Q-1 International efforts for environment protection

The United Nations is very much conscious of the world-wide problem of maintaining the environment safe for human beings.The United Nations on the conference on the Human Environment was held at Stockholm in June 1972. The conference evolved the principles and action plan for controlling and regulating environment degradation. Institutional and financial arrangementswere made for achieving that purpose. The United National GeneralAssembly passed a resolution on December 15, 1972 emphasising theneed of active cooperation among the States in the field of humanenvironment. The resolution had designated June 5 as the World Environment day and had urged governments and organisations in the united nations system to undertake on that day every year ,world-wide activities reaffirming their concern for the preservation and enhancement of the environment.

Another resolution was passed, which provided for institutional and financial arrangement for international environment cooperation. Provisions were made for establishing a government council for environment program (UNEP) having global jurisdiction, environmental secretariat and environmental fund. Some of the recommendations of the first conference were regarding long and short term plans at the regional, sub-regionallevels in the field of environment relating to the advancement ofdeveloping nations.

The international environmental legislation chart included-

'The protection, preservation and the enhancement of the environment for the present and future generations is the responsibility of all states and they should ensure that the activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment. All states should cooperate in evolving natural laws and norms regulations in the field of environment.'

Recently in 2009 ,a conference was held in Copenhagen , Denmark relating to the changing environment and climate around the world. Many leaders actively participated in that so as to find solution to rapid environment change.

Example- BrazilBrazil has the largest amount of the world's tropical forests, 4,105,401 km2 (48.1% of Brazil), concentrated in the Amazon region. Brazil is home to vast biological diversity, first among the megadiverse countries of theworld, having between 15%-20% of the 1.5 million globally described species.[18]

The organization in charge of environment protection is the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (in Portuguese: Ministério do MeioAmbiente, MMA). It was first created in year 1973 with the name Special Secretariat for the Environment (Secretaria Especial de MeioAmbiente), changing names several times, and adopting the final name in year 1999. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:

A national policy for the environment and for water resources; A policy for the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of

ecosystems, biodiversity and forests; Proposing strategies, mechanisms, economic and social instruments for

improving environmental quality, and sustainable use of natural resources;

Policies for integrating production and the environment; Environmental policies and programs for the Legal Amazon;

Ecological and economic territorial zoning.

In 2011, protected areas of the Amazon covered 2,197,485 km2 (an area larger than Greenland), with conservation units, like national parks, accounting for just over half (50.6%), and indigenous territories representing the remaining 49.4%.

Q.2 Essay the UNDP millennium Goals

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight internationaldevelopment goals that were established following the MillenniumSummit of the United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of theUnited Nations Millennium Declaration. All 189 United Nations memberstates at the time (there are 193 currently), and at least 23international organizations, committed to help achieve the followingMillennium Development Goals by 2015:

The MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in theMillennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eightgoals with 21 targets, and a series of measurable health indicatorsand economic indicators for each target.

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of peopleliving on less than $1.25 a day

Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young People

Target 1C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whosuffer from hunger

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling,girls and boys

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary educationpreferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates

Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortalityrate

Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, thematernal mortality ratio

Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread ofHIV/AIDS

Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment forHIV/AIDS for all those who need it

Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence ofmalaria and other major diseases

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development intocountry policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources

Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significantreduction in the rate of loss

Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population withoutsustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation (formore information see the entry on water supply)

Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in thelives of at least 100 million slum-dwellers

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system

Includes a commitment to good governance, development, and povertyreduction – both nationally and internationally

Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries(LDCs)

Includes: tariff and quota free access for LDC exports; enhancedprogramme of debt relief for HIPC and cancellation of officialbilateral debt; and more generous ODA (Official DevelopmentAssistance) for countries committed to poverty reduction

Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developingcountries and small island developing States

Through the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development ofSmall Island Developing States and the outcome of the twenty-secondspecial session of the General Assembly

Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developingcountries through national and international measures in order to makedebt sustainable in the long term

Target 8E: In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provideaccess to affordable, essential drugs in developing countries

Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available thebenefits of new technologies, especially information andcommunications

Q -3 The work done by UNEPThe United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is an agency of the United Nations tasked to serve as a catalyst, advocate, educator, and facilitator to promote sustainable development and smart use of the global environment.

UNEP is able to carryout these goals by collaborating with UN entities, international organizations, national governments, civil society, non-governmental organizations, and many other partners.

