QUARRIES IN THE

PRAIRIE LANDSCAPE

PROJECT MANACEMENT FOR THE DEV_ELOPMENT AND

REHABILITATION OF CRUSHED LIMESTONE QUARRIES

QUARRIES IN THE

PRAIRIE LANDSCAPE

PROJECT MANACEMENT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND

REHABILITATION OF CRUSHED LIMESTONE QUARRIES

by D. James Paterson

A Pract'icum submitted'in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requinements for the Degree,

Master of Landscape Archìtecture

Depantment of Landscape Anchitecture

University of Manitoba

Winn'ipeg, Man'itoba, Canada

1982

QUARRIES IN THE

PRAIRIE LANDSCAPE

PROJECT I'IANAGEMENT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND

REHABILITATION OF CRUSHED LIMESTONE QUARRIES

BY

DONALD JAMES PATERSON

A pracÈicum submitted to the Faculty of Graduate SÈudies

of the University of Manitoba in parrial fulfillmenr of Ehe

requirements of the degree of

I"ÍASTER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

e 1982

Permission has been granted ro rhe LIBRARY OF THE UNI\¡ERSITY

OF MANITOBA to lend or se11 copies of rhis pracr icrrm, roÈhe NATIONAL LIBRARY OF CANADA to microfitm rhis pracricumand to lend or sell copies of Ehe film, and UNIVERSITY MICRO-

FILMS to publish an absrracE of this pracricum.

The author reserves other publication righrs, and ncitherthe practicum nor exfensive exËracts from it may be printedor otherwise reproduced without the author's permission.

ABSTRACT

L'imestone quarryìng for the pnoduction of crushed stone is an

essential industry withi n southern Manitoba, âS it provides the

constructjon industry with much of its mineral aggregate needs. The

constructìon industry requì res a rel j able and economical suppìy of

crushed limestone products to provide the roads, houses, and industriesthat modern soc'iety demands. The W'innìpeg reg'ion js rich in limestone

bedrock resources, but many potentiaì sources are be'ing stenilìzed fornumerous reasons.

Crushed l'imestone 'is a high-bulk, low-value product thatnecess'itates surface nrìn'ing and short-haul d'istances for the jnd'ividual

operations to remain economicalìy viable. Consequentìy, ìarge quarry

operat'ions are located close to theìr hjìnnìpeg markets in negions ofoften confl ì cti ng land uses. Noi se, dust, vi bratì on, and pubì ì c safety

are common prob'lems with exist'ing operatìons, while abandoned quarries

are often left in an unacceptabìe condition. Despìte the recognìzed

need for their products, the current public attitude towards the crushed

l'i mestone i ndustry focuses upon the severe soci al and envi ronmental

ìmpacts that such openations can cause.

The study explores the "aggregate diIemma" in depth, and concludes

that the crushed l'imestone pnoducers wì I I have to 'improve thei r pub'l ì c

'image. A project management planning process is proposed for the

resolution of many of the social and environmental issues concerning the

ìndustry. Project management of I imestone quanries 'including pìanned

sjte development, comprehensive management, and creative nehabilitationmay provì de excìt'ing econom'ic and I and use opportunit'ies ìn the future.Technical'informatjon js provìded as an informatjon base for future

rehabi l'itati on acti vìties.

1l

ACKNO}ILEDGEMENTS

The author is most gratefuì to Mr. Garry Hilderman, MF. BlianBaiìey, and Professor E. B. (Ted) McLachlan for their input and adv'ice

in the development of this practicum.

Specia'l thanks are due to Diane Abrassart and Thora Sigurdson forthe'ir willingness and cons'iderable efforts expended jn the preparation

of th'is study.

The author also wishes to express his love and thanks to his mother

for her constant and often unrewarded ass'istance, which was invaluablein the comp'letion of this practicum.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

AC KNOWLED GEME NTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LÎST OF PHOTO PAGES

PART 1 QUARRIES AND THE LANDSCAPE

1.0 ITITRODUCTION

1.1 BackgroundI.2 Purpose1.3 0bjecti ve1.4 Study Format

2.O THE IIIDUSTRY AI{D THE ISSUES

2.L The Aggregate Industry2.1.I The Limestone Industt'y2.1.2 Industry Location Factors

2.2 The Aggregate Dìlemma2.2.I The Government Response2.2.2 Current Rehabilitation Practise

3.0 THE OPPORIUNITY

3.1 Potential Di scovered3.1.1 The Project Management Planning Process

4.0 PREPLAIII{ING

4.I Purpose4.2 Issue or Problem Definition4.3 Data Inventory4.4 Data Analysis

4.4.1 Site Development Cons'iderations4.4.2 Opportunities and Contraints4.4.3 Program Development

Page 1{o.

j

iiiii

v

vi

I23

4

67

9

1i1316

1819

PART 2 THE PROJECT MANACEMENT PLANNINC PROCESS

2t?t2T22232323

Page No.

5.0 OPERATIONS PLANNING

5.1 Pu rPose5.2 Site DeveloPment P'lanning5.3 Excavat'ion Plannìng

6.0 FUTURE LAND USE SELECTION

6.1 Pu t^Pose6.2 The Selection Process

7.0 PROGRESSIVE REHABILITATION PLANNING

7.I PurPose7 .2 Rehabi I j tati on Goal s and 0bjectì ves7.3 The Progressive txcavation-Rehabil'itatjon Plan

8.0 ÈTANAGEI{ENT AND POST MINING SITE DEVELOPI'IENT

8.1 Pu rPose8"2 Management8.3 Post Mi n'ing Si te Devel opment Pl ann'ing8.4 ImPìementati on8.5 Post Proiect Management

9.0 c0NcLUsI0N

11.1 Anaìysìs of socia'l1y Objectionable Impact Features11.1.1 PurPose11.1.2 ImPact from Noi se11.1.3 ImPact from Vibration11.1.4 ImPact from Dusti1.1.5 lmPact on Publ i c SafetY11.1.6 Unattractive Site Appearance

252526

293032

2727

JJ33343536

3B

PART 3 BACKCROUND AND TECHNICAL INFORMAT¡ON

1O.O THE RESOURCE, ITS CLASSIFICATION, AIID EXTRACTION

i0.1 Pu rPose10.2 The Resource

I0.2.1 Formation of Limestone BedrockI0.2.2 Surfic'ial GeoìogY

10.3 Classification and Use of Limestone10.4 Crushed Limestone Quarry Operat'ions

11.0 SITE DEVELOP}IENT CONSIDERATIONS

4T474I4?4346

53535356575959

Page No.

I2.O QUARRY LANDFORM DETERMINANTS

12.I Post Mining Quarry FormL2.I .1 PurposeL2.L.2 SizeI?.I .3 Sh apeL2.1.4 DepthL2.1.5 Floors72.I .6 Wal I s12.L.7 Essent'ial Operational Features12.l.B Surface Drainage Areas

13.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FRoM QUARRYING

13.1 Purpose 6613.2 Nature of Soil 6613.3 Soj I Characteri stics Affecti ng Pl ant Growth 6913.4 Reconstructed Soil Properties of Typica'l Mined Soils 7213.5 Characteristics of Limestone Quarries as Growing 75

Med i ums

1.4.0 TECHNICAL REHABILITATION GUIDELINES

14.1 Purpose14.2 Selectìon of Revegetation Species14.3 Selection and Technìques of Revegetatjon14.4 Time to Plant14.5 Maintenance of Plant Materials

REFERENCES

]-5.0 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

616161636364646565

7979839294

LIST OF TABLES

Consumption of Mineral Aqgregate jn Manitobaand blinnipeg Regions z L973

Proportional Breakdown of the Various Usesof Mineral Aggregate in Man'itoba: 1973

The Uses of Limestone and Lime

Exampìes of Planninq Data Requìred for theData Inventory

0pportunities and Constrajnts whjch mayAf f ect S i te Deve'l opment

Examples of Program Information

Pre'lim'inary Site Development Pl an Requ'iredI nformati on

Land Use Selection Determinants

Examples of Performance Objectives forEarthwork s

Examples of PerformanceReveget at'i o n

Physical Characteri sticsBedrock

Suitabil ity of Bedrock for AggregateProduct i on

Flow Diagram of a Crushed Limestone Quarry0perat ì on

Flow Di agram of Objectionable ImpactFe atures

Typìca'l Sound Pressure Levels of QuarryOperat'ion

1t't

Table Number Page

6A

22A

?3A

23A

25A

27A

31A.8

31C

45A

458

46A

54A

6A

7B3

4

6

7

Õ

9

10

11

L2

13

l4

15

Objectjves for

of Limestone

55A

55816

T7

Sound Reduction Due to Distance

So i I Texture and i ts Effect onPropertjes (General j zed )

Soi I69

'lv

Table

18

2T

22

23

26

?7

28

31

32

Number

Avai'l able Water Capaci ty in some Mani tobaSoils by Soil Textural Classes

Soil Factors Affecting Plant Growth

Plant Nutrients and their tffects on PlantGrowth

Re Vegetation Spec'ies Selection Gu'ide

Temporary Seedi ng Gu i de ( Northern M i ch i 9an )

0ntario Mìni stry of Transportation andCommunications Roadside Standard SeedMi xture

Recommended Stonewal I Area Grass SeedMixtures for L'imestone Quarries

Mani toba Department of Hi ghways StandardSeed Mixture for Hjghway No. 7 Right-of-WaysAround Stonewal I

Mjlton Quarry Ontario Standard Seed Mìxture

Nel son Crushed Stone Standard Back S'lopeSeed Mixture

Environment Canada Suggested l^ljld WoodlandBorder for t^Jildlife Habitat

Seedjng Methods Advantages / Disadvantages

Time to Plant, Northern Great Plajns T'im'ingMatr i x

Ferti I i zer Appf ication Guidel ines

Advantages and Di sadvantages of Common'lyUsed Mul ches

70

72A

Page

76A

83A-F

B3G

83H

83I

831

83M

85A

95A

19

20

24

25

83J

83K

29

3093A

944

Number

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

I9

10

11

T2

LIST OF FIGURES

Location of Limestone Bedrock Resources inthe R.M. of Rockwood.

The Project Management Planning Process.

Quarry Site Analysis Plan.

Quarry S'i te Devel opment P I an .

Examp'les of Quarry Face Treatments.

The Progressive Extractjon - Rehabil itatjonPlan.

Post Mining Site Development Pl an.

The Crushed Limestone Industry Dilemma.

Effects of Temperature Gradients on Sound.

Effects of Temperature Gradients on Sound.

Diagram of a Hypothetical Sojl Profjle.

Techn ì ques of Reh ab i I i tat i on.

Page

7A

19A

228

258

32A

3?B

34A

384

55C

55C

674

78A

V1

LIST OF PHOTO PAGES

Number' Page

1 The Crushed L'imestone ïndustry as a hjstoricand extensive land user. 8A

2 Examples of favorable stripping ratios and10Ah ì gh qual i ty ì imestone

3 Littìe Mountaìn Quarry natural revegetation. l2A

4 Visual impact of the mined landscape. 18A

5 Portable processi ng pl ants ut'il ized by thecrushed I imestone 'industry. 52A

6 Soci al concerns of the publ ìc safety andunattractive sjte appearance. 594

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

L'imestone quarry'ing for the production of crushed stone is an

essential industry with'in southern Manitoba, âS it provides theconstruction ìndustry with much of ìts mineral aggregate nequìrements.

Mineral aggregates, 'including sand, graveì, and crushed limestone, are

hi gh-bu'l k, I ow-val ue products that necessitate surface mi ni ng and

short-haul d'istances for the industrjes to remain economical ly viable.l.l'i th the assu rance of conti nued u rban expans ì on and the fu rtherdepletìon of nearby sources of sand and graveì aggregates, all levels ofgovernment have recogni zed the need to consenve and protect theI i mestone resources we have and to p'l an for conti nued qua rryi ng

operati ons.

Despite such acknowledgement, valuable reserves of ljmestonebedrock continue to be sterilized through the processes of urban sprawì,rural development, and munic'ipaì controls. A number of municipaìitieshave derived some benefits from barn'ing or regulating crushed limestonequarries wìthin their jurisdiction, but that is not the sole rationalebehind such imposed restraint. The current attjtude toward the crushed

limestone industry focuses upon the severe social and environmental

impacts that such operatìons can cause. Municipal councils foresee theproblems of noise, vìbration, dust, and pubìic safety, a'long with thequestion of what to do with the quarry aftelit is depleted. Indeed,

the problem of pubì'ic safety and 'liabi I ìty 'is an ongoi ng i ssue that thequarry operators have yet to come to tenms with. In short, as one

quarry operator so aptly stated, "everyone wants doorsteps, but no one

wants the industry on their doorsteps".

In several i nstances , the crushed I i mestone operators have been

thein own worst pubìic relations nepresentat'ives. The industry contends

that ìt is simpìy attempting to prov'ide a product whjch the pub'l'ic

demands. But operators are all too s'low'ly reaì'izing that it can no

l onger be "busi ness as usual ". Increased publ'ic resentment and

government regulation make that imposs'ible. The current pub'lìc'image of

the limestone ìndustry, although tarnished, need not be i rreparable.However, the ìndustny needs to change its att'itude and the openators

must be convi nced that they wi I I have to modì fy present quarryi ng

practìces if they are to be recogn'ized as good corporate citizens.

The solution to the social problem can be realized through carefulplanning of each quarry site, followed by a thoughtfu'l site development

and operations plannìng program. l,jith the init'iation of a thoroughlyp1 anned and creati veìy progressi ve rehabi I'itati on program, envi nonmental

ìmpacts can be lessened, and the site can be developed to provide forsafe and spec'ific future land uses. Idea'l'ly, limestone operatìons couldprovide opportun'ities fon 'large-scaìe landforms designed for real

economìc benefits in the future.

Tradit'iona'l'ly, quarry sìte devel opment and rehabi l'itation has been

so'lely the domai n of m'ini ng engi neers. The futune growth and

development of the crushed limestone industry w'ill be increasing'lydeterm'ined and dj rected by the ìnput from pìanners, landscape

architects, government agenc'ies and theìr personneì.

Simpìy stated then, the issue that will be addressed throughout

th'is study will be: how can the crushed limestone openation be

ì ncorporated harmoni ous'ly 'i nto the I and use cycl e?

The i ssue i nvol ves :

I ) eliminating undue social probìems, whìle

2) aì'lowing for effic'ient quarry operations, and

3) the realization of future rehabilitation goa'ls and objectives.

L.2 Purpose

The pu rpose of th'is pract'i cum 'is to provi de the essenti al

informat'ion for initiating a project management program desìgned

specìficalìy for crushed limestone operations. Thjs study prov'ides

guideìines for the site development, operations planning, and

progress'ive rehabi I itat'ion of quarry operat'ions w'ith'in the l,Ji nn'ipeg

regi on.

The author has necogn'ized that many of the readers may not be

familiar w'ith the crushed limestone industry. Consequently, the study

has been structured as an information manual which:

1) initiaì'ly outlines the scope of the issues

2) proposes a project management process for the resolution of nnny

of those 'i s sues.

3) synthesizes pertinent background and technical jnformation intoan easiìy retrievable form.

1..3 0bjecti ves

In the context of the stated purpose, the objectìves of this study

are:

1) To introduce the neader to the crushed lìmestone industry.Background jnformation will be prov'ided on both the industry and

the resou rce 'itsel f .

2) To di scuss the "aggregate di I emma " confronti ng the crushed

I imestone industry and the ways 'in which vary'ing level s ofgovernment are attempting to handle the situat'ion.

3) To outl'ine the socìal and envinonmental issues involved with the

crushed l'imestone industry.

4) To provide object'ives and gui deì'ines that may be ut'il'ized tocontrol or eliminate many of the probìems pnevious'ly'ident i f i ed. These object'i ves and gui de'l i nes wi I I focus upon the

f o'l ì ow'i n g:

a) site development, which includes aspects of sjte ana'lysis

and si te pl ann'i ng.

operat'ions pl anni ng

prognessi ve rehabi I itati on of the s'ite for the purpose ofimproved publìc safety and rehabi Iitat'ion of a s'ite based

upon a prev'iousìy defined land use.

5) To prov'ide valuable technical and nehabilitation guìdelines,ìncìud'ing a discuss'ion on selection and techniques ofrevegetati on.

- Vegetatì on spec'i es l i sts wi l l al so be prov.i ded

for refe rence for the vegetati on requ'i rement s of specì fi ca reas .

1.4 Study Format

The study has been organized into three parts. Part One deals withthe ovenall context of the ìssues. The second is directed specificaììyat the description of a project management process. The th'ird partprovides pertinent background and technjcal information.

Part I (sections 1, 2, 3) wi'lì introduce the reader to the mjneralaggregate i ndustry, and the many ì ssues 'invol ved w'ith crushed I imestonequanrying 'in southenn Manitoba. The intent and detail of Manitoba'sleg'islative requirements for rehabilitation will be rev'iewed, and

selected munic'ipal responses to the crushed limestone quarry di lemma

wi I I be out I 'i ned.

An overview of the problems of current operating and rehabilitationpract'ices w'ill provide the basis for the study. The nnin focus of thepracticum is a discuss'ion of the objectives and advantages of usinga project management program directed specificalìy for the development

and rehabilitation of crushed limestone quarries. A proposed conceptua'l

model that ìncorporates the ma'i n features of thi s approach wi I I be

i ntroduced here.

Part II (Sections 4-9) outlines and describes the phases, stages,and components of the proposed conceptual model prov'i ded in Par t I.Object'ives and guidelines for the preparation of site development,

rehabi'litation, and post mi n'ing plans are furn'ished throughout.

b)

c)

Part III (Sections l0-14) prov.ides essential'information, technical site development and rehabjlitationand specific vegetation species lists as an information base

study in this field.

back ground

guidelines,for further

Part 1

Quarries and the Landscape

THE INDUSTRY AND THE ISSUES

2.1 The Aggregate IndustrY

An un.interrupted and econom'ical supply of mi neral aggregate i s

essential if the construct'ion industry is to continue to provide the

noads, houses, and commerci al and i ndustri al devel opment that modern

soci ety demands. Mi nenal aggregates, i ncì udi ng sand, gravel , and

crushed rock, are the raw materìals utjlized'in the production of cement

and aspha]t, road metal , rai lway baì ìast, as wel I as any number of

speci al i zed products. The mi neral aggregate j ndustr"y 'is not on'ly one of

the'largest'industries in North America, it also remains one of the

fastest growing industries within the primary sector of our economy'1

Despite these facts, the huge dimensi ons and the rel ati ve

importance of the mi neral aggregate ì ndustry contì nue to be

underestimated by society. The value of production for" mineral

aggregates in LgTg was approximately $800 milljon, wh'ile the industry

di rect'ly empìoyed over 3,500 people.2 That same year' approx'imate'ly

385 m'il I 'ion tonnes of mi neral aggregate were excavated , as compared to

33 m.illion tonnes of coal (1 tonne = 1.1023 tons).3 Despite the

perceived enorm'ity of the coal-producing'industry, the m'ineral aggregate

ìndustry is mass'ive in comparison.

Manitoba ut'ilizes approx'imateìy 13.6 m'illion tonnes of mineral

aggregate annual 1y. see TABLE 1. A proporti onal breakdown of the

various uses of these products in Manìtoba is shown in TABLE 2' There

are abundant Sources of Sand, gravel, and crushed limestone within the

l,li nni peg reg'i on. Approxì matel y 2.7 mi I I 'ion tonnes of sand and gravel

1 A.G.,Ontari o Bulletìn

Mclel I an , "The Aggregate Dilemma";Oct. 1975, P. 12.

The Conservation Council of

2 Ni ni nq .i n Canada Facts and Fi gures (The Mi ni ng Assoc'i at'ion of Canada,

1980), pp. 18 and 3b.

3 Ib'id, p. 36.

CONSUMPTION OF IfINERAL

R€s¡dentidSs¡d E GravelL¡msstono

Total

t¡o.lfiesÉenfidStld ¿l G.svo¡Lirneslono

Totd

Boo.l ConsbuctþnSmcl t GravelLinoslon€

Totd

Ot'l€r Engha€ringS¡l(l t GravdL¡næfone

Tot¡l

Totd constfucüonSrld åc.avd¡Jî€sroflo

ToE

TABLE 1

AGGREGATE IN MANITOBA

CONSUIPNON OF AOGRECATEwF¡t¡tPEO REGlon 1973

(0ætfi¡l

Rarl¡.dwlnnlp.g Lnfioò.n eþn To¡l

AND THE l,JINNIPEG REGION

wlnnlp.gßÌþ.t

P¡c..rt olProrhc¡

89.287.98S.O

87.5{13.2

87.r

869.910a.1

ro38.o

84Ít.18¡t.9

s27.O

2331.2599.f

2SÍtO.3

129€.680.0

r378€

974.7f 91.3

1188.O

983.r100.9

10€4.0

9218.0599.1

98r 7.t

234€.713€.3

2aa6.o

25.3rq).02EC

55.357.855.¡1

534r.O9¡11. r

13,502.5I,029.8

39.88O.¡t132

Source: U.M.A. Group, Aggregate Resources of the l,linnipeg Region; Manitoba MineralResources 0ivi

ø272.1 i¿1.592.1

TABLE 2

PR0PORTIONAL BREAKDOI,IN 0F THE VARIOUS USES 0F

stflo A[o oR vEL attocaÏtoi DATA, tgñt(0ootqt.l

I AiltTOEA

MINERAL AGGREGATE IN MANITOBA

tnEsfl ilE Atlocanoil oalÀ l tr:rl0Otú.f

TATIITOEA

9.llrtlcaCmrd. Rrlr.d

Paîcdrl ünnlp.gLllurlnñl R.glon

llld¡üc¡C.ttrÒ.

P¡c*tf4r¡afrr¡tl

tudcúdructþnþ€cfiüdConcrato aqEfll8leÆptdf aggregdoFaitoadbeelùbrtrsüdMh€ftOth€rflotfi€rus€a

6,71779

t,8¿t3

550778153øÌ

r.818f3

8.869l1

2.211535928

2ø

1.1 t32

28.5(82.2t21.6( 2.71

r9.6

'to'(3f .21

(84.€)

2,O2513

r.952242

80f5

952t

2.435.O75.O

.:.'

237.A

3to75.O

5r8.O21.7

12a.3

nlri

I 182

B'rbòL t ¡ifapConcrÊlo a€qrugstcÆphdtaggrsgslcFosd metÊa

Raihod b6üa8t

C€nedEt coficnl tlimedúts

Olh€r us€r

1377.AToHalocrt€dTotdçro<Lrt¡dt

I 1,8¡¡€13.700

r 3,52814,449

r 4.05.5

5.2e65.353

Plr€sllta¡locdod 93.6 98.4

Source: U.M.A. Group,.Aggreg?lg.Resources of the Winnipeg Region; Manitoba MineralResources Divi

are produced from the B'ird's Hill area, while roughly 0.9 million tonnesof crushed l'imestone are produced in the municipaì ity of Rockwood.4See FIGURT 1.

2.1.I The Limestone Industry

used alone or as component parts, ì'imestone and one of itsconstituents,'lime, have a'large number of uses in varjous industrialand chemjcal processes. See TABLE 3. Limestone has been processed intoan almost unlimited range of sizes and specìficat'ions, from a product as

fine as powden to the huge eìght-ton pieces of armour stone whjch areproduced for shoreline protectìon along southern 0ntario lakes. Vastquantjties of limestone are required in the manufacture of suchnecess'itites as asphaìt shingìes, sugar refin'ing, and steel production.Should a continuous and economìcal suppply of these basic materials be

ìnterrupted, it would affect us all detrimentalìy.

The use of limestone (includìng do'lomite) to produce crushed stoneis one of the more basic uses of the product. In.its processed state,crushed limestone js loose, eas'ily handled, and depending on itsspecified use, can be composed of a wide range of graìn sizes.Therefore, the product can be read'iìy compacted while retaining good

intennal drainage characteristics, making it a preferred and stablemateri al for fi'l I s and as a base course for pavements on bui ì di ng

stnuctures.5 Crushed stone is often used as fill because of its highbulk and relatively low cost.6

4 Personal commun'ication w'ith B. Ba'iìey and C. Jones, Mineraì ResourcesDi v'i s i on personneì , May 1982.

5 Personal communication with R. Glassford, B. Bai'ley, Minera'l ResourcesDi vi si on personneì , February 1982.

6 The National Research Counc'i ì , Surface Mining of Non-Coal Mate¡ials(Nationaì Academy of Sciences i980)

@ w DffiÉrn¡rruffit

roa 4æs ru

@ffi

-

æ#r, cdtßÎ

9lrua rrEMt@

ærcru F glfft ¡wtg

'rutEæYtct{mY fou¡tu fftrq

a uuu ¡qgt MEt u¡tta E¡ttru {m! Mt Kra

@ rrvct ¡or¡^ttolt ua mluf EEtAøn..I ÍUtn ¡ru

FICURE 1

Location of Limestone Bedrock

Resources in the Winnipeg Region

Source-Mineral Resources Divísion

CllY .l ¡lXiltfo

Flü¡¡lona lorplg lron

Flur lor lron¡lnlarr

Op.n h.¡rlh lu?n¡o¡rnd lopndty u¡a

Nonlarrou¡ mal¡ltrallnlng plocr¡Fg

GlIr: tlurlng ¡ndcondlllonln0 olm.ll

h Uaal lurnacaa: ramovar Ld¡ lhln 3¡ non-c¡rbon¡lc Stoôl m¡nuttctura

mllnlt Al ¡nd Sl, aho Mn lmgurllia¡: mtrlmum ol 0.1*¡nd s g. o.ozf P; tump.tr.,

ô ¡nch lo I lnch r¡ngt:flnrr mr u3.brr i,""lt::ïi

Pulyarlrad llmralon. ml¡.ó Eolh hlglt'cllclúm ¡ndwlth lron llna¡. powd!?ad dolomlllc llmarlon.¡ c¡ncoka. lo lorm agglomcrtlat ba uaod

Llm.rton.. b.lng r.phcad Ar lor 919 lron' .rcaplln p¡rl by qulckllma mtxlmum ol l.6lo eT' SIO¡

Pulp rnd p¡p!tFlur ln r.tlnlng Cu, Pù, Urullly hleh.c¡lclumZn. tnd 8b: ¡l¡o lor grldr llmr¡ton. utad; lÞa01.b¡uxito lot alumln¡ llc¡llon¡ at lor glg Lon

ul.d allh.r ln llm¡¡lon. ol golh hlgh{llclum ¡ndllm. lorm, fl.pandanl on doþmll¡c typ.¡ üa u[d:qurllly ol gh¡¡ unttormllt ¡n cômpoll¡on

lmgorl¡nl: gGncr¡lly la¡a Chcmlcrl¡lh¡n 0.06f F.O: SIO¡ plu.Al¡O¡ bú lh¡n 3*

Um.rlona uúd ln auþhlt. l¡lnlmum e5 lo 07f CICO!;procart, t.¡clrd r¡th SOr to mu¡t b. ln l¡rer lr¡gmGnl Sugrr .allnlnglorm c¡lclum bl¡ulphlt. tU.

Llm.¡lma m¡ln lngradú|, Mú¡t ba þw ln m¡gn.rh:mh.d wllh chy. llllcr, ¡nd mrxlmum ot 5<É MoCO¡,llon to comply wlth rpælllc pral.r.d 3¡ MgCOri StO¡llmlb ol comgollllon l.¡r lh¡n t.3f; Alr6r W¡tr tr.rtm.nl

Lrr lhrn 3.ti

1o ¡ld ln purlllc.llon ol Sound. llna'gr¡lnldtawlga Þlanl ¡nd othar ¡tona pralcrrad Sow¡ga ¡nd wtrlaafflutntr; alro us.d ln¡cld naulrllIrllon

Uxd grlnclgdly ln axl.rn Cturha¡l lo {.1 lnch:Unllad 8l¡lc¡ ¡nd C¡ntd¡ chôt unda¡¡rrbt.

Hlgh.c¡lclum llmillona C! lo el.sf C¡CO¡: Sând.llmc brlclllnaly p{¡lYarltad lnd c€llul¡l

block¡

Ellh.r llmctlona or dolomlta Purlly unlmporllnl:san bo ul.d unltorm d¡a. '¡lnch

UaaE ol tiñaalont

R.m¡rl0

TABLE 3

THE USES OF LIMESTONE AND LIME

Pulp rîd p¡par

Pdlland c.m.nl

Sp.clllctllonr

Fln.r b.d¡

Agdcultur¡lllmtrlona

Mlîar¡l lôcd

Poultry gr¡t

Bulldlng rlon.

AgCr.gal!, co¡r¡arnd llnc

olhü con¡lruclbnua

A¡ I llu¡: plomolar lcmovrlot P. Sl. ¡nd S

ln m¡9nr¡lt-lrom-¡o¡wttarprocclr¡: ln nGulrsllr¡llon otacld la¡chlng ¡olullonr lromur¡nlum mlllt: ln flolatlon o,roma Zn. Nl. ¡nd Pb orar; lncyrnld¡llon proc.!¡ ot goldmllllng: ln Erycr p¡ocart torAt¡or

Llma urod ln rulgh¡la p.æt¡aln K.¡tl prpar plrntr. to raganaralac¡u¡tic toda; cdclumGlrbon¡la racoYarod. crlclnadln gl¡îl kllnr; ¡lro ur.d lntod¡ proca¡r. Uttd ln ¡oma¡ulghlla procartôr lor gulp¡nd Þ¡par

Soda ¡th. Ucarbon¡la ol ¡od¡.rnd c¡urllc ¡odr by lh. golv¡yprocora: calclum catbldc lor¡calylcna proca¡t: cllclumchlor¡da

Sucror arlr¡clad lrom ¡ug¡rÞ6ôl¡ l¡ lrortad wllh lim. loramova phorph¡llc m¡lcrl¡lrrnd orgonlc acldt

Comb¡nrd wllh mdt ¡rh ln lhallmlrod¡ ¡ollanlng proca¡¡:rl¡o u¡ad ln purlllcrl¡onpfocar¡a¡

Addrfl lo naulr¡ll¡r tcldlty.rnd thur lo promota bloloolc¡loxldrtlon procars¡; ¡lro 0rôdln chomlc¡l lrcrtmanl ol æwrga¡nd wåtlr¡ lrom r vrrlaty ollndurlri¡l pl¡nlt

Formad ln ¡uloclrv.¡ |tom ¡mlxturG ol t¡nd ¡îd llmc;llghtwalghl crllul¡r concrolabloclr rra produccd lromrp!clal ml¡lurc¡

ßam¡rlr

Utct ol ¡iûa

r "¡-rnch so.'r,sb.'¡¡¡"on ijT:#"iïijli:¡J::rxli'j' l#;i:"år::1ffi.i,,Sdndna¡t. Þaddlng. colour, No pyllla: rnt compo¡ltþn ¡t I c'mcnl¡ng lgônl; urcd r¡- dclcrmlnt wholh" hlgh'

lnclura. ¡nd ¡ppa¡r¡nca lrom llmr¡lona lo doromnr lontivoly ln ro¡d Gonltrucllon c¡lclum or dolomltlc llmc

.,. rmpor¡nl [lllj".li',i',1üÍ'":.:.,,*nAngul¡r torm ln concrata Any ¡ound ctrbonrla: lol sÞgllcrllon lo Mlnllob¡gontldarad lo glva batl] cho¡l or cl¡t undo¡lrtbla lollt)¡l lh¡n alnd and gr¡v'l Mlstll¡nrour u¡aa Soll llmlng: b¡lumtnou¡ p¡vlng: v¡rl¡bl! wlth usa

Fo¡d ¡tona, r¡llro¡d brll¡tl. Vrrld¡ tpaclt¡crliont pl¡tlar lnd llucco: lnrrcl¡cldcr;rlp rtp. roollno grtnuLr bla¡chot: p¡lnt3; |lnnlno

Source: 'Bannâtyne, 8., High Calcium Limestone Deposits of Manitoba;Mineral Resources Division, Publication 7S-1, l97S

SÞaclllc¡llonr

Ganarrlly hlgh-crlclumllm..low ln MgO. SIO¡¡nd S

V¡rlous rprcillcrllon¡

Hlgh.c¡lclum tlm.. 92.5fC¡O. lorr lh¡n 2.5* MgO.la¡! lhrn 3X comblnod SlOr.Fa¡Or ¡nd Al¡O¡; dolomlllcllmr urcd ln tomo rutphllaproco!r pl¡nlr

Hlgh-c¡lclum llm!; lorcrlclum c¡.bid!. l$¡th¡n 0.02* P

Pulvdlrrd qulckllma fromon.rlto kiln¡: CO¡ rcqulrcdln procorElng: lôlr lhrn1.5* S¡Or + lnrolublôt, ¡ndlols thrn l* M9CO! ln thcllmc!lda

Mslnly h¡9h{¡lclum llma

M¡lnly hlghr¡lclum llmc;dolomillc lima may bô ur.àln acid noutr¡li¡¡llon

H¡gh.crlclum llmc: ollhrrhydralad llmô or pulvcrlrcdqulcll¡ma

Crushed stone and sand and gravel are virtualìy"interchangeable in

the market, but al I three have thei lind j vi dual vi rtues that al I ow

operators from all three products to coexist and to produce for the same

mar"ket.7 Crushed stone, due to 'its sharp angìes, pr"ovìdes a betterbind'ing surface for road base or raiìway ballast than does round stone

or graveì.8 To gìve you some idea of the amounts of these pnoducts thatare required for constructìon projects, as much as 1,000,000 tonnes of

mineral aggregate may be required for the construction of 16 kilometers

of roadway.9

Miner al aggregate resources within the l^lìnnipeg negion have

hjstoricaììy been important and fa'irly extensive land users. In t975,

2,466 hectares of land were used as p'its and quarrìes.10 Between 1945

and 1975, the land area dìsrupted by p'its and quarrìes in the WÍnnipeg

reg'ion increased by 1,685 Ha - an over 200 percent increase (1 Ha = 2.5

acres ).11

By uti I i z i ng the cu rrent esti mate on the vol ume of crushed

limestone produced annualìy, we can v'isuaìly relate the amount of ìmpact

that ljmestone quarrying has on the'landscape. Assumìng 0.9 milliontonnes are produced at 2.7 tonnes/cubic meter of solid stone, there ane

0.3 million cubic meters of stone excavated each year. This may be

graphì cal ly vi sual'ized as excavatì ng approxi mate'ly ei ght

reguìation-sjzed football fields (incìuding end zones) annually, to a

depth of six meters. These figures do not include the huge volumes of

7 toi¿.

