Nfi chene Scahse Sugiyama

Lions and Tigers and BearsPredators as a Folklore Universal

DxlI ,nd v/'lsonr posa thr thc ner univcs,lity of the cnrdcrcua theme h folklorc is arcxprc$ion of a pobl.n that .ecui.cndy bcset hDmans throughoui ther evolutlon, nin€Lythe conflid of iotc.csts bctwecfl stcp parcnts and stcp childrcn. This obseflatioo sue{Fsisthlt orher uoivels,l f(tklore thcmcs Day bc exprc$ions or addpnvc p.oblods ds rcn. SFricsin ihe vein of ),Litde Red Riding ilood( are a cac in point thcy featurc ! un'vc.sal thcnc(ic,,nnnal athck) shich coiresponds to an ad.ptir€ problen (i.e, predato.,voidance) Ihrvc rgued that $orytelirg n,ry have originat€d rs an infoflnatioo .cquisitioo stntes,,LnJrling individu,ls to exprnd .edai'r knovl€dge bases (e.g., subsistence) lfld/or refhe.eftin slins (cs., so.''J intd.tion) sithout trndert.king thc cosN ind iisks of fisthandcapenc.cc. ln this papcr 1 erploF the po$ibility that storyteliog is also used to (1) id€otirypot€'tially hrmtul ldim.rls, and/or (2) i.hs6e $dtgi.s for 2voiding lethal enconlk6 with

Daly und \(]]so!l hdbcq d,c Thcsc aufgcstcut, d23 die anoiihemdc Unn esalitlit des As.her-puttel Motivs ifl d6 \/ou,sdlchtung r\usdruck eincs wiederkehrcnden Problens nr d€r EnnwickluoFgeschkht€ d$ Menschefl sci, nenrlch dcs Intclcsscnkonnikts zNischen Sti€relter.uod Stleftindem. Dicse Beobachtung hgt dic vcdutung nan., daB auch mdere univesaleMotive de! \rolkslitcotur ,\usdruck adaptivcr l'robleme sind. (;esrhicht€n in der Art ronRotkappclkb s'\tt cn Mscliligig€ Bcispicl, Sic w€iseo ei' uoivesal€s Nlotiv ldeo Aflgdffvod Raublieren) ,nf,.las einem adaptivcn Problcm Eiubticncrneidung) e spricht. lchh$e die,\'sicbt ve.teten, da! das Geschichteneu aNen aus cind besrimmten stnrcgic derInfomatio'sberhaffung he^oigegngen sein k6nnte. dic de! cinzclnen dzu bcfibigt.gewi$c w,ssensgdndiaFd (2.B. iiber Em.hrung) zu cffeitcrn und/odcr gcwisr Fiihjgkei-tcn (2.B. sorialc Intcakson) zu verfeine'n, ohne d,bei die Kosten uod tusikco dd ErfzhungE^tc. Hand( tragen zu nnssen. Im vorlieg€nden Beituag unt€such€ ich di Nldglichkeiq da8d$ Gcschichteoe.,ehtn lch dru benutzt wnd, (1) polentiel g€tihrlich€ Tierc zu idcnti6-,ic.cn und/odc. (2) Stdtegied eid,unbs, einen tjdlichen zusmmcntreffcn mit ihnc!

I. lntoduction

Access to infomation that inaeased an indiwidual's chances of surrivalandlot teptoduction is believed to have exerted selectlon pressure onhordnids from the rer)' outset., Because tust hand acauisition of such in

I Manin Daly, Mdso !{ilson: Hooicide. NN Yo.k 1988., Robin Dunb.r: Gr@mioc, Gossip, and thc EloluEon of Ladglage. Irndon 1996;Jefarey

-4.. Kurlxnd, Stcpbcoj. Bcckcma': Optimal Fodging and Ho'runid Evolulion. Labor andRcciprociry. I!: Amedan Anthropologist 87 0985),73 93;John lbob),lren Devo.e:'lbc Reconsttuciioo of Ilominid tsch2viogl Evolution Through Strategic ModeUng. In:

rormaton can be vefy cosdy in terms of time, energy, andlor dsk, ve wouldexpect selection to have favored rhe devetopmeni of a aesgn tfr"t, _r,enpossible, bpassed dris rnethod in favor of second f]""a *q"i"'iti.". O" tr,i,fi'" *)

"1..1 l\4i_t}en argue. r}lat r_he cave pzinmgs a,a il"". .*"__, "rupper ftreoxLruc Lurope may have been used ro teach chndren uhich invi_::1T:il, T*

ro roor for vhen searching for rnd L,acking p,ey., ceflainsames ma) have i slmdlar eddcadonal tun.rion.. Cons,de! , be;r ihj', (,,se,_litl.l;

^ IJ.*, e*e rn which one prdver. pre,end;ns ro be the bear,

:nr,.es_rhe:.o:r pr,Ier". qho are plerendins ro picr berjes oear rhe bear.s

vorves and tJle resr human beingc chaced b) L\e wohe_", tr; Jif6cujt Dor::

"".: r... c"T* a. pracEce ror ,}e erim possibdiry of bcing pursurd b)

, Lr-te vi<ual rr and ptry. nuraDve m,y turcbon,rs n krad of cosmrive\oresq rchetrsar.. as pracdce for cmrarn chaxenge. and hrzrd. of iumaney,jsrence the.1che. for ermple. are kaom to relt sro'l€s abour accjdenrrl

:**, "T nl and Magdalena Hunado reporr rhlr Ache chndren -are

these srooes znd probably leam hvatuabte le,son, abour dreoingers ot the toresq which aid in rher own sutrira1.,., NacraLive appers robe wel-suired ro conveying infornarion th"t -"y b. d.pt.y.d ;;i;;;

M'chelle Sc.It' Su81ymr

wffi Kinay (Ed.)' 'rhe Evoluiion of Fruman Brh2vior p.imate ]\ro,tels. ,1lbmy 198?,

' i,i#1;#:[:''

*-*trDr Forage^ ̂ studv or plehistonc D€chbn N{akins. cdS a e p . M . h t ' l I B o \ o n p r 1 , K S m r h : . l , h e 5 d i J \ r r u r c o f p t r , I . , 6 h d n c r n d p t i ,

i.l.,:i 'ill't-"L"ij j .y: {j"i; ;:fl',:,::Ti:. l";Ll, t;* *ljl'

iit,.j";:fl:l;: "-a rarcs o{emoirs of rhe r\meric2n Fbrk r_ore sociery 22) New

predatc

seveial bfoad 6elds of selec

Obviously, the ability to rctease an rndiwidurl's chaactfotmation about animal habiAs Nicholas Blurton Jones ar

The long period in hudan (may be e{peded to have inda' becane i'tsestcd ;r a,

In this paper I explore the phumans use to )find out ab(mals.1, In older for this to Iobtah: (1) injull, disabiliry,occurred consistendy (&ouglrocene ancestorsj and (2) rcfecultualy in the folklore rec<fomger inju-ry and 'nortaiity t,some leguladty among modertocene humans. I the. examdmgerous animals are indeecnanative examples that der(1) identi6, potenti,Iy harrnlavoidrng lethal encor:ntets wir

