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Technology Trajectory in Aviation: Innovations leading toValue Creation (2000-2019)

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Pereira, Bruno Alencar, Lohmann, Gui, Houghton, Luke

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2022

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International Journal of Innovation Studies

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Journal Pre-proof

Technology Trajectory in Aviation: Innovations leading to Value Creation (2000-2019)

Bruno Alencar Pereira, Gui Lohmann, Luke Houghton

PII: S2096-2487(22)00024-8

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijis.2022.05.001

Reference: IJIS 65

To appear in: International Journal of Innovation Studies

Received Date: 18 February 2022

Revised Date: 4 May 2022

Accepted Date: 6 May 2022

Please cite this article as: Pereira B.A., Lohmann G. & Houghton L., Technology Trajectory in Aviation:Innovations leading to Value Creation (2000-2019), International Journal of Innovation Studies, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijis.2022.05.001.

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TITLE PAGE


Bruno Alencar Pereira Griffith University, School of Engineering and Built Environment, 170 Kessels Road, Brisbane, QLD 4111, Australia

e-mail: [email protected]

Gui Lohmann Griffith University, School of Engineering and Built Environment, 170 Kessels Road, Brisbane, QLD 4111, Australia


Luke Houghton (Corresponding author) Griffith University, Department of Business Strategy and Innovation, 170 Kessels Road, Brisbane, QLD 4111, Australia


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mailto:[email protected]

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Abstract

This study identifies relevant innovations and discusses value creation in the aviation industry

between 2000 and 2019. Aviation experts with experience in innovation were selected and

invited to complete a survey identifying the leading innovations in the industry. This study

contributes to recent aviation history by offering a list of innovations and a discussion of

technological path dependency and value proposition with examples. This overview is helpful

to academics and practitioners to verify how these innovations have shaped the industry

worldwide, making it more efficient, agile, sustainable, and safe. The innovations selected

comprise consolidated technologies and emerging advances introduced in the timeframe

proposed. 33 innovations primarily related to incremental and technical typologies that add

value to products were mapped. In addition, this study provides insightful findings by

classifying the value created for the aviation sector into five innovation clusters: (1) aircraft

technology, adding value in terms of efficiency and sustainability; (2) innovation in

passenger services, creating more personalized services and enhancing the customer

experience; (3) innovation in flying, adding value in terms of safety and the security

environment; (4) business and operational management, improving procedures and revenue;

(5) and general applications, adding value in terms of Aviation 4.0 (increases in automation

and data exchange, including cyber-physical systems, the Internet of Things(IOT) and cloud

computing).

Keywords: Aviation; Air transport; Innovation; Value creation; Technology.

1. Introduction

The aviation sector has benefited from technological innovations that have contributed

to its relevance to the world economy and enabler of other industries (Zhu et al., 2012;

Klimas, 2014; Hjalager, 2015; Dimitrios and Maria, 2018). The aviation industry is

technology-driven. As a result, innovations will always be a key driver for the sector and its

thriving supply chain, in which technologies are consistently being deployed and researched

to continuously increase performance (Halder, 2013; Mrazova, 2013). Innovation affects both

the demand and supply sides of any business by helping industries maintain their competitive

edge (Lee and Mo, 2011; Nicolau and Santa-María, 2012; Halder, 2013). In the aviation

industry, innovation is critical for improving efficiency and operational capabilities and for

creating value through improvements in air traffic control, advanced materials, more

sustainable fuels, energy storage, conversion into digital systems,and mitigation of

environmental concerns, all of which provide new opportunities to advance the sector

(Tinoco and Johnson, 2010; Liu et al., 2017).

The definition of innovation relates to improvements, new developments or new use in

products, services, processes, and marketing that propose a new or additional value to the

business and customers (Oke, 2007; Emery, 2010; Kurt et al., 2013; Niine et al., 2015;

OECD, 2018). Innovation is a source of value created through inventing, developing,

producing, and delivering new market offerings (Schumpeter and Opie, 1934; Amit and Zott,

2001). This process involves dimensions beyond the conventional economic perspective, and

it includes social and environmental elements (Shenhar et al., 2001; Chesbrough et al., 2018;

Pargar et al., 2019).

Few studies on innovation have been based on empirical cases relating to innovative

companies in specific contexts (Kamel, 2006). However, this perspective can help various

sectors identify best practices and guidelines for creating and capturing value through

innovations. For this reason, we intend to address questions about what innovations have

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been fostered and how they create value in the context of the aviation sector. This study aims

to identify relevant innovations creating value for airlines, airports, aircraft design,and

manufacturing across the civil aviation value chain.

By requesting input from aviation experts from different parts of the world, this study

makes theoretical and managerial contributions by providing a comprehensive list of

innovations adopted and developed by aviation organizations. However, the intention is not

to provide a deepen discussion on why, when they became consolidated, or even to measure

the impact level of the value created in the sector. The purpose of this analysis is to identify

these innovations as historical contributions and to better understand how the sector creates

value by fostering technology, enabling the industry to solve current and future challenges.

Following this introductory section, we provide a rationale regarding innovation and

value creation in the context of aviation. Then, we present clusters of innovations and discuss

their primary value. Finally, we provide a discussion and an overview of the findings,

highlighting perspectives on recent advances and contributions to future research.

