SENIOR SCIENCE - K.V. No. 1 Gandhinagar

NSF - SENIOR SCIENCE bEE

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North South Foundation (NSF)

SENIOR SCIENCE( Grades 7, 8, 9 )

Prepared by:NSF Core Team 2017


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Table of contentsIntroduction ............................................................................................................................ 5

Scientific Method .................................................................................................................. 6

Life Science .............................................................................................................................. 12

Earth Science ......................................................................................................................... 36

Physical Science .................................................................................................................... 47


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North South FoundationNorth South Foundation (NSF) is volunteer driven non-profit organization established in Illinois, USA in 1989.

NSF Vision: Every child should reach his or her maximum potential.

NSF Mission is to:• Encourage academic excellence among the poorest of the poor by providing college scholarships in India

regardless of religion, gender, caste or creed.• Encourage academic excellence among the NRI children in the USA in the areas of English spelling, vocabulary,

math, science, geography, essay writing, public speaking and brain bee by focusing on contests, workshops, coaching and educational games.

• Promote excellence in the practice of universal human values.• Instill “Pay it Forward” culture among the NSF Alumni.

The Scholarship program in India is designed to encourage academic excellence among the poor particularly who want to pursue professional courses like Diploma Engineering, Engineering and Medicine etc. It is targeted at qualified, needy students entering college. Over 1600 scholarships have been awarded in 2017-18. Each scholarship is in the range Rs.10,000/- to 25,000/- per student per year. Awards are made following strict selection criteria based on merit and need. Students are selected from 33 centers all over India: Aurangabad, Ahmedabad, Baroda, Bengaluru, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Kochi, Chennai, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jammu & Kashmir, Jodhpur, Kanpur, Kochi, Kolkata, Kurnool, Madurai, Moradabad, Mumbai, Nagercoil, Noida/Delhi, Panchkula, Patiala, Patna, Pune, Rewa, Satna, Tanuku, Udaipur, Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam, Tanjavur. These NSF centers are run by dedicated local volunteers.

Educational contests in the US are designed to encourage academic excellence among Indian American children. The spelling, vocabulary, math, science, geography,essay writing, public speaking, and brain bees are conducted annually in two steps. Children initially participate in any of 90 regional centers in the USA. Top scorers in these contests are invited to the national finals. National top three rankers are awarded scholarships ranging from $1,000 to $250, redeemable in the winners’ freshman year of college. More than 170,000 contestants benefited from NSF bees. NSF offers online coaching in Math, Science, Geography, SAT/ACT, Life Skills and Universal Values. More than 4,000 children have enrolled in the past year. Online coaching is made possible through the dedication of 230 volunteer coaches with a passion for making a difference. NSF also conducts online workshops in spelling, math, science, geography and college admissions planning.

Accomplishments of NSF Children: NSF children won the Scripps National Spelling Bee for ten years in a row, and National Geographic Bee for six years in a row including 2017 in both cases. Similarly excellence is seen in MATH COUNTS, Math Olympiads,and Science Bowls. Many of the NSF children have been accepted into the top ranking colleges in the USA like MIT, Harvard and Stanford. More importantly, these contests help children improve their communication skills, self-confidence and empower them to become better citizens for tomorrow.

Role Model Award: The Foundation has awarded its inaugural Role Model Award, ‘Vishwa Jyothi’ to Rajiv Vinnakota in 2003, Nipun Mehta in 2004 and Nimesh Patel in 2014. It helps to showcase human values and academic excellence to the children of Indian American community. NSF will continue to identify and bring such individuals into limelight in both USA and India.

Educational Contests in India: NSF did a successful pilot programme in Hyderabad in 2010 in Math,

Science and Spelling. The positive experience and the demand for these contests has convinced NSF India,headquartered in Hyderabad, to deepen the commitment by bringing workbooks, training and contests in a streamlined process and introduce more modules in the future as seen fit. These contests can be extended to other cities, on invitation, as NSF builds a bigger volunteer base to satisfy the need.

Expanding Reach: NSF has been working with JNV since 2015 and the relationship is getting stronger. Educational contests are now reaching tens of thousands of students among its 600+ schools across the country. Scholarships are offered to the most-needy students going to professional colleges.

For more information about NSF,please visit www.northsouth.org


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Scientific Method

Scientific method is a logical problem solving method used by many scientists consisting in systematic

observation, research, measurement, experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Different problems require different scientific methods to solve them.

basic steps of the scientific method are

Observe Bits of information you gather with your senses

Question Come to a conclusion about your observation and ask a question

Research Explore more about what you observed by going to library, or searching on internet

Hypothesis Make a prediction, or statement, that can be tested

Experimental

Research

Test your hypothesis by doing experiment. Identify constants, dependent, independent

variables, and gather data.

Descriptive

Research

This step is used when it is impossible to do experiments

Analyze Record, organize, and study the data collected.

Conclusion Make a statement based on your observations. If your hypothesis is wrong or you want

to modify the hypothesis you can do it, and do the experiment again to come to a new

conclusion.

Communicate Results of experiments and research can be communicated to your teachers, friends,

or other scientists.

Terms to Understand

Constants Factors in an experiment that stay the same

Controls A standard used for comparison

Independent

variableOne factor you can change in an experiment

Dependent

variableFactor, or outcome, that will be measured in an experiment

Operational

definition

a quantity is a specific process whereby it is measured. For example, the weight of an

object can be operationally defined by using a balance and standard weights.


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Ask a Question

Do backgroundResearch

Construct a Hypothesis

Test with an Experiment

Procedure Working?

No Yes

Analyze Date and Draw Conclusions

Communicate Results

Results Align with Hypothesis

Results Align Partially or Not at all

with Hypothesis

Experimental data becomes background research for new/future

project. Ask new question, form

new hypothesis, experiment

again!

Troubleshoot procedure.

Carefully check all steps and set-

up.


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1. What are the five steps of the scientific method in

order from first to last?

A. Problem, Research, Hypothesis, Project

Experimentation, Conclusion

B. Research, problem, project experimentation,

conclusion, hypothesis

C. Hypothesis, research, problem, project

experimentation, conclusion

D. Problem, project experimentation, hypothesis,

conclusion

2. How many controls can be possible in an

experiment?

A. 1

B. 2

C. 0

D. As many as possible

3. Students in a science class were studying the

melting of ice cream in a cup. They were studying

variables that affected how long it takes the ice

cream to melt. Select the variable that would

most likely NOT affect the time it takes the ice

cream to melt.

A. Quantity of Ice Cream

B. Size of cup

C. Room temperature

D. Number of students

4. A science student pointed a flashlight at a screen.

He put the flashlight at different distances from

the screen and measured the size of the lighted

spot. Which of the following would be a good

operational definition of the “size of the lighted

spot”?

A. Size of the screen

B. Diameter of the flashlight

C. Radius of the spot

D. Brightness of the spot

5. If you are asked to measure the growth of a bread

mold in an experiment, which of the following

would NOT be a suitable way to measure growth

of bread mold in this experiment?

A. Size of the bread mold spots

B. Number of spots of bread mold

C. Color of the bread mold spots

D. Diameter of the bread mold spots

Quiz

1. A. 2. D 3. D. 4. B. 5. C


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Classification Classification is the process of grouping organisms based on their similarities.

Taxonomy is the study of how living things are classified.

The levels of classification from largest to smallest are

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Acronym to remember the Classification System:

King Prashanth Came Over For Good Sambar


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binomial Nomenclature Formal system of naming specific species by using two names, the genus and the species. It was developed by

Carolus Linnaeus. Genus comes before the species and is capitalized. Another name for binomial nomenclature

is scientific name.

Example: Scientific name for dog is Canis familiaris

Terms to Understand

Dichotomous Key: A series of yes or no questions that helps identify organisms.

Virus: a strand of hereditary material surrounded by a protein coating, which multiplies by making copies

of itself using a host cell. It can be prevented by vaccines, antiviral drugs, improving sanitary conditions,

separating infected patients, and controlling animals that spread disease. Your body produces inferons to

naturally protect itself.

Multicollinearity: Different elements of a system that are correlated but one is not the cause of the other, for

example the genes in a hox cluster activate sequentially in time and in space (anatomical location) according

to the order the genes are present in the cluster, which is the main defining feature of this gene cluster.

Methanogen: unicellular organisms, belonging to the Archaea domain. that live in hot climates and emit

methane

Evolution: the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and

diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.

Natural selection: the organisms that thrive, survive

Classification of Living ThingsDomain bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Kingdom Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalla

Cell Type Prokaryote Prokaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote

Cell Structures

Cell walls with peptidoglycan

Cell walls without

peptidoglycan

Cells walls of cellulose; some have

chloroplasts

Cell walls of chitin

Cell walls of cellulose;

chloroplasts

No cell walls or

chloroplasts

Number of cells

Unicellular Unicellular Most unicellular; some colonial;

some multicellular

Most multicellular;

some unicellular

Multicellular Multicellular

Mode of Nutrition

Autotroph or Heterotroph



Heterotroph Autotroph Heterotroph

Examples Streptococcus and

Escherichia coli

Methanogens and Halophiles

Amoeba, Paramecium,

Giant Kelp

Mushrooms and Yeast

Mosses, Ferns, and Flowering

Plants

Sponges, Worms, Insects, Fish and

Mammals


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6. D. 7. D 8. A. 9. D. 10. C.

