Livelihood Diversification Scenario in Rural Punjab

Journal of Agricultural Development and PolicyVolume 25 No. 1 (2015): 67-77

Livelihood Diversification Scenario in Rural PunjabArjinder Kaur*, M.S. Toor** and Dharvinder Singh***

ABSTRACT

The process of economic growth is channelized through providing employmentopportunities to a large section of population as productive employment of peopleis a determinant of the income levels. The success of Green Revolution led todecline in poverty ratio in the state. But since 1990s, the role of primary sector inemployment generation has been declining and that of other sectors is increasing.Overall, Worker Population Ratio (WPR) and Labour Force Participation Rate(LFPR) of rural male workforce has shown some increase in the last decade, buthas declined for the female workers in rural areas. Unemployment rate of ruralworkforce has increased since 1999-2000. The micro level evidence has indicateda trend towards diversified employment pattern in villages with more and morepeople being engaged in non-farm occupations. The recent agricultural crisis inthe state due to shrinking profit margins has led to the problem of depeasantisationin the rural areas and hence, the poor households are shifting towards non-farmsector in Punjab.

Key words: Worker Population Ratio, Labor Force Participation RateJEL Classification: J21, J43

*Associate Professor and **Professor, Departmentof Economics and Sociology, Punjab AgriculturalUniversity, Ludhiana.*** Project Coordinator, Center for InternationalProjects Trust, New Delhi.

INTRODUCTIONEconomic growth of an economy has a

high degree of correlation with its povertyalleviation programmes. The process is routedthrough providing employment opportunitiesto the large number of persons. Income levelsare determined by the productiveemployment of people. Decent andproductive employment has been consideredas the best route to get away from poverty(Islam, 2001) or it can be described as the

other way round of engaging the masses ofa nation in gainful employment. Gainfulemployment is a natural and most acceptabletechnique of achieving objectives ofdevelopment, social justice, balanced regionalgrowth, poverty eradication and stability in acountry.

Land reforms combined with the rapidtechnological innovations have brought aboutimportant changes in the rural institutionalstructure in Punjab (Bhalla, 1995). Structuraltransformation has been witnessed in theeconomy of Punjab in terms of gross statedomestic product (GSDP), but stilldependence of rural population in general andrural labor in particular has remained high in

68 Journal of Agricultural Development and Policy

farm sector for earning their livelihood. Self-cultivation has become the dominant modeof production in the state. But due to failureof Land Ceiling Act, 1972, only medium andlarge farmers have become the beneficiaryof green revolution technologies, leading totheir better economic growth and alsodominance in state politics, thus, influencingthe policies regarding tax mobilization orsubsidized inputs. The share of agriculturalsector in the state domestic product wasnearly 53 per cent in the year 1966-67 andincreased to 54.27 per cent in 1970-71 butdeclined during 1990s due to stagnation inproductivity and prices (Ghuman et al.,2007). The share of agriculture in GSDPdeclined to 33.70 per cent in 2011-12 in thestate. The success of green revolution led todeclining poverty ratio in the state andincreased employment opportunities in therural areas in the initial phase, but with thestagnation in agricultural production andproductivity after 1990s and rising costs ofproduction in agriculture, the labor absorptioncapacity of farm sector declined. It has beenfelt lately that rural areas are passing throughdistress conditions (Singh et al, 2003).

Increased demand has turned theagricultural labour into free labour market andthus necessitated bargaining for higherwages. The increase in politicalconsciousness has broken the bonds ofJajmani system, but the division betweenagricultural laborers and cultivators hasdeepened. This study has been devised toexamine the overtime trends in employmentpattern in rural Punjab and to explore thelivelihood diversification taking place in thestate with the current field level data.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThe study is based on both primary as

well as secondary sources of information.Overtime information on parameters ofemployment in the state has been taken fromvarious reports of NSSO on employmenttrends, Census reports, Director CensusOperation, Punjab and reports of LabourBureau Planning Commission, Punjab.