2. Literature review: Innovation and value creation

Innovation is critical for companies to achieve success and is a primary source of

sustainable competitive advantage (Kamel, 2006; Halder, 2013). However, to foster

innovation and reap benefits, organizations need to adopt a set of activities and capabilities

involving a new mindset, strategy, process, and outcomes (Gemici and Alpkan, 2015; Kahn,

2018). In other words, to create ‘value’, innovations are required, even despite their inherent

risks. A change in the mindset of an organization leads to better awareness and paradigm

innovation. More specifically, having a strategic mindset improves the understanding and

perceptions of the obstacles inherent to adopting new solutions (Ucler and Gok, 2015; Dodd

et al., 2018).

Innovation strategy is considered a critical element of corporate strategy since it

determines where, when, and what type of innovation needs to be implemented (Gemici and

Alpkan, 2015). To maintain a leading innovation strategy, it is crucial to observe markets,

technology paths and organizational processes. Innovation strategy may involve reshaping

the business ecosystem rather than coping with competition (Porter and Van der Linde, 1995;

Tidd et al., 2005). The innovation process consists of decisions, activities, and impacts from

recognizing and meeting a need or solving a problem, research, development, diffusion, and

adoption by users (Rogers, 1962; Wonglimpiyarat and Yuberk, 2005; Vagnani and Volpe,

2017). In a particular type of innovation outcome, this process may be unique, complex, and

uncertain (Wonglimpiyarat and Yuberk, 2005; Matthews, 2000; Halder, 2013; Kurt et al.,

2013; Mousavi and Bossink, 2017).

Innovation outcomes are widely discussed in the literature and are differentiated into

two main types: ‘radical’ or ‘incremental,’ depending on the intensity or level of

innovativeness. Radical or disruptive innovation involves products, services, or approaches

that transform existing markets or create new ones by trading off raw performance for the

sake of simplicity, convenience, affordability, and accessibility (Oke, 2007; Kurt et al., 2013;

Gemici and Alpkan, 2015; Niine et al., 2015; OECD, 2018). Incremental innovations can be

defined as products, services, organizational and marketing improvements that provide new

features or new benefits to existing technology or solutions in the current market (Garcia and

Calantone, 2002; Oke, 2007; Kurt et al., 2013; OECD, 2018). The micro perspective defines

innovativeness as new to the firm or new to the customer, adding values, benefits, or

changing patterns (Cubero et al., 2021). Moreover, different innovation outcomes create

diverse value propositions from organizational and customer perspectives.

Value creation has been thoroughly analyzed in management research and literature on

benefits, value, performance, and success (Laursen and Svejvig, 2016). The meaning of value

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and its creation process are rapidly shifting from a product-, service- and firm-centric view to

personalized consumer experiences occurring inside the firm and outside markets (Prahalad

and Ramaswamy, 2004; Chesbrough et al., 2018). Value is also created when innovation

emerges from social demand and achieves differentiation, creating superior value (Husted et

al., 2015). Greater value creation depends on a firm’s ability to innovate successfully.

However, it often does not stand alone; rather, its success depends on other factors

accompanying changes in a firm’s environment (Adner and Kapoor, 2010; Gemici and

Alpkan, 2015). Drivers of innovation involve the firm’s policy choices, linkages, timing,

location, sharing of activities among business units and stakeholders, collaboration, learning,

integration, scale, and institutional mindset (Porter, 1985). Therefore, to enhance innovation

and value creation, firms need to connect to these innovation drivers to provide a more

comprehensive and enticing variety of goods and services than the current needs or desires

their customers have, in addition to supporting stakeholders’ perspectives and the

organization itself (Johannessen and Olsen, 2010).

Value creation has become a complex and multidirectional concept involving

multifaceted perspectives, taking into consideration the micro-level (customers and groups),

meso-level (organizations) and the macro-level (stakeholders and supply chain networks)

(Lepak et al., 2007; Corte and Gaudio; 2014; Laursen and Svejvig, 2016). Due to these

different contexts, the inherent potential of innovation needs to be unleashed, managed and

materialized in a target-oriented manner to achieve tangible results (Franke, 2007). The

process of value creation is cofounded by those who create value and those who capture

value, in which customers are arbiters of value. Customers are fundamental to successful

innovation diffusion, which leads to sustained high performance and profitability (Porter,

1985; Priem, 2007; Chatain and Zemsky, 2011; Laursen and Svejvig, 2016).

From the organizational perspective, value creation relates to new types of production

processes, activities, outcomes, benefits, differentiation, competitive advantage, profitability,

and long-term success through sustainable development (Adams, 2017; Barker and Chiu,

2018). In terms of the perspectives of stakeholders and supply chains, firms are part of

ecosystems that influence the quality and scope of the development of innovation activities,

and thus, their ability to co-create innovations enables them to share value by exchanging

knowledge with one or more parties in return for compensation (De Faria et al., 2010;

Chesbrough et al., 2018; Havemo, 2018).

Airlines, airports, and civil aviation chains can foster innovation as a source of value

creation to obtain financial benefits via technological performance improvements,

complementary assets, a reduction in environmental impacts, and the offer of additional value

to passengers (Grampella et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2019). Additionally, innovations create

value because of an urgent need for new sustainable developments, more personalized

services, creating a safer and more secure environment. Prior studies on air transport

innovation have been based on technical approaches (Tinoco and Johnson, 2010; Lee and

Mo, 2011). Moreover, despite the acknowledged importance of innovation in reducing

aviation macro problems, little is known about how these advances shape the sector to change

the industry towards a more sustainable paradigm (Lee and Mo, 2011; Grampella et al.,

2017). In this context, this research is valuable because of the importance of leading

innovations in products, services, and processes in the aviation sector; few previous studies

have provided a clear and precise description of how to successfully conduct innovation

adoption to create value (Chen and Chen, 2010).