6. Virus belongs to the Kingdom A. ProtistaB. EubacteriaC. ArchaebacteriaD. None of the above

7. True multicollinearity can be seen in A. PlantsB. Animals C. Fungi D. All of the above

8. Methanogens live inA. MarshesB. PlantsC. FungiD. Air

9 . Which of the following is the correct statement? A. Dichotomous keys consist of a set of paired

statements B. You always begin with step one in a

dichotomous key C. When using a dichotomous key always start

at the beginning with each new organism D. All of the above

10. The process by which species change over time is calledA. ClassificationB. TaxonomyC. Evolution

D. Natural selection

Quiz


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Cell biologyMicroscopyl The first microscope was made by Zacharias Jansen using two magnifying lenses.

l Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made a microscope using a

tiny glass bead for a lens.

l A compound light microscope can help you see an

object larger and clearer. You can see an object 100 times

to 1,000 times larger with this microscope.

l A stereo microscope is used to see larger objects and

specimens.

l Electron microscopes are used to see tiny objects such as

atoms.

l Bright field Microscope/light microscope (up to 2000X):

Image is seen against a bright background - used to see

cells Darkfield Microscope (up to 2000X) - Image is seen

against a dark background - Primarily used to see cells.

l Scanning Electron Microscope (up to 200,000X) - Sweeps

a beam of electrons across the surface of a specimen

Types of Eukaryotic Cells

Eyepiece Tube

Eyepiece (ocular)

Head

Arm

Coarse Focus Knob

Fine Focus Knob

Illuminator

Nosepiece (turret)Objective Lenses

Stage ClipsAperture

Stage

base

Animal Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

Centriole

Free ribosome

Smooth endoplasmic

reticulum

Microtubules(part of cytoskeleton)

Cytoplasm

Mitochondrion

Lysosome

Ribosome

Plasmamembrane

Nucleus

Nucleolus

ChromatinNuclear pore

Nuclear envelopeGolgi complex

Rough endoplasmicreticulum


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Animal Cell Parts

Ribosomes where proteins are assembled and made

Cell Membrane helps control what enters and leaves

the cell

Mitochondrion Converts food into

energy that the cell can use

Chromosomes Located in the

nucleus; contain DNA

VacuoleStores food, water,

minerals and wastes

Nucleus Control center of the cell

Cytoplasm Gelatinize

substance that contains many

needed chemicals

Plant Cell Parts

Cell Membrane helps control what enters and leaves

the cell

Mitochondrion Converts food into

energy that the cell can use

Vacuole Stores food, water,

minerals and wastes

Chloroplast captures energy

from sunlight and uses it to convert

carbon dioxide and water into

food

Cell wall Provides support

and protection

Nucleus Control center of

the cell

Chromosomes Located in the

nucleus; contain DNA

Cytoplasm Gelatin-like

substance that contains many

needed chemicals

Ribosomes where proteins are assembled and made


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Cell Cycle

INTERPHASE : G1: Cell grows and functions,

organelles duplicate

INTERPHASE: S: DNA is copied;

chromosomesduplicate

INTERPHASE: G2: Cell grows

and prepares for mitosis

Mitosis Occurs

Cytoplasm divides

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Prophase Prophase I

Metaphase Metaphase I

Daughter cellsof mitosis

MEIOSIS II

MEIOSIS I

AnaphaseTelophase

Anaphase ITelophase I

Chiasma (site of crossing over)

No further chromosomal replication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

Parent Cell(before chromosome replication)

chromosomereplication

chromosomereplication


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Mitosis: A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes

as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Meiosis: a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the

parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.

DNA l DNA is organic chemical of complex molecular structure that is found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

and in many viruses.

l DNA codes genetic information for the transmission of inherited traits.

l It was discovered by James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin.

l Each chromosome is made of DNA wrapped around proteins

l DNA has a double helix structure.

l DNA backbone is made out of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate.

l DNA is made of 4 nitrogenous base pairs: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

is made in the nucleus. It contains the code for making proteins.

RNA l RNA has a backbone made of a sugar (ribose) and phosphate.

l It has 4 base pairs: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Uracil.

Pyrimidine and Purine bases l Cytosine, thymine, uracil are the pyrimidine bases.

l Adenine and Guanine are purine bases.

l Adenine always pairs with Thymine; and Cytosine always pairs with guanine with weak hydrogen bonds.

l The phosphate of one nucleotide is covalently bound to the sugar of the next nucleotide.


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11. Which of the following cell organelle serves

to process, package and export proteins?

A. Endoplasmic reticulum

B. Mitochondria

C. Nucleus

D. Golgi apparatus

12. Which of the following is absent in a bacterial cell?

A. Cell membrane

B. Golgi apparatus

C. Ribosomes

D. DNA

13. Suicidal bags of a cell are:

A. Ribosomes

B. Mitochondria

C. Lysosomes

D. Vacuole

14. A cell (2n=20) undergoes mitosis. How many

daughter cells are produced with how many

number of chromosomes?

A. 2, 10

B. 10, 2

C. 2, 20

D. 20, 2

15. Crossing-over in meiosis takes place during:

A. Anaphase II

B. Metaphase I

C. Telophase I

D. Prophase I

16. This nucleic acid leaves the nucleus and

carries genetic information to the cytosol

during protein synthesis:

A. DNA

B. mRNA

C. tRNA

D. rRNA

17. Which of the following is absent in the

structure of the DNA?

A. Nitrogen base

B. Adenine

C. Uracil

D. Thymine

18. Nucleoside is either a pyrimidine or purine

base

A. Hydrogen bonded to a sugar

B. Peptide bonded to a sugar

C. Ionically bonded to a sugar

D. Covalently bonded to a sugar

19. Nucleic acids can be analyzed

experimentally by determining their

A. Molecular weight

B. Bonds

C. Absorption of UV light

D. Absorption of visible light

20 . Which of the following nitrogen bases is a

purine?

A. Thymine

B. Adenine

C. Cytosine

D. Uracil

11. D. 12. B. 13. C. 14. C 15. D.

16. B. 17. C. 18. D. 19. C. 20. B.

Quiz


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Non-vascular and Vascular plants

Plants are classified into non-vascular and vascular plants.

Differences between Monocots and Dicots

FEATURE MONOCOTS DICOTS

Number of Cotyledons One Two

Vein pattern Parallel Reticulated

Vascular bundle scattered In a ring

Number of flower parts Multiples of three Multiples of 4 or 5

Pollen Structure Single Furrow Three furrows

Root Structure Adventitious Tap root

Example Maize Sunflower


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PLANTS VASCULAR TISSUES

l Vascular systems are made up of vascular tissues namely xylem and phloem.

l These are complex permanent tissues

l Xylem consists of three different types of cells:

l Xylem parenchyma cells

l Xylem fiber cells

l Tracheary elements

l Most xylem cells are dead cells.

l Water escapes plants through leaves via

transpiration, the process of water loss by

evaporation.

l Xylem conducts water from the roots, through

the shoots, and out of the plant.

l Direction of transport is upwards, i.e., Unidirectional.

l Xylem also transports dissolved minerals, and because of thick cell walls, provides support for the plant.

Secondary xylem is commonly called Wood

PHLOEMThe main elements of the Phloem are:

lSieve tubes

lcompanion cells

lphloem parenchyma

lbast fibers

lintermediary cells

Direction of transport is bidirectional.

Phloem cells are live cells.

Phloem conducts sucrose made in the leaves to

the rest of the plant.

It also carries molecules necessary for growth and defense.

bast fibers present in phloem are used for making ropes.

Often Oxen xylem and phloem grow next to one another in a structure called a vascular bundle.

Xylem


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LEAF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

l A leaf is made of many layers that are sandwiched between two layers of epidermis.

Epidermal cells consist of pairs of sausage-shaped guard cells.

l Each pair of guard cells forms a pore called stoma. (plural: stomata).

l Stomata are useful for transportation of gases.

l The epidermis also secretes a waxy substance called the cuticle.

l These layers protect the leaf from insects, bacteria, and other pests.

l

l The light reacton happens when solar energy is captured to make a molecule called ATP (adenosine

triphosphate).

l The dark reacton happens when the ATP is used to make glucose (the Calvin Cycle).

3 CO2 + 6NADPH + 5 H2O + 9 ATP

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 2 H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi

CO2 + H2O O2 + CH2Olight

chlorophyll


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PHOTOSYNTHESIS

LIGHT REACTION

l Light is absorbed and the energy is used to drive electrons from water to generate NADPH and to drive

protons across the membrane.

l These protons return through the enzyme ATP synthase generating ATP.

l Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis takes place in the thylakoid membrane.

The net-reaction of all light-dependent reactions in oxygenic photosynthesis is:

2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP


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DARK REACTION

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

l Carbon dioxide is captured by the chemical

ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) (5-C compound).

l Six molecules of carbon dioxide enter the

Calvin Cycle, eventually producing one

molecule of glucose.

l The incorporation of carbon dioxide into

organic compounds is known as carbon

fixation

l This reaction uses 18 molecules of ATP and

12 molecules of NADPH to produce one

molecule of glucose.

l Cellular respiration is the process of oxidizing food molecules, likeglucose, to carbon dioxide and water.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O 12H2O + 6 CO2

l The energy released is trapped in the form of ATP - for use by all the energy-consuming activities of the cell.

Steps in respiration include:

l Glycolysis (takes place in cytosol)

l Krebs cycle and electron transport chain (takes place in mitochondria).

Calvin-benson Cycle

12 G3P

2 G3P10 G3P

12 3PG

6 RuBP

6 CO2

12 ATP 12 ACP+PI

6 ADP+PI

12 NADPH

12 NADP+PI

ATPGLUCOSE

RUBPsco


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PHOTOPERIODISM

PLANT TROPISMS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS VERSUS RESPIRATION

PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATION

Produces food Uses food

Stores energy Releases energy

Uses water Produces water

Uses carbon dioxide Produces carbon dioxide

Releases oxygen Releases oxygen Uses oxygen

Occurs in sunlight Occurs in the dark as well as light

Photoperiodism can be defined as the developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths

of light and dark periods.

Long Day Plants: These plants flower mainly in the summer as the days are getting longer.

E.g., Barley, Pea, Lettuce, Wheat

Short Day Plants: These plants flower in the fall as the days are getting shorter.

E.g., Soybean, codon, rice, Jowar

Day Neutral Plants: These plants are not sensitive to the photo period.

E.g., Cucumber, Rose, Tomato

Dark period is more important than the light period for plants.

Tropisms are directional movement responses that occur in response to a stimulus

Chemotropism - a response to chemicals, in which the plant leaves may curl up.

Geotropism or gravitropism - a response to gravity. Shoots of a plant are negatively geotropic (growing

upward), while roots are positively geotropic (growing downward).

Hydrotropism - a response to water or moisture, in which roots grow toward the water source.

Phototropism - a response to light.

