Letellier-Willemin F.," The embroidered tunic of Dush- A new approach", Seventh conference of the...

fig. 1 Kharga Oasis according to ‘The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt’.

© C. Riggs.

ALEXANDRIA

NAUKRATISKom el-Hisn

Kom Abu Billo

Saqqara Mit Rahina

Kom Aushim

TERENUTHIS

KARANIS MEMPHIS

ARSINOEHawara

Abusir el-Meleq

el-Bahnasa

el-Bawiti

el-Ashmunein

el-Sheikh IbadaTuna el-Gebel

el-Qusiya

Meir

Asyut

el-Salamuni

Akhmimel-Mansha

Dendara

Qift

Armant

LuxorGebelein

Esna

Edfu

DushAswan

Gebel el-Teir

Qaret el-Muzawwaqa

TEBTUNISKERKEOSIRIS

Bahariya Oasis

Faiyum

Dakhla OasisKharga Oasis

RED SEA

OXYRHYNCHUS

HERMOPOLIS MAGNA

ANTINOOPOLIS

CUSAE

LYKOPOLIS

PTOLEMAIS HERMIOUPANOPOLIS

TENTYRIS

ABYDOSKOPTOSOMBOS

HERMONTHIS

PATHYRIS

LATOPOLIS

KYSISSYENE

PHILAEELEPHANTINE

APOLLINOPOLIS MAGNA

HIBIS

KELLIS

THEBESDIOSPOLIS MAGNA

Textiles from excavations23

fig. 2 Archaeological context. © Photo F. Dunand.

1 Dunand/Lichtenberg 1985, 133–148.2 I particularly thank Mr Mahmoud Youssef Ali, the

director of the museum, Mr Abdul Qader Mohamed Abass, the curator in chief, Mrs Asmaa Mohamed Eyad, assistant-curator, and the entire staff of the Museum who made me welcome.

3 Grenfell/Hunt 1897, 79.4 Dunand/Heim/Henein et al 1992.

The embroidered tunic of Douch – A new approachFleur Letellier-Willemin

Since the publication of the tunic from Douch in 1985, Francoise Dunand and Roger Lichten-berg have excavated new sites, including El-Deir, 100 kilometers north of Douch.1 At Douch, the work of Michel Wuttman and his team is shedding new light on the oasis. In Dakhla, the Great Oasis, two Late Antique cit-ies, Amheida and Kellis, have become known. New studies in addition are highlighting the characteristics of the oasis, research which allows us a better comprehension of the Great Oasis in Roman times. I thank warmly Fran-coise Dunand who has agreed to a new ap-praisal of the embroidered tunic from Douch, which is currently displayed in the Museum of the Oases at Kharga (inv. 744).2

The context of the findspot is essential to the understanding of this textile (fig. 1). Douch is located in the south of the oasis of Kharga in the Egyptian Western Desert on tracks con-necting it to the Theban area and to Nubia. On the site there are several temples (including one built in the reign of Domitian), a tradi-tional cemetery, used until the 4th century ad, and a Christian cemetery, dated to the 4th century ad. It is obvious that the two religions coexisted. The archives of the undertakers of Douch mention the existence of the Christian religion after the second half of the 3rd century ad.3 The tunic came to light in room ii of tomb 20 in the traditional necropolis. This tomb was used in three different periods. The oldest part dates to the 1st century ad, while room ii, the latest phase, probably dates to the beginning of the 4th century ad. Three intact mummies lay there, including that of a seven year old girl (20.2.1.4; fig. 2). Typhoid fever had been the cause of her death. She wore a wig made of real hair, and her naked body was wrapped in five complete shrouds and strips, without bandag-ing (as was the case for all children in Kharga). The embroidered tunic and textiles that had been worn in daily life were used as filling ma-terial. Glass beads and plants were discovered near the body and inside the shrouds.