I P. Large, Sand and Graveì in Manitoba, M'ineral Resources Divisionof M'i nes,Educat'i on Seri es , No. 78/I (Wi nnì peg : Manì toba Depa rtment

i978), p. 3.

9 grit'ish Sand and Gravel Associat'ion,S.A.G.A. ), p. 6.

Gravel Pits and... ; (London:

10 N. Ward, Land Use Prognams in Canada:Man'itoba;1977), p. t24.

11 rni¿.

( Envi ronment Canada ,

PHOTO PAGE NO. 1

ïhe Crushed Limestone Industryimportant and fairìy extensivä

has historically been anland user.

overburden removed prior to quarrying, or the úolumes of unsu.itableìow-quaìity rock removed. These figures may still seem reìativeìyunimpressi ve, but consider that there are onìy a handful of crushedI imestone producers and that they al I quarry within a comparatì veìysmal I regi on .

2.L.2 Industry Location Factors

Limestone bedrock resources within the !.linnipeg region aregeographìcal ìy widespread. However, extract'ion is cìearìy limited byeconomìc, geo'logical, and social factors. All mineral aggregateproducts are buìky, heavy, and reìatively low-cost commodities, whichcan stand very little'increase in hauling distance from extraction siteto consumer without a pnohib'itive increase in the cost of the deliveredproduct. It has been estìmated that tnansport costs by truck areapp rox'imate'ly 30 to 40 percent of the pri ce of a ton of aggregateproduced in B'i rd's Hi r r and der i vered just ni neteen ki r ometers tow'innipeg.i2 Therefore, existìng sources of mineral aggregates areinvariably ìocated in crose prox'imity to their urban markets.

This transportation cost factor is especially ìmportant when weanaìyze the competìt'ive relat'ionship between the limestone pnoducers andthe sand and graveì producers. Aìthough the .industries are simiìar, andmany of thei r products can be di rectìy substituted for one another,production costs for sand and graveì are rower. Stockpiìe costs areapproximateìy 50 percent less for sand and graveì products than forthe'ir counterpart limestone aggregate products.13 To compete, thecrushed limestone producers must be located closer to thejr nnrket andtake advantage of the reduced costs of transport.

t2Theu.t'1.4-_9Tu?:._Sggeggtj---Bq.Jourcesof @(Manìtoba Department or ùrm

13 Personal communication wìth B. Baiìey and C. Jones, Mineral ResourcesDi v'is'ion personneì, May lgg\.

10

L'imestone,bedrock resources within the l,'linnipeg neg'ion would be

virtualìy ìnfinite, except for the restrictive costs of production- The

str.ippì ng rat'io of a surface m'inì ng operat'ion ref ers to the number of

units of unpayable materjal (i.e. topso'il, subso'il, and overburden) that

must be removed'in order to quarry one unit of payable material (i.e.limestone or dolomite bedrock).14 The current economical'ly viable

stripping ratio for crushed stone operations is approximately one to

two; that is,'if three metens of overburden must be striPPed, then there

must be six meters of bedrock suitable for crushed I imestone

available.l5 There are only a limited number of potent'ia'l locations

that possess such favorable stripping ratios.

Suitable sources of ljmestone bedrock are also determìned by the

qua'lity of stone which may be won from the site. Diffenent bedrock

geolog'ical units vary wìdeìy ìn their relative physicaì attributes, and

only certain ljmestone strata are suitable for applìcation as crushed

stone.

tllithout a ì arge and economi cal supply of mi neral aggregate 'consumer costs and taxes woul d ri se due to i ncreased constructi on

costs. For instance, the state of New York lost thirty m'illion dollars

per year due to ì ncreased bu'il di ng costs f rom the steril'ized mi neral

aggregate resources lost to urban development.l6 In light of this fact

and with the continued depletion of nearby sources of sand and gravel,

jt would seem 'logical that there should be a corresponding desire to

conserve and protect Sources of limestone aggregate and to p'lan for

their contjnued operation. However, steril'izatjon of valuable limestone

bedrock reserves cont'inues through the processes of urban sprawì, ruraì

14U.s.D.A.ForestServ.ice,UserGui@;(GeneralTechnìcal Report tNT-70, 1979), P

15 personal commun'ication with R. Glassford, Mìneraì Resources Divis'ionpersonneì, FebruarY t982.

16 O.L. Keyes, Land Development and the Natural Environment : Est'imatingImpacts (New York, L976), P.128.

PHOTO PAGE NO. 2

The tlinnipeg region is r-'ich in limestone bedrock resourcesthat are especiaìly_important due to favorable strippingratios and high qual íty 'ljmestone.

i1development, and mun'icipaì controls. 0ne must exam'ine all the issuesprior to formu'lating any valid conclusions.

2.2 The Aggregate Dilerma

Because of the di rect rel at'ionship between l'imestone aggregatesource and urban market, the cnushed l'imestone producers have had todeal with increas'ing conflicts and pressures. Limestone producers are

often in direct competition fon property with other land users, many ofwhich have equaì or greater short-term benefits accruing to them. For

exampìe, rural residential developments provìde a far greater short-termbenefit for a municjpality as they pay substantially h'igher property taxassessments. Current'ly, 'lìmestone quarry operations provide no dj rectfìnancial benefits for the municipaf ity in questÍon. t,^lith 'increasing

demands for al ì types of pri vate and pub'l 'i c devel opment , the prob'lems ofsecuring suitable future limestone deposìts within easy reach of themarket will not only continue, but w'iì ì likely worsen.

Economìc and technolog'ical ljmitat'ions imposed upon the industryrequi re both surface min'ing and quarry extract'ion techniques. Limestonequanry operations in close pnoxìmity to an expand'ing urban populationaccount for numerous soci al confl i cts. B'i I I Coates, a I andscape

consultant for the Aggregate Producers Association of Ontario, has

l'isted six majon nu'isance factors that have been brought forward inopposition to these surface m'ining operations. A'lthough these are

examp'les from southenn 0ntario, all are relevant to the situation withinthe t,Jinnipeg region:

1) increased truck traffic2) i ncreased noi se

3) i ncreased vi brat'ion

4) increased dust levels5) unsightly site appearance

6) ìncreased physical danger.17

17 l.J. Coates, "canpaper presented to1975) , p.2.

Surface M'inìng be Compatìb1e wìth Urbanization? (A

the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metal lurgy,

L2

I believe a seventh negat'ive socìal impact can be added (as a

consequence of all of the above):

7) lower property values on the periphery of the operations.

In short, we can see the dilemma with which the l'imestone aggregateindustry 'is faced. There is an overal'l publ ìc demand for thein goods,

whi ch i n tu rn causes soc'ial conf l'i cts. The very products that thecrushed limestone producer provìdes will be utilized in the highways,

homes, and industries that further aggravate the future growth of thecrushed l'imestone i ndustry.

Another contenti ous j ssue i nvol ved i s the consequence of theexcavations--the quarry 'itself. Exhausted quarries have been perceìvedas areas of expìoitation and dereliction. Abandoned limestone quarriespose a threat to pub'lic safety, become unauthorized dumping grounds, and

nema'in f or decades essenti al ly vo'id of any vegetati ve restorati on.

These unwanted'legacies of the crushed l'imestone industry are noton'ly a detriment for the municipality in question, but also for theex'isting and future crushed limestone operators. Limestone quarrying issupposed to be an 'interim land use, but left unrehabi l'itated, QUârriescan provide few jf any future land use poss'ibilities. Unused and

undesired, abandoned limestone quarries will remain as negative symbols

of an industry which is pr^esently suffering from reduced production and'increasìng govennment regulation.

The crushed limestone industry 'is currently suffering fnom a pubìic'image prob'lem. If preva'iling trends are an indication, the negativeìmage of limestone quarrying will become a serious one with which thei ndustry must cope. The producers argue that they are prov'i dì ng

essential products for which there is pub'lic demand. The publicmeanwhi ìe, has become more poì ìtical ìy aware, sophisticated, and

concerned than ever bef ore. Compound'i ng th'is , the pubì i c has a

contemporary interest in phys'ical ecology and envìronnental topics, and

is now ra'ising those'issues by or'ganizing citjzen groups and becoming

¿j.;.';*;p¡ffiï {lÉ3.-åÞ* -".#ti-€,=¡ËT-

.- -"Left unrehab'il j tated, abandoned

PHOTO PAGE NO. 3

quarries are slow toLittle Mountain Quarryrevegetate themselves. shown is

which ceased operations in 1906.

13

more 'involved ìn mun'icpaì zoning and planning matters. l,lith thegovernment cast as both arbitrator and guardian of the land'in quest'ion,

there 'is no doubt that conflicts will result 'in the increasedlegìslative sterilization of limestone resources, through the processes

of intens'ified monitoring and reguìation of the limestone aggregatep rodu ce r.

C'learìy, there is an economic justification fon the governnìent toconserve and protect both the exist'ing and future bedrock resources, and

prov'ide for the cont'inued operations of the crushed limestone industry.Equally as clear is the need to protect society from the negative socialand environmental ìmpacts that the industry can 'infljct.

?.2.L The Government Response

In Manitoba, the aggregate dilemma 'is beìng confronted by sevenal

dìfferent pieces of legislation and government agencies. These can be

summari zed as fol I ows:

1) Resource IdentificationThe Provincial Mineral Resources Division has initiated a

survey program to identify the ìocat'ions, quality, and overburden

thickness of potent'ial ljmestone bedrock quarrying with'in the Winnipeg

negion (specificalìy within the municipaìity of Rockwood). This sunvey

has been combi ned with demand projections for crushed limestone toprovide a basìs for evaìuatìng the need to protect specific reservesfrom future development. This information'is vital to provìncial and

muni ci pal pì anni ng offi ci al s for cons'i derati on i n the formati on ofmunìcipaì development plans and 'is of part'icular interest 'in theapprovaì of land subdivìsion proposals.

I4

2) Rehabiìitation Regulations Under the l,lines Act

The Quarryìng Minerals Reguìation (Manitoba Regu'lation 226/76)

passed pursuant to the Mj nes Act, t^tas enacted spec'if i cal'ly to deal with

surface mineral extnaction openations (except metal lìc m'inerals). The

major focus of the regulation is to establish controls to achieve safe

operat'ion and rehabilitation of p'its and quarrìes, and in doìng So,

pìaces most of the onus on pit and quarry operators to compìy with the

regulations. The object'i ves ane basì caì ìy: to mi njmi ze hazards topubìic safety, to protect the env'ironment, to optimize the productivityof the post mining landscape, and to util'ize efficientìy the availableresources.

Th i s regu'l at i on requ ì res eve ry

commercial quarry lease to submit

updated on a three-year basis:

owner of a commercial quarry or a

a "plan of rehab'ilitation" to be

Upon dep'letion of the quarry, or prior tosuspension of production for a period notexceedi ng twel ve months, the owner must"rehabilitate" the landscape in accordancewith the submitted Pìan.19'

Unless otherwise approved, rehabilitatìon under the negulat'ion must

cons'i st of :

a) the removal of vegetat'ive cover and overbunden in advance of

the working face at a min'imum distance of twice the height of

the working face;b) upon depìetion, the slop'ing of the quarry wa'lls no steeper than

45 degrees;

c) the distribution of overburden over the surface of the sìoped

quarry walls and the quarry floor;d) plant'ing of vegetation approprìate to the environment of the

commercìal quarry on the surfaces covered by overburden;

19 g .R. Bai 't ey ,

Mining Regions,72.

"A Guide to Comprehensive Rehabilitation Planning of Pit" Practicum Department of Landscape Architecture 1981 p.

15

the contouring of quarry walls standing below water level tom'i ni mi ze danger to the pubì i c;disposìng of al I debris, refuse, scrap on inflammable liquìdsjn an approved manner;

g) any other activities of a similar nature to any of thosedescribed in clauses (a) to (f).20

The rel ati ve effecti veness of thjs regu'l ation to date has beenquìte disappoint'ing, especial'ly fnom the point of view of limestonequarry operati ons compl iance. Few operators have submitted adequatesite pìans or proposaìs for prognessive or future rehabììitation, letalone shown any 'interest in actually performing the suggested technìquesof"rehab'ilitation.

3) Municipal Controls on ilining ActivityThe objectives of the Planning and Municipal Acts of Manitoba are

basica'lìy to allocate authority to the lo'cal area munìc'ipaì governmentsunder the gui dance of provi nci al po'li cy and gui del 'i nes . provi nci al Landuse Policy 13 states that "economical]y valuable aggnegate and quarrym'ineral deposits should be protected from surface land uses that wouldi nterfere with the'ir ongo'ing and future expl oitati on.', However, a

muni c'ipal counci I can sti I I ut'il i ze the powers granted to it under theP1 anni ng and Muni ci pa'l Acts to prohi bit the establ j shment of new

operations and to reguìate ex'isting quanries within the counci I ,sbounda ri es . The R.M. of Rosser, for exampl e, has a number ofpotentialìy va'luable aggregate deposits available within jts boundaries,but has acted against the establishment of quarries there. Due to a

limestone quarry's inherent social nuisance factors while providing veryI ittle tax return to the munic'ipaì ities in question, 'leg.islati

ve

steriljzation of m'ineral aggnegate reserves (through revoking quarryproposaìs or imposing strict industry controls wjth munìc'ipaì by-ìaws)is becoming increasingìy a serious issue folindustry and government

al i ke.

e)

f)

Being a Reguìation UnderCnown Minerals and the

20 Mqfrjtoba :Quarly Mineral s Regulation 226176,the Mines Act Governing the Disposfti-ñ--õiRehabilitation of Commercial Quarrìes, p. 593.

16

In summary, it is obvious that 'the provincial government throughìts negulating agency, the Mineral Resources Div'is'ion, does reajize theimportance of the conservation, management, and expìoìtation of mjneralaggregate deposits. However, it has been somewhat ineffective in theactual achievement of that goa'1. It is clear that munìcipaì and

prov'incial officjals have not been presented with enough informationfrom which to establish criteria suitable for the assessment of both

existing and proposed pit and quarry operatìons. Moreover, the seriesof overlappìng legìslatìon regard'ing the m'ineral aggregate ìndustrydoes not seem to satisfy either the needs of the ìndustry or publìcsent i ment .

2.2.2 Current Rehabilitation Practice

Manitoba Regulation 226/76 requires that the owner of a commercial

quarry submit a rehabilitation pìan which illustrates rehabilitation as

mìn'ing progresses and when the mining is completed. Although theregu'lation is well intended, I see a fundamental problem with it fromthe outset.

since quarry operat'ions may be actjve for upwards of forty years,the future land use of the site is almost neven known, and the quarryowner is often uncomm'itted towands the objectives of rehab'ilitat'ion.consequentìy, submitted rehabilitation plans are frequently vague andprov'ide I ittle information or inaccurate informatjon.

Rehabilitation is conducted on company time with company money,peopìe, and equ'ipment. Often the decì s'ions are "ad hoc', and result inon-site design with the operator d'inectìng a bulldozen during slacktimes. This practice may provìde for faster and cheaper dec'isions whichcan be carried out during slow periods. The operaton is also notrequ'ired to provide immediate desìgn costs to a consultant.

However, the results of such practi ce may

ill-conceived decisions wh'ich can produce more work and

ìong run. Furthermore, documentation of rehabj I itatjon

lead to hasty,probìems in the

techniques, both

T7

good and bad, wiì'l be non-existent or inaccurate. Consequentìy, current

rehabilitation pract'ices will continue to exist, and new and better

techniques wi'l'l not be found.

Rehabilitation that is conducted at the termination of a quarry

operat'ion'is like'ly onìy to meet the minimum ìega1 requirements. These

provì ncj al requì rements may be bol stered by strj cter muni ci pa1

requìsites, however, the R.M. of Rockwood has not yet elected to do so.

0ne of the prov'incial requirements calls for quarry walls not to

exceed a 1:1 or 45 degree slope. These slopes are often unsafe (they

are very steep to traverse), unuseable (except for a few uses such as

rock climbìng), and unstable. If these slopes are formed by backfilling

over the vert'ical quarry face, the result'ing slopes may be more unstable

than the existing quarry face. Furthermore, the character and qual'ity

of the exposed quarry face woul d be repl aced by a derel i ct and

unattractjve slope condìtion that is often no better than the cond'ition

it is aimed at'imProvìng.

If current rehabilitation techn'iques continue, quarry operations

wi I I rema'in obtrus'ive to the surround'ing ne'ighbourhood; the often

impromptu and 'ill-advised rehabilitation techniques will rema'in as

ev'idence of previ ous operat'i ons ; and the pubf ic image of the crushed

I imestone industry wì 1'l progressi vely worsen.

18

THE OPPORTUNITY

3.1 Potential Discovered

The potent'iaì benefits to be derived from Iimestone quarrying can

be 'immense. The limestone 'industry utilizes large earth-moving

mach'inery and techn'iques to create immense quarnies sunk deep into the

surround'ing topography. To prov'ide for such large-sca'le modification of

the prairie landscape would not norma'lly be possible were it not fon the

val ue of the rock extracted. Through creati ve uti I i zati on of these

quarrì es, and the huge vol umes of prevì ously stri pped overburden and

earth, vast land shapìng opportunities can be desìgned for future social

and economic benefit.

Crushed ljmestone operations are in close prox'imity to the source

of a permanent and expanding populat'ion'in Winnipeg. Consequentìy, the

number of potenti aì uses for rehabi I itated quarri es i s 'l arge and

progressi vely ìncreasing. Consideri ng the re'latively low cost of the

land in the quarry'ing region, there are untold possibilities fon land

speculation and development opportunìt'ies. l.lith the addition of

exist'ing technology, quarry operat'ions are now capabìe of excavat'ing

below the waten table, which can only add to the number of potentiaì

land uses and opportunìties that curnently exist.

This enormous potential may be wasted, unless sjte planni ng and

progress'ive rehabilitat'ion planning and management techn'iques are

i ncorporated i nto the m'i ni ng process. V'i rtual 'ly al I of the soci al

impacts caused by the quarry operation can be controlled or elimjnated

with the ìncorporation of proper site pìanning techn'iques. Operations

plann'ing can provìde for the efficient working of a s'ite, by ensuring

that soi 1 , overburden, stockpi'lì ng, and pr^ocessi ng I ocations, do not

interfene with future quarry operations. Comb'ined with progressive

rehabilitation p'lanning, reduced operationaì costs can be achieved by

eliminating the need to handle overburden none than once. This practice

also serves to reduce the amount of vertical quarry faces on the s'ite.

PHOTO PAGE NO. 4

The cumulative impact_caused by limestone quarry operationscan be substantial. Opportunities for future ìänd'uses maybe lost without comprehensive site management.

19

Th'is alone could lessen the ì'iability concerns of the operator "byimproving pubì'ic safety. Progressive rehabilitation also reduces theneed for ìarge cap'itaì outlay at the terminatìon of quarry operations as

rehabjlitation is almost comp'lete and the land is in more saleablecond'ition.

Planning, eng'ineering, and design consultants for the crushedlimestone producers may provìde further benefits for the industry. The

volumes of reports, drawings, and details that document how the client'smoney is to be spent allow for easy examination of the processes we pìan

to incorporate. This written knowìedge may al so encourage new,

improved, safer, and poss'ibìy cost-saving technìques to be used.

3.2 The Project l,lanagement Planning Process

Project Management is a service that may be utilized to provide forthe continued pìanning, design, and management of a quarry operationf rom 'its inception to the real ization of a future land use. L'imestonequanries and theì n operations are obviousìy subject to constant and

radi cal changes over tjme. Si r Geoffrey Jel l'i coe once descri bed a

limestone quarry as a gigantìc p'iece of serendipic scu'lpture, always ìnmovement:

The rol e of the 'l andscape des i gner i sprimarily to recognize that such a sense ofsculpture reaì'ly exists, and thereafter to

å::-ff.'T.0.'phiìosopherandfrjendin.its

FIGURE 2 provìdes an example of a pnoject Management planning

Process as app'lìed to a limestone quarry operatìon. The projectmanagement approach is not a linear process and neither is the givenexample precise for all crushed ìimestone quarry appì'ications. However,

by providing an exampìe of an entire pìannìng process, ìt serves as a

basis for the descript'ion of the individual components.

21 si r Geof f rey Jel-lì c-oe, H.opg- wqrks , Derbysh'i re : A progress Report onq Landscape Pl an 1943 - 1993 (Kent : l.le.

ftcu¡a ¡

THE PROIECT MANACEMENT PLANNINC PROCESS

rt^sfss^{¡Mf^cTot

TÚÚ' T}{

o^l^ N^t Ys6 MNACTA¡¡NT

coF ¡r¡d Corr

5fIT DEVTIOPÀ4INIFr^}.ôrl.'[

ol

Fn¡l f¡¡|d l,r!a Octcmæd

MttÀ¡tN¡^ItoN POSInOICT M^N^CI^4INT

Poll

20

Sìmpìified to'its basic components, the project management plannìngprocess is not much dj fferent than a typ'i cal techni cal approach todes ì gn sol ut'ions .

Typical Design Solution Model

1. Def i nit'ion of the i ssues and problems, preì'imì nary goaì

formulation, and 'identi fication of the data requi red.2. Data Inventory

3. Data Ana'lysis.....Opportunities and Constraints.4. Desi gn Synthesis.....Prel'imìnary Design

5. 0n-going Interplay and Re-evaluat'ion

6. F'inal Design

It has been recogn'ized that throughout the ììfespan of a limestoneoperation, quarry technology may 'improve, future land use decision rn¿ìy

al ter nadi ca1 ly, or unforseen soci al or envi ronmental impacts may

occur. The project management process is flexib'le enough to incorporatesuch changes and apply them towards the formulation of new development

and rehabi I i tat i on goal s .

Quarry operations may remain actìve for forty or rþre years, 'in

wh'ich t'ime the actors may have changed several times. Indeed, severa'l

di f ferent m'ine operators or several di f ferent 'landscape or engi neering

consultants may be involved throughout the lifespan of a quarry.

Existing quarry operat'ions are also in varying stages ofdevel opment, in which case some of the components of the projectmanagement scheme would not be requ'ired. The po'int of this discuss'ion

i s that, aì though the prì nc'ipaì actors and components rnay change, thå

concept of project management can sti I I be app'l i ed to achi eve the goa'l

of rehabilitation to a future land use.

Part 2

The Project Management

ProcessPlanning

2T

PREPLANNINC

4.1 Purpose

Careful plann'ing should aìways be the initial step il any techn'icalprobiem solving process. The prep'lanning phase of the proposed projectmanagement process invoj ves the foì lowing:

1) Issue or Problem Definit'ion (Preì iminary Goaì Identifìcation)involves a statement of what services you have been hired toprovi de.

2) Data Inventory - 'invol ves the i dent j f i cati on and coì I ect'ion of'inf ormation requi red.

3) Data Anaìysis - 'involves the systematic review and analysis ofthe i nformat'ion to determi ne the assets, f i abi I ities, and

dominant characteristics of the study area.1

4.2 Issue or Problem Definition (Preìimìnary Goaì Identification)

In lìght of the potentiaì opportunitìes which have been presented,

and the government requi rements st'ipulated in Manitoba Regulation

226/76, the following planned objectìves should be basìc to any crushed

I i mestone quarry operatì on :

1) to provide for the efficient working and excavation of the

avai lable limestone bedrock.

2) to pnovi de f or the mìni mum d j sturbance to the ne'ighbourhood

throughout the operat'ing I i fe of the quarry.

3) to provide for the regular evolution of the quarry throughout'its lifetime towards a beneficial after-use.

4.3 Data Inventory

The data inventory stage requ'ires the gathering ofthat may influence pìanning and development decisionsproject. In short, the data 'i nventory provì des

all informationconcerni ng the

the background

( Nat i ona'l Sand1 ç. Schel'lie, Sand and Gravel: A Transit'ional Land Use,and Gravel Asso@

22

information pertaìning to the site, the operat'ions which are to takep'lace upon it, and the soc j al context 'into whi ch these operati ons wi I I

have to fit.

The informatjon pertain'ing to the sjte and envj ronment can be

recorded 'in a series of drawings wh'ich identify the location and typesof features to be considered. (The Mineral Resources Di visionrecommends a working scaìe of f inch to 200 feet for larger quarries.)

A suggested list of information which may be requ'ired is providedi n TABLT 4. FIGURE 3 prov'i des an example of a base map for a

hypothet'icaì crushed l'imestone quarry operation. sEcTI0N 13.3 willprovide the reader with knowledge of the "typ'icaì" quarry operation.

4.4 Data Analysis

There are two aspects to the data anaìys'is stage. One focus must

involve the human purpose for the s'ite (i.e. crushed limestonequarry'ing), whi le the other focus must analyze the site as an ongo'ing

system. One must then determ'ine how the quarry operation will affectboth the ex'ist'ing site condit'ions and the future changes or dynami c

nature of the site:

Site and objectives cannot be stud'iedi ndependently but on'ly i n rel ati on toeach other - the pu rposes 'indi cati ngwhat aspects of the s'ite are rel evant,the sjte analysi s i nfl uenci ng thegoa'ls that are possi b'le on desì rab'ìe,and tle budget defining what can bedone. ¿

Three'important components of the site anaìysis stage involve sitedevelopment considerat'ions, the formulation of opportunities and

constraints, and the generation of the site deveìopment program.

EXAMPLIS OF PLANN I NG

The Site

Surface Data

Locat i on

Boundary survey

Easements and ri ght-of-way

Acrea ge

Access

Surface draì nage

tx'i sti ng wooded areas

Vi ews i nt o the s'i te

The Environment

Ex'ist'ing 'land uses

Proposed land uses

Municipa'l servic'ing of s'iteLegì s I at'i ve cont rol s

- Provi nc'ial

- Muni c'ipa'l

Cl'imatic data (i.e. prevaìling winds)

Sources: Schel ì i e, K.

TABLE 4

DAÏA REQUIRED FOR THE DATA INVENTORY

Ottawa: 1972, p. 4.A Guide to Site Develo

Sub-Surface Data

Depth of topsoiì, subsoil, overburden

Topsoi I and subsoi I characteri st'ics

Quality of bedrock

Depth to groundwater

The Operation

Method of extractionRate of extractiontxcavat'ing pattenn

Processi ng pl ant & stockpi 'le

requi rements

Offi ce requi rements

Addit'ional s'ite requi rements

(i.e. concrete or asphalt batch

pì ant requ'i rements )

nt and Rehabi I i tati on of Pi ts

Sand and Gravel: A Transitional Land Use (Silver Springs:.

"Social Eco'logy of Surface M'inìng" Paper submittedto the Canadian Institute of Min'ing and Metallurgy,

Coates, W.

Bauer, A.epa r nes ,

.|'li,---r-i

.r'll

I'li:l,ll,iir'll,'iljli;iiil,

Kìine-poorly drained, deveìoped onthin, fine textured, moderately cal_careous ìacustrine depos.its-ovärlyingst0ny extrerneìy caìcareous ìoamy

-

gìacìaì and water{odified tiìl-depos ì ts .

LeeendSpot Elevations

. 824.64.3

o 2oo

¡'Ln_¡A¡nount of Overburden(in feet)

,¡liiijl[I,,,,flr[ijll

lJ rljr

PLAN

Qole_¡¡¡¡e¡t ß""-llt

FIGURE 3 QUARRY SITE ANALYSIS PLAN

23

4.4.1 Site Development Considerations

In order to 'identì fy some of the potenti a'l conf I i cts a proposed

operation may have upon its surrounding ne'ighbourhood, one must become

familiar with typìcaì social impacts attributed to limestone quarryoperations. SECTI0N 14.1 provides some usefuì backgnound informatjon inthis regard. Basic s'ite design criteria can then be deveìoped and

ìncorporated jnto the site deveìopment pìan to control or el'im'inate thenegative operat'ional effects of any quarry operation.

4.4.? Opportunities and Constraints

Every site offers jts own unìque potent'iai and lim'itations fordevelopment. Through anaìysis of the data collected in the inventorystage, a number of specifìc development opportunit'ies and constnaintsmay be identified. Thjs information will be critical'in the formulationof the site development and operations p'lans, wh'ile also havingìmplications on the future land use opportunit'ies for the sjte.txamples of poss'ib'le opportunit'ies and constraints are pnovided in TABLE

R

4.4.3 Program Development

The development of a detailed program 'is required prion to thedesign of the initial site development plan. The program may furnish a

quantitat'ive schedule of requ'ined berming and stockpiìe aneas, activ'itysett jngs to be provìded, theì r 'l'inkages, and the resources to be devoted

to them. An example of an activìty setting may include the necessaryprocessìng p'lant and stockpiìe requi rements of a proposed quarryoperat'ion.

The prognam will be prepared with the client, reviewed by him, and

modìfied as the project management program proceeds. TABLE 6 provides

exampìes of program information that may be developed.

TABLE 5

OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS t,JHICH MAY AFFECT SITE DEVELOPMENT

0pportuniti es Constrai nts

Existing trees on the perifery of the site Residential anea on the west side ofmay be utilized for scneenìng purposes. the operation.

Large buffer area to the north of the site Depth to waten table.(i . e. may not requ'i re berm'i ng a ì ong s ì teboundary). Depth to poor quaì ity rock (i .e. Gunn

member ) .

Neìghbouring ìimestone quarry on east side Lack of fill (overburden and wasteof operat'ion (no need to berm between the rock) to provide rehabil'itation ofadjoìnìng properties). May quarry straight entire site.through to proper ty limits.

Type of equipment available in theoperation (i.e. no caterpillartractor).

