Planning for solar: an examination of photovoltaic technology within the built form

An examination of

photovolatic technology

within the built form

BPLAN 2008 ! Thesis Project PLAN 4132 ! By Jaclyn Cowen 3024818

i

Contents

Abstract ________________________________________________________________page iii

Acknowledgements _______________________________________________________page iv

Preface__________________________________________________________________page v

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Problem setting_________________________________________________________page 1

1.2 Problem statement_______________________________________________________page 3

1.3 Structure of the thesis____________________________________________________page 4

Chapter 2 Planning for Solar Technology

2.1 Introduction____________________________________________________________page 7

2.2 Planning for energy efficiency_____________________________________________page 8

2.2.1 State Government______________________________________________________page 8

2.2.2 Local Government____________________________________________________page 10

2.3 A planning framework for the integration of PV into the Built Environment________page 13

2.3.1 Solar access_________________________________________________________page 14

2.3.2 Urban design principles for maximum solar yield____________________________page 17

2.4 Conclusion____________________________________________________________page 20

Chapter 3 Context for Solar Energy

3.1 Introduction___________________________________________________________page 21

3.2 Political aspects________________________________________________________page 21

3.2.1 Federal Government___________________________________________________page 21

3.2.2 State Government____________________________________________________page 23

3.3 Technological aspects___________________________________________________page 24

3.3.1 Solar energy_________________________________________________________page 25

3.3.2 Passive and active solar energy__________________________________________page 25

3.3.3 Photovoltaic technology_______________________________________________page 25

3.3.4 Leading edge PV technology____________________________________________page 29

3.4 Economic aspects______________________________________________________page 30

3.5 Social aspects__________________________________________________________page 32

3.6 World cases___________________________________________________________page 33

3.7 Conclusion____________________________________________________________page 35

Chapter 4 Methodology


ii

4.2 Methodology__________________________________________________________page 36

Chapter 5 Solar Cities Programme

5.1 General______________________________________________________________page 40

5.2 Blacktown Solar Cities Programme________________________________________page 41

5.3 Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme___________________________________page 44

Chapter 6 Solar Cities Programme Analysis: Federal Government Objectives


6.2 Blacktown Solar Cities Programme________________________________________page 47

6.3 Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme___________________________________page 51

6.4 Conclusion____________________________________________________________page 52

Chapter 7 Solar Cities Programme Analysis: Model of Objectives


7.2 Planning principles, urban design and DA approval process_____________________page 54

7.2.1 Planning principles for solar energy______________________________________page 54

7.2.2 Design aspects for solar energy__________________________________________page 56

7.2.3 Development application process for solar panels___________________________page 59

7.3 Partnerships between consortium and Federal Government and between consortium

members____________________________________________________________page 59

7.3.1 Partnership between consortium and Federal Government____________________page 59

7.3.2 Partnership between consortium members_________________________________page 60

7.4 Benefit to the photovoltaic solar industry and effectiveness of program for

large-scale implementation_______________________________________________page 62

7.4.1 Benefit to the solar industry_____________________________________________page 62

7.4.2 Effectiveness of model for large scale Implementation________________________page 64

7.5 Conclusion____________________________________________________________page 65

Chapter 8 Recommendations and Conclusion

8.1 Recommendations______________________________________________________page 66

8.2 Conclusion____________________________________________________________page 68

References_______________________________________________________________page 71

Appendix A, Subdivision layout of the pond____________________________________page 76

Appendix B, The Ponds Design Guidelines_____________________________________page 77

Appendix C, Blacktown Development Control Plan. Part M________________________page 85

Appendix D, BCC. General Information on EXEMPT DEVELOPMENT_____________page 89

iii

Abstract

Australia has one of the highest levels of per capita carbon emissions in the world with a

major proportion being provided through the generation of coal fired electricity. Solar

energy through photovoltaic technologies (PV) is one such renewable energy supply

which has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gases. Australia faces many

challenges in making the transition to cleaner solar energy because of political,

technological, economic and social reasons. At the planning level, there is no clearly

defined legislation or standardised regulations regarding the optimal integration of PV

technology within the built form. The Federal Government is making an attempt to

increase the level of exposure for solar energy through the Solar Cities Programme.

Located in seven urban centres across Australia, the government initiative is testing the

integration of solar technology and energy efficiency measures predominately within the

residential and business sectors. Two of these areas are studied in depth as a means to

explore the potential of the program to translate into real workable solutions for solar

energy. It is envisaged that the program will result in a more serious consideration of

solar energy with steps being made towards the large-scale implementation of PV

technology into the urban environment.

iv

Acknowledgements

I would like to extend my thanks to those industry and government organisations which

provided useful information to me including Central Victorian Greenhouse Alliance, BP

Solar, Landcom, Blacktown City Council and Department of Energy, Water, Heritage

and the Arts.

I would also like to extend my thanks to Anna Bruce from the School of Photovoltaic and

Renewable Energy Engineering and Deo Prasad from the Faculty of the Built

Environment, Architecture Program who offered their time and energies in answering my

solar questions.

Thank you very much to my thesis Advisor Bob Zehner who was very helpful and

provided valuable advice for my thesis.

Lastly, thank you to my partner Samir who was always helpful and supportive of me

throughout this endeavour.

v

Preface

Although all renewable energies have many positive qualities, solar energy is significant

in that it comes from our most powerful and abundant resource, the sun. If we could

somehow harness and store the energy efficiently, there would be more than enough

energy to supply for all our energy required needs. Unlike other renewable energy

suppliers that involve moveable parts, solar energy technology once constructed

noiselessly converts solar rays into solar energy with no impact to the environment. There

are some teething problems but with time and proper investment, I really do believe that

PV technology could revolutionise the energy industry.

Solar PV is also the type of technology in which individuals can actively invest in and

support themselves, heading towards energy self-sufficiency. The built form is filled with

individual dwellings, businesses and community facilities with the ability for each unit to

contribute to the broad aim of sustainability. Planning is required to co-ordinate each

building to ensure access to the sunlight will be distributed to all; a vital component to

PV’s functionality. I have often envisaged this reality.

Imagine a world where all our modern

appliances, buildings and machines run

on solar. Where there is reduced

pollution, and one can see many more

stars at night. Where one can breathe

fresher air and pollution related

illnesses cease. Where house rooftops

are filled with glittering panels

receiving equal distributions of sunlight

and city buildings are covered from head to toe with PV glass windows. The potential of

PV is enormous and it is exciting to visualise where it might take us in the future.

Australian solar suburbia, source: peakenergy.blogspot.com

1 Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Problem setting

This thesis examines renewable energies and in particular, the role of photovoltaic solar

energy as a viable source of energy within Australia’s built form. At present, there is much

discussion about the unreliability and environmental consequence of fossil fuels as a sole

supplier of energy and the future role of renewable energies to resolve this issue.

The built form is currently a major contributor to the greenhouse crisis in which residences

and businesses consume vast quantities of electricity through the grid. Solar energy through

photovoltaic technologies is an alternative energy supply which has the potential of

significantly reducing greenhouse gases. PV panels can be integrated into the built form as a

decentralised source of energy. It has the ability of feeding into the existing grid and lifting

some of the load from current fossil fuel energy usage.

Photovoltaic solar energy faces many challenges before being accepted as a reliable source of

energy within the built form. Within the planning arena, PV technology is having a hard time

having its sunlight protected to ensure optimal solar energy yield for PV panels. As a general

rule, planning legislation does not require new greenfield sites to incorporate sustainable

design elements to enable equity of sunlight access to all lots.

Apart from planning issues, solar energy faces political, technological, economic and social

challenges to being successfully integrated into the built environment. Australia is a nation

which has an abundant supply of non-renewable energy in the form of fossil fuels. This has

resulted in the Federal Government being tentative in their approach to reducing demand for

this fuel source and tackling climate change. The Federal Government has set a mandatory

renewable energy target (MRET) of reaching 20 per cent renewable energies by the year

2020 but only a small percentage of this will be dedicated to solar energy (Wilson 2008).

This seems to overlook the fact that there is much research and investigation dedicated to the

development of solar energy and in particular photovoltaic technology. Solar energy is

confirmed to be a significant contributor to resolving the energy crisis yet remains to be taken


seriously. At all levels of government from Federal, State and Local, there seems to be a lack

of interest in driving forward this type of renewable energy.

A major issue with the conversion of energy supply to solar energy is the substantial cost

involved in installing photovoltaic panels onto roof tops for both residential and commercial

buildings. It would require the Federal Government to invest great resources into lowering

the cost of purchasing panels for individuals. However, a great percentage of funds are being

pumped into the development and construction of ‘cleaner’ fossil fuel energy solutions such

as the recently constructed carbon capture storage system (Parker 2008).

Due to the lack of a viable solar energy industry within Australia, many manufacturers and

developers of photovoltaic panels have taken their business abroad to places that have a more

lucrative industry. This shows that although Australian businesses are willing to invest time

and money into the research, design and development of this technology, it does not carry

over into the implementation stage locally (Taylor 2008).

Solar PV technology has been around for quite some time but it is only recently entering

society’s consciousness as a worthwhile environmental investment. Education of the public is

another huge issue that needs to be dealt with before change will occur at the grassroots level.

Many people are content to remain with current conditions because they do not view this

situation seriously. It will take the initiative of both individuals and non-governmental

organisations to help in developing the industry. In Spain, it was revealed that 90 per cent of

people were prepared to spend an additional 10 per cent on renewable energies revealing that

people are willing to change if educated on the matter and given the opportunity (Droege

p185 2006).

In outlining all the issues that photovoltaic solar energy currently faces within the built

environment, the Solar Cities Programme emerges as a response by the Federal Government

to potentially overcome these challenges. The Federal Government has taken preliminary

steps in promoting and investing in solar energy through the Solar Cities Programme. This is

an initiative in which seven urban centres around Australia are being used as a test run for the

integration of photovoltaic technology and energy efficient measures within the built form.


A concern of the project is whether the Solar Cities Programme is a worthwhile trial. Will it

help to drive solar energy and the PV industry forward, or is it only a means to earning

‘greenie’ points with the public and buying time before more serious action needs to occur?

1.2 Problem statement

The aim of this thesis is to examine the current Solar Cities Programme funded by the

Australian Federal Government to determine the feasibility of including photovoltaic solar

energy as a viable renewable energy source within the built form.

The Solar Cities Programme has the potential to pave the way for greater solar energy

implementation within Australia. Therefore, it is important to investigate how the program

might achieve this as well as the indicators used by Government upon which to gauge its

success or failure as a significant contributor of renewable energy supply.

In addition, additional criteria will be developed upon which the scheme will be evaluated

based on current issues that photovoltaic solar energy faces. The criteria will then be applied

to the Solar Cities Programme to test whether it is a successful scheme or not. Furthermore,

the criteria will be used as a means to investigate whether the program can assist the solar

industry and provide for the large scale implementation of solar energy within the built form.

In summary, the following main objectives will be explored:

• Investigate what measures are used by the Federal Government to determine whether

the Solar Cities Programme is a viable energy supply option.

• Develop additional criteria on which to measure the Solar Cities Programme against,

thereby analysing how effective the program is in overcoming current challenges

including planning issues faced by photovoltaic solar energy.

• Through the additional criteria, determine the viability of the Solar Cities Programme

to benefit the photovoltaic solar industry and to instruct broad scale implementation of

solar energy (PV technology) within the built form.


1.3 Structure of the thesis

Chapter 2 begins with responses by State and Local Government towards the integration of

solar energy within the built form. Energy efficiency initiatives are still largely the focus of

environmental plans and PV technology remains the exception rather than the rule. It is,

however, slowly filtering its way through the various environmental planning schemes.

The chapter also deals with planning issues that arise through the installation of PV panels

within the built form. The urban environment with its closely set houses and buildings has the

potential of overshadowing PV panels. If the condition of solar energy is to improve, then

solar access for PV panels needs to be safeguarded. There are various urban design initiatives

that can be used to achieve equity of sunlight for whole sites. Dwellings too can be

appropriately positioned to take advantage of sunlight. It is the responsibility of planners to

incorporate suitable provisions to ensure this solar privilege.

As well as planning issues there are other challenges which prevent solar energy from being a

significant contributor towards energy supply within Australia. Chapter 3 details political,

technological, economic and social issues that impede the up-take of PV technology.

Both Federal and State Government schemes are highlighted to reveal the current political

climate within which solar energy exists, a climate that favours coal-fired energy over

renewable energies. A brief on the various technological issues are presented, revealing that

photovoltaic technology is in constant evolution and it is currently limited to how it can

deliver our energy needs.

Economic issues are also prevalent for solar energy as the current costs of purchasing panels

are still outside the reach of the average Australian. It does however, have the potential to

benefit the nation economically if the solar industry is given an initial boost.

Finally, social issues are explored to understand that the mindset of people is a crucial factor

in determining the success of solar energy. Many people are still unaware of the looming

consequences of climate change and continue to support the fossil fuel industry. Education

and awareness are seen as two ingredients for helping the plight of solar energy to enter

mainstream society.


Within Chapter 3, the Solar Cities Programme is introduced as one response by the

Government to tackle climate change and to assist in the delivery of solar photovoltaic

technology within the built form.

To adequately analyse the Solar Cities Programme, Chapter 4 provides an outline of the

methodology used. This outline includes a description of the two research methods utilised:

In-depth interviews and case studies. It also explains the method used to analyse the Solar

City Programme, being the Federal Government objectives and additional criteria. The

chapter reveals how the additional criteria were developed through knowledge acquired

through the literature review of Chapters 2 and 3 as well as the background chapter of the

Solar Cities Programme.

Chapter 5 provides greater detail on what the Solar Cities Programme involves including the

broad aims and objectives for the seven urban centres selected to represent the program. This

includes its ability to test wide-scale use of solar technology, to increase the community’s

consciousness regarding energy use and to find new innovative ways of engaging within

energy (Henderson 2007).

Two case studies, Blacktown Solar Cities Programme and the Victorian Solar Cities

Programme are presented as case studies and to provide background information to the later

analysis of the program. The Blacktown Solar Cities Programme will provide for the

installation of 860 solar photovoltaic panels on residential houses and commercial buildings

within the area (DEUS 2008). The Central Victorian program will be constructing two 300

kilowatt photovoltaic parks for the community to rent (Machin 2008).

Chapters 6 and 7 include the analysis of the Solar Cities Programme. Chapter 6 will examine

the two case studies in line with Federal Government objectives and Chapter 7 will provide

an analysis of the two case studies in relation to additional criteria. This set of objectives will

enable the Solar Cities Programme to be examined with regards to planning and urban design

issues, partnerships within the program, how it benefits the solar industry and whether it can

be used as an effective model for large-scale implementation within the built form.


Chapter 8 will conclude with recommendations for improvements of the Solar Cities

Programme and possible avenues the Government might take in the future for the betterment

of solar energy. Lastly, a synthesis of the thesis will be provided.

In summary, the core chapters to be included within the thesis are:

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2 (Literature Review)

Planning for Solar Technology

Chapter 3 (Literature Review)

Context for Photovoltaic Technology

Chapter 4

Methodology

Chapter 5 (Background)

The Solar Cities Programme

Chapter 6

Analysis of the Solar Cities Program

Federal Government Objectives

Chapter 7

Analysis of the Solar Cities Programme

Additional Criteria

Chapter 8

Recommendations and Conclusion

7 Chapter 2 Planning for Solar Technology

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Planning for solar technology

2.1 Introduction

The emission of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels into the atmosphere poses serious

concerns for people and the environment. A solution to reduce this dependence on fossil fuel

sources includes the use of renewable energies. Solar energy is one such renewable energy

which actively generates electricity through photovoltaic panels. This chapter describes

current planning measures which help to tackle greenhouse gases within Australia, the status

of existing planning controls and best practice urban design principles to assist in solar access

maximisation for PV systems in the built form.

There is a building body of research on the effects of our current source of energy on people

and the environment. Fossil fuel energy, which derives its source from coal, oil and gas has

resulted in significant environmental problems including climate change and its consequences

(Droege 2004). It is estimated that temperatures will rise 6 degrees Celsius by the year 2100

if our current energy trends don’t change (Rutovitz 2007). This form of energy output also

causes human health problems through the release of pollutants to the atmosphere. In

addition, fossil fuels are a finite resource, eventually to be depleted. This provides an

increasing urgency to find alternative sources of energy (Droege 2004).

The built environment within cities is understood to consume great quantities of energy and

emit significant amounts of greenhouse emissions into the atmosphere. It is proven that

buildings account for 40 per cent of the total energy used in the world (Romilly p16 2007),

with a major source of this problem attributed to the use of air conditioning and appliances in

homes and businesses (Henderson 2007).

