LAND USE CHANGES ALONG THE BOSPHORUS COASTS IN ISTANBUL BETWEEN 1987 AND 2007

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 5(4), 2012

271

LAND USE CHANGES ALONG THE BOSPHORUS COASTS IN ISTANBUL

BETWEEN 1987 AND 2007

SUMEYRA KURT

Istanbul University, Department of Geography, Fatih / Istanbul - Turkey

E-mail address for correspondence: [email protected]

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract: Lately, significant land use change has been seen in the coastal regions of Istanbul Bosphorus

as a result of fast urban growth and an increasing population. The object of this study is to determine

changes in land use in coastal regions of Istanbul Bosphorus between 1987 and 2007. Two Landsat

satellite images with 30 m resolution which were taken in 1987 and 2007 were classified using the

maximum probability supervised classification method by means of ERDAS IMAGINE 9.1. Urban areas,

agricultural areas, forest, bare soil, brush/grassland, and lake/pond are the six land use types in coastal

regions extending one kilometer inland from the coastline. Land use changes between 1987 and 2007

were analyzed. According to this study, over the twenty year period, forest and brush/grassland regions

decreased by 39% and 20% respectively, while urban areas increased by 12% in the Istanbul Bosphorus

coastal region. Significant change in coastal land use was observed along the Istanbul Bosphorus in the

study area. The study also provides an understanding of the current land use classes for the Istanbul

Bosphorus coastal region. As can be seen from the results, almost half of the study area (66%) was urban

areas in 2007. In 2007, only a small land area (1%) was dedicated to agriculture, while 24% of the land

was occupied by grassland and bare soil in the study area. As the population continues to grow, the

Istanbul Bosphorus coastal region is most likely to continue experiencing more pressure from

urbanization in the future. To preserve the Istanbul Bosphorus coastal region, a sustainable coastal

management plan must be applied.

Keywords: Coastal land use, land use change, remote sensing, Bosphorus Coast of Istanbul.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, coastal regions have been attractive as residential areas because of the existence of

rich potential resources, and favourable conditions for transportation and climate. In periods when living

conditions were difficult, irrigated farming and animal breeding activities and the existence of defensive

capabilities provided by the sea made the coasts desirable residential areas (Gulez et al., 2007, Chen and

Rau, 1998). Because they offer a lot of advantages to their inhabitants, coastal regions have been home to

approximately two-thirds of the world population (Koksal, 2000). This has also brought problems with

the increasing population, depending on their industrial activities, and people’s desire to mobilize towards

the coasts and utilize the coast for recreational and touristic aims (Jayappa et al., 2006; Alonso and


ISSN 1943-2429

© 2012 Ozean Publication

mailto:[email protected]


272

Cabrera, 2008). It has also caused changes in the nature of coastlines due to filling and construction

activities, while the fast-growing population and urbanization is changing the coastal regions. Physical

interference directly with the coastline also leads to destruction of their biological, ecological and

physical characteristics. For instance, because the coastal regions are faced with a high rate of growth,

34% of the coasts confront a high-level risk of damage and 17% confront a medium-level risk of damage,

according to the World Resources Institute. The coasts at risk are mostly north of the Equator and in

temperate regions. In addition, 86% of European coasts and 69% of Asian coasts are at risk (Mackenzie,

2003). So, nowadays it is clearly seen that changes in the land use of coastal regions are much greater

than in other places.

Over the centuries, civilizations have tended to prefer sea routes to land routes since they are

comparatively easier and cheaper. As sea trade improved at the international level over the course of time,

it caused the development of port cities and and an increase in their numbers. So, it can be said that many

coastal metropolises developed because of having useful seaports. Istanbul is one such port city. and is

the only city in the world that was established at the conjunction of two continents and on the Bosphorus

watercourse (Yenen et al., 1992). The city. which is located in the Kadikoy region, developed around

Eminonu in the Byzantine period and then expanded through Beyoglu, Uskudar, Eyup and Bosphorus

during the Ottoman period (IMM, 2009). Istanbul has a great historical and cultural heritage as a meeting

point for eastern and western civilizations by virtue of its geographical location, and so it was the capital

city of two of the biggest empires. It is still one of the most significant cities in the world. The Bosphorus

and the Golden Horn, which is an important internal sea port, have great importance as being the natural

water route for Istanbul (Ozbakir et al., 2007). The connection of Istanbul with water is different from

cities divided by canals such as Venice and Amsterdam, and also different from riverside cities like

London, Paris, and Frankfurt. The feature that distinguishes Istanbul is the Bosphorus, which splits the

city into two parts. This waterway, which connects the Mediterreanean Sea and the Black Sea, has been

of great importance throughout history (Ozdemir, 2004).