II. Ptedar

It is no seclet dlat hunting \Imaking a living, fiequendy band odler poteDtial sources oment rn passing on this facr

ffjt: ll;H# j,: t ;;'.t,,,;:;;;:l[#ft il il"'\(nn.: Rep.( or +e F f,h

::::1X"i:#illsj'# Jr,:":t1.:.:"J:.fi.T - \r'Fuve ''hp o.d, r,rd'uonll".'!"):. p*^" "-J';;il;# #1."i-L;JJ;|J :1 "*.fl] ;i:::-f;"1i;; i;j;:: i.1:f;';j::,j:lj1l,s;5j :tJ*bve

n ,,um,n \ b.L f-.! ,n

H#,":,-i:.';:ifi;lfo:-Acre!re HNf ihe u(oro$ rnd Den e,"rhv.r,

Mcheue Sc,lise SugiraDz: F_oodInaoroation. Prcsented ar th. an,ciety, Amhest, Jure 2000; M. S.lMich€l. Scaljse Sugiyana: OnEdbanci.g Stat€gy. In: Hum.n INicholas Blurton Jones, Melvintuchard B. lle, lden D€Voft (548; hee 326.Thls posibility has be€n hinted !by a.in,ls, insects, and plants inihe lives of r\chc fonges, and dHistory [nore 8], 153; itaUcs adds

netgy, andlor risb ve woulduent of a design th2t, when,nd hand acquisition. On dLisintings and bone carings ofto teach child:en which envir and racking p!ey.3 Cert^in.a Considcr >bear play< (,xet-

pretending to be the bear,r pick benies neat the bear'st game >in which a few arere wolves(6 It is diffrcult notssibility of being pursued by

clon as a klid of cognitivesnges and h^zards of humano tell stories about accidentalort that Ache chndren ,areinvaluable iessons about drewiv2i<(8 Narative appears to'lay be deployed in attacking

Prdato6 as r Folklorc Univ.4al 321

several bioad fields of selection pressute, such as subsistenceq and socj2t

Obviously, the ability to avoid animar hazards woutd have tended to increase an individual's chances of sulviml and repmduction. Acquiring information about animal habits aod characteristics is ctitical to tlLis scraiesv.\s \'chol/s Blurron Jones and Mej!in I. Konne. arguc:

The long pdiod in humn cvolutjon du,i.s which md tiv€d as a hunre. rnd sathe.erTd be c r ra rcd ro h rve n l tuJed I . ! t ! (dun PFSU,e d rh" num"n bnn. su .h rha ln.n b.c,me 'r,r -e.'ed in armJ behrr., rnd,oa|een, in 6nMg.u, rbou- tr.,1

In this paper I explore the po$ibilty that storytelling is one of t]re meanshumans use to )ind out about< rhe potentialy harmtul ptoperties of ani_ma1s.1, In order for dis to be the case, two conditions at minimum mustobtain: (1) injffy, disabilig,, or mottaliry due to animal attack must haveoccuffed consistendy Ghough not necessarily frequenrly) among our ?leistocene ancestors; and (2) teferences to dangetous animals must ocor cmss_cultu.taly in the foltlote record. To test n\is hlporhe*, I review data onfonger injury and mortality ro detemine vhether animal attack occurs wirhsome rcgularlq' among modem foragen, dre ctosest living analogue to pleis-tocene hum2ns. I then examine dle folkiore record ro detennine vhetherdangeious animals are ildeed a folklore universat. I colctude with sDecificnaftative examples that demonstmte how storytellina."" t",ria to( l / idrnr i | r porenbaUy h. lmtul animrts anazor i2r * t ia.se.Lz,egies foravoiding lerbaJ encouren with fiem.

II. Predation as Adaptive Problem

It is no secret that hunting vith shorr-range weapons is a d2ngerous way ofmakng a livin& frequendy b:inging one neat claws, teerh, hooves, homsand other potential sources of injurl . Ethnographers will occasionally com-ment m passhg on rhis fact. Merraux, tor example, obsetees that rhe Toba

t Nfichelle Sc,lise Sugiyamr: Food aor]tought. Ndqtivc as i RepositDry fo. Subsistcncelnfomalion. prcsented at the annual m€eti;ss orth€ qma Beh;vior a;d E"olution Sooety, l\fthcst, June 2000; M. S. S.: Food, Foag€6, and Folklo.c (nore ?).

10 MicheUe Scalise Sueiyama: On the Origins of Namtivc. Slo.rtcler Bia 5 1 litncssEnhancing Srntegy. In riuman Narure t (1996). 40:J-a2s.

" Nlcholas Blurtoo Jones, Ifclvi' J. Konne!: tKung Knowlcdge oi.\ntml Bebavio.. In:Rlchard B. I?e, ](cn Devo< (Ed.): Kdahaii Hmrc-Cathetu. Canbride€ 1976- 325,J48:h€re l2a

1, I his possibniry h6 becn hinied at by IIiU and HDdado, sho oore rbat the danecd Dosedbs rninvls. inrd!. rd plmr. in fie rungte enruobe"r ..ot"," o portm, ,on"mors onnhc lves ofAche ton$6, and they pdttkav Ache nltltologk Grit. H!tudo: Achc Lif€History lnote 81, 1s3; nalcs added).

'ioi Primate Models. Arbary 1987,

rrehistoric Decision Nfaking. Cam-

U Nature of Play Fightins and Play)ope@tion and ConpronnF. In:.)i The idapted Mind. New York

qican Folk-Lrc soci€ty 22) New

Bav Eskimos, R.pon oa rhe Fifth87.

; of Nadatile. The Oni Tradition'esent€d at thc annual meetings ofe$ity of Arizona, fucson 1997;rntive in Hunan Subsistmce. Inl

,e Ecorogy aod DcmognPhy of a

Mi(heUe Sc,Ise Suglyma Predak

individu,l, as well as his,rlTrussrel md Jobn D. L. Htacked by a leopad. He tnabare hands, but he wrs lefttendon of his bowstring 6qmjur€d adult is less able to p:eots, thus !€rdering thm r

The pioblem of pledato!ries, but in pastor:l and agrardroughout Greece, the Netim€s in some cases (Syria,knovn for &eir >occasionalcally ranged from eastem T,tecendy as the p{evious cernTurknenia, Chin4 Nonh Kdia, Buma, Sumatra, Java, IaJe nov nJe on the Tibe&cornoon in the region as !rapproached the tent of a h(caped, but a dog was killed.2diles kil sever2l people a ye,threat. Birket-Smith notes rbulls may become aggressivrregion ofAftica, people are I

Geo€e B. Schaler's stud'predators continued to posruansition from foraging to ,

shoot peccaties with anors or ctub them at close tange, >despite the greatdanger inwolwed in rttacking packs of these animats when roused<.13 Infor-mants, too, acknowledge the dangers ptesented by &e animat wottd. AGilwi man, for example, states that )Me hrte r}le lions, leopards, and spot,red hyen^ because fiey uiil hun u-,.,. Ahhough -i'nal atr".U ;. "ttegei robe a lelativdy n)jno! cause of death among modem fo$ging peoples,ls thereis actually vety litde quantitative data on the subject of anirnal,caused humanrnjuy and mortality. The litde data there G suggests drat animal-r€lrted hjuly is r peiiodic source of harm to healtl and life.

For example, in a study of Shi${ar injury and ilhess frequencies, Law-rence Sugryamar6 feports thar, out of 678 survived pa*rotogies recodedover a two-month period, 130 stemmed flom anirnat bites (insecrs not included). Tbe mosr pre\Jen( were b,res ftom vampire bats (102J. foUouedby venomous sn,kes 08), dos, fish, and squirtel (2 erch), Iizar4 pe$on, andpB. Animal anacl and ,nakebire re ajso ored as causes ot mrury and dearhamong the Mbuti,ti and Hi and Hurrado leporr seeing Ache fotagers bitteiby coaus, pacas, monkeys, pitznlhas, and snakes.,8 Due to the prevaieoce ofptedators, lKung vomen may cany chil&en up to six yeats of age rvhenforaging in the bush." Jaguan have been known ro kjl Shiviar,a, and con-tinue to stalk humans in drese aad othet Amazonian regions.,i For example,aldrough drey report only twelve Northem Ache dear\s due to jaquar in thepasr .ennuy, FLjjs,nd Hurrado s re.rm u.rme.sed two ireu,r ar(actr" whorhe) q€re tjeing in rhe toresr sirh fie Ache., t, r, mporunr ro nore rhar ananimal attacl< need not be laral to have adverse fitness effects on the iniured

rr ,{lr.ed Metraux: Nlyths of the l-oba aod Pilze, Indians of the cnn Chaco. philadephia1946, t4 .

