RAHASIA

RAHASIA

KODIKLAT ANGKATAN DARAT

POLTEKAD

NASKAH DEPARTEMEN

tentang

PRAKTIK BAHASA INGGRIS II

untuk

DIPLOMA 4 TEKNIK ELKASISTA

Nomor : ELKASISTA -

DISAHKAN DENGAN KEPUTUSAN KOMANDAN POLTEKAD KODIKLATAD

NOMOR: KEP/ 364 / V / 2021 TANGGAL 03 MEI 2021

DILARANG: MEMPERBANYAK ATAU MENGUTIP

TANPA IJIN DARI DANPOLTEKAD

DAFTAR ISI

BAB I PENDAHULUAN 1

1. UMUM. 1

2. MAKSUD DAN TUJUAN 1

3. RUANG LINGKUP DAN TATA URUT 1

BAB II PREFIX, SUFFIX AND SCIENCE ARTICLES 3

4. UMUM. 3

5. PREFIX AND SUFFIX 3

6. READING TEXT 8

BAB III ACRONIM AND ABBREVIATION 11

7. UMUM. 11

8. ACRONIM AND ABBREVIATION 11

9. PRACTICING 14

BAB IV USING LIST, TIME, AND DURATION 18

11. UMUM. 18

12. USING LIST. 18

13. TIME AND DURATION 19

14. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Tenses 20

15. LISTENING FOCUS 23

BAB V COMPOSITION I 25

16. UMUM. 25

17. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Word Order 25

18. TITLES 27

19. CONVEYING AND ORGANIZING IDEAS IN SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH 28

20. READING TEXT 29

BAB VI COMPOSITION II (CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION) 32

21. UMUM. 32

22. CAPITALIZATION 32

23. PUNCTUATIONS 35

24. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Passive Voices 39

25. LISTENING 41

BAB VII FIGURE AND TABLES 43

26. UMUM. 43

RAHASIA

ii

27. FIGURE AND TABLES 43

28. NUMBERS, UNITS AND EQUATIONS 47

29. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Plural Nouns 51

30. LISTENING 54

BAB VIII REFERENCING 55

31. UMUM. 55

32. REFERENCING 55

33. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Modal Verbs. 57

34. LISTENING 59

BAB IX COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 61

35. UMUM. 61

36. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 61

37. GUIDED WRITING 64

38. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT 65

39. READING 65

BAB X AGREEING AND DISAGREEING 67

40. UMUM. 67

41. AGREEING AND DISAGREEING 67

42. GRAMMAR FOCUS: So, Neither, Too And Either 69

43. DIALOGUE 70

BAB XI SUMMARY, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING 73

44. UMUM. 73

45. SUMMARY, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING 73

46. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Conditional Sentence. 79

BAB XII INTRODUCING TO A RESEARCH PAPER 82

48. UMUM. 82

49. INTRODUCING TO A RESEARCH PAPER 82

50. READING TEXT 84

51. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Imperatives Sentence 86

51. LISTENING AND GROUP ACTIVITIES 88

BAB XIII PENUTUP 90

KODIKLAT ANGKATAN DARAT POLTEKAD

BAHASA INGGRIS BAB I

PENDAHULUAN

1. UMUM.

Bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa internasional yang digunakan oleh hampir

semua negara sebagai alat komunikasi antar bangsa dan juga sebagian besar

buku-buku referensi yang memuat sarat ilmu pengetahuan penting berasal dari

negara lain yang masih menggunakan bahasa Inggris dan masih sedikit

masyarakat kita yang bisa mengerti bahasa Inggris, padahal masih sangat

banyak yang belum dialih bahasakan kedalam bahasa Indonesia sehingga

menghambat pentransferan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi mengalami

hambatan. Oleh karena itu sepatutnyalah setiap orang menguasai dan

memahami bahasa Inggris, apakah dalam hal berkomunikasi, menulis,

mendengarkan dan memahami bacaan dengan baik dan benar.

2. MAKSUD DAN TUJUAN a. Maksud. Bahan ajaran ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan

pegangan kepada Bintara Mahasiswa Diploma-4 Politeknik Angkatan Darat

(Poltekad) Kodiklat dalam mengikuti mata kuliah Bahasa Inggris II sehingga

proses belajar mengajar dapat berlangsung baik dan siswa dapat menyerap

materi pelajaran dengan baik.

b. Tujuan. Agar para Bintara Mahasiswa Diploma-4 Politeknik

Angkatan Darat (Poltekad) Kodiklat memahami tentang mata pelajaran Bahasa

Inggris II untuk teknik dan umum.

3. RUANG LINGKUP DAN TATA URUT a. Ruang Lingkup. Ruang lingkup bahan ajaran ini meliputi tentang

bahasa Inggris teknik dan umum.

b. Tata Urut. Bahan ajaran bahasa Inggris disusun dengan tata urut

sebagai berikut :

1) Pendahuluan

2) Prefixs, Suffix and Science Article.

3) Acronym dan abbreviation

4) Using list, Time, and Duration

5) Composition I

6) Composition II

7) Figure and Tables

8) Referencing.

RAHASIA

2

9) Comparation and contrast.

10) Agreeing and disagreeing

11) Summary, paraphrasing and Quoting.

12) An example of introduction to a research paper.

3

BAB II PREFIX, SUFFIX AND SCIENCE ARTICLES

4. UMUM.

Pada bab II ini terdiri dari beberapa materi yang meliputi Prefix and Suffix

serta reading text about simple machine, vocabularies and answer questions.

5. PREFIX AND SUFFIX

a. Prefix

A common way of making new words in English is by adding standard

combinations of letters to existing words, either at the beginning (prefixes) or at

the end (suffixes). By noting these carefully, you will find it easy to increase

your vocabulary.

A prefix is a syllable, 2 syllables, or sometimes even a word, put at the

beginning of a word to change its meaning or to make another word. Prefixes

are often used to give an adjective, a verb or a noun a negative meaning, but

there are also lots of other prefixes with specific meanings.

Prefixes with the meaning not

The most common prefixes used to give a negative meaning to

adjectives, and some verbs and nouns, are as follows:

prefix use positive negative un- used with many different words lucky

friendly employed

unlucky unfriendly unemployed im- used before words beginning with m or

p possible matur

impossible immature

il- used before some words beginning with l

literate legibl

illiterate illegible

ir- used before some words beginning with r

regular responsible

irregular irresponsible in- used before a limited number of words corre

ct visibl

incorrect invisible

dis- used before some adjectives and a few verbs

honest like

dishonest dislike

Unfortunately, there is no easy way of knowing which prefix any adjective will

use to form its negative. So when you learn a new adjective, note down

whether it has an opposite formed with a prefix and, if so, what it is.

The prefix in-. This does not always have a negative meaning – often it

gives the idea of inside or into,e.g. internal, insert, income.

Verb prefixes: un- and dis-. These prefixes have two meanings. They can

have a negative meaning ( as above), but they can also mean 'the opposite of an

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action' or 'to reverse an action'. This meaning is used with certain verbs, e.g. to

lock – to unlock, to pack - to unpack, to appear – to disappear, to get dressed – to

get undressed.

Other prefixes with specific meanings.

Many other prefixes are used in English. Below is a list of prefixes

which are useful in helping you to understand unfamiliar words. Some of

these words are used with a hyphen. Check in a dictionary if you are not

sure.

Prefix Meaning or Function

Examples a- ( an) not, not having atypical, anhydrous (not containing

water) aero- air aerospace anti- against anti-toxin auto- self, by itself autointoxication bi- two bi-metallic bio- life biology (science of life) centi- 100 or 1/100 centimeter,Centigrade co- together,with co-operation contra- counter-

against,opposite contra-rotating; counteract de- taken away from dehydrated deci- a tenth decimeter (tenth of a meter) deka- ten dekameter (ten meters) di- two, twice dioxide hydro- (1) water

(2) hydrogen hydrology hydrocarbon hyper- over, excessive hypertension

hypo- below,less than usual

hypotension infra- below, under infra-red (below the wavelenght of red) inter- between interconnection intra- inside intravenous iso- equal isostatic kilo- a thousand kilogram (me) (1000 gram (me)s) macro- large, on a large

scale macromolecule

mega (lo)- very large, a million megawatt (a million watts) meta- change metamorphic micro- small, on a small

scale microorganism

milli- a thousandth milligram (me) (1000th of a gm) mis- badly, mistakenly miscalculated mono- one, single monochrome (of only one colour) multi- many multilateral (with many sides) neo- new neoclassical non- not non-conductor out- (1) more than

(2) beyond,outside outwear (wear or last longer than) outlying (beyond the main body)

over- (1) more than, excessive (2) on top of, above

overproduction overlie (to lie on top of)

para- similar to, irregular paratyphoid (disease similar to typhus but of different origin) pent (a)- five pentagon (5 –sided figure)

phot (o)- light photosynthesis poly- many polymorphous pre- before, previously prearranged proto- first, original prototype quadri- four quadrivalent (having a valency of 4) re- (1) again, back

(2) together, mutually

re-combine (to combine again after being separated) react (to act on each other) self- by itself self-regulating

semi- half,imperfect semi-conductor sub- under,below,less

than sub-atomic

super- (supra)-

above,beyond,more than

supersonic

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noun or verb suffix adjective

fame -ous famous

industry -al industrial sun -y sunny

create -ive creative

syn- (m)- with, together synthesis tetra- four tetrad (element having valency of 4) therm- heat thermodynamics tri- three triangle ultra- beyond, more than

usual ultraviolet

under- (1) less than, insufficient (2) below, lower than

underpressure undersea uni- one unicellular

b. Suffix

A suffix is a syllable or syllables put at the end of a word to change its word-class and / or its meaning. Suffixes can briefly be divided into

noun suffixes complication

adjective suffixes flexible verb suffixes minimize

Noun suffixes

Verb + suffix. Many nouns are formed by adding a suffix to a verb. The

most common suffixes of this type are as follows:

Verb

Suffix Noun enlarge -

ment enlargement

elect -(t)ion

election inform -

atioinformation

write -ing

writing dance, manage -er dancer, manager direct -or director

* Note: sometimes there is a spelling change. The most common is the

omission of the final e before the suffix - ion or – ation: translate / translation.

Noun + suffix. -ist is a common suffix added to existing nouns to

describe people and their jobs : ecologist, journalist, artist.

Adjective + suffix. Nouns are also formed by adding a suffix to an adjective. Two suffixes often added to adjectives to form nouns are -ness and -ity.

adjective suffix noun rich -

ness richness

stupid -ity

stupidity Adjective suffixes

Noun or verb + suffix. Adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by adding these suffixes:

Suffixes can change word class, e.g . from verb to noun, or noun to adjective, but they can also change meaning. The suffixes - able and –ible quite often have the meaning of can be done, e.g. something that is comprehensible can be comprehended. Words ending in –ible often add the prefix in- for their negative forms:

incomprehensible. The suffix –ful often means 'full of': colorful = full of colors.

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The suffix – less means 'without': odorless = without odor

Here is a list of common suffixes in alphabetical order, their meaning or function and some examples.

Suffix Meaning or Function Example

- able (1) forms adjective from verb

(2) with verb means ―can be done‖ reliable

drinkable, countable

- age (1) forms noun from verb

(2) forms abstract noun with idea of

aggregat

storage

tonnage (total number of

tons) - al (1) forms adjective from noun

(2) forms noun of action from verb

physical, legal

trial (action of trying or

testing), arrival

- an (see –ian)

- ant (-ent) forms noun and adjective from verb resistant, determinant

- ate (1) in the shape of, like

(2) possessing

dentate (in the shape of a

tooth)

nucleate (having a nucleus)

- ation forms noun from verb information, organization

- cy forms noun from adjective accuracy

- ent (see - ant)

- er forms noun from verb

(1) person who does an activity

(2) used for things which do a

particular job

comput

er

writer

bottle-opener - ful forms adjective from verb forgetful, hopeful

- hood forms abstract nouns, especially

family terms

childhood, motherhood

- ian (1) forms personal noun from

sciences

(2) forms personal noun from

countries

mathematician

Australian

- ible see – able

- ify forms verb from noun or adjective intensify

- ine forms adjective from noun saline (having the property

of salt) - ing forms noun from verb jogging, spelling

- ion (see –tion)

- ise (GB) / ize

(US)

forms verb from adjective modernize, synthesize

- ish a bit, resembling yellowish (a bit yellow)

- ism activity or ideology journalism, Buddhism,

- ist forms personal noun from sciences geologist

- ity forms abstract noun from adjective uniformity

- ive forms adjective from verb selective

- less forms adjective from noun colorless (without color)

- logy study, science biology (life science)

7

- ly forms adverb from adjective quickly (in a quick manner)

- ment forms noun from verb excitement, replacement - meter instrument which measures manometer

- ness forms abstract noun from adjective completeness (quality of

being

complete) - oid like, tending towards anthropoid (like a man)

- or see –er - ous forms adjectives delicious - scope instrument for seeing telescope - sion (see - tion)

- ship forms abstract nouns, especially

status

friendship, membership

- sis process, state (in medicine a

diseased state)

symbiosis

- tion ( - sion) forms noun from verb combination

- ty (see - ity)

- y forms adjective from noun or verb cloudy, foggy

c. Try to discuss with your friends or group to fill this table below:

Commonly Used

Prefixes Suffixes Prefix Meaning Example(s) Prefix Meaning Example(s)

anti- against -able, ible can be done

de- opposite -al, ial having characteristics of

dis- not, opposite of

-ed past-tense verbs, adjectives

en-, em- cause to -en

made of

fore- before -er one who or comparison

in-, im- in -est Most

in-, im-, il-, ir-

not -ful full of

inter- between -ic having characteristics of

mid- middle -ing verb form/present participle

mis- wrongly -ion, -tion, -ation,-ition

act, process

non- not -ity, ty state of

over- over -ive, -ative, -itive

adjective form

pre- before -less without

re- again -ly characteristic of

semi- half -ment action or process

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sub- under -ness state of, condition of

super- above -ous, -eous, -ious

possessing the qualities of

trans- across -s, -es more than one

un- not -y characterized by

under- under

6. READING TEXT

Power Station Types

A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial

location that is utilized for the generation and distribution of electric power in

mass scale, usually in the order of several 1000 Watts. These are generally

located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometers away from the cities or the

load centers, because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along

with several operating constraints like the waste disposal etc. For this reason, a

power generating station has to not only take care of efficient generation but also

the fact that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance and

that‘s why, the transformer switch yard to regulate transmission voltage also

becomes an integral part of the power plant. At the center of it, however, nearly

all power generating stations has an AC generator or an alternator, which is

basically a rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the

mechanical domain (rotating turbine) into electrical domain by creating relative

motion between a magnetic field and the conductors. The energy source

harnessed to turn the generator shaft varies widely and is chiefly dependent on

the type of fuel used.

A power plant can be of several types depending mainly on the type of fuel

used. Since for the purpose of bulk power generation, only thermal, nuclear

and hydro power comes handy, therefore a power generating station can be

broadly classified in the 3 above mentioned types. Let us have a look in

these types of power stations in details.

a. Thermal Power Station

A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is by far, the most

conventional method of generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency.

It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the water available to superheated

steam for driving the steam turbine. The steam turbine is then mechanically

coupled to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in the generation of

electric power. Generally, in India, bituminous coal or brown coal are used as

fuel of boiler which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content 5

9

to 16 %. To enhance the thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in

the boiler in its pulverized form.

Advantages of Thermal Power Plants

Fuel used i.e coal is quite cheaper.

Initial cost is less as compared to other generating stations.

It requires less space as compared to hydro-electric power stations.

Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plants

It pollutes atmosphere due to production of smoke & fumes.

Running cost of the power plant is more than hydroelectric plant.

b. Nuclear Power Station

The nuclear power generating stations are similar to the thermal stations

in more ways than one. However, the exception here is that radioactive elements

like uranium and thorium are used as the primary fuel in place of coal. Also, in a

Nuclear station the furnace and the boiler are replaced by the nuclear

reactor and the heat exchanger tubes.