Istanbul Bosphorus is one of the key points for sea route transportation, and Istanbul’s harbours have

great importance in the transportation of petroleum from the Caucasus region to world markets. Because

of the increasing population, industrialization, and intense trade and tourism activities, Istanbul’s 450

kilometers of coastline are under pressure (Ayat et al., 2007). In particular, filling points for recreational

purposes have increased lately, causing important changes in the land use of the coastal regions of

Istanbul. Among the various reasons for changing land use in Istanbul’s coastal regions, the principal

factors are increasing population and urbanization. After 1950, Istanbul became enlarged via fast

urbanization resulting from the industrialization, which continued in the 1970s, and by the 1990s reached

today’s form, exacerbated by internal immigrations. Especially after 1950, the city saw fast and

unplanned urbanization as a result of excess immigration. Also, both the Bosphorus bridges constructed

in 1973 and 1987 contributed to the urban expansion (Erbek et al., 2004). According to the 1985

population census, the number of inhabitants in the coastal regions was 5,299,647 but it had increased to

8,157,853 by 2007 (TSI, 2007). The greater part of this population lives in coastal regions. With the

increasing population, urbanization extended along the Marmara Sea coast, on a west-east axis, to the

north and on both sides of the Bosphorus in Istanbul (Karaburun et al., 2009). The rapid population rise

and uncontrolled urban growth have not only transformed natural environments into urban areas, but also

destroyed the spectacular views of the coast and the surrounding areas in the Bosphorus region. For

example, the waterside houses constructed at the Bosphorus, a considerable number of which are second

homes, are among the kinds of seaside developments that have played a great role in construction on the

Istanbul coasts in recent years. Especially after 1950, this has led to changing the coastlines with the fast

growth resulting from urbanization and industrialization (Kilicaslan, 2006; Bayram et al. 2008).

Several plans have been drawn up in order to protect the natural and cultural assets of the Bosphorus

region (Selcuk and Gulersoy 2004). The first step taken was for the protection of historical mansions

located along the coasts of the region. In 1972, the old plan was revised to protect 365 historical mansions

located along the Bosphorus (Pilgir 1992, Eyuboglu 1998). The first special revision plan which was on a

scale of 1/5000 was the protection plan of 1971 (IMM,1971). The aim was to provide compliance

between the new construction and existing historical construction (Selcuk & Gulersoy 2004). The

southern part of the Bosphorus region was declared a natural protected area, and this was thought to be a

most important step for the protection of historical mansions and forest zones. The 1/5000 plan was

revised in 1983 (CNHPB, 1974). Because all of these plans were insufficient for the protection of the

Bosphorus’s natural and cultural values, another Bosphorus plan on a scale of 1/1000 was enacted (Elgun


273

1994). According to this plan, the Bosphorus region was divided into 4 different sections: the coastline,

preview, back view and affected region. Although several different strategies were developed for each

region, the most important zones were the coastline and preview, because both of these were directly

visible from the Bosphorus (Selcuk and Gulersoy, 2004; Pilgir, 1992; Official Newspaper, 1983). In fact,

illegal housing had reduced the heavily forested area, especially in the northern part which was not

included in the urbanization plan of 1974. Two districts (Sariyer and Beykoz) were declared as a natural

protected area in 1995 because they had the administration of the areas located on both sides of the

Bosphorus in the north (CNHPB, 1995). Increasing population and unbalanced urban growth are still the

most significant problems for the region despite the laws and urban plans enacted since 1970.

Various studies have been done in different years that are relevant to changes in the Istanbul Bosphorus

region. These include the following: “Istanbul Bosphorus as our Cultural Heritage, The Process of

Change over Time”, “An Appraisal of Bosphorus Coastlines’ Visual Qualities from the Perspective of

Tourism”, “Assessment of Urban Growth in a Natural Protected Area Using Multi-Temporal Satellite

Data – a Case Study of the Strait of Istanbul (Bosphorus)” (Demirci et al., 2009; Baytin et al., 2003,

Hatipoglu, 1997).

