Racial Structure and Radical Politics in the African Diaspora

ii Racial Structure and Radical Politics in the African Diaspora

Africana Studies:A Review of Social Science Research

EditorJames L. Conyers, Jr., University of Houston

Assistant Editor

Dr. Andrew Smallwood, Austin Peay University

Graduate Assistants

Kady Kante, Leah McAlister Shields, University of Houston

Book Review Editor

Dr. Christel Temple, Maryland at Baltimore County, an Honors College

Editorial Board

Dr. Delores P. Aldridge, Emory UniversityDr. Molefi K. Asante, Temple UniversityDr. Cary Wintz, Texas Southern UniversityDr. James Turner, Cornell UniversityDr. Julius E. Thompson, University of Missouri at ColumbiaDr. James B. Stewart, Pennsylvania State UniversityDr. Alan Colon, Dilliard UniversityDr. Reiland Rabaka, California State University at Long BeachDr. Anthony Pinn, Rice UniversityDr. Anthony Lemelle, University of Wisconsin at MilwaukeeDr. Kobi K.K. Kambon, Florida A & M UniversityDr. Shawn R. Donaldson, The Richard Stockton College of New JerseyDr. Gerald Home, University of HoustonDr. Janis Hutchinson, University of HoustonDr. Jane Dabel, California State University at Long BeachDr. W. Lawrence Hogue, University of HoustonDr. Sundiata Cha Jua, University of Illinois at Champaign-UrbanaDr. Fred Hord, North Carolina State UniversityDr. Molefi K. Asante, Jr., Morgan State University

Introduction iii

Copyright © 2009 by Taylor & Francis.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2009003863

First published 2009 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN 13: 978-1-4128-1045-6 (pbk)

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Racial structure and radical politics in the African diaspora / James L.Conyers, Jr., editor. p. cm. -- (Africana studies ; v. 3) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4128-1045-6 1. African diaspora. 2. Blacks--History. I. Conyers, James L.

DT16.5.R33 2009305.896--dc22

2009003863

Contents

Preface vii

Binga Bank and the Development of the Black Metropolis 1 Beth Johnson

Black on the Block 13 Mary Pattillo

African Diaspora Connections and Gilroy’s Denial 45 Mark Christian

The “Race” Concept and Racial Structure 61 Clarence R. Talley

W.E.B. Du Bois, Reparations, Radical Politics, 81and Critical Race Theory Reiland Rabaka

Application of the African Model of Positive Mental 113Health and NTU Therapy in Clinical Practice with Clients of African Descent Paula A. Moore

Patriot Day: The World Community of Al-Islam in the 127West’s Vision of Multicultural Politics in a Neo-Racist World

Malachi D. Crawford

Edward Wilmot Blyden and the African Personality: 143A Discourse on African Cultural Identity James Conyers

Cultural Helix Theory: Language, Life, and Rhythm 161 Paul Easterling

Black in the Saddle: The Best Bull Rider You Never Saw 183 Demetrius W. Pearson

African American Culture and Oral History: 197A Social Study of Lawnside, New Jersey James L. Conyers, Jr.

Contributors 211

Index 213

Preface

This edition of the serial, Africana Studies: A Review of Social Sci-ence Research, focuses on the theme of Racial Structure and Radical Politics in Contemporary Africa. Racial structures can be referred to as, the study of Africana communities and their formation globally. Like-wise, the representation of radical politics advances itself to describe and evaluate the process of obtaining, affi rming, and exercising sovereignty from an alternative aspect. The essays aggregated in this volume, aspire to query, precipitate analysis, and offer a contribution to the forward fl ow of knowledge, as it pertains to social scientifi c approaches to describing and evaluating Africana phenomena.

Equally important, with a national election, to take place within months, U.S. citizens begin to exhibit an aesthetic of perplexity, concern-ing what drives interest, incentives, and structural approaches to outlin-ing the culture of politics. Indeed, this posture has a direct and indirect emphasis on African Americans. Certainly, issues and schema of race, gender, class, are comparative variables, which render investigation to this dialogue. Additionally, this volume, seeks to probe the themes of: agency, community studies, social stratifi cation, identity privilege, and market cultural enterprises of consumerism. Finally, this interdisciplinary approach provides readers with an alternative analysis of describing and evaluating Racial Structure and Radical Politics.

vii

http://taylorandfrancis.com

Binga Bank and the Development of the Black Metropolis

Beth Johnson

On January 3, 1921, The Broad Ax, a local black newspaper in Chicago, announced the opening of the Binga State Bank located at 3452 South State Street (since demolished). Jesse Binga (1865-1950) selected this location as the “corner around which Negro business would revolve.”1 To help spur the development of the neighborhood, he fi nanced the devel-opment of the 35th Street Arcade as well as purchased and leased other properties in the neighborhood allowing for the cultivation of a commu-nity in which blacks could live, work, and play outside of the oppressions of racism. The total cost to erect these two buildings exceeded $600,000. As a result of the establishment of the bank, the Black Metropolis (also referred to as Bronzeville and the Black Belt) was able to grow and fl our-ish; money was available to the African-American community when there was previously no access to the economic benefi ts of a bank. This gave blacks the opportunity to buy homes, invest in their own businesses, and develop their own community.2 Until its closing in 1930, the bank and Binga’s involvement in the neighborhood helped the African-American community prosper economically and socially.

Prior to the establishment of the Black Metropolis, there was no single cohesive African-American community. Blacks were scattered throughout the city located in close proximity to their places of employ-ment. Between 1850 and 1870 new technology aided growing industries; African Americans came to Chicago to take advantage of the benefi ts of manufacturing jobs within growing industries and make a better life. By 1870, the largest concentration of African Americans was located between 12th Street and 39th Street. The western border was defi ned by industrial properties and railroads; the eastern boundary was defi ned by affl uent white neighborhoods. The Black Belt contained the highest

1

2 Racial Structure and Radical Politics in the African Diaspora

concentration of African American people in Chicago developing into an independent commercial and social strip. By 1900 the Black Metropolis was well established as a city within the city, a community that satisfi ed its own demand for goods and services.

Bronzeville initially began to fl ourish with the creation of the fi rst Binga Bank, a privately held black bank founded in 1908. The bank, located at 3633 S. State Street, was instrumental in the establishment and growth of businesses, entertainment and housing opportunities for blacks.

Jesse Binga, the man behind the bank, was born in Detroit in 1865. His parents were extremely infl uential introducing a strong work ethic to him and his seven siblings at an early age. He received a high school educa-tion and studied law for two years. In addition to his formal education his parents stressed the importance of obtaining diversity in vocational skills. He worked in his father’s barbershop and helped his mother with her real estate concerns.3

After leaving home Binga traveled west to explore Washington, Idaho, Montana, and Utah. In Idaho, he made a signifi cant profi t on a real estate transaction where he bought 20 lots in a small town called Pocatello and

Figure 1Binga Bank

Binga Bank and the Development of the Black Metropolis 3

sold them for a handsome profi t.4 With these proceeds he relocated to Chicago, opening a real estate business at 3331 South State Street during the late 1890s5. His business prospered, allowing him to move to more desirable offi ce space on the fi rst fl oor of the Bates apartment building located at 3637 South State Street. Whites rented most of the units in the building, but after Binga signed a long-term lease, the residential makeup shifted toward African Americans. In 1905 he purchased the building. As a result, Binga gained the reputation of being a pioneer—opening doors for Negroes into white neighborhoods.6

Binga was intelligent and took advantage of an economic opportu-nity to create wealth. He arrived in Chicago just prior to the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, during a period of time when there was signifi cant activity and opportunity on the South Side. African Americans in Chicago were particularly sensitive to the lack of their involvement in planning the event and minimal attention given to the representation of their accomplishments. Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862-1931) was moved to write and distribute The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition: The Afro-American’s Contribution to Columbian Literature at the Fair.

Figure 2Jesse Binga, ca. 1925


Frederick Douglass (1818-1895), at the request of President Florvil Hippolyte, was chosen to represent the country of Haiti, having served as United States minister to the country from 1891 to 1893. Douglass took up a daily vigil at Haiti’s pavilion, and from this position, he drew attention to not only the accomplishments of the tiny island nation, but also the lack of participation by African Americans at the Fair. The Hai-tian pavilion served as the headquarters for African Americans during the Exposition. Jesse Binga, Paul Lawrence Dunbar (1872-1906), Booker T. Washington (1856-1915), James Weldon Johnson (1871-1938) were among many blacks who attended the Fair.7

After the Fair closed, many of those who came to Chicago to help build the fairgrounds left to return to their homes or look for another viable employment opportunity. This resulted in a glut in the housing market and an opportunity for Binga to build his real estate business. Most of the existing housing in the neighborhood was unappealing to whites. These accommodations proved to be satisfactory for blacks who lived in less desirable neighborhoods and accommodations. White property owners did not protest black occupancy as their focus was on the profi t-ability of their real estate. An increase in real estate rentals and purchases by blacks led to the growth of the black population on the South Side.