The primary field level data for the studyhas been procured from the ongoing scheme-Tracking Change in Rural Poverty inHousehold and Village Economies in theDepartment of Economics and Sociology,PAU, Ludhiana. The scheme was beingsponsored by Bill and Melinda GatesFoundation, USA. The analysis has beensupplemented by the census survey of onevillage being studied under the scheme as wellas the sampled data of the scheme. Sampleddata comprises of 40 households across fourcategories i.e. landless, small, medium andlarge farmers based on their size of holding.Ten farmers have been selected from eachcategory. Simple statistical tools likepercentages, proportions, averages and ratioshave been used to depict the results.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONDistribution of Rural Workforce

Agriculture has remained the mainstay ofrural folks since times immemorial. It stillremains the dominant employment providerwith 55 percent of rural population dependenton it for their livelihood, directly or indirectly.But somewhere down the line, structuralchanges had been taking place in the ruralworkforce in Punjab, as is clear from Table1. The dependence of workers on agriculturalsector had steadily declined, while in

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secondary and tertiary sector, it hadincreased. The share of primary sectoremployment had come down from about 74per cent in 1971 to 45 per cent in 2011. Withinagricultural sector, major changes have beenwitnessed over time. The number ofcultivators had drastically come down fromapproximately 54 per cent in 1970 to 34 percent in 2011, while proportion of agriculturallabor, which was 25 per cent in 1970,increased till 1991 to 31 per cent and declinedto 19 per cent in 2001. However, the decadalgrowth in the distribution of agriculturallaborers showed an increasing trend from aperiod of 2001 to 2011, where the per centshare rose from 19 to 21 per cent,respectively. Green revolution brought andincreased labour absorption capacity till1990s, but now with no expansion in areaunder cultivation, cropping intensity already

at peak levels and mechanization of majorityoperations had led to decline in the proportionof agricultural laborers in the state.

Distribution of main workers in theworkforce of Punjab has been presented inTable 2. It also highlights the declining roleof primary sector and the rising of secondaryand tertiary sectors in composition ofemployment overtime. Cultivators were46.22 per cent of the main workers in 1961,but as of 2011 figures, their proportion hadcome down to 21.34 per cent. Whileagricultural labourers comprised 9.64 percent of the workforce during 1961, their shareincreased to 23.83 per cent during 1991 anddeclined to 13.82 per cent during 2011. Onthe other hand, main workers in the householdindustry were 8.89 per cent in 1961, declinedto just 1.33 per cent in 1991. However, theyhad been showing revival signs with a share

TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF RURAL WORKFORCE IN PUNJAB, 1970-2011(Per cent)

Category 1970 1981 1991 2001 2011Cultivators 53.64 47.72 42.81 35.09 33.67Agricultural Labor 24.79 28.52 30.75 18.85 21.11Household Industry 3.42 2.28 1.17 2.74 3.39Others 18.15 21.48 25.27 43.32 41.83Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00Source: Census 2001 and 2011.

TABLE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF WORK FORCE IN PUNJAB (MAIN WORKERSONLY), 1961-2011

(Per cent)Category 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011Cultivators 46.22 42.55 35.86 31.44 24.27 21.34Agricultural Labor 9.64 20.11 22.16 23.83 13.55 13.82Household Industry 8.89 3.17 2.58 1.33 3.10 3.55Others 35.25 34.17 39.4 43.4 59.08 61.29Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00Source: Census 2001 and 2011.

Livelihood Diversification Scenario in Rural Punjab


of 3.55 per cent during 2011. Main workersengaged in other occupations, primarilytertiary sector were 35.25 per cent in 1961and rose considerably to 61.29 per cent in2011. This indicated a clear change in theemployment pattern of workforce in the statewith declining share of agriculture inemployment generation.Proportion of Agricultural Workers

This phenomenon of declining share ofagricultural employment was not confined toa few regions. Table 3 depicts an inter-districtstatus of agricultural workers as a proportionof the total workers in the state overtime.Though the decline was almost proportionalin districts of central plain zone (wheat-paddyzone) i.e. Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiana,Patiala, Sangrur etc. as well as in the sub-

mountainous zone (Kandi belt) of the statecomprising of Hoshiarpur, Rupnagar,Nawanshahar, Gurdaspur districts, but it wasproportionally less in south-western districtsof state including Bathinda, Mansa, Muktsar,Faridkot and Ferozepur.

The reason can be that these comprisethe cotton belt of the state and cotton is arelatively labor intensive crop requiringmanual operations, the share of agriculturalworkers in the total workers though hasdeclined overtime, but the extent of declineseems to lesser here.