In response to this energy situation one collection of energy sources known as renewable

energies has been gaining momentum as reliable suppliers of clean energy. This selection of

energy sources includes Solar, Wind, Wave and Hydro, Biofuels and Biomass, Geothermal

and Hydrogen (Droege 2004). In addition, energy efficiency is viewed as a key component to


help reduce carbon emissions and, combined with renewable energy, can form a powerful

partnership in eventually reaching zero percentage emissions (Diesendorf 2008).

Solar energy is one type of renewable energy source which can help to reduce carbon

emissions to the environment and is understood to be a key contributor to our ‘greener

climate’ (Australian Trade Commission 2006).

Within the planning arena, there are a number of initiatives which are occurring at the State

and Local Government level to help lower greenhouse gases. These are more often than not

energy efficiency measures rather than a focus on renewable energies which are developed by

the NSW Department of Planning (DOP) and carried out by local government bodies.

However, renewable energy technologies including solar are slowly finding their way

through the planning system to become an effective reality. Planning law and specifically

Local Environmental Plans (LEP) exist to help maintain solar access for developments.

Unfortunately, there are no uniform planning measures to protect development and other

objects from overshadowing across PV systems within the built form. Planning principles are

required for solar optimisation within the built form and they are provided revealing a

potential planning scenario for Australia in the future.

2.2 Planning for energy efficiency

2.2.1 State Government

The NSW DOP has provided a number of policies as well as legislation to help reduce the

amount of greenhouse gas emissions entering the environment. Although they have not

specifically incorporated the use of solar energy as a tool to help reduce carbon emissions,

they have instigated a number of measures to reduce the carbon footprint within the built

form. These include policies and legislation such as the Building Sustainability Index

(BASIX) - an energy efficient planning tool, State Environmental Planning Policy No. 65 -

Design Quality of Residential Flat Development (SEPP 65) and principles of Ecologically

Sustainable Development (ESD) contained within the Environmental Planning and

Assessment Act 1979 (EP&A Act). They direct applicants to incorporate energy efficient

design within their new development as well as guide local government planners to prepare

plans that incorporate energy efficient design within their development control plans.


SEPP (Building Sustainability Index: BASIX) 2004

Energy rating tools have been used in NSW to evaluate and manage energy output and

greenhouse gas emissions. The State Environmental Planning Policy (Building Sustainability

Index: BASIX) 2004 is a mandatory planning control tool used in NSW that measures

residential buildings’ performance against a sustainability index with regards to energy

consumption, thermal comfort and water usage (Droege 2006).

Active solar energy measures are used to indicate overall performance of the new dwelling or

alterations and additions of the existing dwelling. In terms of energy performance, this

includes whether the applicant is installing a photovoltaic system and the rated electrical

output. Applicants are asked to choose the type of hot water system to be used and if they are

including solar hot water or other hot water systems. The pool and/or spa heating system are

also measured and solar is included in the choice of options.

With energy efficiency performance, passive solar measures are included with the types of

materials used and the orientation of the house and amount of solar access (DOP 2008).

BASIX helps to reduce residential dwellings’ energy output to 25 per cent less than the

average dwelling. With regards to energy, BASIX has been designed to enforce NSW’s

energy targets over time. Construction certificates are granted once a BASIX assessment has

been approved. BASIX is viewed as a successful planning measure that regulates the energy

performance of residential buildings within NSW (Droege 2006).

SEPP 65 - Design Quality of Residential Flat Development

SEPP 65 is a State Government policy which guides the way Local Government plans their

residential flat design code. It provides ways in which Local Government can incorporate

sustainable design initiatives including energy efficiency measures into their strategies of

residential flat buildings to help reduce greenhouse gases (DOP 2008).


Demand Management and Planning Project

The Department of Planning is involved in a scheme known as the Demand Management and

Planning Project whose main objective involves attempting to defer spending extra resources

on new energy power stations. The Government is aware that peak demand for energy occurs

infrequently during the year and this sets the limit for the whole year. Therefore, the State

Government is trying to find ways in which to reduce or meet this peak demand with

alternative solutions. One potential solution that has been identified is through solar PV

located on rooftops, which reveals a possible opportunity and avenue for solar energy to be

integrated within the built environment in the future (DOP 2008).

Part 3A Environmental Planning and Assessment Act (EP&A Act), 1979

Amendments made to the EP&A Act have included the acknowledgment of ESD and that an

environmental assessment report of the impacts of the proposed development be made for all

part 3A developments, including state significant developments and major projects (Robinson

2008). This is a step in the right direction in having the parent planning Act recognise

environmental issues and therefore draw a direct correlation between human activities and

climate change. However, it is still only focused on a fairly narrow definition of what

ecologically sustainable development means, including not creating major destructive

impacts on the environment.

2.2.2 Local Government

Overall, Local Government planning in Australia has been focused on energy reduction

measures or passive solar initiatives in order to rely less on fossil fuel energy sources.

However, this approach continues to rely heavily on energy delivery through the current

fossil fuel source instead of looking for alternative renewable ways of sourcing the energy.

This is a result of photovoltaic technology still being well out of the price range for most

people and therefore not feasible for councils to implement into their plans.

Until the Federal Government steps in and provides enough funding to enable the cost-

efficient purchasing of solar panels, or the cost to manufacture panels is reduced


significantly, it will not be integrated into the local planning system. Therefore, the mass

delivery of active solar measures cannot yet be achieved.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 (A-21) is a program which provides guidance on implementing Ecologically

Sustainable Development at the local government level. It was introduced at the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, where advocators believed

that Local Government was most involved at the grassroots level and could be instrumental in

developing sustainable plans within the built environment. Australia developed their Agenda

21 plan in 1997 but it has not been widely deployed across all councils in Australia.

Furthermore, it has proven difficult to adequately measure sustainability.

There is no fixed model for the types of sustainable measures to be incorporated within

council plans, so it is left up to individual councils to what extent they will include

sustainable issues such as energy efficient measures and renewable energy technology. This

incredibly flexible approach does not provide specific targets to reduce greenhouse gases and

is not an effective mechanism to providing significant changes at the local level. When A-21

arrived in Australia, studies have shown there has been a noticeable increase in the number of

sustainable initiatives developed over the last five years by councils due to this program

(DEWHA 2007).

Ecological Sustainable Development within local council

Local councils are persuaded by the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 to

incorporate ESD principles within their LEP and Development Control Plans (DCP). As

mentioned earlier, it is at the discretion of the local council to apply these principles and there

is a tendency to not take the term seriously and only pay lip service to it. As a result, the

integration of serious measures to reduce greenhouse emissions has been provided at the local

government level in an ad-hoc manner. However, there have been some councils which have

made a serious effort in implementing energy efficient and renewable technology measures

and are a positive role model for other councils to follow.


Kogarah City Council is one such example of a Local Government Area who integrated ESD

principles into their DCP to help revitalise their town centre. The development will

incorporate one of Australia’s largest solar powered medium density residential

developments as well as a suite of other ESD measures. Solar power will be provided for 193

apartments with the estimated saving of 190 tonnes of carbon emissions annually. See photos

2.1 and 2.2 below.

Amorphous photovoltaics bonded to the colourbond roof sheet at Kogarah Town Square redevelopment.

Photo 2.1 Photo 2.2

Source: http://www.re-systems.ee.unsw.edu.au Source: http://www.re-systems.ee.unsw.edu.au

The entire saving of greenhouse gases from all energy saving measures in Kogarah is

approximately 375 tonnes (Salan 2002) which reveals that in combination, solar energy as

well as other measures can have a significant impact on C02 levels. It also reveals that

Kogarah was able to provide statistically significant data which demonstrated that reductions

in greenhouse emissions were occurring.

Kogarah does acknowledge that what they are planning to develop is on a larger scale than

what most other councils would do. They emphasised the importance of building solid

partnerships between various industry and academic bodies to design and later bring the plan

to successful fruition.

Funds for the solar panels were provided by the Australian Greenhouse Office and the NSW

Sustainable Energy Development Authority, thus revealing support from other government

agencies. When the project is completed, it will have the opportunity of becoming a model

for other councils in sustainable development and innovative solar energy design within a

residential area (Salan 2002).


Development application process for solar technology

Most councils across NSW will classify the installation of solar panels as exempt

development. They view this type of development as providing minimal environmental

impact and do not require a development application (DA) to be lodged.

However, there are some councils that do require a DA to be submitted to council to ensure

that certain criteria are satisfied. Generally, this will consist of provisions to maximise solar

potential. This includes the position of the panels on the roof so that their orientation will be

within 45 degrees either side of true north and that the panels follow certain relevant

Australian Standards and be installed by a certified installer (Leichhardt Residential DCP

2000).

In addition, a council may provide development controls for aesthetic reasons to restrict the

installation of PV panels on roofs facing the street where it is believed to interfere with the

character or amenity of the locality. Another reason would be to prevent the installation of

PV panels on buildings which are deemed to be of heritage significance.

Many councils are beginning to realise the benefits of solar energy and are attempting to

make the process easier for panels to be installed into the built form. North Sydney Council

for example has already revealed their keen interest to change the DA process to enable solar

panels to be fixed on the rear façade of heritage buildings as well as enable more types of

dwellings to have panels facing the street (Kappagoda 2008).

2.3 A planning framework for the integration of PV into the Built Environment

Current urban planning within Australia does not yet take into consideration the potential of

buildings to obtain maximum solar yield from PV panels. If solar energy is to be included in

the package of solutions for the transformation of society to a fossil free future, it requires

serious changes to the way the built form is designed. Current planning within Australia only

takes into account limited measures to secure the maximum solar energy yield from PV

panels. To maximise the potential for solar energy supply, planning law needs to undergo

some reform. This includes integrating specific planning principles within the built


environment to provide an appropriate planning framework in which solar energy measures

may be implemented.

2.3.1 Solar access

The definition of solar access includes ‘the ability of a solar collector that is part of or

situated on a dwelling or lot (including open space and clothes drying area) to capture

sunlight and take advantage of that energy to a reasonable level’ (Waverley DCP p6 2006).

Access to sunlight has a direct link to environmental as well as financial consequences. The

amount of sunlight one receives can result in energy efficiency through ‘natural lighting,

drying clothes, solar space heating, and providing hot water and heating swimming pools’ in

addition to PV panels. All these measures help to depend less on fossil fuel electricity,

thereby emitting less carbon into the atmosphere and substantially saving money (Goudkamp

p65 2004).

There are many things which impede the access of sunlight. To begin with, due to the

movement of the sun, it only shines on a given surface twelve out of every 24 hours. Solar

access is affected by the position of the sun in the sky, when it is closer to the horizon the sun

is less intense than when it is directly overhead. How the earth is tilted and various seasonal

influences will also have an effect. The atmosphere affects the intensity of the sunlight in

which 30 per cent of the rays are diminished due to reflection, absorption and scattering.

Pollution or clouds in the atmosphere can reduce the intensity of the sun, while neighbouring

objects can block the solar access (Goudkamp 2004).

All these solar impediments cannot be accounted for, apart from the issue of overshadowing.

It is understood that planning law has the responsibility to safeguard solar access for a

property from surrounding objects within the built form.

The issue of shading on a residential structure by objects such as trees and properties on

adjoining allotments generally occurs in urban areas with houses closely located to each

other. New developments within already existing subdivision sites turn to planning law to

deal with overshadowing issues. Current planning law may recognise the right to a limited

amount of solar access for passive means such as house lighting. However, it does not always


recognise the right to unimpeded solar access for PV technology. Nevertheless, the view to

safeguard people’s solar access after they have made a decision to purchase an expensive PV

solar system or solar hot water system is gradually being taken more seriously (Goudkamp

2004).

An LEP is the main type of planning instrument which directly regulates solar access for new

developments. Broad provision categories are included within the LEPs to protect the amount

of sunlight for new developments and/or reduce the impact of overshadowing for surrounding

developments. Some LEPs also include consideration of solar access for potential future

constructed buildings (Goudkamp 2004). The DCP which supplements the LEP has been

created by some councils as a means to provide controls which specifically focus on the

provision of efficient solar access. Used in conjunction with BASIX regulations, this has the

benefit of providing clear guidelines for developers to design and construct their site and

dwelling in a solar compatible manner.

In relation to LEPs, one type of provision regulates the amount of access to sunlight during

certain times of the day. This varies between different councils and how they satisfy this

provision. It can include the proposed development having access to sunlight between the

hours of 9am to 3pm and it may require the proposed development to maintain sunlight

access to certain areas of the adjoining property (Goudkamp 2004).

Other provisions include consideration of overshadowing to adjoining properties, such as for

specifically zoned areas like residential areas, or if it affects the amenity of the locality. It is

understood that solar access requirements in these types of provisions are included as one of a

group of objectives to be considered in conjunction, so solar access is not necessarily given

more weight in consideration (Goudkamp 2004).

This can be illustrated in a case where a DA was approved in Hunters Hill to construct an

additional level to their existing dwelling which would result in overshadowing the PV

system of the adjoining property. (See photo 2.3). $40,000 had been spent on the solar panels

the year before and it was shown that the planning system could not safeguard the right to

solar access for the dwelling (Cubby 2008). This is an issue which will become frequent as

more people want greater solar access for their solar collectors.


Photo 2.3. Hunters Hill dwelling with solar panels that will be overshadowed by a neighbour's development.

Source: http://www.smh.com.au/

Another category of provisions limit the building height of the proposed development to

prevent overshadowing on adjacent buildings. Some councils have gone so far as to ensure

that building heights satisfy this provision by making all new developments comply with a

building height plane measure. This involves having a boundary which stretches at a 45

degrees angle upwards and inwards from the property edges (see Figure 2.1). However, one

issue with this type of planning tool is that if the topography is anything other than flat, it will

influence the length of the shadows (Goudkamp 2004).

Figure 2.1, Indicates a building height plane in two dimensions commencing at two metres above ground level.

Source: Goudkamp 2004

Many councils do not include one of the above listed solar access provisions in their LEPs.

Instead, they rely on the indirect protection provided by subsection 79C(1) of the EP&A Act.

Paragraphs (b) to (e) of s79C(1) require that council consider these provisions when assessing


new developments. If solar access is provided under this subsection, it is generally in a

piecemeal manner as it is only included for certain developments or certain zones

(Goudkamp 2004).

As well as the issue of overshadowing, existing subdivision sites are not designed to

maximise the potential for each allotment to obtain solar access and current planning controls

generally do not contain provisions to integrate solar access planning concepts into new

subdivision sites. One reason can be due to State Government’s policy of urban

consolidation, which is understood to be potentially in conflict with access to sunlight. The

preference for tightly compacted buildings will be prioritised over access to sunlight as

described in the development objectives of a Lane Cove LEP. It is mentioned that existing

high level residential development will be retained and that overshadowing is permitted.

There may also be conflict between ecological objectives in which trees may be in the way of

unrestricted solar access to the PV panels (Goudkamp 2004).

In many cases, it is up to environmentally conscious developers to incorporate energy

efficient principles within their proposed development, and this is becoming a more frequent

occurrence. There are specific guidelines such as the Australian Model Code for Residential

Development or AMCORD practice notes as well as The Sustainable Energy Development

Authority’s (SEDA) Solar Access for Lots Guidelines. They have outlined effective tools to

assist individual developers to achieve sustainable subdivision design. The guidelines are also

used by councils aspiring to develop ecological planning controls (SEDA 2005).

2.3.2 Urban design principles for maximum solar yield

It is acknowledged that consideration should be first made towards achieving maximum solar

access for the subdivision site. This involves designing residential areas and incorporating a

number of design aspects into the site such as orientation, shape, size and width of lot, solar

setbacks and building heights. If the orientation and layout of allotments on the subdivision

site are positioned effectively, this can substantially assist the dwelling’s opportunity for

optimal solar access.


Figure 2.2 Orientation Diagram

Source: AMCORD

For temperate climates that include Sydney,

Melbourne, Adelaide and Canberra, it is calculated

that the most beneficial street layout arrangement

for solar access includes aligning streets north-

south within 20º west and 30º east of true north,

and aligning streets east-west within 30º south and

20º north as revealed in Figure 2.2 (AMCORD

1995). For the purposes of solar technology, it is

argued that north-south streets with east-west

allotments is the most efficient design as the length

of the building is provided with more exposure to

sunlight from the north (Ambrose 2008).

It is advised that lots which are narrower and smaller should be placed on the northern side of

the east-west allotments to have the greatest opportunity to obtain solar access from the north.

Larger allotments which have more opportunity within their site of achieving solar access can

be placed on the southern side of the east-west streets. Hence, one maximises the chance of

all allotments achieving adequate solar access (AMCORD 1995).