1r Gcorgc B. Silb.ibaue. lluntcr and Habitar i! tbe Central Katahdi Dese.t. Cmb.idge1981.63 .Colin Turnb,{ Warmrd Scddnh. lhe Two vortds of the ̂ fden Irgnies. carden City1965; Irrcdcdck L Dunni Epideniologi.al F1cb6. Heatrh and Disc6e in ilunrc.Gathere(. Ini Richad A. Iie, lflen Dcvo.e \�d): Mm the Flune.. Chicag. 1967,221-228; Hill, flurtado: Achc Liae History (nore 8).Iawrence Sugiym,: lattems of lniury and llne$ anong rhe Shiviar H€alth Ctue provisionirs and Humad Evolution in the Cognitive Niche (under revicw).Tu.nbuU: Wayrvard Seflants (noto 15).llil, Hurtadoi ,{che Uic Fli$o.y (note 8), 153 154.Bobbi S. i-v Th€ Evolurion or Humd Life Histories. rn: Cbades B. Cnwaoid, DcnoisL. Krebs (Ed): Hrndbook of Evolutionary Psychology. Idas, Issuc, and AppticationsMahMh 1998, 131'161; bere 141.l,wr@ce Sugiyamr (pe6odal commutuqtion).IavEoce Sugiy.oa, Richtud cihacon: EffecE of ltoe$ .nd tdju.y oo Fonging amongth€ Yon md Shiwid. Parhology Risk as Adaptive ?robied. rn: re Cronk, Nlpoko;Chagron, \{_dIaD llom @d.): Humo Behavio. and Adapration. An Anrhopologrca_lPcrsp€crive. N.w York 2000, 171-39s.Hin, t:ludado: Ache Lifc Histoly (notc 8), 153.

,r A StNart Tn$we!,Joh. D reld B L.e, Itren Devore @d.

?r rt , Hurtado: Ache Life Ilisto(note 10); Sug,ya6a Chacod: Ei

2s George B. Schalci The Seren1972,5.

'�6 Georgc B. S.haU€!: The D€er a221.

' Schal€r: ahe D*. and thc T'ge:a Georce B. Schaler Wldlif-" of t,t Schaucr: Wndife of the Tibetans Secrets of the Crocodile Caves. :rr Kaj Bnketsdith: the Cdibor

Position. R€po't of the Fifth Thr, Aftica. Nahre/Natioorl GeoCn

It"I

r,c

l,redatoG N, Folklore Udivesrl

ose range, rdespite the greatrnals when roused(13 Infor-ed by the aoimal world. Ahe lions, leopaids, and spot-lh animal attack is aleged toem foraging peoples,'s thereiect of animal-caused humangests that animal-related h-te.ad illaess ftequencies, Larv-vived pathologies tecordedanim,l bites (insects nor in-ampre bats (102), rolowed(2 each), Iiz,J4 person, and

.s causes of injury and death: seeing Ache forage$ bitren.t3 Due to the preval€llce ofP to six yea$ of age whenn to kdt Shiviar,r'r and con,mrn teglons.a For exahple,: dea&s due to jaguat in theed two jaguzt atucks whenis impoltant to note that lnitness effects on the injured

r of the Ghd (lhaco. Philadcphn

ntal K,lahd Deselt Cambiidgc

th€ Afrisn Pygoi€s. crdcn Cig'Healdr and Disease in IIDnrerd tbe Huntcr. Chiclgo 't967. 221

rg the Sbiwid. Health Care P.ovi

I.: Chadcs B. Cnwfor4 DdnisL Ideas, Issues. aod Applicarions.

s and ioiu.y on Fo.€iog among)blem. In: Ir€ Cronk, Napoleon^daptation. An Anrhopologi.ul

ind|idurl, as well as his/her immedlite kin. For example, A. Ste*artTrusswe and Johtl D. L. Hansen tel of z Dobe lKung man who was retacked by a leopard. He managed to suwive by killing the animal widr hisbare hands, but he was left with >facirl paralysis, weakness of the exteriortendon of his bowsting tuger, and chtonic osteitis of his humerus(a Aninjuted adult is less able to provide food and plotection for his,/her depend-ents, thus rendering them mote rulnenble to malautricion, disease, injuty,

The problem of predator avoidance is visible not only in fofaging socie-oes, but in pastoral and aglarian sociedes as we[. Lions, for example, rangedthroughout Gieece, the Nea( East, India, and Aftica wel inro historicaltimes - ln some cases (Syiia, Iraq, Iran) inlo the hventie& century.r5 Tigefs,kno*.rl for thei occasional ptedilection fo1 pieying ofl humanssr6 histori-cally :anged ftom eastem Turkey to the Sea of OLhotsk in Russia, and astecendy as &e previous century could be found in Afghanistan, Iran, Russia,Tutkmenia, China, North Korea, Noith Vietnam, Laos, Thailand C,mbodia, Butma, Sumatra, Java, Bali, India, Bhuta4 and Nepal.rT Atthough theyarc nov ftJe on the Tibetan ?lateru, the Tibetan brcwn bear was vetycornmon in the region as tecendy as the 1930s.rs In 1991, ooe such bearapptoached the tent of a herder in search of food; the woman inside escaped, but a dog was ki[ed.r, Reptil€s can be dangetous as well Nile croco-diles kill sevetal people a year in N{adagascar.3o Nor are predarors the onlydtteat- Birket-Smidl notes thag altJrough caribou are geneialy hanrness,buls may become aggressive during the mating season3r and, in the Sahelr€glon of Africa, people are ftequendy killed by elephantsy

George B. Sch,llels study ofvildlife in Indiat Kanla P,Jk sugg€sts thatptedatorc conhued to pose a thftat long aftet human groups made thetransition ftom fotaging to other modes of existence. He notes that vbile

,r A. steMd Ttu$weU, John D. L. ltrsen: Medic"l resdrcb among the lKung. lo: Rich-ard ts If,e, IN.n Devo.e @d): Kaiahad Huor€ccnthercs. Canbndge 1976, 166194;

,t rL[, HDrtldo: Ache Lif€ Ilistoq (note 8), 15! Sugiyama: On rhe Onsins of Nailarive(not€ 10); Sugiyma, Chrcon: Effects of IUness and Inju.y (notc 21).

,s Georg€ B. Schalcr The Screoged Lion. A Study of PredatorPrcy Relatiods. Chicago

,6 Geore. B. Schaler The Deer and the 'tige.

A Sbdy oa wn.Ufe in lndi.. Chiqgo 1967,2rt.