For the process of nuclear power generation, the radioactive fuels are made

to undergo fission reaction within the nuclear reactors. The fission reaction

propagates like a controlled chain reaction and is accompanied by unprecedented

amount of energy produced, which is manifested in the form of heat. This heat is

then transferred to the water present in the heat exchanger tubes. As a result,

super-heated steam at very high temperature is produced. Once the process of

steam formation is accomplished, the remaining process is exactly similar to a

thermal power plant, as this steam will further drive the turbine blades to

generate electricity.

c. Hydro-Electric Power Station

In Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized to drive the

turbine which in turn runs the generator to produce electricity. Rain falling upon

the earth‘s surface has potential energy relative to the oceans towards which it

flows. This energy is converted to shaft work where the water falls through an

appreciable vertical distance.

This power is utilized for rotating the alternator shaft, to convert it to

equivalent electrical energy. An important point to be noted is that the hydro-

electric plants are of much lower capacity compared to their thermal or nuclear

counterpart. For this reason, hydro plants are generally used in scheduling with

thermal stations, to serve the load during peak hours. They in a way assist the

thermal or the nuclear plant to deliver power efficiently during periods of peak

hours.

Advantages of Hydro Electric Power Station

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It requires no fuel, water is used for generation of electrical energy.

It is neat and clean energy generation.

Construction is simple, less maintenance is required.

It helps in irrigation and flood control also.

Disadvantages Hydro Electric Power Station

It involves high capital cost due to dam construction.

Availability of water depends upon weather conditions.

It requires high transmission cost as the plant is located in hilly areas.

So it can be concluded that there are 3 types of power station type that is

thermal power station, nuclear power station, and hydro-elecric power station

and from each type of power station has its own deficiencies and advantages.

Answer these questions below.

1. What is classified of power station type?

2. What is thermal power station?

3. What is Nuclear power station?

4. What is Adventages dan Disadventages of hydro-electric power station?

5. What is there to know about power station?

11

BAB III ACRONIM AND ABBREVIATION

7. UMUM. Pada bab III ini terdiri dari beberapa materi yang meliputi Acronim,

Abbreviation, and word formation.

8. ACRONIM AND ABBREVIATION

Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or phrases. An abbreviation is typically a shortened form of words used to represent the whole (such as Dr. or Prof.) while an acronym contains a set of initial letters from a phrase that usually form another word (such as radar or scuba).

ABBREVIATION

In scientific writing, there are several abbreviations in use which originate from Latin or Greek. In general, it is not a good idea to use too many of these within the body of your writing, but they can be used occasionally when needed, and they are often necessary in your references and bibliography.

Let's take a closer look at abbreviations. As we know, an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase, such as Mr. for Mister, or hr. for hour that is still said as the full word or words.

There are millions of common abbreviations used every day. Let's take a look at some of the popular ones we see and/or use almost daily.

When you write your address, you likely write "St." or "Ave." instead of "Street" or "Avenue".

When you record the date, you likely abbreviate both the days of the week (Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat., and Sun.) and the months of the year (Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.).

Often, we use the abbreviation "Ex." for the word "example".

Measurements are commonly reduced to abbreviations such as "cm" for "centimeters" or "in." for "inch".

How about "vs."? That's another popular abbreviation, shortened from the word "versus".

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Tightening "December" to "Dec." is an abbreviation because "Dec." is simply a written shorthand for the full word. It's not an acronym since "Dec." isn't said as a word.

You may have wondered why some abbreviations, like those for ounce (oz) and pound (lb.) use letters that aren't part of the original word. In these cases, the abbreviations are based on older forms of the word.

Below is a selection of common abbreviations and their English equivalents.

abbreviation

Latin words in full

meaning AD anno Domini since the birth of Christ

a.m.

ante meridiem in the morning BC before Christ

c. or ca. circa approximately, about (for dates) cf. confer compare

e.g. exempli gratia for example, for instance et al.

et alii / et alia and others etc. et cetera and so on, and the rest

et seq. et sequens and the following pages ibid

. ibidem in the same place / book

i.e. id est that is, in other words inter alia among other things

loc.cit. loco citato in the place mentioned NB nota bene note well (for an important

point) op. cit. opere citato in the work mentioned before p.a. per annum a year, each year

per capita per head p.m

. post meridiem in the afternoon, evening

passim at various points in the book, recurrent

q.v. quod vide see in another place in the same book (for a cross-reference) v. / vs. versus against

viz. videlicet namely (naming something you have just referred to

Times and dates

a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon p.m. (post meridiem) = after noon

The mall opens at 10 a.m. and closes at 8 p.m.

Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, Jun., Jul., Aug., Sep., Oct., Nov., Dec.

I was born on Nov. 6, 1980.

Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat., Sun.

The class will run Mon.-Fri. next week.

Places

U.S. (United States) U.K. (United Kingdom) E.U. (European Union) U.A.E.

(United Arab Emirates)

The U.S. highway system seems enormous to visitors from the U.K.

Units of Measurement

in. (inches) ft. (feet) lbs. (pounds)

mm. (millimeters) cm. (centimeters) m. (meters)

mg. (milligram) g. (gram) kg. (kilogram)

My cat weighs 10 lbs., which is about 4.5 kg.

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ACRONYM

An acronym, technically, must spell out another word. This is a good point of reference to help you distinguish between abbreviations and acronyms. Another good way to differentiate them is that acronyms don't just shorten words, they often simplify a long organization name, scientific term or idea.

Some acronyms create new words that are so commonly used, we forget they're actually a series of letters from a longer word or phrase. For example, when we go scuba diving, we rarely consider the fact that scuba is an acronym of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.

Then there are initialisms which cause some confusion. Would you consider "VIP" to be an acronym? Technically, it's an initialism. Initialisms are a series of initial letters of words or a phrase that form an abbreviation but aren't pronounced as a word. We enunciate each letter.

NBA is another initialism. How about when you text "rofl"? That's another initialism, as is "BLT". Many consider initialisms to be a subset of acronyms-therefore whether you pronounce ASAP as a word or enunciate each letter, it's still an acronym-but be aware that others say it is another form of abbreviation.

Like abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms are used daily and most people can interpret the meaning of common acronyms without much thought.

Let's test our knowledge with a few more examples:

Acronyms (form new words) Initialisms (pronounce each letter)

radar (radio detection and ranging) ATM (automated teller machine)

scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)

NFL (National Football League)

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

FAQ (frequently asked questions)

laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)

brb (be right back)

POTUS (President of the United States) idk (I don't know) gif (graphics interchange format) a/c (air conditioning) SIM card (subscriber identification module) aka (also known as) ZIP code (zone improvement plan) fyi (for your information) AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) lcd (liquid crystal display) taser (Thomas A. Swift's Electric Rifle) ufo (unidentified flying object)

KEEP IN SHORT:

1. Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened versions of words and phrases

that help speed up our communication. Initialisms act in the same way.

2. Before you use any type of abbreviation consider your audience; are you

writing something formal or informal? Will everyone understand the

meaning of your abbreviated word or letters?

3. If so, feel free to shorten up those lengthier words with recognizable

abbreviations, acronyms, and even initialisms.

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4. If you need to explain the abbreviation, write out the word or phrase in full

first followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.

9. PRACTICING Let us checkup your understanding by doing these exercises below. Try to guest

what is the meaning of these acronyms or abbreviations.

( https://www.webopedia.com/reference/text-abbreviations/ or

https://www.smart-words.org/abbreviations/text.html )

10. GRAMMAR FOCUS: WORD FORMATION.

a. Noun Formation

Verb words with suffix –sis, -ure, -y, -ence, -ance, -al, -age, -sion,-ment, -tion, -

ion and –ation.

VERB NOUN (-sis) VERB NOUN (-ure)

Emphisize emphasis sign signature

Hypnotize hypnotis seize seizure

Analyse analysis fail failure

Paralyse paralisis close closure

Diagnose diagnosis enclose enclosure

VERB NOUN (-y) VERB NOUN (-ence)

Injure injury offend offence

Discover discovery defend defence

Apologize apologizy pretend pretendence

Deliver delivery depend dependence

Recover recovery differ difference

VERB NOUN (-ance) VERB NOUN (-al)

Annoy annoyance propose proposal

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Resist resistance try trial

Avoid avoidance survive survival

Endure endurance arrive arrival

Accept acceptance remove removal

VERB NOUN (-age) VERB NOUN(-sion)

Use usage divide division

Store storage expand expansion

Leak leakage explode explosion

Pass passage include inclusion

Break breakage conclude conclusion

VERB NOUN (-ment) VERB NOUN (-tion)

Entertain entertainment introduce introduction

Improve improvement produce production

Arrange arrangement pronounce pronounciation

Advertise advertisement repeat repetition

Enlarge enlargement compete competition

VERB NOUN (-ion) VERB NOUN (- ation)

Prevent prevention investigate Investigation

Interrupt interruption operate operation

Elect election imagine imagination

Protect protection communicate communication

Suggest suggestion prepare preparation

Adjective words with suffix –ence, -ance, -cy, -ity, -ness, -y, and -iness

ADJ NOUN (-ence,-ance) ADJ NOUN (-cy)

Confident confidence private privacy

Independent independence urgent urgency

Reluctant reluctancy vacant vacancy

Arrogant arrogance fluent fluency

Elegant elegance frequent frequency

ADJ NOUN (-ity) ADJ NOUN (-ness)

Popular popularity bald baldness

Similar similarity foolish foolishness

Valid validity kind kindness

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Equal equality weak weakness

Real reality ill illness

ADJ NOUN (-y) ADJ NOUN (-iness)

Jealous jealousy happy happiness

Loyal loyalty tidy tidiness

Difficult difficulty lazy laziness

Safe safely holy holiness

Royal royalty lonely loneliness

b. Adjective formation

Noun words with suffix –ly, -ous, -ic and –ical.

NOUN ADJ ( -ly) NOUN ADJ (-ous)

Salt salty poison poisonous

Grass grassy adventure adventurous

Rain rainy mountain mountainous

Friend friendly danger dangerous

Week weekly glory glorious

NOUN ADJ (-ic) NOUN ADJ (-ical)

Alcohol alcoholic grammar grammatical

Energy energic music musical

Sympathy sympathic practice practical

Drama dramatic alphabet alphabetical

Poetry poetric theatre theatrical

Verb words with suffix –able and -ive

VERB ADJ (-able) NOUN ADJ (-ive)

Change changeable destroy destructive

Accept acceptable attract attractive

Suit suitable produce productive

Read readable protect protective

Break breakable inform informative

C. Verb Formation

Adjective words with suffix –en

ADJ VERB (-en)

Sharp sharpen

Sweet sweeten

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Dark darken

Bright brighten

Ripe ripen

Let‘s try to complete these sentences below:

1. The doctor`s……………..was that I had bronchitis. (diagnose)

2. The……of the blood will help the police find the murderer. (analyse)

3. In England there is no postal…………on Sundays. (deliver)

4. He still suffers from an …….he received in a game of football ten years ago.

(injure)

5. Police dogs are trained to a high standard of……..(offend)

6. There was a very loud……when the bomb went off. (explode)

7. He was delighted by his……in the national football team. (include)

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BAB IV USING LIST, TIME, AND DURATION

11. UMUM.

Pada bab IV ini terdiri dari beberapa materi yang meliputi using list, time

and duration, also grammar focus (tenses) and listening.

12. USING LIST.

1) Listing is a brainstorming technique many people find useful. It means

doing just what its name suggests -- listing possible topics and then sub lists of

things you could say about each topic.

2) How to Use Listing

"Listing is probably the simplest prewriting strategy and is usually the first

method writers use to generate ideas. Listing means exactly what the name

implies—listing your ideas and experiences. First set a time limit for this activity;

5-10 minutes is more than enough. Then write down as many ideas as you can

without stopping to analyze any of them.

"After you have generated your list of topics, review the list and pick one item

that you might like to write about. Now you are ready for the next listing; this

time, create a topic-specific list in which you write down as many ideas as you

can about the one topic you have selected. This list will help you look for a focus

for your paragraph. Do not stop to analyze any of the ideas. Your goal is to free

your mind, so don't worry if you feel you're rambling."(Luis Nazario, Deborah

Borchers, and William Lewis, Bridges to Better Writing. Wadsworth, 2010).

One of the broad topics example that emerged in freewriting and brainstorming

sessions was 'The Benefits and Challenges of Being a College Student.' This

simple stimulus generated the following list:

Benefits

independence

living away from home

freedom to come and go

learning responsibility

new friends

Challenges

financial and social responsibilities

paying bills

managing time

making new friends

practicing good study habits

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The items in this preliminary list overlap considerably. Nonetheless, such a list

can offer students concrete ideas for narrowing a broad topic to a manageable

scope and for selecting a meaningful direction for their writing." (Dana Ferris and

John Hedgcock, Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process, and Practice, 2nd

ed.Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005)

3) Check points

1) Find a topic about the most useful technology in the Covid 19 Pandemic Era.

2) Listing the topic in to sub details.

13. TIME AND DURATION A variety of different styles may be acceptable for formal invitations. The following style should be used in text for print and electronic communications. Use numbers for times, except for noon and midnight, use a colon to separate hours and minutes and do not use ciphers (double zeros) with whole hours.

Examples The meeting will be held from 8 to 11:45 a.m.

Sessions begin at noon, 2:30 and 4 p.m.

The workshop runs from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m.

Rules Lowercase a.m. and p.m. and always use periods.

Lowercase noon and midnight.

Do not use 12 noon or 12 midnight (redundant). Use noon or midnight.

Do not use 12 p.m. or 12 a.m. Use noon or midnight.

Do not use 8 a.m. in the morning (redundant) Use 8 a.m.

Do not use o‘clock with a.m. or p.m. Do not use dashes.

Do not use dashes in place of "to" or "through" or "and" or "until" with

times of day or days of the week.

Use: The meetings are 8 to 11 a.m., Monday through Thursday. Not: The meetings are 8-11 a.m., Monday-Thursday.

Exceptions An n-dash may be used with dates (e.g., July 18–21), and should always be used with dates when both days of the week and dates are included.

Example: The play runs Monday through Thursday, July 18–21.

When listing a beginning and ending time separated only by the word "to," or when listing a series of times when all times listed are a.m. or p.m., use a.m. or p.m. only once, following the final time listed.

Use: The meeting will be held from 8 to 11 a.m. Not: The meeting will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. Use: Sessions begin at 8:30, 9:30 and 10:30 a.m. Not: Sessions begin at 8:30 a.m., 9:30 a.m. and 10:30 a.m.

References to midnight can cause confusion. Is midnight Friday at the beginning or at the end of Friday? That‘s why insurance policies usually take effect at

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12:01 a.m. and why airline schedules list flights at 11:59 p.m. or 12:01 a.m. and not midnight.

In many references, midnight is perfectly acceptable. In the sentence, "The dance will be held from 8 p.m. to midnight Friday," the meaning is clear.

14. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Tenses

In scientific and technical writing, the choice of verb tenses is quite limited. The most used tenses are.

the simple present the simple past the present perfect.

How is the present tense used? It is used to state facts that are generally valid from the point of view of the writer. Therefore, use it in the following situations: * when writing about your topic or background. Lasers are devices which amplify light and produce beams of light which are very intense directional and pure in color. Little is known about HPS systems which are the subject of the following chapter. * when explaining your purpose. Here we investigate the properties of the above-mentioned metals. The perturbation method we develop here applies to any crack geometry if the crack face weight function solutions are known for the corresponding reference crack. * when presenting results if the findings are general facts. In cases when the eigenvalue of interest is well separated from the others K2 tends to increase the natural frequencies of the forward and backward waves but decrease the natural frequency of the reflected wave just opposite to the effect of M2.

