Seventh Graders' Vocational Interest and Efficacy Expectation Patterns

Seventh Graders' Vocational Interest andEfficacy Expectation PatternsRichard T. LapanAngela AdamsSherri TurnerJeanne M. Hinkelman

University of Missouri-Columbia

Currently, a window of opportunity exists to greatly expand careercounseling services for kindergarten through twelfth grade students.Enhanced career development activities for all students are presentlymandated by federal legislation (School-to-Work Opportunities Act of1994), supported by widespread public opinion (Brown, Minor, &Jepsen, 1992), and advocated by the school counselor profession(American School Counseling Association, 1985). Unfortunately, asBloch (1996) pointed out, in many states school administrators andcounselors have limited awareness of and commitment to workforcepreparation policies (Secretary's Commission on Achieving NecessarySkills, 1991) and related K-12 career development objectives (Na-tional Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1989)(NOICC). However, Lapan, Gysbers, and Sun (1997) found in a state-wide study of high schools where counselors were more fully imple-menting a comprehensive guidance program concept (Gysbers & Hen-derson, 1994) students reported that: more career information wasbeing made available to them, that their education was better prepar-ing them for their futures, and that they were earning higher grades.

Recently, increased attention has focused on the specific career de-velopment needs of middle school students (e.g., Lapan & Jingeleski,

This research was funded in part by a grant from the University of Missouri Collegeof Education's Math, Science, and Technology Initiative. Special thanks to Dr. JohnWedman, the school counselors, and middle school students for their support and par-ticipation in this project.

Address correspondence to Dr. Richard T. Lapan, 16 Hill Hall, University of Mis-souri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211.

215Journal of Career Development, Vol. 26(3), Spring 2000® 2000 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

Journal of Career Development

1992; Post, Williams, & Brubaker, 1996). Using nationwide data (i.e.,the National Educational Longitudinal Sample of 1988), Mau (1995)found that when considering educational and vocational decisionsmiddle school students were more likely to turn to peers for adviceand underutilize counselors. Further, students who performed wellacademically aspired to higher educational goals. However, this rela-tionship was weaker for minority students. In addition, young womenwere less likely than young men to approach counselors for assistancewith educational and vocational planning. Mau (1995) concluded thatspecial efforts needed to be made to more actively involve all stu-dents, especially middle school girls, in career planning and counsel-ing activities. Such efforts by school counselors are likely to be pos-itively received by students as survey data collected in the UnitedStates and in other countries has consistently found that middle andhigh school students are both interested in and highly value informa-tion and discussions about their vocational futures (e.g., Carr &Schmidt, 1994).

The self-efficacy construct (Bandura, 1986) has proven to be an im-portant individual difference variable in vocational psychology (Betz,Harmon & Borgen, 1996). Prior career development research hasstrongly suggested that at different ages and across diverse popula-tions, situation specific self-referent expectations substantially influ-ence the vocational development process for both women and men(The Career Development Quarterly, 1996). Lapan, Boggs, and Morrill(1988) suggested that interest inventories would be enhanced by in-corporating efficacy expectation scores for specific constructs and theoccupational categories measured by these assessment instruments.Betz et al. (1996) argued for the importance of helping counselors andclients understand vocational interest and efficacy expectation pat-terns across the six General Occupational Themes, i.e., Hollandthemes (1985), of the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) (1996). Priorwork with middle school students has begun to identify emerging vo-cational interest and efficacy expectation patterns (e.g., Post Kam-mer, 1985; Lapan & Jingeleski, 1992; Post et al., 1996) that schoolcounselors could address during the vocational curriculum componentof their comprehensive guidance program. Effective classroom inter-ventions have the advantage of reaching out to far greater numbers ofmiddle school students, especially young women who may be quitereluctant to approach counselors for help (Mau, 1995).