The following sections outline the methods used in this study, the description of

innovations within the airline industry and how they have added value. The study concludes

with directions for further research that could shed light on how value is created in this

sector.

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3. Material and methods

This study compiles innovations highlighted by international experts who have

experience in innovation and aviation. According to Weir et al. (2006), typically, a panel is

composed of individuals who are knowledgeable about the subject under consideration, who

can represent the views of their peers, and who are motivated to participate. The selection

criteria for the participants included academics and practitioners with professional

backgrounds in innovation or research and development (R&D) in the aviation sector and at

least five years of experience. The work experience, academic background, and activities

related to the research topic were observed in their LinkedIn profile. In terms of recruitment,

the participants were identified and invited using the search function on LinkedIn, a leading

social media resource for businesspeople. In addition, we applied the snowball strategy,

asking participants to indicate other potential respondents. To carry out a precise search on

LinkedIn, we included the Boolean terms “innovation” AND “aviation” OR “air transport” in

the search tool. The online survey was created using the software LimeSurvey (v. 2.59). The

survey used three open questions involving innovation descriptors relevant to the aviation

sector, examples, and practical implications for adding value as follows:

1. What name would you give to the innovation you have selected?

2. Please, provide a comprehensive description of the innovation you have identified.

3. Please, provide examples to show how the innovation has added value to the

aviation sector.

The survey was designed to take no more than 15 minutes to complete. We invited each

expert to identify three critical innovations developed during the 20-year period between 2000 and 2019 that added significant value for airlines, airports, aircraft performance, and civil aviation in general, excluding the defense and aerospace industries. The survey was applied from February to May 2020. Initially, the sample or potential list was composed of approximately 200 experts who met the selection criteria. The primary means of contact was via a connection request on LinkedIn, including a brief note introducing the authors and the research project while at the same time inviting them to participate in the survey. A total of 134 experts accepted the connection, with two experts declining to participate because they worked in areas restricted to the defense field. Including the snowball contacts from the survey, 156 experts received the link to participate in the survey. The survey form was completed by 30 experts, resulting in a response rate of 19.23 percent. A total of 74 innovations were identified and numbered. Following this step, the innovations identified were exported to an Excel spreadsheet. Subsequently, the innovations were analyzed to integrate similarities by merging when appropriate and by deleting overlaps or redundancies (Shi and Lai, 2019) (Table 1).

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Table 1

74 Innovations indicated by experts and clusters categories (2000-2019). ID# expert

ID# innovation

Name of innovation Innovations merged Cluster Subcluster Themes

2 4 Sharklets and new winglet shapes

Sharklets and new winglet shapes of aircraft wings Aircraft technology Aircraft design Fuel

12 32 Winglets

2 5

Sustainable fuels

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)

Aircraft technology Engine Fuel 11 29 Sustainable aviation

15 41 Innovations in fuel

2 6 Electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL)

Air Taxis Aircraft technology Engine

Mobility and emissions 29 71 eVTOL

4 10 Unmanned aircraft

Commercially Viable Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Aircraft technology Aircraft design General use

17 46 Drones

4 11 Electric aircraft

Electrification Aircraft technology Engine Batteries and fuel

12 34 Electric/hybrid-electric aircraft

5 14

New long-range aircraft

Long-range aircraft

Aircraft technology Aircraft design New aircrafts 11 31 Airbus 350 and Boeing 787

22 58 Emergence of new generation aircraft - especially ultra-long range

6 17

New composite and advanced materials

Composite airframes

Aircraft technology Aircraft design Aircraft manufacturing

7 19 Advanced materials in aircraft design to reduce weight

16 45 Material selection

8 23

New engines

Geared engines

Aircraft technology Engine Engines manufacturing

17 48 Engines

16 43 Engine design

15 40 Technology aircraft design (e.g., fuselage, engines, avionics)

Technology pertaining to aircraft design involving fuselage, engines, and electric devices

Aircraft technology Aircraft design Aircraft manufacturing

16 44 Glass cockpits Glass cockpits Aircraft technology Aircraft design Cabin improvement

23 59 Pulse oxygen conservation Pulse oxygen conservation Aircraft technology Aircraft design Oxygen efficiency

23 60 Grey water toilet systems Grey water toilet systems Aircraft technology Aircraft design Water efficiency

27 67 Compact Fusion Reactor (CFR) CFR by Lockheed Martin Aircraft technology Engine Fuel consumption

28 68 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)

LiDAR Aircraft technology Aircraft design Distance and terrain sensing

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1 2

Self-service bag and drop services

Self-service bag drop and check-in

Innovation in passenger services

Seamless passenger journey

Bag-drop processes 3 8

Development and introduction of common use self bag drops

25 65 Individual Carrier System (ICS) for conveying, storing and sorting baggage

1 3 Automated immigration clearance and e-passports

Automated immigration clearance Innovation in passenger service


Immigration system 24 64 E-passports

3 7

Biometric technologies

Introduction of facial biometric cameras

Innovation in passenger service


General use 14 39 Biometrics

15 42 Biometric devices

19 52 Biometric technology

3 9 Wave passenger process Wave passenger process Innovation in passenger service