The study of “Assessment of Urban Growth in a Natural Protected Area Using Multi - Temporal Satellite

Data - a Case Study of the Strait of Istanbul (Bosphorus)” determined the land use change and variations

in the preview region and coastline of Istanbul Bosphorus from 1974, which were declared a natural

protected area in 2007 (Demirci et al., 2009). The study of “Istanbul Bosphorus as our Cultural Heritage,

The Process of Change over Time” determined the cultural heritage and natural environment features of

the Bosphorus region from the perspective of landscape and sustainable development (Baytin et al.,

2003). The study of “An Appraisal of Bosphorus Coastlines’ Visual Qualities from the Perspective of

Tourism” reported on variations in the Istanbul Bosphorus region from the perspective of tourism

(Hatipoglu, 1997).

The difference of our study from the others is in the use of remote sensing techniques to determine the

land use change on the Istanbul Bosphorus coastline from 1987 to 2007 including areas that are located

1000 meters inland.

When we take into account that Istanbul is the cultural capital of Europe in 2010, the importance of

utilizing the coasts can be clearly realised. The Istanbul Bosphorus coast has been more changed by

human activities than other coastal regions of Turkey. This is why an effective observation is needed in

this context. This study aims to answer the questions stated below:

1. What changes concerning the land use along Istanbul Bosphorus coastal areas occurred between

1987 and 2007?

2. What kind of arrangements/legislation are needed in coastal land use in order to

manage urbanization activities according to modern urban criteria?

Study Area

Istanbul, bounded by the water separation line of Ergene catchment to the west, the Marmara Sea to the

south, the Kocaeli mountain range to the east and the Black Sea to the north, is located between 27 ̊58 ̍–

29̊ 56 ̍E longitude and 40̊̊ 48̍ – 41̊ 36 ̍N latitude. The city, established in the northwest of Turkey along the

Marmara Sea and Bosphorus, is like a bridge connecting Asia and Europe. The western side of the

Bosphorus is called Rumelia and the eastern side is Anatolia. The city has 32 counties (IMM, 2007) and

an area of 5512 square kilometers (IMM, 2009). It looks like a peninsula as it is surrounded by Halic, the

Bosphorus and the Marmara Sea (Figure 1). The study area, located on the Marmara Sea coastal regions

of Istanbul, is seperated into two portions by the Istanbul Bosphorus. On the European side are the

districts of Besiktas and Sariyer, on the Asian side, Uskudar and Beykoz. The study covers a surface area

of 8296 hectares in 1987 and 8507 hectares in 2007 (Table 2).


274

Figure 1: Study Area

From the initial point of the Asian and Europe fortresses, the Bosphorus reaches to Uskudar on the Asian

side and Tophane on the European side, including valleys, savannas, bays and capes. The width of the

Bosphorus is about 3600 m between the Asian and European phenars, and is 760 meters between the

Anatolian and Rumeli castles. This is the narrowest distance between the Asian and European sides of the

Bosphorus. While the inclination on the western side of the Bosphorus varies from 10 % to 30 %, it

begins from 5 % on the Anatolian side. The Halic, or “Golden Horn”, is 500 meters in breadth till

Beyoglu, and 5 kilometers in length as an internal port area (Ozdemir, 2004).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nowadays, various kinds of methods are used depending on technological developments in order to

determine variations of land use in coastal regions. Year by year, coastal areas, depending upon seasonal

and daily events, are continuously changing and require monitoring in specific locations and periods.

Since the classical methods take longer to process, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote

Sensing (RS) technologies are preferred as the most convenient methods (Sesli, 2006, Fan et al., 2007).

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can easily be used without any risk of destruction or the effect of

pollutant factors, and enables the maintenance of the sustainable life and integrity of the triangle

composed of nature, environment and people (Sesli et al., 2002). Because it is so much easier to record,

analyse and reprocess information with GIS, it is known as an effective method in coastal management,

and determining coastal and coastline changes. The importance of GIS has increased due to the possibility

of taking early precautions by determining and controlling changes to prevent environmental degradation.

GIS provides an important mechanism for geographic-based information storage, analysis, use and image.


275

Additionally, GIS is used as a reflection of the transition to the information age in urban and

infrastructure information systems, applications, land use and planning applications, environmental

applications, geological applications, forestry and agricultural applications, business applications and

security applications (Colkesen and Sesli, 2007; Doygun et al., 2003).

Today, it is possible to obtain the information required by means of remote sensing data in a reliable and

economical way within a short time. For this reason, remote sensing is one of the most preferred and

reliable sources in many fields of study (Tunay and Atesoglu, 2004; Fan et al., 2007; Yuan, 2008).