Figure 3Binga Bank: 3633 South State Street


Binga’s success in real estate prompted him to open a private bank at 3633 South State Street in 1908.

With the establishment of Binga Bank in 1908, the vicinity of State and 35th streets was rapidly transformed into the Wall Street of the black community providing a wide variety of commercial enterprises. Up until the time of the “Great Migration,” the black business community was largely housed in existing residential and small storefront buildings that were adapted for business purposes, often with unsatisfactory results. One of the fi rst notable enterprises in the area was Café de Champion established in 1912 by prizefi ghter, Jack Johnson. The property was lo-cated at 4 West 31st Street and featured a three-story structure housing a cabaret on the fi rst fl oor, a private dining room on the second fl oor, and an apartment for Johnson on the third fl oor.8

New construction was limited mainly to a handful of small one- and two-story structures and was erected as investments by white speculators who kept an eye on the growing potential of the black economic market. One of the fi rst new-construction projects in the Black Belt occurred in 1916, when ground was broken for the Jordan Building, at the northeast corner of State and 36th streets.9 It was an impressive three-story com-bination store and apartment building commissioned by songwriter and music publisher Joseph J. Jordan (1882-1971). The establishment of the Jordan Building was closely followed by a series of black-owned and black-fi nanced building projects erected along South State Street.

Jesse Binga, Anthony Overton, Robert S. Abbott, Robert T. Motts, and John “Mushmouth” Johnson were the most prominent black entrepreneurs who signifi cantly contributed to the development and economic growth of the Black Metropolis. Anthony Overton (1865-1947) commissioned the most important series of buildings, which included the Overton Hygienic Building, a combination store, offi ce, and manufacturing building built in 1922; the Chicago Bee Building, built in 1929 and housed the Chicago Bee newspaper; and the seven-story Knights of Pythias building erected in 1926 by a prominent lodge order followed plans designed by Chicago’s fi rst licensed black architect, Walter T. Bailey (1882-1941).

Overton was one of the most prominent economic investors in the neighborhood during its development. He was born in Monroe, Louisiana and grew up in Kansas. His father, a merchant, infl uenced his decision to become an entrepreneur. After putting his efforts into law and other interests he ultimately returned to business. Overton married and moved to Kingfi sh County, Oklahoma with thoughts of starting his own town, but when physically threatened by the whites, he decided to move to


Kansas City, Kansas, where he opened the Overton Hygienic Manufac-turing Company in 1898. His company manufactured “baking powder, fl avoring extracts and toilet preparations.” The business was prosperous and Overton relocated the facilities to Chicago in 1911. In this new lo-cation, the product line grew from 52 to 72 products including a line of cosmetics branded as High Brown.

In an attempt to provide for the needs of the residents and build the economic strength of the community, Overton chartered the Douglass National Bank in 1922—housed in the Overton Hygienic Building—and established the Victory Life Insurance Company in 1924 with offi ces located at 3619-27 South State Street. The Overton Hygienic Building was designed to be a four-story brick and terra cotta structure. The sec-ond fl oor of the building was rented to black professionals and the upper fl oors were used as offi ces for other Overton enterprises. In anticipation of future growth, the elevator and mechanical shaft were built two stories above the structure to allow for additional fl oors to be constructed.

In 1929 Overton hired Z. Erol Smith to design the headquarters of the Chicago Bee, located at 3647-55 South State Street. Overton had previ-ously retained Smith, a white South Side architect, to draw plans for the Overton Hygienic Building. The Chicago Bee building was designed in the art deco style and featured apartments on the second fl oor with offi ces for the Bee on the ground fl oor. Later, the second fl oor would be converted to offi ce space for the Overton Hygienic Company and Douglass National Bank.

Meeting the standards to obtain a state charter in 1921, Jesse Binga was able to establish his second bank—Binga State Bank.10 The new home for the bank was erected in 1924 at 3452 South State Street. His wife, Eudora, contributed her inheritance along with the proceeds from his real estate transactions to help secure the fi nancial footing of Binga State Bank and establish it as the centerpiece for black business. Gam-bling syndicate owner, John “Mushmouth” Johnson, who amassed his wealth during the turn of the century, left the bulk of his estate to his sister Eudora when he died in 1907 (adding between $500,000 and $750,000 to other family money she inherited).11

To address the growing needs of the community, the Binga Arcade Building was erected next door to Binga State Bank in 1929 at 3458 South State Street. It incorporated two fl oors of shops, two fl oors of of-fi ces, and a large fi fth-fl oor assembly hall.12 Binga took great pride in the 35th and State business district, the growth of which he watched from its inception at the turn of the century. He was outspoken regarding the


attempts to undermine it by the largely white-owned properties along 47th Street, stating in a 1928 Chicago Defender interview:

Most people don’t realize it, but practically all our business institutions and our most substantial investments are located on or near 35th Street. Not less than $3,000,000 is invested by our people in commercial property in the area fi ve blocks north and fi ve blocks south of 35th Street between State and Cottage Grove. There is the Defender plant, Liberty Life Insurance Company, the YMCA, Pythian Temple, our largest un-dertaking establishments, the Overton interests, our most important hospitals, clubs and the bulk of our residential real estate investments.13

Prior to the building of Binga State Bank and Arcade, The Chicago Defender moved into the neighborhood, bringing more jobs and adding to the economic development. In 1920 Robert S. Abbott (1870-1940), founder of the Defender, took over a Jewish synagogue at 3435 South Indiana Avenue, where he published the newspaper for 40 years. The Chicago Defender got its start on May 5, 1905, when Abbott printed the fi rst issue of his paper. He worked out of a kitchen in his landlord’s apartment with an initial investment of 25 cents and a press run of 300 copies. The fi rst issues of the Defender were in four-page six-column handbills fi lled with local news and clippings from other papers.

As a northern paper, the Defender had more freedom to denounce is-sues outright, and its editorial position was very militant, attacking racial inequities head-on. Sensationalistic headlines, graphic images, and red ink were utilized to capture the reader’s attention and convey the horrors of lynching, rape, assault, and other atrocities affecting black Americans. The Chicago Defender’s local circulation soon surpassed that of the three rival papers that existed in the Chicago area at that time: The Broad Ax, The Illinois Idea, and The Conservator (the fi rst black newspaper in Chicago).14 The newspaper was read extensively in the South. Black Pullman porters and entertainers were used to distribute the paper across the Mason-Dixon line. The paper was smuggled into the South because white distributors refused to circulate The Chicago Defender and many groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, tried to confi scate it or threatened its readers. The Defender was passed from person to person, and read aloud in barbershops and churches. It is estimated that at its height, each paper sold was read by four to fi ve African Americans, putting its readership at over 500,000 people each week.

During World War I, The Chicago Defender waged its most aggres-sive (and successful) campaign in support of the Great Migration. This movement resulted in an increase of 148.5 percent in Chicago’s black population between 1910 and 1920.15 The Defender spoke of the hazards


of remaining in the overtly segregated South and lauded life in the North. Job listings and train schedules were posted to facilitate the relocation. The Chicago Defender also used editorials, cartoons, and articles with blazing headlines to attract attention to the movement, and even went so far as to declare May 15, 1917 the date of the “Great Northern Drive.” The Defender’s support of the movement caused southern readers to mi-grate to the North in record numbers. The African-American population in Chicago grew from 34,335 to 92,501 from 1910-1920, nearly tripling the city’s black population.16

During the Great Migration, Jesse Binga was still active in the real estate market. With the population growing in the Black Metropolis, housing, jobs and other services were even more important. In order to take advantage of this opportunity, Binga located his real estate offi ce at 4742 South State Street. The street became known as “Binga Block” after he purchased all property on State Street between 47th Street and 48th Street in an effort to sustain the economic viability of Bronzeville. There were 21 stores and 54 fl ats located on the block, which helped extend the Black Belt farther south.17

The Black Metropolis thrived. Business was good in all aspects. More people had disposable income and there was a growing demand for entertainment in the area, since blacks were still not allowed in white establishments. This new economic growth spurred the development of the entertainment and gambling industries in the community initiated at the turn of the century by two business partners, John “Mushmouth” Johnson and Robert T. Motts.