The orientation of the lots to the north will provide greatest solar access to a dwelling’s roof-

mounted solar system. A good lot orientation will enable a greater surface area of the roof to

be exposed to sunlight. This provides the opportunity for a higher number of PV panels to

obtain adequate solar penetration (Ambrose 2008).

The Solar Access Lots Guidelines provides an alternative way in which subdivisions can

achieve sufficient solar access across all lots. It works to accommodate lot yields by working

within the lot instead of changing the lot size. The tool allows the developer to choose the

best dwelling shape for a particular orientation. It is most effective with lots not less than

400m2 as well as with similar sized building envelopes and building heights. By tackling

solar access provisions at the subdivision stage, it safeguards the dwelling against

overshadowing by adjacent developments through the correct placement of the dwelling

(SEDA 2005).


Figure 2.3 Solar access guide for lots

Source: SEDA Solar Access for Lots

The solar access guide controls the placement of

dwellings on each allotment by calculating that section

of the lot which a dwelling should not be built upon,

otherwise known as the solar setback (see Figure 2.3).

Measurements also take into account the height of the

adjoining buildings to the north. In using the tool, two

zones are identified. One is a Flexible Solar Access

Zone (FSAZ), which includes a reserved part of the lot

which may not be built on, and the other is the Minimum

Solar Access Zone (MSAZ), which is located within

the FSAZ and can also not be built upon. Once the

MSAZ and the dwelling are identified on the lot at the application stage, the remaining FSAZ

area can be built upon (SEDA 2005).

To ensure the greatest solar yield over a site, developers are also encouraged to control

building heights for the building envelope on each lot (Ambrose 2008). Achieving even roof

heights reduces the amount of shading on a building (Droege 2007). Developers need to be

especially cautious regarding buildings located to the north of the site(SEDA 2005).

In existing infill sites, especially in highly dense urban areas, the prospect of achieving solar

access can be challenging. As described earlier in the chapter, these lots have to deal with

overshadowing of surrounding buildings and objects such as trees. However, one can

generally still work within the limits of the site to find the most ideal location and orientation

for PV solar access. In addition, the position of the solar collectors on the roof is also

important. The orientation of the panels should be facing to the north and the collectors

should be pitched to obtain maximum penetration of the sunlight (AMCORD 1995).


2.4 Conclusion

Although planning systems at both State and Local Government levels have begun to tackle

climate change, planning outcomes predominantly focus on energy efficiency rather than

providing broad scale measures for the integration of renewable energy, including PV

technology, into the built form.

At the local level there is no guarantee that once the PV panels are installed the owner will be

ensured perpetually unimpeded access to sunlight. This is an issue that needs to be resolved

in the future through the planning system. If the carbon crisis is to be taken seriously then the

planning system has to rethink ways in which the built form is designed, and this includes

making the transformation to sustainable designed cities in which solar energy technology

can maintain continuous solar access. There is enormous opportunity for the planning system

to take action and through development controls, help to create a cleaner, greener

environment for current and future generations.

Apart from the planning system, there are many other factors which act as a hindrance to

successfully integrating solar technology on a large scale. These issues will be presented in

the next chapter to provide a more comprehensive framework within which solar energy

functions.

21 Chapter 3 Context for Solar Energy

Chapter 3 Literature Review

Context for Solar Energy

3.1 Introduction

Solar energy delivered through photovoltaic technology has a great potential to supply a

significant part of Australia’s energy needs in the future. Although a growing industry, solar

energy has not yet entered the market as a viable competitor. This chapter provides

information on the political, technological, social and economic aspects of solar energy,

specifically photovoltaic technology, to provide a better understanding of the context within

which solar energy functions. This chapter also reveals the governmental approach by

countries who are leading the world in developing robust policies to support the integration of

renewable technologies at a rapid rate into the built form.

3.2 Political aspects

It is important to understand how solar energy fits within the context of the current Australian

political landscape. It is the government that is responsible for providing the support and

encouragement for new industries to thrive or stagnate. In this section, those levels of

government with the most influence, being Federal and State Government, will be explored

to reveal what they are doing to support renewable energies and the solar energy industry.

3.2.1 Federal Government

One key factor which prevents the greater up-take of solar energy is that Australia is a nation

which has an abundant supply of non-renewable energy in the form of fossil fuels (Wilson

2008). In fact, 92 per cent of our electricity supply is derived from fossil fuel power plants

(Griffin 2008) and Australia boasts a huge export market for this non-renewable energy.

Hence, the Government is viewed as being tentative in their approach to reduce demand for

this fuel source and tackling climate change (Wilson 2008).

In 1997, the Federal Government introduced legislation known as the Commonwealth

Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 to create a renewable energy target which is still


ongoing and has recently been increased to 20 per cent by the year 2020. This is known as the

Mandatory Renewable Energy Target (MRET). To help meet this target energy, retailers are

required to purchase a proportion of their energy from renewable energy sources (Department

of Water and Energy 2008).

There has been some criticism regarding these targets which are viewed as lagging behind

many other countries’ targets (Rutovitz 2007). In addition, more investment for reaching the

20 per cent renewable energy target has been put into wind energy rather than solar energy as

the former technology is cheaper to implement (Gaffney 2008).

There has been much research conducted into renewable energy sources in Australia.

Disappointingly, this hasn’t always translated into action. In 2004, the Australian Federal

Government provided funds to promote the renewable energy industry through various

initiatives including a Solar Cities Programme (DEWHA 2008). The program was created to

develop and test local solar energy (Droege 2006).

Besides the Solar Cities Programme, the Federal Government has also provided the

Photovoltaic Rebate Program (PVRP) which started in 2000. This enables residents of new

dwellings to obtain a rebate when installing photovoltaic panels on the roof. If residents meet

the appropriate criteria, they are entitled to receive a rebate of $8 per peak watt of output of

the new photovoltaic component of the system up to a maximum of $8,000 (DEWHA 2008).

However, this scheme does not provide enough of an incentive for most people due to the

exorbitant cost to purchase the panels. It costs approximately $2900 to $3300 to install a 1kW

grid connected PV system (Taylor 2008).

Although the Government, through the PVRP, has helped the solar industry gain momentum,

it is still holding the industry back because it is unable to commit to the rebate for the long

term. There are constant changes to the details of the rebate program causing instability and

uncertainty within the industry. As one industry spokesperson commented, ‘we’ve had them

[PVRP] since 2000, but they have been up and down like a yoyo…with all the uncertainties

and the changes people get confused.’ (Taylor p1 2008)

Recently, the Federal Government introduced a means test to the rebate system enabling only

those people earning under a prescribed amount eligible for the discount. Contrary to


everyone’s expectations that fewer people would be interested in purchasing PVs, there has

been an increased rise in the number of applications for the rebate when compared to

previous years’ figures. It is believed that the increased exposure as a result of the introduced

median testing policy resulted in higher demand for PV (Gaffney 2008).

The Emissions Trading Scheme is seen as one market based policy which the government

will introduce in the next couple of years to curb greenhouse emissions. It involves providing

a cap to businesses releasing carbon to the atmosphere and buying credits from those who

pollute less. It is acknowledged that this scheme will provide space and opportunities for the

renewable energy industry to grow (Department of Water and Energy 2008).

Although the Federal Government has started taking steps to curb carbon emissions, there is a

concern that the targets are not ambitious enough to seriously tackle climate change. This is

especially so with renewable technologies including solar energy. Critics of the current

government schemes believe that more can be done, such as developing better policies

including increased renewable energy targets and increasing economic incentives for

renewable energy technologies to help the growth of the solar industry (Roundtable 2002).

3.2.2 State Government

Some state governments have created their own targets which exceed the Federal Target.

Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales have each legislated for targets which are

either greater than the 10 per cent or aim to reach that before 2020.

The NSW Government has provided targets to reduce green house gas emissions to year 2000

levels by 2025, and by 60 per cent by 2050. A number of measures have been used to reduce

the emissions, but at this current stage they do not include the use of renewable energies.

Currently, around 6 per cent of the State's total energy usage is provided from renewable

energy sources and of that, only 1 per cent comes from a solar source (Department of Water

and Energy 2008).

The Government has acknowledged that they are planning to phase in the use of renewable

energies in the future as part of a ‘longer term strategy’. It has been admitted that one of the

few real solutions to making clear dents in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is


through the use of renewable energies. Renewable energies are viewed as being the future

path and a sustainable solution to resolving the environmental crisis (Department of Water

and Energy 2008).

State governments are responsible for introducing feed-in-tariffs into the energy grid. Within

Australia, only Queensland, Victoria and Adelaide have introduced net feed-in-tariff systems

through legislation. The net feed-in-tariff pays for the difference of what you use and what

you generate (Diesendorf 2008).

Feed-in-tariffs are viewed as a successful market mechanism to raise the demand of

renewable energy. Feed-in-tariffs make utility companies uptake renewable energy at a price

above the market rate and therefore assist the cost disadvantages of renewable energy. The

feed-in-tariffs have the potential to allow solar energy to enter the market as a competitive

alternative to fossil fuel driven electricity (UNSW 2008).

In Queensland, beginning July 1 2008, the State Government introduced the net feed-in-tariff

and raised the cost of solar energy from around 14 cents to 44 cents. This way, the

Government has estimated that the system as used by an average household would have paid

for itself in ten years, thus increasing the incentive for purchasing the panels (The Age 2008).

Even though net feed-in-tariffs are a promising step in the right direction, they are still

viewed as limiting and not the most ideal market mechanism as they do not pay suppliers for

all energy supplied to the grid.

3.3 Technological aspects

In addition to the cost of a technology, its performance is a key indicator in revealing whether

it will be a success or not in the wider public domain. Presently, there is tough competition

between solar energy and leading energy suppliers as well as other renewable technologies

who all want a slice of the industry pie. Fortunately for solar technology, it is a constantly

evolving area in which performances are continually improved. With constant input of

resources for research and development, solar energy has a strong chance of being a highly

efficient supplier of energy in the future.


3.3.1 Solar energy

Although the focus in this chapter is on photovoltaic technology, a brief description of the

different types of solar energy will first be provided to gain a better understanding of the

general concept of solar energy and to help distinguish between the different types.

3.3.2 Passive and active solar energy

There are two main ways to deliver solar energy. One is through passive solar design and the

other is through active solar technology, such as solar thermal and photovoltaic technology.

Passive solar heating design includes an integrated design approach within individual

dwellings and buildings which result in energy reduction. Such measures include glazing on

windows, orientation and high thermal mass (Edwards and Turrent 2000).

Active solar measures include the use of

solar thermal which collects the sunlight

in thermal collectors and converts to solar

thermal energy as seen in photo 3.1. This

type of technology is used for pools,

showers or space heating. It has been

calculated that the space required to

produce the energy is considerably less

than photovoltaic energy but this type of

energy is restricted generally to those

items listed above. This is because the heat output is not as portable as the electricity that is

generated from photovoltaic devices (Newton & Mo 2006).

3.3.3 Photovoltaic Technology

Photovoltaic (PV) devices, which are another form of solar energy, generate electricity from

the sun. The word photovoltaic is derived from ‘photo’ meaning light and ‘voltaic’ which

means electricity (Monsour 2001). The PV cells contain a special surface which emits

electrons when exposed to the sunlight (Diesendorf 2007).

Photo 3.1 Solar Hot water systems on new homes in Glebe.

Source: Leichhardt Council 2000


Photo 3.2 Invertor

Today’s most popularly used solar panels include solar

cells with wafers of silicon. Each PV module is half a

square metre in size and generally contains 40 solar cells

connected together and positioned behind glass. The panels

are seen as highly durable pieces of equipment and contain

warranties up to 25 years. Either the energy created is

stored in batteries (which are still very expensive) or it can

be passed through an invertor to produce alternating current (AC). See photo 3.2. Today’s

manufactured panels contain efficiencies of 15 per cent (Diesendorf 2007).

Solar technology contains no moving parts besides those solar devices which track the

trajectory of the sun. Improvements with the technology have reduced the level of energy

input to construct the panels and once it is in action, it emits zero emissions or chemicals and

produces no noise. They also require minimal maintenance over their

lifetime. This is in direct comparison to fossil fuel power plants which display all of the

above constraints as well as requiring vast amounts of water to run (Diesendorf 2007).

There are three principle ways that solar panels can be installed. Firstly, they can be mounted

on rooftops where the energy is distributed to that structure and surplus energy is fed through

to the grid where it competes with retail electricity prices as revealed in Figure 3.1 and photo

3.3. Solar energy through this method receives between 11 - 20 c/kW in Australia

(Diesendorf 2007).

Figure 3.1 Solar energy being fed into the grid Photo 3.3 Rockhampton Research House.

Source: http://www.awsolar.com.au/grid-feed.html Source: http://yourdevelopment.org/

Source: http://www.energy.com.au/energy/ea


This type of photovoltaic derived energy is unique in that it fits within the existing fabric of

the built environment. It can be installed on already existing surfaces and create dual

functions. Therefore, both the existing function of the object as well as the function of

generating electricity can be established. There is readily available space for solar energy in

the built form and this enables decentralised electricity to occur in which each dwelling can

be self-sufficient and provide energy for both itself and potentially other grid-connected

houses. It is also possible for larger buildings to provide solar energy for either themselves or

a cluster of dwellings nearby to them (Palz 2008).

Secondly, PV panels can be applied on a large scale and set up to supply energy through

power stations. Solar energy supplied this way can be fed through the grid to distant

consumers in the same way that fossil fuel energy is delivered. Solar energy distribution

currently asks for 3.5 - 4 c/kWh in Eastern Australia and 5.5 - 6 c/kWh in Western Australia.

There are extra expenses involved with this method through the use of tracking systems, as

well as the cost of land and maintenance (Diesendorf 2007).

Finally, solar energy can be generated and stored in a battery as a stand-alone system. This

type of energy is applied in remote areas for homes and farms, as well as certain types of

infrastructure such as telecommunications, public lighting, portable signs and water pumps

(Diesendorf 2007). Two examples are presented in photos 3.4 and 3.5.

Photo 3.4 Solar street light, Barwon Park, NSW Photo 3.5 Solar school sign

Source: http://www.sunlightsolar.com.au/ Source: http://www.screentech.com.au/traffic_led_solar_school.shtml


In Australia, we have access to greater amounts of sunlight and experience longer days than

many other countries. Therefore, solar powered devices are well suited to our climate (Palz

2008). It is estimated that the amount of energy that falls on Australia is 15,000 times the

energy source that is currently used by the nation (Australian Trade Commission 2006).

PV technology has the disadvantage that it can only generate energy when the sun is shining.

There has not been any progress to devise a cheap and efficient way of storing the energy for

later use. Hence, energy is supplied during the day and it does not perform at night. In

addition, during the winter months where the days are shorter and the sun is less intense, solar

performance will be reduced (Palz 2008). That being said, although solar energy cannot

contribute to base load power where it is the main source of energy, it still has a significant

role to play in its current state as a provider of peak energy generation (Diesendorf 2008).

Figures 3.2 and 3.3 below reveal that around 25 per cent of a household’s daily energy needs

can be provided by solar energy based on a 1kW system during summer and winter.

Figure 3.2, July 2004 average households daily energy usage with proportion supplied by solar energy.

Source: http://www.energy.com.au/energy/

Figure 3.3, February 2005 average households daily energy usage with proportion supplied by solar energy.

Source: http://www.energy.com.au/energy/


Peak demand only occurs during that part of the year when there are extremes of temperature.

During the heights of summer, when many people are using air conditioners, there is peak

demand in energy usage. Energy companies will provide enough electricity to meet capacity

needs at these peak demand times but only use part of this capacity during the rest of the

year. This results in consumers paying peak demand energy prices all year round and huge

financial resources are used to meet this greater demand (Henderson 2006).

The PV research and development sector is constantly improving its technology and

inevitably each panel will be able to generate greater amounts of energy and be able to

service more dwellings with less space taken up. The industry on a global scale is constantly

improving the efficiency, reliability and cost of solar panels (Palz 2008).

3.3.4 Leading edge PV technology

Australia is highly developed in PV Research and Development, producing leading edge

manufacturing processes which are improving efficiencies and reducing costs in PV

technology. Recent developments with solar energy systems are helping to improve their

credibility within the energy industry. They are referred to as thin film technology and are

known as ‘crystalline silicon on glass’ (CSG) and ‘sliver cells’ (Diesendorf 2007).

CSG technology has tackled the cost of the panels. It was conceived by the research teams at

University of NSW and manufactured in Germany. This technology is viewed as a

breakthrough because a significantly smaller percentage of silicon, an expensive component

of the panel, is used to create the modules. In this process, a minute amount of silicon is

placed directly on glass and when in action, produces 65 per cent of the energy that current

PV technologies delivers (Diesendorf p167 2007).