Remote Sensing (RS) is used in many applications such as monitoring arid and semi-arid areas,

monitoring agricultural areas and controlling the variations, especially taking precautions against

environmental degradation (Doygun et al., 2003; Deng et al., 2008). Satellites used in Remote Sensing are

LANDSAT, TERRA, SPOT, ESR, IRS, MOS, JERS, Radarsat satellites, and also IKONOS and

Quickbird, which have high-resolution satellites. In this study, images from the LANDSAT satellite were

used (Compton et al., 2004).

The spectral differences among the various land-cover types are used for land-cover classification (Cihlar

et al., 2000). The process of assigning pixels to particular spectral classes in remotely sensed data is

called classification. A map-like image is the final product of the classification process of remotely

sensed data (Campbell, 2002). Supervised and unsupervised classifications are the main types of

classifications. Supervised classification is used to extract quantitative information from remotely sensed

image data (Richards, 1995).

In this type of classification, pixels that represent the classes to be extracted from the image data were

used. The maximum similarity is the most common method used in supervised classification with

remotely sensed images (Richards, 1995). In this study, the maximum similarity supervised classification

method was used to classify image data. Training areas were defined on the image data to collect pixels

that represent specific land-use classes.

The LANDSAT satellite images, with 30 m ground resolution, produced in 1987 and 2007 were classified

with the maximum probability supervised classification method by means of the ERDAS IMAGINE

program, and verified using the reference data in hand. After editing the classification results and

converting them to vectors using the ArcGIS program, they were ready to use in the GIS questionable

analysis medium. In the first stage of the classification process, image data was subjected to Principal

Component Analysis. After the transformation process of the principal components is completed, the

signature collection process followed by checking the reference data. The signatures of previously

designated classes are collected and signatures continue to be collected until the most suitable classified

image data for the reference data is achieved. After completing the signature process, the classification

process was initiated using controlled classification methods of the highest possibility method.

The recode process was done by joining each signature data item obtained after classification. Thus, the

classes of the image data were defined. After the process was done using the ERDAS program, the data

obtained was converted from the raster format to vector format using the ArcGIS program. The vector of

the data was checked with the reference data, and some areas that were confused in the first editing

process were corrected by editing methods. As a result of this process, the final data was obtained. The

general categories used in the classification were: urban areas, agricultural areas, bare soil,

brush/grassland, lake/pond, forest and cloud. The reason for including cloud was that the LANDSAT

image in 1987 also included the cloud class. Since ships in this image could be eliminated by editing

method, there was no need for a new class.

Verification analysis of this application was done with ERDAS 9.1 software. Initially, 100 points were

taken randomly, proportional with the areas that were found before filtering using the software. Before

obtaining the verification analysis, each point taken automatically was controlled manually using the

information from the ground actuality. Ground actuality information was obtained using a combination of

the LANDSAT image, natural bands and recent orthophotos (Table 1).


276

Table 1: Accuracy Assessment

User accuracy (%)

Class Name 1987 2007 1987 2007

Urban areas 71.43 85 0.6825 0.8203

Lake/Pond 100 100 1.0000 1.0000

Clouds 100 - 1.0000 -

Forest 69 75 0.6569 81.31

Agricultural Areas 83.33 83.73 0.7942 0.7463

Bare soil

Bush/ Grassland

Total Overall Accuracy

Total Kappa Statistic

83.33

76

79.00

-

78.57

84.62

83.50

-

0.8188

0.7218

-

0.76

0.7318

74.96

-

0.81

K statistics could be defined as the real harmonization between the reference data and automatic classifier

and also the difference criterion of the chance harmonization between the reference data and random

classifier. Kappa can be thought of as the chance-corrected proportional agreement, and possible values

range from +1 (perfect agreement) via 0 (no agreement above that expected by chance) to -1 (complete

disagreement). In other words, the K statistic shows whether the error matrix obtains the correct value by

chance or with real harmonization (Congalton and Green, 1998, Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000). It is

generally between 0 and 1. The 2007 result of 81 % is an important verification of the classifications used

in the production of the land use map from the LANDSAT images when it’s thought that the international

literature. This affected the results positively so that the LANDSAT image in 2007 does not have cloud or

cloud shadows, and also has no corruption due to reflection (Table 1).

A cutting operation was applied meanwhile with the same coordinate value for each image, while the

borders of the study area were determined after the geometric image correction of the satellite image was

done. For this, on ArcMap, starting from the coastline towards the inner areas, the border of the 1000

meters study area was determined using buffer and clip methods. Later, maps including the six main land

use classes describing the features of a 1000 meter area to the rear of the coastline were produced. The

buffer line difference for each year is taken separately between the two periods.