The present study explored crystallizing vocational interest and ef-ficacy patterns for seventh grade girls and boys. It was hoped that

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R. T. Lapan, A. Adams, S. Turner, and J. M. Hinkelman

results would assist school counselors and teachers to identify andmore effectively respond to the variety of student interest and efficacypatterns found in middle school classrooms. Also, differences in inter-est and efficacy patterns between girls and boys were examined. Theextent to which these patterns are influenced by student understand-ing of current employment pattern differences between men andwomen (Gottfredson, 1981) were studied. Research questions ad-dressed in this study are consistent with NOICC's (1989) gender eq-uity, career development competencies that attempt to enhance mid-dle school students' understanding of the possible influence sex-rolestereotyping, bias, and discrimination exert on the limitation of ca-reer options and academic achievement.

Research Questions

1. This study explores whether and to what extent middle school girlsand boys agree in their understanding of current employment pat-tern differences between men and women. Further, perceived gen-der differences in current employment patterns across each of Hol-land's (1985) six occupational themes will be examined.

2. It is expected that girls will express greater interest and efficacyfor those Holland themes that are understood to be dominated incurrent employment by women. Also, boys will be more interestedin and have greater efficacy for those Holland themes that are un-derstood to be dominated in current employment by men. No gen-der differences will be found in interest and efficacy patterns forthose Holland themes that are understood by middle school stu-dents to have relatively equivalent numbers of women and menemployed.

3. This study also assesses whether or not students fall into well de-fined, homogenous clusters of interest and efficacy patterns acrossHolland themes.

Method

Participants

One hundred and eleven, seventh grade students (girls = 68,boys = 44) participated in this study. These students attended an

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ethnic and racially diverse middle school. The school drew studentsfrom mostly lower, middle class neighborhoods of a midwestern city(population approximately 75,000). Informed consent was obtainedthrough parent and student permission. Social Studies teachers andthe school counselors collaborated together to offer seventh graders afour week career exploration course. Students participated in this re-search project at the beginning of this four week period in their SocialStudies classrooms. Data were collected from four different classes.The principal author and second author of this paper led studentsthrough all classroom research activities. Students completed all re-search materials in four, 40 minute class periods.

Measures

All data was collected using the middle school version of the Map-ping Vocational Challenges workbook (MVC) (Lapan, Loehr-Lapan, &Tupper, 1995). Based on the work of Gottfredson (1981) and Betz andHackett (1981), MVC contains a set of inter-related activities devel-oped for use in classrooms. Students create a color coded "map" illus-trating how interests and efficacy expectations interact across occupa-tions that vary in perceived differences in current employmentpatterns for women and men. Research has suggested that this activ-ity provides counselors a practical strategy to introduce groups ofmiddle school students to some of the issues in the career develop-ment literature that play a role in circumscribing choice and percep-tions of opportunities (Gottfredson & Lapan, in press). Prior datagathered with the assessment portions of these materials have shownclear similarity to those reported both in the updated norms measur-ing interest patterns for both men and women across the six GeneralOccupational Themes (i.e., Holland themes) of the SII and researchsupporting the expanded self-efficacy career development model (Lentet al., 1994).

In consultation with the school counselor, 45 careers were selectedto represent Holland's six themes: 12 Realistic careers, 9 Investiga-tive careers, 9 Artistic careers, 5 Social careers, 5 Enterprising ca-reers, and 5 Conventional careers. Selection of careers to themes wasbased both on the placement of Occupational Scales to General Occu-pational Themes on the SII and careers to Holland themes on the SelfDirected Search (Holland, 1987). Also, the school counselor chose sev-eral occupations that would soon be part of her school-to-work careerexploration focus for the school. This resulted in an uneven distribu-

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tion of jobs across Holland themes. The MVC workbook presented oc-cupational information for each of these careers, i.e., expected workactivities, necessary skills and training, helpful high school classes totake, employment outlook, and national salary figures. Students weregiven time throughout the 4 class periods to review and discuss thisinformation. This placed students in a more informed position tomake the following decisions about each career.