Two male mummies (50–60 years old) were found with the young girl, laid out ex-actly according to traditional funerary practice (so far as textiles are concerned), and em-balmed in the traditional manner. As normal, the bodies were naked, covered with many

strips of cloth, packed with worn textiles and wrapped in new shrouds. The excavation of tomb 20 showed that it had echoes of burials dating from the 1st century ad; it could have been reused up to the end of the 4th century ad. It seems that the site was deserted in the early 5th century.4

Tomb 20, thoroughly looted, contained mummies and high-quality furniture: one stuccoed and painted funerary bed (which is decorated with traditional religious themes), mummies whose faces were covered with gold sheets, many ceramic items of high quality, glassware, bronze artefacts, incense burners, and many unbleached and folded linen textiles, about which I do not have more information. The traditional funerary practices were mainly of a higher order, too. The anthropological account mentions the family character of the tomb, and of the other tombs in the necropolis. The average age at death of this population is quite high, which reflects a good diet, good health and by implication a high standard of living economically. The decoration of another funerary bed in tomb 6, stuccoed and painted, can help us to comprehend better the general iconography (figs. 3a-b). It is a rare piece of fur-

The embroidered tunic of Douch – A new approach Textiles from excavations 24

fig. 5 The tunic in 2010, Museum of Kharga. © Photo F. Letellier-Willemin.

figs. 3–4 Funerary bed from Douch. © Photos Archives ifao.

styles are characteristic of this period. The themes of musicians and the vine are Egyptian funerary subjects which are not found on con-temporary furniture outside the oasis. In the north of the oasis, in the necropolis of Bagawat which was in use from the middle of 3rd century ad,6 a sarcophagus has been found also deco-rated with vines and a man carrying a garland of flowers,7 as on the walls of some Christian tombs (fig. 4). The theme of the vine is thus pre-sent in both the traditional necropolis of Douch and the Christian necropolis of Bagawat.

niture, but characteristic for Douch:5 two legs are decorated. On the left leg is shown a man with a tambourine, is dressed in a short black tunic with short sleeves; on the right leg is a man with a flute, again dressed in a short black tunic. Both wear rings at the ankles and wrists, and their appearance is accentuated. Under each musician a figure of Osiris is painted. The bed is also decorated with vine scrolls. The col-ours used are traditional: yellow, white, dark red and black dominate. According to Francoise Dunand, the duality of the Egyptian and Greek

The embroidered tunic of Douch – A new approachTextiles from excavations25

5 Castel/Dunand 1981, 77–110.6 Hauser 1930–31, 38–50; Fakhry 1951, 9.7 Fakhri 1951, 96–98.8 Dunand/Lichtenberg 1985, 133–148.

fig. 6 The central strips. © Photo F. Letellier-Willemin.

are simple. Stem stitch, the most frequent, is associated with running stitch, blanket stitch, drawn-fabric stitch and satin stitch. A de-tailed description of the decoration is given in the 1985 publication,8 which I summarize as follows: the central, horizontal bands are composed of six different registers (fig. 6). At the neck opening, the first register represents hearts, overlapping, pointing towards the left on the front, towards the right on the back. The second decorative register shows in the middle a hairy human head, with large eyes but with-out a neck, framed by oval-shaped forms or squares, each decorated with hearts and ro-settes. The third register consists of individual hearts on both sides of a two-tone rhombus.

1 Description of the tunic (excavation inv. 1780, fig. 5)Since its discovery the colours of the tunic have changed little. Before being exhibited at the museum, the tunic was ironed. It was wo-ven to shape in only one part. The most dam-aged part most probably represents the back. The lower part of the fabric was carefully torn, and the fragments were re-used in the wrap-ping of the mummy.

