Masaryk University Brno

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

Hana Klementová, MBA

Marriage and Infidelity in GeoffreyChaucer´s The Canterbury Tales from

Gender Perspective

Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2014

Supervisor: Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk

Declaration

Hereby I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently and that I have used

only the sources listed in the Bibliography.

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Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk and express my gratitude for his patience

and supervision of my thesis.

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Annotation

The bachelor thesis focuses on the issue of marriage and infidelity described in

Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. It examines examples of relationships between men and

women from the gender perspective. The paper commences with a brief description

of the medieval English society in Chaucer’s time, the role, status and equality of

men and women. In continues with a detailed analysis of marriage and infidelity

reflected in The Canterbury Tales and seeks underlying reasons for successful

relationship. The analysis leads to the conclusion that women were more active in

their roles then their submissive status indicates.

Key Words

Marriage, Infidelity, Gender, Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer

Anotace

Tato bakalářská práce se soustředí na problém manželství a nevěry, jak je popsaná v

Canterburských povídkách. Zkoumá příklady vztahů mezi muži a ženami z pohledu

pohlaví. Práce začíná krátkým popisem středověké společnosti v Anglii, role a

postavením mužů a žen v této společnosti. Pokračuje detailní analýzou manželství a

nevěry, jak se odráží v Canterburských povídkách, a hledá hlavní důvody pro

úspěšné vztahy. Analýza vede k závěru, že ženy byly ve svých rolích mnohem

aktivnější, než naznačuje jejich podřízené postavení.

Klíčová slova

Manželství, Nevěra, Gender, Canterburské povídky, Geoffrey Chaucer

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction...............................................................................................................6

2. The Middle Ages.......................................................................................................7

3. Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales..........................................................12

4. Chastity, virginity and celibacy...............................................................................14

5. Marriage..................................................................................................................18

5.1 Marriage as the Middle Ages standard.............................................................18

5.2 Ideal marriage from male perspective..............................................................22

5.3 Ideal marriage form female perspective...........................................................24

6. Infidelity..................................................................................................................28

6.1 The Merchant´s Tale.........................................................................................29

6.2 The Miller's Tale...............................................................................................32

6.3 The Reeve´s Tale..............................................................................................35

7. Conclusion..............................................................................................................39

Bibliography...............................................................................................................40

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1. Introduction

The official role of women in medieval society was essentially inferior and

submissive; they had no rights in government and little education, and they were

suppressed by the law, the Church and, more immediately, by their fathers and

husbands. Their role in the transition from daughters to wives was passive, yet they

exercised a lot of active approach when fulfilling the expectations of their role.

The second chapter briefly depicts the Middle Ages, the status and position of

women in the Medieval society. The stratification of the society was reflected in the

roles and duties women had to fulfil. The most standard destiny for women was to

marry and bear children. Yet there were some who preferred to live without men. The

topic of virginity and celibacy is discussed in chapter 4. It analyses several tales from

this point of view.

Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the themes of marriage and infidelity in greater

detail. The Canterbury Tales in several tales tried to find an answer to the question

which ideal is better: the ideal marriage from the male point of view where husbands

play the main role or the ideal from the female perspective where she tries to master.

It seems that none of those is functional and successful and that functional and happy

marriage depends on the mutual loyalty, tolerance and respect. The infidelity dealt

with in The Canterbury Tales concerns only women as if infidelity on the male side

was not that influential or important.

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2. The Middle AgesThe Middle Ages are often referred to as “Dark Ages”; on the other hand, the

Middle Ages “have been glorified by many writers; “the Age of Chivalry”, the “Ages

of Faith” have often been contrasted with the hardness of the age of enlightenment,

rationalism, and material progress; they are thought of as full of colour, variety,

romance of all sorts.” (Ker, 3) The society of the Middle Ages predefined the status

and position of men and women. And the status and position of people determined

possibilities of their fulfilment in life.

The Middle Ages society was a feudal society which was strictly

hierarchically structured. Historians present medieval society as a pyramid (see

Picture 1). At the top of the pyramid was the king. Below him were the barons,

nobles and knights. The king granted them land and in return they had to provide

soldiers or had to fight for him. Members of nobility were followed by lords of

manors, merchants, and clergy. At the bottom of society were peasants who created

the base of the social pyramid. Most were not free and were serfs or villains. They

could not leave their land without the permission of their lord. They had to work on

their land, as well as on the lord’s land. The pyramid as a symbol of medieval society

emphasizes the differences in numbers. There were a large number of workers at the

bottom and each higher group was smaller than the one below it and there is only one

king or ruler at the top.

Picture 1: Structure of Medieval Society. Retrieved from http://gcuonline.georgian.edu/wootton/Medieval.htm

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The feudal society in England, but not only there, was patriarchal and it was

completely dominated by men. Women as a group were always viewed as inferior to

men as a group. They were seldom involved in government, warfare, land

management, or the professions; they were excluded from the economic, social and

political power. Women played little or no role and they had to know their place in

this kind of society and hierarchy. In the households, where women spent most of the

day, the main word had the master of the house – a man – and everyone there was

subjected to him. Men were in control of the power and they exercised their authority

over women. This was supported by the law. It was set by men and limited the

freedom of women to great extent. Women were not allowed to marry without their

parents’ consent, they could own no business with special permission, were not

allowed to divorce their husbands, they could not own property of any kind unless

they were widows, and could not inherit land from their parents’ if they had any

surviving brothers. (Ennen 16, Bardsley 3)

The medieval society was highly stratified and the social rank affected

everything. The period offered little opportunity for social mobility. Yet, individual

women could overcome even this limitation (and Chaucer gives us example of

socially enhanced woman – Griselda in “The Clerk´s Tale”). According to the social

status, women can be divided into three categories: peasant women, townswomen

and noblewomen. The primary duties of women in general were to provide

management for daily affairs in the household, and to bear and rear children. That

was true for women of a higher social status as well as lower one. There were some

differences, though.

The first difference was in the age when women married. Girls from richer

families tended to marry earlier than girls from poor families. The poorer families

needed as many working and helping hands as was possible, so daughters getting

married at an early age would mean there were less people to support the family. On

the other hand, women from rich backgrounds married when they were teenagers.

They had no choice over who they married and they were usually married to

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someone as a “political gesture” (Heyck, 121). Once married, the young lady came

under control of her husband.