TABLE 6

EXAMPLES OF PROGRAM INFORMATION

1) Berm'ing and Stockpi ì e Requ'i rements

This may include a) estimates of volumes of sojl and overburden on thesite.

b) approximate ìengths, heìghts, and volumes, ofmaterial requined for berming.

2) Activity Setting Space Al locationsThìs may include a) a written account of exactly what activity ìs to

take p'lace withi n them.

b) adequate size and shape r.equirements.3) Lìnkages Between Acti vity Settings

Th'is may include a) access to and from activìty settìngs.4) Estimated Costs Involved

Ïhìs may include a) est'imates of site clearing and stockpil'ing.b) estimates of berms or fencing.c) est'imates for seeding and maintenance of berms.

24

Al l of the si te analysì s data wi l l be conti nuaì ly si f ted, ,,

organized, and developed'into a concise form that must be able to acceptnew infonmatjon. The site anaìysis stage wil I become an evolutionaryprocess upon wh'ich a contìnuìng desìgn process can be based.

OPERATIONS PLANNINC

5.1 Purpose

Openati ons pl ann'ing 'is def i ned here as bei ng the process ofdetermining the inìtial development of the site and the continuedphasing of the extracti ve operati on with'in the s'ite. consequentìy, theoperations pìann'ing stage is also separated into two dist.inct butrelated components--the preììminary sjte development, and excavationpl anni ng.

5.1.1 Preliminary Site Deveìopment Planning

The prel'iminary site development plan will provìde a rayout ordesign for the organized phys'ica'l alterat'ion of the land to accommodate

the particular operational act'ivities and features required.3 Aìthoughsubject to vary'ing degrees of modi f i cat'ion as the extracti on conti nues ,the initial plan should at least provìde a guìde to the operator for:

l) the efficient p'lacement of faciljties and materials (inc'lud'ingtopsoiì, subsoil, and overburden).

2) the mi nimi zati on of off-site ìmpacts attri buted to theoperati ons.

3) the ìmprovement of the appearance of the site both dur.'ing and

after operati ons.

sjnce the preìiminary site development pìan should prov'ide theoperator with the information requìred to "open up" his quarry site, theplan may include the jnformatjon listed in TABLE 7. FIGURE 4 providesan example of a site development plan.

25

3 See Sche'lì'ie, p. L22; Lynch, p. 4; A. Bauer, A Guide to the S.iteDgvilopmen!,gld Rehabilitation of Pits and Quarries@of.Mines,i970),P.2;andS.t'4.@dtheLandscap(TheBritish Quarry'ing and Slag Federation Ltdm

TABLE 7

PRTLIMINARY SITE DEVTLOP¡4ENT PLAN REQUiRED INFORMATION

Site Boundarì es

- All site boundaries and easements or rìght-of-ways (i.e. the 33 metergovernment road al I owance on muni ci paì roads ).

- Required government setbacks for p.its and quarries.

Site tlements (inc'luding locations for: )

- Access into the site.- Quarry office and truck scale.- Empìoyee and truck parking.

- Processing and stockpif ing areas.

- Any other site facilitìes nequired init.ialìy.batch pìant (asphaìt or concnete)exp'losi ves bui ì di ng

equìpment storageequìpment service buiìding

- Indicate ex'isting screening (masses of vegetation).- Indicate nequined screening. berms

security fencì ng

- Indicate the jn'itial area to be quarried.- Indjcate any requ'ired drajnage d'iversions.

Sources: Schel'lie, K. lang and Gl"avgl Opelations: A Transitional Land Use (Siìver1¿4.

Bauer, A. A_çllide to site Deveìopment and Reha ion of pits and. s.

Haywood, s.M. *ttes and the Landscape. (croydon: British Quarrying and9.

QUARRY SITE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

26

A well conceived and well-executed quarry site deveìopment will heìp toestablish a posjtive intent and do much to dispel fears that performance

wi I I not match prorn'i se.4

5.1.2 Excavation Planning

Excavatìon pìanning can be defined as the process which determines

the phasìng of the actua'l quarry operation as it proceeds throughout the

sìte. The ìnjtiation of an excavation p'lanning process may provide a

gu'ide to the operator for:1) the effective exp'lo'itation of the bedrock within the site.2) the efficient use of the operations manpower and mach'inery.

In some cases, an effìcient and rational plan of extnaction may not

be suffìcient. Quarry operat'ions which were once considered acceptable

frây, in the course of a few years, become offensive to surrounding'landuses. In an effort to minim'ize pubìic oppos'it'ion, extraction pìans

should be adopted with both ex'isting and future surrounding ìand uses inmind. The progression of the quarny operat'ions should then be arranged

to move the extract'ion areas away from sensit'ive land uses as qu'ick1y asÊposs'l Þ I e..r

The excavati on sequence shoul d thenefore be ì nfl uenced and

determìned by:

1) the pre'liminary site development plan.

2) tne amount and type of aggnegate required (specificat'ions of

the aggregate requ'ired). See SECTI0N 13.2

3) effici ent quarry operational procedures.

4) exist'ing and future surrounding land uses.

4 Haywood , p. 42.

5 ¡a. Coates, "Operatìons and Rehab'ilitation Plannìng" (A paper presentedto the Aggregate Producers Association of 0ntario, Toronto,1974), p.3.

FUTURE LAND USE SELECTION

6.1 Purpose

The ongoing evaluation of future land use opportunities js requiredto guide both the determination of the long-term development goaìs and

the short-term progress'i ve rehabi I itation objecti ves of the site.lrlithout thj s di recti on, the progressi ve extractj on and rehabj I i tat'i on ofthe site may create unsuitable or unusable areas of land which may

destroy future land use opportunities.

The determination of the future land use of a site should be basedfrom the outset on geotechni ca1 and nesource economic consi derati ons

(ie. trade-offs--would the land be worth more by not quarr-ying the lastten percent of the sìte?). Ideal'ly, the future land use of the sìteshould be selected prior to the extraction pìanning stage of theprogram. The extract'ion / progressive rehabjlitation program could thenbe directed specificalìy towards the goal of developing the land for theseìected purpose. This is rareìy possì bìe however, as the rel atj ve

length of the quarry operation often preciudes the select'ion of a

definite post-m'ining land use. Throughout the I ifespan of an operationthere is the possìb'iìity of considerable change'in quarry technoìogy,the reg'iona'l setting, and soci ety's demands and needs.

6.2 The Selection Process

There are three basic determinants wh'ich influence criteria todevelop future land use potentials for a quarny sjte. They are:

1) location and need determinants

2) landform determinants

3) scope and cost of ìmprovements determ'inants

TABLE I prov'ides a guide to many of the aspects of a quarry siteoperation, whjch should be anaìyzed to determìne future landpotent'iaì.

27

and

use

i. Location and Need Determinants

TABLE 8

LAND USE STLECTION DETERMINANTS

trL.l

,A

Phys i ca I

Cul tural

2. Landform Determinants

Sources:Schel I i e,

Coates, W.

Bauer, A.

Sand and Gravéi Affi'Operatìons and Rehabi I itation-pl anni ñg ' , â paperpresented to Rehabilitation Seminar, Toronto, Ig74

proximity of the s'ite to an urban areaproximity of the site to transportationproximity of site to utilitiesproxim'ity to other_sites-of competing or suppìementary usespossibie expandibil ity of sÍte

surrounding land uses (conflicts)zoning regulations and future land use po]icy (munìcipa] )

3. Sgope and Cost of Improvements Determinants

- amounts of material available for backfill (i.e. overburden andwaste rock)

size of sitesite characterprescence of safety hazardsslope (aspect and gradients)soil qual ityground water tabledrai nage

engìneering and ecology feasibil itycost and type of regradingcosts of revegetationsi te faci'l i ty and uti I Í ty costsdegree of coranitment.or permanence of the 'land use (i.e. pastureland requires a low dens'ity of commitment, while ruÈalresidential requires a high degree of conanitment).

K., Sand and Gravel: A Transitional Land Use; National

Guide to S'ite Develo t and Rehabilitation of pitarrles; Ontar o Llepartment

nerals Report 33, 1970, pg. 24r nes stri a

28

There'is no specific formula to determine a definitive future land

use. However, tht'ough analysìs of the j nter-rel at'ionshì ps between theland use selection determinants, several highìy-feasible specific futureuses may be identified.

The I ocat'i on and need determi nants may actual 1y restri ct thefeasi b'i I ity of certai n land uses. For exampìe, jf there are severalexistjng golf courses in the immediate area, and there js no spec'ifìedneed or demand for any additional faciljtjes, another goìf course would

have a'low priority for development'in the foreseeable futune.

The landform determinants will basicaììy affect the chanacter and

form of the development. Certain quarry characteristics wilì suggestpossib'ilities for specìfic types of after-use actjvities while severelyreducing the possibìl'ity of others. For example, if the quarry site isscheduled to remain a dry operation (i.e. above the water tabìe), thereis no need to consider water-based activit'ies (unt'il such a time as thequarry operator dec'ides to excavate below the water tab'le). See SECTIQN

l5 for a discussion on the typicaì post-mining quarry form.

Meanwhi 1 e, the scope and cost determi nants may I i mj t thefeasi bi ì ity and/or qual ity of the futune land uses. For examp'le,

limited amounts of material suitable for backfi'l 1 ing and shaping may

severeìy limit the future land use potentials for the site. The realland use opportunities are based upon how the quarry features and landshaping materials (overburden and waste rock) are utilized.

Not unlike the nest of the project management program, the process

of future land use selection must be f'lexibìe, evolutionary, and one

that permìts re-evaluatjon at any stage.

PROCRESSIVE REHABILITATION PLANNINC

7.1 Purpose

Progressive or p'lanned rehabilitation is rehabilitatjon that isconducted concurrentìy with the quarry extraction operation. The

Provjncial M'ines Act and its regulatjons do not specificaìly requireprogressive rehab'ilitation during operations. However, there arecertain incentives for the quarry openator to undertake such a program.Because excavation and progressive rehabilitation objectives arepre-determined, the possible benefits to the quarry operator are many:

i) Equipment and manpower may be utilized more effectively.2) Safety hazards may decrease.

3) Misplacements of overburden and waste materiaìs may be reduced.4) 0verburden may onìy have to be handled once.5) Available fill material (overburden and waste rock) can be

utilized more effective'ly.6)- Þluch of the nehabj I itat'ion wi I r be comp'leted before the

operat'ion is compìeted (no large cash outìays must be made to"fix up" the site and the land'is a more saleable condition.

7) The amount of useable land may be increased.8) if the future land use is previousry determi ned, the quarry

operation can be dìrected to improve the character or nature ofthe specified after-use.

The progressìve nehabilitation program and its techniques will be

determined by the following:

Determi nants Effects1. the characteristics of the

quarry operation (the ex-tracti on pl an )

2. the quarry rehabilitationgoal s

29

- determine the phasing and tìmingof the progress'ive rehab'il i -tat i on

- hel p to 'identi fy requ'irements orobjectives of the progressive

rehabi I itat'ion program.

303. the quanry landform

determi nants

4. the operat'ions equi pment

- help to identifyand techniques ofrehab'i I i tat'i on .

the feasìb'iìitypnognessi ve

when combined, anaìyzed, and co-ordinated, these factors wììl helpto determine the most efficient method to develop the maximum potentiaìof the s'ite.

7.2 Rehabiìitation Goals and Objectives

Rehabjl itation goals are determined by future land uses selectedfor the site. Goal statements define the long-range aims of thepnogressive rehabilitation program within the context of the site andoperationaì features. The desi red rehabi I itated condition can bedescri bed i n terms of three broad 'l ong-range quaì i tati ve goal s orcategorì es. They are as fol I ows:

Establ i shment of envi ronments whi ch do noti ntensi ve i nputs (i .e. h.igh ma.intenance

maintain an ecologica'l'ly stable landscape (jvegetation which wjll re-establjsh itseìf).

2) Establishment of soils and landscapes amenable to agricu'lturalproduction on a sustained basìs.

3) construction of landscapes suitable for and committed to suchuses as housing, industry, or commerce.6

Frequently, the future land use selectjon process wi'l'l not provideus w'ith a wel I -def i ned futu re I and use when we are formul ati ngrehabi I itati on goal s:

r) require continued

requi rements ) to.e. no erosion and

6 National Research council, surfqce Min.ing: soil, coal, and society(National Academy Press, igBl),

31In the absence of a well-defined land usedec'is'ion, the establ j shment of anecologìcal ly stabìe, desÍrabìe, andproduct'i ve sel f-sustaining community leavesthe _widest range of options fon futureuse. /

These broad 'long-range rehabil itation goals are often notdefinite enough to provide gu'idance for the short-range object.ives ofthe progressive rehabil'itation of the site. Consequentìy, performanceobjecti ves must be formulated to di rect the rehabi ì itation earthwork(ìnclud'ing backfilling and grading) and revegetat.ion of the site.

Performance objecti ves can

legal , functionaì, on aesthet.icboth the progressive earthwork and

be descri bed i n terms of the.irpurposes, and must be determjned forrevegetation programs for the site.

1) Legaì performance objectives are those that are stipulated by

the Provincial Mines Act and ìts regulat'ions. For reasonspreviously stated, operators may wish to rehabilitate theirs'ites far beyond the extent of the legaì requirements.

2) Functional performance objectivesdisposition of overburden and soilsjte preparation and revegetationand ecolog'ically stab'le s'ites.

basical'ly provide for thecombined with a program ofto establish safe, usabìe,

3) Aesthetic performance objectives can determine the character andqual ity of the rehabi I itated site. creatj ve ut.i I i zation ofquarry features (ie. quarry faces) overburden, and innovativep'lant'ing techniques may provide opportunit'ies fon addjt.ional andpotentially dramatic future land uses for quarry s.ites.

TABLES 9 and 10 provide a list of exampìes of performance objectives forearthworks and nevegetat'ion programs.

i tui¿.

Table 9

EXAMPLES OF PERFORT\{ANCE OBJECTTVES FOR EARTHWORKS

FUNCTIONAL

Quarry Fìoors

Quarry Faces

tive / Requirements or Comments

0bjective - to meet the legal requirements of theManitoba Mines Act and its regulations.

Requirements - upon depletion of site,the slopingof all quarry walls to 45 or 1:l

iNObjective - to cover bare sterile bedrock with a

frjable rooting medium or enough materialto accomodate buried services such assevrers and waterl ines.

Requirements - l.e. 30 to 60 cm. of soiì is requiredfor grass,while a minimum of 1.3 metersof solì is required for large trees.

0bjective - to provide relatively flat open areas toaccoflodate a maxjnum amount of potentialafter-use.

Requirements - l.e, an l8 hole regulatJon golf courserequires a minimum of 150 acres ofreìatively fìat land.- a par 3, 18 hole golf course requires

from 40 to 60 acres.- a golf drivlng range may require l0 to

15 acres.

objectlye - Due to the bowì effect of quarries,sultable land must be provided for efther' tsnporary or permanent water drainagebasins.

Corment - l.-e. approximateìy 2.4 hectares (6 acres)of the quarry floor in the StandardQuarry operation ís either temporarily orpennanent'ly covered by surface draìnedtrater.

objective - to :.nprove safety aspects of the site byneducing dangers within the quarry.

Requirements - the rernoval of vegetative cover andoverburden from the top of quarryfaces to provide advance warning ofpossibie dangers.

objective - to provide access to the quarry floor,

Requirements - i.e. a lOÍ or 1O:l slope is themaximum gradlent for most public.road andstreet designs.- an 8% or 12,5:l slope is the maxim:m

gradlent for wheelchairs, bikes, andwa l kways.

I . .ì- tJ i Il .¡.¡- r.¿¡....l

i¿i'xro&

0bjective - to provide sìopes for different land uses.

Requirements - Ski slopes may requìre slopes from5 - 257,.- Toboggan runs may require sìopes ranging

fron 5 - 15%.

0bjective - to provide sìopes which are physicallvstable (i.e. erosion and slope- failuróare minimized).

Requirements - i.e. physically stable slopes aredetermined by factors incìudìng sìopegradient,sìope length,and tne Èype ôf fillmaterial the stope,is composed òf.Generalìyhowever,a 33% slope ìs considered to bestable under most conditions.

Objective - to provide for suitabìe maintenance ofslopes.

Requirenents-- i.e. a 331 slope is the maximum gradientfor tractor mowing of grassed areasl- a 501 sìope is the maxinnlm qradlent for

planted slopes (ground covei,shrubs).

objective - to provide grades t,hich neet the surround_. ing landfonn as snoothly ônd naturally as

possi bl e.

CoÍments - Slopes should not break abruptly fromexisting conditions,but rather,ihould formgentle transltional slopes bet\reen exist-ing and post-mining conditions.

objective - to provide for variatJons ln sìope condit-lons,ranging from shallow to steàp.tovertical rock faces.

Corments - Hany sections of the verfical face mayremain stable Hithout rehabititatlon -

techniques required,These conditions maybe dramatic,novel,and aesthetic featurei,within any future land use for the site.

0bjective - to provide creatJve features within thequarry site.

Coflnents - Limestone bedrock may be terraced toprovide creative features in quarry rockfaces.- creative use of water drainage areas may

provide for opportunities to-utilizewater features within the quarry site.

- Coates, l{. E., and Scott, O. R., A Study of plt' and Quarry Rehabititation in Soutfiõlñ-T¡¡iFìõIes,

I979, pg. 4- Assorted readings and personal observations.

APPLICATIONS OF SLOPE

loa3!lrecruation

GOOD

AESTHFTIC

SOURCES

/ Requirements or Comments

objective - to meet the 'ìegal requireflents of theManitoba Mines Act and its Reguìations.

Requirements - upon depìetion of site,the pìantinq ofvegetation appropriate to the ànvironñentof the comerc.iaì quarry on the surfacescovered by overburden.

objective - to establish a vegetative cover thatprov.ides erosJon and weed protection.

RequirsÍents - i.e, dense rhizomatous sod buildinoplants such as Kentucky Bluegrass,poa'pratqÍlsìs.crowd out most weed speèì6 anaprovìde complete coverage of thè soilsurface.- deeply rooted plants,such as Crestedl{heatgrass,4qropyron cr.istatum serve assot I stabl I izers on steep slopes.

obJective - to establish a vegetative.cover that wiilenhance the physical properties of the soil

Requirements--,i_.e. legumìnous cover crops,such asAlfalfa,Hedicago satJva have tÁe ability tofix atnolffiìË ñ:iTi-oçn ana trãnsiorm-itinto a soluble form fór plant growth.- deep and abundantly rooted plants,such asCreeping Red Fescue,Festuca rubra háve theability to improve sõìTFruEtffi andaeration of the soil.

abi¡ity to persist and reproduce.

objective - to provide a vegetative cover which is. native or adapted to the site so that theplant materiaì is able to persìst and

neproduce.

Requirernents - i.e. trees,such as galsam poplar,pooulusbal,sani fena, have been found voì i¡nteéFììõ--and reproducing.thefiselves in depletedlimestone quarrtes.- shrubs,such as A¡m¡r Maple,Acer ginnala

are subject to lime lnduceil-chìôiõffi;which nould severely restrict their

objective - to provide a vegetative cover which can beutilized for wildlife habitat and forage.

Requirsnents - i.e. thicket forming shrubs,such asSilverberry,Elaeaqnus coÍmutata Drovidesui tabt e habitaTfõFmãïl-llõei of bi rds.- perennial grasses,such as Timothy,phleum

prqtgnse offer exceìlent forage foF?Fand I ivestock.

objective - to Cover bare earth and rock to reduce thevisuaì contrast between the quarry siteand the surrounding landscape.

Coments - i.e. the region in which thà majority oflimestone quarrying is done is iypicälly anagrarian mediun-sized mixed farn-type oienvironnent.There are also many exr-'itingaspen-bur oak woodlots in the area.Anyatternpt to vìsually blend the quarryenviroñnent into the surrounding landscapeshould take these features into account.

Table 10

EXAMPLES OF PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES FOR REVECETATION

Type of

FUNCTIONAL

AESTTETTC

32

7.3 The Progressive Extraction-Rehabilitation Plan

This p'lan is the basis for any rehabjlitation activities ortechnìques that may be conducted concurrent w'ith the quarryìngoperat'ion. It may be formulated subsequent to the determination of theoperations pìan and the rehabilitation goaìs and objectives for thequarny s'ite. The progressive extraction-rehabilitat'ion pìan may then be

utilized as an ìntegral part of the crushed limestone quarryingp rocedu re.

The plan may be designed to provìde for concurrent strippìng ofoverburden in advance of extraction. The overburden and waste rockgenerated from quarry'ing can then be utilìzed to backfill quarry facesor to cover quarry floors prognessiveìy. In th'is wây, safety hazards

may be minim'ized, circulation wjll be improved, site features (i.e.quanry walls, s'lopes, and floor) will conform to the proposed after-usefor the site, and the post-m'in'ing utilization of the s'ite will be

realized much sooner than could be real'ized otherwise.S see FIGURE s.

Unl ess the futu re land use of the sì te 'is known , and rehabi I i tat'iongoals and objectives are firmly established, the progressiveextraction-rehabilitation plan need not be overly detailed or specific.A very genera'l p'lan that provi des the quarry manager with an i nd'icati on

of desired effects or conditìons is much more valid at this stage of theopenati on. Exampl es of i nf ormati on that may be i ncl uded are prov'i ded 'in

FIGURE 6.

8 Schellie, p. 163.

\- sloping of walls no steeper than 4à degrees\

fence top aild bottom of q¡rarry face

Examples of Qu arry Face Treatments

l"l

Fi¡:+

t:i;jL-,'

ti

wz- v"v1 -9,,l:w

Property Line

Scale

ffice

Ìlilrrirtl¡¡¡;'1¡'

OPERATION SCHEDULE

l. Strìp Topsoil and Subsoil.2. Progressively strip 0verburden

and construct berms.

3. Progressively quarry Quarryone and into Quarry Two.

4. As more overburden is strippeduse it to cover and shape thethe previously quarried area.

5, Grade Topsoil over recontouredareas.

6. Seed Perennial Cover Crop.

7. I'laintain Cover Crop as required.

Berming

.J

1

1

i

Tõ vérñ mìn r R-óãd Á ¡Iö'ì/r,a nce

o too ¡oorLrì-_J

,11,ilrit'tiir',,rrlillìrillillill

PLAN

Quarry

o4Ooonn_t-lSECTIONS

BermMown Gragg

-6 Security Fenco

SECTION B (Typical)

SECTION C (Typical)

6 Secur¡ty FencoProp€rty Llne

tf-utn¡rut

Quarry

FICURE 6 PROCRESSIVE EXTRACTION-REHABILITATION PLAN

MANACEMENT AND POST MININC SITE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 Purpose

The pu r^pose of th'is sect'ion i s to provi de an outl i ne of themanagement and post min'i ng site devel opment phases of the projectmanagement program. Management refers to the ongo'i ng control or

di rection that quarry operators may receive from various spec'ialists.Their serv'ices may range from s'imple annual reassessments of the quarry

operat'ion to the formulation of compnehensive management programs. Such

extensi ve programs can provì de the qua rry manager wi th progressi ve

evaluations of the site opportunities and constraints.

Post mining site development refers to the plannìng, designing,'impìementìng, and maintain'ing of the future land use determined for the

site. At the minimum, rehabilitation must achìeve the legaìrequi rements of the Mines Act and its reguìatjons. Further sitedevelopment may provide for future land use opportun'itìes, such as

unìque housing or recreation faciljties.

8.2 ldanagement

Consjdering the Iength and nature of crushed I'imestone quarrying,

ongoìng project management is a critjcal (aìthough often neg'lected)practice. Any management program should emphasize the need forlandscape ma'intenance. Regu'lar painting of structures, repai r offences, weeding and mowìng of berms, and maintenance of tnees and shrubsjs requìred to preserve a positive public image.

It is necessary that the quarny manager is adv'ised and assjsted by

the varìous special'ists routinely if the requirements of the progressìve

extraction-rehabi I itation pìan are to result 'in practicaì r'eal ity on theground.9

33

9 ¡. Thomas and P.London: Institute of

Gawn, The Practi se of S'ite Treatmentqua rry

(1978; rpt,

34The very nature of the progressìve extract'ion-rehabilitation planjs one that requires constant re-evaluation and amendment. The M.ineral

Resources Dìvision has recognized this need for revision by requi rìngthat quarry operators submit a current rehabilitation plan every threeyears f or reassessment . consequenily, the project management pì ann.i ngprocess must i ncl ude 'i nterval s of reapprai sal to accommodate changesover time resulting from refinement of the data base, sh.ifts in goaìpriority, and correctjon of jnaccuracies:

Managi ng the desì gn process meansmaìntaining the flow of information,coordinatìng the work of all the actors,kgepl !g the desi gn open to al I who urévital'ly concerned, choosi ng the best des.ignstrategy; and encou ragi ng a cycì i c retu into the _orjgìnaì problem withóut aìlow.ingthe cyc'l .ing to become a cl osed trap f romwhich necommendatìons never emerge.10

8.3 Post Mining Site Developnent pìanning

The post mining site development phase js actuaìly initiated fromthe outset and incorporates al I of the p'lanning phases prev.iousìydescribed. 0nce the future land use for the site has been positivelydetermined, the detaiìed desìgn of the site deveìopment pìan may begin.This pìan shouìd therefore represent the culm.ination of therehabiljtation and design effort.

Prior to the final design, a program, budget, and des.ign andconstruction schedule should be deve'loped similar to that required forthe pre'limìnary quarry sìte development plan. 0nce established, a

schematic s'ite design may be prepaned withjn the framework of the sìte,the amounts of fi I I avai I abl e for I and-for"mi ng, the operati onalcharacteristics, and the proposed budget. The schematic site des.igninvolves the transfer of accumulated data and development goals .into

design terms.11 See FIGURE 7.

Lynch, p. 264.

Schellie, p. I24.

10

11

Limestone Colf and Country Club

POST MININC SITE DEVELOPMENT PLAN

o 100 400'nr-L_J--'

,¡''jr'ii" ¡'

tr;ttlllllllljlt,

FICURE 7

35

The schematic post minìng site development pìan shou'ld graphìcallyì I I ustrate such aspects as:

1 ) the overal'l ground form (contours ) , ì ncì udi ng water and

underwater level s where requì red and proposed' surface waterdra i nage.

2) structu res, uti ì ì ty 'l ocati ons, acti vi ty 'locati ons, ci rcul at j on

patterns ìnc'luding new positions and levels for roads,footpaths, and water courses (including landscape treatment ofthese el ements ).

3) location, quantities, and types of p'lant materials requi red forrehabilitation.

4) the treatment of the qua¡"ry fl oor, embankments, and cl i fffaces.12 The schematic s'ite development pran may then providefor a rough estimate of the cost of the proposed site design.

8.4 .Implementation

As soon as the schematic site development pìan and'its rough budgethave been approved, the ìmplementation phase of the project management

program can begin. This phase may involve developing the schematjcdesign p'lan jn its technical dimensions and details (i.e. workingdnawings), pìann'ing and scheduì'ing the construction act'ivites, andproject supervisìon of the work on s'ite. Depend'ing upon the scope and

budget of the rehabi I jtat'i on work, several contracti ng fi rms may be

involved in the project at the same time.

Working draw'ings are the technical drawings that enable the sitedevelopment plan to be constructed as desìgned. workìng drawings forquarry rehabilitation nonmally should jnclude the following:

1) The Gradi ng P'lan shows the f i nal gnound e'levati ons and contou rsof the site for the purposes of: making the site more su'itablefor its intended land use; ensuring adequate surface draìnage(to avoi d erosi on ) ; accommodati ng structures, foot paths,noads, and uti l'it j es.

12 Lynch , p. 256.

36

The Layout Plan includes the location of ail bu'ildìngs, roads,hard surface areas, utilities, and the rocation and nature ofdetai I s.

The Planting Plan includes the location of trees, shrubs,p'lant i ng beds , and areas to be seeded, sodded, or requ'i ri ng

specìa1 treatment. Plant types, quantities, and sizes shouldbe indicated on this pìan.

The Detajl Drawings are required to explain the construction ofmany of the site details, inc'lud.ing paving, wa'lìs, signs,outdoon furniture, and any other special pìantìng or designdetai I s.13

If the rehabi I ìtation scheme is large and deta.i led enough torequire the services of several contracting firms, working draw'ings wiììbe accompanied by bìd procedures, the general and specìa1 condjtions ofwork, and the techni cai speci fi cati ons for the constructi on to be

accomplished.i4

Planning and scheduìing of the separate construct'ion activities and

on-s'ite supervision by the project manager wiìì ensure a more effìcientand successful development of the rehabilitat'ion and constructìonproject. Constructi on superv'is'ion may be necessary, not on]y to ensurecompliance by the contractors, but also to make detailed adjustments as

unexpected prob'lems or opportunìties arise.15

8.5 Post Project l,tanagement

The purpose of post pnoject management is to ensure that thecomp'leted site development achjeves the designed ìntentions on matu¡ityin the most economical manner possibìe. Considening the large cap'itaìoutìay ìn the design and construction phases of the project management

prOcess, costs of a rnai ntenance program shoul d become a requi sjteexpense within the entire project.

13, schellie, p.. r24i -tynch,.

p. zs6; and Landscape and sjte Deveìjre&-(0ttawa: Department of Publ'ic Works Canadaffi14 Lynch, p. 2b6.

15 Ibid, p. 257.

2)

3)

4)

37

Post project management may requ'i re the foì I ow.ing :

1) the formulation of a pnoject management or maintenanceschedu I e.

2) periodic site inspectìons to ensure that guarantees are hononedand replacement of pìant material is sat.isfactor.y.

3) the provìs'ion of dinections or suggestions for the ìmprovement

of the ongoing project management program.

CONCLUSION

Modern society requires an economical supply of mineral aggregateproducts produced by the crushed limestone industry. However, that same

soci ety wi i'l no 'l onger tol erate the det ri mental soci al and env j ronmentalìmpacts that the quarrying of lìmestone can cause. consequently, thecontjnued development and expansìon of the crushed l'imestone ìndustrywithin southern Manitoba offers a unique dilemma for the quarry manager,municipal official, and aì'l others concerned. see FIGURE g.

To date, most quarry operators have refused to recognize the needto impnove thei r poor publ'ic 'image. The consequence of th.is lack offoresight will sunely'induce'increased monitoring and r.eguìation ofquarry operations by municipaìities and government agencies. It is theauthor 's content'i on that i f the crushed I ì mestone producers were toattempt to improve thei r pub'l ic image, the advantage of such actjonwould provide future benefits for all concerned.

The Project Management Planning Program d'iscussed here is presentedas a guì de to site devel opment and the rehabi I itati on of crushedlimestone quanries. The intent of such a program ìs to provìde possibìeresolutions to many of the jssues and problems inherent ìn the crushedlimestone ìndustry. upon implementation, this p'lann.ing process mightalso provide several benefits, which are summarized as follows:

Benefits for the Quarry Manager

An ovenalì pìannìng program provides a more functionaì, effìc.ient,and better-looking quarry operation.The site development plan takes better advantage of the naturalexisting screening opportunities afforded by the site.It provides the quarry openatìon with a more effic'ient strippìngand stockp'i ì 'ing pl an.

It provides an incentive for progressive nehab'il'itat.ion to takepì ace concu rrent w'ith extracti on operati ons.

38

1)

2)

3)

4)

NEGATIVE PUBLIC IMAGE

INDUSTRY REOUIREMENTS

Public Demands

an economlcal supplyof crushed limestoneaggregate pnoducts

Future land use opportunities

Envinonmental Issues

Environmental damage- ground water- productivity- erosion

Industry Demands

a suitable quarryìocation ln closeproximlty to theufban maÌ'ket

FIGURE '8

THE CRUSHED LIMESTONE INDUSTRY DILEMI,IA

Hi nera lResources

Land UseOpportuni ti es

Future land use

- requirements

Rehabil itationReguìation 226/76

- requirements of otheProvincial agenciesi .e. l,later resourcesBranch

Future

the ProvincialMines Act and

opportunities which mayotherwise not have been

Other Provincial Agency Demands

possible were it not forcrushed I imestone quarries

MunicipalDemands

- Requirements of the HaterResources Branch and the

I Clean Environment Commission

- Upgrading andmaintenance ofquarry haul roads.

