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Acta Physiologiae Plantarum ISSN 0137-5881 Acta Physiol PlantDOI 10.1007/s11738-014-1696-4

Postharvest biology and technology ofsapota: a concise review

Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui,Moasosang Longkumer, Md. ShamsherAhmad, Kalyan Barman, Pran KrishnaThakur & Jahangir Kabir

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REVIEW

Postharvest biology and technology of sapota: a concise review

Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui • Moasosang Longkumer •

Md. Shamsher Ahmad • Kalyan Barman • Pran Krishna Thakur •

Jahangir Kabir

Received: 2 December 2013 / Revised: 14 August 2014 / Accepted: 24 September 2014

� Franciszek Gorski Institute of Plant Physiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow 2014

Abstract Sapota is cultivated in many countries of

tropical and subtropical climate. It is delicious, nutritive,

and commercially grown mainly for fresh consumption.

Postharvest life of sapota is very short due to its highly

perishable nature and other many reasons such as quick

ripening, faster senescence, rapid loss of moisture, micro-

bial spoilage, and fruit sensitivity to cold storage. To

maintain and/or increase the shelf life of sapota, proper

postharvest management is required. Unfortunately, very

little work has been done so far, with limited success,

leaving scarce literature published on postharvest man-

agement technologies of sapota. Different pre and post-

harvest treatments to reduce metabolic activity and quality

loss have been suggested. Moreover, proper storage tem-

perature and packaging may be used to increase the shelf

life of fruits. This review explores the postharvest tech-

nologies adopted to enhance the shelf life of sapota during

storage and distribution channel.

Keywords Achras sapota � Maturity � Postharvest

treatments � Postharvest handling � Minor fruit

Introduction

The sapota (Achras sapota L. syn. Manilkara achras (Mill)

Fosb. syn. Achras sapota, L. Family, Sapotaceae) is highly

delicious, nutritive fruit valued for its mellow and sweet

pulp with granular texture and pleasant aroma (Fig. 1). It is

native of southern parts of Mexico and now it has been

adopted in many countries of tropical and subtropical cli-

mate. The fruit is a fleshy berry, ellipsoidal, conical, or oval

and contains one or two shiny black seeds. It weighs about

70–300 g, has a dull brown color and thin skin with yel-

lowish, light brown or red pulp. The fruit is commonly

known as chikku in India and mainly cultivated for its fruit

value; while in some countries like Southeast Mexico,

Guatemala, it is commercially grown for the production of

chuckle that is coagulated milky latex obtained from the

bark of sapota tree. The chuckle is used as the principal

ingredient of chewing gum. India is the leading producer of

sapota in the world with an annual production of 1.42

million metric tons (Anonymous 2011) and accounts to

about 10 % of world production (Sudha et al. 2007). The

popularity of the crop is increasing due to high production

per unit area and continuous fruiting throughout the year.

India exports about 2,039 metric tons of sapota, the value

of which is 35.3 million rupees (Anonymous 2011). It is

rich source of sugars (12–18 %), proteins (0.7 g/100 g),

ascorbic acid (6.0 mg/100 g), phenols (15.35 mg gallic

acid equivalent/100 g), carotenoids (1.69 mg b-carotene/

100 g), and minerals such as calcium (28 mg/100 g),

phosphorous (27 mg/100 g), iron (2.0 mg/100 g), copper

(0.086 mg/100 g), potassium (193 mg/100 g), etc. (Ugalat

et al. 2012). The fruit is also a good source of energy

(83 kcal/100 g of edible portion), dietary fiber (2.6 g/

100 g), which makes it an excellent laxative. Sapota juice

showed free radical-scavenging potential due to the

Communicated by A.K. Kononowicz.

M. W. Siddiqui (&) � Md. S. Ahmad

Department of Food Science and Technology, Bihar Agricultural

University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar 813210, India

e-mail: wasim_serene@yahoo.com

M. Longkumer � P. K. Thakur � J. Kabir

Department of Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops,

Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia,

West Bengal, India

K. Barman

Department of Horticulture (Fruit and Fruit Technology), Bihar

Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar 813210, India

123

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DOI 10.1007/s11738-014-1696-4

Author's personal copy

presence of a number of radical scavengers of different

classes, viz., phenolics, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid

(Kulkarni et al. 2007). Recently, Moo-Huchin et al. (2014)

and Ribeiro da Silva et al. (2014) reported that the edible

part of sapota is rich in bioactive compounds and have high

antioxidant capacity (404.75 lm Trolox equivalent anti-

oxidant capacity/100 g) which may lower risk of chronic

diseases.