Johnson partnered with Motts who was owner of the popular Pekin Inn at 2700 South State Street. Based upon the success of the Inn, the two of them opened the Pekin Theater in 1900 catering to an interracial audi-ence. The establishment of the Pekin was the catalyst for the development of a dynamic entertainment area in the Black Metropolis. Johnson and Motts fl ourished. Johnson built enough wealth to allow him to purchase property on State, Dearborn, and Federal Streets between Harrison and Polk. Upon his death, Motts became a benefi ciary of Johnson’s will. He received a substantial sum of money, which enabled him to revamp the Pekin Inn and reintroduce it as the Pekin Temple of Music. It was an immediate success. Motts’ sister and her husband, Lucy and Dan Jack-son, would continue to run the theater after his death. Jackson owned a funeral parlor next door to the Pekin. He would eventually create the Metropolitan Funeral Systems Association, one of the most important businesses on the South Side.


In November 1912, “Mushmouth’s” brother inherited the remainder of his estate and leased property at 3518 South State Street (across the street from Binga Bank) and opened the Dreamland Café, one of the most popular establishments during that era. At 3030 South State Street the Elite Café opened next door to the Monogram Theater. Henry Teenan Jones, a local businessman, owned The Elite. He helped Frank Leland establish his fi rst baseball club in Chicago. In 1915, Jones opened the Elite #2 at 3445 South State Street. It was an elaborate building featur-ing a white glazed brick façade and was known as an after-hours club. By the time World War I started, State Street was transformed into an economic hot spot of dancehalls, theaters and nightclubs frequented by blacks and whites.

At the end of World War I jobs became scarce. White veterans were given priority in hiring practices. Opportunities for blacks were even more limited as the Depression approached. The post-war boon in jobs was depleted, resulting in a signifi cant rise in black unemployment. There was an economic shift in the Black Metropolis.

Binga State Bank, along with the other local area banks, was a member of the Chicago Clearing House Association (CCHA), which served as underwriter to the funds held at these establishments. Binga sent a rep-resentative to CCHA to ask for a loan of “a couple of hundred thousand dollars” to see him through bank diffi culties. State auditor, Oscar Nelson determined that an amount of $400,000 was needed and refused to grant the loan. Binga approached Nelson stating that he had funds in the amount of a certifi ed check for $200,000 to use to keep the bank open, but the CCHA refused to support the bank without consideration of this effort. On July 31, 1930 Binga State Bank closed.18 As a result, the faith of the customers at other banks was shaken and depositors began to withdraw their money resulting in the closing of several other banks. Subsequently Jesse Binga was accused and convicted of embezzlement.

Binga always maintained his innocence in the debacle. As he stated to the press, if he was a dishonest man, he “would not have turned over his entire personal fortune of $482,000 in an effort to re-open the bank and rescue the money of the depositors.”19 After serving three years in prison, he was paroled from Joliet penitentiary in 1938 and given a full pardon by Gov. Dwight H. Green on April 12, 1941.20

The Black Metropolis began to decline in the mid-1920s. Although the population grew rapidly as a result of the Great Migration, the community was not able to continue this development after the closing of Binga State Bank. The community made several efforts to revive the bank but these


attempts were not successful. After the bank closed, it sat empty for quite sometime. In an effort to resurrect the confi dence of the African-Ameri-can community, a prominent African-American physician purchased it in August 1943 for a price of $75,000. Dr. Claude W. Raines bought it to “keep it fresh in the memory of those who aided its development.”21 He wanted it to serve as a reminder that blacks had not lost everything. The bank was eventually demolished in 1952 (along with most of the other historic buildings in the neighborhood) during Chicago’s urban renewal initiative. The legacy of Binga Bank continues to be recognized for its signifi cance in the development of the Black Metropolis.

Notes

1. Hugh Gardner. “Jesse Binga, Former Banker Dies Penniless at 85,” The Chicago Defender. 24 June 1950 p. 2.

2. Arnett G. Lindsay, “The Negro in Banking,” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 14, No. 2. (Apr., 1929), p. 192.

3. Inez V. Cantey, “Jesse Binga,” Crisis 34, December 1927.4. Carl Osthaus. “The Rise and Fall of Jesse Binga, Black Financier,” Journal of

Negro History, Vol. 58 No. 1 (January 1973) p. 40.5. Ibid. p.416. “Notes,” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 13, No. 2. (Apr., 1928), p. 220.7. Dempsey J. Travis, “Chcago Jazz Trails, 1893-1950,” Black Music Research

Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1. (Spring, 1990), p. 828. J. Hockley Smiley, “Jack Johnson Opens the Café de Champion,” The Chicago

Defender. July 13, 1912, p. 1.9. “NEW OFFICE BUILDING.” October 21,1916. The Chicago Defender, p. 6.

Figure 4Binga Arcade Building and Binga Bank, ca. 1952


10. “NEW STATE LAW TO WIPE OUT 40 PRIVATE BANKS: Twenty Others Come Under Supervision.” December 30, 1920. Chicago Daily Tribune, p. 3.

11. “Mrs. Binga, Wife of Ex-Banker, Is Dead: Goes to Reward After Long Career of Service.” April 1, 1933. The Chicago Defender, p. 1.

12. “Jesse Binga Adds New Land Mark City’s South Side,” The Chicago Defender. 16 February 1929, p. 2

13. “Industry and Business.” August 4, 1928. The Chicago Defender, p. 4.14. The Conservator was established by a prominent black attorney, Ferdinand Barnett,

who later married civil rights activist Ida B. Wells (1862-1931). Wells bought the paper and served as editor and chief of the publication, using it as a tool to express her opinions on the maltreatment of African Americans during the time. They resided at 3624 South Parkway (now M.L. King Drive) and were associated with the Black Metropolis community.

15. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis. I:178-211.16. William M. Tuttle, Jr. “Contested Neighborhoods and Racial Violence: Prelude

to the Chicago Riot of 1919.” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Oct., 1970), pp. 266-288.

17. “JESSE C. BINGA THE REAL ESTATE WIZARD: Is Still Reaching Upward and Outward THE LARGEST REAL ESTATE DEAL IN CHICAGO Leases for Thirty Years, a Block of Stores and Flats, the Property at 4712-4752 State Street.” November 5, 1910. The Chicago Defender, p. 1.

18. “BINGA BANK IS ORDERED CLOSED FOR STATE AUDIT: Report Frozen Assets at Colored Institution.” August 1, 1930. Chicago Daily Tribune, p. 6.

19. “Jesse Binga, Ex-Banker, Freed,” The Chicago Defender. 05 March 1938, p. 1.20. “GREEN PARDONS NEGRO BANKER, AN EMBEZZLER.” April 18, 1941.

Chicago Daily Tribune, p. 2.21. “Binga Bldg. Purchased by Dr Raines,” The Chicago Defender. August 28, 1943,

p. 20.