The fabric is woven in plain weave from unbleached flax. Its dark colour comes from impregnation by the products of embalming. The front measures 64 centimetres in weft direction and 74 in warp. The sleeves meas-ure 114 centimetres by 16 centimetres. The decoration is composed of incomplete orbiculi on the shoulders, of two clavi, and of a large central strip (collar) on both sides of the neck. Other decorative elements could have been present at the bottom of the tunic and on the sleeves which are heavily damaged. The neck opening is a simple slit measuring 30 centime-tres long, darned at the junction with the right sleeve. The size of the fragment and its decora-tion suggest an adult’s tunic. On both sides, at the same level, the fabric and decoration show marks of wear, reflecting perhaps the friction of a belt, and with signs of a sewn fold.

The count in warp is from 28 to 32 threads per centimetre, and in weft from 10 to 12 threads per centimetre. The S-torsion of the threads is generally around 35 degrees. The diameter of the warp is about 0.5 mil-limetres, that of the weft is approximately 0.8–1 millimetre. Some weaving faults in the tie-up are frequent on the front. No selvedge was found. At the top of the right sleeve the embroidery is also darned and it seems that it was done by a different hand in an area of about ten centimetres, because different colours were used for the same patterns. Thus it is an unbleached linen tunic with a dominant warp, a type of weave which is usual in Egypt at that time. The woollen threads have an S-torsion, sometimes twined Z2S, with a diameter of 0.8–1 millimetre. The needle holes have a di-ameter bordering a millimetre. The decoration is symmetrical on front and back of the tunic. But differences exist in the choice of the motifs, their number and their colours. The stitches


fig. 8 A clavus. © Photo F. Letellier-Willemin.

fig. 7 An orbiculus. © Photo F. Letellier-Willemin.

and human faces. On the back and the front, the clavi end in volutes, forming a triangle, inside which is set a bunch of grapes, and, at the point, a winged figure is placed (fig. 9a-b). The four winged figures measure 14 by 11 centimetres approximately. Their eyes and chests are clear-ly outlined. Their hair is very short. The four figures are represented with head in three-quarter view, a front view bust, legs in profile, the left leg folded and the other one tensed. Ex-tended wings project from the shoulders. The four figures hold a crown in three colours – on a level with their wings – in the left hand or right hand. Two of them hold a palm in front of the belly, and another one straight along the

The fourth decorative register is a series of concave arches and centred palmettes, joined together by rhombuses. The fifth register pre-sents a line of ‘bayonets’. The sixth and final register is suspended from the one before, alternating heart or flower buds at the end of a stem. The dominant colour is a more or less dark ‘purple’. The half orbiculi at the shoulders are decorated with geometric patterns, plants and hearts (fig. 7). Running from the shoulders, the clavi (approximately 100 centimetres in length and six to seven centimetres in width) are based upon a symmetrical pattern with leaves (fig. 8). They are composed of three lines of decoration, with tendrils, vegetable patterns


9 Cardon 2003, 43–46.

fig. 9a-b Winged figures. © Photo F. Letellier-Willemin.

mixture of weld and indigo. The purple was obtained from madder, with iron acetate as the mordant, which gives a dark purplish black. Iron mordants were employed in Egypt from the 18th dynasty. However, in Kharga mordant-ing with alum was known from the 21st dynasty and Kharga is an important alum producer.9 The ‘purple’ threads might come from another Egyptian site.

2 New data, local, regional and national, since the 1985 publication

2.1 Douch and its surroundingsThe results of the textile studies of the necrop-olis were never published. The field notebooks

bust and the head. One of them has its right hand free. The colours used overall for the bod-ies are applied per pair. The symmetrical com-position of the patterns corresponds to that in tapestry decoration on tunics. The decoration covers an important surface. The woollen threads are not spun to a uniform standard and the execution of the embroidery and the choice of topics show some variety. This makes us think that two different hands were responsible for the embroidery. The ‘purple’ colour dominates. Is this a decorative choice? The dyes were analysed at the time in France in the Laboratoire des Monuments Historiques de Champs sur Marne France. The green is a


10 Roubet/Meyer (Excavation notebooks, not pub-lished).

11 Redde 1992.12 Vercoutter 1979, 454.13 Gautier 1981, 111–114.14 Bousquet 1996; Baum 1992.15 Chauveau/Agut, forthcoming.16 Wagner 1987, 214.17 Coudert/Letellier-Willemin 2009 (in press).

fig. 10 The crown of the treasure of Douch. © Photo P. Chapuis.

ern cults, in particular with those practised in Ephesos, in Palmyra, but also in Cyrene.

