials are made. The future successes connectedwith the introduction of better and better products intothe market, satisfying the needs of the steadily growingrequirements of the societies, are connected closely withdevelopment and the implementation of new generationsof the engineering materials, which can be used for man-ufacturing those new expected products. The process ofimplementing the new materials is connected with improv-ing the existing materials or with taking into account thecontemporary achievements connected with the outworkingof the new compounds, structure, and ensuring the newproperties.

4. Contemporary development trends of materialsscience and engineering and their significance fordevelopment of societies

neer-ia fur-t elec-t ac-c , ma-t ntalso mod-e ncet th thea plain-i anda iodso er-t andb ticalu

The introduction of the new generations of materials andthe propagation of products with the expected propertiesthat can be made from those materials, calls for comingto know the materials behaviour, as substances for manu-facturing the new products, from their atomic/nanostructurescale, through their microstructure, up to the macroscopicone, using the advanced analytical methods and computermodelling. That strategy calls for the improvement of the con-ventional materials manufactured and used on a large scale,like steel or the non-ferrous metals alloys, and also of thenew functional materials used in smaller and smaller smartdevices.

Employing the fundamental principles of physics andchemistry pertaining to the state and properties of the con-densed matter, the theory of materials is used for modellingthe structure and properties of the functional real materials,and for designing and forecasting the new materials and de-vices with the improved practical usability. The modern the-ory of materials science and modelling specific for the com-putational materials science, are used for the development ofnew materials. The introduction of new materials and the im-provement of the properties of materials manufactured to datecall also for working out and implementing the new synthesisand processing methods.

The fundamental feature is the possibility of designingthe new materials focused on their small scale, inclusive then anda od-e

keyr ndi-t sena om-i

uedi hichr tante mento y areg thef ingn ties,w nt of

Contemporary interests of materials science and enging may be reduced to issues presented inTable 2, taking intoccount lots of interdisciplinary factors. Knowledge and

her investigation of many phenomena, among others,rical, magnetic, optical, mechanical, thermal, taking intoount the mutual interactions among the external factorserial structure, and theory pertaining to the fundamef those phenomena, after using modern mathematicallling methods, and also with using the artificial intellige

ools and other computer assistance methods along widvanced analytical techniques and testing methods ex

ng materials’ behaviour, especially in their nanometrictomic scales, and in the exceptionally short time perf femtoseconds (10−15 s) make it possible to adjust prop

ies of materials, including nanomaterials, biomaterialsiomimetic materials to requirements posed by their pracse.

anometric one, the optimisation of their applications,lso the optimisation of their manufacturing, including mlling of properties and processes.

Therefore, materials science and engineering play aole in establishing and upgrading the economical coions of quality of living, especially in the spheres chos priority ones in the world development for the forthc

ng decades of the 21st century (Table 3).The main directions of activities assumed or contin

n the area of materials science and engineering, wesults, as it is judged now, will have the most imporffect on reaching the goals connected with the developf societies in the coming decades of the 21st centuriven inTable 4. One should estimate, in particular, that

urther progress of civilisation connected with introducew products with the required high functional properill be to a great extent dependent on the developme


Table 3Tasks of materials science and engineering in priority spheres of the world development in the next decades[1–10]

Priority development sphere Strategic goal Role of materials science and engineering

Improvement of conditions of living More efficient use of materials and energysources is required urgently because of hazardsto the environment.

The participation in the development of newenergy generation technologies, moreenergy-efficient devices and less toxic materialsand better suited to recycling

Health care system The development of novel diagnostic andtherapeutic methods, as well as new devices,apparatus and drugs is required, because of theneed to overcome and prevent diseases, to limitthe scope and consequences of disability andbecause of the concern for the improvement ofthe health state in the whole world.

The development and the introduction of novelmaterials, including those for the developmentof artificial bones, implants, and artificialorgans, safe administration of drugs, waterfiltration systems, as well as of the therapeuticand diagnostic equipment

Communication and information transmission The development of new generations oftelecommunication and IT devices, as well asfully miniaturised computers along with allperipheral devices, due to the need of increasingthe speed and reliability of connection networkin the world.

Determining the progress in the IT and computerrevolution, as well as introducing the newelectronic, optic, and magnetic materials

Consumer goods Intensive efforts to obtain the expected state arerequired because of the customers’ expectationfor the fast delivery of consumer goods with thevery high quality and reliability, at the possiblylowest, justified, and acceptable prices, deliveredregardless of the manufacturing location in theworld, and also of the high quality and effectiveservices.

The development and the introduction ofmaterials that will make it possible to improvethe quality and usefulness of products, as well asways of their delivery (e.g., packing) which willresult in speeding and facilitating of theirmanufacturing, and cutting short delivery ofconsumer goods with the best properties

Transport Co-ordinated actions are needed, connected withincreasing the speed, safety, and comfort oftransport means, because of the need to improvetravel conditions in connection with businessprojects, rest, and the Earth and the spaceexploration.

