Logging in the Congo basin: a multi-country characterization of timber companies

www.elsevier.com/locate/foreco

Forest Ecology and Management 214 (2005) 221–236

Logging in the Congo Basin: A multi-country

characterization of timber companies

Manuel Ruiz Perez a,*, Driss Ezzine de Blas a,1, Robert Nasi b,2, Jeffrey A. Sayer c,3,Marieke Sassen d,4, Claudine Angoue e,5, Norbert Gami f,6, Ousseynou Ndoye d,7,

Gregoire Ngono g,8, Jean-Claude Nguinguiri h,9, Donatien Nzala i,10,Benjamin Toirambe j,11, Yves Yalibanda k,12

a Dpt. Ecologia-Edificio Biologıa, Calle Darwin, 2, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spainb CIRAD/CIFOR, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34298 Montpellier, France

c WWF International, Avenue du Mont Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerlandd CIFOR Central and West Africa Regional Office, B.P. 2008, Messa, Yaounde, Cameroon

e U.O.B. Departement de Sociologie, BP 17055, Libreville, Gabonf 100 rue Lampama, Talangaı, Brazzaville, Congo

g Coordonnateur Scientifique, Institut de Recherches Agronomiques pour le Developpement (IRAD) BP 2163 Yaounde, Cameroonh ITTO Regional Officer for Africa, P.O. Box 329, Libreville, Gabon

i Universite Marien Ngouabi/IDR, BP 13647, Brazzaville, Congoj MINAF-ET, BP 12348 Kinshassa I, Congo

k Directeur des Exploitations Forestieres, Ministere des Eaux, Forets, Chasses, Peches, de L’Environnement et du Tourisme,

BP 830, Bangui, Central African Republic

Received 22 July 2004; received in revised form 28 February 2005; accepted 13 April 2005

Abstract

Industrial logging has been the subject of strong debate, epitomised by the contentious positions around logging in the Congo

Basin. Logging companies are often considered as homogeneous and rather static agents, which leads to sweeping general-

isations about their performance and the subsequent technical and policy recommendations. This study covers 31 logging

concessions in the five ITTO member countries of the Congo Basin. Based on a detailed questionnaire complemented by

published statistics, the concessions are characterised by the country in which they operate, their legal status, age, size, origin of

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 91 497 8000; fax: +34 91 497 8001.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Ruiz Perez), [email protected] (D. Ezzine de Blas), [email protected] (R. Nasi),

[email protected] (J.A. Sayer), [email protected] (M. Sassen), [email protected] (C. Angoue), [email protected] (N. Gami),

[email protected] (O. Ndoye), [email protected] (G. Ngono), [email protected] (J.-C. Nguinguiri), [email protected] (D. Nzala),

[email protected] (B. Toirambe), [email protected] (Y. Yalibanda).1 Tel.: +34 91 497 8000; fax: +34 91 497 8001. 2 Tel.: +33 4 67 59 3880; fax: +33 4 67 59 3733. 3 Tel: +41 22 364 9014. 4 Tel: +237 223 7434/7522;

fax: +237 223 7437. 5 Tel: +241 261937/713068; fax: +241 732345. 6 Tel: +242 549 26 94; fax: +242 556 24 63. 7 Tel: +237 223 7434/7522;

fax: +237 223 7437. 8 Tel.: +237 223 3538; fax: +237 223 3538. 9 Tel.: +241 76 91 44; fax: +241 76 91 44. 10 Tel.: +242 51 82 73.11 Tel.: +32 486 90 66 54. 12 Fax: +236 61 80 53.

0378-1127/$ – see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2005.04.020

M. Ruiz Perez et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 214 (2005) 221–236222

capital, and market focus. Concessions show patterns shaped by interactions between these factors, with different logging

strategies associated with the resulting groupings. Our results lend partial support to some of the common generalisations about

the performance of logging companies of different scales and geographic origin. For example, national concessions tend to have

higher processing rates and often create more employment. However, the data also suggest nuances that can contradict some of

the conventional views. Thus, some large concessions may well use better management tools than smaller ones while some

national concessions may exert a higher pressure on their allocated forests. Some key parameters related to concessions’

performance (like species logged, productivity per hectare, percent of the concession logged per year and employment) work

together in the specific environmental, economic and policy contexts of each country to produce a complex regional image that is

sometimes oversimplified when submitted to anecdotal or special interest advocacy analyses.

# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Industrial logging; Timber concessions; Congo Basin; Forest management

1. Introduction

Few natural resource management issues have

elicited as much controversy as the logging of tropical

forests (Cannon et al., 1998a; Putz et al., 2000;

Gullison et al., 2001; Pearce et al., 2003). Some

environmental groups have argued that logging is

almost always associated with environmental pro-

blems and that the precautionary measures that would

be needed to ensure genuine broad-based sustain-

ability would be so expensive as to preclude economic

sustainability (Rice et al., 1997; Cannon et al., 1998b).

Others have argued that with the correct incentive

structures sustainability could be achieved (Richards,

2000; Pearce et al., 2003). Considerable research has

been conducted on approaches to alleviating the

biophysical impacts of logging (Sist, 2000a; Schwab

et al., 2001) as well as on the complex social issues

associated with forest exploitation (Colchester, 2001).