Among the 650 bronze coins discovered in court i of the temple (dated to the 4th cen-tury ad), some have mint marks of imperial workshops (Antioch, Alexandria, Constan-tinople, Cyzicus, Thessalonica).12 Victories are represented on two coins: one of Valentinian i (minted in Thessalonica) and one of Theodo-sius i (minted in Nicomedia). The figures are not naked, and one of the victories carries a crown and a palm.13

Close to Douch, excavation at Ain Manawir showed the importance of the work undertaken under Persian rule (525–404 bc) in the oasis. In Roman times, Douch had more than 1.000 hectares under cultivation, accord-ing to the latest surveys. The excavations of the settlements also highlighted objects of quality, made of expensive materials (bronze, ivory, coral etc.), raising questions of local work-shops, trade and exchange. The botanical stud-ies of the necropolis and the site highlighted the great diversity of Mediterranean cultures.14 The archives of the temple of Ain Manawir de-livered a lot of economic information.15 Finally, the presence of a Roman garrison during the 4th century ad including many non-Egyptian troops opened access to foreign influences. The background was thus cosmopolitan, an observation confirmed by the coins and os-traca from the area.16

2.2 Parallels between Douch and El-DeirThe excavations of the necropolis of El-Deir reveal a situation rather similar to that of Douch with traditional and Christian funer-ary practices. The mummy of the little girl at Douch had been prepared according to lo-cal tradition. But a question arises about the presence of wool. If a burial in the Great Oasis incorporates even a single wool thread, must it be assumed that it originates from the Chris-tian necropolis?17

2.3 Parallels between the necropolis of Douch, the tombs of Ain el-Turba and the necropolis of BagawatThe excavations of Ain el Turba have not been published. During the Persian period tombs were situated close to the temple of Hibis.

of the excavations make some general points, but say nothing about the textile context of the tunic.10 In March 1989, the ‘treasure of Douch’ was discovered.11 It would contribute to a bet-ter understanding of the circumstances of the time, but it also prompted questions. Accord-ing to Michel Reddé, it indicates that the cult was very long-lived and confirms the wealth of the population (approximately 5.000 inhab-itants, notable for the time). Hidden in the temple dedicated to Osiris-Sarapis and Isis the treasure comprises two different units. The first unit includes a crown, representing Sara-pis and Harpocrates, and a bracelet, decorated with vine leaves and poppy-heads (fig. 10). Originating in Alexandria, it is dated to the beginning of the 2rd century ad. The second unit includes a lot of gold sheets and a coin of Faustina the Younger. On one of the sheets two Victories are represented proffering a crown to Isis and Sarapis. The sheets appear to be ex votos deposited by pilgrims, and are probably local products. They date from the last quarter of the 2rd century to the first quarter of the 3rd century ad. For some elements of the treasure, Michel Reddé suggests similarities with East-


18 Hauser 1932, 38–50.19 See also another, badly damaged textile called ‘shawl’

from Bagawat in the Textile Museum (inv. TM 122).20 Ikram 2007, 953–959.21 Riggs 2005, 48–61.22 Bagnall 2007, 73, 89.23 Livingstone, forthcoming. I warmly thank Gillian

Bowen and Rosanne Livingstone who allowed me to mention this.

24 Schweitzer 1998, 344.

fig. 11a-b An embroidered tunic from Bagawat in the Textile Museum, Cairo.

