‘Mirroring God, Reflecting Men. Shaping Identity Through Knowledge in the Antwerp Plays of...

PEETERSLEUVEN - PARIS - WALPOLE, MA

2011

Understanding Art in Antwerp

Classicising the Popular, Popularising the Classic(1540 – 1580)

EDITED BY

Bart Ramakers

94924_Ranmakers GSCC vwk 12-12-2011 09:04 Page iii

CONTENTS

Preface and Acknowledgements ix

Understanding Art in Antwerp. An Introduction

Bart Ramakers xi

Contributors xxiii

Session I

Lost in Translation? Thinking about Classical and Vernacular Art

in Antwerp, 1540-1580

Joanna Woodall 1

After the Flood. Luxurious Antwerp and Antiquity

David Rijser 25

Session II

Reformulating St Luke. Frans Floris on Art and Diligence

Annette de Vries 37

The Annexation of the Antique. The Topic of the Living Picture in

Sixteenth-Century Antwerp

Caecilie Weissert 53

St Luke’s Diligence

Elizabeth Honig 69

Session III

Classical Architecture and the Communion Debate. The Iconography

of Suggestion

Koenraad Jonckheere 75

Prints as Perfect Means of Communication. Allegorical Prints with

Moral and Religious Messages Invented by Willem van Haecht

Yvonne Bleyerveld 93

CONTENTS

vi

Visual Pamphleteering and the Invention of its Idiom in

Rebellious Antwerp

Catrien Santing 109

Session IV

Pieter Bruegel and the Art of Vernacular Cultivation

Todd M. Richardson 115

For the Illustration of Rhetoric. Cornelis van Ghistele, Virgil and

the Ideology of Learned Rhetorijcke

Femke Hemelaar 131

Learned Humanist Drama Classicising the Popular

Jan Bloemendal 151

Session V

Lady Pictura and Lady Rhetorica in Mid-Sixteenth-Century Antwerp.

Upgrading Painting and Rhetorijcke by Linking Them to the

Liberal Arts

Stijn Bussels 157

Mirroring God, Reflecting Man. Shaping Identity Through Knowledge

in the Antwerp Plays of 1561

Jeroen Vandommele 173

Rhetoricians as a Bridge Between Learned and Vernacular Culture

Hilde de Ridder-Symoens 197

Session VI

A Pure Marriage Bed. Willem van Haecht’s Cephalus and Procris as

an Example of Erasmian Marriage

Anke van Herk 205

The Work of a Painter. Willem van Haecht’s Apostle Plays, 1563-1565

Bart Ramakers 229

Rhetoricians and Their Classical and Foreign Contemporary Sources

Samuel Mareel 255

CONTENTS vii

Session VII

Tielman Susato’s Vaderlandsche Musijcke. Music and the Vernacular

Louis Peter Grijp 261

Willem van Haechts Metrical Psalter. Characteristics and Use

Jan R. Luth 275

Willem van Haecht and Tielman Susato as Innovators of

Vernacular Songs

Hubert Meeus 293

List of Plates 301

Bibliography 305

Index 337

MIRRORING GOD, REFLECTING MAN

SHAPING IDENTITY THROUGH KNOWLEDGE IN THE ANTWERP PLAYS OF 1561

Jeroen Vandommele

Introduction

In 1561, the Brabantine Landjuweel was held in Antwerp. This theatre fes-

tival is now considered to be the culmination of two hundred years of rhe-

toricians’ culture. Rhetoricians (the so-called rederijkers) were members of

chambers of rhetoric, lay literary societies which occupied themselves with

the art of rhetoric: writing poetry and plays in the vernacular and organising

public festivities. Recently described as channels for the circulation of

knowledge and ideas in the urban environment, the chambers of rhetoric

were important players in the public landscape of the sixteenth-century Low

Countries.1 In their performances, which had strong moralistic values, the

rhetoricians propagated their own ideas, aiming to introduce new standards

of living ‘properly’.2

The Antwerp Landjuweel is a perfect example of this quest for moral

and intellectual edification.3 In the plays performed during this event, the

chambers of rhetoric continuously highlighted the acquisition of knowledge

and raised questions about the origin, practice, efficacy and purpose of

learning. That the interest of the rhetoricians in the subject of learning

reached its zenith in 1561 is no coincidence. At around the time of the festi-

val, Antwerp had attained a major position in the commercial, financial and

cultural world of Europe. As its prosperity grew, the city slowly realised its

potential as a centre for innovative thought and the formation of new ideas.

Art, literature and science blossomed in this thriving environment and

knowledge became a commodity of exchange and trade. Antwerp’s citizens

developed an aspiration to collect, analyse and categorise past and present

forms of learning. In other words, knowledge and the nature of knowledge

became a popular subject for discussion and research.

1 Van Dixhoorn, ‘Writing poetry’, p. 221. 2 Van Dijk, ‘Structure as a Means’, p. 113. 3 For an extended discussion on the topics addressed in this essay, see Vandommele,

Als in een spiegel.

JEROEN VANDOMMELE 174

This article summarises certain aspects of the epistemological reasoning ap-

parent in the rhetoricians’ plays of 1561. What were the ultimate goals of

this discourse on knowledge? What did knowledge actually entail according

to the rhetoricians and how did they see its pursuit affecting the role of man

in the universe? Only by questioning some of these epistemological values

can the actions of the chambers of rhetoric as institutes of learning be truly

understood. Furthermore, this article will attempt to reproduce the urban

discourse on knowledge, crucial to the understanding and reconstruction of

the intellectual habitus of the artists, printers and rhetoricians who partici-

pated in the festival and who are considered to have been Antwerp’s cultur-

al leaders. I will argue that for some if not all of the chambers of rhetoric

present at the Landjuweel, a better understanding of art and knowledge

served two specific purposes. One goal was devotional, the desire to serve

God in the best way possible, using the tools given to man at Creation,

namely human reason and intellect. Knowledge also had a second aim: not

only did it enable insight into divine truth, to which man aspired, but the

inner desire for knowledge of the outside world resulted in the introspection

of the soul and thus a better understanding of human nature itself. As such,

the plays of 1561 emphasised the role of God as the ruler of the universe,

and the role of man as His representative on earth. In their search for the

source of knowledge, the chambers of rhetoric not only gave answers of a

philosophical nature, but also touched upon religious truths. By putting for-

ward these answers, the rhetoricians positioned themselves within the hu-

manist intellectual climate that characterised the Renaissance: knowledge

and God were accessible to everybody, and the use of knowledge in the

world – the vita activa – became a divine task.4

By studying the literary work of rhetoricians, it will become apparent

how the urban middle class of the sixteenth-century Low Countries (the

chambers recruited their members mostly from the groups of learned

craftsmen and the intellectual professions) understood knowledge.5 After

all, every culture emphasises different aspects concerning the attainment,

purpose and practice of knowledge. Some consider the accessibility of edu-

cation to be essential. Others assign a restricted status to learning, which is

only available to a happy few. Intellectual endeavours can be valued as use-

ful because of their benefits to the community, but they can also be seen as

a purely individual activity, shaping one’s own character and identity in the

process of learning. Epistemology, which examines systems of knowledge,

helps to interpret a society’s outlook on life and how it perceives its worldly

4 Rothstein, Sight and spirituality, pp. 115-122. 5 Concerning the social network of the rhetoricians, see Van Bruaene, ‘“A wonder-

full tryumfe”’, pp. 376-384.

