Remarks on Racial Discrimination in Canada The Muslim’s Case Study

Dr. Gahad Hamed

Professor of Sociology at Kings University -WU President of the Institute for Middle East Studies Canada

                 

 

ISSN  2291-­‐322X  (Print)  ISSN  2291-­‐3238  (Online)  

ISBN:  978-0-9918971-5-5  

Working  Papers  Series  

January  2015  

 

   

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Remarks on Racial Discrimination in Canada The Muslim’s Case Study

Although minority groups are an important part of the Canadian identity, they are still seen as

coming in second to those of European (Caucasian) descent. Thousands of people immigrate to

Canada every year as they believe Canada is the land of opportunity and freedom for them.

However, what they did not expect was to be deemed second class citizens and suffer

discrimination, whether it is blatantly or behind closed doors.

Racial discrimination is a multidimensional and complex phenomenon that is noticeable in

various social and economic interactions within the society in which it is found. Racial

discrimination in employment which is systemic that is, built into organizational structures and

processes, and often involving informal activities and cultures is by its nature difficult to

identify. As a result, there is no clear consensus on its prevalence, practical significance, or

policy remedy. There are several theories that try to explain the causes and effects of racial

discrimination in employment, drawing upon economic analysis as well as other disciplines,

including sociology and social psychology.

Racial discrimination in employment can take place at the pre-employment stage, by denying

specific individuals from minority groups’ equal access to jobs, or it can occur at the post-

employment stage. Levitan et al [1971] call the first type of discrimination “access

discrimination,” and the latter, “treatment discrimination”. Discrimination against racial

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minorities in access to and treatment in employment inflicts substantial financial and

psychological suffering on its victims. Besides the fact that discrimination contradicts basic

human rights in a democratic society, its negative effects on productivity and work performance

imply a loss of profits and output at the organizational level.

On the national level discrimination leads to under-utilization and underemployment of racial

minorities and leads to significant economic costs in terms of lower national output, labour

market inefficiency, lower labor productivity, higher inflation, and excessive welfare and penal

costs [Jain, 1994, p. 390]. It also results in morally unacceptable hardship and suffering of

minority members in the society. Also, the presence of discrimination in an environment of

effective human rights legislation can cost firms substantial losses in settlement payments and

loss of clients and reputation.

In 1984, the Royal Commission on Equality in Employment, using 1981 census data found

visible minorities1 were often denied access to employment because of unfair recruitment

procedures and were more likely to be unemployed. Their educational credentials, required

outside Canada, were not recognized in the labour market or by government. Sometimes,

Canadian experience was required unduly (Royal Commission on Equality in Employment,

1984: 46-51, 84-5)

                                                                                                                         1 Visible minorities such as Aboriginal people, the Indo-Chinese, Central and South Americans, Middle Eastern, and blacks had incomes below the national average and were at the bottom of the income hierarchy.

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Society in recent decades has been more concerned with appearance than ever before. If one is

not the right body shape, colour, height, or weight, then society is much less concerned with you

than with someone who possesses all of those qualities. However, it is what is behind those skin

deep appearances that constitute the depths of society’s willingness to oppress some people in

order to satisfy others. Those individuals whom are visibly different from the desired European

look are still suffering today from discrimination in multiple areas of their lives, from education,

to dating, to occupation. Although Canada is supposed to be a multicultural nation, there is still

a division in terms of race. There was an article recently published in the Toronto Sun that stated

that restaurants all over Canada were known more for their staff than for their food.

According to writer Kristy Brownlee (2011), potential employees are hired based on their

measurements rather than previous experience. Appearance in society is an individual’s way to

the top of the corporations, if they have the right look. If one is too dark or is not the correct

shade of white, then they will hit a glass ceiling and will be unable to showcase their skills that

would normally allow one to go far in life.

People of different races are able to attain the same education, but if a visibly white man and a

visibly black man applied for the same job, with the same background in regards to hiring in the

education field, studies have shown that it is seemingly more likely that the white male will

receive the job, even if the black man would have been a better fit.