Another difference lay in the duties in their households. Women from poor

families worked as hard as men. They were expected to help their peasant husbands

with daily chores. They were needed on the farms; they hoed and weeded, helped

with ploughing. They also spun wool and they did cooking and cleaning. Women

were also responsible for the children and they needed to understand some herbs for

basic nursing requirements. The daily life of a noblewoman followed scheme similar

to that of her husband. Her daily life centred around castles or manors. She spent

much time by overseeing the running of the household, very often in the absence of

their husband. A noblewoman had to “hire, fire, and supervise staff, order and keep

track of provisions needed for feeding a large household, ensure that her staff and

family were properly clothed, and supervise children from families of slightly lesser

noble status sent to her household for training.” (Bardsley, 9) Aristocratic women had

“challenging responsibilities in managing large households of servants and retainers

as well as large families of their own, and their presence graced the banquets, dances,

and other social events held at the court or in the castles of the nobility.” (Heyck,

119)

When medieval commentators divided men into separate groups, they usually

classified them according to their social status (see above). Women were more often

sorted according to their marital status: typically virgin, wife, or widow. Marital

status was therefore part of a woman´s identity. (Bardsley, 114)

The marriage, therefore, played very important role of medieval life. It was

normative and expected at all social levels. By marriage a woman´s life changed

significantly. Her husband gained the right to control her own property, but as a wife

she gained a degree of social esteem. Marriage was an economic contract. She gained

the security and protection of a home and stable income, and the husband had a

producer of offspring and a pleasure object. Wives lacked legal authority, but they

gained moral and social authority. (Bardsley, 114) Andrea Marcotte writes:

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The instability of medieval society contributed to woman’s struggle for

power, and women were forced to use the system to their advantage when

possible. One option a woman had to maintain power or to achieve status was

to remain a virgin or to join a nunnery; however, it was more common for

women to be married off by their families. Marriage presented another

dilemma for women in the power struggle. Even though virginity was saved

for marriage and for reproduction, once that virtue was forfeited, the power

and cleanness associated with virginity and the Virgin Mary was lost. This

loss of purity and disassociation with the Virgin is comparable to death.

Judson Boyce Allen and Theresa Anne Moritz describe marriage in the

Middle Ages: “The first woe of marriage is that it is the end of virginity,

second that it is the destroyer of peace, third that it is almost the pain of death,

and fourth that it is not conducive to nobility.” As a wife and mother, a

woman was supposed to serve and obey her husband dutifully and without

question in accordance to her role in the social hierarchy; however, this ideal

is not always realistic or suitable. The few remaining ways a woman could

attempt to elevate her status after marriage were either to become a widow or

to embrace her role as an old crone.” (8-9)

For some women, widowhood represented independence and autonomy, for

others, it was a period of poverty, vulnerability, and loneliness. Some widows could

take over their husbands´workshops and even become members of certain guilds.

According to Bardsley, there existed two major stereotypes of widows. One was that

of that pious widow who was able to spend her days in prayer and performance of

charitable deeds. These widows considered their widowhood as a period of second

virginity. This stereotype was contrasted with the opposite: the lusty, wanton, and

greedy widow. The so-called bad widow saw widowhood as a release from a boring

husband and an opportunity to exercise her own autonomy in all matters. To some

extend, the Wife of Bath represents this stereotype.

Speaking about virginity, it is important to mention the role of religion in the

Middle Ages. The Catholic church was the only church in Europe and all Christians

belonged to it. With it's own laws, lands and taxes the Catholic church was a very

powerful institution. It was the church that supported the Virgin Mary as the model

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of all women. Mary was the ideal woman whose virtues were piety, obedience and

purity. Her counterpart was Eve, the woman who stands behind the expulsion from

Paradise. Her disobedience and desires were the reasons for leaving the Garden of

Eden. Thus, virginity was seen as having a higher value than matrimony by some.

Through religious vocation women were “conditioned into being obedient to their

husbands and expected to be faithful and pious, and in turn, husbands had to keep a

close eye on their wives constantly since the stereotypes affixed to women suggested

that the majority of them are prone to sin.” (Elsehrawi, 30) To avoid “misdeeds”,

church laws advocated that sexual relations between a married couple must and

should take place. So the obedient and subordinate wife satisfies her husband’s needs

willingly; nevertheless she bears in mind the purpose of the coitus that is to conceive

child. It is her duty to give birth to children and to raise them, her priority is to create

warm home and safe environment for her family.

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3. Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales

Geoffrey Chaucer was born around 1340 in London to a middle class family;

his father was a wine merchant. He served in the royal household as a page and later

held a series of administrative posts under Edward III and Richard II. His diplomatic

and commercial missions led him to many journeys abroad. He also joined the

English army in the Hundred Years´ War, where he was captured. He was married to

Philippa de Roet and had three or four children. He died in 1400 and was buried in

Westminster Abbey.

Chaucer knew Latin, French, dialects of Middle English and probably Italian.

He was familiar with the literary works of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio and was

inspired by some of it. Although he wrote a lot of works, his most famous is The

Canterbury Tales. It describes a group of pilgrims travelling from London to the

tomb of Thomas Becket at Canterbury. On the way the pilgrims amuse themselves by

telling stories. Originally it was planned for 120 stories – each of 30 pilgrims was to

tell 4 stories, 2 on their way to Canterbury and 2 on the way back. This plan was not

completed and only 22 stories were finished. Chaucer pilgrims come from all layers

of the Medieval society and Chaucer let them interact with one another.

The class structure is reflected in The Canterbury Tales; the highest in rank is

a knight, his son, the squire, and yeoman; There are also a prioress, second nun,

monk and friar. The biggest group as far as number is concerned consists of people

from the middle class: a merchant, a clerk, a man of law, a franklin, a cook, a

shipman, a physician, 5 guildsmen and a wife of Bath. From lower class there are a

parson, a plowman, a miller, a manciple, a reeve, a summoner and a pardoner, a

narrator and a host.

The pilgrims are introduced in the General Prologue, with attention to their

social status. When depicting them, Chaucer described in detail their “attire” and

how they differed from the generally accepted role they should play. As for the form,

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The Canterbury Tales is a compilation of most literary forms known to medieval

literature: romance, fabliau, beast fable, saint´s life, moral tales, and sermons.

Chaucer´s characters tell their stories in their language and style. The stories are not

original ones. Chaucer used old stories and rewrote them in an interesting and

amusing way, often ridiculing the original meaning.

The individual stories are connected by pilgrims discussions and comments

and in many cases the stories react one to another. Through their eyes Chaucer shows

us the variety of the Middle Ages society, general beliefs and standards.

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4. Chastity, virginity and celibacy

As was said in Chapter 2, religion ruled the lives of people in the Middle

Ages. Part of the Christian belief was celibacy and preferences of virginity over

matrimony. Attitudes toward virginity were changing throughout the Middle Ages.

Virgins were idealized in literature, they echoed the perfection of the Virgin Mary.