' Scbale. Tbe De€!fd theTiger (note 26).,3 Geo.ge B. S€haler: Ii(ildlif€ oi th€ Tibeian Steppc. Cbicaso 1998, 192., Schalei Wildliie of the Tibetan St?pe (note 28). 193., Sccrets oi the Croco.lile Caves. Nova €BS), Janua'y 20, 2004.! Kai BirkeGsmith: The Canbu Eskinos. Matelial ind Socid Life and Thcir cdtur,l

Positio.. Repori of the Fifth Thlle Expedltioo 1921-24. Copcnh,gm 1929, 106.r,,{f.ica. Naturc/Nationalceogapbic CRS), Ocbb€r7, 2001.

no Icopads were resident in the teserve, they wete 'fairb common round

the numerous vilhges at the petipheJy and outside the park, where they prey

c'xtensively on liwestock<.' He repons the folovhg leopatd incidents: iI

1961, dree people vere killed; in 1964, one chrld vas cattied off, one childwas mauled, and one man was kiled; in 1965, one man vas kiled, one childMs taken, and two oen were mauled.la Similar\, Jim Corbett telates that,

behr'.eenjune 1918 and Apul 1926, 125 human deaths rvere attributed to the

man eating leopard of Rud$prnyag.rs In Europe, volves posed a consider-able threat to humans through dre Renaissancc md possibly beyond.r6 Fot

example, according to a local si\teenth-cefltury clegyman, woh'es were such

a menace in the Bordeaux tegion that >men could ody go to vork armed

add together in numberv(3? In 1878, 624 people vete repotted krled byvotves rn India,r8 and at the tine of his wntmg, Summers claimed that

wolves still roamed patts of Ftance, Belgium, Hungary, East Prussia, Aus-

In sum, alailable data suggests that animal attack occuts with sufFtcient

regularity in humm life that rve may assume it ererted selection pressure on

ancestal hman minds to develop means of coping with it. Some anthro-pologists, for example, have aJgued $at gtoup living m humans ('rnd otherground-living primates) evolved as a defense aginst predatots.{ As JohrBowlby explains:

Id thc cisr of th€ s.ound liwins I'ih3tes, prcdrus rrc thc great crs (esreciauvl.oprdt. wolv€s and irckds, ard Lnds of prcl' In lchierins Iirorectbn fom thesepadatois rhe orsalised v'cial gnrt .hrdctd$k of the re($trirl p.inat€ Flxlt ane$cdti,l part. V'lrcn mcnbeF of the goup a.e thrcrtr.cd, thc nr.dre m.les,rhcther modk.ys or nco, coobi're r, drile oaa ihc pr.d.ror whiin drc fen,xles indimnntucs rctnc. Thus onlf indilidu,ls aound rl,,ne ec likc\ to tun victirn {

Due to their lack of slze. speed, and experience, children are mote whet

able to animal attacks thrn adults are. In their stud,v of thc r\che, Hlll andHurrado descrlbe a variety of sdnging insects that are dangeJous enough

124 Nlichellc Scarisc Sugiyamtrl'rcdab

that they leave little doubt an

left umttended on the fores

lKung, vho claim that Lons,

vho wandcr off unxtloded'

rvere mostly childten, canied

that attachment behavior in

tie benveen mother and infa

Although, as loted above,

studles ifldicate that infectio

Guch as anmal att,rck), are

contemporary hunter gam€I

mals vere trot a sigsific2nt

history' ln a discussion oft

and George C. WilJrams nol

ever-present hazalds aod to

able<.{ Aoim^l anack need

ln fie small natunl fertilit

societies. Among those for

bitth nrtenals range frorn

from 2.6 to 7.8a'. Thus, tt

repiesents a substaotial dt

output. Hunter-gatherer soi

seventy five individuals for

1500 individuals rn sedent"

greater the ch,rnce ttrat the

I nl,Ilnnado: -ddE Llfe Hnt

Elurton i(,nes. Konne': lKud

rlrdy: Nlother NtN (noie i

Eodlby: '\ttachmem rnd td

Robert L. Kcuey: Ihe Forag

ngton 1995.2i2 251R,nd,rlfh I'1 N.sse, Geurgru 'n ,m Nledrnc NNYork

K.l1eI l he Foagng sPecln

Kelcy: The Iioogldg $cchKelicy,

'rh€ foneng SPect(

schdler: Tlrc D.ermd the lis* tnte 26),308.Schauer'Ihc Dcerrnd thc T'g.r (notc 26),111

lim Co.bct The mn-.xtilg lcop.rd ofRudnFnyas NevYo.k 19r8,8 10Nlontaguc Sunmers: Ihc lir0rowoli London l9ll.22sumne6:

'Ihe Wcewolf(note 16),96

sanh Hrdy, iv{othe. Ndturo. M^rer l Insrinds i.d llow Thcy Shrpe tlE tluau' Species

Sudncs: Ihe wdcvolf (notc 36),61.ldcn Devore l'�rimxte Bchavior. tleld Studi$ of Nronkeys xnd Al)es. Ncw York 19651Dunba. Clooding (noic 2), 18; Sheflood L. Washburn:

'Ihe Social L.ife of r?.lr Man

Oikins Fund l)ublications in,\nthrol)ol{Jgr 31). chicrso 1961 Sec also vitliao D Han;lron: Geometry fu the Sdnsh Flcrd. td:]ourml oi lheoreti..l An,logy 3l (1971), 2953 1 1 .

J.rhn Bowlby: .\thchmqrt .nd Loss, vol 1: -\ftachdcnt. N.v York 1969.62.

Prcdato$ $ ! Folklo.c U.ivc6rl 325

vere rfally common roundide the park, vhere they pleylowing leopatd incidents: inild was caffied off, one chnd,ne man was kiled, one chiidrh Jim Corbeft relates that,deaths vete attributed to the)e, wolves posed a consider: and possib\. bcyond.r6 Forclelgymaq volvcs wde such)uld only go to vork amed,ple were reported k ed byting, Sumers claimed dratHungrry, East Ptussia, Aus-

attack occurs with suffic.rent:xerted seiection pressue onoping vith it. Some anthro-lirlng in humans (and other

€a'nst predators.{ As John

tuo6 are the gret crts Gspccbnvln achieving protcction lrod these: of ihe tercstrial prim,tc plavs a.r€ threat€ned, the dature oales,he pr€dator vhilst th. i.dales a.de ale likely to lal vicdm ri

e, chil&en are more nrlner-study of the Ache, H i anddlat ate >dangerous enough

w Thejr Shapc the Humo Species.

nk€ys atrd At,$. New York 1965;!r: The Social Lifc ot Edr\ Ilan

!o 1961. See rlso \v_![ian D. Hadheoretical Biology 31 (1971), 295

that they leave iitde doubt m infant ot small child would not suwive long ifleft unattended on the forest floot<.1, This obserwation is echoed by thelKung, who claim that iions, leop2rds, and wild dogs will all take cbildrenwho rander off unattended.ar The 624 wolf casualties cited by S,Jah Hldyrvere mosdy children, canied off while they were sleeping.{ Bowlby ,rguesthat attachment behavior in pnmates (i.e., the close physical and emononaltie between mother and hfang evolved to protect the young from just such

Although, as notcd above, &ere is a scatcity ofgood data on dLis subjecgstudies indicate that infectious and pansitic diseases, rar\er than accidents(such as aoinal attack), are dre pdmary causes of cbjld mortaliry amongcontemporary hunter-gathefers.a6 This does not mean, hovever, that ani-nals were not a signincant cause of child mortality in human erolutionaryHstory In a discusion of >Deadr in dre Stone Age<, Randolph M. Nesseand George C. Wihams note that,lions, hleflas, and venomous snakes wereever-presenr hazards and took a steady toll, with chndren especially r.ulner-able<.a? Animal attack need not be ftequent to constitute a threat to fitnessin the small naturai fertility populations chrJacteristic of hunter gatherersocieties. Arnong drose fotager societics for vhom data is available, interbirth interals range from 2.3 to 5.4 yealsa3 and total ferulity tate rangesftorn 2.6 to 7.8a,. Thus. the 1ox of even one chnd due to animal attackreprcsents a substantial dccrease ir an individual\ litetime reproductiveoutput. Hunter-githerer socledes also tend to be sma[, iang1ng fiom s; toswenty five individuals for nomadic populadons, and from thirty+hlee to1500 individuals in sedentaty populations.s The smaler L\e popul2tion, thegreatet the chance that the chnd cxnied off by the big bad wolf will be one\

I Ul, Hun2do: -{cbc Life History (note 8), 1s4.Blunon Jones, Kofllci lKungKnowlcdgc of Adim,l Rchavior (note 1l),134.HrdI Mother Natue (notc 38),.111.Bowlby: Atlchm€ot and l,ss (oote 4l).Robert L. Keucr. ]'he Fongi'g Specrrum. Dive6ity ifl I Iu're.Grthere. Lifsrrs Vash-lngton 1995,252 253.Pdodolph r\'1. N€$€, G€orse C. \villians: Vhr \X/€ G€t Si.k.