Vocational interests. After presenting occupational information on the45 careers selected for this study students made interest decisions oneach career. The MVC workbook listed each career and placed both a"smily" face and a "frowning" face next to each career. Students wereinstructed to color in the "smily" faces of the 15 careers that theyliked the best, and then the "frowning" faces of the 15 careers thatthey liked the least. Each career was then given a value of 1 if thestudent expressed low interest in it, 3 if high interest, or 2 if mediuminterest (i.e., leaving it blank as indicating it was neither in the mostor least preferred group of occupations). For each student, mean in-terest scores were computed across the subset of careers that hadbeen chosen to represent each Holland theme. Mean scores were usedin subsequent analyses for all variables measured by the MVC activ-ity.

Perceived employment pattern differences between women and men.After completing the interest inventory, students were given a colorcoded x-y coordinate grid. The y-axis of the grid was divided intothree levels and labeled low interest, medium interest, and high in-terest. Across the top of the grid the high interest area was colored inyellow. In the middle of the grid the medium interest area was leftwhite and across the bottom the low interest area was colored pink.The x-axis was divided into five levels and labeled, from left to right,Mostly Men, More Men, Both Men and Women, More Women, andMostly Women. This resulted in a grid that contained 15 boxes, i.e., 3interest levels X 5 sex type levels. Each of these 15 boxes was furthersubdivided to create smaller rectangular boxes that students coulduse to write in the names of different careers. Students then madejudgments of the relative proportions of men or women currently em-ployed in each of the 45 careers; first for the 15 high interest careers,second for the moderate interest careers, and finally for the low inter-est careers. For example, a student who was highly interested in pur-suing a career as an Engineer and believed that there were more men

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then women who were currently employed as Engineers would writeEngineer in one of the smaller rectangular boxes of the More Mencolumn of the y axis. High interest careers were written across thetop third of the grid that was colored in yellow. Moderate interestcareers were listed across the white, middle third of the grid and lowinterest careers across the pink, bottom third of the grid. Each occu-pation was then assigned (by the researchers) the following valuesbased on the column that the student placed them in: MostlyMen = 1, More Men = 2, Both Men and Women = 3, MoreWomen = 4, Mostly Women = 5. Mean scores were computed byHolland theme and used in subsequent analyses.

Self-efficacy judgments. Students were then given a blue marker andfollowing Betz and Hackett's (1981) methodology for assessing careerrelated self-efficacy expectations, students were asked to decidewhether or not they believed themselves capable of successfully per-forming the educational and job duties for each career. Students wereencouraged and provided an opportunity to review information de-scribing each of the 45 careers used in this study. If they felt confidentof their ability to be successful in a career they were instructed to usethe blue marker and color over the small rectangular box that con-tained the name of that career. In this way, an efficacy decision wasmade for each of the 45 careers. The interaction between the primarycolors and the grid with the blue marker created, by design, six colorcoded categories. Visually, students could see Green colored careerswhich represented high interest (Yellow) and high efficacy (Blue). Yel-low careers represented careers that students had high interest inbut low efficacy. Blue careers represented moderate interest careersthat students felt efficacious about. White careers linked moderateinterest with low efficacy. Purple careers highlighted those careersthat students felt efficacious about but in which they had no interest.Pink careers focused on low interest careers that students did not feelefficacious about. For data analyses, efficacy ratings were scored on adichotomous scale: not colored in blue = 0, colored in blue = . Meanscores were computed by Holland theme.

These decisions, with accompanying coloring activities, providedstudents a visual representation to assist them in understanding howtheir occupational preferences were related to efficacy expectationsacross careers that varied in perceived gender differences in currentemployment patterns. For example, a student who was highly inter-ested in and confident in their abilities to pursue a career as an Engi-

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neer, Chemist, Computer Programmer, and Mathematician would seethese colored in green on the grid (due to the interaction between theyellow interest and blue efficacy decisions). If that same person be-lieved that More Men worked in each of these careers then a greenpattern would become visible in the top left portion of the grid. Fordata analyses each of these careers would be coded for this individualin the following manner: 3 for interest, 1 for efficacy, and 2 for cur-rent employment pattern differences between women and men.