One of the major postharvest problems is quick ripening

and faster senescence of edible ripe fruit. The storage life

of sapota fruit is very short about 3.5, 5, or 7 days after

harvest when stored at 27, 25, or 20 �C, respectively (Diaz-

Perez et al. 2000). It is also sensitive to chilling injury

when stored at 10 �C (Alia-Tejacal et al. 2007). The

postharvest losses are high (25–30 %) in tropical countries

(Salunkhe and Desai 1984). These losses occur due to lack

of proper storage facilities, improper handling, rapid rip-

ening, and microbial spoilage. Extension of shelf life could

be done possible by reducing the rate of respiration, loss of

water through transpiration and microbial infection mostly

by the species of Botryodiplodia, Pestalotiopsis, Phytoph-

thora, and Phomopsis (Siddiqui and Dhua 2010; Siddiqui

et al. 2013).

Of course, research efforts have succeeded in boosting

the production of sapota. However, the purpose of

obtaining maximum profit will not be served unless an

increased production is supplemented with similar efforts

to minimize the postharvest losses. Sapota is climacteric in

nature and hence needs careful handling to minimize losses

during its postharvest life (Yadav et al. 2013a, b). In spite

of having delicious taste and good nutritional quality, very

little work has been carried out in the world on postharvest

technology of sapota fruits, thereby scarce literature is

available. Therefore, the objective of this review was to

explore the postharvest technologies adopted to enhance

the shelf life and maintain the quality of sapota.

Maturity and postharvest physiology

Fruits harvested after optimum stage of maturity usually

softens very rapidly and becomes very difficult to handle,

meanwhile fruits harvested before physiological maturity

may not soften and are usually low in sweetness and high

in astringency when ripe with an unpleasant alcoholic taste

(Pathak and Bhat 1953). Fruits on attainment of harvestable

stage do not show green tissue or latex when scratched with

a fingernail (Miranda et al. 2004) (Fig. 2). The fruits shed

off brown scaly external material and become smooth on

attainment of physiological maturity (Lakshminarayana

1980). A fruit with a smooth surface, shining potato color,

and rounded styler-end is considered mature (Kute and

Shete 1995).

Dhua et al. (2006) reported that sapota fruit cv ‘Cricket

Ball’ takes about 8 months from fruit set to attain har-

vestable stage and follows a sigmoid growth curve in terms

of fruit weight. Fruit weight reaches maximum at 240 days

after fruit set and fruit length and diameter increases more

or less uniformly with growth exhibiting positive correla-

tion with fruit weight during the end of development period

(Dhua et al. 2006).

Sapota is a climacteric fruit (Arevalo Galarza et al.

1999). Respiratory pattern in sapota follows the same way

as in that of other climacteric fruits but it does not reach its

climacteric peak while attached on the tree (Lakshmin-

arayana and Subramanyam 1966; Broughton and Wong

1979; Abdul Karim et al. 1987; Brown and Wong 1987;

Yahia and Gutierrez-Orozco 2011). The respiratory cli-

macteric in sapota ranges from 25 to 35 mL CO2 kg-1 h-1

at 20 �C. Similarly, the ethylene production rate varies

from 10 to 100 lL C2H4 kg-1 h-1 (Alia-Tejacal et al.

2007). Respiratory peak occurring at the same time as the

ethylene produced peak 4 days after harvest (Arevalo

Galarza et al. 1999). Ethylene production is 2.8, 3.7, and

6.1 lL CO2 kg-1 h-1 at 15, 20, and 25 �C, respectively

(Broughton and Wong 1979). The rate of respiration of

fruit after harvest at 24–28 �C has been reported to be

16 mg (9 lL) CO2 kg-1 h-1 (Lakshminarayana and

Subramanyam 1966).