Some women had to be real unwavering heroines to protect their virginity and keep

safe from any temptation or attempted rape. Family honour and shame were often

connected with purity and chastity of their daughters. The most recognized way in

which to pursue a life holy virginity was by becoming a nun. (Bardsley, 32)

In The Canterbury Tales there is not a story regarding going to nunnery but a

unique and extreme example of keeping the virginity at all costs is described in “The

Physician´s Tale”. The heroine is a fourteen years old maid who is very beautiful,

virtuous, “as well in soul as body chaste was she”, wise, “her speech was always

womanly and plain” and gentle (Physician´s, 39-54). A judge falls in love with her

and wants to get her. He knows that it would be almost impossible so he makes up a

treacherous plan of false accusation. When it is clear that he wants her to be a servant

in his house (meaning to do whatever he wishes), her father praises her purity and

chastity more that her life and decides to kill her. She comes to the same conclusion;

for her it is better to die than to be ravished. Her father slays her with approval of her

mother. The daughter´s last words are: “Praise be to God that I shall die a maid. /

Give me my death before I come to shame.” (Physician´s, 248-249)

Men usually wanted and expected to marry a virgin. The example can be

found in “The Reeve´s Tale” where the miller Simpkin decided to marry “a wife... /

Save she were educated and a maid / To keep up his estate of yeomanry.” (Reeve´s,

27-29) Griselda from “The Clerk´s Tale” is a maid when being married as well as

May from “The Merchant´s Tale”. Actually, the only bride not being a maid is the

Wife of Bath who has already been married five times.

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That some women praise virginity higher than the social status of being a

wife is proved in “The Knight´s Tale” in the character of Emily. When she hears that

she is promised as a reward to the winner of the duel between Palamon and Arcitus,

she visits Diana´s temple and asks the goddess for help:

Chaste goddess, well indeed thou knowest that IDesire to be a virgin all my life,

Nor ever wish to be man´s love or wife,I am, thou know´s, yet of thy company,

A maid, who loves the hunt and very,And to go rambling in the greenwood wild,

And not be a wife and be with child.I do not crave the company of man. (Knight´s, 1450-1457)

She wants to stay pure all her life. But the statue of Diana starts to cry which

means that Emily´s wish cannot be fulfilled. The goddess herself appears and

announces Emily that the “among the high gods it has been affirmed … that [she]

shell be the wife of one of those” (1497). Emily´s decision is not supported by gods

and she accepts her destiny. At the end of the story it seems that she reconciles with

her fate and is happy in the marriage with Palamon: “Emily loved him so tenderly, /

And he served her so well and faithfully, / That never word once marred their

happiness, / No jealousy, nor other such distress.” (Knight´s, 2251-2254)

Emily does not succeed in following her wish of staying unmarried and a

virgin. But there is another character in The Canterbury Tales who manages to keep

her virginity. Cecilia in “The Second Nun´s Tale”. She has made the same decision

like Emily: she wants to retain her maidenhead. Unlike Emily, Cecilia prays to God,

Christian God, and her prayers are answered. When “this maiden must unto a man /

Be wedded” (Second Nun´s, 8-9), she tells her “sweet and well-beloved spouse so

dear” (25) a secret. The secret is that she has an angel lover. Valerian, the husband,

wants to see the angel. At the beginning, he does not believe her, he claims that if the

angel is another man, he “with this sword then will slay [them] both”. (49) This is an

interesting point as he would be a second husband to Cecilia which means that he

would have no right or privilege over her. Cecilia explains Valerian what to do so he

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is able to see the angel. Their marriage is not consummated; both of them are devote

Christians and teach Christianity to others. Their lives end in martyrdom. That the

marriage was not consummated could mean that it was not valid.

In “The Monk´s Tale” there is a Palmyra queen Zenobia. She herself makes

decision to keep her virginity: “She kept her maidenhead from every wight, / And

unto no man would she yield her hand. / But at the last her friends did make her

marry.” (Monk´s, 286-288) Zenobia is married, although she did not expected it. She

refuses intercourse with her husband Odentahus with the exception of procreation of

heirs:

But to one thing she never would consent,For any prayers, that he should near her lie

Save one night only, when ´twas her intentTo have a child, since men should multiply;

Yet when she learned she´d got no pregnancyFrom that night´s work together on her bed,

Then would she suffer him again to try,But only once indeed, and then with dread.

And when she was with a child, all at the last,Then no more might he play at that same game

Till fully forty days were gone and past;Then would she once more suffer him the same

And were Odenathus grown wild or tame,He got no more of her; for thus she´d say:

In wives it is but lechery and shameWhen, oftener, men with their bodies play. (Monk´s, 296-311)

When the children came, Zenobia stopped having her husband in her bed.

This is an example of strict following the unwritten rules of the Church.

The virginity is also discussed by the Wife of Bath in the prologue to her tale.

She prefers marriage, although she admits that for some people virginity is essential.

Chaucer touches the topic in “The Wife of Bath´s Tale” as well. It depicts a knight,

“lusty bachelor” who saw a maiden and made love to her: “He saw a maiden walking

through the corn / From whom, in spite of all she did and said, / Straightway by force

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he took her maidenhead.” (Wife of Bath´s, 30-32) This raping of a virgin was such a

criminal deed that the knight was condemned to death by King Arthur. He was saved,

however, by the queen who wants him to find in a year time “what thing it is that

women most desire.” (49)

Chastity and virginity go hand in hand with celibate. It was expected from the

religious people, the clergy, that they will constrain from the lechery thoughts.

Nobody would expect monks, nuns or friars to be lewd or lascivious. Chaucer

managed to break even this notion. In “The Summoner´s Tale” there is a friar who

visits a sick man and his wife. Being a friar, he should concentrate on the sickness

and relieving pains, yet he flirts with the wife and flatters her as laymen do: “The

friar arose, and that full courteously, / And her embraced within his two arms narrow,

/ And kissed her sweetly, chirping like a sparrow / With his two lips … For saw I not

this day so fair a wife / In all the congregation.” (Summoner's, 94-101) It is obvious

that he expects to be given some charity gifts, yet his behaviour is so convivial that it

is difficult to connect it to a man of clergy.

Another example of breaking the order of celibate is in “The Sailor's Tale”.

The monk, Dan John, is definitely not a man of worship of God. He is kissed by the

merchant wife (she “kissed him in salute, as she´d done oft” (Sailor´s, 94)) and they

even make love together. These worldly pleasures (and other deeds) do not make Dan

John feel sinful and he joins the congregation without fear of being called dishonest.

Similar behaviour on the side of women would have been unacceptable. They

would have probably been expelled from the society and looked down on.

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5. Marriage

Marriage is the union of man and women in which each has an equal

dominance over the other. In Chaucer´s time, however, the commonly held belief in

marriage was that a man rules the woman and has control over all the decisions. As

stated in Chapter 2, marriage was usually the most important event in the life of a

woman. The marriage could improve her and her family wealth and social position.

Marrying was thus socially acceptable, but the reasons were also inheritance and

keeping the family line.

The institution of marriage is described in several tales. Chaucer depicts

relationships between the two people involved, conflicts between men and women in

marriage and how they are or are not solved, and discusses the ideal wife and

husband. It is obvious that the expectation of men are different from the expectation

of women. Chaucer tries to be unbiased and presents not only male point of view but

through the Wife of Bath and her tale also a female attitudes and expectations.

5.1 Marriage as the Middle Ages standard

In the Middle Ages, the age for marrying was different for men and women.