MIRRORING GOD, REFLECTING MAN 175

surroundings, and it is vital to an understanding of how a society valued in-

tellectual achievements.6 In the sixteenth century, knowledge and the access

to knowledge defined a person’s identity and social circle. As such, it was a

part of people’s cultural capital and shaped their lives. As players in the cul-

tural field, the chambers of rhetoric promoted the idea of a harmonious so-

ciety in which all citizens knew themselves and applied themselves to the

benefit of the community and to the best of their ability. Education played a

fundamental role in these ideas. It is no coincidence that the rhetoricians

were participants in the epistemological shift which occurred in the six-

teenth century. They were in a sense the vernacular alternative to the hu-

manist Republic of Letters.7 By focusing on the topic of knowledge during

one of their major festivals, the chambers of rhetoric validated these intel-

lectual pretensions. They fused classical ideas about knowledge with Chris-

tian piety and raised questions about the value of knowledge in a changing

society and its uses for individual development and improvement in the ser-

vice of God.

The Antwerp Landjuweel of 1561

In the last month of 1560 Antwerp’s leading chamber of rhetoric, De

Violieren (The Stock-Gillyflowers), petitioned the Council of Brabant, ask-

ing for authorisation to organise the final festival of a regular competition

between chambers of rhetoric called the Landjuweel.8 Together with the art-

ists’ Guild of St Luke (which already had close ties with the chamber of

rhetoric), De Violieren wanted to join with the Antwerp city council to put

on the most exuberant and impressive Landjuweel ever seen in Brabant.9

In the past, the literary competitions between the rhetoricians had often in-

cluded discussion of a set of current topics. The Landjuweel of 1561 was no

exception. In their request to the council, De Violieren added a list of possi-

6 Burke, A Social History of Knowledge, pp. 1-2; Moser, Mulder and Trout, The

theory of knowledge, pp. 3-5. 7 Van Dixhoorn and Sutch, ‘Introduction’; Van Dixhoorn, ‘Writing poetry’, pp. 211-

215. 8 For an overview of the Landjuweel, see Van Autenboer, Het Brabants Landjuweel;

Cockx-Indestege and Waterschoot, Uyt Ionsten Versaemt. 9 Apart from De Violieren, fourteen other chambers of rhetoric attended the

Antwerp Landjuweel: De Olijftak (Antwerp), De Goudbloem (Antwerp), Het

Mariacransken (Brussels), De Roose (Leuven), De Lisbloem (Mechelen), De Peoene

(Mechelen), De Lelikens uten Dale (Zoutleeuw), Mozes Doorn (Den Bosch), De

Vreugdebloem (Bergen-op-Zoom), De Goudbloem (Vilvoorde), De Cauwoerde

(Herentals), De Groeiende Boom (Lier), De Christusogen (Diest) and De Lelie

(Diest).


ble subjects that the rhetoricians wanted to discuss in their so-called spelen

van sinne (allegorical plays which articulated a moral lesson or ‘sin’).10

Twenty-four potential topics were suggested, ranging from the political, the

religious, the socioeconomic and the epistemological. No less than four ad-

dressed the concept of knowledge and ‘the arts’ (‘de consten’):

Hetwelck den mensch meer verwect tot consten?

Weder experientie oft geleertheyt meer wijsheyt bybrengt?

Dwelck ’t voetsel der consten is?

Wat cunste aldernoootelijckste in een stadt is?11

What incites Mankind most to the arts?

Whether experience or knowledge brings man closer to wisdom?

What is the nourishment of the arts?

Which art is the most essential for a city?

When permission was granted to De Violieren on March 22, 1561, only

three out of 24 topics remained. The central government in Brussels claimed

that most questions were highly inappropriate and even considered some too

‘dangerous’ (‘scabreux’) for public performance.12

In the end, the Antwerp

rhetoricians selected the question: ‘What incites Mankind most to the arts?’

This choice has always been considered a concession by De Violieren. The

injunction by the government, which ruled out any religious or political top-

ic, was seen as the most important reason why the chamber considered a

submissive and harmless subject such as the nature of the liberal arts.13

However, the presence of several topics about learning, schooling and

knowledge in the letter of request shows that the subject was of some im-

portance to the rhetoricians and that a public debate was believed relevant

and beneficial to the entire urban community. If there had been no public

interest in the function of the liberal arts, De Violieren would not have cho-

sen the theme to be central to its festivities.

The relevance and extent of the debate is also emphasised by the richly

illustrated edition of the Landjuweel plays which was printed by Willem

Silvius, a local Antwerp printer, a year after the festival.14

The commemora-

tive volume, called Spelen van sinne vol scone moralisacien (…) op die

10 Ramakers, ‘Dutch Allegorical Theatre’, p. 129. 11 Van Even, Het Landjuweel, p. 44. 12 Van Autenboer, Het Brabants Landjuweel, pp. 53-54. 13 Coigneau, ‘Inleiding’, p. 41; Marnef, Antwerpen in de tijd van de Reformatie, p. 58. 14 Spelen van sinne. For a complete transcribed and edited version, see Ryckaert, De

Antwerpse spelen van 1561. References to the edition of the plays consist of both

folios and line numbers (from the edition by Ryckaert).


