Preliminary impact assessment of coal mine effluents on mangrove vegetation in Semirara Island,...

27Sy Piecco & Briones / Phil J of Nat Sci 15 (2010): 101-Barnuevo / Phil J of Nat Sci 16 (2011): 27-36

Preliminary impact assessment of coal mine effluents on mangrove vegetation in Semirara Island, Antique, PhilippinesAbner P. Barnuevo

Division of Biological SciencesCollege of Arts and SciencesUniversity of the Philippines VisayasMiagao 5023, Iloilo, Philippines

AbstrAct. The impact of coal mine wastes on mangrove vegetation and structural characteristics was investigated. The sedimentation in the intertidal areas caused by coal mine wastes disposal at Semirara Island, Antique, Philippines was investigated to determine its impacts on mangrove vegetation and structural characteristics. This study was conducted in Brgy. Semirara (impacted) and Brgy. Alegria (control) using standard and common parameters in assessing the health and general condition of the forest. Twenty-eight species were identified in both sites with Rhizophora mucronata (30%) and Bruguiera cylindrica (23.08%) as the most frequently occurring species. The impacted site had lower mangrove density and had been adversely affected by sediment accretion and coal effluents deposition. The impacts ranged from sublethal damage to mortality of Sonneratia alba and R. mucronata trees. Sublethal stresses manifested were abnormal leaf curling, severe leaf necrosis, and high prevalence of grazed leaves. Phytotoxicological effects of the pollutants may have contributed directly or indirectly to the aberrant metabolism of mangroves thus predisposing them to pests and pathogens. The sedimentation and mine tailings deposition jeopardized the overall integrity of the mangrove ecosystem that is critical in maintaining a healthy coastal environment. And, it is recommended that the observed sublethal damages in mangroves be monitored and further investigation be conducted to cover the whole mangrove areas impacted, and assess other habitats like seagrasses, benthic communities, coral reefs and fish among others.

Keywords: mangroves, Semirara Island, mining, coal mine effluents, mangrove mortality

IntroductionMangroves are woody plants that grow at the

interface between land and sea in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. They create a unique ecological environment that hosts a rich assemblage of species and are considered to be a highly valuable ecosystem (Tomlinson 1986; Duke 1992) that supports the conservation of biological diversity as habitats, spawning grounds, and nurseries for animals (FAO 2007). Their ecological and economic significance is well-established (Robertson and Duke

*Corresponding author:

Division of Biological SciencesCollege of Arts and SciencesUniversity of the Philippines VisayasMiagao, Iloilo, PhilippinesEmail Address: [email protected]

1987; Bandaranayake 1988). However, they remain under constant threat from direct (e.g. conversion to fishpond, reclamation for housing and industrial use) (Primavera 1995) and indirect anthropogenic activities occurring upland (e.g. mining, agriculture, and urban run-off) and offshore (e.g. oil spills) (Lewis 1983; Duke et al. 1997). Mining has increased over the past decade in many mineral-rich countries in Asia including Cambodia, India, Indonesia, and the Philippines and has contributed significantly to these countries’ economic growth (Kobayashi 1999). However, this is always accompanied by environmental and social trade-offs. According to Askornkaoae et al. (1993), mining accounted for 3% of mangrove lost in Thailand. Recently, coal mining operated by Semirara Mining Corporation (SMC) in Semirara Island in Caluya, Antique, Philippines is deemed to cause damage to the marine environment particularly mangroves and

28 Barnuevo / Phil J of Nat Sci 16 (2011): 27-36

nearby settlers’ traditional livelihood. SMC is the only large-scale sub-bituminous coal producer in the Philippines engaged in surface open cut mining of thermal coal in the island.

By nature, mining involves the production of large quantities of waste, which, if not properly disposed, can cause degradation of aquatic ecosystems and receiving bodies of water. Degradation results from three primary processes: sedimentation, acid drainage, and metal deposition. This study assessed the impacts of sedimentation on mangrove vegetation and structural characteristics in Semirara Island. The study (a) identified true mangrove species vulnerable to sedimentation, (b) described the mangrove vegetation in terms of composition and structure, and (c) qualitatively assessed the sublethal and lethal damages prevalent in the mangrove habitat.