The Congo Basin13 is one of the areas that have

attracted world level attention. Industrial logging has

been a major activity in the Congo Basin countries for

over four decades. It is generally highly selective and

only a small number of trees (0.7–2) are extracted per

13 Central Africa is herein defined as composed of six countries:

the Republic of Cameroon (Cameroon), the Central African Repub-

lic (C.A.R.), the Republic of the Congo (Congo), the Democratic

Republic of the Congo (D.R.C.), the Republic of Equatorial Guinea

(Eq. Guinea) and the Republic of Gabon (Gabon). Sao-Tome &

Principe, Burundi and Rwanda are excluded, although they are

sometimes considered (FAO, 2003) as part of Central Africa

because they lack the common denominator shared by the other

countries: lowland rainforests subjected to logging operations.

These six countries are generally (though incorrectly, as Gabon is

not part of the Congo River catchments) considered as forming the

‘‘Congo Basin’’.

hectare (White, 1992; Durrieu de Madron et al., 2000;

Global Forest Watch, 2000a,b). Several studies (Sist,

2000b; Durrieu de Madron and Forni, 1998; Durrieu

de Madron et al., 2000) show that damage caused to

remaining stands by such a highly selective logging is

generally limited and affects 7–20% of the area for

0.8–4 trees harvested per hectare. When logging less

than 2 trees/ha, the case for the majority of operations,

damage is about 10% and vegetation recovery is fast

(Van Gemerden et al., 2003) though the forest will not

necessarily be similar to the one before exploitation.

Most of the large mammal species that are the

objective of much conservation interest often thrive in

such lightly disturbed forests (White, 1992 –

mammals; Barnes et al., 1997 – elephants; Matthews

and Matthews, 2004 – gorillas) except chimpanzees

that are apparently negatively affected by logging

(White, 1992; Matthews and Matthews, 2004).

In spite of this, industrial logging in the Congo

Basin is highly controversial. Some western media are

critical of the corruption linked with logging. The

bushmeat trade associated with logging infrastructure

has been portrayed as a major environmental concern

(Brown and Williams, 2003), and conservation

organisations have made sweeping generalisations

about the relative performance of logging companies

of differing geographic origins (Greenpeace Switzer-

land, 2004), portraying local as better than foreign and

Europe-based as better than Asia-based.

Certification and community forest management

are frequently considered as the way forward for

sustainable forestry. There has been considerable

interest in the use of independent certification to

assess forest industry performance in general and in

the region. This has also been controversial (Counsell

M. Ruiz Perez et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 214 (2005) 221–236 223

and Loraas, 2002) as some argue that the criteria for

certification are excessively influenced by western

environmental concerns and do not give adequate

recognition to local livelihoods. Others see certifica-

tion as a violation of national sovereignty, considering

certifiers as second-guessing national laws and

procedures.

Decentralisation of control of forests and various

forms of local and community management of forests

have been advocated on the grounds that they will

provide a basis for local accountability (Alden-Wily,

2003). Others have argued in favour of using centrally

controlled protected areas as the most effective way of

conserving forest values (Bruner et al., 2001). Despite

well documented both positive and negative experi-

ences, opposing parties tend to maintain their

positions. These tend to be based on partial or

anecdotal evidence and broad assumptions about the

relative importance of local livelihoods and large-

scale environmental values.

The origin of the present study lies in our concern

and that of the organisations for which we work that

measures to assess and potentially to improve logging

practices in the region have to be based on a more

critical understanding of the characteristics and

diversity of conditions. Collective professional experi-

ence (ours and others) has showed that there is a great

deal of variability in the performance of logging

companies, from those that cause considerable

environmental and social harm to others that operate

with high standards.

Table 1

Economic, demographic and geographical characteristics of the Congo B

Country Area (km2) Population

(millions)

GNP/Cap

(US$)

% rain

forest

Tota

prod

Cameroon 475,440 15.5 560 38 2,49

Central African

Republic

622,980 3.8 270 7 70

Congo 342,000 3.2 720 70 1,24

Democratic

Republic Congo

2,345,410 51.4 110 47 50

Equatorial Guineaa 28,050 0.5 1050 69 67

Gabon 267,670 1.1 3110 80 4,36

Source: World Bank Africa Database (2002); E. Forni (personal communa Wood export for the year 2000.

This study attempts to characterise key features of

logging concessions in the Congo Basin as a first step

to assess the economic, political or geographic

conditions that determine their performance. In spite

of some limitations (see methodology section below)

we hope through this analysis to provide a finer-scaled

assessment of where problems lie and what sorts of

solutions might be applied to them.

2. The context for logging in the Congo Basin

The region covers 4.1 million km2 and has 74

million people. DRC accounts for 57% of the total

area and 68% of the population. Table 1 presents the

basic economic, demographic and geographical

characteristics of the Congo Basin countries.

Population densities are generally low (less than 20

persons per km2, except in Cameroon and D.R.C.), and

the average regional population growth is 3.2% per

year. Annual income per capita ranged in 2002 from

US$ 110 in DRC to US$ 3110 in Gabon (World Bank

Africa Database, 2002).

Gabon obviously stands apart with a very high

percentage of the population residing in urban areas

but three countries could be considered as having no

real rural population pressure on forests (C.A.R.,

Congo and Gabon and continental Equatorial Guinea

as well as some forested areas in DRC (central

provinces) and Cameroon (south-east) because of

extremely low rural population densities. Population

asin countries

l

uction (m3)

Export s 2003 (m3) Main markets

8,000 1,639,203 (processed),

191,138 (logs)

Europe (85%),

Asia (6%), others (9%)

4,000 52,233 (processed),

234,617 (logs)

Europe

5,000 147,611 (processed),

712,292 (logs)

Europe, Asia

0,000 15,899 (processed),

37,064 (logs)

Europe?

