THE IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVE FORESTS MANAGEMENT

AUP 6231 ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING

THE IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVE FORESTS MANAGEMENT

BY:

NUR NABILA AHMAD AZAM

G1016160

KULLIYYAH OF ARCHITECTURE & ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (KAED)

ASSOC. PROF. DR. M. ZAINORA ASMAWI

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (IIUM)

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 15th

MARCH 2011

Importance of Managing Mangrove Forests

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Running Head: THE IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVE FORESTS MANAGEMENT

The Importance of Mangrove Forests Management

Nur Nabila Ahmad Azam G1016160

International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)


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Abstract

Mangrove forests are generally found along sheltered coasts where they grow

abundantly in saline soil and brackish water subject to periodic fresh and salt water

inundation. Undoubtedly the mangrove forest is a very dynamic and highly productive

ecosystem. It not only plays multiple ecological functions essential to its surrounding

habitats, but it is also an important resource for the coastal communities. However, there are

some issues that threatened the existence of the mangrove ecosystem. Unfortunately, human

activities are one of the main factors which contribute to the degradation of mangrove forest.

Due to the importance of the mangrove ecosystem and the issues that might endanger the life

of mangroves, it is necessary to protect the mangrove forest by having a good management

system. This paper contains the literature review that will help to give a better understanding

about the importance of the mangrove forest ecosystem and also the background of mangrove

forest management. There are two countries that have been selected for the case study of

mangrove forest management which are Malaysia and Thailand. Therefore, this paper

highlights the main importance of managing mangrove forest in preserving the ecosystem and

provided with the recommendation in the last chapter.

Keyword: Mangrove, mangrove ecosystem, mangrove forest management, mangrove threats


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Table of Content Page Number

Abstract 2

1.0 Introduction 4

2.0 Objective 5

3.0 Research Methodology 5

4.0 Literature Review 6

4.1 Mangrove Forest Management 6

4.1.1 History of mangrove forests restoration and management 7

4.1.2 Case study: 8

4.1.2.1 Mangrove forest management in Malaysia 8

4.1.2.2 Mangrove forest management in Thailand 10

4.2 Mangrove Forest Ecosystem 12

4.2.1 Mangrove forest zone 12

4.2.2 Values of mangrove forest 14

4.2.3 Threats to mangrove forest 16

5.0 Analysis 19

5.1 The importance of managing mangrove forests 19

6.0 Conclusion and Recommendation 25

6.1 Recommendation 25

6.2 Conclusion 26


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1.0 Introduction

Mangrove forests are a unique ecosystem. They provide valuable ecosystem services

which dominated by mangrove trees as the primary producer interacting with associated

aquatic fauna, social and physical factors of the coastal environment. Adeel (2001) stated that

the ecosystems contain protective habitats – such as spawning grounds, a nursery for

juveniles, and secure feeding grounds – for a wide number of fish, crab, shrimp, and mollusc

species. At the same time, these ecosystems serve as a sanctuary for indigenous and

migratory bird species.

Like other coastal ecosystems, mangroves are not safe from human intervention and

destruction. They were traditionally managed by small coastal communities at a sustainable

level, but their intense exploitation has led to an ever-worsening picture. These ecosystems

have become an easy target for the extraction of wood for fuel and construction, the

production of food and waste disposal (Adeel, 2001). One damaging factor that stands above

all the rest is unfettered aquaculture and shrimp farming. The areas that suitable for

mangroves also have ideal conditions for shrimp farming. This, coupled with an incredibly

high economic return on shrimp farming, has been the undoing of mangroves: large tracts of

former mangrove ecosystems have now been laid waste because of mismanaged shrimp

farming, which has made them too rich in nutrients and antibiotics to sustain a thriving

ecosystem of any kind.

Due to the importance of mangrove forest to the ecological system and environment,

it is necessary to have a good management and conservation of mangrove forest. It will help

to solve mangrove forests’ issues and problems and eventually will help to achieve


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sustainability. This paper will discuss the importance of mangrove forest management in

conserving and preserving the mangrove ecosystems.

2.0 Objectives

The objective of this paper is to identify the issues and problems concerning

mangrove forests. It is also to study the importance of mangrove forests management as well

as to examine how a proper management can help to sustain the mangrove forests.