Cluster Analysis

Cluster analysis was used to statistically explore interest and effi-cacy patterns across Holland themes and answer Research Question3. Cluster analysis is a data analytic strategy that can group subjectsin a data set into smaller, homogenous subgroups. Interest and effi-cacy ratings on careers representing each of Holland's six occupa-tional themes were used to identify homogenous subject clusters. Sep-arate cluster analyses were conducted for girls and boys. Ward's(1963) clustering method was used to link those boys and girls withsimilar interest and efficacy patterns across the six Holland themes.One way analysis of variances were then used to test for significantmean differences between identified subgroups on interest and effi-cacy ratings across each of the six Holland themes. Only significantfindings will be reported. Complete data is available upon requestfrom the principal author.

Results

Research Question 1

Seventh grade boys and girls agreed in their understanding of cur-rent employment pattern differences between men and women acrosseach of Holland's six occupational Themes. Results of a gender byHolland theme multivariate analysis of variance suggested that nei-ther the multivariate F test (p = .540) or any of the six univariate Ftests were statistically significant (for each Holland theme, p valuesranged from .16 to .99). However, both girls and boys agreed thatthere were substantial gender differences in current employment pat-terns between the six Holland themes. Seventh graders believed thatmore men were employed in Realistic careers than Investigative ca-

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reers (T value = -20.05, p < .001), nearly equal numbers of womenand men in Investigative and Enterprising careers (T value = -.16,p 2: .872), and more women in Artistic careers than in either Enter-prising or Investigative careers (T value = -2.50, p < .02). Studentsfelt that more women were employed in Conventional than Artisticcareers (T value = -9.46, p < .001) and in Social than Conventionalcareers (T value = -3.46, p < .001).

Research Question 2

Table 1 reports means, standard deviations, and Pearson correla-tions between gender and Holland theme interest, efficacy, and sextype ratings. As predicted, interest and efficacy ratings followed stu-dent perceptions of current employment patterns for men and women.Boys expressed greater interest and confidence in Realistic careers.No gender differences in either interest or efficacy were found on theInvestigative and Enterprising themes. As discussed above, studentsagreed that both men and women were as likely to be employed onthese two themes. However, girls expressed greater interest and effi-cacy for those Holland themes that students agreed were currentlydominated in employment primarily by women, i.e., Artistic, Conven-tional, and Social careers.

Research Question 3

Figure 1 presents cluster analytic results for seventh grade boys.For both the cluster analysis computed for boys and girls mean inter-est and efficacy scores for each student across each of the six Hollandthemes were transformed into z scores. Z scores placed interest andefficacy ratings on the same metric scale. This allowed interest andefficacy ratings to be more easily compared from the results of thecluster analysis. For boys, three homogenous subgroups were identi-fied, i.e., a 3 group solution effectively minimized within group erroracross the boys in the sample (Ward, 1963). Twenty four boys com-prised Group 1. These young men had no interest scores on any of theHolland themes that were greater than the scores of the other twogroups. However, they did express less self-confidence than the othertwo groups for being able to master the educational and job require-ments for the Realistic (F Test = 22.45, p < .001), Investigative(F = 10.44, p < .001), and Enterprising themes (F = 8.99, p < .001).Fourteen boys comprised Group 2. These young men expressed greater

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R. T. Lapan, A. Adams, S. Turner, and J. M. Hinkelman 223

interest for the Realistic (F = 22.45, p < .001) and Investigative(F = 3.33, p < .05) themes than the other two groups. Also, they gen-erally rated themselves as being more efficacious than Group 1 butnot as confident as Group 3. Five boys comprised Group 3. Theseyoung men expressed greater interest in the Enterprising (F = 6.02,p < .01) and Artistic (F = 4.10, p < .05) themes than either of the