Sliver cells technology is the other innovation helping to improve efficiencies as well as

module costs. It was developed by the Australian National University in 2000. They use the

same amount of silicon as the wafer style modules and the process is similar, except there is a

crucial difference in the cell process (Diesendorf p167-8 2007).


In the conventional method, cells are formed on the

surface, thereby being a two-dimensional process.

With the sliver cells modules, cells are formed in the

wafer volume, transforming it into a three-

dimensional process. This has enabled efficiencies of

the cell to increase from 15 per cent to 20 per cent.

The designers of the cells claim that, in the future, the

amount of silicon will be reduced, thus cutting the

cost of the final product. Origin Energy has already

invested in this solar technology with the creation of a pilot plant, but energy from this source

has not yet hit the market (Diesendorf p167-8 2007).

In line with improvements in technology

efficiencies, there has been progress in

the manner that PV technology can be

applied within the built environment.

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics

(BIPV) is one form of PV technology

that is able to be inserted into building

facades, roofs and windows. See photo

3.7. This is viewed as a versatile and

effective system which provides greater

opportunities to take advantage of

available spaces to implement PV technology, especially within the urban environment

(Droege 2006).

3.4 Economic aspects

There are a number of economic factors which prevent solar energy from entering the energy

market as a stable and secure energy commodity. These include the cost of purchasing and

installing the panels and the lack of market mechanisms such as feed-in-tariffs in NSW to

increase the cost of solar energy when fed into the grid. This has resulted in less demand for

solar panels and a detrimental effect on the solar industry. Through proper policies, the future

Source: http://www.epia.org

Photo 3.7, BIPV glass windows on building in France

Photo 3.6 Sliver cell technology

Source: http://www.publish.csiro.au/


of solar energies can become more prosperous. A benefit of solar energy can be the creation

of jobs which will improve the nation’s economy.

There are two costs of solar energy that influence the economic feasibility of the product. The

major cost includes the purchasing of panels. With the current technology, this is still very

expensive and out of the price range for the average family. Second is the cost of energy

which is measured in KWh (kilowatt hour). In Australia, the cost of buying solar energy is

more expensive than purchasing energy sourced from fossil fuel energy, although feed-in-

tariffs are attempting to bridge that gap. For people who generate their own electricity in

states other than Victoria, Queensland and Adelaide, the cost of return through feeding the

energy back into the grid and selling it to existing energy companies is low (Palz 2008).

Some other countries, such as Germany, have turned this margin around through making

utility companies pay a higher premium for energy they receive from renewable energy

sources, and paying for all energy that is fed into the grid. This way, people are able to make

a profit from the energy that they sell and the more energy produced the greater the profit.

This has the incentive of driving the market forward (Palz 2008).

Due to the state of the solar energy industry within Australia, many manufacturers and

businesses who developed photovoltaic panels have taken their businesses abroad to places

that have a more lucrative industry. Australia is willing to invest time and money into the

research and design of this technology, but it does not necessarily translate this involvement

into commercialisation of the product (Taylor 2008).

Although current costs are limiting the market growth of the technology, it is understood that

proper policy support will increase the demand of the product and have a positive effect of

reducing the cost of the panels.

The PV industry can generate new jobs. Solar energy is a smaller scale technology and this

leads to local manufacturing (Diesendorf 2008). Most of the jobs that are created occur

during the process of installation which includes installers, retailers and service engineers. In

Germany the success of the solar industry on the local economy can be verified with 42,000

solar energy jobs being provided to people in 2007. In fact more jobs were created in

Germany in the PV industry than the nuclear industry (EPIA & Greenpeace 2008).


3.5 Social aspects

Although climate change is a looming reality, many people are unaware of how maintaining

the status quo of energy use will affect their lives in the future. Governments have not made it

a priority to bring energy reduction solutions including renewable energies to the forefront of

their political agendas. A significant component of the government’s responsibility other than

introducing well developed policies includes educating the people.

Many people are content to remain with how things are because they do not view their

present situation as being serious enough. Educating the public is a pertinent issue that needs

to occur before change will transpire at the grassroots level. Of course, it also takes the

initiative of both individuals and non-governmental organisations to assist in their own way

to develop the industry. In Spain, it was revealed that 90 per cent of people were prepared to

spend an additional 10 per cent on renewable energies demonstrating that people are willing

to change if educated on the matter and given the opportunity (Droege 2006).

There is a growing (but still rather small) number of individuals participating in renewable

energy schemes including solar energy within Australia. There are those members of the

community who are not waiting for government policy to help the transition of solar energy

into a dominant energy source within society.

One option is for residents or businesses to support renewable energies through the National

GreenPower Accreditation Program, which is administered by a state and territory co-

operative. It provides accreditation to energy companies investing in renewable energy

schemes. This is a way for individuals to invest in clean technology and actively take part in

reducing greenhouse gases (Department of Water and Energy 2008). Obtaining one’s energy

through solar energy sources is particularly useful for those residents who can’t afford to

invest in PV panels themselves, or live in a rental property, or occupy a building which

cannot support the panels. This way, they still have the option of supporting green

technology.

In NSW it is calculated that there are more than 2000 households with PV installations on

their roofs (Goudkamp 2004). One can observe this through the increased speckling of


photovoltaic panels on roofs across any residential area. Photos 3.8 and 3.9 reveal solar panel

systems on dwelling rooftops in Sydney.

Photo 3.8 Solar panels on dwelling in Sydney Photo 3.9. Solar panels on dwelling in Northbridge, Sydney

Source: http://www.awsolar.com.au/ Source: http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/

3.6 World cases

Governments play a key role in driving the solar industry forward and it is essential that they

set clear ambitious goals to integrate solar energy into the energy industry. This includes

providing a robust policy which supports and guides the solar industry, such as the solar

incentive programs from Japan, Germany and certain states in the US such as California.

World Councils are setting renewable energy targets for countries at 25 per cent renewable

sourced energy by the year 2025. Solar energy is viewed by many as the solution to help

reach these targets, but only through political intervention such as financial government

assistance and regulation can its place in the market be assured and secured. This will

continue until solar energy costs will be reduced enough to require no government

intervention (Palz 2008).

The photovoltaic industry on a global scale is doing exceptionally well. Grid connected PV

generated energy is the fastest growing renewable energy sector with 2.5 gigawatts of

production being provided in 2006 (Palz 2008). Between the years 2000 to 2004, the growth

of the global solar energy industry has been increasing by 60 per cent annually (Droege

2006).

Japan has revealed its competency in implementing renewable energies through a successful

initiative called the ‘70,000 solar roofs’ program. The Japanese Government reduced the


costs of purchasing and installing panels as well as introducing a net feed-in-tariff. They also

invested a significant amount of funding into the research and development of solar

technology (Diesendorf 2007).

Germany demonstrated its keen support for renewable energies by commencing a ‘100,000

solar roofs’ program in 1998. The German Government provided a ten year low interest loan

for the installation of the panels and finished the program ahead of schedule in 2003

(Diesendorf 2007). It is often perceived as ironic that Germany which experiences colder

climates with less access to sunlight should have a burgeoning solar energy industry when

compared to a lagging Australian solar industry (Palz 2008).

The German Government has demonstrated how solar energy can be applied successfully and

benefit the society environmentally and economically. It seems that market programs have

been especially instrumental in driving the photovoltaic industry forward. Germany is leading

the way with their gross feed-in-tariff system, which is a system that pays for any solar

energy which enters the grid. The feasibility of purchasing PV has increased due to a

guaranteed premium provided over a twenty year period by existing utility companies

through the feed-in-tariff program.

In addition, their government does not carry the burden of the extra costs as it has been

evenly spread amongst all consumers. Users of solar energy in Germany only have an

additional 1 cent added to their electricity bill. This positive market environment for solar

energy has resulted in over 2 billion dollars worth of private investment in solar

manufacturing facilities and the creation of many jobs (Green 2007). See photos 3.10 and

3.11.

Photo 3.10 Thin film array at Dimbach, Germany. 3.11 Solar roof Dwellings in Germany

Source: www.allamericanpatriots.com Source: www.cbc.ca/toronto/features/solar/


3.7 Conclusion

Although for many areas the impact of climate change is difficult to pinpoint, it is predicted

that if we continue to maintain the status quo in terms of the emission of greenhouse gases,

there will be serious consequences for future generations (Kentwell 2007).

Solar energy in Australia is currently facing political, technological, economic and social

challenges. Nonetheless, there is an enormous potential for this technology to have a positive

economic and environmental impact to a possible energy crisis in the future. Germany is

leading the way with solar technologies and the experiences they are having demonstrates

that it is possible to deliver large scale solar programs effectively and efficiently.

Within the context of the challenges outlined together with the planning issues described in

Chapter 2, the Solar Cities Programme emerges as a response by the Federal Government to

investigate the future direction of solar energy in Australia. It has been determined that

photovoltaic technology faces many challenges in being recognised as a serious provider of

energy and the Solar Cities Programme is an attempt to potentially overcome these

impediments.

To adequately analyse the Solar Cities Programme, Chapter 4 will deal with the research

design of the thesis. This includes providing ways in which the research of the program was

conducted. Chapter 5 will then present general details of the Solar Cities Programme,

providing background information which precludes the later analysis of program.

36 Chapter 4 Methodology

Chapter 4 Methodology

4.1 Introduction

The methodology includes a description of the two qualitative research methods used, in-

depth interviews and case studies. It also explains the method used to analyse the Solar City

Programme including Federal Government objectives as well as a developed model of

objectives based on knowledge acquired through literature sources.

4.2 Methodology

Two research methods were used. This included conducting a range of face-to-face in-depth

interviews with individuals involved in the Solar Cities Programme. Academics outside the

program that specialise in photovoltaic technology and are familiar with the issues

surrounding the solar industry and the Solar Cities Programme were also interviewed.

This research method was chosen because it was the most effective means of obtaining

detailed information regarding the Solar Cities Programme and issues surrounding

photovoltaic solar energy. Members of the Solar Cities Programme were chosen to provide

information on key issues raised within the project. Academics were selected to provide an

unbiased and more critical view of the program within the context of current solar energy

trends.

Each interview was held individually so that different perspectives could be acquired without

interference from other interviewees. The interviews consisted of open ended questions and

ranged from approximately 35 minutes to 90 minutes.

All together, seven individuals were interviewed. Three interviewees were consortium

members on behalf of the Blacktown Solar Cities Programme. The consortium members will

not be named as they preferred to remain anonymous. They are separately referred to as

Blacktown consortium members A, B and C. A representative of the Department of Water,

Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA), a State Government body, was also interviewed.


One interviewee, Bronwen Machin was representing the Central Victorian Greenhouse

Alliance (CVGA). CVGA is the consortium leader of the Central Victorian Solar Cities

Programme. Two academic interviewees from the University of New South Wales

participated. This included Anna Bruce from the School of Photovoltaic and Renewable

Energy Engineering and Deo Prasad from the Architecture Program within the Faculty of

Built Environment.

The Solar Cities Programme comprises of seven separate solar cities and two of these urban

areas were chosen as case studies to provide an indication of the program’s direction. Each

solar city has been designed differently and takes a different approach in fulfilling the intent

of the Federal Government’s objectives.

The Blacktown Solar Cities Programme as well as the Central Victorian Solar Cities

Programme will be used as case studies to evaluate the overall program. Although the Federal

Government has set specific objectives for each solar city, both solar cities selected are

understood as representing what the Solar Cities Programme is generally striving towards.

The Blacktown Solar Cities Programme, comprising the entire Blacktown Local Government

Area, was the first program to be chosen. It will be testing a variety of solar energy and

energy efficiency measures within existing residential areas as well as greenfield sites.

The Central Victorian scheme consists of 13 shires and is located in regional Australia. It will

be testing energy efficiency measures through existing development and generating solar

energy through the construction of two large PV parks. Both Solar Cities Programmes will be

discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

To make a detailed analysis on the effectiveness of the program, I will be evaluating the two

Solar Cities Programmes against two sets of objectives. This includes the Federal

Government objectives as well as a model of objectives formulated by the information

provided through the interviews as well as relevant literature sources. This model is designed

to provide additional criteria to evaluate the case studies.

In analysing the Solar Cities Programme, I will be examining the two previously mentioned

case studies in line with Federal Government objectives. As the program is not yet finished, a


policy has not been provided to reveal the future direction of solar energy. However, the

program can still be examined with regards to what they have so far implemented, as well as

their future plans until its conclusion in 2013. In essence, I want to investigate what the

Federal Government hopes to achieve with the scheme as well as the indicators used by

Government to gauge its success or failure as a significant contributor of renewable energy

supply.

The Federal Government Solar City objectives include the following:

1. Demonstrate the economic and environmental impacts of integrating cost-reflective

pricing with the concentrated uptake of solar, energy efficiency and smart metering

technologies; and

2. Identify and implement options for addressing barriers to distributed solar generation;

energy efficiency and electricity demand management for grid connected urban areas

(Department of the Environment and Heritage 2005).

Federal Government objectives have been set for all the Solar Cities Programmes and each

program has designed their projects differently depending on energy issues unique to their

area. For example, the Blacktown LGA is culturally very diverse, so their focus will be on

accessing all the different ethnic communities.

Apart from the Federal Government objectives, three additional criteria have been developed

to assess the Solar Cities Programme. These criteria developed through key ideas presented in

Chapters 2, 3 and 5 include:

3. Demonstrate how the Solar Cities Programme incorporates planning principles and

urban design aspects into the built form and the ease of PV technology approval

through the development application process.

4. Demonstrate the capacity of the Solar Cites Programme in providing effective

partnerships between government and consortium and between consortium members.


5. Demonstrate the ability of the Solar Cities Programme to positively influence the

solar industry as well as being used as an effective model for large scale

implementation within the built form.

In summary, the methodology presents the following stages in consecutive order:

• Obtain information from Chapters 2, 3 and 5 to describe Federal Government

objectives and to develop additional criteria.

• Interview people from both solar energy Academia and State Government Solar Cities

Programme.

• Undertake two case studies of the Solar Cities Programme, Blacktown Solar Cities

and Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme.

• Interview consortium members representing both Blacktown and Central Victorian

Solar Cities Programme.

• Analyse Blacktown and Central Victorian Solar Cities Programmes with information

obtained from interviews and other sources against five objectives.

The following chapter will now introduce the Solar Cities Programme and provide specific

information regarding the Blacktown and Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme.

40 Chapter 5 Solar Cities Programme

Chapter 5 Solar Cities Programme

5.1 General

The Solar Cities Programme is a national scheme which was conceived in the Federal

Government energy white paper, ‘Securing Australia’s energy future’ and is administered by

the Department of Energy and Heritage (Henderson 2006).

Initially a group of five urban centres were chosen from around Australia to take part in the

scheme. They included Adelaide, Townsville, Blacktown, Alice Springs and Central Victoria

(Department of Water and Energy 2008). After the Rudd Government came into power, two

more areas have been selected. These are Coburg and Perth City (Henderson 2006).

The Solar Cities Programme follows directions set by the Ministerial Council of Energy

(Australian Greenhouse Office 2006). It is designed to test wide-scale use of the latest solar

technology to increase the community’s consciousness regarding energy use and to find new

innovative ways of engaging with energy. It is also being used to find ways that electricity

markets can provide for competitively priced renewable energy. The Government

acknowledges that all findings will be used to help guide future greenhouse and energy

market policies (Henderson 2006).

Successful solar areas were chosen as they fulfilled certain required criteria. This included the

uptake of photovoltaic technologies and the potential to affect the supply and demand of

energy within the solar city. This also included ‘the potential for widespread commercial

application solar technology and the ability to defer future investment in electricity

infrastructure’ (Henderson 2006).

A consortium of organisations have formed for each solar city and they include

manufacturers and installers of solar technology and other energy efficient measures, utility

companies, financial institutions and building developers. Other players include architects,

community and business groups as well as State and Local Government (Henderson 2006).

Solar energy output through photovoltaic panels will be studied under various conditions to

observe whether they contribute positively to reducing greenhouse emissions. For example,


Source: www.blacktownsolarcity.com.au/

the Solar Cities Programme is testing the effect of solar energy on peak demand (Henderson

2006).

Various pricing regimes have also been used to reduce energy usage from the current energy

system. One such scheme includes selecting households who volunteer for their energy usage

to be controlled remotely. During peak demand certain non-essential appliances can be

switched off, thereby reducing energy usage during critical energy times and even avoiding

blackouts or brownouts (Henderson 2006).

Smart meters are a measure which residents and business owners can actively engage to

reduce energy consumption. The device allows people to observe their energy usage in real

time and can reflect increases in price during peak times. This provides people with an option

to switch off non-essential equipment and save both energy and money (Henderson 2006).

The Solar Cities Programme enables Government to partner up with businesses and create

conducive market conditions for the uptake of solar energy by the community. It is a way of

driving initiatives forward which otherwise would not be competitively viable at present

(Henderson 2006).