http://taylorandfrancis.com

The “Race” Concept and Racial Structure Beckford, George. 1972. Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies ofthe Third World. New York: Oxford University Press. Bell, Derrick . 1992. Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism. New York:Basic Books. Best, Lloyd . 1968. “Outlines of a Model of Pure Plantation Economy.” Social and EconomicStudies (September): 283-326. Billings, Dwight B. Jr. , 1979. Planters and the Making of a “New South”: Class, Politics andDevelopment in North Carolina, 1865-1900. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North CarolinaPress. Blauner, Bob . 2001. Still the Big News: Racial Oppression in America. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press. Blauner. Robert. 1972. Racial Oppression in America. New York: Harper Row. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo . 2001. White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era.Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo . 1996. “Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation.”American Sociological Review, Vol. 62 (June): 465-480. Carmichael, Stokely and Charles Hamilton . 1967. Black Power: The Politics of Liberation inAmerica. New York: Random House. Cobb, James C. 1984. Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984. Lexington, KY:The University Press of Kentucky. Cox, Oliver Cromwell . 1948. Caste, Class and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics. New York:Doubleday and Company. Delgado, Richard and Jean Stefancic . 2001. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. NewYork: NYU Press. Delgado, Richard and Jean Stefancic . 2000. Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge.Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Dubois, W.E.B. 1935. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880. New York: Atheneum. Feagin, Joe and Hernan Vera . 1995. White Racism: The Basics. New York: Routledge. Fogel, Robert W. , and Stanley L. Engerman . 1974. Time on the Cross: The Economics ofAmerican Negro Slavery. Boston: Little Brown. Franklin, John Hope . 1947. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans. NewYork: Alfred Knopf. Genovese, Eugene D. 1967. The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy andSociety of the Slave South. New York: Vintage Books. Gutman, Herbert G. 1976. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925. New York:Pantheon Books. Harris, Marvin . 1964. Patterns of Race in the Americas. New York: Norton. Hahn, Steven . 1983. The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and theTransformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850-1890. New York: Oxford University Press. Knowles, Louis L. , and Kenneth Prewitt . 1969. Institutional Racism in America. New Jersey:Prentice- Hall. Kuhn, Thomas . 1970. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press. Mandle, Jay R. 1992. Not Slave, Not Free: The African American Economic Experience sincethe Civil War. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Mandle, Jay R. 1978. The Roots of Black Poverty: The Southern Plantation Economy afterthe Civil War. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Omi, Michael and Howard Winant . 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: From the1960s to the 1990s (2nd edition). New York: Routledge. Omi, Michael and Howard Winant . 1986. Racial Formation in the United States: From 1960to the 1980s. New York: Routledge. Patterson, Orlando . 1979. “On Slavery and Slave Formations,” New Left Review 117: 31-67. Thompson, Edgar . 1975. Plantations Societies, Race Relations and the South: TheRegimentation of Populations. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Wagley, Charles . 1957. “Plantation America: A Cultural Sphere,” in Caribbean Studies: ASymposium. Vera Rubin (ed.). University of the West Indies, pp. 3-13. Wayne, Michael . 1983. The Reshaping of Plantation Society: The Natchez District, 1860-1880. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. Weiner, Jonathan M. 1976. “Planter Persistence and Social Change: Alabama, 1850-1870.”Journal of Interdisciplinary History 7: 235-260. Wellman, David T. 1993. Portraits of White Racism. Cambridge University Press. Wilson, William J. 1975. Power, Racism, and Privilege: Race Relations in Theoretical andSociohistorical Perspectives. New York: Macmillan. Wright, Gavin . 1978. The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, andWealth in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Norton.

W.E.B Du Bois, Reparations, Radical Politics, and Critical RaceTheory Aiyetoro, A. (2003). The National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America (N’COBRA):Its Creation and Contribution to the Reparations Movement. In R.A. Winbush (ed.), ShouldAmerica Pay?: Slavery and the Debate on Reparations (pp. 209-225). New York:HarperCollins. Appiah, K. A. (1985). The Uncompleted Argument: Du Bois and the Illusion of Race. CriticalInquiry 12 (1), 21-37. Appiah, K.A. (1992). In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture. New York:Oxford University Press. Balfour, L. (2003). Unreconstructed Democracy: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Case forReparation. American Political Science Review 97 (1), 33-44. Banks, W.L. (2001). The Case Against Black Reparation. New York: Infinity. Barkan, E. (2000). The Guilt of Nations: Restitution and Negotiating Historical Injustices. NewYork: Norton. Bell, B.W. , Grosholz, E.R. , and Stewart, J. B. (eds.). (1996). W.E.B. Du Bois: On Race andCulture. New York: Routledge. Bell, L.A. , and Blumenfeld, D. (eds.). (1995). Overcoming Racism and Sexism. Lanham, MD:Rowman and Littlefield. Bittker, B. (2003). The Case for Black Reparations. Boston: Beacon. Blakely, T.D. , van Beek, W.E.A. , and Thomson, D.L. (eds.). (1994). Religion in Africa:Experience and Expression. London and Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann and James Curry. Blight, D.W. (1994). “W.E.B. Du Bois and the Struggle for American Historical Memory.” InGenevieve Fabre and Robert O’Meally (eds.), History and Memory in African AmericanCulture (pp. 45-71). New York: Oxford University Press. Booth, W. J. (2001). The Unforgotten: Memories of Justice. American Political ScienceReview 95, 777-791. Boxill, B. (1972). The Morality of Reparations. Social Theory and Practice 2, 113-122. Boxill, B. (1992). Blacks and Social Justice. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Boxill, B. (2003). The Morality of Reparations II. In T.L. Lott and J.P. Pittman (eds.), ACompanion to African American Philosophy (pp. 134-150). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Broderick, F.L. (1958). The Tragedy of W.E.B. Du Bois. Progressive 22 (February), 29-32. Broderick, F.L. (1959). W.E.B. Du Bois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis. Palo Alto, CA:Stanford University Press. Broderick, F.L. (1974). W.E.B. Du Bois: History of an Intellectual. In J. E. Blackwell and M.Janowitz (eds.), Black Sociologists: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (pp. 3-24).Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Brooks, R.L. (1999). When Sorry Isn’t Enough: The Controversy over Apologies andReparations for Human Injustice. New York: New York University.

Crenshaw, K. , Gotanda, N. , Peller, G. , and Thomas, K. (eds.). (1995). Critical Race Theory:The Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New York: New Press. Delgado, R. (ed.). (1995). Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press. Delgado, Richard , and Stefancic, Jean . (eds.). (1997). Critical White Studies: LookingBehind the Mirror. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Delgado, R. , Stefancic, J. , and Harris, A. (2001). Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. NewYork: New York University Press. Drinnon, R. (1980). Facing West: The Metaphysic of Indian Hating and Empire Building. NewYork: Meridian. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1945). Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace. New York: HarcourtBrace. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1947). An Appeal to the World: A Statement on the Denial of Human Rightsto Minorities in the Case of Citizens of Negro Descent in the United States of America and AnAppeal to the United Nations for Redress. New York: National Association for theAdvancement of Colored People Publications. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1948). A Program of Emancipation for Colonial Peoples. In M. Tate (ed.),Trust and Non-Self Governing Territories: Papers and Proceedings of the Tenth AnnualConference of the Division of the Graduate School Howard University, April 8-9, 1947.Howard University Studies in the Social Sciences 6 (1), 96-104. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1958). Pan-Africa, 1919-1958. Accra, Ghana: Bureau of African Affairs. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1960). Africa in Battle Against Colonialism, Racism, and Imperialism.Chicago: Afro-American Heritage Association. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1968). Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a RaceConcept. New York: Schocken. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1969). Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil. New York: Schocken. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1970a). W.E.B. Du Bois Speaks: Speeches and Addresses, 1899-1963, 2volumes ( P.S. Foner , Ed.). New York: Pathfinder Press. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1970b). The Negro. New York: Oxford University Press. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1971a). The Seventh Son: The Thought and Writings of W.E.B. Du Bois, 2volumes ( J. Lester , Ed.). New York: Vintage Books. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1971b). W.E.B. Du Bois: A Reader ( Andrew Paschal , Ed.). New York:Collier Books. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1985). Against Racism: Unpublished Essays, Papers, Addresses, 1887-1961 ( H. Aptheker , Ed.). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1986). Du Bois: Writings ( N.I. Huggins , Ed.). New York: The Library ofAmerica Press. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1995). W.E.B. Du Bois: A Reader ( D.L. Lewis , Ed.). New York: Henry Holt. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1996). Black Reconstruction of Democracy in America, 1860-1880. NewYork: Touchstone. Dunleavy, P. (1993). The State. In R.E. Goodin , and P. Pettit (eds.), A Companion toContemporary Political Philosophy (pp. 611-621). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Dworkin, R. (1977). Taking Rights Seriously. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Esedebe, P. O. (1994). Pan-Africanism: The Idea and Movement, 1776-1991. Washington,D.C.: Howard University Press. Essed P. , and Goldberg, D.T. (eds.). (2001). Race Critical Theories: Text and Context.Malden, MA: Blackwell. Eustace, L.A. , and Obadele, I.A. (2000). Eight Women Leaders of the ReparationsMovement, USA. Baton Rouge: Malcolm Generation, Inc. Forman, J. (1997). Manifesto to the White Christian Churches and Jewish Synagogues in theUnited States of America and All Other Racist Institutions. In W. Van Deburg (ed.), ModernBlack Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (pp. 183-187). New York: NewYork University Press. Franklin, J. H. (2001). Horowitz’s diatribe contains historical inaccuracies. Duke Chronicle (29March). Available on-line at:http://www.chronicle.duke.edu/vnews/display.v/ART/2001/03/29/3d768902b56be?in_archive