- probable futureadditional tax ìeviesand requirements forsite development andrehabi Iitatlon.

THE OPPORTUNITY

GOVERNMENT REQUIREMENTS

39

5) l,lith an overall development pìan, the thnee year rehabil'itat'ionplan subm'issìons are much easier to produce, they are more

accurate, and recommendat'ions from government agencies and prìvateconsultants can be more useful to the quarry manager.

6) It may provi de for reduced rehabi l'itat'ion costs at the termi nati on

of the operation, wh'ile immediately providing the manager with mone

sal eabl e land.

7) Future submissions by limestone quarny operatons would be mone

readily weìcomed by the municipality in question.

Benef j ts f or the Mun'i ci pal i ty

1) Frustrations in attemptìng to monitor or reguìate quanry

operations ane neduced.

2) The rehabi I itated quarries can provìde sources of new land use

opportunities, and possibly new sources of revenue.

Benefits to the Government Agencies

1) The job of monitoring and enforcement of Provjncjal Acts, 0rders,and Regulatìons would be much ìmproved.

2) Rehabil itat'ion plans submitted by the quarny operators would be

more accunate and useful for reapprajsal purposes.

Benefits for Society

1) Socì ety w'i 'l ì sti I I recei ve the mi neral aggregate products that are

requ'ired, but from a more attractive, efficient operation.2) There i s the possì bi 'l i ty of remodeì ì i ng the 'landscape j nto

ìarge-scale landforms of real future and economic benefit.

As has been out'l i ned, there are several exi stì ng and futurebenefits to be derived for all parties involved from the cont'inued and

properly planned development and expans'ion of the crushed limestone'industry in southern Manitoba:

40...0n'ly by acceptance on behal f of al Iparti es of the need for such a totalcommi tment by the i ndust r^y and socì ety ,will the 'large'ly unnecessary ills of thepast fade jn the memory, to be repìaced byan image of an ìndustry mak'ing a positi vecontri but'i on to soci ety's requi rements andthe con!lnui ng evol utj on of the'landscape.16

16 Thomas and Gawn , p. 7.

Part 3

Background and lêchnical lnformation

THE RESOURCE, IT,S CLASSIFICATION AND EXTRACTION

10.1 Purpose

4T

The punpose of this section is to provide the readen wìthbackground i nf or^mati on on the geoì ogi c or"ì gi ns of the I i mestonein southern Manitoba, the classification of crushed limestoneand the typi ca'l crushed I ì mestone quarry operat.ion.

10.2 The Resource

10.2.1 Formation of Limestone Bedrock

essential

res ou rceproducts,

The important limestone bedrock deposits we are exploìtìng .in

southern Manitoba are those that belong to the 0rdovic'ian and Siluriansystems which occured during the Palaeozojc era some 320 to 440 m.illionyears ago.i Through an anaìys'is of the marine life that was depos.ited,we know that between 0rdovician and Silurian times the Interlake areawas part of a ìarge, generally shallow and warm, marine deposjtionalbasin. A series of carbonate-based sediments were la'id down during thisperì od dì rect'ly over the pre-ex'i stì ng precambr-i an bedrock. Thesecarbonate based sediments consisted of calcaneous shales andargiìlaceous (limestone conta'ining impurities that represent a largeproportion of the rock) and crystall'ine ììmestones, many of which wenesubsequently doìomitized to varyìng degrees.2

cal ci um and magnes i um (the mai n components of I ì mestone and

dolomite) were released when the pne-existing rock was weathered overvast periods of time. The calcium and magnesìum salts were carried insolution and diffused throughout the great sea wh'ich once engulfed theInterlake area. These djssolved ljme sajts u/ere subsequently removed

from the shallow water by two agencies; organ'ic actìv'ity and chemjcalprocesses.3

i ¿.r. Davj es et ôl . , Geoì ogy and Mj neral Resources of Man.itoba(Manìtoba Department of Min

l. I . MacLan.en, . Mi,neral Aggregate Study of the Souttrern Interl ake Regi on(l,Jìnnipeg, Nunit

: M.F. Goudge, canadian L'imestones for Buììding purposes (canadaDepartment of Mine

42The organ'i c act'i vì ty was created by the i ncred j bl e numbers of ti ny

carbonate-shelled cneatures that had the abi l'ity to extract lime saltsfrom the water. Upon death, these mìnute shells fell to the sea floorin great deposits augmented by'larger shelled creatures and also thematerial extracted from sea water by the corals.4

chemical prec'ipitation was the other agency which removed thedissolved salts from solution. This occured when the water was unabìeto hold the ljme salts in solutjon due to causes such as changes.inwater temperature or compos'itjon. The I ime salts crystaì I ized out asextremeìy small crysta'ls and sank to the ocean floor.5

The accumulation of these sheììs, corals, and crystaìs formed a

loose mass of solids and ooze. This mass was subsequentìy consol.idatedinto limestone by a number of factors whìch may have acted singìy or incombination. The prìmary limestone-forming agency was probab.ly thegrowth of cementing crystaìs of calcite or dolomite throughout themass.6 tnis cementation was caused by the weight of eìther the materialitself or the beds of other material depos'ited on top. The tremendouspressure due to earth movements also pìayed an important role in theconsol i dat'ion of these I i mestone depos.its .

L0.2.2 Surficial Geology

The surfi cial or quaternary geoì ogy of the Rockwood area hasdeveloped as a relative'ly recent event in terms of the geoìogical timescal e. several separate Ice Ages combi ned to rework the bedrockformations la'id millions of years ago. However, we are only veryknowledgeabìe of the most recent of the great Ice Ages; the !.lisconsìn

4 Ibid., p. 5.

5 Ibjd., p. b.

: M.F. . Goudge, Limestones of Canada; Thei r 0ccurrence andCharacteri stj cs (CanV,p,F

43Glaciation, whjich occuned approximateìy zz,ooo years ago.7 The

t^jisconsin Glaciation, and the subsequent pro-Glacial Lake Agassiz, arethe mai n contri butors to the exì stì ng su r f i c'ial geo'logy, as they servedto destroy much of the evidence of the pnevious lce Ages.

As the Kewat j n and Patri c'ian Ice Sheets (l,Ji sconsi n Gl aci at.ion )retreated northward, the broken nock material held withjn them was

deposjted as outwash pìains and mora'ines. Material was dropped on theland or.in shallow water, formìng a ìayer of unsorted drift or boulders,sand, sjlt, and c1ay.8

As the j ce sheets bl ocked the nonthward dra.i nage fl ow, and theheight of the surrounding land blocked other dnainage outlets, the vastPno-Glac'ial Lake Agassiz formed over vi rtuaì 1y al I of southernMan'itoba. The Rockwood anea was overlaid by lacustrine clays which weredeposited at the bottom of the Agassiz Basin. During the waning stagesof the gìaciaì lake, shallow water over the Interlake region caused-waveacti on whi ch i n turn reworked some of the prevì ousìy depos.itedsediments.9 As a resuìt, the depth to the carbonate bedrock varìesw'idely in the Rockwood area, rang'ing from depths of one meter to .in

excess of sjxty meters.10

10.3 Classification and Use of Limestone

Limestones depart more or I ess wi dely from thei r theoret.i calcompos'it'ion of caìcite, which is pure limestone (ca'lcite = calciumcarbonate = CaC03). The majority of the limestone bedrock utjlizedwithjn Manitoba varies between its theoretica'lìy pure form (cac03) and

7 The u.l'1.4. Group, Aggregate Resources of the t^li nni peg Regi on(Wi nni peg: Manitoba Oepa

8 Dav'ies, p. 151.

9 u.N.R. Group, p. 33.

10 .t^1. Micha]yna, l{:. Gardìner, and G. podolsky, soils of the w.innìpeg

Reg'ion Study Area (t,Jinnipeg: Municìpaì plann.ing -Brffi

44that of dol omi te (Mgc03 ) . Dol omi te and I i mestone areare often found in adjacent beds or intermixed with one

so sìmi ìar, theyanother.

Hi gh qual ity I imestone (or dol omite) bedrock is pure white. Thewide range in colors 'in the bedrock (coìors may range from gneys, togoìds, to rust) is due to weathering and impurìt.ies. As impurìtiesincrease in these rocks, they become more c'layey, shaley, or sandy.1lSee IABLE ll for some of the physicaì characteristics of limestone anddol omi te.

In order that excavated limestone meet the many specìficationsdemanded, the aggregate must be processed. crushed I imestone isclassified and sold on the basis of particre size and quaììty of stone.The particle size of crushed stone is determined using a recognìzedsystem of screens or sieves to separate the material into differentsizes. The size of the holes in each sieve is commonìy expressed interms of inches or millimeters ('i.e. 3/4, sieve or l9 mm. sieve), or interms of a mesh (i.e. a 200 mesh screen has 200 equaì-sized holes w.ithinevery square inch; equaì to a 75 mjcrometer sieve).12 Speci fìcationsfor d'ifferent products require that crushed limestone conform to certa.inuniform sizes and proportionate mixtures of sizes. For exampìe, theProvince of Man'itoba Highways Department requires that crushed limestonefor use i n h'i ghway base cou rses , must contai n the fol I owi ng m.i xtu re ofsizes:

11 E.- c. E.!.-l ,. cements, Limes, and plastens (New york: John wi'rey andSons Inc., 1922), p-3---

!? I.. Large, Sgnd and Gravel in Man'itoba Manitoba Mjneral ResourcesDivision Educa gzgj, p. l, and Keepìng pacewith tbe 80's. (Downsview, Ontario: ng!iegate'Þrbauc..õñtã¡io, 1øÐ p. 84.

Mani toba Grad i eci fi cati ons 1345

100% of40-707. of10-30% of5-50% of

the materjal passing

the material passing

the material passing

the material passìng

through a l" screen

through a No.4 scneen

through a No.40 screen

through a N0.200 screen

The nominal s'ize referred to is the smallest screenwhich 100% of the materiar may pass (i.e. in the previous2.5 cm) would be the nominal size of the product).14

size through

case, 1 " or

The quality of the stone may also be utiìized'in the classificationof crushed l'imestone because impurities reduce the engi neerì ngproperties of the stone. Many specifications limit the permissibleamounts of deleterious substances 'in aggregates. TABLE rz lists thevarious l'imestone bedrock strata that are quarried in the Rockwoodregion and rates their suitability for use as construction aggregate.suìtabìlìty depends on phys'ical proper.ties pìus the capab.iìity of therock to withstand stresses pìaced upon it when it is used as aconstruct'ion material. currenily, the majorìty of quarries areexploitìng the Gunton Member of the stony Mountain Formation.

The relative qua'lìty of the bedrock strata can be tested throughspecific tests outlined by the American standards Association (A.s.A.),the canadian standards Association (c.s.A.) or the American RaìlwayEngineening Association (A.R.E.A. ). If the product,s use is notcritical, varying grades or quaìities of crushed stone may be mixed(termed "benefication") so that the relatìve lifespan of a quarry,squality rock reserve can be lengthened.l5

13 Manitoba Highways Grading Specificatjons.14 Keeping pace with the gO's, p.

15 Personal communi cati on withpersonnel, May , I9gZ.

83.

C. Jones, Mineral Resources Div.ision

TABLE

PHYSICAL CHARACTERTSTICS OF

11

LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE

56%

44%

700%

48%30%22%

t00%

Sources: Eckei , John l¡li I ey and Sons I nc . ITZZ.Messervey, limestone and Dolomíte in Nova Scotia; Nova Scotia Dept.of Public Works and Mjnes, HaììTax, 1927, pg. 9

Compact Limestone(sol id rock)

tons/yd3 kglm3

1.9-2.7 2550-2800

lqglce: McGregor, The Drilling of Rock; CR Books, London, 1976, pç,. lg7

Cal ci te(Pure Limestone)

Dol omi te(Pure Doi om'ite )

L'imestoneDol omi teGran'ite

Materi al

Li meCarbon dioxideCalcium carbonate

Carbon dioxideLimeMagnes i a

Dol omi te

Cements, Limes and Plasters;

Ca0coz

CaC03

C0cCa0'Mgo

yd3/ton m3/tg. x 1o0o

.48-.52 .36-.39

lbs./ft.3165770r67

% of wear5.05.54.3

hard ne s s14. 1

74.918 .3

t¡leight of Materjal

toughnes s

I9

11

l¡,t. 1 yd. = 27 cubic ft.Cement (PortlandDolomite (crushed fine)Dolomite (broken lump)Gravel - (dry loose)Gravel (dry packed)Gravel (wet packed)Ljmestone (run of crusher)Limestone (fines out)Limestone (I I/2" oy 2" grade)Limestone (above 2" grade)Sand (dry loose)Sand (wet packed)

25382s65256529703 051324025652700229521.6025653240

Sqqce : Ni chol s , Moving the Earth; North Casile Books, Greenwich 1976, pgs. 3_6

Formati on

Interlake Group

Stonewal I

Stony Mountajn

TABLE 12

SUITABILITY OF BEDROCK FOR AGGREGATE PRODUCTTON

Member or Unit

Red River

Wi I I iams

Gu nton

Peni tentì aryGunn

Fort Garry (upper)

Fort Garry (lower)

Sel ki rkCat Head

Dog Head

lnJi nni peg

Rock Type

Sources: Maclaren,

Bannatyne

dol omi te

dol omi tedol omi tedol omi tecalcareous shale-thinI imestone interbeds

dolomite and limestone

Potential Aggregate_-=_Qal ity _

J.' Mineral Aggregate stuäy of the southern Interla'ke Region, vol.B.' High calcium Limestone Deposits of Manitoba; Mineraì Resources

dol omi tedol omi ti c

dol omi teI imestone

dol omi ti c

kool ni ti cquartzose

Hi gh

Hi gh

Low

tli gh

Medi um

Low

Medium High

Medi um

LowI imestone

to dolomitic

I imestone

shal e andsandstone

U ses

crushed stone

crushed stone

crushed stone, high-calcium I imestone

crushed stone

Tyndal Stone

crushed stone, rubbl e,rì p rap

I , hli nni pêg

Divi sion,1980, pg. 7

Wj nni peg 1975, p9. 19

4610.4 Crushed Stone Quarry 0perations

To contribute effectivery to the sorution of the ,,aggregatedilemma", and to gain acceptance by the mining industry, the reader mustbe knowledgeabìe and fluent in quarry operations and development, and.inthe procession of mined shapes upon the land.16 It is the purpose ofthis section to introduce and discuss the openations involved inquarrying for the limestone which is suitable for crushìng for buììdingaggregate.

To relate the steps invor ved in a crushed r ìmestone operationadequateìy, I wiìì utilize the example of a typìcaì existing quarry.Although crushed rimestone operatìons naturaììy wiìr vary depending uponthe site, the scare of the operation, and the type of equipment'invol ved, there are several basic steps whi ch are common and oftennecessany pract'ise. I am utiì.izing the standard Quarry operation, whichis probabìy the largest of alì quarries w.ithin the winnipeg region, andas such, contains alì the essential eìements of the existing quarrìes.In all probabil'ity, th'is exampìe w.ill be similar to any futureoperat i ons .

Standard Li mestone Qua rrì es .is a

I ocated fi ve k'i I ometers northeast ofin 1961 and currentìy produces 400,000Jea r. 17

ïhe 'initial steps jnvol ved withare basj c and essentiaì ly uni versal

'large, ìong-establ ished operationStonewaì.l. The quarry was opened

tonnes of limestone aggregate per

every mineral aggregate operation'in application. See TABLE 13.

i6 Creatinq Land for Tomorrow, Arnelìcan .society of Landscape Architectsinr h.'ù. rnc. (A.s.L.A.j', îöiäj;"Ë: ä:"

11 ,. MacKay, "Envìronmentar contror^!eport,u (l,lìnnÌpeg, 1 97g), Man.itobaClean Environment Comm.ission, File 1g7a, -p.'3.'"'

Stri ppi ng

DriI I 'ing

Bl as ti ng

Possi blySecondary81 astì ng

Muck'ingLoad Blasted Aggregate

Hauling

Gri zz1 y

Crushing (Primary)Jaw Crusher

Stone 4"to * 8"

if required

recyc I ed 'ifnot

Screeni ngStockpi I e

Stone 1/2" to I I/2"

Crusher fi nes

Crushfng (Secondary)Cone Crusher

0versi ze Scneeni ngStockpì'ì e

Stone I/2" to 1 I/2"

Haul to ConstructionSi te

TABLE 13

Cì eari ng

Material s - |

:::::il:1_---i

0versizeand

Ru bbl e

0vers'i zeand

Ru bbl e

i-I

FLOt,l DiAGRAM OF A CRUSHED LIMESTONE QUARRY OPERATION

47These are as fol I ows:

1 ) cl eari ng i nvol ves the removal and di sposal of any and al Ivegetation or structures that are located wìthin the lim.its of theproposed excavation. Typìcaììy, the terrain is cleared by a front-endloader or bulldozer to remove existing stands of oak and aspen, sheìterbelt plantìngs, or native pasture. Grubbing .is the term app'liedspeci fì caì 1y to the removal of tree stumps and trash I itter. Thecleared material is either hauled away, burned, or more commonly buriedi n the subsequent formati on of earth berms on the peri phery of thes'ite.

2) Stripping involves the removal of the overburden and/or topsoi'loverìying the bedrock of the proposed excavat'ion site. The topsoilìayer is generaìly the bioìogicaì ìy productive zone containing the p'lantnutrients and organìc material necessary for vegetative growth.0verbunden may be def ined as that portìon of earth material over'ly.ingthe bedrock up to, but not incìuding, the topsoil. Typìcally,overburden is stripped from the excavation site and util ized ìn theformation of earthen berms on the periphery of the property.

In very few areas w'ill the bedrock ever be accessible prior toclearing and stripping. Locatjons of outcnops of limestone bedrock werethe sites of the earliest quarrying activ'ities (.i.e. stonewaì'1, stonyMountain), and despite the proxim'ity of the bedrock to the gnoundsurface, some clearìng and strippjng were required.

In princip'le, topso'il should be stripped separate'ly from theoverbunden. Howeven, the typica'l situation in Rockwood is that bothtopsoil and overburden are stripped together, as much of the overburden(g'lacial drift) ìs vìrtuaìly as fertile as the topsoiìs above them.19

19 Personal communication withChief Mining Engineer, February

R. Glassford, Mineraì Resources Di visjon1982.

4B

Further, topsoiì may be so poor as to be pnactìcally'indistinguishabìefrom the immediate overburden below. Current stripping procedure atstandard Quarri es is that both overburden and topsoi I are stri pped by

the firm's front-end loader.20

The removal of the overburden from a sjte involves a large expenseprior to the actual operatìon. In the case of a ìarge operat.ion, aì1 ofthe overburden could be removed prior to bedrock excavation. Sjnce mostquarries expand very sìowìy, the usual case is for stripp.ing and

extraction to be canried out throughout the life of the quarry. The

strìpping costs w'ill be affected by the type and amount of materialremoved, the distance the material is hauled, and the efficìency of theoperation.2l At Standard Quarry, the overburden var.ies from 1.5 to 2

meters. Occasional'ly, between layers ìn the bedrock strata, softer morefriable shale and sandstone deposits may be encountered, which must alsobe removed and stored or stockpiled.

|.lithi n Rockwood, there are three typi caì methods for removì ng

ovenburden from the site. These are:

A) Front-end Loader

- usually a five metre bucket loader which is util'ized in the quarryoperati on.

- usuaì ly strip atB) Caterpillar Tractor

- usual'ly rented on

- usual ìy uti I i zed

for one yean.

slack times or at the beginnìng of the season.

a contract basis.to strip the entire site or enough land to quarry

20 Ibi d.

Ni chol s, pp.2T i0-11.

49C) Bel ìy Dump Scraper ('larger operations )

- usuaììy rented on a contract basjs.- usuaììy removes all overburden and dumps it to create benms on the

periphery of the s.ite.- excel lent for strìpping the topsoì ì ìayer. Al so enables the

separation of the topsoi'l from the overburden.ZZ

If there are mone than 1.5 meters of overburden, then the operatorwi I I usua'l ìy contract a beì ìy dump scraper.23 This is due to therelative'ineffìciency of a front-end loader to handle this type of work.

Provi nci al regul ati ons

advance of the working faceface. Typì caì ìy, we findeconomically advantageous toequipment is avaj lable.24

requ i re that overbu rden be st rì pped j nat least twice the height of the quarryeven in smaller operatìons that it jsstrip much ìarger areas of overburden when

3) Excavatìon: The basic processes involvedare very simjlar and are utjlized widelydrilling, bìasting, and mucking.25

i n excavati on of I i mestone

i n Manitoba. They are

A) D ri ì 'l i ng : The process of qua rryi ng nequ i res that stone beremoved from its parent bedrock. By dr-ìììing bedrock usìng pneumaticdrills, an expìosive charge can be raìd to break the stone from thebedrock strata. pneumatic rock dr.ills are also called percussive, asthe bedrock is fragmented by repetìtive impaction.26 The commonìyutilized rock drill is called an',air track', which consists of acompressed air drill mounted on a small crawler or tracked unit.

Personal communication with R. Grassford, February 19g2.

23 Ioi¿.

24 Ba'iley, p. zo.

1u y. .P.. Kryn'ine and l.l. R. Judd, princi p'l es of Enqi neerinq GeorGeotechnics (New york: McGraw-Hill ;Lxcavation Methods (New

22

26 Mccregor, p. 41.

York: McGraw-H'il and U,M.A. Groufl

50steel drill rods with spec'ialìy shaped tips or bits are forced Tnto

the rock to form a seri es of verti car hor es aì ong a strai ght r i neparaì1eì to the quarry face. The diameter, spacìng, amount of expìosivecharge, and the height of the bench or working face, are factor sinfìuencing the output of excavated rock from the quarry face.zTTypicaìly, the quarry operators drill approximateìy 6.35 cm holes, with2-2.6 meter spacings between holes, and a six meter bench heigh¿.2g

B ) Bl ast'i ng : Qua.ry bì asti ng i s the most effi ci ent method ofshattering rock ìn its bed, and it is conducted to produce sizes ofstone capable of being picked up by a front-end loader. Generaììy, thematerial blown w'iil be consistent jn structure, for, as a seam runs out,another port'ion of the quarry may have to be opened up.

Typica'lìy, a ìine of hores is fired pararìer to the face and.if thespac'ing is correct, the holes mutually interact with each other to forma new flat face.29 In a wel'l engineered blast, the majority of therock will be broken less by expìosive force than it will be afterwardsby slumping under the pull of gr"avity.30 Depending upon the operationand the relative success of the blast, there are either one or twoblasting stages. primary blasting is the process previously exp.lained.This 'is conducted using an ammon'ium nitrate (ferti ì ìzer) and fuel oilmix' The amount of expìosjve charge varjes greatly between operatìons,but most quarrìes primary blast twjce a day.31 Secondary blasting maybe necessary if the pieces of rock are too big for the front-end loaderor crusher. Black powder is used in secondary bìasting.

27 Krynine and Judd, p. 310.

28 Pensonal communication with R. Gìassford, Mineral Resources Divisionpersonneì , Februany rgBZ; and Vari ous "Envi rónmentar contror Reports,,(l,tinnipeg: Clean Environmónt Commission, igZó).29 McGregor, p. 200.

30 ruichols, p. 9-3g.

31 Vari ous "Envi ronmental Control Reports : (l,li nni peg: Cl ean Envi ronmentComm'ission, I97g).

51Limestone operators bas'icaìly wor^k one ìong face. t.lh.ile mucking up

one bl ast, they are dri I ì i ng and setti ng expl osi ves on another portì onof the face. In theory, if the operators are work i ng ef f i c.i enily, thenew portion of the face will be ready to blast immediateìy after muckingthe preceedìng blast.32

C) Mucking: Mucking is the process of removing the blasted stonefrom the quarry floor. crushed limestone operations typica.lìy use afront-end loader with a five meten bucket for this operat.ion.33Depending upon the scare of the operatìon, the roader js used to dig andload the "muck", and sometimes even to haul the stone to the portab.leprocessing unit.

4) Processing Pìants: The majority of crushed stone operations ut.ilizea portabìe processing pìant to process the rock into the variousspecificatìons required. Aìthough every operation may own a diffenentunit, the basic steps are armost universar in appìication.

A) Grizzly: The grizzly is generaììy a primary screen with faìrìyc.arse openìngs that may serve up to three basic purposes:

a) It serves as a dump point for blasted rock.b) It reduces the load to the primary crusher in that material too

ì arge for the crusher is rejected and materi al not requi rì ngprimar"y crushing may be bypassed to the secondary unit.

c) It controls the feed-rate into the primary crusher to preventjamming and yet provìde for optimum efficiency of the crusher.

B) Primary Crusher: Rock crushers reduce rocks to smaller and moreuniform sizes. Primary crushers are usualìy jaw crushers which workrun-of-pit and produce a coarse product of from 1.3 to z cn.34

32 Personal commun.icati onpersonneì, February I9gZ.

33 tui¿.

34 Personal communicationFebruary l9BZ.

with R. Glassfond, Mineral Resources Division

with R. Glassford, Mineral Resounces Division,

52A jaw crusher consists of an immovable and a movablejaw lined with wear resistant'lining p'lates. Themovable jaw rotates about a honizontal axjs in apendu'lum action and crusheg_ the stone material bystrì ki ng the immovabl e jaw.35

c) screening: screenìng of the primary crusher-run material isconducted prior to secondary crushing for purposes s'imilar tothose of using a gri zzly. Spec'ification-sized product wil I be

screened out; i ntermedi ate pì eces wi I I be passed onto thesecondary crusher, while overs'ize pìeces are sent back to theprimary crusher.

screens may be welded bars, sheet steel, rubber, or wìre cloth, w'ithround, squane, sìot, or octagonal holes. In order for separatìon of theproducts, movement must take pì ace. There are dj fferent screens,variousìy relying on gravity f]ow, rotating, shaking or vibrat'ing, orrak'ing to separate the various products.36

D) Secondary Crusher: Crushed stone operatìons within the tllinnipegregion typica'lly use secondary crushers of the cone or Gyratory type.These crushers utìlize a con'ical crushing member which moves in a smallc'ircle around a vert'ical axis inside a fixed bowl or mantle. Rock isfed into the top of the bowl, falls between the cone and the manile, and

is crushed as the openìng narrows with the movement of the cone.37

When the product specification is critical, cone crushers are capable ofproduci ng a fi ner, more uni form product than the jaw crushers can.Screening is done immed'iateìy after secondary processing ìn exactly thesame fashion as between prìmary and secondary processing.

Krynine and Judd, p. 315.

Nichols, p.2L-73.

Ibid. p. 21-83.

35

36

37

PHOTO PAGE NO. 5

Jaw Crusher

ì\

Roll Crusher

. Exampìes of processing plants required by crushed limestoneoperations.

Source: Pioneer product Catalogues

53

SITE DEVELOPMENT CONSIDERATIONS

1l-l Analysis of socially Objectionabìe Impact Features

11.1.1 Purpose

L'imestone quarry operations generate several socially objectionableimpacts which may adverseìy affect surroundìng land uses and users. Byanalyzing the typ'ical limestone operation in terms of its essentìalelements and acti vities, it 'is possibìe to pinpo'int certa.in sources ofnegati ve effects. Fi ve major sociar ìy undesi rabre impacts can beattri buted to crushed I imestone quarrying within the Rockwoodmun'icipaìity:

1) Increased no'ise level s

2) Increased v'ibration levels3) Increased dust levels4) Increased safety hazards

5) Unattract'ive site appearance

It is the purpose of th'is sectjon of the study to examine thesepotential ìy objectionable features of I imestone quarryì ng, and toattempt to quantify and estimate the impact on the surroundingneìghbourhood. This information is essential to the consultìng plannerengjneen or 'landscape architect because it provi des criteria on wh j chsjte pìann'ing and design decisions can be based. Since limestoneextraction occurs primarily in the months from Apri'l to November, theprobìems of noise, v'ibratìon, and dust em'issjons during the wintermonths will not be considered.

11.1.2 Impact from Noise

Noise can produce adverse effects on people's health, comfort, andenjoyment , and ì s currentìy regarded as a sou rce of envi ronmentalpollutìon. some of the non-auditory effects of no.ise poìlution are:

0perati on

1. Strippìng & stock-p'i1 i ng of soi I &

overburden for usei n future rehabi I -i tati on .

2. Dri I 'l i ng of hol esfor explosives.loading of explos-ives.

3. Detonation ofexpl os ì ves

4. Mucking & haul ineof broken rock tocru s her .

5. Crushi ng

6. Conveyors &

screeni nçt

7. Stockpiling onsite

B. Hauling toconstruct i onsite.

TABLE 14

FLOt^l DIAGRAM OF OBJECTIONABLE

noise from mobile equipment(graders, scrapers, loaders,caterp'illars, etc.)

noise from compressor androckdrills.

airborn blast over-pressurenoi se.

noise from mobile equipment(1oaders, trucks)

noise from crushernoise from conveyors andscreeni ng .

noise by mobile equìpment frommaterials handf ing.

noise from trucks

Noi Le_

tmissions from Operation

cts from

IMPACT FEATURES

Crushed Limeston

particulates (dust) fromstripping and stockpiling.

Source: J.tJ. MacKay, Head

I nterDepartmental

Dus'L---

parti cul ates from dri 1 I i ngrock.

particulates from blast (dustto flyrock sìze).particulates from material shandl i ng,particulates rai sedfrom quarry floor by trucks.partìculates fnom crushers.particulates from conveyorsand screens.particulates wind entra'i nedfrom stockpiles and materialshandl i ng.

particulates vehicle raisedfrom roadways , and windentrained from uncoveredtrucks.

ate Ouarries

*. _V_i þrati on

Noise Pollution Control

Memo, Apri'l 79, 1979

groundborne vibrationfrom blast.

54Psychological Effects -

Physiological Effects -

38 Clean EnvironmentOperations jn the R.

an noyan ce

decreased mental and work performance

st ress

decreased

i ncreased

i ncreased

i ncreased

sleep

pu1 se ratebl ood pressure

muscle tensi on

in the municipaììty of Rockwood, noise generated from limestonequarry operations may not onìy cause adverse effects on peop'le, but alsoon livestock and wiìdì'ife, which are highìy sensitive to loud sounds.It is clear that before land use dec'isions can be made with respect toexjsting or future limestone quarries, we must be able to est'imate theexistìng and potentiaì impact of noise pollution from these operations.

Noise ìs produced by virtuaìly all of the openatìons utilizedwithin a crushed limestone quarry. Hjgh-speed driììing, bìastìng,mucking, process'ing, and hauììng of limestone al ì produce vary.ing sound

ampì'itudes (measured in decibels - dBs) and sound frequencies (measuredin cycles per second or hertz - Hz). see TABLT 14 for a step-by-stepanalysis of noise-producing operat'ions invol ved in l'imestone quarry'ing.

The apparent loudness of a sound is dependent upon the sound'samp'litude and frequency. In order to determine the loudness of sounds

f on I and use pì anni ng and ì ega'l deci si ons, the A-we'i ghted or dBA scal e

is often used. This scale combines sound amp'l'itudes and frequencies and

correlate them w'ith the level of no'ise or annoyance peopìe attribute tovarious types of sound.

According to evidence produced at the Clean Environment Commission

Hearings,33 the fo'l ìowing sìte-specific quarry operatìons cause most

annoyance:

Comm'ission Publjc Hearings into Limestone QuarryM. of Rockwood, 1981.

55Most D'i stu rbi n g Impu'lse 1) Blasting

Steady 2) Drì l'lÍ ng (compressor & rockdri I ì )

Steady 3) Processing p'lants (crusher, etc. )

Steady 4) Mobì I e Machi nery ( ì oader, t rucks )Least D'i stu rb'i ng

Considerable sound is also generated by trucks hauling the finishedproduct. This mobile source of noise disturbance can actua'lìy have themost impact, since the producers may haul from stockp.ile during thewi nter months.