© Photo F. Letellier-Willemin.

vegetable motifs and hearts. In addition, many texts inform us about textile fibres, weaving, weavers and their workshops, trade with the valley and distant travel.22 Among the textiles from Kellis, the study of which is in progress, there are very few embroideries. One of them, decorating a child’s cap, is similar to those of Douch.23 The study of the cartonnage from Dakhla confirms the use of particular colours belonging to the Egyptian tradition, and the same is true of the embroideries of Dakhla24 and Douch: black, red and yellow are most fre-quent on the artefacts, in the traditional tombs and in traditional Egyptian iconography.

They were re-used in Roman times. The ne-cropolis of Bagawat was established in the middle of the 3rd century ad,18 as is indicated by some traditional tombs. The latter were re-used by Christians, and the necropolis continued in use until the 7th century ad. At the beginning of the 20th century, excavations were carried out at Bagawat by an American team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. They were interested in the textiles as in other archaeological artefacts. Embroi-dered tunics are preserved at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and in the Textile Museum in Cairo. One of the embroidered linen tunics kept in Cairo (inv. TM 123) shows wool decora-tion in a technique and with motifs very close to those of Douch, dominated by vegetable patterns, among them the vine (figs. 11a-c).19

2.4 Kharga as a wholeA survey of the north of the oasis confirmed its economic importance from the Persian period onward.20 A new study of Egyptian sarcophagi and cartonnage from Roman times includes an inventory of those items coming from Kharga, but now dispersed to museums internationally. Given the features common to the examples in the Kharga group, the author suggests the existence of a local workshop.21

2.5 Parallels with DahklaIt is essential to point out the importance of the sites of Kellis and Amheida. Their excavation has revealed painted mural decoration with


25 Fluck 2011.26 Wild 2005, 16–19.27 Fluck 2011, 78–79, pl. 10a-b.28 Fluck 2011, 77–78, pl. 9a.29 Dunand 1985, Bibliography.

fig. 12 An embroidered children’s tunic, Archäologische Staatssammlung, München, inv. 1985.716.

© Photo M. Eberlein.

our subject with its vinous theme, considered as a symbol of good luck (fig. 12).27 According to Cäcilia Fluck, another fragment of a child’s tunic (in the collection of Katoen Natie, inv. 869-02) is also related.28 But to my knowledge, there is no embroidered decoration which is closely similar to that of Douch. Françoise Dunand has undertaken much research, par-ticularly on the four winged figures, which she sought to identify as Victories.29 How does the matter stand today? In her study of the sar-

2.6 Inside Egypt and outside. How should the decoration of the tunic be interpreted?Embroidered clothing has been recently list-ed.25 A fragment from Qasr Ibrim in Nubia, dat-ed to the Late Meroitic Period (200–350 ad), is not similar to the embroidery of Kharga; but it is from the same period, and this is an impor-tant point.26 An embroidered child’s tunic in the Archäologischen Staatsammlung in Mu-nich (inv. 1985.716), is slightly reminiscent of


30 Riggs 2005, 198–205.31 Personal communication from Helen Persson, to

whom I express my thanks. There is nothing similar in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

32 Schrenk 2004, 63–64.33 Reproduced in Goodenough 1958, vol. vii, 162, fig. 151.34 Rutschowscaya 1990, 39.35 Noever 2005, 78–79, no 31; 114–115, no 58; 125–126, no

68, 156–157, no 93.36 Cat. Nantes 2001, 63, no 29.37 Cribiore/Davoli/Ratzan 2008, 79, fig. 5–6.38 Bailey 2008, 52, no 3302; 89, no 3303; 128, no 3473;

Thomas 2000, 52, fig.110.39 Dauterman-Maguire 1999, 137.

fig. 13 A fragment with embroidered ‘Amor und Psyche’, Sammlung Altheim-Stiehl, Münster.