Mobility

6 16

E-ticket

E-Commerce (e-ticketing) Innovation in passenger service


Ticket and boarding 8 24 E-ticket

24 62 E-tickets

12 33 Inflight Experience (IFE)

IFE and internet-connected cabins Innovation in passenger service

Passenger experience

Entertainment inflight 21 55

Inflight entertainment and connectivity systems

13 35

Self-service technologies and smart mobile

Self-service mobile applications (reservation, check-in, and boarding)

Innovation in passenger service


Ticket and boarding 14 37 Self-service applications

20 53 User-friendly digitalization

24 63 Automated check-in at airports

28 69 The super flyer passenger

Seamless journey 14 38 Mobile general usage

11 30 Advancement of digital technologies

4 12

Air traffic management technologies

Trajectory Based Optimization (TBO)/4D traffic management

Innovation in flying

Traffic management

Air traffic routing

7 20 Air traffic management technologies Innovation in flying Ground operations and capacity-demand

9 27 Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B)

Innovation in flying Aircraft movement and risk management

5 13 High fidelity flight simulation New training methods and high-fidelity flight simulation

Innovation in flying Flight training Flight training

9 25 New revenue management systems Artificial intelligence (AI) for revenue Business and operational Management Predict flight price

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management management systems

13 36 Revenue management systems Pricing segmentation

9 26 Global Distribution System (GDS) GDS systems Operators connection

50 56 E-commerce E-commerce Business and operational management

Management systems

Sales processes

10 28 Product and ancillary segmentation Product and ancillary segmentation Business and operational management

Business model General use

20 54

Low-cost business model

Low-cost business model Business and operational management

Business model Business model 22 57

Low-cost carriers and shift in selling ancillaries

17 47 Airport human tracking systems Airport human tracking Business and operational management

Ground services and operations

Passengers’ movement tracking

19 50 Predictive maintenance Predictive maintenance Business and operational management


Predictive tools

26 66 Automated Guided Vehicles and Robotics for Ground Services (AGVs)

Automated Guided Vehicles for Ground Services Business and operational

management


Ground operations 30 74 Autonomous Vehicles (AV)

1 1 Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM)

A-CDM Business and operational management

Management systems

Shared operational information

28 70 Digital twin technology Digital twin technology General application General application

Predictions, design and development, certification, and operations

23 18 Digitization Digitization General application General application

Digitization of information.

6 21 New security and safety technologies

New Security & Safety Technologies General application General application

Safety and security

19 61 Virtual and augmented reality

Augmented Reality Glasses General application

General application

General application 30 51 Virtual and Augmented reality

5 73 New applications based on Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI General application

General application

General application 7 15 Artificial intelligence

8 22 Data analytics and Big Data Data Analytics General application General application

General application

18 49 Model Systems Based Engineering Model-Based Systems Engineering General application

General application

General application 30 72 IoT IoT

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To check the innovations in the timeframe proposed (2000-2019), we conducted a

documentary search of papers, news, websites, reports, and patents to investigate their

trajectories and historical adoption in the context of the aviation sector. By checking the

innovation trajectories, we disregarded seven innovations that were outside the timeframe

proposed; these innovations and their respective ID numbers are given as follows:

• Technology aircraft design (e.g., fuselage, engines, avionics) (#40) - this set of

innovations has developed since the introduction of previous aircrafts such as the

Boeing 777 in 1993 (Zhou, 2013);

• Compact Fusion Reactor - CFR (#67) - the development started in approximately

2014, but with provision to be launched in 2024 (IFR Magazine, 2014; Lockheed

Martin, n.d.);

• E-ticketing (#16, #24, #62) - United Airlines pioneered flying without printed

boarding passes, offering electronic tickets for the first time in 1994 (Abeyratne,

2005);

• Global Distribution System - GDS (#26) - Sabre was the first GDS provider to

realize the potential of the internet, launching Travelocity in early 1996 (Vinod and

Moore, 2009);

• E-commerce (#56) - In 1995, SITA’s software partner company made e-commerce

history with the launch of the first website able to complete travel bookings and

take payments in real-time via the internet. The website was called “Cyberseat”

and was developed by British Midland (Taneja, 2017);

• Low-cost business model (#54, #57) - the concept of the low-cost firm was

developed for the first time in the US airline industry by Pacific Southwest and,

subsequently, Southwest Airlines in 1971 (Dobruszkes, 2006; Maxim, 2012);

• Digitization (#18) - since 1991, pilots have used Hewlett Packard Omnibook. The

earliest electronic flight bag precursors were individual pilots’ use of laptops and

standard software in the early 1990s (Hanson, 2002; WorkDisk, 2019).

The selected innovations were categorized into five innovation clusters. These clusters

were created a posteriori to aggregate groups of innovations into specific aviation fields. We

created five innovation clusters by analyzing the use, context, and application of the

innovations in the aviation sector, including aircraft technology; innovation in passenger

services; innovation in flying; business and operational management; and general

applications. Following these steps, we collected 33 innovations, which are discussed in the

next section. In addition, we indicated appropriate directions in which the innovation clusters

create value.

4. Results: The pool of innovations and value creation in the aviation sector

Fig. 1 synthesizes the 33 innovations into clusters and subclusters and identifies the

direction of the value creation in the aviation sector. We indicate the ID number created for

each innovation in parentheses, with similar innovations merged into a unique solution when

necessary.