UNEP has designated six priority ares that are given the highest priority in their decision making and guidance: climate change, resource efficiency,disasters and conflicts, environmental governance, harmful substances and hazardous waste, and ecosystem management.In addition to the work done by UNEP in the six priority areas, UNEP also conducts work in additional environmental areas including biodiversity, biosafety, energy, environmental assessment, indiginous peoples, poverty and environment, regional seas, and many more.

UNEP work encompasses assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends, developing international and national environmental instruments, strengthening institutions for thewise management of the environment, facilitating the transfer of knowledge and technology for sustainable development, and encouraging

new partnerships and mind-sets within civil society and the private sector.

In 1988, UNEP in collaboration with the World Meteorological Organization (another UN organization), created the Intergovernmental Penal on Climate Change (IPCC), to" assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the best available scientific, technical and socio-economic information on climate change from aroundthe world."

UNEP's WorkEcosytem Management ProjectUNEP is currently implementing a project for ecosystem management with fundingfrom the Government of Norway to implement the pilot phase of its Medium Term Strategy 2010-2013 of which USD 9.87 million is being allocated to the Ecosystem Management Sub-programme. The project consists of the following 11 sub-projects being implemented by various Divisions in UNEP:

Communication and training materials for capacity building of stakeholders;

Strengthening the Science Base; Congo Basin and Ugandan Forests; Ecosystem Management of the Himalayas Mountain Range; Coastal Ecosystem Management; Ecosystem Restoration of Lake Faguibine, Northern Mali;

Biodiversity and Ecosystems; Green Economy; MEA Focal Points; One UN; and Support to the Kenya Country Programme.

Freshwater Ecosystems

Lake Faguibine: Restoring a lifeline   Mali’s Lake Faguibine dried up in the 1970s with far-reaching implications for the livelihoods of more than 200,000 people living

in its hinterland. The local communities were forced to abandon their traditional livelihoods, which revolved around agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery.  

The inflows to Lake Faguibine are mainly from the Niger River’s flood waters.  During prolonged rainfall in the Fouta Djalon highlands in Guinea, the Niger River floods and forces water to flowthrough two channels into the lake  

Unfortunately, climate change has led to erratic rainfall patterns as well as advancing the Sahara desert southward Sand dunes block parts of the channels, thereby preventing the replenishment of Lake Faguibine. In addition, the little water that is still flowing in the channels is used for various purposes. Upstream, people use the water for large scale irrigation and to produce hydropower   All these factors combine to deprive Lake Faguibine of much needed water 

At the request of the Government of Mali, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is implementing a project to rehabilitate the Lake Faguibine ecosystem.

This project follows in the footsteps of UNEP’s successful ecosystemrehabilitation of the Iraqi Marshlands, the world’s largest wetland ecosystems. The Marshland was rehabilitated through reflooding resulting in widespread increase in vegetation cover and increased accessibility to clean, drinking water for more than 100,000 people living in or near the Marshlands  

In Mali, UNEP is working with local partners to sensitise communities upstream and downstream on the need to regulate and preserve the water flow in the Niger River and in the channels. The project’s participatory management planning will reconcile upstream and downstream competition for water, for equitable human wellbeing The Lake Faguibine ecosystem restoration project involves re-flooding of the lake’s 600 square kilometers. A rehabilitated Lake Faguibine will re-energize the delivery of the lake’s ecosystem services. For instance shery was once estimated at 5,000 tons annually Its restoration will boost livelihoods of local fishermen and provide food to thousands of people as well as migratory water birds  

The restored ecosystem will also revive recession agriculture along

the lake’s coastlines. Produce from livestock, farming, and fishing will be transported through invigorated water transport

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Reducing carbon emissions from forests

Trees and forests provide us with essential health, recreational, aesthetic, and other benefits, many of which we literally can’t live without. Unfortunately, forest management in some parts of the world has traditionally focused less on the services provided by forest ecosystems and more on the timber that could be produced

Between 1990 and 2005, the rate of deforestation has averaged about 13million hectares a year, occurring mostly in tropical countries. We are now losing about 200 square km - an equivalent of 18,100 soccer playing fields - daily

The loss of forests releases carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The forestry sector, mainly through deforestation, accounts for about 17% of global greenhouse emissions, making it the second largest greenhouse source after the energy sector

As the forests disappear, the natural sink they provide for absorbing of carbon dioxide is lost with them. This leaves more carbon in the atmosphere and exacerbates global warming At the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 13th Conference of Parties (COP-13) in December 2007, Parties agreed to step-up efforts towards reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries

To effectively combat deforestation and forest degradation, countries need regulatory frameworks. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP), the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) teamed up in the UN-REDD Programme, a unique collaborative initiative It seeks to strengthen the international policy dialogue on REDD and build confidence among negotiators and Parties to include REDD in new and more comprehensive climate change agreements after the Kyoto protocol expires in 2012.