Preharvest treatments

Preharvest sprays with different chemicals can be used to

modify the ripening process of fruit, or to transform the

maturity of a particular attribute with influence on storage

Fig. 1 Fully ripe fruits of sapota

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potential or commercial appeal. Quite a few preharvest

efforts have been made to assess the effects of different

chemicals on postharvest quality including composition

and shelf life of sapota.

Plant growth regulators as postharvest treatments have

proved to be a useful tool in delaying ripening. Growth

regulators such as gibberellic acid (GA3) and auxin [2,4-

dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D)] have been classified

as non-specific ethylene inhibitors (Siddiqui et al. 2013).

Length, diameter, weight, volume of fruit, pulp thickness,

pulp as well as peel weight of fruits were increased con-

siderably with the application of Cycocel (400 and

200 ppm) at fruit bud differentiation stage. Whereas at

flowering and pea stage naphthalene acetic acid (NAA;

100 ppm) application proved to be the best for all the

physical characters of fruit as compared to gibberellic acid

(GA; 50 ppm). Total soluble solids (TSS), sugars, and

ascorbic acid were enhanced with the application of

Chlormequat (CCC) whereas acidity of fruits was

decreased (Shailendra and Dikshit 2010). Chavan et al.

(2009) found that GA3 (150 ppm) was superior in

increasing the length, diameter, weight, and total sugar

content, while NAA (150 ppm) was superior in increasing

the total yield per tree and TSS and in decreasing acidity

content of the fruits. Reduced size of oval fruits has been

suggested to be due to inadequate auxin production, and

that NAA application may increase cell division and thus

increase the size of fruits (Vijayalalitha and Rajasekaran

1997). Preharvest application of calcium chloride 1.0 %

reduced physiological loss in weight during storage and

improved physico-chemical qualities like shelf life, firm-

ness, and total sugar content. However, reducing sugar was

observed maximum in calcium nitrate 0.5 % treated fruits

during postharvest storage (Bhalerao et al. 2010). Rot-

ting % was also lesser in fruits treated with calcium chlo-

ride and calcium nitrate (Lakshmana and Reddy 1995;

Bhalerao et al. 2010).

Calcium has been known to maintain the texture of

fresh produce even after harvest as calcium ions form

cross-links between free carboxyl groups of the pectin

chains, which strengthen the cell wall. Calcium sprays

delay the ripening by reducing respiration rates or ethyl-

ene production. It also helps to decrease the incidence of

postharvest decay. In a few instances, significant changes

in antioxidant capacity or the content of antioxidant

compounds such as phenols and ascorbic acid have also

been found (Lara 2013).

Preharvest spray of isopropyl n-phenylcarbamate (IPC)

at 100 lL/L retards respiration rate. Fruit ripening can be

delayed by spraying with solution of 100 ppm 2,4-D or

25 ppm 2,4,5-T (Lakshminarayana and Subramanyam

1967) or 500–1,000 ppm maleic hydrazide in sapota

(Lakshminarayana and Subramanyam 1967). Preharvest

application of Carbendazim and Topsin-M retarded the

ripening process whereas, Topsin-M and Carbendazim

dipped fruits showed higher shelf life (Raut et al. 2006).

Gypsum applied at 0, 1, 2, or 4 kg/tree to fruiting sapota cv

‘Kalipatti’ improved the storage quality of fruits in terms of

appearance, pulp color, taste, aroma, firmness, and texture

(Lakshmana and Reddy 1995).

Postharvest treatments

Being climacteric in nature sapota is a quick ripening fruit.

Therefore, to maintain the quality and to allow proper

marketing, sapota needs adequate postharvest management

technologies starting from harvesting to ultimate consumer

(Fig. 3). A few postharvest treatments have been opined to

increase the shelf life of sapota.

Chemicals

Sapota can be stored safely for a longer duration under

ambient temperature as well as cold storage with the help

of certain ripening retardant postharvest treatments such as

fruit coating resin (Waxol), gibberellic acid (GA3), CaCl2,

KMnO4, and cycocel (Chlormequat) at their appropriate

Fig. 2 Transverse sections of

mature unripe (a) and fully ripe

(b) fruits of sapota showing the

presence/absence of milky latex

at different maturity

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concentration (Singh and Borase 2003). Postharvest treat-

ment of sapota fruits harvested at color change stage with

GA3 (300 ppm) or kinetin (100 ppm) or silver nitrate

(40 ppm) proved to be best in delaying ripening and

extending the shelf life (Gautam and Chundawat 1989).