* when making general statements, e.g., in conclusions. This observation indicates an obvious inconsistency that is avoided by the introduction of generalized principles. The author believes that one particular application, where the results can be useful, is the modelling of contact problems involving anisotropic materials. There are differences in the way the passive and the active forms are used: * the present simple passive is used when describing a process or procedure (see on the Passive Voice) * the present simple active is preferred in physical descriptions, such as describing a piece of apparatus or equipment. The plotter represents another important output device. The plotter makes hard copy of the product represented by digital information in the computer. Most CAD systems use a pen plotter.

How is the past tense used? You use this when referring to specific tasks carried out, such as taking measurements, conducting experiments, describing methods actually used, or presenting your results and conclusions from the particular piece of work.

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* The past simple passive is mainly used when we report a particular procedure related to only one particular occasion in the past. (See Section Passive Voice)

In Fig.4 the uniaxial curve was calculated using Eq. /51/ the deviatoric stress-strain curve was calculated using Eq./20/ and the hydrostatic stress-strain curve was calculated using Eq./52/. Experimental results were obtained by the use of surface wave transducers which were placed on two perpendicularly intersecting faces of a polished aluminum block. * The past tense is also used in the introduction to give historical background or development in the field of interest: Technologists and craftspeople of early civilizations built huge objects. Algebra and trigonometry were well understood and applied during those early years. Construction of the pyramids of Egypt and of Central and South America required experience and the labor of many people. I started my research at the beginning of this term. * The past tense is commonly used in acknowledgements: The work which led to this paper was sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. This financial support is greatly appreciated.

How is the present perfect used? It is commonly used in the introduction, particularly when you want to recapitulate the state of the art and show what work has been done and is still in progress. (See also Section Passive Voice) Recent progress in materials science, the development of new sophisticated application-designed materials, and especially the unique qualities of composite materials, have given a renewed interest in the problems arising when several different material phases interact with each other. This chapter has provided you with career information that will help you decide whether or not to pursue a technical degree. What other tenses are used in scientific and technical writing?

Present Continuous This can be found in reports on studies or research, mainly in the introduction. You use it when you want to stress that something is currently in progress or is only temporary. I am studying for a Ph.D. at Brno University of Technology. I am doing research into the problems of industrial waste.

Past Perfect This is not commonly used in technical/scientific writing. However, it is the tense you would use if you wanted to indicate that one action preceded another action in the past. The epoxy, a modified bisphenol that had been mixed with an amido amine hardener, was cast directly to the glass and cured at room temperature for at least a week.

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Future tense with will This is not so frequently used as the present and past tenses. Use it when explaining how you intend to present information, give examples, or describe visuals. It also indicates future events or parts of your work that come later. The following examples of converting English units will employ a technique known as multiplying by the unit ratio. We will consider here the operating environment. Item number I 'concrete' will be examined to clarify further the spreadsheet results. * NOTE: Do not use the future tense in the subordinate clause in time or conditional sentences (with When … or If …, etc.)

The real value of the spreadsheet will be seen when the next survey is conducted. After the collected information is entered into the computer, the new minimum and maximum costs will be automatically calculated.

Conditional * In technical and scientific writing, the conditional is mainly used in acknowledgements: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation through Grant number CDR 589712. Both professionally and personally, I should like to thank just some of the many people who have influenced this book. Points to check in your writing

Within one paragraph, it is not usual to shift tenses unless there is a good reason to do so. The example below is the final paragraph of the introduction to a scientific paper. This paragraph * summarizes the purpose of the paper (in the past tense), * states the current state of development in the area of interest (present perfect), * indicates the aim of the paper (future tense), and * reports the results performed by the authors (past tense). The purpose of the work presented here was to examine interfacial crack initiation over a wide range of mode mixes. The analysis and development of a suitable specimen and biaxial device have already been described. This paper will present the results and analysis of a series of experiments that were conducted with various combinations of tensile and positive or negative shear loads.

When all verbs describe a sequence of actions or states, their tenses should be the same. This is often the case in describing an experiment.

In the petroleum industry one of the most widely used methods for enhancing production is the hydraulic fracturing process. The method involves packing off a section of a borehole in the ―pay zone‖ and hydraulically pressurizing it until the formation fractures. The fracture is then propagated by keeping the borehole pressurized typically by controlling the flow rate at the surface.

variation between passive and active constructions is strongly

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recommended to keep the reader interested. (See Section Passive Voice.)

check your use of tenses in if clauses (see above)

If the relative width of the tube is greater than 20 then the difference is /will be hardly affected by h. If the experiments were carried out by introducing edge conditions nearer to true simple supports than those imposed within tubes the buckling loads could be higher than those obtained in tube experiments.

15. LISTENING FOCUS

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ALC Vol 2300: Kaset 2301A (At a Snack Bar). The listening material can be changed by others, depend of the teacher or lecture‘s purpose and material.

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BAB V COMPOSITION I

16. UMUM.

Pada bab V ini terdiri dari beberapa materi yang meliputi word order, titles, conveying and organizing ideas in sentence and paragraph. Also reading text.

17. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Word Order

WORD ORDER

English is generally considered to be a language with a relatively fixed word order. In practice, this means that the positions of the subject S, the main verb V, and the object O are fixed in relation to each other. In normal statements, which form the bulk of technical and scientific writing, these items occur regularly in the order S-V-O.

The problem in technical and scientific writing is that parts of a sentence, particularly the subject, can become too long and complex, and therefore the basic structure may not be always clear.

The subject With longer subjects, it is very important to keep together the words that form the subject.

The formulas for the uniaxial and hydrostatic stress strain relationship given by Eqs. 49 and 50 are based on a model consisting of an infinite number of elastoplastic elements connected in parallel.

However, you should avoid overlong subjects. It is difficult for the reader to

process a long structure without losing the sense of the sentence as a whole.

In such cases, it is much better to re-formulate the sentence. One way of

doing this is to turn the verb into a noun, which then forms the subject of

the sentence. This new subject is short and the new verb, which is often in

the passive, is introduced as early as possible and is not left dangling at the

end of the sentence.

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overlong subject In this article, the results of the studies into the role of different parts of the society in applying several types of economic incentives for waste management are improved

sentence In this article, a summary is given of the results of studies into the role of different parts of society in applying various types of economic incentives for waste management.

The verb The verb should be positioned as close to the subject as possible. The mistake of placing the verb at the end of the sentence after an over-long subject has been mentioned above.

No damage was observed in the specimen due to the uniaxial compressive stress.

The regular pattern S-V is inverted when you want to signal the existence or presence of something new by using there is / are / was / were, etc.

There has been relatively little examination of the effect of mode on subcritical crack growth.

Similarly, the subject - verb word order is changed when you start a sentence with It is / was … that … to show emphasis. See Section Emphasizing.

The objects in a sentence

The direct object comes as close as possible to the verb, and normally before prepositional or adverbial phrases.

We have sent a new type of laser to the research development and testing office in Seattle.

The position of adverbial phrases The most flexible elements in a sentence are the various kinds of adverbs and adverbial phrases. They are the most movable as they can occur at the start, in the middle or at the end. With the star-shaped flyer plate, cracks are observed to have formed at the middle of each free edge of the sample. Various numerical methods were recently developed for engineering problems.

The first element in the sentence attracts most attention. It is usually the subject but if another sentence element is to be emphasized, it comes first.

A comma is often used to separate this structure from the rest of the sentence (See Section Punctuation).

In industry large databases are maintained on manufacturing processes. When purchasing a monitor, the number or density of pixels is a good guideline.

The position of the time reference at the beginning of the sentence does not necessarily mean that this structure is emphasized. The time reference can be used as a convenient introduction in order to avoid breaking the flow with too many interruptions.

This year again our research group will introduce new methods developed within the project CZ 521896.

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When the place reference comes first, the use of the passive can be used. In a Dirichlet type of problem, T is specified; T M and F M are computed from relative sizes and positions of the holes.

It is best to avoid using more than one adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence.

With respect to the base parametrization three model types are included in this study.

How to position also Generally, also is placed after the auxiliary verb (if there is one), but before the stem verb Finite element schemes also exist for determining the weight functions numerically. Systematic errors may be caused by the environment the instrument or the experimenter. Systematic errors may also be identified and eliminated during the laboratory.

If also functions as a link word for the sentence as a whole, then it is best to place it

AFTER the subject of the sentence rather than as the first word.

These procedures provide the ability to visualize externally applied forces. They also require the differentiation of constraint functions which are not given any geometrical significance.

Points to check in your own writing Have I avoided long noun phrases with verbs left dangling at the end of a long sentence? Can I rewrite the sentence to make it more readable? Have I used a variety of adverbial phrases at the start of sentences to give the right emphasis to my ideas? Most importantly have I used the best word order to convey my points clearly to the reader?

18. TITLES

The purpose of a piece of scientific writing is to present information clearly and concisely so that it can be easily understood. Clarity therefore begins with the title. In scientific and technical writing, a poetic or stylized title does not help the reader at all. For example, the following title

The Kopje Drummers of the Karoo

does not tell the reader that the paper is about birds, woodpeckers to be exact. However, this title

The mating rituals of Geocolaptes olivaceus South Africa‘s Ground Woodpecker

tells the reader very clearly what the subject of the paper is. Elements in a title In technical and scientific writing, the title is a precise description of the contents. It should include specific words to indicate the following:

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the topic, that is, the main, general subject you are writing about.

the focus, that is, a detailed narrowing down of the topic into the particular, limited area of your research

optionally, for a scientific article, the purpose of your writing. This means including a word such as the following, which tells the reader what kind of argumentation to expect:

An analysis of … An assessment of … A comparison of … A description of … A discussion of … An evaluation of … An explanation of … An outline of …

Some sample titles:

purpose topic focus An analysis of

carp culture management

as a tool for Mexican crayfish conservation. An overview

of nutritional needs before, during and after an

endurance event. A discussion of

genetic engineering technology

and its effects on the environment. An evaluation of

sewage treatment as a tool in environmental protection.

Punctuation of titles: capital letters • It is clearer to type your title in lower case rather than in capital letters. • Use capital letters for the first letter of all the main words in the

title, including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, longer prepositions, conjunctions

• Do not use capital letters for short structural words (except when they are the first word of the title), such as articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (of, in, to, at), coordinating conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, for)

Points to check in your own writing.

Be precise and concise; strive for clarity and avoid terms with multiple meanings which might lead to misunderstanding.

Use key words from the paper to inform readers of the content but try not to choose too many technical words as this will not attract a wider audience.

Titles stand alone; they are not a part of the opening sentence or paragraph.

19. CONVEYING AND ORGANIZING IDEAS IN SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that support one main idea. In

general, paragraphs consist of three parts: the topic sentence, body sentences,

and the concluding or the bridge sentence to the next paragraph or section.

Paragraphs show where the subdivisions of a research paper begin and end and,

thus, help the reader see the organization of the essay and grasp its main points.

Development and Organization

Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a particular

paragraph will be, you must consider what is the most important idea that you are

trying to convey to your reader. This is the "controlling idea," or the thesis

statement from which you compose the remainder of the paragraph. In other

words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a recurrent

relationship between your controlling idea and the information in each

paragraph. The research problem functions like a seed from which your paper,

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and your ideas, will grow. The whole process of paragraph development is an

organic one—a natural progression from a seed idea to a full-blown research

study where there are direct, familial relationships in the paper between all of

your controlling ideas and the paragraphs which derive from them.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with

brainstorming about how you want to pursue the research problem. There are

many techniques for brainstorming but, whichever one you choose, this stage of

paragraph development cannot be skipped because it lays a foundation for

developing a set of paragraphs [representing a section of your paper] that

describes a specific element of your overall analysis. Each section is described

further in this writing guide.

Given these factors, every paragraph in a paper should be:

Unified—All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a

single controlling idea [often expressed in the topic sentence of the

paragraph].

Clearly related to the research problem—The sentences should all refer

to the central idea, or the thesis, of the paper.

Coherent—The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and

should follow a definite plan for development.

Well-developed—Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be

adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that

work together to explain the paragraph's controlling idea.

There are many different ways you can organize a paragraph. However, the

organization you choose will depend on the controlling idea of the paragraph.

Ways to organize a paragraph in academic writing include:

Narrative: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.

Descriptive: Provide specific details about what something looks or feels

like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.

Process: Explain step by step how something works. Perhaps follow a

sequence—first, second, third.

Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.

Illustrative: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your

point.

20. READING TEXT

Read this reading text then answer the questions (reading text can be changed

based on the subject matter that be discussing).

HYBRID WAR Hybrid war (hybrid war) is a military strategy that mixes conventional wars,

irregular wars, and cyber war. In this war, by combining kinetic operations with subversive efforts, the aggressors intend to avoid attribution or retribution. There are various terms that are often used to refer to the concept of hybrid war, namely: hybrid war, hybrid warfare, hybrid threat, or hybrid adversary. American military agencies tend to speak within the framework of "hybrid threats", while academic literature talks about "hybrid warfare". In this article, both terms can be used alternately in the same sense.

Conventional warfare is a form of warfare conducted by using conventional weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined, and fight using

30

weapons that primarily target the opponent's military. It is normally fought using conventional weapons, and not with chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons. The general purpose of conventional warfare is to weaken or destroy the opponent's military, thereby negating its ability to engage in conventional warfare. In forcing capitulation, however, one or both sides may eventually resort to unconventional warfare tactics.

Modern hybrid war that simultaneously combines conventional, irregular, and terrorist components is a complex challenge that requires an adaptable and versatile military to overcome. The United States has increasingly focused on counterinsurgency doctrine in the wake of its wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. On the contrary, the commander of a military fighting a hybrid war will need to leverage a wide range of capabilities including conventional high intensity conflict units, decentralized special operations forces, and sophisticated information operations and technology platforms. The concept of hybrid war is not new, but its means are increasingly sophisticated and deadly, and require a response in kind.

Irregular warfare is often characterized as warfare in which one or more combatants are irregular military rather than regular forces. This is because the two most commonly understood forms, insurgency and terrorism both involve non-state actors. But irregular warfare is distinguished from traditional warfare not by the parties involved, but rather by the focus of the participants on swaying some population to their side. In US military doctrine, irregular warfare is defined ―A violent struggle among state and non-state actors for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations‖ . The overuse of the term 'warfare' in contemporary military terminology to describe both a specific type of engagement and the type of forces participating in it can lead to false conclusions. A guerrilla unit that is made of commandos is a regular unit conducting asymmetric warfare whereas an irregular band of fighters can engage combat in a tactical infantry firefight if well led and well equipped, fighting like a conventional unit. Irregular warfare favors indirect and asymmetric warfare approaches, though it may employ the full range of military and other capabilities, in order to erode the adversary‘s power, influence, and will. It is inherently a protracted struggle that will test the resolve of a state and its strategic partners. Concepts associated with irregular warfare are older than the term itself.

Cyberwarfare involves the use and targeting of computers and networks in warfare. It involves both offensive and defensive operations pertaining to the threat of cyberattacks, espionage and sabotage. There has been controversy over whether such operations can duly be called "war". Nevertheless, nations have been developing their Capabilities and engaged in cyberwarfare either as an aggressor, defendant, or both. Cyberwarfare has been defined as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption", but other definitions also include non-state actors, such as terrorist groups, companies, political or ideological extremist groups, hacktivists, and transnational criminal organizations.

Some governments have made it an integral part of their overall military strategy, with some having invested heavily in cyberwarfare capability. Cyberwarfare is essentially a formalized version of penetration testing in which a government entity has established it as a warfighting capability. This capability uses the same set of penetration testing methodologies but applies them, in the case of United States doctrine, in a strategical way to Prevent cyber attacks against critical infrastructure Reduce national vulnerability to cyber attacks Minimize damage and recovery time from cyber attacks

Offensive operations are also part of these national level strategies for officially declared wars as well as undeclared secretive operations.