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In the working class, there has been a division among genders, and furthermore, along racial

lines that allows those whom own the means of production to exploit their workers in order to

make a greater profit. The exploitation of workers comes at an expense to those whom are

perceived to be of a lower status, such as African or Native people, Arabs, Asian…etc.

However, studies have shown that many minorities have the same, or even higher, education

than those whom are most likely to receive the job, such as Caucasians. The effect of education

on those whom own the means of production mean less than the colour of one’s skin upon

deciding who is worthy of working in a high paying occupation versus whom is deemed not.

With many of the studies exploring the issue of discrimination within the workforce (in job

hiring at universities and colleges), researchers have accounted for multiple causes, including the

private versus public sector, years within the education system and years of work experience.

Furthermore, they have drawn a distinction between different minority groups, such as Chinese,

Asian, Africans, Arabs, and Native people.

Many individuals find that their culture is intrinsic to their overall identity. In today’s modern

society, many sons and daughters are learning to balance their education with their culture and

moving past the traditional gender roles. There has been support for the idea of “the

intergenerational closure in tightly knit communities encourages the pursuit of higher education

by providing young immigrants the aspirations, sharing of similar values, obligations and

support”. Arab and Asian cultures suggest strong ties to their cultural background, but perhaps “a

strong sense of familism and strong identification with ethnic networks have also been linked to

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success in the educational system because intact families provide a tighter monitoring of

children’s activities and promote the values of hard work” (Abada and Tenkorang 2009: 591).

Discrimination in the workplace is still a part of today’s culture, although is not prominent within

society. Pendakur and Pendakur: 1998, 2002 found that Arabs and South Asian men also have

significantly lower earnings when compared to White men of British origin”.

Asian individuals are still discriminated against within society, although not nearly as severely as

discrimination against Arabs and/or African individuals. Studies on this gap in wages have

shown that “the raw earning gap was larger in the public sector than in the private sector for

Arabs and South Asian men. Arab individuals are seen to be very family oriented and extremely

traditional, although there is a slow movement towards modern times. The Arab people are seen

to be a visible minority, which, if immigrating from overseas, can result in “difficulties related to

language, culture, education quality, and social networks.

According to research conducted by Abada and Tenkorang: 2009, this disparity with the general

population can easily result in discrimination, with, in one study, about 18% of those whom

were Arabs reporting that they had experienced discrimination in education hiring within the last

five years. Furthermore, due to their focus on pursuing higher education, visible minorities,

particularly Arabs, have fewer years of work experience and, as a result, earn less compared to

those whom have more years of work experience in addition to higher education.

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A survey taken in 2002, the “Canadian Ethnic Diversity Survey reveals that regardless of

generation status or length of residence, 20 percent of persons who were visible minorities (non-

white in colour) had experienced discrimination or unfair treatment in the last five years

preceding the survey due to their ethnicity, culture, race, skin colour, language, accent or

religion” (Abada and Tenkorang 2009: 583).

Discrimination against Muslims in Canada

Muslims have been subject to discrimination and misrepresentation, especially in Western

nations that are so heavily reliant on media as their primary source of information. With the rapid

advancement of technology, it is now possible to access and obtain newspaper articles, radio

broadcasts, and news reports through a myriad of sources; this abundance also means that

distortion, bias, and judgment become prevalent. The media exercises its power to represent the

world in certain ways, and it is this representation that differs vastly depending on its source, and

conflicts in ways by which the world constructs meaning.

Additionally, the heterogeneity and diversity of Muslims is further complicated by political,

cultural, and socioeconomic factors that manifest themselves in media representations of the

Islamic faith and its followers. (Hussain, M. 2000). Media often portrays Muslims as a separate

category, unrelated to Canadian, British, or American heritage; this, in itself, is a form of cultural

racism. (Hussain, M. 2000). Representations of minority voices in the media are considered a

“double-edged sword” where individuals are “virtually ignored or invisible,” while

“simultaneously…construed in negative discourse,” (Saeed, 2007). In a society where the

majority may have little social contact with the minority, such misrepresentations become the

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only source of information, and thus, exert a powerful negative influence on the individuals in

question. (Hussain, M. 2000). The lack of experiential knowledge of the minority population is

what has defined media as a frame of reference from which attitudes and opinions of the public

have been formed. (Saeed, 2007). Sociologists have noted that racism is not static, but rather

evolves and adapts in response to context and situation.