questie Wat den mensch aldermeest tot conste verwect was the first publica-

tion made of rhetoricians’ plays performed during a festival in Brabant. Five

to eight hundred copies were printed and it is still considered to be the ‘the

most voluminous sixteenth-century miscellany of rhetorician’s drama’.15

Const, consten and knowledge

Research on the Landjuweel has often dealt with the meaning of the term

consten in the main question addressed by the allegorical plays. The term is

explained as the sixteenth-century Dutch equivalent of the Latin artes liber-

ales (vrije consten).16

A reading of the Charte, the letter of invitation to the

Landjuweel which was sent to all the participating chambers, supports the

interpretation of consten as ‘liberal arts’. With regard to the content of the

allegorical plays, the Charte stresses that the chambers of rhetoric had to

address the question ‘What incites Mankind most to the arts?’ It adds that in

the plays ‘all good Arts should be ascertained and utilised, laudably and in

all fairness’ (‘ghebruyct in al reenicheyt alle goede Consten, loeffelijcken

ontdect’).17

The good arts, or artes bonae, is an expression coined by the

classical author Ovid (Tristium libri tertius, VII: 32) and was often used as a

synonym for the liberal arts.18

In Antiquity, these artes liberales involved

activities conducted by individuals who were financially independent

(hence the word liber – free) and therefore had the time and the money to

spend part of their daily routine reflecting on life. However, the accurate

classification of this kind of knowledge was constantly debated.19

It was on-

ly at the beginning of the fifth century AD that the artes liberales were clas-

sified into the seven definitive branches of learning we now know as

Grammatica, Dialectica, Rhetorica, Arithmetica, Geometria, Astronomia

and Musica – the curriculum of Western education until the sixteenth centu-

ry and beyond.20

In other words, during the Landjuweel the allegorical plays

were expected to give an exposition of the different disciplines or sciences

that were part of the traditional programme of Western education. The rhe-

toricians had to appraise their qualities and the way they contributed to

Christian society.

However, it is also possible to interpret the term conste as an idiomatic

construct. In sixteenth-century thought, Conste or Ars entailed all available

15 Ryckaert, ‘Een Antwerpse brief’, pp. 1-6. 16 Roose, ‘Dwelck den Mensche’, pp. 93-95; Coigneau, ‘Inleiding’, p. 39. 17 Spelen van sinne, fol. B1v, ll. 85-86. 18 Roose, ‘Dwelck den Mensche’, p. 95. 19 Kristeller, Renaissance Thought, p. 166; Wagner, ‘The Seven Liberal Arts’, pp.

15-16. 20 Kristeller, Renaissance Thought, pp. 166-189.


human knowledge. The liberal arts were considered a set of tools available

to man; keys which, when acquired, could unlock the door to all worldly

knowledge. In the words of one of the chambers of rhetoric competing in

1561: ‘Knowledge is genuinely knowing and correctly implementing’.21

For

these rhetoricians Conste was the Genus species, the general term (‘int gen-

erale’) for the collective knowledge ‘from which all human disciplines

sprang’ (‘dees die hier uyt spruyten heeten oock consten’).22

Indeed, only

four of the allegorical plays restrict the term ‘consten’ to the seven tradi-

tional liberal arts. All the others are vague about the exact number of arts

and often promote others. For example, the chamber De Roose (The Rose)

from Leuven mentions the seven traditional liberal arts in its allegorical

play, but also includes the four branches of learning at this city’s university:

Arts, Medicine, Law and Theology.23

Another chamber, De Lelie (The

Lily), told its audience that moral philosophy, theology, law, medicine,

printing, painting, sculpture, tapestry, commerce and agriculture were all

included in the study of the free arts.24

These differing interpretations are confirmed by the eyewitness report

of Richard Clough, a merchant and an agent of the English Crown in the

Low Countries. In 1561, he reported to Sir Thomas Gresham, his master in

England, on the Landjuweel of Antwerp. Clough states that the central topic

of the plays performed in Antwerp concerned itself with ‘conyng’. His exact

words are:

This Juell that is now to be wone, ys to be gotten by playing; and that

company that can make the best answer in their plays to the questyone

that ys propoundyd, shall wyn the juell or pryse: wech question ys,-

Whatt thinge doth most cause the sprette [spirit] of man to be desyrys

of conyng.25

Clough’s report on the Landjuweel deviates slightly from the actual event.

As an outsider, he was not familiar with the traditions of the rhetoricians.

The winner of the Landjuweel was, for example, not the chamber that came

up with the best allegorical play, but the chamber that performed the best

farce (‘esbattement’). Nevertheless, Clough’s interpretation of the main

theme of the allegorical plays of the Landjuweel – ‘Dwelck den mensch al-

dermeest tot conste verweckt’ (‘What incites Mankind most to the arts?’) –

21 Spelen van sinne, fols. Iii1v-2r, ll. 420-422 (De Peoene): ‘Conste is een oprechte

wete en maniere van yet bequamelijck en wel te doene’. 22 Ibidem, fol. Iii2r, ll. 433-435 (De Peoene). 23 Ibidem, fol. g2r, ll. 570-585. 24 Ibidem, fols. Gg3v-Gg4v, ll. 523-584. 25 Burgon, Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, p. 379.


can be considered as nothing less than insightful. Although not translated to

the letter, it was certainly closely connected to the interpretation given by

the rhetoricians participating in the Landjuweel competition. In the sixteenth

century, ‘conyng’ meant knowledge, the capacity or faculty of knowing.26

Indeed, in the allegorical plays of the Landjuweel almost every protagonist

is troubled by what can generally be described as ‘a burning desire’ in their

heart, which makes them want to learn about the origin and nature of

knowledge. Consequently, this desire is considered the fundamental incen-

tive for applying oneself to the liberal arts.

A further analysis of the content of the allegorical plays reveals that the

question was interpreted on many different levels. Some plays concentrate

on the natural origin of human knowledge, while others find the rewards of

an educated life a more compelling incentive: the aspirations of a life filled

with knowledge. Both interpretations were valid, separating ideas about the

process of generating knowledge (causa efficiens) and ideas about the final

objective of knowledge (causa finalis).27

The terminology was derived from

Aristotle’s Metaphysics and is central to the practice of medieval and six-

teenth-century science and philosophy.28

Although only two chambers ex-

plicitly used the principles of causa finalis and causa efficiens in their plays,

the concepts formed the main thesis of all of the allegorical plays performed

during the Landjuweel.29

This article will not concentrate on the liberal arts as a system of learn-

ing, nor does it intend to analyse the plays for the educational merits of

teaching the liberal arts to the audience.30

Its main objective is to seek a bet-

ter understanding of the chambers’ epistemic reasoning. As suggested

above, only by questioning some of the epistemological values imbedded in

the plays of the Landjuweel can the actions of the chambers of rhetoric as

institutes of learning be properly understood.