The UN-REDD programme is also helping nine pilot countries to manage their forests in a manner that maximizes their carbon stocks and

maintains their ecosystem services and while delivering community andlivelihood benefits Countries that have been identified for the quick start phase are Bolivia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Tanzania, Vietnam, andZambia These countries are in the process of developing national strategies, establishing robust systems for monitoring, assessment, reporting and verification of forest cover and carbon stocks

This quick start phase will pave the way for long-term engagement of REDD in the carbon market through payment for ecosystem services. To facilitate this, the project is working on decreasing delivery risk and structuring transparent, equitable incentives .UN-REDD’s high level collaboration and community level engagement seeks to ensure that local experiences inform the global legislative action that will in turn have impacts on local communities UNEP is also working with some of the countries in the quick start phase in related initiatives such as the Great Apes Survival Partnership (GRASP), which is set to launch pilot activities to test the potential for achieving UNREDD’s objectives in Central Africa and Southeast Asia

Marine and Coastal EcosystemsUNEP promotes the use of sound science to apply ecosystem management to address factors causing decline of ecosystem services in marine andcoastal areas.

Under the Medium Term Strategy of UNEP, the UNEP Marine and Coastal Strategy has been developed by the UNEP Marine and Coastal Ecosystems Branch (MCEB) to focus on priority issues for maintaining marine ecosystems and their services for human well-being. The Strategy’s vision will be achieved through a long-term plan that outlines what isneeded to improve our marine and coastal environments and ultimately reduce human impact through four objectives: 

Land-Ocean Connections: to integrate the management of coastal watersheds, the coastal area (including cities) and the marine environment to optimize the ecosystem services and resilience of marine and coastal systems.

Ecosystems for Human Well-Being: to identify, assess and value the status, key drivers of change and services of marine and coastal ecosystems and their link to human well-being.

Reconciling Use and Conservation: to ensure that appropriate governance frameworks, management tools, capacity and options areavailable for regions, countries, communities and the private sector to effectively engage in the sustainable management of marine and coastal ecosystems including reconciling competing uses.

Vulnerable People and Places: to strengthen the ecological, economic and social security of vulnerable communities and places, including Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to adapt and respond to natural disasters and climate change, through enhancing the resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems and social capital, and improved access and benefit sharing

Ecosystem Services Economics

UNEP’s work on Ecosystem Services Economics (ESE) aims to support its effort in building capacity of stakeholders to generate scientificallycredible information required for integrating an ecosystem service approach into national economic and development frameworks. The ESE work is geared towards developing a knowledge base as well as promoting understanding on how ecosystems and services they provide relate to human well-being and development. The three main areas of focus are:

1. Economic Valuation and Natural Wealth2. Equity in Ecosystem Management3. Disaster Risk Management

UNEP’s work on ESE is in line with the global strategy for the follow-up to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) of 2005. The MA follow-up was developed by a group of interested partner organisations to address the remaining challenges highlighted by independent evaluations of the MA.

Q4.Essay the concept of Acid Rain

Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are unusuallyacidic because of atmospheric pollution - most notably the excessiveamounts of sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrialprocesses. Acid rain is also called acid deposition because this termincludes other forms of acidic precipitation such as snowAcid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it ismainly caused by the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present there to form sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation.

The gases responsible for acid deposition are normally a byproduct of electric power generation and the burning of coal. As such, it began entering the atmosphere in large amounts during and was first discovered by a Scottish chemist, Robert Angus Smith, in 1852. In thatyear, he discovered the relationship between acid rain and atmosphericpollution in Manchester, England.

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds fromhuman sources, such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power complexes utilising coal are among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for acidic rain. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.

Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 havebeen reported in industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is asubstantial problem in China and Russia and areas downwind from them.These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat andelectricity.

The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population andindustrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tallsmokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread ofacid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation.Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of theemissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatestdeposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example ofthis effect is the low pH of rain which falls in Scandinavia.

