I. Introduction

The current outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease, hereafter referred to as EVD,

continues to wreak havoc in West Africa, notably in Sierra Leone and Liberia­­ countries

that have struggled with economic instability and what has been called the ‘resource

curse’. (see Figure 1.1). 1

The resource curse is a phenomenon that often occurs when countries are rich in

natural resources and so should be flourishing­­ contributing to socioeconomic

development and eradication of poverty­­ but

the opposite effects prevail. The

countries cannot seem to prosper

despite the abundance of their

natural resources and sources of

wealth. The symptoms of the

phenomenon tend to be poverty,

inequality, and violent conflict,

creating the conditions that foster

the spread of highly infectious

diseases such as Ebola. The resource curse in Sierra Leone and Liberia has created an

optimal breeding ground for EVD due to: lack of proper infrastructure, dense urban

populations, and little access to health care. Both countries fit the bill for susceptibility 2

1"Ebola virus disease." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/>. 2Bausch, Daniel G., and Lara Schwarz. "Outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease in Guinea: Where Ecology Meets Economy." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases:. Version 0003056. PLOS Medicine, 5 July 2014. Web. 21 Oct. 2014. <http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0003056>.

1

to severe and dangerous outbreaks, due to their ongoing struggle with the resource curse

and their post­civil war environments. 3

Scholars contend that there are three major factors attributed to the resource curse:

corruption and rent­seeking by public and private officials; volatility in world prices for

natural resources, and the fact that natural resource extraction does not necessarily create

jobs. In both Liberia and Sierra Leone, high­level officials have used resources for 4

personal benefit and the funding of rebellious groups; both countries failed to diversify

their economies, and relied foremost on exploitation of their natural resources­­primarily

diamonds. These factors have left the countries’ socioeconomic immune systems exposed

to disease, which continues to spread rapidly.

If Sierra Leone and Liberia are ever to recover from the Ebola epidemic, short and

long­term plans must be implemented­­both to contain the current outbreak and prevent

future ones from occurring. In order to understand the current proliferation of EVD, an

extensive investigation must be conducted into the economic standing of both Sierra

Leone and Liberia. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the historical background and

current economic status of both countries, and to show how the environment created by

these factors have left an exposed wound for EVD to feed upon.

3 Bausch, Daniel G., and Lara Schwarz. "Outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease in Guinea: Where Ecology Meets Economy." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases:. Version 0003056. PLOS Medicine, 5 July 2014. Web. 21 Oct. 2014. <http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0003056> 4 Barma, Naazneen H., Kai Kaiser, Lorena Vinuela, and Tuan Minh Le. "The Political Economy of Natural Resource­Led Development." Rents to Riches? January 1, 2012. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.imf.org/external/np/seminars/eng/2013/fiscalpolicy/pdf/rajaram.pdf.

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II. The Ebola Virus Disease

The Ebola Virus Disease is caused by a virus that was originally transmitted by

infected animals to humans, and is spread through human­to­human contact by exposure

to bodily fluids such as blood, saliva, urine and semen. The symptoms of EVD include

high fever, dehydration, bleeding and central nervous system damage. EVD has a 5

fatality rate of approximately 50%, and has no confirmed or licensed treatment as of

2014. The current outbreak in western Africa has a fatality rate of 55% and is steadily

increasing. 6

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), “early supportive care with

rehydration and symptomatic treatment improves survival but does not guarantee it.” As 7

stated previously, there is no licensed treatment; some survivors of EVD were treated

with experimental drugs, such as ZMapp. ZMapp is currently being developed by Mapp 8

Biopharmaceutical Inc., but has yet to be tested in large­scale human trials. It is a product

of three different monoclonal antibodies that bind to the protein of the Ebola virus.

ZMapp is still in the early stages of experimental development, and cannot yet be

confirmed whether or not the treatment will be effective. 9

5"Ebola virus disease." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/> 6 Kelland, Kate. "Ebola mortality rate expected to rise as outbreak runs its deadly course." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 5 Aug. 2014. Web. 21 Oct. 2014. <http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/05/us­health­ebola­mortality­idUSKBN0G526M20140805>. 7 "Ebola virus disease." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/>. [Emphasis added]. 8 "Questions and Answers on Experimental Treatments and Vaccines for Ebola." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 29 Aug. 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014. <http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/2014­west­africa/qa­experimental­treatments.html>. 9Ibid.