3.0 Research Methodology

A descriptive and explanatory research was conducted relating the concerned topics:

the management of mangrove forests and mangrove ecosystem. The primary research of this

topic was extensively relied on the document analyses which are journals, books, articles and

others to gather data. Some of the books that are primarily used for this paper are Mangrove

Management and Conservation: Present and Future and Mangrove Management Handbook.

There are also journals that have been regularly referred to such as The Importance of Rules

and Regulatory Framework in Managing Mangrove Swamp in Malaysia and Restoration and

Management of Mangrove Systems - a lesson for and from the East African region. The

research method consisted of content analysis of the importance of mangrove ecosystems and

how an appropriate management can help to sustain the mangrove forests.


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4.0 Literature Review

Literature review associated with academic-oriented literature. It will focus on the

theoretical part of the study topic which is the importance of managing mangrove forests. It

provides important information and contents of background to the topic of study. It will help

to give a better understanding concerning the topic.

4.1 Mangrove Forests Management

BusinessDictionary.com defines management as the organization and coordination of

the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of

defined objectives. As a discipline, management consists of the interlocking functions of

formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing an

organization's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. Thus, mangrove forests

management describes as the organization and coordination of mangrove forest.

The management of mangroves has received a lot of attention worldwide for several

reasons. Firstly, the long ignored ecological and environmental values of mangrove forests

have been documented for many mangrove areas in the world. Secondly, there is a high

subsistence dependence on natural resources from mangrove forests. In addition, large losses

of mangroves have occurred throughout the world leading to coastal erosion, decline of

fishery resources and other environmental consequences, some of which in need of urgent

attention. Finally, governments throughout the world are showing commitments towards

sustainable use of mangrove areas.


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4.1.1 History of mangrove forests restoration and management

Mangrove planting and management has a long history in Southeast Asia (Watson,

1928). Perhaps the longest recorded history of mangrove management for timber is in the

Sundarbans. The 6 000km² of mangrove forests which cover the Sundarbans region of India

and Bangladesh were managed since 1769 and detailed work-plans were prepared in 1893–

1894 (Chowdhury & Ahmed, 1994). A parallel example is given by the 40 000ha mangroves

of Matang, Malaysia, that have been managed for fuel-wood production since 1902 (Watson,

1928). The operation provides significant employment to the local people, and the use of

mangrove wood products for timber and charcoal makes a significant contribution to the

economy of the west coast Peninsular Malaysia (Chan 1996). Matang also provides

protection against coastal erosion, breeding grounds for fish, fish stakes, firewood and

building materials.

More recently mangroves have been managed for integrated fish culture and for eco-

tourism (Bacon 1987). Planting mangroves has also been applied for erosion control in

Florida, and for experimental analysis of mangrove biology in Panama and Kenya (Kairo,

1995). Beginning with the realisation of ecological roles of mangroves and the passage of

laws protecting them from destruction, many small plantings for mitigating environmental

damage have occurred for example in Hawaii, Burma and Fiji (Hamilton & Snedaker, 1984).

A review of the available literature on mangrove plantation establishments shows mixed

successes of restoration efforts, even though it has been said that mangrove wetlands are easy

to restore and create.


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4.1.2 Case Study

Two case studies have been chosen for the mangrove forest management which are Malaysia

and Thailand.

4.1.2.1 Mangrove forest management in Malaysia

According to Dahlan and Shahsiah (2007), mangrove forests management system in

Malaysia has undergone changes from merely managing for its wood produce, to a

management system that incorporates multiple roles, protection, and conservation. Systematic

management of mangrove forests started as early as 1904, with the adoption of the first

working plan for Mangrove Forests in Matang.

Figure 1: Mangrove Forests in Matang (Source: Timber Malaysia Magazine)

The Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve, or Matang Mangroves (Figure 1), has been

acknowledged as the best-managed mangrove forest in Malaysia. Covering slightly more than

40,000 hectares, it is the largest single mangrove forest in Peninsular Malaysia and is an

exemplary sustainably managed mangrove forest which has been able to successfully balance


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the continuing demand for wood resources and preservation of the mangrove ecosystem

(“Timber Malaysia,” 2009).

The Matang mangrove is in its third ten-year period of the second rotation, and the

forest is still intact, providing various goods and services, sustainably. This is itself is a

manifestation of the success of forest management practices that aptly earned Matang

mangroves as the best managed mangrove forest in the world (Dahlan & Shahsiah, 2007).