=1 [15 January 2003]. Fredrickson, G.M. (1981). White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and SouthAfrican History. New York: Oxford University Press. Fulop, T. , and Raboteau, A.J. (eds.). (1996). African American Religion: Interpretive Essaysin History and Culture. New York: Routledge. Gbadegesin, S. (1996). Kinship of the Dispossessed: Du Bois, Nkrumah, and theFoundations of Pan-Africanism. In B.W. Bell , E.R. Grosholz and J.B. Stewart (eds.), W.E.B.Du Bois: On Race and Culture (pp. 219-242). New York: Routledge. Gilroy, P. (1993). Small Acts: Thoughts on the Politics of Black Cultures. New York: Serpent’sTail. Goldberg, D.T. (ed.). (1990). Anatomy of Racism. Minneapolis: University of MinnesotaPress. Goldberg, D.T. (1993). Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning. Cambridge:Blackwell. Goldberg, D.T. (ed.). (1994). Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader. Cambridge: Blackwell. Goldberg, D.T. (1997). Racial Subjects: Writing on Race in America. New York: Rout-ledge. Goldberg, D.T. (2001). The Racial State. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Goldberg, D.T. (2003). Racial Classification and Public Policy. In T.L. Lott and J.P. Pittman(eds.), A Companion to African American Philosophy (pp. 255-268). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Goldberg, D.T. , Musheno, M. , and Bower, L. (eds.). (2001). Between Law and Culture:Relocating Legal Studies. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Goldberg, D.T. , and Solomos, J. (eds.). (2002). A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies.Malden: Blackwell. Goodin, R.E. , and Pettit, P. (eds.). (1993). A Companion to Contemporary PoliticalPhilosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Goodin, R.E. , and Pettit, P. (eds.). (1997). Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology.Cambridge: Blackwell. Gooding-Williams, R. (1996). Outlaw, Appiah, and Du Bois’s ‘The Conservation of Races’. InB.W. Bell , E.R. Grosholz and J.B. Stewart (eds.), W.E.B. Du Bois: On Race and Culture (pp.39-56). New York: Routledge. Gutman, A. (ed.). (1994). Multiculturalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gyekye, K. (1995). An Essay on African Philosophical Thought: The Akan ConceptualScheme. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Gyekye, K. (1996). African Cultural Values: An Introduction. Elkins Park, PA: SankofaPublishing Co. Habermas, J. (1994). Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State. In A.Gutman (ed.), Multiculturalism (pp. 107-148). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Harris, J. E. (Ed). (1993). Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora. Washington, D.C.:Howard University Press. Horowitz, D. (2001). Uncivil Wars: The Controversy over Reparations for Slavery. New York:Encounter. Horsman, R. (1981). Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Hughes, G. (1968). Reparations for Blacks. New York University Law Review 43, 1063-1074. Idowu, E.B. (1975). African Traditional Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. Jackson, H. (1993). A Century of Dishonor: A Sketch of the United States Government’sDealings with Some of the Indian Tribes. New York: Indian Head Books. James, C.L.R. (1990). The Future in the Present: Selected Writings. Westport, CT: LawrenceHill. Jennings, F. (1976). The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant ofConquest. New York: Norton. Karenga, M. (2001). The Ethics of Reparations: Engaging the Holocaust of Enslavement.Available on-line at: http://www.Us-Organization.org./position/erehe.php [15 January 2003]. Kelley, R.D.G. (2002). A Day Reckoning: Dreams of Reparations. In R.D.G. Kelley , FreedomDreams: The Black Radical Imagination (pp. 110-134). Boston: Beacon.

King, M.L. Jr., (1970). Honoring Dr. Du Bois. In W.E.B. Du Bois , W.E.B. Du Bois Speaks:Speeches and Addresses, 1899-1963, 2 volumes ( P.S. Foner , Ed.) (pp. 20-28). New York:Pathfinder Press. Kolm, S.C. (1993). Distributive Justice. In R.E. Goodin , and P. Pettit (eds.), A Companion toContemporary Political Philosophy (pp. 438-461). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Kymlicka, W.(1997). Justice and Minority Rights. In R.E. Goodin and P. Pettit (eds.), ContemporaryPolitical Philosophy: An Anthology (pp. 366-388). Cambridge: Blackwell. Langley, J. A. (1973). Pan-Africanism and Nationalism in West Africa, 1900-1945: A Study inIdeology and Social Classes. New York: Oxford University Press. Langley, J. A. (1979). Ideologies of Liberation in Black Africa, 1856-1970. London: CollingsPublishing Group. Lecky, R.S. and Wright, H.E. (1969). Black Manifesto: Religion, Racism, and Reparations.New York: Sheed and Ward. Lewis, D.L. (1993). W.E.B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919. New York: Henry Holt. Lewis, D.L. (2000). W.E.B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919-1963. New York: Henry Holt. Lott, T. L. (1997). Du Bois on the Invention of Race. In J.P. Pittman (ed.), African AmericanPerspectives and Philosophical Traditions (pp. 166-187). New York: Routledge. Lott, T. L. (2000). Du Bois and Locke on the Scientific Study of the Negro. Boundary 2 27,135-152. Lott, T. L. (2001). Du Bois’s Anthropological Notion of Race. In R. Bernasconi (ed.), Race(pp. 59-83). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Lumumba, C. , Obadele, I.A. , and Tafia, N. (1993). Reparations Yes!: The Legal and PoliticalReasons Why New Afrikans—Black People in the United States—Should Be Paid forEnslavement of Our Ancestors and for War Against Us After Slavery, 3rd ed. Baton Rouge:House of Songhay. Marable, M. (1985). Black American Politics: From the Washington Marches to JesseJackson. London: Verso. Marable, M. (1986). W.E.B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat. Boston: Twayne. Marable, M. (1987). African and Caribbean Politics: From Kwame Nkrumah to MauriceBishop. London and New York: Verso. Marable, M. (1991). Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in BlackAmerica, 1945-1990. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. Marable, M. (1993). Blackwater: Historical Studies in Race, Class Consciousness, andRevolution. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. Marable, M. (1995). Beyond Black and White: Transforming African American Politics. NewYork and London: Verso. Marable, M. (1996). Speaking Truth to Power: Essays on Race, Resistance and Radicalism.Boulder, CO: Westview. Marable, M. (1997). Black Liberation in Conservative America. Boston: South End. Marable, M. (1998). Black Leadership. New York: Columbia University Press. Marable, M. (2002). The Great Wells of Democracy: The Meaning of Race in American Life.New York: Basic/Civitas. Massey, D.S. , and Denton, N.A. , (1993). American Apartheid and the Making of theUnderclass. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Matsuda, M. (1995). Looking to the Bottom: Critical Legal Studies and Reparations. In K.Crenshaw , N. Gotanda , G. Peller and K. Thomas (eds.), Critical Race Theory: The KeyWritings That Formed the Movement (pp. 63-79). New York: New Press. Mbiti, J. S. (1975). Introduction to African Religion. London: Heinemann. Mbiti, J. S. (1989). African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann. McGary, H. (1974). Reparations and Inverse Discrimination. Dialogue 17 (1), 4-17. McGary, H. (1977-78). Justice and Reparations. Philosophical Forum 9 (2-3), 250-263. McGary, H. (1984). Reparations, Self-Respect, and Public Policy. The Journal 1, 15-26. McGary, H. (1986). Morality and Collective Liability. Journal of Value Inquiry 20, 157-165. McGary, H. (1999). Race and Social Justice. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Mills, C. W. (1997). The Racial Contract. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Mills, C.W. (1998). Blackness Visible: Essays on Philosophy and Race. Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press. Mills, C.W. (1999). The Racial Polity. In S.E. Babbitt and S. Campbell (eds.), Racism andPhilosophy (pp. 13-31, [endnotes] 255-257). Ithaca: Cornel University Press. Mills, C.W. (2000). Race and the Social Contract Tradition. Social Identities: A JournalFor theStudy of Race, Nation and Culture 6 (4), 441-462. Mills, C.W. (2001). White Supremacy and Racial Justice. In J. Sterba (ed.), Social andPolitical Philosophy: Contemporary Perspectives (pp. 321-337). New York: Routledge. Mills, C.W. (2003). White Supremacy. In T.L. Lott and J.P. Pittman (eds.), A Companion toAfrican American Philosophy (pp. 269-284). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Munford, C.J. (1996). Race and Reparations: A Black Perspective for the Twenty-FirstCentury. Trenton: Africa World Press. Nickel, J.W. (1973). Should Reparations be to Groups or Individuals? Analysis 34 (5), 37-51. Nkrumah, K. (1965). Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. London: Panaf Books. Nkrumah, K. (1970). Africa Must Unite. New York: International. Nkrumah, K. (1973). Revolutionary Path. London: Panaf Books. Nozick, R. (1975). Anarchy, State, Utopia. New York: Basic Books. Nozick, R. (1997). Distributive Justice. In R.E. Goodin and P. Pettit (eds.), ContemporaryPolitical Philosophy: An Anthology (pp. 203-246). Cambridge: Blackwell. Obadele, I.A. (1975). Foundations of the Black Nation. Detroit: House of Songhay. Obadele, I.A. (1997). An Act to Stimulate Economic Growth in the United States andCompensate, in Part, for the Grievous Wrongs of Slavery and the Unjust Enrichment WhichAccrued to the United States Therefrom. In W. Van Deburg (ed.), Modern Black Nationalism:From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (pp. 334-341). New York: New York UniversityPress. Okpewho, I. , Davies, C. B. , and Mazrui, A. A. (eds.). (1999). The African Diaspora: AfricanOrigins and New World Identities. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Outlaw, L.T. Jr. , (1990). Toward a Critical Theory of ‘Race’. In D.T. Goldberg (ed.), Anatomyof Racism (pp. 58-82). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Outlaw, L.T. Jr. , (1995). On W.E.B. Du Bois’s ‘The Conservation of Races’. In L.A. Bell andD. Blumenfeld (eds.), Overcoming Racism and Sexism (pp. 79-102). Lanham, MD: Rowmanand Littlefield. Outlaw, L.T. Jr. , (1996a). On Race and Philosophy. New York: Routledge. Outlaw, L.T. Jr. , (1996b). ‘Conserve’ Races?: In Defense of W.E.B. Du Bois . In B.W. Bell ,E.R. Grosholz and J.B. Stewart (eds.), W.E.B. Du Bois: On Race and Culture (pp. 15-38).New York: Routledge. Rabaka, R. (2002). Malcolm X and/as Critical Theory: Philosophy, Radical Politics, and theAfrican American Search for Social Justice. Journal of Black Studies 33 (2), 145-165. Rabaka, R. (2003a). I Found Myself in His Words: Reiland Rabaka’s Reflections on theCentennial of W.E.B. Du Bois’s The Souls of Black Folk. Newark Reads Du Bois Newsletter.Newark, NJ: Institute on Ethnicity, Culture, and the Modern Experience, Rutgers University-Newark. Available on-line at: http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~history/DuBois/rabaka.html [3February 2003]. Rabaka, R. (2003b). W.E.B. Du Bois’s Evolving Africana Philosophy of Education. Journal ofBlack Studies 33 (4), 399-449. Rabaka, R. (2003c). ‘Deliberately Using the Word Colonial in a Much Broader Sense’: W.E.B.Du Bois’s Concept of ‘Semi-Colonialism’ as Critique of and Contribution to Postcolonialism.Jouvert: A Journal of Postcolonial Studies 7 (2), 1-32. Available on-line at:http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/index.htm [23 February 2003]. Rabaka, R. (2003d). W.E.B. Du Bois and/as Africana Critical Theory: Pan-Africanism, CriticalMarxism, and Male-Feminism. In J.L. Conyers (ed.), Afrocentricity and the Academy (pp. 67-112). Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co. Rabaka, R. (2003e). W.E.B. Du Bois and “The Damnation of Women”: An Essay of AfricanaAnti-Sexist Critical Social Theory. Journal of African American Studies 7 (2), 37-60.