The data collected by NSSO highlightsthe employment parameter in rural areas ofPunjab on the basis of different approachesto determine the activity status of the personsduring specific reference periods i.e. a year,

TABLE 3: DISTRICT-WISE PROPORTION OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERS TOTOTAL WORKERS IN PUNJAB, 1991-2011

(Number)Districts/State 1991 Census 2001 Census 2011 Census

TW AW AW as% ofTW

TW AW AW as% ofTW

TW AW AW as% ofTW

Gurdaspur 4,90,194 2,72,349 55.56 7,00,557 2,41,972 34.54 7,57,138 2,07,318 27.38Amritsar 7,68,189 4,15,116 54.04 7,63,452 23,321 30.55 9,17,856 2,06,890 22.54Kapurthala 1,94,439 1,01,522 52.21 2,62,741 94,162 35.84 2,84,165 85,933 30.24Jalandhar 4,86,433 1,98,369 40.78 6,76,835 1,69,012 24.97 7,74,472 1,33,814 17.28Nawashaher 1,53,134 97,793 63.86 2,63,698 85,738 32.51 2,04,329 56,845 27.82Hoshiarpur 3,58,994 1,88,186 52.42 5,13,351 2,08,841 40.68 4,99,822 1,32,074 26.42Roopnagar 2,65,343 1,17,840 44.41 2,47,573 93,318 37.69 2,33,676 55,757 23.86Ludhiana 7,58,224 2,74,531 36.21 11,49,638 2,32,549 20.23 12,84,822 2,13,149 16.59Ferozepur 4,42,034 2,97,260 67.25 6,48,676 3,65,507 56.35 7,56,695 3,24,620 42.9Faridkot 1,40,669 88,253 62.74 2,09,754 97,068 46.28 2,21,555 91,204 41.17Muktsar 2,07,384 1,44,234 69.55 3,09,572 1,81,508 58.63 3,35,326 1,67,285 49.89Moga 2,36,531 1,69,696 71.17 3,58,763 1,86,333 51.94 3,59,172 1,50,874 42.01Bathinda 3,02,833 1,99,289 65.81 5,00,667 2,56,513 51.23 5,49,986 2,22,568 40.47Mansa 1,83,153 1,36,677 74.63 2,81,491 1,65,658 58.85 3,28,512 1,49,294 45.45Sangrur 5,21,306 3,50,335 67.2 5,79,914 2,66,611 45.97 5,68,758 2,22,477 39.12Patiala 4,51,900 2,38,831 52.85 6,01,698 2,37,753 39.51 6,60,267 1,74,101 26.37Fatehgarh Sahib 1,37,614 79,757 57.96 2,06,139 69,969 33.94 2,14,783 60,455 28.15Punjab 60,93,874 33,70,038 55.26 82,74,519 29,75,833 35.96 98,97,362 29,71,881 30.03Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Various issues, Census 2001 and 2011 and Government of India.TW: Total workers, AW: Agricultural workers.

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a week or one day of the reference week-Usual Prinicipal Status (UPS), CurrentWeekly Status (CWS) and Current DailyStatus (CDS) have been computed.Labor Force Participation Rates (LFPR)

According to the Usual Prinicipal Status(UPS), Current Weekly Status (CWS) andCurrent Daily Status (CDS) criteria, labourforce participation rates (LFPR) have beenpresented in Table 4. The labour participation

of rural males, which was declining as per1999-00 estimates, had improved by nearly4 per cent as per 2011-12 estimates, indicatinghigher proportion of male population wasgetting engaged in either main or subsidiaryoccupations.

On the other hand, female LFPR, thoughhad improved as per UPS criteria but haddeclined as per the other approaches namelyUPSS, CWS and CDS, since the last decade.This indicated the declining employment ofthe female work force in the rural areas.Worker Population Ratio (WPR)

This ratio highlights the proportion ofworking population in the economy. Table 5shows that worker population ratio (WPR)for rural male population has shownimprovement on the basis of all theapproaches i.e. UPS, CDS and CWS. Butfemale WPR had increased marginally on thebasis of UPS approach but had declined onCWS and CDS approach since the lastdecade. This points towards the decliningparticipation of women workers in theworking population of the state.