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So that is the kind of war that exists in the world. All that will continue to evolve with the times. Addressing these threats will require more agile military organizational capabilities and personnel to prevent information operations, electronic warfare (EW) and cyberspace action in hybrid wars in peacetime does not trigger military conflicts.

Bond, Margaret S. (2007). Hybrid War: A New Paradigm for Stability Operations in

Failing States

Questions

1. What is the meaning of hybrid war?

2. What is the meaning of conventional warfare?

3. What is used in conventional wars?

4. What kind of war involving a terrorist component in its implementation?

5. What is the purpose of government in mastering the ability in the field of

cyberwarfare?

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BAB VI COMPOSITION II

CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION

21. UMUM.

Dalam bab VI ini terdapat materi berupa capitalization, colons,

parentheses, dashes, and other punctuations. Ditambahkan pula grammar focus

dan listening.

22. CAPITALIZATION

At first glance, the rules of English capitalization seem simple. You probably

know you should capitalize proper nouns and the first word of every sentence.

But you also (sometimes) capitalize the first word of a quote. Usually you don‘t

capitalize after a colon, but there are exceptions. And what do you do when

you‘re not sure whether something is a proper noun?

English Capitalization Rules:

a. Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence

This one‘s easy. Always capitalize the first word of a sentence.

The cat is sleeping.

Where did I put that book?

Hey! It is great to see you! How have you been?

b. Capitalize Names and Other Proper Nouns

You should always capitalize people‘s names.

My favorite author is Jane Austen.

Tom and Diane met at Judy‘s house.

Have you met my dog, Boomer?

Names are proper nouns. The names of cities, countries, companies, religions,

and political parties are also proper nouns, so you should capitalize them, too.

We experienced some beautiful Southern California weather last fall

when we attended a Catholic wedding in San Diego.

You should also capitalize words like mom and grandpa when they are used as a

form of address.

Just wait until Mom sees

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this!

But

My mom is not going to like

this.

Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your writing always looks great? Grammarly can

save you from misspellings, grammatical and punctuation mistakes, and other

writing issues on all your favorite websites.

c. Don‘t Capitalize After a Colon (Usually)

In most cases, you do not need to capitalize after a colon.

I have one true passion: wombat

racing.

There are a couple of common exceptions. One is when the word following the

colon is a proper noun.

There is only one place I want to visit: New York

City.

The other exception is when the words following the colon form one or more

complete sentences.

Maggie always wears a brimmed cap for these two reasons: Strong

light often gives her a headache. She also likes the way it looks.

d. Capitalize the First Word of a Quote (Sometimes)

Capitalize the first word of a quote when the quote is a complete sentence.

Mario asked, ―What is everyone doing this weekend?‖

Stacy answered, ―My sister and I are going to the water park.‖

Don‘t capitalize the first word of partial quotes.

Gretchen said she was ―way too busy‖ to join the gym.

Mr. Thompson described the rules as ―extremely difficult to understand if

you don‘t have a law degree.‖

e. Capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, But Not Seasons

The names of days, months, and holidays are proper nouns, so you should

capitalize them.

I hate Mondays!

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Tom‘s birthday is in June.

Oh no! I forgot about Valentine‘s Day!

The names of seasons, however, are not proper nouns, so there is no need to

capitalize them.

I hate winter!

Having a summer birthday is the best.

f. Capitalize Most Words in Titles

The capitalization rules for titles of books, movies, and other works vary a little

between style guides. In general, you should capitalize the first word, all nouns,

all verbs (even short ones, like is), all adjectives, and all proper nouns. That

means you should lowercase articles, conjunctions, and prepositions—however,

some style guides say to capitalize conjunctions and prepositions that are longer

than five letters.

Sense and Sensibility is better than Pride and Prejudice.

The first movie of the series is Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s

Stone.

g. Capitalize Cities, Countries, Nationalities, and Languages

The names of cities, countries, nationalities, and languages are proper nouns, so

you should capitalize them.

English is made up of many languages, including Latin, German,

and French.

My mother is British, and my father is Dutch.

The capital of Botswana is Gaborone.

h. Capitalize Time Periods and Events (Sometimes).

Specific periods, eras, and historical events that have proper names should be

capitalized.

Most of the World War I veterans are now deceased.

In the Middle Ages, poor hygiene was partly responsible for the spreading

of bubonic plague.

Middle school students often enjoy studying the social changes that took

place during the Roaring Twenties.

However, centuries—and the numbers before them—are not capitalized.

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In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries England blossomed into

an empire.

23. PUNCTUATIONS

Proper punctuation makes a text clear to understand. Wrongly placed

punctuation marks may make a sentence ambiguous or even change the

meaning. Each punctuation mark serves a purpose and conveys a signal to the

reader.

Apart from capital letters and full stops, the most common punctuation marks

in technical and scientific writing are:

comma , colon : semi-colon ; brackets / parenthesis

( ) [ ] dash -- hyphen - apostrophe '

How are the punctuation marks used?

a. COMMA (,)

This is used

* between two independent clauses with different subjects if they are

part of a series or are joined by and, but so and or.

The reactor was out of control the content overheated and the safety valve failed. The diagnostic work is normally done by the computer, but the technician must be able to understand the various computer operating systems and to use the system‘s software.

* if the subordinate clause comes before the main clause in a sentence.

comma When the liquid boils, a residue is formed. no comma A residue is formed when the liquid boils.

* to separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence.

Note that you must use which or who, but not that in these sentences. That

can be used in defining relative clauses, and there is no comma.

Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, is used to make bolts and screws. The experiments that were described in the previous section were part of a series that was conducted over a range of mode mixes. * in a series of three before a conjunction The bridge circuit consists of four tensimeters a signal source and a detector.

36

Some writers leave out the comma before the last item in the series, but then

there is the danger of ambiguity. If in doubt, put a comma in.

without final comma

The liquids we analyzed were neat methanol, neat ethanol, methanol and 10 percent water and ethanol and 10 percent water. with

final comma

The liquids we analyzed were neat methanol, neat ethanol, methanol with 10 percent water, and ethanol with 10 percent water.

* to separate linking words and phrases from the rest of the sentence.

On the other hand, the chances of success are great.

The chemical engineer's greatest contribution, however, will be in the

development of new energy systems.

* to separate some adverbs, adverbial expressions, or other introductory

phrases from the rest of the sentence.

Additionally, from the technical point of view, the human arm is admirable due to

its sensitivity and versatility.

Using physical principles, the thin layers, CN, TIN, AIN …, can be grown and

modified.

To avoid undesirable failure during the test, cover the test stand.

It is often essential to separate the initial phrase to avoid confusion or ambiguity:

unclear meaning

After water proteins are the main component of the body. clear meaning After water, proteins are the main component of the body.

* to provide extra, supporting, or explanatory information about a term, in parenthesis. A completed marriage of CAD and CAM results in a CAD/CAM system, or

CADAM system. ASHRAE, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers, Inc., lists the following job titles that technicians and technologists may qualify for. * note that there is no comma before that in reported speech:

wrong He proved, that the substance would not disintegrate at high temperatures. correct He proved that the substance would not disintegrate at high temperatures.

b. COLON (:) * The colon is most frequently used before a list of items, often preceded by a

word like

namely, such as, as follows, the following, etc.

Please send the items indicated below, namely: (i) passport (ii) visa application (iii) correct fee. * You can also use the colon when introducing a task or tasks to perform.

37

Study the following graph, which shows recommended speeds for carbon steel drills on soft steel: c. SEMI-COLON (;) * The semi-colon is weaker than a full stop, but stronger than a comma.

You can use it to join two independents but closely related sentences.

This section will consider the communication electronics technician; another section will be devoted to the computer electronics technician.

* You can also use the semi-colon in complicated lists, for example,

to show sub- grouping

d.

BR

AC

KETS or PARENTHESES () [ ]

* round brackets are used for cross-references, abbreviations,

definitions, and other subsidiary information

Engineers are developing ideas for tapping hydrate energy sources (see box on page 56). Large-Eddy Simulation ( LES ) has developed into a promising and potentially powerful technique for flow modelling and numerical control. These computers must be serviced periodically by computer service technicians (often called 'field engineers or customer service engineers').

* you can use square brackets when you want to insert a word of your

own into a quotation so that it makes good, grammatical sense and completes

the meaning of the sentence

The report stated that 'world reserves [of natural gas] will probably last for 70 years'.

e. DASH and HYPHEN (-)

Six excellent career fields within mechanical engineering technology are heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC); mechanical design and tool design; numerical control (NC); technical sales; fluid power; and laser technology.

38

* Dash You can use a dash in the same way as round brackets to add

extra, less important information. The dash, however, is somewhat informal, so

it is not so often used in scientific reports as commas or brackets.

A study on the modelling of waste flow in the city of Chemnitz demonstrated

the applicability of the applied software – UMBERTO.

Mechanical design technicians are the communicators of industry. They

prepare – or supervise the preparation of – assembly drawings.

* Hyphens are used to join words to make new words. The rules for

hyphens are complicated and vary in different publishing houses and between

individual writers. American English uses rather fewer hyphens than British

English. If you are in doubt, check in a dictionary. Hyphens are most used in the

following kinds of compounds:

noun – adverb hands-on applications adjective compounds in -ed or -ing cone-shaped

piece of stock problem-coordination compounds Paper-and-pencil skills Garbage in-garbage out (GIGO) is the description the computer personnel used for invalid data inputs Compounds expressing numerals and

fractions two-dimensional shapes four-sided Compounds in which the first base is

a single capital letter

U-turn

after certain prefixes, e.g. ex-, half-, non-, quasi-, self -, etc

half-time, quasi-state, non-existent, self-study

* phrases which have no hyphen normally have to have them when used

as an adjective phrase before a noun

open phrase phrase used as an adjective

The investigation was carried out on the spot.

They carried out an on-the-spot investigation. He is out of work. He is an out-of-work miner.

f. APOSTROPHE

you use an apostrophe most frequently to indicate the possessive, either

singular or plural. The same meaning can be expressed by a phrase with of.

apostrophe of phrase

Checking a product’s quality characteristics is called inspection.

Checking the quality characteristics of a product is called inspection. Technical sales involve the selling

of machine technology to meet customers' specific needs.

Technical sales involve the selling of machine technology to meet the specific needs of customers.

* you use it when referring to other scientists' work. When referring to two or

more people together, the apostrophe goes after the last name. When you refer

39

to a famous or generally accepted discovery, the apostrophe is not needed.

other scientists Zarka’s method

To coincide with Ponte Castaneda’s lower bound for the strain potential … In this paper, Cauchy’s and Novozhilov’s measures of mean rotation are compared

2 scientists together

Iwan and Moeller’s (1976) work appears to be the first publication on this subject.

famous discovery

the Curie point, the Doppler effect * The apostrophe can also be used to form plurals of numbers,

abbreviations, and symbols, though it can also be left out:

the early 1990's (OR: the early 1990s) first add up all the X's (OR: first add up

all the Xs) g. SOME OTHER PUNCTUATION CONVENTIONS IN TECHNICAL/SCIENTIFIC WRITING ▪ three dots are used to indicate an unfinished sentence or sequence

In a similar manner, multiplication factors of 1, 2, 3, … can be achieved.

▪ the oblique stroke or slash is used to abbreviate your text, especially

when you want to specify alternatives or sub-sectioning

highly efficient input / output features

I / O features students and / or staff

▪ quotation marks, italics, bold face and capitals can be used to indicate

emphasis

24. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Passive Voices

40

PASSIVE VOICE FORMULA

The passive voice is frequently used in technical and scientific writing because the form is impersonal and objective. The action is felt to be more important than the agent or the performer of the action.

action

agent The survey was

conducted by the Pristop Communication group.

What types of passive construction are there?

with an agent stated To avoid tensile stress reflecting from the free boundaries, a star-shaped flyer plate has been proposed by Kumar and Clifton. without an agent

stated The distance between the bars was measured.

Which are the most common passive tenses used in technical and scientific

writing?

Present passive. We normally use the present passive tense when describing a process or procedure or when making general statements of fact.

Paper is made from wood. The trees are cut down.

Past passive. When we report a particular procedure and are

41

concerned with only one particular occasion in the past; then we use the past passive tense.

The capillary was filled with mercury and all air excluded. Air was admitted to the chamber and heated.

Present perfect passive. This tense is often used in the introduction where you might want to refer to things relating to your work that have happened, or been said, recently.

For example, it has been suggested that cathepsin S promotes motility of cilia. On the other hand, the possibilities of computational modelling have increased in the last few years, enabling the models to be much more realistic.

Passive with modals. These are commonly found in technical and

scientific writing in such phrases as

It should be made clear that … It cannot be assumed that …

Points to check in your writing.

the passive forms are placed on / given to / by are preferable in English to the active

During the last two years of study, increasing emphasis is placed on practical training. Figure 6 in the previous section shows that, for the Lorenz system, better results are given by quadratic than linear functions.

using passive constructions is one way of avoiding the first person

singular in technical or scientific writing

It can be concluded that …

In long sentences active constructions are better because the verb in passive constructions could come at the end of the sentence, which makes a construction clumsy. passive For this reason, the emission and excitation spectra of Hg2CL2

luminescence on virgin samples and samples exposed to UV light and X-ray were studied. active For this reason, the subject of the study was the emission and excitation spectra of…

Overuse of the passive should be avoided. Variation between active and passive verb forms keeps the reader more interested.

In domestic trade, more than 50% actual sales are derived from

wood and building materials, while the rest comes from furnishing materials for buildings and engineering services.

25. LISTENING

ALC Vol 2300: Kaset 2302A (At The Swimmingpool) The listening material can be changed by others, depend on the teacher or

lecture‘s purpose and material.

42

43

To go down (a little) Nouns Verbs

a decrease to decrease

a fall to fall (off)

a drop to drop

a decline to decline

a downturn

to go down

to slip

a downward trend

To go down (a lot) Nouns Verbs

to plummet

a plunge to plunge

a slump to slump

a crash to crash

to sink

a tumble to tumble

Change of direction

Downward Upward

to peak to reach a peak to reach a low point

to top out to recover

to rebound

to revive

BAB VII FIGURE AND TABLES

26. UMUM.

Dalam bab VII ini terdapat materi berupa figure and tables, Numbers and

units also equations. Ditambahkan pula grammar focus dan listening.

27. FIGURE AND TABLES

Figures and tables (display items) are often the quickest way

to communicate large amounts of complex information that would be

complicated to explain in text.

Probably the most important thing to keep in mind when describing

graphs and tables is how to convey the information properly and accurately.

Surprisingly, Relatively few key words or grammar elements are needed when

describing trends or movements. The following vocabulary items can be used:

To go up (a little) Noun

s Verb

s an Increase to increase a rise to rise a growth to grow an improvement to improve an upturn to go up an upward trend

To go up (a lot) Noun

s Verb

s a surge to surge an upsurge to take off to shoot up to soar to rocket a jump to jump a leap to leap

No change

to remain stable to level off to stay at the same level to remain constant to stagnate to stabilise

44

To describe the degree of change

Adjectives

Adverbs a dramatic rise or fall to rise or fall dramatically

considerable considerably sharp sharply significant significantly substantial substantially moderate moderately slight slightly

To describe the speed of change

Adjectives Adverbs

an abrupt

rise or fall

a sudden

rapid

quick

steady

gradual

slow

to rise or fall abruptly

suddenly

rapidly

quickly

steadily

gradually

slowly

Tables

Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data. You should design them carefully so that you clearly communicate your results to busy researchers. The following is an example of a well-designed table:

Clear and concise legend/caption Data divided into categories for clarity Sufficient spacing between columns and rows Units are provided Font type and size are legible

Source: Environmental Earth Sciences (2009) 59:529–536

Figures Figures are ideal for presenting:

a. Images b. Data plots c. Maps d. Schematics

45

Just like tables all figures need to have a clear and concise legend caption to accompany them. a. Images Images help readers visualize the information you are trying to convey. Often, it is difficult to be sufficiently descriptive using words. Images can help in achieving the accuracy needed for a scientific manuscript. For example, it may not be enough to say, ―The surface had nanometer scale features.‖ In this case, it would be ideal to provide a microscope image. For images, be sure to:

Include scale bars. Consider labeling important items. Indicate the meaning of different colors and symbols used.

b. Data plots Data plots convey large quantities of data quickly. The goal is often to show a functional or statistical relationship between two or more items. However, details about the individual data points are often omitted to place emphasis on the relationship that is shown by the collection of points. Here, we have examples of figures combining images and a plot in multiple panels. For data plots, be sure to:

Label all axes. Specify units for quantities. Label all curves and data sets. Use a legible font size.