Effects of acid rain on Health

Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm topeople from acid rain is not direct. Walking in acid rain, or evenswimming in an acid lake, is no more dangerous than walking orswimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that cause acid rainsulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) do damage human health.These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate andnitrate particles that can be transported long distances by winds andinhaled deep into people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrateindoors. Many scientific studies have identified a relationshipbetween elevated levels of fine particles and increased illness andpremature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma andbronchitis.

Q- 5 - The concept and application of IPR and Environment Management in India

CONCEPT OF IPR Intellectual Property Rights cover copyright and related rights,

and industrial property including trademarks and geographical indications.

Intellectual Property Rights are a means of protecting and rewarding innovation. Balancing private and public interests in protecting innovation is the essence of Intellectual Property (IP) legislation.

Developments in science now permit the definition of specific genes and open the door to Intellectual Property Rights related to living matter, giving rise to concerns about the exploitation of plant genetic resources.

Various solutions have been canvassed to possible conflicts between the gene-poor but technology-rich global North and the gene-rich but technology-poor global South. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Property Rights (TRIPS) provides the wayforward for discussion in the mandated review of this Agreement.

IPR AND THEIR RELATION WITH TRADE

International IPR policy coordination is likely to imply a changein global trade relations. The demand for general legal protection against unfair imitation of creations, inventions, marks and names has to be understood as a product of the commercial revolution. That demand has swollen immensely with thedevelopment of modern advertising and large-scale retailing.

Protection against counterfeit and pirated copies

An adequate protection of IPR reduces trade distortions and barriers to international trade, in particular trade in counterfeit goods and pirated copyright goods. IPR give the framework for a free and fair competition. They also protect consumers since it is thanks to IPR that consumers are able to make informed choices between the various goods and services available.

IPR support creativity by being the means through which imagination, ability and inventiveness are rewarded. IPR promote the use of creations, inventions, expressions of ideas and distinctive signs to create wealth, through their application in trade, industry and culture development.

Encourages exports and technology transfer

IPR favour exports and facilitate technology development and transfer since they encourage investment and at the international level they enforce the position of exporting industries.

Measures and procedures to enforce IPR however should not themselves constitute barriers to legitimate trade through practices of unfair competition, restriction of trade and international transfer of technology, etc.

Positive implications

Provides incentive for private investment in innovation

Knowledge that can be classified as innovative typically implies high research and development costs. The reason why industries undergo such investments is the expectation of a technological advantage in relation to other market competitors and, as a result thereof, higher profits.

Given the ease of reproducing IP-protected goods, this objective might be severely endangered. If investors are not given a means to protect their results and recover their costs, the developmentof new technologies will be retarded.

IPR are considered a reliable mechanism for recovering investment. The inventor/investor is thereby accredited a "monopoly-like" position as to the invention, permitting exclusive exploitation, i.e. precluding others from it. This results in the establishment of a safe market position, assuring the yield to its promoter and creating an incentive for private investment in innovative technology.

IPR are a matter of national jurisdiction. A literary or artisticwork, or an invention, is protected only in the country where therelevant IPR has been granted. If a company is doing business in many countries, it is compelled to apply for protection in all

those countries. If this is not the case, each transaction, whichcrosses borders, bears the risk of counterfeiting or piracy in absence of remedies. This scenario represents a substantial deterrent for any international trade involving innovative knowledge, eventually impeding a sustainable technology transfer between States.

Negative implications

Notwithstanding the positive connotations of IPR, some negative effects are inevitable. Particularly governments of developing countries express doubts about the introduction of a strong international IPR regime in the framework of negotiations on mutual IPR policy.

Raises costs of technology acquisition to developing countries

Developing countries frequently base their economy and scientificresearch on the employment of foreign basic technology imported from industrialized countries. Both areas may be negatively affected by strong IP protection. The granting of the respective rights allows the inventor to receive high economic rents for theuse of the invention. This results in higher end-product prices and leakages from the domestic economy in the form of royalty payments, license fees, etc.

Likewise, subsequent innovation will be deterred by unaffordable foreign basic technology. Companies holding IPR will see their capital value rise and will be in a position to buy out competingfirms to consolidate their market positions1. Industrial innovation eventually becomes a developed country monopoly countervailing the purpose of technology transfer, i.e. the widespread diffusion thereof.