A plant may be positively phototropic (bending toward the light source) or negatively phototropic (bending

away from the light source). Main axes of shoots are usually positively phototropic, whereas roots are either

negatively phototropic or insensitive to light.

Thermotropism - a response to temperature by plants. Plants will bend either toward or away from the heat

source, depending on the species of plant and the range of temperatures it prefers.


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PLANT HORMONES

AUXIN

l Stimulates cell elongation, cell division

and vascular tissue differentiation.

lMediates the tropic response of

bending in response to gravity and

light .

AbSCISIC ACID

l Stimulates the closure of stomata

Inhibits shoot growth Promotes root

growth Induces seeds to synthesize

storage proteins.

GIbbERELLIN

l Stimulate stem elongation, flowering

in response to long days. Breaks seed

dormancy.

ETHYLENE

l Gaseous hormone

Stimulates the following: Release of

dormancy. flower opening. flower and

leaf senescence. fruit ripening.

Life cycles

l The life cycle of a flowering plant begins with a seed.

l The seed sprouts producing a seedling.

l The seedling will grow to form a mature plant.

l The mature plant will reproduce by forming new seeds.

l The seeds will begin the next life cycle.

A multicellular gametophyte (haploid with n chromosomes),

alternates with a multicellular sporophyte (diploid with 2n chromosomes).

Life cycle of plants is described by Alternation of Generations

seedMature

plant

seeding

Plant LifeCycle

Flower


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ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

SEED GERMINATION

Mosses: Gametophyte is the major phase, while in higher plants, sporophyte is the Major phase

Fruit wall

Splits and

radicle

emerges

hypocotyl

elongates

and draws

cotyledons

from fruit wall

Cotyledons are

brought above

the soil by

arching of

hypocotyl

Cotyledons

open out

GERMINATION

Seed HookCotyledon

Cotyledon


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FACTORS AFFECTING GERMINATION

ANIMALS

INTERNAL FACTORS EXTERNAL FACTORS

l Seed vitality

l Genotype

l Seed Maturation

lDormancy

lWater

l Temperature

lOxygen

l Light

Comparison between Archaebacteria and Eubacteria

Characteristic features Archaea bacteria

Habitat

Extreme environments like hot

springs, salt lakes, marshlands,

oceans, gut of ruminants and

humans.

Found everywhere.

Nature of cell Prokaryotes, no cell nucleus or any

other membrane bound organelles.

Prokaryotes, have a number of

shapes, ranging from spheres to rods

and spirals.

Cell wall Absent or Pseudopeptdoglycan Peptdoglycan / Lipopolysaccharide

Growth & Reproduction Asexual reproduction by binary

fission, budding and fragmentation.

Asexual reproducton by binary

fission, budding, and fragmentation.

Unlike Archaebacteria, they remain

dormant over years.

Examples

Halophiles, Thermophiles,

Methanogens etc.

(Methanibrevibacter, Haloquadra,

Thermococcus)

Escherichia coli (E. coli), Yersinia

pestis, Streptococcus pneumoniae,

Salmonella enterica


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REPRODUCTION IN bACTERIA

bacterial Fission

lMost common mode of asexual

reproduction.

l The cytoplasm and nucleoid of a

bacterial cell divide equally into two,

following replication of DNA.

l The cell wall and cytoplasm also split

resulting in the formation of two

daughter cells.

l Under favorable conditions, a bacterial

cell divides by fission once in every 20

minutes.

The bacteria can also reproduce by exchanging DNA material leading to the

transformation of the bacteria. The various methods are

l Transformation - Transfer of DNA from a capsulated bacterium into a non-capsulated bacterium.

l Transduction - DNA of a bacterial cell (donor) is transferred into another bacterial cell with the help of a

virus.

l Conjugation - Genetic material of a bacterial cell of a particular strain (donor) is transferred into that of

another bacterial cell of a different strain (recipient).


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TYPES OF PROTISTS

FUNGI

Animal - Like Protists

l Called protozoans and share some common traits with animals.

l Heterotrophs

l Able to move in their environment in order to find their food.

l Unlike, animals, however, animal-like protists are all unicellular.

l Four types: Protists with Pseudopods, with Cilia, with Flagella, others

Fungus - Like Protists

l Fungus-like protists are heterotrophs with cell walls.

l They also reproduce by forming spores.

l Able to move at some point in their lives.

l Essentially three types: Water molds, Downy mildews, and Slime molds.

Plant - Like Protists

l Plant-like protists are autotrophic.

l They can live in soil, on the bark of trees, in fresh water, and in salt water.

l Very important to the Earth because they produce a lot of oxygen, and most living things need oxygen to

survive.

l They form the base of aquatic food chains.

l They can be unicellular, multicellular, or live in colonies.

l They are divided into four basic groups: Euglenoids, Dinoflagellates, Diatoms and Algae.

The Kingdom Fungi includes some of the most important organisms, both in terms

of their ecological and economic roles.

benefits

l Break down dead organic material and continue the cycle of nutrients through

Ecosystems.

l Symbiotic relationship with vascular plants. e.g. mycorrhizae, that inhabit their

roots and supply essential nutrients.

l Provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods like mushrooms, truffles and

morels, and the bubbles in bread, champagne, and beer.

l Yeast- important “model organisms” for studying problems in genetics and molecular biology.

Harmful Fungi

l Fungi also cause a number of plant and animal diseases: in humans, ringworm, athlete’s foot, and several

more serious diseases.

l Plant diseases caused by fungi include rusts, smuts, and leaf, root, and stem rots, and may cause severe

damage to crops.


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LICHENS

INVERTEbRATES

Symbiotic organisms.

l Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments, but living

among the filaments are algal cells, usually from a green alga or a

cyanobacterium.

l In many cases the fungus and the alga which together make the

lichen may each be found living in nature without its partner, but

many other lichens include a fungus which cannot survive on its

own -- it has become dependent on its algal partner for survival.

Group Description Examples

Porifera Sessile, full of pores Sponges

CnidariansHollow-bodied, two-cell layers organized

into tissueJellyfish, sea anemone, Hydra, corals

FlatwormsThree layers of tissue organized, bilateral

symmetryTapeworm, Planarians

Roundworms Decomposers, Predators, parasites Heartworm

MollusksSoft-bodied, have a mantle, large

muscular foot, usually have a shell

Gastropods(snails, conches), bivalves

(scallops), cephalopods (octopuses,

squid)

Annelids

Segmented worms, closed circulatory

system, complete digestive system with

two body openings

Earthworms, leeches, polychaetas

ArthropodsBilateral symmetry, segmented bodies,

exoskeleton, jointed foot

Insects, Arachnids (spiders, ticks,

scorpions, mites), Centipedes,

Millipedes, Crustaceans (crabs, lobster)

EchinodermsHave spiny skin, radial symmetry, and a

water vascular systemSea urchin, starfish


.. 29 ..

VERTEbRATES

MARSUPIALS, MONOTREMES AND PLACENTALS

l Possess vertebrae (segmentation)

l Highly cephalized

l Well developed sense organs and brain

l Endoskeleton

Mammals Marsupials Birds Amphibians

Jawless Fish cartilaginous Fish Bony Fish Reptiles

Marsupials

l Give birth to undeveloped young.

l Lack a complex placenta to protect the fetus from the mother’s immune

system.

l After the young are born, they climb up their mother’s belly and into a

pouch. Milk is fed to the baby through the teat. Any marsupial baby is called

a Joey.

Monotremes

l They are mammals that lay eggs. There are only two Monotremes: the

platypus and the echidna.

l The females usually lay two eggs at a time.

l Females do not have teats, and the young lick milk that oozes from the skin

of the mother’s abdomen.

Placentals

l Long gestation periods and the embryo is nourished with the blood of the

mother inside the placenta.

l They grow in the uterus.

l The placenta is formed from the same membranes as the amniotes eggs.

l Bilateral symmetry

l Closed circulatory system: heart, arteries and veins

l Sexes separate in most vertebrates

sugar Glider

Echidna

Flying Fox


.. 30 ..

HUMAN bODY SYSTEMS

Circulatory Systemblood

Blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, wastes, and nutrients. It contains cells that help fight infections and heal

wounds. It is a tissue made of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets. Plasma makes up the liquid

part of the blood and is made mostly of water. Red blood cells, are disc-shaped and contain hemoglobin, which

carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. White blood cells fight bacteria, virus, and invaders. Platelets are irregularly

shaped and help clot blood.

Heart

Your heart is organ made of cardiac muscle tissue. It is located behind the sternum, and between your lungs. It

has four compartments called chambers. The two upper chambers are called the right atrium and left atrium.

The lower chambers are called the right ventricle and left ventricle. A one-way valve separates each atrium

from the ventricle below it. The blood flows from an atrium to a ventricle, then from a ventricle into a blood

vessel. A wall between the two atrium or the two ventricles keeps blood rich in oxygen separate from blood

low in oxygen.

Types of Circulation

Coronary circulation- flow of blood to and from the tissues of the heart

Pulmonary circulation- flow of blood through the heart, to lungs and back to the heart.

Systemic circulation- flow of oxygen-rich blood to all organs and body tissues, except the heart and lungs,

oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart

blood Vessels

Arteries- blood vessels that carry

blood away from the heart

Veins- blood vessels that carry blood

back to the heart

Capillaries- nutrients and oxygen

diffuse into body cells from capillaries,

waste materials and carbon dioxide

diffuse from body cells into the

capillaries


.. 31 ..

Digestive SystemFood is processed in four stages…. Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination. Digestion is a mechanical

and chemical process. Mechanical digestion takes place when food is chewed, mixed, and churned. Chemical

digestion occurs when chemical reactions break down food.

Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in your MOUTH. Saliva is produced by three sets of gland near your

mouth. Food is mixed with saliva and becomes a soft mass and is moved back to your mouth by your tongue.

It is swallowed and passed into the esophagus. The ESOPHAGUS is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, no

digestion takes place here. The food moves through waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis.

Food then enters the STOMACH. Enzymes and gastric juices are secreted from the stomach walls and digest

the food. Specialized cells in the stomach wall release about two liters of hydrochloric acid solution every day.