'l he New Scienc€ of Da.

winian lv€dicine. Nev Yolk 1994,137.Keler The Foeging Spe.trum (ooie 40, 2a6.Keler'lh€ i:oaging Speckum (not a6),208.Kelley: Thc i:ooging spNkum t,ote ,16),209.

326 Mrh€lle S.alis€ SugiFma

IIL ATe Predatots a Folklore Universal?

Animals aJe without doubt a folidore universal. Animat char2c.ers are viv_idly associated with the folk literatu'es of Aftica, Asia, Ausealia, Euope.rd Norrh md South America. Indeed. Snr_h Thomp.6n'5fi folklore monfdass,ficzdon sys,em. vlxch has been succestullv u;ed ,o ctassifv fie ioikLiteratue of both Wesrem and non-!(/estem societies,s, devores an entiresection Section B - ro animal motifs. This section is turther divided intos*etal sub-categodes. Tellingly, tbree of these sub-catesories arc )Devastat-rng Arumals- rB16). "Hosrile Arurnd-. (Bl?). and "Venomous nrumat".8776\.

At the very least, dren, \re can say that dang€lous animals and animat-related iniuty are a reculaent fotklote theme. In Iohannes \rilbert s andK.rtr srnoneiu: coueclion'1 of 222 Mo.ovi fo&.;les. for qamote. nireteen stones feznue a reference 'o m drumaj Lhar prevs "n hum"n. "r to ".acrual animal ih,clt. Yanorumo rale5 conrar" *rirenc* ro snrkebiretu anda vadety of deadly aeatures, includiag iagu.r,s5 anaconda,56 and two kindsof 6sh57. The Copper Eskimos tell of a woman who was bitten to death bv abLck bear, 'and, man sho wis arLacked by a blacK bee whnr or hu;r-mg". And lKuDg fnlJdore prorrunenrJl fearures d neraphor. " s-u or tgo-.

5r stith'ftodpson: Morif Index of FolkLitcnture. Blooninoro! 195?.q Se- . e .9 . . [m. tu , o ro A ' rw- . \ ' t rs ' f i . r 'dun o , ,b r F^ t ] ; le . u r ,hc \ . r ,hem r^ , .U i icrn Catde AJea by Tncs New nJ.k I 98oj tn Hak Choii ]\ Tr,e inder of Korean Folk,tdes. Scoul 197t; Tom Peetc Cios: Moti ndd of Early Irish Lireatule. Bjoooj,gron1952j Hxsan M. lll Shamy: Folk'Isditions ofth€ Anb 'iqodd. ,\ (;dd€ to Motifcb;;i6cdson, vol.1. Bloomi'gron 1995j HnoLo tkeda: l\ Tl'Pe dd Nfotif Indcx ofjapaneseFolk Lite€luc (FolHor Frnows Comd!tucations 209). trcknki 1971; ts2cil FicmminoKirda \ rlo.r Indei of f^rJnejr-. At.t4nc.;n rnd l\ll' roac.$. NrnDvp, N.\, yo,i1980j Nt Tuns'ling A TIT'e Ifldex of Chin€s. I,otktales (Folktoc r.-clous Communicatbns 223). H€lsinl.j lt78; Parrici' ranyiry waterDan: A Talertype todea of,{uslolianAboriginal Oral Neoriv$ (FF Comdlnications 238). He\inki i987; tohanncs Witbert/Fd r loll l.tr*rr'r .r rb. s"lLndm Indlns \trtu Uu.ind, , Co crdon or SetknxmNa.r.tives. Los Angeles 197s;J. v., Ktujd Sinoneau @d.): Folk Lireatlre ofthe Mahcoindians I-os lngdes 1 981 J. V/., K. S. ojd ): Folk rtrlenrurc oi the Tchuelche lodians.Los lngelcs 1984; J w. K. S. €d.): Folk Lneatuc oi thc Mocovi I.dians. tns r\nael*la88: L V K \ Ild . Folk I i'd"ru,c ol rhe yrn.nami tndLns. L!. Anectci t990.

i0 ben, (roner- f r . l-oll L'.mn re ofrp \lolovi tnJtr. rnor" i2' \iuilb.r.shoneau (rJ./ l.oll Li(."n rc of fie vcnoo'n Indian. r-orc 52 _ 2lh.t< lvilb"'L.'none,u (i-d J I ul\ | tr(atuF of rhp y"nom,fr ,ndus rnorc 52,. Jr, d.

r u ber simonerd EJ - r^rt Lrentu.! ar rhe ydommi tnd,r." Ln,.,e \2,. a{857 li/ilbert, Simoneau (Ed): Folk Lltentuie of rhe yeonami lndians (note 52). 451' \nud R-smu${ InFU. . tun , u l tu ,c . . ' rhe I o t fe r L .kdo. R€podof r -e l .n ro f t .

l - rpcdr tnn la2 l 1 t2 , . vo i ) , opp-h4sFn l412. r t I .r tusmus.tr ln,, Ui,ruJ Cultur or,he, opp- r-.kimos \no( 58),20.

Predar

that refers to >a constellati

\ftne dangerous anirnals ,(e.g., t]le big bad wolf of Iandlo industrialized edstecestsl lifestyle as hunteis aisurvey of folk litetature tocolections and indexes to rpredators and other dangercsurveyed: Beavel', ChiptApache6s, Kiov?66, MsialMelanesia/MicronesiaTo,Teh,:elche?a, ThompsonYanomanor.?8 At&ough t

60 Mecan Biesele' Sapidce md S,Otb€r Fofrgd. Id: Soci6l Scie'

6' Plny Eade Godd,rd: The BeMuseum ofNatural History, v{

6? Robert H. Lwie Chip€*]E Iof Natual Hjstory, vol. 10. Ne

6r Rasmu$en: Inielectlal Cdtu,6{ Robelt H. Lowie, M}tbs dd l

ofthe Americafl Museum orN65 Mods ople. Mytbs and T,l€:

folklore Socieq 31). Nry Yon66 Pd$ons: Kiowa iales (oote 5).6? wilbert, simoneau (Ed): Folkd wll])cii, simoneau @d): Folko James A. Tcn: Folk-Tales olsr

of the Aocrie. Folk'Lole Sq?o Kktl€y: A Mori ndex (note 5irr Pliny tr*le Goddard: lvlyths a

Papes of the Am.ncan Museu?, Mdan K. Gould: Folk Tales t

of rbc American Folk Ilrc So(7r wilbcrt (Ed.): Folk Literatue.1 Y/nben, Sinonau (Ed.): Folki l en: Folt-T,lcs of Saushan m,r( Grenville Goodun: Myths ai

Amelicao Folklor€ sociciy 33).n \q bert, Siftoneau (Ed): Folk?3 Comprehensivc coUection. of

mod. Derelminatiod of whichabiliry: Couecrions cbosed we'suney ws thus rmdom m thawhich coueciods to includ€.