For boys, adulthood was marked by the ability to swear an oath at the age of 12 or

14. That was also the age when they could marry. There are no such young grooms in

The Canterbury Tales mentioned which might mean that it was exceptional. As for

girls, the practice was the same. Girls as young as 12 could marry and it is possible to

find examples in the text of The Tales. Griselda from “The Clerk´s Tale” was „tender

of age“, „of so young age in face“. When marquis tests Griselda and plans to

remarry, their daughter is twelve years of age and she can be married. Alison from

“The Miller´s Tale” was eighteen when she was married, the Wife of Bath first got

married at twelve. Other wives are not specified in age; yet it is clear that the bride

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was much younger than husbands. There is an exception in the character of the Wife

of Bath whose fifth husband was her junior: “He was, I think, but twenty winters old,

/ And I was forty, if I tell the truth.” (Wife Prologue, 590-591 The Wife of Bath is a

special character in The Canterbury Tales as Chaucer lets her speak for all women.

Probably the main reason for marriage was the procreation and keeping the

bloodline. This is strongly stressed in “The Clerk´s Tale”. The idea is expressed by

people who come and advise the young marquis Walter to marry. They are afraid that

marquis could die and some stranger could take the heritage:

Deliver us from all our constant dreadAnd take yourself a wife, for High God´s sake;

for if it so befell, which God forbid,That by your death your noble line should break

And that a strange successor should come takeYour heritage, woe that we were alive!

Wherefore we pray you speedily to wive. (Clerk´s Tale, 78-84)

Maybe this is the reason why the marquis considers to change his liberty and

freedom for a marriage. That the marriage is a socially acceptable and is expected

from a young man, not speaking of a noble man, would not touch him so much as the

fact that his property would go to the hands of a stranger.

In the Middle Ages, a lot of marriages were prearranged by the families. The

agreement took into account commercial and landowning interests. (Wynne-Davies,

14) The church and law required parental consent which was obviously given when

arranging the marriage, but also a consent of the spouses. In The Canterbury Tales,

an explicit example of asking a parent for consent is found in “The Clerk´s Tale”

when Walter decides to marry Griselda. He first comes to her father and announces

him that he has chosen his daughter for his wife. Because Walter is of much higher

social status that the father, it is not a humble request or proposal, but it is more

informative and order-like:

I neither will nor can

Conceal my love, nor my heart´s longing hide...Your daughter will I take, before I wend,

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To be my wife until her life´s dear end. ….

Assure me on the point I made before-Can we together in this compact draw,

And will you take me as your son-in-law? (250-261)

It seems that Chaucer wanted to follow the usual standards of that time and

show that the marriage was completely acknowledged, unquestioned, all the usual

procedures were taken, nobody could ever dispute the validity of this act. Walter goes

as far as asking Griselda for consent with the marriage. Chaucer lets the marquis go

and propose to her. In his proposal speech, Walter also wants to hear a vow that

Griselda will be always obedient and loyal. The proposal lacks any expression of

feelings, it is more an announcement of the decision and it is clear that it is more a

pro forma request:

It´s pleasing to you father and to me

That I wed you, and even it may stand,As I suppose, that you would have it be.

But these demands must I first make, said he,And since it shall be done in hasty wise,

Will you consent, or will you more advise?I say this: Are you ready with good heart

To grant my wish, and that I freely may,As I shall think best, make you laugh or smart,

And you to grumble never, night or day?And to, when I say “yea” you say not “nay”

By word or frown to what I have designed. Swear this, and here I will our contract bind. (291-303)

Griselda has, of course, no other option than to accept the proposal and agree

with the conditions. It would be unimaginable she should refuse. By the marriage,

she will grow, she will reach higher (if not the highest) social rank. In her answer she

is aware of the disparity between them:

Wondering upon this word quaking for fear,She said: My lord, unsuited, unworthy

Am I to take the honour you give me here;But what you´d have, that very thing would I.

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And here I swear that never willingly,

In deed or thought, will I you disobey,To save my life, and I love life, I say. (304-310)

The other women characters in the Canterbury Tales are not treated that standard

way. From the texts it is not clear whether their marriages were pre-arranged and

what were the conditions. There is but an exception in “The Knight´s Tale”; Emily is

to be married against her will as she does not want to be married at all. She, however,

speaks about it only in the Diana´s temple, so it is not clear whether her brother

knows about it and whether it would change anything. Theseus, the brother-in-law,

speaks for her: “to speak for royalty´s inheritress, / Although she be a queen or a

princess,” and “I speak now of my sister Emily, / The cause of all this strife and

jealousy.” (Knight´s, 973-979)

In “The Franklin´s Tale” there is an example of a marriage based on mutual

agreement. It is not clear how old the partners are, but Dorigen is a lady, probably an

only child and orphan as there is no notion of parents or brothers. The knight,

Arviragus, who serves her loves her for a longer time and she decides to marry him:

But at the last she, for his worthiness,-And specially for his meek obedience,

Had so much pity that, in consequence, She secretly was come to his accord

To take him for her husband and her lord,Of such lordship as men have over wives. (10-15)

They create a kind of agreement between them that, notwithstanding the fact she

is a woman and men as husbands are superior to women, she will keep some kind of

independence. He promises that “never in his life, by day or night, / Would he

assume a right of mastery / Against her will, nor show her jealousy, / But would obey

and do her will in all” (18-21). She appreciates his decision as she is fully aware that

it is unique: “Since, sir, of your own nobleness / You proffer me to have so loose a

rein.” (26-27) She also makes a promise that she will be “humble, faithful wife”. (30)

Chaucer goes as far as to show example of a woman proposing a man. He

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does it in humorous way and it is the Wife of Bath in the prologue to her tale where

she describes how she got married for the fifth time. She describes her walk in the

meadows (while her fourth husband was in London) she told him “that he, / Were I a

widow, might well marry me.” (Wife Prologue, 558) The marriage takes place soon

after her fourth husband dies. Although not stated openly, it must have been her who

made him to marry.

For the marriage to be valid it the Middle Ages, it must be consummated.

Chaucer offers examples of consummation of marriage as well. For example in “The

Lawyer's Tale”, Constance and king Alla are married and at the wedding night go to

bed: “Tehy eat and drink and dance and sing and play. / They went to bed, as was but

just and right, / For though some wives are pure and saintly things, / They must

endure, in patience, in the night.” (Lawyer's, 576-579) Another description of the

first night is provided in “The Merchant's Tale”.

The above mentioned examples are not the only occurrences of marriage in

The Canterbury Tales, but they briefly describe the standard procedures before

marriage.

5.2 Ideal marriage from male perspective

As the patriarchal society of the period required, women were inferior to

men. Men wanted women to be obedient, loyal, and always ready to please them.