Blastìng is the most disturbìng noise generated, as it is a loud'impu'lse noise which can cause peopìe, livestock, and wildlife to be

startled. TABLE i5 shows typicaì sound pressure level s of quarryoperations, compared with typicaì sound pressure levels utilized'in landuse plann'ing decisions and clean Environment commjssion 0nders.

The know'ledge of a few basic properties of sound is essent'ial forI and use pl annì ng and site desi gn deci si ons :39

1) sound generalìy decreases with d'istance. see TABLE 16

2) Sound may be reinforced or neduced due to winds. Reinforcementof sound occurs downwind. Reduction of sound occurs upwind.

3) Sound may be refracted due to temperature gr.adients w'ithin theearth's atmosphere (thermaì 'inversions). see FIGUREs 9 and 10.

The f ol l ow'ing impacts f rom noi se emanatì ng

operati ons shoul d hel p to quant'i fy some ofsu rroundi ng nei ghbou rhood:

- Past 150 meters from the boundary of thenot able to distinguish the pit machineny

noise of the neìghbourhood.40

from m'ineral aggregate

the effects on the

operatìons, peop'le were

noi se from the ambi ent

- complaints regardìng bìast'ing have been registered up to 3.2 kms

from the source of the blast.41

39 See M. J. Crocker and J. A. price,Press, 1975) I, for a compìete discussìon

4o schellie, p. zg.

4L Clean Envi ronment Commission HearingsArea ([,J'innipeg, 1981) IV, p.81.

No'i se and Noi se Cont rol (CRCo d.

on Quarries jn the Rockwood

TYPICAL SOUND

Clean Environmentffi

TABLE 15

PRESSURI LEVTLS OF QUARRY OPERATIONS

+ Window panes may fail

+ Poorly mounted window panes may fail.

170

160

150 -]- Blastinq- Maximum..-.----+-r¡¡rt-hì n 15 m. of anybuilding not used ãsa dwelling.140

130

120

i10

100

90

80

50

40

30

20

Blasting- Maximumwithin l-5 m. of anydwel1ing.

General--Maxirrumdffiã within l-5m. of any dweIling.General--MaximumñEilt-ime within 15m. of any dweIling.

Maximum sound intensityCan vibrate loose window

bearable to asash

human ear.

LLrõ

=(')G)o-Lc

=(tso

+J

(J

E

Bc=oÞ

E

+)rtt

co'\tsfF{

r-{

BLASTING

Division

DRILLING

personnel

tn(IJ

LLrdJO!l-rú

'(JLrú+)U1

+)U1rõ

¡FoLF

ao

lrlslNlrõ

-:¿EõL

U-

LcJ

th

L(Ju1

r('ILoc

+Jrú

co'uC!F{Ê

I

l^

lort:lol(JlrI o-¡løt,-lolzt-

I

rõ(J

o-+J

(uo!otn

+)rõ

êoEf--oF{

OlN

o(JI

(¡)U1

oz.

rõ(J

o-.{J

(uo

=ott1

+)ct

co'ot\<)r-{

OlNLo(JI

OJth

oz.

AJoLoU)

+Jrõ

Lorõo-JEOJ

+J

o!

tthloJl'-ILtt-loatIcl'ctLrõ+JU)

.lJt^rõ

-o

oLq-

OoOC\I

lcloI <-rlrlq)lØl.etolz,lqJ(JLoU1

+)(ú

v1l¿(J

=L

O)oo-

c

(Èo

+J(J

Erõo

rú

9,îts-oruoJ

co!(\IO)

I

@co

10

Source: F. Vazmer, Mfneral Resources

CRUSHTR QUARRY IIACHINERY,

TABLE i6SOUND REDUCTION DUE TO DISTANCE

t-l¡.

l¡¡oGfoU'

=oÉ,lÀ

¡¡¡ozÉØõ

REDUCTION IN SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (dB)'I'nyet'se lgrJafe Law-- By doubÏing the distance between a point source of noise and thereceiùen of noise in an open sound field, thà ioüñ¿ õ"ãiru". leväi rãv-b"decreased by 6 dB. (Crocker 1975).source: Robinette, G.0., plants, people, and the ntal Quality; u.s. Dept. ofthe lnterior,1972

- FIGURES 9+10EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS ON SOUND

Temperature gradients in the earth's atmosphere can also cause refraction ofsound. GÍven perfect conditions, the refractiän pattern for temperature gradientsis symetrica'l about a vertical line from the source. prrovided-no wind, shadolv maybe eliminated (upwind) or enhanced (downwind). -

source: crocker, M. J., price, J. A., l,lqise and Noise control: CRC Press, lgTS

5611.1.3 Impact from Vibration

Ground vibration caused by product.ion bìast-ing is a prob.lem'inherent in quarry operatìons. Both ai r blasts and ground Vibrationsare transmitted by energy from an expìos'ion which is not spent inshattering rock from its bed. Ground waves or vibrations are set up inthe rock at the blast source and move away from this point at vary.ingvelocities. People and animals are high'ly sens.itive to ground motion,and v'ibrations constitute the prìncipal sounce of both actual andìmag'ined damage to buiìdìngs in the vicinity of the blast.42

Structunal damage may be caused as a

change shape wjth the eanth in whjch it jsrest of the bui 1d'ing results jn a stressfoundation.43

foundation tries to move orembedded. The inentia in thebetween the buiìding and its

Ground vibrations are determined by a physicaì measurement of theearth's movement caused by a blast. A logarithmìc reduction of groundmot'ion i s experì enced wi th an 'increase i n di stance away f rom thebl ast.44 Current Cl ean Envi nonment Commi ssi on 0rders requi re thatsoi I -borne vi brati ons may not exceed:

1) 12 mm/sec. peak particìe veìocìty recorded at any buì1ding (offthe property) ma.inta jned as a dwel ì ing.

2) 50 mm/sec. peak particle veìoc.ity * recorded at any buiìding for.use other than a dwelling.45* similar values are caused by stomping on a floor.46

42 ¡li chol s , p. 9-41 .

43 tui¿.

44 Personal communjcation w.ith L. Bilton, MineraìMines Inspector, February lgg1.

45 An 0rder of theEnvironment Act, Number

46 Nicnol s

Clean Envìronment Commiss.ion855, October, Ig7g.

Resources Div'ision

Under the Cl ean

57Accordì ng to necent measu nements , there i s no reason to bel i eve

quarry bìast'ing in Rockwood could ever be of the magnìtude to damage

structures. Standard Quanries blasts were measured at one complainant'sresidence at appr"oxìmateìy 6 mm/second, well wìth.in the pnescrìbedlimits.47 However, nesearch has indicated that the average person canfeel vibration levels from .1 to 1 percent of the level necessary todamage structures.43

At a vjbration level of 25 mm/sec, twenty percent of families willcompìain. At 10 mm/sec, eight percent will complain of noise, and at2.5 mm/sec, one percent w'iì ì complain.49

Vibration levels caused by blasting within the Rockwoodmunicipality will cont'inue to be a negative psychoìogical impact onneighbourìng peopìe, ìivestock, and wildlife.

11.1.4 Impact from Dust

The ambient atmosphere contains a wide mixture of suspended dustfrom various sources. Limestone quarry.ing may be a substantialcontributor. Increased dust levels can cause negat'ive impacts upon thejmmediate neighbourhood, by'increasìng the severity of dust storms (eyestraì n ) , causi ng i ncreased cì eani ng of i ndoor offi ces and homes,ìncneased washing of automobi ìes, and an 'increased need to pa.int outdoorstructures. Particulates may also restrict plant growth by blockingì i ght.

Blow'ing dust may be em'itted from al I phases of a quarry operation,but the most sìgnificant sources of dust are:

1) Bìasting.2) Vehicle raised dust fnom roads.

Limestone Quarries, 1979), p. 3.

48 clean Environment commission Hearings on Quarr.ies in the R. M. ofRockwood (tli nn'ipeg, 19S1) IV, p. B1

49 R. Dick and D. siskìnd, "Keep your Brasting under control,,coal Age(November 1979), pg. i0B.

583) l^lind entrained dust from stockpiìes.4) Fug'itive dust from uncovered moving veh.icles.50

Process'ing of crushed stone ìs one of the two mostsources of emitted dust. Research in the u.s. shows that 75

the dust from an operation is emitted from crushers.5l

significantpercent of

An estimate of particulate em'issions across Canada shows that sandand graveì operat'ions were the source of 264,o0o tonnes of dust peryear' second onìy to forest fjres (32s,000 tonnes annually)52 Sand andgraveì pits may contribute up to.06 kg. of particulate emissions pertonne of material mined.53 Apprying these fìgures to the limestoneindustry, approximateìy twenty-seven tonnes of dust could be emittedannual ìy f rom quarries 'in the Rockwood area.

Particulates from sand and gravel operations typìca1'ly include finedust (1 micron to 1 mm. in diameter) and fine sand (20 to 200 microns indiameter).54 The foììowing impacts from dust emissions fnom m.ineralaggregate operat'i ons shou I d hel p to quant'ify some of the ef fects on thesurroundi ng ne'i ghbourhood :

1) The heaviest of dust part'icles fall withjn a.g km. radius ofthe activating source.55

2) l,lind may carry dust part'icr es r.z km. away fnom the quarrys'ite. 56

3) Excessive dust can be produced w'ith a wind up to .46 kms. from a

qua rrY ' 57

50 0p. .it. p. Bb.

lt -n. R.. Shel l ey and Assoc'i ates Vi I I eneuve Area Graveì Devel opment andReclamation Study (Edmonton, 1977), p._6F--52 e. R. Shelìy and Associates, p.67.53 tuio. p. 68.

54 tuto. p. 67

55 schellie, p. 139. '

56 Ctean Environment Hearings, iII, p, 14.Ê.'7"' Ibid '

5911.1.5 Impacts on Public Safety

Pits and quarries can be attracti ve nuisances for people,panticular'ly if a portion of the property is under water. Fences,signs, and the establ'ishment of berms around these sites have helped tokeep the rate of accidents low, but accidents at both abandoned andwork'ing pits and quarries will continue to occur.58 Inadvertent accessto an act'ive quarry site can present the dangers of vert'ical drops andexpìosives blastìng. Increased and rap'idly mov'ing truck traffic willal so be prìme concerns to peopìe nei ghbour.i ng I imestone quarryoperati ons.

A current and critical topic for the limestone quarry operator isthe issue of ljability. The Miner^al Resources Division has indicatedthat the quarry operator is in a precarìous position when js comes topublic safety in terms of liabiìity. In short, in the event of anacc'ident within a quarry, the individual operator cannot be protectedsufficientìy from the possibì1ity of costìy legaì action. As thepopuìation expands in the area of the crushed limestone quarries, theissue of ìiabiìity is bound to become an even greater concern of theindividual openaton.

11.1.6 Unattractive Site Appearance

crushed limestone quarry operations are typicaì ly an unsìghtìyinstrus'ion on what is basìcally a p'leasant rural env.ironment. TheStonewall area is characterized by small m'ixed farm operations with manyfine natural woodlots. The limestone operations have interrupted theserenity of the scene w'ith the'ir. unìnvitìng entnance ways, the.ircluttered pìant office areas, and unfortunate berming techniques.

58 National Research counci'1, surface Mining of Non-coal Minerals(National Academy of Sciences, ig8

PHOTO PAGE NO. 6

Socíal concerns of pub'licappearance are illustrated

safety and unattractive sitein these photos.

60

Because their offices are frequent'ly housed in trailers, and theinprocessing pìants and batch pìants are portabìe, these operations look

to be transient in the ìandscape. Berm'ing around the s'ite 'is typ'ical lyconducted for reasons of convenience. The berms serve as on-s'ited'isposal areas for the overburden, subsoi I , and topso'il that must be

stri pped pri or to excavat'ion. Consequent'ly, the berms are never graded

to achieve smooth sìopes, and they are never revegetated, causing them

to be erosi on prone and a source of weed probl ems. Many of the

operations are located in and about exist'ing wood'lots, but few producers

have taken advantage of the natural scneening poss'ibìl'ities afforded by

the s'ite.

6iQUARRY LANDFORM DETERMINANTS

12.1 Post Mining Quarry Form

12.1.1 Purpose

The post m'in'ing quarry form of an operation has imp'licat'ions on thefuture land use potential s of any gì ven site. The purpose of thissect'ion is to introduce the reader to many of the variables whìch may

determine the post mìn'ing quarry form.

Desp'ite the obvious s'imilarities between quarry production and

quarny f orms within the Stonewall area, each operati on and 'its resu'lti ng

landform wìll be unique unto itself. S'in Geoffrey Jellicoe descrjbes

quarry form as be'ing a g'igantic p'iece of serendìp'ic sculpture a'lways'inmovement. There are no b1 uepri nts for opt'imum quarry devel opment

because there'is no exact knowledge of what quaìity of rock is goìng tobe encountered from day to day. Pockets of ìmpurities found within the

excavation may cause extreme variations in the ultìmate form of thequanry. However, several landscape features in post operations quarry

form are typica'l and essential elements that must be anaìyzed within any

rehabilitation project. Post min'ing quarry features to be considered

i ncl ude:

1 ) S'i ze of Qua rry2) Shape

3) Depth

4) F1 oors

5) Waìls

6) Essentiaì 0perationaì Features

7) Surface Drainage Areas

12.L.2 Size

The surfic'ial area encompassed by the quarry wi'lì be of differings'i zes dependent upon the fol I owi ng vari abl es :

62

the operatìons's property limits.the internal setback requìrements pìaced upon the operations.the amount of land covered by overbunden which is uneconomicalto move (the current stri ppi ng ratio 'is approx'imateìy r:2. Ifone unit of overburden must be nemoved then two units ofI imestone must be made access'ibl e.the area required to stockpile overburden upon the s.ite.the area requì red to process and stockpi 1e crushed stone

products. sometimes this area 'is established w'ithin an

excavated portion of the quarry.

Obviousìy there is no standard size for a l'imestone operation butthe newer and'largen quarry operations seem to range from approximateìy40 to 64 hectares (1/4 section)59

Internal setbacks are on-site, undisturbed restricted zones whichprevent l'imestone extraction or related operations from hav.ing a

potentiaì ly disturbìng or damaging effect on adjacent property oruti I ity.60 Internal setbacks ane establ'ished either through pol icy or.

regulatjon by mun'icipa'l and provìncial author.itjes.

The amount of land covered by overburden which is within a quarrysite and is uneconom'ical to move (j.e. unfavorable stripping ratio) .is

pnobab'ly neg'lig'ib'le for most operations existing today. These siteshave been expì o'ited essenti a'l ly because of thei r favorabl e stri ppi ng

ratios (i .e. bedrock at or near the surface). However, futureoperations may be faced w'ith areas with unfavorable strippìng ratioswithi n a port'ion of thei r property.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

59 This ìs based upon personaì observatjons of the sizesquarries within the R.M. of Rockwood. Standard, W.innipeg,Stone Products operations range within these sizes.

60 Shelly and Associates, p. 164.

ofand

severalGene ra I

63Ihe amount of area nequired to stockpi'le ovenburden'is a ìa¡ger

factor than many would estimate. Given a 64 ha site, with an average ofone meter of ovenburden, approxìmate'ly 6b0,000 cubic meters ofoverburden must be stripped and stockpìled within the s.ite. (1.5 _ 1.gmeters of overburden was stripped at General stone Quarrjes. )61consider, moreover, a possible swel I factor of from twenty to fortypercent and the magn'itude of the overburden probìem is made even moreimmense.62 (These values wìll be reduced to ten to twenty-five percentif compacted by machinery. )

The area required to pnocess and stockpiìe crushed stone may or. maynot be a factor to consider in quarry form. For example, the stonewarlLimestone Quarny utilizes approximateìy thir-ty percent of the site (zoha) reserved for processing and stockpììing requirements. Manyoperations utiìize portions of the quarry floor to process and stockpi'lethe various crushed stone products, but typically some of the site isnot excavated due to these requìrements.

12.1.2 Shape

The shape of exhausted quarries wìll obviously be dependent uponthe property boundarìes, but typical operating shapes are square(Generaì stone Quarry), rectanguì ar (standard Quarry), and L-shaped(city of l'Jinnipeg Quanry). These geometric shapes ane efficient formsfor limestone quarrying operations.

I2.1.4 Depth

The depth of an exhausted limestone quarry will be determined bythe qua'l i ty of the stone and the depth of the water tabl e. Low qua] .ityargi 1 I aceous I i mestone cannot be quarrì ed economi ca'l ìy due to its

61 g. Bannatyne "Industrial Mineral Geologist's Fiìe" (Winnìpeg, MineralResources Di vi si on ).62 ¡¡ichols, p. 3-6. (Sweìì factor for good Common Earth).

64unsu jtab'il'ity as

I imestone reserves

may be uti I i zed.quaììty ìimestones

a mjneral aggregate. However, as hìgh qualitybecome depìeted, benefication of limestone mixturesThis may result in further expìoitation of lowen

which may further lower the depth of these quarrìes.

In current practìce, once the water table 'is encountered durìngoperatìons, the depth of the excavat'ion wil I be curtailed at thatlevel. Quarrying beneath the water table requires mod'ifjed excavatìontechn'iques (dewatering and speciaì explosives), and because of concernsthat the groundwater may be poìluted, the contjnued monitoring by thewater Resources Division. Quarry depths currently range from a depth ofa few meters (first bench level) to an average of fifteen meters withinthe bedrock. Depths to twenty meters have been excavated in the City ofWinnipeg Stony Mountain quarry.63

12.1.5 Floors

The floor of an exhausted quarry is typìcaì]y very flat since theexcavat'ion occurs down to the top of an under'lyì ng geo'logi caì format.ionor bedding pìane. The crushed stone operations are currentìy expìoitingthe Gunton and Penitentiary members, while the underlying Gunn member jsof much lower quality. (Although the city of winn.ipeg seems to beexcavat'ing some, it is mainìy argillaceous limestone and sha'le. ) Largerquarries aìl exhib'it substantial relief on the quarny floor due tostockpìle areas of reject and oversìze materiaì, and areas that have notbeen quarried due to lower quality deposits beìng encountered.

12.1.6 l{al I s

Quarry walls are either very steep to vertical, or are coì'lapsedand uneven due to softer rock faì'ling down over the face of the wall.These faces may be the full depth of the quarry (11 - 15 meters) or the

63 B. Bannatyne.

65depth of one of the openat'ions ' "l ì fts ". Some operators work the ent.i redepth of the face 'in one operation (l ift), whi le others may work two or^

more lifts to achieve that depth.

These walls wìll weathen to varying degrees and colors (owìng tothe quaìity of the rock and varying degrees of impurities), and can bedramatic features for any future landscape development.

12.1.7 Essential Operational Features

These features are basjcal'ly the offjce site, entrance requirementsto the site and the quarry froor, processing pìant and asphaìt orconcrete batch pìant locat'ions, and stockpile areas. As was mentionedearlier, these features can occupy a substantial port.ion of any quarrysite. Individual d'iffenences will accrue to each operation, so sitespec'ific anaìys'is of these features ìs suggested.

12.1.8 Surface Drainage Areas

Due to the sheer s'i ze of quarry fl oons, and the nonexi stentsurfic'ial draìnage occuring upon them, water ponding is common in lowerareas of the site. Settlement of dust and crusher fines serves to makethe floor virtua'lìy impervious to water pencolat'ion into the underìyingbedrock fissures. Many ponds occur periodicaìly throughout the season,but several gather enough water to become penmanent features within thequarny environment. Permanent groundwater lakes are a common feature jnEastern canadian limestone quarry operations, and there js no reasonthat groundwater lakes could not be created within the study region.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FROM QUARRYINC

13.1 Purpose

Limestone quarryìng may have adverse effects on soil productìvìtydependi ng on the mi n'i ng and rehab'i I i tat i on methods used at the s.ite, andthe extent to whìch these methods alten the physical and chemicalcharacteristics of the soir. it is the purpose of th.is section tooutline many of the environmental impacts that may occur as a result oftypica'l min'ing and nehab'ilitation techniques. This know'ledge may thenbe ut'i I i zed f or the f ol I owi ng pu rposes :

1) to deveìop new techniques of materials (overburden and soil )hand'lìng, storage, and reconstruction in order to lim.itdetrimental impacts.

2) to develop thorough site preparationdetri mental 'impacts of damagi ngp ract i ses.

66

techniques which offset them'inìng and rehabil.itation

Pri or to the di scussi on

I imestone quarrying, the readerthe nature of the soil.

13.2 llature of the Soil

on envì ronmental impacts caused by

must first become knowledgeabìe about

Soils are formed thr"ough an intricate process in which they evolvefrom the'ir geological parent material through the action of soìl-formingprocesses (i.e. weathering, erosion, ìeaching), which are control led byenvi ronmental parameters or soi I -formi ng factors. These factorsi ncl ude:

1) the cl'imate, or the temperature án¿ mo.isture in the soil.2) ' the bi ota (pl ant and ani mal I i fe ) , whi ch modi fy the soi ì ,

cl imate, add organic matter, and rater decompose organicmatte r.

3) the parent material, which contrjbutes the soil minerals whichin turn affect the texture, the water retent.ion capacity, andthe mineral neserve.

674) the position of the so.il in relation to topography.5) the age, or the length of time durìng which the soil has been

under the influence of soìl-formjng processes.6) In the case of cul ti vated soi I s, man has modi fi ed the soi I s

through agricultural practises.64

The variations in the relat'ive importance or dominance of one ormore of the soiì-form'ing processes results in such developments as theaddìtion or removal of organic matter, translocat.ion of cìays, orchem'ical and physical alterations in the soil. These processes resultin the formation of soil horìzons.65 Soil horizons differ from oneanother in such properties as co]or, texture, structure, and chemicaland bio'logica'l activities.

The form of soil horjzons can easììy be observed jn the field bythe soil profile--a vertical sect'ion of the sojl cut through itshorizons and on into the parent matenial.

(See FIGURE 11 for a generaì.ized soi Iprof i'les may be uti l'ized as i nd j cators ofì s the funct'ion, not the form of the so j l

profi I e descri pti on ) Soi I

so'il properti es. However, 'it

horizons that is importa¡¡.66

Most soils have three masten horizons identified as A, B, and c orfor the purposes of discussion jn terms of surface mining andrehab'iìitation, topsoi'l , subso.i'l , and overburden.

64 Ehrì ich, Poyser, pratt, and Eil is Report of a Reconnaissance sojlSurvey of Winnipeg and Morris Map Shee

65 , For a .complete di scuss'ion of so'iì -formi ng factors, see watson,

Parker, and Polster, Manual of Species SuitabiTjty for Reclamatìon iñål ogçta (Aì berta l-anai1-14; and l'lanitoba Soils and their Management (Manitoba Dápartment ofAgrìculture), pp. 2l-23.66 National Research council, surface lvlning, soiì, coal, and society(l,Jashington, Nationaì Academy pn

lr,t,,I O"gunic debris lodged on soilI developed under forest,usualìyI absent on qrassland soilsI

IAI

I Horizon of maximum bio'logicalI activity and maximum eluviation

fl (removal of materials dissolvedf,l or suspended in water or both)õl-Øl s

I

I Horizon of illuviation (accumulationI of suspended material from A),or ofI maximum clay accumulation,or ofI blocky or prismatic structure,or bothL-

FIGURE 11

DIAGRAM OF A HYPOTHETICAL SOIL PROFILE

cThe soil parent materiaì (limestonebedrock )

Sources:

L loose leaves and organic debris largely undecomposedF organic debris,partly decomposed or mattedH welì decomposed organic matter,original structures undiscernib'le

Al A dark coloured horizon with a high content of organic matter mixedw'ith mineral matter

,may be leached from this zone.

1.

2.

Manitoba Department of Agriculture,National Research Council, Surface

Transitional Zone between A and B horizon

Horizon of maximum illuviation; silicate clays,minerals,and iron fromA horizon accumulate here.

Transitional Zone between B and C horizon

C Unaltered or slightly altered parent material,usualìy an accumulationcalcium carbonate and other soluble salts (i.e. magnesium carbonate),sometimes high bu'lk density

Consol idated bedrock

Manitoba Soils and Their Management; pg.

Mining, Soil, Coaì, and Society; National

18

Academy Press, 1981, pg. 87

of

6B

Topsoi I (A hori zon ) i s the uppermost (su r"face soi I ), typi caì ìydark-col ored zone of the so'il that rece'ives the maximum ef fect ofb'iologìcaì activ'ity and 'leachìng, and the gneatest accumulation oforgan'ic material. 0n agricultural lands, the topsoìl js normailyI imited to the depth of culti vation, âpproximateìy fifteen to thì rtycentimeters.6T The organic matter content is extremely important tosoi I product'ivity because it:

1) functions as a granulator, wh'ich makes the so'il more fniable.2) can withstand compaction better due to ìts friable nature.3) stores 'important nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus).

4) is the maìn source of energy for m'icroorganìsms which make the

nut ri ents avai I abl e to p'l ants.5) ìncreases the soils moìsture-holding abi'l'ity.68

SubsoiI (B horizon) may extend to a depth of one metre as a transitionalsoil horizon between the topsoil and the under'lyìng overburden zone.

The subsoj I is typicaì'ly low in or"gan'ic matter and often contains an

accumulation of c'lay-sized particles.69 Under natural cond'it'ions, thesubsoì I is usuaì ìy wel l -structured and 'is the zone from which plantsmust obtain much of their moisture nequirements.T0

0verbu rden (C hori zon ) refers to theoverlyì ng the consol i dated I i mestone

subsoil. Th'is zone ìs comparativeìyprocesses. The overbu rden w'ithi n theextremely cal careious gì acial ti I I .

67 l(ozuraitis and Maclntosh, Rehabilitation of Aggregate Extracted Landsfor Agri cul tural Producti onleaz); ilr68 Ib'id, and The Restorat'i on of Sand and Gravel Work'ings (London ,Brit'ish Minìstr 3.

69 Mozuraitis and Maclntosh, p. 12.

parent materi al of the soi lbedrock and underly'ing the

unaf fected by soi'l -f orm'ing

Rockwood reg'ion 'is typ'ical ly

70 Man'itoba Soi ì s, p. 17 .

69

13.3 Soil Characteristics Affecting Plant Growth

Ïhe main characteristics of soils that can be utilized to assessits value for rehabilitation are as follows:

1) Soil Texture: Soil materjal is comprised of organ'ic and mineralpartìcles of whjch the mineral particles are grouped into the differentsjze classifications of sand, silt, and clay. See TABLT U. The

relatjve proportions of these mineral part'icles wjthin a soil determinesits sojl texture. For example, a fine-textured soil is characterized by

a high cìay content, while coarse-textured soils have a high sand

content.

Soil texture is an important characteristic because it affectsthe soil's;

a) natural ferti'lity,b) abil'ity to dra'in properìy (infiltration and runoff),c) capac'ity to hoìd water, and

d) erodjbility.

TABLE 17

s0IL TEXTURE AND ITS EFFECT 0N s0tL PROPERTIES (Generaìized)

Soi I Texture Natural Fert'i 'ì i tyPotenti al

Drai nage

I nfi I trat i on

Potenti al

Runoff

Water Ho'ldi ng ErodibiìityCaoacit

Fine Textured

C'layey Soi l s

Medium Textured

Loamy So'i I s

Coarse Textured

2) Soil Structure structure of a soilorganic partic'les

refers to theinto secondary

(Tirth):m'ineral

The

andaggregation of

70

particles termed units or peds. lndividua'l soil particles are'looselybound so that peds contain pores and channels which are ìmportant forair, water, and orqanism movement, as we'll as root penetration.

3) Soil Compaction (Bulk Density): The degree of compaction of a soildetermines both the size and the amount of soil pores. The degree ofcompaction is measured by its bulk density; a measure of the weìght ofdry soi I per unit vol ume ( usual ly expressed as grams per cubi c

centimeter - g/cm3¡. Under field conditions most sojls range from 1.2 -1 .6 gms/c*3 ¡ . 71

4) Available Soil Water Storage: This is a measure of the amount ofwater a soil is capab'le of storing w'ithin the plant roooting zone

(1.2m). Several phys'ical and chem'ical propert'ies affect a soil'sava'i I ab I e water storage capac i ty.

TABLE 18

AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY IN SOME MANITOBA SOILS BY SOIL TEXTURAL CLASS

Soil Textural Group Kinds of Soil Available Soil Water

to 1.2 meters

Coarse texturedMedium textured

Fine textured

sand,'loamy sand i4.5very fine sandy 1oam,

ìoam silt, loam and silt 25.5

sandy cl a.y. si lty cl ay. cl ay 26.0

cm

cm

Source: Manitoba Soils and Their Management

Manitoba Department of Agricu'lture, p. 56.

Two points are sign'ifjcant jn the figures in the table above:

a) sojls vary jn thejr abìlity to supp'ly moisture to pìants;coarse textured soi I s are extremely poor in ava'il able so'i I

water while med'ium and fine-textured soils hold relatively the

same amount.

71 Morrruit'is and Maclntosh, p. 14.

7T

b) crop roots must penetrate deep into the so.il if adecluatemoi sture reserves are to be reached. pl ant roots must becapable of penetrating up to one meter to obtain adequate sojlmoi sture. 72

5) soil Drainage: This refers to the rapidìty and the extent of theremoval of surface and subsurface soi I water in rel ation to itsaddition. (precìpitation) l.,lhen water fil ls all the spaces or poresbetween the soil particìes, the soil becomes saturated, aìr movement isrestricted, and the soil becomes depleted of oxygen. pl ant rootsrequìre oxygen to function properìy and their growth may be severeìyrestricted if saturation conditions persìst. This is termedwaterl oggi ng.

6) Stoniness: Stones are a common probìem in the shallow soils of theStonewall area. Ston-v or rocky soils are detrimental for agr.icuìtural,recreational, oF engÍneering app'l ìcations. Excessive stoniness maydamage farm equì pment ( such as seeders ), wh i le it hi nders seedbedpreparatìon and crop cultivation. stony soi I s I imit the types andquality of recreational experience, while they are d'ifficult to work formany engì neeri ng appì icatjons.

7) Soil Depth: (plant root'ing depth): This refers to the depth ofsojls whjch can normaììy permit the entry of roots of p'lants and sustaintheir growth. Root growth may be ìmpeded by a shaì]ow depth to bedrock,compacted layers of so'iì, waterlogged conditions, toxjc chemicaìs, hardpans, or consoljdated subsoils.T3

8) Rel ief : The principaì components of rel ief are s'ìope grad.ient,slope aspect, and sìope position. Rel ief infl uences water dra.inage,infi ltratìon, runoff, and erosion, whi'le al so affecting the soilexposure to sun and wind. Limestone quarry'ing may alter the relief ofthe landscape with posjtive or negatìve results.

Ibi d.

Mozurait'is, Maclntosh. p. 14.

72

73

TABLE 19

SOIL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROI,ITH

Criteria: The following characteristics are indicators of potential quality of soils in relation to plant growth.

Facto rs

1. Soil Texture

a) Organic Matter

2. Soil Structure

3. S0iì.CoDpaction(Bul k Density)

4. Available SoiIl,later Storage

5. Soil Drainage

a) Infiltration

b) Permeability

6. Soii Stoniness

7. Soil DepthPlant Rooting

Depth

8. Rel iefa) Slope Gradient

b) Slope Aspect(most significanton steep slopes)

c) Slope Position

9. Soil pH

SOURCES:

Favorabl e Characteri stics

Mixture of sand,silt,and clay(medium texture orloarns) have optirnum moisture capacity.Cìays arechemicaì1y active,promotìng avaiìabil ity ofnutnients.Sand loams,si lt loams,and loams,arepreferred to cìay loams.

High ìeveìs improve aggregation and infiltrationcapacity and increase avaiìabiìity of nutrients;1.5% or more is very favorabìe.

Granular structure improves infiltration and isresistant to the impact of rain drops.Blocky andprismatic structures improve permeabil ity(exceptwhen part of a clay pan).Coarse fragments limitedto a 0-10% of volume.Generaì1y 50-60% soil voidsis favorabìe.