Although more overt, classical forms of racism seem to be eradicated, new and more subtle types

have emerged, especially after the attacks of 9/11. (Hussain, M. 2000). Not only has media

coverage of the Islamic community increased substantially since, but an overall negative public

opinion and political intolerance has been established. (Saeed, 2007) This ethnic prejudice and

biased misrepresentation is constantly being reproduced and strengthened through

“institutionalized mass-mediated discourses and communications” such as daily news reports,

national press, and other forms of media (Hussain, 2000). The overrepresentation of Muslim

minorities in mainstream media became the major focus of conflict-oriented news in the public

sphere, making legitimate the prejudice that was associated with Islam. Studies from European

nations have shown that stories of ethnic crime in the media are explicitly or implicitly equated

with Muslims, with news topics covering crime, violence, and the police. Although the number

of news stories regarding these individuals was high, it was often found that it was not the actual

number of episodes, but rather repetition of the same stories “through various angles that

increased the number of criminal stories in the total coverage,” (Hussain, 2000). Interestingly,

media coverage of other non-Muslim minorities is predicated by national or ethnic group

identities, and not by religious ones, once again indicating a religiopolitical bias. (Saeed, 2007).

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Even though there is only supposed to be one Islam, there are many different sects and variations

and point of views. These variations and different beliefs create an extremist point of view as

well as a moderate point of view and everything in between. Muslims come to Canada from all

around the globe including Pakistan, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Somalia. They come to Canada to

provide a better situation for their families and often come from War torn Countries. (Leuprecht,

2011).

Christian Leuprecht is a professor at the Royal Military College of Canada and has done a survey

involving 445 Muslim Canadians and has asked them various questions to understand their

perspective. When it comes to discrimination, many Muslims spoke about being treated fairly.

As he writes:

Many spoke about being treated as individuals in Canada and not just as members of a

group. Several were adamant about the absence of discrimination in Canada. As one put

it, “we don’t feel a problem in Canada.” According to another, “what’s best about Canada

is that there is no discrimination. A lady wearing a scarf can work in Canada but not in

France.” Another spoke of the special respect extended to her religion by local

officialdom. “For example, I am a Shia Muslim and each June we have a prayer walk and

the mayor comes. It shows he is interested and the government is committed. (Leuprecht,

2011)

He goes on to say” An occasional subtheme is that Canada allows people to lead a private life. A

male in an Ottawa group struck a chord with others by talking about the ability to “lead a quiet

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life.” In a cross-sectional group in Calgary, an otherwise quiet man who was deeply religious

expounded on how Canada is “the only country in the world” where “Muslims have true

religious freedom.” A professional engineer working in the oil patch, he had spent most of his

adult life in various oil producing countries of the Arab world. “One never knows if the cleric or

the worshipper next to you is on the payroll of the secret police in these countries,” he explained.

Whenever he was perceived as attending mosque too often, he would receive a visit from the

intelligence apparatus to make sure that he was not plotting against the government. With a

happy chuckle, he said that there was no politics in the mosque he attends in Calgary, and the

RCMP would never bother coming. With that being said, like other minority groups in Canada,

Muslims are forced to face discrimination in their everyday lives. Muslims are portrayed by the

media as war hungry, oppressive to women, and terrorists. When asked in the survey how could

Canada’s major institutions be improved. The vast majority responded by regulating the media

so that coverage of Muslim issues leads to greater social acceptance of Muslims and hence more

job opportunities for Muslims. (Leuprecht, 2011)