RESULTS

The 5030 hectares used as a residential area accounts for 61 % of the total and this is the greatest

element of the total area (Table 2 and Figure 2). Istanbul’s coastal areas have generally been popular

locations for urbanization and population, even in 1987. The most dense residential locations and

populations were in Besiktas, the Uskudar coasts, Beykoz and the south coasts of Sariyer (Figure 2).


277

Figure 2: Land Use in Istanbul Bosphorus Coasts (1987)


278

Brush/grassland is the second land-use class in the study area in 1987. The total area of brush/grassland

is 1776 hectares in 1987. This was 21 % of the total area. Brush/grassland is generally dense around the

forest areas. The reason for this is destruction of forests in areas wanted for construction. Due to the

increasing construction and urbanization, brush/grassland and forest areas were destroyed especially in

Sariyer and the north side of the Beykoz coasts (Table 2, Figure 2).

The forests on the Bosphorus coasts covered 17 % of the area with 1429 hectares in 1987. In that year,

the districts with the densest forest areas were Beykoz and the northern coasts of Sariyer. In these

districts, the areas including parks and groves are the other places that show the existence of forest in the

Bosphorus (Figure 2). After forest, the largest land class is bare soil or naked land surfaces. This covered

41 hectares of the working area in 1987 and was 0.49 % of the total (Table 2). The most dense locations

of blank lands are in Beykoz and the north side of Sariyer (Figure 2).

Agricultural areas cover only 19 hectares or 0.23 % of the Istanbul Bosporus coasts in 1987. In that year

agricultural areas were most dense in Beykoz and the north side of Sariyer (Figure 2). The sections

referred to as lake/pond form 7 % and 0.06 hectare of the total working area in 1987 (Table 2).

Table 2: Land Use Changes in Istanbul Bosphorus Coasts between 1987 and 2007

Class 1987 2007 Change

ha % ha % ha %

Urban Area 5030 61 5462 66 612 12

Agricultural Areas 19 0,23 92 1 73 384

Forest 1429 17 869 10 560 -39

Bare Soil 41 0,49 629 7 588 1434

Brush / Grassland 1776 21 1420 17 356 -20

Lake / Pond 0.06 7 35 0.4 35 35

Total 8296 8507 211 3

The Bosphorus coasts of Istanbul city are the areas that show no change in land use between 1987 and

2007. The reason for this is the historical richness of the city and the need to safeguard it by The

Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage Council of Antiquities (Demirci et al., 2009). As seen in

Table 2, there is an increase in residential areas, agricultural areas and bare soil, but a decrease in

brush/grassland and forest areas.

In the Bosphorus study area, the biggest change between 1987 and 2007, with 1434 %, is bare soil. The

bare soil land class change is 588 hectares. Bare soil lands are mostly located in Sariyer and the north

side of Beykoz (Table 2, Figure 3).

Agricultural areas cover 92 hectares in Istanbul Bosphorus. There was an increase of 384 % in

agricultural areas from 1987 to 2007, but it was quite a small proportion (1 %) of the total study area.

Currently, agricultural areas are located in Beykoz and the north side of Sariyer.

The Istanbul Bosphorus coasts are not rich in forest cover. In 1987 forests covered 1429 hectares, but

this feel to 560 hectares, decreasing by 39 %. It is clear from the study that there is an increase in

residential areas along with a decrease in forest areas. The increase in new buildings and constructions in

Sariyer and Beykoz has caused a loss of forests. The percentage of forest in the Bosphorus is 10 % in

2007 (Table 2, Figure 3 ).

Construction studies which cause decreasing forest areas on the Istanbul Bosphorus coasts have the same

effect on brush/grassland. This land class, which was 1776 hectares in 1987, decreased to 1420 hectares,

a fall of 20 %, by 2007. Brush/grassland is 17 % of the 8507 hectares study area (Table 2). According to

Table 2, there are 5462 hectares of residential areas in the 8507 hectare study area in 2007. Residential

areas account for 66 % of the total land classes in that year. They increased by 612 hectares and 12 %


279

compared with 1987. Residential areas were seen along the Uskudar and Besiktas coasts, which have

high population and urbanization (Table 2, Figure 3).

Figure 3: Land Use in Istanbul Bosphorus Coasts (2007)


280

CONCLUSIONS

Changes in land cover over 20 years were observed in the study by using images from the 30 m resolution

LANDSAT TM data of 11 May 1987 and 11 May 2007. It was seen that the human factors - such as

filling of coasts and transfer of sand- had greater effects than natural factors, in the general use of coasts

at the search area.