TABLE 4: LABOR FORCEPARTICIPATION RATES IN PUNJAB,

1987-88 TO 2011-12 (Per cent)

Particulars 1987-88 1993-94 1999-00 2011-12Usual Principal Status (UPS)Rural Male 55.3 55 53.9 57.5Rural Female 8.1 4 4.3 5.2Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status (UPSS)Rural Male 57.1 55.4 54.3 57.9Rural Female 32.1 22.3 28.2 23.7Current Weekly Status (CWS)Rural Male 55.1 55.1 54 57.2Rural Female 8.3 20.2 27.4 22.2Current Daily Status (CDS)Rural Male 55 54.8 53.2 56.5Rural Female 7.6 12 15.8 13.8Source: NSSO Reports 1990, 1997, 2001 and 2011-12.

TABLE 5: WORKER-POPULATION RATIO IN PUNJAB, 1983 TO 2011-12 (Per cent)

Particulars 1983 1987-88 1993-94 1999-00 2011-12Usual Principal Status (UPS)Rural Male 63.4 53.7 54.2 52.6 56.2Rural Female 4.7 7.5 3.7 4.0 4.8Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status (UPSS)Rural Male 67.0 56.0 54.6 53.0 56.6Rural Female 36.5 31.7 22.0 28.0 23.4Current Weekly Status (CWS)Rural Male 62.3 53.1 54.1 52.3 54.9Rural Female 10.2 7.9 19.9 27.9 21.8Current Daily Status (CDS)Rural Male 59.1 52.9 53.3 51.0 53.3Rural Female 7.1 7.1 11.7 15.5 13.3Source: NSSO Reports 1987, 1990, 1997, 2001 and 2011-12.



Unemployment RateThis rate determines persons unemployed

in the total labor force in an economy.Unemployment rate in rural Punjab have beenpresented in Table 6 on the basis of differentapproaches. On the basis of UPS criteria,unemployment rate among rural males hasremained same over the last decade, but thisrate has increased as per CWS and CDSapproaches, which indicated the lack ofregular employment for rural male workersor a high degree of intermittentunemployment pattern.

In case of female work force in ruralareas, the unemployment rates have beenshown to increase on the basis of UPSadjusted measure. The increase had alsobeen witnessed on CWS and CDS basispointing towards increasing unemploymentfor women folds since 1999-00. Thisconfirmed the results of LFPR and WPR forrural women that their employment haddeclined, especially in subsidiary occupations,overtime.

Status of EmploymentThree broad categories of employed

persons were studied on the basis of theirstatus of employment i.e. self-employed,regular wage/salaried and casual labour. Thedistribution of rural workforce per 1000usually employed persons by these broadcategories had been displayed in Table 7 forthe last three years. The number of self-employed persons in rural workforce had

TABLE 6: UNEMPLOYMENT RATES IN PUNJAB, 1983 TO 2011-12 (Per cent)

Particulars 1983 1987-88 1993-94 1999-00 2011-12Usual Principal Status (UPS)Rural Male 3.2 2.9 1.4 2.3 2.3Rural Female - 7.4 7.1 6.2 6.1Usual Principal Status Adjusted (UPS)Rural Male - 1.9 1.3 2.3 2.2Rural Female 11.7 1.6 1.2 0.9 1.3Current Weekly Status (CWS)Rural Male 3.9 3.4 1.9 3.1 4.0Rural Female 5.7 4.8 1.5 1.0 2.0Current Daily Status (CDS)Rural Male 6.9 3.8 2.7 4.2 5.6Rural Female 9.3 6.6 2.3 1.7 3.3Source: NSSO Reports 1987, 1990, 1997, 2001 and 2011-12.

TABLE 7: PER THOUSANDDISTRIBUTION OF PERSONS AGED

15 YEARS AND ABOVE BY BROADACTIVITY ACCORDING TO USUAL

PRINCIPAL STATUS APPROACH(UPS) FOR RURAL PUNJAB

(Number)Category 2009-10 2011-12 2012-13Self employed 143 156 184Regular wage/Salaried 31 69 69Casual labor 135 192 181All 309 419 434Unemployed 23 7 18Not in labor force 668 574 548All 1000 1000 1000Source: Reports on employment and unemploymentsurveys, Labor Bureau, Govt. of India.