6,265 676,265 (total) Asia (>60%), Europe

8,000 1,717,355 (total) Asia (63%),

Europe (31%), others (6%)

ication); ITTO (2003); ATIBT (2004).


density values in these forested areas are in fact similar

to Gabon (around 1 inhabitant per km2).

There are two main types of economic develop-

ment: one based almost solely on non-agricultural

commodities especially oil and petroleum products

(Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Congo) and another

still largely relying on agriculture (with Cameroon

being in a somewhat intermediate position). The huge

GDP growth for Equatorial Guinea in recent years is

directly related to new record exports of significant

quantities of oil. The negative GDP growth for the two

Congo’s is linked with the troubled political situation

of the last 5–10 years.

The Congo Basin represents the second largest

block of dense rainforest after the Amazon; moreover,

the region also represents the largest block of

the remaining dry forests of Africa (Isoberlinia

woodlands in C.A.R. and Cameroon, Miombo in

D.R.C.).

The industrial plantation sector is not well

developed (about 50,000 ha of clonal eucalypts of

ECO SA in Congo and a few thousand ha of timber

species – mainly Aucoumea klaineana, and Terminalia

superba – in Congo, Gabon and DRC) but huge land

opportunities exist to establish this type of plantations

without destroying natural forests within the large

areas of tree-less savannahs (Plateaux Bateke –

Gabon, Congo, DRC; Coastal plains – Gabon, Congo).

Three major and divergent categories are apparent

in the region. Countries can be divided into those that

have:

� I
mportant forest resources but a poorly developed
forest industry sector as in the Democratic Republic

of Congo.

� I
mportant forest resources and an active timber
sector: the situation in south-east Cameroon, Congo

and Gabon.

� D
windling forest resources but with a small but
active timber sector, as found in the Central African

Republic and Equatorial Guinea and south Camer-

oon.

Logging permits’ legal provisions in the region can

be grouped in four main categories:

1. L
ogging/management/supply permit: present in all
countries under different names, it is aimed at large

industrial concessions, requires an officially

approved management plan, and tends to be long

term (>10 years).

2. T
emporary logging permits: present in Congo and
Gabon, they affect small to medium-size conces-

sions, do not require management plans and tend to

be short term.

3. C
ommunity forest concessions: they are specific to
Cameroon, where they have been introduced in

recent years. The maximum size is 5000 ha and

they require a simplified management plan before

approval.

4. S
pecial concessions, like the family logging
allowance (Gabon), allotment (Congo) or special

logging permit (Central African Republic), tend to

be short term, aiming at the national industry and

do not require a management plan.

3. Methodology

The study has been conducted by a multi-

disciplinary, multi-country team of scientists from

the countries of the region and from international

organisations with interests in different aspects of

forestry, coordinated by the Center for International

Forestry Research (CIFOR). A questionnaire was

prepared for the characterisation of individual con-

cessions. It included general concession information,

species logged, management practices, and identifica-

tion of problems and drivers of change as perceived by

the concession’s managers.

The questionnaire was tested in three concessions

in Cameroon. On the basis of the tests the

questionnaire was modified to exclude parameters

that were difficult or too time-consuming to measure.

It was then administered to a non-random stratified

sample of 30 concessions distributed through the five

ITTO member countries of the Congo Basin. We

subsequently included data from one additional

concession for which partial information was

obtained. We attempted to include examples of major

categories of concessions on the basis of their legal

status and their ownership. Within these broad classes

we chose concessions on the basis of their willingness

to participate, accessibility and level of confidence in

the data offered. We finally obtained a sample of five

to seven concessions per country.


There is a large variation in the number of

officially declared concessions in each of the five

countries so our sample does not provide the same

intensity of sampling per country. This, together with

the relatively small size of the sample in some

countries and the fact that the cases were not selected

randomly, is a shortcoming of the study. Never-

theless, a number of significant trends and patterns

already emerge from the data and suggest that the

basic approach is valid.

The 31 concessions cover a total of 7.3 million ha.

The companies that operate the concessions have total

operations covering 14.8 million ha of forest in the

five countries. To facilitate categorical analysis,

concessions were divided into four groups according

to their size: small (<5000 ha), corresponding to the

established limit for community and artisan conces-

sions in the region; medium (5000 to 100,000 ha);

large (100,000–250,000 ha) and very large

(>250,000 ha). Additional variables that were con-

sidered relevant for categorizing the concessions were

origin of capital (local or foreign), and market

orientation (Local-African, European, Asian). The

questionnaires were codified to allow for statistical

analysis. Frequencies, cross tabulations and explora-

tory analysis were used to identify distributions and

associations.

We assessed the relative contribution to total

concession production of the five main tree species

exploited in each concession and we analysed

regional and within country patterns. We also

calculated the Shannon and Simpson indexes of

evenness of distribution for industrial and artisanal

concessions. For the purpose of this analysis we

identified four levels of development of a manage-

ment plan: absence; under preparation; available but

still not legally approved; available and approved.

The yearly ratio of logged surface to total

concession area was calculated based on data

provided by the concessionaires. We used 2002 as

reference year because this provided the most recent

and complete data available. Regression models

were used to interpret logging ratios and to

understand the variables that could be affecting

them. Productivity in m3 per hectare was estimated

based on total production and logged surface data

provided for 2002. Moreover, the data were checked

against productivity estimates provided during the

interviews for some concessions. Direct employ-

ment data were also gathered in the survey and we

calculated the employment per 1000 ha as well as

productivity (in m3 per worker). We also analysed

the local transformation rate (at any level, from

sawn timber to finished products) within the

concessions and the influence of the above men-

tioned variables.