Chaucer included three examples of such women in The Canterbury Tales: Griselda

from “The Clerk´s Tale”, Dorigen from “The Franklin´s Tale” and Constance from

“The Lawyer´s Tale”. All three are quite passive; Griselda´s passivity comes from

her inferior social position, Constance is a strong Christian and whatever happens to

her, she takes it as a God providence. Dorigen is different in this respect, she is equal

if not superior in her social status to her husband, but she only reacts to what happens

around her.

Griselda is a representative of an ideal woman of all ages. She is passive,

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submissive, obedient, patient and constant in her love. She is not noble by birth but

she is noble by her virtue. Chaucer describes her as having “virtuous beauty”,

devoted to her father, striving hard to suffice in poor conditions, keeping busy all

time by meaningful activity:

A daughter had he, fair enough to sight;Griselda was this young maid's name, the bright.

If one should speak of virtuous beauty,Then was she of the fairest under sun;

Since fostered in dire poverty was she,No lust luxurious in her heart had run;

More often from the well than from the tun She drank, and since she would chaste virtue please,

She knew work well, but knew not idle ease.But though this maiden tender was of age,

Yet in the breast of her virginity There was enclosed a ripe and grave courage;

And in great reverence and charityHer poor old father fed and fostered she;

A few sheep grazing in a field she kept,For she would not be idle till she slept.

And when she homeward came, why she would bring Roots and green herbs, full many times and oft,

The which she'd shred and boil for her living,And made her bed a hard one and not soft;

Her father kept she in their humble croft With what obedience and diligence

A child may do for father's reverence.Upon Griselda, humble daughter pure … (Clerk´s, 155-178)

Griselda I not only an ideal wife and daughter, she is also a prototype of a

Middle Age´s noblewoman. She takes care of the household, of the quests, and, of

course, of her husband. She actually serves her husband, she never questions any of

his decisions. She obeys him not only because he is her husband, but probably

because he is the supreme authority in the country as well. Notwithstanding her

submissiveness, Walter decides to test her. First, he takes away their two children and

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pretends to have them killed. Griselda remains steadfast and dedicated to him, she

accepts her fate in silence. He then pretends to divorce her and marry an aristocrat

who is, in fact, his daughter, aged twelve. Griselda is expelled from the palace, still

not complaining about her faith. Walter calls her back to prepare rooms for his “new

wife”. She complies with all his requirements not showing any discontent, pity or an

opinion contrary to his. Walter sees her perfection once more and reveals her the

truth. He promises never to test her again. The story finishes in a happy-ending

saying that their daughter married “unto a lord, one of the worthiest / In Italy”, their

son “succeeded to his heritage / In rest and peace, after the marquis´day, / And

wedded happily at proper age”. (1084-1090)

Griselda is an extreme example of humility and meekness. Even for the

narrator, it is too much and he finishes his story saying: “This story´s told here, not

that all wives should / Follow Griselda in humility, / For this would be unbearable,

though they would, / But just that everyone, in his degree, / Should be as constant in

adversity / As was Griselda.” (1095-1100) Chaucer adds his envoy at the end as well

advising wives not to nail down their tongues but to attack their husbands and “let

him worry, weep and wring and wail!” (1166)

Hardships of Constance in “The Franklin´s Tale” do not originate in man´s

nature, but more from women around them (mothers, to be specific) and from her

strong faith. Constance expresses the general opinion of women: “Women are born to

slave and to repent, / And to be subject to man´s government.” (153-154) Even in her

passive attitude, she makes sultan of Syria to change his religion. Constance is an

example of a good Christian more than a good wife, yet she echoes the norms of the

Middle Ages´ prototype of a woman.

5.3 Ideal marriage form female perspective

Quite opposite picture of a woman is drawn in “The Sailor´s Tale”, the

character of Wife of Bath and her tale. Both the Wife of Bath and the wife of sailor

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believe that women should rule in a marriage. The reason of marriage for a young

woman is the money and the gifts she gets from her husband:

The foolish husband, always he must pay;He must buy clothes and other fine array,

(…)And if he cannot thus, peradventure,

Or cares not such expenses to endure,But thinks his money wasted or quite lost,

Why then another man must pay the cost,Or else lend gold, and that is dangerous. (Sailor's, 11-19)

The “dangerous” means that if she is not satisfied materially in the marriage,

she will have to look elsewhere and, maybe, offer something that should belong to

her husband only. In “The Sailor's Tale”, the wife complains about her husband and

tells what she, and women, in her opinion, want:

But yet this grieves me most – he´s niggardly;And well you know that women naturally

Desire six things, and even so do I.For women all would have their husbands be

Hardy, and wise, and rich, and therewith free,Obedient to the wife, and fresh in bed. (Sailor's, 172-177)

So it is not only the money or property that matters, there are other important

issues. The Wife of Bath in the prologue to her tale, resonates the same opinion. That

is: if a marriage is a kind of a business deal, the wife brings dowry and then she can

use the money and at the same time, the marital contract is also a sexual contract

(Elsehrawi, 27). So both parties, a wife and a husband, must be sexually available.

The Wife of Bath says:

Why should men otherwise in their books setThat man shall pay unto his wife his debt?

Now wherewith should he ever make payment,Except he used his blessed instrument? (Wife Prologue, 129-132)

She must know about it the best, as she was already married five times. Three

of her husbands were “good men and were rich an old” (197), two were bad. The last

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one eve beat her: “But in our bed he was so fresh and gay, / And therewithal he could

so well impose, / What time he wanted use of me belle chose, / That though he´d

beaten me on every bone, / He could re-win my love, and that full soon.” (498-502)

The first four she married for their money which she inherited when they died, the

fifth she marries for love. She wants to dominate them and she succeeds. She gains

control over them and over their property by being nice and available to them. But

she change her “availability”, i.e. having sex with them, for what she wanted:

Since I had them wholly in my hand,And since to me they´d given all their land,

Why should I take heed, then, that I should please,Save it were for my profit or my ease? (211-214)

When there was nothing, she wanted, she “nagged them mercilessly”.

Although it is presented as an ideal marriage from female point of view, the

marriages themselves were not so happy. As women were not satisfied under the rule

of men, the men could not be satisfied under the command of their wives. Maybe the

fact that the Wife of Bath looks forward her sixth marriage shows that she herself

does not find satisfaction in controlling her husbands.

“The Tale of the Wife of Bath” supports her point: what women most desire is

to have sovereignty over husbands. The story starts with a rape of virgin for which

the knight is condemned to death. The queen, however, promises him life if he

manages to find out “what thing it is that women most desire” (Wife Tale, 49) in a

year time. The knight searches the answer dutifully. We are offered several

possibilities: “Some said that women all loved best riches, / Some said, fair fame,

and some said, prettiness; / Some, rich array, some said ´twas lust abed / and often to

be widowed an re-wed … And some say, too, that we do love the best / To be quite

free to do our own behest.” (69-80) The correct answer he presents to the queen is:

Women desire to have the sovereignty As well upon their husband as their love,

And to have mastery their man above;This thing you most desire. (182-185)

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He is right and saves his life. The problem is, however, that he got this

answer from “an old wife”, a “crone”. and he promised to fulfil any wish she may

have. Obviously, she asks him to marry her. As he is a knight, he keeps his promise

but seems unhappy when in bed with his newly wed wife. He objects to show any

kind of love to her as “you are so loathsome, and so old also, / And therewith of so

low a race were born, / It´s little wonder that I toss and turn.” (244-246) That would

be unimaginable if the situation was opposite (a woman would not complain). The

wife offers him that she can stay as she is and promise to be his “true and humble

wife” or she may change into “young and very fair” but at a risk of deceiving him.