Special emphasis to the protection of mangrove forests is duly recognized and given specific

attention in the National Forestry Act 1984, and further enshrined in the National Forest

Policy 1978 (revised 1992).

Matang Mangroves is divided into four zones based on carefully delineated forest

types. This in turn, is the basis for a silviculture system based on ecological considerations

(“Timber Malaysia,” 2009). At the heart of the management system are the Perak State Forest

Department’s 10-Year Working Plans and detailed Control Maps, which meticulously outline

how the forest reserve is to be managed. The first Working Plan covered the period 1950-

1959 and has been revised consistently every 10 years.

Hence, the management system of Matang Mangroves, which has evolved on many

levels, from silviculture to zoning and conservation, has not only allowed for timber to be

harvested but also for fishing to take place all year round. In addition, it has allowed the

mangroves to play their natural and important roles of stabilising the riverine coastlines and

be home to unique plants and animals. Ultimately, the aim of the management system of

Matang Mangroves is sustainability.

Dahlan and Shahsiah (2007) stated that future management of mangrove forests in

Peninsular Malaysia will adopt and integrated approach by adopting further refinement to the


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current management approach and incorporating latest findings and updated information

through more vigorous R & D, scientific expeditions and studies on mangrove forest. The

National Forestry Policy and other policies related to mangrove forests need to be revised

from time to time to match prevailing conditions and requirements, to ensure the realization

of its multi – functions in perpetuity.

According to Muzznena, Sharina, Zaidi and Othman (2002), the mangrove

ecosystems in Malaysia will always continue to decline or threatened to extinction by human

activities if necessary measures to protect them are not implemented. Several international

environmental treaties provide certain strategies that are required for the conservation of

mangroves. To ensure effective management of the mangrove ecosystems in Malaysia

supportive national legal principles and also guidelines are important. This will ensure that

conservation measures and sustainable development can be implemented.

4.1.2.2 Mangrove forest management in Thailand

Figure 2 & 3: Mangrove Forest in Thailand (Source: Flickr.com)

According to Choudury (1996), mangroves in Thailand (Figure 2 &3) were estimated

to cover 368 100 ha, and were depleted to 287 308 ha by 1979. Most of the mangrove forests

have been declared reserved forest though large areas of mangroves, estimated to be about 42


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956 ha, particularly in the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand, are under illegal private

possession, mostly for shrimp farming and salt production, for a long period of time

(Choudury,1996). A new land distribution policy has been promulgated since 1982 by the

Royal Forestry Department to counter this illegal occupancy on mangrove reserves, wherein

certain rights have been admitted over a fixed area per family, which can only be inherited by

a member of the immediate family.

Before 1961 the only objective of management was to log the mangroves for charcoal

production. The management plans formulated by the Royal Forest Department of Thailand

adopted a shelter wood system under sketchy regulations of a 10-year felling cycle, wherein

the forest area is divided into 10 equal coupes, each of which is worked on permits issued for

one year (Choudury, 1996). The prescriptions allowed the felling of trees measuring 10 cm or

more diameter at breast height (dbh), leaving 190 to 250 big trees per hectare (FAO 1985). In

1961 the Royal Forest Department revised the mangrove management plans to suit auction

leasing and incorporated different spacing for the trees to be retained as shelter trees in the

forest depending on their size. The minimum dbh limit was kept at 10 cm but the felling cycle

was changed from 10 to 15 years. The areas were to be auctioned for three years. Felling

within the 5 m wide strip along the banks of rivers and creeks was prohibited to prevent

erosion. The Government is also planning to promote the establishment of large-scale private

plantations of mangroves.


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4.2 Mangrove Forest Ecosystem

According to Baba (2004), mangroves are a highly productive ecosystem. The

invertebrate and vertebrate fauna of mangrove forests is rich in both number of species and

number of individuals of each species. He further stated that, the waters where mangroves

grow provide suitable breeding and nursery areas for a large number of fish, shrimps,

crayfish, clams, and other aquatic organisms. The same waters are used as feeding, breeding,

and resting places for many species of birds, amphibians, reptiles, and terrestrial and aquatic

mammals.