3

Other potential treatments are currently undergoing testing and investigation,

through advanced procedures such as blood products, and immune and drug therapies. 10

While research and development continue with innovative treatments, WHO officials

claim that symptoms of Ebola can be treated through supportive care such as extensive

rehydration and intravenous fluids. However, access to clean water is limited in the

affected countries due to ineffective infrastructure (see Figure 2.1). 11

Figure 2.1: Water Supply and Sanitation in Western Africa

In the meantime, WHO workers, government officials, volunteers from Doctors

Without Borders (DWB), and other non­governmental organizations (NGOs) have

implemented policies for prevention and containment of the situation. WHO has provided

policy guidelines to reduce risk, through a “developed preparedness plan tailored to

provide overall guidance for the control of Ebola.” Further emphasis has been made on 12

good lab services, safe burials of deceased victims, and social mobilization. But these

10 "Questions and Answers on Experimental Treatments and Vaccines for Ebola." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 29 Aug. 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014. <http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/2014­west­africa/qa­experimental­treatments.html>. 11Access figures calculated by AICD using data from the 2008 Demographic and Health Survey. 12"Ebola virus disease." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/>

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efforts work best in countries with strong governance and robust health systems; in the

absence of such institutions, it is much more difficult to contain EVD.

Sierra Leone and Liberia were suffering from exposed immune systems. Ebola

exploited this opportunity. Poor sanitation, limited access to basic medical care and

trained professionals has exponentially amplified the spread of EVD. As noted by WHO,

“large hemorrhagic fever virus outbreaks almost invariably occur in areas in which the

economy and public health systems have been decimated from years of civil conflict or

failed development.” 13

III. Historical Background: Liberia

Liberia was founded in 1847, driven primarily by the American desires to expel

former Black slaves after their emancipation. The United States American Colonization 14

Society sent representatives to find a location for the new colony, eventually finding

suitable land in what is now known as modern day Liberia. Soon, more colonies were

established, becoming permanent settlements for approximately 20,000 people. The 15

colonies struggled to be internationally recognized as sovereign states, and it wasn’t until

1846 that Liberia would be recognized as a republic. In October of 1846, the Liberian 16

colonists voted for independence; the following year, on July 26, 1847, the colonists

adopted and signed the Liberian Declaration of Independence, creating a sovereign state

13"Ebola virus disease." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/> 14 "Founding of Liberia, 1847 ­ 1830–1860 ­ Milestones ­ Office of the Historian." Founding of Liberia, 1847 ­ 1830–1860 ­ Milestones ­ Office of the Historian. Accessed December 8, 2014. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830­1860/liberia 15 "Founding of Liberia, 1847 ­ 1830–1860 ­ Milestones ­ Office of the Historian." Founding of Liberia, 1847 ­ 1830–1860 ­ Milestones ­ Office of the Historian. Accessed December 8, 2014. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830­1860/liberia 16"History Of Liberia: A Time Line." American Memory from the Library of Congress. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gmdhtml/libhtml/liberia.html

5

with a legitimate claim in the international community. The republic struggled to 17

maintain stability with its neighbors, but enjoyed several relatively peaceful years. The

year of 1979 marked the beginning of more tumultuous times: on April 14th, 1979, the

price of imported rice, a staple in the local diet, increased dramatically in order to

stimulate economic growth. However, the repercussions of the price inflation resulted in

the ‘rice riots’, which created severe infrastructural damage in the Liberian capital,

Monrovia. Liberian society was forced into a stressful and violent environment. More 18

and more citizens became disillusioned with the governmental forces of President

Tolbert’s administration. In 1980, Master Sergeant Samuel K. Doe of the Liberian Army

overthrew the Tolbert regime in a bloody coup, assassinating Tolbert, and installing

himself as acting president. From 1980 to 1989, Doe controlled Liberia with his corrupt 19

forces. 20

In December of 1989, Doe’s administration was officially challenged by the

rising warlord Charles G. Taylor. On December 24, 1989, Liberia underwent its first

bloody civil war, when Libyan­ trained rebels led by Taylor invaded from the Ivory

Coast. The repressive regime of President Samuel Doe was extremely unpopular among 21

the Liberians, and Taylor’s rebels, members of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia

17"History Of Liberia: A Time Line." American Memory from the Library of Congress. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gmdhtml/libhtml/liberia.html 18 "Global Connections Liberia." PBS. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/liberia/timeline/time4.html. 19Ibid. 20Ibid. 21 "Military." Liberia. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/liberia­1989.htm.