He leaves decision on her which pleases her and she transforms into both: good and

fair, good and true.

The tale finishes by a wishful prayer of the narrator, the Wife of Bath:

… Jesus to us sendMeek husbands, and young ones, and fresh in bed,

And good luck to outlive them that we wed.And I pray Jesus to cut short the lives

Of those who´ll not be governed by their wives. (402-406)

In the end, the old crone listened to her husband. Here again Chaucer shows

that the “ideal” marriage does not exist. It is the mutual agreement, devotion and love

that brings blissfulness and satisfaction, both to a wife and a husband. Whoever tries

to rule and unsettle the balance, they find themselves in unhappy relationship.

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6. Infidelity

The themes of adultery and cuckoldry are rendered in The Canterbury Tales.

Unfaithful wives are feared of by men. Only the infidelity on the female side is dealt

with in greater detail; there are only some allusion that also men could be unfaithful.

Wynne-Davies puts it clearly that “the law treated a woman as the property of

her familial group.” (15) When a woman committed adultery, her husband was at

fault and should be punished as much or more than she was. It was not uncommon,

for the male adulterer to be charged, while his female partner was not. It may

indicate that “it was customary in many places for adulteresses to be dealt with

privately by husbands or families, while the man was turned over to the courts.”

(Brundage, 519) In The Canterbury Tales, no such punishment happens, it is solved

within the family.

Infidelity is treated in slightly humorous way. Jealous husbands see the

possible threats of cuckolding everywhere; the more wise take it as a given thing.

The Miller in the prologue to his tale states that only single man are not deceived:

„The man who has no wife is no cuckold“ (Prologue to the Miller´s Tale, 44). Yet he

does not claim that infidelity of a wife is standard and always present, he claims that

there is one “bad” woman in a thousand. He believes that for a husband it is better

not to know about any deeds of his wife: “A husband must not be inquisitive / Of

God, nor of his wife, while she´s alive.” (cf. 55-56) A beautiful, younger wife is

always perceived as being vulnerable to infidelity and in many cases such wife has

older, jealous and possessive husband.

Women participate in adulterous behaviour with different kind of activity.

Some accept the offer to have a lover swiftly and willingly, e. g. Alison in “The

Miller´s Tale”, some need more time and seduction like May in “The Merchant´s

Tale”, and others simply accept the reality of the act, e. g. the wife of the miller in

“The Reeve´s Tale”. In the last example, the infidelity borders with rape. In the

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above stated examples, it is clear from the text that infidelity happens.

The infidelity can be seen as coming from three reasons: 1) It is a result of

age difference between the couple (May and January in “The Merchant´s Tale”,

Alison and John in “The Miller´s Tale”); 2) Husband absence from home (“The

Shipman´s Tale”); and 3) infidelity can be viewed as payment of debt (“The Miller´s

Tale”).

6.1 The Merchant´s Tale

“The Merchant´s Tale” offers a story of a marriage with a great discrepancy in

age. A knight living in prosperity is sixty when he decides that he could marry. He

did not live in celibacy as he “followed ever his bodily delight / In women, whereof

was his appetite.” (5-6) Although he is old, he idealizes the marriage. At his age and

with his experience, the expectations are almost naïve. He thinks that marriage is

“blissful life”, “holy band”, “wedlock is so easy and so clean”, “to take a wife, it is a

glorious thing”. “A wedded man in his high state / Lives a life blissful, ordered,

moderate, / Under the yoke of happy marriage bound.” (40-41) But there are

writings, more misogynist, which say just the opposite. It is better to have a faithful

servant than a wife. Being married means that “if you take a wife to have and hold, /

Right easily may you become cuckold.” (61-62) The wife is compared to the

property of men because “a wife is God´s own gift … all other kinds of gifts, most

certainly, / as lands, rents, pasture, rights in common land, / Or moveables...” (67-70)

The description of ideal wife continues, to some extent it echoes Griselda from the

Clerk´s Tale:

The bliss that is between such two, for aye,No tongue can tell, nor any heart can think.

If he be poor, why, she helps him to swink;She keeps his money and never wastes a deal;

All that her husband wishes she likes well;She never once says nay when he says yea.

Do this, says he; All ready, sir, she´ll say. (96-102)

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After this Chaucer remembers all good wives who were a proof of such high

standard. January, the knight, then informs his friends about decision to marry. But

he knows what kind of a woman he wants, not old: “I will not have an old wife

coming here. / She shan´t have more than twenty years” (172-173), not a widow

(“with one should I never live at rest”). He thinks that a young woman is perfect

because she is formable, he can conform her to his wishes: “a young thing men may

guide, / Just as warm wax may with one´s hands be plied.” (185-186) January finds a

young maiden in his neighbourhood and they marry. The tale provides the

description of the first night. January is aware that his behaviour to her might be

offensive but he reminds her that being her husband he can do whatever he likes:

Alas! I fear I´ll do trespassAgainst you here, my spouse, and much offend

Before the time when I will down descend.But nonetheless, consider this, said he,

There is no workman, whose´er he be,That may work well, if he works hastily;

This will be done at leisure, perfectly.It makes no difference how long we two play;

For in true wedlock were we tied today;And blessed be the yoke that we are in,

For in our acts, now, we can do no sin.A man can do no sin with his own wife,

Nor can he hurt himself with his own knife;For we have leave most lawfully to play. (584-597)

Even though the young wife May does not speak for herself, the narrator of

the story speaks for her claiming that this intercourse and what followed (January

sang and chattered) did not impress her much:

The slackened skin about his neck did shakeThe while he sang and chanted like a crake.

Gut God knows what thing May thought in her heartWhen up she saw him sitting in his shirt,

In his nightcap, and with his neck so lean;She valued not his playing worth a bean. (605-610)

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We do not know much about their life as the story focuses mainly on bodily

part of the marriage. This is probably to show that January is not that old and he does

what he can to please her, yet the feeling is that she does not enjoy his efforts, but is

obedient:

He prayed her strip all naked for his whimHe would have pleasure of her, so he said,

And clothes were an incumbrance when in bed,And she obeyed him, whether lief or loath.