ANOVA and other parametric tests were used to

check statistically significant differences between

categories for the relevant quantitative variables that

followed a normal distribution. Non-parametric tests

(Kruskal-Wallis x2) were applied to variables that did

not comply with normality assumptions.

Least square and logit regression models were used

to test relationships that contributed to define main

types of concessions. Finally, multidimensional analy-

sis (ordination and cluster) was used to characterise

concessions based on a joint set of attributes. All the

analyses were conducted using SPSS 12.0 and PC-Ord

4.0.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Concession age, legal and ownership status

The age distribution of the companies in our sample

shows two clearly differentiated groups: old compa-

nies, operating since more than 20 years, and new

companies, operating for less than 20 years (Fig. 1).

Old companies got established in a period between the

1950s and 1970s with a more relaxed legal framework,

less constraints, regulations and state interventions.

The new companies, all of them in fact less than 15

years old, started in a changing policy environment

that includes an updated legal framework and more

demanding regulations (like the need for a manage-

ment plan, local transformation requirements, con-

cession surface limits, reporting for monitoring,

control of foreign investment, etc.). The implementa-

tion of Structural Adjustment Plans and the devalua-

tion of the CFA that have taken place during this

period have affected the forest and, in general, the

natural resources sectors in the region (Kessler and

Van Dorp, 1998; Eba’a Atyi, 1998).

Old concessions tend to be large, foreign owned

and export oriented, often linked to processing


Fig. 1. Age of establishment of the company and total size of concessions held in the country.

facilities in Europe. Younger concessions are more

varied in size, ownership and markets, with significant

contribution of national capital. They also have greater

local processing capacity. This correlation of age with

several concessions’ variables is analysed more in

detail in the sections below.

4.2. Species

Thirty-five species amounted for 94.2% of the total

timber volume produced in the concessions sampled

(Table 2). The species logged by each concession

depend upon the combined effect of market demand

and species availability. The distribution of species,

the history of logging and differing market opportu-

nities result in differences between the countries. Two

species, okoume and sapelli, dominate the logging

industry representing 56.3% of total timber volume,

with these and four other species amounting to 3/4 of

total production.

The Republic of Congo (20 species) and

Cameroon (19 species) have the highest total number

of species logged (the sum of the first five species

logged by the concessions sampled in each country).

Sapelli and ayous are the most frequently logged in

these two countries, respectively. Concessions from

DRC produced a total of 14 species while CAR and

Gabon each produced a total of 10 species. These

two countries also show the highest dominance of

a single species. Gabon’s logging industry is

characterised by the production of okoume (74% of

total production), a species which is largely endemic

to this country with smaller populations in Republic

of Congo and Equatorial Guinea. CAR industry is

based on the production of sapelli (62% of total

production).

The pattern that emerges (Figs. 2 and 3) is of

okoume predominating in the concessions of Gabon

and the coastal concessions of Republic of Congo at

one extreme and the CAR, the interior concessions of

Republic of Congo and, to a lesser extent, Cameroon,

with sapelli and sipo at the other extreme. Between

these two extremes the concessions in DRC and most

of Cameroon focus on a group of three important

although not-predominant species, ayous, iroko, and

azobe.


Table 2

Common and scientific names of the main species logged in the sample, with their percent contribution to total production

Common name Scientific name % total production

okoume Aucoumea klaineana Pierre 28.41

sapelli Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague & Hoyle 27.88

ayous Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum. 7.42

iroko Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C. Berg. 3.99

sipo Entandrophragma utile Sprague 3.91

padouk Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub. 3.40

moabi Baillonella toxisperma Pierre 2.56

aningre Aningeria altissima (A. Chev.) Auberv. & Pellegr. 2.38

izombe Testulea gabonensis Pellegr. 2.30

wenge Millettia laurentii Wildem. 2.14

aiele Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. 1.98

tali Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guillem. & Perrott.) Brenan 1.67

afrormosia/assamela Pericopsis elata (Harms) Meeuwen 1.62

azobe Lophira alata Banks ex Gaertn.f. 1.47

longhi Gambeya spp. 1.44

bilinga Nauclea diderrichii Merr. 1.31

agba/tola Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum Harms 1.28

niove Staudtia stipitata Warb. 1.07

bosse Guarea cedrata Pellegr. ex A.Chev. 1.07

limba Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels 0.51

movingui Distemonanthus benthamianus Baill. 0.49

andoung/ekaba Monopethalantus spp. 0.30

tiama Entandrophragma angolense C.DC. 0.28

acajou Khaya anthotheca C.DC. 0.26

acuminata Entandrophragma congolense A. Chev. 0.17

kosipo Entandrophragma candollei Harms 0.16

safukala Dacryodes pubescens (Vermoens) H.J. Lam 0.11

naga Brachystegia cynometroides Harms 0.09

bibolo/dibetou Lovoa trichilioides Harms in Engl. & Prantl 0.07

ilomba Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb. 0.06

tchitola Oxystigma oxyphyllum (Harms) J. Leonard 0.05

kevazingo Guibourtia spp 0.05

doussie Afzelia spp. 0.05

koto Pterygota bequaertii De Wild. 0.02

kotibe Nesogordonia papaverifera (A. Chev.) Capuron ex N. Halle 0.01

This general regional pattern is nuanced at the level

of individual concessions depending on the species

occurring in the concession area and market specia-

lisation. For instance, one concession in DRC

produces predominantly acuminata and longhi and

another in Gabon specialises in padouk.

The analysis shows the extent to which conces-

sions vary in terms of the species that they produce.