Foundations of knowledge

At the beginning of an allegorical play the audience is usually introduced to

the main character. Traditionally, this protagonist would embody the whole

of mankind. Seeing a representative of common humanity on stage helped

the audience identify with the play. Furthermore, it evoked sympathy for the

26 ‘Cunning’ (Oxford English Dictionary). 27 Roose, ‘Dwelck den Mensche’, p. 107. 28 Joy, ‘Scientific explanation from formal causes to laws of nature’, pp. 73-77. 29 For the chambers from Diest, see Spelen van sinne, fol. Zz1r, l. 671 (De

Christusogen); fol. Gg2r, l. 458 (De Lelie). 30 Concerning the pedagogical value of some of these plays, see Vandommele,

‘“Come all ye artless”’, pp. 85-100.


problems the protagonist was facing, a crucial element in the success of a

performance.31

The plays of the Landjuweel were no different. Nine of the

fourteen chambers call their protagonist Mankind (De(n) Mensche).32

To

appeal to the young people in the audience, others preferred to emphasise

the youthful and inexperienced demeanour of the protagonist, describing the

character as a youngling or naming their main character Youth (Jonck-

heyt).33

Most of the 1561 plays start out with this representative of mankind,

who, lonely and depressed, complains about his melancholic temperament.

Turbulent of heart and full of strange fantasies, Mankind is restless day and

night. Although he does not know the cause of his afflictions, he blames his

discontented heart, which has an uncontrollable thirst for knowledge. He

believes that only by gaining insight into the world by means of the liberal

arts (‘consten’), will tranquillity return to his tormented soul. The main

character in the play by De Olijftak (The Olive Branch) for instance, de-

scribes this feeling as a mysterious desire, caused by his own ‘intelligent

intellect’ (‘verstandigh vernuft’).34

During the play he resolves the enigma,

realising that he craves the wisdom which is bestowed on man after study-

ing the liberal arts.

The prospect of worldly knowledge through education was indeed what

made the human race anxious. To quote from the winning play by De Roose

from Leuven:

(…) deur u [Begeerte om Weten] sietmen den Wijsen dolen.

Daer u wordt bevolen kint, maerte oft knape,

Die zijn bewaert, ghelijck vanden wolf het schape.

(…)

Want in alle hoecken, ick segt u by desen

Doet begheerte om weten studeren, lesen

Om dat elck sou wesen aldermeest gheacht

Begeerte om weten maect onrast dach en nacht.35

31 Coigneau, ‘Emotions and Rhetoric’, pp. 247-249; Ramakers ‘Tonen en betogen’,

p. 190. 32 De Olijftak, De Goudbloem (Antwerp), De Vreugdebloem, De Lelikens uten

Dale, De Christusogen, Het Mariacransken, De Peoene, De Roose and De Groeiende

Boom. 33 De Cauwoerde and De Lisbloem call their protagonist Jonckheyt while other

chambers describe him as being young (De Roose, De Christusogen, De Goudbloem

(Vilvoorde), De Peoene, De Vreugdebloem, De Olijftak and De Lelie). 34 Spelen van sinne, fol. I1r, ll. 3-9. 35 Ibidem, fol. e3v, ll. 118-120, 150.


(…) because of you [Thirst for Knowledge], the wise wander.

In your dominion, children, boy or girl alike,

Are like lambs, entrusted to a wolf.

(…)

I tell you this, in all corners of the world

Thirst for knowledge encourages education, reading

In order to gain the most esteem

Thirst for knowledge makes one restless day and night.

According to the rhetoricians, the inner need to learn the liberal arts was

man’s purpose in life, an almost natural reaction. This idea that the desire

for knowledge came naturally to man is an Aristotelian commonplace.36

It

was used as such throughout the plays, for example in the play by De Roose

when the characters Natural Inclination (Natuerlijcke Inclinatie) and Thirst

for Knowledge (Begheerte om Weten) enlighten and rouse Mankind to the

practice of the liberal arts:

Maer hoort Aristotelis wijs beschrijven

Laet dit beclijven tis zijn vermeten:

Alle menschen hebben begheerte om weten.37

But listen to what Aristotle wisely wrote

And remember it well, for it is his testimonial:

All of mankind has a thirst for knowledge.

Many other chambers used the sentence as a point of departure. What actu-

ally defined the character of Mankind and distinguished him from the ani-

mals was this natural urge to learn about his worldly surroundings by using

his given intellect and his reason. Reason in particular was considered an

important factor. The play by De Lelie is very clear about the subject. When

its main character wonders which qualities distinguish him from the rest of

the animal world, Reason (Redene) introduces himself as one of the natural

qualities of man:

Ick Redene

Ben tusschen menschen en beesten het onderscheet

Ick verjaghe ledicheyt en twist wreet

O redelijck dier wilt my dan ghebruycken

Ick ben u tutersse voor my moet ghy duycken

36 Aristotle, Metaphysics, I:1; West, Theatres and Encyclopedias, p. 29. 37 Spelen van sinne, fol. f2v, ll. 334-336.


Als voor uwen piloot oft uwen stierman

Sonder my sijdy verloren merct dit wel an.38

I Reason

Am the distinction between mankind and the animal kingdom

I chase away idleness and cruel discord

O reasonable beast please make use of me

I am the guide which you should obey

Like a pilot or helmsman

Mark my words, without me, you are lost.

In other words, through reason, Mankind could learn the arts, acquire

knowledge, and therefore realise the potential of his own creation. The

plays were convinced of the primacy of reason. Five chambers stressed this

by using reason as an allegorical character in their plays. With the attribute

of control – a bridle – in the hand, Reason would plead with the main char-

acter, forcing him to fulfil his destiny and use his intellect to learn about the

liberal arts.39

That the foundation of knowledge was to be found in man’s natural

ability for reason was for the most part derived from ancient Stoic philoso-

phy. This school of thought became increasingly fashionable in Antwerp

during the second half of the sixteenth century.40

According to their episte-

mology, at Creation man was given a divine spark, identified with reason,

which enabled him to understand his own existence, the ways of nature and

the will of God. As animals follow their natural impulses to survive, so

must man adhere to reason in order to lead a virtuous life.41

To quote Sene-

ca: ‘at our birth, nature made us teachable, and gave us reason. Not perfect,

but capable of being perfected’.42

However, although this idea was im-

portant to most plays of the Landjuweel, the chambers of rhetoric never as-

serted reason’s absolute power. All natural inclinations of man were still

gifts of God. Reason or intellect made it possible to acquire knowledge, but

only because God wanted it so.

38 Ibidem, fol. Ee2v, ll. 72-78. 39 De Lelie (Diest), De Goudbloem (Antwerp), De Peoene (Mechlin), Het

Mariacransken (Brussels) and De Lisbloem (Mechlin). 40 See Buys, ‘“Te doen tghene datmen verstaet”’, pp. 18-45. Also see Buys 2009. 41 Horowitz, ‘The Stoic Synthesis’, pp. 3-4; Bouwsma, ‘The two faces of

humanism’, pp. 10-19. 42 Horowitz, ‘The Stoic Synthesis’, p. 13.