Kathiresan and Bingham (2001) mentioned that mangrove forests are extremely

important coastal resources, which are vital to our socio‐economic development. A vast

majority of human population lives in coastal area, and most communities depend on local

resources for their livelihood. The mangroves are sources of highly valued commercial

products and fishery resources and also as sites for developing a burgeoning eco‐tourism

(Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001). The mangrove forests have been shown to sustain more than

70 direct human activities, ranging from fuel‐wood collection to fisheries (Dixon, 1989;

Lucy, 2006).

4.2.1 Mangrove Forest Zone

Figure 4: Mangrove Forest Zone (Source: Mangrove Zone)


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A mature and extensive mangrove forest often has 'zones', where the types of plants

found change as you move away from the sea. Each zone is dominated by certain key

mangrove tree species. This has to do with the exposure and inundation level as the tide water

floods and ebbs on a daily basis. The most common tree species are Rhizophora, Avicennia,

Bruguiera, Sonneratia, Xylocarpus and Nypa species. Some other types of forests such as

beach forests and freshwater swamps are also found. The dominant species in beach forests

are Casuarina equisetifolia.

Mangrove forest is divided into three zones (Figure 4) which are Avicennia-

Sonneratia zone, Bruguiera-Rhizophora zone and Back mangrove zone ("Mangrove Zone,"

n.d.). The first zone which is Avicennia-Sonneratia zone is on the seaward edge. These

mangrove species tolerate the soft soils loosened by daily tidal flooding and bury massive

root systems just below the mud. These submerged structures have numerous air pockets for

breathing and also send roots downward for anchorage and upward for absorption. To aid in

regeneration, protruding lobes encompass Sonneratia fruits, thus allowing them to float atop

the water currents.

Secondly is the Bruguiera-Rhizophora zone which sited on slightly higher ground.

The Bruguiera-Rhizophora zone endures flooding only at high tide on more compressed soils.

These mangrove trees are the most valuable for timbers. The zone is recognized by its height

evenness and sprawling network of aerial, but eerie-looking root system. The elongated

seedlings of Rhizophora hang like slender cigars, each one poised to drop off into the silty

soil to start life anew ("Mangrove Zone," n.d.).

The last zone is the back mangrove zone. Clay content increases in the compact soils

of the back mangrove zone. Mound-building crabs and lobsters raise the ground level another


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metre or so, where a thick understorey emerges from clusters of large ferns. Beyond the tidal

reach, nipa swamp forests flourish in brackish waters, where the dominant nipa palm, with its

large feathery fronds, grows in contiguous thickets on riverbanks ("Mangrove Zone," n.d.).

4.2.2 Values of mangrove forest

The mangrove forests which used to be considered as “waste land” in the past, have

recently been treated as a valuable ecosystem, especially for their unique features (Choudury,

1996).Values of mangroves are recognized as "tangible" and "intangible" benefits (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Mangroves and their ecological and economic benefits (Source: Berjak et al. 1977)


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According M.Melana, Atchue, Yao, Edwards, E.Melana and Gonzales (2000),

mangroves provide nursery grounds for fish, prawns and crabs, and support fisheries

production in coastal waters (Figure 5). Almost every living thing needs a safe place when it

is young, small and fragile. Like human babies, young fish, shrimp, crabs and other animals

in the sea need a safe place to grow, away from many predators. Mangroves are good

nurseries because they provide hiding places for young animals. The arched-shaped roots of

the bakauan mangroves and the finger-like roots of the api-api and piapi mangroves are good

examples. This protection, along with the abundant food supply that comes from mangrove

leaves, makes mangrove areas very good nurseries for many important sea animals.

Furthermore, mangroves produce leaf litter and detrital matter (Figure 5), which are

valuable sources of food for animals in estuaries and coastal waters (M.Melana et al., 2000;

Baba, 2004). The leaves that fall from a mangrove tree break up and decompose into small

pieces known as detritus, some too small to be seen by the human eye. The detritus is broken

down by bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms that nourish marine animals. Mangroves

contribute about 3.65 tons of litter per hectare per year. (M.Melana et al., 2000)

As mentioned by Soegiarto (2004), mangroves protect the environment by protecting

coastal areas and communities from storm surges, waves, tidal currents and typhoons (Figure

5). The crown and stem of mangroves serve as physical barriers. Their specialized roots trap

and hold sediments and siltation from the uplands. Further, mangroves promote clear water

and the growth of corals and seagrasses.