© Photo C. Fluck.

posture of the bodies could be reminiscent of dancers. The leg in the foreground is tensed, in contrast to all the other iconographic repre-sentations. The complete lack of clothing is a very important point. What is their sex? The hair is short. The breasts are pronounced. On two figures, one leg hides the sexual organs. We are inclined, however, to regard them on balance as female. Yet again they might be cu-pids; but the childish body of Eros does not cor-respond to the slim silhouettes of the figures on the tunic from Douch.34 A winged cupid on a fragment in a private collection is compa-rable to the figures on the Douch tunic – but the figures are not closely similar (fig. 13). Two of our four winged figures wear bracelets on ankles and arms, as in the paintings of the two musicians on the legs of the funerary bed from the necropolis. Could one suspect Bacchic inspiration? Dionysos, the god of the wine, assimilated to Osiris, is often surrounded by flying cupids holding crowns.

The floral motifs among the plant sub-ject matter represented in the classical man-ner on the tunic dominate the decoration. In addition, their symbolism is important in a desert and in an Egyptian context. Bouquets, crowns and garlands were found in abundance in the tombs of Douch; a crown and flowers are painted on a column there. The theme of the vine is traditional in Egypt, and the wine of the oasis was in great demand and exported as far as the Mediterranean. The vine decorates tra-ditional sarcophagi, a traditional funerary bed at Douch, and the walls of Christian tombs at Bagawat. It thus belongs to the decorative rep-ertoire of both religions. The running waves, palmettes, buds and the stems of foliage were already very frequent motifs in Ptolemaic art, among them the ivy and the olive-tree symbols of rebirth.35 Lines of hearts become a widespread theme. Among the first examples of this pattern are the Palmyrene sculptures of the 1st to 3rd centuries ad.36 A painted wall in Amheida, in Dahkla oasis, is a superb exam-ple.37 The human heads in the decoration of the tunic, lacking a neck, with large eyes and bris-tling hair, recall Gorgons, a traditional Greek theme, frequently represented in Ptolemaic times and later in various media,38 including tapestry.39

cophagi of the Roman period, Christina Riggs describes a group of funerary art, character-istic of Roman Thebes, namely the second-century sarcophagi of the family of Soter. On the shroud and the sarcophagus of one of them, Cleopatra, the daughter of Soter, we find Victories, which frame Isis and Nephtys. For the author it is an Egyptian symbol of the triumph over death in a Roman style.30 As for tapestry, the representations known as Victo-ries are never exactly similar to the figures on the Douch tunic.31 One may quote, for exam-ple, those on a fragment in the Abegg-Stiftung at Riggisberg (inv. 1102a, b).32 As for sculpture, as Francoise Dunand has shown, the bronze called the Victory of the Benaki Museum is also naked.33 As for paintings and mosaics, comparisons remain difficult. The representa-tions of decorated tunics appear since Roman times. To my knowledge, none of the garments depicted in this period shows decoration with similar figures to those on the Douch tunic. Lastly, the motif of Victory is very frequent in the Near East – compare the famous Victories of the tomb of the Three Brothers at Palmyra, and Victories on the coins of this date, vectors for iconographic models.

Are there other interpretations for the winged figures of the Douch tunic? The


40 Lorquin 1992, 241–242.41 Personal communication from Claudia Nauerth, to

whom I am grateful.42 See for example a tapestry fragment in the National

Museum of the Middle Ages, Paris (inv. Cl. 14346 A).43 Lorquin 1992, 144–146.44 Gallazzi/Wagner 1983, 173.45 Wipszycka 1965, 125–126.46 Preaux 1939, 108.47 Boud’hors 1997, 26.48 Whitehouse 2007, 297–306.49 Pritchard 2006, 115.50 Diehl 1933, 503.51 Forbes 1987, 18; Rutschowscaya 1990, 36.52 Martiniani-Reber 2001, 43.53 Cardon 2003, 120.