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Fig. 1. The pool of 33 innovations and main value creation in the aviation sector (2000-2019).

Following Figure 1, we provide the path trajectory for each aviation industry innovation, with a notable event and the primary value

created (Table 2). To give an accurate trajectory and year of introduction related to these innovations, we cite two different sources.

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Table 2. Innovations, notable events and the value created in the aviation sector (2000-2019).

Cluster Innovation Introduction year

Notable event Value created 2000 ----------------2019

1.

Aircraft

technology

Gray water toilet systems

(#60) Patent No. 6143185 was issued in the US on Nov. 7, 2000

(Tracy, 2000; Free patents, 2000).

Reduced the amount of water required to be carried by aircraft,

reducing fuel burn.

Glass cockpits (#44)

Glass cockpits, or electronic flight instrument systems,

began appearing in general aviation airplanes (Seedhouse

et al., 2019; MidContinent, 2020).

This digital technology replaced analogic flight instruments

improving efficiencies in cabin and safety (Seedhouse et al.,

2019).

Unmanned aircraft

(UA)(#10, #46)

The Federal Aviation Administration in US (FAA) issued

the first commercial drone permits (Dormehl, 2018; Drone

Ethusiast, n.d.).

Promoted significant progress in travel mobility, high-capacity

batteries, and energy-efficient motors, reducing operational

expenses with the benefits of electrification.

New composite and

advanced materials (#17,

#19, #45)

Boeing 787 was the first commercial airliner with 50% of

the structure made up of composite (Design News, 2007;

Wilhelmsen and Ostrom, 2016).

Reduced weight and, therefore, costs (capital and operating

cost) previously dominated by metal material.

Sustainable fuels (#5, #29,

#41)

For the first time, Virgin Atlantic used biofuel made of

coconut oil in a flight (Biello, 2008; Yilmaz and Atmanli,

2017).

Reduced emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), fuel

consumption, noise emissions and improved operations in

populated areas or in traffic-capped airports.

Sharklets and new winglet

shapes (#4, #32) A new wingtip design for the Airbus A320 family was

launched (Prasad, 2012; The flying engineer, 2013).

Enabled to airlines to save fuel, making flights more feasible

from an operational and economic perspective, still enabling a

better aircraft aerodynamic and the overall lift-drag ratio.

New long-range aircrafts

(#14, #31, #58) A new era for long-range aircraft began with the Boeing

787 Dreamliner (Rigby, 2009; Giurgiutiu, 2015).

Enabled longer-range trips shrinking distances, more comfort,

and lower fuel burn/cost; creating the possibility for worldwide

mass tourism (Lohmann and Pereira, 2019).

Electric aircraft (#11, #34) European manufacturer Pipistrel introduced the Alpha

Electro model to the market (Horne, 2015; Eyre, 2019).

This emerging innovation in aircraft is based on electric

motors, which are much simpler than complex internal

combustion engines, requiring less downtime for maintenance

and reducing operating costs and emissions.

Pulse oxygen conservation

(#59)

A final rule replaced the existing process by which the

FAA approves portable oxygen concentrators (POC)

(Federal Register, 2016; Federal Aviation Administration

[FAA], 2019).

Reduced the amount of emergency oxygen carried by only

flowing oxygen when it can be efficiently used by the user.

New engines (#23, #48,

#43) Geared Turbofan (GTF) entered service (Pratt and

Whitney, 2018; Thompson, 2018).

Promoted greater efficiency of commercial air transportation,

making it more attractive in terms of travel cost over time

(Peters et al., 2014). In addition, reduced nitrogen oxide

emissions by up to 50 percent of the regulatory standard

(Thompson, 2018).

Electric Vertical Take-Off

and Landing (eVTOL) (#6,

#71)

Volocopter successfully tested an autonomous flying taxi

in Dubai (Volocopter, 2018; Blau, 2020).

Like UAs, eVTOL provided relevant progress in travel

mobility, high-capacity batteries, and energy-efficient motors,

reducing operational expenses with the benefits of

electrification.

Light Detection and

Ranging (LiDAR) (#68) Boeing used the LiDAR system in the industry for the first

time to detect clear air turbulence (Bellamy III, 2018; New

Improved the detection of clear air turbulence, such as the

presence of microburst, volcanic ash, and wake vortex

2000

2003

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2016

2017

2018

2016

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Desk, 2018). turbulence, reducing the risk of accidents.

2. Innovation

in passenger

services

Biometric technologies (#7,

#39, #42, #52)

McLean-based EyeTicket Corporation began a pilot

program with US Airways at Charlotte-Douglas airport

(Washington Times, 2000; Photonics, 2001).

Enabled travelers to undergo verification using face,

fingerprint, and iris recognition or a combination of modalities;

allowing passengers to speed through queues and easing

connections to flights.

Inflight Experience (IFE)

(#33, #55)

Onboard WiFi access for passengers took IFEs to the next

level when Boeing unveiled the Connexion program

(Garcia, 2017; Wilson, 2017).

Provided better entertainment for passenger cabins; WiFi

improved device connections and streaming services onboard.

Automated immigration

clearance and e-passports

(#3, #64)

The US-VISIT program began capturing fingerprints and

facial images of visitors at their borders. The International

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) published the first

version of the e-Passport (Accenture, 2009; Vakalis, 2011).

Products such as automated border control systems (ABC) or

eGates enabled friendly self-service processes using biometric

passports to verify passengers’ identities (Accenture, 2009;

Vakalis, 2011).