Mangroves produce organic biomass (carbon) and reduce organic pollution (Figure 5)

in nearshore areas by trapping or absorption (Kathiresan, 2003; M.Melana et al., 2000;

Soegiarto, 2004). Mangroves contribute 1,800-4,200 grams of carbon per square meter per


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year (approximating the contribution of the tropical rain forest and 10 times higher than

primary production in the open ocean).

As explained by M.Melana et al. (2000), mangroves serve as recreational grounds for

bird watching and observation of other wildlife. Mangroves provide shelter for local and

migratory wildlife and serve as roosting and foraging grounds. They also provide access to

highly diverse mangrove plants and animals and their adaptations, making them ideal

ecological destinations and field laboratories for biology and ecology students and

researchers.

Besides, mangroves are a good source of wood and timber and nipa shingles for

housing materials, firewood and charcoal, and of poles for fish traps (M.Melana et al., 2000).

Mangrove seeds and propagules can be harvested and sold. Fish, crustaceans and mollusks

can also be harvested from mangroves. Aquaculture and commercial fisheries also depend on

mangroves for juvenile and mature fish species. Last but not the least, mangroves are sources

of tannin, alcohol and medicine.

4.2.3 Threats to mangrove forest

According to Baba (2004), degradation and destruction of mangrove forests is now

rampant throughout the tropics and subtropics. Although humans have traditionally used both

the direct and indirect benefits offered by the mangrove ecosystem, humans throughout the

world often sacrifice long-term hidden benefits and capital wealth for the sake of immediate

monetary returns. The consequence of this attitude is that humans will suffer in the future, if

we do not act soon and in unison, to protect and restore mangrove forests.


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ScienceDaily (2007) stated that the study found that the major factors responsible for

mangrove deforestation (Figure 6) in the study area include agriculture encroachment (81%),

aquaculture (12%), and urban development (2%).

Figure 6: Major Factors Contribute to Mangrove Deforestation (Source: ScienceDaily)

One of the major threats to mangrove forests is conversion of mangrove forests to

areas of aquaculture (M. Melana et al, 2000; Kairo, Guebas, Bosire & Koedam, 2004). To

cite an example, in the Indo-Western Pacific region alone, 1.2 million hectares of mangroves

had been converted to aquaculture ponds by 1991 (Primavera, 1995). Meanwhile, in

Philippines, between 1968 and 1983, 237000 ha of mangroves were lost for pond

construction. This is almost half of the total national mangrove area (Fernandez, 1978). One

major issue associated with the farms located in mangrove habitats is acidification of pond

waters that kills aquatic organisms (Kathiresan, 2000).

Next is the urbanization. Coastal mangroves have been cleared for human inhabitation

in many areas like Singapore, Jakarta, Bangkok, Rangoon, Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai

(Bombay), Lagos, Maracaibo, Recife, Free town, Douala etc. In India, Mumbai is one of the

81%

12%

2%

MAJOR FACTORS OF MANGROVE

DEFORESTATION

Agriculture Encroachment

Aquaculture

Urban development


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best examples for the mangrove destruction due to urbanization (Kathiresan, 2000). All the

seven islands of Mumbai were reclaimed and linked to a continuous landmass after

destroying mangroves in the process.

Cutting activities for timber, fuel and charcoal are also threatened the mangrove forest

ecosystem. Mangroves are cleared for timber, charcoal and firewood due to the higher

calorific value, the mangrove twigs are used as firewood. The mangrove wood is rich in

phenols, and hence is highly resistant to deterioration, and it is widely used as timber for

construction purpose. The mangrove wood is highly suitable for chipboard industry and

quality paper. As a result, several companies have been established for paper mills and

chipboard factories in Indonesia. Within two years, the timber companies obtained timber by

clearing 137000 ha of mangroves (Erftemeijer, Allen & Zuwendra, 1989).

Oil or gas exploration, petroleum production, and accidents by large oil tankers also

can cause significant damage to mangrove ecosystems. To cite an example, Nigeriaʹs richest

oil wells are situated close to inshore where rich mangroves once existed. Similarly oil tanker

accidents in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Caribbean areas resulted in oil spillage that

severely damages the coastal systems. As a result, the entire mangrove ecosystem got

affected, causing defoliation of trees, mortality of all sessile and benthic organisms and

contamination of many water fowls. Once the mangrove forest is affected by oil pollution, it

will take a long time of at least 10 years for recovery of the forest.