Materials and MethodsThe study was conducted from April 16 to 17,

2009 in two of the three barangays of Semirara Island (Semirara and Alegria) in Caluya, Antique, Philippines (Fig. 1). Semirara Island covers an area of 55 km2 and is located 350 km south of Manila. Brgy. Semirara is where coal washing effluents are discharged via Suja Creek and a port for shipment vessel is located. An area near the mouth of Suja Creek where the tailings and wastewater from coal washing facility are discharged was designated as the impacted site. An area in Brgy. Alegria near the mouth of another creek approximately 8 km from the mining site was designated as the control site. Assessment of mangrove vegetation and structure was done on the impacted and control sites.

In the same sampling sites, a study on physico-chemical components was conducted by another team of researchers in this at the same time (April 16-17, 2009?). Core samples of sediments were collected to determine the concentration of selected heavy metals (chromium, lead, arsenic, mercury, cadmium) and for mineralogical analyses. Only the mangrove was studied for the biological component due to limitations in logistics and resources.

An ocular survey was done to identify and list all mangrove species present in the area. However, this was not possible for the entire impacted site because of its inaccessibility to the researchers and the presence of armed men. Instead, the species present in the impacted site was extrapolated from the study of Sansait (unpubl. data) which was conducted in 2004. Mangroves condition was

assessed qualitatively through visual inspection and scoring of leaves for any manifestation of sublethal damage. Sublethal effects are those that do not directly cause death but affect behavior, biochemical or physiological functions, or tissue integrity (NOAA 2002). Manifestations of sublethal stress include necrosis and highly grazed leaves, leaf curling and yellow leaves. Additionally, when plants suffer from malnutrition, they could show symptoms like chlorosis, necrosis, wilting, and stunting (Moore and Clarke 1995).

Assessment of mangrove community structure was done following the transect line plots method of English et al. (1994). One transect per site was established, and three 10 m x 10 m plot running perpendicular to the shore located at the seaward margin, middle, and landward were randomly set up. True mangrove species inside the plot were identified to species level following Primavera et al. (2004) and girth at breast height (GBH) of trees was taken approximately 1.3 m above the ground. Saplings (girth less than 4 cm and height greater than 1 m) and seedlings (height less than 1 m) were identified and the number of individuals by species was determined by actual count. Smaller subplots (5 x 5 m) were established in the corner of the main plot if the density of saplings and seedlings was uniform and evenly distributed throughout the main plot. Ecological parameters (girth at breast height, density, frequency and diversity index) were calculated based on English et al. (1994) and the significance of difference between control and impacted sites was determined using t-test.

Results Structural Characteristics

Twenty-three species were identified under 14 families and 16 genera in Brgy. Alegria, while Sansait (unpubl. data) reported 26 species in Brgy. Semirara (Table 1). Based on this study and that of Sansait (unpubl. data) 28 species were present in Semirara Island, about 80% of Philippine mangrove species. The most frequently occurring species were Bruguiera cylindrica and Rhizophora mucronata in the control and impacted sites respectively (Tables 2 and 3). The Shannon-Weaver of diversity Index (H’) was higher in the control site compared with the impacted site (0.84 vs. 0.66).

In both sites mangroves were composed mainly of large-sized trees, a characteristic of a mature forest stand. Basal area per species was 8,061.25


Figure 1. Map of the study area. (by Green Forum Western Visayas).

Impacted site

Control site

Table 1. Family and species of mangroves identified in Semirara Island, Caluya, Antique, Philippines from 16 to 17 April 2009. Data for Brgy. Semirara from 17 April 2009 are from Sansait (unpubl.).

Semirara AlegriaSansait (unpubl.)

1. Acanthus ebracteatus X X2. Ac. ilicifolius X X3. Ac. volubilis X X4. Avicennia marina X X5. Av. officinalis X6. Av. rumphiana X X

3. Bombaceae 7. Camptostemon philippinensis X8. Lumnitzera littorea X X9. L. racemosa X X

5. Euphorbiaceae 10. Excoecaria agallocha X X6. Lythraceae 11. Pemphis acidula X

12. Xylocarpus granatum X X13. X. moluccensis X X14. Aegiceras corniculatum X X15. Ae. floridum X

9. Myrtaceae 16. Osbornia octodonta X X10. Palmae 17. Nypa fruticans X X

18. Bruguiera cylindrica X X19. B. gymnorrhiza X20. B. sexangula X X21. Ceriops decandra X X22. C. tagal X23. Rhizophora apiculata X X24. R. mucronata X X25. R. stylosa X X

12. Rubiaceae 26. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea X13. Sonneratiaceae 27. Sonneratia alba X X14. Sterculiaceae 28. Heritiera littoralis X X

26 2313 12

Total number of speciesTotal number of families

Sites/Brgy.