Damages basic scientific research

Other problems may be encountered where scientific institutions (e.g. universities) are confronted with IPR regimes. In many countries, any advanced disclosure of an invention, e.g. by publication, precludes patentability and thus any means of protection2. Strong IPR thus creates an incentive for confidential handling of innovative knowledge and the developmentin several scientific fields would be adversely affected by such a policy. Knowledge share or exchange is of substantial importance for technological innovation in several fields of public relevance (e.g. pharmaceuticals, medicine, surgery, agriculture etc.). It becomes therefore a substantial task for IPR policy to avoid such side-effects.

Distorts technological choices

The introduction of strong IPR may also result in a focusing of efforts on only economically valuable knowledge. This would eventually result in neglecting several technological fields, causing a "market-niche development

Need for detailed case studies on IPR impact on growth

It is difficult to make predictions as to the nature of IPR-related implications. Defining the role of IPR or predicting any retarding or driving effect thereof on international trade relations or technological development is extremely difficult. IPR regimes are one of numerous circumstances varying over time and across countries correlated to economic structures. The impacts will vary where countries with different levels of development or diverging economic structures are subject to mutual IPR policy. Hence, there is a considerable need for specific national case studies on how various types of IPR systems affect growth.

Whether private incentives would be sufficient to generate the optimal flow of additions to the stock of scientific and technological knowledge must be considered. Practice shows that private contracts for technology transfer often succeed in sustainable knowledge exploitation coupled with sufficient publicavailability of innovative information. However, in the absence of special provisions, any result remains unpredictable and substantially subject to the equitable trade-related conduct of concerned parties. The abuse of strong market positions remains an inherent risk. Public intervention thus remains necessary.

The aforementioned aspects are of relevance in developing international and domestic IPR regimes.

Environmental Management in India

India’s economic growth over the past few years has raised the prospect of eliminating extensive poverty within a generation. But this growth has been clouded by a degrading physical environment and the growing scarcity of natural resources that are essential for sustaining further growth and eliminating poverty. It is no coincidence that the poorest areas of the country are also the most environmentally-stressed regions, with eroded soils, polluted waterways, and degraded forests. Simultaneously, rapid growth has unleashed greater public awareness and an unprecedented demand for the sound management ofnatural resources including air, water, forests, and biodiversity. Environmental sustainability is rapidly emerging asthe next major development and policy challenge for the country, and will be central to the 12th Five Year Plan which is currentlyunder preparation.

The Challenges

Pollution: Water, land and air contamination associated with growth are increasing exponentially. Rapid investment in the manufacturing sector, that includes 17 highly polluting industries that are on the Central Pollution Control Board’s “RedList”, has fuelled this growth. The share of the most polluting sectors in India’s exports has increased dramatically during the last decade suggesting that India could be emerging as a net exporter of pollution-intensive commodities. These trends indicate the need for greater investment in environmental management.

Natural Resources, Ecosystems and Biodiversity: In rural areas, poverty has become intertwined with resource degradation - poor soils, depleted aquifers and degraded forests. To subsist, the poor are compelled to mine and overuse these limited resources, creating a downward spiral of impoverishment and environmental degradation. There is growing pressure to better protect India’s pockets of mega-biodiversity which are increasingly recognized asbeing of immense significance for global biodiversity, yet are increasingly threatened. Greater investment in the protection of these natural assets would yield a double dividend of poverty alleviation and the improved sustainability of growth.

Coastal Zone Management: India’s coastal zone is endowed with fragile ecosystems including mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, and unique marine and terrestrial wildlife, which contribute in a significant manner to the national economy. Economic activities such as rapid urban-industrialization, maritime transport, marine fishing, tourism, coastal and sea bed mining, offshore oil and natural gas production, aquaculture, andthe recent setting up of special economic zones have led to a significant exploitation of these resources.In addition to the contribution of increased economic activity, coastal development

and livelihoods are under stress due to a higher incidence of severe weather events, which have the potential to inflict irreversible damage to lives and property, for communities that are traditionally poor and vulnerable to economic shocks.

Environmental Governance: The pace of infrastructure investments,which could reach $500 billion in the 12th Five Year Plan, calls for integrated and coordinated decision-making systems. This is made especially challenging by fragmented policies and multiple institutional legal and economic planning frameworks, with often conflicting objectives and approaches.