This solution works with the enzyme pepsin to digest protein and destroys bacteria present in food. Mucus is

produced to make the food slippery and to protect the stomach walls. Food is changed into a thin liquid called

chyme. Chyme then moves out of the stomach into to the small intestine.

The SMALL INTESTINE measures 4m to 7m in length. As chyme enters the first part of small intestine,

DUODENUM-bile- a greenish fluid from the LIVER is added. Bile breaks up large fat particles in the chyme.

The digestive solution from the PANCREAS is mixed with chyme. This solution contains bicarbonate ions

and enzymes that help neutralize the stomach acid. The pancreas also makes insulin, a hormone that enables

glucose to pass from the blood stream into your cells. Digested food is absorbed through villi, fingerlike

projections on the small intestine’s ridges and folds. Nutrients move to blood vessels within the villi.

The remaining undigested and unabsorbed move into the large intestine through peristalsis. The LARGE

INTESTINE absorbs water to maintain homeostasis and feces are excreted through the muscles in the

RECTUM.

Salivary Gland

Liver

Gall bladder

Large Intestine Rectum

Small Intestine

Pancreas

Stomach

Oesophagus


.. 32 ..

Respiratory System

FUNCTIONS: Breathing moves the chest to bring air into and remove wastes from the lungs.

Cellular respiration uses oxygen and releases energy using glucose.

Air enters your body through NOSTRILS or mouth. Fine hairs inside the nostrils trap particles from the air. Air

then passes through the nasal cavity, where it becomes warm and moist. Glands that produce sticky mucus

line the NASAL CAVITY. It traps particles that are not trapped by nasal hairs, thus cleaning air. Tiny, hair like

structures called cilia sweep mucus and trapped material to the back of throat where it can be swallowed.

Warm, moist air enters the PHARYNX, which is a tube like passageway for food, liquids, and air. At the lower

end of pharynx is the epiglottis, which folds down, when food enters through esophagus. Next, the air moves

into larynx, the airway to which two pairs of vocal cords are attached. From the LARYNX, air moves into trachea.

Trachea is strong C-shaped rings of cartilage that prevent TRACHEA from collapsing. It is lined with mucous

membranes and cilia to trap dust, bacteria, and pollen. Air is then carried to LUNGS by two short tubes called

bronchi. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bRONCHIOLES. At the end of each

bronchiole are clusters of tiny, thin-walled sacs called ALVEOLI. Alveoli and capillaries exchange oxygen and

carbon dioxide.

Why do you breathe… Your brain sends signals to your chest and abdominal muscles to contract and relax,

which controls the breathing rate.

DISEASES: Problems of the respiratory system include chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.


.. 33 ..

Muscular System

Muscles help make all your daily movements possible. Muscles contract, relax, and provide the force to move

bones and body parts.

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES can be controlled, but INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES cannot be controlled consciously.

SKELETAL MUSCLES are voluntary, smooth muscles that control movement of internal organs. CARDIAC

MUSCLE is striated and involuntary and is found only in the heart.

Your muscles, bones and joints, work together like levers to move your body. Muscles always pull, and when

one muscle of a pair contracts, the other relaxes. Chemical energy is needed for muscle activity.

Muscles are attached to bones using strong TENDONS.

It takes only 13 muscles to smile and 40 muscles to frown. So smile!

biceps contracted, triceps relaxed

(extended)

biceps biceps

TricepsTriceps

Tendon


.. 34 ..

Skeletal System

Functions:

l Gives shape and support to your body

l Protects internal organs

l Blood cells form in the red marrow of many bones

l Muscles attached to the bones help them move.

l Major quantities of calcium and phosphorous compounds are stored in skeleton for later use

bONES are living organs that need nutrients. A living bone’s surface is covered with a tough, tight-fitting

membrane called the PERIOSTEUM. Small blood vessels in the membrane carry nutrients into the bone and

its nerves signal pain. Under the periosteum, are the compact bone and spongy bone. COMPACT bONES are

hard and strong, and SPONGY bONES have many open spaces to make it lightweight. In the centers of the

long bones are large opening called CAVITIES, which are filled with MARROW. The ends of the bones are

covered with a thick layer of tissue, called CARTILAGE.

Bone-forming cells deposit calcium and phosphorous to make the bone tissue hard. Healthy bone tissue is

always being formed and reformed.

JOINTS are any place two or more

bones come together. Bones are

held in place in joints by tough

bands of tissue called LIGAMENTS.

Immovable joints allow little or

no movement. Movement joints

include: pivot, ball and socket,

hinge, gliding joints.

At birth, your skeleton was made

up of more than 300 bones. As you

develop, the bones fuse together, so

you have only 206 bones.


.. 35 ..

Nervous System

The nervous system responds to stimuli to maintain homeostasis.

NEURONS are the basic functioning units of the nervous system. A neuron is made up of a cell body, branches

called DENDRITES, and an AXON.

There are three types of neurons, SENSORY neurons, MOTOR neurons, INTER neurons.

Sensory neurons receive information and send impulses to the brain or spinal cords, where inter neurons

relay these impulses to motor neurons. Motor neurons then conduct impulses from the brain of spinal cord to

muscles or glands throughout the body.

SYNAPSES: Neurons don’t touch each other. As an impulse moves from one neuron to another, it crosses a

small space called a synapse. When an impulse reaches the end of an axon, the axon releases a chemical. This

chemical flows across the synapse and stimulates the impulse in the dendrite of the next neurons.

AUTONOMIC SYSTEM controls involuntary actions like breathing. SOMATIC SYSTEM controls voluntary

actions. REFLEX responses are automatic and are controlled by the spinal cord.


.. 36 ..

EARTH SCIENCESGeology - Landforms and Plate tectonics

Study of the formation of Earth and its features

You must have dug the soil to plant a seedling.

Ever wonder where the soil came from?

What would happen if you go on digging to make deeper hole?

Digging all the way through to the “other” side? About 13000 km!!

Inner Core: Solid iron and nickel, where seismic waves

speed up (~2.5% Earth’s mass)

Mantle: Viscous layer between outer core and crust

(~67% Earth’s mass)

Outer Core: Molten iron and nickel, where seismic

waves slow down (~30% Earth’s mass)

Crust: The thinnest outer most layer that forms the

continents with all Earth’s features (~0.5% Earth’s mass).

The crust and the outer mantle together form the

lithosphere. This layer floats on the lower, more dense

mantle (called asthenosphere).

Structure of Earth Data from seismic waves and rocks give clues to Earth’s interior

GEOLOGY – LANDFORMS AND PLATE TECTONICS

Look at the shapes of different continents that form part of Earth’s crust They seem to be parts of a puzzle!!

Australia Europe North America South America

AsiaAntarcticaAfrica


.. 37 ..


200 million years ago all continents were joined as single landmass called Pangaea

Continents broke out from this single landmass Alfred Wegner (1912)

proposed this hypothesis of Continental Drift.

Evidence for the land masses being joined early in

Earth history .

l Fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile are

found in South America and Africa

l Fossil of Glossopteris, a plant are found in Africa,

Australia, India, South America, and Antarctica

l Glacial deposits and rocks polished by glaciers

were found in Africa, Australia, India, and South

America, where no glaciers are present today

l Parts of Appalachian Mountains in Eastern United

States are similar to those found in Greenland and

Western Europe

What forces helped in continents moving apart?

Seafloor is Earth’s crust below oceans.

Seafloor spreading explains how continents move apart

Using SONAR mid-ocean ridges were discovered. These are regions of volcanic activity.

At the ridges, magma flows through the cracksit moves away as it cools and forms new seafloor magma

cools, contracts and becomes dense, sinks to form the ridge

Evidence for the seafloor spreading

Glomar Challenger, a research ship, found that the age of the rocks were older as we move farther from the

mid-ocean ridge

Scientists using magnetometers discovered patterns of magnetic reversals in many areas, along mid-ocean

ridges. What is Curie Point?

So…

Seafloor Spreading promotes

Continental Drift to occur


.. 38 ..


The lithosphere (Earth’s crust and upper mantle) is

broken into sections called plates

Interaction of plates creates boundaries

We will review 3 types of boundaries

1. Divergent boundary:

created by two plates that are moving apart. Example: the

mid-Atlantic Ridge.

A rift valley is formed by divergent plate movement

Hot material raises up where the plates separate, causing

seafloor spreading.

Crust

Upper mantle (less dense)

Asthenosphere (more dense)

2. Convergent boundary: Created when 2 plates move towards each other moves deeper into the mantle

causing volcanoes to form.

A. When a denser oceanic plate moves

towards less dense continental

plate and sinks under, it creates a

subduction zone

Andes Mountains in South America

formed at convergent boundary of

Nazca and South American Plates

Rocks in the less denser plate melt

as it moves deeper into the mantle

causing volcanoes to form

B. When two oceanic plates collide,

a subduction zone is also formed.

Example: volcanic Mariana Islands in

western Pacific

C. when two continental plates, no subduction zone is formed. Instead, large mountain ranges are formed.

Example: Himalayas in Asia


.. 39 ..


3. Transform boundary:

Created when two plates slide past one

another. They may move in same or

opposite directions at different rates

San Andreas Fault in California formed

due to Pacific plate sliding past North

American Plate

Earthquakes are more frequent in this

region, due to sudden movement of

plates

convection current in the mantle is thought

to cause Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics A combined theory of Seafloor Spreading and Continental Drift

Movement of plates caused by convection currents and other factors like …

Ridge-push in mid-ocean ridge (divergent boundary)

Slab-pull when oceanic plate meet other oceanic or continental plates resulting in subduction

(convergent boundary)

…created uneven features of mountains, plains, valleys and other features

Listed below are some of the more common types of mountains:

l Sierra Nevada in California, Teton Range in Wyoming are fault-block mountains caused by pulling forces of

plates where huge blocks of rock to separate form surrounding rocks giving a jagged edge

l Appalachian mountains are folded mountains formed when lateral compression forces squeezed layers of

rock from opposite plates creating folds in them

l Adirondack in New York, Rockies in Colorado and Mexico, and Black Hills in South Dakota are unwrapped

mountains formed when vertical forces inside push up Earth’s crust; with time erosion exposed the

underlying rocks


.. 40 ..