Thus, Gabon’s concessions cluster together indicating

a high similarity in the type of species they produce,

whereas Cameroon and the Republic of Congo have a

much wider spread indicating a large variability of

species’ composition between concessions in each of

these countries. There is a marked difference between

concessions in coastal areas and those in the

hinterland. Gabon, where most concessions are

relatively accessible from coastal areas, shows greater

homogeneity of production than Cameroon and

Republic of Congo whose concessions are located

both in locations accessible to the coast and in the

interior. All main commercial species (e.g. sapelli)

are obligatory, being generally logged in all conces-

sions where they occur because of their established

markets and high values. However, other species,

though part of the list to be logged under the actual

management plan, are not necessarily being exploited


Fig. 2. Species’ hierarchical cluster based on Bray-Curtis similarity index and UPGMA grouping algorithm. The dotted line represents the split

in two major groups.

(e.g. limba in South-East Cameroon or azobe in

Central Gabon). This is especially true for industrial

concessions that do not have a market niche for some

of these species or are located too far from the ports to

Fig. 3. First two axes of the Bray-Curtis multivariate ordination analysis r

two major groups of concessions based in the cluster analysis. The lengt

cover transportation costs (e.g. most concessions in

CAR).

Consequently, the distribution of the five main

species logged varies according to the type of

epresenting the concessions of the sample. The dotted line splits the

h of each axis is proportional to the variance.


concession. We compared the industrial concessions

(n = 24) with the community or small-scale conces-

sions that are managed in an artisanal way, working

with mobile sawmills and small-scale equipment

(n = 5). As can be seen in Fig. 4, artisanal concessions

tend to spread the relative contribution of their five

most important species in a more even way, with the

first species accounting on average for 36% of total

production. The Shannon and Simpson indexes of

evenness of distribution for artisanal concessions are

1.34 and 3.41. Industrial concessions, on the other

hand, tend to be dominated by the first species,

representing on average 53% of total production. They

have lower Shannon and Simpson indexes of evenness

of distribution, 1.19 and 2.56, respectively, clearly

indicating the stated difference.

This illustrates two different logging strategies

followed by these two groups of concessions.

Industrial concessions tend to rely more on one or

two species, with the rest acting as complement to

their markets and income. They take advantage from

economies of scale to get the maximum benefits from

these most profitable species. They have also been

better able to negotiate locations and conditions for

their concessions.

Artisanal concessions obtain their income from

a wider range of species because they are restricted

to a much smaller size forest and are more dependent

on local markets. Since they also tend to be located

close to human settlements, their forests have

Fig. 4. Distribution of average contribution of the five m

frequently been subject to earlier cycles of exploita-

tion.

4.3. Management planning

Forest Laws in the region require that all large

concessions have a government-approved manage-

ment plan. This, in theory, should normally be

developed within three years of granting the conces-

sion, and should be used as the key instrument to

guarantee sustainable use of the forest by each

concessionaire. However, the degree of enforcement

of this regulation is variable due mainly to insufficient

human resources and technical capacity of national

forest administrations.

Over half of the concessions in the sample lacked a

management plan at the time of the survey. There was,

however, an awareness of the usefulness of having a

plan and a tendency by government authorities to be

more zealous in imposing the requirement of having a

plan. The result is an apparent acceleration of efforts

to produce acceptable plans, with a number of

development assistance agencies encouraging this

process, converging with an increasing demand of

European importers for supply of timber from fully

authenticated, certified and sustainable sources

(ITTO, 2005). Several of the concessions who either

lacked plans or whose plans were in early stages of

preparation indicated during the survey that they

intended to complete their plans in the near future.

ain species in industrial and artisanal concessions.


Cameroon showed the highest level of compliance;

this again could be due in part to the composition of

the sample, since there are two community conces-

sions from this country (the only one having such type

of concessions) that require the existence of a

government approved management plan before

granting logging rights. Given the size and distribution

of the sample, differences between countries are not

statistically significant (x2 = 17.096; p = 0.15).

In addition to variations between countries, there

are correlations between lack of a management plan

and other concession features. The probability of

developing a management plan (functional or in

progress) increases with foreign owned companies

(x2 = 6.573; p = 0.09) as well as, to a lesser extent,

with age of concession (x2 = 5.179; p = 0.16).

The results of the homogeneity analysis based on

the multinomial categorical variables age, origin of

capital, length of concession’s permit and size appear

in Fig. 5. For the purpose of the analysis and in order to

simplify the interpretability of results, we have

reduced the number of categories in several of the

variables.

The figure addresses two opposite situations,

complete absence of a management plan versus a

Fig. 5. Multinomial principal components analysis (homogeneity analysis)

management plan in progress or operational. The first

situation tends to apply to small, nationally owned

concessions that were established relatively recently

and to short term permits. The second tends to

correspond to large, foreign owned companies that

were established a long time ago and that have a long-

term concession permit.

4.4. Logging ratio

The yearly ratio of logged surface to total

concession area as provided by the concessionaires

is presented in Fig. 6. We are, however, aware that the

difficult environments in which concessions in the

region operate means that there can exist large yearly

variations depending on market demand, transporta-

tion difficulties, civil unrest, etc.

As with other concession features, there is large

variability by country. Sixty percent of concessions

had a logging ratio in 2002 that would correspond

(assuming that ratio was maintained along the cycle)

to a 30-year rotation period or longer. The rest

departed from this pattern, most of them with rotation

periods of between 15 and 30 years. The notable

outlier was a case in C.A.R. with 50% of the surface

of status of management plan in relation to four concession variables.


Fig. 6. Percent of concession surface logged in 2002 aggregated at country level. The dotted line indicates the level for a homogenous 30-year

rotation period.