Environmental Health: The health impacts from pollution are comparable to those caused by malnutrition and have a significantimpact on the productivity, health and the quality of life. Environmental health challenges are largely caused by poverty-related risks associated with poor access to basic services, suchas safe drinking water and sanitation, and poor indoor air quality. The contamination of surface waters and the spread of pathogens are promoted by the alteration of catchments and watersheds that have accompanied rapid urbanization and intensivefarming. Despite significant improvements in rural water supply and sanitation over the past few decades, water-related diseases still account for a large number of avoidable child deaths every year.

Climate Change: India is highly vulnerable to climate change due to a combination of; (i) high levels of poverty, (ii) population density, (iii) high reliance on natural resources, and (iv) an environment already under stress (for instance water resources). By mid-century, the mean annual temperature in India is projectedto increase 1.1º to 2.3 º C under the moderate climate change scenario of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (A1B), with anticipated deterioration of agro-climatic conditions. In the higher portion of that range, the loss to Indian GDP would begreater than the world average, and could be close to 5 %.

Simultaneously, there is likely to be greater variability in rainfall, leading to higher risk of increased frequency and severity of droughts, floods and cyclones.

Reflecting the size of its economy and population, India is ranked as the sixth largest emitter of greenhouse gas emissions in the world. However, by most measures, India would be classified as a low carbon economy. It has: (i) a low intensity of emissions per unit of GDP ( on par with the world average); (ii) per capita emissions that are among the lowest in the world (at about 10 percent of the developed country average) and (iii) forest cover that has stabilized. However, India’s emissions are set to grow substantially due to its sustained economic growth.

Government Priorities

India has made a substantial effort in attempting to address environmental challenges. It has enacted stringent environmental legislation and has created institutions to monitor and enforce legislation. The National Environmental Policy (NEP) recognizes the value of harnessing market forces and incentives as part of the regulatory toolkit, and India is one of only three countries worldwide which has established a Green Tribunal to exclusively handle environmental litigation. On environmental governance, theGOI is contemplating the establishment of the National Appraisal and Monitoring Authority (NEAMA) to carry out environmental appraisals.

During the current 11th Five Year Plan, the Government issued regulations to promote an integrated and inclusive approach to coastal zone planning and the sound management of hazardous

wastes, issued a number of critical policies (e.g. revised river conservation strategy and the National Biodiversity Plan), and established a Wildlife Crime Control Bureau to supplement existing conservation measures for species at risk, such as tigers. In response to the threat of climate change, the Prime Minister’s National Council on Climate Change issued India’s first comprehensive National Action Plan in June 2008. In the run-up to Copenhagen, India also volunteered its own target to reduce carbon intensity by 20 to 25 percent by 2020 against a 2005 baseline and established an Expert Group on Low Carbon Growth to identify how best to meet this challenge.

World Bank SupportResponding to these pressures, the World Bank has developed a multi-pronged approach to address environmental issues and mitigate its lending risks:

A Sound Program of Knowledge Products and Lending: This seeks to improve the knowledge base for environmental solutions, and to pilot a number of programs to address key environmental challenges.

Risk Management and Mainstreaming through Cross Support Activities: Through the World Bank’s safeguard policies, a sound mechanism for decision making has been developed. A number of tools to enable the integration of environmental management in project design, and minimize the environmental footprint of the Bank’s operations have also been developed.

Country Systems and Capacity Building Initiatives help build institutional capacity, and include the piloting of country (state) systems for managing risks of World Bank projects.

List of Active ProjectsThe World Bank has a growing relationship and portfolio in the environment sector. Projects under implementation include the following.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project ($222mn approved June 2010) to help build the appropriate institutional arrangements, capacity and advanced knowledge systems needed to implement the national program on integrated coastal zone management. It will also help pilot this approach in three coastal states, Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal, through a range of complementary pilots in select coastal stretches to build state-level capacity.

Capacity Building for Industrial Pollution Management Project ($65mn approved June 2010) to build tangible human and technical capacity in state agencies in Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal for undertaking environmentally sound remediation of polluted sites and to support the development of a policy, institutional and methodological framework for the establishment of a National Program for Rehabilitation of Polluted Sites (NPRPS).

The National Ganga River Basin Authority Project ($1bn approved in May 2011): to build capacity of its nascent operational-level institutions, so that they can manage the long-term Ganga clean-up and conservation program; and implement a diverse set of demonstrative investments for reducing point-source pollution loads in a sustainable manner, at priority locations on the Ganga.