6

(NPFL) rapidly gained public support. The United States, disinclined to get involved,

disengaged entirely from Liberia, contributing to the turmoil.

Taylor’s militia clashed with governmental forces, resulting in a bloodbath; it is

estimated that from 1989 to 1993, the NPFL was responsible for the deliberate killing of

thousands of citizens in Liberia. Nevertheless, local county leaders urged young men to 22

join Taylor’s cause, sincerely believing that his sole purpose was to remove the tyrannical

President Doe.

The conflict continued for

four years, due to the fact that the

warlords were wantonly

“exploiting their country’s

resources to keep themselves and

their ragtag forces in weapons with

virtual impunity, and in some cases, complicity.” Once the war had started, “Taylor 23

found wealth, and the war was increasingly about maintaining that fortune. The primary

source of revenue for these warlords were Liberia’s diamonds” (See Figure 3.1). 24

Along with the diamond revenue, the NPFL exploited Liberia’s timber, rubber, gold and

iron ore, earning approximately $85 million from the exports. 25

When it became evident that the warlords­­Taylor, George Boley and Alhaji

Kromah­­rejected a transition to normalcy in order to maintain their corrupt power, three

22 "Military." Liberia. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/liberia­1989.htm. 23Ibid. 24Ibid. 25Ibid.

7

distinct factions formed: one group still loyal to Doe, and two separate anti­Taylor

groups, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the

Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL). The Liberian people suffered greatly 26 27

as the factions, the NPFL, and governmental forces clashed violently and repeatedly. It

wasn’t until 1996 that a ceasefire was brokered between opposing rebels. With the help

of international organizations, notably the United Nations, Liberia installed a transitional

government including all factional leaders. The first presidential elections were held, 28

resulting in the election of Taylor in 1997. Despite the progressive measures, Liberia 29

remained in a state of dire need; in 1996­1997 its Treasury contained only $17,000 and

the government owed $2 billion in foreign debt, as well as $200 million in domestic debt.

30 31

Patterns of human right abuses and corruption continued and contributed to

aggravate the situation. LURD and MODEL developed agendas to oust Taylor from

power, escalating into the second civil war in 1999. After several years of bloody civil 32

war, a peace treaty was signed as a result of international mediation, similar to the

conclusion of the first civil war. The Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement, signed on

26Cook, Nicolas. "Liberia's Post­War Development and U.S. Assistance." Congressional Research Service RL33185.7­5700 (2010): 3. Print. 27 "Kromah And Taylor’s Twisted Logic." Kromah And Taylor’s Twisted Logic. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.theperspective.org/twistedlogic.html. 28 "Global Connections Liberia." PBS. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/liberia/timeline/time4.html. 29"Chapter 8: Libera's Second Civil War 1997­2003." A House with Two Rooms. 2009. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/Chapter 8­Liberia's Second Civil War; 1997­2003.pdf. 30Ibid. 31 "Taylor Says He Found Only 17,000 Dollars In National Coffer." ReliefWeb. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://reliefweb.int/report/liberia/taylor­says­he­found­only­17000­dollars­national­coffer. 32 Cook, Nicolas. "Liberia's Post­War Recovery: Key Issues and Developments." CRS Report for Congress. December 13, 2005. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl33185.pdf.

8

August 18th of 2003, led to Charles Taylor’s resignation and his political asylum in

Nigeria. Formally resigning his presidency, Taylor handed over power to his vice 33

president, Gyude Bryant, who was then elected to head the National Transitional

Government of Liberia. Heavy assistance from the United States and UN attempted to 34

alleviate the humanitarian conditions in the wake of the cease­fire, in preparation for the

UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL). UNMIL’s mandate enabled “the transition of full 35

security responsibility to the Liberia National Police by strengthening its capabilities;

promot[ed] human rights; support[ed] national processes of reconciliation, constitutional

reform and decentralization…[and] coordinat[ed] and collaborat[ed] with the

Peacebuilding Commission on its engagement in Liberia.” 36

With the assistance of UNMIL, Liberia held post­war elections in 2005, which

instated Ellen Johnson­Sirleaf—an economist with multinational organization

experience—as the first female president of an African country, who remains in office

today. While UNMIL was received successfully, and humanitarian conditions have 37

improved dramatically in the post­war society, Liberia remains highly dependent on

substantial international food aid and fiscal donations.