Table 1Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Correlations

Between Gender and Holland Theme Interest, Efficacy, andSex Type Ratings

Variables

Students (n = 112)1. Gender2. Realistic Interest3. Realistic Efficacy4. Investigative Interest5. Investigative Efficacy6. Enterprising Interest7. Enterprising Efficacy8. Artistic Interest9. Artistic Efficacy

10. Conventional Interest11. Conventional Efficacy12. Social Interest13. Social Efficacy14. Realistic Sex Type15. Investigative Sex Type16. Enterprising Sex Type17. Artistic Sex Type18. Conventional Sex Type19. Social Sex Type

.61

.91

.48

.96

.44

.88

.631.38.70.78.45

1.03.50

1.972.682.682.803.263.44

SD

.49

.34

.42

.30

.39

.39

.47

.33

.43

.34

.47

.46

.47

.31

.39

.45

.27

.47

.47

Gender

1.0-.66**_ 09**.03 NS.08 NS

-.16NS.05 NS.32**.21*.47**.26**.39**.34**

-.01NS-.06NS-.HNS-.01NS.13NS.04 NS

Note. Correlations with p values <.05 are identified with a *. P values <.01 are identi-fied with **. Correlations that do not reach statistical significance at the .05 level areidentified by NS (not significant). M stands for mean and SD for standard deviation.Interest ratings were made on a 3 point Likert scale (1 = Low Interest, 3 = HighInterest). Efficacy ratings were made on a dichotomous scale (0 = not efficacious, 1 =efficacious). Sex Type ratings were made on a 5 point Likert scale (1 = Mostly Men, 5= Mostly Women). Sex Type ratings represent student perceptions of current employ-ment pattern differences between women and men. Gender is coded on a dichotomousscale (0 = male, 1 = female).

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Figure 1Interest and Efficacy Clusters Across Holland Themes for 7th

Grade Boys. Holland Theme Variables are Labeled asFollows: RI = Realistic Interest, RE = Realistic Efficacy, II= Investigative Interest, IE = Investigative Efficacy, AI -

Artistic Interest, AE = Artistic Efficacy, SI = Social Interest,SE = Social Efficacy, El = Enterprising Interest, EE =

Enterprising Efficacy, CI = Conventional Interest, CE =Conventional Efficacy

other two groups. Further, these students rated themselves as beingextremely confident across all six Holland themes. F test valuesranged across efficacy ratings for Holland themes from 4.10 on theArtistic theme to 26.08 on the Social Theme, all p values were ^ .05.

Figure 2 presents cluster analytic results for seventh grade girls.Three homogenous subgroups were also identified for these youngwomen, i.e., a 3 group solution also effectively minimized withingroup error across the girls in the sample (Ward, 1963). Twenty girlscomprised Group 1. These young women expressed greater confidenceacross all six Holland themes than either of the other two groups. F

R. T. Lapan, A. Adams, S. Turner, and J. M. Hinkelman 225

Figure 2Interest and Efficacy Clusters Across Holland Themes for 7th

Grade Girls. Holland Theme Variables are Labeled asFollows: RI = Realistic Interest, RE = Realistic Efficacy, II= Investigative Interest, IE = Investigative Efficacy, AI =

Artistic Interest, AE = Artistic Efficacy, SI = Social Interest,SE = Social Efficacy, El = Enterprising Interest, EE =

Enterprising Efficacy, CI = Conventional Interest, CE =Conventional Efficacy

test values ranged across Holland themes from 21.95 on the Realistictheme to 33.05 on the Enterprising theme, all p values were < .001.Thirteen girls comprised Group 2. These young women's efficacy rat-ings were not as high as Group 1 but were greater than Group 3's.Young women in Group 2 expressed much less interest in Social ca-reers than either the young women in groups 1 or 3 (F = 33.60,p < .001). Thirty five girls comprised Group 3. These young women


expressed much lower levels of self-efficacy than the other two groupsof girls but indicated greater interest than Group 2 in Social careers(Tukey comparison between group means = 3.39, p :£ .05).