The Bosphorus coastlines in particular and Istanbul in general, as one of the most significant metropolitan

areass of the world with its cultural and historical values, are under pressure from intensive construction.

Gradually, people living in Istanbul are being deprived of recreational use of the coastline and sea. With

the aim of benefitting the people along the coasts, Istanbul Municipality took action just after 1984

(Atakan, 2003). The coastal areas which have been gained by filling have been opened for potential

recreational use in line with this objective. This is still in progress even nowadays.

The study area includes 4 districts of Istanbul and 1,292,419 people according to 2007 data. The buffer

region, comprising 1000 meters inland from the coastline, incorporated a total of 8296 hectares in 1987.

This buffer area expanded to 8507 hectares with filling additions by 2007.

In the area of study, it was clear that recreation, transportation, accommodation, and shopping areas were

the main ways of using the coastal filling areas. Recreational areas include pedestrian and cycle paths, tea

gardens, playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas. For transportation purposes, generally sea ports and coastal

highways attract attention.

In the study area in 2007, 5462 hectares were used as residential areas while 92, 869, 629, and 1420

hectares were used as agricultural land, forest, bare soil, and bush/grassland, respectively.

Whereas the residential area was expanding until 2007, forest, bush/grassland, and bare soil areas

decreased (Table 2). In the study area, it was observed that construction started just behind the coastal line

in 1987, but in 2007 these buildings were left behind the roads and parks as a result of coastal filling

activities.

Some proposals, listed below, are relevant to the possible solution of all the problems mentioned and to

help develop precautions to ensure the proper use of the coasts.

It is provided that coastal areas should be easily accessible to the public, as mentioned in Article 43 of the

Constitution of 2709 in 1982, which states that coastal areas are under the provisions and care of the state.

Moreover, according to Article 715 of Civil Law 4721 in 2001, coastal areas cannot be in the private

ownership of anybody (Sesli et al., 2003). For this reason, measures should have been taken to prevent the

construction of any building in the areas determined to be within coastlines by law. According to the

active Item 5 of the coastal law, construction and planning should not have been allowed on coasts where

the coastline has not been determined. Relevant to this subject, municipalities that govern the coastal

areas should protect coastal areas from the pressure of private properties and public institutions by

establishing regulations for the benefit of society.

In addition, coastal fillings have changed the contours of the Istanbul Bosphorus coasts, and beaches

used by the public have been destroyed as a result of coastal fillings. It can be seen that coastal fillings

have destroyed the topographic structure and the silhouette of the coast in such places. Instead of filling

the coasts for the rearrangement of the Istanbul Bosphorus coastal areas, it is necessary to determine new

approaches to reclaim coastal areas, and prevent the loss of natural coastlines.

Particularly as the Istanbul Bosphorus coasts are attractive areas for tourism, problems related to the

organization and handling of aspects such as tourism, transportation, infrastructure, industry, and

recreation, need to be resolved with a holistic plan.

Nowadays, especially waterside residences and private properties built on the Bosphorus coastline have

cut the link between the people and the sea. By enforcing new regulations, coastal areas in such places

need to be deprivatized. Moreover, with the help of new arrangements, the objective of balancing the

interests of the city and the sea must be realized.

Excessive construction and mistakes in the use of land in the coastal areas of Istanbul must be prevented

by legal measures, and all future applications must be inspected.


281

REFERENCES

Alonso, A., Alcántara-Carrió, J., and Cabrera, L. (2008). Tourist Resorts and their Impact on Beach

Erosion at Sotavento Beaches, Fuerteventura, Spain. Journal of Coastal Research SI 36 1-7

(ICS 2002 Proceedings).

Atakan, B. (2003). Study in Regard of Landscape of the Shore Filling Areas between Kuyumcular-Pendik

and Maltepe-Kartal of the City Istanbul” Istanbul University, Institute of Science, Department

of Landscape Architecture, Master Thesis, Istanbul (in Turkish).

Ayat, B., Uzmez, Z., Cevik, E. O., and Yuksel, Y. (2007). Planning and Management of Coastal Areas in

Istanbul, “5. National Symposium on Urban Infrastructure Proceedings”, 1-2 November 2007,

Antakya, Turkey: 217-231.