33 "Peace Agreements Digital Collection­ Liberia." United States Institute of Peace. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/liberia_08182003.pdf. 34 "Chapter 8: Libera's Second Civil War 1997­2003." A House with Two Rooms. January 1, 2009. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/Chapter 8­Liberia's Second Civil War; 1997­2003.pdf. 35 Cook, Nicolas. "Liberia's Post­War Development and U.S. Assistance." Congressional Research Service RL33185.7­5700 (2010): 4. Print. 36 "United Nations Mission in Liberia." UNMIL Mandate. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://unmil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=3935&language=en­US. 37 "United Nations Mission in Liberia." UNMIL Mandate. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://unmil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=3935&language=en­US.

9

By April of 2006, just 3 years after the signing of the peace accord, approximately

321,000 Liberian refugees and internally displaced persons (IDP) had returned to their

place of origin, relying on resettlement assistance, which consisted of non­food items,

aid, and food supplies. Reconstruction projects have been implemented, in order to 38

increase the carrying capacity of Liberia. Nevertheless, the state faces extreme public

health challenges, even prior to the most recent outbreak of EVD; malaria, tuberculosis,

yellow fever, measles, and cholera are endemic and periodical. Liberia lacks the 39 40

necessary infrastructure required to combat said diseases, and medical staff and supplies

are in constant demand.

Furthermore, Liberian financial flows to infrastructure are directed primarily

towards power and transportation sectors, spending only $8 US million per year on

sanitation and water supply, in contrast to the $39 million and $23 million on transport

and information­communication technologies, respectively (see Figure 3.1). 41

38 "Liberia." United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Accessed December 9, 2014. https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/CERF/Liberia_2006_210807_Final.pdf. 39 Cook, Nicolas. "Liberia's Post­War Development and U.S. Assistance." Congressional Research Service RL33185.7­5700 (2010): 33. Print. 40It is important to note that several of the above listed diseases are waterborne stomach illnesses, due to contaminated in and inadequate sources of water. 41 Foster, Vivien, and Nataliya Pushak. "Liberia's Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective ." World Bank Working Paper 5597 (2011): 32. Print.

10

In order to act preventatively and preemptively, Liberia would need to redistribute

financial flows and spending towards increased water supply and sanitation, which in

turn would drastically cut down the number of cases stemming from water­borne

illnesses. Increasing expenditures in infrastructure, not just for transport, but for medical

buildings and trained staff could have contained the Ebola outbreak to a much smaller

arena, and saved more lives.

Liberia’s infrastructure challenges exist in almost all aspects of society: air

transportation, information and communications technology (ICT), ports, power, roads,

as well as water and sanitation. The challenges are immense and often overwhelming.

There is continuous need to improve air safety and security—in the case of the EVD

outbreak, increased security could have prevent the transpiration of EVD victims and

contained the disease. Furthermore, rehabilitating the previous deteriorated road network,

and establishing institutions with the capacity for roadwork and maintenance could

provide both rural and urban populations with faster and more efficient access to health

care facilities. As to water and sanitation, low­cost water purification technologies could

11

easily increase the access to improved sanitation, and reduce open defecation, a practice

common in primarily rural areas but in urban areas of Liberia as well. 4243

Liberia perfectly exemplifies the determinantal effects of the resource curse with

the consequential fall out of civil war. Despite the challenges, Liberia has seen some

progress and achievements in recent years, such as reestablishing minimal power supply

in the capital city of Monrovia, capturing limited donor finance for road reconstruction,

and the relatively low reliance on surface water nationwide. 44

IV. Historical Background: Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone suffered from a long and brutal civil war, spanning over 11 years,

from 1991­2002, destroying the infrastructure and spirit of the nation. The conflict 45

originated from government corruption in the years after independence in 1961.When

Sierra Leone claimed self­determination from the British colonial rule, a political power

vacuum was created, and unsuccessfully filled by various regimes. In 1967, acting

Premier Siaka Stevens became head of the civilian government, and officially president

in 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic. At this time, Sierra Leone was a 46

one­party state—the party known as the All People’s Congress. After a relative peace 47

and stability, President Stevens retired, instating Major­General Joseph Saidu Momoh,

42Foster, Vivien, and Nataliya Pushak. "Liberia's Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective ." World Bank Working Paper 5597 (2011): 5. Print. 43 "IWA Publishing ­ Low Cost Emergency Water Purification Technologies." IWA Publishing ­ Low Cost Emergency Water Purification Technologies. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.iwapublishing.com/template.cfm?name=isbn9781780406428. 44 Foster, Vivien, and Nataliya Pushak. "Liberia's Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective ." World Bank Working Paper 5597 (2011): 5. Print. 45Cook, Nicolas. "Sierra Leone: Transition to Peace." Congressional Research Service RL31062 (2009): 10. WikiLeaks Document Release. Web. 9 Oct. 2014. 46"Sierra Leone Profile." BBC News. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world­africa­14094419. 47Ibid.