Rabaka, R. (2004). The Souls of Black Female Folk: W.E.B. Du Bois and Africana Anti-SexistCritical Social Theory. Africalogical Perspectives 1 (2), 63-97. Rabaka, R. (2005). W.E.B. Du Bois and Decolonization: Pan-Africanism, Postcolonialism,and Radical Politics. In James L. Conyers (ed.), W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Pan-Africanism (pp. 123-154). Lewistown, NY: Mellen Press. Rabaka, R. (2006a). Africana Critical Theory of Contemporary Society: Ruminations onRadical Politics, Social Theory, and Africana Philosophy. In Molefi K. Asante and MaulanaKarenga (eds.), The Handbook of Black Studies (pp. 130-152). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rabaka, R. (2006b). The Souls of Black Radical Folk: W.E.B. Du Bois, Critical Social Theory,and the State of Africana Studies. Journal of Black Studies 36 (5), 732-763. Rabaka, R. (2006c). W.E.B. Du Bois’s “The Comet” and Contributions to Critical RaceTheory: An Essay on Black Radical Politics and Anti-Racist Social Ethics. Ethnic StudiesReview: Journal of the National Association for Ethnic Studies 29 (1), 22-48. Rabaka, R. (2007). W.E.B. Du Bois and the Problems of the Twenty-First Century: An Essayon Africana Critical Theory. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books/Rowman and LittlefieldPublishers. Rampersad, A. (1990). The Art and Imagination of W.E.B. Du Bois. New York: Schocken. Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Rawls, J. (1997). Justice as Fairness. In R.E. Goodin and P. Pettit (eds.), ContemporaryPolitical Philosophy: An Anthology (pp. 187-202). Cambridge: Blackwell. Ray, B.C. (2000). African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Community. Upper Saddle, NJ:Prentice Hall. Reed, A.L. Jr. , (1997). W.E.B. Du Bois and American Political Thought: Fabianism and theColor Line. New York: Oxford University Press. Redd, A.L. Jr. , (2000). The Case Against Reparations. Progressive 64, 15-17. Robinson, R. (2000). The Debt: What America Owes Blacks. New York: Dutton. Rudwick, E.M. (1960). W.E.B. Du Bois: A Study in Minority Group Leadership. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania. Rudwick, E.M. (1968). W.E.B. Du Bois: Propagandists of the Negro Protest. New York:Antheneum. Rudwick, E.M. (1969). Notes on a Forgotten Black Sociologists: W.E.B. Du Bois and theSociological Profession. American Sociologist 4, 4 (November), 303-336. Rudwick, E.M. (1974). W.E.B. Du Bois as Sociologists. In J.E. Blackwell and M. Janowitz(eds.), Black Sociologists: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (pp. 25-55). Chicago:University of Chicago Press. Rudwick, E.M. (1982). W.E.B. Du Bois: Voice of the Black Movement. Urbana: University ofIllinois Press. Skinner, Q. (1997). The State. In R.E. Goodin and P. Pettit (eds.), Contemporary PoliticalPhilosophy: An Anthology (pp. 3-26). Cambridge: Blackwell. Smith, R.C. (2003). Imari Obadele: The Father of the Modern Reparations Movement.Africana: Gateway to the Black World. Available on-line at:http://www.africana.com/articles/daily/index_20000601.asp [19 June 2003]. Stannard, D.E. (1992). American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World.New York: Oxford University Press. Thompson, V.B. (1969). Africa and Unity: The Evolution of Pan-Africanism. London:Longman. Van Deburg, W. (ed.). (1997). Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to LouisFarrakhan. New York: New York University Press. Vann Woodard , C. (1974). The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd ed. New York: OxfordUniversity Press. Vedun, V. (1993). If the Shoe Fits Wear It: An Analysis of Reparations for African Americans.Tulane Law Review 67 (3), 597-668. West, C. (1982). A Genealogy of Modern Racism. In C. West, Prophesy Deliverance!: AnAfro-American Revolutionary Christianity (pp. 47-68). Philadelphia: Westminister. West, C. (1988). Toward A Socialist Theory of Racism. In C. West , Prophetic Fragments (pp.97-108). Grand Rapids, MI/Trenton, NJ: Eerdmans/Africa World Press.

West, C. (1993). Race and Social Theory. In C. West , Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Racein America (pp. 251-270). New York: Routledge. Westley, R. (1998). Many Billions Gone: Is It Time to Reconsider the Case for BlackReparations? Boston College Law Review (December), 429-476. Whitten, N.E. , Jr., and Torres, A. (eds.). (1998). Blackness in Latin America and theCaribbean: Social Dynamics and Cultural Transformations, 2 volumes. Indianapolis: IndianaUniversity Press. Wilmore, G.S. (ed.). (1989). African American Religious Studies. Durham, NC: DukeUniversity Press. Winbush, R.A. (2003). Should America Pay?: Slavery and the Debate on Reparations. NewYork: HarperCollins. Wing, A.K. (ed.). (1997). Critical Race Feminism: A Reader. New York: New York UniversityPress. Wing, A.K. (Ed). (2000). Global Critical Race Feminism: An International Reader. New York:New York University Press. Wolters, R. (2001). Du Bois and His Rivals. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. Yamamoto, E.K. (1998). Racial Reparations: Japanese American Redress and AfricanAmerican Claims. Boston College Law Review 40, 477-523. Zahan, D. (1979). The Religion, Spirituality, and Thought of Traditional Africa. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. Zegeye, A. , Harris, L. and Maxted, J. (eds.). (1991). Exploitation and Exclusion: Race andClass in Contemporary US Society. London: Hans Zell.