Picdatos 2s a Folkloe Uni!.421 3n

, Univetsal?

t. Animal chalactets are viv-ica, Asia, Austtdia, Europe,Ihompson'ss' folklore motif

y used to classify the folktocieties,5, devotes an entirelction is firther dieided into

b-categories re )Devastat-and rvenomous Animals(

rg€ious arimals and animal-In Johannes wilbertt and

folktales, fot *ample, ninert preys on humans or to 2n:eferences to snakebitesa ands-anaconda,to and two kindswho was binen to death by ar black bear vbile out hlnts a metaphor ,llcNoi lgq<,

that refers to >a constellation of ideas relating to avoidance of camivole

whiie dangerous mimals certaii y appear in the folldote of state societies(e.g, the big bad wolf of Europe and grandaunt tiget of Chifla), agrarianand/ot industtialized existence is in many vays far rcmoved from our afl-cestrrl Lifestyle as hunters 2nd gatherefs. For this reason, I hnve limited mysuwcy of folk literatute to foraging culnrres. I examined fotaget folklotecollections and indexes to see horv maoy of them contained stories aboutpredators and odret dangerous animals. The following cultutes/reglons vetesuweyed: Beavetsl, Chipewyao6'�, Copper Eskimo6r, Croed, JicadnaApache65, Krova66, Mataco6i, Nfocovi63, Okanagon6', Polyne-sia/Melanesia/Micronesia?0, San Carlos ApacheT', Sanpoil?'�, SelhamT:r,

Tehuelchera, Thompson Salishan?5, Y/hite Mountain Apache76, andYanomamot.fu Although tbey colrstitute a relatively smll ptoportior of

to Megln R'esele sapience a'd Stucc Rcsources. CoDmuni@tion Syst€ns ot thc lKung rnd

Othd |oBC€6.In: ScialScience lnfornrtioo 1? (1978),921 9'l7; here9236r Pliny Ede (;oddaJd: Thc Beaver lndians. Ifl ^nthroPologic.l PaPes of the Amencao

Museun of Nadr,l I listo.y, vol. 10. Ncw Yotk 1916,201 293., Robcrt H. Lwie: chipeqan Talos. lnr A.th.opologicdl PaPcG of fte Amc.ican M.seum

of Natuol I Iistory, vol 10. NewYork1912,171 20063 Rdmu$en: Idtellectu,l Cultu'e oa the copp( Eskimos (not. 58)6{ Robcrt H. Lowie Mtths and Tiaditioff ol the Crow Indiads lnl AnthrcPoloslcal Pape6

of the Amcricafl Nldseum of Narldl I ]istory, vol 25 Nry YorL 1918, 1_308.r Mods oplei Myths and TlLes of lhe Jnd a APrch€ I'dids Ofcnois of th€ Ametican

Fo noP Soci.ry 31). NewYork 1938.66 P6ons, Krowd'l rles (notc 5I.t lwilbelt, Shonau [Ed.): lolk r,tenturc of tbe M.taco Indilns (noie s2)..3 Wllbclt, SimooaD (Ed.): folk I-it@ba of the Mocovi Iddlans (not€ 52).dt Jam€s A. Tcit Folk Tales of Sdishan hd sahrptir ftb€s: TlodPson Tales. In: Medons

of thc Adcncan Folk-Lre Soc'ety 11 (1917),1-6'1.r! Klder 1L IlotiFlndcx Gbtc 52)rr ?li'r Ede Goddad: Myihs and'lines fiom th€ San Ca.los ,AP&he ln: AtrthroPologlcil

lr|)es of thc Ancrican Nluscum of Nad$1 Hisrory 24 (1918), 1 86t, Mari.n K. Golld: Folkrlaks of Salishm rod SahaPtir

't ribes SdPoii Trles. In: Medoirs

oitb€ ime.icad Folk Lorc Socicry I 1 (1917), 101-111.?r Wilbe.t (Ed): Fo& Ln€sture oa thc Sdklm hdiafls ('ot€ 54ra Wilbert, Sinoocau (Ed.): FoU{ Utc'atue oa thc Tehuelche Indi.ns (notc 52).- 'ltit

Folk :falcs oa Sahhan md Sahaptin Tribcs. Thompson Tales (not 69).7. Grenviue Goodwin: Mlths md Talcs of the Y&itc Nlount n r\pache (Mcnoirs of the

Anerican Folklore Socicq 33). Nry York 1939' Wdbe , Simoneau €d): Folk Litdtue of tbe Yanommi Irdiars (.ote s2)73 conprehcnsiv€ colections of fonger folk liteatEe de, uofotunately, relatively uncom'

non. Dcrrmination of vhich .ou€ctions to idclude in the suncy was thus hased o. 2vail'

abitity: Cou€ctions chosed sere those available at rhe Udves,ty of O'egon Libnry 'r'he

suNey wds thrs n.dom i' that it *as the libory and not tne inv€st€ator who determi.edwhich colections to indude.

tktales of $e Northern East ̂ fioi A T}?e Indcx of Korun Folklarly I.ish Litenture. Bloomingtonworl<L A Guide to Motif Cldsit

t?e and Motif lod€x ofjapanese9). Helsirti 19?1: tsacil FlemmingWcro.esian Ndntivs. New YorkIes (Folklore Felow ComnmtaA T4le,Tr?e lndex of Australian

. Helsinki 1987: Johannes w-,lbdtGusinde\ Colcciion or Sclknam

ld.): Folk Liteotue of rhc Nldtaco'@tu.e of th€ Tehu€lche Indians.: the Mocovi Indiars. Irs Afls€l€sni Iodi,os. Ls ^ogclcs 1990.

mi Ind'ans (note 52), 21 6.ni Ind'ans (rote 52), 359 fthi Indiads (note 52),448.mi lndi.ds (note 52),451.:skimos. Report of d,€ Fifth Thulc

(note 58),20e.

tMchelc S.alise Sugiieha

total animal stodes, stoies fearudng dangerous animals ot animal-teiatedrnjury are ptesent in each collection.7,

If my hpotheis is conect, and stolytelling is used, in par, as a means ofransrniaing information usein in the detection and avoidance of animaldangets, one would expect to find a coirespondence between the dangerousanimals rhar populare rhe locai lireranlf€ and d2ngerous animrs fiar populate the local environment. In other vords, one vould nor expect Amazoriran peoples to tel stories about ferocious wolves or Atctic peoptes ro tellsrories abour [erce iaguars. The folldore record bears r]ri" "''. loi.'."^pt.,the Mocosi of L\e Gran Chaco region of Soud' Amenca ,elt srories abourdre jaguar, puma, anteater, rhea, eel anaconda, and three kinds of sringingand bithg insects,s0 all of which are indigenous ro the region. Mataco ralestell of bats, jagua.ts, poisonous and man-eating snakes, and $,ild boas.6,Yanomamo tales aie similffly poputared by Iocal arimal thJeais: iaguarse,anacondas and other snalesa3, and h,mtul 6sh&. Kiowa rales featute a dan-gerous buffalo8', beaf6, and snakes'. A Sm Ca.rlos .{pache creation mr.thfezrures fow man-desroyhg bears.s rnd J,carila {paihe folUorc contarn"a man-eating beaC, as we[ as >naqe Iizards whose bite rvas fatalCo. In Cop-pc. Eskmo roudore. people rre arracked by blact beas{ and gnar, r. IheSanpoil tell stories about wolves and grirzlies.rs The srories of the istand-living, ocean-going Po\.nesians, Melanesians, and Nficmnesians, too, appearro rene.' local an,mil hazed": "h^rL eel- crab. oc,ops. vampue ba'.;nake.Lzarcl and centiDede.ra