Source: Nano Research (2010) 3:843–851

46

Source: Borrego et al. Cancer & Metabolism 2016 4:9

Source: Borrego et al. Cancer & Metabolism 2016 4:9 c. Maps Maps are important for putting field work in the context of the location where it was performed. A good map will help your reader understand how the site affects your study. Moreover, it will help other researchers reproduce your work or find other locations with similar properties. Here, we have a map used in a study about salmon. For maps, be sure to:

Include latitude and longitude.

47

Include scale bars. Label important items Consider adding a map legend.

Source: Environmental Biology of Fishes (2011) DOI: 10.1007/s10641-011-9783-5

d. Schematics Schematics help identify the key parts to a system or process. They should highlight only the key elements because adding unimportant items may clutter the image. A schematic only includes the drawings the author chooses, offering a degree of flexibility not offered by images. They can also be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to capture an image. Below is a schematic explaining how nanotubes could be used to harvest energy from a fluid. For schematics, be sure to:

Label key items Provide complementary explanations in the caption and main text

Source: Nano Research (2011) 4:284–289

28. NUMBERS, UNITS AND EQUATIONS How do I express numbers in my writing?

When is it necessary to write numbers as numerals (1, 2, 3, 4 …) or as words (one, two, three, four, …)? The answer is always to present your work as clearly

as possible. Is your text unreadable because of an overloading of numerals or,

in contrast, are some important figures unnecessarily hidden within the text?

The following are some general rules which should be followed, including correct

examples:

48

a. Numerals should not be used at the beginning of a sentence.

One of the specimens underwent fatigue testing.

Four aircraft wings failed under loading.

b. Numerals should not be used in succession or in a series of numerical facts.

eighty 5mm rivets

3 two-stroke engines

c. Numerals should not be used for round number estimates or ordinals.

the second report dealt with fractures due to stress.

approximately two hundred cracks were observed.

d. Use numerals for all page numbers, dates, figures, diagrams, addresses.

e. For numbers below ten, words tend to be preferred to numerals.

NUMBERS

1. All numbers below 10 (including zero) should be written out in words, with

the following exceptions: age, time, dates, page numbers, percentages,

money, proportions, and units of measure. Numbers greater than nine are

written in numerals.

Rule examples:

o one robot

o two containers

o three team members

o eight workstations

o zero chance

Exceptions: o 2 seconds

o $3

o 4:00AM

o 8 percent

o 9 years old

2. If two or more numbers are presented together, write them all as numbers.

This makes your work consistent, neat, and easy to understand. However,

if all the numbers in the section are below 10, write them all as words, e.g.,

We used 4 worm gears, 15 pulleys, and 3 motors. Or, we used four worm

gears, two pulleys, and three motors.

3. Hyphenate a number and a unit of measure when they modify a noun, e.g.,

a 4-year-old boy, a 12-inch-long pipe, or an 8-pound baby.

49

4. Write fractions and decimals as numerals, not words. So it is 0.25, not zero

point two five.

5. Be consistent when you write decimals. Always begin with a zero if the

number is less than one (0.25). This guarantees consistency when you

write them in columns with other numbers. You may align these numbers

in a column by the decimal point:

20.23

1.25

0.33

10.232

6. Or flush left:

20.23

1.25

0.33

10.232

7. Or flush right:

20.23

1.25

0.33

10.232

8. If a number is an approximation, write it out, like twice as much and half

finished.

9. You may not begin a sentence with a numeral. Write the number out in

words or rephrase the sentence, not, 16 years after the project began,

funding was cut. But Funding was cut 16 years after the project began.

UNITS OF MEASURE

1. When writing units of measure, be consistent. If you are measuring

temperature as degrees Fahrenheit, do not suddenly switch to degrees

Celsius.

2. Units of measure can be written as symbols, words, or abbreviations. For

basic units of measurement, use words: 25 pounds, 12 inches. For derived

units of measure — ones formed using a calculation — use symbols:

38mph, 27ft/s2. Some derived units of measure have two symbols: one that

represents the derivation and one that represents the word. In this case,

use the one that represents the word because it will be more familiar to

your reader. Use F for Farad, Hz for Hertz, and V for Volt.

3. To indicate multiplication, use a raised dot (∙ ). To indicate division, use a

slash (/). If you are writing out the unit in words, use a hyphen for

multiplication, and the word per for division: The force was 22 kilogram-

meters squared, the speed was 50 miles per hour.

4. If you want to add a secondary unit of measure after your primary one, put

it in parentheses following the primary unit of measure: 10°C (50°F).

50

Equations

1. Do not use too many equations; it is easy to make a mistake and they are

cumbersome in the text. If your readers are not technical, try not to use

them at all.

2. Put your equations on a separate line, center them, and number them:

(1) y = ax2 + bx + c

3. When you introduce your equations with words, punctuate the

introductory remarks normally. To do this, substitute the phrase this

equation for the actual equation and add the correct punctuation. For

example, the current in the wire is calculated using E=IR. Not The current in

the wire is calculated using: E=IR. Note the period following the equation. If

the sentence were, the current in the wire is calculated using E=IR where E

is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance., then the period after the

equation is not necessary and appears at the end of the sentence instead.

This is by no means a comprehensive list of the rules for writing numbers,

symbols, and equations. For a complete list consult an appropriate style guide.

Reading Mathematical Formulae

a. Addition

2+2=4

1. Two plus two is four.

2. Two and two is/equals four.

3. Two added by two is four.

b. Subtraction

7-4=3

1. Seven minus four is three.

2. Seven take away four is three.

c. Multiplication

3x4=12

1. Three fours are twelve.

2. Three multiplied by four equals twelve.

3. Three times four is twelve.

d. Division

9:3=3

- Nine divided by three equals three.

e. Square

R2 R squared

X3 X cubed

104 Ten to the power four

51

32 Three squared

33 Three cubed

f. Root

5 The squared root of five or root of five

144 =12 The squared root of 144 is 12

7293 =9 The cubed root of 729 is 9

g. Plus or minus

5 dB Plus or minus 5 décibels

h. Comparison

11:1 Eleven to one

i. Percentage

20% Twenty per cent

j. Greater than

> 10 dB Greater than decibels

k. Less than

< 25 mA Less than twenty-five milliamps

l. Less than or equal

≤ 10 W Less than or equal to ten watts

29. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Plural Nouns

PLURAL NOUNS: RULES AND EXAMPLES

Most singular nouns are made plural by simply putting an -s at the end. There are many different rules regarding pluralization depending on what letter a noun ends in. Irregular nouns do not follow plural noun rules, so they must be memorized or looked up in the dictionary.

52

Plural Noun Rules

There are many plural noun rules, and because we use nouns so frequently when writing, it‘s important to know all of them! The correct spelling of plurals usually depends on what letter the singular noun ends in.

1. To make regular nouns plural, add -s to the end.

cat – cats

house – houses

2. If the singular noun ends in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, add -es to the end to

make it plural.

truss – trusses

bus – buses

marsh – marshes

lunch – lunches

tax – taxes

blitz – blitzes

3. In some cases, singular nouns ending in -s or -z, require that you double the -

s or -z prior to adding the -es for pluralization.

fez – fezzes

gas –gasses

4. If the noun ends with -f or -fe, the f is often changed to -ve before adding the -s

to form the plural version.

wife – wives

wolf – wolves

Exceptions:

roof – roofs

belief – beliefs

chef – chefs

chief – chiefs

53

5. If a singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a consonant,

change the ending to -ies to make the noun plural.

city – cities

puppy – puppies

6. If the singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a vowel, simply

add an -s to make it plural.

ray – rays

boy – boys

7. If the singular noun ends in -o, add -es to make it plural.

potato – potatoes

tomato – tomatoes

Exceptions:

photo – photos

piano – pianos

halo – halos

With the unique word volcano, you can apply the standard pluralization for

words that end in -o or not. It‘s your choice! Both of the following are correct: volcanoes

volcanos

8. If the singular noun ends in -us, the plural ending is frequently -i.

cactus – cacti

focus – foci

9. If the singular noun ends in -is, the plural ending is -es.

analysis – analyses

ellipsis – ellipses

10. If the singular noun ends in -on, the plural ending is -a.

phenomenon – phenomena

criterion – criteria

11. Some nouns don‘t change at all when they‘re pluralized. sheep – sheep

series – series

species – species

deer –deer

You need to see these nouns in context to identify them as singular or plural.

Consider the following sentence:

Mark caught one fish, but I caught three fish.

PLURAL NOUN RULES FOR IRREGULAR NOUNS

54

Irregular nouns follow no specific rules, so it‘s best to memorize these or look up the proper pluralization in the dictionary.

child – children goose – geese man – men woman – women tooth – teeth foot – feet mouse – mice person – people 30. LISTENING

ALC Vol 2300: Kaset 2303A (A Picnic). The listening material can be changed by

others, depend on the teacher or lecture‘s purpose and material.

55

56

BAB VIII REFERENCING

31. UMUM.

Pada bab VIII ini banyak dijelaskan tentang referencing in the English

writing, grammar focus and listening

32. REFERENCING

Not everything in your writing need be documented. Facts and ideas that

are ‗common knowledge‘ (and not from a quotation), as well as your own

thoughts, opinions and conclusions do not need to be documented. But

whenever you rely on an idea or the writing of someone else in support of your

own thesis, this must be credited. If you fail to do this, you will be guilty of

plagiarism. (See Section about Plagiarism)

a. Types of references As well as referring to another work within your text (see Section Quoting), you have to give more details about your sources in one or more of these places:

1) Footnote

* provides details about the source of an in-text citation. * placed at the bottom of the page where the citation appears.

2) Endnote

* provides details about the source of an in-text citation. * placed at the end of the article or paper, on a separate sheet of paper.

3) Bibliography

* complete list of reference books, articles and other source materials cited in your work, in alphabetical order by author

* placed at the end of the article or paper, on a separate sheet of paper. b. Style sheets Every publisher and discipline have its own requirements and provides style sheets on how references should be laid out, even though they all require the same basic information. These style sheets are readily available, and provide style standards for writing in most fields, sciences, and disciplines. As a professional writer, you are responsible for knowing and following the standard of your particular discipline.

c. Format of references The basic guidelines below apply to how you lay out the details about a source in a footnote, an endnote or a bibliography. For how you actually cite a source in your text see Section about Quoting. Quoting. The examples given follow APA style, as governed by The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Check whether this style actually applies to your own discipline.

1) Reference to a book. Information to include:

* names of the author(s): surname first, with initials for given names. * year of publication, in parentheses

57

* title of the book underlined; only the first word needs to have a capital letter. * city where published * name of the publisher

authors

year title

place publisher Kellogg, R.T. (1994

) The psychology of writing

New York:

Oxford University Press Barzun, J and

Graff, H.F. (1992)

The modern researcher 5

th edn Orlando:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Notes:

* when there are more than three authors, generally only one is listed, followed by a comma and et al. author date titl

e place publisher

Brown, S., et al.

(1996)

500 tips for research students

London: Kogan Paul

* in your bibliography, if there are two or more works by the same author, they should be listed chronologically. If there are two by the same author in the same year, the date is followed by a, b, etc.

Fitzgerald, R. F.

(1989) Controlling oil spills Fitzgerald, R. F.

(1990a) Water purification systems Fitzgerald, R.

F. (1990b) Water waste today

2) Reference to an article from a journal. Information to include:

* name of the author(s) * year of publication, in parentheses * title of the article, without quotation marks or underlining, with only

the first word capitalized * name of the journal underlined, with all major words having a capital letter. * volume number, underlined. * inclusive page numbers, not preceded by p or pp.

author(s) date titl

e journal

volume

pages Hartley, J. (1991

) Tabling information

American Psychologist 46,6: 655-6 Eklundh, K.S.

(1994)

Linear and non-linear strategies in computer- based writing

Computers and Composition

11: 203-16

3) Reference to an unpublished work. The information would appear as follows:

author date (if known)

title source/ availability Reese, R.A. (unpublished) Survey of, postgraduate

student writers‘ use of computer software.

Paper available from the author, Computer Centre, Hull University

4) Reference to material from electronic media and the Internet. Information to include:

* names of the author(s), if known * title of the extract * title of the complete work (if known), underlined * if CD-ROM, then: name of CD-ROM producer + publication date * if Internet, then: name of producer of online website * Internet address of the quoted material * date that the site was accessed online

author titl

e producer

address

date accessed Middlebu

ry Citing electronic sources

MLA <http://www.middlebury.edu/ ~lib/citing.mla.html>

(July 1999)

58

33. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Modal Verbs.

What are modal verbs?

Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary

verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs which

behave irregularly in English. They are different

from normal verbs like "work, play, visit..." They

give additional information about the function of

the main verb that follows it. They have a great

variety of communicative functions.

Here are some characteristics of modal verbs:

They never change their form. You can't add "s", "ed", "ing"...

They are always followed by an infinitive without "to" (e.i. the bare

infinitive.)

They are used to indicate modality allow speakers to express certainty,

possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability

List of modal verbs

Here is a list of modal verbs:

can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must

The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need not behave like modal auxiliaries to a large extent and my be added to the above list

Use of modal verbs: Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:

1. Permission 2. Ability 3. Obligation 4. Prohibition 5. Lack of necessity 6. Advice 7. possibility

59

8. probability

Examples of modal verbs Here is a list of modals with examples: Modal Verb Expressing Example

must Strong obligation You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.

logical conclusion / Certainty

He must be very tired. He's been working all day long.

must not prohibition You must not smoke in the hospital. can ability I can swim.

permission Can I use your phone please? possibility Smoking can cause cancer.

could ability in the past When I was younger I could run fast. polite permission Excuse me, could I just say something? possibility It could rain tomorrow!

may permission May I use your phone please? possibility, probability It may rain tomorrow!

might polite permission Might I suggest an idea? possibility, probability I might go on holiday to Australia next

year. need not lack of

necessity/absence of obligation

I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of tomatoes in the fridge.

should/ought to

50 % obligation I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.

advice You should / ought to revise your lessons logical conclusion He should / ought to be very tired. He's

been working all day long. had better advice You 'd better revise your lessons

Remember Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "to", also called the bare infinitive. Examples:

You must stop when the traffic lights turn red. You should see to the doctor. There are a lot of tomatoes in the fridge. You need not buy any.

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34. LISTENING

The listening material can be changed by others, depend on the teacher or lecture’s

purpose and material.

ALC Vol 2300: Kaset 2305A (A Cold Morning)

A COLD MORNING

Jim : Good morning, Mr. Jones. How are you this morning?

Mr. Jones : Pretty good for Monday. Weekends spoil me. I sleep late on

Saturday and Sunday, and I surely hate to get up early on

Monday morning.

Joe : So do I, especially after I turn in late the night before. B-r-r-r,

didn`t it get cold this morning!

Bill : I`ll say it did. Yesterday it was cloudy, but it cleared up

during the night and the thermometer dropped way down this

morning.

Frank : Why does it usually get so much colder when there is no

cloud cover and when the wind dies down at night?

John : Because cloudy weather in winter generally indicates an area

of low barometric pressure, and the air is warmer and contains

more humidity. After the colder, heavier air pushes away the

warmer, lighter air, the wind often stops and we have a hard

freeze.