As such, ‘the importance of the Solar Cities Programme lies in its potential to provide

integrated models for sustainable electricity supply, energy efficiency and greenhouse gas

abatement which could then be applied on a much broader scale around Australia’

(Henderson p14 2006).

5.2 Blacktown Solar Cities Programme

In November 2006, Blacktown City, located in Sydney’s

western suburbs, was approved as a Solar City and was

provided with government funding to develop their successful

solar proposal. They were the first suburb to trial the solar cities

venture (The Australian, 2006). Blacktown Local Government

Area (LGA) is the largest council area within NSW and covers

45 suburbs. See Figure 5.1. It has a population of almost

Figure 5.1 Map of Blacktown LGA


300,000 and is known as having a vibrant multicultural community (Blacktown Solar City

2006).

The consortium for the successful Blacktown project included BP Solar as well as ANZ

Banking Group, Integral Energy, Landcom, Big Switch Projects and Blacktown City Council.

Each group was involved in a certain aspect of the Solar Cities Programme ranging from

financial assistance to the installation of solar panels on roofs (Blacktown Solar City 2006).

The program is in the process of providing for the installation of 860 photovoltaic solar panel

systems as well as 2100 solar water heaters for residences, community establishments and

businesses within the area. It has been estimated that there will be a saving of 25,000 tonnes

of greenhouses gas emissions released into the atmosphere which is viewed as equating to

removing 6000 cars from the road (The Australian, 2006).

Included in the solar package will be ‘solar PV, solar hot water system, energy efficiency,

free energy audits, smart meters, demand management, cost reflective pricing and innovative

financing’. The initiative aims to help residents and businesses use energy more efficiently as

well as enable them to generate energy, which has the combined benefits of saving money

and tackling climate change (Blacktown Solar City 2006).

The Masterplanned community ‘The Ponds’, developed by Australand, will be included in

the solar cities trial. People who buy a new house in the area will be eligible for purchasing a

1 kW PV solar system at a heavily reduced price. Residents within ‘The Ponds’ are estimated

to save 20 per cent of their energy usage through energy efficient and renewable energy

devices such as PV (Urban Magazine 2007).

Through the Solar Cities Programme, Blacktown has built the State’s largest solar energy

generator on the rooftop of a factory. The Cadbury Schweppes Factory in Sydney’s Inner

West displays 640 solar panels and will provide enough electricity to power 21 homes. It is

estimated that the amount of energy generated will enable the saving of 140 tonnes of

greenhouse gas emissions, equivalent to taking 35 cars off the road. It is reported that if you

laid each of the panels in a vertical line it would reach higher than Centrepoint Tower and the

enormity of the project has the added benefit of positively engaging the minds of the

community (World News Australia 2008).


The Blacktown solar scheme has included people from low socio-economic groups as part of

their strategy to mitigate climate change. It is acknowledged that people from social housing

will face the burden of climate change impacts even more strongly due to the increasing costs

of energy. $1.3 million in funding has been provided by the Government leading to plans of

installing 100 solar hot water heaters and 140 PV systems on government housing. This will

save households approximately $250 annually in energy bills. In addition, people in social

housing can take advantage of other energy saving measures such as community energy

advice, home energy audits, discounted energy appliances and free energy efficient light

bulbs. The Department of Housing has also contributed to the venture with $750,000

(Housing NSW 2007).

In this way, the Blacktown solar scheme is reaching out to groups of the community who,

although they might be environmentally conscious, would not normally be in a financial

position to take advantage of solar energy. It shows that the consortium is not only focusing

on mainstream groups who have more accessibility to these solar deals but those groups with

less financial resources, less buying power and limited influence within the community.

The community as a whole has been targeted by the Solar Cities Programme. Two of the

consortium members, Integral Energy and ANZ Bank are giving away thousands of energy

saving light globes to any interested resident in the Blacktown Area. A pack of six light

globes has the ability of saving households $250 over the life of the globes, as well as

preventing 3.6 tonnes of emissions reaching the atmosphere (Soon 2008).

This project helps to involve the entire community and make each resident become actively

involved in reducing carbon emissions. The managers of the program are also creating ways

of making it as simple as possible to reduce their energy consumption and creating an

awareness of the different ways of saving energy. It reveals that every little contribution helps

and that every person can make a difference. This is part of the overall strategy of reducing

fossil fuel energy and educating people (Soon 2008).


5.3 Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme

The Central Victorian Solar Cities

project was the fifth area to be

awarded funding and given the green

light from government to carry out

their initiative in mid July 2007. The

Central Victorian region comprises

of 13 council areas including

Bendigo and Ballarat as shown in

Figure 5.2. The region covers a

significant portion of Victoria being

one-fifth of Victoria’s entire land

mass (Heislers 2007).

The Federal Government allocated $15 million towards the project with other stakeholders

contributing an additional $36 million (Bendigo Bank 2007).

Consortium members include the Central Victorian Greenhouse Alliance, Sustainability

Victoria, Bendigo Bank, Origin Energy and Powercor. The Victorian Government through

DHS, University of Ballarat, as well as 13 local councils also supports the scheme (Heislers

2007). The Consortium has formed a company named the Zero Net Emissions Company or

ZC02e, which will run the project (CVGA 2007).

Victoria’s scheme is focused on a community based approach and the consortium believes

their success as a bidder can be attributed to the solid partnerships they have formed with

private, public and the community realised through the consortium (Bendigo Bank 2007).

Consortium members have as yet not been able to begin the implementation phase of their

project. There have been lengthy delays between when they were first selected as a solar city

in mid 2007 and the Federal Government signing them off to begin execution of the plan.

This has been due to failure for prompt negotiations between the consortium and the

Department of Environment and Water Resources regarding the funding agreement.

However, it is believed that sign-off is not far off (The Advertiser 2008).

Source: http://www.daff.gov.au/

Figure 5.2 Map of Central Victoria


The project includes ‘2500 households in the region to undertake trials in energy efficiency,

demand management products involving smart meters and new tariff options, solar hot water

and solar photovoltaic products’ (Bendigo Bank 2007). Although not as large as the

Blacktown scheme, the project still aims to save more than 13,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas

emissions annually, equivalent to taking approximately 3200 cars off the road (CVGA 2007).

A key difference between the Blacktown solar scheme and the Victorian scheme is the

existing market framework in which solar energy initiatives will interact with. In Victoria, the

State Government has already approved a feed-in-tariff system which creates greater demand

for solar energy (Bendigo Bank 2007). Thus, there already exists a structure which is more

accommodating of solar energy. This is assumed to make a significant difference in outcomes

of solar success for the industry and market place and will lead to different policy outcomes

for the two Solar Cities (Bendigo Bank 2007).

Their key project attraction will include the construction of two solar photovoltaic parks

which will be located in Bendigo and Ballarat. People living in those areas will have the

chance to feed off the energy generated by the two projects (Radford 2007).

46 Chapter 6 Solar Cities Programme Analysis, Federal Government Objectives

Chapter 6 Solar Cities Programme Analysis

Federal Government Objectives

6.1 Introduction

Both the Blacktown Solar Cities Programme and the Central Victorian Solar Cities

Programme will be analysed in line with Federal Government objectives as set out by the

Department of Energy Water Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA). This is to ascertain if the

Solar Cities Programme effectively demonstrates whether photovoltaic solar energy is a

viable source of energy within Australia’s built form. It is not yet possible to achieve a

comprehensive analysis of the program as it has not been brought to fruition.

As such, available information on what has already been implemented together with future

plans will be explored as a means of hinting the final end result. Each Solar City Programme

has been prepared differently to achieve DEWHA objectives. This has the benefit of focusing

on issues unique to each program’s locality as well as providing different learning outcomes

(Consortium member A 2008).

There are two objectives set by (DEWHA) as stated in the Solar Cities Programme

Guidelines. They include the following:

1. Demonstrate the economic and environmental impacts of integrating cost-

reflective pricing with the concentrated uptake of solar, energy efficiency and

smart metering technologies; and

2. Identify and implement options for addressing barriers to distributed solar

generation, energy efficiency and electricity demand management for grid

connected urban areas (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2005).


6.2 Blacktown Solar Cities Programme

In fulfilling the program’s first objective, the Blacktown Solar Cities Programme is in the

process of calculating the amount of fossil fuel energy that can be saved and investigating

whether this can defer upgrades to the current energy network.

The Blacktown LGA is the largest council area within NSW with a population of 300,000

and growing and with many new release areas. The LGA experiences electricity network

constraints, so the consortium is particularly interested in finding ways to defer upgrades to

the Blacktown network. Through trialling a variety of schemes, they are hoping this will

result in preventing the construction of new substations (Consortium member A 2008).

Across the Blacktown program, 860 solar systems and 2100 solar hot water systems will be

installed and a variety of energy saver trials including air conditioner and pool pump trials

will be implemented at residences across the LGA. Households and businesses will have the

ability to monitor their energy usage through smart meters as a means to reducing energy

levels at critical peak times.

The Blacktown Solar Cities Programme has provided a variety of solar energy and energy

efficiency schemes. They include six different solar photovoltaic offers (See Table 6.1

below).

Type of offer PV system Solar hot water Cost

1) Solar home offer 1 1 * BP Solar 1kW system $4,998

2) Solar home offer 2 1 * BP Solar 1kW system Solar hot water $7,808

3) Solar home offer 3 1* BP Solar 1.5kW system $10, 166

4) Solar home offer 4 (The

Ponds)

1 * BP Solar 1kW system $3,691

5) Department of Housing

offer

1 * BP Solar 1kW system Solar hot water Supplied by DOH

6) Commercial Solar offer BP 50kW/100kW system Heavily

discounted

Table: 6.1 Blacktown photovoltaic package offers.

Source: Blacktown Solar Cities n.d.


With regards to energy efficient measures, the solar program is providing roof insulation to

existing houses which results in the interior being cooler in summer and warmer in winter.

This has the advantage of relying less on energy guzzling air conditioning and heating

systems to regulate the temperature.

There are a range of energy saving trials including an air conditioning cycling trial and a pool

pump control trial. The air conditioning trial involves residences volunteering to have their

air conditioning unit switched off for 20 minutes every hour during peak periods over a

twelve day period. The pool pump saver trial involves a similar process in which the pool

pump is switched off during certain peak periods. All these trials occur during peak periods

which are defined as being between 1pm – 8pm, up to twelve days per year from the period

November 1 to March 31.

Throughout the program period, data are to be obtained through the electricity meter from all

solar and energy efficient products (Consortium member A 2008). The data obtained will

reveal how much energy is saved and if this makes a difference to peak demand levels. There

is also the comparison of energy saved through PV panels between existing dwellings and

newly developed houses within The Ponds masterplanned site.

New dwellings within The Ponds will have also been designed with passive energy efficient

measures. It is predicted that these new households will be using even less energy

(Consortium member B). All solar energy packages are available only to owners of properties

within the Blacktown LGA, so there are a sizeable number of people, being renters, who will

not have access to these deals.

The Solar Cities Programme has already estimated that 25,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas

emissions will be saved through the various renewable energy and energy efficiency

schemes. This is already predicted to have the capability of easing the burden on existing

electricity networks. Future data results will reveal how accurate the estimate is.

The Blacktown consortium is also interested in meeting DEWHA’s second objective through

breaking down barriers to the up-take of solar energy and finding ways that the community

can engage in green measures.


The program has made the up-take of products more accessible for people. Reductions in cost

have enabled people not normally able to afford solar energy systems to install them. Outside

the program, a 1kW solar system would normally cost $7,000 to $12,000 with the Federal

Government rebate of $8,000. Table 6.1 on page 47 reveals that a substantial reduction in

price of all panels has occurred within the program.

In the last twelve months, all allocated PV packages have been enthusiastically taken up for

offers 1 and 2. There are still available 1.5kW PV system packages as well as the Solar home

offer 4 provided within The Ponds site. The 100kW PV business package has already been

snapped up and the two 50kW systems are currently under negotiation by prospective

businesses (Consortium member A). The complete uptake of the PV home offers 1 and 2

reveal people are interested in purchasing the standard 1kW PV systems if the cost is set at a

reasonable price.

The process for obtaining solar energy systems has also been made simpler. Within the Solar

Cities Programme, the customer purchasing a solar system package needs only to fill out

paperwork or fill in an online form and the consortium will organise everything else.

Generally, the Federal Government rebate will be provided post-installation. The consortium,

on the other hand, will provide this reduction up-front as they have already obtained pre-

approval from the government. The consortium provides installers for the metering and the

PV panels. Finally, Blacktown Council, being a consortium member, has managed to waive

the DA fee and has provided automatic DA approval for the installation of PV panels. As a

result the consortium has managed to eliminate ‘a huge amount of steps in the process,’

therefore, ‘making it easier for people to have access to these different initiatives.’

(Consortium member A)

All solar systems will be provided with smart meters and energy usage can be monitored at

all times. There is the potential for residential energy consumption to be significantly reduced

when usage of solar panels is coupled with knowledge regarding energy efficiency in the

household (Consortium member B).

Consortium members have also tried to actively engage the entire community through

mailing postcards with energy saving tips to the 96,000 households within the LGA. They

would like to increase the awareness of saving energy across the Blacktown area. The


Blacktown consortium is also trying to find ways of addressing cultural barriers for the

uptake of PV. Blacktown LGA is incredibly culturally diverse and is viewed as providing a

good cultural cross-section of Australia. The consortium, as one of their objectives, was

therefore to access people from these various ethnic groups, providing them with the same

opportunity to engage with the program’s activities as other English speaking residents. To

achieve this, the consortium provided interpreters at key program events and attended cultural

festivals to directly access the different ethnic groups. Free voucher booklets were printed in

ten different languages to enable more people across the community to take advantage of

energy saving products (Consortium member A).

Photo 6.1, Dwelling with 1kW Solar Panel system in Glendenning

People from lower socio-economic

backgrounds have also had the chance

to interact with the program. The

Department of Housing has been

responsible for providing solar

systems and solar hot water to

residents in Amy Close within the

suburb of Glendenning as seen in the

photos 6.1 and 6.2. Residents have

reported savings of 40-50 per cent on

their electricity bills (Consortium

member A).

In addition, the consortium has also

provided school competitions for

children and spent considerable time

investigating the best approach to

reach young people and educate them

on solar energy and ways of saving

energy (Consortium member A).

The Blacktown consortium has focused heavily on examining ways of engaging a wider

distribution of the population. Groups of people who would normally find it hard to access

Source: Cowen 2008

Photo 6.2, Dwelling with solar panels at Amy Close, Glendenning

Source: Cowen 2008


these products such as people from different ethnic backgrounds and lower socio-economic

groups, are given the opportunity to take up these solar offers. It is important to examine how

the government intends to access the groups once the program ends. Obviously, it is

relatively easy to access different ethnic groups through providing information in different

languages in accessible locations. The access to solar energy poses an issue not only for

people from lower socio-economic backgrounds but to groups higher up the socio-economic

ladder. This is not a new issue and the answer involves lowering the cost of panels so that a

greater proportion of people can access it.

6.3 Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme

The Central Victorian consortium has taken a different approach to implementing solar

energy and energy efficiency measures. Each of the 13 shires will be delivering different

packages to their respective local communities. All the packages will contain a selection of

solar energy systems, energy efficient measures including energy saving trials and energy

audits. The consortium has agreed with the individual councils to recruit a hundred people to

assist in the implementation of the various schemes. The details of these different project

activities are not yet available to the public (Machin 2008).

In addition, the consortium will be testing the feed-in-tariff scheme in certain council areas

within the program. The reason for only including the feed-in-tariff in particular areas is

because this market scheme only came into existence after the program’s business case was

approved. There have had to be re-negotiations regarding the inclusion of the feed-in-tariff.

This highlights the program’s rigidity in adapting to changing external circumstances. On the

other hand, a comparison can be used between those areas which have the feed-in-tariff and

those that don’t on the uptake of solar energy and energy saved.

In meeting DEWHA’s second objective, the consortium is interested in tackling the issue of

how to get people who can’t put PV on their roofs engaged in the solar market. This barrier to

PV up-take has obviously produced different outcomes to the Blacktown program.

The provision of two PV parks will enable people who either don’t own a home or do not fit

the requirements for installing PV panels, such as a north facing roof , to rent a portion of the

park and benefit from the solar energy produced (Machin 2008). The parks have not yet been


built and therefore at this present time it is difficult to determine the response by the Ballarat

and Bendigo community towards it.

6.4 Conclusion

The Solar Cities Programme adequately shows that solar energy has a place in Australia’s

energy future. Although Federal Government’s future direction policy has not come out and

won’t be available until at least after 2013, it can still be demonstrated that all the various

solar energy and energy efficient schemes have a significant impact on peak energy levels.