The Canadian council for refugees reported that Muslims feel that they are targets of humiliation

when travelling to the United States, are harassed and accused of being associated with

supporting terrorism and suffer vandalism against mosque’s.(Leuprecht, 2011) In 2010, CBC

news surveyed 2000 people and found that Canadians believe that Muslims are discriminated

against most followed by aboriginal peoples.(Hildebrandt, 2010) Part of the problem is that

many Canadians don’t feel like it affects them and therefore just shrug it off as Jeffrey Reitz, a

University of Toronto professor explains. "These groups are minorities and if you asked people,

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‘Are blacks experiencing discrimination?’ They might shrug and say, ‘Yeah, probably,’ but you

know it's not something that concerns them directly. And so it's treated as somebody else's

problem."(Hildebrandt, 2010) This becomes very concerning when discrimination relates to jobs

and makes it harder for Muslim Canadians to find work or are paid less. In the journal article

titled Muslims in Canada by Derek Janhevich and Humera Ibrahim, they explain how Muslims

generally have a higher level of education when compared to the rest of the population.

A quick examination of education levels reveals that compared to the total population;

those that identify themselves as Muslim have attained higher levels. Census figures

indicate that among those fifteen years and older, almost six in ten Muslims (56%) had

some level of post-secondary education. This proportion drops to 44% for the total

population. Much of this difference is attributed to the higher post-secondary graduation

rates of Muslims.(Ibrahim, 2004)

With this in mind, it is clear discrimination is prevalent when wage earnings are below the

national average for Canadians. A glance at simple income indicators reveals that Muslims earn

less than the rest of the Canadian population. Among those aged fifteen and older, both the mean

and median individual income for Muslims was approximately $8,000 less than the total

population. In addition, the unemployment rate in 2001 for those that identified themselves as

Muslim was almost twice as high as the total population. (Ibrahim, 2004)

Most adult Muslim immigrants are well educated but their degrees are not accepted in this

country and therefore are forced to work low paying jobs. According to a new national survey,

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half of Canadians believe that Muslims can’t be trusted and also believe that it is mainly their

own fault that they are discriminated against. Among French Canadians, this number jumps to 70

percent. (Kasim, 2012) 70 per cent of those surveyed expressed little or no trust in Muslims,

compared with 43 per cent of English speakers who said they felt that way. (Kasim, 2012)

However, sometimes it becomes a two way street of discrimination when Muslim Canadians

discriminate against other Canadians. For example, a woman was refused a haircut by a Muslim

barber based on his religious faith prompting her to file a complaint with the Ontario Human

Rights Tribunal. (Boesveld, 2012) In another incident, some Muslim cab drivers in Halifax are

refusing to pick up passengers with guide dogs. (CBC 2013) Some people may call that

discrimination while others say it is their charter right to practice their religion freely. It then

becomes religious rights vs. non-discrimination rights.

However it isn’t only Canadian citizens who are discriminating but the government as well. In

2010, the Quebec government proposed Bill 94 which would force Muslim women to remove

their face covering if they wanted to work in the public sector or receive access to public

services.(Chung, 2010) Salam Elmenyawi, chairman of the Muslim Council of Montreal, argued

the bill’s purpose is to stop Muslim women from integrating into Quebec society. "

We travel thousands of miles and kilometers to go to … Afghanistan to teach woman in

[niqabs], because we claim the Taliban denies an education," said Elmenyawi. "When

they come to us here in Montreal, we tell them, no, we won't give you access. What is the

difference between them and the actions of Taliban?

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Premier Jean Charest sees it differently. He argues that the bill is a solution to the need to

balance individual freedoms with the values of Quebec Society. Daniel Weinstock, director of

the ethics research centre at the University of Montreal, applauded the spirit of the law. (Chung,

2010) Still, he emphasized, the law is based on the principles of not hindering identification or

communication. In that, there seemed to be some "wiggle room," he said. (Chung, 2010)"I can

imagine a person whose mouth is covered still being able to convey her point of view without

having to uncover her face."(Chung 2010)

In Canadian society, there are Ism words thrown all around. For example, words like racism,

sexism, heterosexism and recently Islamism. Doctor Allan G. Johnson explains in his book;

Privilege, Power. And Difference how ism words promote privilege. When people hear Islamism

in the media, it immediately creates an us vs. them mentality. When this translates into people

discriminating against Muslims, the vast majority of people stay quiet and those who

discriminate see this as approval.