Frank : The radio said it got down to 140 Fahrenheit during the night,

just 140 above zero.

Jim : You mean to tell me it`s not even freezing now?

John : Oh, yes, the low was 180 below freezing, and I suppose it`s

still about 150 below freezing.

Joe : In my country zero is called the freezing point.

Frank : That is the freezing point on the Celcius or centigrade scale,

but 320 is the freezing point on the Fahrenheit scale.

Tom : Well, sir, what is the difference?

John : I think I can explain the difference. The freezing point of

water is 00 on the centigrade thermometer and 320 on the

Fahrenheit scale, while the boiling point is 1000 on the

centigrade and 2120 on the Fahrenheit scales.

Frank : I wonder how cold it is in this room now? My feet are frozen!

Bill : Mine are, too, but otherwise I feel fairly warm.

Tom : The thermostat in the hall is set for 700 F.

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Joe : Yes, but remember the thermostat is in the hall and at least

feet high on the wall, and it could be a lot colder near the floor

in this room.

Jim : Why is that? It always feels warmer in the upper part of the

room than on my feet.

Frank : That is because the warmer, lighter air always rise and

colder, heavier air replaces the lower layers of air. As the warm

air gradually rises and the level of colder air reaches the height

of the thermostat, it automatically comes on and starts up the

heating system.

Tom : It`s time for the `break`. Let`s go out and smoke. Maybe we`ll

get warm moving around some.

62

BAB IX COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

35. UMUM.

Pada bab IX ini banyak dijelaskan tentang English Comparison and

Contrast yang diaplikasikan pada reading Properties of material in the engineer.

Juga grammar focus and listening

36. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Comparing means putting two or more objects, facts or ideas together and

stating in what ways they are similar or dissimilar. The two phenomena must be

comparable, that is, they must have some characteristics in common.

Comparing two things is a fairly simple logical operation. Nevertheless,

there is a wide variety of phrases and sentence structures that can be used to

express different kinds of comparison.

In what different ways can things be compared?

Similarity

When you want to emphasise the similarity between two things, you can use the

following sentence patterns:

A is

are

should be

(about / almost / roughly /

essentially the same as)

B

similar to

like

equal to

No different from

can be compared directly to in every

respect

A and B are identical in most

respects

in that …

The same

alike

similar

Some example sentences

* The characteristic feature of the totality of natural numbers, …, is logically

equivalent to the principle of mathematical induction.

* A point set in S in the plane is called bounded if …. For a point set in space the

definition is similar; we ….

* By way of analogy, the ALU may be thought of as a super adding-machine.

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* We define an accumulation point of S in exactly the same way as we did for

point set on the line.

* Sweden, like Finland, has very large resources of timber.

The following linking words and phrases may also be used to express similarity:

like …; as well as …; both … and …; just as …; In the same way, …

Similarly, …

Dissimilarity

Dissimilarity basically means that one phenomenon is either more or less than

another in one or several respects. The following structures can be used:

A is (much)

(far)

(substantially)

(somewhat)

(rather)

(slightly)

adjective + -er

more + adjective

less + adjective

than B

(almost) as + adjective as

is

not

(quite) so + adjective

Example sentence:

So even though it's non-porous, much thicker and far more reliable than gold

plating, we can almost always offer our glad connectors for less than you would

pay for an ordinary connector. In general, the dependence of the open-loop gain

on temperature is of less importance than the thermal behaviour of the amplifier

frequency response.

Superiority and inferiority

This means saying how something is better or worse than something else, with

regard to particular features. Phrases you can use include:

A is superior to

inferior to

B in a certain way

from a certain point of view

with regard to …

as regards …

in being

in that it is

inasmuch as it

is

more + adjective

less + adjective

in giving

showing

exhibiting

more + noun

greater + noun

less + noun

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Example sentences:

* The reciprocating pump is superior to the rotary pump in being more efficient.

* The yarn strength of air-vortex spun yarns is somewhat inferior to that of rotor-

spun yarns, a 5% difference in strength being reported.

Proportionality and disproportionality

When two objects, X and Y, are considered in relation to each other, the

variability of certain of their features or characteristics can be compared. The

comparison may produce either a proportional or a disproportional result. You

can use the following sentence structures:

A feature of

X

changes

varies

(inversely) with as according to in accordance with

(a change in)

(a variation

in)

a feature of

Y

is proportional to

as a feature of X changes,

varies,

so does a feature of

Y

so

the better the (better) + verb

Example sentences:

* The higher the velocity of steam, the greater the turbine speed.

* Data input rise and fall times reduce as driver output impedance increases.

* The critical twist value, after which strength decreases, is lower for the former,

but increases with increasing yarn linear density, which is the reverse of the

effect found for conventional yarns.

* During expansion, the pressure varies inversely to the volume.

Contrasting.

Contrasting is a specific kind of comparison. Whereas in comparing you normally

look for at least one feature that the two or more objects have in common, in

contrasting you aim to identify the differences between them.

Here are some useful sentence structures:

It is common

useful

valuable

to distinguish

to differentiate

to make a distinction

Between A and B

A differs from

is different from

B in a certain respect

in the fact that …

in that it is…

can be distinguished

from

by its … (a certain characteristic)

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Unlike

In contrast to

As opposed to

As distinct from

As against

B, A is + adjective

has + noun

Some common conjunctions and sentence linkers for expressing contrast:

While …, … Whereas …, … On the other hand, …

Example sentences:

* The RAM differs from the ROM in that it can be written into as well as read

from.

* It is useful to differentiate between a blower and a liquid.

* The engine, as distinct from the earlier one, has six cylinders.

* Unlike discrete-component designs, however, the microprocessor is not

programmed using …

* These differences are ascribed to the fact … most fibres have both ends spun in,

whereas in the case of ring-spun yarns one fibre end frequently protrudes from

the yarn.

* A hot engine will run on a weak mixture. On the other hand, a cold engine

requires a richer mixture.

37. GUIDED WRITING

Example: Arrange the following cues in proper word order to make complete

sentences. Write the sentences in paragraph form. Begin your paragraph with

this sentences: The science of aviation has developed greatly over the years.

1. Leonardo da vinci – experimental models – made – of flying machines – in the

fifteenth century

2. made – a Frenchman, de Rogier – in 1783 – the first ballon flight

3. an Englishman, Henson – of a steam powered aircraft – made a model – in

1842

4. in 1853 – Henri Gifford – the first steam powered, lighter than aircraft – flew

5. Otto Lilienthal – the first glider – made – 1891 – in Germany

6. by the North Americans, Orville and Wilbur Wright – the first engine powered,

heavier than air planes – in the early twentieth century – were made and flown –

and the Brazilian, Alberto Santos Dumont

The science of aviation has developed greatly over the years. Leonardo da

vinci made experimental models of flying machines in the fifteenth century. A

Frenchman, de Rogier made the first ballon flight in 1783. An Englishman,

Henson made a model of a steam powered aircraft in 1842. Henri Gifford flew

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the first steam powered, lighter than aircraft in 1853. Otto Lilienthal made the

first glider in Germany in 1891. In the early twentieth century the first engine

powered, heavier than air planes were made and flown by the North Americans,

Orville and Wilbur Wright and the Brazilian, Alberto Santos Dumont.

38. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

Read and study the following paragraphs which are developed according to

time sequence:

Aunt Frances

Let me tell you about my Aunt Frances. She had an interesting life. She

became a secretary after she finished high school. She didn`t like that work, so

she entered a university. At first, she wanted to be a teacher. Then she decided to

be a nurse. Then she thought about being an engineer. Finally, she decided to be

a doctor. She married after she received Her M.D. degree, and she soon had five

children. However, she continued to work. After some years of experience, she

became a medical researcher. She devoted her career to cancer research.

39. READING

FUTURISTIC MILITARY COMBAT ROBOTS

The latest war robot technology - The war of the present day is predicted

for the future, not the same as the World War II era or the Cold War era. The war

in the future will favor a war robot that can be controlled from a distance. For

now, the country that is being intensively incessantly preparing its military robot

is the United States, Russia and China.

On September 8, 2016, Russia showed off their latest war robot technology

featuring dynamic performances involving mine clearance operations and

demonstrating speed and maneuverability in modern warfare. The robots

featured will include the Nerechta robot system, the Avtorobot, the crew-carrying

robot, and Shershen, which is an unmanned aircraft.The Newest Robot War

Technology Ready to Face The Modern War Age In The Future In addition, the

United States has also begun research to create a war robot that will help its

military defense. They want a robot that can be controlled from a distance and

does not require human labor to perform some military tasks. It is prepared to

face the year 2019 that reportedly the United States will lower its military forces

to 420,000 from 540,000 people today

The first Robot Bagal, which is a robot that resembles a horse and four-

legged. They named it AlphaDog. The use of this robot is to carry heavy items and

can cross even uneven terrain by staying stable. Second is IRobot's 710 Cobra, is

a bomb-disposal robot that will help US military forces. As we know, the act of

67

throwing bombs is very dangerous and risky if done by humans. So iRobot was

created to perform this action with the remote control. And the last is Robot

Guard, is a robot that will replace the role of human soldiers in maintaining

certain areas. This robot able to watch for 24 hours and able to detect the arrival

of the opponent. This robot is also equipped with weapons that can launch a shot

as far as 3 miles.

On the other side China has also invested heavily to deliver robots

equipped with Artificial Intelligence as its military robot. China's latest war

technology robot is in the stage of perfection that each unit is equipped with

antitank bullet weapons, grenades and assault rifles that make this Chinese

military robot into the ideal robot for the battle

Reference by Pahompu.com

Answer these questions!

1. What do you know about robot?

2. Do you think that robots are important for future? Why?

3. Do you want a robot in your house? Give the reason.

4. What do you think about combat military robots?

5. Do you agree if robot is using in the war? Why?

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BAB X AGREEING AND DISAGREEING

40. UMUM.

Pada bab X ini banyak dijelaskan tentang Agreeing And Disagreeing,

grammar focus and dialogue.

41. AGREEING AND DISAGREEING

Agreeing and disagreeing are typical elements of spoken English but may

also appear in scientific writing. When writers want to compare their findings

with those of other scientists, they may have to express their agreement or

disagreement. For example:

These results agree with the findings of X's research …

Other contexts in which phrases expressing agreement appear in scientific

literature include making assumptions or conclusions.:

Assumption It is generally agreed that …

Conclusion In the previous chapter, we agreed to …

a. What language can I use to express agreement?

The following verbs and phrases express varying degrees of agreement. Verbs

such as agree are normally used in the active form with a personal subject

(except in the examples given above).

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We entirely agree with his views on …

We are in complete agreement with …

We would (strongly) endorse X's opinion on …

Our findings support those of … We would agree with X in principle, but … By and large, we accept what X says, but …

b. How can I express disagreement There are a variety of verbs and other phrases for expressing disagreement. In particular, some phrases are useful when refuting, or arguing against, another scholar's findings.

We completely disagree with X on this point.

We are in total disagreement with … (Regretfully), we are unable to accept X's conclusion that …

We are not at all convinced by X's argument that …

We have to say that X's argument is somewhat

unconvincing.

Some linking phrases for contradicting what someone else has written:

In actual fact, … In point of fact, … On the contrary, …

Here are some phrases for expressing partial or tentative disagreement:

We agree with X's findings up to a point, but … X may be right in certain respects, but our findings show that … We respect X's work in this area, but our initial conclusions indicate that …

70

42. GRAMMAR FOCUS: So, Neither, Too And Either

SO, NEITHER, TOO AND EITHER

a. ‗So do I‘ and ‗neither do I‘ I use ‗so do I‘ to say that a positive sentence is also true for me, and I use ‗neither do I‘ to say that a negative sentence is also true for me: • John: I hate mushrooms. • Me: So do I (=I also hate mushrooms). • Lucy: I don‘t live in London. • Me: Neither do I (=I also don‘t live in London. For example, maybe Lucy and I both live in Paris). This is often used as a reply to someone else in a conversation, but both sentences can also be said by the same person, and even joined together: • Me: Elizabeth loves coffee. So do I. • Me: Harry doesn‘t play the piano and neither do I. In my examples above, I use ‗do‘ because the first sentence is in the present simple tense. The verb after ‗so‘ or ‗neither‘ changes depending on the tense of the verb in the first sentence. (This is very similar to tag questions). Present simple: use ‗do / does‘

Lucy likes coffee. So do I. Lucy doesn‘t like coffee. Neither do I.

Present simple with ‗be‘: use ‗am / is / are‘

John‘s at the office. So am I. John isn‘t at the office. Neither am I.

Present continuous: use ‗am / is / are‘

Luke‘s going out tonight. So am I. Luke isn‘t going out tonight. Neither am I.

Past Simple: use ‗did‘

Jill went to the cinema yesterday. So did I. Jill didn‘t go to the cinema yesterday. Neither did I. Past simple with ‗be‘:

use ‗was / were‘ She was at the library. So was I. She wasn‘t at the library. Neither was I.

Present perfect: use ‗have / has‘

They‘ve been to Colombia. So have I. They haven‘t been to Colombia. Neither have I. Future simple:

use ‗will‘ Edward will be at the cafe later. So will I. Edward won‘t be at the cafe later. Neither will I. Modal verbs:

repeat the modal verb He would like a cup of tea. So would I. He wouldn‘t like a cup of tea. Neither would I. Emma can speak Russian. So can I. Emma can‘t speak Russian. Neither can I.

b. What about ‗too‘ and ‗either‘? We can also use ‗I do too‘ and ‗I don‘t either‘, which mean the same as ‗so do I‘ and ‗neither do I‘: • John: I hate mushrooms. • Me: I do too (=I also hate mushrooms). • Lucy: I don‘t live in London. • Me: I don‘t either (=I also don‘t live in London). The verb changes in the same way as with ‗so do I‘ and ‗neither do I‘ (remember you need a negative verb with ‗either‘):

71

Present simple : John‘s at the office. I am too. Present continuous : Luke isn‘t going out tonight. I’m not either. Present perfect : They‘ve been to Colombia. I have too. Modal verbs : Emma can‘t speak Russian. I can’t either. c. ‗Me too‘ and ‗me neither‘: We can also use ‗me too‘ and ‗me neither‘. ‗Me too‘ has the same meaning as ‗so + auxiliary verb + I‘ and ‗me neither‘ has the same meaning as ‗neither + auxiliary verb + I‘. ‗Me too‘ and ‗me neither‘ are very informal. • John: I hate mushrooms. • Me: Me too (=I also hate mushrooms). • Lucy: I don‘t live in London. • Me: Me neither (=I also don‘t live in London). d. Subjects other than ‗I‘: Of course, we can also use these expressions to talk about what‘s true for other people, not just ourselves: • John: I hate mushrooms. • Me: So does Laura / Laura does too / Laura too. • Lucy: I don‘t live in London. • Me: Neither does David / David doesn‘t either / David neither.

Some more examples:

We live in London and so do they.

Emma loves tennis. Jill and Laura do too.

My parents don‘t come here often. Neither does Alex.

She isn‘t French and neither is he.

You don‘t like cold weather. Neither do we.

43. DIALOGUE ASKING, WARNING AND COMMAND

Match these sentences in the same way:

Example: Ron : The tank is empty

Alan : Please fill it

a. The tank is empty (1) Please loosen it.

b. The door is open. (2) Please open them

72

c. The belt is tight (3) Please empty it

d. The window are closed (4) Please pick it up

e. The screws are loose (5) Please fill it.

f. The bin is full. (6) Please open it.

g. The bottles are empty (7) Please tighten them.

h. The light is on (8) Please switch it off

i. The saw is on the floor (9) Please close it

j. The box is closed (10) Please fill them.

What is Ron Saying?

‘Don’t touch it!’