The development and the introduction, amongothers, of the lightweight car bodies andaccessories made from, e.g., aluminium andmagnesium alloys, as well as from compositematerials, brake systems for the high-speedtrains, airplanes emitting much less noise,insulation coatings for space shuttles, and manyother technical solutions guaranteeing reachingthe assumed goals

the engineering materials, making it possible to use them inengineering design of many new products expected on themarket, encompassing, among others:

• the development of modelling the relationships amongchemical composition, structure, parameters of the tech-nological processes, and service conditions of the engi-neering materials, using the modern IT tools, includingthe Artificial Intelligence methods, to improve the method-ology of the engineering design processes, including theimprovement of the engineering materials selection andthe most suitable technological processes;

• the development of the pro-ecological manufacturing tech-nologies with the possible lowest harmful environmentalimpact and/or the influence of the environment and atmo-sphere, as well as the decrease of the degradation of theenvironment to date and the deployment of the relevantmaterials and technologies;

• the development of surface engineering and related tech-nologies in order to increase significantly the competitive-ness of products and technological processes, to reduce thehazard to the environment, as well as the deployment of fastand inexpensive welding technologies making it possible

to introduce the competitive products and manufacturingprocesses;

• the development and the deployment of the industrial ap-plications of the smart materials and automatically super-vised technological processes;

• the development of manufacturing technologies making itpossible employing the existing high-temperature super-conductors in market products, and the development ofmaterials for the cellular telephony and telecom industryneeds, including materials for opto-electronics;

• the introduction of new heat resistant and high-temperaturecreep resisting materials for service at elevated and hightemperatures, especially for the space, aviation, automo-tive, power generation, and electronic industries,

• the development of the nanocrystalline and amorphous ma-terials along with the development of the nanotechnology;

• the development of composite materials and others ob-tained using other non-conventional technologies;

• the introduction of new generations of biomaterials andbiomimetic materials that will render it possible to extendthe range of possible medical interventions and implant-ing the artificial organs and limbs to improve the level oftreatment of diseases and injuries.


Table 4Main directions of activities in materials science and engineering for achieving the strategic aims of the development of societies[1–10]

Main directions of activity Evaluation of the current situation and plans for future

Materials design The subject of the contemporary materials science and engineering is adjustment of materials, beginning fromtheir chemical composition, constituent phases and microstructure, up to the set of properties required for theparticular application. The traditional empirical methods of introducing the new materials will be supplementedto a growing extent by the theoretical predictions in the not so distant future. Computer simulation is employedin certain cases in the commercial scale, and the development of computer tools is expected for the evaluation ofmaterials properties in their virtual environment. It will make it possible to improve those properties, as well astheir prediction—even before manufacturing of materials, with the significant reduction of expenditures and timerequired for their investigation and implementation

Computational materials science A significant progress has been made in the last decade in the area of simulation of properties and the processingof engineering materials; however, computer modelling will become the indispensable tool in materials scienceand engineering soon. The computer strategy provides the description of materials from the chemical andphysical points of view in a broad scale of both dimension and time, and the multi-scale modelling makes usingthe consistent simulation structure possible within the entire range of those scales or in their prevailing parts

Advanced analytical techniques The development of new engineering materials in future and thediscovery of new phenomena deciding theirproperties call for the development, the introduction, and the dissemination of the new and more efficientresearch techniques making examination of materials possible in the atomic scale, like the high resolutiontransmission electron microscopy, scanning probe microscopy, X-ray and neutron diffraction, as well as varioustypes of spectroscopy, integrated with the more powerful computers, making the fast visualisation possible andthe comparison with computer models, including also their use in the manufacturing (synthesis) processes,where they can be employed for control and manipulating the materials in the atomic and nanocrystalline scales,as well as in the atomic force microscopy

Synthesis and processing The goal of the manufacturing and processing techniques of the future is to design the engineering materialsfrom the complex arrangements of atoms and particles, with the same accuracy and control as is currently usedto the semiconductor materials, and including, e.g., the chemical conversion from the simple precursor units, fastprototyping of the ceramic and metal components using the streaming technique, microwave sintering,deposition methods from gas phases (CVD, PVD) to form the thin films, infiltration of composites, to the mostpromising techniques

Nanomaterials The capacity to control, synthesise and design materials in the nanometric scale (10−9 m) features one of themain progress directions to use those materials for the development of their new applications, scrap and wastereduction, as well as for optimisation of properties in all main engineering material groups, including, e.g.,high-precision drug administration systems, nanorobots, in micro-manufacturing, nanoelectronics,ultra-selective molecular screens, and nanocomposites for employment in airplanes and other vehicles