Self-service bag and drop

services (#2, #8, #65)

Amsterdam Airport Schiphol started to use a self-service

bag drop process (Future Travel Experience [FTE], 2011;

Schiphol, 2012).

Enabled passengers to better manage their luggage, gaining

time for urgent procedures in airports (Gao and Yang, 2013).

Self-service technologies

and mobile applications

(#30, #35, #37, #38, #53,

#63, #69)

Pioneer airports adopted mobile internet services, Dallas

Fort Worth airport in the US introduced its first mobile

website, and Aéroports de Paris in France introduced its

first iPhone app (Martin-Domingo and Martín, 2016;

Graham, 2018).

Streamlined the airport experience and seamless processes

with the promotion and application of common-use self-

service platforms and mobile applications.

Wave passenger processes

(#9)

Aéroports de Paris introduced the ‘My Way’ smartphone

application; Copenhagen Airport introduced an app

featuring ‘augmented reality’ for passenger flow forecast;

and Frankfurt Airport introduced the GORDIO

AIRPORTS™ system (Airport Business, 2011, 2013).

Leveraged the concept of smart airports giving passengers a

sense of control over the travel process through the adoption of

mobile internet services, kiosks, automated gates, and internet

to complete a trip (Halder, 2013; Martin-Domingo and Martín,

2016; Graham, 2018).

3. Innovation

in flying

Air traffic management

technologies (#12, #20, #27)

New technologies were created by The Single European

Sky ATM Research Program (SESAR) in Europe and

NexGen in the US (US Department of Transportation,

2004; Skybrary, n.d.).

Provided a holistic view of air transport processes in the field

of trajectories management, integrating ground phase at the

airport and capacity-demand balance.

High-fidelity flight

simulation (#13)

The first full flight simulator with high-fidelity electrical

motion was launched by FlightSafety International and

certificated by the FAA (Flight Safety 2016; New, 2018).

Contributed to faster pathways for airlines to develop and train

pilots with a significant cost reduction and improving

standards in-flight procedures.

4.

Business and

operational

management

Automated Guided Vehicles

and Robotics for Ground

Services (AGVs) (#66, #74)

Engineers developed and patented methods for AGVs that

can change the path, making lifting, lowering, and

transferring loads safer and more accessible (Dutra and

Lengerke, 2011; Automated Guided Vehicles, 2020).

Increased productivity and costs require a smaller operational

workforce and enable precise guidance and control of vehicles

reducing accidents and the use of multiple types of equipment

(Dutra and Lengerke, 2011).

Product and ancillary

segmentation (#28)

Air New Zealand first introduced branded fare families

based on segmentation (Vinod and More, 2009; Vinod et

al., 2018).

Enabled sophisticated segmentation in pricing, delivery, and

bundling or unbundling of ancillary products allowing airlines

to add value tailored to a diverse range of customers and to

unlock complementary revenues as a significant driver of

profitability (Vinod and More, 2009; Vinod et al., 2018).

Airport Collaborative A-CDM was initially deployed at Brussels Airport to Enhanced the efficiency and resilience of airport operations

2000

2000

2004

2008

2009

2011

2004

2006

2003

2004

2010

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Decision Making (A-CDM)

(#1)

Improve operational efficiency in partnership with

Eurocontrol, Airports Council International (ACI) and The

International Air Transport Association (IATA)

(Eurocontrol, 2016; Zheng et al., 2019).

by optimising the use of resources and improving the

predictability of air traffic (Eurocontrol, 2016; Zheng et al.,

2019).

New revenue management

systems (#25)

EasyJet applied AI and data science to its revenue

management system to set fares by responding to passenger

demand (Powley, 2015; Corominas, 2016).

Significantly impacted airline markets to predict and correct

airfare elasticity and dynamic taxes, supporting improvements

in the average ticket prices (Carrier and Fiig, 2018).

Predictive maintenance

(#50)

Rolls-Royce and Boeing launched two shared data

services: Engine Health Monitoring (EHM) and Boeing

Airplane Health Management (AHM) (Aviationpros, 2011;

AUSY, 2019).

Enabled airlines to reduce their maintenance costs by planning

repairs at precisely the right time, helping teams prepare and

order parts in advance, and saving time and money for airlines.

Airport human tracking

(#47) Helsinki airport introduced the world's first real-time

passenger tracking system (Kim, 2014; Traveller, 2014).

Tracking systems enabled a real-time picture of airports and

passengers, supporting data forecasting and allocating proper

ground support (Kovynyov and Mikut, 2019).

Digital twin technology

(#70)

Amsterdam Airport Schiphol began a capital improvement

program to renovate existing facilities by incorporating

digital twin technology and using IBM Maximo for asset

management (Sterke, 2019; Baumann, 2019).

Enabled real-time data to improve operations, adjust

operational changes and forecast through virtual models of an

airport for operational predictions of abnormal situations

(Baumann, 2019; Sterke, 2019).

5.

General

applications

Data analytics and Big Data

(#22)

Gartner Group defined the term “Big Data” in 2001; in that

year, Southwest Airlines, in partnership with Aspect

company, fostered automatic call distribution to optimize

customer contact (Datumize, n.d.; Wilson, 2020).

Improved the agile analysis of a big volume of data in real-

time for general applications such as monitoring service

actions, pricing improvements, and customer segmentation.