Consider, for example, the power of silence to promote privilege and oppression. Human

beings are highly dependent on one another for standards of what-and who-is okay and

who isn’t. Although there will always be individuals who don’t care what other people

think, the vast majority will avoid doing something they believe people around them

would criticize. But if people in their community and society are silent, then the

perpetrators are free to interpret that as support for what they do. (Johnson, 2005)

Allan Johnson uses the lynching of black slaves as an example. He writes:

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From the late 1800s through the mid-1940s, for example, white Southerners lynched

more than three thousand African Americans. The actual violence was done by a

relatively small number of individuals, but they acted from the assumption that most

people in their communities and states either approved of their actions or wouldn’t do

anything to stop them even if they disapproved.” (Johnson, 2005)

To help solve the problem, those who are privileged need to speak against discrimination but

most of the time; those who are privileged don’t see silence as a problem. Using the same

example of racism, Allan Johnson argues that those who don’t speak out are not necessarily bad

people or discriminatory themselves, but never the less contribute to the problem. Using the

same example of racism, Allan Johnson writes:

What they don’t see most of the time, however, is how silence and not looking and not

asking are in effect just as racist because oppression depends on this in order to continue.

White professors or managers who don’t go out of their way to ask about race in

classrooms or the workplace may be good people who’d never act from ill will toward

people of color. But how good or bad they are as people are beside the point. Their

motives and intention are irrelevant to the future of racism as a pattern of inequality and

the suffering it causes. What count isn’t just what they do, but even more what they don’t

do. (Johnson, 2005)

To conclude, most Muslims come to Canada to escape the terrors of war only to find themselves

being called terrorists when they arrive. They are discriminated in many aspects of their lives

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including education, and work.(Alexander, 2012) The religion of Islam has been created into an

ism which immediately puts a red flag on all those who are Muslim. People then ask why we

accept these immigrants into Canada. The answer is both surprising and simple. Immigrants play

a big part in the Canadian economy. Research from TD Canada Trust explains that “Immigrants

now account for more than 1-in-5 Canadians. And with the oncoming retirement of the baby

boomer generation, immigration’s role in the Canadian economy will only grow.”(Alexander,

2012) Therefore, addressing discrimination issues is crucial for the Canadian economy in the

long run. For example, “simply closing the gap in employment rates between newcomers and

native-born Canadians would equate to approximately 370,000 additional people working.”

(Alexander, 2012) Furthermore,

Canada admits hundreds of thousands of highly-educated, highly-skilled immigrants each

year to meet labour demand or to fill skills gaps. And yet, any reason for participating in

skilled immigration is rendered null and void if those immigrants ultimately take lower

paying jobs unrelated to their training because of the labour market barriers that they

face.”(Alexander, 2012)

Concerns some people have with immigrants is that they bring the average wage down and steal

jobs that “real” Canadians could work. On the contrary, the opposite is quite true.

“There are some well-publicized concerns that immigrants displace low-skilled workers,

drive down wages, or act as a drain on public resources. However, the findings of a

recent study of 14 receiving OECD countries over a 25-year period indicate that the

opposite is true. The authors found little evidence of widespread crowding-out of native

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workers. Instead, immigration actually increased employment and there was no short-

term or long-term impact on each country’s respective productivity level. Put another

way, their findings suggest that immigration increases a receiving country’s productive

capacity without ever affecting average wages or average income per

person.”(Alexander, 2012)

Things aren’t progressing either but are actually getting worse when it comes to earning gaps. In

the past, immigrants could hope to close the earnings gap over time, but that goal is increasingly

becoming out of reach. A male immigrant who arrived in the late 1970s earned roughly 85 cents

for every dollar earned by a Canadian-born within the first 5 years upon his arrival. That gap

closed to 98 cents within 25 years, basically eliminating it. However, that disparity has become

both larger and more difficult to close with each new cohort of immigrants. Those individuals

who landed between 2000 and 2004 earned just 61 cents on the dollar relative to a Canadian-

born. The simple but sad truth is that many new immigrants cannot hope to close the earnings

gap in their lifetime. (Alexander, 2012) The minority group that most Canadians feel are the

most discriminated against have an uphill battle to face here in Canada but yet still stand better

than most places in the World. (Alexander, 2012) To reverse the trend of growing discrimination

among this minority group, education and informing of the public is crucial.