Low vaìues indicate high organic matter content,good granulation,high infiltration,and goodaeratíon,majing for a good rooting medium.Generalìy less than 1.4 gms,/qnJ is favorable.

High capacity allows storage of water for pìantgrowth during periods of ìow precipitation.InEd¡¡onton,available water storage is rated highfor a soil with capacity of 25 cn./1.2 meters(pìant rooting zone).

Moisture content of soils does not nonnaìlyexceed field capacity except ìnmediately afterwater additions.Field capacity of a soij is whenthe water content in a wetted soil becomesconstant.

High infiltration increases soil moisture anddecreases runoff and erosion.

Moderate to high permeability increases soilmoisture and decreases runoff under saturatedconditions.General ly penneabiiity rates of1.5-15 cm./hr. are favorable.

No,or very few stones do not interfere withseedbed preparation or cultivation,and they donot interfere with installation of roads,services,septic fields, etc.

Unrestricted rooting depths allow pìants to makemaximum use of water and soil nutrients.

Nearìy level and moderate slopes enhance infiltrat-ion of water and are less susceptibie to erosion,

North and east facing slopes generaìly have bettermoisture retention and reduced surface tsnperatures.

Toeslopes and bottomlands retain most moisture.

Soiì pH of 6.1-7.8 is preferred for the growth ofmost praìrie plants and crops.

TABLE adapte<l from National Research Counciì SurfNational Academy Press, Washington, 1981, pglJ

Mìn

Unfavorabl e Characteri sti cs

Too much clay decreases water avaiìabilitydue to high matric potential and are difficultto work when wet(more than 60% cìay).Too muchsand produces low water-holding capacity andlow availability of nutrients.Siìts areeasiìy eroded and crust easily.

Lower I evel s inhibit aggregation,lowerinfiltration rates and reduce availabììity ofnutrients.Less than .5% organic matter isu nfavorabl e .

Platy and massive structures are less favorablefor infi ltration,permeability,and rooting.Crusting at surface may ìnhìbit seedìingemergence.Coarse fragments more than 35% ofvolume.Generaì1y below 35% voids is unfavorabìeto most plants.

High values generalìy indicate low aggregation,inhibited root penetration,and low infi ltrationand permeab!lity rates.Generalìy greater than1.6 gms./cmr is detrimental to root penetration

Low capacity means pìant growth is reduced bymoisture stress during periods of drought.InEdmonton,available water storage is rated lowfor a soil with capacity of 5 cm./1.2 meters(plant rootìng depth).

l,rlater moves so slowly that the soil remainswet for a long part of the time.Sandy soilsgenerally have very rapid drainage character-istics while clay soils typically exhibitvery siow downward drainage(possibility ofponding or rapid surface runoff).

Low infiltration increases runoff and erosionand decreases moisture in soil.

Very low permeabì1ìty may mean less availablewater if associated with restricted rootingdepth or high clay.Very high peñneability maymeôn water is not retained in upper levels ofthe soil profììe.Generaìly permeability ratesof less than .5 cm./hr. or greater than15 cm./hr. are unfavorable.

Very stoney soils seriously impede cultivationand installation of infrastructure.Increasednumbers of stones reduce the volume of soilthat plants can extract nutrients andmoisture from.

Restricted depth reduces water and nutrientsavailable to plants.

Flat slopes and depressìons drain poorly and i

thus Iimit availability of oxygen to roots.SÈeep slopes allow less water to enter thesoil and are more prone to erosion.

South and west facing sìopes generally have. lower moisture retention and higher surfacetemperatures.

Naffow flidge tops retain least moisture.

A soil pH less than 5.0 and greater than 8,5is unfavorable for the growth of manyprairie pìants and crops,

Infomation added from:

- U.S.D.A. Forest Service, User Guide to Soils, 1979, pg. 25- l'lanitoba Department of AsFî¡¡iffiéTfrãñïto-Eã- Soils airã rheir Manaqemenr.- fç99losv consultants, Soil survey anffistudy Area; Edmonton

L>t a.- Michalyna, Gardiner, Podolsky, Soils of the l,{innipeg Region Study Area; Prepared for Province

of Manitoba Municìpaì Planning

72

9) Soil Reaction (pH): Th js refers to the deqree of al kal.inìty or.acidity in the soi'l . It is dependent on the hydrogen jon (H+) activ.ityor concentration in the soil. Soil reaction is expressed in terms of pH

onascalefrom0toT4. ApHofl - 7 is considered acid,7 isneutral , whiìe 7 - 14 is alkaline. The intensity of reaction 'increases

ten times with each unit in pH (j.e. a pH of nine is ten times asalkaline as pH B).

Ïhe soì ubi ì 'ity and avai I abi 1 i ty of man.y ìmportant pl ant nutri entsis closeìy related to pH. As the alkalinity of a soil increases, theavail ab'i I ìty of certain pì ant nutrjents may decrease. pl ants and

microorganisms function best at a certa'in pH. For example, cereal cropsgrow best in medium acid to mi'ldly alkaline soi1s.74 Most trees prefera soil pH of between 5.5 to 7.0 unless adapted to the site.75 seeTABLE 19 for a chart outlining the soil factors which may affect pìantgrowth.

13-4 Reconstructed soil Properties of rypicar Mined soils

A mined soil refers to the resultant surface material after miningin which pìants are grown. This may either be reshaped raw overburden,or overburden covered with a subsoi ì /topso'i'l mixture. M'ined soi I sreplaced upon the quarry floor and backsìopes are obviously not the same

as the virgin soils they were prior to quarrying. They are now an

unorganized mass of materi al whose soj I properties have beendramat'ica'l 'ly al tered i n the fol I ow.i ng ways :

1) Soìl Texture. Mined soils may be made finer due to the mixture ofsubso'il and topsoi'l l ayers. Transl ocated cl ay partìc1es wj I I be

reintroduced to soil surface 1 ayers which may cause decreased waterinfiltration with increased water runoff.

74 Munitoba soils p. 19.

!?--0,. Piro¡e, Tree Maintenance_ (New york:0xford universìty press,1965), p. 18.

73

If overburden is mixed with the soil mixture, coarse part'icles and

stones may be added to the surface plant rootìng zone. Mixìng alsoleads to lower levels of organic materiaìs, which may cause decreasedseed germinatjon and reduced seedl i ng vi abi I i ty rates.76

2) Soi I Structure. The soil structure ofdestroyed due to the mixinq of horizons.TTmatter, there i s a weaker aggregation ofcontribute to reduced infi ltration ratescapac'i fi.78

mined soils is complete'ly

Due to red uced org an'ic

soil particles which may

and reduced water-holdinq

3) Soil Compaction. Increased compaction of thetypically causes the following:

soi I due to mach'inery

a) increased bulk densities at the surface.T9 Bulk densities werejncreased 54 percent on Montana reconstructed soils (compared tonati ve range soi I s) .

b) bulk densities may be lower than normal on lower levels whilebeing hìgh at the surface.S0 The bulk density of looselyspread so'il was 1.2 grams/cr3 co*pared with 2 grams/cm3 when thesame soi I was compacted by the rear wheel s of a wheelscraPer.Sl

If large quantjtjes of so'il are rep'laced in one operation, lowerlayers of the soil may not rece'ive compaction, creating vojds orcavities in the soi I . Thi s wi I I serve to reduce the soi I 's moi stureholding-abi'lity as water will drain rapidìy at depth.82

lu l. 14. M.acy.f , ''The Relationsh'ip of soils to Reclamatjon in the GrandeC.ashg-Area", Sdl Conservation. Rcq]amation and Research; proceedings ofthe Al berta s n-'p.

' iãã:"

77 t¡:¿.78 National Research

79 tui¿.

8o rui¿.

Councjì, Surface Mining, p. 138.

N. Pollack "sand and Gravel Restoration", Research paper universìtyGuelph, p. 4.

Nat'ional Research Counci I , Surf ace Mjning, p. 13g.

81

of

82

/4c) h'igh bulk densìty may impede root penetration.S3 Crop root

penetrat'ions are'severe'ly restricted wjth bulk dens.ities of 1.6gms/cm3 or more.84

d) a decrease jn soil pore space lowers the jnfiltratìon rate ofwater into the soil and therefore increases surface runoff andpond'ing.

infiltration rates were 60 -90% h'igher on native range soilsthan on reconstructed mine soirs in Montana.S5 Altogether morethan 1.5 times more water moved through range soils than throughmine reconstructed soils.86In general , the higher the water content and the fi ner thetexture of the materi a], the greater the potenti al forovercompaction.

4) Available Soil þlater Storage. Due to reduced infjltration of watercaused by surface compaction, crusting, and reduced water hoìdingcapacity at depth (due to large voids in uncompacted lower layers), theavai I able water storage of reconstructed soj ls wj I I almost assuredlydecrease from their undisturbed values. Shallow soils in the Stonewallarea have been observed as beìng seasonally droughty even before quarryact jvi fi.87

5) soil Drainage. If care is not taken during the grad.ing operations,ìow ìying shaìlow soiìs may become seasonaìly ìnnundated with high waterlevels. If saturation of so'ils pers'ists, vegetation wìl I be severeìyhindered from establjshing upon those sites.

83 iUi¿; and Mozuraitis and Maclntosh.

84 Mozu.aitis and Maclntosh.

85 National Research Council, Surface Mining, p. 13g.

86 tuio.87 Nicha'lyna, Gardiner,

e)

f)

Area (Winnìpeg: Manìtobaand Podolsky, Sojls of the Winnipeq Reqion StudvMunìcipal Pl a

75

6 ) Stonj ness. The

pr i or to q u arry'i ng

i ncreas i ng ì y stony 'if

7 ) Soi I Depth. ifp'l ant root i ng depths

shallow soils of the Stonewalì region are stony

operat i ons . Reconstructed soi I s may be made

the overburden i s mi xed wi th the so i I 'l ayers .

th'i n I ayers of so'i I are p1 aced over so I i d bedrock,

will be restricted.

8) Rel'ief. Due to the nature of'the quarry, varyìng slope aspects and

grad'ients wil I be developed, which may cause hiqh variab'il'ity in the

vegetative cover. Optimumn growth rates will typìcaì1y be recorded on

gentle north-east facing slopes.88 Poorest growth rates wil I typìcaì lybe recorded on south-west facjng slopes.

13.5 Characteristics of Limestone Quarries as Growing Mediums

Limestone is almost pure calcium carbonate which makes quarries

seemingly very hostile to any type of plant establishment. However,

despÍte the lack of some bas'ic nutrients, calcium carbonate itself isnot toxic nor inhospìtable to pì ant growth.89 Despite its largemagnesium component, dolomite possesses similar physica'l characteristicsas limestone.

Limestone ('includìng do'lomite) decomposes very s'lowìy and generaì'ly

produces rocky soils of low fertility.90 The pH is not extreme,

typicaìly less than pH 8 91 (moderately alkaline soils range from pH

7.g to 8.4),92 and should not cause any major problems for pìantgrowth. The main problems with limestone and their corresponding soilsserving as a growing med'ium are as follows:

88 National Research Counciì, Surface M'ining, p.138.

89 R. D.Bl ackwel I

90 H. Schiechti, B'ioengineerinq for Land Reclamation and Conservatjon(Edmonton: Univers

91 Bradshaw and Chadwick, sect'ion L0.2.

92 Man'itoba Soils.

Bradshaw and M. U. Chadwick, The Restoration of Land (Oxford:Scient'ific Publ ications, 1981ffi

76

1) Severe to Sl'ight Deficiencies in Plant Macronutrjents: TABLE 20

provides a list of plant macronutrjents and expìa'ins thejr relativeimportance to p'lant growth. Limestone soils typ'ically show a severedeficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus, and a s1 ight deficiency ofpotassium.93 Phosphorus is locked up jn the form of apatities, which

makes jt unavai I able j n most p1 ants other than spec'i a] ìy adapted

calcicoles.94 Genera'l'ly, nitrogen will be the ljm'iting factor ìn plantproductivity, whjle phosphorus js frequentìy the ììmiting factor inplant establishment.95 Most Manitoba soils have sufficient potassìum

for maximum plant growth.96

The h'igh magnesium level jn dolomite deveìoped soils may cause a

severe reductjon in cal ci um ions avaj I able to the pì ant. In severecases, the soil may develop too many m'ineral salts (such as calcium and

magnes'ium) which can cause a sal ine so'il condition toxic to many

p'lants. A calcium / magnesjum ration exceeding 1:10 may be toxic.97

2) Deficjencies of Plant Micronutrients: The alkaline nature of theseso'il s frequent'ly makes iron ions unavail able to some pì ants, caus'ing

iron chlorosis. If a pìant is growing'in an alkaline soil (above pH 7),there js a strong possib'iì ity that it wil I suffer from iron def ic'iencyand that its leaves will become chlorotic.9S Iron may be present jnthe sojl but not jn a form that can be absorbed by the plant. Amur

Maple Acer gjnnala is very susceptible to this conditjon.

3 ) Poor to Nonex j stent So ì I Structure: Poor so j I structure ofrecontoured quarry floors may cause a major defic'iency jn the potentiaìrevegetatjon of these sojls. Many pìant nutrients cannot remain jn thesoi I zone usef ul to vegetation. in a deveì oped so'i1 , there 'is a

93 Bradshaw and Chadwick, section 10.2

Ibid.

User Gujde to Vegetation (U.S.D.A. Forest Servìce,

96 Manitoba Soils, p. 65.

User Gujde to Veqetation, p. 62.

Pirone, p.18.

94

95

97

98

1979), p.60.

Nitroqen (N)

Plant Symptoms ('lack of N) .. sìckly yellow colour... slow and dwarfed growth.

Phosphorus (P)

Mi cronutri ents BoronManganese .

CopperZi nc

TABLI 20

PLANT MACRONUTRIENTS AND THEIR IHPORTANCE TO VEGETATION

- reguìates plant growth.. if in excess-Plant grows too fast with a poor root deveìopment (may damage roots)... when deficient- Plant growth is stunted.

- Nitrogen deficiency is usuaìly a. ìimiting factor ìn plant productivity.- Nitrogen is the most mobile of the macroñutrients and can i-ead'ily be ieached from rain or

snokmel t.- Fertiiizer in the form of organic nitrogen can only be made available to plants after it is

decomposed by soi l micro-organisms (priñcipaì ly baèteria).- Legumes,such as clover,_fix_atmospheric nitrogên (when iñnoculated with bacter.ia) and makeit available in the soil. Njtrogen is contained in the organic matter - but it is insolubleand therefore unavailable to plants. Bacteria releases thã nitrogen from orgañìc-o,atiÃr.

.. dry'ing up of leaves (from bottom upwards).

- stimulates root growth.- hastens maturation of pìant tissue.- Phosphorus deficiency may be the fimiting factor in plant establishment.- Phosphorus as used b¡'the plant is in thã form of phàsphates (P205j *üiðh a". very inrnobile.Therefore' this nutrient should be worked into the soii or arôun'¿"inÀ root-tõnå-òï ánïvegetation. (2)- Phosphorus ferti'ljzation_has a long-lasting effect so there may need to be onìy 1 p application- Phosphorus is scarce or 'locked up (unavailãbìe) .in unweathered-material

Plant symptoms (lack of P) .. p'lant is retarded in al'l stages of growth... purplish ìeaves, stems, and branchei... slow growth and maturity... 'low yields of seed.

Potassium (K) - promotes pìant's abiìÍty to resist disease.- aga!! susceptible to leaching.- appiied in the form of potasñ (KrO).- It must be present in the manufaðture of sugars and starches and theiÉ subsequent use by the

- filli',i..rroba soils have sufficient available potassium for maximum crop production.(3)

Calcium - It is essential for growth and cell division. (2)- It overcomes the effects of excess amounts of âlúminum and iron salts. (2)- favors development of beneficial bacteria. (Z)- abundant in limestone formed soils (calcium'cárbonate).

Hasnesiun : å¡ffrllr,i; ålîHii:'?:H:..:"îi:'?;;ü:,îifl ¿:j.;:iij:.ì consrituent of chìorophvil. (2)

Sulphur - constituent of plant proteins. (2)- 0nlv form of sulohur which is water soìuble and available to plants, is the sutphate ion(soq). (3)- S0¿ is made available in the soil through the.dissolution (and oxidation if required) ofsulphur containing minerals. (3)- It is released from organic matter as it is decomposed. (3)

Plant symptoms ('lack of suìphur) .. leaves cupped and turn purplish in colour... manifested dur.ing eariy growth stages.

i ronMolybdenumChl ori neSodi um

(r(2(3(4

U.S.D.A. Forest Service, User Guide to Veqetation, pg. 56u.J.u.ñ. ruresL Jer-vlce, user uulqe Eo veqgtatlon. oo. 56Pirone, P., Trçe Maint_ela@eii, põ. SOl4ani to ba DepãFñ-enT-Tffiu I ture, Ha ni to ba Só i I

Soupces:

U.S.D.A. Forest Service, User, pg. 61

77

ìong-term suppìy of plant nutrients as well as a labile pool from which

p'lants may draw nutrients when required. In a reconstructed sojl ofoverburden, neither is present. Many pìant nutrients are leached out ofthe soil by prec'ipìtatìon, whjle there is no organic matter present tostore the nutrjents.99 N'itrogen, for exampìe, js read'i1y leached out

of the plant root zone. If such nutrients are not util ized immed'iate'ly

by the p'lant, they wi1ì be quìckly rendered unavajlable.

4) Poor Soi I Moi sture Holding Abi l'ity. (Poor Soi I Texture): Large

sol id part'icles with jn these overburdens and soil s (many above '10 mm. indjameter) are too ìarge to hold water by capillarity, while low levelsof organic matter are not present to absorb and hold moisture beneath

the soil surface.l00 These types of soils are susceptib'le to severe

drought and make p'lant establishment rÍsky, since a reliable source ofwater will be requ'ired in the plant's early stages of growth. A soiltexture must be below .2 mm. to provide good soil moisture holdingability.101 Clay so'ils, for examp'le, possess high moisture storableability.

Soil permeabi'lity js also a factor as l'imestone overburden willtypica'l'ly possess high permeabil ity rates. Flooding, then, w'i'll not be

a prob'lem. If , however, c'lays are ut j I ized for the quarry

rehabilitat'ion, they are fine textured, causìng low permeab'ility which

may cause. spring flood'ing condili6¡5.102

5) H'igh Surface Sojl Temperatures: Due to the unprotected soilsurfaces (void of vegetat'ion or cover) on quarry floors, soi'ì

temperatures during daylight hours will generaìly be higher than on

simj I ar protected so'i I surfaces. Surface temperatures on sand and

99 Bradshaw and Chadwick, section 5.5.

100 t¡i¿.101 1s1¿.

102 g5s¡ Guide to Soils (U.S.D.A. Forest Service, 1979), p. 56.

/óqravel spoils may reach 40'C.103 Combined with the moisture reducingabilities of the w'ind, new'ly-establjshed plants will suffer from

increased stress in these conditions. Further establishment of plantswou'ld have a modjfying influence on the microcljmate of the immediate

environme¡¡.104

6) High Surface Soil Compaction: Quarry floors and the overburden

spread over them will frequently be compacted by the heavy constructionequipment utjl ized. Compaction can cause the reduction or totalb'lockage of vegetation root penetratie¡.105 Plant establjshment can be

ljteral'ly negated from sojl surfaces which are heavily compacted.

L03 5ç¡s11ig, p. L6?.

104 G. Robinette, Plants, People and Environmental QualjtyU.S. Department of

105 User Gujde to Soi1s, p. 64.

(Wash'i ngton:

4

FICURE 12

Ripping-Bedrock Flôor

Laying Down Topsoil'

Ripping Topsoil

Fertilizing

Harrowing

Seeding

B Hydromulching

REHABILITATION

-Disking

TECHNTQUES OF

79

TECHNICAL REHABILITATION CUIDELINES

14.1 Purpose

One of the major prob'lems of current rehabilitation practice wjthinNorth America is that rehabilitation techniques are seldom documented,

and their rel ative costs, successes, or fai I ures remain unreported.Therefore, poor rehabilitation techn'iques may be unknowingly repeated,

while good methods remajn unheralded and unavailable to others.

The purpose of th'is sect jon is to document technical rehabi l'itationguide'lines. The benefits of documentatjon are twofold;

1) It provides a guide for the rehab'iljtation of crushed limestonequarri es .

2) It provides an information base to whjch more relevant ordetailed information can be added (or information deleted), as

new techniques are discovered and successfully appìied.

Because a discussion of techn'ical rehabilitation guidelìnes would

requ'ire a top'ic in and of Ítse'lf, I have limited my dìscussion to thatof the techniques of revegetation of crushed limestone quarries.

14.2 Selection of Revegetation Species

One of the most critical steps'in the rehabil'itation process is theselect'ion of the plant species to be ut jl'ized on the site. The

consul tant must fi rst be famj I i ar with the I egal requirements ofrevegetat'ion. Legal requirements can be cons'idered the mjnjmum standard

for rehabilitation revegetation plans. The Manitoba RehabilitatjonRegu'lation s'impiy requìres that vegetation cover be establ i shed that isappropriate to the area.106 Probably the most important factor jn

106 Manitoba Quarrying Minerals Regulation 226176, Being a Regu'lationunder own Minerals

-and the

Rehabilitation of Commercial Quarries.

BO

spec'ies sel ection wi I I be the ident jf icat'íon of the f utureland-management goals for the site. For example, if the area js to be

rehabilitated for livestock grazìng, then the selected specìes shou'ld be

palatable and useful for:age species.107

Despite the knowìedge of these first important criterÍa, correctspec'ies selectjon will be a difficult task for the constultant. Correctrevegetation of the sjte js essential for providing the area with a

permanent vegetative cover whjch wil I prevent erision and wil Ieventual 1y return the site to an ecologicaì ly productive state. Forthese reasons species selection should also involve the analysis of thefoì ìow'ing'interacting params¡s¡5. 108

1) Rehabilitation Value of the Species: This may 'include

bjotechnjcal aspects of the specìes. For exampìe, deep-rooting pìantsare valuable for sìope stabilization. Nitrogen-fixing plants may alsobe val uable for rehabi I itation. Most legumes have the abi I jty to fj x

atmospheric nitrogen and transform it into a pìant soluble form.

2) Nature of the Site: Plants must be adapted to:a) the soil (edaphic) condjtjons of the site. soijs followìng

re-establ j shment on the quarry s'ite are usual ly not so j I s 'in a

pedol ogìcal sense, but in'iti a]'ly on'ly dead substrates or raw

m'ineral 5qi1s.109 The texture, depth, fertìì'ity, permeabiìity,water-retention capacìty, and pH of the soii must be analyzed.

107 User Guide to Vegetat'ion, p. 13.

108 ps¡ a complete di scussion of species select'ion for rehabi'lìtatìon,see user Gu'ide !g_vegetation, pp. 14-15; s. B. Lowe, Trees and ShrubsIor bi'ljtation of pjts and Qffi

nr' parker,qld Po'lster, Manual of Species Su'itab'ility for Reclamation in Albertá(tdmont_on, Al b

4--5; sch'iecht, p. 163; and vegetation for the Rehabiljtatjon of pitsand Quarrjes in 0ntario (ToronW109 5¡çiechti, p. 65.

B1

b) the cl imatic condit'ions of .the site, incì udìng precipìtat'ion,local temperatures, and wind velocities.

c) the slope condjtions, whjch may determine the anount of jncident

solar redjatjon received and soil stabil ity.d) the aspect conditions wh'ich may determine the solar radiatjon

'load, the growi ng season, and the amount of dayì i ght.

3) Ease of Propagation: Some spec'ies establish much more easily than

others.

4) Mechanical Limjtat'ion: Some spec'ies requìre specific plantingrequirements whjch may be unsuitable for certain areas within the site.

5) Time of Plant'ing: If p'lantÍng js restricted to a specific timeof the year, it may el im'inate species wh'ich should not be planted atthat time.

6) Specìes Compaticility: When plantìng a mixture of specìes,care must be taken not to p'lant competing spec'ies. For example, when

annuals and perennials are mixed, onìy 10 percent or less annuals should

be used as they may outcompete perennl¿1s.110

7) Seed and Seedì ings Avail abiì ity and Cost: It js difficult toget seed for many species of grasses, forbs, and native shrubs, whileother species are cost prohjbitive.

8) Nutrient and Maintenance Requirements: Some species wil Irequire more nutrition and maintenance than others.

9 ) Res i stance to Di sease and i nsects: Many nat'i ve spec i es are

susceptjble to both djsease and insect jnfestations.

110 User Guide to Vegetation, p.15.

82

0ne of the easjest and most effective methods of determining

species selection is to observe old guarries that have been recolonizedby native vegetation. This process provides us with a list of species

that are naturally adapted to the conditions of a limestone quarry. By

util ìzing the primary ( 1ow end) successional species which actìve1ycolonize within quarries, one would almost be assured of a successfu'l

revegetation program. Little Mountain Limestone Quarry (operation

ceased 1906 ) 111 i s one of the best I ocat ions to study the

recol oni zat'ion of a I imestone quarry.

A general comparison could also be made between the s'ite to be

revegetated and a simi I ar condition. For example, highway shoul ders

possess circumstances comparabìe to those of quarry floors, in that both

are 'infertiìe, highìy compacted, and hìgh1y exposed sjtes. Plantspec'ies that thrive on h'ighway shoulders (especi al ly those beside

Highway No. 7 in the Rockwood Regìon) may well be considered for use

within limestone quarries.

Acutecologica'l specìes lists and tables that compare specìes siterequ'irements in rel ation wì'th one another, are al so of benefit when

selectìng specìes for the different microsites with'in a quarry.

Further, plant association ljsts wjll heìp the consultant jn se'lectingspecies which are compatable within an ecologica'l community (i.e., are

the species found in assocjatjon wjth one another in nature?).

A genera'l rule of thumb'is that the more severe the site, the more

species-rich the site should be pìanted. Species-rich ecosystems are

typica'lìy healthier, more stab'le, and more resistant to damage and

disturbances than those which are specìes-poo¡.112

111 B. Bannatyne Industri alMi neral Resources Di vi s i on ) .

112 5ç¡iechtì, p. 163.

Minerals Geologist's Fjle (Winnipeg:

83

0rnamental or introduced spec'ies can be util jzed as 'long as theyare "adapted" to the sjte. Adaptabiì ity ìs intimately tied to theabilìty of a p'lant to complete its entire life cycle and to reproducejtself'from'year to year over a 'long perjod.l13

Nat'ive pì ant materi al should I i kewi se be scrutinized for its"adaptabiljty" for use on a site. Many so-called native spec'ies qrow inthe ac'idjc sojls of the canadian Shjeld and would probably be

unacceptable for use in the alkaline soils found in the region of theI imestone quarri es.

A useful guìde for the selectjon of pìant material is ManitobaPublicatjon #277, Recommended List of Ornamental rrees. Shrubs

cl imbers, and Ground covers for Manitoba. This pamph'let should be

uti l'ized in conjunction with consultation w'ith a profess'ional nurseryman (preferab'ly a nursery grower) or seed supplìer, and reference to theinformation provìded in this study. Combined; the consultant shouldthen be capable of providìng a planting pìan whjch will be suitable forthe stated objective of the site. see TABLE zI for a qujde to theselectjon of specifìc species for revegetation.

14.3 Seìection and Techniques of Revegetation

As the plant species are being selected, a simultaneousdeterm'ination must be made as to the type of pìant material to be used.

Types of Plant Material suitable for use jn Quarry Rehabiljtatjon

Seed s

Bare-Root Stock

Containerized Seedl ings

Cutt i ngs

Spnigs (Ti'l'lers)Rh i zomes

Pl ugs

Wildf ings

113 User Guide to Vegetation, p. 14.

Potential

Erosion Control0.,L,,crOLIot--

!òoJoLô

Soil Fertility

Can retard soil erosion

Can retard soil erosion

Can retard so.il erosion

a¡nage

I cl

lïl -c.99-c

E.=']CoE

-oA).E(!-o

àooo.

Fibrous root systemModerates sod. Formerprovides fast cover.

DrSoil

3o

Soil Texture

-ooL'õL-o-!0)ì

Sod builder, deep rooter,extensive rhizomotous roots

Good for poor sites

Excellent erosion control,deep rooter,extensìve roots

Dense rhizomatous sod, fastcover rate

'Ìf,oL'5C'o)ú.

c.9ct

:ãUoo-

o

oG'U

tr

tr

tr

D

n

tr

!tr

ntr

n

n

n

tr

!

n

n

n

tr

tr

nn

Crowth Habl

t,

High soìl stabilizingpotential may be used onsì opes .

Tough and coarse roots,exceìlent erosion control

ELrd6

oIcoa>

Ic

Advantages & Constraints

ooo()

o

n

Drought tolerantNot droueht tolerantModeratö tolerance

o?o\.2

tr

!tr

ntr

n

75-125

Can be used in rotation to prevesoil erosion

Fast establishing cover crop-retards soil erosion.'

Fast establishing cover crop-retards soil erosion

. Table 21

RTVECETATION

SPECIES SETECTION

CUIDE

,1

n

erect tufted30-60 cm. tall

()

Erect nedium sodformer 30-60 cm.tal I

loose tufted sodformer

o

Rapid seedling growth,fast cover-nurse crop retards soil erosion.

erect tuftedbunchgrass 50-70cm. taìldense sod-former30-80 cm. tall

tr

T!IlqRAEI_.984ssgs

Barl eyHordeum vulgare

0atsAvena satlva

pref

Useful on dry,sandy,shady areas.

sod,former 30-60cm. tall

tufted bunchgrasto 100 cm.

tufted bunchgras60-100 cm.

Good slope stabilizer,large deeproots,suitable on dry slopes.

30-45

Prefers loamy soilsRequires well-drained soils

Requires low to med¡um fertile soils

RyeSecaìe cereale

Perennlal RyegrassLollum perene

One of the best grasses for poor'ldrained soils, remains. green.

Requires high fertil ity,highylelding ability,draws on soil

PERHANENT GRASSES

Canada BluegrassPoa compressa

Creeping Red FescueFestuca rubra

Crested l,lheatgrassAgropyron cristatum

Kentucky EluegrassPoa pratensis

l,Jestern llheatgrassAgropyron smithii

Tal I FescueFestùca elatior

Orchard GrassDactylis glomerata

IEçENq

Table 21

REVECETATION

SPECIES SETECTION

CUIDE

Advantages & Constraints

Timothy&l-eum_pr¡!s$g

Reed Canary GrassPhalaris arundinacea

Smooth Brome8rom1l- l¡qû_s

RedtopAgrosti s al ba

LEGUMES

CrownvetchCoronilla varia

Dutch l.lhite CloverTrifalium repens

Aì fal faMedicaqo sativa

Birdsfoot TrefoilLotus corniculatus

Red CìoverTrifolium pratense

Alsike CloverIrütf+t hvbridum

Sweet CloverI'lelilotus spp.

establ I shes easi ìyrwlthstandssevere grazing,and low seed cost

low land colonizer,does well onpoorly drained land(swamp grass).

early spring growth,good groundcover,good for steep slopes.

Crowth HabitsEo'5oo,Éc.9(It.:.g(J(u

o-

Soil Texture

,.qri"., 2-4 years to establish agood stand.Excellent persistenceonce estabi ished.

shallow root system,suited toshallow soiis.

well adapted to hlgh llme soils,ideal soil improver,excellentforage crop,

on good sltes provides erosioncontrol,adapted to poor soils.

easy to establlsh,rapid growth

potentlal as nurse crop! shortì ived non-spreadlng lelume

excellent soil builder,convertspotassium to more availabìe formin the soil.Soil builder.

erect bunchgrass

tal I ,coarse grass.6 to 1.5 m. talì

tal I ,leafy sod-former

relatlvely lowgrowi ng,erectspecies approx.60 cm. talì

So

!oo5o

E

ocLE

-ocG'tâ

il Dra

Efllo

pref

inage

EI.Elrdl

il

45 cm.or

og(J

ÞO)

.srgL!-]-o)3

o

o

U

Soil Fertility

28or

roo.gctL-o

àLooct

cm.

prefer50 cm.

a low creepingspec i es

slender erectstems up to I m.high.

slmilar to Alfaland range from30 to 75 cm.

erect or spreaditypicalìy 40-80

u n

(¡)UcG'L

-gol---

-coo)oLo

3o

E.=-oc)E

n

Potential

Erosion Control

n

T

u

!o0-c

tr

n

n

oo(2

(,>

n

cm. tall

erect to decumb-ent plant 20-80cm. high

an erect plant.2 to 2.5 m. high

n

iln

tr

o

n

n

rapid soil coverage,.moderate erosion contFol.

needs

o

tr

than30 cm.