Fruits treated with 150 or 200 ppm GA3, 2 % waxol,

100 ppm kinetin or 2,000 ppm maleic hydrazide in com-

bination with 500 ppm bavistin (carbendazim) are also

effective in delaying ripening and extending shelf life

(Patel and Katrodia 1996). Treatment with 4 ppm 2,4-D

and 200 ppm GA3 exhibited the longest shelf life of 32 and

31.33 days, respectively, at 12 �C compared to control

(20 days) (Madhavi et al. 2005). Sapota fruits treated with

50 and 100 ppm of AgNO3 and GA3, respectively, and then

packed in polyethylene bags of 200 gauge with 20 % vent

showed extended storage life with less degradation (Sahoo

and Munsi 2004). GA3 can potentially regulate the physi-

ology of the fruit ripening by retarding or delaying

derogatory developmental pigment changes and fruit soft-

ening (Siddiqui et al. 2013).

Postharvest treatment of fruits with ethrel at

500–1,500 ppm accelerated ripening and reduced pectin

content, phenolic content, TSS and increased sugar and

vitamin C content (Shanmugavelu and Srinivasan 1971;

Das and Mahapatra 1977; Ingle et al. 1982). Ethephon

treatment hastens the ripening by 1 day and decreases

phenolic compounds. Dipping in aqueous solution of ethrel

(1,000 ppm for 5 min) showed uniform ripening, higher

TSS and total sugars content in Pala cultivar of sapota

(Madhavi et al. 2005). Ripening of mature fruits of sapota

cv. Kalipatti was retarded more effectively using ethylene

absorbents celite–KMnO4 in sealed polyethylene bags as

compared to those of silicagel–KMnO4 and vermiculite–

KMnO4 (Dhua et al. 2006).

Physiological loss in weight was lower in fruits treated

with calcium chloride (0.25 and 0.5 %) by vacuum

Commercial Maturity[Days after fruit set (270 to 310 days), latex (milky to watery), flesh color (light yellow to dark brown), ease in

harvesting, and ease of peeling]

Harvesting(Twisting or cut fruit stalk close to the attachment point with fruit clipper)

Assembling in plastic crates/bamboo baskets/wooden boxes(Place harvested fruits into a clean and perforated plastic crates having foam sheet or news papers as cushioning

materials to reduce impact bruising)

Packaging

Field Packaging(under tree shade or under temporary erected tarpaulin

sheet) in CFB boxes (3-ply). After manual sorting, field packed fruits are sent directly to markets by non- refer

trucks)

Pack house PackagingFor packing in a pack house, transport field

crates to pack houseWashing fruits to remove dirt and latex

↓Sorting and grading

(Generally, manual sorting grading based on size and defects)

↓Packing in CFB boxes with trays or in bamboo baskets/wooden boxes with paper cuttings as

cushioning materials↓

Strapping and Palletization(Mainly done for export)

↓Pre cooling

(Usually forced air cooling up to 7-8 ºC pulp temperature)

↓Transportation at low temperature (Refer

van)↓

Storage

Postharvest Treatments(Mainly two types of treatments, inducing and retarding

ripening, are given before retailing)↓

For inducing ripening ethylene gas treatment (gassing), ethrel dip

↓For retarding ripening

Putting KMnO4 sachets (ethylene absorber) wax application and treatment with 2,4-Dichloro-phenoxy

acetic acid

MarketingWholesale and retail marketing

Fig. 3 Postharvest handling

and management practices in

sapota

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infiltration method, than control, and the lowest weight

loss was observed under 250 mmHg. Those fruits also

maintained higher firmness, titratable acidity, lower

shriveling and delayed ripening compared to the control

(Lakshmana and Reddy 2000). However, the fruits dipped

in CaCl2 (4 %) solution maintained higher ascorbic acid

content (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2004). Sapota fruit at a

temperature of 8 ± 2 �C could be stored for 16 days

without loss of fruit quality after infiltration of mature

fruit with Ca (1.0–8 % CaCl2). Fruits infiltrated with

higher concentration of Ca remained comparatively firmer

and showed to contain higher amount of TSSs and sugars

than their respective lower concentration of Ca and

control (Dhua et al. 2006).