Smart materials Smart materials, different from other materials are designed in such a way that they react to the external stimuliand improve their properties, adapting themselves to the environmental conditions, increasing their life, savingenergy, or modifying the conditions to improve human comfort, and also autonomously multiplicatingthemselves, repairing or damaging - as needed, reducing waste and increasing efficiency; all work in that area isconsidered especially vanguard in its character

Biomimetic materials Thanks to a better understanding of the development of minerals and composites by the live organisms,biomimetic materials become the fast developing area of materials engineering, enabling to copy the biologicalprocesses and materials, both organic and inorganic ones (e.g., synthetic spider’s thread, DNA chips, crystalgrowth within the virus crates) and are manufactured more and more accurately and efficiently, due to whichtheir usefulness improves and new possibilities of their use become apparent (e.g., self-repair feature, ultra-hardand ultra-light composites for airplanes), which calls for the new chemical strategy Bering the self-organisationwith their capability to from the hierarchically built materials

Moreover, taking into account the current needs ofeconomy and the universal tendency to increase the compet-itiveness of products, and taking into consideration forecastspertaining to the future development of civilisation andconnected demand for engineering materials, one shouldconsistently and in a coordinated way act for saving the rawmaterials, which is of course reflected in the engineeringdesign practice and in the succeeding manufacturing andoperation processes of products.

The introduction of new materials and the improvementof properties of materials manufactured so far call for the de-velopment and the implementation of the new synthesis andprocessing methods. The basic selection criterion for thoseprocesses is their quality maximisation with the simultane-

ous minimisation of costs. Continuously increasing qualityrequirements of customers force on manufacturers their pro-quality approach.

The appropriate selection of material for the particularapplication, based on the multi-criterion optimisation takinginto account its chemical composition, manufacturing con-ditions, synthesis conditions, operating conditions, and thematerial waste disposal method in its after-service phase, aswell as the price-dependant issues connected with obtainingthe material, its transforming into a product, the product it-self, and also costs of the disposal of the industrial waste andscrap, as well as the modelling of all processes and prop-erties connected with materials, feature the fundamentals ofthe dynamically developing computational materials science.


Various models are employed in computational materials sci-ence, depending on scale and also possibilities of using theengineering materials modelling, their synthesis, structure,properties, and phenomena. The experimental verification en-ables to check the computer simulation in various scales andusing the artificial intelligence methods, for employing thenew materials and their manufacturing processes.

An essential determinant of the manufacturing processes’development, giving consideration to economical and eco-logical conditions, at the threshold of the 21st century, is anintegration in the area of advanced design and manufacturingof the up-to-date products and consumer goods, deciding theimprovement of the quality of life and welfare of societies,which encompasses the development of design methodologyand connected with it newer and newer designs developedusing the computer aided design methods (CAD), the devel-opment of new technologies and manufacturing processes,of technology design methodology, contemporary produc-tion organisation, operational management and quality drivenmanagement along with the computer aided manufacturing(CAM), and also the development of materials engineeringmethodology, the development of entirely new engineeringmaterials with the required better and better functional prop-erties, with the pro-ecological values and minimised energyconsumption along with the development of the computerbased materials science and methodology of computer aidedm

riala thep ngi-n ecialfi ma-t andat whoi onlyt rea-s ughs

5

r thef uire-m iod ofk , andm l andd nt ac-t orts

intro-d suchp ill ber newt

for upgrading the general knowledge level of the engineer-ing cadres of various special fields for fast transfer of thatknowledge to the product engineering design practice andtheir spheres of their manufacturing and use. One can indicateto the basic determinants connected with those areas of sci-ence and technology, indispensable for attaining the expectedimprovement of life quality of the contemporary societies:

• Giving people access to products and consumer goods de-ciding directly the level and the quality of living, the infor-mation interchange, the education level, the quality and thepotential of health service and many other aspects of theenvironment in which we live, features the profoundly hu-manistic mission awaiting the engineers’ circles, in whichthe materials issues play an important role and thus decidedirectly possibilities of the development of societies.

• The optimisation of the functional properties of materialsused in products and consumer goods, improving qualityof living of societies, decides main development trendsof materials science and engineering in the next decadesof the 21st century; one can name among them materi-als engineering connected with adjusting materials, begin-ning from their chemical composition, constituent phasesand microstructure to the set of properties required in fi-nal products, computer based materials science as an in-dispensable tool for prediction of materials’ properties

ncedom-elop-etic

• byate-

dvan-eenpli-tive

e ex-rityso-

entlying

R

ad-ceed-

sicalate-

a,

sci-in

aterials design (CAMD).As nearly in all cases, however not exclusively, mate

nd its properties decide feasibility of manufacturing ofroduct and its functional properties, teaching materials eeering to the students and cadres of all engineering spelds is required. On the other hand, progress in theerials engineering is so big that in the most advancedvant-garde areas the half-obsolescence period1 of the de-ailed knowledge does not exceed 2/3 years. Somebodys not up to date with that progress has–after some time–he obsolete knowledge and is not able to carry out anyonable engineering activity without the repeated thorotudies.