But lest these precious folk be with me wroth,How there he worked, I dare not to you tell;

Nor whether she thought it paradise or hell. (714-720)

Probably there starts her desire for a younger lover who would be more

appropriate match for her youth. There is already one suitable man in the story,

Damian, the knight´s squire who fell in love with May the moment he saw her. He

fell ill from love and wrote her a letter. After another night with her husband May

decided “to give him (Damian) ease.” (737) It seems that she needs to love someone

and her husband is not the one. She does not care whether it would displease anyone.

The narrator comments her decision as something coming from generosity not

lechery, lust or revenge.

January has built a garden near his house which is beautiful beyond any

description. He is proud of it and keeps only one key. He would go to the garden with

his wife “and divers things that were not done abed, / Within that garden there were

done.” (807-808) The garden is a symbol of paradise for him. But one they January

gets blind. His blindness does not help the young lovers as it strengthens the jealousy

and possessiveness of the old man. He keeps closer to his wife, has his hand on her

always. May and Damian create their own signals so they at least can communicate

somehow. They manage to copy the key to the garden and wait for an occasion to go

there together. This comes one day in June when January wants to be with his wife

again. In the garden, he promises to bestow on her all his possessions because he

truly loves her. She replies and expresses her love and devotion to him and says what

should be done if she deceives him. Actually, she has already deceived her husband,

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not physically, but in her mind and by her words. Damian is at this time waiting in

the garden. He and May deceive January even physically. At the moment, January

regains his sight again and “saw how Damian his wife had dressed / In such a way as

cannot be expressed, / Save I should rudely speak and vulgarly.” (1117-1119)

May is not taken by surprise and has a quick explanation; that she was told

how to recover eyes by struggling “with a man up in a tree”. January does not take

the explanation at first, but she manages to persuade him that after such a long time

of blindness, his eyes betrayed him: “you catch but glimpses and no perfect sight.”

January is blind again, this time from love of his wife and lets himself be persuaded

that he did not see what happen. There is no real punishment, only the old man is

made fool of. May and Damian are punished by the fact that January can see again.

6.2 The Miller's Tale

“The Miller´s Tale” presents young goodwife Alison and her husband John,

Nicholas and Absalom. When the Miller introduces his tale, he makes it clear that it

will be about adulterous wife. He states it clearly that adultery is something

exceptional because there is only one “bad” wife in a thousand good ones. The

infidelity in “The Miller´s Tale” comes not only from the age difference between the

wife and the husband (Alison was eighteen, the carpenter much older), but also from

the attitude and character of the husband. The husband, John, is described as “a

wealthy lout”, “Jealous he was and held her close in cage. / For she was wild and

young, and he was old, / And deemed himself as like to be cuckold.” (38-41). He

was not educated, he was rude, and vulgar. The carpenter expected from the

beginning of their marriage that he will be betrayed. He loves his wife, and is

probably over protective, not allowing her to do much (he holds her in a cage).

Nevertheless, she has everything that wealth of her husband can afford; she dresses

really nicely and shows off her natural beauty. She was anything that a man need,

“she was a primrose, and a tender chicken / For any lord to lay upon his bed, / Or yet

for any good yeoman to wed.” (82-84) She does not seek anything outside her

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marriage, in the tale there are no hints that she would like to lure another man. But

there is a young student Nicholas who is clever, knows how to speak and he “fell in

with this young wife to toy and play.” (87) He is the one who induces Alison to

reconsider her faithfulness.

Nicholas first has to persuade Alison that he is really worth loving; he catches

her by surprise and expresses his love for her: “... Indeed, unless I have my will, / For

secret love of you, sweetheart, I´ll spill … O darling, love me, love me now, / Or I

shall die, and pray you God may save!” (91-95) Alison´s first reaction is refusal, she

even does not want to kiss him. She is compared to “a colt in the trave” (96) which

probably shows that she is really young, still playful, with unbridled energy. The

refusal is obvious and natural as well as her surrendering. “[Nicholas] spoke so well,

importuned her so fast / That she her love did grant him at the last, / And swore her

oath, by Saint Thomas of Kent, / That she would be at his command, content.“ (103-

106) She is well aware of the fact that she is to deceive her husband and she knows

about his jealousy and what would wait for her if her husband finds out: „My

husband is so full of jealousy, / Unless you will await me secretly, / I know I´m just

as good as dead.“ (108-110) Taking into account that marital violence was a

commonplace feature of the Middle Ages, she does not worry figuratively.

Nicholas is not the only admirer of Alison in “The Miller´s Tale”. There is

also Absalom, a parish clerk, who is quite accomplished (he can dance, sing, play the

violin and the guitar), dresses well and has high opinion of himself. He looks for a

female company because he goes to pubs and inns to show his “skills” “...especially

were lively barmaids there.” (150) When censing in the church, he eyed the wives

“like an enthusiast; / And on them many a loving look he cast, / Especially on this

carpenter´s goodwife. / To look at her he thought a merry life, / She was so pretty,

sweet, and lickerous. / I dare well say, if she had been a mouse / And he a cat, he

would have mauled her some.” (155-161) Absalom chooses her as an object of his

courtly love and he refuses the other wives: “from no wife took he an offering” (164)

This might be a hint that Alison would not be a first object of his romances. He sends

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her different gifts, sings under her window, he promises her to be her “loyal page”.

He tries everything to show his devotion to her and to win her. He must have had a

lot of experience in seducing the wives or he must have read a lot of books on this

topic because he knows that “For some are won by means of money spent, / and

some by tricks, and some by long descent.” (195-196)

At this moment, there is a lover-like triangle: a lady (Alison) and two men –

clever and pleasant Nicholas and vain and self-conceited Absalom. Alison has

already made her choice; she “was enamoured so of Nicholas / That Absalom might

go and blow his horn; / He got naught for his labour but her scorn. /And thus she

made of Absalom her ape, / And all his earnestness she made a jape.” (200-204)

Alison waits for the right moment to deceive her husband. She is not an innocent

devoted good wife, she is harsh and cunning. Nicholas prepares the situation for

cuckolding old John. He tells him that flood should come on Monday at nine,

knowing that John in his ignorance will not question it. The first and only thought of

John concerns his wife. Here the reader starts to pity the old fool because what he

does is loving Alison. Nicholas gives John instructions what to do to save not only

his wife, but also himself and the student. The night of flood comes, and the scene is

ready. John falls asleep, and Alison and Nicholas have their “reward”, their

adulterous night:

Down by the ladder crept this Nicholay,And Alison, sight softly down she sped.

Without more words they went and got in bedEven where the carpenter was wont to lie.

There was the revel and the melody! (462-467)

The same night Absalom decides that it is time to get his reward for attention

he paid to Alison. He thinks that John is away on business and goes for “some sort of

comfort”, he hopes to get a kiss at least. He tries to talk her into the kissing not

knowing that she already has a lover in her bed. She refuses Absalom saying that she

loves another. Absalom is not easily refused and craves for a kiss promising that then

he leaves. Alison changes her mind and agrees to a kiss. At this moment, she is

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obscene:

Dark was the night as pitch, aye dark as coal,And through the window she put out her hole.