The program shows that a holistic approach is required to the way we view measures in

reducing greenhouse emissions. Solar energy by itself is only going to reduce emissions

partially as other measures are required.

In addition, barriers to the up-take of solar energy can be achieved through various innovative

means. A broad section of the community can be accessed through the solar schemes

available through both the Blacktown and Central Victorian programs. Also, education plays

a key role in community awareness regarding the benefits of saving energy through solar

energy and energy efficiency activities.

Once the program is completed and all the data has been collected through the Blacktown and

Central Victorian PV schemes, it would be interesting to investigate what the actual impact of

the program is. This includes analysing how solar energy can successfully contribute to

Australia’s future energy supply and what the Federal Government intends to accomplish

with the results.

53 Chapter 7 Solar Cities Programme Analysis, Additional Criteria

Chapter 7 Solar Cities Programme Analysis

Additional Criteria

7.1 Introduction

Besides the Federal Government’s objectives, the Solar Cities Programme will be

examined against three additional criteria as a way to supply a broader perspective of the

program. The criteria have been designed according to three separate but interconnected

themes as they all have a role in improving the nature of solar energy within the built

form.

Criterion 3 will focus on the program’s performance against planning matters. Criterion 4

centres on the partnerships within the program as they represent a key factor in the

successful functioning of the Solar Cities Programme. The fifth criterion is chosen as it

analyses the Solar Cities Programme within the current context of challenges that face

solar energy.

A list of the criteria is provided below.

1. Demonstrate how the Solar Cities Programme incorporates planning and urban

design aspects into the built form and the ease of which PV technology is

approved through the development application process (7.2).

2. Demonstrate the capacity of the Solar Cities Programme to provide effective

partnerships between government and consortium and between consortium

members (7.3).

3. Demonstrate the ability of the Solar Cities Programme to positively influence the

solar industry as well as being used as an effective model for large scale

implementation within the built form (7.4).


7.2 Planning principles, urban design and DA approval process

7.2.1 Planning principles for solar energy

As discussed previously in Chapter 2, it is important to incorporate planning principles into a

site to optimise solar access for photovoltaic technology. Part of the Blacktown Solar Cities

Programme includes the installation of PV panels and energy efficient measures within a

greenfield residential site known as ‘The Ponds’. Residents who build a new dwelling within

the site have the choice of installing a 1kW solar system package for a heavily reduced price

of $3,690 (Consortium member B 2008).

The Solar Cities consortium member, a development corporation named Landcom, is

responsible for developing the site and organising the solar package. The entire site has been

designed to enable allotments to maximise on solar orientation, thus roads are situated so that

houses face either north-south or east-west. This can be viewed on the subdivision layout

plan provided in Appendix 1. Additionally, newly constructed dwellings are required to meet

The Ponds guideline requirements and Blacktown Council’s Development Control Plan 1998

(DCP). This is to enable all houses to meet energy efficient standards as well as provide

adequate solar access for PV panels (Consortium member B 2008).

The Ponds Guidelines include a section on solar orientation and require dwellings to provide

sufficient access to sunlight. Although the guidelines request developers to provide sufficient

sunlight for indoor living areas and rear yards, they do not specifically mention providing

solar access for PV panels. They do, however, add a word of caution against overshadowing

your neighbour’s property.

The guidelines also request that pitched roofs must be between 20 and 40 degrees and not too

complex. The ‘not too complex’ wording implies that roofs should contain sufficient suitable

space for the placement of five to six PV panels which is approximately equal to 1kW. See

Appendix B for more detail on The Ponds Guidelines.

The DCP contains provisions for solar access to dwellings. Similar to The Ponds Guidelines,

there are no specific controls which require solar access for PV technology. The provisions

require residential development to receive at ‘least three hours of sunlight to 50 per cent of

the required private open space between 9am and 3pm on 21 June’. The controls also


stipulate that ‘dwellings are to be designed to avoid unreasonable overshadowing of

neighbouring properties’ (p42). See Appendix C for more detail on the DCP regarding solar

access.

As the DCP mentions ‘unreasonable’, it does not provide a clear position to whether

overshadowing a PV panel is included in this control. This leads to uncertainty for builders

wanting to install PV panels. Another development control does require builders of new two

storey dwellings to submit a shadow diagram showing the overshadowing to neighbouring

houses, therefore potentially safeguarding against overshadowing. Again, there is no certainty

that PV panels will have unimpeded access to sunlight.

Whilst the documents contain some provisions such as solar orientation of the site to ensure

adequate supply of sunlight for panels, there is not sufficient protection though the guidelines

or DCP that this sunlight will be maintained. Generally dwellings will be protected on lots

which include a single dwelling on an average lot size of no less than 450 square metres, with

sufficient front, side and rear setbacks, as well as building to a height no greater than two

storeys (See Figure 7.1 below).

Therefore, there is a much greater opportunity for people within The Ponds development site

to be able to obtain optimal solar access for their PV system as opposed to house owners in

existing residential sites. Issues with overshadowing may start to occur when developers

Source: Seconds Ponds Creek Development Control Plan, Blacktown

Figure 7.1 Acceptable orientation of dwelling within lot.


Source: Cowen

Photo 7.2 Dwellings with solar panels at The Ponds

begin subdividing the site and increasing the density of their property which is acceptable

within certain limits through the DCP.

At the end of the Solar Cities

Programme, Landcom envisages to

have provided 120 photovoltaic

panels and 250 solar hot water

systems to residents within The

Ponds development area. There are

3200 homes planned for the

masterplanned community, hence it

is acknowledged that the proportion

of dwellings that will contain panels

will be proportionally small. The

purpose of the Solar Cities Programme is a trial of solar energy and therefore Landcom is

providing an adequate number of solar panels to provide sufficient data to the Federal

Government. There is one street with a row of

houses with solar panels installed on roofs as

viewed in photo 7.1, but for the majority of the site

it will be sporadically spread out as seen in photo

7.2. In this case, it is understandable why specific

planning provisions were not provided for the

adequate access of sunlight to PV panels. It is

unfortunate that until the installation of solar

panels become mainstream, planning provisions

for PV solar access will not be seen as standard

procedure within council plans.

7.2.2 Design aspects for solar energy

Solar PV is an incredibly versatile element with the different ways it can be used. In its most

standard form, solar panels can be fitted to the roof of residential and commercial buildings

(Droege 2007). PV as visual components also have the ability to engage people’s minds and

Photo 7.1 Dwellings with solar panels at The Ponds

Source: Cowen 2008


capture their imagination. Therefore, PV as a design element, has the ability to find new and

innovative ways to be integrated within the built form. Both the Blacktown and Central

Victorian Solar Cities Programme will be analysed with regards to the types of ways that PV

can be implemented into the built form.

There is a variety of ways photovoltaic technology can be incorporated into the built form

where residents, businesses and the industry can place PV panels on their roofs. The

Blacktown program provides 1 – 1.5kW solar systems for residential buildings and between

50 – 100kW PV systems for commercial buildings (Blacktown Solar City n.d.). However,

smaller businesses are not eligible for PV package deals within the Solar Cities Programme.

Blacktown Solar City has enabled a 100kW solar system to be installed on the roof of the

Cadbury Schweppes factory located in Huntingwood. Due to its massive size, it has achieved

positive media coverage and is well received by the Blacktown community (Consortium

member A). Although people within the Blacktown LGA know about the Cadbury

Schweppes PV factory, it is predominantly hidden from the public view, so will not have the

opportunity of being frequently seen by people and becoming a landmark. In the future, two

more businesses will each have the chance to display 50kW systems (Consortium member

A). It is possible their location will be more advantageous in terms of accessibility for public

viewing, however this is not a prime concern for the consortium.

The consortium admits that there are limits to where a large PV system can be installed. The

consortium relies on businesses to volunteer their buildings but due to the PV system’s size,

only certain buildings which fit structural requirements can be selected. The consortium is

open for two businesses to apply more creativity when using PV and this would only happen

if either of the businesses volunteered their interest to do this. It is not one of the objectives of

the Blacktown program to trial the different technology and architectural PV designs.

The Central Victorian program has plans to install two PV parks. Each park will contain

300kW and will be located in Bendigo and Ballarat (Machin 2008). No plans have yet been

provided on what they will look like and their exact location, so it is hard to comment on

what sort of impact they will have on the community. It is envisaged that both parks will be

highly visible and have the potential of becoming landmarks for their respective regional

areas. In comparison to the Blacktown program, this might be a new and innovative way to


present the panels as they will not be positioned on roofs and will be designed in some other

form within the urban environment.

Both programs have demonstrated different ways of applying PV panels. Whilst Blacktown

resorted to the traditional manner of installing PV on rooftops of buildings, Central Victoria

has opted for something different through the PV parks.

Neither of the programs has experimented heavily in using the PV panels. There are multiple

ways that standard PV panels can be used, from street lighting to shading devices. Also, there

has not been any experimentation with different PV materials or integrating PV within the

building structure; otherwise known as Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV). It is

understood that other Solar Cities Programmes such as the Townsville program are

incorporating BIPV within their project.

For solar to become a successful energy resource, new ways of viewing PV are essential.

These include not only seeing it as an energy utility but as a building material which can be

shaped and integrated within the building. (Prasad 2008) The duality of function is unique to

solar PV and has the ability to also become integrated into many different urban forms. For

example, Adelaide’s Solar Mallee Trees, as viewed in photo 7.3 function as energy

generators, street lighting and as an aesthetic art design display. The more PV is viewed in

the public domain the more chance it has of being accepted by the wider community.

Photo 7.3, Solar Mallee Trees in Adelaide


7.2.3 Development application process for solar panels

The installation of solar photovoltaic panels on the roof of a building within the Blacktown

LGA requires the submission of a development application if it does not meet certain criteria.

Generally, the criteria require that panels be installed to manufacturer’s specifications, the

roof is structurally sound and that the space covered by the panels does not exceed 5m2 or 25

per cent of the roof’s surface area. A copy of these specifications can be found in Appendix

D. All installations of PV that do meet the above criteria will be categorised as exempt

development and therefore are not required to submit a DA.

For the purposes of the Solar Cities Programme, Blacktown Council has waived the DA

process for all PV panels which are provided through the program. Residents who install

between 1 - 1.5kW of solar panels, will not be required to go through the development

application process. This has enabled a smoother and quicker process for people and would

reasonably increase the incentive to invest in panels.

However in this controlled environment, it is hard to tell what proportion of the increased

uptake of PV panels can be attributed to this exempt development process or to the

substantial lowering of the panel costs. Furthermore, it is envisaged that 1kW or greater solar

systems will become more frequent. The question is raised whether this will continue after

the program has ended.

7.3 Partnerships between consortium and Federal Government and between consortium

members

7.3.1 Partnership between consortium and Federal Government

Having good partnerships is the key to meeting objectives and effective implementation.

There are two predominant sets of partnerships created through the Solar Cities Programme.

This includes the partnership formed between Federal Government or DEWHA and the

consortium as well as the partnership established between consortium members for each

program. Both Solar Cities Programmes will be evaluated on how well they form effective

partnerships.


The definition of a consortium is:

1. Partnership, association and;

2. An association of organisations formed for commercial or business purposes.

For the purposes of the Solar Cities Programme, the consortium is a group of private and

public organisations responsible for meeting the Federal Government’s objectives. Both the

Blacktown and Central Victorian consortiums have established different relationships with

DEWHA. The Blacktown program has had a seemingly smooth experience with DEWHA by

having their funding contract signed and intentions to finish their implementation phase by

the year 2010 (Consortium member A).

The Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme is still involved in negotiations with DEWHA

over their funding agreement. This has meant that they have not begun implementing any of

their proposed schemes and are behind schedule. DEWHA in their Solar Cities Guidelines

estimates that implementation of all projects should finish in 2008/2009. DEWHA could not

provide comments on why the contract was taking so long to be signed and why matters

between the two groups could not be resolved (Whyte 2008). However, it suggests an

inability between the two groups to find solutions and form an effective partnership between

government and industry.

7.3.2 Partnership between consortium members

Partnerships have also been formed through different private and government organisations

through the consortium. Each Solar City has had to select members which are most beneficial

to meet the criteria of the program.

The Blacktown consortium comprises of:

• BP Solar - It is leading the consortium and will be providing solar panels to the

program. They are experts in the solar field.

• Integral Energy – It will be involved in energy efficient schemes such as energy

audits, air conditioner saver trials, pool pump saver trials and peak pricing trials

amongst others. They will also be organising all the data obtained through all the

different solar energy and energy efficiency schemes.


• ANZ - It will be contributing to the program through financial schemes which will

help to increase the affordability of solar energy.

• Landcom - It is involved with providing a solar energy package at The Ponds

development area.

• Blacktown City Council - It will take care of community awareness and enabling the

entire community to access solar energy and energy efficiency schemes.

• Big Switch Projects - It will offer energy efficient upgrades to businesses within the

Blacktown LGA (Blacktown Solar City 2006).

The Blacktown consortium members have been involved in all aspects of the program, as

well as contributing with their own specialised activities. Anything that is proposed through

the program has to be agreed on by all members. There are regular meetings to be held to

discuss issues and to ensure they all get along (Consortium member A).

It has been acknowledged that this is not the first time that the consortium members have

worked together and they have already developed strong ties with each other. As a result,

they have been able to come into the partnership with a clear idea of how each organisation

can best contribute. It is understood that their success as a program can be attributed to the

solid relationships they have formed between themselves, as well as the wide display of skills

that they can bring to the program (Consortium member A).

Central Victorian consortium members include Central Victorian Greenhouse Alliance,

Bendigo Access Employment, Bendigo Bank, Bendigo Health Care Group, La Trobe

University, North Central CMA, Origin Energy and University of Ballarat. In addition, 13

councils will be involved including Buloke Shire, Campaspe Shire, Central Goldfields Shire,

City of Ballarat, City of Greater Bendigo, Gannawarra Shire, Hepburn Shire, Loddon Shire,

Macedon Ranges Shire, Mount Alexander Shire, Northern Grampians Shire, Pyrenees Shire,

Rural City of Ararat and Swan Hill Rural City (Machin 2008).

This consortium has not yet had the opportunity to begin working with each other, therefore

comments cannot be made on how effective the partnerships are. However, the consortium

members have established a corporation known as Zedco, with their main focus ‘doing

business that will reduce greenhouse gases’ (Machin 2008). This has the repercussion of


ensuring continuity of partnerships between the consortium members to be involved in new

sustainable activities once the program has ended and has the potential of influencing the

solar industry in a positive way.

There are many different schemes being tested within the program and it is understood that

without a consortium and their specialised skills it would be harder to realise set goals. As

mentioned by Consortium A, ‘I don’t think you could find a government body or a

commercial entity singularly that would have the skills to be able to do all of those things. I

think you really do need a consortium to come together so that you can draw the skills from

various organisations to pull this together and make it work.’ (Consortium member A)

It has also been indicated that the only way to achieve greenhouse reductions is to have

commercial entities become involved and so it is important to start developing relationships

and find ‘ways to work together to do something positive for the environment.’ (Consortium

member A)

One critique would be whether having a consortium is the best approach to benefit the solar

industry. Although the consortium is viewed as being the most effective means of fulfilling

DEWHA’s objectives, it may not necessarily be the best option for the future development of

solar energy. This is because it is creating disadvantages for the small businesses within the

solar industry. To create a sustainable industry you need to allow both small and large

industry players to compete within the market place (Prasad 2008).

7.4 Benefit to the photovoltaic solar industry and effectiveness of program for large-

scale implementation

It is necessary that the Solar Cities Programme is evaluated against how well it can positively

influence the solar industry as well as how effective a model it is, so that it may possibly be

implemented on a large scale within the built form.

7.4.1 Benefit to the solar industry

Future government policy through data obtained from the program will potentially improve

the solar industry in the future. More importantly, it is questioned whether the Solar Cities


Programme is having a positive effect on the solar industry while the program is running. The

program will be examined to reveal any influence it might be having on the solar industry.

To enable the solar industry to reach a level where it can support itself, it needs additional

assistance. Measures need to be implemented such as market incentives, (feed-in-tariff) and

government funding (rebate) which will be fixed in place for the long term. This will have the

effect of providing security and certainty to the solar industry enabling the local

manufacturing industry to grow.

Although the Solar Cities Programme is an effective model whilst being funded by the

government, it has been determined that it will not directly influence the solar industry after

the implementation phase. There has been an increase in the purchasing of PV panels across

the industry but once the program ends this will reduce back to previous purchasing levels.

This is because the demand was increased by the lowering of PV panel costs. For the solar

industry to improve, it requires measures which will enable self-sufficiency (Prasad 2008).