Repeat : Don‘t touch it! It‘s live

73

Match the pictures, the warning and the reasons

Match the Command or Instructions with the numbers in the picture

74

BAB XI SUMMARY, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING

44. UMUM.

Pada bab ini menjelaskan tentang Summary, Paraphrasing or sentences

based on the English concept and Quoting sentence or paragraph. Juga dibahas

grammar focus dan listening.

45. SUMMARY, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING

a. Summary

A summary is a condensation of the main ideas in an article or in a

section of someone else's writing. A summary may stand alone, for example as a

similar piece of writing to an abstract. Or it may simply form a section within a

longer piece of your writing. The aim of a summary is to give your readers a

clear, objective, accurate and balanced account of an article they may, or may

not, have not read, and to put it into the context of your own work.

Summarizing therefore is a skill that involves picking out the key ideas

in someone else's writing and linking them up in your own words.

1) What is the difference between summarizing and paraphrasing?

There are clear similarities between the two since both involve the re-

writing of an author's ideas in your own words. (See Section Paraphrasing)

However, the main differences are:

a) a summary is likely to be shorter. Whereas paraphrasing may

involve keeping more or less to the same length as the original, a

summary could be the reduction of a long paragraph to a sentence,

an article to a paragraph or a book to a page.

b) a summary will keep to the structure and content of the original

more closely than a paraphrase. The latter is more likely to include

your personal gloss or interpretation of the original; in a summary

you should avoid adding extra information or ideas that are not

actually in the text you have read.

2) When is summary writing useful?

Apart from the need to summarize other writers' ideas at particular

points when writing a research paper, the skill is valuable in these

situations:

a) when reviewing an article or book

b) when annotating a bibliography entry

75

c) when preparing an abstract

In addition, of course, it is useful to develop the skill by keeping summary

'note cards' on other works that you read. In particular, this will help you

to avoid plagiarism, since by writing from notes you will be presenting

information in your own words.

3) Are there any guidelines for summary writing?

a) Read the whole of the original text quickly to gain an impression

of its content and its relevance to your work.

b) Highlight the main points as you read.

c) Make notes of your own on these points.

d) Put away the original and rewrite your notes in your own words in

complete sentences.

e) Begin your summary with a statement of the main idea at the

start. Don't forget to include referencing of your source.

f) Using your notes, write out your subsidiary or supporting

points in coherent, well- connected sentences.

g) Re-read your work to check that you have included all the information

that you need.

4) Sample summary

The main points in the text below can be written in a shorter, summary form for

inclusion in your own writing. Points about the summary:

a) it is about one third of the length of the original (88 words,

compared to 273 in the original

b) the number of sentences has been reduced from 16 to 4.

c) the information has been compressed into these 4 sentences by

* cutting out less important information, e.g., examples.

* reducing a whole clause or sentence to a phrase.

* by using more subordinate clauses.

* linking ideas by simple use of commas.

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Original text

Solar power is energy generated from the sun. Many electronic devices, such as watches and calculators, can use the sun's energy directly to provide the power they need. Light energy from the sun changes the electrical conducting properties of the silicon crystals, and a tiny electric current starts to flow. This system is called a solar cell. Although solar cells used on earth do not provide much power, satellites in space run on the same principle. They get many times more energy because they are closer to the sun. In the future, workers in space may build huge power stations from solar cells many kilometers wide. The electricity generated could be beamed down as microwaves and then converted back into electricity. Most of the solar power that we use today is based on a much simpler principle than the silicon solar cell. Solar panels on the roofs of houses heat water directly for bathing and central heating systems. The industrial version of the solar panel is the solar furnace, in which huge, curved solar panels, together with a system of mirrors, concentrate a large amount of solar energy onto a small area. The heat energy makes steam for generating electricity. Solar power is clean, renewable, non-polluting and does not damage the environment. It is potentially one of the more important sources of energy in the world. A major disadvantage of solar energy is that the amount of energy generated depends on the season, the part of the world and the weather on a particular day. Another disadvantage is that the raw materials for solar panels, such as glass and aluminum, are quite expensive.

from Dr Trisha Greenhalgh (1994) Environment Today Harlow, Longman

Sample summary Dr Greenhalgh explains how solar power works in two ways. Light from the sun can generate a tiny current in silicon crystals, creating a solar cell, which is used to run space satellites and, in the future, could provide electricity from space power stations. Solar panels, or the larger industrial solar furnace, generate heat directly through concentrating solar energy in a small area. Solar power is renewable, non-polluting, and potentially an important energy source, but its value is limited by weather, region and the cost of raw materials.

Points to check in your own writing.

In my summary, is there a clear thesis statement (with the writer's main

idea)?

Does it give a reader who has not read the original a clear idea of what it

said?

Does it include the writer's other main supporting points? Have I cut

out unnecessary detail and examples?

Does the finished summary have the same balance of ideas as the original

text?

Is it written in simpler language than the original?

Do the ideas in the?

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b. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means expressing the thought, meaning and attitude of

another author in your own words, in a clear and straightforward way. It is

therefore similar to quoting, but it is done indirectly, without using the original

writer's actual words or speech marks. With paraphrasing, you avoid continuous

strings of direct quotations and are able to maintain your own style and tone of

writing. However, as with direct quoting, it is essential that you do proper

referencing for all your paraphrases.

With a paraphrase, your aim is to relate what the author has said to your

own piece of work, and this often requires you to provide an interpretation, or

gloss, on their ideas in some way, to make them fit into your argument. A

paraphrase is not just a simple re-wording of the original.

1) How long should a paraphrase be?

There is no set length, as it depends on how much of a writer's work you

want to refer to, and in how much detail. In some cases, paraphrasing may

simply involve reducing, or summarizing, what the original writer has said into a

single sentence:

The first published professional response to ape language studies was an article

by Jacob Bronowski and Ursula Bellugi (1970). They argued that although

chimpanzees might be able to use reference, they could not break grammatical

units down to their units and recombine them (a process they called

'reconstitution').

It may give a more detailed description of a writer's argument, consisting of

a paragraph or more:

Levins (1968) used fitness sets to identify the optimal genetic strategy in response

to environmental variation. The optimal genetic strategy is not determined solely by

the nature of the environmental heterogeneity but partly by the perception of that

heterogeneity. For example, it is very unlikely that …. The general conclusion of

these analyses of fitness sets was that fine-grained species would evolve a

strategy of monomorphism, whereas coarse-grained species would maintain

polymorphism.

2) Language to use to introduce paraphrases

You can use the same 'reporting' verbs for paraphrasing as are given in

Section 4.8 on Quoting. In particular, verbs that reflect the original writer's

purpose or attitude towards his/her subject are useful when paraphrasing, e.g.

X identifies … as …

X defends his position by arguing that ….

X attacks his opponents with his statement that …

X affirms his opinion that …

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Note that the 'reporting' verb can be followed by that … (or this can be

omitted). Punctuation: there is no comma before or after that:

Fred Hein explains that each person's heredity is unique, except for

identical twins.

The normal grammatical rules for writing indirect speech apply:

* When the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb tense in the reported

clause, together with pronouns and time phrases may also have to be changed to

indicate the correct time references.

MacSpratt (6) found that when sheep were deficient in nitrogen, the rate of mitosis

in wool follicles was 63% of normal and concluded that nitrogen is essential to

normal growth of wool.

Note that the last verb is is in the present tense: this is because the writer is

generalizing or making a conclusion about what he regards as a general truth. If

the writer knows that later work found this conclusion to be false, he will use

was instead.

You can also use the other introductory phrases given in the section on

quoting. These in fact are more commonly used with indirect quotations than

with direct ones.

With indirect quotations, you can also simply put the name of the source at

the end of the paraphrase, without any 'reporting' verb or introductory phrase:

Changes in the surface heating of the earth will result in changes in the heating

of the atmosphere which in turn can affect the climate (Cohen, 1994).

c. Quoting

When writing a research paper or report, it is normal to include references

and quotations from the work of others. This is for one or more of the following

reasons:

to cite evidence or opinions from an authority on the subject in support of

your argument

to put forward someone else's viewpoint that you intend to argue against

to show the range of source materials you have used to support or

challenge your own ideas

to acknowledge that your arguments derive from the work of others and

thereby put them into their academic context.

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What kinds of quotation are there?

Quotations in your text can either be.

direct: that is, you use the actual words of the original writer, or

indirect: that is, you paraphrase what the original source says by putting

the ideas in your own words.

In general, it is preferable to use the indirect, or paraphrasing, method since this

incorporates the other author's ideas better into the flow of your own text.

However, there are occasions when direct quotations are better:

when the author expresses an idea in a particularly succinct or memorable

way that it is impossible to improve on it

when the writer is such an important authority on the subject that his/her

actual words are significant

when you want to avoid any ambiguity about the quoted ideas

Language to use to introduce quotations.

There are a wide variety of 'reporting' verbs and verb phrases that you can

use to introduce a quotation. Here are some of the more common ones.

acknowledge … admit … allege … argue …

assert … assume … believe … claim …

conclude … contend … demonstrate … describe …

emphasize explain … imply … indicate …

make the point … observe … point out … postulate

…

predict … propose … prove … report …

say … show … state … suggest …

think … write.

Be careful about the verb tenses of these verbs:

1) If you use MLA Style, you should put the verbs in the present tense both

for personal comments and for quotations.

2) If you use APA style (more common for the natural sciences), you should

put the verbs in the past tense for citations, and only use the present tense for

generalizations and statements about unchanging facts. (See the example

quotations above).

You can introduce your citation with any of these longer phrases:

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According to X, …

As X has shown, …

For X, …

In X's view, …

By this, X meant …

X was of the opinion that …

X distinguished between … and …

X characterised / considered / defined / recognised / referred to / regarded

… as …

X illustrated his / her argument by saying / stating / showing that …

X laid particular emphasis on …

X makes the following claim / point / statement: …

X put forward the theory that …

Referring to …, X said / stated / showed …

46. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Conditional Sentence.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

Conditional sentence adalah sebuah kalimat pengandaian dalam bahasa

Inggris. Tapi conditional sentence ini ada beberapa jenis, penggunaannya

tergantung pada fungsi Kalimatnya. Pada dasarnya, conditional sentence terdiri

dari 2 klausa, if clause dan main Clause. Bentuk tenses kedua klausa ini bisa

berubah berdasarkan jenis conditional sentence yang kamu pakai.

Ada 4 tipe conditional sentence, yaitu:

a. Conditional Sentence Tipe 0

Conditional sentence ini digunakan untuk menggambarkan fakta atau

kebenaran umum yang sudah pasti. Misalnya, jika kamu memanaskan air, air

itu akan mendidih. Sudah pasti terjadi bukan?

Untuk conditional tipe ini, rumusnya adalah sebagai berikut:

If + simple present tense, simple present tense

Contoh:

If you heat water, it boils. (Jika kamu memanaskan air, airnya akan

mendidih.)

If you freeze water, it becomes ice. (Jika kamu membekukan air, airnya

akan menjadi es.)

b. Conditional Sentence Tipe 1

Conditional tipe 1 digunakan untuk menggambarkan situasi yang mungkin

atau diandaikan terjadi di masa depan dan memiliki kemungkinan yang besar

untuk benar-benar terjadi. Rumusnya adalah sebagai berikut:

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If + simple present tense, simple future

Contoh:

If you study, you will pass the exam. (Jika kamu belajar, kamu akan lulus

ujian.)

If you wash your hands, you won’t get sick.(Jika kamu cuci tangan, kamu

tidak akan sakit.)

Dalam kedua kalimat di atas, berarti ada kemungkinan situasi tersebut tidak

terjadi. Misalnya kalaupun belajar, bisa saja tetap tidak lulus. Atau walaupun

cuci tangan, tetap bisa sakit. Namun, masih ada kemungkinan besar bahwa

kamu akan lulus ujian (kalimat pertama) dan tidak sakit (kalimat kedua).

c. Conditional Sentence Tipe 2

Berbeda sedikit dari conditional tipe 1, conditional tipe 2 digunakan untuk

menggambarkan situasi yang tidak realistis atau memiliki kemungkinan yang

sangat kecil untuk terjadi. Misalnya membayangkan sesuatu yang tidak

mungkin atau berangan-angan. Rumus conditional tipe 2 adalah sebagai

berikut:

If + past tense, would + infinitive

Contoh:

If I were you, I would rest right now. (Jika aku adalah kamu, aku akan

beristirahat sekarang.)

If you owned a theme park, what would you do? (Jika kamu mempunyai

taman hiburan, apa yang akan kamu lakukan?)

Dalam kalimat pertama, jelas situasi tersebut tidak realistis. Tidak mungkin

‗aku‘ bisa menjadi ‗kamu‘. Dalam kalimat kedua, ada kemungkinan ‗kamu‘ akan

memiliki taman hiburan, tapi kemungkinan tersebut sangat kecil.

Yang juga perlu diperhatikan adalah penggunaan ‗were‘ dalam kalimat pertama.

Kamu mungkin bertanya, I bukannya pakai ‗was‘ ya? Nah, dalam conditional

sentence tipe 2, semua subjek baik itu tunggal atau jamak semuanya

menggunakan were. Jadi was sama sekali tidak dipakai ya.

Kata would juga bisa diganti dengan beberapa auxiliary verb lainnya seperti

could atau might.

d. Conditional Sentence Tipe 3

Kalau dari conditional tipe 1 dan 2 membicarakan kondisi yang belum

terjadi, conditional tipe 3 digunakan untuk merujuk ke masa lalu dan berandai-

andai bagaimana situasi saat ini bisa berbeda jika yang terjadi di masa lalu

berbeda. Rumusnya adalah sebagai berikut:

If + past perfect, would have + V3

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Contoh:

If I had done my homework, I would have been able to play now. (Jika saja

saya sudah mengerjakan PR saya, saya sekarang bisa bermain.)

If she hadn’t tried, she wouldn’t have gotten the scholarship. (Jika saja dia

tidak mencoba, dia tidak akan mendapatkan beasiswa.)

Artinya, klausa utama dalam kedua kalimat di atas tidak benar-benar terjadi.

‗Saya‘ tidak bisa bermain sekarang karena nyatanya belum mengerjakan PR.

‗Dia‘ nyatanya mendapatkan beasiswa karena dia telah mencoba.

Kalau dirangkum, rumus keempat tipe conditional sentence adalah sebagai

berikut:

47. LISTENING

Listen and watch the video or any audio references (teacher can choose any

conversation about science) that will be played by the teacher. Write the

summary or paraphrasing about it. Find the key words that have discussed (5

keywords max).

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BAB XII INTRODUCING TO A RESEARCH PAPER

48. UMUM.

Pada bab ini menjelaskan tentang introducing to a research paper, reading text,

grammar focus and listening.

49. INTRODUCING TO A RESEARCH PAPER

Research papers are generally written for scientists working in the same field and

therefore have a more limited, and more specialized, readership than articles.

Research papers can appear in specialist journals or be presented at conferences.

The structure of a research paper

A research paper has a more closely defined structure than an article or essay.

There are normally 8 sections in a research paper or scientific report, and these

tend to follow each other in a fixed sequence. Obviously, these may vary,

depending on the nature of the research done. Each element is further described

and explained in Chapter 2 Composition.

Title

It must precisely describe the report‘s contents. The purpose of a piece of

scientific writing is to present information clearly and concisely so that it can be

easily understood. Clarity therefore begins with the title. In scientific and

technical writing, a poetic or stylized title does not help the reader at all. For

example, the following title

The Kopje Drummers of the Karoo

does not tell the reader that the paper is about birds, woodpeckers to be exact.