Biodiversity Conservation and Rural Livelihoods Project (GEF/IDA $23m approved in May 2011): to develop and promote new models of conservation at the landscape scale through enhanced capacity andinstitutional building for mainstreaming biodiversity conservation outcomes.

Pipeline ProjectsEnvironmentally Sustainable Development Policy Loan in the State of Himachal Pradesh: The proposed Development Policy Loan will seek to establish a framework for environmental sustainability, which will promote the participation of the state public and private sectors in the National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency, develop a policy and institutional framework for the further development of environmentally sound hydropower development, and enable sustainable development in a number of key sectors of the economy including: tourism, industry, and agricultural development and horticulture.

Global Environmental Facility (GEF): Following the recent replenishment, the World Bank has been requested to prepare a number of projects to be financed by the GEF, namely: Climate Resilience through Community-Based Approaches in Semi-Arid Areas,Integrated Biodiversity Hotspots and Improvements, Adaptive Management Tools in Sustainable Land Management, and Integrated Ecological Management of the Lakshadweep Sea.

Q6.Essay some of India’s major Environmental Disasters

1.Bhopal Gas tragedy

It occurred on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union CarbideIndia Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and otherchemicals. The toxic substance made its way into and around the shantytowns located near the plant.

In November 1984, most of the safety systems were not functioning andmany valves and lines were in poor condition. In addition, severalvent gas scrubbers had been out of service as well as the steamboiler, intended to clean the pipes. Another issue was that Tank 610

contained 42 tons of MIC, more than safety rules allowed for. Duringthe night of 2–3 December 1984, water entered a side pipe that wasmissing its slip-blind plate and entered Tank E610, which contained 42tons of MIC. A runaway reaction started, which was accelerated bycontaminants, high temperatures and other factors. The reaction wassped up by the presence of iron from corroding non-stainless steelpipelines. The resulting exothermic reaction increased the temperatureinside the tank to over 200 °C (392 °F) and raised the pressure. Thisforced the emergency venting of pressure from the MIC holding tank,releasing a large volume of toxic gases. About 30 metric tons of MICescaped from the tank into the atmosphere in 45 to 60 minutes

Thus the major factors leading to this huge gas leak include:

The use of hazardous chemicals (MIC) instead of less dangerous ones Storing these chemicals in large tanks instead of over 200 steel drums. Possible corroding material in pipelines Poor maintenance after the plant ceased production in the early 1980s Failure of several safety systems (due to poor maintenance and

regulations). Safety systems shut down to save money - including the MIC tank

refrigeration system which alone would have prevented the disaster. Plant design modifications by Indian engineers to abide by government

regulations and economic pressures to reduce expenses

The problem was then made worse by the plant's location near a densely populated area, non-existent catastrophe plans and shortcomings in health care and socio-economic rehabilitation

Aftermath

In 1998, the Supreme Court of India reached a settlement with Union Carbide: They had to pay 470 million US dollars to the Indian state.[12] At that time Union Carbide made a turnover of about 9.5 billion dollars, 20 times that amount. In return, there would be no further prosecution. Only very little money actually reached the victims. One of the reasons why many people are still suffering is that the terrain where the plant

stands is still contaminated with mercury and other carcinogenic substances.

2.2013 North India Floods

In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst centered on the North Indianstate of Uttarakhand caused devastating floods and landslides becomingthe country's worst natural disaster since the 2004 tsunami. Thoughsome parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh inIndia experienced the flood, some regions of Western Nepal, and someparts of Western Tibet also experienced heavy rainfall, over 95% ofthe casualties occurred in Uttarakhand. As of 16 July 2013, accordingto figures provided by the Uttarakhand government, more than 5,700people were "presumed dead."

Unprecedented destruction by the rainfall witnessed in Uttarakhandstate was attributed, by environmentalists, to unscientificdevelopmental activities undertaken in recent decades contributing tohigh level of loss of property and lives. Roads constructed inhaphazard style, new resorts and hotels built on fragile river banksand more than 70 hydroelectric projects in the watersheds of the stateled to a "disaster waiting to happen" as termed by certainenvironmentalists.The environmental experts reported that the tunnelsbuilt and blasts undertaken for the 70 hydro electric projectscontributed to the ecological imbalance in the state, with flows ofriver water restricted and the streamside development activitycontributing to a higher number of landslides and more flooding.