Heat treatments

Postharvest treatments with hot water at different temper-

ature and holding time were also found promising for

maintaining quality of sapota fruits during storage. Hot

water dip at 50 �C for 5 min increased shelf life of fruits

(cv. Co-1 and 2) up to 14 days with a minimum weight loss

of 13 % and delayed the process of ripening. The quality

parameters such as TSS, total sugars, and sugar:acid ratio

were also maintained with this treatment (Vijayalakshmi

et al. 2004). Yahia and Ariza (2003) studied the effect of

forced hot air treatment on insect mortality and fruit

quality. Larvae and egg mortalities were achieved at 43 �C

for 120 min. Lower temperature (40 �C for 120 min) was

effective in causing the mortality of larvae but not of eggs.

Heat treatment at 43 �C for 120 min did not cause any fruit

injury, and caused the lowest loss in firmness, fruit mass,

and color. However, hot air treatments at 50 �C caused

fruit injury and significant losses in texture, fruit mass, and

color (Yahia and Ariza 2003). Jitthum et al. (2002)

observed that when sapota fruits incubated with hot air at

35 �C for 12 h and then dipped in 5 % CaCl2 for 30 min

had lowest chilling injury symptoms along with reduced

rate of respiration, ethylene production, ACC oxidase

activity, electrolyte leakage, and fruit quality accepted by

consumer until 40 days of storage.

Waxing/coating

Waxol minimized physiological weight loss of fruit and

maintained higher TSS, total sugars, reducing sugar con-

tent, and acidity (Sarkar et al. 1995). Treatment of sapota

fruit with 2,4-D and wax emulsion effectively retarded the

ripening process and extended the storage life of fruit

(Ingle et al. 1982; Suryanarayana and Goud 1984). Treat-

ment with NAA (50 ppm) followed by coating with 6 %

paraffin wax retained better market quality during storage

for up to 12 days (Banik et al. 1988).

Chundawat (1991) found that fruits treated with 6 %

wax emulsion and packed in 200 gauge polyethylene cover

containing ethylene and CO2 absorbents had a shelf life of

45 days at 12 �C, i.e., 10 days more than in control.

However, coating with Nature Seal or candle wax did not

increase the storage life of sapota fruits but enhanced

appearance and reduced weight losses significantly (Are-

valo Galarza et al. 1999).

Irradiation

A recent study by Yadav et al. (2013b) revealed that

gamma irradiation combined with different plant growth

regulator can be used to increase the shelf life of sapota

fruits. Different treatments imposed in the experiment were

GA3 200 ppm ? 0.20 kGy; 2,4-D 4 ppm ? 0.20 kGy;

GA3 200 ppm ? 0.40 kGy and 2,4-D 4 ppm ? 0.40 kGy

along with control. They concluded that these treatments

resulted lower physiological loss in weight, higher firmness

during the entire storage period, decreased spoilage%,

increased total soluble solids and sugars, increased acidity

and ultimately enhanced shelf life during storage.

Fruits treated with GA3 200 ppm ? 0.20 kGy were

found to be the best for extension of shelf life of sapota

compared to other treatments and control. Exposure of

sapota fruit to gamma irradiation at 0.1 kGy extended

storage life by 3–5 days at 26.7 �C and 15 days at 10 �C

temperature without any effect on ascorbate content (Sal-

unkhe and Desai 1984).

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

Packaging in polyethylene film enhances the shelf life of

sapota fruits. Packaging in 100 gauge thickness polyeth-

ylene bags with 0.4 % perforation was effective than 150

and 200 gauge in decreasing spoilage and delaying ripen-

ing of fruits. Non-ventilated bags lead to excessive accu-

mulation of moisture causing enhanced fungal growth and

spoilage (Joshua and Sathiamoorthy 1993). Sapota fruits

can be successfully stored using MAP up to 4 weeks at

10 �C and 3 weeks at 15 �C, a week longer than those

fruits stored without MAP. Fruits stored at 5 �C developed

chilling injury, failed to ripen properly even after 3 days at

room temperature. Chilling injury was observed in control

fruits but not in modified atmosphere packaged fruits

(Mohamed et al. 1996). Fruit texture and weight were

maintained best in low-density polyethylene (LDPE)