New security and safety

technologies (#21)

Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, considerable changes

to aviation security were made in terms of advanced

screening technologies (Jacobson, 2012; Klenka, 2019).

Enabled the connection between hub devices and cloud-hosted

solutions to record images in real-time, improving the

streaming images to capture and monitor service and security

actions.

New applications based on

artificial intelligence (AI)

(#73, #15)

IATA and ACI launched the New Experience in Travel and

Technology (NEXTT), with new AI applications (The

International Air Transport Association [IATA], 2017;

Aviation Business News, 2018).

Leveraged computational power, scenarios, and data for real-

time adjustments to actions and to develop capabilities around

predictive analytics, providing efficiencies vital to an

airline/airport/air traffic control.

IoT (#72)

IoT in air transport was very noticed with the adoption of

beacons by SITA. This year, the Airbus Smarter Fleet

platform was launched, leveraging IoT and IBM’s Watson

technology (Accelya, 2018; Bajpai, 2018).

IoT allowed the adoption of smart products, connecting

devices to the internet, providing better use of mechanization

with IT and electronic controllers for automation throughout

the aviation chain (Witkowski, 2017).

Model-Based Systems

Engineering (#49)

Boeing introduced advances in model-based systems

engineering practices, design, and assembly processes (Li

et al., 2019; Velocci, 2019).

Enabled faster and more complex systems to detect problems

in the aviation manufacturing field; reducing time, production

costs from better tool design and fabrication, and less re-work.

Virtual and Augmented

reality (#61, #51)

Qantas Airways took Samsung’s Gear VR headsets to the

skies, pioneering the use of inflight VR headsets (Future

Travel Experience [FTE], 2015; Dong, 2019).

Extended reality (XR), which involves virtual reality (VR) and

augmented reality (AR), has been used in various applications,

enabling the designing and testing of new products, training

purposes, indoor airport terminal wayfinding, and other

activities.

2010

2011

2014

2017

2001

2001

2007

2015

2015

2015

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As shown in Figure 1 and Table 2, the selected innovations were categorized into five

innovation clusters. Consequently, in the following section, we discuss these breakthroughs

around clusters addressing problems and creating value for this industry.

5. Discussion

In the aviation sector, the adoption of innovations grew rapidly in the period 2000-

2019, resulting in a diversified technology trajectory and addressing relevant concerns such

as the reduction of emissions, risks related to security and safety environment, and improved

general efficiencies (Macintosh and Wallace, 2009; Pereira and Caetano, 2015). In addition,

the rapid development, diffusion, and increasing utilization of new technologies have

transformed the ways in which the sector interacts with passengers and its supply chain

(Budd and Vorley, 2013).

Around the five clusters, we observed innovations in “Cluster 1 Aircraft technology”,

adding value to efficiency and sustainability, such as addressing issues related to CO2

emissions and noise emissions through an eco-friendlier perspective. The introduction of

larger range aircraft provided more efficiency and allowed long-distance travel that was not

feasible for a limited range of aircraft. New engines promoted the reduction of costs and fuel

consumption. The digitalization processes of analogic aircraft instruments to the digital era

brought more efficiency and safety to aircraft cabins. Moreover, the development of

emerging electric motors has promoted benefits associated with battery capacity.

Regarding “Cluster 2 Innovation/technology in passenger services”, it was noticed

value was created towards a more personalized service, enhancing the customer experience.

Innovations associated with this cluster helped the sector to solve problems in services

matching passengers’ needs at airports with the adoption of a better seamless and automated

journey. The lack of readiness in check-in, boarding, and baggage drop-off services was also

addressed by the adoption of faster procedures with automated systems. The need for more

digital back-office processes was improved by the adoption of new digital processes. In

addition, innovations in this cluster enabled improvements in identification processes during

checkpoints and diversified the in-flight experience.

“Cluster 3 Innovation in flying” integrates advances that create value for the safety and

security environment. More accurate traffic control was possible with the implementation of

new traffic management systems addressing issues and bottlenecks in routes and trajectory

planning. Training procedures were improved with the diffusion of new simulators enabling

the reduction of costs and providing safer environment training.

“Cluster 4 Business and operational management” added value to procedures and

revenue. Improvements in prediction and airfare elasticity with the use of new revenue

management systems addressed the emergence of new distribution models and revenue

management. Innovation in the business model through the offer of ancillary products and

segmentation unlocked new possibilities to increase profitability. On-ground operations were

enhanced with new management systems reducing costs and promoting advances in

maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO). Tracking and checkpoint systems have addressed

problems related to passenger bottlenecks. Dispersed information and no-predictive

operations were also enhanced with the adoption of data-driven analysis management. In

addition, the automation processes leveraged operational productivity helping the sector to

reduce workforce costs.

Finally, “Cluster 5 General applications” has created value for Aviation 4.0 as a new

wave of technological transformation related to Industry 4.0, involving ICT and devices

integrations to create smart systems (Yu and Schweisfurth, 2020). Virtualization through

extended reality, which involves virtual reality and augmented reality, has improved tests,

prediction, and experience in general applications. Integrative data-driven and real-time

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technologies based on AI, Machine Learning, and IoT devices have improved decision-

making processes and operations in the whole aviation chain.

As indicated, each cluster has created value for different areas of the aviation sector,

improving efficiency, safety and security, operational and management capabilities, new

customer experiences, and sustainability and providing new opportunities and differentiation

for airports and airlines (Tinoco and Johnson, 2010; Husted et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017).