The goals of knowledge

Several of the fourteen allegorical plays performed during the Landjuweel

combined the search for knowledge with an individual devotion to God. For

these chambers, the search for knowledge could only be successful through

piety, altruism and hard work. This path led to a better understanding of the

world and ultimately to a deeper appreciation of God as the foremost practi-

tioner of the arts and creator of the world. In the following I will concen-

trate on two of these plays, both of which emphasise knowledge and the lib-

eral arts as mirrors which reflect God’s glory. The discovery of this divine

nature of the Consten enables man to use learning to cultivate his mind and

shape his identity to reflect that of God, in whose image he was created. As

such, devotion and the pursuit of intellectual endeavours go hand in hand.

De Groeiende Boom (The Growing Tree) from Lier opens its play with

the allegorical representation Natural Longing (Treck der Natueren), who is

sent by Peace (Peys) and Love (Liefde) to the main character Mankind (De

Mensche) to make his heart restless and full of desire for the liberal arts.

Compelled by this inner need to acquire knowledge, the main character

wanders around the world in search of answers. Soon enough, the reason for

his fortune or misfortune becomes clear – Mankind is different from the

other animals:

Sijt ghy niet gheschapen door die Godlijcken cracht

Met den hoofde opwaerts dat ghy sout aenschouwen

Tshemels loop naer Ovidius ontvouwen

Soo wilt dan coragieus thooft op stieren

Naer den hemel contrarie andere dieren

Die thooft naer den aerden laten hanghen

Soect glorie naer u doot onsterflijck.

Door der loflijcker consten conserflijck.43

Are you [Mankind] not created by the might of God

To walk with your head held high, so you can see

The course of heaven, as Ovid unfolds

So walk courageously with your head erected

Towards the sky in contrast to other animals

Whose heads downward bend towards the earth

Seek glory after your death, immortal.

Through the praiseworthy arts eternal.

43 Spelen van sinne, fols. Nnn2v-3r, ll. 91-99.


The erect stature of the human body is a classical commonplace, used by

Ovid in his Metamorphoses, but also by other authors of Roman Antiquity.

Cicero, for example, claimed that ‘(Nature) has raised men from the earth

and made them stand tall, so that by gazing on the sky they could acquire

knowledge of the gods’.44

Through divine knowledge, immortality could be

obtainable.

Although the play reveals the fundamental nature of man in the world

early on, the revelation does not put an end to the protagonist’s misery. On

the contrary, Mankind continues to struggle. Inspired by reading the famous

authors of Antiquity (Cicero, Ovid and Plato) he is spiritually inclined to

learn the liberal arts. However, his earthly desires – represented by the char-

acters of Vain Happiness (Ydel Blijschap) and Foolish Wandering (Dwase

Dolinghe) – direct him to instant gratification and earthly splendour. This

duo of so-called sinnekens (negative characters unique to the Dutch allegor-

ical plays) plague Mankind’s inner psyche. They claim that the writers of

Antiquity never amounted to anything, let alone immortal fame. The only

thing that protects Mankind from their doubtful words is hope for immortal-

ity through the liberal arts, represented in the play by the character of Hon-

ourable Fame (Fame van Eere). The chamber from Lier paints a dark pic-

ture: life as a constant struggle against the forces of idleness and vanity. In

the end Honourable Fame prevails, reminding the audience that human life

is only ‘fleeting’ (‘verganckelijck’) and money and riches are of a tempo-

rary nature. Mankind’s only real reward lies in hope, the possibility of ‘be-

coming divine and everlasting’ (‘Om hemels tsijne en onverganckelijck’)

after death.45

Through two other characters, Diligent Usage (Neerstich Useren) and

Good Content (Wel Behaghen), Mankind continues to study the liberal arts.

Only through these arts, which are sent by heaven, will he gain ‘pure

knowledge of the highest artificer’ (‘kennissen puere des hoochsten conste-

naers’). Continuous learning brings him closer to God, ‘whose image will

be revealed in the end’ (‘wiens figuere u sal bekent worden’).46

Inspired by

classical exempla of philosophers who relentlessly struggled to gain insight

into the world, Mankind perseveres and stays focused. In the end, the solu-

tion to the main question is disclosed to him. The unwavering hope of an

‘eternal life’ drives Mankind to study the arts. Although his spirit is weak

and subject to earthly desires, this hope can set him free.

44 Bouwsma, ‘The two faces of humanism’, p. 15; Cicero, The nature of the Gods,

2.140. 45 Spelen van sinne, fol. Ooo1r, ll. 235-242. 46 Ibidem, fol. Ooo2r, ll. 303-305.


At this point in the play, the character Art (Conste) presents herself to Man-

kind, fulfilling his desire to know her. Being educated in all the disciplines,

he thus awaits his reward. The chamber from Lier now shows Mankind a

tableau, consisting of an epiphany of God’s name (the Tetragrammaton

JHWH), encircled by cherubs. Art urges Mankind to look at the tableau be-

cause the image explains all: knowledge is like a mirror which allows Man-

kind to truly see God’s glory. The vision of God’s name serves to strength-

en Mankind’s hope of finding salvation.

Aensiet dat nu dat eeuwich blijft tot allen daghen

Daer Antiquiteyt met nauwer listen

Altijt op gheoopt hebben sonder vertraghen

Om te kennen daer sy niet af en wisten

Sochtent door my [Conste] en als cloecke artisten

Conterfeyten tgoet en tquaet subtijlijck

Om voor die simpele die lichtelijck misten

Tot glorien te bringhene blijlijck.47

See that which is eternal until the end of all days

Which Antiquity has ceaselessly, with cunning skills

Hoped to comprehend without delay

That which they did not know, but desired to understand

Seeking it through me [Art] and as clever artisans

Counterfeiting the good and the bad

In order to bring to glory

The simple of mind who easily falter.

Art (Conste) reminds Mankind that since Antiquity the ultimate goal of arti-

sans, artist and scientists has not only been immortality through fame, but

also divine truth. The arts (whether visual or contemplative) are seen as im-

portant links between God and his flock. Visualisation, reflecting on good

and bad, creates a personal connection between God and his worshippers,

bringing all of them (even the less intelligent) closer to knowledge of divine

wisdom and the glory of immortality.48

By seeing God’s immortal name visualised in the tableau, Mankind re-

alises that knowledge helps to uncover God’s creation by serving as its mir-

ror. Through the imitation of God by way of the liberal arts, man can gain

divine insight.