4 What are the possible hypotheses and conclusions?Thanks to the new discoveries in the Great Oasis, the tunic can now be seen to share the characteristics of other textiles from the same context and period, the end of the 3rd century to the beginning of the 4th century ad. That is con-firmed by its weaving technique.49 Its important embroidered decoration imitates tapestry, perhaps executed by two different hands. Ac-cording to analysis at the time of discovery, the dominant ‘purple’ wool is obtained with mad-der, using iron acetate as the mordant, which is not common in the oasis. The floral motifs in the decoration are traditional for Egyptian, Greek and Roman cultures. But the winged figures still prompt questions. Whatever these representations mean – Victories, musicians, dancers, cupids – they symbolize the life of these cultures. They decorated a garment, probably intended for special occasions. The decoration of the tunic belongs to a complex context. The tunic was most probably woven and embroidered in the oasis, where a high per-centage of embroideries were found, and this is a very important point. The tunic belonged to an adult, no doubt a woman. This woman lived in a society of landowners, rich enough to finance important public works, like the stone temple of Douch.50 The Egyptian and Greek languages cohabited. Undoubtedly there ex-isted local weavers’ workshops, as there were workshops for cartonnage and sarcophagi. But what is the place of embroidery in the Egyp-tian textile context? The origin of embroidery was reputed to be Phrygian. Some of the old-est examples known were found in Syria and Mesopotamia, dating at the beginning of the 1st millennium bc. Some textiles from the tomb of Tuthmosis ii have embroidered decoration as well.51 Is embroidery a more or a less expensive technique than tapestry for an equivalent deco-rative task? At the Museum of Textiles in Lyons, there is a linen fragment embroidered in wool with a palmette pattern; according to Marielle Martiniani-Reber, it is a very rare specimen of Sasanian embroidery, perhaps dating to the 7th century ad.52 Dominique Cardon draws atten-tion to a silk embroidery from Palmyra, dated to the 2nd century ad, which probably came from Asia.53 It seems possible to argue that embroi-

2.7 ConclusionTo conclude: the decoration of the tunic makes use of an unusual technique, embroidery, rare in comparison with the frequency of tapestry-weaving. Embroidery is used for sev-eral textiles in the oasis, copying tapestry. The execution is of average quality, most probably local or Egyptian.40 The motifs reflect various traditional sources. But the winged figures still prompt questions: are they Victories, cupids, dancers …? Victories could not be represented naked according to some authors.41 This is not an isolated difficulty of iconographic interpre-tation:42 there is, for example, a similar prob-lem with a tapestry fragment in the National Museum of the Middle Ages, Paris (inv. Cl. 14346 A).43 How much latitude of expression is there in textile decoration, not least in embroi-dery, in this particular context?

3 Some notes about the embroidery and the textsResearch quickly shows that the word ‘em-broidery’ is individualized, but not to any great extent. The embroiderer, plumarius, is recognized in sources of the Late Empire and in Byzantine times. The term is quoted in the archives of a private estate in the The-baid at the beginning of the 5th century ad: ‘… Appianos with Pachoumios, embroiderer. Provide 15 pounds of wool, which makes 15 pounds…’.44 There would have been a guild bringing together these craftsmen in Ptole-maïc times and later.45 Another writer quotes an embroiderer named Teôs in Philadelphia in the Ptolemaic period. This craft would have been part of a free economy.46 Later there are Coptic terms borrowed from the Greek, to indicate embroidered fabrics or clothing.47 The papyrus cartoons from Oxyrhynchus do not cast any new light on the tunic; but it is interesting to note that the commentator emphasises that they reveal a cultural blend.48 Finally, a problem should perhaps be noted: whilst embroidered decoration is compara-tively rare among archaeological finds, there are many textual references to the plumarius. Perhaps the plumarius is the one who is mak-ing the much commoner tapestry-woven decoration?