GEOLOGY - EROSION AND WEATHERING

Weathering is breaking down of rocks due to forces in Nature Erosion is movement of

broken down rocks from one place to another.

Weathering Mechanical or chemical process breaks rocks into smaller pieces.

Agents of Erosion

Gravity - Causes mass movement of rocks and sediment.

Ice - Movement of glaciers cause deposition or removal of sediment.

Wind - Causes fine sediment to be transported.

Water - Cuts into earth’s surface and changes its features.

Weathering - (1) Mechanical

caused by physical forces that break rock

Ice Wedging:

l Water seeps into cracks in the rocks and later

freezes into ice.

l The force of expansion widens the cracks, the

ice acts like a wedge.

l The cycle repeats eventually breaking the rock

into smaller pieces.

Weathering - (1) Mechanical

caused by physical forces that break rock.

Plants and Animals:

l Roots of plants grow deep into rocks where water

collects.

l As the roots grow thick they exert pressure wedging the

rock apart.

l Eventually the rock breaks into smaller pieces as the

plant grows further.

l Gophers and prairie dogs borrow into ground pushing

rock and sediment to surface.


.. 41 ..


Weathering - (2) Chemical:

occurs when chemical composition of rocks change due to

natural acids and oxygen

Next time when you see moss growing on a rock., peel it and

observe discoloration of rock underneath. What do you think

caused this?

Natural Acids Carbon dioxide in air dissolves in water forming

carbonic acid dissolves certain rocks

Plant Acids Plant roots produce tannins which forms tannic

acid that dissolves some minerals

Oxidation Tiny amount of iron in rocks combine with oxygen

to from reddish iron oxide that causes weakening of the rock

Soil: A mixture that supports plant life consisting of weathered rock, organic matter, water, and air.

Soil formation is affected by following factors:

Parent Rock

l Weathering of limestone leaves clayey soil, as limestone dissolves away

l Weathering of sandstone leaves sandy soil

Topography

l On hills weathered rock tumbles down without soil development

l In flat lowlands, wind and water deposit fine sediment helping form thick soils

Time

l Undisturbed areas of weathering have thick well developed soils

Organisms

l Lichens consists of alga and fungi grow on rocks and break them down

l Dead plant material accumulate and add organic matter to soil

l Earthworms help in turning the soil and aerating it


.. 42 ..


The following factors affect the type of soil that is formed:

Agents of Erosion - Gravity, Ice, Wind, and Water

Gravity Causes mass movement of rock and sediment down a slope. This type of

movement occur in hilly, or mountainous or volcanic regions


.. 43 ..



Ice In cold regions, over many years, accumulates forming deep masses of ice called glaciers.

Both erosion and deposition change Earth’s surface


Wind - Blowing wind can carry loose sediment like silt and sand and transport it to different regions.

Common in cold regions and deserts


.. 44 ..


GEOLOGY - GEOLOGIC TIME AND LIFE


Water - Flowing water on Earth’s surface is called runoff. This causes erosion of Earth’s surface


.. 45 ..

1) What is the name of the rock that makes up

most of the ocean floor and volcanic ocean

islands?

2) Which of the Gas giant planets is closest to

the Sun?

3) What are the 2 main factors causing the

metamorphism of rocks?

4) Giving your answer as north, south, east, or

west, a southerly wind blows FROM what

direction?

5) Which of the following clouds has little

vertical development:

a) altostratus

b) altocumulus

c) cirrus

d) nimbostratus

6) A weather forecast of 100% relative

humidity suggests an increased possibility

of:

a) rain

b) wind

c) rising temperature

d) drying conditions

7) What is the name for all Great Circles that

pass through the north and south poles?

8) based on size and location, which of the 2

basic types of glaciers dominates Greenland

today?

9) Which of the following fossils is the oldest:

a) trilobite

b) snake

c) petrified wood

d) megalodon tooth

10) Which of the following is NOT a mineral:

a) quartz

b) topaz

c) basalt

d) diamond

11) Which of the following is the hottest region

of planet Earth:

a) the mantle

b) the inner core

c) the outer core

d) the crust

12) Which of the following is the bEST example

of the chemical weathering of rock:

a) cracking of rock by plant roots

b) rain percolating through limestone

c) frost action

d) Abrasion

13) What is the name for the “river” of high

altitude wind over North America that

marks the southern boundary between

polar air to the north and warmer air to the

south?

EARTH SCIENCES QUIz


.. 46 ..

1. BASALT

2. JUPITER

3. HEAT AND PRESSURE (in any order)

4. SOUTH

5. (c) CIRRUS

6. (a) RAIN

7. Longitudes (Accept: Meridians)

8. Continental (Accept: Ice Sheet)

9. (a) Trilobite

10. (c) Basalt

11. ( b) The Inner Core

12. (b) Rain Percolating Through Limestone

13. Polar Jet Stream (Accept: Jet Stream

14. (c) Color

15. (d) Brown

16. Water (Accept: H2O)

17. Mercury; Venus

18. (D) Rocky Coast With Small Spits And Pocket Beaches

19. (A) Compaction And Cementation

14) Which of the following is oven the LEAST

reliable property of a mineral that is used in

mineral

identification:

a) magnetism

b) specific gravity

c) color

d) cleavage

15) Which of the following terms best describes

the streak of a mineral:

a) wavy

b) tabular

c) translucent

d) brown

16) What molecular substance is believed to be

the most basic requirement or signature for

life to exist on a planet?

17) What planets are able to pass between the

Earth and the Sun?

18) Which of the following is a coastal

morphology most characteristic of the west

coast of the U.S.:

a) numerous estuaries

b) depositional coast

c) extensive barrier islands

d) rocky coast with small spits and pocket

beaches

19) Which of the following best describes how a

sedimentary rock can form:

a) compaction and cementation

b) slow cooling and hardening of magma

c) fast cooling and hardening of magma

d) high temperature and pressure causing

recrystallization

ANSWERS


.. 47 ..

PHYSICAL SCIENCESFORCES

MOTION AND MEASUREMENTl When an object changes its position with respect to another, we say that the object is moving!

l Motion is a relative concept

l We are all at rest in the class room but we know that the earth is going around the sun. So, in the solar

system, we are still moving

l Apparent motion: You are sitting in a train and train in the next track moves and you feel that you are

moving in the opposite direction.

l How can you tell your real motion compared to apparent motion – hint: What do you feel?

l When an object changes its position with respect to another, we say that the object is moving!

The sun going down!

Motion is relative!

Man sees flying pigs!

To the pigs,they are not moving at all!

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

A B

C D

4 meters

3 meters 5

meters

Moves from A to B East

Moves from B to C South

Distance travelled is AB+BC

Displacement is AC

Distance is scalar and Displacement is vector!

Going around, Distance travelled is AB +BC+CD+DA

What is the displacement?


.. 48 ..

SCALAR AND VECTOR

AVERAGE SPEED

SPEED AND VELOCITY CALCULATION

l The amount of air in the classroom is only a number

l If it has only a magnitude to measure, it is a scalar

l The hot air in the room rises up

l The rate at which it rises up has a magnitude and a direction (up)

l If it has magnitude and direction to be measured, it is a vector

l Identify the following as Vectors and Scalars

Length of the room

Gravitational Force

Distance (d)

Time=0

Time = t

Average Speed = Distance / Time = d/(m/s)

If you specify the direction of motion also, it is called

VELOCITY

A B

C

40 meters

30 meters

Speed from A to B East 10 sec

Speed = 40/10 m/sec = 4 m/sec

Speed from B to C South in 6 sec

Speed = 30 m/6 sec=5 m/sec

Total Distance travelled is AB+BC=70 m

Speed= 70 m/9 = 6.66 m/ sec

Velocity traveling A to b is 4 m/sec

West What are the other velocities in the picture?


.. 49 ..

INSTANTANEOUS SPEED

ACCELERATION

l On your way to school, you certainly did not travel at the same speed all the time time. You were at rest at

home, kept moving at various speeds before eventually stopping in the parking lot

l Your speed at different time points is called the instantaneous speed

l At some points you travelled fast and at some points you may have been very slow

l You can always calculate one average speed for the trip but many instantaneous speeds

l Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity. An

object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity. Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is

accelerating if he/she is moving fast. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast. A person can be

moving very fast and still not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is

moving. If an object is not changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating.

l Calculating the Average Acceleration

Time Velocity

0s 0m/s

1s 10m/s

2s 20m/s

3s 30m/s

4s 40m/s

5s 50m/s

Avg acceleration = Change in

velocity / Time

V f Vi 50m/s - 0 m/s a = –––––––– = ––––––––––––––––– = 10m/s2

Time 5s

Distance (meters)

Time (sec)

Constant Speed

Constant Speed

Accelerated Motion onnnnnnnnnnnn

???

Speed and Acceleration


.. 50 ..

ACCELERATION : SPEED CASE

MOMENTUM, MASS AND INERTIA

DEFINITION OF MOMENTUM

l Acceleration need not involve change in speed, it could be a change in direction of motion.

The direction of velocity at points

shown with red arrows are different,

so you are accelerating in the circular

Go-cart track!

l Moving objects collide if their paths cross and the effect depends upon mass and velocity

l Colloquially momentum deals with your ability to keep going.

l The NFL football team that wins consistently in the first round is said to have “momentum” and difficult

to stop!

l It is “mass in motion”!

l Mass – Amount of matter

l It is easier to move a smaller than a bigger mass

l Bigger the mass, greater the tendency to stay in its state of motion or rest, resistance to change is

INERTIA

l Momentum (p) of an object is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v)

P=mv

l The direction of momentum is same as the direction of velocity

l What is the momentum of a 1000 Kg car moving at 10 Km/hr. north?

l P= 1000 * 10000/3600 Kg-m/sec north

l=2777.77 Kg-m/sec north


.. 51 ..

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

EXAMPLE OF MOMENTUM CONSERVATION

bALANCED AND UNbALANCED FORCES

l Moving objects collide if their paths cross and the sum of the momentum of the bodies before and after the

collision remain the same.