Bayram, B., Acar, U., Seker, D. Z., and Ari, A. H. (2008). A Novel Algorithm for Coast Line Fitting

Through A Case Study Over the Bosphorus. Journal of Coastal Research 24(4): 983–991.

Baytin, C., Canbay Turkyilmaz, C., Kiran, A., and Tunbis, M. (2003). Istanbul-Bosphorus as our Cultural

Heritage: The Change over Time. 19th International CIPA Symposium: “New Perspectives to

Save the Cultural Heritage”, 30 Sept–4 Oct 2003, Antalya, Turkey: 748–753.

Campbell, J. B. (2002). Introduction to Remote Sensing. New York: The Guilford Press.

Chen, L. C., and Rau, J. Y. (1998). Detection of Shoreline Changes for Tideland Areas Using Multi-

temporal Satellite Images. International Journal of Remote Sensing 19(17): 3383- 3397.

Cihlar, J., Latifovic, R., and Beaubien, J. 2(000). A comparison of Clustering Strategies for Unsupervised

Classification. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing 26(5): 446–454.

Compton, J., T., Denelle, M., G., and Jon, D., D., (2004). NASA’s Global Orthorectified Landsat Data

Set, Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 70(3): 313-322.

Congalton, R. G., and Green, K. 1998. Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed data: Principles and

Practices. New York: Lewis Publishers.

Colkesen, İ., and Sesli, F. A. (2007). Monitoring the Changing Position of Coastlines Using Information

Technologies, an Example of Trabzon: “Turkish Engineers and Architects of Chambers of

Union, National Geographic Information Systems Conference”, Proceedings, 30 October -02

November, Blacksea Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey: 607-614.

Demirci, A., Karaburun, A., and Kurt, S. (2009). Assessment of Urban Growth in a Natural Protected

Area Using Multi-Temporal Satellite Data: A Case Study of the Strait of Istanbul (Bosphorus).

Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 18(9a): 1701-1708.

Deng, J. S, Wang, K., Deng, Y. H., and Qi, G. J. (2008). PCA-based land-use change detection and

analysis using multitemporal and multisensor satellite data. International Journal of Remote

Sensing 29(16): 4823-4838.

Doygun, H., Berberoglu, S., and Alphan, H. (2003). The Determination of Land Use Changes By Using

Remote Sensing in Burnaz Coastal Dunes, Hatay. Ekoloji 12(48): 4-9.

Elgun, Y. (1994). Factors Directing Urban Planning and Urban modeling from a Historical Perspective

(in Turkish). Unpublished Graduate Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul (in

Turkish).

Erbek, F. S., Ozkan, C., and Taberner, M. (2004). Comparison of Maximum Likelihood Classification

Method with Supervised Artificial Neural Nnetwork Algorithms for Land Use Activities.

International Journal of Remote Sensing 25(9): 1733–1748.


282

Eyuboglu, E. 1998. Factors directing urban modeling in history: Istanbul case (in Turkish). Unpublished

PhD dissertation, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul (in Turkish).

Fan, F., Wang, Y., and Wang, Z. (2007). Temporal and Spatial Cchange Detecting (1998-2003) and

Predicting of Land Use and Land Cover in Core Corridor of Pearl River Delta (China) by using

TM and ETM+ images. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 137(1-3): 127-47.

Gulez, S., Kaya, L. G., Donmez, S., Cetinkale, S. G., and Kocan, N. (2007). A Study on the Landscape

Design for the Mugada Coastal Land. Karaelmas University, Journal of Bartin Faculty of

Forestry, 9(12): 1-10.

Hatipoglu, A. (1997). An Apprise of Bosphorus Coast Lines Visual Qualities in the View of Tourism”,

Unpublished Master Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Science, Istanbul (in

Turkey).

IMM, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (2009). http://www.ibb.gov.tr , accessed 15 May 2009.

IMM. (1971). Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. Bosphorus Coastline Conservation Plan on a Scale of

1/5000, 15 July 1971, Istanbul (in Turkish).

IMM. (2007). 2008-2012 Strategic Plan. Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (IWSA), Istanbul

(in Turkish).

Jayappa, K. S., Mitra, D., and Mishra, A. K. (2006). Coastal geomorphological and land-use and land-

cover study of Sagar Island, Bay of Bengal (India) using remotely sensed data. International

Journal of Remote Sensing 27(17): 3671–3682.

Karaburun, A., and Demirci, A. (2009). The Changing Risks of Agricultural Activities on Water

Resources in Rapidly Urbanized Areas: Agricultural Land Cover Change in Istanbul between

1987 and 2007. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 18(11a): 2181-2191.