47 Ibidem, fol. Ppp3r, ll. 633-640. 48 Melion, ‘Cordis circumcisio in spiritu’, p. 65.


Hier om mensche my [Conste] elck meest soect en hanteert

In seven vrije consten hier op de weerelt

Om kinnen de wercken reyn bepeerel

Des hoochsten constenaers beneden en boven

Wiens hantwerck sy eewich eeren en loven

Waer ick [Conste] den spieghel ben daerment al in kent

Den loop des hemels en theel firnament

Ja doot en leven kentmen oock dor my

Als Virgilius Maro cost bringhen by.49

This is why people desire and practice me [Art]

In the world by means of the seven liberal arts

To understand the beautiful creations

Of the highest artificer above and below

Whose craftsmanship they for ever honour and praise

Of which I [Art] am the mirror through which one comprehends all

The course of the heavens and of the whole universe

Even death and life are known through me

As Virgil Maro once taught us.

In other words, according to the chamber from Lier, every human act is di-

rected towards gaining understanding of the true glory of God’s creation.

This is also why the character of Art (Conste) holds a mirror in her hand in

the play. Through knowledge (whether of the seven liberal arts, the visual

arts, theology or philosophy) one can attempt to reflect on God and gain di-

vine understanding. This is emphasised in the tableau: seeing God’s divine

name invigorates Mankind’s faith, his hope for salvation and an immortal

soul. True fame can be acquired through the arts if they are applied to do

God’s work. This voyage ultimately ends in the Elysian Fields (Elisius dal),

the final resting place of the virtuous, where God, the practitioner of the

heavenly arts, dwells.50

Another chamber, De Lelie (The Lily) from Diest, follows a compara-

ble line of thought, with the name of the protagonist as the first indication of

this shared ideology. He is called Work of God (Dwerck Gods), emphasis-

ing man’s divine creation and his ability to use intellect for pious enterpris-

es. Indeed, at the beginning of De Lelie’s play, Work of God is inclined by

nature to practise the liberal arts but is tortured by all kinds of ‘phantoms’

49 Spelen van sinne, fols. Ppp3r-v, ll. 647-655. 50 Ibidem, fol. Ppp3v, ll. 667, 670.


(‘fantazijen’) and has yet to start his education.51

This makes him miserable,

as he knows the disgrace that lies in ignorance. In desperation he cries out:

O Godt, die Voghelen, Visschen en Dieren

Rijckelijck begaeft hebt in sulcker manieren

Dat sy hen bestieren

En regeren souwen

Maer my ghemaect broosscher dan wormen oft pieren

Niet connende my selven ghehantieren

(…)

Onconstich ben ick gheboren vander vrouwen

Wie sal onderhouwen dan mijn nature

Anders dan conste, dies ick telcker ure

Roepe om haer goede assistentie.52

Oh Lord, who provided the Birds, Fish and Animals

With precious gifts which enable them

To govern

and rule their own life

But made me as frail as a worm

So I cannot take care of myself

(…)

Born from a woman, without the knowledge of the arts

Apart from my own nature,

Only knowledge can help me

That is why I implore her to assist me.

Shortly after realising that study and learning is in his nature, an allegorical

figure called Spirit’s Grace (’sGheests Gracie) appears. She reminds the

protagonist of the verses of Genesis 1:26: man was created by God in his

own image to have power over all other creatures. This control can only be

realised through an education in the liberal arts. A second allegorical figure,

Reason (Redene), seconds this notion and informs Work of God that his

power of reason makes him different from other animals. As rational ani-

mals, human beings have the possibility of finding the true path to salvation.

If they take reason as their guide, they cannot stray from their original goal.

In other words, the play emphasises that, like any other creature, man was

assigned certain qualities by God. His main quality – having the natural in-

51 Ibidem, fol. Ee1v, l. 27. 52 Ibidem, fol. Ee1v, ll. 31-41.


clination to look for knowledge and develop an understanding of the world

– is unique to the human condition. Reason will serve as a tool to help him.

However, two sinnekens called Disobedience (Onghehoorsaemheyt)

and Sensual Desire (Sinnelijcken Appetijt) hold Work of God in their

clutches. They make him doubt his function in Creation. This is no coinci-

dence, since disobedience and uncontrolled desire were the main causes of

mankind’s fall from Grace and Adam and Eve’s expulsion from Paradise

(Genesis 3:1-7). Both vices flatter man and make him turn away from his

duties. In a similar fashion to the parable of the prodigal son (Luke 15:11-

32), in the play these two sins corrupt Work of God. The protagonist loses

all his money in a ‘house of ignorance’ (‘huys van onwetentheyt’) and is

literally brought to his knees, penniless and feeding pigs.53

This sequence

served as a reminder to the audience of the temporal state of life and riches.

As Work of God realises his fate, he understands that his life can only be

altered by following the path of knowledge and diligence.

With the help of Reason, Spirit’s Grace and two new characters called

Knowledge (Kenisse) and Love (Liefde), the protagonist starts to believe in

himself and his abilities. Knowledge makes him understand the value of the

liberal arts, while Love induces him to be industrious in the process of

learning. Work of God finally encounters the allegorical representation of

Art (Const), who later explains that she contains all human knowledge.54

At

her request, Work of God banishes Disobedience and Sensual Desire, and is

afterwards introduced to the character Reward (Loon). As the final goal

(causa finalis) of education in the liberal arts, Reward explains to Work of

God that the incentive of reward is the objective of all human efforts, the

ultimate prize and the answer to the main question:

Dwerck gods is materie, en tfatsoen

Is Redene, liefde en gratie dwerck doen

Door kenisse, maer erectie

Coemt door my [Loon], brenghende prijs en protectie.55

The work of god is the subject matter, and

Reason helps the design. Love and grace do the work through

The use of knowledge but the final creation

Is my [Reward’s] doing, bringing prize and protection.

53 Ibidem, fol. Ee3r, l. 116. 54 Ibidem, fol. Gg3r, l. 511. 55 Ibidem, fol. Gg2r, ll. 462-465.


Through studying the liberal arts, Work of God finds inner peace in his life

and has no need for earthly desires. Being in this ‘house of peace’ (‘huys

van vreedts’), he finally learns about the true meaning of the arts.56

With the

book ‘ceaseless effort’ (‘gheduerighen arbeyt’) and the use of a geometrical

compass called Measure (Mate) he realises that the world is created by God

to make mankind ‘show gratitude and praise the Creator’s significance’

(‘soude loven en dancken sijns scheppers waerde’).57

Ghy leert Consten om dryerhande saken

Eerst om Godt te kennen, lief te hebben en eeren

Ten tweeden, om dat ghy sout stichten en leeren

Uwen naesten en hem ghelijck u beminnen

Ten derde, om dat ghy u selven sout kinnen.58

You learn the Arts for three reasons

First to know, love and honour God

Secondly, to educate and edify

Your fellow man and love him like you love yourself.