The Solar Cities Programme is only sustaining the solar industry through the short lived

government funding grant of $75 million.

The learning curve is introduced to reveal how increased demand for solar products will

result in manufacturers increasing their production. This will have the ultimate effect of

lowering the cost of PV technology. It is supposed that if there was enough awareness

regarding solar energy, if people were educated on the benefits of having solar energy, if

government provided market mechanisms to make solar energy more viable, then this would

all result in the cost of panels being lowered.

Once the costs are reduced to a certain amount, the solar industry will be able to take off on

its own with competitive costs and without any assistance. However it is understood that any

policy that is introduced by the government needs to be fixed in place for the long term. This

will have the effect of providing security and certainty to the solar industry, enabling the local

manufacturing industry to grow.

Education and awareness are also crucial ingredients for the success of solar energy in the

future. According to Prasad, ‘What will make it on-going [solar industry] will be when the

cost has come down to a certain level and people are more educated about benefits, so they


will want to do it themselves.’ (Prasad 2008) The Solar Cities Programme has the ability to

increase the awareness of photovoltaic energy within the Blacktown LGA. Outside the

program, most people are unaware of its existence. That is because all the marketing and

media initiatives occur within local boundaries. If a national education scheme was rolled out

focusing on raising awareness and educating people on the benefits of saving energy through

solar energy systems, this would have a massive impact on the up-take of solar within

Australia.

7.4.2 Effectiveness of model for large scale implementation

Whilst the program is running, a range of measures are being tested to increase the up-take of

solar PV. The Blacktown and Central Victorian consortiums have identified barriers to the

uptake of solar energy and are consequently working to provide solutions to them. The

program has already revealed that when the cost of PV panels is reduced there is a surge of

people interested in purchasing them. Although data from the program have not been

compiled and analysed, it is evident that solar energy has the ability to affect peak demand

levels especially when combined with energy efficiency measures.

All the measures within the Solar Cities Programme have the ability of reducing energy

consumption in manageable ways. There is a holistic approach being taken in which there is

not only a focus on solar energy, education or energy efficient measures but all of them

bundled together. If the model was increased in size with a much larger budget then it could

really have some impact on the way energy is consumed within the built environment.

However, the project is on a small scale and is only testing these measures.

There are two approaches that could be used for the large scale implementation of the

program in the built form. One could be the same program with an increased number of Solar

Cities. In this way, a larger budget would be required. Alternatively, the individual schemes

including solar energy and energy efficiency measures can be integrated within urban form

on a national level.

It is understood that if Solar Cities Programme is rolled out on a large scale, then more urban

areas across the various states would need to be dedicated as Solar Cities. This would have

not only had the effect of raising the awareness of solar energy within the built form but


enable people to become more familiar with the technology. This would have the added

bonus of driving the solar industry forward.

Another option would be if the solar energy schemes were part of a national wide strategy

that includes policy backing to support their integration. A sustainable program needs to be

provided in which the government does not provide huge resources and over-budgets itself.

As such, the approach the government needs to take to enable solar energy implementation

on a large scale needs to be different to the current program. The government needs to

provide a strong policy dedicated to solar energy which includes market mechanisms such as

a national gross feed-in-tariff as found in Germany.

Within the program, the consortium is already seeing the benefits of attractive PV costs on

the up-take of PV. It is not quite understood why the government tested all the initiatives that

it did. It has already been proven that solar PV and energy efficiency measures can reduce

energy usage. This means that they could have already begun implementing these programs

on a much larger, grander scale.

7.5 Conclusion

The Solar Cities Programme is the first of its kind to implement solar energy of this size

within Australia, therefore is a promising first step. However if we are really getting serious

about reducing greenhouse gases we have to be realistic about what the program can achieve

and what it might achieve in the future. It may be quite some time before the Federal

Government takes real action, and in the meantime there is great opportunity to get proper

policies in place, including market schemes and funding, educational initiatives and

awareness campaigns, create solid partnerships between industry members and government

and provide for broad planning regulations to assist in moving the solar industry forward.

In the next and final chapter, recommendations are made to help improve the plight of

photovoltaic energy in terms of the various themes that have been explored throughout the

analysis chapters. The thesis will finish with concluding remarks made in relation to the

entire thesis.

66 Chapter 8 Recommendations and Conclusion

Chapter 8 Recommendations and Conclusion

8.1 Recommendations

Recommendations will be based on providing ways to help solar energy become a

more viable source of energy within the built form in the future. It is understood that

Federal, State and Local Government sectors are all responsible for advocating

change to the solar industry.

Recommendation 1 Analysis of Solar Cities Programme outcomes

[Refer Chapter 6, Section 4]

It is necessary to further analyse the Solar Cities Programme once all data from the

Blacktown and Central Victorian PV schemes have been collected at the end of the

program period. This is to gauge more accurately the outcomes of the program in

determining the future role that solar energy can play in the built form.

Recommendation 2 Solar energy funding

[Refer Chapter 7, Section 4.1]

The Federal Government needs to change their way of thinking towards renewable

energy and invest greater resources into boosting the solar industry. If the

Government does commit to a funding scheme such as a rebate system, then it needs

to commit for the long term and not constantly change the amount rebated and who

can qualify.

Recommendation 3 Photovoltaic policy


Rather than mandating the uptake of solar energy for all residences, there should be in

place great incentives to purchase photovoltaic panels. The Government should

provide a secure solar photovoltaic policy which boosts the emerging technology until

it becomes self-sustainable. This includes providing a gross feed-in-tariff at the

national level, where a premium is paid for all energy supplied by panels to the grid.


This tariff should be fixed in place for approximately 20 years as based on the

successful German model.

Recommendation 4 Solar awareness and education


Education of the public through nation-wide awareness schemes for solar energy. This

includes advertising through mass communication including newspapers, television,

buses and public billboards. Other avenues include holding regular community

discussions and public seminars on solar issues. In Victoria, the State Government has

a ‘green campaign’ currently running in which public places including the central

train station is adorned with banners and posters advocating environmental incentives.

Recommendation 5 Ease of DA approval process for Solar panels


All councils should remove restrictions on PV installations based purely on aesthetic

reasons. If the best position for the panel is the front of the dwelling, then this should

be accepted.

Recommendation 6 Recognise solar access


Planning legislation recognises solar access rights for PV panels so access to sunlight

is valued the same as other planning rights such as building an additional house level

which might block this sunlight.

Recommendation 7 Incorporate solar planning


Planning legislation should provide all new subdivision sites to incorporate

sustainable design including the orientation of streets and alignment of allotments to

ensure optimal access for sunlight to all future dwellings.


Recommendation 8 Funding for local solar designs


Councils should be provided with Federal Government funding to display PV panels

in new and engaging ways including Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) in

highly accessible locations to create greater familiarity in the technology.

8.2 Conclusion

In the backdrop of current planning, political, technological, economic and social

challenges, the Solar Cities Programme paves the way for the potential transitioning

of photovoltaic solar energy into a viable energy source.

The Solar Cities Programme examines solar energy in its ability to assist in peak

energy loads, thereby positioning itself in a niche market. The program highlights the

myriad issues that are involved in the improved uptake of solar energy. This includes

direct factors such as cost and ease of purchasing panels and community awareness

and education, as well as additional side factors including planning and design issues

with solid partnerships.

The viability of solar energy lies in the program’s ability to adequately deal with all

the above issues. The Blacktown Solar Cities Programme has provided a variety of

solar energy and energy efficiency initiatives which will assist in resolving many of

the barriers to uptake on the provision of continued government resources. It is

revealed that solar energy can play a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gases and

easing the load on existing electricity networks. It is important to look at how the

Government intends to translate that into real workable solutions for the future. It is

inevitable that a stable and solid government policy will be required to invest in solar

energy schemes. The Central Victorian Solar Cities Programme which contains the

recently introduced net feed-in-tariff will be trialling how this influences the solar

industry and whether this may lead to a more sustainable solar industry.

Marketing and educational campaigns within the Blacktown Local Government Area

have seemed to have the desired effect on people’s newly found enthusiasm for green


initiatives. This can be confirmed with residents having already filled up all available

allocations for 1kW solar energy packages within the first twelve months of the

programs implementation.

Other factors which do not have a direct impact on the viability of solar energy but

nonetheless have a significant role to play in its future direction include planning and

urban design aspects. The development of The Ponds residential site reveals how a

few minor modifications to the orientation of the site and associated guidelines

controlling how the dwelling is designed plays a large part in providing equity of solar

access for all residents. This will have a considerable impact on the built

environment’s ability to transit smoothly into a Solar City if a massive up-take of

solar energy products eventuates. Local planning authorities can begin to be proactive

in how they approach this issue and incorporate site designing elements into new

subdivision sites for those individuals who are interested in purchasing solar energy

now and for those in the future.

Photovoltaic technology is an exciting renewable energy as the limits to how one can

apply the technology within the built form are much broader than for other energy

sources. Both the Blacktown and Central Victorian programs have demonstrated the

use of PV panels on large commercial buildings and through stand alone PV parks. It

will be interesting to compare these programs against other Solar City Programmes

and examine the various experimentations with building integrated photovoltaic

(BIPV) technology that will be produced.

The use of a consortium within the Solar Cities Programme is highly beneficial as it

requires a range of specialised activities to occur effectively. It highlights the

importance of solid partnerships formed between government and industry players as

well as between industry players themselves to help achieve set goals in solar energy

delivered projects.

Although the Solar Cities Programme has enabled a platform to deliver solar energy

into the built form, the information derived from the trial does not add anything new

to what current photovoltaic energy specialists already know. Therefore future


government policy is most likely to reiterate what previous studies have said, being

that solar energy is a capable source of energy.

It is difficult to say what the government will end up doing and it may be some time

before any formal action as a result of the program is taken. As such, there are

schemes which Federal, State and Local Governments can engage in now. Providing

market mechanisms such as a feed-in-tariff, stable long-term funding and introducing

educational campaigns are such measures that will help the solar industry and increase

the competitiveness of PV technology.

The integration of solar energy within the built form is seen as inevitable. How

quickly we make the transition is seen as a political decision by government. ‘It really

depends on [whether] we go down the direction of just insisting on clinging onto

fossil fuels…and build new fossil fuel power stations or do we try and become

technological leaders in the new technology?’ (Bruce 2008).

71

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Central Victorian Greenhouse Alliance. (2007). Central Victorian Solar Cities Project. Available at http://www.cvga.net.au/main/index.php?option=com_content&task=view& id=79&Itemid=101 [Accessed 4 August 2008] Cubby, B. (2008). Our place in the sun. Sydney Morning Herald. 23 February 2008. Available at http://www.smh.com.au/news/environment/our-place-in-the-sun/2008/02/22/12034 67388940.html [Accessed 18 August 2008] Consortium A. (2008). Personal interview. At BP Solar office, Sydney, with Jaclyn Cowen, 27 August 2008. Consortium B. (2008). Personal interview. At Landcom office, Sydney, with Jaclyn Cowen, 9 September 2008. Consortium C. (2008). Personal interview. At Blacktown City Council, Sydney, with Jaclyn Cowen, 26 September 2008. Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability. (2006). NSW renewable energy target: explanatory paper. Available at http://www.deus.nsw.gov.au/Publications/ NRET%20 Explanatory%20Paper%20FINAL.pdf [Accessed 24 April 2008] Department of the Environment and Heritage. (2005). Solar Cities Programme guidelines. Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. (2007). Local Agenda 21 program. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/esd/la21/index.html [Accessed 4 October 2008] Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. (2008). Welcome to Australia's Solar Cities. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ solarcities/ [Accessed 31 May 2008] Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. (2008). Practical benefits for the local community. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ solarcities/blacktown/index.html [Accessed 24 April 2008] Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. (2008). Solar homes and community plan. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/renewable /pv/index.html [Accessed 30 August 2008] Department of Planning. (2008). Data input checklist for single dwellings. Available at http://www.basix.nsw.gov.au/information/common/pdf/basixdatainputchecklist.pdf [Accessed 28 August 2008] Department of Planning. (2008). Demand management and planning project. Available at http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/dmpp/background.asp [Accessed 28 August 2008]

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Department of Planning. (2008). Design Quality Program. Available at http://www. planning.nsw.gov.au/programservices/dqp.asp [Accessed 28 August 2008] Department of Water and Energy. (2008). Discussion Paper on the NSW Energy Efficiency Trading Scheme. Available at http://www.dwe.nsw.gov.au/energy/pdf/ sustain_neet_discussion_paper.pdf [Accessed 9 September 2008] Department of Water and Energy. (2008). Switching to renewable energy? Get the facts. Available at http://www.greenpower.gov.au/admin%5Cfile%5Ccontent13%5Cc6%5C Renewable_energy_get_the_facts.pdf [Accessed 5 October 2008] Diesendorf, M. (2007). Greenhouse solutions with sustainable energy. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd. Diesendorf, M. (2008). Talk: Energy security: the real story. Parramatta: Riverside Theatre, 13 August 2008. Droege, P. (2006). Renewable City. A Comprehensive Guide to an Urban Revolution. Great Britain:Wiley-Academy. Droege, P. (2004). Renewable energy and the city. Encyclopedia of Energy, vol. 5, pp. 301-311. Edwards, B, and D. Turrent. (2000). Sustainable housing: principles & practice. London: E & FN Spon. Gaffney, A. (2008). Talk: Energy security: the real story. Parramatta: Riverside Theatre, 13 August 2008. Goudkamp, J. (2004). Securing access to sunlight: the role of planning law in NSW. The Australasian Journal of Natural Resources Law and Policy, vol. 9, no. 1, pp.59-101. Green, M. (2007). Can Australia regain its photovoltaics status? Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering Focus. Available at http://www.atse.org.au/ index.php?sectionid=1082 [Accessed 6 July 2008] Greenpeace, and European Photovoltaics Industry Association. (2008). Solar generation V – 2008 solar electricity for over one billion people and two million jobs by 2020. Available at http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/EPIA_docs/documents/EPIA_SG_V_ ENGLISH_FULL_Sept2008.pdf [Accessed 20 July 2008] Griffin, N. (2008). Peddling green gods. Sydney Morning Herald, 2 April 2008, p.13. Heislers, D. (2007). Key messages/facts for Central Victorian Solar Cities project. Available at http://www.cvga.org.au/main/documents/CVSolarCityFactSheet.pdf [Accessed 4 August 2008]

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Henderson, H. (2006). Solar Cities: generating new approaches. Ecos. No. 131, pp.12-14. Housing NSW. (2007). Public housing participates in Blacktown’s Solar City project. Available at http://www.housing.nsw.gov.au/About+Us/News+and+Newsletters/News +Articles/News+2007/Public+housing+participates+in+Blacktown%E2%80%99s+Solar+City+project.htm [Accessed 8 October 2008] Kappagoda, A. (2008). Solar Power Systems. North Sydney Council reports. Available at http://www.northsydney.nsw.gov.au/resources/documents/PD08_Solar_Power_ Systems. pdf [Accessed 13 September 2008] Kentwell, A. (2007). Climate change adaptation issues for planners. Australian Planner, vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 20-21. Landcom. (n.d.) The Ponds Guidelines. Available at http://www.theponds.com.au/file/ forsaledesignguides.pdf. [Accessed 8 October 2008] Leichhardt Council. (2000). Leichhardt Residential Development Control Plan 2000. Available at http://www.leichhardt.nsw.gov.au/Plans-and-Development-Control.html [Accessed 13 September 2008] Machin, B. (2008). Personal Interview. At Mount Alexander Sustainable Group office, Castlemaine, with Jaclyn Cowen, 1 September 2008. Monsour, P. (2001). Renewable Energy. Photovoltaic Power Systems Resource Book. Brisbane: Renewable Institute Centre. Newton, P, and J. Mo (2006). Urban energyscapes, planning for renewable-based cities. Australian Planner, vol. 43, No. 4, pp.8-9. Palz, W. (n.d.) A PV roadmap for Europe. World Council for Renewable Energy. Available at http://www.wcre.de/en/images/downloads/wrea_palz_pv_roadmap_europe. pdf [Accessed 22 May 2008] Parker, D. (2008). Commercial Viability a Prize Catch. The Weekend Australian, 26-27 April 2008, p.2. Prasad, D. (2008). Personal interview. At University of New South Wales, Sydney, with Jaclyn Cowen, 26 September 2008. Radford, A. (2007). Bendigo to be centre of solar energy trial. Bendigo Weekly, 20 July 2007. Available at http://www.bendigoweekly.com/articles/4288/1/Bendigo-to-be-centre-of-solar-energy-trial/Page1.html [Accessed 4 August 2008] Robinson, A. (2008) Climate change flooding impacts in NSW project assessment. Available at http://www.aar.com.au/pubs/env/fopmar08.htm [Accessed 8 Sep 2008]

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Romilly, M. (2007). Green buildings: the easy answer for sustainability. Australian Planner, vol. 44, No. 3, p.2. Roundtable (2002). 6 steps to a sustainable energy future for Australia. Available at http://www.seda.nsw.gov.au/pdf/PDF_GH_DIS_PAGE12_123.pdf [Accessed 28 August 2008] Rutovitz, J. (2007). A Bright Future: 25% Renewable Energy for Australia by 2020, Australian Conservation Foundation, Greenpeace Australia Pacific, and Climate Action Network Australia. Salan, R. (2002). Kogarah Town Square: A Sustainable Development. Available at http: //www.wsud.org/downloads/Info%20Exchange%20&%20Lit/Salan%20Kogarah%20Town%20Square%20ESD%20report.pdf. [Accessed 28 August 2008] SBS World News Australia. (2008). Biggest rooftop solar project underway. 1 February 2008. Available at http://news.sbs.com.au/worldnewsaustralia/biggest_rooftop_solar _project_underway _539445 [Accessed 14 August 2008] Soon, N. (2008) Free globes are savers. Blacktown Sun. 27 May 2008. Available at http://blacktown.yourguide.com.au/news/local/news/general/free-globes-are-savers/ 777564.aspx [Accessed 31 July 2008] Sustainable Energy Development Authority. (2005) Solar Access for Lots: guidelines for residential subdivision in NSW. Available at http://www.energysmart.com.au/brochures/ Solar_Access_for_Lots_Guide.pdf - [Accessed 5 September 2008] Taylor, P. (2008). Bright Solutions to higher power bills. The Weekend Australian, 7-8 June 2008. Taylor, R. (2008). The sun rises slowly for Australian solar. Ecos. No. 145, pp.14-16. University of New South Wales. (2008). Raising demand for renewable energy. Available at http://www.unsw.edu.au/news/pad/articles/2008/may/Hans_Fell.html [Accessed 30 June 2008] Urban Magazine. (2007). Reach for the Sun. Available at http://www.urbanmag.com.au/ articles_oct07_feature_04.php [Accessed 31 August 2008] Waverley Council. (2006). Waverley Development Control Plan (Amendment No. 2). Available at http://www.waverley.nsw.gov.au/council/pes/dcp/index.asp [Accessed 13 September 2008] Whyte, L. (2008). Telephone interview with Jaclyn Cowen, 5 October 2008. Wilson, N. (2008). Future Imperfect. The Weekend Australian, 26-27 April 2008, p.1.