1. Acanthaceae

2. Avicenniaceae

4. Combretaceae

7. Meliaceae

8. Myrsinaceae

11. Rhizophoraceae

Family Species


Figure 2. Changes in the total lipid hydroperoxide content of cured Alaska Pollack roe during storage at 5oC. Bars indicate standard deviations from triplicate samples. Significant differences (p< 0.05) between samples are indicated by different letters (a-h).

BA SBA SPH Rden RF Rdom IV DI(cm2m-2) (m2 ha-1) (n ha-1) (%) (%) (%) % H'

Avicennia marina 1200 20 20.00 40.00 0.66Bruguiera sexangula 277.17 0.92 67 1 10.00 2.43 13.54Rhizophora apiculata 3249.4 10.83 1500 25 20.00 28.45 73.45Rhizophora mucronata 4302.82 14.34 3133 52 30.00 37.67 119.89Sonneratia alba 3593.79 11.98 67 1 10.00 31.46 42.57Xylocarpus moluccensis 33 1 10.00 10.56Total 11423.18 38.08 6000 100.0 100.0 100.0 300.0

Species

Table 2. Structural characteristics of mangroves in Brgy. Alegria, Caluya, Antique, Philippines (control) from 16 to 17 April 2009. (BA – basal area, SBA – stand basal area, SPH – stems per hectare, Rden – relative density, RF – relative frequency, Rdom – relative dominance, IV – importance value, DI – diversity index).

Table 3. Structural characteristics of mangroves in Brgy. Semirara, Caluya, Antique, Philippines (impacted) from 16 to 17 April 2009. (BA – basal area, SBA – stand basal area, SPH – stems per hectare, Rden – relative density, RF – relative frequency, Rdom – relative dominance, IV – importance value, DI – diversity index).

BA SBA SPH Rden RF Rdom IV DI(cm2m-2) (m2 ha-1) (n ha-1) (%) (%) (%) % H'

Avicennia marina 4055.2 10.14 9950 66.11 7.69 19.04 92.85 0.84Avicennia rumphiana 6201.77 15.50 50 0.33 15.38 29.12 44.84Bruguiera cylindrica 733.16 1.83 775 5.15 7.69 3.44 16.28Bruguiera sexangula 262.53 0.66 375 2.49 7.69 1.23 11.42Ceriops decandra 450 2.99 23.08 26.07Lumnitzera racemosa 250.4 0.63 450 2.99 7.69 1.18 11.86Rhizophora apiculata 1732.26 4.33 1400 9.30 15.38 8.13 32.82Rhizophora mucronata 8061.25 20.15 1400 9.30 7.69 37.85 54.85Xylocarpus moluccensis 200 1.33 7.69 9.02Total 21296.57 53.24 15050 100.0 100.0 100.0 300.0

Species

15.05

1.45 2.00

11.60

6.00

1.671.43

2.90

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

16.00

Stems/ha(Total)

Trees/ha Saplings/ha Wildings/ha

Den

sity

, no.

ha-

1x

103

Site/Plant category

Control Impacted


cm2/m2 for R. mucronata which was also the dominant species, 37.67% and 37.85% in impacted and control sites respectively (Tables 2 and 3). Total basal area was higher in the control site (21,296.57 cm2/m2) almost double than in the impacted site (11,423.18 cm2/m2). Computed stand basal area was higher in the control site, 53.24 m2/ha, while the impacted site had 38.08 m2/ha. This difference, however, is not significant (p > 0.05, n = 3, α = 0.05).

The estimated densities per plant category varied widely. Seedling density was higher in the control site with 11,600 seedlings/ha while impacted site had only 2,900 seedlings/ha (Fig. 2). Density of saplings was also higher in control site with 2,000 saplings/ha while impacted site had 1,433 saplings/ha. However, these differences in seedling and sapling densities could be brought about by differences in the location. Tree density was 1,450 trees/ha and 1,667 trees/ha for control and impacted sites, respectively. Stems per hectare (total density of trees, saplings and seedlings) was higher in control site at 15,050 plants/ha while impacted site had only 6,000 plants/ha. An overall ranking based on the analysis of importance values (relative frequency, relative density, and relative dominance), showed that the top two species in both sites were A. marina tT R. mucronata.