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shown an increasing trend during this period.Regular employees though doubled duringthe year 2009-2012 but remained constantduring 2012-13. Workers working as casuallabour had declined over the last years in ruralareas. Overall, employment of workforce inthe rural areas had increased since 2009-10and that of employed persons has declined.Employment Pattern

Census survey of the village under studyhad been undertaken to analyze itsemployment pattern. The village had apopulation of 1891 persons with number ofmales at 1021 and that of females at 870 inall. Total village population has been dividedinto five categories based on the land holdingsizes viz. landless, marginal, small, mediumand large categories. Occupation wiseanalysis of the census survey of the sampledvillage has been presented in Table 8. In all,12.14 per cent the total male population wasworking as the owner/cultivator with thirtytwo persons i.e. 26 per cent each in smalland large farm category and about 24 percent in medium farm category. Only 21 percent of these comprised of marginal farmersand 3 per cent had less than 0.50 acres inthe landless category. On the other hand,thirteen women own-cultivators were there,5 each in small and marginal category offarmers, two in medium and one in largecategory of farmers. Dairying was found tobe very less as main occupation in the villageas only two male members were practicingthe dairy profession. In all, two males andthree female were casually employed inagriculture, while 134 of total male populationin non-agricultural sector i.e. 13 per cent werefound to be casually employed in non-

agricultural sector with majority from landlessand marginal owners of land holdings. Onlyfour females was found to be casuallyemployed in non-agriculture in the village.Only one female and one male worker werehaving regular/contract farm employment inthe whole village. On the other hand, 53 maleworkers (5 per cent of the total malepopulation) and only three females (0.34 percent) were having regular/contractemployment in the non-farm sector.Organized sector in the form of governmentjobs was contributing significantly to theemployment generation in the village. Further,63 male members (6 per cent) and 12females (1.38 per cent) were employed ingovernment sector. Traditionally, casteoccupations have always remained importantjobs in a rural society. In this village, 35 maleand two female members were performingwork related to castes such as goldsmith,cooking meals, hair cutting etc.Approximately, 60 per cent of female folkswere engaged in only household activities.Self-employment should be the prime motiveof income generation in developingeconomies. In the said village, 5.8 per centof males and only one female member wereself-employed in non-farm activities.However, 27 per cent of male population and29 per cent of females were found to beengaged in some form of study and not inany gainful employment. Rest of the malemembers i.e. 26.44 per cent and 6.43 percent of the female folks were involved inmiscellaneous activities.

The results again confirmed the macrolevel findings of the state that only 7.7 percent of the total population i.e. 144 out of


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891 persons were engaged in agricultural andallied activities and if only gainful employmentwas considered i.e. 144 out of 976 farmers,the proportion came out to be 14 per cent.Remaining job profile of the village was foundto be employed in organized sector, casteoccupations, and other non-farm activities orself-employed. Thus, the sample village haspresented a diversified pattern of earninglivelihood.

The analysis has been undertaken on theprimary data collected for one village underthe study. The sample was comprised of 40households as shown in Table 9. Totalpopulation of sampled households was 264,with an average of approximately sevenpersons per household. Male membersconstituted about 113 persons (43 per cent)of the sampled population whereas theproportion of female members was 85 (32per cent) and the rest 25 per cent constitutedthe children up to the age of 14 years. Further,172 persons i.e. 65 per cent of the sampledpopulation constituted of working membersand the rest were non-working.

Employment status of the sampledhouseholds has been shown in Table 10. Inall, 46.51 per cent of the working memberswhich includes 56 males and 24 females outof 172 working population were engaged infarm activities. Out of these, 70 per cent weremale members and the rest (30 per cent)were females. On the other hand, in thesampled households, more than 53 per centof the working population i.e. 92 persons outof 172 working population was found to beemployed in non-farm activity. Out of these,45.66 per cent were males and the rest (54.34per cent) were females, who were engagedin households and labour activities only.

Rest 35 per cent of the total sampledpopulation comprising 66 children and 26 agedpersons were non-working or not engagedin any gainful employment and it comprisedof 71.74 per cent children and 28.26 per centaged people i.e. above the age of 60 years.Thus, the field level data depicted a trendtoward non-farm activities as a source ofemployment generation.