12

who declared a state of economic emergency in 1987; year after year, new coups were

led, failing to deal with the rebellious Revolutionary United Front (RUF). The systematic

corruption devolved into severe deterioration of state governing capacity and control over

the natural resources, i.e. diamonds. 48

Diamonds were smuggled out of Sierra Leone by Taylor, who was wreaking

havoc in Liberia, and sold internationally. These became known as blood diamonds or

conflict diamonds, which were primarily used to purchase weapons. The role of the 49

resource became vital to the success of the factions and warlords, but heavily contributed

to the resource curse in Sierra Leone. Innocent civilians, often children, were used for

free labor.They excavated the diamonds using primitive methods such as digging only

with their bare hands. A valuable resource, which had the potential to stimulate a

struggling economy, ended up corrupting the regime and brought suffering to the Sierra

Leoneans.

As noted by Nicolas Cook, “the fundamental collapse of Sierra Leone were the

civil war in Liberia and its export into Sierra Leone; and in good part in order to capture

the revenues that were available from its diamond deposits/artisanal diamond fields.” The

civil war began in early March of 1991, with the invasion of Sierra Leone from Liberia

by forces of the RUF led by army Corporal Foday Sankoh. Post­independence 50

patronage and corruption provided ineffective civil and military services that were

48"Sierra Leone Profile." BBC News. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world­africa­14094419. 49 Armstrong, Paul. "How Diamonds Fuel Africa's Conflicts." CNN. January 1, 1970. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.cnn.com/2012/04/26/world/africa/blood­diamonds/. 50Cook, Nicolas. "Sierra Leone: Transition to Peace." Congressional Research Service RL31062 (2009): 10. WikiLeaks Document Release. Web. 9 Oct. 2014. 10. Print.

13

useless against the RUF fighters. Weak resistance to the rebel soldiers resulted in a coup,

with many Sierra Leoneans defecting to the RUF forces, recruiting children as soldiers as

well. 51

Enlistment to the RUF was immensely popular because they claimed to be

“committed to democratic ideals and holds as sacrosanct the right of a people to organize

themselves to re­take power when a government fails to be representative and sustaining

in all intent and purpose.” Their core principles emphasized: arms to the people; power 52

to the people; wealth to the people. However, what RUF advocated differed from their 53

actions. Similarly to their neighbors in Sierra Leone, Liberian factions used extreme

violence to control the diamond resources, using the profits to fund their militia. 54

In 1991, a new constitution was drafted and adopted, incorporating multiple

parties in efforts to quell uprising violence in the region. President Momoh failed to 55

deal with Corporal Sankoh and Taylor, despite immense international pressure. A 56

temporary peace agreement was signed with Sankoh’s rebels several years later, due to

51 "Sierra Leone Rebels Forcefully Recruit Child Soldiers | Human Rights Watch." Sierra Leone Rebels Forcefully Recruit Child Soldiers | Human Rights Watch. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.hrw.org/news/2000/05/31/sierra­leone­rebels­forcefully­recruit­child­soldiers. 52 "Footpaths to Democracy ­ Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone ­ Sierra Leone Web." Footpaths to Democracy ­ Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone ­ Sierra Leone Web. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/footpaths.htm 53 "Footpaths to Democracy ­ Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone ­ Sierra Leone Web." Footpaths to Democracy ­ Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone ­ Sierra Leone Web. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/footpaths.htm 54Ibid. 55 "The Constitution of Sierra Leone, 1991." September, 1991. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.sierra­leone.org/Laws/constitution1991.pdf. 56 "US and UK Government International Intervention Since 1945: Sierra Leone." US and UK Government International Intervention Since 1945: Sierra Leone. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.us­uk­interventions.org/Sierra_Leone.html.

14

United Nations­initiated peace talks from 1994­1995, advocating a program of

disarmament and reintegration. 57

However, by 1997, the peace treaty unraveled and the UN Security Council

imposed sanctions on the nation, barring “the supply of arms and petroleum products...