M v1 v2

M m u1

u2

Momentum Before Collision

Momentum After Collision

m X u1 + M X u2 m X v1 + M X v2

l When you throw a ball at the wall, it bounces back with almost the same velocity

l What happens when you swat a fly in flight?

l Hint: Two masses before motion One mass after motion

l The fly and swatter are moving towards each other

l After impact, the fly gets stuck to the swatter: Its motions is reversed!

l Think about collisions between marbles of equal size, a small marble and a huge marble!

l When you are walking a dog with leash, you both exert the same force on the leash. The net force on the

leash it zero.

l The net force is the sum of all the forces acting on a body!

l The motion of an object remain unchanged when the forces are balanced, i. e. the net force is zero If the

dog rests and you start walking, the net force is no longer zero. The dog moves with you.

Tension Forces


.. 52 ..

DETERMINING THE NET FORCE

NEWTON’S LAWS

l An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed

and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

l Free-body diagrams for four situations are shown below. For each situation, determine the net force acting

upon the object.

Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727),

l mathematician and physicist was one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time. He was mostly

concerned with understanding how things work at a deep level. He worked on heating, cooling, optics,

motion, astronomy and, along the way invented calculus!

l He translated his understanding into simple sentences or law as we call them. His contributions include the

“Newton’s laws” which reflects his remarkable creative genius!

NEWTONS 1ST LAW OF MOTIONl An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at constant velocity, unless

acted upon by an unbalanced force.

l In other words, if the net force acting on an object is zero, it’s state of motion will not be changed

l If it is at rest, it will stay at rest

l If it is moving with steady velocity, it will continue moving at that velocity

l This law pertains to the nature of motion and how it is maintained


.. 53 ..

1ST LAW

l Once airborne, unless acted on by an unbalanced

force (gravity and air – fluid friction), it would never

stop!

l Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, this

golf ball would sit on the tee forever.

Why then, do we observe every day objects in motion slowing down and becoming motionless seemingly without an outside force?

It’s a force we sometimes cannot see – friction.

What is this unbalanced force that acts on an object in motion?

objects on earth, unlike the frictionless space

the moon travels through, are under the

influence of friction Friction!l There are four main types of friction:

l Sliding friction: ice skating

l Rolling friction: bowling

l Fluid friction (air or liquid): air or water resistance

l Static friction: initial friction when object begins moving

Slide a book across a table and watch it slide to a rest position.

The book comes to a rest because of the presence of a force -

that force being the force of friction - which brings the book

to a rest position.


.. 54 ..

TYPE OF FRICTION

NEWTONS 2ND LAW OF MOTION

WEIGHT AND MASS

l Static, rolling and sliding friction

l Static Friction is the friction between two static or stationary objects. It involves bond breaking at the

surface

l Sliding or Kinetic Friction– It is due to the microscopic roughness of the surfaces

l Rolling Friction– A combination of the above two at the contact of rolling between two objects

The acceleration of an object is equal to the net force divided by

mass and is in the direction of the force

F = m * a F= Force : m=Mass : a = Acceleration

l When mass is in kilograms and acceleration is in m/s2, the unit of force is in Newton(N).

l One Newton is the force required to accelerate one kilogram of mass at one meter/second2.

2ND LAW EXAMPLE

How much force is needed to accelerate a 1400 kilogram car 2 meters per second/per second?

Write the formula F = mx a

Fill in given numbers and units F = 1400 kg x 2 meters per second/ second

Solve for the unknown 2800 kg-meters/second/second or 2800 N

l Mass is a measure of how much matter an object has

l Weight is a measure of how strongly gravity pulls on that matter

l If you were to travel to the moon, your weight would change because the pull of gravity is weaker there

than on Earth but your mass would stay the same because you are still made up of the same amount of

matter.


.. 55 ..

WEIGHT AND MASS

Newton’s 2nd Law proves that different masses accelerate of the earth at the same rate, but with different forces.

l Two tugboats are moving a barge.

Tugboat A exerts a force of 3000

newtons on the barge. Tugboat

B exerts a force of 5000 newtons

in the same direction. What is the

combined force on the barge?

A

B

lWe know that objects with different

masses accelerate to the ground at

the same rate.

lHowever, because of the 2nd Law we

know that they don’t hit the ground

with the same force.

F = ma 9.8 N = 1 kg x 9.8 m/s/s

F = ma 98 N = 10 kg x 9.8 m/s/s


.. 56 ..

INTRODUCTION TO NEWTONS 3RD LAW

lNewton’s 1st law talks about the nature of motion of one body and the second law talks about the motion

of a body - the result of force on a body and the third law talks about interaction between two bodies.

lWhen Object X exerts a force on object Y, then object Y exerts an equal and opposite force on X.

l For every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.

l Forces always act in equal but opposite pairs

According to Newton, whenever objects A and B

interact with each other, they exert forces upon each

other. When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a

downward force on the chair and the chair exerts an

upward force on your body.

Other example of Newton’s Third law

The baseball forces the bat to the left

(an action); the bat forces the ball to the

right (the reaction).

3rd Law

Consider the motion of a car on the

way to school. A car is equipped with

wheels which spin backwards. As the

wheels spin backwards, they grip the

road and push the road backwards.


.. 57 ..

Forces

Equal And Opposite Pairs

Different objects

Ball exerts force on the

bat to the left

Bat exerts force on the ball to the

right

ACTION

FORCE

REACTION

FORCE

Foot exerts force down and back

Floor exerts force up and

forward

Physics of hitting a ball

Earth exerts force down on the book

Table exerts force up on

the book

3rd Law Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force

States

come in

act on

accelerate

and and and and

are

balanced

WORK, POWER, AND ENERGYWork is defined as product of the net force and the displacement through which that force is exerted. W= F*d.

Work is measured in newton-meter or joules. 1 newton-meter = 1 joule

A crane lifts a load of logs 3 meters with a force of 5,200 Newtons. How much work did the crane do?

Jake uses 45 Newtons of force to move the cart 6.5 meters. How much work did Jake do?

Andy uses a force of 20 Newtons to push a lawn mower 20 meters. How much work did he do?

A 45 kg girl sits on an t kg bench. How much work is done on the bench?

Power is defined as the work done divided by the time used to do the work.

P = W/t or P= (F*d)/t

SI unit of power is joule/second or watt. 1 joule/ second = 1 watt

If it takes a kid 20 seconds to pull the sled 400 Newtons-meters, what is the Power? P = 400 J/20 sec = 20 J/s =

20 Watts.

His older brother pulls the sled in 10 seconds, then his power = 400 J/10 sec = 40 Watts.

Electricity units are 1 KW-Hour = 1000 W* 3600 sec =3.6*106 MW.

Energy is defined as ability to do work. SI unit of energy is joules, kilowatt hour (kWh), calories. Other units are

newton-meters, foot-pound among others.

How Are Work And Energy Related

Work done on an object gives the object potential or kinetic energy. When there is a net force doing work on

an object, the object’s kinetic energy will change by an amount equal to the work done.


.. 58 ..

FORMS OF ENERGY

ENERGY… There are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: Potential and Kinetic.

POTENTIAL ENERGY Potential Energy is stored energy due to an object’s position and structure, and increases as the object’s

height above Earth increases.

Potential energy in the pendulum is called gravitational potential energy.

Potential Energy = m*g*h (m: mass of the object,

g: gravitational force= 9.8 m/s^2, h: height of the

object from the surface of Earth

The higher an object is lived above Earth, the greater

its potential energy. Elastic potential energy can be

stored in rubber bands, bungee cords, trampolines,

and springs. Chemical potential energy is stored in

chemical bonds. Energy is released when bonds are

broken and substances undergo chemical changes.

The weaker the chemical bond, the more energy

that is present between the bonded atoms.

Ex: Batteries, coal, natural gas, petroleum, biomass,

food.


.. 59 ..

KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic Energy is the energy due to the motion of an object and increases as the object’s mass or speed

increases, such as motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, objects. The word ‘kinetic’ comes

from the Greek word ‘kinesis’, which means motion. It can be passed from one object to another in the form of

collision. The term ‘Kinetic energy’ was first coined by mathematician and physicist, Lord Kelvin.

Example: a car speeding down the highway, a bird flapping its wings, a bowling ball knocking down the pins

Sound, Thermal Energy (heat), Electrical Energy and Radiant Energy (Light) are all examples of Kinetic Energy.

Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 where ‘m’ is the mass of the object, and ‘v’ is the velocity of the object

CONVERTING POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY

When the object goes upward, potential energy increases, kinetic energy decreases. PE becomes

maximum as it reaches its maximum height. When the object starts coming down, potential energy

decreases and kinetic energy increases.


.. 60 ..

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

THERMAL ENERGY

l Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only transformed from one form into another.

l The total change of energy in any system is always equal to the total energy transferred into or out of the

system. This is called Law of Conservation of Energy.

l The thermal energy of an object is the sum of the kinetic

and potential energy of all the molecules in an object.

lHeat is the transfer of thermal energy due to a

temperature difference. Heat always moves from a

higher temperature to a lower temperature.

l This heat is generated by the movement of tiny particles

within an object. The faster these particles move, the

more heat is generated.

l It is measured in Joules (J), British Thermal Units (BTUs)

or Calories.

lHeat and Temperature are different.

l Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic

energy of the particles in an object. When an object’s

temperature is higher, its atoms or molecules have high

kinetic energy.

l Example: When you hold a glass of iced tea, heat flows

out your hand and into the glass of iced tea. As you hold

the glass, the temperature of the tea increases and the

temperature of your skin touching the glass decreases.

Heat will stop flowing from your hand to the glass when

the temperatures of your hand and glass are same. This

is called equilibrium.

COOLERObJECT

WARMERObJECT HEAT TRANSFER


.. 61 ..

TRANSFER OF HEAT AND MEASURING TEMPERATURE

TRANSFER OF HEAT

lHow much does the temperature of something

increase when heat is transferred to it? – it depends

on two things– 1. amount of material in the object,

2. the kind of atoms the material is made of.

l Temperature is measured in Degree Celsius or

Fahrenheit or Kelvin Units. Thermometer is used

to measure temperature.

lOn the Celsius scale the freezing point of water

is 0 degrees Celsius and the boiling point is 100

degrees Celsius.

lOn the Fahrenheit scale the freezing point of

water is 32 degrees F and the boiling point is 212

degrees F.

lWater is an unusual substance that absorbs large

amount of heat before its temperature rises by

one degree. That is why, water is used as coolant.