Mortality and sublethal effects

Mangrove mortality was observed in the impacted site particularly on R. mucronata and S. alba (Fig. 3). However, this patch of impacted mangrove was not assessed for community structure due to limited

access in the area at the time of sampling. Sublethal stress was already present in the impacted site as manifested in the leaves of R. mucronata seedlings and saplings. These include abnormal leaf curling, scorching and wilting (Fig. 4a-c) and severe necrosis on leaf margins (Fig. 4d). Another observation in the impacted site was the coating of dust particles or fly ash on mangrove leaves of Avicennia marina and A. rumphiana in Sitio Bigo, Brgy. Alegria (Fig. 5).

DiscussionStructural Characteristics

The mangrove forest structure for both control and impacted sites was considered mature, characterized by large-sized trees. Ecological parameters (stand basal area, diversity, densities of seedlings, saplings and trees) were higher in the control site. In terms of floristic composition, the area in Brgy. Semirara is more diverse than the east coast of Samar which has 22 species (Mendoza et al. 2001); and Danjugan Island, Cauayan, Negros Occidental with 14 species (King et al. 2001). It is comparable with Guimaras Island with 29 species (Sadaba et al. 2009), and Davao Gulf which has 30 species (Flores 2003).

Based on the report of Sansait (unpubl.), seedling density in impacted site showed an 8% reduction from 3,155 to 2,900 seedling/ha, while that in control showed a significant increase in density from 257 to 11,600 seedling/ha (about 44 times). Furthermore, impacted site tree density decreased

Figure 3. Massive dead mangroves found in Brgy. Semirara, Caluya, Antique, Philippines (impacted) from 16 to 17 April 2009. (Photo by M. Purzuelo)


Figure 4. Leaves of Rhizophora mucronata found near Suja Creek in Brgy. Semirara, Caluya, Antique, Philippines (impacted) showing abnormal leaf curling (a-c) and highly grazed and necrotic leaf margin (d) from 16 to 17 April 2009.

A B

C D

Figure 5. Leaves of (a) Avicennia marina and (b) A. rumphiana coated with ash found in Sitio Bigo, Alegria, Caluya, Antique from 16 to 17 April 2009.

A B


by 35% while control site increased by 105.1%. The mean tree density of 1,677 trees/ha in control site and 1,450 in impacted site was lower than that in Borongan, Samar with 3,300±656 trees/ha and in Dolores, Samar with 1,780±349 trees/ha, (Mendoza and Alura 2001) but almost comparable with Guimaras, 1,605 trees/ha (Sadaba et al. 2009), and with Matarinao Bay, 1,575±296 trees/ha, (Mendoza and Alura 2001).

Mortality and sublethal effectsSeveral studies have shown that excessive

sedimentation caused disturbance and death of mangroves (Atmadja and Soerojo 1994; Terrados, et al. 1997, Ellison 1998). Mangroves are considered as pollution filters and sinks; their long term continuous exposure to pollutants can have detrimental effects. Although they flourish in sedimentary shorelines, excessive input of sediment to mangroves can cause death of trees. In New Caledonia, large-scale nickel mining resulted in massive soil erosion and siltation in mangrove swamps causing localized areas of mangrove to decline (Wodzicki 1981 and Bird et al. 1984). According to Tabuchi (2003), large scale mortality of mangroves is common where there is high sedimentation that leads to low respiration as a consequence of the pneumatophores burial. The study of Terrados et al. (1997) demonstrated that sediment burial of 8 cm and above retarded growth and increased mortality of R. apiculata seedlings. In French Guiana, massive sediment deposition occurs adjacent to river mouths caused death of A. germinans (Fromard et al. 1998). In the Mekong Delta, several mangroves died because of excessive sedimentation and consequently jeopardized the reforestation effort mainly of Rhizophora (Ellison 1998). In Trinidad, the 10-15 cm deposition of marine dredge on A. germinans and Laguncularia racemosa caused mortality (Ellison 1998). In the impacted site, dead R. mucronata and S. alba trees were observed. Death of the trees can be traced to sedimentation and deposition of mine residues and tailings as supported by data from the study of Taberna and Gamarcha (unpubl.) conducted on the same site within the same study period. Based on their study, coal load in sediment collected at depth of 55cm in the impacted site reached 93% of the core sample. With the persistence of high sediment accretion, the physiological functions of pneumatophores are impaired and the oxygen supply to the hypocotyl is altered (Terrados et al. 1997) creating a hypoxic substrate condition leading to sublethal damages and eventually mortality of mangroves.