/ It is not clar how setll ir would be ro precis€ly nesue the proporrion of thHt€njnganin.l sbries to non thretmirg-mimal stori€s vithin a given cuttDc, beca*e this 6$;does not rcn us bov often a given stort is told For example. onc may find many $ortes"b.u, Oposm :rd re\ .,ori, s rbaur l"elxr burj4ur rone" nr) bc totd ., -fFn ,s

& \vilbcn. Siooneau @d.): Rtk Litedturc ofthe Mocovil.dians {nore 52).3 r u i l o p n . S m o n e d u ( t d . r : | ^ ' k l . r e m t u r , f r - e N t r m . o , n o u - . , n u r e \ 2 ,. U ilb!d. Simoneau ed./. I oll Uremtu,r ol thc Y.nomm Ind'ans tnon 52,. lqotla VXbe.t, Sinoncru @d)i l-olk LitentDre of rbe Yanomdi Indtans (nore 52), 2l 6, 4,t7f.3{ Iq b€rt, Sinoncru (Ed.): Fblk Litentu.c ofthe Yanondi Indirns (note 5Z). .151.35 Pasons: KiosaTrles {oote 51.4& Pasons: KioM ]'ales (nore s), 10.e Pdons: Kiou Tales lnots 5)- 4.e Godddd: My.ihs and Tales (noteTl),33,38.€' oplei Myrhs dd Tales ofrhe Jisrilla Apdche tndiaff (note 65), 337.' Ople. Mrths andrralesof rhejicdilaApache lnd'ds (note6s),s2.'r R?smu$en: lntellectual Culruic of the Copper Eskioos (note s8), 209, 2t 3.,, Rtrnu$en: In&llectual CDlrue ofrhe Coppcr Estdfros (nore 58), 229.s Go d: Folk Tales ofsrtisha. and &haptn Tribes. Srnpoil l.al* (nole ?2). 107, 109.q Kirdey: A Moti ader (note54,204-m7.

Predan

fV. Narrative as a M

By presertjng information rfauaa, nartative increases arandlot defendins against anttue of cbildren, who, due t(pared to adults, are patticulait possible to >show< a childally has an encounter withdanger duiing tne Ieaming6mess advantage.

On the most basic Ievel :potentialy dangercus. Con.jaeuar and fox. J.euafs alnjagua*, all the pumas, and aratrny cotrsists of equally fo/rutacbi \' sps, the lecligaan

Frequendy, how€ver, a stby a g;en animal. A Tehucarry sn'2[ chil&en off int(tale emphasizes the sharpfleabout the origin of the stinglnimal (iis stinging rail) buridenti$' cues to dre presencelion stalkng deer begins witl

Coyote wofldered who hustone came roling downstone roUed dowd, bul th

At thrs point, i}le moutain lpecting deer (the Thompsorstead ofa coyote19.

'5 This is not !o suggcst tbat o$l rthat addts as wel as cbn&en aFood for Thougbt [note 9]; S@

'�6 wilbert, Sinoneau (Ed.): Folk I,? Wilbelt, Simoneau (Xd.); Folk I'3 wilbert, Simonau €d.): FoLk I" Goodwin: Myths a.d T,les oft'e wnben, Simodeau (Ed.): Folk Im1 ople!: Mydls and Tales of tie Jro, Teir Folk Tal* of S.lishan dd

lredaton as 2 folklorc Univmal

us animals or adfnrl-related

s used, m pat, as a means ofon and avoidance of aoimaltence between t\e dangetouslangetous animals that popu,re would not expect Amazolves or Arctic peoples to retlI bears this out. l-ror example,rh Amencr te stories about, and three k'ids of sdngings to the fegron. Nfat2co tales€ snakes, aod wild boats.81lcal animal tl eats: iaguarssr,34. Kiowa tales featuJe a dan-larlos Apache deation mythila Apacbe folklore cont2insose bite was fatalrzo. In Coplack bearsq and gnats, The,r The stories of the island-nd Micronesians, too, appearoctopus, vamplre bat, snake,

lV. Narauve as a Means of >Finding Out About<< Animals

By ptesenting infotmation rcgrding tne charactedstics and hal:ia of localfauna, nanative increases an individuat's chances of identifying, avoiding,and/or dcfending agarnst animal hazrrds. As roted above, this is especi,llyttue of childten, who, due to their telative inexperience and weakness com-pared to adults, are particulat\ nlnetable to animal attack. Nalrarive makesit possible to >show< a cbnd that a given animal is dangerous before it actu-ally has an encountet with that animal and without exposing the cbild todanget dutirg dle learnng process.,5 Such preparation offets an obvious

On the most basic level, a tale may simply ideotift those animals that arepotentially dangerous. Considet the Nlocovi tale about a brtde betweenjasud and fox. Jaguar's aml' consists of dre ,fiercest< animals >all $ejagu,trs, r the pumas, and anleaters, all rhe most fetocious edmals<'6 Foxtarmy consists of equally formidable oeatures: >all the nanganga, lJ1e ca'muachi w^sps, the lechi4uanas 1...) ̂nd othet anj]Ilals dlat bite and sting<.'7

Frequendy, horvevea a stoty vil speci!. Lhe natuie of L\e dange! posedbv a given animal. A Tehuelche story, for example, rematks that pumascar4 small chil&en off into the nountains.'�s A \Ntrite Mountain Apachetale emphrsizes tne sharpness of tle bobcads dam.' And a Mataco storyaboDt the origi! of the stingay not only identiEes the dangerous part of the,nimal (its stinging taiD but also its habitat 0aoon9 'ffJ n story may alsoidenti$' cues to the presence ofa dangerous animal. A talc about a morlnta1nLion stalking deer begins with a rock toling do'n a h :

coyotc wondmd who h.d roued that stone dovn. H€ lookcd up. Tbcn anothersonc cme rolirs down toMrd the deer Tb. deer nn bo$ timcs. Then a third$onc roued down, but t[is tnn€ the d.d were not alnid and paid no attention to

At L\is point, dle mountan lion descends the hiX and knls one of dre unsuspecting deer (the Thompsoo Salishao tell a similat tale involving a l)ryIx ln-stead ofa covoteloz).

su€ the propodion of rhreateninga gwd oftw, becduse rhis figua

(dple, on ndy find mary sroricsuar stodes may be told as oiten N

di Indims (note 52), 3s9ffmi India.s (note 52),216,447tm lodians (note 52),451.

(notc 6s),337.{note 6s), s2., (note 58),209,213.| (note 58),22e.poil'Iales (nor 72), 107. 109

,5 This is not to suRsest that o'al nddativc is rimcd exclusivcly at chil.Lenj evidedcc sugeststhrt adults as wellas childrn ?cauif knowledge by listening to stori€s (Scalrsc Sugiy.m!:F@d for Tnought lnot€ 9l; Scaljse Sugtamd: Iood, Foiagc^, and Folklore l'rote 7]).

,. Wilb€rt, Simonau (Ed.): Folk Litcoture of the N{ocowi Indrans (notc 52), 105.,r $/ilbert, Simonau (Ed.): Folk Litelat!.e of the Mo.ovi Indidns (notc 52). 105.$ wnbcrt, Sinoncau (Ed): Folk Iitenture of the Tehuclche lddlans (note 52), 51.,, Goodwin: Myrhs and Td€s of the White Mo!fltai' Apache (note 76), 165.'00 wilbert. Simoncd (Ed.): Folk Uteeture ofthe Nlataco ln.lbns (notc 52),212f.'01 ()pler: Mrths add Tales of tl,c Jicarill, Apach€ Indians (noi€ 65), 331.roz Teii Folk Tales of salishan 2nd Sahaptin

'liibes. l hompson l ales (flote 69), 26.