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5.0 Analysis

It is admitted that mangrove forest ecosystem comprising a rich diversity of flora and

fauna. It provides many benefits. A good management system is required to protect and

preserve the ecosystem from being destroyed by human intervention and uncontrolled

development.

5.1 The importance of managing mangrove forests

Figure 7: A group of monkeys in Matang Mangrove Figure 8: A nestling bird

According to Soegiarto (2004), a good management of mangrove forests is required

to preserve the ecological functioning of the mangrove ecosystems. As been stated in the

literature review, mangroves ecosystem are one of the most productive and biodiverse

wetlands on earth. It is made up of both a community of living things and the non-living

environment ("Mangrove Ecosystem," n.d.). For instance, mangrove forests become the

shelter for the animal includes snakes, bats and Proboscis Monkey (Figure 7). Mangroves are

indeed ideal nesting sites for birds (Figure 8), within easy reach of the rich buffet in the water

and mud but protected from large predators. Besides, mangroves also provide food for

migrating birds that travel. By managing the mangrove forest, it will help to preserve and

maintain the existing mangrove forests in a sustainable manner.


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Furthermore, it is important to manage the mangrove forests in order to ensure the

natural regeneration process of the mangroves in the surrounding area. This can be done

through regulating the felling of mangrove forests as well as retaining a certain parameter for

green belt of mangrove along the coast. The local authority can formulate policies that can

help to control the development (Soegiarto, 2004). For instance, the government can set a

maximum percentage of mangrove forests area that can be explored to developers for certain

period. Those who transgress will be punished or fined for certain amount.

Figure 9 & 10: Impact from human activities (Source: Flickr.com)

Moreover, mangrove forests management is significant because the mangrove forest

might continually degrade if there is no control from the government (Soegiarto, 2004).

Without any laws and policies, the mangrove forests might be fully exploited by human

activities (Figure 9 & 10) and eventually the ecosystem might be destroyed. A regular

supervision from the government also can help to ensure the sanctuary of the mangrove

forests. Besides, if the government control the quantity of consumption, there will be no

overconsumption and will ensure sufficient and continuous supply.


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Figure 11: Chalet in Matang mangrove Figure 12: Research and education

According to Masoud and Wild (2004), mangrove management can help broadening

the economic base beyond agriculture and natural resources and into other areas especially in

tourism. Besides, it also offers good opportunities for biological research and conservation

education (Hong, 2004). Matang mangrove forest in Perak, Malaysia is one of the best

examples. The productive forests are assigned for the purpose of timber production.

Meanwhile, the non-productive forests are for the purpose of bio-diversity conservation,

erosion mitigation, research and education, recreation, local community’s needs and

settlement. The uniqueness of the Matang Mangrove ecosystem makes it attractive for eco-

tourism and education (Figure 11 & 12). From the mangrove forest management, it will not

only serve to increase awareness of and appreciation for mangrove conservation, it also

provides income to locals as operators of tours, boats, homestays and eateries (“Timber

Malaysia,” 2009).

Mangrove forests management also will help to maintain a good balance between

conservation and economic activities (Ida, 2004). Without management system, mangrove

forests might be only meant for economic activities as the world now is hunger for profit

without really concerning about the ecosystem. Thus, the management will help to observe


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the activities in mangrove forests to ensure the balance between conservation and economic

activities will be achieved.

Likewise, the management of mangrove forests are important in enhancing the

rehabilitation and reforestation activities (Ida, 2004). The authority especially, must take

responsibility to promote the rehabilitation and reforestation activities to people, especially,

the developer and local people. An extensive promotion must be done to encourage people to

have awareness on the importance of mangrove forest and consequently will participate in the

rehabilitation activities. For instance, the authority can give incentives to those who

participate in the activities. As a result, not only the government alone works on the

rehabilitation and restoration activities, the people also will take part to accomplish the

efforts.

Figure 13: Fisheries (Source: Timber Malaysia Magazine)

Kairo et al. (2004) explained that mangrove forest management will help to enhance

biodiversity and fisheries productivity (Figure 13). For instance, a major reforestation

programme which has been undertaken by the Ho Chi Minh City Administration. From 1991,

the Government of Vietnam confirmed and approved Can Gio mangrove forests as


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environmental protection forests (Hong, 2004). The restoration and conservation of

mangroves has brought about a vast ecological improvement in the environment and rich

biodiversity. Can Gio forests have become one of the most beautiful of the rehabilitated

mangrove areas of the world. It clearly shows the significance of managing mangrove forests.