When heat is transferred, thermal energy moves from warmer to cooler objects. Heat never flows from a cooler

object to a warmer object. Transfer of heat takes place in three ways - conduction, convection, and radiation.

CONDUCTION

Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy when substances are in direct contact.

Example: Hot pizza touching your mouth, ice cube mailing in your hand, touching metal spoon kept in hot water or

coffee.

Conduction mainly occurs in solids and liquids, where atoms and molecules are close together. Then, they

need to move only a short distance before they bump into one another and transfer energy. As a result. Heat is

transferred more rapidly by conduction in solids and liquids than in gases.

Spoon in hot coffee getting hotter to the end

of the spoon

Heat flow alongrod by conduction

Hot rod burns handby conduction


.. 62 ..

CONVECTION

RADIATION

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by the movement of matter. This is most common in gases and

liquids. As temperature increases, particles move around quickly, and the distance between the particles

increases. This causes density to decrease as temperature increases. Cooler, denser material then forces the

warmer, less dense material to move upward. Examples: A pot of boiling water, some homes, currents in

atmosphere, currents in ocean by cold water flowing from the poles and warm water flowing from tropical

regions.

Eagles and hawks float effortlessly high in the air. Sometimes a bird can stay in the air without flapping its

wings because it is held up by a thermal. A thermal is a column of warm air that is forced up as cold air around

it sinks. It is a convection current in the air.

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves. These waves carry energy through

empty space, as well as through matter. This transfer can occur in empty space, as well as solids, liquids, and

gases. The Sun is not the only source of electromagnetic radiation. All objects emit electromagnetic radiation,

although warm objects emit more radiation than cool objects.

Example: Warmth you feel when you sit next to a fire

place (caused due to heat transferred by radiation from

fire to skin), Sun, microwave oven.

Warm Air

AfricaSouth America

Trench

Heated material expands and rises.

Convection current

Mid-AtlanticRidge

Air warms,become less dense, rises

Cold air

Air cools, become moredense, sinks

Earth Emitted Energy

Solar IncidentEnergy

Solar Reflected

Energy


.. 63 ..

CONDUCTORS l These are materials through which energy can transfer easily.

l Example: Metals like gold, copper, steel.

l Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance

by 1 degree Celsius. More heat is needed to change the temperature of a material with a high specific heat

than one with a low specific heat. For example, the sand on a beach has a lower specific heat than water.

That’s why sand feels much warmer than water as radiation from Sun heats sand and water. When we walk

on asphalt road and lawn on bare foot, asphalt road feels warmer.

INSULATORS lMaterials that are poor conductors of heat are called insulators. Example: Sweaters, blankets, clothes keep

us warm because they are made of materials that contain many airspaces. Materials made of plastic, wood,

rubber, and ceramic material such as tiles.

*Some electric power plants and factories that use water for cooling produce hot water as a by-product.

If this hot water is released into the lake, river, or ocean, it raises the temperature of the water nearby

causing thermal pollution. As the hot water contains less dissolved oxygen than normal water, some

organisms can die due to lack of oxygen. In warmer water many organisms become more sensitive to

chemical pollutants, parasites, and diseases. Thermal pollution can be reduced by cooling the water

before releasing it into a body of water.

*However, the words hot, cold, warm can mean different things to different people.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

This energy is due to the movement of electrons.

Since the electric charges are moving, this is a

form of kinetic energy.

Examples: A lamp plugged into a wall outlet, electric

stove top, lightning in the clouds

MAGNETIC ENERGY

This energy is stored in magnetic

materials due to alignment of

magnetic domains

in the same direction.

Attraction between North and

South poles of a magnet.


.. 64 ..

CHEMICAL ENERGY

l Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds (atoms and molecules). It is released

in a chemical reaction, oven producing heat as a by-product (exothermic reaction). Batteries, biomass,

petroleum, natural gas, and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.

l For example, when an explosive goes off, chemical energy stored in it is transferred to the surroundings as

thermal energy, sound energy and kinetic energy.

l The dry wood is a store of chemical energy. As it burns in the fireplace, chemical energy is released and

converted to thermal energy (heat) and light energy. The wood now turns into ashes.

l Food is also a good example of stored chemical energy. This energy is released during digestion. Molecules

in our food are broken down into smaller pieces. As the bonds between these atoms loosen or break, a

chemical reaction will occur, and new compounds are created. When the bonds break or loosen, oxidation

occurs almost instantly.


.. 65 ..

ATOMS AND bONDING

ATOMS AND CONSTITUENTS l An atom consists of a nucleus made up of protons and neutrons

l Protons are positively charged particles while neutrons are neutral (no charge); the nucleus is thus

positively charged

l The outer part of the atom consists of negatively charged electrons revolving around the nucleus in their

paths called electron cloud or orbitals

l In an atom, number of protons = number of electrons for charge neutrality

l Number of neutrons in an atom may be or may not be equal to number of protons.

Mass of a proton (1.67262 x 10-27 kg) ˜

Mass of a neutron (1.67493 x 10-27 kg)

Mass of an electron is negligible (9.10939 x 10-31 kg)

Nucleus made up of protons and neutrons

Electrons revolving around the nucleus in their paths

ATOMIC NUMbER AND MASS

l Elements are represented by a chemical symbol, with atomic number and mass number

l Atomic number = number of protons or number of electrons

l Atomic mass = number of protons + number of neutrons

Chemical Symbols:

1 or 2 - letter abbreviations, oven based on the name of the element

H = Hydrogen ; O = Oxygen ; C = Carbon ; Cl = Chlorine ; Au = Gold (Aurum in Latin)

Atomic number =

Number of protons or

Number of electrons

Atomic Mass =

Number of protons +

Number of neutrons

C6

12


.. 66 ..

DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODIC TAbLE

MODERN PERIODIC TAbLE

l Dimitri Mendeleev published his

periodic table in 1869

l Mendeleev arranged elements in the

order of increasing atomic mass

– Elements with similar properties fell

into the group

l Mendeleev leX three gaps on the

periodic table for missing elements

l As Mendeleev predicted, the missing

elements (Ga, Sc and Ge) discovered

15 years later

l Henry Moseley (1887-1915)

arranged Mendeleev’s table

according to atomic number, not by

atomic mass

Basis for the modern Periodic table

Dimitri Mendeleev Henry Moseley

Increasing metallic character

Inner Transition ElementsTransition Elements

Incr

easi

ng m

etal

lic c

hara

cter

Lanthanoids

Actionoids


.. 67 ..

HOW ARE ELEMENTS ARRANGED l Elements are arranged in the periodic table by increasing atomic number.

l As of 2010, 118 elements are known, 94 are naturally occurring, 24 are synthetic (man-made).

l PERIOD:

lA row of elements (left-to-right) in the periodic table (labeled 1-7).

lPhysical and chemical properties change gradually and predictably.

l GROUP:

lColumn (top-to-bottom) contains elements of the same family.

lElements in the same group have similar physical or chemical properties.

l Elements in group 1 and 2 and 13-18 are representative elements.

l Elements in group 3-12 are transition elements.

l Metallic character decreases from left to right in the periodic table.

l Elements on the left side are more metallic.

l Elements on the right side are non-metals.

l Elements in between are metalloids.

METALS, NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS

METALS NON-METALS

Have a shiny luster; various colors, although most are

silvery

Do not have a luster; various colors

Solid metals are malleable and ductile (note: all

metals are not solids. Hg (Mercury) is a metal, but

liquid)

Solids are usually brittle; some are hard and some are

soft

Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity

Most metal oxides are ionic solids and they are basic Most non-metal oxides are molecular substances

that form acidic solutions

Tend to form cations (positively charged ions) by

loosing electrons

Tend to form anions (negatively charged ions) by

gaining electrons

Metalloids share some characteristics of metals and non-metals


.. 68 ..

O16

8He4

2

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURA8ON

l Electrons travel in 3- dimensions

around the nucleus of an atom

l The farther the energy level from

the nucleus, the more electrons it

can hold

l 2n2 is the formula to calculate the

maximum number of electrons an

energy level can hold, n = energy

level number.

Protons

Neutrons

2

3

4

1

Electron

energy

levels or

Shells

Energy levels 1, 2, 3, 4,

etc are also referred to as

K, L, M, N shells

What is the maximum number of electrons each energy level can hold?

Energy level /

shell 1K

2L

3M

4N

Maximum #

electrons (2n2) 2 8 18 32

HYDROGEN ATOM

1 Proton and 0 neutron in

the nucleus

1 electron in the 1st energy

level (K shell)

Number of electron in

outer shell =1

HELIUM ATOM

2 Protons and 2 neutrons in

the nucleus

2 electrons in the 1st energy

level (K shell)

Number of electrons in the

outer shell = 2

OXYGEN ATOM

8 Protons and 8 neutrons in

the nucleus

2 electrons in the 1st energy

level (K shell)

6 electron in the 2nd energy

level (L shell)

Number of electrons in the

outermost shell = 6

H1

1


.. 69 ..

ISOTOPES

l Isotopes are atoms of the same element which differ in mass and the number of neutron

l Isotopes have the same number of electrons and protons, but have different number of neutrons

l Isotopes of Carbon with atomic mass of 12, 13 and 14 are known. How many number of neutrons are there

in each Carbon isotope?

l Isotopes of Chlorine with mass of 35 and 37 are known. How many number of neutrons are there in each

chlorine isotope?

HYDROGEN ISOTOPES

1 Proton

0 Neutron

1 Proton

1 Neutron

1 Proton

2 Neutron

Hydrogen

0 Neutron

Mass = 1

Deuterium

1 Neutron

Mass = 2

Tritium

2 Neutron

Mass = 3


.. 70 ..

1) What physical state of matter is intermediate between a solid and gas?