. Resume

The strategic importance of engineering materials fouture development of civilisation poses essential reqents in that area, and the short half-obsolescence per

nowledge in materials science, materials engineeringaterials processing technology areas call for methodicaynamical studies as well as research and developme

ivities, along with the coordinated and systematic eff

1 The half-obsolescence period of the detailed knowledge (conceptuced by analogy to the radio-active half-life period) denotes that aftereriod about 50% of the detailed information in the particular area weplaced by new, up-to-date information, introduced in connection withechnological and scientific discoveries.

and technological processes influencing them, advatechniques for manufacturing engineering materials cposed of patterns of atoms and particles, and the devment of nanomaterials, as well as smart and biomimmaterials.Only the continuous financing of scientific researchcontemporary societies, and especially in the area of mrials science and engineering, as well as creating the atageous conditions for minimising the time span betwmaking the scientific discoveries and their practical apcations, may give a chance for introducing the innovaproducts and consumer goods in future, ensuring thpected improvement of the quality of living and prospeof societies, and only the permanent conviction of thecieties of the links between the basic research currcarried out and future prosperity and high quality of livmay guarantee attaining that goal.

eferences

[1] L.A. Dobrzanski, Materials design as an important element ofvanced products’ engineering design and manufacturing, in: Proings COBEM-2003, Sao Paulo CD-ROM, 2003.

[2] L.A. Dobrzanski, Fundamentals of Materials Science and PhyMetallurgy. Engineering Materials with the Fundamentals of Mrials Design, WNT, Warszawa, 2002 (in Polish).

[3] L.A. Dobrzanski, Metallic Engineering Materials, WNT, Warszaw2004 (in Polish).

[4] L.A. Dobrzanski, Contemporary development trends in materialsence and materials engineering, Inzynieria Mater. (2003) 271–278 (Polish).


[5] L.A. Dobrzanski, Significance of materials science and engineeringfor advances in design and manufacturing processes, Computer Inte-grated Manufacturing, in: B. Skołud, D. Krenczyk (Eds.), AdvancedDesign and Management, WNT, Warszawa, 2003, pp. 128–140.

[6] L.A. Dobrzanski, Significance of the development of materials sci-ence and engineering for improvement of quality of living of the con-temporary societies, Podole University of Technology, Chmielnickij-Satanov, Ukraine, 2003, pp. 34–47 (in Polish).

[7] L.A. Dobrzanski, Heat treatment as the fundamental technologicalprocess of formation of structure and properties of the metallic en-gineering materials, in: Proceedings of the Eighth Seminar of theInternational Federation for Heat Treatment and Surface Engineer-ing IFHTSE 2001, Dubrovnik-Cavtat, Croatia, 2001, pp. 1–12.

[8] Dobrzanski, L.A., Significance of materials science for advances inproducts design and manufacturing, Opening lecture on General As-sembly of CIRP, Cracov, 2004, unpublished.

[9] Dobrzanski, L.A., “Computational materials science as a method ofdesign of contemporary engineering materials and products”, 10thSeminary of Research and Education Programmes in Materials En-gineering, Myczkowce, 55–88, 2004 (in Polish).

[10] M. Ruehle, H. Dosch, E.J. Mittemeijer, M.H. Van de Voorde(Eds.), European White Book on Fundamental Research in Mate-rials Science, Max-Planck-Institute fuer Metallforschung, Stuttgart,2001.

[11] G.E. Dieter (Ed.), ASM Handbook—Materials Selection and Design,vol. 20, ASM International, Metals Park, 1997.

[12] M.F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, PergamonPress, Oxford/New York/Seoul/Tokyo, 1992.

[13] N.A. Waterman, M.F. Ashby, The Materials Selector, vol. 1–3,Chapman & Hall, London/Weinheim/New York/Tokyo/Melbourne/Madras, 1997.

[14] R. Wertheim, J. Harpaz, Collaboatin and globalisation of R&Din manufacturing engineering, in: Proceedings of Fourth Interna-tional Conference on Industrial Tools ICIT’2003, Bled-Celje, 3–8,2003.

[15] T.K. Derry, T.I. Williams, A Short History of Technology, DoverPublications Inc., New York, 1993.

[16] C.C. Bambach (Ed.), Leonardo da Vinci–Master Draftsman, TheMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Yale University Press, NewHaven and London, 2003.

Significance of materials science for the future development of societies

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