According to Soegiarto (2004), the management of mangrove forests were done in

order to ensure that the natural ecosystem will still exist for the use and benefit of future

generations. As mentioned in the Bruntland report,"sustainable development is development

that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs.” It means that, the future generation deserve to get whatever that we

have today. Therefore, it is our responsible to manage the natural resources wisely so that the

natural resources will not be extinct and will be lasting to the next generation. There are some

methods that can be done to achieve sustainability such as by establishing a number of nature

reserves and conservation areas.

Figure 14: The difference between present and absence of mangrove forests (Source: Timber Malaysia

Magazine)


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Similarly, the management is important for the coastal protection. It is acknowledged

that one of the functions of the mangrove forest is dispersing the energy of tidal storms,

typhoons, and strong winds. It serves as storm buffers by reducing wind and wave action in

shallow shoreline areas. The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 and other natural disasters

highlighted the importance of mangrove forests in saving lives and property. In the aftermath,

ambitious mangrove conservation and rehabilitation programs are being initiated

(“Mangrove”, n.d.). Figure 14 shows the difference of wave reduction between having

mangrove and absence of mangrove. It shows that, the management and conservation of

mangrove forests will help to lessen the impact of natural disaster.

From the statements above, it is certain that mangrove forests play vital roles in the

ecosystems as a whole. Thus, the management of mangrove resources on a sustainable basis

is very significant and needs to be implemented seriously (Aksornkoae, 2004).

Mismanagement of mangroves will affect negatively not only the mangrove ecosystem

proper but also adjoining coastal ecosystems, particularly sea-grass beds and coral reefs as

well as the entire coastal system.


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6.0 Conclusion and recommendation

6.1 Recommendation

Aksornkoae (2004) explained about the policy and management practices for

community participation in mangrove rehabilitation and conservation. He suggested the

promoting of integrated conservation and management systems between mangroves and

agriculture. For instance, integrate between plantations and fish culture, fish cage and crab

culture in mangroves. By integrating conservation and management systems between

mangroves and agriculture, it will help to reduce the conversion of mangrove forests to areas

of agriculture as well as reduce cost of management system.

Besides, it is recommended to have training programs concerning the conservation

and rehabilitation of mangrove forests for communities. For instance, train the community

about the planting techniques, organization management and community forest laws and new

constitution (Aksornkoae, 2004). The training will help to bring awareness to the community

about the importance of managing mangrove forests sustainably.

Meanwhile, Primavera (1993) suggested dividing the mangrove forests into four

zones. The first zone is protected zone. It indicates the “No Touch” reserve areas of pristine

forests for biodiversity maintenance, scientific research and education, fisheries support, and

coastal protection. The second zone is productive forest which specifies the sustained yield of

forestry and fisheries products. Next is the reforestation zone. It indicates the degraded areas

of ecological importance including abandoned culture ponds which need to be rehabilitated.

The last zone is conversion zone. It is the allowable area to convert mangrove forests to

aquaculture or agriculture but not exceeding 20 per cent of total mangrove area, preferably in

marginal and previously altered sites.


26

6.2 Conclusion

In summary, it is acknowledged that mangrove ecosystems provide valuable

ecosystem services to the livings. They play significant and sustainable roles in trapping

sediments, preventing coastal erosion and dispersing the energy of tidal storms, typhoons,

and strong winds (Baba, 2004). However, the continuous world-wide depletion of mangroves

through conversion of mangrove lands to other uses is alarming. Therefore, a new vision and

appreciation of mangroves is needed to reverse this situation. This appreciation must extend

to all levels of society, from small coastal communities, to megacities, to governmental

policy makers. International agencies must also realize their potential role in enlightening

people on mangroves issues, reversing destructive trends, and protecting the existing precious

ecosystems. Besides, the dynamic nature of the ecosystem also needs to be duly considered

and an integrated management approach on a sustained yield basis, under the umbrella of a

total coastal zone management plan for the country concerned, needs to be initiated with the

creation of true mangrove reserves to conserve biodiversity at large.


27

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