Discussion

Support was found for the three research questions investigated inthis study. In addition, these seventh graders were very interested indiscussing career development issues, eager to learn some factual in-formation about a range of different occupations (e.g., salaries andrequired training), and in the classroom setting could speak of theirconcerns about non-traditional career choices in very articulate ways.Students shared a common understanding (Gottfredson, 1981) aboutcurrent employment patterns for women and men. Differences in in-terest patterns between boys and girls mirrored this understanding.Across Holland themes, both girls and boys clustered into low, me-dium, and high efficacy groupings. Clear interest profile differenceswere evident for the boys but not for the girls. The high confidencegroup for the boys was also more interested than the other two groupsof boys in Enterprising and Artistic careers. The medium confidencegroup for the boys was more interested in Realistic and Investigativeoccupations. However, girls did not differ between groups on Hollandtheme interest patterns. Only the moderate level efficacy group ex-pressed significantly less interest in Social careers than the other twogroups of girls.

Limitations of the Study

Future research with diverse samples of middle school students isneeded to replicate the results found in this study. The stability of thegrouping of students based on the results from the cluster analyseswill need to be cross-validated on independent samples of middleschool students. Also, data collected in a classroom setting could besomewhat different from data gathered in an individual administra-tion of the research materials used in this study. However, resultsfrom this study are very similar to those reported both in the updatednationwide norms measuring interest patterns for both men andwomen across the six General Occupational Themes (i.e., Hollandthemes) of the SII and the breadth of research supporting an ex-panded self-efficacy career development model (Lent et al., 1994).

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Implications for Middle School Counselors

Mau (1995) argued that school counselors needed to engage moremiddle school students in career counseling and planning activities.In particular, young women may be quite reluctant to seek out suchsupport from counselors. Within a comprehensive guidance programframework (Lapan et al., 1997), middle school counselors can proac-tively reach out to large numbers of middle school boys and girlsthrough guidance curriculum activities (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994).Using materials, such as the ones employed in this study, counselorscan involve students in an exploration of critical interest and efficacypatterns across occupational fields (Betz et al., 1996) and in so doingeffectively address many of the gender equity competencies identifiedfor middle school students by NOICC (1989).

Results from the present study suggest four issues that middleschool counselors should be aware of when facilitating classroom dis-cussions about career development issues. First, interest and efficacypatterns across occupational fields for both boys and girls will bestrongly tied to middle school students' expectations of current em-ployment pattern differences between women and men. In careerswhere students expect to see an equal number of men and womenemployed, no gender differences in interest or self-confidence is likely.However, interest and efficacy patterns shift to the advantage of thestudent whose sex matches that of those who are more likely to beemployed in an occupation. Second, counselors need to address thedramatically varying levels of efficacy expectations for both boys andgirls. For example, subgroups of both boys and girls may have aninterest in a career but either high, medium, or low levels of self-confidence to master the educational and job requirements of this oc-cupation. Of great concern is the large numbers of both girls and boyswho express substantially lower self-confidence across several occupa-tional categories. Third, gender differences in the crystallization ofinterest patterns may be evident in the classroom. Subgroups of boysmay begin to coalesce around different Holland themes. However,more uniform interest patterns may be evident for the girls in theclassroom. Fourth, some of the boys may express relatively equallevels of interest in Realistic, Investigative, and Enterprising careersbut may, when engaged in discussion by the counselor, reveal sub-stantially lower levels of self-confidence in these careers than otherboys in the classroom. Counselors who attempt to become aware ofdiffering efficacy and interest patterns in a classroom could use this

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information to plan more focused and effective developmental careerexperiences for all of their students. These efforts would clearly fitwithin recommended changes in counselor role and functions advo-cated by comprehensive guidance reform initiatives (e.g., Gysbers &Henderson, 1994).

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