Application of the African Model of Positive Mental Health and NTUTherapy in Clinical Practice with Clients of African Descent American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (4th ed.-tr). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (3rd ed-r.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (1952). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. Belgrave, F. Z. , Brome, D. R. , and Hampton. (2000). The contribution of afrocentric valuesand racial identity to the prediction of drug knowledge, attitudes, and use among africanamerican youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 386-401. Bell, C.B. , and Jenkins, E. (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago’s southside. Psychiatry, 56, 46-54. Bell, Yvonne R. , Bouie, Cathy J. , and Baldwin, Joseph , A. (1990). Afrocentric culturalconsciousness and african-american male-female relationships. Journal of Black Studies, 21,162- 189. Boyd-Franklin, Nancy . (1998). A multisystems approach to home and community basedinterventions with african american poor families. African American Mental Health: Theory,Research, and Intervention. Hampton, VA: Cobb and Henry Publishers. Daly, R. J. (1983). Samuel Pepys and post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal ofPsychiatry, 143, 64-68. Forbes, Ella . (1990). African-american resistance to colonization. Journal of Black Studies,21, 210-223.

Gregory, Shawan D. P. , and Phillips, Fredrick B. (1997). ‘Of mind, body, and spirit’:therapeutic foster care—an innovative approach to healing from an Ntu perspective. ChildWelfare, 76, 127-143. Gregory, W. H. , and Harper, K. W. (2001). The Ntu approach to health and healing. Journalof Black Psychology, 27, 304-320. Hale-Benson, J. (1986). Black children: their roots, culture, and learning styles. Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press. Hamilton-Bennett, Maisha . (1998). Healing the african american collective requires morethan the psychoanalysis of individuals. African American Mental Health: Theory, Research,and Intervention. Hampton, VA: Cobb and Henry Publishers. Hill, Hope M. , and Madhere, Serge . (1996). Exposure to community violence and africanamerican children: a multidimensional model of risks and resources. Journal of CommunityPsychology, 24, pp 26. Kambon, Kobi , K.K. (1998). African/Black psychology in the american context: An African-centered approach. Tallahassee, FL: Nubian Nation Publications. Kambon, Kobi , K.K. (1998). An african-centered paradigm for understanding the mentalhealth of Africans in America. African American Mental Health: Theory, Research, andIntervention. Hampton, VA: Cobb and Henry Publishers. Last, C. , Perrin, S. (1993). Anxiety disorders in african american and white children. Journalof Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 153-164. Neal-Barnett, A.M. , Smith J.M. (1996). African american children and behavior therapy:Considering the afrocentric approach. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 3, 351-369. Oyebade, Bayo . (1990). African Studies and the afrocentric paradigm: a critique. Journal ofBlack Studies, 21, 233-238. Phillips, Fredrick B. (1998). Spirit-energy and NTU psychotherapy. African American MentalHealth: Theory, Research, and Intervention. Hampton, VA: Cobb and Henry Publishers. Pynoos, R.S. , Steinber, A.M. , Piacentini, J.C. (1999). A developmental psychopathologymodel of childhood traumatic stress and intersection with anxiety disorders. Society ofbiological psychiatry, 46, 1542-1554. Queener, John E. , and Martin, Juanita K. (2001). Providing culturally relevant mental healthservices: collaboration between psychology and the african american church. Journal ofBlack Psychology, 27, 112-122. Schiele, Jerome H. , and Stewart Ron . (2001). When White Boys Kill: An AfrocentricAnalysis. The Haworth Press. Shakoor, B. H. , Chalmers, D. (1991). Co-victimization of african-american children witnessviolence: Effects on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral development. Journal of the nationalmedical association, 83, 233-238. Street, E. , Sibert, J. (1999). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children. Clinical Psychologyand Psychiatry, 3, 553-560. Sue, D.W. , Sue, D. (1999). Counseling african americans. Counseling the culturally different:Theory and practice. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Terr, L.C. (1983). Time sense following psychic trauma: A clinical study of ten adults andtwenty children. American Orthopsychiatric Association, 53, 244-261. Trimble, M. R. (1981). Post-traumatic neurosis: From railway spine to whiplash. New York:Wiley. Vila, G. , Porche, L. , Mouren-Simeoni, M. , (1999). An 18-month longitudinal study of post-traumatic disorders in children who were taken hostage in their school. PsychosomaticMedicine, 61, 746-754. Wilson, D. (2004). Theoretical development of positive mental health model for africanamericans. Manuscript submitted for publication, Prairie View A&M University.

Patriot Day: The World Community of Al-Islam in the West’s Vision ofMulticultural Politics in a Neo-Racist World American Muslim Journal, Bilalian News (1975-1981), Chicago Tribune, Sepia, The NewYork Times. ________. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to IntelligenceActivities, Vol. 6, November 1975, 36-39. U.S. Congress. House. Representative Fauntroy of the District of Columbia, AmericanMuslim Mission Fourth of July Theme: “I Love My Family.” 96th Cong., 2nd sess.Congressional Record 126, no. 111 (1 July 1980). Akhavi, Shahrough . “The Dialectic in Contemporary Egyptian Social Thought: TheScripturalist and Modernist Discourses of Sayyid Qutb and Hasan Hanafi.” InternationalJournal of Middle East Studies 29 (August 1997): 377-401. Muhammad, Larry . “The Muslims: Five Years After Elijah.” Sepia, March 1980, 34. Woodford, John . “Messaging the Black Man.” Serials Review, 16, no. 2, (Summer 1990): 81-97. Allen, Ernest Jr. , The Farrakhan Factor: African-American Writers on Leadership,Nationhood, and Minister Louis Farrakhan, ed. Amy Alexander. New York: Grove Press,1998. Bogle, Emory C. Islam: Origin & Belief. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998. Clegg, Claude Andrew , III. An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad. NewYork: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Evanzz, Karl . The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad. New York: VintageBooks, 2001. Gardell, Mattias . In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam.Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996. Lincoln, C. Eric . The Black Muslims in America, 3d ed. Grand Rapids, MI: William B.Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994. Mamiya, Lawrence H. From Black Muslims to Bilalian: The Evolution of a Movement. ModernAmerican Protestantism and Its World, ed. Martin E. Marty , no. 9. New York: K. G. Saur,1993. Marsh, Clifton E. From Black Muslims to Muslims: The Transition from Separatism to Islam,1930-1980. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1984. McCloud, Aminah Beverly . African American Islam. New York, NY: Routledge, 1995. Muhammad, Elijah . Message to the Blackman in America. Chicago, IL: Muhammad’sTemple No. 2, 1965. Muhammad, Imam W.D. Mainstream Islam: Imam W. D. Muhammad. 60 min. Altadena, CA:The Islamic Information Service, 1998. Videocassette. Sarwar, Ghulam . Islam: Beliefs and Teachings. London, UK: The Muslim Educational Trust,2000. Turner, Richard Brent . Islam in the African-American Experience. Bloomington, IN: IndianaUniversity Press, 1997. Wolseley, Ronald E. The Black Press U.S.A. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1971.

Edward Wilmot Blyden and the African Personality: A Discourse onAfrican Cultural Identity Adelaja, Kola . (1971). “Sources of African Political Thought – II: The Concept of AfricanPersonality: Its Meaning and Significance in the Political Thought of Blyden.” PresenceAfricaine n. 80, 3rd & 4th quarters, pp. 49-72. Akbar, Na’im . (1979). “African Roots of Black Personality.” William David Smith et al. (eds.).Reflections on Black Psychology. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America. Ani, Marimba . (1994). Yurugu, An African-Centered Critique of European Cultural Thoughtand Behavior. Trenton, N.J.: Third World Press, Inc.