54 Stauffer 1991, 17.55 Pritchard 2006, 46.56 Bagnall 2007, 73, 89.57 Wagner 1987, 373–387.58 Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001, 70–71.59 Cherpion/Corteggiani/Gout 2007, 1, 62, 72, 127.60 Riggs 2005, 40.61 Frankfurter 1998, 283–284.62 Pächt 1999, 128, quoted by Riggs 2005, 245, note 1.

can find this cultural iconographic intricacy as early as the 4th century bc, for other Egyptian sites, but it is exceptional; in the valley, at Touna el-Gebel, the tomb of Petosiris presents scenes which already mix the Persian and Greek influ-ences with the Egyptian traditions.59

I shall finish with a question about re-ligious character. The tunic was part of the packing of a traditional mummy. However, it would be unthinkable, in traditional funerary practice, to find wool there. In the Great Oasis it was never found in the tombs, even in the necropolis at the site which was re-used later, at the same time as the Christian necropolis. Wool appears only in the Christian necropolis, and very modestly at the beginning. I would like to conclude with a hypothesis: we are in a ‘melting pot’ during a period of religious transition. Funerary textiles are also emotive objects.60 A mother perhaps gave her tunic to the embalmer, with its strongly symbolic deco-ration, as a charm for good luck, for her seven year old little girl; at El-Deir textile amulets were found in the traditional necropolis and in the Christian necropolis. In accordance with tradition, the girl was not clothed. But new trends and influences made it possible now to place the tunic on the mummy, in spite of the animal fibre in it. Within families there may have existed members who followed tradi-tional religious observance, but also members who had converted to the new religion. And a mother might find it impossible to separate her daughter from the family. Little by little, many traditional religious symbols came to be re-used as Christian symbols. The necropolis of Bagawat is a beautiful demonstration of this retrieval and re-interpretation of the tradi-tional religious symbols by the Christians.61 As Francoise Dunand has already said of the Vic-tories, they become angels.

To characterise this period of transition, I will finish with a quotation: ‘Every epoch or evolutionary phase requires different criteria of value; and what may appear to be incapac-ity to do a given thing is really the impulse or the will to do something different, or to do the same thing in a different way’.62 So it was with the tunic of Douch, and the two basic questions it raises, about the technique of embroidery and the motifs of the winged figures.

dery began modestly with wool yarn, followed later by luxurious embroideries in silk. How much time was spent executing a decorative el-ement either by weaving or embroidery? 54 Was it domestic work or workshop-based? Does this embroidered decoration reveal economic and thus social status? 55 The technique allows freedom, a new approach not quite in conform-ity with Egyptian textile traditions, which were very conservative and upheld until late (as we can observe in the study of the textiles in the Great Oasis). By contrast, the main Roman technique of textile decoration was tapestry weaving. The necropolis of Douch contains rich tombs furnished with objects of high quality from Alexandria and further afield: Alexandria is the hub for the distribution of many textile innovations. The texts from the Great Oasis confirm that it was home to a very cosmopolitan society. The temple of Kysis was probably the seat of an oracle from the 2nd century ad. The many roads and trackways belong to a network of trade routes between Nubia, the oases of the North, the valley and ultimately the East (Libya, the Red Sea, the Near East). There existed a Manichean community in Dahkla with links to Syria.56 Douch was host to military garrisons with soldiers of various origins.57 Do these mul-tifarious outside influences make it possible to argue also for outside influence behind the use of the technique of embroidery or at least out-side influence on the choice of the decorative themes? Embroidery remains rare in the Near East at that time. Yet a needle is used to sew all clothing, and it is easy to use a coloured thread; but we must always reckon with the religious traditions in Egypt, which also control textile traditions. Could there be a change with the ar-rival of Christianity? We are in a particular geo-graphical and economic situation. The Oasis’ partial isolation allows the development of idi-osyncrasies. As to the iconographical themes, there is most probably local re-interpretation of the various incoming cultural influences. That is undoubtedly one of the characteristics of the oasis. It is the same in other countries in Late Antiquity. We can draw an iconographic paral-lel, for example, with the Sasanian dancers on the mosaics of Bishapur (in the reign of Sapur i, ad 241–272) which reinterpret Graeco-Roman influence.58 And it is important to note that we

Letellier-Willemin F.," The embroidered tunic of Dush- A new approach", Seventh conference of the...

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Transcript of Letellier-Willemin F.," The embroidered tunic of Dush- A new approach", Seventh conference of the...