Sublethal stress in the impacted site was manifested in the leaves of R. mucronata seedlings and saplings. These include abnormal leaf curling, scorching and wilting and severe necrosis on leaf margins. Curling, scorching and wilting of leaves could be attributed to chronic exposure to pollutants that altered the plant’s rate of minerals and nutrients uptake. Potassium deficiency for instance may show chlorosis and necrosis usually on older leaves, nitrogen deficiency may exhibit chlorosis and stunted growth, while phosphorus may show stunted growth that would affect the entire plant (Moore and Clarke 1995; O’Callaghan 2002). The persistence of high level of coal load plus sediment accretion, creates a hypoxic substrate condition that affects the rate of mineral nutrients uptake by plants. Plants not receiving balanced nutrition are often more susceptible to attack by insects and disease causing organisms and damage by extremes in environmental conditions (O’Callaghan 2002). Necrotic leaves on the other hand could be an indication of a weakened state that made the leaves vulnerable to insects, fungi and other grazers. Similar sublethal stress was reported by Umechuruba (2005) in the oil spill impacted area in Nigeria, wherein phytotoxicological effects of the pollutants on the structure and physiology of mangroves predisposed the plants to pathogens. In the impacted site, it was also observed that mangrove leaves had a of dust particles or fly ash. Toxic constituents in the fly ash include metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and silica (Borm 1997). The 1996 evaluation by the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified crystalline silica as a human carcinogen (Borm 1997). PAH on the other hand, like oil, are known to cause disruption of cell membranes and cellular organelles of mangroves (Getter 1981).

The results of this study do not agree with the February 16, 2009 report of the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO) to the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources (PENRO) (Magtoto 2009). The CENRO ocular inspection reported that (1) there was no siltation in the naturally grown and reforested mangrove (by SMC); (2) the sediments in mangroves were just ordinary to any mangrove forest stand in any part of the country; and (3) there were no dead mangroves in the area. Results of the mineralogical analysis by Taberna and Gamarcha (unpubl.) showed that the core sample collected in the Suja Creek impacted site at the depth of 55 cm, sediment coal load comprised 70% of the sample while mud and quartz crystal comprised 5% and 25% respectively.


Another sample in the sandbar top sediment layer in the nearby impacted site showed that coal load comprised 93% while the benthic foraminera and gastropod fragments had 6% and 1%, respectively. In contrast, core sediment sample from the control site, both top layer and at 10-35cm depth, showed that mud, quartz crystal, and biogenic fragments (i.e. gastropod, corals, benthic foraminera, etc.) comprised the core samples and no trace of coal was found.

The study of Taberna and Gamarcha (unpubl.) reported the presence of Hg in the impacted site at a level of 0.153 mg/kg which, based on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration standard is of moderate toxicity. Concentration of other heavy metals such as Cr, Pb, As and Cd in sediments in the same study site were within safe limits. The moderate toxicity level of Hg is very alarming especially that Hg contamination poses risk and threat to human health and environment in general.

Mining has increased over the past decade in many mineral-rich countries in Asia including the Philippines and it has contributed significantly to the country’s economic growth. In Semirara Island, coal mine tailings and wastes discharged into the coastal environment threaten the valuable marine ecosystem particularly mangroves. Damage to mangroves in the impacted site involved localized mortality which could grow more serious in the long run. These significantly affect the overall integrity of the mangrove ecosystem that is critical in maintaining a healthy coastal environment. The findings of this study identified environmental issues which need to be addressed concerning the pollution of coastal areas and their possible impacts to people. It is recommended that further investigation be conducted to cover the whole mangrove areas impacted, and assess other habitats such as seagrasses, benthic communities, coral reefs and fish.

AcknowledgmentThe researcher is grateful to the Foundation for

Philippine Environment and The Antique Outdoors (TAO) for providing the funds for this study. Acknowledgments are also due to the Green Forum Western Visayas and Global Legal Action on Climate Change (GLACC) for the arrangement of logistics for this scientific investigation; Dr. J.H. Primavera and Dr. R. Sadaba for valuable inputs and suggestions for the improvement of the manuscript; Mr. Melvin Purzuelo for the photograph of dead mangroves; and the barangay officials and residents of Brgy. Alegria for the assistance during the field work.

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