The innovations discussed brought benefits to the aviation sector at all levels in

multifaceted ways. At the micro-level, customers have benefited mostly from services at

airports, such as new technologies for booking, ticketing, boarding passes, luggage drop-offs,

and passenger experiences, including more comfort and entertainment experiences in-flight.

Additionally, long-range aircraft with new engines shortened flying distances and times. At

the meso-level (organizations), airports and airlines have benefited from a range of

technologies, mostly related to efficiencies in aircraft, engines, fuel, traffic management,

safety and security procedures, maintenance, and predictive operations. Finally, at the macro-

level, stakeholders and supply chain networks have benefited from the introduction of

innovations for better communication, ICT integration, operations management, and

leveraging on-the-ground services.

6. Conclusions

Over the 20-year period from 2000 to 2019, the aviation sector pioneered numerous

innovations that have been disseminated and fostered by other industries. However,

considering that aviation is a regulated sector with complex structures and supply chains,

there is still a need for “a change of mindset” to create better awareness and paradigm

innovation and change (Ucler and Gok, 2015; Dodd et al., 2018).

Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the aviation sector saw unprecedented advances in

its technological trajectory and required more innovative action to bring greater security and

a more enriching experience for passengers. We are now experiencing a unique moment with

the worldwide outbreak of COVID-19, which has affected the aviation industry

unprecedentedly. Despite the restrictions and contingencies related to COVID-19,

improvements in existing solutions and disruptive advances can accelerate the diffusion of

innovations, primarily fostering emerging technologies as critical elements for improvement

and value creation in products, processes, and services.

This study has mapped out innovations as promising fields in value creation,

highlighting ongoing advances, new versions of existing technologies, and radical

innovations contributing to the value creation of different intensities, natures, and objects.

6.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications

Regarding innovation typologies, the findings have valuable implications relating to the

33 innovations discussed. Concerning intensity, 26 advances are incremental innovations that

have provided substantial improvements to existing solutions, and seven innovations involve

a disruptive transformation in products, services, or processes. Concerning the nature of

innovations, 29 innovations have created value in technical areas, and four innovations have

added value to the organizational context. Finally, concerning object typology, 21

innovations added value to products, eight to processes, and four to services.

The innovation clusters demonstrate the complex and multidirectional concepts related

to innovations and value creation, showing the sector’s multifaceted perspectives. In this

research, we undertook an empirical and perceptual survey of experts and analyzed historical

and qualitative data related to existing innovations.

6.2. Limitations and Future Research

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Limitations can be observed when adopting a qualitative methodological approach to

support the selection of innovations and arguments around the value created. Future studies

should investigate the impacts of the innovations highlighted in this study through

quantitative analyses involving innovation performance within the respective clusters.

Another limitation relates to the experts’ selection; when selecting experts to indicate the

most relevant innovations in the sector, we did not adopt a formal expertise verification

process; we observed their profiles and experience suitable to our selection criteria through

their information. Because of the ‘not-identified’ survey condition, it was not possible to

provide further details about each respondent to reinforce their expertise. In addition, we

applied the survey with experts in the aviation and innovation context; maybe, a broader and

generic selection of experts in the sector could improve the discussion around the innovations

and the value created.

Despite the limitations, this study demonstrated the broadness of the implications of

innovation diffusion in the aviation sector in recent years. Further investigation of emerging

innovations is required to understand what value they could have in terms of addressing latent

demand and current issues.

A new technological wave, primarily related to Industry 4.0, was observed as a

potential trend for solving problems and creating new sector opportunities aimed at

improving efficiency and productivity. In the context of the air transport sector, called

Aviation 4.0, which is the stage in aviation where cyber-physical systems will be designed to

assist humans in making decisions and completing hazardous tasks autonomously (Valdés

and Comendador, 2018). This new era still requires further exploration and has the potential

to help improve all key performance areas, particularly in an industry where safety levels are

high, bringing higher levels of automation, digitalization, and data exchange (Valdés and

Comendador, 2018).

Moreover, this research did not intend to provide an in-depth investigation of how

innovations were developed in specific contexts. For example, due to the new challenges that

have emerged with the outbreak of COVID-19 and safety and security issues, how have the

innovations selected in this study been improved and used to add value for passengers and

operations? Furthermore, how does the process of diffusion and adoption of innovations

occur in the specific context of airlines and airports?

Future studies could also develop theoretical insights and map out critical factors

related to conceptual frameworks by demonstrating and validating the adoption of innovation

and value creation in aviation. Furthermore, future studies can contribute to academia and

management by introducing new techniques and opportunities for the aviation sector to foster

and develop innovations. For example, due to contingencies, restrictions, and saturated

markets, the existing literature indicates the use of open innovation and a collaborative

approach to mitigate the technological risks and reduce the costs of developing innovations

(Chesbrough et al., 2018; Zhu, 2022). In addition, the collaborative approach increases

dynamic and absorptive capabilities to identify, assimilate, transform, and explore knowledge

and resources, leading to innovation.

Finally, new agile methods, instead of traditional processes based on extensive, costly,

and prolonged R&D activities, could be useful for future investigations. Such inquiries could

include mechanisms such as corporate ventures and internal units for innovation; external

partnerships involving centers, hubs, and open innovation platforms; collaborative programs

for co-innovation, co-creation, and sandbox tools; venture capital, equity, and acquisition; or

technology transfer, licensing and outsourcing.

Declaration of competing interest

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The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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