Conclusion

Education confuses society as to why discrimination within the workforce still takes place, as

many visible minorities have as much, if not more, education than the non-minorities. Perhaps

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with more research and time, there will come a point where society is equal all the way through,

and not just appearing to be on the surface.

Canadians need to realize that appearance is only skin deep and the people within Canada should

unite to form a stronger, more unified nation rather than allow for divisions between races to

continue.

In order to change the current trend of society with its tendency to choose colour over education,

society must first be able to admit to the problem. The first step of any program is to admit that

something is very wrong. Society in its entirety needs to shift their perception of humans and

begin to view them as individuals, with individual strengths and weaknesses. Certain races are

put into certain categories based on their appearances; for some races, this turns out to be a good

thing, for others, not a very good thing. Instead of being so focused on appearance, one should

look at the mind and skills that are behind the appearance, because that is what either is going to

help or hinder the company or place of occupation.

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http://www.td.com/document/PDF/economics/special/ff0212_immigration.pdf 2. Argell, Siri . 2011 "For muslims, growing numbers and growing fears." The globe and

mail ():1- 1. Retrieved from on Nov 14, 2012 3. Boesveld, S. (2012, November 30). Gender vs religion .National Post. Retrieved from

http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/11/30/gender-vs-religion-woman-refused-haircut-by-muslim-barber-highlights-problem-of-colliding-rights/

4. CBC. (2013, March 22). Some cabbies still refuse guide dog. Cbc News. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/story/2013/03/22/ns-guidedog-cabbies.html

5. Chung, A. (2010, March 25). Quebec niqab bill. The Star. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2010/03/25/quebec_niqab_bill_would_make_muslim_women_unveil.html

6. Esposito, J. (2011). Islam The Straight Path. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press. 7. Hildebrandt, A. (2010, March 15). Aboriginal, muslims discriminated against most. Cbc

News. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2010/03/15/discrimination-poll-2010.html

8. Hussain, M. (2000). Islam, Media and Minorities in Denmark. Current Sociology, 48: 95 Retrieved from: http://csi.sagepub.com/content/48/4/95 [Accessed: 4th March 2013].

9. Ibrahim , H. (2004). Muslims in canada. Our Diverse Cities , 1, 55. Retrieved from http://canada.metropolis.net/research-policy/cities/publication/diverse_cite_magazine_e.pdf

10. Inglehart, Ronald . 2009 "Muslim integration into western society." Faculty research working papers series Harvard kennedy school():4-4. Retrieved from on Mar 20, 2013

11. Islam, R. (2002). The right to tell: The role of mass media in economic development. Washington, D.C: World Bank.

12. Johnson, A. (2005). Privilege, power, and difference. (2nd ed., p. 105). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

13. Kasim , A. (2012, April 30). Canada's muslim problem . Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/abubakar-kasim/muslim-discrimination-canada_b_1459810.html

14. Kaplan, J. (2007). The Fifth Wave: The New Tribalism? Terrorism and Political Violence, 19, 545-570

15. Leuprecht , Christian . 2011 "What do muslim canadians want." Macdonald-laurier institute 1(2011):8-8. Retrieved from on Mar 14, 2013

16. Martin, Gus. 2011. Essentials of Terrorism: Concepts and Controversies (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

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17. Rapoport, D. C. (2003). Generations and Waves: The Keys to Understanding Rebel Terror Movements. Retrieved April 6, 2012, from UCLA International Institute website: http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=5118

18. Saeed, A. (2007). Media, Racism and Islamophobia: The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media. Sociology Compass, (1751-9020), pp.443–462.

19. Sageman, Marc. 2008. Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.