[and] logistical support.” It was not until January of 1999 that another ceasefire was 58

implemented, again by UN intervention. Six week long talks in Lomé, Togo resulted in 59

the 1999 Lomé Peace Accords, which provided legal basis for “power­sharing

arrangements between the elected government and the RUF.” It additionally provided 60

lawful foundations for the transformation of the RUF into a political party. Furthermore,

despite the human rights violation committed in excavating the diamonds that funded

their factions, the rebels were assured that they would not be prosecuted for war crimes. 61

In support of conflict resolution and the reestablishment of an elected government

in Sierra Leone, the United States provided both humanitarian and security assistance to

the state. Nevertheless, insecurity continued until 2001, causing the Sierra Leonean 62

government to postpone presidential and parliamentary elections. Stability and peace

were never fully restored, yet much effort has been directed towards modernization and

the rebuilding of infrastructure networks. Regardless, Sierra Leone faces several critical

57 Fox, Maggie, and Kristen Welker. "Obama Seeks $6 Billion for Ebola Fight ­ NBC News." NBC News. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. <http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ebola­virus­outbreak/obama­seeks­6­billion­ebola­fight­n242181> . 58"Sierra Leone Profile." BBC News. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world­africa­14094419. 59Ibid, 60"The Lomé Peace Agreement ." Peace Accords. N.p., 25 May 1999. Web. 21 Oct. 2014. <https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/site_media/media/accords/The_Lome_Peace_Agreement­_1999.pdf> . 61 "Sierra Leone Profile." BBC News. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world­africa­14094419. 62 Cook, Nicolas. "Sierra Leone: Transition to Peace." Congressional Research Service RL31062 (2009): 3. WikiLeaks Document Release. Web. 9 Oct. 2014.

15

infrastructure challenges, such as poor water service, overall inadequate road

infrastructure, and lack of sanitation facilities. 63

The economy of Sierra Leone has expanded by approximately 10 percent,

according to the World Bank, but, “despite improvements in infrastructures, Sierra Leone

only added 0.51 percentage points to the per capita growth rate from 2003 to 2007­­

much less than most other countries in the region or many other fragile countries. But like

other African countries, the boost came predominantly from the ICT [Information and

Communications Technology] revolution, while power­vector deficiencies and poor

roads held back per capita growth by 0.08 and 0.05 percentage points respectively” (See

Figure 4.1). 64

Since the beginning of

the 2014 Ebola outbreak, the

government of Sierra Leone

has attempted to contain the

spread of EVD.

Unfortunately, the measures

have not been effective, due

to resonating mistrust of the

government and WHO

medical workers. Long

63 "Infrastructure and Growth in Sierra Leone." African Development Bank. August 4, 1963. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project­and­Operations/IIAP Short (En) Intérieur.pdf. 64Foster, Vivien, and Nataliya Pushak. "Liberia's Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective ." World Bank Working Paper5597 (2011): 2. Print.

16

distrust of governmental officials and intervening powers has continued to deteriorate

civic­government relations. Therefore, instead of collaborating with the locals, stricter

enforcements were required, and the state was locked down into a state of emergency.

Through this transition, the government was able to “institute extraordinary measures,

including, if need be, the suspensions of certain rights and privileges,” and threats of

punishment for individuals harboring Ebola patients. Furthermore, both the police and 65

military forces have barred citizens from entering or exiting districts with high amounts

of EVD cases; some of these zones stretch over 185 square miles, containing

approximately 70% of the nation’s EVD cases. The quarantined zones have increased 66

skepticism of government efficiency, due to fears over potential food shortages, which

has lead to the continual consumption of wild animals despite the risk of high

contamination concentration, further exasperating the problem. 67

Overcoming the inadequacy of the infrastructure could improve national

connectivity as well as agricultural practices, and provide the populace with sanitation

and medical facilities; the lack thereof is contributing to the rapid spread of EVD in the

state. However, such measures must provide rapid positive change, with governmental

and international short­term goals, in order for the populace to reinstate their faith in the

65"Liberia: President Sirleaf Declares 90­Day State of Emergency, As Governments Steps Up the Fight Against the Spread of the Ebola Virus Disease."allAfrica.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2014. <http://allafrica.com/stories/201408071685>. 66"MRU Leaders Meet in Conakry, Agree on Measures to Fight the Ebola Viral Disease." Joint Declaration of Heads of State and Government of the Mano River Union for the Eradication of Ebola in West Africa . N.p., 1 Aug. 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014. <http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/MRU_EBOLA_jOINT.pdf>. 67"MRU Leaders Meet in Conakry, Agree on Measures to Fight the Ebola Viral Disease." Joint Declaration of Heads of State and Government of the Mano River Union for the Eradication of Ebola in West Africa . N.p., 1 Aug. 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014. <http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/MRU_EBOLA_jOINT.pdf>.