Table 3

Model and coefficients of regression of percent of logged surface in

2002 (dependent) on concession size

R R2 Adjusted R2 F Significance

Model

0.408 0.167 0.136 5.405 0.028

Coefficients Standard

coefficient

t Significance

Coefficients

Constant 19.09 3.007 0.006

Log size �2.87 �0.408 �2.325 0.028

logged in 2002. This was a small-scale artisanal

concession that had chosen to cream some high-grade

species over a large percent of the concession under a

‘special logging permit’ issued for 2 years. These

permits have recently been suspended.

Social unrest is one of the major factors that perturb

logging operations in the region. Cameroon and

Gabon have experienced higher levels of security and

stability in recent years than D.R.C., Republic of

Congo and C.A.R. all of which are emerging from

periods of instability.

Of the two stable countries, Cameroon had higher

variability, with two concessions having over 5% of

their surface logged in 2002, indicating a shorter

rotation strategy. Calculations based on data reported

by Gabonese concessions show a consistently lower

and fairly homogenous percentage logged, with

corresponding longer rotation cycles.

The remaining three countries show large varia-

bility between and within the countries, which

epitomises the diversity of conditions in the Congo

Basin. Thus, logging operations are beginning to

resume in the D.R.C. but in a situation where a new

business environment is emerging. The Republic of

Congo’s concessions have experienced several years

of disturbance but a number of them have taken

advantage of a recent period of calm to try and apply

logging regulations more systematically. In the C.A.R.

logging also reacts to the political environment and

this may explain the high logging rate in 2002.

Our first hypothesis concerning the variables that

could affect logging ratios is that they are influenced

by the size of the concession. Table 3 shows the results

of the regression of logging ratio as a dependent

variable on the logarithm of concession size. We have

removed the outlier from the C.A.R., whose inclusion

in the analysis increases the R2 value but biases the

quality of the sampled data.

The model, significant at p < 0.03, indicates that

percentage of logged surface is negatively related to

size of concession, with smaller concessions tending

to increase the percentage logged, thus operating on

shorter rotations.


Table 4

General Linear Regression model of percent of logged surface in

2002 (dependent) on concession size, country and market

MODEL

R2 Adjusted R2 F Significance

0,722 0,542 4,014 0,005

Coefficients Significance

Coefficients F

Constant 25,899 26,024 0,000

Log concession size �5,608 19,258 0,000

Country market 6,209 0,003

2,451 0,116

Country* market 0,996 0,437

We also examined other variables that could

influence logging ratios. Two potentially important

variables are country (where we have already noticed

significant differences) and market demand, repre-

sented by the regional market focus as a proxy

variable. The results of general linear regression

models for categorical variables are showed in Table 4.

The model, significant at p < 0.001, confirms the

dependence of logging ratio on concession size and

country and to a lesser extent market orientation,

whereas the interaction between country and market

does not contribute in a significant way to the new

model. This could lead to the formulation of a new

research hypothesis that would link logged surface (a

potential indicator of sustainability) to country context.

There are indications of a general trend for large-scale

concessions to respect cutting area rules whereas small

concessions may be less inclined to do so.

In line with the above, market orientation as a

categorical variable has been explored to analyse in

more detail the possible differences in logging ratios

according to the predominant destination market. Local

market oriented concessions tend to have lower logging

ratios than European or Asian markets oriented

concessions, although given the small size of the

sample the differences are statistically not significant.

4.5. Productivity

Estimates of productivity values fall between less

than 0.1 m3/ha (the outlier mentioned before, corre-

sponding to a small concession that logs a large

percent but extracts very few logs) and 13 m3/ha. The

average productivity of the sample is 6.1 m3/ha, which

falls within usual productivity estimates for the region

(Dupuy, 1998; Drouineau et Nasi, 1999; Durrieu de

Madron et al., 2000). Gabon, logging fewer species

and concentrating on okoume, shows a consistently

higher productivity than the other countries, while

C.A.R., also logging few species and specialising in

sapelli, shows the lowest productivity per hectare. The

differences are statistically significant (Kruskal-Wallis

p = 0.003) and largely explained by the nature of the

species (more gregarious in the case of okoume, more

dispersed for sapelli).

The validity of information on employment per

1000 ha as well as on productivity was limited by two

cases where forest-based employment was mixed with

total employment (including processing industry)

data. Nevertheless, we include country comparisons

to advance some working hypotheses.

Mean and median employment is 2.7 workers/

1000 ha and 1.2 workers/1000 ha, respectively, with

country differences that are not statistically signifi-

cant. Mean and median productivity is 146 m3/worker

and 131 m3/worker, respectively. Country variations

are more marked here, differentiating a group of three

countries (Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Gabon)

with high productivity per worker (that could indicate

a more modern and efficient industry) from D.R.C.

with very low productivity. This difference is

statistically significant. C.A.R. lies in an intermediate

position. Larger variations in productivity in Republic

of Congo and C.A.R. may indicate the co-existence of

both a modern and a less advanced industry in these

two countries.

The analysis of employment and productivity by

origin of capital indicates an important difference

between national and foreign capital-based concessions

(Fig. 7). While employment figures do not differ,

productivity figures vary significantly between national

and foreign capital concessions, the latter having

statistically significant higher productivity per worker

than nationally owned concessions. The survey seems

to indicate that while the creation of employment does

not differ between national and foreign concessions, the

later are more efficient in exploiting the resources in

terms of amount of timber produced per worker.

The degree of local processing of timber is an

important component of both company management

plans and country level strategies to exploit forests.