45 to135 cm

n

n

()

n

nnual

38-85cm.

deep rooted,good for steepslopes,good grovùth rate,deveiops tight sod,goodsoil stabilizer.good,if adequate moisture,strong rhizomatous habit.

provides erosion contiol onsteep slopes.

tr

!

tr

o

rl

tr

rly

tr

u

rl

n

n

o

n

n

n

o

n

provides dense cover,improves soil structure.

well developed tap-poot,numerous lateral branches.

tap-root and ìateralbranches

tap-root deep and abundant.Used on 70% slopes,widelybranched,soil stabil izer.

good. growth bui lder,creepi ngqrowth form.

rtr

o

n

ö

(,

ö

Table 21

REVECETATION

SPECIES SITECTION

CUIDE

Advantages & Constraints

GROUND COVERS

Connon JuniperJuniperus cormunls

Creeping JuniperJuniperus horlzontal is

I'lugo Pi ne

-8i-!gs rygo

Vlrginia CreeperParthenocissusqufiiueïoTfa

!!8_Uqs

Amur Maple4çgr gi¡¡g-La

Caraga naCaraqana arborescens

Red osier DogwoodCornus stolonifera

Si I verberryEìaeagnus con¡nutata

Tatarian HoneysuckleLonlcera tatarica

PotentillaPotentilla fruiticosa

shows excellent growth in gravelpl ts,toì erates dry, inferti I e,shalìow,high pH solls,preferscoarse soils.tolerant of very dry,rocky,infert.alkaline soils,good growth in

Crowth Habits

graveì pits.

prefers noist soiìs,but tolerateshlgh exposure pH,wind,dust,andnoad salt.tolerates poor soils,slow to leafout but very attractive,outstandignowth in gravel plts

!o':JFoü.c.9rd.g.suoo-

Methods of

Istablishment

I ow,evergreenshrub,growing to1m.

low evergreenshrub,grows to,3 m.

conifer shrubgrowing to 3 m.

susceptible to lime-inducedchl orosi s

fixes nitrogen in the soil,highdrought tolerance,available fromP.F.R.A. Tree Fann

native species,quarry colonlzer,aesthetlc value in winter

fixes nitrogen in soll,adapted todry,a lkal ine,inferti le soll s,maypossibly direct seed plant

adaptable to poor aìkallne solls,prefers moisture

SoilMois

trailing or cling deciduousshrub

ed,seedlings,ormall plants(up to2")b+b or conlalner.

oil Fertility

gated by cutting

I arge,dec . shrubsmall tree-up to5m.

dec. shrub growsto 3m.

decid. shrub,grows to 2m.

E

.by cuttings,seedlings,and trans-

lant(up to 12")b+b

.9oE

prefers fulì sun,tolerates poor drsandy soils and extremes of temps.

contai ner.nsplants(up to 12"

o3

re root,b+b,ornta i ner ,

9-3Ofl.timum slope for establlshment

o

O)ULrÉLgo

t--.

!ÞoJoÕ

ìo

E.=1f

OJ

E

Potential

[rosion Control

o

U

decld. shrub

!Þ,1

from seed,bare root(up to lm.)contalneror b+b(up to 1.6m.)

prp.vegetatively by

o

Zn.

n

IJ

dec. shrub growsto 3m.

tr

o

uttings,or budded orrafted bare root(upo .6m. )

rp. by greenwood cut

n

decld, shrub,to lm.

(l

U

ifffs'bare-root{uP ¡o

n

good cover protection

good cover protection

ossible direct seed,eedl i ngs , suckers ,orare-root(up to .5m)

tr

o

o

p. by cuttlngs,smal

()

ô

lants or bare-rootup to .6m)

al

o

T

p. by greenvrood cutings,small plants,

t)

good climbing habit forsteep sìopes

bare-root(up to.6m)

n

(J

n

ntainer or b+b

o

n

o

!

C

o

n

suckers profusely,pioducesthickets,good soil stabiì izer

spreads by root suckers, andproduces thì ckets ,good soi ìstabi I i zer

good soil stabil jzer,suckers profuseìy

tr

o

o

n

e

C

n

n

tr

tr root systemate potential ,fi brous

Table 21

REVECETATION

SPECIES SETECTION

CUIDE

Advantages & Constraints

sfRUps

SnowberrySj¿nphor"icarpos al bus

Conrnon Li lacïr!¡g¡ vulsari s

NannyberryViburnum lentago

Highbush CranberryViburnum trilobum

Sa s ka toonA¡nelanchier al ni fol ia

Prickly RoseRosa acicularis

Cormon llild RoseRosa woodsli

Bebb !,lillowSai ix bebbiana

Buffa I oberryShepherdia argentea

Buckbru shSymphori carposoccidental i s

tolenant of most condltions lncluding high lime soil,prefers opensites,tolerates coarse texturedrocky soils

slow to estabìlsh,prefers molstsolls,with medium fertll ity

prefers moist or wet mediumfertile solls

prefers good moist soils

Crowth Habits þa).::tooÉ,Lo(ú

,v-.gU(uLo-

Methods of

Establishment

tolerant of moderately alkalinesoils,prefers open sites,lightwell-drained soils

tolerates wide range of soil cond-

decid. shrubing to 1-2m.

itions and textures,found voluning ln Stonewall quarry

decid. shrubgrowing to 3-5m.

decid. shrubgrowing to 3-6m.

SoilMoist

prefers full sun,moister soils,tolerates dry,high pH and limesolls,found volunteering lnStonewall quarry

toìerates moderately alkalinesoil s,tolerates flooding

fixes nitrogen,prefers I ight,welldrained soils,can tolerate poor,moderate alk.soiìs(pH 8-8,4) wellsuited to dry,rocky banks

tolerates moderate alkal inity

di vi sion,hardwood,softwood cuttings,

decid. shrubgrowing to 3m,

ed or grafted,small

il Fertility

ìants(up to .6m)are-root

id. shrub

LE

p. vegetatlvely fcutti ngs , budded ,orgrafted, sm. pl ts (uplm) bare-root

.9oË

ng to 6m.

decld. shrub 0.5to 1.5m. in he

hard to proplgateseed or cuttingssmall plants(up to

(¡,

ì

o

(u(,)crõLO)

ot-IbofoL

o

bare-root

seeds,difficul t

Ìo

decid. shrub0.3 to 2m. inheight

decld. shrub orsmall tree up toItn.

decid. shrub orsmall tree up to5m.

E.=!(¡,

E

o

Potential

Erosion Control

prp.,transplantswelI

seeds,root cuttings,hardwood, softwoodcutti ngs ,recofimendbare stem cuttings

seeds,hardwood tips,

-c.so-c

tr

o

tr

to

o

smal l decid.grows to lm.

o

bare-root cuttlngs,buddi ng , suckers , tra

o

u

good soil stabilizer,suckersprofusely,and producesth i c kets

good potential,suckers

goôd potentiaì suckers

o

plants easiìy

transplants easlly,stsn cuttings orrooted cuttings

prp. from seed,rootcutti ngs , tra nspl antseasi ly

seed,divi si on, hard-wood and softwoodcutti ngs , suckers ,transpl a nts

o

n

o

tr

oo o

iln

o

o

tr

n

o

n

o

tr

o

o

n

goodv sto

o

C

C

soi ìI ons

tr

o

good-rapid spreading byrhizomes and thicket forming.

good-rapid spreading byrhi zones-thicket formi ng,shai ìow,dense roots

good soil stabiìizer,shaìlowdense roots

good soil stabiìizer, formsthi ckets

good soil stabilizer,andthicket former

n

stabilizer,spreadsto form thickets

n

e

tr

o

n

o

o

n

c

o

Table 21

REVECTTATION

SPECIES SETECTION

CUIDE

Advantages & Constraints

TREES

I'lani toba MapleAcer negundo

Si I ver I'lapl eAcer saccharinum

Paper Eirchþlgla papyrifera

Green AshFraxi nus Dennsylvanicavar subintegerrima

TamarackLarix laricina

llhite Sprucel!-çga g.!-e!ga

Jack PinePinus banksiana

Scots PinePinus sylvestrls

Balsam PoplarPopulus balsamifera

Cotton$,oodPopulus del toides

grows almost anywhere(dry,i nferti Ihigh pH soils)recormended onsites with sufficient soil moist-ure

susceptlble to lime inäuced ironchlorosis,grows welì on very wetsites

Crowth Habits

requires reìatively high mainten-ance,susceptible to insects,well-drained soils

-oOJ

.=5cr(uÉ.c.9G'.g.suoCL

prefers weì I -drained soil s,toier-ates dry,low fertility,high pHsolls

prefers molst well-drained soils

Methods of

Establishment

decid. tree upto 8-15m.

decid. tree tol5-25m.

prefers moist well-drained solls,will not perform well on dry siteor exposed sites-needs protection

tolerates calcareous sites,notalkaline sites,but adaptable topoor dry soils

tolerates dry, infertile,high I imesolls,prefers dry sandy sites,notexposed si tes

susceptible to rodent damage,foundvolunteering in Stonewall quarry

often found growing naturally inpits & quarries in eastern Cànada

SoilMoistur

decid. tree tol2m.

conif. tree to15-2â,¡.

conif. tree tol5-25m.

seedì ing,bare-rootup to 3r)unrootedttings,potential f

lrect seeding

Fertility

ed prp.,seedìings,re-root(up to 5')

seed,seedlings,transplants well

coni f.8-zfln.

o

(uUcrgLq)

ot--

-coo

=oLô

sily,seedlings(up5 ' ) bare-root

prp.,transplants

Potential

Erosion Control

o

tree to

conif. tree to10-25m

decid. tree upl2-15m.

decid. tree to15- 20m.

eed prp,seedlings,ransplants(up to 2')ontainer or b+b

o

o

c

n

o

u

o

o

tr

C

n

o

o

o

ed,seedlings(bareor)

tr

o

u

0

(,

good soil stabil izer-good when pìanted ascuttings and grows asa hedge.

tem cuttlngs,trans-lants up to 7'eedlings up to 5'

,seedllngs,root &

n

o

0

n

o

ô

edìings to 3r,bare-

n

o

t hardwood cutting

tt

o

n

good soil stabilizer

good fibrous rootsystem

fair,shal low rootsys tem

poor, unsuit¿bìe

good-especial ly i nsandy areas

u

o

t

u

o

n

o

o

tr

o

!

o

n

o

n

TJ

tr

C

n

fair,shalìow rootsys tem

good,extelsive rootsys tem

Table 21

REVEGETATION

SPECIES SETECTION

CUIDE

Advantages & Constraints

TREES

Trernbling Aspen

þpg-lgs trenuloides

Hybrid PoplarsPopqlus sp.

Pin CherryPrunus pennsylvanica

ChokecherryPrunus virginiana

Eastern l.lhite CedarThuja occidentalis

Siberian Elm!l-l-Ugs !.gmila

Laureì Leaf l,li I .low-

Acute l,lilìowSaì ix sp(pentandral

(äcuti fol iá )

tolerates poor dry sltes-willvolunteer in quarries

short-ìived under arid conditions(20-2s years)

toìerates dry lnfer"tlle sites

Crowth Habits -oo.=(toú.tr.9I(g.:.s(Joô-

prefers noist well-drained sitessusceptible to black knot dlsease

prefers moist soiìs,tolerant ofdry,high ì ime,infertile soil s

prefers welì-drained soils,tolerainfertil e,dry,al kal ine soil s,tolerant of dust and salt

prefers moist well-drained sites-ìaureì willow susceptible tochìorosis.

Methods of

Establishment

decld, tree up12-15m.

decid. tree up15-25m.

s0uRCES: - Alberta Land conservation and Reclamation councll, I,lanual of pìant speciesSuitable for Reclamation in Aìberta;

-

Volume I Grasses

Report # RRTAc B0-5, ,nX8tu*t 2 Forbes, shrubs, and Trees

liä"¿,];,?;; i- Coates, H. E., Screen plantinqs for pits and Quarries; Aggregate producers

Association of @- Ministry of Natural Resources, vlgetation for the Rehqþilitation of pits andQuarries¡ Forest Management Bra

SoilMoist

decid. shiub ortree,grows up to4- 5m.

seedrseedlings,bare-root(up to 5' ),rootcutti ngs , transpl ants

oil Fertility

reen cutti ngs

ùn.

decid. tree up15m.

if. tree up to

decid.12-l 5m.

o

q,(Jc(g

O)

ot--

-cboloLo

seed, seedllngs

transplants(up to 2'

Potential

Erosion Control

tree up

o

o0!

seed propigated,bareroot(up to 3')seedl i ngs

o

tr

o

o

tr

ô

tti ngs

n

o

tr

o

o

tr

o

good soil stabiì izer,butshal low wide-spreadì ngroot systen

good soi ì stabi ì i zer butshallow wide-spreading root

tr

o()

o

tr

o

o

n

o

n

o

n

o

tr

n n

for soil stabil ity

Cvery good,strong ìateraìroots, but shallow

very good,many lateta.¡ rootson sui tabì e si tesIJ

TABLE 22

TEMPORARY SIEDING GUIDE (NORTHERN MICHIGAN)

Types of Seed

Spri nc OatsAvena sat'iva

Bar'leyHordeum vulgare

Domestic Ryegrass

RyeSecale cereale

Perennial RyegrassLol ium perene

WheatTriticum aestivum

0ats/Barl ey

Domestic Ryegrass

Rye

Perennial Ryegrass

l,lheat

.e kg. (2 lbs)

.2 kg. (% tus¡1.4 kç1. (3 lbs).2 kg. (r'. I bs )

1.4 kg. (3 lbs)

3 bushel s

9 - l'l .3 kg (20-25 lbs)2 - 3 bushels

e - ll.3 kg (20-25 lbs)2 - 3 bushels

Recommended Plantinq Season

April May June Juiy August Sept. Oct.

Rate of Appl 'ication: per/9J sq .m. per acre(per/l 000 sq. ft. )

Source: Beckett, Jackson, Raeder Inc., Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Control;Environmental Design press, Res

X X

Ä X

^ ^

X

X X

TABLE 23

ONTARIO MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS ROADSIDE STANDARD

Seed M'ixture: The following standard grass mixture should be sown at B0 lbs./acre(e0 Kg/ha).

Creeping Red FescueFestuca rubra L.

Kentucky Blue GrassPoa pratensis L.

Red TopAglost'i s al ba L.

Companion Crop*

White Dutch CloverTrifolium repens L.

55% Perrnanent Grass

25% Permanent Grass

5% Short-lived interim grass,germjnatesquickly, reseeds itself.

I2% May be increased if hydroseeded.

3% May be increased for heav'ier sojls.

May be mixed 50/50 or 25.75 with prev'ious blend.Remains green under adverse summer conditions, plusgreens up quickly after mowing.

Suggested selection of Creeping Red Fescue reportedto perform well on north and east facing banks,shade tolerant, excel'lent spreading habit, droughttolerant, persists better on low fertility soi'ls.

May be util'ized instead of Kentucky Blue Grass.

Farr seedins* ll.r';ilïï"1'r;rli]îrrr:l::, by the addition of 1 bu. wheat/a*e,

Spri ng Seedi ng 1.5 bu./acre of oats.

Source: Ontario MÍnistry of Natural Resources,_Vegetation for the Rehabilitationof Pits and Quarries in Ontario; pg. 17

ooortronuil: The following were suggested amendments to the MTC StandardSeed Mixture.

Tal I FescueFestuca elatiorffi-arun'ãilãõea

Creep'ing Red FescueFestuca rubra L.Eñ'ñTãwnETõct'i on

Canada Blue GrassPoa compressa L.

Source: Tucker, P.,"Vegetatìve Methods of Slope Stabilization"; Paper presentedat 3rd. Annual Workshop of the Ontario Cover Crop Committee, 1974, pg.b

The Ontario MTC has the respons'ibility to establish low cost, high quality roadsideplant communities that are ecologicaì'ìy tuned, easy to majntain, and that meetsafety standards.

RECOMMENDED STONEWALL

Creep'ing Red FescueFestuca rubra L.

Kentucky Blue GrassPoa pratensis L.

Annual Rye Grass_Seçg_]_e cereale L.

Whíte Dutch CloverTrifolium repens L.

Method of Application:

TABLE 24

AREA GRASS SETD MIXTURES FOR LIMESTONE QUARRIES

40% germínates quickly 10-14 days,excellent sod former,grows weìl on poor soíls,shade tolerant,extensivefíbrous root system,good soii builder,droughttol erant

40% germìnates slow'ly 2I-30 days,does well on soils ofI imestone orig'in,good soil former,excel lent grassfor soil erosion when under favorable conditions.

15% yery fast germinat'ing 7 days,acts as a nurse cropfor the rest of the mixture.5% preparatory crop,provides turf-like cover,nìtrogen

fix'ing legume,we'll suited to shallow soils,one ofthe best 'legumes to use on poor soiì beds.

Seeding Rate: 200-400 lbs./acre (200 lbs. on quarry floor,400 lbs. on quaryybacksl ope ) .

Fertilizer Application: 1. with seeding: 11-48-0. High phosphorus content forbetter root growth.

2. after well establishe4: 11-48-0. Keeps grass green,@urface of p'lañi

"íli-noi g"o*rap'id1y,so requires less cutting.

Best Method - Seed dri l IÃjso__loÞSle - Broadcasting - Suggest broadcast.ing withfertilizer & then hamowing'into the ground.

'Cos'[: Seed (f 982 price ) gïCl1b. or" $196.00 - $392.OO/acre.Maintenance: You would have to mow this mixture a coup'le of times a sunrner to

promote dense turf..If not mowed, Quack Grass, Agropyron repens L.would probably .invade

Steep Slope Grass Seed MíxtureAcld: Annua'ì Rye Grass lgqale cereale L. with the standard grass seed mixture at

gPprox. 1 bu./acrãIAînuil@ acts as a nurse crop fõr grass m1xtures, àsit germinates quickly {7 days) lF provi_des a stabì'lizinõ ioot growth. Lesscompetitjve than Annual 0ats, which'would out-compete thé grass mjxtures.Harrow across the face of the s'lope and not down the slò[e"face.

Quack Grass Agropyrgn repensnardy' pers'rstent weed-l'ike pìant will grow almostiñffiEFe,=ã¿[availability, but relativeìy cheap. (lgge price) sooTiu. -

L. , verysubject to

Recommended Grass Sod tstabl ishment

-

)recommendsestabljshingtheentireareatobereclaimed wÍth the Pasture or Hay Seed Mixtures and mãintain the pasture tor aminimum of 3 growing seasons. By then,there should be a layer of 3, - 4" oftopsoil in which to establish the grass seed mixtu.e. plow-pasture under anddirect seed or broadcast the new mixture into this.

Soglqe:personaì conversation with Lloyd Dick, Brett Young Seeds Ltd., May 1982.

TABLE 25

MANITOBA DEPARTMINT OF HIGHi^JAYS STANDARD SEED MIXTURE FOR HIGHI^JAY NO. 7

Right - of - l,Jays Around Stonewall

The folìowing standard grass mixture was sown at 20 rbs./acre.

Bromegrass 35%

üomus inermis Leyrs

Creepi ng Red Fescue Z0%

Festuca rubra L.

Meadow Fescue ZO%

Festuca elatior L.

Timothy IS%

lhleum pratense

Alsike Clover IO%

Trifol ium hybrjdum

Fertilizer was initjalìy applied at 100 lbs./acre (no spec'ific fertilizer mixturewas suggested although 5 - 20 - 10 was utilized extensive'ly for in'itjal fertiìizingin Ontario).

Source: Personal communication with Don Mattson, Manitoba Department ofH'ighways , Di stri ct IZ Engi neer, May IggZ.

TABLE 26

MILTON QUARRY ONTARIO STANDARD SETD MIX

30%Creeping Red Fescue

Festuca rubra L.

Perennial Ryegrass

lglllim perenne

Kentucky 81 uegnass

Poa pratensis L.

Kentucky 31 Fescue

Annual Ryegrass

Secale cereale L.

Red Top

Agrostis alba L.

Permanent Grass

Permanent Grass

Permanent Grass

Companion'Crop

Short-lived interim grass,germinates quickly, reseeds

i tsel f.

20%

20%

70%

70%

rc%

Notes: This m'ixture was chosen for rapid growth ìn marg'ina'l soil conditions.

Rates of Application

Seed Mixture - 175 lbs./acre (hydroseeded)

ter!ì1izer - 5 - ?0 - 10 at 500 lbs./acre. This fertilizer used and atthis rate because of its suitabiìity for establishing rapìdgrowth in marginal soils.

Straw Mulch - 7 l/2 - 2 tons of straw per acre.

Asphalt Emulsion - (muìch) B0 - 100 gal. per acre

Depth of Topsoil 4 inches average

Fertilizers: 1, 5 - 20 - 10 as mentioned with injtial seeding

2. 34 - 0 - 0 applied to establish grass area jn springat 150 'lbs. per acre.

Source: DeWitt, F. J.,"Environmental Planning and Rehabìlitation at Milton Quarry,,;ps. 44

TABLE,27

NELSON CRUSHED STONE STANDARD BACK SLOPE SEED MIX

The follow'ing standard grass mixture should be sown at 80 lbs./acre (90 kglha)

Creepi ng Red Fescue

Festuca rubra L.

Brome Grass

Bro¡gs jnermis Leyrs

Annual Rye Grass

Secale cereale L.

l^lhite Dutch Clover

Trifolium repens L.

33%

29%

17%

4%

Companion Crop (rye grass) tlZ

Notes:This seed mix'is a slight variation of the 0ntario Ministry of Transportatìonand Cornmunications standard seed mixture.

Nel son Crushed Stone Standard Shade Seed Mix

Rough-Stalked Blue Grass 75%

Poa trivjgl i s

Creeping Red Fescue ZS%

Festuca rubra L.

Source: Yundt,"A Case Study of Materials and Techniques Used in the Rehabilitationof a Pit and Quarry in Southern 0ntario"; Paper presented at the lg77Annual General Meeting of the Canàdian Land Reclamation Association.

TABLE 28

TNVIRONMENT CANADA SUGGESTED t¡JILD WOODLAND BORDER FOR I¡JILDLIFE HABITAT

The following seed mixture should be sown at a rate of 12 lbs.(5 kg) per acre.

Intermediate l,rJheatgrass 45%

Agropron jntermedium (Host)

Tal I Wheatgrass 25%

Agropyron elongatum (Host)

Alfalfa 20%

Medicago spp.

Sweet Clover l0%

Melilotis spp.

Source: Environment Canada, Ì^lildli-te Habitat 1981; pg. 12

B4

Many of the native plant species materials are not available fromthe nurseries, they are difficult to propagate; and they do nottranspl ant ef fectìve'ìy. 0ther p'lant species may be expensive and

ljmited in availabif ity, or may requìre specìalized methods ofpìanting. The selectjon of one type of plant materjal over anotherdepends mostiy on sjte requirements. Each of the types of pìantmaterials have the'ir relative merits and demerits which can be weighedagainst one another. However, many p'lant spec'ies will be establishedupon a site more cost effic'iently and effectively by utilizing one typeof pl ant materj al over the others.

ïhi s section wi I I dÍ scuss

p1 ant materi al s,114 and outl i ne

for their establ i5þ¡¡s¡¿. 115

Seeds

the basjc considerations for choosingthe techniques of revegetation su'itable

1) Planting Seeds: Planting seeds js usual'ly the least expens'ive and

most efficient method of revegetatìng a site. Genera'lly, seeds shouldbe utilized when the selected species can be expected to germinateeas'i'ly and sufficient moisture for germinatjon is expecte6.116Basicalìy, in rehabjljtation practice, grasses and forbs are establjshedby other types of p'lant materiaì, since tree and shrub seedlings cannotcompete with the more aggressjve grasses and forbs. Seed'ing is best forestabl'ishing pìant material in large areas that require compìetecoverage ('i.e. quarry floors). Ejther one or several seed species can

114 For a comp'lete discussion on selection of plant materìaìs, see User9uide .to Vegetation, pp. 19-26; schiechti ; and Banks and Boras, j-ñ-Investigation into t_he_,Revegetatjon of Gravel pits,', Research paperUn i vers i ty of Guel ph 1981 .

1'15 p.6¡ a-compìete d'iscussion on the technìques of plant establìshment,see user Guide Lo vegetation, pp.39-4i; schiechti, vegetation for théReha (Toronto: ónffi

ZÌ ; and Handbook Equi pment forRecla'iming Strip M'ined Land (u.s.D.A. Forest servffi116 User Guide to Vegetatjon. p. 19.

B5

be down at the same t'ime. The disadvantages of seedìing are that withthe exception of hydroseeding, it does not provide an immediate form oferosion control and that seed establishment relies almost entirely upon

the weather.

The rate of seeding must al so be carefu'lìy controlled. seedingdenseìy can be as disadvantageous as seeding too light'ly, becauseslower-growing permanent specìes may be overwhelmed by

faster-growi ng nurse crop.117

Genera'lly there are two basic technìques for planting seeds, seed

dri ì I i ng or seed broadcasti ng, wh i ch 'i ncl udes hydroseedi ng. The

decision on which technique is most suitable will be based upon a number

of factors such as:

a) characteristics of the site.b) capabi I ity of the equi pment.

c) avai I abj I ity of the equi pment.

d) cost differences between techniques.e) sj te treatment requi red.118

TABLE 29 di scusses the rel ati ve advantages and di sadvantages of thed i fferent techn ì ques .

2) Seed Dri'lling: Seed drilling is the superior technique when sitecondit'ions permit. Holes or furrows created by the drill are fjlledwjth seeds and subsequently covered with earth in one operation.Drilling can be conduted by either hand or machine utilizing spec'ializedequ i pment

The advantages of seed driì'ling include: the seed is set at theproper depth; ìt offers the lowest seedjng rate; no additional mulch isrequired; and soil compaction can be accompl i shed with packer wheel s

attached to the dri I I .119

1U 5s¡'iechti, p. 180.

118 User Guide to Vegetation, p. 39.

119 tniO.; and Vegetation for Rehabilitation, p. 11.

too

the

the

TABLE 29

SEEDING METHODS : ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

fogoúnpàv Si@ 110þ6 úd¡ccr ¡ñ probhñr; ll lw¡rc !Ê¡taa lh¡ñ3:1, brddcõeht .c@nmñd.cd

LE llñlr.d UnlimltcdC¡ñ húd|. il@ M¡y b. llmircd by Lé tlñlEdtar¡h, dc9.n+ ttac9 rcn¡lnh¡ d dlruñ.

Oôrrructlod UmlE ut Uñllm¡úd Udllnlrrd Soñ.rh¡tll6lt.d

UñllmlÈd

Coñt4rad5o¡l

Not Ecapr¡òla No! Ecctubla Not *cæÞUr Nol -ccpt¡blc;kil ruf bG

rd¡rt c6uth fo,r¡nd ¡rd r¡iñ tocoü adi

sed¡nf0.0¡h

Vú¡¡bla üd Vr¡¡bl€i Fæ L¡v¡ on to9 ol@nùo¡l.d wh¡i lð cæ rhG o¡l

Eoll.d

No dl.et ønrrcli No d¡,Ét cdt¡oa No d¡Gl cúro¡dapand! oñ þ¡l

5..d gr. Vül¡bl. lf drfllr Vül¡bl. ¡l h¡n4 Snll sdø ò. ¡drurcd h.ld 6eh¡n6

c¡ñ br ¡d¡urtad

L¡ñIEd bY ñro¡}úaa

Llñlrd by ffiÍ' Llñlr.d by læm aËlad ño¡'

Ls llñlr.d LF¡ l¡nlt.d Lú l¡ñit.d

È-iglBbn gl¡trdv G¡lrk.¡ gf¡hdy É.lrlc¡¡ Vd crltk¡¡; Vry c.lrkd V6y .dtk¡tmFgcõràcn ¡ônqal pÊclF..rcd.blat4 lñchd

V6y crlaL¡,

Soll la¡En Xor cddc¡¡ No3 crltk¡l

5..d OhúÞ t nltcñbs3¡6

Unllorh Il æÞ L6unllorñEn l¡ údtú¡¡æd; Êôø b. gc¡slvþl¡cd

LB u¡lfdñ Not unlfdD bst Nol uñlfdñcú bc Elfl.Þ6¡ñ¡

S.Þù¡¡ mr.ñt

S.dmtffitg6rlbla ò.¡t æt¡&ird

Offidr 6 hor llldiñûv 9ÉOaa¡acdad

DÐÈdr d Nrt lolcñtô¡dad

Lñ ll s.lgga¡ lo àacæaæd lr a¡aæt¡Ë

Ea¡pffi Sg..i¡J ¡ñ þñ Soñc huéh.t¡t Sce. Av¡{¡ôa. Sod hu4ùdd V¡rld¡¡ ryp.rø dulpdôt .qùi9ññt ¡v¡il¡U.; ø ba

¡y¡ll¡bla ¡yall¡d! soueFC dtSnd tt¡b LÉ thü t q4 S¡d ú ùlrtm Hdr¡ ð dcâ l¡to.rq¡lnt;drðdql. drllllîl

ly d¡rþrù.d r¡16lc¡i ù Fllt çWld ñch hle¡d Ëdlnt .aBdrs do ¡¡GrhcÊ toprd¡úd þm pl¡n¡@q ù. lnucLE¡¡ñplõ: lol5lb,/rn drlllcd dællÞfæl¡t ¡æd. d66 r¡ttrrdll !@ Ed;2t30 lb/&æ llWl4sd ¡¡l¡rtc; ao.t5 lb/¡raa if cild¡.tl6n6út,4ch ð qtÞlal4 rFlæ6

ð d@ba. ü|adrllllnt no

|ilc.; l/3 ñúù dtllllnl

Tnt¡l lo librt ùa cla¡¡Ló Èl¡{ br cla¡Éd Oqdot mt C¡aulñt ætS-dt lroñ cdi Iroú çdt crit¡c¡¡ c?il¡d

T* .-D Mlddl. rut. Htdt 6ar Lor rúl¡ Lor re¡. tflô rete¡..d/8nbd

user Guide to Vegetation; (U.S.D.A. Forest Serv'ice, 1979), General Technica]Repor.t INT - 64, pg. 40

OÐlñ¡ ær O.¡nlnt uíiti.¡¡ s¡rk¡¡

Source:

86

Major limjtat'ions to this seed'ing technique include the dril I may

only be used on sìopes of 3:1 or'less, and farmer's seed drills may notbe durable enough for use on rocky soils.120

When seed mixtures are specified, seed drjlls must be capab'le ofproperly d'istributjng djfferent sjze seed types, otherwise differingseed si zes have to be clri I led separatel y.IzL

3) Broadcast'ing Seed: Broadcasting of seed js consjdered to be lessfavorable as seeds are scattered on the ground's surface where they may

or may not be covered with earth in subsequent operations. Aga'in,

broadcast'ing may be done by hand or machine utilizing specializedequipment. Thjs technique'includes hydroseeding and aerial seeding

which wjll be discussed separately.

The advantage of this technique are that it js the most economical;the seed and the fertjljzer can be distributed together; the sìope ofthe Iand js not usual'ly critical; and seed mjxtures can be distributedin one operation.l22

Maior I imitat'ions to th'i s seedi ng techn ique are that the seeds areperched on top of the sojl where germination and establ'ishment are

difficult. Mechanical treatment should be incorporated to prevent

rodents and birds from eat'ing the seed. A mulch such as straw fibres jsusual ly required too prevent seed drift'ing, reduce soil temperatures,and lessen so'il moisture losses. A binder such a asphaìt emulsìons,pastes, or dry-powder concentrates are often incorporated to prevent thestraw mulch from drifting.123

L20 Psr56¡¿1 communication withMay 1982.