17

government. Short­term agendas will only benefit the overarching long­term goals of

prevention and containment.

V. Current Responses:

For the past few years, Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, being Liberia’s

first elected leader after the devastating civil war, was faced with various challenges: all

progressive measures towards economic growth in the nation have been halted as a result

of the current EVD outbreak. In addition to all the physical constraints and setbacks, 68

President Johnson Sirleaf has also dealt with the challenges of fears within the

international community, accusing her of

overreaching her authority, after she “declared a

state of emergency in August, which has allowed

her to restrict people’s movements, impose curfews

and shut down businesses.” The lawmakers of 69

Liberia also denied her request for increased powers.

Nevertheless, Sirleaf advocates for the allocation of

funds to include economic stimulation; according to

President Sirleaf attempts will be made to “leverage

Ebola help for broader economic projects—like fixing

68Cooper, Helene. "Liberia's Ebola Crisis Puts President in a Harsh Light." The New York Times 31 Oct. 2014, No. 56,671 ed., VOL. CLXIV sec.: A1­A13. Print. 69 Onishi, Norimitsu. "Inquiry Faults Liberia Force That Fired on Protesters." The New York Times. November 3, 2014. Accessed November 11, 2014. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/world/africa/soldiers­faulted­in­deadly­crackdown­during­ebola­protests­in­liberia.html?_r=0 .

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the runway at the airport…the support that’s coming must not all go into Ebola.” The 70

international response has funded the majority of the efforts in treating and containing the

EVD outbreak.

Despite significant contributions from the United Kingdom, China, Cuba, and the

United States, there still remains a lack of resources necessary to combat Ebola. The 71

Center for Disease Control (CDC) based in Atlanta, and WHO confirmed the total

number of EVD cases to be 13,042 and spanning over 6 countries, as of November 2014

(See Figure 5.1). An estimated 1.4 million is susceptible to contraction in Sierra Leone 72

and Liberia by January 2015, if combative measures do not receive the increased funding

and resources requires. Therefore, the CDC has created a responsive plan, enumerated 73 74

by five priorities: stopping the outbreak, treating the infected, ensuring essential services,

preserving stability, and preventing outbreaks in unaffected countries. 75

The United States, already contributing an impressive $200 million in funding to

the Ebola relief fund, has increased measures domestically and internationally, with the

introduction of the first few confirmed cases to reach American soil. President Barack 76

70Ibid. 71 "UN 'lacks Resources' to Fight Ebola." BBC News. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. <http://www.bbc.com/news/world­europe­29929024>. 72 "Ebola Response Roadmap Situation Report." World Health Organization, 2014, 1­12. 73Salaam­Blyther, Tiaji. "U.S. and International Health Responses to the Ebola Outbreak in West Africa." Congressional Research Service R43697, no. 7­5700 (2014): 2. Print. 74 "Ebola Cases Seen Declining In Liberia, WHO Says In New Update." NPR. NPR. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo­way/2014/11/05/361857706/ebola­cases­seen­declining­in­liberia­who­says­in­new­update>. 75Cooper, Helene. "Liberia's Ebola Crisis Puts President in a Harsh Light." The New York Times 31 Oct. 2014, No. 56,671 ed., VOL. CLXIV sec.: 17. Print. 76 Sanchez, Raf. "What Countries Have Pledged to Fight Ebola... and How Much They've Paid into the Fund." The Telegraph. October 22, 2014. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/ebola/11179135/What­countries­have­pledged­to­fight­Ebola...­and­how­much­theyve­paid­into­the­fund.html.

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Obama has recently petitioned Congress for an additional $6.8 billion to combat EVD in

both the United States and West Africa. The allocation of funds will include institutions 77

such as the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Department of State

(DoS), Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the United States Agency for

International Development (USAID), the Department of Defense (DoD) and many other

departments and agencies. 78

The breakdown of the financial aid will result in the monetary allotments—each

with a specific purpose—to the following: $4.5 billion is designated for immediate

response; $1.5 billion for a contingency fund. This increase in financial aid would be

added onto the already $4 billion directed to HHS, $1.8 billion to the CDCP, $238

million for drug/vaccine research and development. USAID, due to the $1.98 billion

fund, has successfully increased West African efforts, such as building new treatment

clinics, as well as distributing food and supplies. The State Department received $127 79

million to expand evacuation capacity for patients. According to the Obama

Administration, the request for increased financial aid also included the request for,