330 I{chelle Sc,rir Sugryaoa P.edarc

The aoimal information ptive the sto(es do not necemeJate al of theit habits andthis: as noted above, storiesand the human mind can ass'But in dxe game of survival anone at all. The child who 1oover the one vho doesn't.

The argument of dris papetot tansrnit information perthrt anim2l related danget $cesed via this medim. My rforagers use storyteling as afomation as well. The presereI stories about dangerous iiative functlons as a means oandlor reproduction in thefirst-hand expenence.

However, this hypothesisvere available. As noted eatirrelated injury n particulat isbeen fev attempts at systemlote. As these cultutes rapidJperahve that ve augment th(may nevet knov what ve ha

Folklote may also conwey itrfotrnation metaphotically. For exmple, aMataco tale about $e bat spirit informs the audience that the Geature onlygoes out at night and fiat people must be very caietuI not to sleep in theopen; othemise the bat wil cut lheif heads off(.1',r Tbis story appeals to bea reference to the menace ofwanpire bas. Although, of coune, tlese crea-tures do not zctually cut people's heads off, they ate hdeed known ro pteyon humans who sleep in the open: the bite in itself is not lethal, but theinfection tiat may spring from i! can be.

One of dre geatest seffices a story can ptovide is descdption. It mayseem slrange that cbildren should have to be told vhat a givei animal lookslii<e, b,.rt in the days before pictue books, zoos, and National ceographicspecials, a child's Fttst iglimpse< of dangetous fauna might often have comevia verbal desctiption. Pethaps dre best knoM ptedator tale of Westernaltue, Little Retl RidinS l1oo4 meets this chatlenge quite effectlvely. Thelitany of questions Little Red tuding Hood lsks he ct,ndma( reads as achecklist of salient wolf characteristics:

'Oh, Gdndmothcr, hos rztry you arek'Ifs to keep be wlrmcr, my cbild (.nL !dndm, , r . r . ,h , ,s , Iong na tL y^L ̂ N" l,its to scdt.h ne beter, my child!(roh, Grddmoth&, thosc ,tg sho"ld6 th^r yonh^rct<.,All the better io c^iry Lindling fii)d the voods, Dy child.(,oh, cnndmother, those rtg ezb that you have!.()AI thc befrei to hexr !vnh, my ch'ld.('oh, Gnndnother, tb.t ,,ig Do,t you h.vc!(,-AI rhc bcttcr tocxtyou with,mychnd!(re

In this story, the listmer is not orJy told how to identify a potentially lethaltbreat (i.e., big e,Js, teerh, erc.), buris rold hou'ro aveid the due!! (i.e., don'tgo into the woods alone, rnd don\ dally whne you're theie), and vhat mighthappen to him or her should this infonnation be disiegaided (i.e., he or she

'0r wilben Simo.mu @d.): Folk Lireodre or rhe tvldb.o lidians (note 52), 301.'.r Paul Dela.uei The Story of Gdndoothar In, P. D.: Thc nozol Book of French F.lk

'lales, tansl. by ,\trstin E. Fife. Nev York 1956, 13 20 lreFrl.ted in: Litdc Red RidingHood.

Casbook, ed. by Alan Dundes. iv{adlson 19891; here 16, iralics addcd.tur Tbc coguatc tale trpc t\l l2l), dso comody coniains the m.tif oi disguisc on thc pa.t

of the predator and suspicior oo the part of the victmG). la v^liaors ot Grdnddrnt T;

8a, for exafrple, thc childlen object to a veletr of her (tige.like) features: her 9tuftvo;cq lough, hany, o! d.rk h.odq hriry face; nail! fccq and so on Cvolfdo Ebrrhlld:The Story of Gn.dauot l iger. In: Sodies Taiwrncse FolktJes, Asian Folllo.€ a'd Social Lifc lvlonogaphs, vol. 1. Taipci 1970,21 63 kep.inted in: Urde Red Ridins Hood ACasebook, ed. by AIan DundA. Nf^dis.n 19891; he.e 32 :13).

rr. sc.he Sugiyada: on the OriC

sea, md Folklo!€ 6ote 7).1ot Scrlse SuCiymr On the Od

'I hought (notc 9); Scalise Sug,y3

los E.9.. Goodsini Myths and lakand Tndltlons of the Crow LApache l.d;ns (note 65). Wlt

'eta,pho11caly. For example, a'udence thar the cfeature orJyert caretul not to sleep jn theff<t103 This story appears to beLthough of course. tlese cleahey are hdeed known to preyin itself is not iethal, bui the

)rowide is desc.iption. It mayold whar a eivei anirnal Iooks'os, and National Geoeraohicfauna migbt often ha; comesn predaror rale of Westernullenge quite effectivety. Theks her )ci?ndma( .eads as a

Prcdatos as r Folldorc Univmrl 331

o dendry a potentiafly lerhalto avpid the drcat (i.e., donl'ou're theJ€), and vhat might'e disresarded (i.e., he or she

'I'he animal infomatioo presented in these tales is by no meaos exhaus-tive: the stories do not necessarily describe animals in great detail or enumerate all of their habits and chatactetistics. There is orobablv a reason forrhs: as noted abooe. , toncs pre,en, of ier khd. of in lomztion a, weU.roand the human mind can assimilate or y so much infomation at one sitthgBut in the gzme of suwiwal aDd rcproduction, any infomation is bcttcr thannone at all. The child vho kaows that lions are dangercus has an advantageover the one who doesn't-

Condusion

The algument of this paper is not that humans tell stories solel1 to acquleor transmit information pertinent to avoiding animal hazards but, mtherthat animal-related danger is one set of fitness information that may be acccssed via dris medim. Nfy ievievs of oral literatur€lo7 thus far suggest thatfotagets use storyteling as a means of acquiring social and subsistence in-fornution as well. The present finding tlat, cross-culturally, foraget groupstell stories about dangetous animals suppotts my latget hlpo*resis drat nat-tative tunctions as a means of acquitirg irfomation instrumentzl to sulyivatand/or reptoductioo in the locil environment whne avoidi4 the costs offust-hand experience.

However, this hlpothcsis could be more r{orously tested if more datavete available. As noted carlier, data on forag* injurl ir general and animal-related iajuty in pa*icular is scarce. And, with few exceptions,'0l thete havebeen few atlempts at systematic, compr€hensive collections of foraget folk-lore. As these c.:Itules rapidly disappear from the face of the earth, it is im-perative that we augment these ne8lected domains of study. Ifwe don't, wemay never know what we have lost.

Ine Borzoi Book of French Fotll0 [reprinted in: Linle Red Ridinslj hea 16, it2lics added.s $e ootif ofdisguisc on the pant(s). In \a.i^nts or Gldndz'it Tiher (riser likc) farur$: her gnffq &d so on Cwolflam Ebcrhard:Forktales, Asian Folllore md so

r€d in: Litde Red Ridins Ftood. A33)

106 sc.li* SuCryma: On thc OriSins of Nrstive (not 10); ScaLise Sugiyama: Food, Folage6, dnd Folklo4 (note 7)

m? Sc,lise Sugivana On the origins ot Narntivc (not€ 10)i sc,lise suSiyrm: Food forThought (note 9); scalise sugiyama: Food. F-on!ps, aod Folklorc (!ote ?).

rft 8.g., G@dwi", Myths ldd '&les or the white Nlountain -\l dche (norc 76); Lwlc MIths

and Tddinons of the Crow Indians (not€ 64); oplei Myths 2nd T,les of the JicarilaApache rnd;lns (not 6s); wilberls and Snnoneau\ loli litddtsre ofsoutl Amti@fl