The analysis of the percent of transformation


Fig. 7. Employment (workers per 1000 ha) and productivity (m3/worker) by origin of capital.

indicates a generally high level of processing in the

region, most of it as primary processing (i.e. sawn

timber), with statistically significant country differ-

ences (ANOVA p = 0.016). Cameroon and Gabon

represent the two extremes of the region with

respectively the highest and the lowest percent of

local processing. This is in accordance with differing

national regulations; Cameroon requires the highest

rate of local processing and enforces this law strictly.

The analysis of the level of processing by origin of

capital shows a trend for foreign-owned companies

Fig. 8. Percent of local processing by orig

to process less than nationally-owned ones, although

the difference does not reach the level of statistical

significance ( p = 0.154) (see Fig. 8). The age of

the company also reflects on the level of processing,

with older companies tending to process less

than recently established ones, albeit at levels that

are not statistically significant ( p = 0.176). This

reflects changes in regulations that were introduced

in the early 1990s replacing older forest regulations

that did not include stringent local processing

requirements.

in of capital and market orientation.


The correlation between age and origin of capital,

with foreign companies tending to be older than

national ones, complicates the causality link between

processing and origin of capital. This is an issue with

important policy implications. In an analysis con-

trolled by age, the sample size is too small for the tests,

but they suggest that there is a specific effect of origin

of capital on percentage of local processing for

equivalent groups of age, although once again this is

not statistically significant.

The analysis of levels of local processing according

to market orientation shows higher level of local

processing for companies selling on the local and/or

African markets (see Fig. 8), followed by those selling

on the European markets; the lowest level of local

processing is found in concessions selling on the Asian

market. These differences are statistically significant

( p = 0.036).

5. Conclusions

There is clearly a great deal of variation in the

performance of logging operators in the Congo Basin.

Our sample of 31 concessions shows a pattern shaped

by interactions between age, size, origin of capital,

and market focus, with different logging strategies

associated with the resulting groupings. These key

variables work together in the specific environmental,

economic and policy contexts of each country to

produce a complex regional image that is sometimes

oversimplified when submitted to anecdotal or special

interest advocacy analyses.

Theresults suggest twoclearlydifferentiated logging

periods: an old phase, dominated by large, foreign

concessions, and a new phase, covering the last two

decades, where national concessions are gaining space.

The Congo Basin logging industry rests on two

cornerstone species, okoume and sapelli, that tend to

be spatially segregated. There seem to be significant

differences in logging strategy between large indus-

trial concessions, that tend to concentrate on one or

two species, and small community or artisan conces-

sions, that spread their production on a wider range of

species. This has potentially important management

implications and should be pursued in further studies.

There is a gap between forest laws and regulations

requiring management plans and their actual imple-

mentation. The lack of human, financial and technical

resources for the national forest administrations is one

of the key factors at the root of this problem. Old,

large, foreign owned concessions tend to use manage-

ment plans more frequently than recent, small,

nationally-owned concessions. The exception to this

is the case of community forests in Cameroon, for

which the existence of a management plan is a pre-

requisite before approval.

There is a negative relationship between logging

ratio and size of concession, indicating a potentially

higher pressure by small concessions. Given the

current wave of interest in community managed

concessions this conclusion has interesting policy and

management implications, granting further research.

The average productivity of 6.1 m3/ha presents

some country variations. Moreover, while employ-

ment creation per 1000 ha is similar between national

and foreign-owned concessions, there are differences

in productivity per worker, significantly higher in the

latter. This suggests a higher efficiency of foreign-

owned companies.

There is a high level of primary processing in the

region that has increased with recent forest laws.

Processing is highest for concessions aiming at the

local market, and lowest for those aiming at the Asian

market, although the small size of the sample requires

further studies to support this preliminary conclusion.

Our results lend partial support to some of the

common generalisations about the performance of

logging companies of different scales and geographic

origin. For example, national concessions tend to have

higher processing rates and to create more employ-

ment. However, the data also suggest nuances that can

contradict some of the conventional views. Thus, some

large concessions may use better management tools

than smaller ones. Likewise, some national conces-

sions may also exert a higher pressure on their

allocated forests. Some key parameters related to a

concession’s performance (like species logged, pro-

ductivity per hectare, percent of the concession logged

per year and employment) are conditioned by the

above mentioned variables.

We do not claim that this pilot analysis provides a

final picture on the factors that influence the

performance of logging concessions in the Congo

Basin. We contend that studies of the sort that we

report on in this paper have great value in reducing the


level of uncertainty and value-based judgements in the

debates about the role of industrial logging in

supporting local economies and livelihoods and

conserving the environment. They can reveal patterns

in the performance of concessionaires that have major

policy significance.

Understanding the factors that tend to be associated

with or to drive bad logging practices is essential if

these practices are to be improved. This will require

further studies conducted by multi-disciplinary teams

in which nationals of the countries concerned are fully

involved. The paragraphs above have indicated some

of the key future lines of research.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge ITTO support to conduct the pilot

study leading to this paper. We also would like to thank

the concession managers who collaborated by

responding to the questionnaire and clarifying all

the issues that were raised with them.

References

Alden-Wily, L., 2003. Participatory Forest Management in Africa:

An Overview of Progress and Issues. FAO, Rome.

ATIBT, 2004. Statistiques 2003. La lettre de l’ATIBT, ete 2004 no.

20. Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux.

Barnes, R.F.W., Beardsley, K., Michelmore, F., Barnes, K.L., Alers,

M.P.T., Blom, A., 1997. Estimating forest elephant numbers with

dung counts and a geographic information system. J. Wildl.