Resources for domestic hospitals, state and local preparedness; resources to support training as well as the acquisition of appropriate protective equipment; medical and non­medical management of Ebola treatment units and community care centers; infection control; contact tracing; laboratory capacity; disease surveillance; emergency operation centers; education and outreach; burial teams; addressing food insecurity and other adverse impacts of the

77Fox, Maggie, and Kristen Welker. "Obama Seeks $6 Billion for Ebola Fight ­ NBC News." NBC News. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. <http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ebola­virus­outbreak/obama­seeks­6­billion­ebola­fight­n242181>. 78Ibid. 79Fox, Maggie, and Kristen Welker. "Obama Seeks $6 Billion for Ebola Fight ­ NBC News." NBC News. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. <http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ebola­virus­outbreak/obama­seeks­6­billion­ebola­fight­n242181>.

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outbreak in affected areas, testing and development of new vaccines; therapeutics and diagnostics. 80

As the primary funder for the EVD combating initiative, the United States expects

financial support to continue in an upward trajectory. As of October 2014, the United

States has deployed approximately 900 citizens and 4,000 military personnel to the West

African region. 81

While the massive increase towards combative expenditures will greatly assist the

current Ebola outbreak struggle, reports have come in that the efforts are “being

hampered by poor coordination and serious disagreement between Liberian officials and

the donors and health agencies fighting the epidemic.” Plagued by inefficiency, the 82

erection of field hospitals has been delayed, and hierarchies of communication have been

convoluted. Nevertheless, the Director of the CDC announced in November 2014, that

due to coupling with local communities, the combative measures against the outbreak

have exponentially stopped the further spread of EVD.

VI. Conclusion:

The Ebola Virus Disease has wreaked havoc in Sierra Leone and Liberia due to

the disastrous consequences of the resource curse. The violent civil wars that ensued as a

result of the resource curse deteriorated efficient governments and created unstable living

80 Ibid. 81Salaam­Blyther, Tiaji. "U.S. and International Health Responses to the Ebola Outbreak in West Africa." Congressional Research Service R43697, no. 7­5700 (2014): 11. Print. 82Mcneil, Donald. "Ebola Response in Liberia Is Hampered by Infighting." The New York Times. November 19, 2014. Accessed November 21, 2014. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/20/world/africa/ebola­response­in­liberia­is­hampered­by­infighting­.html?_r=2.

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environments. With civic­government relations in shambles, there was no enforcement of

standards, infrastructure maintenance or adequate resources. The economies of both

Sierra Leone and Liberia suffered dramatically by racking up intense international loans

and foreign debt. The inabilities of the countries pay off the humanitarian and economic

aid has affected projects in infrastructure, water sanitation, and adequate health care

facilities. The collision of several factors created the EVD pandemic and amplified the

situation through little access to hospitals, inadequate resources and clean water, failure

to contain the outbreak due to laxity in infrastructure maintenance and travel, and the

mistrust of government officials as a result of the civil wars. EVD itself is irrelevant­­any

highly transmissible infectious disease could have done the same amount of damage in

western Africa­­the environments were extremely poor, vulnerable and exposed, allowing

the disease to flourish and infect thousands.

The international community has primarily focused on short term solutions and

the immediate containment of EVD. This is not to say that the short term solutions should

not have the highest priority; however, it is important not to stifle the fire and leave

smoldering embers. Long term solutions and funding are imperative to acting

preemptively towards future outbreaks. Humanitarian organizations and third party

intervening nations already have donated billions to the relief effort, but need to invest

further towards infrastructure, water sanitation, and health facilities on the regional,

national and international level. The outbreak is not unique to EVD; as stated previously,

any transmissible virus or disease could have destroyed western Africa with the same

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intensity. Nor is the phenomenon limited to Africa. Countries that suffer from resource

curses have higher susceptibility to such dangerous outbreaks.

The purpose of this paper was to display the resource curse as a weakening agent

that contributed to the spread of the Ebola Virus Disease. The countries directly affected,

Sierra Leone and Liberia­­along with international organizations, and influential nations

such as China and the United States­­have focused primarily on short term solutions: to

contain and eradicate EVD. However, it is equally as important to implement long term

solutions in order to prevent further disastrous outbreaks. By investing in long term

solution plans both Sierra Leone and Liberia would maximize their economic potential

and create a stable living environment after years of brutal and bloody civil war. Both

Sierra Leone and Liberia can no longer afford to be sick and cursed.

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