packaging and these fruits had the highest sensory scores

for taste, color, texture, and overall acceptability. Ascorbic

acid content was highest in vacuum-packed fruits followed

by LDPE-packaged fruits. Control fruits had the highest

percentage of infected fruits and vacuum-packed fruits had

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the lowest (Mohamed et al. 1996). Waxing of sapota fruits

before vacuum packaging in polyethylene bags (200 gauge

thickness) maintained most of the quality parameters. The

fruits’ shelf life increased up to 3 weeks under vacuum

packaging (Kannan and Susheela 2003). The fruits of cv.

Kalipatti could be stored up to 9 days in polyethylene bags

(100 gauge and 1.2 % vents) under room temperature. The

shelf life of the fruits could be extended up to 13 and

15 days by packing in polyethylene bags ? CFB boxes

and in polyethylene bags, respectively, while stored in a

chamber (Waskar et al. 1999).

Controlled atmosphere storage

Yahia (1998) reported that storage life of sapota fruits at

room temperature increased from 13 to 18 days with 5 %

CO2, 21 days with 10 % CO2 and up to 29 days with 20 %

CO2. Broughton and Wong (1979) recommended storage

of sapota fruits at 20 �C with 5–10 % CO2 and complete

removal of ethylene (C2H4) from the storage atmosphere.

Emerald et al. (2001) showed that freshly harvested sapota

cv. Cricket Ball fruits packed under 2 % O2 combined with

10 % CO2 and 88 % N2 helps in extending its shelf life by

about 4–5 times compared to control at ambient condition

by minimizing changes of physico-chemical characteristics

and slowing down the process of ripening.

Sapota stored at 15 ± 2 �C temperature and treated with

5 % CO2, 5.6 % O2, and 89.3 % N2 for four weeks were

studied by Manzano (2001). The soluble solid content of

fruits treated with CO2 at 15 ± 2 �C was between 15.65

and 22.80 %, pH value between 5.38 and 6.83, and treat-

able acidity (as citric acid) between 0.05 and 0.38 %.

Weight loss of fruits reached values ranging from 8.23 to

10.11 % during the 13 days of storage. Fruits maintained

good quality during the 3 weeks of storage (Manzano

2001).

Cold storage

Sapota fruits can be stored up to 2–3 weeks at 12–16 �C

and 85–90 % RH. The storage life of the fruit is about

13 days at 25 �C, 15 days at 20 �C, and 22 days at 15 �C

(Broughton and Wong 1979). Short-term holding of fruit

for less than 10 h at 4 �C before storage at 20 �C extended

storage life up to 24 days with satisfactory quality

(Broughton and Wong 1979). While fruits stored at 5 �C

sustained chilling injury manifested as uneven ripening,

pitting, and hardened pulp. The rate of change of chemical

constituents was found to be slower in fruit stored at 12 �C

as compared to fruits stored at 15 �C and control (ambient

condition). In general, all the varieties of sapota fruit can

be stored at 12 �C temperature for a long period with edible

acceptable quality (Patel et al. 2010).

Conclusions

Sapota, an important minor fruit crop, can be considered as

one of the healthy fruits owing to its nutritive value. The

crop has not gained popularity because of high degree of

perishability. Review of the available literature, of course

scarce, indicates good potential for some treatments to

improve postharvest quality and marketing possibilities of

sapota fruit, together with the need for further research.

Integrated pre- and postharvest management practices can

prevent the problems of accelerated deterioration of this

fruit and assist wider distribution in national and interna-

tional markets for a longer period. Further research on

sapota is still needed to understand the overall effect of

both pre and postharvest treatments on the shelf life as well

as nutritional quality. Investigation on the processes

describing the correlation between the physiology, bio-

chemistry, and nutritional attributes of sapota by pre and

postharvest treatments is needed.

Author contribution MWS envisaged the idea of the

review, contributed major part, and provided the photo-

graphs of fruits. JK and MSA contributed by the scientific

and technical advice and correction. ML and PKT collected

the literature and helped in writing the manuscript. MWS

and KB checked, revised, and finalized the article. The

flow diagram was designed by MSA and MWS.

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