121 User Guide to Vegetation, pp.

122 Pg¡5e¡¿1 communication withMay 1982.

L23 User Gu'ide to Vegetatìon, p.p. 1f-

Lìoyd DÍck, Brett Young Seeds Ltd., in

48-49.

Lloyd Dick, Brett Young Seeds Ltd., in

38; and Vegetat'ion for Rehabi l'itation,

87

4) Hydroseed i ng: Hydroseed i ng i s the most expens'i ve seed i ng

techn'ique. Seeds, ferti'lizer, and so'il amendments (such as a wood f ibremulch) and a soil stabjlizer (bìnder) are he'ld in continuous aogitationand the sìurry is applied in a high-pressure stream of water. Up to112,500 litres of slurry can be sprayed in fifteen minutes. up to 900

kg. of slurry per.4 ha may be requiy¿¿.I24

There are several advantages toHydroseed i ng j s very fast and effi c i entconverage up to 65 m. The seed, mulch,

directly to steep s'lopes. The techn'ique

drought control until the new vegetation js

th i s seed'i ng techn ì que .

and offers compl ete area

and bi nder can be appl ied

al so provÍ des eros'ion and

establir¡.¿.125

Disadvantages of hydroseeding are that it is typically the most

expensive method of seeding. If the seed and the slurry are mixed forover thirty m'inutes germination rates may be reduced. The seed may notcome into direct contact with the soil jf seed, mulch, and bjnder are

appl ied 'in a s'ingìe operatìon. Germination rates are much improved 'ifhydroseeding is conducted in a two stage operation. seed and

fertillizer should be sprayed first, followed by an application of mulch

and a binder.126

In Europe, up to five percent failure of hydroseeding is normal.0n heavy sojls a second seedÍng applìcation coverìng approximately haìfof the area must be cal.u]u1.¿.127

124 Handbook Equ'ipment, p. 49; Verdyol Mulch ofCatalogues; Schiechfi; and User Gujde to Vegetation,

125 1516.

126 tUi¿.

1'27 g. ç. L'loyd "Phys'ical and Chemical Methods3rd Annual Cover Crop Committee Workshop, Ig74

Canada Ltd. Productp. 43.

of Slope Stabi'l ìzation",(Guelph, L974), p. 4.

885 ) Aerj al Seedi ng:

fixed-wing aircraft orI and-goì ng equ'ipment.

practical jn the rehab'i

Bare-Root Stock

Aeri al Seeding may be conducted by eitherhelìcopter at sites which are too rough to use

The techn i que i s probably not requ.ired orìitat'ion of limestone quarries.

Bare-root stock is nursery grown stock that has been grown in seedbeds for one or two years, dug up when dormant and the so'il shaken fromtheir roots. Bare-root pìant'ing provides a means of establishing a fastgrowing cover on a site, and is less expensive than planting containergrown nursery stock. Bare-root p'l ants are al so eas i er to sh.ip, store,handle, and plant than contajner-grown p'lant material . This techn'iqueis however limited in use to specific seasons (earìy spr.ing and latefall ) and the plants are more djfficult to cultivate thancontainer-grown nursery stock.

Some recommendations for planting of bare-root plant material are:1) Bare-root plants should have roots ìong so deeper so11 mojsture

is available to the transplant. Plants wjth longer roots arediffjcult to transplant in rocky soils.

2) Spacing of ind'iv'idual pl ants ought not to be less than 1-1 r/ztimes the diameter of the mature plant.

3) when planting where risk of pìant failure is high (i.e. southfacing steep slope) research recommends cross-wind furrowing,mulching to conserve moìsture, and water majntenance for one oftwo growing seasons.128

128 User Guide to Vegetation, Þp. 24, 44-45.

89

Containerized Seedl ings

Containerized forest seedììngs are a relatively recent developmentin Manitoba:

Fung'ici de treated seed, agai n spruce orpine, is deposited on the surface of smaì.l,peat filled paper tubes which are bondedtogether wi th a water sol ubl e gì ue andstretched apart in wooden or plastic traysmuch ljke an accordian.... followingapproximately ten weeks of growth. . . .theseed'l i ngs are hardened for -anqther twoweeks, then f i n a'l ìy outp'l unlg¿ .129

0n sjtes over 2 ha, or when more than 5,000 seed'rings are to bepìanted, the use of a machjne should be utiljzed unless the sjte is toosteep or stoney for safe tractor opera¡is¡.130 0therwjse hand pìantingtechnìques, shoul d be conducted as described jn a number ofPubì ìç¿¡ie¡5.131

The basjc advantages of using containerized seedlings overbare-root stock are that production of the seedìings is more flexible,the pìanting season is extended considerably, and the seedlings are noteffected by transpl ant shock. (the contai ner jtsel f i s pl anted . ¡ 132

Cuttings, Rhizomes, and Sprigs

cuttings are pieces of stems, (usua'l'ly from a weedy prant, ) thatare either rooted and then planted on the site or directly cut from a

p'lant and replanted on the quarry site. Rhizomes are underground stems

of grasses, sedges, or forbs which are rooted and replanted on site.Spri gs are pi eces of grasses or sedges that can be rooted and

transpì anted on sj te.

129 Pineland Forest Nursery (Man'itoba Department of Natural Resources,pampffi

1tO Steps to Successful Tree Plantjng (Ontario Ministry of NaturalResou , p. Z!.131 ¡51¿. and Lowe

132 Pineland Forest Nursery.

90

The advantages of cuttinqs is that they are very compatìb'le withd jrect seed'ing, they are eas'i'ly propagated, and usual ly they provìde a

ground cover withjn a short period of time. However, they can onìy be

acqu'ired and p'ìanted in the early spring.133 Sprigs and rhizomes arenormal 1y removed from herbaceous p] ants and rooted in contajners orflats. Sprigs are better for some grasses than seeding (for example,Phragmites communis or Common Reed Grass).13+

Some recommendations for p'lanting of cuttjnqs that have not been

rooted are as follows:1) Cuttings should be planted before they have broken dormancy.

Plant when the period of h'igh soil moisture and coor

temperatures is expected for at least 30-45 days.

?) Leave a minjmum amount of top exposed above the soil--less than

. 50 mm on a .3m. long cutting.3) Pack the sojl cìose'ly around the cuttings so that there are no

aìr spaces.

4) 0n slopes .75 - L.2M cuttings should be used and planted as

branches with all their side growth still jntact.5) Cuttings placed horizontally provide better root growth.6) Root cuttings must be rooted in the nursery before their use on

¿ 5i1s.135

133 User Guide to Vegetation, pp. 24-25.

134 schiechtì, p. 191.

135 lOi¿. pp.190-19i; and User Guide to Vegetatjon, pp. 45-46.

91Container-Grown pl anting Stock

container-grown plant material is simp'ly nursery grown bare_rootstock which has been potted in a container and grown for a period of oneto two years. This type of plant material should be utilized whenimmediate protectìon from erosion or a particular aesthetic effect isrequired. Contajner-srown planting stock is also recommended for harshrocky sites, sites where precip.itation is erratjc or low, and sÍteswhere superior survival rates (over bare-root, cuttings, rhizomes,sprigs) are required. The di sadvantages of conta'iner-grown stock i sthat'it is cost prohibjtive in most situations; it.is quite heavy andtherefore difficurt to handle; and it is substantia'r'ry more timeconsum'ing to plant (requ.iring high labour costs.)

Some recommendatjons for pìantìng container-grown pìant materialare as follows:

1) container-grown stock can be p'lanted anytime throughout thegrowing season' but watering maintenance should be conductedthroughout the first one or two summers.

2) Dìg the ho'le larger than the size of the container, remove theplant from the container, place it into the hole withoutdisturbing the rootbaì.l, and firm the soil around the pìant toeliminate the air spaces.

3) spacìng of the plants should not be less that i - L r/z timesthe di ameter of the mature pl ant.136

Pìugs'is the term qiven nursery-grown, native, or adapted clumps ofvegetation which are dug up and repìanted on another site. 1¡ìldìngs areindividual p'lants transplanted from the wild to another sjte. Nativeplant material from the site or in close proxÍmity to the quarry may beutilized by d'igging it up with a front-end loader or a tree spade andtransplanting jt at its new sjte.

136 User Guide to Vegetatjon , p. 44.

92

Tree-spades such as the Vermeer tree-mover have been deve'loped forreplanting small-to-medium-sized trees. The spade works hydraul ical'lyand digs, bal ls, transports, and rep'lants vegetation. when using thetree spade, it is des'irable to dig a hole I arger than the s'ize of thetrees rootba'ì ì , so that the depression created can catch avai I ablemoisture. In heavy c'lays, transplanting of a large tree or shrub jnto a

snug hoie creates a situation similar to a p'lant be'ing pìaced in a claypot--its feeder roots wjll not enter the cìay surrounding the rootball. Despite higher costs, the larger the hole the better the chances

of vegetation srccers.137 A disadvantage of using the tree spade isthat jt js l'imited to sìopes of fifteen percent or less, because thediggino platform must remajn level to ensure that the tree is plantedwith its trunk vertical.138 Trees with 'long tap roots, such as Bur

0ak, should not be transplanted.

Seedlings dug from surrounding areas should on'ly be utilized inspecial cases because of the high losses' suffered through transpìantshock. The percentage of losses is higher with transpì anted nativematerial than wjth revegetation usìng suitable nursery materi¿1.139

14.4 Time to Ptant

The correct time to plant depends upon many factors includ.ing:a) cl imate.

b) type of planting stock and soil.c) moisture requirements of the species.d) frost heavi ng probl ems.

e) anticipated erosion problems.

f ) suff icient dryness to al'low equìpment on the s jte.g) time of year guarry activities are concluded.140

137 Veqetat jon for Rehabi I jtat'ion , p. 20.

138 User Guide to Vegetation, Þ. 48.

139 5s¡iechti, p. L7z.

140 User Guide to Vegetation, p. 35.

93

Genera'|1y, however, planting tìmes should cojncide with the longestprecipìtation season, or favorable period of time that may be availablefor seedìng or transpl ant establ i r¡r.¡¡.141 See TABLT 30 tim.ingmatri x.

The preferred seasons for grass seed'ing js in earìy spring (fromthe time the frost leaves the qround unti I early June), August, and

early september. Legumes can be seeded until the middle of Juìy orafter growth has stopped in the fal I or wjnter.142 Lìoyd Djckrecornmends the followinq t'imes to pìant seeds in Mani¿65¿.143

The best time js very ear'ly in the spring, due to availabilityof mo'i st ure and no hot n i ght s .

The second best is at the end of Juìy or early August, due tocooler nìghts and the crop should be able to catch so'l idìybefore winter.ïhe thjrd best is last thing in the fal I pr.ior to winter.Hopeful ly, most of the mixture should germinate jn thespri ng.144

In generaì, evergreen trees as a group are best moved earlier inthe fall and later jn the spring. Roots cease growing during hot drysummer months, so best success in moving trees is found during Augustand ear'ly September when the so'il j s warTn and root growth conti nuesjmmediately.l4S However, 'if evergreens wiil be exposed to high windson the transplanted site, then spring is the best planting ti¡¡s.146

141 I b.id, p. 35 .

142 Vegetation for Rehabjlitation, p. IZ.143 16i¿.

Personal communication with Lloyd Dick,1982.

Pirone, p. 29.

1)

2)

3)

144

May

i45

146 tU;A.

Brett Young Seeds Ltd., in

TABLE 30

TIME TO PLANT, NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS ÏIMING MATRIX

Directsccding2

Most opti-mUm COn.d¡tions proÞablc bc-twcen caflyMarch endlate April.Seedlingsmust cmcrgebefore startof springrains Topsoil receivcsbes¡ protcc-tion at th¡st¡me

Access can ber problcm

Opt¡mumpl antingcondi tionsh¿Ye passcd-would requircirrigation.Postponcsceding tofall

Providesbcst eccessand wc¿therfor plantingStrari fica-tion ¡mpor.tant tonatiYe andshrub sced.Morc timcavailablcto p¡¿nt

Topsoil ¡ndseedbed pro.tcc¡¡on aproblem

Seeding onsnow ispossibfe butwind meydcstroyscedling. Scedbcdprepar¿t¡onand accêssarc d¡fficult

B¿reroot

&scntial to.plant earlybctrirccnfrosts andsnowstof m3so th¿troots willdcvelogbcfore budsbrcak dor.

' mancy.Plantimmcdlatelypr¡or tomaximumsoilmoisturc3e¡son

Timing isvcrycrit¡c¡l

Storage eproblcnr.Secd dormancybroken. Soiltoo dry.Pl¡nts willburn. L¡ck ofnccc5sefymoisture

Plants c¡nbc planrcdwhcn dor-mant ¡ndbccomcbcttcracclim¡tcdto s¡te ifplanted¿fter frost

Some specie¡not adaprcdto fallplant¡ng

Not recommcndcd

Cont¿incrizcd

Mostoptimumconditionscxist vcryearly inspringbetwccnfro¡ts ¡nd5nowstorm5

Disedvantageis that stock isusuelly not¡cady or ¡vaiþablc. AccesssomctimeS ¡problcm

Not rccommcndcd S¿me as¡bovc

S¡mc ¡s ¿bove Not rccommcndcd

PROVIOED 8Y R.C. HOOOERclim¡tc summ¡ry: Considcrcd ¡ continent¡l clim¡tc, w¡th w¡rm sumrners ¡nd cold tr¡ntcri Tempcretures c¡n ñ¡nge from -40o F ¡o+l05oF AvcreScprcc¡pit¡tion ¡bout l2 inches, óut c¡n vary from 4 ro lE inches annuelly in v¡rious locål¡tica. precipitetiondcpcndcnt on ¡nowmclt ¡nd spting nins lh¡t f¡ll bctwccn April ¡nd mid-Juna High wind ¡nd h¡gh ev¡por¡don ñrcs common.

I F¿ll sc¡son-implics termin¡l sc¡son of the yc¡r ¿nd th¡¡ sccd¡ ¡nd pl¡nrs w¡ll rem¡in dorm¡nt unt¡l spring.lDiæct sceding involvcs thc u5c of machinciy to pl¡cê sced in ¡ sh¡llow fu¡ros ¡nd covÊr ¡t with soil. Firming of soil a¡ound seeds¡nd pl¡ccmcnt of fertil¡zer ne¡¡ to sceds m¡y bc ¡ccompli¡hcd on sltcr *trcre requircd. lf seeds arc ¡roi¿c.st r¡thcr than drill sccdcd,somc ¡ct¡on to covct thÊtn with soil i5 c¡scnti¿l unless it is on frcrhly gradcd spoiis whcrc n¡rurel r¡ordrìii *¡lr covcr thc s€cd.

User Guide to Vegetation; (U.s.D.A. Forest Service LgTg), Genera'l TechnicalReport, INT - 64, pg. 36

Source:

94

Planting of deciduous trees and shrubs can be carried out jn the

spring or fa'11, aìthough spring'is the preferred season. In spring, the

plants can be moved from the tjme the frost leaves the ground untjl the

leaves have begun to unfurl. Planting in the fall after the plants have

begun dormancy'is more risky, as they have not had a chance to set new

roots and are susceptible to frost heaving.I4T

Conta'iner-grown trees and shrubs can be pìanted during the growing

season. However, it i s not recommended because of the increased

majntenance needed to prevent hìgh mortal'ity rates.

14.5 l¡laintenance of Plant Materials

Trees, shrubs, and many seed mìxtures (especially turf grasses),

should be maintained for a min'imum of one to two years after pì anting.

Most spec'ies require this amount of time to establish themselves in the

harsh growìng condit'ions of the'quarry. The cost of a maintenance

program should be justifiab'le, consjderìng the previous substantjaljnvestments in site preparation, p'lant material , and p'lanting costs.

Maintenance of Tree and Shrub Beds

1) Watering: Recently p'ìanted trees and shrubs must be watered

throughout the dry summer months or duri ng any other droughty

periods.

2) Ferti'liz'ing: Most reconstructed so'ils wil I dispìay a

defic'iency in both nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as a

biological 1y jnert profi le. Trees and shrubs should be

examined for symptoms of nutrient deficiencies, and should be

dealt with accordingly. See TABLE 31 for fertil izerappì 'icat'ion gu i de1 j nes .

147 ¡6¡as, p. 19.

TABLE 31

FERTILIZER APPLICATION GUIDELINES

Trees and Shrubs

At Time of Planting: U. of M. Department of Horticulture recommends:

1. Starter solution of 2.25 kg of 10 - 52 - 17 per 375 litres of water.Place the tree or shrub in the hole and backfill the hole half-way beforepouring in the solution. Apply Lzto 5 litres of water on large shrubs andtrees, depending upon thejr size.

P. Tucker, U. of Guelph, recommends:

2. Starter solution of 1.36 kg of 20 - 20 - 20 per 375 l'itres of water.Do not apply either fertilizer later than mid-Juìy to avoid late succulentgrowth which wi1l not harden off before winter.

3. Pe'l1et-type fertiiizer (i.e. 0smocote or Mag-Amp.)

Established rrees and shrubs(u. of r4anitoba recormendations)The ideal time to appjy fertilizer to trees and shrubs is in the ear'ly spr.ingjust before growth starts.

Deciduous Tree and Shrub Beds: In cultivated ground,broadcast and light'ly workinto the soil under the branches 16 - 20 - 0 or 14 - 14 - 7 at the rate of>.11tre/I0 sq. meters. Note: Do not broadcast fertilizer if sod or pastureis around the tree or shrub bed.

Evergreen Trees and Shrubs: require less fertiìizer than deciduous species. Incultivated ground, broadcast under the branches 16 - 20 - 0 or 14 - 1,4 - 7

at the rate of 4,litre/I0 sq.meters. Note: The root systems are veryshallow so it is preferable not to work fertilizer into the soil.

Turf Seeded Areas.: (U. of ltlanitoba recornmendations )

At Time of Seeding: Just prior to seeding, broadcast 10 - 30 - 10 or 11 - 4g - 0

at a rate of 5 kg./I00 sq. meters and work into the upper 4 inches of soil.Established Lawns: N'itrogen may be appìied at least twice during growing season-

in earìy spring and earìy September.

Suggested rate is 1.5 - 2.5 kg. of nitrogen/lO0 sq. meters/year. Phosphatemay be appìied (if required) in spring at a rate of 500 grams/100 sq. meters.

Sources:1. Faculty of Agriculture, Ferti j izglBgçqmg¡datio¡s._fqü-he Home Garden;University of Manitoba, Ig7S, pg. 3

2. P. Tucker, Grounds Department, University of Guelph-

(from an article)

95

3 ) Mul ch i ng: Mul ch can be ut i I i zed around tree or shrub beds forthe fol I ow'ing purposes:

a) to prevent eros i on (w'i nd and water ) .

b) to facilitate water infiltration.c ) to 'inh i bi t evaporation.d) to moderate soil temperatures. Temperatures may also be

raised or lowered by using dark (asphalt) or light (straw)col ored mul ch

e) to improve germ'ination cond'itions and prov'ide protectionfor seedlings.

f) to re'inoculate soil micro-organìsms.g) to suppress weed growth.148

Di sadvantages with mul ching may jncl ude nutrient and waste

irnmobilization. Nitrogen may become unavailable to plants because

introduced sojl mjcro-organisms are more efficient at utiìizinginorganic nìtrogen than are p'lants. Straw and wood waste mulches

may cause th'is. Some mulches may be toxic to p'lant growth, (forexample, asphalt). Mulch may attract'insects, fung.i, diseases,rodents, and weeds. If the incjdence of mice is high, mulch shouldbe removed before winter.149 TABLE 32 compares the advantages and

disadvantages of commonly used mulches.

4) Mowing: If cultjvation or spraying is not used, mowìng shourdbe conducted two or three t'imes per growing season to reduceground cover compet'it'ion around trees and shrubs . weeds must

be kept bel ow 39 6¡¡. 150

5) cultivatjon or spray'ing: It is essent'ial that weed and grassgrowth be controlled around trees and shrubs for at least sjxmonths after pìant'ing.151 Cultjvation mixes the soilmaterial, controls weeds, reduces so'iì crusting, improves waterinfjltration, and promotes soil erosi6¡.152

148 User Guide to Vegetation, p.53; and Schiechti, pg.289.

149 roi¿.

150 User Guide to Vegetatjon, p. 66.

151 t¡i¿.1.52 151¿ .

TABLE 32

4q!4u4q!i AND DiSADVANTAGES 0F COMMONL STyr? of Mul(h

^dv¡nt¡t.r Coñmcnttc¡op r.f¡du.t: Gañ¿r¡lly mott aconomi(¡l *a.d r.cd, uru¡lty 9r!*hr: cvcñ Anchor mutch. ciÞac¡¡lty o¡ lloo?t

U*¡lly gtirl¡ctdv uõdcr m¡nv h¡Y lcadi m¡Y bc <onl¡dcrcd ¡ Þy criñÞ¡ng. or utiñt pl¡ttìc mcrhct,tutê, ch!ñ¡c¿l U(lilícrtLon!{trmmad bÊrt, cþæi¡llv forcrimÞ¡ñ8

lJô¡forñ ¡ÞÞlic¡tíoñ imporunt

CÉn.r¡lly, 2 ronr/erc ¡dÊqu¿rc

ln ul¡h, it w¡r ldnd th¡t fotov¡r¡ntñlch &8 inÈhÊr inro þ¡l ¡ncr.¡Édtr¡Í Fadl¡ñB turviv¡l

C¿n b. jprc¡d *ilh modifiad l¡rñ

Addt d.r¡r¡bi. n¡riv! rpcai.r M¡y húËt rlcd¡ ¡tong w¡thFdt to ¡¡c¡ ¡nd 6ulah.r ¡t n¡tiva tpc€¡Grqma lrmc

w.d on ¿ p¡r¡¡cul¡r r¡lc

Slr¡r 6¡v "vict'out' ñoiilurafrom roil3 in vêry dry cônditionr.lhus rcsultint in pooa têrnìo¡Iron¡ôd e.dliñ! qt¡blirhmcnt

N¡tira tr¡ltc¡lpr¡iric h¡y

lvood r.t¡dud:eÌ(turt, woodchlpr,b¡rl, rh¡ving

Protæ¡r luÍf¡ca

Addt ort¡ric ñ¡rt.r

frlorG lirc aatitt¡nt th¡n

L6t l¡ilinlEly to ¡pÞly

Or¡pr rBiil¡nt to riñd

Sà¡v¡nt¡ ¡nd erduÍ bloù Chipr: 2 tont/¡crt uru¡ily ¡dcqu¡ta;N¡rro3.n dÊli<¡€rcy chlp t¡¡c, l/2 lnch to l/50 inch

P¡cking m¡y o.cur r4ultlnSìn lar¡ ¡!a¡t¡onlll¡y flo¡t ø runn¡ng w¡¡c¡

M¡y pr.YGnt prccip¡¡¡tion fromr.¡<hint ræil

Pl¡!¡k f¡ln Erc.ll.ñt r¡ær b¡rr¡Gr L¡òor intcn¡jEG€d w..d contro{ Hilh cø!Lid!rcolor.d, ÞGrfor¡rGd,found €llccrlvc in Narä!¡ico: þil tcmpar¡lura lñEnn.r |to F low. ûu lnþi¡ r¡rh m ftlch

Inlorm¡tloñ on I!ñrr¡tura affftaYûi6

Color l¡ imrcrt¡nt bc<¡uF olÉfl..lioî, ¿bþrptloî

Flb.r ustlfl.6¡¡d þ¡l blndarr

58R styGfüb{r¡dLnc ¡nd 555{Ér 9ùÞ.r h¡vG b.Gn loundlo br vary ¡òrdb.ñt ¡nd ústh.{p prdrd. r¡tG.

Qukc.¡9cñr¡ÉI'lu¡t b. pgllcd.ód.crly ¡nddar to h¡va huinum.flrctircnõtìVllh SBR Sryr.æbst¡dl.müd SS Suod Sluolr prèñ¡luc ¡atñiñ¡t¡on dyo4ua

ln hlth r¡nd ù.¡a lr qrþlld¡fy, br€t ¡nto pi.c6 ¡nd

Typ¡.¡lly ¡ddcd lnto u¡lar qrr¡Gdicu ¡llo ò. ¡ddcd eith læd !¡ur,iar

JOGl,00O lb. olrclldr/¡.r. usdlygllla¡crt, dilutioñ r¡tcr ol 5:1.7:lo9tlñum

Relti tr¡d, , Ell.ariyc ¡t rfcil¡G r¡t6æbÈlB

Ara þãñ¡nañt-co no¡dhl¡Et¡r.

Sdll.r tñ.ñ l/12 ¡ncà lndl¡mara. nol Sood fq ylndtr6¡@

Choætl¡6 ttq(ar th¡n l/l2lnch¡n dl¡mcFr

Mu¡l nc¡aly coË, antlaa ¡rdndsrf¡ca-ì.2 Inch ülal i¡.llacr¡y.@úd (135 þff/&rG . ¡bout Ilnch dÐthl

MlrE6 ACd ñlclFrt¡n¡rß to Fitoñr $qt ¡nd lont rdñ(E¡.: tr¡w ¡nd b¡.tl

llTùa¡k L¡bû cds torælchlnt Ty9¡êl tffi aolor ¡llorr

ç.r¡td to ttt !rlld6 di'ùibcr¡on

Hydrorulchlôt tñtt hyd.oFd¡nl au b. doår ¡3 û! [ñtjñ, il lr tt læú¡u. ro do rñ.lh oË.¡tl6r lry¡ralVlfood c.llulú flbù mi¡.dIth Fad ¡nd fartlll¡d au bcgr¡yad 6 rt@ !6

Of lhfa v¡lc. unl6¡ lt ¡dh.ßto lh. þil rurl¡cr ¡6d .an¡¡É¡6rt dw¡nt r.¡dq4 dndHyüomúlah rllh llùar imDrd6tdñlî¡tlú, bct do.¡ nd lñ9row IroducddWìñ iydroñulch úd hyd.ond¡na ¡,a (þæ toltthra,c(h ñat nol h¡É ¡(kfl¡taþ¡l @nt*a

ApÞlk¡rld r¡t. ol 1,J00 lb/¡cr.&Hñ ¡daeûta fq l6t !¡tc¡tloD;ñ¡y ñæd ño,a ld qu¡[ rtæ9r¡æ6M¡v m.d ro ¡dd N to hyd?omslchlo aoñFuE ld C:N .¡ric ofNlch chænAlr¡yr put þß Gd ln ñslahHyd.Éd¡nt ¡ñd hydrcñul.hlntlottthã ràould ù. .wEd lo.gÉ¡¡l cq rhcn ñoittura ¡tsllk¡.nt to lé9 th. Fd æirt lot2-! ù..1r ¡fid Fdtni

F¡blk or ñg: EFI¡lly u4fcl m rtÉp læõ E¡ffi¡r.: +5 t¡ñð fror.

i,Fli,i'iF; *î' N'B 3æd ¡ñ h¡tñ r¡ñd ¡Éu tru t*Ld ¡rr¡w

Hl¡h l¡Þor l¡put lo¡ echdiñtNol aflGtlÉ oñ @utù sdæ6d ræly ¡rqEr6km l.m bañqrñ ñ¡y ba¡ 9roblañ

lr4d 6ly on l¡6itcd crltlc¡¡ ¡rc¡tbq{s ol aør

M¡n!É ¡nCrù¡¡. r¡ud&

C¡¡ Itotact þ¡l Fafe! ¡nd¡ddr útri.ñtt sclt Iñ,P,X,S

ìlth.ñ usd dm, lt ùaroffi r.tlhcn dry, c¡ñ lor ruh ol Nlhr@¡ì vol¡tlllud6 ot ¡ñ@l¡

næd¡ s, 10, l5 rñ/ar. ln ddd roprot4t þilOr ba¡toalra Slli, ¡ are 6uòl¡tt.lMa lrudy rhorad tlr¡t e ¡Dpllaèd6 ol rood chlñ ¡r nulch edFr¡ta ¡¡!Ctr ¡t N rugglicr r8@. allætln th¡n ¡ hlfñ úÞllcùrlon (aOO pùE F n¡llldl of ¡Þ' denía N

R¡9iócurint sh¡lt ¡aær¡u¡r ¡nd othr Ètdi¡¡rlñ 9l¡ccgoKur¡n! ¡Sñdt ¡llortlor trorth ol Écdllnttb.loaa ll @.6Co¡g s''& r.d¡m iÞf t +10 waalr

A ¡qblll¡at lor rtnrllonFMaùC@ffirdd uidçæ¡th il5oñ pl.ú rrr ÞõltlYdtto lt

trsFq ¡hur a¡uns,faa r.G @ run oflSoñ 9l¡ñu n8r n!¡rdÉyPrr

il¡l. d6¡rioñ bud on ryÞa ol4h¡¡r (¡loÌ, ñ.d¡uñ, rD¡d Gûrlñt)d6¡æd

M¡la óccit¡d bsd oñ r!*¡ioñ togh¡lt by glur rpEi6 dñ¡r.d

l¡(x, C/8æ u .Fr¡tc ¡p9l¡c¡¡i6Typlc¡¡ly, hqæd ¡nd S..¡¡l bysr¡ylntADgly lrú tÐ ot dry dorn, þ¡ffirñqtfa @t ¡re òsil1 oñ clodtot þ¡l dorn tñ. dq, lqriñ¡ rldBtræ fd 6dllñÞ to Go6. dt of ¡ndto ¡ürorö r¡tÈ

Source: User Guide to Vegetation(U.S.D.A. Forest Service, !g7g), General Technical5g.

96

spray maintenance provides weed control and thus, reducedcompet'ition for the nevv plants. Typìcal sprays includeherbicides (i.e. Paraquat), defoliants, and desiccants(acce'lerate drying out of piant tissues).

6 ) checki ng stakes and rree Guards: Staki ng of tail trees j srecommended for a minimum of two years due to the risk oftoppf ing. After the tree has been sufficienily anchored,removal of the tree ties is essential to prevent gìrdìing ofthe trunk.

7) Repl acì ng Dead Pl ant Materi al s:

object Í ves of the si te and thep'l ant s, rep I acement of de ad p ì ant

a minimum of one growing season.

stjll val id, they should be utjlstock.

Depending upon the land use

rel atjve need for specificmaterial is recommended for

If nursery guarantees are

i zed to repì ace dead pì ant

Maintenance of Turf Seeds Areas

A hea'lthy turf growth is the first line of defense against suchproblems as weeds and erosion.

1 ) wateri ng: Initi al wateri ng may be required to ensure seedgerminatjon. After turf establishment, waterìng shou'ld only be

requ'ired dur j ng drought conditions.

2) Levell'ing: If the ground is to be walked upon, ruts and

gu'l 'l i es shoul d be f i I led in and reseeded .

3) Mowing: In'itial'ly as the grass reaches 7.5 cffi., jt should be

mown to a height of 5 cm.153 This practice heìps to inhib'itweed development and aids jn the establishment of a v'igorousturf root system. 0nce established, the grass shourd be mown

153 schellie, p. 162.

97

to the optimal heights of the specìfic species. For example,the optìma] height for Kentucky Bluegrass is 2.5 cm. while thatfor the Fescues 'if 5 cm.

4) Fertjl izÍng: Annual fert'il jzinq of grassed areas isrecommended at a rate to be determined through the results of a

soil anal.ysis. Lìoyd Dick recommends a commercial 11-49-0fertilizer for quarry appì'ications. The phosphorus willpromote a vigorous root growth, whì1e the n'itrogen wil I keep

the grass green and yet not prov'ide for rapid blade growth.154

154 Personal communicationMay 1982.

with Lìoyd Dìck, Brett Young Seeds Ltd., jn

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Extract'ive Areas i n

Past, Present, and

the Canadi an Land

Technìques Used inand a Quarry in

Industrial Minerals