TABLE 10: EMPLOYMENT STATUSOF THE SELECTED 40

HOUSEHOLDS, VILLAGE KALWAN,2011-12

(Number)Description Male Female TotalFarm work 56

(70.00)24

(30.00)80

Non-farm work 42(45.66)

50*

(54.34)92

Children (<14) 34(51.51)

32(48.49)

66

Aged (>60) 16(61.53)

10(38.46)

26

Total 148(56.06)

116(43.94)

264

*Females in non-farm consist of household and laboractivities only.figure in parentheses indicate percentages to total.

TABLE 9: VILLAGE PROFILE OFKALWAN, DISTRICT ROPAR, 2011-12

(Sampled households)Particulars NumberTotal households 40Total population 264Average person per family 7Males 113

(42.80)Females 85

(32.19)Children 66

(25.00)Working members 172

(65.00)Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to total.



To highlight this dynamics of livelihooddiversification in rural areas, the profile ofnon-farm activities had been shown in Table11, in which the sampled working malepopulation was engaged. It has been foundthat around 36 per cent of male workers weredoing unskilled labour i.e. farm labourers, lowlevel security positions, working at petrolpumps etc. and 12 per cent males wereworking as transport operators. Two malemembers were working as village priest andtwo each were carpenter, mason andshepherds respectively. Only one malemember was working as a gold smith. Thus,a variety of activities were being performedby the male workers but the females wereconfined to mainly household and labouractivities.

and non-farm activities. As was evident fromthe table, the engagement of householdsremained more or less same on the basis ofworking days as well as working hours. Notmuch variation had been witnessed in thework schedule of the households on monthlybasis.

CONCLUSIONSThe success of green revolution led to

decline in poverty ratio in the state andincreased employment opportunities in therural areas. But since 1990s, the fizz of thatsuccess seems to have settled down due tostagnating yields, increasing costs and otherproblems of mono-culture in state agriculture.The role of primary sector in employmentgeneration is declining and that of othersectors is increasing. Overall, WorkerPopulation Ratio (WPR) and Labour ForceParticipation Rate (LFPR) of rural maleworkforce has shown some increase in thelast decade, but has declined for the femaleworkers in rural areas. Unemployment rateof rural workforce has increased since 1999-

TABLE 11: NON-FARM JOBOCCUPATION IN VILLAGE

KALWAN, 2011-12Job occupation Number PercentSalaried Job 9 21.43Gold smith 1 2.38Carpenter 2 4.76Priest 2 4.76Mason 2 4.76Shepherd 2 4.76Unskilled labor 15 35.71Operator of own machinery(hired out)

4 9.52

Running transport vehicle 5 11.90Total 42 100.00

Work load is an important aspect ofgainful employment. This had been discussedfor the sampled households in the Table 12on the basis of time criteria. The data hadbeen presented in terms of average workingdays and average working hours perhousehold basis for total activities i.e. farm

TABLE 12: AVERAGE WORK DAYSAND WORK HOURS IN VILLAGE

KALWAN, 2011-12 (Per household)

Description Work Days Av. Work HoursNov-2011 23 8.18Dec-2011 25 7.94Jan-2012 25 8.21Feb-2012 24 8.15Mar-2012 24 8.17Apr-2012 26 8.26May-2012 24 8.29Jun-2012 22 8.44Jul-2012 23 8.22Aug-2012 24 8.06Sep-2012 21 8.23Oct-2012 22 8.17

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2000. The micro level evidence had indicateda trend towards diversified employmentpattern in villages with more and more peoplebeing engaged in non-farm occupations. Therecent agricultural crisis in the state due toshrinking profit margins had led to problemto depeasantisation in the rural areas and thepoor households were shifted towards non-farm sector. Thus, there is a need tostrengthen this sector by providing requisitesin the form of infrastructure, linkages and skillformation.

REFERENCESAnonymous (2002) Punjab Development Report.

Culled from planningcommission.nic/plans/stateplan/Sdr_punjab/sdrpun_ch12.pdf

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Received: January 15, 2015Accepted: April 29, 2015


http://www.censusindia.gov.in/

Livelihood Diversification Scenario in Rural Punjab

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