2) Which of the following bEST describes the term static:

a) stationary

b) low

c) constant

d) used

3) Mary tried to lift her couch by exerting 500 newtons of force but it doesn’t budge. If the couch

weighed 2,000 newtons, how much work did she do:

a) 0

b) 50 watts

c) 500 joules

d) 2000 joules

4) Jeff walks west in a straight path for 100 meters and then east in a straight path for 150 meters.

What is the magnitude of his displacement, in meters?

5) What atomic particle balances the charge of protons to produce a neutral atom?

6) Isotopes of the same element are based on their different numbers of what atomic particle?

7) An ionic state of an atom of hydrogen would have how many protons?

8) What is the name for the biochemical process that converts grape juice into wine or soy beans

into soy sauce?

SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER


.. 71 ..

9) What term do scientists use for the force of gravity acting on anything that has mass?

10) How many protons are present in a single helium nucleus?

11) Which of the following best explains the benefit of adding a solution of ethylene glycol, or

antifreeze, to the radiator of a car:

a) lowers the freezing point and raises the boiling point

b) raises the freezing point and raises the boiling point

c) lowers the freezing point and lowers the boiling point

d) raises the freezing point and lowers the boiling point

12) Metallic bonding accounts for all but which of the following physical characteristics of metals:

a) strength

b) ductility

c) high electrical conductivity

d) poor thermal conductivity

13) How many times as much kinetic energy does a falling rock have if it triples its velocity?

14) Which of the following has the GREATEST kinetic energy for an object moving in a straight path:

a) a mass of 2 kg with a velocity of 10 meters per second

b) a mass of 4 kg with a velocity of t meters per second

c) a mass of 6 kg with a velocity of 6 meters per second

d) a mass of t kg with a velocity of 4 meters per second

15) Which of the following would be the most logical choice for neutralizing a small amount of basic

sodium hydroxide that was spilled on a lab bench:

a) citric acid

b) mercury pillow

c) concentrated sulfuric acid

d) concentrated hydrochloric acid


.. 72 ..

16) When the following chemical equation is balanced, the coefficient of oxygen will be what value:

CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

17) For 2 planets separated by a given distance, if the mass of one planet doubles, by what factor will

the gravitational attraction between the planets be multiplied?

18) If the cost of electricity is 12 - cents per kilowatt hour, how much does it cost to run a 100-watt

light bulb for 10 hours?

19) If the half-life of a given isotope is 7 days, what fraction of the original isotope will be left after 14

days?

20) Using proper chemical formulas, finish balancing the following equation: ba(OH)2 + 2HCl à what?

21) What is the most common term for the energy an object has because of its position or

configuration?

1. LIQUID

2. (a) STATIONARY

3. (a) 0

4. 50

5. ELECTRON

6. NEUTRONS

7. 1

8. FERMENTATION

9. WEIGHT

10. 2

11. (a) LOWERS THE FREEZING POINT AND RAISES THE BOILING

POINT

12. (d) POOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

13. 9

14. (b) A MASS OF 4 KG WITH A VELOCITY OF t METERS PER

SECOND (Solution: KE = ½ mass × velocity^2)

15. (a) CITRIC ACID

16. 2 (Solution: CH4 + 2O2 à CO2 + 2H2O)

17. 2 (2 TIMES)

18. 12 CENTS (Solution: 100 watts = 0.1 Kw; 0.1 Kw × 10 hours ×

12 cents = 12 cents)

19. ¼

20. BaCl2 + 2H2O

21. POTENTIAL

Answers


.. 73 ..

1. Northern Lights observed over the North Pole

A. Aurora Borealis B. Aurora Australis C. Midnight Sun D. Midnight Moon E. Polar Flare

2. In HDTV, digital signals bring better picture & sound quality to TV. “HD” in the term “HDTV” stands

for _______

A. High Density

B. High Demand

C. High Definition

D. Hydrogen Diode

E. Helium Diode

3. Cold air mass descending onto a warm air mass causes a ______

A. Warm front B. Cold Front C. Stationary Front D. Occluded Front E. Stable front

4. Many cells performing a similar function make up a _______

A. Organelles B. Tissue C. Organ System D. Organ E. Tracts

5. The passive movement of molecules from a region of high density to a region of low density is

A. Diffusion

B. Osmosis

C. Equilibrium

D. Concentration gradient

E. Active Transport

6. ______ animals produce eggs that hatch outside the female’s body.

A. Oviparous B. Viviparous C. Nulliparous D. Intraparous E. Extraparous

7. Pascal is a unit of measure of

A. Force B. Pressure C. Area D. Momentum E. Velocity

8. ____ tides are weak tides that take place when Sun and Moon are at right angles to the Earth.

A. Neap B. Spring C. Peak D. Noon E. Fall

9. This hormone when released enables one to engage in or respond to a “fight, flight or fright”

situation.

A. Insulin B. Thyroxine C. Adrenaline D. Sex hormones E. Auxins

SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER


.. 74 ..

10. Isaac believed that objects will fall to the ground when released. To test this, he obtained an apple.

He noted that the apple fell to the ground when released. He wrote in his book, “Objects fall to the

ground upon release”. Isaac’s initial belief is best described as the ________.

A. Scientific Method B. Decision C. Hypothesis D. Observation E. Conclusion

11. The elbow is an example of this joint.

A. Ball & Socket B. Hinge C. Pivot D. Gliding E. Immovable

12. Which of this component of the Electromagnetic spectrum has the smallest wavelength?

A. Radiowaves B. Infrared C. Ultraviolet D. X-ray E. Gamma Ray

13. Electromagnetic waves are ______ waves

A. Compressional B. Transverse C. Crest D. Trough E. Maximum

14. Which of these is caused by bacteria?

A. Dysentery B. Measles C. Polio D. HINI flu E. AIDS

15. The core of a star left after a supernova explosion is ________

A. Neutron star B. galaxies C. constellation D. white dwarf E. blackhole

16. Sun is a type of ________ star.

A. Supergiant B. Giant Star C. Main sequence D. White dwarf E. Neutron star

17. This is the outermost layer of the sun, often visible during a total solar eclipse.

A. Photosphere B. Chromosphere C. Corona D. Sunspots E. Flare

18. Light is produced as a result of

A. an electron absorbing energy and becoming an ion of high energy.

B. an electron absorbing energy to go from ground or resting state to excited state.

C. an electron returning from excited state to a lower energy level by emitting heat.

D. an electron returning from excited state to a lower energy level by emitting a photon.

E. an electron converting energy to a photon when going form resting state to excited state.

19. Theories are important because they are useful

A. to make predictions

B. to test hypethesis

C. to create sound experiments

D. to understand the probem

E. to make better results.

20. Red flowers of genotype RR cross-pollinate white flowers of genotype rr, and all offspring are Red.

We can deduce that R is _______.

A. Polygenic B. Dominant C. Recessive D. Sex-linked E. Co-dominant


.. 75 ..

21. Shining a light of a particular wavelength did not cause photoelectric effect. So, increasing the

intensity of light will result in emission of electrons.

A. “False, because photon will now have enough energy to eject an electron.”

B. “False, because photon will now have lower energy to eject an electron.”

C. “False, because photon will now have more energy than needed to eject the electron.”

D. “False, because the energy of photon is independent of light intensity.”

E. “True, because the energy of photon is dependent on light intensity.”

22. “Ashok wants to test if turmeric is anti bacterial. He prepares 4 Petri dishes with agar and nutrients.

To dish 1 he adds 1 drop of concentrated turmeric solution, 1 drop of pond water. To dish 2 he adds

1 drop of diluted turmeric solution, 1 drop of pond water. To dish 3 he adds 1 drop of water used

to make turmeric solution and 1 drop of pond water. To dish 4 he adds 2 drops of sterile water. He

records bacterial growth for 1 day. What is/are the independent variable(s) in the experiment?”

A. Concentration of turmeric solution.

B. Pond water.

C. Agar and nutrients.

D. Sterile water.

E. Water used to make the turmeric solution

23. In pea plants Yellow seed color is dominant while Green is recessive. How will you determine that a

yellow seeded plant is homozygous (YY) or heterozygous (Yy) for seed color?

A. Do a test cross with pure dominant (YY) Green seeded plant. If 100% of F1 generation are Yellow,

then the parent Yellow plant is homozygous (YY). If 50% of F1 generation is Yellow and other 50%

are Green, then the parent Yellow plant is heterozygous(Yy)

B. Do a test cross with pure dominant (YY) Green seeded plant. If 50% of F1 generation are Yellow,

then the parent Yellow plant is homozygous (YY). If 100% of F1 generation is Yellow and other 50%

are Green, then the parent Yellow plant is heterozygous(Yy)

C. Do a test cross with recessive (yy) Green seeded plant. If 100% of F1 generation are Yellow, then

the parent Yellow plant is homozygous (YY). If 50% of F1 generation is Yellow and other 50% are

Green, then the parent Yellow plant is heterozygous(Yy)

D. Do a test cross with recessive (yy) Green seeded plant. If 50% of F1 generation are Yellow, then



E. Do a test cross with recessive (yy) Green seeded plant. If 75% of F1 generation are Yellow, then



24. balance the following chemical reaction:

______CO + ______H2 ---> ______C8H18 + ________H2O

A. 8,17,1,8

B. 7,18,2,6

C. 6,19,3,5

D. 15,10,4,4

E. 11,14,5,3


.. 76 ..

25. Archimedes discovered that an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the

weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Anil wanted to perform an experiment using this

principle to determine the density of solids. He found that a uniform block of wood floats in water

with two-thirds of its volume submerged. In oil the same object has 90% of its volume submerged.

What is the approximate density of the wood and of the oil that Anil calculated? (Density of water

is 1gm/cc)

A. Wood: 0.67gm/cc, Oil:0.74 gm/cc

B. Wood: 0.74 gm/cc, Oil:0.67 gm/cc

C. Wood:0.9gm/cc, Oil:0.1gm/cc

D. Wood: 0.1gm/cc, Oil:0.9gm/cc

E. Wood: 0.33gm/cc, Oil:0.66 gm/cc

SENIOR SCIENCE - K.V. No. 1 Gandhinagar

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