Thirdly, you learn the Arts to know yourself.

At this point, Work of God has been educated in the arts and thus awaits his

reward. By studying the universe and acknowledging its creation as God’s

handiwork, he can ‘visualise his own creator’ (‘Gods werck [brengt] synen

schepper voor ooghen’) and obtain insight into Divinity.59

The knowledge

of God’s magnificence generates total servitude and faith in the word of

God, which leads to the ultimate reward of eternal Glory, on earth and

thereafter. Before receiving this reward, Work of God has to master a final

discipline: the technique of passing over from the temporal world to eternal

glory, an insight better known as ‘Artful dying’ (‘Constich sterven’):

Gheen conste soo swaer als wel leeren sterven hier

Want door wel sterven ontgaetmen deeuwich vier.

(…)

Die wel sterft seyt Godt is verwerffelijck

Door sijn sterven een leven onsterffelijck.60

56 Ibidem, fol. Gg2v, l. 481. 57 Ibidem, fol. Gg4v, ll. 590-592; fol. Hh1v, ll. 664-666. 58 Ibidem, fol. Hh1v, ll. 659-663. 59 Ibidem, fol. Hh2r, l. 672. 60 Ibidem, fol. Hh2r, ll. 686-691.


No art is as difficult as learning how to die well

Because through dying well one can escape eternal hell.

(…)

God says those who die well will obtain

Through dying a life immortal.

The Ars moriendi, the art of dying well, was a popular method of devotion

which first appeared in the fifteenth century and which was subsequently

considered an important technique for the laity to master. It instructed the

Christian in the practice of dying: casting aside temporal sentiments such as

fear, despair, avarice and pride and instead embracing faith. By meditating

on the suffering, death and resurrection of Christ, a dying man could imitate

his example and hope for the salvation of his soul and the glory of God in

the afterlife.61

Only by living a valuable life can immortality (the ultimate goal or re-

ward) be reached. After this revelation, Work of God receives his reward.

As he is still alive, it is not feasible to see his Creator face to face. Instead,

Spirit’s Grace presents a mirror to Work of God.

Sijn weerde en mocht noyt oore ghehooren

Noyt tonghe uytghespreken in dit leven

Mer om dat ghy vanden loon niet en soudt sneven

Sal ick hem als in eenen Spieghel puerlijck

U tooghen. Siet hier uwen Schepper figuerlijck.62

His worth can in this life never be heard by ears

Nor be spoken by tongues

But since you are allowed a reward

I will show you him through a mirror perfect

Behold your creator in this reflection.

By visualising his own creator in a mirror, Work of God gains an ultimate

insight into his own being. Inner reflection, the ability to have true

knowledge of one’s own self, is rewarded by salvation and eternal glory, in

the vicinity of God, the Creator.

The play by The Lily emphasises man’s responsibility as the finest cre-

ation of God. Through learning and practising the liberal arts, the world is

revealed to man. As he is the pinnacle of God’s creation, insight into his

own existence will be the highest form of knowledge. The reward for this

61 Eire, ‘Ars Moriendi’, pp. 21-22. 62 Spelen van sinne, fol. Hh2v, ll. 703-707.


introspection will be eternal life in the presence of the Creator. However,

human beings cannot receive this knowledge in their lifetime and are thus

granted this insight through seeing their own image in a mirror, and through

this image seeing God and thus putting an end to all tribulations: self-

knowledge leads to knowledge of God.

Mirrors of God

The ends of both plays bear remarkable similarities to the concept of Visio

Dei, the imageless vision of God and Imago Dei, Mankind as an image of

God. These concepts had a central place in medieval theories of Christian

epistemology and ontology (for example, in the writings of Thomas Aqui-

nas). Often based on the writings of Saint Augustine, they also play a cen-

tral role in techniques of meditation, typical of medieval devotional move-

ments such as the Devotio Moderna.63

Research has shown that during the

sixteenth century, this ideal of Visio Dei became very popular amongst the

urban population of the Low Countries. The Brethren of the Common Life,

with their ideal of a widespread network of urban schools, were probably

crucial in spreading the discourse on the restoration of the image of God.64

According to their adherents, man, being created in the image of God, car-

ries the impression of divinity within. In Paradise, Adam and Eve were able

to ‘see’ and ‘know’ God. After the Fall, however, mankind lost its ability of

Visio Dei. Due to his sensual desires, he could no longer recognise his own

resemblance to God (Imago Dei); therefore, he had to live a life of igno-

rance. Only through the cleansing of the soul, denouncing all worldly en-

deavours while using Christ as an example, could humanity hope to return

to the prelapsarian state and restore Visio Dei.65

However, the chambers from Lier and Diest emphasise other aspects of

devotion. Visio Dei concentrated on distancing oneself from worldly desires

and promoting complete detachment. Only in this way could true introspec-

tion be realised. In the plays by De Lelie and De Groeiende Boom the study

of the surrounding world is central. The gathering and passing on of worldly

knowledge was important since it was the only way to gain insight into Cre-

ation and, by doing so, in God as the Divine Creator. Nevertheless, both

63 Dyrness, Reformed Theology and Visual Culture, pp. 18-31; Speer, ‘The

Epistemic Circle’, pp. 128-132. See also Hamburger, ‘Speculations on speculation’,

pp. 353-401 for the concept of Imago Dei in the Middle Ages. 64 Falkenburg, ‘Doorzien als esthetische ervaring’, pp. 62-63; Ridderbos, De

Melancholie van de kunstenaar, pp. 201-205; De Ridder-Symoens, ‘Education and

literacy’, pp. 11-12. 65 Falkenburg, ‘Doorzien als esthetische ervaring’, pp. 61-62; Van Dijk,

‘Thematische meditatie’, p. 49.


chambers conclude their plays with the protagonist turning inward and find-

ing God reflected in his own soul, the final requirement for Visio Dei.66

By

doing so, both chambers of rhetoric fused the principles of ascetic mysti-

cism with the urban morals of the intellectual elite of Brabant.