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Appendix A, subdivision layout of The Ponds

77

Appendix B

The Ponds Design Guidelines

Selected pages

designguidelines

contentsIntroduction 2

Indicative House Design Approval Process 3

Guiding Principles 4

Planning Your House on Its Site 6

Principle 1 Plan Your House 6

Corner Lots 7

Principle 2 Inside and Outside Living 8

Principle 3 Solar Orientation 10

Your House as Part of a Great Street 11

Principle 4 Your Front Garden 11

Front Fences & Letterboxes 11

Landscaping 12

Driveways 12

Principle 5 House Character 13

Entry and Facade Elements 13

Garages 14

Garbage Bins and Other Clutter 14

Principle 6 Street Character 15

Materials 15

Roof 15

Space Between Houses 15

Good Neighbours 16

Principle 7 Rear and Side Facades 16

Principle 8 Privacy 17

Landscape, Colour & Material Palettes 18

Summary Table 22

11

The Ponds Design Guidelines are published by Landcom

and is complimentary to customers and prospective

customers of Landcom. Reproduction in whole or in part

is prohibited without Landcom’s prior written permission.

4

THE PONDS - DESIGN GUIDELINES

guiding principlesThere are eight guiding principles for your house design at The Ponds. These principles are explained in detail over the following pages.

planning your house on its sitePrinciple 1 Plan Your House

Your house should be in proportion to the

land area. There should be enough room for a

generous rear yard, a landscaped front garden

and enough space between neighbours.

Principle 2 Inside and Outside Living

Plan your house for inside and outside living,

with indoor living areas fl owing to the outside.

Avoid wasted ‘leftover’ spaces and plan to allow

breezes to fl ow through. Your yard should be big

enough for children to play and to allow you to

entertain.

Principle 3 Solar Orientation

Design your house for sunny indoor and outdoor

areas. Orientate living areas to catch the sun in

winter and be shaded in summer. Plan gardens

that receive suffi cient daylight.

Create a relationship between inside and outside

10


principle 3

solar orientationIt is important to consider solar access both when

choosing your land and when designing your

house or choosing a house design.

Your house should be well oriented so as to

capture the sunlight and create sunny living

areas opening up onto a sunny outdoor space.

Sunscreens and awnings comprised of timber

battens or metal frames are encouraged for

unprotected northern and western elevations.

rules of thumb• At least half of your Main Private Yard

Space should have 3 hours of sunlight in

mid winter

• The windows of your main indoor living area

are to be in sun for 3 hours in mid winter

• Be careful not to overshadow your

neighbours so they can receive similar

sunlight.

Provide balconies that are large enough to be useful and can

provide shade for northern and western elevations


15

principle 6

street characterWhile well-defi ned front gardens create a great

street, the houses in the street can be different

and interesting and at the same time still fi t into

the neighbourhood.

materialsThe choice of materials is an important building

decision. Durability, detailing, appearance and

diversity should be considered when selecting

materials.

rules of thumb• Vary wall fi nishes. Walls should be a mix of

masonry, rendered or bagged and; painted,

and/or lightweight clad and painted, and/

or fl ush joint face brick. Justifi cation will

be required for 100% face brick facades or

100% rendered and painted brick and will

be assessed on merit

• Choose colours for rendered or bagged

and painted brick from The Ponds colour

palettes

• Timber board or fi bre cement profi le

cladding must suit the design of your

house

• Split face blockwork may be acceptable for

feature use such as building bases

roof

rules of thumb• A pitched roof should be between 20 and

40 degrees and not too complex

• A fl at or low-pitched roof with parapets

must fi t in with your house design from all

sides

• All eaves must overhang at least 450mm

except on party (common) walls or walls on

the boundary

space between housesProviding adequate space between houses

improves the character of the street and provides

better privacy. Ensure the upper levels of your

house are stepped back suffi ciently to reduce

overshadowing.

rules of thumb• The upper level of your house should be set

back 1.5m from the side boundary

• There should be a minimum gap of 3m

between the upper levels of adjoining

houses

Vary wall

fi nishes and ensure

that street facade

materials ‘turn

the corner’

22


CONTROL DEVELOPMENT CONTROL THE PONDS PAGE PLAN (DCP) REQUIREMENTS DESIGN GUIDELINES REF

1. Setbacks

Primary front From your front boundary 4.5m 6

(House) From your front boundary where house faces open space 3.5m 6

Maximum depth that walls of your house can protrude or intrude (Articulation zone) 2m -

Primary front From your front boundary 5.5m -

(Garage) From the front of your house 1m 14

Side and Rear Single Storey 0.9m -

Double Storey 1.5m -

Minimum gap between upper level and adjoining houses 3m 15

Upper level from the rear boundary (excludes lofts over rear garage) 1.5m 5m 16

Lower level from the rear boundary (excludes rear garage) 0.9m 4m 16

Single storey garage (side and rear) Zero 16

Corner Lots For length of lot frontages to a maximum 9m 3m -

(Seconary Along both street frontages for length of lot Street frontage) frontages beyond 9m 4m -

Along both street frontages for length of frontages beyond 9m where frontage is to open space 3m -

2. Length Maximum house depth of second storey component 14m Walls should protrude or intrude 16

Lower side walls of house exceeding 14 metres by minimum 1m (articulated)

in length

3. Heights

Maximum number of storey (excludes attic) 2m -

Maximum height of carport 3.5m -

4. Roofs Pitched Angle Between 20o to 40o 15

with simple forms

Flat Parapet must be designed so 15 as to carefully return around

all four sides of the house

Eaves Upper and lower storey eaves to 15 overhang at least 450mm, except on party walls and zero lot lines

5. Widths

Maximum Width of carport and garage door 5m or maximum 50% of house width 5m or maximum 50% of house width 14

6. Driveways

Minimum distance from base of street trees 1.6m 12

Minimum width at boundary line 4m 12

Minimum Garden bed area on either side of driveway 750mm 12

Minimum distance to side boundary 1.2m 12

7. Private Yard (Private Open Space) Minimum Dimension of your Private Yard that is directly accessible from living area 6m x 4m 6m x 4m 9

Minimum width of Private Yard 2.5m 2.5m 9

Minimum Area of Private Yard 80m² - 100m² 80m² - 100m² 9

(depending on no.of beds) (depending on lot size)

summary table


23

CONTROL DEVELOPMENT CONTROL THE PONDS PAGE PLAN (DCP) REQUIREMENTS DESIGN GUIDELINES REF

8. Privacy Habitable rooms looking onto your To have sill heights of 1.5m 17

neighbour’s Private Yard above fl oor level

9. Solar Access Minimum solar access to Private Yard At least 3 hr of sunlight to At least 3 hrs sunlight 10

between 9am and 3pm (21June) 50% of required Private Yard to 1 living area

(Same must apply to your neighbour) (same must apply to

your neighbour)

10. LandscapingTrees Minimum Number of trees in the backyard 2 large- at least 1 native 12

Minimum No. of trees in the front yard 2 small trees- at least 1 native 12

Minimum distance from your house 4m 12

Shrub planting Shrub planting and small to medium size trees Minimum width of 1.5m for 12 (to rear or side boundaries) privacy and additional shading. Minimum height of 1.8m

11. Building area (site cover) and Landscaping

Building Area Lots less than 550m² 45% of lot area 6

(Cover) Lots greater than 550m² 40% of lot area 6

For single storey houses 10% higher 6

(50-55% of lot area) Landscaped Lots less than 550m² 40% of lot area 6

area Lots greater than 550m² 45% of lot area 6

Maximum paved/hard landscape area including driveway 15% (including driveway) 6

12. Streetscape and Fencing

Height of fence to the street frontage excluding corner lots Maximum 0.9m 11

Construction of fence Solid up to 600mm and 11 the balance to have a minimum opening ratio of 50%

Height of fence to corner lots on a secondary street 4m from house frontage 1.8m 11

13. Side and Rear Fencing

Height of side and rear fences Maximum 1.8m 11

Side (front) fences To be set back 1.5m beyond 11

the front of your house

Construction of fence No metal sheeting allowed 11

14. Utilities / Site Facilities

Letterbox To be incorporated 11 into front fence or freestanding hedge

Garbage bin area Position to be shown in 14 Landscape Plan submitted to The Ponds Panel

Minimum storage within single garage 3.5 cubic metres 6

Minimum storage within double garage 6 cubic metres 6

Minimum Internal storage area 4.5 cubic metres 6

Elements such as aerials and satellite dishes To be located away from the 14 front of your house in the least conspicuous location

15. Sustainability

Achieve BASIX Requirements -

85

Appendix C

Blacktown Development

Control Plan 2006. Part M

Selected pages

Blacktown Development Control Plan 2006

I

SECOND PONDS CREEK

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Structure of this Part 1

1.2 Land to which this Part Applies 3

1.3 Date of Enforcement 3

1.4 Relationship to Environmental Planning Instruments 5

1.5 General Objectives 5

2.0 DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES 6

2.1 Overall Framework 6

M

CONTENTS

3.0 URBAN DESIGN 8

3.1 Land Use 8

3.1.1 Neighbourhood & Community Facilities 8

3.1.2 Primary School 11

3.1.3 Open Space & Conservation Areas 11

3.1.4 Residential Density Distribution 11

3.2 Circulation Network 14

3.2.1 Site Access and Linkages 14

3.2.2 Streets 14

3.2.2.1 Street Character 17

3.2.2.2 Street Intersections 18

3.2.3 Public Transport 18

3.2.4 Pedestrian and Cycle Network 23

4.0 SITE PLANNING 25

4.1 Site Drainage Stormwater Management 25

4.2 Land Capability – Salinity and Sodicity 25

4.3 Aboriginal Heritage 26

4.4 Contamination 26

4.5 Cut and Fill 27

4.6 Flora and Fauna 27

5.0 HOUSING 28

5.1 Introduction 28

5.2 Dwelling House 30

5.2.1 Definition 30

5.3 Dual Occupancy 33

5.3.1 Definition 33

5.4 Integrated Housing 35

5.4.1 Definition 35

5.4.2 Design Principles 35

5.4.3 Development Application Requirements 35

5.4.4 Development Controls for Integrated Housing 36

5.5 Medium Density 37

5.5.1 Definition 37

5.5.2 Development Controls for Medium Density Housing 37


II

5.6 Studios 39

5.6.1 Definition 39

5.6.2 Development Controls for Studios 39

5.7 Common Issues 39

5.7.1 External Appearance 39

5.7.2 Safety – Crime Prevention through Environmental Design

(CPTED) Requirements 41

5.7.3 Privacy 42

5.7.4 Solar Access 42

5.7.5 Landscaping 42

5.7.6 Fencing 43

5.7.7 Water Efficiency 43

5.7.8 Energy Efficiency 43

5.7.9 Services 44

5.7.10 Materials Selection 44

M

CONTENTS5.7.11 Salinity and Sodicity 44

6.0 NEIGHBOURHOOD/COMMUNITY USES 46

7.0 INFORMATION TO BE SUBMITTED WITH A DEVELOPMENT

APPLICATION 47

APPENDIX A 49

A.1 Definitions 49

APPENDIX B 52

B.1 Proposed Vegetation Species for Private Open Space 52

APPENDIX C 54

C.1 Salinity Management Plan 54


42

55..77..33 PPrriivvaaccyy

5.7.3 Privacy

5 Objective

(1) Ensure that buildings are designed and sited to provide privacy between

neighbours and between occupants and the public.

Objective

Development Control

Development Control

(1) Windows to upper storeys to be located on front or rear facades where

possible. (2) Second storey windows to living areas that face directly to windows,

balconies or private open space of adjoining properties to be offset. HOUSING (3) First floor balconies or living room windows not permitted to directly

overlook private open space of adjoining dwellings unless suitable

screening is provided.

(4) Maintain adequate privacy between studio accommodation located on

private driveways.

55..77..44 SSoollaarr AAcccceessss

5.7.4 Solar Access

Objective

Objective

(1) Maximise solar access to private open space and living areas of

dwellings.

Development Control

Development Control

(1) Areas of private open space should achieve at least 3 hours of sunlight to

50% of the required private open space between 9am and 3pm on 21

June.

(2) Dwellings to be designed to avoid unreasonable overshadowing of

adjacent properties. Buildings should be designed to ensure that 50% of

the on-site private open space area of adjoining sites receive a minimum

of 3 hours of sunlight between 9.00am and 3.00pm on 21 June.

(3) An application proposing a 2 storey dwelling must include shadow

diagrams showing the impact of the proposal on site and adjoining site

between 9am and 3pm on 21 June.

55..77..55 LLaannddssccaappiinngg

5.7.5 Landscaping

Objective

Objectives

(1) Maximising microclimate benefits to residential lots.

(2) Enhance streetscape amenity.

(3) Ensure planting success and continuity.

(4) Minimise requirements for irrigation and fertilisers.

Development Control

Development Control

(1) Indigenous species to make up a large percentage of the plant material mix.

(2) Most plant species to be selected from the schedule, Appendix B (refer page 52).

(3) A landscaping plan to be submitted for all development other than single dwelling houses.

89

Appendix D

BLACKTOWN CITY COUNCIL

General Information on EXEMPT DEVELOPMENT

BLACKTOWN LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL PLAN 1988

(AMENDMENT NO. 214) under the

ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT ACT 1979 EXEMPT DEVELOPMENT is minor development which may be undertaken without the need for development consent or any other Council approval and without an assessment of the likely environmental impact of the development, but only where the work will comply with each and every development standard/criteria listed in Clause 9A and Schedule 6 (Exempt Development Table) of the Blacktown Local Environmental Plan 1988 (BLEP 88). These Exempt Development provisions were proclaimed in the NSW Government Gazette on 18 August 2006 and replace the former provisions of BLEP 88. Type of Development Criteria

31. Solar panel, including photo-voltaic panel

(a) Installed to manufacturer's specifications. (b) Installation does not compromise the structural integrity of the building or involve structural alterations. (c) Located minimum 500mm from the property boundaries. (d) Fitted on the roof of an existing building on the property. (e) Maximum height above roofline 1.2m at any point. (f) The aggregate surface area of panel(s) being 25% of

the surface area of the respective roof elevation or

5m2 whichever is the greater.

(g) Any opening in the roof is suitably waterproofed.

Planning for solar: an examination of photovoltaic technology within the built form

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