Kilicaslan, C. (2006). Impacts Of Second Homes Upon The Coastal Areas,” Suleyman Demirel

University, Forestry Faculty of Journal, Series A, (1): 147-156.

CNHPB, (1974). The Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage Council. Supreme Council of

Monuments’ Real Estate Antiquities Report, n. 8172, Ankara (in Turkish).

CNHPB, (1995). Decision of The Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage Council in Istanbul

(Ccouncil III) entitled “Natural protected lands in the northern parts of Istanbul, along the

Black Sea”, n. 7755, 15 November 1995 (in Turkish).

Lillesand, T. M., and Kiefer, R.W. (2000). Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. New York: John

Wiley.

Mackenzie, T. F. (2003). Our Changing Planet. New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Ozbakir, B. A., Bayram, B., Acar, U., Uzar, M., Baz, I., and Karas, I. R. (2007). Synergy between

Shoreline Change Detection and Social Profile of Waterfront Zones: A Case Study in Istanbul.

Joint Meeting of ISPRS Commission VII WG2 & WG7, Conference on Information Extraction

from SAR and Optical Data, 16-18 May 2007 Istanbul, ISSN No: 1682-1777, Volume:

XXXVI-7/C46.

Ozdemir, E. (2004). A the Research of Filled Areas on IStanbul Shore in Recreational Usage in Aspects

of Plannıg the Model of Istanbul Avcılar”, PhD Thesis, Istanbul University, Faculty of

Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Istanbul (in Turkish).

http://www.ibb.gov.tr/


283

Pilgir, A. S. (1992). Human impacts and visual interpretation of the environment in the Bosphorus Region

(in Turkish). Unpublished Graduate Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul (in

Turkish).

Official Gazette. (1983). Bosphorus Law, article 2, n. 2960, of 22 November 1983 (in Turkish).

Richards, J. A. (1995). Remote sensing digital image analysis: An introduction. Springer-Verlag.

Selcuk, F. Z., and Gulersoy, N. Z. (2004). An evaluation method for ecological landscape planning of the

Bosphorus (in Turkish). Istanbul Technical University Architecture Journal /a 3(1): 89-102.

Sesli, F. A. (2006). Monitoring Changes Coastal Land Use whit Digital Photogrammetry. Turkish

Engineers and Architects of Chambers of Union, Mapping and Cadastre Chamber of Engineers

, MCE Geodesy Jeoinformasyon Land Management Journal (95): 11-17.

Sesli, F. A., Akyol, N., and İnan, H. İ. (2002). Determining the changes on the land use in the coastal

areas using GIS. Proceedings of 4th National Conference on Coastal and Sea Areas of Turkey,

2: 1033-1042.

Sesli, F. A., and Aydinoglu, A. C. (2003). Investigation of Coastal Land Use Changes by Using GIS and

Web Technologies. The International Colloquium Series on Land Use/Cover Change Science

and Applications: "Studying Land Use Effects in Coastal Zones with Remote Sensing and GIS",

Proceedings Book, Antalya/Kemer, Turkey, pp. 66-70.

Turkey Statistical Institute (TSI). (2007). http://www.tuik.gov.tr. 3(1), 89-102.

Tunay, M., and Atesoglu, A. (2004). A Study with Remote Sensıng Data of Change in Flood Plains at

Bartın Province” Faculty of Suleyman Demirel University Journal of Forestry, Series A, (2):

60-72.

Yenen, Z., Unal, Y., and Enlil, M. (1992). Identity Change in Istanbul: Water Of The City To The Land

of the City, In this article, the International Centre Cities on Water's waterfronts: A New Urban

Frontier, prepared for Congress and published in English, were presented "the 16th World

Urbanism Day Colloquium "of wax paper between 3 - 8 November 1992 in Istanbul (in

Turkish), http://www.metropolIstanbul.com/public/temamakale.aspx?mid=14

Yuan, F. (2008). Land-cover change and environmental impact analysis in the Greater Mankato area of

Minnesota using remote sensing and GIS modeling. International Journal of Remote Sensing

29(4): 1169-1184.

http://www.tuik.gov.tr/

http://www.metropolistanbul.com/public/temamakale.aspx?mid=14

LAND USE CHANGES ALONG THE BOSPHORUS COASTS IN ISTANBUL BETWEEN 1987 AND 2007

Documents

Transcript of LAND USE CHANGES ALONG THE BOSPHORUS COASTS IN ISTANBUL BETWEEN 1987 AND 2007