This line of thought connects both plays to the writings of John Calvin,

more specifically to his final edition of the Institutio Christianae Religionis

(1559), in which he concentrated on gaining insight into God, immortality

and eternal glory.67

In the first book of Institutio, Calvin links wisdom,

mankind’s knowledge of God and human self-knowledge directly.68

In his

opinion, all knowledge derives from God, and humanity’s distinct quality is

its capacity to know and worship God.69

Therefore, for human beings to tru-

ly gain self-knowledge they must first ‘contemplate the face of God’

(‘iusques à ce qu’il ait contemplé la face de Dieu’).70

As a consequence of

the Fall, man is ignorant and arrogant and refuses to recognise God’s work

in Creation. Only through true knowledge, using reason and Holy Scripture,

could mankind escape its sinful condition. In the same book, Calvin de-

scribes the whole of creation as ‘serving us as a kind of mirror, in which we

may behold God, though otherwise invisible’ (‘le monde [est] une monster

ou spectacle des choses invisibles, d’autant que le bastiment d’iciluy tant

bien digéré et ordonné noes sert de miroir pour contempler Dieu, qui autre-

ment est invisible’).71

Even the liberal arts were manifestations of divinity

and the use of these disciplines would ensure a deeper knowledge of God.

Calvin confessed that ‘those who are more or less intimately acquainted

with those liberal studies are thereby assisted and enabled to obtain a deeper

insight into the secret workings of divine wisdom’ (‘Je confesse bien que

ceux qui sont entendus et expers en science, ou les ont aucunement

goustées, sont aidez par ce moyen et avanez pour comprendre de plus près

les secrets de Dieu’).72

Further resemblances are found between the Institutes and some of the

arguments put forward in the play by De Groeiende Boom. For example, in

Chapter 15, Calvin reminds his readers that man was created in the image of

God. He then stresses the need for humans to contemplate the heavens by

citing the same Ovidian phrase as the chamber from Lier:

66 Hamburger, ‘Speculations on speculation’, pp. 370-371. 67 In this article, the French version of the Institutio will be used, which was

published in 1560 under the title Institution de la religion chrestienne. For the

English translation, see Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion. 68 Dyrness, Reformed Theology and Visual Culture, p. 63. 69 Bouwsma, ‘The two faces of humanism’, p. 30. 70 Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, I, I:2. 71 Ibidem, I, V:1; Gerrisch, ‘The Mirror of God’s Goodness’, pp. 211-222. 72 Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, I, V:2.


Que l’homme a la teste levée en haut et les yeux dressez au ciel pour contem-

pler son origine, somme ainsi soit que les bestes ayent la teste panchée en bas.73

While the mute creation downward bend, their sight, and to their earthly mother

tend, man looks aloft, and with erected eyes, beholds his own hereditary skies.

After this passage, Calvin explains how human beings were created with

reason and understanding so that they might study the universe as a living

image of God and come to true knowledge of God.74

This parallel with De Groeiende Boom can surely be no coincidence.

Its answer to the main question of the allegorical plays, the hope of immor-

tal glory, even recalls one of the main elements of Calvinistic doctrine: that

only God decides who will receive immortality and that every person can

merely hope for their own salvation.75

The writer of this play was Jeronimus

Van der Voort, a painter by profession, who became an adherent of Calvin-

ism in the 1560s, escaping a death sentence in 1568. His Protestant beliefs

might be the reason why he refused to picture God in human form in the

tableau at the end of the play. By using God’s divine name, the image was

liberated from all earthly qualities.76

Instead the audience saw something

sacred, the visual manifestation of the literal word of God, which opened

the way to divine truth. Similarly, De Lelie did not reveal God to the audi-

ence but emphasised the divine reward of spiritual – internal – conversion

through the mirror.

During the Landjuweel, more than one chamber chose to end its per-

formance with Mankind gaining knowledge by reconnecting with his divine

essence through means of visual signs – seeing God in a tableau vivant. In

popular tradition, it was believed that divine wisdom could only be truly

grasped through all of the five senses, with visual perception the most im-

portant contributor.77

In this way, what makes the plays by De Lelie and De

Groeiende Boom special is the actual refusal to visually represent divinity.

By symbolically comparing human vision with a mirror, the chambers ad-

hered to the belief that inner vision, the meditation of God in one’s heart

and mind, eliminated the need for perceptible assistance.78

73 Ibidem, I, XV:3. 74 Ibidem, I, XV:4; Zachman, Image and Word, p. 40. 75 MacCulloch, The Reformation, p. 235. 76 Freedberg, ‘The Hidden God’, p. 140. 77 Rothstein, Sight and spirituality, pp. 56-57. 78 Scribner, ‘Popular piety’, pp. 457-458.


Conclusion

This article intended to show the different ways in which some of the rhe-

toricians approached knowledge and devotion. In analysing two plays, it has

revealed how the chambers attempted to find a middle ground in different

sets of religious and philosophical ideas, to suit their own urban purposes.

When the allegorical plays were published in one volume in 1562, the

edition became the only compilation of rhetoricians’ plays performed in the

sixteenth-century Low Countries whose own title stressed the plays’ like-

ness to a mirror:

Spelen van sinne vol scoone moralisacien wtleggingen ende

bediedenissen op alle loeflijcke consten waerinne men claerlijck gheli-

jck in eenen spieghel, Figuerlijck, Poetelijck ende Retorijckelijck

mach aenschouwen hoe nootsakelijck ende dienstelijck die selue con-

sten allen menschen zijn.79

Allegorical plays full of beautiful moralising clarifications and

thoughts concerning all the praiseworthy arts, where one can see clear-

ly as in a mirror, Figuratively, Poetically and Rhetorically how neces-

sary and useful these same arts are for all of mankind.

Mirrors were often used as a literary commonplace in the Middle Ages and

the sixteenth century. In books, plays and visual art, they usually served as

instruments of instruction, creation and correction. They were exemplary

images, reflections of the world as it was viewed by the writer or artist. The

person looking into the mirror (whether this was the reader, the viewer or

the audience at a theatre festival) had the obligation to shape his identity or

beliefs to resemble what was seen in the mirror.80

In other words, the plays of the Landjuweel showed the Antwerp audi-

ence an allegorical mirror which they could use to rediscover themselves

and reshape their system of values and beliefs. In the end, allegory was a

mirror, the plays just examples, edifying their audience. They showed how

knowledge could help improve a person’s life on an intellectual and spiritu-

al level. By using one’s own intellect through learning, one could gain in-

sight into creation, which in itself was a way to reach and know God

through His creations. Living and working in the world (de vita activa) be-

came a divine task. By combining classical philosophy and Christian hu-

manist principles, worldly ambition merged with the notion of salvation.

79 Spelen van sinne, title page, fol. A1r. 80 Shuger, ‘The “I” of the Beholder’, pp. 22-26.


Ultimately, this was the true value of the allegorical mirror and the allegori-

cal play. As a genre, allegory can be described as a mirror, reflecting the

world man lives in, with all its vices and virtues. Allegorical plays such as

those by De Groeiende Boom and De Lelie suggest solutions which could

help their audience face the reality of everyday life. However, it was the

task of the spectators to see the message of the play reflected within their

own souls and shape it accordingly.

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