Manage. 61 (4), 1384–1393.

Brown, D., Williams, A., 2003. The case for bushmeat as a compo-

nent of development policy: issues and challenges. Int. Forestry

Rev. 5 (2), 148–155.

Bruner, A.G., Gullison, R.E., Rice, R.E., da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2001.

Effectiveness of parks in protecting tropical biodiversity.

Science 291, 125–128.

Cannon, C.H., Peart, D.R., Leighton, M., 1998a. Tree species

diversity in commercially logged Bornean rainforest. Science

281, 1366–1368.

Cannon, J., Gullison, R., Rice, R., 1998b. Conservation and Logging

in Tropical Forests. Conservation International, for the World

Bank, Washington, DC.

Colchester, M., 2001. Forest industries, indigenous peoples and

human rights. Thematic paper presented at a workshop on

Indigenous peoples, private sector natural resource, energy

and mining companies and human rights. UNCTAD, ILO and

WTO, Geneva, pp. 1–30.

Counsell, S., Loraas, K.T. (Eds.), 2002. Trading in Credibility: The

Myth and Reality About the Forest Stewardship Council. The

Rainforest Foundation, London and Oslo.

Drouineau, S., Nasi, R., en collaboration avec Legault F., Cazet M.,

1999. L’amenagement forestier au Gabon – historique, bilan, pers-

pectives. Cirad, Montpellier, France. Document Forafri, 19, 64 p.

Dupuy B., 1998. Bases pour une sylviculture en foret dense tropicale

humide africaine. Cirad, Montpellier, France. Document Forafri,

4, 328 p.

Durrieu de Madron, L., Forni, E., 1998. Les techniques d’exploita-

tion a impact reduit en foret dense humide africaine. Document

FORAFRI no. 17, Montpellier.

Durrieu de Madron, L., Fontez, B., Dipapounji, B., 2000. Degats

d’exploitation et de debardage en fonction de l’intensite

d’exploitation en foret dense humide d’Afrique Centrale. Bois

et Forets des Tropiques 264, 57–60.

Eba’a Atyi, R., 1998. Cameroon’s Logging Industry: Structure:

Economic Importance and Effects of Devaluation. Centre for

International Forestry Research, Yaounde.

FAO, 2003. African Forests, a view to 2020. Forestry Outlook Study

for Africa (FOSA). European Commission, African Develop-

ment Bank, FAO, Rome.

Van Gemerden, B.S., Shu, G.N., Olff, H., 2003. Recovery of

conservation values in Central African rain forest after logging

and shifting cultivation. Biodivers. Conserv. 12 (8), 1553–1570.

Global Forest Watch, 2000a. An Overview of Logging in Cameroon.

World Resource Institute, Washington, DC.

Global Forest Watch, 2000b. A First Look at Logging in Gabon.

World Resource Institute, Washington, DC.

Greenpeace Switzerland, 2004. Greenpeace Switzerland blockades

import of African timber. Available from: http://archive.green

peace.org/forests/africa/resources.htm.

Gullison, T., Melnyk, M., Wong, C., 2001. Logging Off: Mechan-

isms to Stop or Prevent Industrial Logging in Forests of High

Conservation Value. Union of Concerned Scientists and Smith-

sonian’s Center for Tropical Forest Science. UCS Publications,

Cambridge, USA.

ITTO, 2003. Annual Review and Assessment of the World Timber

Situation 2003. ITTO, Yokohama.

ITTO, 2005. Tropical Timber Market Report. ITTO, Yokohama.

Kessler, J.J., Van Dorp, M., 1998. Structural adjustment and the

environment: the need for an analytical methodology. Ecol.

Econ. 27 (3), 267–281.

Matthews, A., Matthews, A., 2004. Survey of gorillas (Gorilla

gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes)

in Southwestern Cameroon. Primates 45 (1), 15–24.

Pearce, D., Putz, F.E., Vanclay, J.K., 2003. Sustainable forestry in

the tropics: Panacea or folly? For. Ecol. Manage. 172, 229–247.

Putz, F., Dykstra, D., Heinrich, R., 2000. Why poor logging prac-

tices persist in the tropics? Conserv. Biol. 14 (4), 951–958.

Rice, R.E., Gullison, R.E., Reid, J.W., 1997. Can sustainable

management save tropical rainforests? Sci. Am. 276, 34–39.

Richards, M., 2000. Can sustainable tropical forestry be made

profitable? The potential and limitations of innovative incentive

mechanisms. World Dev. 28 (6), 1001–1016.

Schwab, O., Pulkki, R., Bull, G.Q., 2001. Reduced Impact Logging

in Tropical Forests: Literature Synthesis, Analysis and Prototype

http://archive.greenpeace.org/forests/africa/resources.htm

http://archive.greenpeace.org/forests/africa/resources.htm


Statistical Framework. FAO Forest Products Division, Working

Paper FOP/08. FAO, Rome.

Sist, P., 2000a. Reduced-impact logging in the tropics: objectives,

principles and impacts. Int. Forestry Rev. 2 (1), 3–10.

Sist, P., 2000b. Les techniques d’exploitation a faible impact. Bois et

Forets des Tropiques 265 (3), 31–41.

White, L.J.T., 1992. Vegetation history and logging disturbance.

Effects on rain forest mammals in the Lope Reserve, Gabon.

Unpublished Ph.D. thesis.

World Bank Africa Database, 2002. Available from: http://www.

worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag.

http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag

http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag

Logging in the Congo basin: a multi-country characterization of timber companies

Documents

Transcript of Logging in the Congo basin: a multi-country characterization of timber companies