And Absalom no better felt nor worse,But with his mouth he kissed her naked arse

Right greedily, before he knew of this.Aback he leapt – it seemed somehow amiss,

For well he knew a women has no beard; He´d felt a thing all rough and longish haired,

And said, Oh fie, alas! What did I do? (545-553)

Realizing what has happened, he feels offended and decides to revenge. He

wants to punish Alison by a “red-hot coulter” from a smith. He expects that she will

play the same trick on him, but this time it is Nicholas who “put his arse out”.

Absalom is “ready with his iron hot / And Nicholas right in the arse he got.” Nicholas

started to cry for help and water which awakes John. John thinks that the flood is

there, cuts the cord and falls with the tube. In the end, only men are punished, not the

adulterous wife: Absalom gets nothing for his courtesy, John has hurt his arm and is

considered crazy by the people in the town and Nicholas “is branded on the butt”

(667)

Through the story Alison is the character that changes the most. At the

beginning she is a young wife who is determined to be beautiful and has no intention

for infidelity. But the sweet words of Nicholas make her realize that she might want

more from life; to have some pleasure. Absalom´s interest only ignites the new,

knowing and longing character of Alison. She forgets about her husband and loves

Nicholas and does not want to deceive him. That is why she ridicules cruelly

Absalom when he comes for a kiss.

6.3 The Reeve´s Tale

In “The Reeve´s Tale”, the fact that women were property of men and should

be treated like that is even more obvious. The main character is a miller named

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Simpkin. He is proud as peacock, arrogant, sly, accustomed well to steal. He has:

A wife he had who came of gentle kin;The parson of the town her father was.

With her he gave full many a pan of brass,To insure that Simpkin with his blood ally.

She had been bred up in a nunnery;For Simpkin would not have a wife, he said,

Save she were educated and a maidTo keep up his estate of yeomanry.

And she was proud and bold as is a pie. (22-30)

The wife fulfils the requirements of a good bride in the Middle Ages; she is

educated, a virgin, brought up in a nunnery and was given a dowry. She is

everything a man needs to keep his status in the society. They have a daughter,

twenty years old, and a six-month-old son. The daughter is to become an heiress to

her grandfather´s property (the son will inherit the mill, supposedly), provided she

marries well: “The parson of the town, since she was fair, / Was purposeful to make

of her his heir, / Both of his chattels and of his estate, / But all this hinged upon a

proper mate. / He was resolved that he´d bestow her high / Into some blood of

worthy ancestry.” (57-62)

Simpkin mills wheat and corn for the college. Two students, Alain and John,

come with sacks to be ground and as they know the miller´s greediness, they want to

watch it. Simpkin manages to free their horse. When they run and try to catch the

horse, the miller takes his usual part of corn. It is night already and the students stay

at the miller´s. After the dinner they go to bed. All of them sleep in one room, in

three beds. The miller and his wife share one, the daughter has a bed for herself, and

the students share the third. The cradle is also in the room, place near the bed where

the Simpkins sleep. The family is soon snoring, but the students cannot fall asleep.

Alain thinks about what has happened to them and is quite sure they cannot sleep in

such a noisy room:

… if I can, that very wench I´ll swive.

Some recompense the law allows to us;

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For, John, there is a statute which says thus,

That if a man in one point be aggrieved,Yet in another shall he be relieved.

Our corn is stolen, to that there´s no nay,And we have had an evil time this day. (258-264)

Alain´s intention is clear, he wants to take from the miller what is his – his

daughter. That act would not only destroy the daughter, but also her future prospects.

If she looses her virginity, she would not be able to marry according to the wishes of

her family. Alain does not probably think that far, he wants to heal the injustice that

has happened:

And up he rose and to the girl he crept.This wench lay on her back and soundly slept,

Until he´d come so near, ere she might spy,It was too late to struggle, then, or cry;

And, to be brief, these two were soon alone. (273-277)

The other student, John, lies in bed and pities himself. Then he decides to take

his part of compensation. He moves the cradle from the Simpkins bed to his. The

wife goes “outside to piss” (295) and as it is dark night, she finds her bed by the

cradle. John takes advantage of her:

She found the bed, and thought of naught but good,

Because her baby´s cradle by it stood;And knew not where she was, for it was dark;

But calmly then she crept in by the clerk,And lay right still, and would have gone to sleep.

But presently this John the clerk did leap,And over on this goodwife did he lie.

No such gay time she´d known in years gone by.He pricked her hard and deep, like one gone mad.

And so a jolly life these two clerks had... (303-312)

Alain is tired after the night and he wants to return to bed to John. He as the

wife before finds the “correct” bed by the cradle. He thinks he is with John and he

confesses that he has slept with the miller´s daughter. Simpkin reacts immediately,

realizing what has happened: “You shall be killed, by God´s own dignity! / Who

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dares be bold enough to bring to shame / My daughter, who is born of such a name?

“ (350-352) The miller and Alain start to fight. The miller falls “down backwards on

his wife, / Who nothing knew of all this silly strife; / For she had fallen into slumber

tight / With John the clerk, who´d been awake all night.” (361-365) She thinks that

the students fight together and wants to help her husband. Unfortunately, she does

not know who is who and she hits her husband on the skull. The students “beat him

well and let him lie” (388), they take their clothes, horse, flour and the cake that was

made from the stolen flour. So the students get everything that is theirs and the miller

is punished, “his wife is taken, also his daughter sweet; / Thus it befalls a miller who

´s a cheat.” (397-398) It is not clear whether the wife is aware of the fact that she had

not slept with her husband, it is only proved by Alain´s words that the daughter lost

her virginity.

In “The Reeve´s Tale” there is infidelity on the side of daughter. She betrays

her parents and discloses to Alain where the stolen flour is. Yet, the sexual part of the

story is important. Without it, the daughter would not have told the truth.

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7. Conclusion

This bachelor thesis described marriage and infidelity as they were presented

in Geoffrey Chaucer´s Canterbury Tales. The institution of marriage was described

from male and female point of view showing the different expectations of each sex.

The general belief that men expect obedient, passive and submissive wife seems not

to be true. The dominant position of women, as presented by the Wife of Bath, does

not lead to a successful and functional marriage as well.

It was proved that women´s role was more passive, especially in terms of

finding their husband. Nevertheless, when in their role of a wife, they played it quite

actively. The activity resulted from their character or virtues, as we saw in Griselda´s

case, their faith in God (Constance), and firmness and faithfulness (Dorigen). Also

adulterous women were active in their mischiefs; although the young wives (Alison

and May) were passive at the first, once they accepted their role as an adulterous

woman, they were active in planning and finding ways of deceiving their husbands

and in playing with their admirers and potential lovers.

Marriage played an important role in the Middle Ages and it was standard and

norm of the society. The importance of the institution is stressed in The Canterbury

Tales but it brings a colourful variety of relationship between men and women.

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