However, this title

The mating rituals of Geocolaptes olivaceus, South Africa‘s Ground Woodpecker

tells the reader very clearly what the subject of the paper is. Elements in a title

In technical and scientific writing, the title is a precise description of the

contents. It should include specific words to indicate the following:

the topic, that is, the main, general subject you are writing about.

the focus, that is, a detailed narrowing down of the topic into the

particular, limited area of your research

optionally, for a scientific article, the purpose of your writing. This means

including a word such as the following, which tells the reader what kind of

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argumentation to expect:

An analysis of … An assessment of … A comparison of …

A description of … A discussion of … An evaluation of …

An explanation of … An outline of … Some sample titles:

purpose topic focus

An analysis of

carp culture management

as a tool for Mexican crayfish conservation. An overview

of nutritional needs before, during and after an

endurance event. A discussion of

genetic engineering technology

and its effects on the environment. An evaluation of

sewage treatment as a tool in environmental protection.

Punctuation of titles: capital letters • It is clearer to type your title in lower case rather than in capital letters. • Use capital letters for the first letter of all the main words in the

title, including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, longer prepositions, conjunctions

• Do not use capital letters for short structural words (except when they are the first word of the title), such as articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (of, in, to ,at), coordinating conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, for)

Points to check in your own writing.

Be precise and concise; strive for clarity and avoid terms with

multiple meanings which might lead to misunderstanding.

Use key words from the paper to inform readers of the content but

try not to choose too many technical words as this will not attract a

wider audience.

Titles stand alone; they are not a part of the opening sentence or

paragraph.

Abstract

A brief overview of the report.

Introduction

Includes the purpose of the research.

States the hypothesis.

Gives any necessary background information.

Provides a review of pertinent literature.

Methods and materials

Provides a description of material, equipment and methods used in the research.

Results

States the results of the research. Visual materials are included here.

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Discussion

Evaluation and interpretation

Was the hypothesis supported? If so, how? If not, why not? Relevant results are

cited in support.

Conclusion

Conclusions to be drawn from the results Conclusions about the hypothesis

Implications of the research and results Additional research proposed.

References cited.

A list of the references cited, include references to any works cited in the review

of literature in the introduction. Use the documentation style required by your

specific field. (See Sections Referencing and Quoting).

50. READING TEXT

How Geothermal Energy Works

Geothermal electricity are power plants that use geothermal energy as an

energy source. To generate electricity with geothermal done by drilling the

ground in areas that have geothermal potential, to make holes of hot gas that will

be used to heat the boilers (boilers) so that the steam can drive the steam turbine

connected to a generator. For geothermal that has high pressure, can directly

rotate the turbine generator, after the steam that came out cleaned first.

Geothermal power plants, however, use steam produced from reservoirs of hot

water found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's surface. There are three

types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces

electricity. Many power plants still use fossil fuels to boil water for steam.

Geothermal power plants, however, use steam produced from reservoirs of hot

water found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's surface.

Water or working fluid is heated (or used directly incase of geothermal dry

steam power plants), and then sent through a steam turbine where the thermal

energy (heat) is converted to electricity with a generator through a phenomenon

called electromagnetic induction.

Indonesia – 1,197 MW.

Mexico – 958 MW.

Italy – 843 MW.

New Zealand – 628 MW.

Iceland – 575 MW.

Japan – 536 MW.

El Salvador – 204 MW.

Kenya – 167 MW.

Currently, two types of geothermal resources can be used in binary cycle power

plants to generate electricity: enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and low-

temperature or co-produced resources.

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How Geothermal Energy Works.

Heat from the earth can be used as an energy source in many ways, from

large and complex power stations to small and relatively simple pumping

systems. Many regions of the world are already tapping geothermal energy as an

affordable and sustainable solution to reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and

the global warming and public health risks that result from their use. For

example, as of 2013 more than 11,700 megawatts (MW) of large, utility-scale

geothermal capacity was in operation globally, with another 11,700 MW in

planned capacity additions on the way. These geothermal facilities produced

approximately 68 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity, enough to meet the annual

needs of more than 6 million typical U.S. households. Geothermal plants account

for more than 25 percent of the electricity produced in both Iceland and El

Salvador.

Geothermal power stations are similar to other steam turbine thermal

power stations – heat from a fuel source (in geothermal's case, the earth's core) is

used to heat water or another working fluid. The working fluid is then used to

turn a turbine of a generator, thereby producing electricity.

We can also use geothermal energy to make electricity. A geothermal power

plant works by tapping into steam or hot water reservoirs underground; the heat

is used to drive an electrical generator. Most geothermal plants are located in the

western United States, where hot water reservoirs are common.

The three basic designs for geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and

binary cycle. Image: U.S. Department of Energy

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. How energy is produced from geothermal?

2. How the work of geothermal energy?

3. What is the geothermal energy?

4. How does a geothermal power plant work?

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5. What countries that use geothermal energy?

51. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Imperatives Sentence

IMPERATIVES SENTENCE

Imperative sentence merupakan adalah sentence type (tipe kalimat) yang

digunakan untuk membuat perintah (command), peringatan (warning), instruksi

(instruction), nasihat (advice), juga permintaan (request).

Ciri umum dari imperative sentence yang tertulis adalah ada akhiran

berupa exclamation mark (!), atau mengandung kata please.

Namun, kalimat perintah ini juga bisa saja tidak mengandung keduanya.

Pada dasarnya, imperative sentence tidak akan ditemukan subyek kalimat, sebab

subyek you sebagai penerima perintah sudah tersirat di dalamnya.

Kalimat perintah yang menggunakan tanda seru mungkin bisa dikatakan

mirip dengan exclamatory sentence atau kalimat seruan dalam Bahasa Inggris.

Namun, ada perbedaan signifikan yaitu tidak semua exclamatory berisi

perintah atau command. Jika ada tanda seru dalam imperative sentence sudah

jelas menunjukkan perintah atau tekanan kepada lawan bicara.

Walaupun kalimat perintah identik dengan tanda seru, ada juga kalimat

perintah yang berisi kalimat tanya atau question tag. Pada tipe kalimat ini,

biasanya membutuhkan jawaban ya dan tidak.

Selain itu, ada juga tipe kalimat perintah yang diakhiri tanda titik seperti

layaknya kalimat pernyataan lainnya. Perbedaannya ada di makna kalimat itu

sendiri.

Jadi, untuk membedakan mana imperative sentence dengan kalimat biasa,

bisa diidentifikasi dari isi kalimat bukan tanda bacanya. Imperative

sentence yang menggunakan tanda seru atau exclamatory mark mungkin sedikit

mirip dengan exclamatory sentence alias kalimat seruan. Bedanya, tidak

semua exclamatory sentence berisi perintah. Tanda seru dalam imperative

sentence menunjukkan tekanan dalam perintah.

Contoh Penggunaan Imperative Sentence

Untuk memudahkan kamu dalam belajar materi imperative sentence, mari cek

contohnya di bawah ini yang dibedakan sesuai dengan fungsinya.

Request

Have a safe trip! (Semoga perjalananmu aman!)

Eat more vegetables! (Makanlah lebih banyak sayur!)

Have a nice dream! (Semoga mimpi indah!)

Please reconsider my job application. (Tolong pertimbangkan lamaran kerja

saya).

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Leave me alone, please. (Biarkan saya sendiri).

Kindly bring the book to me. (Bawakan buku itu kepadaku).

Write whenever you get a chance. (Tulisan surat kepadaku jika kamu

punya kesempatan)

Advice

Never forget the person who loves you. (Jangan lupakan orang-orang yang

mencintaimu).

Do not pray for an easy life, pray for the strength to endure a difficult one.

(Jangan berdoa untuk kemudahan hidup namun berdoalah untuk

kekuatan dalam menghadapi kesulitan).

Invitation

Come with me! (Ayo ikut aku!)

Please join us for lunch. (Ikutlah makan siang bersama kami)

Let’s go home together! (Ayo pulang bersama)

Come in. (Masuklah).

Baca juga: Personal Pronoun: Definisi, Jenis, Contoh, dan Penggunaannya

Request or command & prohibition

Please don’t touch the baby (Jangan sentuh bayinya )

Go find a new girl! (Carilah pacar baru!)

Close your eyes (Tutup matamu)

Stop talking! (Berhentilah bicara!)

Take a step and don’t move. (Maju selangkah dan jangan bergerak)

Don’t be excited about everything without reason. (Jangan merasa senang

dengan semua hal tanpa alasan).

Don’t stay out at night! (Jangan keluar malam-malam!).

Don’t ever touch my phone. (Jangan pernah menyentuh ponselku).

Instruction

Avoid contact with skin and eyes. (Hindari kontak dengan kulit dan mata).

In case of eye contact, hold eyelid open and flush with waters. (Bila terkena

mata, buka kelopak mata dan bilas dengan air).

Call a physician immediately. (Segera hubungi dokter).

Add a glass of coconut milk into a pan and then boil it. (Tambahkan satu

gelas santan ke dalam panci lalu rebus).

Go straight ahead then turn left. (Jalan lurus ke depan lalu belok kiri).

Imperatives and infinitives for giving suggestions.

• Be sure to turn it on.

• Do not forget to dial the area code.

89

• Make sure to hit the ―end‖ button.

• Remember to pay the bill every month.

• Try not

• to talk for too long.

Look at these suggestions. Which ones refer to an

alarm system (AS)? A cell phone (CP)? A laptop

computer (LC)? Think of another suggestion for each

thing.

1. Try to keep it closed to protect the screen ….

2. Don‘t forget to write down your secret code ….

3. Remember to turn it off as soon as you come in the door…

4. Try not to get it wet or the keys may get stuck ….

5. Make sure to set it each time you leave home …

6. Remember to recharge the batteries before they die …

7. Be sure to turn it off before bed or a call may wake you up. 51. LISTENING AND GROUP ACTIVITIES

Speaking: Free Advice

Each student has to choose three of things below and give advice. Then

listen carefully! Write the name of each item in the chart. You can give the

comment for that advise.

Reading Text

NANO TECHNOLOGY History of Nano Technology

The first concept introduced by Richard Feynman in December 1959. Richard Feynman was a Physicist and in 1965 won a Nobel prize in Physicist. Nano technology was first invented by Prof Norio Taniguchi from Tokyo Science University in 1974. What is Nano technology?

90

Nano technology is the manufacture and use of material or a device on a small size very small I think. Material or a device occur on 1 until 100 nanometers. One nanometer it‘s mean same with 1 million meters (0,00000001 m). It‘s mean 50000 smaller from human‘s hairs. The scientists said 1 until 100nm as Nano scale, and the material as Nano crystals. Nano scale can be said unique, why? because there‘s not solid structure can be minimized. Other unique things are biological mechanisms will go on 0,1 till 100 nm. On this dimensions the material shows different behavior, so the scientists hope finds a new effect on Nano scale and give new steps for technology.

The progress of Nano technology can find in the product on the world. For the example is modifying catalysts on vehicles that reduce air pollutants, device on the computer can read and write to hard disk, cosmetics can block the danger of solar radiation, and sports equipment can improve appearance of the athlete. And now the scientists sure that they uncover potential from Nano technology.

Nowadays, Nano technology is growing, and everyone can‘t prediction how grow for the future. Although the scientists sure that Nano technology will bring an important effect for health, production, electronics, computer, censors, security and defense of the world. The development of Nano Technology in Indonesia

In Indonesia, we also do not to lose. PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, in cooperation with Aerospace Electronics Technology Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Agency ( LAPAN ), designed a Nano satellite called Indonesian Nano-Satellite (Inasat-1). With smaller size and more efficient, it will have a positive impact for our technology. The nation doesn‘t dominate technology will be an audience and will be left behind from other countries. Nano technology will give an effect steel industry, decoration, polymer industry, sport, military, transportation, medical, electronics and beauty. Nano technology ruler‘s will allow a variety way for give value-added a product even creating value for a product.

QUESTION

1. Who is the first person that introduce nano technology ?

2. Why is the nano scale can be said unique ?

3. Mention impotant effect from Nano technology !

4. How is size nano scale ?

5. What is the advantage of Nano Technology ?

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BAB XIII PENUTUP

Penutup.

Demikian hanjar ini dibuat untuk mendukung proses belajar siswa D-4

Jurusan Teknik Elkasista Poltekad Kodiklat TNI AD. Hanjar ini masih diperlukan

pengembangan sesuai dengan pengetahuan teknologi secara global dan

perkembangan keilmuan lainnya.

Komandan Politeknik Kodiklatad

Dr. Nugraha Gumilar, M. Sc. Brigadir Jendral TNI

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DAFTAR ISI

BAB I ................................................................................................................................................. 1

PENDAHULUAN ............................................................................................................................ 1

1. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................... 1

2. MAKSUD DAN TUJUAN ............................................................................................... 1

3. RUANG LINGKUP DAN TATA URUT ......................................................................... 1

BAB II ............................................................................................................................................... 3

PREFIX, SUFFIX AND SCIENCE ARTICLES ..................................................................... 3

4. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................... 3

5. PREFIX AND SUFFIX .................................................................................................... 3

6. READING TEXT ............................................................................................................... 8

BAB III ............................................................................................................................................ 11

ACRONIM AND ABBREVIATION .......................................................................................... 11

7. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................ 11

8. ACRONIM AND ABBREVIATION ............................................................................. 11

9. PRACTICING................................................................................................................... 14

BAB IV ............................................................................................................................................ 18

USING LIST, TIME, AND DURATION ................................................................................. 18

11. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 18

12. USING LIST. ................................................................................................................... 18

13. TIME AND DURATION ................................................................................................ 19

14. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Tenses ...................................................................................... 20

15. LISTENING FOCUS .................................................................................................. 23

BAB V .............................................................................................................................................. 25

COMPOSITION I ......................................................................................................................... 25

16. UMUM. ......................................................................................................................... 25

17. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Word Order ............................................................................. 25

18. TITLES .............................................................................................................................. 27

19. CONVEYING AND ORGANIZING IDEAS IN SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH 28

20. READING TEXT ......................................................................................................... 29

BAB VI ............................................................................................................................................ 32

COMPOSITION II ....................................................................................................................... 32

CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION ............................................................................ 32

21. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 32

22. CAPITALIZATION ...................................................................................................... 32

23. PUNCTUATIONS ........................................................................................................... 35

24. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Passive Voices .................................................................... 39

25. LISTENING .................................................................................................................. 41

BAB VII .......................................................................................................................................... 43

FIGURE AND TABLES .............................................................................................................. 43

26. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 43

27. FIGURE AND TABLES ................................................................................................ 43

93

28. NUMBERS, UNITS AND EQUATIONS .................................................................... 47

29. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Plural Nouns .......................................................................... 51

30. LISTENING ...................................................................................................................... 54

BAB VIII ......................................................................................................................................... 56

REFERENCING ........................................................................................................................... 56

31. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 56

32. REFERENCING ............................................................................................................. 56

33. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Modal Verbs. .......................................................................... 58

34. LISTENING ...................................................................................................................... 60

BAB IX ............................................................................................................................................ 62

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST........................................................................................... 62

35. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 62

36. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST .............................................................................. 62

37. GUIDED WRITING .................................................................................................... 65

38. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................. 66

39. READING ......................................................................................................................... 66

BAB X ............................................................................................................................................. 68

AGREEING AND DISAGREEING .......................................................................................... 68

40. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 68

41. AGREEING AND DISAGREEING ............................................................................. 68

42. GRAMMAR FOCUS: So, Neither, Too And Either .............................................. 70

43. DIALOGUE .................................................................................................................. 71

BAB XI ............................................................................................................................................ 74

SUMMARY, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING ................................................................. 74

44. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 74

45. SUMMARY, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING ................................................. 74

46. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Conditional Sentence. ......................................................... 80

BAB XI ............................................................................................................................................ 83

INTRODUCING TO A RESEARCH PAPER ........................................................................ 83

48. UMUM. ............................................................................................................................. 83

49. INTRODUCING TO A RESEARCH PAPER ............................................................ 83

50. READING TEXT ............................................................................................................. 85

51. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Imperatives Sentence .......................................................... 87

51. LISTENING AND GROUP ACTIVITIES ................................................................... 89

BAB XII .......................................................................................................................................... 91

PENUTUP ....................................................................................................................................... 91