Arnold, James A. (1981). Modernism and Negritude: The Poetry and Politics Aime Cesaire.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Azibo, Daudi Ajani ya . (1991). “Towards a Metatheory of the African Personality.” TheJournal of Black Psychology.” v. 17. n. 2. (Spring), pp. 37-45. Baldwin, Joseph A. (1990). “Some Socio-Behaviorial Correlates of African Self-Consciousness in African-American College Students. The Journal of Black Psychology. v.17, Fall, pp. 1-17. Bankole, Katherine . (1995). The Afrocentric Guide to Selected Black Studies Terms andConcepts. Lido Beach, N.Y.: Whittier Publications, Inc. Blyden, Edward Wilmot . (1862). “The Call of Providence to the Descendants of Africa InAmerica.” Hollis R. Lynch (ed.). Black Spokesman: Selected Published Writings of EdwardWilmot Blyden. New York: Humanities Press. Blyden, Edward Wilmot . (1888). Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. Baltimore: BlackClassic Press, 1884. Blyden, Edward Wilmot . (1905). West Africa Before Europe. London: C.M. Philips. Blyden, Edward Wilmot . (1908). African Life and Customs. London: C.M. Philips. Delany, Martin R. (1879). Principia of Ethnology: The Origin of Races and Color.Philadelphia: Harper & Brother, Publishers. Easton, Hosea . (1837). “Treatise on the Intellectual Character and Civil and PoliticalCondition of the Colored People of the United States.” Dorothy Porter (ed.). Negro ProtestPamphlets. New York: Arno Press. Echeruo, Michael J.C. (1992). “Edward Wilmot Blyden, W.E.B. Dubois, and the ColorComplex.” The Journal of Modern African Studies. v 30, n. 4, pp. 669-684. Emerson, Hubert and Martin Kilson . (1965). The Political Awakening of Africa. EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Frenkel, M.Y. (1974). “Edward Wilmot Blyden and the Concept of the African Personality.”African Affairs. v. 73, n. 292, pp. 277-287. Frenkel, M.Y. (1978). Edward Blyden and African Nationalism. (ed.). E. Bessmertnaya.Trans. E. Mozolkova. Moscow: Africa Institute Academy of Sciences, USSR. Holden, Edith . (1966). Blyden of Liberia. New York: Vantage Press. July, Robert W. (1964). “Nineteenth Century Negritude: Edward Wilmot Blyden.” Journal ofNegro History. v. 1, pp. 73-86. July, Robert W. (1967). The Origins of Modern African Thought. New York: Frederic A.Praeger Publishers. Kambon, Kobi K.K. (1992). The African Personality in America: An African-CenteredFramework. Tallahassee: Nubian Nation Publications. Kambon, Kobi K.K. (1998). African/Black Psychology in the American Context: An African-Centered Approach. Tallahassee: Nubian Nation Publications. Karenga, Maulana . (1983). “ Society, Culture, and the Problem of Self-Consciousness: AKawaida Analysis.” Leonard Harris (ed.). Philosophy Born in Struggle: Anthology of Afro-American Philosophy. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendal/Hunt Publishers and Co. Kesteloot, Lilyan . (1991). Black Writers in French: A Literary History of Negritude. Trans.Ellen Conroy Kennedy. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press. Khatib, S.M. (1979). “ Voodoo or IQ: An Introduction to African Psychology.” William DavidSmith et al. (eds.). Reflections on Black Psychology. Washington, D.C.: Howard UniversityPress. Knox, John P. (1852). A Historical Account of St. Thomas, W.I. New York: Charles Scribner. Livingston, Thomas W. (1974). “Edward Wilmot Blyden, West African Cultural Nationalist: HisEducational Activities and Ideas.” Diss. Columbia University. Livingston, Thomas W. (1975). Education and Race: A Biography of Edward Wilmot Blyden.San Francisco: Glendessary Press. Lynch, Hollis R. (1970). Edward Wilmot Blyden: Pan-Negro Patriot. London: OxfordUniversity Press. Lynch, Hollis R. ed . (1971). Black Spokesman: Selected Published Writings of EdwardWilmot Blyden. New York: Humanities Press.

Maglangbayan, Shawna . (1972). Garvey, Lumumba, Malcolm: Black Nationalist Separatist.Chicago: Third World Press. Mudimbe, A.Y. (1988). The Invention of Africa. Indianapolis: University of Indiana Press. Nobles, Wade . (1972). “African Philosophy: Foundation for Black Psychology.’ R. L. Jones(ed.). Black Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, pp. 18-32. Nobles, Wade . (1985). Africanity and the Black Family: the Development of TheoreticalModel. Oakland, California: Black family Institute Publication. Reuter, Edward Byron . (1918). The Mulatto in the United States. New York: Johnson ReprintCorporation. Sackey-Quaison, Alex . (1975). “The African Personality.” Gideon-Cyrus M. Mutiso and S.W.Rohio (eds.). Readings in African Political Thought. London: Heineman, pp. 272-282. Turner, James l. (1977). “The Historical Dialectics of Black Nationalist Movements inAmerica.” The Western Journal of Black Studies. v. 1. n. 3. (September).

Cultural Helix Theory: Language, Life and Rhythm Alberts, Bruce , et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York and London: GarlandPublishing, Inc., 1989. Asante, Molefi K. African Culture: The Rhythms of Unity. Connecticut and England:Greenwood Press, 1985. Burlew, A. Kathleen Hoard , et al. African American Psychology: Theory, Research, andPractice. London, New Delhi and Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1992. Calame-Griaule, Genevieve . Words and the Dogon World. Philadelphia: Institute for theStudy of Human Issues, 1986. Cone, James H. Black Theology of Liberation. Philadelphia and New York: J. B. LippincottCompany, 1970. DeMott, Barbara . Dogon Masks: A Structural Study of Form and Meaning. Michigan: UMIResearch Press, 1982. Fu-Kiau, Kimbwandende K. B. Tying the Spiritual Knot: African Cosmology of the Bantu-Kongo, Principles of Life and Living. Canada: Mulberry Tree Press, Inc., 2001. Harding, Vincent . There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America. San Diego,New York and London: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1981. Harrell, Camara Jules P. Manichean Psychology: Racism and the Minds of People of AfricanDescent. Washington D.C.: Howard University Press, 1999. Hopkins, Dwight N. , et al. Cut Loose Your Stammering Tongue: Black Theology in the SlaveNarrative. Louisville and London: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003. Jahn, Janheinz . Muntu: African Culture and the Western World. New York: Grove Press,1989. Lewis, King , et al. African Philosophy: Assumptions and Paradigms for Research of BlackPersons. Los Angeles: Fanon Center Publications, 1976. Magesa, Laurenti . African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life. New York: OrbisBooks, 1997. Mitchem, Stephanie Y. Introducing Womanist Theology. New York: Orbis Books, 2002. Myers, Linda J. Understanding an Afrocentric World View: Introduction to an OptimalPsychology. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1993. Pinn, Anthony B. Terror and Triumph: The Nature of Black Religion. Minneapolis: FortressPress, 2003. Pinn, Anthony B. , et al. The Ties that Bind: African American and HispanicAmerican/Latino/a Theologies in Dialogue. New York and London: The ContinuumInternational Publishing Group Inc., 2001. Sundermeier, Theo . The Individual and Community in African Traditional Religions.Hamburg: LIT, 1998. West, Cornel , et al. African American Religious Thought: An Anthology. Louisville andLondon: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.

Williams, Delores S. Sisters in the Wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God-Talk. NewYork: Orbis Books, 1993. Young, Josiah U. , III. A Pan-African Theology: Providence and the Legacies of theAncestors. New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc., 1992.

Black in the Saddle: The Best Bull Rider You Never Saw Altman, S. (1997). The encyclopedia of African-American heritage. New York: Facts-on-File. Asante, M. K. , and Mattson, M. T. (1991). Historical and cultural atlas of African Americans.New York: Macmillan. Christian, C. M. (1995). Black saga: The African American experience. Boston, MA:Houghton Mifflin. Collins, E. , and McIngvale, J. (1997, February 16). ‘Y’all’ and ‘us’ are pardners in Texas.Houston Chronicle, pp. C1, C5. Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluatingquantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Estevanico. (n.d.). Retrieved May 8, 2007, from http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/estevanico.htm. Estevanico, (n.d,). Wikipedia. Retrieved May 8, 2007, fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estevanico. Fraenkel, J. R. , and Wallen, N. E. (1996). How to design and evaluate research in education(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Jackson, E. Jr. , (2000). Celebrating Black cowboys in 2000. Houston, TX: Houston ClearChannel Communications, Katz, W. L. (1996). The Black west. New York: Simon. Lincoln, Y. S. , and Guba, E. G. (1995). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Massey, S. R. (Ed.). (2000). Black cowboys of Texas. College Station, TX: Texas A&MPress. Moore, M. R. (2001). Settlers, slaves, sharecroppers and stockhands: A Texas plantation-ranch, 1824-1896. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Houston, Houston, TX. Pearson, D. W. (2004). Shadow riders of the subterranean circuit: A descriptive account ofBlack rodeo in the Texas gulf coast region. The Journal of American Culture, 27(2), 190-198. Pearson, D. W. , and Haney, C. A. (1999). The rodeo cowboy as an American icon: Theperceived social and cultural significance. Journal of American Culture, 22(4), 17-21. Porter, K. W. (1970). The Negro on the American frontier. New York: Arno. Watriss, W. (1980, December 2). The soul circuit. Geo, 134-150.

Racial Structure and Radical Politics in the African Diaspora

Documents

Transcript of Racial Structure and Radical Politics in the African Diaspora